THE HOME LIFE OF THE 
 ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2014 
 
 https://archive.org/details/homelifeofancienOOblum 
 
THE HOME LIFE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ANCIENT GREEKS 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF 
 
 PROF. H. BLUMNER 
 
 BY 
 
 ALICE ZIMMERN 
 
 (Girton College, Cambridge) 
 
 7t*TH Numerous Illustrations 
 
 FUNK &c WAGNALLS COMPANY 
 
 New York and London 
 
AT L ^^IGHTS RESERVED 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 List of Illustrations ^ ... ... •«• xi 
 
 Introduction ^ .... , ^ ... ... xvii 
 
 Chapter L Costume ... ,^ ,„ 1 
 
 Chapter II Birth and Infancy .-78 
 
 Chapter III Edi cation ... •— 99 
 
 Chapter IV. Mahriage and Women ... ... 133 
 
 Chapter V. Daily Life Within and Without the House... 176 
 
 Chapter VI. Meals and Social Entertainments 202 
 
 Chapter VII. Sickness a^^td Physicians, Death and Burial 233 
 
 Chapter VIII. Gymnastics 265 
 
 Chapter IX. Music and Dancing 306 
 
 Chapter X. Religious Worship , . ,^ ... ... 823 
 
 Chapter XI. Public Festivals ... 349 
 
 Chapter XII. The Theatre ... 392 
 
 Chapter XIIL War and Seafaring ^ „, 450 
 
 Chapter XIV. Agriculture, Trade, and Handicrapt ... 489 
 
 Chapter XV. Slavery ... 519 
 
 List of Authorities 533 
 
 Index » 637 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATION'S 
 
 PAGR 
 
 1. Ancient Male and Female Costumes. Vase-painting from JSlite 
 
 ceramographique, II. 27 . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 
 
 2. Antique Male Chiton with Himation. Vase-painting from Gerhai'd. 
 
 Etruskische und campanische Vasenhilder. Plate 21 . . . . 6 
 
 8. Antique Costumes (Dance) from the FraiiQois Vase. From the Wiener 
 
 archceologische Vorlegebldtter. Series II. Plates 3 and 14 . . . . 8 
 
 4. Costumes of the Fifth Century B.C. (Rape of Helen.) Vase-painting by 
 
 Hiero. From Gerhard, Trinkschalen und Gefdsze. Plates 11 and 12. . 10 
 6. Short Male Chiton with Kolpos. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 2.) 
 
 Plates 6 and 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 
 
 6. Warrior in Exomis. Relief on a Tombstone. From Bulletin de corre- 
 
 spondence hellenique, IV. Plate 7 . . , . . , . . . . 14 
 
 7. Statue of Sophocles in the Lateran. From a Photograph. . . . , 16 
 
 8. Citizen in Chiton and Himation. Terra-cotta from Bull, de corr. 
 
 hell.Wl, Plate 12. .. 17 
 
 9. Costume of Ephebos (Adoration of a Hermes). Vase-painting from 
 
 Schreiber. Kulturhistorischer Atlas, Altertum. Plate 14, 3 .. 18 
 
 10. Dress of Attic Ephebos (Farewell of a Young Warrior). Vase-painting 
 
 from Baumeister. Denkmdler des classichen Altertums. Fig. 421. .. 19 
 
 11. Antique Female Costumes from the Fran9ois Vase. From Wiener 
 
 arch. Vorlegebl, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 
 
 12. Antique Female Costume, Vase-painting by Exekias. From Man. d'Inst. 
 
 Archeol, 11.22. .. .. .. .. .. ..24 
 
 18. Antique Female Costume. Vase-painting from Stephani. Kampf des 
 
 Theseus and Minotaurus. Plate I. . . . . . . . , 25 
 
 14. Antique Female Dress, from the FranQois Vase. {See 3.) Plate V. . . 26 
 
 15. Antique Female Costumes. Vase-painting from El. ceram.f III. 36, B. .. 27 
 
 16. Ancient Female Costume with Kolpos. Vase-painting from Gerhard. 
 
 Auserlesene Vasenhilder, III. 727 .. .. .. .. .. 29 
 
 17. Dress of the Fifth Century B.C. From a Vase-painting by Buphronios. 
 
 From the Wiener arch. Vorlegebl. Series V. Plate 7 . . . . 31 
 
 18. Female Costume of the Fifth Century b.c. (Maenads), from a Vase by 
 
 Hiero. Idem. Plate 4 .. .. .. .. ..82 
 
 19. Female Costume of the Fifth Century B.C., from a Vase by Brygos. 
 
 From Man. d'Inst., Y. 1^ .. .. .. .. .. ..34 
 
 20. Modes of arranging Chiton. V.-P. from Tischbein. Vases Hamilton, I. 7 35 
 
 21. Putting on the Chiton and arranging the Bib. Bronze Statue from 
 
 Herculaneum. From a Photograph. . . . . . . . . 86 
 
 22. Caryatid from the Erechtheum. From Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 535 . . 87 
 
 23. High-girt Chiton with Himation. Statue of a Daughter of Niobe in 
 
 the Museo Chiaramonti in the Vatican. From a Photograph ., 38 
 
 24. Ungirt Chiton with Himation. V.-P., Gerhard. (5ee 2. ) Plates 6 and 7 40 
 
 25. Open Chiton with Mantle. Vase-painting from the Wiener arch. 
 
 Vorlegebl. Series II. Plate 6, 2 .. ^. ^ ..41 
 
xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 26. Open Chiton with Mantle. Vase-painting from ^Z. ceram., III. 56 .. 42 
 
 27. Lady in Walking Dress. Terra-cotta Figure from Stackelberg. Gr&her 
 
 der Hellenen. Plate 67 . . . . . . . . . , 44 and 45 
 
 28. Lady in Walking Bress. Idem .. .. .. .. .,46 
 
 29. Sandals. Collected from Works of Art (chiefly Vase-paintings) 49 
 
 30. Sandals with High Straps. Idem .. .. •,50 
 
 31. Antique Men's Shoes. Idem.. ... ., ^, 61 
 
 32. Men's and Women's Shoes. Idem ., 52 
 
 33. High Boots (Endromides). Idem ..63 
 
 34. High Boots with Overhanging Lappets. Idem ... ., .. 64 
 
 35. Various Shapes of the Petosos. Idem .. ., ..66 
 
 36. The Common Forms of Petosos Idem •• ., ..57 
 
 37. Uncommon Forms of Petasos. Idem . . . . . . . . 58 
 
 38. Youth in Travelling Costume. Vase-painting from Overbeck. Gallerie 
 
 heroischer Bildwerke, Plate 2, 1 . . . . . . . . 59 
 
 39. Exomis and Pilos. Statuette of Odysseus. From Winckelmann. 
 
 Monumenti mediti,^o. .. ,. .. ..60 
 
 40. Sailor's Costume. V.-P. from Welcker. Alte Denkmdler, III. Plate 39, 1 61 
 
 41. Lady with Petasos. Terra-cotta Figure from Kekul6. Terra-cotten 
 
 von Sicilien. Plate 33 . . . . . , . . . . . . 62 
 
 42. Lady with Sunshade. V.-P. from Gerhard. Vases grecs. Plate 8 . . 63 
 43 and 44. Antique Modes of Dressing the Hair. Vase-painting and Marble 
 
 Head from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 85, 3 and 14 .. .. 66 
 
 45 and 46. Antique Coiffures. Marble Heads from Mitteilungen des Deutschen 
 
 archdologischen Institutsin Athen^ VIIL (1883.) Plate X. 12a and XI. 1 67 
 
 47. Antique Coiffure. Marble Head. Idem. Plate XIL 4a and 4b . . . . 68 
 
 48. Antique Coiffure. V.-P. by Eui>hronios. Idem, Plate XI. 5 .. 69 
 
 49. Antique Coiffure. Bronze Head from Pompeii. From a Photograph . . 70 
 
 50. Antique Mode of Wearing the Beard. Relief from Nuove memorie dell' 
 
 Inst. Archeol. Plate 13 . . . . . . . . . ... 73 
 
 51 and 52. Female Coiffure. Terra-cotta Heads from KekuW. {See 41.) 
 
 Plates 161 and 22, 6 74 
 
 53 and 54. Female Coiffure. Idem. Plates 16, 5 and 162 . . . . . 76 
 55, 56, 57. Female Coiffure. Idem. Plates 17, 1 ; 18, 5 ; and 19, 5 76 and 77 
 
 68. Relief from a Tomb representing Child in Swaddling-clothes. From 
 
 Ann. d' Inst. 1830. Add. Plate, G .. .. .. ..79 
 
 69. Hermes in the Cradle. V.-P. from ^rc/i. Ze%. for 1844. Plate 20 .. 81 
 
 60. Child's Bed on Rollers. V.-P. from Nuove mem. dell Inst. Arch. Plate 16, 2 82 
 
 61. Mother giving her Child the Breast. Terra-cotta Figure from Gerhard. 
 
 Gesammelte Abhandlungen. Plate 80, 2 .. .. .. ..83 
 
 62. Mother and Child. Relief from a Tomb at Athens. From a Pho- 
 
 tograph .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..86 
 
 63. Boy with small Cart and Dog. V.-P. from Stackelberg. (See 27.) Plate 17 87 
 
 64. Child's Cart. Vase-painting from Compte-rendu de la commission 
 
 archiologique de St. Petersbourg. 1871. Plate 5, 4 .. .. 88 
 
 65. Child with Cart drawn by Dogs. V.-P. from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 766 89 
 
 66. Jointed Doll. Terra-cotta Figure. From Antiqu. du Bosph. Cimmer. 
 
 Plate 74, 8 . . . . . . . . . . ..90 
 
 67. Boy with Hoop. Vase-i>ainting from ceram., I. 18 .. .. 91 
 
 68. Toy Quiver. From Comple-rendu de St. Peterah. for 1873. Plate 38 ..92 
 
 69. Girl flying a Kite. Vase-painting from Arch. Ztg. for 1895, p. 125 93 
 
 70. Boy with Wheel. V.-P. from Benndorf. Griech.u Sicil.Vase}ibilder,p.Q2 94 
 %l. Woman with Wheel. Vase-painting from Gerhard. Vases grecs. 
 
 Plate 10 .. ^ ^ 95 
 
MST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 72 Child's Swing. \. -P. from Ann. d' Inst. 1857. Add. Plate, .. 96 
 
 '/3. See-saw. Vase-painting from Sclireiber. (See 9.) Plate 79, 6 . . . . 96 
 
 74. See-saw on the Foot. V.-P. from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 834 . . 97 
 
 75. Attic School Instruction. Vase-painting by Duris. From Arch. 7iQ. for 
 
 1869. Plate 1 .. .. .. .. .. .. ..105 
 
 76. Ephebi racing on Horseback. V.-P. from Schreiber. (5ee 9.) Plate 24, 9 125 
 
 77. Female Racer from Elis. Statue in the Vatican. From a Photograph 131 
 
 78. Reception of Bride at Bridegroom's House. Vase-painting from 
 
 Stackelberg. (See 21.) Plate 32 .. .. .. .. ..143 
 
 79. Women at the Well. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 16.) IV. 808, 9 150 
 
 80. Woman Spinning. Vase-painting. Zc/eni, IV. 302 and 8, M 3 .. ..153 
 
 81. Woman at the Loom (Penelope). V.-P. from Mon. d'lnst., IX. 42, 1 .. 154 
 
 82. Women at Bath and the Toilet. Vase-painting from Stackelberg. (See 
 
 27.) Plate 33 .. .. .. .. ..155 
 
 83. Women Washing. Vase-painting from Gerhard. {5ee 16.) III. 218 .. 156 
 
 84. Folding-up Clothes. Vase-painting. Idem, IV. 301 . . . . . . 157 
 
 85. Women's Toilet and Bath. V.-P. from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 220 158 
 
 86. Washing at the Well and Completion of Toilet. (Athene and Hera 
 
 before the Judgment of Paris.) V.-P. from Mon. d'lnst., IV. 18 .. 160 
 
 87. Women's Public Bath. Vase-painting from EL ceram., IV. 18 . . .. 161 
 
 88. Toilet Scene. Vase-painting from Gazette archeologique for 1879. 
 
 Plate 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . Frontispiece 
 
 89. Lady Arranging her Hair. Terra cotta from Tanagra. Idem. 1878. 
 
 Plate 10 163 
 
 90. Lady (Bride?) at her Toilet. V.-P. from Benndorf. (See 70.) Plate 45, 1. 164 
 
 91. Scene from the Life of Women. V.-P. from Gerhard. (See 4. ) Plate 14, 1 165 
 
 92. Toilet Scenes. From Compte-rendu de St. Petershourg. 1860. Plate 1, 3 168 
 
 93. Diagram of a Water-clock .. .. .. .. .. ..187 
 
 94. Bronze Razors, from Helbig. Das homerische Epos, Fig. 49 ,, .. 188 
 
 95. Hair-dresser. Terra-cotta Group, from Tanagra. From Arch. Ztg., 
 
 XXXn. Plate 14 189 
 
 96. Men's Public Bath. Vase-painting from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 21, 9 193 
 97 and 98. Drinking Scenes. V.-P. from Mon. d7ws«., IIL 12 210 and 211 
 
 99. Female Juggler. Vase-painting from ilfws. jBorftonico, VII. 35. , .. 217 
 
 100. Female Juggler, from Baumeister. (Sec 10.) Fig. 631 .. ..218 
 
 101. Cottabus. Vase-painting from Mo7i. d7?is^., VII. 51, 2 .. .. 222 
 
 102. Playing "Board-games." Terra-cotta Group from Arch. Ztg.y XXI. 
 
 Plate 173, 1 .. .. .. .. .. .. 224 
 
 103. Girl Playing Astragals. Terra-cotta Figure from Tanagra; from 
 
 Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 156 .. .. .. .. .. 226 
 
 104. Morra Players. Vase-painting from ^rc^. XXIX. Plate 56, 1 .. 227 
 
 105. Cock-figliting. Vase-painting from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 695 . . 228 
 
 106. Consequences of Intemperance. Vase-painting from Arch. Vorlegebl. 
 
 Series Vin. Plate 5 .. .. .. .. .. ..229 
 
 107 Scene at a Nocturnal Comus (Hercules and Satyrs). Vase-painting 
 
 from Benndorf. (See 70.) Plate 95 . . . . . . . . 231 
 
 108. Funeral Lament. Vase-painting from Mon. d'lnst.^ 111. 60 . . . . 247 
 
 109. Funeral Lament. W.-F. from Ann. d'lnst. 1869. Plate 299, O. P. .. 248 
 
 110. BuriaL Vase-painting from xlfon. d7?isi., VIII. 4, lb .. .,252 
 in. Corpse in the Tomb. V.-P. from Stackelberg. (See 27.) Plate 38 .. 253 
 112. Extinguishing the Funeral Pile. V.-P. from Mon. d'lnst., IV. 41 .. 256 
 113 and 114. Athenian Reliefs on Tombs. From Arch. Ztg., XXIX. Plates 
 
 43 and 44 . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 and 259 
 
 116. Care of a Grave. Vase-painting from Stackelberg. (See 27.) Plate 44 .. 260 
 
liv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGB 
 
 116. Care of a Grave. Vase-painting from Benndorf. {See 70.) Plate 25 . , 261 
 
 117. Relief from an Athenian Tomb. From a Photograph.. .. .. 263 
 
 118. Gymnastic Exercises. V.-P. from Baumeister. (See 10.) Fig. 611 .. 267 
 
 119. Exercise with Dumb-bells. Engraving from a Bronze Discus. From 
 
 Ann.d'InsL Plate B .. .. .. .. .. ..268 
 
 120. Racers. Vase-painting from ifon. d'Inst.jX. 48m .. .. .. 272 
 
 121. Runners and Jumpers. Vase-painting from Gerhard. {See 16.) IV. 259 273 
 
 122. Armour Race. Vase-painting from Jl/o?i. d7ns«., X. 48e, 3 .. .. 274 
 
 123. StandingDiscobolusof the Vatican. Marble Statue. From a Photograph 276 
 
 124. Throwing Discobolus (after Myron) in the Vatican. Marble Statue. 
 
 From a Photograph . . . . . . . . , , . . 279 
 
 125. Discobolus after the Throw. Bronze Statue at Naples. From a 
 
 Photograph .. .. .. .. .. .. ,, 280 
 
 126. Spear-thrower. Engraving. Reverse of Fig. 119 . . . . . . 282 
 
 127. Running, Jumping, Spear - throwing, Boxing. Vase-painting by 
 
 Pamphaios. From Mon. d'Inst.f XI. 2i .. .. .. .. 283 
 
 128. Wrestlers. Marble Group in the Uffizzi at Florence. From a 
 
 Photograph .. .. .. .. .. ..287 
 
 129. Wrestlers. Vase-painting from Jlf on.. d7n5«., II. 24 .. ., 288 
 
 130. Wrestlers. Vase-painting. Idem, X. 48e, 1 ., .. .,289 
 
 131. Wrestlers. Vase painting from Gerhard. (See p. 4.) Plate 20. , . , 291 
 
 132. Boxers. Vase-painting from Mon. d'Inst. 48e, 2 . . . . . . 294 
 
 133. Boxers. Vase-painting from Benndorf. (See 70.) Plate 31, 2a . . 295 
 
 134. Gymnastic Exercise with a Sphere. Bas-relief from Schreiber. (See 
 
 9.) Plate 23, 2 300 
 
 135. Archery. Vase-painting from Schreiber. {See 9.) Plate 80, 7 301 
 
 136. Women playing Musical Instruments. V.-P. from iB^. cgram., II. 86 ,. 310 
 
 137. Woman playing the Tiigonon. Vase-painting from Mon. d'Inst.^ V. 37 313 
 138 and 139. Flute player. Bronze Statuette from Dodona. From Carapanos. 
 
 Dodone et ses mines. Plate 10 . . . . . . . . 314 and 915 
 
 140. Flute-player. Vase-painting from Moti. d'/>is<., X. 10 .. 317 
 
 141. Performance of a Flute-player. Vase-painting by Euphronios. From 
 
 Wiener arch. Vorlegebl. Series V. 4 .. .. ., .,318 
 
 142. Female Flute player and Dancer with Castanets. Vase-pain bing by 
 
 Hiero. Idem. Series C. 5 . . . . . . . . . . 319 
 
 143. Lustral Sacrifice. Vase-painting from Heydemann. Griechische Vasen- 
 
 bilder. Plate 11, 3 .. .. .. .. .. ..331 
 
 144. Presentation of Sacrificial Offerings. Vase-painting from Mon. d'Inst.^ 
 
 VI. and VII. Plate 37 3:!2 
 
 145 and 146. Presentation of Sacrificial Offerings. Vase-paintings from 
 
 Benndorf. {See 70.) Plate 45, 2 .. .. .. .. 333 and 334 
 
 147. Sacrificial Scene, Vase-painting from JfoTi. d'/ns/., IX. 53 .. .. 339 
 
 148. Leaden Tablet with Question addressed to the Oracle of Delphi. From 
 Carapanos. (See 138.) Plate 36, 2 .. .. .. 345 
 
 149. Putting Horses to a Chariot. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 16.) 
 
 IV. 249 and 250 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 
 
 150. Plan and Section of the great Theatre of Dionysus at Athens. From 
 
 the Zeitschriftfur Bildende Kunst for 1878, ip. 193 .. .. ..303 
 
 151. Theatre of Syracuse in its present Condition. From a Photograph . . 395 
 
 152. Theatre of Syracuse : Ground plan. From Strack. Griechisches 
 
 Theater. Plate V. 1 396 
 
 153. Theatre of Scgesta, Reconstructed. Idem. Plate I. . . . . . . 397 
 
 164 and 155. Tragic Mask. Terra-cotta from Vulci. From Ann, d'Inst. 
 
 1881, Plate K .^427 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XV 
 
 PAGE 
 
 l'>6an(1157. Comic Masks. Idem. Plate J .. .. .. « 431 
 
 158. Comic Actor. Terra-cotta from Arch. Ztg. for 1854 Plate 69, 3 ^ 432 
 
 159. Comic Actor. Terra-cotta from Kekule. {See 41.) Plate 51, 5 .. 433 
 
 160. Masks from the Andromeda-myth. Pompeian Wall-painting from 
 
 Arch. Ztg. for 1878. Plate 3 . . . . . . . . . . 435 
 
 161 and 162. Tragic Actor. Ivory Statuette from Mon. d'lnst, XI 13 .. 437 
 
 163. Scene from Comedy (The Sick Chiron?). Vase-painting from 
 
 El. ceram., II. 94 .. .. .. .. ..439 
 
 164. Scene from Comedy. (Adventure of Hercules.) Vase-painting from 
 
 Arch. VorlegeU. Series B. Plate 32, a . . . . . . . . 441 
 
 165. Scene from Comedy. (Soldier and Parasite.) Pompeian Wall-painting 
 
 from Mus. Borl)on., lY. IS .. .. .. ..443 
 
 166. Military Chariot. Vase-painting from Compte-rendu for 1874. Plate 5.. 458 
 167 and 168. Warriors putting on their Armour. From Gerhard. {See 16. ) 
 
 IV. 269 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 458 and 459 
 
 169. Murder of Dolon. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 4.) Plate C 1 .. 460 
 
 170. Achilles binds up the Wounds of Patroclus. Vase painting from 
 
 Mon. d'lnst., I. 25 .. .. .. .. .. .. 461 
 
 171. Farewell of Amphiaraus. Idem, III. 54 .. .. .. ..463 
 
 172. Equipment of a Warrior. Vase-painting by Diiris. Idem, VIII. 41 . . 464 
 
 173. 174, and 175. Ancient Greek Helmets. From Helbig. (See 94.) 
 
 Figs. 70— 72 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4G6 
 
 176 Warriors playing Draughts. Vase-painting from Mon. d'lnst., II, 22 .. 467 
 
 177. Death of Memnon. Vase-painting from Gerhard. (See 4.) Plate D .. 469 
 
 178, 17P, 180, 181. Spear-heads from Dodona, From Carapanos. (See 138.) 
 Plates, 57, 8 ; 58, 1 ; 3 and 5 471 and 472 
 
 182, 183, 184. Swords from Mycenae. From Helbig. (See 94.) Figs. 90, 
 
 86 and 87 ..473 
 
 185 and 186. Swords from Italian Lake-dwellings. Idem. Figs. 88 and 89 . 474 
 187. Head of an Arrow from Megalopolis . . . . . . . . 477 
 
 188 and 189. Greek Spurs from Dodona. From Carapanos. (See 138 ) 
 
 Plate 52, 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 
 
 190. Sailing Vessel. Vase-painting from Schreiber. (See 9.) Plate 45, 11 . . 481 
 
 191. Ship of Odysseus. Vase-painting from Mon,. ci'/ns^., I. 8 .. .. 482 
 192 and 193. Antique Ships with Spurs at the Prow. Vase-painting from 
 
 Helbig (See 94.) Figs. 3 and 4 . . . . . . . . 483 
 
 194. Ship with two Rows of Oars. V.-P. from Schreiber. (See 9 ) Plate 45, 12 484 
 
 195. Attic Trireme. Relief {'rom Ann. d'lnst. 1861. Plate M, 2 .. ..485 
 li<d. Men Ploughing. Vase-painting from Berichte der Sdchsischen Gesellschaft 
 
 der Wissenschaft for 1867. Plate I. 1 . . . . . . . . 494 
 
 197. Olive Harvest. Idem. Plate III. 2 .. .. ..495 
 
 198. Artisan in Exomis. Terra-cotta from Bull, de corr. hell., VII. Plate 12 502 
 
 199. Shoemaker. Vase-painting. (See 196.) Plate III. 5.. .. ..503 
 
 200. Shoemaker's Workshop. Vase-painting from Mon. d'/iisi., XI. 28, 1 .. 505 
 
 201. Smithy. Idem. Plate 28, 2 . . . . . . . . . . , . 507 
 
 202. Brass Foundry. Vase-painting. (See 196.) Plate V. 4 .. . . 508 
 
 203. Vase Factory. From Ann. d'lnst. 1876. Plates D, B .. .. 50S 
 
 204. Cook(?). Terra-cotta from Tanagra. From ^rc/i. Z^gr. for 1874. Plate 14 511 
 
 205. Trade in silphium. Vase-painting from Mon. d'lnst., I. 47 615 
 
 206. Slave. TeTTSi-coitA from Bull, de cor. Mien. . . ^ ^ . . r,9.^ 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 If the account of Greek life and customs given in this 
 work does not present all sides of life in due pro- 
 portion, we must lay the blame on the insufficien<3y ol 
 the sources whence a description of this kind is 
 derived. These are of three kinds : literary, artistic, 
 and epigraphic. The literary sources supply us with 
 a large amount of detail for the work in hand, but 
 seldom give complete pictures or descriptions of 
 social conditions. Those writers of the Free Age of 
 Greece whom we still possess entirely, or in consider- 
 able fragments, are not all equally in a position to 
 touch on matters of private or domestic life. The 
 Homeric Epics give a good deal of insight into the 
 life of those early times; but after Homer epic poetry 
 disappears from the ranks of available testimony, and 
 what remains to us of the Alexandrine Epic, which 
 was essentially a learned style of poetry, supplies no 
 useful material, if only because it seeks its subjects in 
 the mythological period, and describes them on essenti- 
 ally Homeric Knes. The lyric poets, too, afford little 
 help ; now and then they enable us to add a few 
 details to our picture, but, as a rule, the results are 
 small, and not till we reach the Alexandrine period, 
 and there chiefly in bucolic and epigrammatic poetry, 
 do we obtain richer results in this domain Here the 
 
XVlli INTRODUCTION 
 
 poems of Theocritus are of especial value. Unfortu- 
 nately, very much of this period, which would have 
 thrown most interesting lights on different aspects of 
 Greek life, has been entirely lost, or survives only in 
 small fragments. Tragedy again, which usually takes 
 its subjects from mythology, cannot be considered at 
 all. Ancient poetry possesses no " middle-class epic " 
 like modern poetry, which will assuredly some day 
 supply valuable material for the social historian. But 
 ancient comedy is of the greatest value for our pur- 
 pose, and may indubitably be regarded as the most 
 fertile source of our knowledge of private life. The 
 comedies of Aristophanes deal with the immediate 
 present, and, although full of extravagant notions and 
 fantastic inventions, yet treat of actual circumstances, 
 and thus supply a mine of wealth for the student of 
 Attic life. We can only judge, from numerous frag- 
 ments of their comedies, how valuable would have 
 been the other poets of the so-called "Older Comedy" 
 of the fifth century B.C., who are, unfortunately, lost 
 to us. Even though we must exercise some caution 
 in the use of these authorities, distinguishing comic 
 inventions and poetical exaggeration from actual fact, 
 yet in the majority of cases it will not be very difficult 
 to come to a decision on such questions. No less 
 valuable, perhaps even more useful, for our purpose 
 would be the so-called "New Comedy'* of Menander 
 and others, if we possessed more than a few scattered 
 fragments of it. The imitations of Plautus and 
 Terence compensate to some extent for the lost 
 originals, yet even here we must be on our guard, 
 since the Roman poets in their adaptation often 
 introduced traits from Roman life. Still, as a rule 
 they adhered to Greek, or, rather, Attic manners, 
 upon which the original comedies were based. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 xix 
 
 Among prose writers we must chiefly consider 
 the historians and orators. The former are of 
 comparatively little use. They deal with great 
 political and military events ; the daily life going on 
 around them gave them no subjects for description; 
 apart from the fact that it probabty never occurred to 
 them that anyone in later ages would ever care to 
 hear about the social conditions of that time. A writer 
 like Herodotus, who introduces not only political 
 history, but also geographical, ethnological, and social 
 information, directs his attention for this very reason 
 chiefly to foreign nations, and gives his countrymen 
 a great deal of information about the life and customs 
 of the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Persians; concern- 
 ing the Greeks themselves he is absolutely silent. 
 It is quite natural that historians should only 
 mention by the way facts which we could use with 
 advantage in a description of Greek life. The orators, 
 on the other hand, supply richer material, not so 
 much in political speeches as in private orations 
 dealing with law-suits, of which a considerable number 
 have come down to us. Here side-lights fall on many 
 events of daily life, and we obtain an insight into 
 private affairs such as we seldom gain elsewhere. 
 Philosophical writings supply some material, though 
 comparatively little ; especially those that take actual life 
 as their basis and deal with philosophical problems in 
 connection with existing circumstances. Among these 
 may be included such writings as the "Characters" 
 of Theophrastus, and here we can but regret that we 
 possess only mutilated fragments of these admirable 
 descriptions of character, based on much accurate 
 observation, and taken direct from real life. 
 
 The Greek hterature of the Roman period can only 
 be utilised in selections and with care, to illustrate 
 
INTRODUCTION^ 
 
 the period with which we have to deal. After 
 Greece came under Roman dominion, new manners 
 and customs took root there, unknown during the 
 period of Greek freedom and the Hellenistic epoch. 
 This diminishes the value for our purpose of the 
 writings of Plutarch, and even more of Lucian, that 
 excellent delineator of the customs of the second cen- 
 tury A.D. But even in this later literature there is 
 a good deal which we have a right to use in our 
 description, for some of its habits and customs 
 obtained through the whole of antiquity; besides 
 which, the later writers often turned to past centuries 
 for descriptions, and sought their material in older 
 sources or old historians and other authors, on whose 
 accuracy we cannot, however, always depend. The 
 same was the case with the materials which we are 
 able to use in Roman literature. 
 
 From all this it is plain that the account given 
 here deals especially with the real " classic " period of 
 Greek antiquity from about the sixth to the third 
 century B.C. It is impossible to give a connected 
 history of the development of Greek civilisation from 
 the beginning, if only on account of the nature of 
 our authorities and the incompleteness of tradition. 
 Between Homeric culture and that which we meet 
 with afterwards in the poets and prose writers of the 
 best time, lies a period of several centuries, about 
 which we know very little, and that little chiefly 
 in a legendary form. We can only determine 
 in a few cases how the conditions of the sixth 
 and fifth centuries gradually developed, for instance 
 in the rise of the constitution, while it is impossible 
 for us to trace the genesis of manners and civilisation. 
 We shall, therefore, not attempt to give a separate 
 account of Homeric civilisation, but content ourselves 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 xxi 
 
 with introducing a few of its details in appropriate 
 places ; nor shall we go beyond the period of 
 Hellenism, since even here foreign, and especially 
 Oriental, influence produced many alterations, while 
 Roman influence afterwards made many essential 
 changes. 
 
 The artistic authorities are also chosen in accord- 
 ance with this scheme. The vase paintings, of which 
 so many have been preserved to us, supply a great 
 quantity and variety of pictures of Greek life, and we 
 have drawn largely on this valuable source of inform- 
 ation, which supplies most of the pictures chosen as 
 illustrations. Compared with this there is little else 
 of importance. The statues to which we have access 
 are chiefly figures of gods and heroes, or portraits. 
 These we can only use to illustrate Greek costume. 
 But a few genre pictures are preserved to us in the 
 artistic productions of the best Greek period, and some 
 of these we shall have occasion to discusc. For this 
 purpose the small terra-cotta figures are more useful, 
 which often represent with vigorous truth subjects 
 from real life. Here, too, as in the case of the statues, 
 we must always remember the difference between 
 Hellenic and Roman work, and it is just this consider- 
 ation which greatly limits our choice of sculptures ; 
 for the great majority of those which would be suit- 
 able for our purpose date from the Roman period, and 
 usually represent Roman life. For this reason mosaics 
 and frescoes can scarcely be regarded, since none 
 have come down to us from the Greek period. Un- 
 doubtedly many of them imitate Greek models, or, 
 at any rate, those of the Alexandrine epoch, but it is 
 not always easy to decide in particular cases ; and, 
 moreover, the greater part are mythological pictures. 
 It is obvious that works of Etruscan art, such as 
 
Xxil INTRODUCTION 
 
 sarcophagi, pictures on mirrors, and the hlit., cannot be 
 regarded. Thus the works of art suitable for supple- 
 menting our literary sources are limited in number. 
 Of these the vase paintings constitute the great 
 majority, and this is entirely in accordance with the 
 chronological limits which we have set to our descrip- 
 tion; for they almost all belong to the centuries 
 mentioned above, and only a few that would be suit- 
 able for our purpose are of greater antiquity. 
 
 The nature of our authorities not only sets a limit 
 of time, but also one of space. When we speak of Greek 
 life we ought to include in it not only life in actual 
 Greece or Hellas, but also that in the numerous 
 colonies on the Aegean and Black Seas, in Southern 
 Italy, Northern Africa, etc. But we know very little 
 of the conditions in those Greek settlements outside 
 Greece, and even in Greece itself, where, in con- 
 sequence of the political and racial differences, these 
 circumstances are by no means everywhere identical, 
 our knowledge is limited in many ways. Even though 
 the difference in manners and customs was greater in 
 early times than afterwards, when increase in trade 
 and greater facility of travel produced more equal 
 conditions, yet certain local and national peculiarities 
 always prevailed. Life at Sparta differed in many 
 respects from that at Athens. The other large towns 
 of Greece — Corinth, Sicyon, Thebes, not to speak of 
 the colonies of Miletus, Syracuse, and Gyrene — doubt- 
 less showed many local peculiarities which are entirely 
 hidden from our knowledge. Our literary sources are 
 for the greater part Athenian. The majority of our 
 monuments, too, are of Attic origin, or, at any rate, 
 influenced by it, though Southern Italy supplies some 
 of the vases, and in many cases the customs of Magna 
 Graeoia are represented in these pictures. Most of our 
 
INTBODliCTION 
 
 knowledge of Greek life, then, refers to Athens, and to 
 be quite accurate we ought to call our description 
 " Life in Ancient Athens." Every now and then we 
 are enabled to enlarge our pictures by details from 
 other parts of Greece. Still, we must beg our readers 
 to remember that most of the traits here introduced 
 relate to Athens between the sixth and fourth 
 centuries B.C. We have scarcely the remotest con- 
 ception of the mode of life at that time in any small 
 Greek city or in the country. 
 
 Here the third class of our sources comes in to 
 help us, viz., the inscriptions. These not only give us 
 most of our material for a knowledge of political con- 
 ditions, legal and religious antiquities, etc., but they 
 also supply interesting details of private life ; and as 
 they are found not only in Attica, but all over Greece, 
 the islands, and the colonies, they supply much very 
 valuable information about matters which our literary 
 sources entirely ignore. As in most cases the period 
 of the inscription can be ascertained by the character 
 of the writing or by other peculiarities, we are not so 
 liable here to make chronological mistakes and refer 
 customs of a later period to earlier times. Compared 
 with our literary sources, the inscriptions are also far 
 safer material ; for the accuracy of a writer may 
 be sometimes called in question, especially when the 
 information is supplied at second-hand 
 
GREEK LIFE AT HOME 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 COSTUME. 
 
 Dresses, Stitched and Draped— 'I he Chiton — The Himation or 
 ChLiina — Drapery — The Uniform Male Dresses of Sparta — The 
 Chlamys— Similarity Between Male and Female Dress — The 
 Difference Between Doric and Ionic Garments — The Fashion at 
 Athens in the Fifth Century e.g. — The Materials — Footgear — 
 Leggings — Head-Coverings — Mode of Dressing the Hair. 
 
 To obtain a complete insight into the Ufe of former 
 ages we require primarily a knowledge of the historical 
 and geographical, political, and religious conditions 
 of the people in question, as well as of its intellectual 
 development in art and science. These, however, it is 
 not our purpose to consider here. The second requi- 
 site for a vivid picture is a clear notion of the sur- 
 roundings in which the people of that time lived : 
 their dwellings, furniture, utensils, etc. And lastly, 
 there is another point, the knowledge of which is no 
 less indispensable in order to obtain a clear image 
 of the past, and that is the costume. Our know- 
 ledge of the customs and habits of daily life appears 
 far more real, and stands out more vividly, if we 
 can also form in our minds a picture of the people of 
 that time. Thus no one can expect to form a clear 
 picture of mediaeval Ufe without at least a general 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 notion of the costume of that period. This is equally 
 true of every epoch of civilisation, even of a period 
 so little distant from us in time as the eighteenth 
 century. 
 
 We therefore preface our description of Greek life 
 with an account of the details of Greek costume, and 
 of its historical development; and our reasons for 
 going into greater detail here than in other domains 
 is that there are so many wrong, or at any rate in- 
 complete, notions extant concerning it. For when we 
 speak to-day of Greek costume we may generally 
 assume that the majority of people, if female dress is 
 in question, think of the drapery of the magnificent 
 female figures in the Parthenon marbles ; while, as re- 
 gards male costume, their minds will at once recur to 
 the classic figure of Sophocles in the Lateran or of the 
 Aeschines of Naples, and form their notion of Greek 
 male costume accordingly. It is, however, absolutely 
 wrong to regard these as typical of Greek dress. 
 They represent neither the costume of all Hellas nor 
 that of the whole Greek age. That " noble simplicity 
 and quiet greatness,'' which is as conspicuous in the 
 dress of the age of Pericles as in its art, is, like the 
 latter, the product of slow development through 
 various phases, concerning which, with the exception 
 of a few literary allusions, the monuments give us all 
 the information we possess. 
 
 Generally speaking, we may distinguish, both in 
 male and female Greek dress, two kinds of garments 
 — those which are cut in a certain shape and partly 
 stitched, and mantles of various shapes which are 
 draped on the figure and only acquire their form 
 by means of this draping. This distinction holds 
 good ivitlj few exceptions throughout the whole 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 3 
 
 history of Greek dress; and, generally speaking, it 
 is the under garments which are stitched, while the 
 upper garments are draped. Yet we must observe 
 that, while male clothing is, as a rule, confined to two 
 garments, we very often find in female costume 
 a third, or even a fourth, belonging sometimes to 
 the first and sometimes to the second of the above- 
 mentioned classes. 
 
 The names which were used throughout almost 
 the whole of Greek antiquity for the two chief articles 
 of dress are, for the under garment, chiton; for the 
 upper garment, himation. These terms are used for 
 both male and female garments, but several other 
 designations are used, and the word himation is 
 not found in the Homeric period, but the cloak which 
 is worn over the chiton is called chlaina. 
 
 We may treat first of male costume. As re- 
 gards the chiton of the oldest period, we infer, 
 from allusions in epic poetry, with which the oldest 
 monuments agree (for the discoveries at Mycenae 
 give us no distinct notion of pre-Homeric costume), 
 that both the short and the long kinds were in use. 
 The short chiton seems to be the usual dress of daily 
 life ; it was especially worn when free movement was re- 
 quired, and was therefore the suitable garment for war 
 or hunting, for gymnastic exercises or manual labour. 
 The long chiton, which was afterwards regarded as espe- 
 cially Ionic, and certainly maintained itself longer in 
 Ionia and in Attica than in the rest of Greece, was 
 not, however, unknown to the Doric races. It was the 
 usual dress for men of advanced age and good position ; 
 it was also worn by young people on festive occa- 
 sions. We therefore find on the monuments of the 
 oldest style that not only the older gods w^ear a long 
 chiton, but also that young men are clothed in it on 
 
4 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 festive occasions, or if they are in any way connected 
 with religious functions, as, for instance, priests, harp- 
 players, flute-players, charioteers, etc. This use of 
 the long chiton continues to the classic period. Thus, 
 for instance, we see the figure known as the Archon 
 Basileus in the central group of the Eastern Par- 
 thenon frieze in this dress ; and tragic actors, if they 
 represented men of good position and in peaceful 
 circumstances, also continued to wear the long chiton. 
 
 Epic poetry itself gives us no direct information 
 about the shape of the chiton in the Homeric 
 period. Helbig maintains, basing his assertions on 
 some casual indications, and chiefly on the oldest 
 monuments, that it differed from the dress of the 
 classic period in being close-fitting and free from 
 folds. It is true that the old vase paintings show us 
 the short chiton fitting closely round the body and 
 drawn quite firmly round the legs. It is girt fast 
 round the hips, and as a rule does not go below the 
 knee. However, it is not safe to draw conclusions of 
 this kind from ancient pictures, for much which 
 might be regarded as characteristic of ancient costume 
 may be due only to the incompleteness of art, which 
 was not yet capable of representing full garments 
 with folds. Thus, in ancient works of art, the long 
 chiton also appears quite narrow in the upper part, 
 but then falls perpendicularly from the waist, some- 
 times gradually, but more often straight without any 
 folds to the feet. (Compare the figure of Apollo in 
 Fig. 1 and of Priam in Fig. 2.) Both the long and 
 short chitons as a rule have no sleeves, but only an 
 armhole ; we sometimes find short sleeves not quite 
 covering the upper arm. Unfortunately, we cannot 
 form a clear notion from the pictures of the mode in 
 which it was put on. It is, however, probable that the 
 
6 
 
 I 
 
6 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 short chiton was sewn together all round and thrown 
 over the head, where there may have been an addi- 
 tional slit connected with this opening, and fastened 
 with a pin. There are, however, no traces of 
 this on the monuments, nor are fibulae or brooches 
 
 mentioned in the 
 Homeric descrip- 
 tions in connec- 
 tion with the male 
 chiton. Probably 
 the long chiton 
 was cut in the 
 manner of a 
 chemise. Helbig's 
 hypothesis that 
 there was a slit 
 down the middle 
 of the front is just 
 as uncertain as 
 his similar as- 
 sumption with re- 
 gard to Homeric 
 female dress. 
 
 Besides the 
 chiton, the older 
 Fig. 2. male costumc also 
 
 had a sort of loin- 
 cloth or apron. It is not at all improbable that at 
 one period the Greeks wore merely the apron and 
 cloak, and no chiton. When the latter became 
 universally fashionable (which, according to recent 
 surmises, was due to Semitic influence) the cloth dis- 
 appeared, or continued only as part of military dress. 
 
 The himation, or chlaina, appears on ancient monu- 
 ments stiff and free from folds, like the chiton. This is 
 
COSTUMK 
 
 7 
 
 a garment resembling a mantle, which appears in many 
 archaic vase pictures in two distinct forms : either as 
 a wide cloak covering the greater part of the body, or 
 as a narrow covering lightly draped. The first form, 
 corresponding to the later male himation, is most 
 commonly combined with the long chiton. The cut 
 of this cloak is four-cornered, probably oblong, and it 
 is worn in such a way that the greater part of it falls 
 behind and covers the back and part of the legs, 
 while in front it is thrown over the shoulders and 
 arms, and falls down over the body, two of its points 
 falling within the arms and the other two without. 
 The other form, which may be in general compared 
 with the later chlamys, is found with both the long 
 and the short chiton, and is also sometimes worn as 
 the only covering, without any under garment. This 
 may, however, be regarded as the ideal clothing, 
 which does not correspond to real life, just as in later 
 monuments we find the chlamys alone without the 
 chiton. It is put on in such a way that the lower 
 arm is left uncovered, and the two points fall down in 
 front over the shoulder and upper arm, while behind 
 it either covers only the upper part of the back, or 
 else the cloak falls down so far that its edge is almost 
 as low as the points in front. (Compare Fig. 3, repre- 
 senting a dance from the Francois vase.) We cannot 
 pronounce with certainty on the shape of this cloak. 
 It appears, however, to have been oval or elliptical, 
 and to have ended in two points ; it was folded in 
 such a way that the folded part was worn inside, 
 while the edges, which were ornamented with wide 
 borders, fell outside. In Fig. 2, where the shape 
 of the cloak is that of an ellipse cut through the 
 long axis, the folding is also evident. I should there- 
 fore diflfer from Helbig in regarding this narrower 
 
8 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 clilaina as the garment called in epic poetry diplax. 
 Neither kind of cloak is fastened, and they both 
 differ from that of later periods in being worn open 
 in front. In Homeric poetry another kind of chlaina 
 is also mentioned, which corresponds more closely to 
 
 the later one; since it is 
 stated that the folded 
 chlaina is fastened on the 
 shoulder with .^i brooch. 
 No proof of this, however, 
 has as yet been found in 
 the older monuments. 
 
 As a remnant of the 
 most primitive dress, 
 clothes made of skins, 
 such as were afterwards 
 worn only by country 
 people, huntsmen and the 
 like, still existed in the 
 Homeric age. Homer 
 several times mentions 
 skins as the dress of 
 soldiers ; on the older 
 monuments we see them 
 drawn over a short chiton, 
 and sometimes even fas- 
 tened with a girdle. 
 
 How long this ancient 
 dress continued in use we 
 cannot determine with 
 any certainty ; but the majority even of vase pictures 
 with black figures show a different dress. It is true, 
 as we mentioned just now, that the long chiton still 
 continued in use besides the short one, but the cut 
 and the mode of wearing it changed. 
 
COSTUME. 9 
 
 The monuments of this period almost always show 
 signs of drapery, and this is, moreover, of an artificial, 
 exaggerated, and pedantic kind. It must have been 
 the fashion at that time, that is, from the sixth till 
 nearly the middle of the fifth century, to lay the 
 folds of men's dress, as well as of women's, in sym- 
 metrically parallel lines. In pictures the lower edges 
 of dresses and cloaks show various regularly cut-out 
 points, while on the inner side there are many small 
 zigzag folds arranged with laborious symmetry. 
 (Compare Fig. 4, " The Eape of Helen," after a vase 
 picture by the vase painter Hiero.) This may be 
 partly due to the artistic style, which at that period 
 inclined to over-elaboration; yet it is impossible to 
 doubt that we find here not only an expression of 
 archaic art, but also the representation of a dress 
 laboriously and artificially folded, stiffened, and ironed, 
 in which the folds were produced by external aids, 
 such as ironing, starching, pressing, even stitching 
 of the stuff laid in folds, or sewing such folds 
 on to the material. We cannot determine when 
 this custom began in Greece. In works of art we find 
 it comparatively late in the sixth century B.C.; yet, 
 as Helbig remarks, it is by no means impossible that 
 this fashion existed at a far more ancient period, since 
 the custom of laying material in artificial folds by means 
 of stiffening or ironing was already known in Egypt 
 in 4000 B.C. ; and it therefore seems extremely 
 probable that the Phoenicians adopted the practice 
 at a very early period, and introduced it into Greece. 
 It is a very natural assumption that this mode of 
 draping would in the first instance be adopted for 
 linen material, and that it would therefore be intro- 
 duced among the Greeks with the linen chiton, which 
 took the place of the woollen one formerly worn, 
 
 B* 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 11 
 
 On the other hand, however, it is probable that, as 
 woollen clothing was afterwards worn as well as 
 linen, they attempted to ornament this> in similar 
 fashion by artificial folds ; the works of art, however, 
 show that these folds were far less in quantity 
 and less sharply defined in woollen clothing than in 
 linen, which is naturally much better adapted for 
 the purpose. 
 
 Apart from the folds, the clothes now became 
 wider and more comfortable, and were less closely 
 girt round the hips. The chiton is still a garment 
 made by sewing, and the long differs from the short 
 only in length, not in shape. Both are, as a rule, 
 so cut as to be sewn together regularly below the 
 girdle ; above the girdle they are sometimes provided 
 with a slit on one side to facilitate putting on. They 
 usually have sleeves, sometimes short, sometimes long; 
 these are either fastened all round, or, as is also the 
 case in female dress, open at the top and fastened by 
 pins or buttons. In this case the chiton is sewn in 
 such a manner as to be all in one above the girdle as 
 far as the sleeve, and open at the top, so that the slits 
 for the arms and neck are connected ; the wearer puts 
 the chiton over his head, draws up the sleeve on the 
 upper arm, and thus supplies the opening for the 
 neck. Besides this, there is often an ornamental 
 arrangement such as we find in the female dress of 
 the same period, a puff of regular folds (kolpos), formed 
 by drawing up the dress over the girdle and letting 
 the piece drawn up all round fall again over the 
 girdle ; and, in addition, a bib falling over the breast 
 in zig-zag folds, which appears, as a rule, to be a 
 separate piece sewn on the dress at the opening of 
 the neck. In Fig. 4 we observe the kolpos and bib over 
 the short chiton of Hermes in the centre, the bib 
 
12 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 also over the long chiton of Paris (on the left), and ol 
 Tyndareus (on the right) 
 
 In this dress we already find the elements of the 
 male costume common throughout classic Greece in the 
 fifth century. It is modelled on the ancient elaborate 
 style, and the sewing is reduced as much as possible, 
 while the garment falls in regular free folds, and fits 
 closely to the figure. According to Thucydides, it 
 was at Sparta that it first became customary to adopt 
 a uniform dress for the whole male population, and 
 thus to do away with a distinction which had hitherto 
 prevailed between the dress of poor and rich. This 
 distinction, at any rate, held in so far that at Athens 
 the richer people, as Thucydides states, wore the long 
 linen chiton, the poorer people the short woollen one. 
 At Athens and in Ionia the long linen chiton remained 
 as the dress of older people till shortly before the time 
 of Thucydides ; but then it was universally discarded, 
 or rather reserved for the classes mentioned above, and 
 for festive occasions ; while the short woollen chiton 
 from that period became the universal dress. This is 
 usually found in the form of a widish garment sewn 
 together below the girdle, and above it divided into 
 two parts, a front and back piece, put on in such a 
 manner as to be fastened together by pins or fibulae 
 on the shoulder. If the chiton was allowed to fall 
 quite free it usually fell down about as far as the 
 knees ; but it was customary, especially when unim- 
 peded and free movement was necessary, to draw up a 
 part above the girdle and let it faU in folds below it. 
 (Compare Fig. 5.) Workmen, countrymen, sailors, and 
 others whose occupation required free movement of 
 the right arm, used only to fasten the two pieces of the 
 chiton on the left shoulder, then the points of the 
 other side hung down in front and behind, and left the 
 
COSTUME. 13 
 
 right breast, shoulder, and arm exposed. This garment, 
 of which the rehef in Fig. 6 gives a representation, 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 was called exomis. Strictly speaking, it is no actual 
 garment, but only a particular way of wearing the 
 chiton ; but special tunics for labourers were made ir 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 15 
 
 this fashion. Besides this, chitons were afterwardii 
 made with the upper part also sewn together, and 
 with armholes or short sleeves, which, however, never 
 covered more than a part of the upper arm. Long 
 sleeves falling to the hand belong exclusively to 
 barbarian costume. Yet the bib, which as late as the 
 first half of the fifth century was worn with the male 
 chiton also, is not a part of later costume. 
 
 From this time onward the name himation " was 
 used for the cloak worn with the chiton, while chlaina" 
 was only retained for a special kind, distinct rather 
 by its material than by its shape. The himation was 
 often worn in the oldest period in the way described 
 above, that is, with two points falling on the two sides 
 in front. (Compare the Hermes in Fig. 4.) But it 
 became more and more common, and from the classic 
 period onwards quite universal, to fold the cloak 
 tightly round, and this was done as follows. One 
 point was drawn from the back over the left shoulder 
 and held fast here between the chest and arm, then 
 the cloak was drawn round ovei' the back in wide 
 folds reaching to the shins, and from there back again 
 to the front on the right side. This was done in two 
 ways. If the right arm was to be kept free the hima- 
 tion was drawn through under the right shoulder and 
 in front folded across the body and chest, while the 
 last piece was thrown back across the left shoulder 
 (compare the Paris in Fig. 4 on the left), or else over 
 the left arm (compare the man on the right in Fig. 
 4). The other mode, and the one common in the 
 dress of an ordinary citizen, was to draw the cloak 
 over the right arm and shoulder, so that at most the 
 right hand was exposed, and then to throw it back 
 again over the left shoulder. This arrangement was 
 facilitated by small weights of clay or lead sewn on 
 
Fig. 7. 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 17 
 
 the points, which helped to keep the cloak firm in its 
 place. It was, however, a special art, which required 
 practice, and probably also assistance, to produce a 
 beautiful and harmonious 
 drapery in this kind of 
 dress; and the position of 
 the wearer showed itself 
 in the way in which he 
 wore his himation, which 
 ought neither to be drawn 
 up too far, nor fall too low. 
 It was also regarded as in- 
 elegant to wear the 'cloak 
 from right to left. There is 
 no nobler or more perfect 
 example of this costume, 
 in which the chiton is com- 
 bined with the himation, 
 than the portrait statue of 
 Sophocles in the Lateran 
 given in Fig. 7. Here the 
 wide cloak with its many 
 folds covers the form in 
 such a way as not to hide 
 the shape of the body, and 
 the various folds caused by 
 the position of the arm 
 and the mode of draping 
 the cloak are combined 
 together in the most har- 
 monious manner. A humorous counterpart of this 
 ideal figure is Fig. 8 in terra-cotta^ representing a 
 vulgar citizen in chiton and himation. 
 
 The " chlamys " was a special kind of cloak which 
 originated in Thessaly, but from the fifth century 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
18 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 onwards became common in Greece. Originally it was 
 a soldier's or rider's dress, and is, therefore, only seen 
 on statues worn over armour. It is a short cloak of 
 light material and oval shape, fastened by means of a 
 brooch either in front at the neck, or more commonly 
 on the right shoulder, thus covering the left arm and 
 leaving the right free. (Compare Figs. 9 and 10, of 
 
 which Fig. 9 shows the former mode of wearing the 
 cloak, while in Fig. 10 the youth with the spear has 
 his whole left side covered by the chlamys.) The 
 chlamys was the common dress of youths as soon 
 as they attained their majority (€(})7]fdela) and entered 
 the cavalry ; till that age they wore no upper gar- 
 ment over the chiton in the ancient period, but in 
 later times a wide himation, in which they usually en- 
 veloped themselves entirely. It was regarded as 
 correct for modest boys not to have their arms ex- 
 posed. Hermes also, the divine representative of 
 youth, usually appears in the chlamys, but this is 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 19 
 
 generally lightly folded and thrown over the left arm. 
 Apollo too, except where he wears the long chiton as 
 harp-player, is usually represented on works of art 
 with the chlamys. It is, however, unusual in male 
 dress, with the exception of military costume, and is 
 never found in combination with the long chiton. 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 At home, as a rule, only the chiton was worn. It 
 was, however, not considered correct to be seen thus 
 in the street : only artisans or eccentric people went 
 out without a cloak ; but it was just as incorrect to 
 appear without the chiton, only in the himation 
 or chlamys. It is true this is very common on 
 works of art : Zeus, Poseidon, and some other 
 gods are represented without the chiton, and only 
 in the himation, and Hermes and Apollo only in the 
 chlamj^s ; and even in representations of daily life we 
 very often see in statues, reliefs, vase pictures, etc., 
 
20 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 men without under garments, clad only in the cloak 
 (compare the youth in Fig. 9), and also in portrait 
 figures. This is, however, a liberty taken by artists in 
 order to avoid concealing the body entirely by the 
 dress, but by no means corresponding to reality. Only 
 those who specially desired to harden their bodies, 
 and also poor people and certain philosophers who 
 wished to proclaim their cynic principles by exceed- 
 ingly scanty dress, went out, even in winter, in a 
 cloak without an under garment. Shirt and trousers 
 were unknown in Greek male dress ; the latter are 
 Oriental, and therefore only appear on monuments 
 representing barbarous persons. 
 
 As regards female dress, it may be stated at once 
 that the strong contrast found in modern times 
 between the dress of men and women is foreign to 
 Greek antiquity \ both have essentially the same 
 elements, sometimes even the same shape ; and this 
 similarity become ^ greater the nearer we get 
 to antiquity. This was not carried so far that a 
 woman could simply have put on a man's under 
 garment ; in fact, even the Homeric epics distinguish 
 the woman's peplos from the man's chiton. Un- 
 fortunately, both the shape and the mode cf wearing 
 the Homeric peplos are matters of dispute which 
 cannot be satisfactorily settled by the words of the 
 epic. According to Helbig, it was not essentially 
 different from the long male chiton ; like this, it 
 descended to the feet, fitting closely and without folds 
 to the figure, and was provided with an opening for 
 head and arms. The girdle was worn rather low 
 down, not imuiediately under the breast or round the 
 waist, but round the hips, and fell down somewhat in 
 front. The peplos was put on by means of a slit 
 between the breasts, which often descended as far as 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 21 
 
 the feet, and was fastened by a large number of 
 fibulae, or hooks. Helbig thinks that this fashion was 
 due to Oriental influence, since such openings are 
 very commonly found on monuments representing 
 Oriental nations. 
 
 There is much in favour of Helbig's hypothesis, 
 especially the circumstance that a dress similar in 
 many respects appears to have maintained itself for 
 several centuries. The vase pictures, as well as several 
 works of art, show, as Boehlau has remarked, that 
 in almost all the Greek states (especially Corinth, 
 Chalcis, Athens, Megara, Sparta, as well as Ionian and 
 Sicilian towns) a closely-fitting chiton was worn by 
 women as late as the seventh, perhaps even the sixth, 
 century. This was not drawn over the head, but put 
 on like our dress of the present day, and open in front. 
 Numerous monuments of the oldest style show that 
 slit in front, and it appears to be seldom wanting 
 in very ancient pictures of the deities. This chiton is 
 provided with tight sleeves falling down to the elbows, 
 and is generally adorned at all the edges (accordingly 
 round the neck and armholes, as well as round the 
 hem) with broad stripes and patterns of various 
 colours; and as a further peculiarity it has folds 
 drawn up over the girdle and falling on each side 
 over the hips. 
 
 Helbig's hypothesis concerning the Homeric pep- 
 los : that it had a long opening in front extend- 
 ing to the feet, has been energetically combated by 
 Studniczka, who attempts to explain differently all 
 the passages quoted from the epics in support of the 
 other theory, and regards the strips down the front 
 found on monuments as merely meant for ornamental 
 purposes, and not a reminiscence of that opening. 
 Studniczka, for his part, considers the Homeric female 
 
22 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 dress identical with the so-called Doric, which is 
 described to us by writers as the oldest Greek female 
 dress, in place of which the Ionic afterwards came. 
 His first assumption, therefore, is that the dress was 
 not sewn and arranged for slipping on, but rather 
 consisted in a shawl-shaped piece of stuff fastened on 
 the shoulders by means of pins. This is not the 
 fitting place to discuss this controversy ; we must 
 therefore content ourselves with alluding to it, and 
 refrain from deciding in favour of either opinion, 
 since this would not be the purpose of our book. 
 
 Herodotus informs us, concerning the female dress 
 of the historic period, that the Athenian women in 
 olden times wore the Doric dress, a woollen chiton 
 fastened with fibulae, but afterwards, instead of this, 
 adopted the Ionic dress, a stitched linen chiton. 
 However simple this statement may sound, it is by 
 no means so easy to trace this change of dress on 
 the works of art. These show us female dresses in 
 ancient times which appear to have been sewn rather 
 than pinned together; while the chiton which we 
 find in the classic period of Greek art may really be 
 traced back to the Doric type. It is, therefore, com- 
 prehensible that attempts lately made, especially by 
 Boehlau and Studniczka, to trace the transition from 
 the ancient Doric to the later Ionic costume on works 
 of art, should have led to very different results. 
 
 If we look at the female dress on the oldest vase 
 pictures (compare Figs. 1, 3, 11-15), we almost always 
 find a stiff chiton descending without folds to the 
 feet (the Homeric name " peplos " gradually falls into 
 disuse), which could, however, in no case be as 
 narrow as it is depicted, else it would be impossible 
 to walk in it ; the feet as a rule are uncovered, but 
 sometimes the dress is lengthened behind in the form 
 
rather high up, and so as to be visible. There is also 
 a second garment covering breast and shoulders, and 
 falling down nearly as far as the girdle. How this 
 
24 
 
 GREEK LIFE At HOME. 
 
 chiton was put on, and how the upper garment was 
 connected with it, is not clear. When we see long 
 borders descending from the girdle to the feet on 
 some figures, and also continued above the girdle (as 
 in the case of two women in Fig. 11), we might assume 
 
 that here was an opening for 
 putting on the dress; but we 
 have already shown above 
 that these borders are often 
 of a purely ornamental char- 
 acter, and have no structural 
 importance; and, indeed, they 
 are entirely wanting on many 
 chitons. It is, therefore, gener- 
 ally assumed that the garment 
 represented here was sewn to- 
 gether below, and thus fastened 
 all round, but above the girdle 
 was open at the side, and that 
 the bib was produced by mak- 
 ing this upper part double, and 
 fastening the folded ends on 
 the shoulders with pins, thus 
 corresponding to that style 
 which is commonly called 
 Doric. In fact, the point of the dross, passed from the 
 back to the front, is often visible on the shoulder (com- 
 pare Figs. 1, 3, and 11) ; sometimes even the long pin 
 which fastened both points can be plainly recognised 
 (Fio-. 11) ; but in spite of this there is a great deal that 
 this hypothesis does not explain. It is true we may re- 
 concile with it the occasional appearance of different 
 borders at the neck of the bib, for these might be sewn 
 on, and thus this garment would be constructed ready 
 for the wearer, while in the corresponding dress of the 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 25 
 
 later period it rested with the wearer to draw down a 
 shorter or longer piece of her chiton. But how are 
 we to explain that upper part of the chiton in such 
 a case as Fig. 12 ? Here it is 
 closely fastened at the side. 
 Clearly the artist wished to re- 
 present an armhole. These two 
 facts are in opposition to the 
 previous hypothesis, unless we 
 assume that the upper part also 
 was sewn together on one side, 
 and its open side with the pins 
 must be sought on the left side 
 of the woman, which is not 
 visible here. It is still more re- 
 markable when, as in Fig. 13, 
 the painter represents the lower 
 part of the chiton with a pattern 
 and the upper plain ; or, as in 
 Fig. 14, gives different patterns 
 to the two parts. If we do not 
 attribute this to the arbitrary 
 fancy of the artist, or assume 
 that the upper part of the chiton 
 was ornamented with a different 
 material behind, we are reduced 
 to the opinion which, in view of 
 similar developments in the dress 
 of a later period, is not improb- 
 able — that this upper part was 
 
 sometimes quite separate from the chiton, and was 
 put on as a special garment. 
 
 With this costume we sometimes find an over 
 garment, which must not, however, be confused with 
 the himation. This is worn over the chiton, but 
 
 
 4^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [5/ 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 
 
26 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 fastened in by the girdle also, and is usually open on 
 one side. (Compare Fig. 15.) This upper garment, 
 which usually is only seen below the girdle, is some- 
 times made of the same material as the bib, some- 
 times of a different one, but it usually differs in colour 
 and pattern from the garment worn under it. It is 
 
 not very evident 
 from the vase 
 pictures how this 
 was put on, but 
 it seems to have 
 been draped and 
 not sewn, and 
 worn over the 
 chiton for more 
 elaborate dress, 
 and fastened to- 
 gether with it 
 by means of the 
 girdle. 
 
 With this 
 antique costume 
 thehimationwas 
 worn as a cloak, 
 which, both in its 
 shape and in the mode of wearing, corresponded abso- 
 lutely to the large himation worn by men ; like this, it 
 specially covered the back and fell over the arms in two 
 points. There is, however, this distinction between the 
 male and female costume, that the women often drew this 
 cloak up so high as to cover the back of the head (com- 
 pare Fig. 1), a fashion which also continued inlatertimes. 
 
 The change which we see gradually produced in 
 this costume on works of art has been often regarded 
 as a real change in the fashion, but was probably 
 
28 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOMfi. 
 
 in great part only a consequence of the development 
 of art, which rendered it possible to represent a great 
 deal which at an earlier stage could not be depicted. 
 As in the case of male dress, the dresses on the vase 
 pictures gradually become wider with fuller folds. At 
 first, it is true, they are still so narrow that if a long 
 step is taken the shape of the body becomes very 
 distinct; but the cylindrical form, quite free from 
 folds, which the earliest vase style gives to the 
 woman's dress below the girdle, disappears entirely. 
 Besides this we find, instead of the outer wrap, a 
 puffing, or kolpos, which henceforth is the character- 
 istic of the female dress. This was arranged in various 
 ways, though in later times it was sometimes dispensed 
 with altogether. There are different modes of pro- 
 ducing this kolpos : sometimes it belongs to the dress 
 itself ; the length of the dress then so far exceeds that 
 of the body that, in order to prevent the hem from 
 dragging on the ground, a piece must be drawn up 
 above the girdle, which then falls down in folds below 
 it, and in the fashion of the time, which we have first 
 to deal with, often descends a long way, not, however, 
 equally all round the waist, but only in front, and 
 probably also behind. But as the vase pictures often 
 represent this upper part as of an entirely different 
 material from the under dress, it is possible that it 
 was sometimes not connected with the chiton, but was 
 a distinct garment worn over the under dress, and, 
 like the chiton, fastened in by the girdle. (Compare 
 Fig. 16.) If we remember that in the ancient dress of 
 the previous period, the bib was sometimes a distinct 
 gari.iont, we may surmise that this gradually de- 
 veloped into the kolpos close round the waist, and 
 that the fashion of constructing this girding by means 
 of the chiton itself, and not by a separate piece, was a 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 29 
 
 further stage in this development. With this cos- 
 tume we usually find longish sleeves, reaching below 
 the elbow, as a rule wide and puffed, though very 
 narrow round the armholes. It is evident that a 
 chiton of this de- 
 scription, as well as 
 the upper garment; 
 if it was separate, 
 was entirely con- 
 structed by sewing, 
 and was put on 
 over the head by 
 passing the arms 
 into the sleeves; for 
 we nowhere find an 
 opening above the 
 girdle in this dress. 
 We do, however, 
 find, when the 
 upper garment is 
 separate, that the 
 chiton has an open- 
 ing on one side be- 
 low the girdle. If 
 we remember the 
 remark of Herod- 
 otus previously quoted about the introduction of the 
 stitched Ionic linen chiton, it is a natural assumption 
 that this chiton, which was entirely put together by 
 sewing, and worn without pins, was an Ionic garment; 
 and in accordance with this we find this particular 
 form of sleeve on Athenian reliefs as well as on those 
 of Asia Minor. 
 
 Contemporaneously with this change in female 
 dress, the elaboration of the folds mentioned above 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
30 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 with cut-out corners and regular zigzag folds, pro- 
 duced by stiffening and ironing, becomes more and 
 more apparent, especially round the hems of the 
 lower garments. It is true we must not depend too 
 much on the monuments, for we often observe on 
 these that only the front hem of the garment has the 
 zigzag folds, Avhile the back hem is quite plain, with 
 only a suggestion of the necessary stiff folds. (Com- 
 pare Figs. 17 and 19.) It is evident, therefore, 
 especially in the case of the vase painters, that this 
 drapery is not so much an imitation of actual costume 
 as a peculiarity of the artist's style. 
 
 If we may draw any conclusion from the above- 
 mentioned facts as to the differences between Doric 
 and Ionic costume, these do not appear to be funda- 
 mental, affecting the shape and appearance of the 
 whole dress, but rather to have depended essentially 
 on the mode of wearing, for the Doric chiton was 
 shaped by pinning, the Ionic constructed by sewing. 
 There is, however, a difference of material, since the 
 Doric chiton was woollen and the Ionic linen. Nor 
 must we understand Herodotus to mean that the 
 Doric dress disappeared entirely after the introduction 
 of the Ionic, for the monuments show us clearly that 
 both kinds existed side by side ; so that just at the 
 time of Herodotus the chiton, which, at any rate in 
 its upper part, was not sewn, but fastened by pins or 
 buttons, was the more common. It is true that 
 fashion, which was just as important in antiquity 
 as now, is apparent in various changes, and these 
 are especially conspicuous in pictures by the vase 
 painters of the fifth century, such as Hiero, Duris, 
 Brygos, etc. On these monuments (compare Figs. 
 4, 18, 19) the female dress is much wider and 
 fuller than before, the kolpos goes all round the 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 81 
 
 body, and falls down below the hips almost to the 
 knees. There is a sort of mantle, which falls a 
 
 httle way below the breast ; there are almost always 
 sleeves, as there were in the previous fashion, but . 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 they are generally less puffed and have no narrow 
 armhole, but a wide opening at the arms. The 
 mode of putting on the chiton is also different, and 
 corresponds to the Doric fashion ; the sleeves are not 
 sewn together all round, but have a slit at the top, so 
 that when the chiton is put on it is quite open there. 
 
32 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 The drawing together of the sleeve openings by 
 httle fibulae or buttons fastens the chiton together 
 at the neck, and gives the whole dress consistency. 
 Fig. 17, a cithara player about to tie, or possibly 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 to unloose, the girdle which fastens her upper gar- 
 ment, shows this method of putting on and fastening 
 the upper garment very plainly. However, the bib, 
 which is usuall)^ found, is absent here. 
 
 But if we look somewhat more closely at this 
 costume, we find in it a sort of combination of the 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 33 
 
 Doric and Ionic. The mantle is due to the former, 
 the kolpos to the latter: the fastening with fibulae 
 is characteristic of the former, the sewing of the latter. 
 For we must regard a chiton like that worn by the 
 Maenad on the left in Fig. 18 as one connected piece, 
 one wide garment, more than twice the length of the 
 body, sewn together round the sides, open at top and 
 bottom, out of which the wearer constructed the bib 
 and sleeves by drawing up the folds and letting them 
 fall over the girdle, and by fastening or buttoning on 
 the arms and shoulders. There is, however, reason to 
 suppose that parts of this dress were sometimes separ- 
 ately constructed of different material. On the vase 
 pictures of that period the various parts of the dress 
 are sometimes characterised by different drapery. As 
 a rule, the folds of the dress are marked by unbroken 
 black lines; but, besides these, we sometimes find 
 reddish brown, zigzag, or wavy lines (thus in Fig. 17, 
 the upper part of the woman's dress ; in Fig. 18, the 
 kolpos of the Maenad on the right; in Fig. 19, the 
 kolpos and the sleeve). When we observe (as in 
 Fig. 18) that in other figures the corresponding parts 
 of the dress are all marked by the same lines, we find 
 ourselves almost forced to the conclusion that the 
 artists wished to represent distinct garments separ- 
 ately put on, especially as this distinction of unbroken 
 and zigzag folds can also be traced in sculpture. It 
 would be very easy to imagine it in such a dress as 
 that in Fig. 17 ; for if in Fig. 16 the upper garment 
 above the girdle is distinct, it might also be the case in 
 Fig. 17. But such an assumption would be more diffi- 
 cult, nay, almost impossible, for Fig. 18. If we assume 
 distinct material for the kolpos, the woman would be 
 wearing three separate garments — the long chiton, 
 which simply covers the whole body, the kolpos, aad 
 c 
 
34 - GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 over that a distinct upper garment with sleeves. The 
 dress in Fig. 19 would be no less complicated. It 
 seems, therefore, that we ought not to lay too much 
 stress on that treatment of the folds ; probably 
 the artists made use of it in order to distinguish some- 
 times between the wavy folds 
 of full garments, sleeves, etc., 
 and the stiff folds of the per- 
 pendicular skirt. For we may 
 observe that the wavy folds are 
 never found in these perpen- 
 dicular garments, such as the 
 chiton and the bib. 
 
 If the vase painters are to 
 be relied on, especially in the 
 arrangement of the girding, the 
 fashion at Athens in the middle 
 of the fifth century B.C. was still 
 rather heavy and awkward. It 
 was not until the excessive ful- 
 ness of the girding was limited 
 that it developed that regular 
 and truly noble dress which we 
 admire in the female figures of 
 Fig. 19. classic art and the following 
 
 period. Still the dress is by no 
 means uniform, for the same chiton can be worn 
 in various ways, according to the arrangement of the 
 girding and bib. The vase picture in Fig. 20 gives 
 examples of this. There were, in particular, two 
 methods. The one was to cover the body from the 
 feet to the shoulders with a piece of stuff, and to 
 fasten this by drawing the points of the folded back 
 piece over the shoulders and hooking them to the 
 points of thQ front piece, which was also doubled 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 35 
 
 back. Then the extra piece fell down at the back 
 and front, and the girdle was passed over it. The 
 stuff was then drawn up a little over the girdle, 
 while the ends of the garment fell down over the 
 
 Fig. 2U. 
 
 hips. Strictly speaking, the kolpos here fell 
 over the bib. (Compare the figure on the left.) 
 The second |)lan was to take a longer piece of 
 the chiton than was required below the girdle, so 
 that the remainder fell on the ground ; the upper 
 part was drawn up to the shoulders and fastened there 
 by fibulae, either in such a way that these were visible 
 (in that case the doubled pieces were fastened together), 
 or so that the pins were hidden by the front piece 
 
36 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Fio. 21, 
 
 (then the doub- 
 led piece at the 
 back was fas- 
 tened to the 
 under layer of 
 the front piece, 
 as in Fig. 20). 
 The bib then fell 
 freely over the 
 breast and back 
 till a little above 
 the waist, the su- 
 perfluous piece 
 below was drawn 
 up over the 
 girdle. The 
 manner of ar- 
 ranging this kind 
 of dress, which is 
 the commoner, is 
 very clearly seen 
 in the bronze 
 statue from Her- 
 culaneum repre- 
 sented in Fig. 
 21. The girl, who 
 is in the act of 
 dressing herself, 
 has already 
 girded the 
 chiton, and is 
 now arranging 
 the bib ; she has 
 fastened it on 
 the left shoulder. 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 37 
 
 and is now drawing the folded back piece over the 
 right shoulder with her 
 right hand, in order to pin 
 to it the front piece, which 
 she holds in her left hand 
 in such a way that the back 
 piece may fall over the 
 front piece. The points of 
 both then fall over the hips 
 to right and left a little 
 more than half-way down 
 the front breadth. To com- 
 plete her dress, the girl will 
 then draw up part of the 
 garment, which is too long 
 for walking, over the girdle, 
 and this will appear below 
 the bib. In the dress of 
 the best period this puff- 
 inof does not fall as low as 
 before (or as that on Fig. 
 20). It is so arranged that 
 the folds fall lower on the 
 sides than in the middle, 
 so that its lines may follow 
 the outline of the bib, the 
 points of which fall lower 
 at the sides. Thus origin- 
 ated that beautiful cos»tume, 
 inspired by a truly artistic 
 spirit, which we admire in ^ 
 the best Attic works of the 
 age of Pheidias. As an ex- 
 ample of this, compare Fig. 22, a Caryatid, from the 
 Erechtheum at Athens. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
Fig. 23. 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 39 
 
 With this dress sleeves, Hke those above described, 
 are sometimes, but not always, worn. They are 
 usually half-sleeves, with openings fastened by buttons 
 or fibulae, not pieces separately sewn on, but part of 
 the actual chiton. 
 
 The last-described form of the chiton, which 
 formed the kolpos and bib by means of the girdle 
 and pins, continued in the next period, and seems not 
 only to have extended throughout Greece, but also 
 throughout later Greek antiquity down to the Roman 
 period. But there were also several other styles of 
 dress, distinguished partly by their shape, partly by 
 the manner of wearing. Thus, for instance, the 
 general form of the chiton was retained, but the dress 
 was made more comfortable by the separate con- 
 struction of the bib, which, as we observed, was 
 probably the case at an earlier period too, and 
 by sometimes omitting it altogether. Sometimes, 
 again, only a light chiton w^as worn without any 
 kolpos or bib, either with a girdle which was some- 
 times worn above the waist (compare Fig. 23, " A 
 Daughter of Niobe or sometimes falling quite 
 freely (compare Fig. 24). Afterwards it was not 
 unusual for the bib to fall below the girdle, while the 
 kolpos was entirely absent (compare Fig. 25), or else 
 fell above the bib (compare Fig. 20). In the graceful 
 female figure in Fig. 26 there is another peculiarity. 
 Here, as in Fig. 25, the chiton is open at one side, 
 even below the hips, which was not the case with the 
 ordinary dress, especially that worn out of doors. It 
 is probable that this was the original form of the 
 so-called Doric chiton, for it is thus that the Doric 
 maidens were dressed, and on this account were 
 mockingly described as " showing their hips." In the 
 ideal figures the chiton of Artemis and the Amazons, 
 
40 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 though shorter, is of the same kind. The form of the 
 chiton fastened together all round originated so early 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 that we only find the kind open at the side^ in 
 rare instances on the oldest monuments. This 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 41 
 
 chiton corresponds in shape most closely to the 
 short male chiton; like this, it often only ex- 
 tends to the knees, and is fastened on the shoulders 
 by pins without forming 
 the bib. The dress with 
 regular sleeves is also found 
 in the later costume, either 
 connected with the under 
 garment or specially con- 
 structed so as to cover 
 only the upper part of the 
 body. It was fastened to- 
 gether all round, and opened 
 at the sleeves, which were 
 constructed by buttons. 
 
 The himation continued 
 to be the usual upper gar- 
 ment. In the older costume 
 of the sixth and fifth centuries 
 it is often treated as a scarf 
 in the manner above de- 
 scribed, with two points fall- 
 ing down in front over the 
 shoulders (compare Figs. 4 
 and 24), but afterwards 
 
 women began to wear the 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 himation in the same way as 
 men, either enveloping the 
 arms entirely or leaving the 
 right arm free (compare 
 Fig. 23). A third mode of wearing the himation, which, 
 however, is commoner in older than in later costume, 
 is to draw it from the right shoulder across the 
 breast to the left hip, leaving the left breast un- 
 covered, and letting the points fall down on the right 
 
42 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 side of the body. In the pictures it often looks as 
 though the himation were fastened on the shoulder 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 by pins, or even stitched together. We also find a 
 light kind ot shawl, put on something in the manner 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 43 
 
 of the scarf worn by ladies some forty or fifty years 
 ago. In fact, there seem to have been many varieties 
 of female dress in the Alexandrine period, but we are 
 not intimately acquainted with the details, as our 
 principal authorities, the vase pictures, at that time 
 DO longer confined themselves as strictly as in the 
 older periods to the prevailing fashion. In one of 
 Theocritus' idylls a woman puts on first her chiton, 
 then a peronatris (a robe fastened by clasps) of 
 costly material, and over that an ampechonion. It is 
 not clear what sort of garment this peronatris was. 
 On the other hand, the terra-cottas of that period 
 often represent graceful female forms in walking dress, 
 that is, in the chiton and himation. Thus in Fig. 
 27, a and 6, we see a woman in a long dress with a 
 train, wearing over it a cloak drawn over her head in 
 such a manner that only her face is visible. To pro- 
 mote freedom of motion her cloak is drawn up over 
 both arms, which are closely enveloped. In a similar 
 matron-like dress is the lady represented in the terra- 
 cotta figure. No. 28. She holds up her long himation 
 daintily with both hands, to enable her to walk more 
 easily. 
 
 We cannot with certainty prove the existence of a 
 chemise, since those expressions which are generally 
 thus interpreted appear to relate to different kinds of 
 chitons. Sometimes we see in vase pictures repre- 
 senting scenes from the baths short garments with 
 little sleeves, which cannot well be anything but 
 chemises, worn under the actual chiton. We must 
 not, however, assume that these were universally 
 worn ; far commoner was the band called strophion, 
 corresponding to the modern corset, used to check 
 the excessive development of the breasts, or to hold 
 them up when the firmness of youth was gone. 
 
44 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 We know very little about the colour and pattern 
 of the dresses. The clothing worn by men, or, at any 
 
 rate, those of the lower 
 classes who laboured 
 in the workshop or 
 in the field, was cer- 
 tainly dark, either of 
 the natural colour of 
 the wool or dyed 
 brown, grey, etc. 
 Otherwise the com- 
 monest colour for the 
 chiton and himation 
 was white, and, as 
 such garments natur- 
 ally soon got dirty, 
 they were often sent 
 to the fuller, who 
 washed them and gave 
 them fresh brightness 
 by means of pipeclay 
 and similar methods. 
 On festive occasions 
 gaily-coloured dresses 
 were usually worn, 
 and then even simple 
 people indulged in 
 the luxury of bright 
 colour; though, as a 
 rule, to display this in 
 ordinary, every - day 
 Fig. 21a. life was regarded in 
 
 the better ages of 
 Greek antiquity as a mark of vanity or characteristic 
 of a dandy. Naturally, women were more inclined to 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 45 
 
 •bright hues, and they were especially fond of saffron- 
 coloured dresses, and also of materials with coloured 
 borders and rich designs. 
 Generally speaking, we may 
 infer from the works of art 
 that bright colour and rich 
 ornamentation were most 
 popular in the oldest period, 
 and afterwards again in the 
 epoch of declining taste; 
 while the classic period 
 made but a sparing use of 
 either. The older vase 
 pictures almost always re- 
 present materials with 
 coloured patterns, either 
 purely ornamental designs 
 (compare Figs. 10, 11, 13), 
 or with representations of 
 figures. Sometimes whole 
 scenes full of figures in 
 coloured embroidery were 
 part of the dress, and this 
 was sometimes arranged in 
 rows, like the decorations 
 on pots in ancient art. 
 (Compare Fig. 12.) This is 
 quite natural if we consider 
 that in the more ancient 
 costume there was 
 scarcely any drapery ; 
 both the chiton and the 
 cloak were drawn tightly 
 
 round the figure, and, therefore, the pictures could be 
 fully developed and seen without any interruption 
 
46 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME 
 
 from folds. Purely ornamental patterns are also very 
 common, and show great variety, but very seldom 
 
 good designs. 
 Checks and dia- 
 monds were especi- 
 ally popular. 
 
 As the fashion 
 in dress changed, so 
 did the use of ma- 
 terials with patterns ; 
 for garments worn 
 at religious cere- 
 monies, or by actors, 
 the coloured em- 
 broidery was re- 
 tained; but in 
 ordinary life the 
 men, and even 
 women, gradually 
 discarded it, or at 
 any rate reduced it 
 to moderate propor- 
 tions compared with 
 the rich fulness of 
 ornament in the 
 older fashion, which 
 almost concealed 
 thereal colour of the 
 dress. This is especi- 
 ally noticeable in 
 the chiton when it 
 falls in free folds, 
 while the old-fashioned chiton, which had very few 
 folds, bore bolder designs. It is also the case with 
 the himation, which even in the classic period, when 
 
 Fm. 28. 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 47 
 
 it no longer fell stiff and straight over the back, 
 but was drawn round the body in plentiful drapery, 
 was often richly adorned with embroidery. The 
 reason is probably because such shawl-like gar- 
 ments are more loosely related to the body, and 
 therefore the introduction of a pattern which 
 weakened the impression of the figure is less dis- 
 turbing here than in the chiton. However, these 
 bright-coloured cloaks were exceptional luxuries. 
 The fashion of the better period shows its classic 
 sense of beauty in forming chiton and cloak from 
 materials of one colour, and merely introducing orna- 
 ments at the seams and edges, and these such as are 
 of especial beauty and noble simplicity. 
 
 In the fourth century B.C. a gradual decline is again 
 observable, and after the time of Alexander the 
 Great rich designs, sometimes introducing figures, 
 become commoner, even in purely Hellenic dress. 
 Numerous examples on works of art show us the 
 unaesthetic and absurd side of this fashion. The 
 elaborate patterns give a disturbing appearance to 
 the whole figure ; the outline of the body is com- 
 pletely hidden by the dress ; and when the drapery 
 is disturbed or folded, in the case of borders or 
 materials covered with figures, the result is some- 
 times very ridiculous. 
 
 As regards the material of the dresses, we men- 
 tioned above that when the change described by Herod- 
 otus was made, the linen chiton was introduced, but 
 woollen materials were not on that account dis- 
 carded ; and as men ceased to wear the chiton long, 
 it became commoner to make it of wool. The oldest 
 sculpture as a rule represents two distinct materials 
 when once we get beyond the tight-fitting costume of 
 the earliest period. One of these shows fine and flat 
 
48 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 folds, while the other falls in large, deep folds. We 
 cannot always maintain with certainty that these are 
 two distinct materials, the former wool, the latter 
 hnen ; sometimes it seems as though there were only 
 two qualities of the same material, one being fine and 
 thin, and the other coarse and thick. Yet the fre- 
 quent use of linen is proved by the regular parallel 
 and zigzag folds so common in the older art, which 
 could only be produced in linen by artificial means. 
 
 As a rule, they wore, as we do, lighter stuffs in the 
 summer and heavier ones in the winter ; but though 
 we very often find on archaic monuments transparent 
 garments showing distinctly the outline of the body 
 (compare Figs. 18, 24), we are scarcely justified in 
 assuming a very widespread use ot really transparent 
 garments. Even though such thin materials may 
 have been worn at that time, especially by hetaerae, 
 their extensive use in vase painting is probably due 
 to the fact that the painters, not knowing how to 
 represent the outline of the body and the movements 
 of the limbs under the dress, and yet desiring not to 
 hide them completely by the clothes, resorted to this 
 expedient of letting the outline appear through the 
 dress material. These thin stutfs were always common 
 in the dress of the hetaerae, but respectable women 
 used them only as under garments. We may, how- 
 ever, assume that this was also a matter of fashion, 
 since materials from the looms of the island of 
 Amorgos, which were especially noted for their fine- 
 ness and transparency, were only fashionable for a 
 short time in the period of the older Attic comedy. 
 Later allusions to these stuffs are made chiefly by the 
 learned, and do not refer to actual reality. Moreover, 
 it is natural that the circumstances of the persons 
 concerned played a part in the choice of coarser or 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 49 
 
 finer materials. The stuffs introduced from foreign 
 parts, such as cotton and musKn, could only be worn 
 by the rich, as also silk, which, even in the Alexandrine 
 period, was very rare and expensive. On the other 
 hand, common men wore felt -like materials, and 
 countrymen even tunics of skin or leather. 
 
 In Greek antiquity coverings for the feet were not 
 
 Fm. 29. 
 
 so essential an article of clothing as at the present 
 day, at any rate not for the male portion of the 
 population. At home, and in summer, men as a rule 
 went barefoot ; artisans and other members of the 
 lower classes and slaves did so out-of-doors also, as 
 well as people who desired to harden their bodies, 
 like Socrates, or those who perhaps only affected an 
 ascetic mode of life, like some of the Cynic philo- 
 sophers. At Sparta, where the State took cognisance 
 of the dress and food of the citizens, young men were 
 actually forbidden to wear shoes, and many adhered 
 to this habit even in old age, as, for instance, 
 
50 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Agesilaus, who, even as an old man, used to go 
 without shoes and chiton, dressed only in his cloak. 
 Still, it was unusual for men to go out of doors in 
 winter barefoot, as Socrates is said to have done 
 during his campaign in Macedonia. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 Generally speaking, the footgear of the Greeks 
 was of two kinds : sandals, that is, inere soles tied 
 under the foot, and actual boots. Between the two, 
 however, there were a great number of transition 
 stages, so that it is sometimes impossible to say to 
 which of the two classes some kinds belonged. 
 Sandals, which were probably the oldest kind, and 
 in Homer apparently the only one. were worn by men 
 and women alike, though far more commonly by th^ 
 
COSTUME 
 
 51 
 
 latter. They consisted of a sole made of several 
 thicknesses of strong leather, with sometimes a layer 
 of cork ; to this straps were fastened, which passed 
 across the foot and held them firm. For this purpose 
 (compare the selection in Fig. 29, taken from works 
 of art) a pair of straps passing over the instep and 
 
 Fio. 31. 
 
 heel were often sufficient, and these were either tied 
 or fastened in such a way that another strap, passing 
 between the first and second toes, was connected with 
 the other two, which were fastened to the edge of the 
 sole and buckled on the instep, the buckle usually 
 having the shape of a heart or a leaf But these 
 straps were often more numerous, and so complicated 
 as to cover almost the whole foot, and thus resemble 
 a perforated shoe. Sometimes they were continued 
 as far as the ankle, or even the shins (compare the 
 examples in Fig. 30), but this is only the case in 
 
52 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 men's dress. Costly and brightly-coloured leather, 
 with gilt and other ornaments, made this footgear, 
 which was naturally simple, both ornamental and 
 expensive. 
 
 The boots were something like ours ; they covered 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 the whole foot, and were laced or buttoned in 
 front, over the instep, or at the side. In the older 
 period men's boots generally went above the ankle, 
 and at the front edge had a more or less pointed 
 tongue bent forward. (Compare examples in Fig. 31, 
 which also show us how this tongue gradually became 
 smaller, and at last disappeared entirely.) Afterwards, 
 low shoes, generally stopping short of the ankle, were 
 the rule, especially for women, if they did not wear 
 sandals. Fig. 32 gives various examples of this : they 
 
of female dress. Huntsmen, countrymen, and the 
 like, wore high boots reaching to the shins (eV- 
 Spo/itSe?), laced or buttoned in front, as in Fig. 33, 
 
54 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 These generally had broad toes and thick soles, but 
 like the ordinary shoes they had no heels. A common 
 decoration of such boots were broad zigzag lappets of 
 leather, falling down from the upper edge, as in the 
 examples in Fig. 34. Between sandals and boots we 
 find various forms of low shoes, in which the foot is 
 partly covered with leather and partly with straps. 
 Thus there was a kind of slipper covering the upper 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 part of the foot in front, while the back was covered 
 with straps, and another kind which left the toes 
 quite free and covered the rest of the foot. Probably 
 the crepida, which only originated in the Alexa*n- 
 drine period, but then became very common, belonged 
 to this class, and was a shoe with low leather sides, 
 from which straps passed across the foot. Other 
 kinds of shoes we know only by their antique names. 
 Thus there was an elegant kind worn by guests 
 invited to dinner {^Xavrai) ; and a coarser kind 
 worn chiefly by peasants {Kap^artvai) made of 
 rough leather, and probably not on a block, but 
 roughly sewn together by the country people thera- 
 
COSTUME 
 
 55 
 
 selves. In fact, the number of names for footgear 
 used by the ancient writers is very large, and we 
 may thence conclude that the fashion changed fre- 
 quently. Thus in Greece there were shoes of the 
 Persian fashion. At Athens they wore Laconian 
 shoes ; Amyclaean, Sicyonian, Rhodian shoes, and 
 others which are also mentioned, probably refer more 
 to the shape than to the origin. There were also 
 shoes called after celebrated men, who probably made 
 use of them, such as Alcibiades shoes, Iphicrates 
 shoes, etc. ; but we cannot illustrate all these from 
 works of art, in spite of the rich variety supplied by 
 them. They also distinguished between shoes which, 
 like our slippers, could be worn on either foot, and 
 those which were made on particular lasts for the 
 right and left foot. The latter were regarded as 
 more elegant, for they laid great stress on having 
 shoes well-fitting and not too wide. They said of 
 people who wore too comfortable shoes that they 
 "swam about" in them. It was a mark of poverty 
 or avarice to wear patched boots, and heavy 
 nailed shoes were only worn by soldiers or country 
 people, and for others were regarded as a mark of 
 rusticity. 
 
 The material used was, as a rule, leather, but 
 occasionally felt. They were mostly black ; but we also 
 find coloured shoes mentioned, especially for women, 
 and sometimes see them represented on polychrome 
 vases. 
 
 Stockings were unknown to antiquity, but some- 
 times in extreme cold it was the custom to wrap 
 fur or felt round the legs. Thus, in Homer, old 
 Laertes, when doing rough work in his garden wears 
 gaiters of neat's leather, and also gloves to protect 
 himself against the thorns. As a rule, the latter were 
 
56 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 also unknown; only actors wore something of the 
 kind, but their object was, by apparent lengthening 
 of the arms, to harmonise them with the artificial 
 increase in height. 
 
 As a rule, men went bare-headed, or wore caps in 
 bad weather. Generally speaking, they distinguished, 
 as we do, between hats and caps. The hat, whose 
 distinguishing mark was the brim, bore the name 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 petasos. It originated in Thessaly, but spread to 
 other places, and at Athens was regarded as the 
 characteristic riding hat, and as such was worn with 
 the chlamys by youths. We see many in this dress 
 on the Parthenon frieze. Otherwise the petasos was 
 essentially a part of travelling dress, and, therefore, a 
 usual attribute of Hermes as messenger of the gods. 
 When older men wore the petasos there was generally 
 some distinct reason for it. (Compare Figs. 9 and 
 10.) The shapes of the petasos on works of art are so 
 various that it is sometimes difficult to tell whether 
 they ought all to be included under the same name. 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 57 
 
 Some of the hats are so very like caps that we 
 can scarcely decide whether they ought to bear the 
 name of petasos. In the oldest period the petasos 
 almost always had a pointed, rather high crown, and a 
 broad brim turned up in front and behind. (Compare 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 the examples in Fig. 35.) Afterwards varieties 
 were introduced; sometimes the crown was semi- 
 circular, sometimes flattened, now high, now low, or 
 with a little point like a button ; the brim, too, was 
 sometimes broad, shading the whole face, sometimes 
 quite narrow; now turned down, now horizontal; at 
 other times, again, turned up or bent round the head. 
 Thus in the first half of the fifth century, we find 
 a very peculiar shape. The brim projects in front in 
 
58 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 a narrow point, and at the back is turned up as far 
 as the high conical crown. (Compare Fig. 35.) The 
 commonest shape is that of which examples are given 
 in Fig. 36 ; the crown is tolerably flat, gener- 
 ally not higher than the skull ; the brim, which is 
 rather broad, and generally turned down, is not 
 circular all round, but cut out at several places — either 
 between the ears and the forehead, so that a point 
 falls over the latter, while the brim extends in semi- 
 
 Fio. 37. 
 
 circular form round the back of the head; or else 
 this half is cut out in the same way as the front part, 
 so that the brim ends in four points, which generally 
 fall over the forehead, back of the head, and ears. 
 Still, we sometimes find instances where it is only cut 
 out over the forehead, and the points fall to the right 
 and left of the face. This shape is very common in 
 the best period, that is, in the fifth and fourth 
 centuries. Afterwards, there were some very strange 
 shapes, such as that in Fig. 37, on the left, 
 which is found on vase pictures of the best period 
 and reminds us of the hats pointed in front and 
 behind worn early in the nineteenth century. The 
 petasos was fastened under the chin with a cord ; 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 59 
 
 when it was not wanted it was pushed down below the 
 neck, where it was kept in place by the cord ; and we 
 find it frequently in this position. (Compare Fig. 38.) 
 
 When, as sometimes happens, the petasos has a high 
 crown, and a narrow 
 turned-up brim, it is 
 often very like the 
 pilos, a cap of leather 
 or felt, which was the 
 common dress of work- 
 men, especially smiths, 
 countrymen, fishermen, 
 sailors, etc. Odysseus, 
 as sailor, is almost 
 always represented with 
 it; and so is Charon, the 
 ferryman of the nether 
 world, Hephaestus, as 
 smith, etc. Invalids 
 who were obliged to 
 protect their heads 
 from the weather, also 
 wore such caps. These 
 caps, too, were of 
 various shapes ; semi- 
 circular, fitting closely 
 
 to the head, and half- oval, projecting somewhat be- 
 yond the head, or of a more pointed conical shape. 
 (Compare that of Odysseus, Fig. 39, and the sailors. 
 Fig. 40, where, as is often the case, it has a nj^rrow, 
 lower brim.) It is evident from the drawing that the 
 material must have been skin, which was the commonest 
 next to felt. These caps were often fastened with 
 strings below the chin, and there was sometimes a 
 bow at the apex by which they could be hung up. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
60 
 
 GUEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Women, who were seen out of doors much sel- 
 domer than men, had even less need for head- 
 coverings. Especially in the oldest period, where 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 scarves covering the greater part of the hair were 
 in fashion, they probably contented themselves with 
 drawing the himation over their heads when they 
 went out. (Compare Fig. 4) This was often done 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 61 
 
 in later periods also, as we see in terra-cotta figures 
 (compare Figs. 27 and 28) ; but even at that time 
 women in the country, or travelling, often wore a 
 petasos similar to that of the men, though with a 
 narrower brim. A graceful Sicilian terra-cotta, repre- 
 sented in Fig. 41, shows a lady wearing one of these, 
 and it is very becoming to the face. On the other 
 hand, after the Alexandrine period, the tholia is very 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 common. This is a light straw hat, with a pointed 
 crown and broad brim, fastened by a ribbon and bal- 
 anced on the head — no doubt very convenient, since 
 the broad brim protected the wearer from the rays 
 of the sun, but by no means becoming. Terra-cotta 
 figures from Tanagra give numerous examples of this 
 hat, which was evidently very common at the time, 
 and is also mentioned by writers. 
 
 For further protection against the sun women 
 often used sunshades, which were made to fold up 
 like ours. Such sunshades are common on old 
 
62 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 monuments, but, as a rule, ladies did not carry them 
 themselves, but were accompanied by a slave, who 
 performed this office for them. The sunshades were 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 63 
 
 usually round (compare Fig. 42), but there are also 
 examples of a fan-shaped kind, which enabled the ser- 
 vant who walked behind to hold the sunshade by its 
 
 long handle comfortably over her mistress without 
 going too near her. Sometimes we even see men on 
 vase pictures with sunshades. This, however, was re- 
 garded as effeminate luxury. The stick belonged to 
 the ordinary equipment of a man. Old people walked 
 
64 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 with the help of a heavy knotted stick, or leant 
 on it as they stood, like the Athenian citizens on the 
 Parthenon frieze ; and young people also used them. 
 They seem always to have used natural sticks; but 
 the Laconian canes, with curved handles, were con- 
 sidered specially convenient, and were used at Athens 
 by those who liked to imitate Spartan manners and 
 customs. In the fourth century the use of sticks 
 seems to have become less common. 
 
 The last heading to be considered is the fashion of 
 wearing the hair ; and, although the writers and 
 statues give us considerable information, there are 
 several difficulties here which have not yet been 
 solved. 
 
 In the heroic period long curly hair was regarded 
 as a suitable ornament for a man. This is proved by 
 the favourite epithet, " The curly-haired Achaeans," 
 and by other quotations from epic poetry ; various 
 indications prove that the curls were not always left 
 to fall naturally, but that artificial means were some- 
 times adopted for facilitating and preserving their 
 regular arrangement. When the effeminate Paris is 
 said to rejoice in his " horn" {/cepa dyXae), old commen- 
 tators state that this horn was a twisted plait. It is 
 possible that this might be produced by the mere use 
 of stiffening pomades or other cosmetic means, which 
 had been introduced from the East in the Homeric 
 period; but the statements in the Iliad about the gold 
 and silver " curl-holders " of the Trojan Euphorbus 
 clearly point to artificial aids. The oldest sculp- 
 tures and vase pictures give sufficient proof that this 
 mode of wearing the hair in regular curls con- 
 tinued for a long time, for they almost always 
 represent hair falling far down the neck, generally in 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 65 
 
 regular stiff locks with horizontal waving, while small 
 curls surround the forehead, arranged with equal 
 accuracy. As to the means employed for producing 
 these curls, Helbig's opinion is that the spirals of 
 bronze, silver, or gold wire found in old graves in 
 several parts of the Old World were used as a founda- 
 tion for the curls, which were twined around them. 
 Certainly these spirals have often been found in 
 Etruscan graves, near the spot where the head rested, 
 and generally one on each side. This might, however, 
 be explained by the other interpretation that they 
 were a kind of primitive ear-ring. Perhaps the " gold 
 and silver " with which Euphorbus " bound together " 
 his locks, according to Homer, was not a particular 
 kind of adornment, but only flexible gold and silver wire. 
 
 The monuments as well as the writers teach us 
 that men wore their hair long, in the next period also, 
 down to the fifth century ; we sometimes find hair of 
 such length and thickness depicted that it seems 
 almost incredible that a man's hair could have been 
 so much developed, even by the most careful treat- 
 ment. However, it did not often hang quite loose, 
 but it was tied back somewhere near the neck by 
 a ribbon, and, unlike the Homeric head-dress, where 
 each curl is separately fastened, the whole mass, 
 of hair was bound together, and then spread out 
 again below the fastening, and fell down the 
 back. Sometimes the hair, after being tightly tied 
 together in one place, was interwoven with cords or 
 ribbons lower down, so that it fell in a broader mass 
 than where it was tied together, but by no means 
 hung loose. Another kind of head-dress is that in 
 which the hair is tied together in such a manner as to 
 resemble a broad and thickish band, something like 
 our head-dress of the last century. The hair falls a 
 
 D 
 
66 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 little way below the neck, and is then taken up again 
 and tied in with the other piece by a ribbon in such a 
 manner that the end of the hair falls down over this 
 ribbon. Here, too, we find variety, for the hair 
 sometimes fell some way down the back, sometimes 
 was fastened up again at the back of the head. An 
 example of the former kind is the bronze head from 
 Olympia represented in Fig. 44 ; of the latter, Fig. 43, 
 from a vase painting of the fifth century. 
 
 Fig. 43. Fio. 44. 
 
 Most commonly, however, in the sixth and fifth 
 centuries men plaited their long hair and laid the 
 plaits round their head. There were two distinct 
 modes of doing this. One was to take two plaits from 
 the back of the head in different directions and fasten 
 them like bandages round the head ; the other was to 
 begin the plaits at the ears, turn them backwards so 
 that they crossed each other at the back of the head, 
 then bring them round to the front and knot them 
 together over the centre of the forehead. This is the 
 head-dress of the figure on the Omphalos known as 
 Apollo (Fig. 45), and the head of a youth (Fig. 46). 
 There are alsp ms^ny other differences in detail ; some- 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 67 
 
 times the two plaits were laid across the hair from 
 the parting to the forehead in the form of a fillet 
 holding the hair fast, as in the marble head (Fig. 47) ; 
 but sometimes the front hair is laid across the ends 
 of the plait fastened together in front, as in the head 
 from a vase painting represented in Fig. 48. The 
 head in Fig. 47 also shows a peculiar mode of treating 
 
 Fig. 45. Fig. 46. 
 
 the back hair. The lower part of this is plaited, and 
 the plait turned up again and fastened where the 
 other two braids cross each other. Other plaits 
 also fall from behind the ears in regular arrange- 
 ment over the shoulders in front, often reaching 
 as far as the breast. The hair on the fore- 
 head is dressed with equal care. With this fashion 
 also the regular little curls, arranged in one or more 
 rows round the forehead, are very common. Some- 
 times they are in spiral form, sometimes in that 
 
68 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 of " corkscrew " curls, as on the archaic bronze 
 head from Pompeii represented in Fig. 49 and 
 in Fig. 48. 
 
 These are the principal archaic modes of wearing 
 the hair found on the monuments, but they by no 
 means exhaust the varieties which might be observed. 
 The writers, however, only mention one ancient head- 
 dress. Thucydides, in the passage already quoted, 
 which describes the long chitons formerly worn by the 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 Athenians, also tells us that at the same time that this 
 old-fashioned dress was abandoned, the Athenians gave 
 up the old way of dressing their hair in the crobylus 
 (KpcofivXo^;), into which they fastened golden grass- 
 hoppers. It has not yet, however, been possible to 
 determine with any certainty which of the head- 
 dresses found on the statues corresponded to this cro- 
 bylus, which seems to be identical with the corymbus 
 (Kopv^^os;) mentioned in other places; nor has it 
 been possible to find any traces of the grasshoppers. 
 Consequently almost all the head-dresses above de- 
 scribed have been claimed for the crobylus, even the 
 double plaits behind the ears; and the grasshoppers 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 69 
 
 have been explained sometimes as the above-men- 
 tioned spirals, sometimes as hair-pins or fibulae. 
 Perhaps some day a fortunate discovery may throw 
 light on this difficult question. 
 
 It would be scarcely possible to assign a chrono- 
 logical order to all these various archaic head-dresses. 
 However, in the latter half of the fifth century they 
 all disappear, and here we have another proof of the 
 increasing aesthetic sense 
 noticeable in all domains 
 of life in the classic period. 
 The allusions in Aristo- 
 phanes show that in his 
 time it was only old-fash- 
 ioned people, who probably 
 also went about in long 
 chitons, that slill wore the 
 grasshoppers. From the 
 time of Pheidias, the elabor- 
 ate head-dresses entirely 
 vanish; and though they 
 are continued for a longer 
 period on the vase paintings, that is probably because 
 painting adhered longer than sculpture to the old 
 forms and fashions, since its free development in style 
 was also of later growth. After this time the long, 
 flowing hair of the men and the pigtail disappear; 
 and though only youths and athletes wore their hair 
 quite short, yet the men's hair was also shortened, 
 and owed its chief beauty to nature, which has 
 granted the gift of graceful curl to Southern and 
 Oriental nations. The portrait heads of this and 
 the following period depict the hair as simply curled, 
 soft, and not too abundant. This seems to have con- 
 tinued during the following centuries ; at any rate, 
 
Fio. 49. 
 
COSTUME, 
 
 71 
 
 the monuments show no trace of a return to the 
 artificial head-dresses fashionable in ancient times. 
 Just as wigs, powder, and pigtails have disappeared 
 for ever among us, so antiquity, when it had once 
 recognised the beauty of hair in its natural growth, 
 never returned to the stiff and laborious head-dress of 
 the past. Of course, there were various fashions in 
 the mode of wearing the hair and having it cut ; in 
 fact, there are a number of different names for 
 the modes of cutting it, such as the "garden," the 
 'boat," but we do not know what these were like, 
 since the monuments afford no clue. Probably it 
 was only dandies who laid any stress on such matters. 
 It is but natural that there should have been many 
 local variations in the mode of wearing the hair, as in 
 the dress, and probably these were of some import- 
 ance in the oldest period; but we know very little 
 about them. At Sparta it was the custom at 
 the time of the Peloponnesian War to shave the 
 hair quite close to the head, but as the Spartans 
 wore long, carefully-curled hair at the time of the 
 Persian wars, a change in the fashion must have taken 
 place at Sparta in the course of the fifth oentury. 
 
 No special ornaments were worn in the hair by 
 men after they gave up the old-fashioned curl-holders 
 and the mysterious grasshoppers. The "band" or 
 fillet laid round the forehead, which Dionysus com- 
 monly wears in works of art, was only actually used 
 as the reward of victory in gymnastic or other 
 contests. The diadem is a token of royal dignity, and, 
 therefore, unknown in free Greece. 
 
 The change of fashion in the mode of wearing 
 the beard can also be traced in Greek antiquity. 
 There is no direct account of it in the Homeric 
 poems, but probably some indirect hints. A well 
 
72 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 known simile in Homer mentions the razor. As 
 the Achaeans wore their hair long, and certainly 
 were not smooth shaven, the question arises, what use 
 they could have made of the razor. Helbig points to 
 the analogy of the Egyptian and Phoenician custom, 
 which had considerable influence on Hellenic culture, 
 and also shows, by means of old Greek monuments, 
 that very probably the lonians of the Homeric period 
 shaved the upper lip ; as, in fact, the Dorians also did 
 in older times. It is true this period must have been 
 preceded by an older one unacquainted with this 
 custom, for the gold masks found in graves at 
 Mycenae wear a moustache ; and the best example of 
 these is treated in such a way as to point to the use of 
 some stiffening pomade, as well as the artificial 
 cutting of the moustache. 
 
 The monuments also show us that the custom of 
 shaving the upper lip continued for some time in the 
 following centuries ; but it was not the only prevailing 
 one, for we also find whiskers, beard, and moustache. 
 It is but natural that in the period when the hair was 
 elaborately dressed, special care was taken also with 
 the treatment of the beard. It was not only 
 regularly cut, and usually in a point (compare Fig. 
 50), but it was also cut short at certain places, 
 especially between the lower lip and the chin, so that 
 the part thus treated presented a different appearance 
 from the rest of the beard. They also curled the 
 moustache, and arched it upwards; and if we may 
 beheve the testimony of archaic monuments, we 
 must assume that curling-irons were sometimes used 
 for the artificial arrangement of the beard. It was 
 not till the latter half of the fifth century that 
 the beard was allowed to fall naturally and simply, at 
 the time when they began to treat the hair in a 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 73 
 
 similar manner. The beard, although not entirely 
 abandoned to its natural growth, since it was cut into 
 a shape corresponding to the oval of the face, instead 
 of the former point, at any rate was no longer treated 
 by artificial means, such as pomades, elaborate curl- 
 ing, etc. The portrait type of Pericles or Sophocles 
 (compare Fig. 7) shows us the finest example of 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 a simple and dignified mode of wearing the beard, 
 while the ideal head of Zeus from Otricoli, with its 
 artificially parted beard, in spite of the grandeur of 
 the treatment, is far removed from the classic sim- 
 plicity of the age of Pheidias. After Alexander the 
 Great and his successors it became the custom to 
 shave the whole face. The portrait statues show us 
 that old men especially, who had formerly allowed 
 their beard to grow, now almost always shaved it off. 
 Aristotle, Menander, Poseidippus, the princes of the 
 Alexandrine age, etc., have smooth- shaven faces, 
 p* 
 
74 
 
 GtlEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Souths and middle-aged men at that period some- 
 times let their beard grow, but old men only did so 
 when they wished to indicate, by a long, ragged 
 beard, that they were followers of the Cynic school ; 
 for even down to the time of the Empire the long 
 beard was the distinguishing mark of the philosopher. 
 The head-dress of women also underwent many 
 
 Fig. 61. Fig. 52. 
 
 changes. We do not know how their hair was bound 
 up and arranged in the Homeric period, when it was 
 treated with sweet-scented oils and pomades, which 
 were, in fact, very common during the heroic period. 
 Mention is especially made of a cap-like arrangement 
 of the hair, and a plaited braid connected with it. 
 Helbig believes he has recognised the same fashion 
 in the women's head-dress on old Etruscan pictures, 
 on which it is possible to distinguish a high-pointed 
 cap and a band laid over it. However this may be, 
 Andromache's head-dress, as described by Homer, has 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 75 
 
 a distinctly Oriental character. In the next period 
 the works of art are again our best guide. They show 
 us that, apart from external ornament, the head-dress 
 of men and women in ancient times was essentially 
 similar. We find the long hair either falHng freely 
 or in single plaits down the back (compare Figs. 11 
 and following) ; curls falling on the shoulders ; and 
 little ringlets surrounding the forehead ; we find the 
 hair tied up at the back of the neck, or the mode 
 
 Fig. 63. Fm. 54. 
 
 described above of tying it up in band-like fashion 
 in several places. (Compare also the peculiar hair- 
 knot in Fig. 11.) We also find that arrangement of 
 double plaits laid several times round the back of 
 the head, which has been claimed as the crobylus, 
 although this is only mentioned as a male head-dress. 
 This last fashion is even found in the graceful Carya- 
 tides of the Erechtheum, but here it is probably a 
 reminiscence of the old custom, natural in these 
 female figures, which are, as it were, in the service 
 of the goddess. Otherwise none of these fashions 
 continue beyond the last quarter of the fifth century, 
 either for women or men. 
 
 About the middle of the fifth century the fashion 
 
76 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 of wearing many-coloured kerchiefs, covering the 
 greater part of the hair, must have been very preva- 
 lent. Polygnotus paints his women thus, and we find 
 the same fashion in the pediments of Olympia, and 
 on some of the female figures on the Eastern 
 Parthenon frieze, and on numerous vase paintings of 
 that period. (Compare Fig. 17, where the kerchief 
 even seems to develop into a cap, with a bow at the 
 apex.) But at the same period, when the men began 
 
 Fig. 66. Pio. 66. 
 
 to emancipate themselves from the stiff head-dresses, 
 and to wear their hair in a natural manner, a simple 
 and beautiful fashion also became commoner among 
 the women. The hair was usually parted in the middle 
 and either fell in slight ripples loosely down the back 
 or else was drawn up into a knot at the back of the 
 head. (Compare Figs. 20 and 24.) The latter 
 fashion, which we still call the " Greek knot," is the 
 commonest and most beautiful in the next period too. 
 Sometimes the knot fell far down the neck (compare 
 Figs. 51 and 52), which was certainly the most grace- 
 ful, or else it was higher up the head (compare Fig. 
 S3), where the hair is combed upwards from the face, 
 or else (compare Fig. 54) the knot developed into 
 
COSTUME. 
 
 77 
 
 a flattened nest or wreath. A simple ornament fre- 
 Quentlv found is a narrow band or fillet entwined 
 with the hair or laid around the hair and forehead. 
 (Compare Figs. 16, 20, 24, and 52.) Kerchiefs were 
 also much worn afterwards, sometimes put on in such 
 a way as to cover almost the whole hair (compare 
 Figs. 55 and 56), sometimes only a part, so that the 
 hair at the back of the head is visible beneath it. 
 (Compare Fig. 25.) There were also a variety of 
 metal ornaments, which were fastened into the hair 
 either to keep it firm or else for decorative purposes 
 — golden circlets or diadems (compare Fig. 57), pins, 
 etc. Detailed consideration of these ornaments show 
 us that the age of Pericles and that immediately 
 following it, were the periods when the style and 
 technique attained their highest development and 
 artistic beauty. Thus dress^ hair, and ornament all 
 combined harmoniously to represent the people of 
 that age in surroundings corresponding in the fullest 
 degree to the poetic and artistic attainments of the 
 epoch. 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 BIRTH AND INFANCY. 
 
 An Athenian Home —The Birth of a Child — Its Dedication — Its First 
 Years — Learning to Walk— Toys — Amusements. 
 
 We must now transport ourselves in imagination to 
 the house of an Athenian citizen of the better classes. 
 He is a rich man, who not only owns a comfortable, 
 though simple, town house and land outside the gate 
 managed by slaves, but also draws considerable 
 interest from capital invested in trading vessels, and 
 from the numerous slaves who work in factories for 
 wages. But, in spite of his comfortable circumstances, 
 his joy has hitherto been troubled by one sorrow — 
 he has been married for several years, and as yet no 
 heir to his possessions has been given him. A little 
 daughter is growing up in the house to the joy of her 
 parents, but even this cannot console the father for 
 the sad prospect of seeing the possessions inherited 
 from his ancestors, and increased by his own industry 
 and economy, pass into the hands of strangers. 
 
 But to-day joy and gladness have entered this 
 man's house. His wife has borne him the much- 
 longed-for son and heir. The neighbours, who had 
 seen the well-known nurse enter the house, were 
 anxious to see in what manner the front door would 
 be decked — whether, as before, woollen fillets would 
 announce the birth of a daughter, or the joyous wreath 
 of olive branches proclaim the advent of a son and 
 heir. While the slaves are festively deciding the door 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY. 
 
 79 
 
 outside, within the house the new-born child is re- 
 ceiving its first care. With a happy smile the young 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 mother looks on from her couch while the nurse and 
 maids are busily occupied in preparing the bath for 
 
80 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the little one. For this only tepid water and fine oil 
 are used, for the Spartan custom of adding wine to 
 the baby's first bath is unknown at Athens. After 
 the bath, too, the baby has a warmer bed than would 
 have fallen to his lot in the sterner city. True, the 
 father intends, as soon as possible, to send to Sparta 
 for one of those celebrated nurses known and prized 
 for their success in rearing children ; but still he 
 shrinks from beginning the hardening process at this 
 tender age, and rearing up the child according to 
 Spartan customs without the warm swaddling clothes. 
 So the baby is carefully wrapped in numerous swad- 
 dlings, in such a manner that even the arms are firmly 
 swathed, and only the little head is visible. (Compare 
 Fig. 58.) The ancient physicians prescribe for the 
 new-born child soft woollen swaddling three fingers 
 broad, and direct that the swaddling should begin 
 with the hands, then pass on to the chest, and at last 
 cover the feet, swathing each part separately but 
 loosely, only drawing the bandages tight at the knees 
 and the soles of the feet; the head also must be 
 enveloped, and, finally, a second covering is put over 
 the whole body. When modern physicians maintain 
 that this swaddling must injure the child and check 
 the development of its organs, they forget that the 
 Greeks treated their children thus for centuries and 
 yet were a healthy nation. But it is quite incredible 
 that they should have been thus swaddled for the 
 first two years of their life, as a passage in Plato 
 seems to indicate, for this would not only have been 
 extraordinary, but also injurious to the health. It 
 can only be a question of maintaining a covering 
 suitable to the age for these two years, instead of the 
 children's dress afterwards worn. A physician of the 
 age of the Empire recommends the end of the fourth 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY. 
 
 81 
 
 month as the time for gradually leaving off the 
 swaddling ; and probably this was also the Greek 
 custom. Antiquity does not seem to have been 
 acquainted with our soft cushions, but the little 
 Athenians also had their cradles, though these did not 
 stand on the ground on rockers like ours, for such 
 cradles are not mentioned till the Koman period, and 
 seem to have been unknown in the classic age; but 
 they resembled a basket of woven osier, suspended 
 from ropes like a hammock, and thus made to rock. 
 The cradle in which Hermes, who seems already to 
 have attained the age of boyhood, is depicted on a 
 vase painting represented in 
 Fig. 59, is of a peculiar shape, 
 quite like that of a shoe ; the 
 handles at the side, through 
 which ropes were probably 
 passed, show that this was also Fig. 59. 
 
 made to rock. Fig. 60 shows a 
 
 different kind of cradle. It is a bed on rockers, 
 which may have been used in the same way as the 
 babies' cots common among us. 
 
 The young mother now for the first time gives the 
 new-born baby the breast (compare Fig. 61, taken 
 from a Greek terra-cotta), and rejoices that she is 
 able to perform this duty herself. However, in case 
 she should not have been able to do it, a poor peasant 
 woman from the neighbourhood had been brought to 
 the house and paid for her services. Meantime, the 
 husband sits down by the bed and discusses with his 
 wife the steps which must next be taken. A question 
 that sometimes causes a good deal of difficulty pre- 
 sents none on this occasion — viz., the legitimation of 
 the child. And as the boy is strong and healthy, 
 there cannot be a question of the barbarous custom 
 
82 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 of exposing it, which, though rarely resorted to at 
 Athens, was still quite common at Sparta. Even had 
 the child been a second daughter, the kindly-disposed 
 master of the house would not have resorted to this 
 cruel step; although, had he done so, his fellow- 
 
 FiG. 60. 
 
 citizens would not have blamed him for it. But the 
 parents have to settle on which day the family 
 festival shall take place, to welcome and dedicate with 
 religious rites the newborn child {Amphidromia) 
 and what name they shall give it. They decide upon 
 the tenth day after the birth for the festival. Many 
 parents, it is true, celebrate this as early as the fifth 
 day, arid then on the tenth hold a second festival. 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY^ 
 
 83 
 
 with an elaborate banquet and sacrifices, and but few 
 rich people content themselves with a single celebra- 
 tion. But though in this case there is no lack of 
 means, yet, as the 
 young mother wishes 
 to take part herself 
 in the Amphidromia, 
 they decide to be con- 
 tent with one celebra- 
 tion, which is to take 
 place in ten days. 
 According to old 
 family custom, the 
 boy receives the name 
 of his paternal grand- 
 father. 
 
 When the ap- 
 pointed day has come, 
 and the house is fes- 
 tiveiy decked with 
 garlands, messengers 
 begin to arrive early 
 in the morning from 
 relations and friends, 
 bringing all manner 
 of presents for the 
 mother and child. For 
 the former they bring 
 many dishes which Fig. 61. 
 
 will be useful at the 
 
 banquet in the evening, especially fresh fish, polypi, 
 and cuttle-fish. The baby receives various gifts, 
 especially amulets to protect him against the evil 
 eye. For, according to widespread superstition, these 
 innocent little creatures are specially exposed to 
 
84 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the influence of evil magic. Therefore the old 
 slave, to whom the parents have confided the care of 
 the child, chooses from among the various presents 
 a necklace which seems to her especially suitable as 
 an antidote to magic, on which are hung all manner 
 of delicately-worked charms in gold and silver : such 
 as a crescent, a pair of hands, a little sword, a little 
 pig, and anything else which popular superstition 
 may include in the ranks of amulets ; and hangs this 
 round the child's neck. 
 
 The festival begins with a sacrifice, and is followed 
 by the solemnity in which mother and child, who, 
 according to ancient notions, are regarded as unclean 
 by the act of birth, are purified or cleansed, along 
 with all who have come in contact with the mother. 
 This part of the ceremony is the real " Amphidromia " 
 (literally ''running round"). The nurse takes the 
 child on her arm, and, foUoAved by the mother and all 
 who have come in contact with her, runs several times 
 round the family hearth, which, according to ancient 
 tradition, represents the sacred centre of the dwelling. 
 Probably this was accompanied by sprinkling with 
 holy water. At the banquet the relations and friends 
 of the family appear in great numbers. In their 
 presence the father announces the name which he 
 has chosen for the child. After this all take their 
 places at the banquet, even the women, who, as a 
 rule, do not take part in the meals of the men. The 
 standing dishes on this occasion are toasted cheese 
 and radishes with oil ; but there is no lack of excellent 
 meat dishes such as breast of lamb, thrushes, pigeons, 
 and other dainties, as well as the popular cuttle-fish. A 
 good deal of wine is drunk, mixed with less water than 
 is generally the custom. Music and dancing accom- 
 pany the banquet, which extends far into the night 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY. 
 
 85 
 
 The first years of his life were spent by the little 
 boy in the nursery, in which things went on in much 
 the same way as with us. During this period boys 
 and girls alike were under the supervision of mother 
 and nurse. If the baby had bad nights and could 
 not sleep, the Athenian mother took him in her arms 
 just as a modern one would do, and carried him up 
 and down the room, rocking him, and singing some 
 cradle song like that which Alcmene sings to her 
 children in Theocritus : — 
 
 " Sleep, children mine, a light luxurious sleep. 
 Brother with brother : sleep, my boys, my life : 
 Blest in your slumber, in your waking blest." * 
 
 At night a little lamp burnt in the nursery. Although, 
 as a rule, in small houses the apartments for the 
 men were below and those for the women and children 
 in the upper storeys, yet it was customary for the 
 women to move into the lower rooms for a time after 
 the birth of a child, partly in order that they might 
 be near the bath-room, which was necessary both for 
 mother and child. During the first years of their life 
 the children had a tepid bath every day; later on, 
 every three or four days ; many mothers even went 
 so far as to give them three baths a day. When the 
 child had to be weaned, they first of all gave it broth 
 sweetened with honey, which, in olden time, took the 
 place of our sugar, and then gradually more solid 
 food, which the nurse seems to have chewed for the 
 child before it had teeth enough to do this itself 
 Aristophanes gives us further details about Greek 
 nurseries, and even quotes the sounds first uttered 
 by Athenian children to make known their various 
 wants. 
 
 * Translated by S. C. Calverley. 
 
86 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 They do not seem to have had any special 
 mechanical contrivances for learning to walk. In 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 the time of the Empire baskets furnished with wheels 
 are mentioned. Apparently they were in no great 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY. 
 
 87 
 
 hurry about this. For the first year or two the nurses 
 carried the children out into the fields, or took them 
 to visit their relations, or brought them to some 
 temple ; then they let them crawl merrily on the 
 ground, and on numerous vase pictures we see 
 children crawling on all fours to some table covered 
 with eatables, or to their toys. (Compare the Stele, 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 represented in Fig. 62, on which a child has crawled 
 to its mother and is trying to raise itself.) When the 
 child made its first attempt at walking, prudent 
 nurses took care that it should not at first exert its 
 feeble legs too much, and so make them crooked ; 
 though Plato probably goes too far when he desires to 
 extend this care to the end of the third year, and 
 advises nurses to carry the children till they have 
 reached that age. 
 
 Children's dress must have given but little trouble 
 during these first years. At home — at any rate in 
 summer — boys either ran about quite naked or else 
 
GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 with only a short jacket open in front, Hke the little 
 boy with the cart in Fig. 63. The girls, however, had 
 long dresses reaching to their feet, fastened by two 
 ribbons crossing each other in front and behind. 
 Naughty children were brought to obedience or quiet 
 by threats of bogies, but, curiously enough, these Greek 
 bogies were all female creatures, such as Medusae or 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 witches: " Acco," " Mormo," "Lamia," " Empusa," etc.; 
 and when the children would not stay quiet indoors, 
 they seem to have threatened them with " The horses 
 will bite you." The mothers and nurses used to tell the 
 children all sorts of legends and fairy tales — Aesop's 
 Fables were especially popular — and little stories from 
 mythology or other tales of adventure, which often 
 began, like ours, with the approved "Once upon 
 a time." Among the many poetical legends of 
 gods and heroes there were, it is true, some which 
 were morally or aesthetically objectionable, and the 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY. 
 
 89 
 
 philosophers were not wrong in calling attention to 
 the danger which might lie in this intellectual food, 
 supplied so early to susceptible childish minds ; yet 
 this was undoubtedly less than what is found in our 
 own children's stories. 
 
 Greek children had toys of various kinds, though 
 the excessive luxury attained in these at the pre- 
 sent day was unknown to antiquity. A very ancient 
 toy is the rattle, usually a metal or earthenware 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 jar filled with little stones, sometimes made in 
 human form; and there were other noisy toys, 
 with which the children played and the nurses 
 strove to amuse them; though complaints were 
 sometimes made that foolish nurses by these means 
 prevented the children from going to sleep. A very 
 popular toy, found in many pictures in children's 
 hands, was a little two-wheeled cart (compare Fig. 63), 
 or else a simple solid wheel, without spokes, on a 
 long pole — a cheap toy which could be purchased 
 for an obol (about three-halfpence). Larger carriages 
 were also used as toys, which the children drew them- 
 selves, and drove about their brothers and sisters or 
 
GilfiEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 companions, as we see 
 in Fig. 64. Sometimes 
 tame dogs or goats 
 were harnessed to 
 them, and the boys 
 rode merrily along, 
 cracking their whips. 
 (Compare Fig. 65.) The 
 custom of letting the 
 nurses draw the child- 
 ren in perambulators 
 in the street seems to 
 have been unknown, 
 but baby-carriages, in 
 which the children 
 were drawn about in 
 the room, are men- 
 tioned by the ancient 
 physicians. (Compare 
 Fig. 60.) 
 
 The little girls 
 liked to play with all 
 kinds of earthenware 
 vessels, pots, and 
 dishes; and, like our 
 little girls, they made 
 their first attempts 
 at cooking with these. 
 Many such are found 
 in the graves. More 
 popular however, even 
 in ancient times, were 
 the dolls, made of wax 
 •lo. 66. or clay and brightly 
 coloured ; sometimes 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY 91 
 
 with flexible limbs, like the one in Fig. 66, or with 
 clothes to take on and off, and representing all manner 
 
 Fig. 67, 
 
 of gods, heroes, or mortals ; dolls' beds were also 
 known. Though boys may have sometimes played 
 with these figures, or even made them for themselves 
 out of clay or wax, yet we generally find them in the 
 
92 GREEK LIFE 
 
 Fio. 6b. 
 
 AT HOME. 
 
 hands of girls, who seem 
 to have taken pleasure in 
 them even after the first 
 years of childhood ; in- 
 deed, it was not un- 
 common, since Greek 
 girls married very early, 
 for them to play with 
 their dolls up to the time 
 I of their marriage, and 
 1 just before their wedding 
 to take these discarded 
 favourites, with their 
 whole wardrobe, to some 
 temple of the maiden 
 Artemis, and there dedi- 
 cate them as a pious 
 offering. 
 
 The boys delighted 
 in other more masculine 
 pleasures. Like our own 
 boys, they played with 
 box- wood tops and whips, 
 singing a merry song the 
 while, or else they bowled 
 their iron hoops, to which 
 bells or rings were at- 
 tached. The hoop was a 
 favourite toy until the 
 age of youth, and we 
 often find it on vase 
 paintings in the hands 
 of quite big boys. (Com- 
 pare Fig. 67.) We may 
 certainly assume that 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY. 93 
 
 they also had little imitations of warlike implements 
 Buch as swords and shields ; a little quiver, which can 
 hardly have served any other purpose (compare Fig. 
 G8) has been found. Clever boys made their own toys, 
 and cut little carts and ships out of wood or leather, and 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 carved frogs and other animals out of pomegranate 
 rinds. Our hobby-horse, too, was known to the 
 ancients, as is proved by a pretty anecdote told of 
 Agesilaus. He was once surprised by a visitor 
 playing with his children, and riding merrily about 
 on a hobby-horse. It is said that he begged his 
 friend not to tell of the position in which he had 
 found the terrible general, until he should himself 
 have children of his own. Kite-flying also was known 
 to them, as is proved by the vase painting represented 
 
94 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 in Fig. 69, which, though rough in drawing, distinctly 
 shows the action. 
 
 They were also acquainted with the little wheels, 
 turned hy means of a string which is wound and 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 unwound, that are still popular among the children 
 of our day, and about a hundred years ago were 
 fashionable toys known as " incroyablos." What we 
 see in the boy's hand in Fig. 70 can hardly be any- 
 thing else. This was a game in which even grown-up 
 people seem to have taken pleasure. On the vases of 
 Lower Italy we often see in the hands of Eros, or 
 women, a little wheel, with daintily jagged edge and 
 spokes, fastened to a long string in such a way that, 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY. 
 
 95 
 
 when this is first drawn tight by both hands and then 
 let go, the wheel is set revolving- (Compare Fig. 71.) 
 Probably this 
 was not a mere 
 toy when used 
 by grown - up 
 people, but 
 rather the magic 
 wheel so often 
 mentioned as 
 playing a part 
 in love charms ; 
 but about this 
 we have no ex- 
 act information. 
 
 Swings must 
 also be men- 
 tioned as popular 
 with both young 
 and old. Those 
 were exactly like 
 ours : either the 
 rope itself was 
 used as a seat 
 and held fast 
 with both hands, 
 or else a com- 
 fortable seat was 
 suspended from 
 the cords. (Com- 
 pare Fig. 72.) This was a merry game, in which 
 grown-up women sometimes liked to take part ; 
 and so was the see-saw, of which even big girls 
 made use. (Compare Fig. 73.) Sometimes the 
 mother or older sister took the little boy by the 
 
96 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 arm and balanced him on her foot, as the girl in 
 Fig. 74 does with Eros, and, as in the well-known 
 beautiful statue, The Little Dionysus," is carried 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 on the shoulders of a powerful satyr. Many a 
 Greek father probably gave his son a ride on his 
 shoulders. 
 
 It is a matter of course that the young people of 
 that da^ were acquainted with all the games which 
 
BIRTH AND INFANCY. 97 
 
 can be played at social gatherings by children, with- 
 out any extraneous assistance. The various games o( 
 running, catching, hiding, blind-man's-buff, etc., in 
 which our young people still take pleasure, were 
 played in Greece in just the same manner, as well as 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 the manifold variety of games with balls, beans, 
 pebbles, coins, etc. 
 
 Games of ball served as recreation for youths and 
 men, and some of the above-mentioned games of 
 chance, rather than skill, were especially popular with 
 grown-up people, particularly games of dice or 
 "knuckle-bones," to which we shall refer later on 
 in another section. 
 B 
 
98 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Thus our young Athenian spends the first years of 
 his Hfe amid merry play with his companions, under 
 the watchful care of his mother. During the first six 
 years the nursery, where girls and boys are together, 
 is his world, though he is sometimes allowed to run 
 about in the street with boys of his own age. He is 
 not yet troubled with lessons, and although, should 
 he be obstinate or naughty, his mother will sometimes 
 chastise him with her sandal, yet in a family in which 
 a right spirit prevails, the character of the education 
 at this early age is a beneficent mixture of severity 
 and gentleness. Sometimes, it is true, the father does 
 not troubl6 himself at all about the education of his 
 children, and leaves this entirely to his wife, who may 
 lack the necessary intellectual capacity, or even to a 
 female slave. This, of course, has bad results, and 
 the same happens when the wife, like the mother of 
 Pheidippides, in the " Clouds " of Aristophanes, is too 
 ambitious for her little son, and, in constant opposi- 
 tion to the weak, though well-intentioned, father, 
 spoils him sadly. Let us assume that the boy whose 
 entrance into life we described above, is free from 
 such deleterious influences, and, sound in mind and 
 body, passes in his seventh year out of his mother's 
 hands into those which will now minister to his 
 intellectual and physical development. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 Schools — At Sparta — At Athens — Methods of Instruction— Reading 
 Lessons — Music — Geometry — The Gymnasia — Physical Training 
 — The Education of Girls. 
 
 Here, as in so many other domains of which we must 
 treat, there is a marked distinction between the Doric 
 and Ionic states. In the latter the education of boys 
 was a private duty of the parents, and the State only 
 retained a general right of control; while in the 
 Doric states, and especially at Sparta, with whose 
 institutions we are best acquainted, boys were regarded 
 as belonging, not to the family, but to the State, which 
 undertook the entire charge of their physical and 
 intellectual well-being. 
 
 At the age of seven years the Spartan boy left his 
 father's house to live with companions of his own age, 
 whose occupation and mode of life were regulated by 
 definite rules. All the boys were divided into com- 
 panies, according to age. Several of these companies 
 were again combined into a troop. At the head of 
 each company and of each troop was a superintendent, 
 chosen from among the youths. His duty was to 
 direct the occupations and exercises of the boys under 
 Us charge, and, as leader in their gymnastic exercises, 
 to help them by his example. The general care of 
 their education was in the hands of the trainers 
 (iraLiovofjioi), themselves under the control of a Board 
 of Inspection {/StSialoL^ but in other respects their 
 power was unlimited, and they had the right, by 
 
100 
 
 GREEK LIFE AV HOME. 
 
 means of " scourge-bearers " (f.^^aTty6(f>opoL)y to inflict 
 punishment for disobedience or other faults. In this 
 office, which was a very responsil te one for a single man, 
 they were assisted by the whole body of citizens, who 
 were not only permitted, but even bound by their 
 duty, to take part in the exercis()S of the boys, instruct- 
 ing, encouraging, or even punishing them. Every 
 Spartan citizen could, in a measure, exercise paternal 
 rights over every boy, and, again, was regarded by 
 every boy in the same light as his own father. Obedi- 
 ence towards their elders, modest and reverent bearing, 
 were impressed on the Spartan boys from their earliest 
 years, and they were thus advantageously distinguished 
 from the somewhat precocious Attic youth. The aim 
 of their whole education was to harden the body and 
 to attain the greatest possible bodily skill. The boys 
 had only the most necessary clothing ; from their 
 twelfth year onwards they wore only an upper gar- 
 ment, even in winter, and in all other respects their 
 life was of the simplest, so that it is not a mere figure 
 of speech to talk of Spartan discipline. They received 
 only sufficient food for the barest needs, and, though 
 the boys were often taken to the meals of the grown 
 men, yet these too were anything but luxurious. 
 Their bed was hay or straw ; from their fifteenth year 
 onwards reeds or rushes, which they had themselves 
 to fetch from the Eurotas. Indifference to physical 
 pain was carried to an excess which appears to us 
 absolutely barbarous, even in later times, when they 
 had departed in some respects from the original 
 severity of the so-called laws of Lycurgus. 
 
 The instruction at Sparta also corresponded to these 
 principles. There was little question of developing the 
 intellect, nor wa.s this part of the public duty, but only 
 a private matter. Those who wished to learn reading 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 101 
 
 and writing doubtless found an opportunity of doing 
 so, but not in the institutes conducted by the State ; 
 at any rate, we find no mention of such. Probably 
 most Spartans did learn so much, but very little 
 more. A little arithmetic was added, as mental 
 arithmetic especially was regarded as important 
 on account of its practical utility. But this was 
 all the literary culture which a young Spartan re- 
 ceived. They also studied music, for which the Doric 
 race had always natural ability and liking ; and this 
 instruction was compulsory. The boys learnt to play 
 the cithara and flute, and to sing songs or choruses of 
 serious moral nature. The inspectors were careful 
 to see that nothing unsuitable was admitted here, and 
 that traditional methods were adhered to in harmony 
 and metre; therefore, every innovation on the domain 
 of music was regarded with suspicion, and departure 
 from the traditional custom was sometimes even 
 punished. 
 
 The most important part of the instruction con- 
 sisted in gymnastic exercises. These were methodic- 
 ally studied on rational principles ; the exercises 
 were graduated according to age, and only those were 
 admitted which developed strength and skill, and did 
 not merely fit a man for the career of an athlete. Their 
 first aim was to make their men good warriors, and 
 this they certainly attained. But it was a necessary 
 consequence of the excessive development of the 
 physical side, and the disregard of all higher intellec- 
 tual developments, that Sparta never attained any 
 real greatness in literature or art. Again^ however 
 attractive the moral seriousness developed by the 
 Spartan education may seem to us, we cannot deny 
 that the deadening of the family feeling, and the 
 complete abandonment of everything to the State, 
 
102 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 produced that hardness and cruelty which we so 
 often meet with in the history of Sparta. 
 
 Very different was the system of education at 
 Athens. Here it was left entirely in the hands of 
 individuals. The State provided no public schools, 
 but only appointed certain boards, whose duty it was 
 to see that there were no offences against tradition or 
 morality committed in the private institutes. This 
 duty was entrusted to the superintendents (iTn/jbeXrjrai 
 and aca^povLcnaL). These were, however, chiefly con- 
 cerned with the youths, and thus especially with the 
 instruction in the gymnas\a. We do not know how 
 far the Areopagus took part in this control. 
 
 As a rule, Athenian boys, when they had completed 
 their sixth year, were entrusted to the charge of an 
 old slave, called Paidagogos, whose duty it was, not 
 to train or instruct the boys, but simply to accompany 
 them to school, or on their walks, and to watch over 
 their behaviour. As it wiui not considered correct for 
 the son of an Athenian citizen to carry his school 
 utensils himself, it was the duty of the paidagogos 
 who accompanied him, to carry his books or his 
 cithara, his strigil, or even his ball. Very often the 
 paidagogos remained in the room (or perhaps in an 
 ante-room) during the lesson, and at the end again 
 accompanied his charge home. Though he was only 
 a slave, and often but slightly educated, he generally 
 had authority given him over the boys entrusted to 
 his care. When they reached the age of eighteen 
 the control of the paidagogos either ceased entirely, or 
 assumed a different character. 
 
 It is impossible not to recognise that there were 
 many objections to this system. It was by no means 
 always the worthiest and most trustworthy slaves 
 who were chosen for this office, but rather old men 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 103 
 
 who were of no US3 for other work, and who were 
 not only entirely ignorant intellectually, but whose 
 manners were often bad. As foreigners they often 
 spoke barbarous Greek, set their charges a bad 
 example by fondness for drink, or else winked at 
 their faults and bad habits ; in short, were by no 
 means fitted to have the charge of growing boys. 
 Many complaints seem to have been made, but the 
 practice still continued; in fact, in some respects 
 matters grew worse in the Hellenistic period. On 
 monuments, where we often see them accompanying 
 boys, even in mythological representations {e.g., The 
 Children of Niobe, Archemorus, Medea, etc), the 
 paidagogoi appear in a special dress corresponding to 
 their non-Hellenic origin — in a chiton with sleeves, 
 rough cloak, and high boots. However, this corre- 
 sponds to the practice of Greek tragedy, which had 
 fixed costumes for certain characters. In reality the 
 paidagogoi probably dressed much like other citizens. 
 
 The instruction at Athens is divided into two 
 headings : music and gymnastics. Let us first con- 
 sider the former. It appears to have been very rare 
 for boys to be taught at home by private teachers. 
 They were usually sent to some school conducted by 
 an elementary teacher. We know very little about 
 the arrangement and curriculum of these schools. 
 It seems that boys from the same neighbourhood 
 generally attended the nearest school, and were 
 taught there in the same room by one teacher, who 
 had to instruct in turns the begmners and the more 
 advanced pupils. Cases of over-filled classes are 
 mentioned, but these do not refer specially to Athens. 
 It is not improbable that classes not only received 
 different instruction, but were also taught in separate 
 rooms; and that besides the master who was the 
 
104 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 director and proprietor of the schools, assistants paid 
 by him also took part in the instruction. But in 
 reahty we know very Httle about these matters ; it is 
 however, certain that some teachers had no school- 
 room at all, but sat out in the street with their 
 scholars — a thing which is only possible in the sunny 
 South. No doubt these were only schools for the 
 poor, and the sons of rich parents did not attend 
 them. 
 
 The furniture of the schoolroom was doubtless 
 v^ery simple. A music teacher sometimes set up in his 
 school statues of Apollo and the Muses, but he would 
 be well paid, and we must not expect to find such 
 luxuries in the furniture of ordinary elementary 
 schools. Here probably, there was little more than 
 the benches for the boys, a seat for the master, and 
 some aids to teaching, such as we see hanging on 
 the walls on the few ancient monuments which intro- 
 duce us to Greek schoolrooms. (Compare Fig. 75.) 
 Among the requisites was a white board. It is not 
 probable that the charts, used in the Roman period to 
 impress dates of mythology and history on the pupils' 
 minds by plastic representation, were already known 
 to Greek antiquity. The master supplied the ink 
 required for instruction in writing : we may infer this 
 from the fact that Aeschines, who as a boy used to 
 help his father, a schoolmaster, had to mix the ink 
 and sweep out the schoolroom. The salary which the 
 master received for his instruction probably depended 
 on his knowledge and ability ; doubtless popular 
 teachers were well paid. But it was not a paying 
 profession, for it is not likely that the school fees, 
 usually paid monthly, were high ; also negligent 
 fathers often put off pac ing them for a long time ; 
 while stingy parents kept their children at home 
 
105 
 
 during a month in whicli there ^\ '=^re many hoHdays, 
 in order to save the school fees. We must not assume 
 high culture in these elementary teachers, and we 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 find that the pupils feared their masters more than 
 they loved them, which is natural, seeing that they 
 seem to have made a freer use of canes and sticks 
 than our present pedagogic principles would permit. 
 Still we do not find any Greek pendant to Horace s 
 Plagosus Orbilius. 
 
iOG GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Instruction usually began early in the morning; 
 ■ve do not know how long it lasted, but there certainly 
 were lessons given in the afternoon ; an ordinance of 
 Solon's forbade their continuance after sunset. We 
 do not know how the elementary and gymnastic 
 instruction were combined. There were plenty of 
 holidays, owing to the numerous feasts and festivals ; 
 there were also special school festivals, especially 
 those of the Muses for the grammar schools, and of 
 Hermes for the gymnasia. 
 
 A very interesting picture by the vase painter 
 Duris, represented in Fig. 75, gives us, in spite of 
 riome artistic liberties, an excellent idea of Attic 
 school teaching in the fifth century B.C. The scenes 
 are represented on the outside of a bowl ; on each 
 half five people are depicted : two masters, two pupils, 
 and an oldish man looking on. This cannot, there- 
 fore, represent one of the ordinary schoolrooms, where 
 a single master instructs together a whole class ol 
 boys, for each boy is being instructed by a separate 
 teacher. Perhaps this is a liberty on the part of the 
 painter, who has grouped together four separate 
 scenes, or else this individual instruction may really 
 have taken place even in the public schools. Masters 
 and pupils are dressed alike, wearing only the hima- 
 tion. It is important, however, to remember what 
 was stated on page 20, that this dress on the monu- 
 ments by no means corresponds to reality, and, as 
 a rule, the chiton cannot have been wanting under 
 the himation. The masters, some of whom are young 
 and beardless, others more advanced in age, sit on 
 simple stools ; with the exception of one pupil, who is 
 learning the lyre, the boys stand upright before them, 
 both arms wrapped in their cloaks, as was considered 
 fitting for well-bred youths. Of course, the boy with 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 107 
 
 the lyre must nave the upper part of his body free, 
 and his himation is folded over his knee. There is a 
 difference of opinion as to the two bearded men 
 leaning on their sticks, who are present at these 
 scenes, and attentively looking on ; it has been sug- 
 gested that they are paidagogoi, who have accom- 
 panied the boys to school, and are superintending 
 them during the instruction ; or else, on account of 
 the manner in whi'bh they are sitting, it has been 
 assumed that they are fathers or inspectors. 
 
 The subjects taught here all belong to musical 
 instruction (that is, instruction over which the Muses 
 preside), and are partly concerned with grammatical 
 teaching, partly with actual teaching of music. 
 On one side we see a young teacher playing the 
 double pipe, while the boy standing in front of him 
 listens attentively. It is usually assumed that the 
 boy is learning to play the flute, but then it is curious 
 that he has not an instrument in his own hands, like 
 the boy who is learning the lyre ; for if he wished to 
 imitate what the teacher is showing him, he would 
 have to take the master's instrument. There is 
 something, therefore, to be said for the hypothesis 
 that the boy is learning to sing, and the master is 
 giving him on the flute the notes or the melody 
 which he has to sing. The scene on the right of this 
 represents instruction in writing. The boy stands 
 in the same position as the other, before another 
 young teacher, who holds a triptych consisting of 
 three little folding tablets, open before him, and 
 has a pencil in his right hand. He is looking 
 attentively at the tablet, either correcting the boy's 
 writing or about himself to write a copy for the 
 pupil. On the other side of the picture we have, 
 on the left, musical instruction. Both master and 
 
108 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 pupil have seven-stringed lyres in their hands; 
 at the moment represented the master seems to 
 be only showing the boy how to grasp the chords by 
 the fingers of the left hand, and is making no use of 
 the rod (ifKrifCTpov), which he holds in his right. The 
 boy, who sits bent forward, is trying to imitate the 
 master's action. The last group represents a pupil 
 who appears to be reciting a poem, the beginning of 
 which is written on the scroll which the master holds 
 in his hand. 
 
 Various implements hang on the walls of the 
 schoolroom : at one side a roll of manuscript with a 
 handle ; next to it a writing tablet, with a cord 
 fastened round it, and a handle ; next, a lyre 
 and a curious cross, which is not easy to interpret ; 
 some think that it is meant for a sextant for the 
 geometrical instruction. On the other side hang two 
 drinking-cups, which the pupils are probably allowed 
 to use during the intervals ; two seven-stringed lyres ; 
 a basket with handle and feet, probably used to con- 
 tain the manuscripts ; and finally, a case for a flute, 
 with the capsule for the mouthpieces hanging to it. 
 
 We must now examine more closely the special 
 implements used in musical instruction, and the mode 
 in which that instruction was given. Elementary 
 knowledge of reading and writing was very common, 
 at any rate in Attica, and people who were un- 
 acquainted with either were even rarer in ancient 
 Greece than in our own day. In the school of 
 the teacher who had charge of the boys' elementary 
 grammatical instruction (ypa/jbijaTL(TTri<^), the boy was 
 probably first taught his letters, their names and 
 shapes, and very likely some external helps were 
 used for this purpose ; at any rate, these were common 
 in later periods. The next process was combining the 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 109 
 
 letters in syllables ; and thus gradually they advanced 
 to reading whole words. At the same time, probably, 
 instruction in writing began. The master made 
 single letters and words for the pupils to copy in the 
 space left free under his lines, and probably helped 
 them a little by guiding their hands. The place of 
 our slate was taken by a wax tablet. This was a 
 wooden tablet covered with a thin coating of wax, 
 in which the letters were scratched with a pointed 
 style, made of bone, ivory, or metal ; the broad end 
 was used for flattening the wax when the slate 
 was full, and then it could be used again. There 
 were generally two, three, or more of these tablets 
 connected by hinges, and these were called diptych y 
 triptychj etc. It was only more advanced pupils who 
 were allowed to use such expensive material as 
 papyrus and reeds for y/riting, and even then, on 
 account of the expense, they were not provided with 
 new paper, but wrote on the back of what had 
 already been used. Chance has preserved to us, in a 
 discovery dating from the age of the Ptolemies, some 
 very interesting specimens of Greek instruction in 
 writing — several wax tablets, six inches long and four 
 inches broad, all containing the same Greek trimeter 
 verses, probably by Menander. The writing on one 
 of these tablets, which was probably the master's copy, 
 is good and careful ; that on the others, the pupils' 
 copies, is inferior. Under one the word " industrious " 
 has been written by the master's hand. But slight 
 demands seem to have been made on the pupils in 
 the matter of writing, and more stress was laid on 
 clearness than beauty or speed, since there were 
 always experienced slaves ready to do work of this 
 kind. 
 
 For reading lessons the poets were chiefly used, 
 
no 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 and their writings were inscribed in manuscripts 
 which were either rolled or folded. (Compare Fig. 
 75.) Hoiner was used as the school book of the 
 Greeks, from the earliest periods to the fall of tha 
 Byzantine Empire, and his writings were read and 
 expounded, as well as other poems in various metres, 
 chiefly of a lyrical character. The master then either 
 gave the boys copies, which he had probably made 
 himself, or else, if they were already able to write, 
 dictated longish passages to them ; the pupils also 
 had to learn a good deal by heart. Many teachers 
 prepared anthologies of various writers for reading 
 purposes; those especially were chosen which by 
 their contents were well adapted for the reading of 
 youth, such as Hesiod, Theognis, Phocylides, etc. 
 The boys thus, by their reading and learning, ac- 
 quired a knowledge of mythology, while at the same 
 time the most important ethical principles were 
 impressed on them. We must be careful not to rate 
 too low the results of this instruction, however little 
 we may think of the Athenian acquirements in the 
 mechanical arts of reading and writing. A people who 
 knew how to appreciate the tragedies of Aeschylus, 
 who could understand the comedies of Aristophanes, 
 with their fulness of mythological, literary, and 
 political allusions, must have possessed a degree of 
 culture which in many respects was far above the 
 average of the present day. It was, of course, easier 
 for the pupils to acquire a largo amount of mytho- 
 logical and literary knowledge when there were so 
 few subjects to study ; since natural science, geography, 
 history, and foreign languages were all disregarded. 
 In reading, the elements of prosody were also learnt, 
 and these were more fully treated in the musical 
 instruction. 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 Ill 
 
 We are no longer in a position to state how 
 arithmetic, with whose practical uses the ancients 
 were naturally well acquainted, was taught ; but it is 
 probable that — at any rate at Athens — this instruction 
 was given at home and not at school, and was acquired 
 by children in play by means of concrete objects, 
 which enabled them to learn the principal notions 
 and relations. As regards method, counting on the 
 fingers was very common in Greece. The left hand 
 was used to represent all the units and tens, and 
 with the addition of the right hand all the hundreds 
 and thousands; the mode in which a finger was 
 placed on the open palm and the number of the 
 fingers, which were either bent or stretched out, 
 determined the number required. More complicated 
 calculations were performed by help of an abacus 
 with little stones, an ancient invention long known 
 to the Egyptians, in which the arrangement of the 
 stones in the parallel lines on the board determined 
 their value as units, tens, hundreds, etc. We do not, 
 however, know anything further about the arrange- 
 ment of the Greek abacus. 
 
 The instruction in these elementary subjects occu- 
 pied the first years of school life. In the twelfth or 
 thirteenth year the instruction in music began, and 
 was given by a special master called the harpist 
 {KL0apLcrTri^), the Greeks regarding music not from 
 the standpoint of the modern amateur, as only a 
 pleasant distraction for hours of recreation, but rather 
 as an essential means of ethical development. The 
 main object of the instruction was not the attainment 
 of facility in execution on any instrument, but rather 
 ability to render as well as possible the productions 
 of the poets, especially the lyrists, and at the same 
 time to accompany themselves suitably on a seven- 
 
112 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 stringed instrument. Accordingly, most weight was 
 given to the instruction in the lyre (which we see in 
 Fig. 75 in the hand of both teacher and pupil), while 
 the cithara, on account of its louder sounding-board, 
 as well as the phorminx, which was connected with 
 it, if not, in fact, identical, were reserved for the use 
 of professionals, and were regarded as a kind of con- 
 cert instrument, and therefore learned specially by 
 those who desired to attain something more than 
 average proficiency in music. No doubt there was 
 opportunity given in the ordinary schools for learning 
 both kinds of stringed instrument. The flute, which, 
 when used for purposes of accompaniment, could 
 naturally not be played by the singer, was on this 
 account less popular at Athens ; at Thebes, on the 
 other hand, it was universally popular, and it has 
 been supposed that the neglect of the flute at Athens 
 was due to the ancient antagonism between Attica 
 and Bo otia; moreover, the flute, which originally 
 belonged to the Bacchic worship of Asia Minor, with 
 its sharp, shrill tone, was regarded as an exciting 
 instrument, hostile to a calm state of mind, and 
 therefore the philosophers all agreed in considering it 
 unsuitable from a pedagogic point of view. We must 
 not forget that the Greek flute was very different 
 from that to which we give the name at the present 
 day, which is regarded as a somewhat sentimental, 
 effeminate instrument. There was, however, a time 
 when flute-playing was popular at Athens among 
 amateurs ; according to Aristotle, the flute was intro- 
 duced into Attic schools after the time of the Persian 
 Wars, and soon became so popular that almost all 
 the youths of the better classes learnt to play on it. 
 Afterwards, however, apparently about the time of 
 the Peloponnesian War, they recognised how very 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 113 
 
 unsuitable this instrument was for intellectual and 
 musical development, and it was again discarded by 
 people of culture, probably in consequence of the 
 example set by Alcibiades, who was regarded as a 
 leader of fashion. Afterwards the flute was still 
 learnt, and on vase pictures we see flutists and 
 hetaerae playing it, as well as youths, but it was no 
 longer a subject of instruction in the ordinary 
 schools — at any rate, not at Athens. Naturally 
 Sparta carefully avoided an instrument which 
 was regarded as absolutely dangerous in its ethical 
 effect. 
 
 No musical instruction, besides the elemen- 
 tary subjects and playing on stringed instruments 
 and singing, was given at school during the best 
 period of Athens. Boys attended school until the 
 age of adolescence : that is, about their sixteenth 
 year ; though it is not probable that there was a definite 
 limit of age ; those who wished to extend their educa- 
 tion had opportunities for doing so, even in the fifth 
 century, by attending the sophists' lectures. How- 
 ever, compared with the cheap fees of the elementary 
 schools, the honorarium paid to these by their pupils 
 was very high. There was no question of organised 
 school instruction. 
 
 In the course of the fourth and the third centuries 
 B.C. some other subjects of instruction were added to 
 these. After the time of Alexander the Great, 
 drawing was also taught to boys; probably this 
 was due to the influence of Pamphilus, who was 
 the Principal of the Painting School of Sicyon. 
 The pupils learnt to draw with a style, or brush, 
 on boxwood tablets, specially prepared for the pur- 
 pose. As the school of Sicyon laid especial stress 
 on correct drawing, and appears to have been 
 
114 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 rather behind the others in colouring, we may 
 assume that the instruction in drawing was chiefly 
 confined to outline, but we have few exact details 
 concerning it. 
 
 At that time instruction in the elements of 
 geometry was added to the teaching in arithmetic, 
 but only the older boys appear to have learnt it. This 
 seems to have begun as early as the fifth century, but 
 Socrates thought it ought to be limited to what was 
 absolutely necessary. The philosophers of the fourth 
 century, however, recommended geometry as an ex- 
 cellent means for developing and sharpening the 
 intellect and logical powers. Plato even suggests 
 teaching boys in play not only arithmetic and geo- 
 metry, but also the first principles of astronomy, and 
 afterwards continuing the study more seriously till 
 about their eighteenth year. Astronomy, however, 
 would only signify to them what we now include 
 in mathematical geography. Less educated people 
 had a decided prejudice against geometry and other 
 such abstract studies, on the ground that they were 
 quite superfluous, since they were of no practical use 
 in after years, either for the purposes of private or 
 public life ; and the opinion so often heard at the 
 present day prevailed even then, that these subjects, 
 since they could not be practically applied in after 
 life, were only learnt for the purpose of being forgotten 
 as soon as possible. 
 
 In this manner the grammatical and musical 
 instruction developed the intellect of the boys, while 
 gymnastic exercises were used to strengthen and train 
 their bodies. Although these did not occupy quite 
 so prominent a position at Athens as in the Dorian 
 states, yet considerable time and attention were 
 devoted to them, since the real aim of all pedagogic 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 115 
 
 efforts was supposed to be the harmonious develop- 
 ment of body and mind. It is not easy to determine 
 at what age the gymnastic training began ; what 
 Plato and Aristotle say on the subject merely gives 
 the pedagogic opinion of these philosophers, but does 
 not refer to actual existing circumstances. Among 
 modern scholars some assume that both musical and 
 gymnastic instruction began with the seventh year, 
 and that from that time onwards boys went every day 
 to two distinct schools. Others suppose that gymnas- 
 tic instruction came first, but that at first the exercises 
 were easy ones, suited to the previous life of the child 
 and tending to strengthen his body, and that after- 
 wards the training in elementary subjects began. 
 We have too little information to pronounce a definite 
 opinion. 
 
 The buildings in which the boys received theii 
 gymnastic training were not, as was formerly sup- 
 posed, the gymnasia, but the wrestling schools 
 {iraXalaTpai) — a name given to these establishments 
 because wrestling and running were regarded as the 
 most important exercises in elementary gymnastic 
 training. No doubt other gymnastic exercises were 
 practised at the wrestling school. Of course, many 
 changes took place in the course of centuries till the 
 time of the Roman Empire, and therefore it is but 
 natural that very various opinions should prevail 
 about the wrestling school an i the gymnasium. The 
 most probable theory is, that, at any rate at Athens 
 in its best period, the instruction in gymnastics was 
 given at the wrestling school, while the gymnasium 
 was used for the further training and development of 
 the youths. The wrestling school was not a public 
 institute, but a private undertaking conducted by a 
 teacher of gymnastics, who received a fee for the use 
 
116 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 of the building and the instruction given by him. 
 These schools were under directors and managers 
 (TraiSoTpi^aL) ; the institutes usually bore their names, 
 but they were sometimes called after the founder. 
 Like other masters, they had a full disciplinary 
 right over their pupils ; but they were also subject 
 to the supervision of the inspectors mentioned above, 
 whose duty it was to see that nothing which offended 
 against morality took place in the gymnastic insti- 
 tutes, and also that the instruction was methodical 
 and suited to the different ages. Besides these 
 inspectors, no one else, except the paidagogoi who 
 accompanied their charges, was allowed to be present 
 at the instruction in the wrestling school ; an ordi- 
 nance of Solon's forbade admission to grown men, 
 but in later times this rule seems to have fallen 
 into disuse. 
 
 The gymnastic training had a double purpose ; in 
 the first place to teach the boys a modest and digni- 
 fied bearing (much as dancing is taught in the present 
 day), and in the second, which, of course, was most 
 important, to train them in the chief gymnastic exer- 
 cises. ' These were jumping, which included both the 
 high and long jump, for which purpose dumb-bells were 
 generally used; racing, throwing the quoit and the 
 spear, and wrestling. Boxing was not included in the 
 instruction given to boys, nor yet the pancratium, a 
 combination of wrestling and boxing, nor the pen- 
 tathlum, a combination of five exercises specially used 
 in athletic contests, and therefore not generally prac- 
 tised at the wrestling unless boys were to take part 
 in some public contest, in which case they might, of 
 course, be prepared here beforehand. We shall deal 
 later on in greater detail with the separate exercises, 
 and must therefore content ourselves for the present 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 117 
 
 with merely enumerating them, since the exercises 
 of the boys only differed in degree, but not in kind, 
 from those of the youths and men. 
 
 Such was the training given to the boys until 
 about their sixteenth year. This was, however, by no 
 means the end of their education, at any rate not for 
 boys of the better classes, who were not obliged to 
 follow any definite profession ; and the gymnastic 
 training extended for several years longer. The years 
 between adolescence and somewhere about the twen- 
 tieth year were generally called ephebeia; but besides 
 this expression we find a good many others, especially 
 in inscriptions, which prove that there were several 
 sub-divisions for the purposes of gymnastic exercises 
 and tests, made according to age ; in fact, they gener- 
 ally distinguished between a first, second, and third 
 class of ephehi. But there were other special names 
 in use. In ancient times the only distinction in the gym- 
 nastic tests was between boys and men, and the ephebi 
 were therefore included in the former class ; but after- 
 wards they distinguished between boys, youths, and men, 
 though these designations and their sub-divisions accord- 
 ing to age seem to have varied a good deal according 
 to time and place. In any case, we must distinguish 
 between the use of the term ephebus in the gymnastic 
 classes and in the State. For State purposes it was 
 not applied till the eighteenth or nineteenth year, and 
 the boy had then to take his oath as a citizen ; his 
 name was entered in the book of his deme, and he 
 received a warrior's shield and spear. The oath taken 
 by the ephebi, composed by Solon, has been preserved 
 to us. The youth had to swear " Never to disgrace 
 his holy arms, never to forsake his comrade in the 
 ranks, but to fight for the holy temples and the 
 common welfare, alone or with others ; to leave his 
 
118 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 country, not in a worse, but in a better state than he 
 found it ; to obey the magistrates and the laws, and 
 defend them against attack ; finally to hold in honour 
 the religion of his country." The witnesses to this 
 oath were, besides Zeus, a number of special Attic 
 local deities of military or agrarian importance. 
 
 When a boy attained to the condition of ephebus 
 he discarded the himation and adopted the chlamys 
 as his characteristic dress. The hair, which was worn 
 long by boys, was cut short, and this act of cutting 
 the hair was a kind of religious ceremony, since the 
 hair cut off was often dedicated to some deity. This 
 sacred rite, the importance of which we can better 
 understand if we imagine our modern rite of Con- 
 firmation combined with the attainment of majority, 
 was usually celebrated as a festival in the family 
 circle. The new ephebi, after taking their oath and 
 receiving their arms, were presented publicly to the 
 people in the Theatre. This usually took place at 
 the festival of Dionysus, immediately before the per- 
 formance of a tragedy. It is, however, not quite 
 certain whether this introduction was confined to the 
 sons of those only who had fallen in battle, whose 
 equipment was presented to them by the State. This, 
 however, like most of the details which we have about 
 the ephebeia in Ancient Greece, refers specially to 
 Athens ; at Sparta and other places there were cus- 
 toms, more or less different, of which we know little or 
 nothing. Moreover, at Athens, as well as in the rest 
 of Greece and Asia Minor, the usage concerning 
 the ephebi underwent many changes during the 
 Hellenistic period and the Roman Empire. The 
 numerous inscriptions give us far more exact details 
 of this later period than of the best time ; but we 
 refrain from discussing them, since this institution, 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 119 
 
 which originally had an essentially warlike character, 
 gradually became a mere matter of form, and was 
 confined to the sons of rich citizens, who merely 
 played with the customs without regarding their 
 ethical or political importance. Most of the informa- 
 tion which the inscriptions supply about the officers 
 and teachers of the ephebi also belongs to the later 
 period ; a great many boards of management for the 
 arrangements concerning the ephebi, which became 
 more and more complicated, were either created fresh 
 or transformed out of the older ones, but their 
 importance and powers were entirely different. More- 
 over, our purpose is to confine our attention to the 
 classical and Hellenistic period. 
 
 We mentioned above that the place where the 
 ephebi received their gymnastic instruction, or prac- 
 tised on their own account, was the gymnasium. 
 The gymnasia, of which every town possessed 
 one or more, were not, like the wrestling schools, 
 private undertakings on the part of gymnastic 
 teachers, but State institutions. At Athens the 
 two oldest institutions of the kind were the 
 Academy and the Cynosarges, at the foot of the 
 Lycabettos, and in the time of Pericles the Lyceum 
 was added as a third ; the gymnasium of Ptolemy was 
 not built till the Hellenistic period. The originally 
 simple structure and arrangement of these institutions 
 became in the course of centuries more complicated 
 and extensive ; and, though the first gymnasia were 
 probably not more than simple halls supported by 
 columns, with a racecourse attached, in course of time 
 other rooms were added, and also baths, since the 
 gymnastic exercises rendered bathing immediately 
 afterwards absolutely necessary. At the time of 
 Plato a number of different rooms belonging to the 
 
120 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 gymnasia are mentioned, which show that even at 
 that time these must have been very extensive. We 
 cannot clearly tell, from the accounts of the Greek 
 writers, how these rooms were arranged and connected, 
 and the description given by Vitruvius of a gymna- 
 sium is but unsatisfactory, because in many points he 
 is not clear in his expressions. Moreover, it does not 
 give a general scheme, but only a particular descrip- 
 tion, and this may not refer to his own period, as has 
 been generally assumed, since the Koman gymnasia 
 were on a far more complicated plan than the one 
 described by Vitruvius, but rather to an earlier period, 
 though not the best. 
 
 We are enabled to complete and correct the state- 
 ments of Vitruvius from the ruins of various gymnasia 
 in Asia Minor and Greece, especially those of Perga- 
 mum and Olympia. The description of Vitruvius 
 connects the gymnasium and the wrestling school, 
 but we must distinguish this wrestling place, which 
 was a necessary part of the whole plan of the gymna- 
 sium, from that mentioned above, which was only 
 used as a gymnastic school for boys. In the plan 
 given by Vitruvius the centre is a square court with 
 covered arcades ; connected with this are a space for 
 the ephebi, rooms for exercises with the corycus 
 (boxing with a dummy), for anointing, sprinkling with 
 dust or sand previous to wrestling, bath-rooms for hot 
 and cold baths, etc. ; further, in connection with these 
 principal buildings there are covered racecourses, with 
 levelled floors, gardens, and places for exercise, for 
 rest, exedrae, etc. The arrangements of the gymna- 
 sium at Olympia, which probably dates from the end 
 of the fourth or the beginning of the third century 
 B.C., seem to have been simpler. We can distinguish 
 two separate buildings — a smaller one, the actual 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 121 
 
 palaestra, which has been almost entirely uncovered ; 
 and a larger, the large gymnasium, of which only a 
 little has been excavated. Both lie close together, west 
 of the sacred grove of Altis, near the banks of the 
 Kladeos; it was, in fact, very common to place the 
 gymnasia near running water, in order to have at 
 hand the water so necessary for the baths. We do not, 
 however, find any trace of those complicated bathing 
 arrangements described by Vitruvius, and probably 
 they did not become common till the Roman period. 
 In the wrestling school of Olympia we can only trace 
 one large bath, but still it is possible that there were 
 more extensive arrangements in the larger gymnasium. 
 The wrestling school itself is a square, the sides of 
 which measure about sixty- four yards each, surrounded 
 with Doric arcades ; on the south there is a long hall 
 in the Ionic style; on the three other sides are also 
 halls and little rooms, the purpose of which we cannot 
 determine, connected with the inner court by doors or 
 porticoes ; on the north wall is the door connecting it 
 with the south hall of the larger gymnasium. This 
 latter was separated from the wrestling place, though, 
 as a rule, this is an integral part, or even the centre of 
 the whole structure ; it is oblong in form, and is sur- 
 rounded by arcades on two or three sides. The 
 eastern hall extends to the length of 210| yards. No 
 doubt the exercises in jumping, running, throwing the 
 quoit and spear, took place here. The best-preserved 
 ruins are those of Ephesus and Alexandria Troas, but 
 even here we are obliged to be very arbitrary in our 
 attempts at reconstruction. 
 
 In any case it is certain that the gymnasia of the 
 classic period gave sufficient opportunity for different 
 kinds of gymnastic exercises, as well as for wrestling 
 and the various contests, and also supplied places for 
 
122 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME 
 
 recreation and comfortable repose from the fatigues of 
 physical exertion. The superintendence of the youths 
 who practised here, and the maintaining of order were 
 the duty of the Gymnasiarchs. They had the right of 
 discipline, which they could exercise over any visitor 
 to the gymnasium, and in token of this they carried a 
 rod ; thus we often see on vase pictures, among the 
 gymnasts, men with long sticks, probably meant to 
 represent the gymnasiarchs. In the older period 
 at Athens there was but one gymnasiarch, but 
 afterwards several shared the dignity. We cannot 
 decide how far they also exercised a right of con- 
 trol over the wrestling- schools. Besides the gymnasi- 
 arch, or perhaps below him, was a board of officials 
 whose duty it was to see to the preservation of the 
 buildings and of the implements used in the gymnasia, 
 while the general superintendence of the gymnastic 
 exercises, and therefore also of the gymnasia, was 
 exercised by the superintendents mentioned above 
 (page 113), and, as a rule, men somewhat advanced in 
 years were chosen for these posts. 
 
 There were other officials who were not so much 
 concerned with the external arrangements of the 
 gymnasia as with the instruction given there. The 
 president of the gymnasium and head of the teachers 
 {Koa/jL7]T7]<;) is not mentioned until the late Hellenic 
 and Roman periods , under him were the actual 
 teachers and also those who instructed the ephebi in 
 grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy ; but in the classic 
 period no instruction of this kind was given. At that 
 time, however, we find the trainer (yv/xvacrT'^^) acting as 
 gymnastic teacher to the older youths, whose aim wasi 
 to prepare themselves for athletic contests, and who in- 
 tended to enter the lists as professional athletes. As 
 boys were sometimes prepared for such contests, no 
 
EDUCATTON. 
 
 128 
 
 doubt on occasion the trainer took tlie place of the 
 ordinary teacher; and again, on the other hand, a 
 competent gymnastic master sometimes undertook 
 the training of athletes. Generally speaking, how- 
 ever, in the older period this distinction was main- 
 tained, that the boys' teacher was concerned chiefly 
 with the general training of the body suitable for 
 everyone, and wrestling on a rational and hygienic 
 basis, while the trainer was a professional teacher, 
 and was more concerned with special subjects than 
 the general harmonious development of the body. 
 Below these teachers stood the rubber (aXe/Trrr;?), 
 whose task was originally a purely mechanical one . 
 but gradually when anointing and rubbing came to be 
 regarded from the hygienic point of view, and were 
 perhaps connected with a kind of massage, his stand- 
 ing improved, and after a time he took a far more 
 important position than belonged to him of right. 
 
 In spite of the numerous allusions to the instruc- 
 tion of the ephebi which have come down to us, there 
 is a good deal that is still doubtful or unexplained ; 
 as, for instance, in how far the trainers also in- 
 structed those ephebi who were not in training for 
 the contests, and whether they were paid for their 
 services by the State or by each pupil hidividually. 
 Afterwards, at any rate, the ephebi as a rule only 
 paid a fee to the teacher for musical instruction, 
 while the gymnastic teacher seems to have been paid 
 by the State. 
 
 As for the subjects of gymnastic instruction, these 
 were in part the same as those in which the boys had 
 already been trained in the gymnastic school, but 
 gradually becoming more difficult, while others were 
 added to them which were usually excluded from the 
 wrestling school — namely, boxing, pancratium, and 
 
124 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 pentathlum. Besides these there was fencing with 
 heavy weapons {oTrXo/jba-x^ia) ; the fencing was not 
 properly connected with the exercises of the 
 gymnastic tests, but it formed an important part 
 of the miUtary education of the ephebi, and was 
 the more important for these because, when they 
 attained their majority as citizens, they had to 
 spend several years in a kind of garrison and frontier 
 service {irepiTrokoi), This was a training for military 
 service which the ephebi, like all other citizens 
 capable of bearing arms, had to perform from 
 their twentieth year upwards, and they generally 
 served the State for two years before in the manner 
 above mentioned. Methodical instruction in fencing 
 was originally rather looked down upon, but still was 
 accepted in the curriculum of the ephebi, and in the 
 inscriptions the fencing-master (oTrXofiaxo^) has a 
 regular place beside the other masters. Plato also 
 recommends fencing as strengthening for the body 
 and useful in case of war, but he warns people to 
 avoid all display and professionalism. 
 
 In the course of time other exercises in arms were 
 added. Throwing the spear was part of the regular 
 gymnastic training practised even by boys ; and in 
 many inscriptions of the last three centuries B.C. 
 mention is made of special teachers (aKovTLcrrac). •> 
 Shooting with bow and arrows was also learnt, and a 
 teacher for this is mentioned in these inscriptions, 
 as well as one who gave instruction in hurling and in 
 the use of machines for throwing. Probably these 
 purely military exercises were not part of the regular 
 gymnastic curriculum. The same may bo said of 
 riding. Every youth had to learn riding, for he had to 
 perform his frontier service on horseback ; and at the 
 great festivals, especially the Panathenaea, the troops 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 125 
 
 of epliebi on horseback formed one of the most con- 
 spicuous parts of the procession, and, indeed, they 
 occupy the greater part of the relief on the Parthenon 
 frieze. Fig. 76, taken from a vase painting, represents 
 ephebi racing on horseback ; on 
 the left stands a column, no doubt 
 marking the limit of the course. 
 In fact, representations on vase 
 paintings of ephebi on horseback 
 are very common. Still we cannot 
 assume that regular methodical 
 instruction in riding was given in 
 the older period, at any rate not as 
 part of the instruction of youths, 
 though even in the time of Plato 
 there were riding-masters who 
 seem to have understood how to 
 deal with difficult horses. At a 
 later period the president seems 
 to have occupied himself with in- 
 struction in riding, but we know 
 no details about this. The Greeks 
 used neither horse-shoes nor stir- 
 rups, therefore, unless some stone 
 for mounting happened to be at 
 hand, they had to jump on to their 
 horses, and this they usually did 
 with the help of their lances ; 
 saddles were also unknown, but horse-cloths weie 
 generally used, and though on the Parthenon frieze 
 and the vase pictures we see the ephebi riding 
 without these, we must regard this as an artistic 
 license, like the absence of the chiton on the 
 same pictures. To ride thus in a procession, clad 
 merely in the chlamys, without any under garment, 
 
126 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 on a horse without a saddle, would appear a very doubt- 
 ful pleasure even to the most hardened Athenian youths. 
 
 As regards the other exercises not directly in- 
 cluded in gymnastics, we may state that swimming 
 was practised from earliest youth, and was regarded 
 as indispensable for everyone, so that it was proverbi- 
 ally said of an absolutely uneducated person that he 
 could neither swim nor say his alphabet. The most 
 celebrated swimmers were the inhabitants of the 
 island of Delos, but the Athenians were also distin- 
 guished. There were no special swimming masters ; 
 children learnt to swim by themselves or were in- 
 structed by their fathers. 
 
 Inscriptions also tell us that the Attic ephebi 
 every year made expeditions by sea from the Peiraeus 
 to the harbour of Munychia, and in later times also 
 to Salamis, and these apparently partook of the 
 nature of a regatta. Connected with these, even in 
 the Hellenistic period, were navtt) contests, so that at 
 that time the ephebi must have had some knowledge 
 of the elements of seafaring, unless these sea-fights 
 bore the character of naval games, and were con- 
 ducted rather for amusement than for serious military 
 purposes ; and this is the more probable as at that 
 period, when Athens had long ago lost its political 
 importance, actual preparations for naval warfare had 
 no special aim for young Athenians. 
 
 Finally there were, even in the earlier centuries, 
 exercises in marching in the neighbouring country. 
 These were partly connected with the military posi- 
 tion of the ephebi as protectors of the frontier, and 
 they partly aimed at extending their knowledge of 
 localities as well as giving practice in marching and 
 riding. As they sometimes had to march out in 
 heavy armour, and generally bivouacked in hastily- 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 127 
 
 pitched tents, sometimes even in the open air, these 
 marches supplied an excellent opportunity for growing 
 accustomed to the fatigues of military life. It is clear 
 from all this that the instruction of the ephebi bore 
 a half-gymnastic, half-military character, and thus 
 aimed chiefly at physical development ; yet, on the 
 other hand, many opportunities were given the young 
 men for further intellectual development. We 
 cannot, of course, determine whether the majority 
 of them took advantage of this, for undoubtedly it 
 was optional, and not immediately connected with 
 their necessary training. However, in the second 
 century B.C. the custom prevailed of letting the presi- 
 dents of the various gymnasia at Athens see that they 
 were regularly attended. 
 
 As regards the subjects of this more advanced 
 instruction, opportunity was certainly given for 
 further study in arithmetic, geometry, and astron- 
 omy, as well as music and drawing. After the 
 fourth century the various schools of philosophy 
 which arose at that time, began to take a very 
 important place in the intellectual development of 
 these youths. As early as the fifth century the 
 Sophists gave instruction to young and older men for 
 payment; but after the time of Plato the higher 
 instruction was regularly organised and also given 
 free of charge, and from this time forward it was 
 closely connected with the training of the ephebi, 
 since the gymnasia destined for gymnastic teaching 
 were also used for instruction in philosophy. Plato 
 and his school taught, as is well known, in the 
 Academy ; Aristotle and the Peripatetics in the 
 Lyceum; and Antisthenes and the Cynic school in 
 the Cynosarges ; the Stoics also originally taught at 
 the Lyceum, but afterwards in the Stoa Poilcile (the 
 
128 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 "painted portico") near the old Agora; at Athens 
 the Epicurean school only was not connected with 
 any existing gymnasium. This connection, however, 
 between these schools and the gymnasia was merely 
 an external one, and really meant that the ground 
 and gardens belonging to them were situated in the 
 domain of these special gymnasia. However, the fact 
 that the schools possessed a fixed place under the 
 direction of the head for the time being did very 
 much to establish their stability. We must not 
 regard these philosophical schools as higher schools 
 in the modern sense ; though each school had a head 
 who had the management in his own hands, and at 
 his death appointed a successor, yet there was no 
 question of an organised scheme of studies or of 
 instruction regularly occupying certain hours of the 
 day, or, indeed, of any of the conditions which could 
 be compared with our modern universities, at any 
 rate not before the period of the Eoman Empire. In 
 the fourth century and in the Hellenistic period the 
 instruction merely consisted in a discourse given by 
 the head, or a disputation with his scholars, by moans 
 of which the various branches of philosophy and ethics 
 were treated. Practical instruction in rhetoric was 
 also given, sometimes by philosophers, but oftener by 
 celebrated rhetoricians, such as Isocrates, and this 
 training lasted several years. Very often young men 
 prepared themselves in this way for their future 
 career as statesmen or lawyers ; and in the Hellenistic 
 period the study of philological grammar began to 
 gain importance, especially in the schools of Alex- 
 andria, Pergamum, and Antioch, to which places cele- 
 brated teachers attracted numerous pupils. These 
 studies were in no way connected with the regular 
 training of ephebi 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 129 
 
 Generally speaking, we may say that the main 
 object of the education of the youths in the best period 
 of Greek antiquity was to tram a citizen, capable in 
 body and mind, who should be able to serve his 
 country as well in war as in peace, in a public as in a 
 private capacity, while all special development of any 
 branch of learning, except, of course, the gymnastic 
 element, was excluded. This is the more comprehen- 
 sible since Greek antiquity was unacquainted with the 
 higher professions in our sense, of the word. 
 
 There is far less to be said about the education of 
 girls, since no regular instruction was given. The 
 sphere to which women were confined in all the Greek 
 states was the household, and their position, especially 
 in the Ionic states, was so distinctly a subordinate one 
 that it was not considered desirable to give them also 
 regular teaching. In consequence there were no girls' 
 schools ; girls belonging to the better classes were 
 taught a little reading and writing by their mothers 
 or nurses — the women of the lower classes did not 
 learn even this — and, with the addition of some super- 
 ficial knowledge of religion and mythology, such as 
 could be acquired from stories or by reading the 
 poets, this constituted all the intellectual develop- 
 ment which fell to the lot of the girls. Sometimes a 
 little musical instruction was also given, and even in 
 the Ionic states there were some exceptions, since we 
 hear of women of higher intellectual development. 
 As a rule, it was only the hetaerae, whose freer inter- 
 course with men enabled them to gain from them 
 more extensive literary culture ; and as a consequence 
 we find that even men of high intellectual powers 
 chose to associate with these persons, and that at 
 Athens, at any rate, the men who desired the stimulus 
 ot intercourse with intellectual women, were bound to 
 
 F 
 
130 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 seek it from this class. The fault was, of course, their 
 ovvn, since the semi-Oriental system of shutting off 
 women from the outer world and degrading them 
 into mere managers of the household, necessarily 
 lowered the average culture of women. Still, it some- 
 times happened that a man who had married a young 
 open-minded girl contrived to raise her up intellec- 
 tually to himself, and to develop her powers, as 
 Xenophon has shown in his Oikonomikos. 
 
 On the other hand, Greek women appear to have 
 been experienced in feminine arts— such as spinning 
 and weaving, sewing and embroidery, accomplish- 
 ments which they certainly learnt from their mothers 
 and nurses. No regular instruction was given in 
 them, or in cooking, an art with which Greek women 
 were undoubtedly well acquainted. This system of 
 educating girls did not, however, meet with general 
 approval, for we find that Plato, in his " Laws," pre- 
 scribes regular school instruction for girls in the 
 subjects required for women, and also musical and 
 even gymnastic training. These principles were, 
 however, never practically realised at Athens, though 
 elsewhere the conditions may have been different, 
 since an inscription from Teos of somewhat late date 
 makes express mention of instruction given in common 
 to boys and girls. 
 
 It was a natural consequence of the very different 
 position occupied by women at Athens and Sparta, 
 that the latter had a very different education from 
 the Athenian women. Though the young Spartan 
 maidens did not, like the boys, associate together in 
 clubs, but remained with their families, yet the State 
 took cognisance of these also, and especially prescribed 
 for them gymnastic training, which was in essentials 
 the §^J¥^§ as that given to the boys, though with 
 
132 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 corresponding modifications, in order to develop and 
 strengthen their bodies. Of course, they had their 
 own special schools for this purpose, distinct from 
 those of the boys, where they were instructed in 
 running, jumping, wrestling, throwing the spear and 
 quoit, as well as in several exercises in running and 
 leaping, which were partly of a military character, 
 partly allied with dancing. For this purpose they 
 wore a special dress ; Fig. 77 shows us a female racer 
 from Elis. The statue which is in the Vatican is in 
 the ancient style, and represents a robust girl clad in 
 a short chiton, with a girdle descending only a little 
 way below the hips, and leaving the right breast 
 exposed. This special dress used for gymnastic exer- 
 cises must not, however, be confused with that in 
 which the Spartan ladies usually appeared, though 
 this, too, as already stated (page 39), differed from the 
 ordinary dress of Greek girls. In spite, however, of 
 this dress, and of the fact that youths and maidens, 
 who in the Ionic states scarcely ever met each other 
 except at religious festivals, were brought into frequent 
 contact at Sparta, especially at public contests, games, 
 choruses, etc., the Spartan women bore an unstained 
 reputation. The system of physical exercises pro- 
 duced healthy women, strongly built, with blooming 
 complexions ; and it also implanted and developed in 
 them the manly and determined spirit for which the 
 Laconian women and mothers were distinguished. 
 Yet, even at Sparta, there was no question of intel- 
 lectual training for the girls ; and, indeed, as we have 
 already seen, even in the case of the boys, it was re- 
 garded as far less important than physical educatioa 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 Love amongst the Greeks — Engagements— Marriage Kites and Cere- 
 monies — The Laconian Custom — Marriage in the Doric States— 
 The Mode of Life of the Athenian Women — Their Persona] 
 Habits — The Heiaerae. 
 
 The boyhood of the young Athenian was occupied 
 by school and play; his youth was spent in 
 gymnastic exercises, and sometimes also in scientific 
 studies and military labours. When he attained his 
 . majority as a citizen, he acquired the right of ex- 
 ercising his political and civic duties, taking part 
 in popular assemblies and other public gatherings; 
 but apparently the young people did not make much 
 use of these privileges when they first entered on 
 their political majority. Besides these occupations 
 there were many others to draw them away from 
 serious duties : pleasant intercourse with companions, 
 drinking bouts, and also the charms of pretty hetaerao, 
 who were easily won to regard with favour anyone 
 possessing a tolerably well-filled purse. And this was 
 all the compensation they had for exclusion from the 
 society of the daughters of citizens ; for, with the 
 exception of the hetaerae, and the flute and cithara 
 players who performed at the banquets, women 
 played no part in social intercourse at Athens. There 
 were but few occasions when the girls left the close 
 confinement of the women's apartments for any kind 
 of publicity, and this custom, which resembled the 
 Oriental, and was probably introduced by the Ionic 
 
134 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Greeks from Asia Minor, while the Doric practice 
 was very different, caused one of the greatest wants 
 of Attic Ufe. This is brought forcibly before us in 
 the comedies of the fourth century, the so-called 
 " New Attic Comedy,'' in which the basis was usually 
 a love ^tory, which our modern ideas would regard as 
 purely sensual, or even immoral ; while love, in the 
 best sense of the word, is never represented. We 
 must not, on this account, suppose that the Greeks 
 were entirely unacquainted with that kind of affection 
 which is based on real inclination, similarity of mind, 
 and recognition of intellectual virtues ; in fact, the 
 contrast often emphasised by poets and artists be- 
 tween Aphrodite Urania, as the type of heavenly 
 intellectual love, and Aphrodite Pandemos, as that of 
 sensuous love, must convince us of the contrary; 
 while Greek literature also supplies many examples 
 of pure love in the truest sense of the word, though a 
 strong admixture of the sensuous element was natural, 
 even here, to a passionate southern race. 
 
 It was, however, quite unusual for such attach- 
 ment to begin before marriage, since opportunities for 
 this were wanting. But often, in spite of the conven- 
 tional mode by which marriages were arranged, this 
 attachment was developed after marriage, and we 
 must not fall into the mistake of judging married 
 life in Greece, or especially at Athens, only from 
 the greatly exaggerated descriptions of Aristophanes, 
 or the sarcastic tirades of misogynists like Euripides. 
 The great majority of the women were not so super- 
 ficial or so quarrelsome as these poets have represented 
 them, nor the young men, as a rule, so vicious or hostile 
 to marriage as they are depicted in the majority of 
 the New Attic Comedies. 
 
 It is true enough, of course, that marriage was 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 135 
 
 usually a matter of contract between the fathers or 
 guardians of the young pair, and not the consequence 
 of affection between the youth and maiden ; and this it 
 is which we see in the comedies of Plautus and Terence, 
 who copied Greek originals. Very often the fathers 
 agreed to a marriage between their children ; sometimes 
 the arrangements were made by a womsin{7rpo/jbvrjo-Tpla) 
 acquainted with the circumstances of the citizens' 
 families, who made a kind of business of arranging 
 marriages. An important point was equality of for- 
 tune ; of course, both parties had to be full citizens, 
 but degrees of relationship do not seem to have been 
 any hindrance. The girl's consent was not asked at 
 all ; it was a matter of course that she should accept 
 the husband chosen by her parents, and, as she had 
 no other male acquaintances, objections can very 
 seldom have been made. Generally she was only 
 acquainted with the husband destined for her by 
 seeing him hastily on her walks or at festivals. The 
 destined bridegroom is more likely to have made 
 objections if the appointed bride did not please him ; 
 yet here, too, as a rule, the father could have his way, 
 since his son was entirely in his power, unless it so 
 happened that he earned his own living by any pro- 
 fession, which was seldom the case among the better 
 classes. The fathers or guardians then concluded the 
 contract of engagement, in which the bride's dowry 
 was fixed and special arrangements made for com- 
 munity of goods, return of the dowry in case of a 
 divorce, etc. The Homeric custom, by which it was 
 the bridegroom who brought gifts in order to win a 
 bride, while the father gave his daughter to the one 
 who promised the richest bridal presents, had early 
 fallen into disuse, and probably even in the heroic period 
 it was only customary among noble famiUes. In the 
 
136 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 historic period a dowry was regarded as an indis- 
 pensable basis for marriage : so much so that daughters 
 or sisters of poor citizens were often endowed at the 
 expense of generous friends, or poor orphan girls by 
 their guardians ; sometimes the State even gave a 
 dowry to the daughters of citizens who had deserved 
 well of their country. The engagement itself was, as 
 a rule, a legal act, which followed the private agree- 
 ment' between the fathers, and was considered an 
 essential preliminary to a legal marriage ; it was not, 
 however, a general custom to celebrate ' this act in a 
 social manner by a banquet. As is usual in southern 
 countries, the girls married very young, sometimes 
 even at the age of fifteen, or earlier ; but the period 
 between their sixteenth and twentieth years was 
 probably the usual one for marriage. There seems to 
 have been no distinct limit of age for men, but 
 probably the years between twenty and thirty were 
 those in which most of them entered the married 
 state. We do not know how long a period usually 
 elapsed between the engagement and the marriage ; 
 probably there was no definite custom, but we know 
 that very often the wedding iriimediately followed the 
 engagement. We are likewise unable to say whether, 
 in the case of a long engagement, the bride and bride- 
 groom had any opportunities for meeting each other. 
 The actual wedding usually took place in the winter, 
 and a favourite time was the month Gamelion (the 
 end of January and beginning of February), which 
 hence received its name. Certain days regarded as 
 auspicious were generally chosen, and the waning 
 moon was specially avoided. It is curious, when we 
 compare our own and the Roman customs, to note 
 that, though the wedding received a religious charac- 
 ter by sacrifices and other solemn ceremonies, it was 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 137 
 
 not of itself regarded as a religious or legal act. The 
 legality of the marriage depended on the engagement, 
 and the religious consecration was not given by a 
 priest (who took no part, as a rule, in the wedding 
 ceremony), but by the marriage gods, who were invoked 
 by prayer and sacrifice, more especially Zeus and Hera, 
 Apollo, Artemis, and Peitho, the goddess of persua- 
 sion. We must now endeavour to form an idea of 
 an Athenian wedding ceremony, as described by 
 Greek writers. 
 
 Among the ceremonies bearing a religious 
 character which preceded the wedding, an important 
 part was played by the bath. Both bride and bride- 
 groom took a bath either on the morning of the 
 wedding-day or the day before, for which the water 
 was brought from a river or from some spring 
 regarded as specially sacred, as at Athens the 
 spring Callirhoe (or Enneacrunos), at Thebes the 
 Ismenus; and this water had to be fetched by a 
 boy who was some near relation ; sometimes, however, 
 we hear of maidens sent to fetch it. The bride also 
 offered Ubations and gifts — as, for instance, her toys, 
 locks of hair, and the like — to one of the marriage 
 goddesses. More important was the sacrifice generally 
 celebrated on the wedding-day, but we know few 
 details about the mode of its performance. It was 
 offered to the marriage deities mentioned above, 
 either to all collectively or singly ; the families of 
 both bridegroom and bride took part in the ceremony. 
 We do not know of any special directions as to the 
 animals to be sacrificed ; it appears to have been the 
 custom to remove the gall of the victim, and not burn 
 it with the rest of the inner parts, and this was sup- 
 posed to indicate symbolically that all bitterness must 
 be absent from marriage. 
 1 * 
 
138 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Most sacrifices connected with the slaughtering of 
 animals were followed by a festive banquet, at which 
 the flesh of the victims constituted the principal dish, 
 and thus the wedding sacrifice also was followed by a 
 feast, which was generally held at the house of the 
 bride's father. As this must, according to custom, 
 have taken place in the afternoon, we may assume 
 that the other wedding ceremonies had been per- 
 formed in the morning. The wedding banquet was 
 one of the few occasions when men and women dined 
 together ; this generally occurred only in most inti- 
 mate family circles, but not when guests were present. 
 The luxury of these wedding banquets seems to have 
 increased so much that the State was at last obliged 
 to limit the number of guests by law. Plato would 
 not have allowed husband and wife to invite more 
 than five friends and five relations each — that is, twenty 
 in all — on any occasion, whether a wedding or other- 
 wise ; and a statute of the fourth century B.C. makes 
 thirty the maximum limit for weddings, and in- 
 structs the officials who had charge of the women 
 (yvvaiKovo/jLoi) to see that this rule is not infringed ; 
 and they seem to have carried out their office so 
 strictly that on these occasions they often entered the 
 house, counted the guests, and turned out all who 
 exceeded the legal number. At the banquet, as well 
 as at the sacrifice which preceded it, the bride 
 appeared in all her bridal adornments. Some female 
 relation or friend who took the part of a modern brides- 
 maid {vvfji(j)€VTpLa) undertook to deck the bride and 
 anoint her with costly essences, and dress her in 
 clothes of some fine, probably coloured, material, 
 while special shoes, ribbons, and flowers in the hair 
 were regarded as important, as well as the veil, which 
 was the distinctive mark of the bri<l(3, tiuA covered the 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 139 
 
 head, falling low down and partly covering the face. 
 The bridegroom, too, appeared in a festive white dress, 
 which differed from his ordinary clothing chiefly by the 
 fineness of material ; he, too, wore a wreath, as did all 
 the other guests at the banquet, but certain flowers, 
 supposed to be of fortunate omen, were worn by the 
 bride and bridegroom. We do not hear of any special 
 dishes supplied at weddings, but cakes, to which the 
 Greeks assigned a symbolical connection with festive 
 occasions, played an important part, and in particular 
 cakes of sesame found a place at the wedding banquet. 
 A special custom peculiar to Athens was for a boy, both 
 of whose parents must be alive, to go round wreathed 
 with hawthorn or acorns carrying a basket of cakes, 
 singing, " I fled from misfortune, I found a better 
 lot." 
 
 When the banquet was concluded, according to 
 custom, by libation and prayers, and the night began 
 to set in, the bride was conducted home to the house 
 of the bridegroom. It was only among very poor 
 people that the bride went on foot in this procession ; 
 if it was at all possible, she took her place between 
 the bridegroom and the groomsman {irapdvvfij>o<; or 
 7rdpoxo<s)y who was a near relation or intimate friend 
 of the bridegroom, in a carriage drawn by oxen or 
 horses. All the other persons who took part in the 
 procession — that is, all who had been at the banquet, 
 and probably many others as well — went on foot 
 behind the carriage to the sound of harps and flutes, 
 while one went on in front as leader. The bride's 
 mother occupied the place of honour in the pro- 
 cession, carrying in her hand the bridal torches, 
 kindled at the family hearth, and thus the bride took 
 the sacred fire of her home to her new dwelling. On 
 this account the ancients represented the god of 
 
140 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Marriage, Hymen, with a torch as symbol. If other 
 members of the procession also carried torches, that 
 was only in accordance with the custom of using 
 them when going out in the evening ; it was only the 
 torches of the bride's mother that had any symbohcal 
 meaning. Meantime the bride's attendants sang a 
 bridal song, while the procession moved through the 
 streets to the bridegroom's house. This song is called 
 Hymenaeus, and the following is found at the etid 
 of the Birds of Aristophanes : — 
 
 " Jupiter, that god sublime, 
 When the Fates in former time 
 Matched him with the Queen of Heaven 
 At a solemn banquet given, 
 Such a feast was held above, 
 And the charming god of Love, 
 Being present in command, 
 As a bridegroom took his stand 
 With the golden reins in hand. 
 Hymen, Hymen, Ho ! * 
 
 The bridegroom's mother, also carrying torches, 
 awaited the procession by the bridegroom's door, 
 which was festively decked with wreaths. A shower 
 of all manner of sweetmeats was poured on the 
 bridal pair, partly in jest and partly to symbolise 
 the rich blessing invoked upon them;' nor was 
 the serious work forgotten which now awaited the 
 young wife in her new position : a pestle for bruising 
 the corn grains was hung up near the bridal chamber, 
 to remind her of her duties as head of the household, 
 and it was an ancient Athenian custom for the bride 
 herself to carry some household implement in the 
 procession, as, for instance, a sieve or a vessel for 
 roasting. Another symbolical custom, supposed also 
 
 * Translated by J. Hookham Frere, 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 141 
 
 to date from an ordinance of Solon, was for the bride, 
 after her arrival in her new home, to eat a quince, 
 which, Uke the pomegranate, was supposed to be a 
 symbol of fruitfulness. 
 
 The bridegroom's mother then attended the bridal 
 pair to the thalamus or bridal chamber, where the 
 richly-decked, flower-strewn marriage couch was pre- 
 pared. When all the guests had gone away the 
 bridegroom locked the door, and while the bride 
 unveiled herself to him for the first time, the youths 
 and maidens outside sang another song — either a few 
 verses of the Hymenaeus or an Epithalamium, accom- 
 panied Avith praises of the married pair, and also 
 doubtless by some jesting personal allusions. The 
 Epithalamium of Helen, in Theocritus, begins thus: — 
 
 " Slumberest so soon, sweet bridegroom ? 
 
 Art thou over-fond of sleep ? 
 Or hast thou leaden-weighted limbs ? 
 
 Or hadst thou drunk too deep 
 When thou didst fling thee to thy lair ? 
 
 Betimes thou shouldst have sped, 
 If sleep were all thy purpose, 
 
 Unto thy bachelor's bed, 
 And left her in her mother's arms 
 
 To nestle and to play, 
 A girl among her girlish mates, 
 
 Till deep into the day : — 
 For not alone for this night, 
 
 Nor for the next alone, 
 * But through the days and through the years 
 
 Thou hast her for thine own." 
 
 And it ends thus : — 
 
 " Sleep on, and love and longing 
 
 Breathe in each other's breast ; 
 But fail not, when the morn returns, 
 
 To rouse you from your rest : 
 With dawn shall we be stirring, 
 
142 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 When, lifting high his fair 
 And feathered neck, the earliest bird 
 To clarion to the dawn is heard. 
 O God of brides and bridals, 
 
 Sing ' Happy, happy pair ! ' " * 
 
 Very often the young men, before setting out home- 
 wards, amused themselves by knocking and banging at 
 the door of the bridal chamber, though a friend of the 
 bridegroom's kept watch there, ostensibly to prevent 
 the maidens from going in to their married comrade. 
 The last lines of the above -quoted epithalamium 
 show that the chorus sometimes returned early next 
 morning to greet the pair on their awakening. 
 
 On the morning after the wedding the newly- 
 married pair received visits and congratulations from 
 their relations and friends. The husband presented 
 his young wife with gifts, and so also did the visitors, 
 but this ceremony sometimes did not take place till 
 the second day after the wedding ; for a curious 
 custom existed (only at Athens, however) for the 
 husband on the day after the wedding to move into 
 his father-in-law's house, and there spend a night 
 apart from his wife ; she then sent him a new gar- 
 ment, whereupon he returned to her. With the 
 wedding presents the dowry was often presented, 
 along with various objects belonging to the trousseau, 
 such as jars, ointments, sandals, toilette implements, 
 etc. The wedding festivities were then concluded by 
 a banquet given either by the bridegroom's father in 
 his house or by the bridegroom himself ; but it does 
 not appear that there were any women present on this 
 occasion. Still, this banquet was of a certain im- 
 portance for the young wife ; at Athens it was con- 
 nected with her formal admission among the clansmen 
 
 * Translated by S. C. Calverley. 
 
MARRIAGE AND 
 
 to whom the bride now be- 
 longed by her marriage. Every 
 tribe (cj^vXrj) at Athens was 
 divided into three clans 
 ((f>pdTpaL), each of these into 
 thirty households (yevr]) ; the 
 members of the clans examined 
 into the purity of descent of 
 citizens, and every new-born 
 child had to be entered in 
 their register. This ceremony 
 gave a sort of official, or at 
 any rate public, legitimation 
 to the marriage. 
 
 Among the monuments 
 which have been preserved to 
 us, there are several which 
 refer to marriage; but, as a 
 rule, they adhere to a mytho- 
 logical form, and do not re- 
 present a real scene from daily 
 life. Thus, for instance, we 
 often see the bridal pair driv- 
 ing in a car, but those who 
 attend them are the Marriage 
 gods in person, especially 
 Apollo and Artemis, and when 
 the presentation of marriage 
 gifts to the newly- wedded pair 
 is represented, it is usually the 
 celebrated couple, Peleus and 
 Thetis, that we see depicted, 
 while those who offer them 
 the gifts are gods, such as 
 Hephaestus and the Horae,etc, 
 
144 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 The vase painting, which is here given as Fig. 78, 
 also bears a mythological character, though it, no 
 doubt, adheres very closely to the forms of reality. It 
 represents the arrival of the bride at the bridegroom's 
 house. The latter stands leaning on a spear (which, 
 however, must be an heroic attribute, and not cus- 
 tomary at marriages in the historic period) before the 
 door of his house. On the left comes the bride, who 
 is recognised by the veil covering her head. She ap- 
 proaches with a hesitating step, and the bridesmaid 
 attending her is pushing her gently forward with both 
 hands, while the groomsman, who goes before her, 
 holds her left hand. Apollo, with his laurel staff, and 
 Artemis, with quiver and bow, are gazing sympa- 
 thetically at the bride ; in front of them a woman, 
 either the match-maker or the bride's mother, holds 
 out both her arms to welcome the bridegroom. 
 
 Of course, marriage customs differed considerably 
 in the various Greek states, as is proved by many 
 allusions. Strangest of all seems the Laconian 
 custom, which points clearly to marriage by capture, 
 a custom of great antiquity, mentioned in many 
 legends (as, for instance, that of the Dioscuri and the 
 daughters of Leucippus). No mention is made here of 
 a real marriage celebration ; the bridegroom carried off 
 his bride, who must, however, have previously been 
 betrothed to him by her father, from her parents' 
 house, and in his own dwelling handed her over to 
 the charge of some middle-aged woman {vvfi^evrpLa), 
 who was either a relation or an intimate friend. 
 During his absence at the common dining table, to 
 which all Spartan citizens and youths went every 
 day, this woman cut off the bride's hair, dressed her 
 hi male dress, with men's shoes, and left her lying in 
 the dark on some straw. Then, when the bridegroom 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 145 
 
 returned, he unloosed the bride's girdle and carried 
 her in his arms to the bridal chamber. Curiously 
 enough, the appearance of secrecy was kept up for 
 some time longer ; the young husband continued to 
 live with the other young citizens, and only visited 
 his wife occasionally in secret. Similar practices pre- 
 vailed also at Crete. We do not, however, know how 
 long these strange customs continued in the Doric 
 states. 
 
 In considering the position of women in relation 
 to men and in the household, we must allow for the 
 differences between the heroic and historic periods, 
 and also between the Doric and the Ionic-Attic 
 states. Of the Aeolian states we know very little. 
 In the heroic period, as far as we can gather from 
 the Homeric poems, women occupied an important 
 position, in many respects equal to that of the men. 
 Heroic times, like the rest of Greek antiquity, were 
 only acquainted with monogamy ; polygamy is an 
 entirely Oriental custom. Still, it was by no means 
 unusual in olden times for princes and nobles to have 
 a number of concubines, who were either slaves or 
 female captives, besides their own lawful wives, who 
 were sprung of noble family. In fact, the idea of 
 conjugal fidelity held good only for the female portion 
 of the population, while the men were absolutely free 
 to act as they pleased. Undoubtedly there were cases 
 in which husband and wife were so well suited to- 
 gether that the men resisted all temptations to in- 
 fidelity ; among these we may include Hector, Laertes, 
 and Odysseus, in spite of the amours of this last with 
 Circe and Calypso. Whenever we obtain a closer in- 
 sight into the conditions of married life, as in the ease 
 of Hector and Andromache, Odysseus and Penel 
 the impression received is a favourable one. There i6 
 
146 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 even a vein of true affection perceptible, which is 
 generally absent from ancient conceptions of marriage. 
 
 In the heroic age women were chiefly occupied 
 with household management and female accomplish- 
 ments, while they plied their tasks with their 
 attendants in the women's apartments; but their 
 life was not one of such absolute retirement as that of 
 the Oriental harems. On some occasions they asso- 
 ciated with men, and took part in their sacrifices and 
 banquets; and though they never went out unat- 
 tended, yet a good deal of liberty must have been 
 allowed the young girls, to judge from the story of 
 Nausicaa, who went down to the sea-shore to wash 
 the clothes. 
 
 In the historic age, the Doric states bear the 
 closest analogy to heroic times in their marriage 
 customs. Here, too, we find the same undisguised 
 assumption that marriage existed for the sake of 
 rearing children ; and, in fact, the laws of Lycurgus 
 permitted a man to transfer his conjugal rights for a 
 time to another, if his childlessness imperilled the 
 existence of the family. In cipite — or, perhaps, on 
 account — of this custom, infidelity was very rare at 
 Sparta, even among the men, and the institution of 
 hetaerae never gained ground there. Concubinage, 
 which was very common in the heroic age, fell into 
 disuse during historic times, but, except at Sparta, it 
 was really discontinued only in name. The domestic 
 relations between husband and wife more closely 
 resembled our own at Sparta than in the Ionic- Attic 
 states. Even at Sparta the household was the centre 
 around which the woman's life revolved, but she was 
 not degraded into a mere housekeeper; a Spartan 
 addressed his wife as " Mistress " (Seairotva), made her 
 the partner of his interests, and consulted her about 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN, 
 
 147 
 
 matters of importance. This seemed so strange to 
 the other Greek states that they were incHned to 
 regard the Spartan husbands as henpecked, which was 
 by no means the case ; but there is no doubt that 
 Spartan history can boast of far more remarkable 
 women and admirable mothers than Athenian. The 
 strong patriotism of the Spartan women which 
 triumphed over gentler feelings is sometimes a little 
 unattractive to our modern sentiments, but, in any 
 case, these women command our fullest respect. 
 
 The position of women in the Ionic states bears a 
 more Oriental character, and here it is the wife who 
 addresses the husband as "Master." The Athenian 
 regarded his wife as a subordinate being, who would 
 bear him children and keep his house in order, but 
 was incapable of rising beyond this sphere. A woman 
 must keep silence about all political matters, and, as 
 a rule, she was not even acquainted with her husband's 
 private affairs. The husband was very seldom at 
 home; public life, professional duties, gymnastics, 
 social intercourse, kept him from his family during 
 the greater part of the day ; at meals they met to- 
 gether, except when the husband had invited guests, 
 and then the wife had to withdraw into retirement. 
 As a rule, husband and wife hardly knew each other 
 before marriage ; it was not till afterwards that it was 
 possible to discover whether their characters were 
 suited to one another, and then it often turned out 
 that these were quite incompatible. Then they went 
 their own ways, or else jarred and quarrelled. Some- 
 times a sensible man succeeded in educating and 
 raising to his own level a really intelligent wife, 
 to whom he could communicate his plans and in- 
 terests, and thus make her his partner in the true 
 sense of the word ; but this was the exception, and, as 
 
148 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 a rule, the spheres of husband and wife remained 
 distinct. Moreover, the ever-increasing influence of 
 the hetaerae did much to loosen the bonds of mar- 
 riage. It was a very common thing for married men 
 to visit hetaerae or enter into love intrigues with 
 slaves ; and, as a rule, the wives shut their eyes to 
 it, so long as some regard was shown for appearances. 
 If a married man were to take a hetaera into his 
 own house, that would be a ground of divorce ; but 
 unmarried men very often kept mistresses, and the 
 relation between them sometimes closely resembled 
 marriage. Supposing a man were to neglect his own 
 family too much through this intercourse, or, by 
 spending his money in this way, to inflict an injury 
 on them, the wife, if she possessed the full rights of 
 citizenship, had the right to enter a complaint. Im- 
 proper language in the presence of women was not 
 permitted, and no stranger was allowed to enter 
 the women's apartments during the absence of the 
 husband. The children were bound to the most 
 absolute obedience and reverence to both father and 
 mother. 
 
 Generally speaking, the law afforded a woman but 
 little protection from her husband ; infidelity on his 
 part did not entitle her to a divorce. On the other 
 hand, the strictest fidelity was required from the wife ; 
 but, in spite of the seclusion in which she lived, 
 infidelity was by no means uncommon, since there 
 were always plenty of obliging slaves ready to help 
 their mistress in these matters. In most Greek states 
 the offenders were punished by the loss of certain 
 rights, and the husband was not only justified in 
 demanding a divorce, but even morally bound to do 
 so, if his wife's wrong-doing had been noised abroad. 
 The law took no steps to punish the lover ; but the 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 149 
 
 husband had the right to inflict corporal punishment 
 on him, or even, if he caught him in the act, to kill 
 him, unless, indeed, he preferred to seek compensation 
 for his shame in a money fine. In case of divorce, 
 too, the woman was worse off than the man. In con- 
 sequence of the loose relation of the marriage- tie, it 
 was very easy to break it. A husband could dismiss 
 his wife or send her back to her parents, or the 
 woman could simplj^ leave her husband's house, and 
 this was usually enough to annul the marriage. In 
 the latter case the wife was obliged to lodge a com- 
 plaint against her husband in person with the archon, 
 as there were certain legal matters connected with 
 the divorce, chiefly concerning the dowry ; as a rule, 
 if the husband sent away his wife without sufficient 
 reason, he had to give back the dowry to her or her 
 legal representative (father, brother, or guardian), 
 unless the cause of the divorce was infidelity which 
 had been clearly proved against the wife. But though 
 there is an appearance of justice here, in reality the 
 man had the advantage ; for it was only the most 
 cogent reasons that would induce a woman voluntarily 
 to leave her husband, while the man often arbitrarily 
 put away his wife for the most trivial reasons ; more- 
 over, as a woman was always politically a minor, and 
 if she left her husband could not go on living by 
 herself, she was obliged to return to a state of 
 tutelage under her father, or, if he were no longer 
 living, her brother or legal guardian. Many a woman 
 would rather endure the most cruel treatment 
 from her husband than return thus to her father's 
 house. 
 
 The life of Athenian women was entirely devoted 
 to domestic affairs. The part of the house set aside 
 for the wife and children, and afterwards for the 
 
150 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 grown-up daughters and the female slaves, was gener- 
 ally separate from the rest of the dwelling; and a 
 Greek writer says that, as the door which separates 
 the women's apartments from the rest of the house 
 is the boundary set for a maiden, so the door 
 which shuts the house off from the street must be 
 the boundary for the wife. We must not, however, 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 suppose that Greek women were entirely shut off 
 from publicity. The wives of poorer citizens, whose 
 circumstances were, of course, quite different from 
 those of the upper classes, went out of doors often 
 enough. Some were compelled to do so by their 
 occupation, and others, who had few or no slaves 
 at their disposal, Avere obliged to go out every day to 
 purchase food and other necessaries of life. 
 
 It was very common for women to fetch water from 
 the public wells, and to have a little chat there ; but in 
 rich houses tl.is duty of fetching the water naturally 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 151 
 
 fell bo the slaves. We find allusions to these expedi- 
 tions to the well in legends and in real life ; and they 
 are often represented on monuments, especially vase 
 paintings. Fig. 79 gives an example of the kind 
 taken from a vase painting in the antique style. On 
 the left we see the well, surmounted by a Doric 
 portico ; the water is flowing from a lion's mouth into 
 a jug (vSpia) placed beneath it ; the woman who has 
 come to fill her vessel stands waiting beside it. 
 On the right we see other women conversing in pairs ; 
 two have already filled their jars, and are carrying 
 them on their heads, supported by a little cushion, 
 according to the pretty custom which still prevails 
 widely in the south; the vessels of the two others 
 have not yet been filled, as we can tell from their 
 position. 
 
 Women of the better classes only went out attended 
 by a servant or slave, and then but seldom. A respect- 
 able woman stayed at home as much as possible ; in 
 fact, the symbol of domestic life was a tortoise, a 
 creature which never leaves its house, and was re- 
 garded as an attribute of Aphrodite Urania. In 
 consequence, the women liked to linger by the win- 
 dows of the upper storey, the one generally used 
 for their apartments, in order to look down on the 
 street, which afforded many women the only enter- 
 tainment and change they had in the day's occupa- 
 tions. There were no common meetings for them 
 as there were for men. They visited one another 
 occasionally, and there were a few festivals in the year 
 to which they went without the men, and then the 
 proceedings seem to have been very hvely, as for 
 instance, at the Thesmophoria. The women drove in 
 their finest clothes to the Eleusinian celebrations, 
 and they also took part in the Panathenaea, on which 
 
152 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 occasion the daughters of the resident foreigners 
 {fjueroLKOL) carried their chairs and sunshades behind 
 them. In general, it appears as though more Uberty 
 had been gradually granted women in the matter of 
 appearance in public, though this liberty did not 
 extend in Greece as far as at Alexandria in the time 
 of the Ptolemies, when Theocritus, in one of his idylls, 
 represents two citizens' wives, attended by theii ser- 
 vants, penetrating into the densest crowd on the 
 occasion of the Festival of Adonis. The manifold 
 contradictions which we find in the ancient writers 
 regarding the public appearance of women, which 
 have called forth so many various opinions among the 
 learned of the present day, must be attributed in part 
 to differences of period and, in part, to differences of 
 locality. 
 
 Notwithstanding this, everywhere and always in 
 antiquity a woman's sphere was supposed to be the 
 household, and when the family and the number of 
 slaves was large, this charge required a good deal of 
 strength and attention. Not only had all the food to 
 be prepared for the household, but also the clothing 
 had to be provided for all its members ; for it was 
 very unusual for any woman, w^ho had numerous slaves 
 at her disposal, to purchase stutts, or clothes ready- 
 uiade. They therefore spent a great part of the day 
 with their daughters and maids in a specially ap- 
 pointed part of the house, where the looms were set 
 up. Here, in the first place, the wool, which was 
 bought in a rough condition, was prepared for 
 working, by washing and beating, then fulled and 
 carded, disagreeable occupations which, on account of 
 the exertion required, were usually left to the maids. 
 The wool thus prepared for working was then put in 
 large work- or spinning- baskets {KoXadoi or raXapoi), 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 153 
 
 and we often see these on monuments which represent 
 scenes from a woman's hfe. A statue of Penelope, 
 the prototype of an industrious woman, of which 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 several replicas have come down to us, represents a 
 spinning-basket under her chair. The spinning-wheel 
 was unknown to antiquity, but the distaff and spindle 
 were used exactly as they still are in the south. 
 (Compare the representation from a vase painting in 
 Fig. 80.) The woman here represented is seated 
 
154 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 (sometimes we find women walking or standing as 
 they spin) ; she holds up the distaff in her left hand ; 
 in front of her is a st^nd, on which wool or flax seems 
 to be fastened ready to fill the distaff afresh. For 
 weaving they used an upright loom of tolerably 
 simple construction, but yet suited for weaving heavy 
 materials and elaborate patterns. Such an one is 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 
 represented on Fig. 81, from a vase picture of Penelope 
 at the loom. We can recognise on the already finished 
 material, an ornamental border and various figured 
 patterns interwoven. The construction of the loom is 
 only superficially indicated, and has therefore been 
 explained in many different ways, into which we 
 cannot at present enter. Fig. 82, taken from a vase 
 painting, represents a number of women, of whom 
 some are occupied with feminine work and others with 
 their toilet. On the left we see a woman holding a 
 spinning-basket in her left hand ; further to the right 
 a second woman is seated on an easy chair (KaOiBpa), 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 holding an em- 
 broidery frame, on 
 which apiece of ma- 
 terial is stretched, 
 while a third wo- 
 man stands near, 
 watching her. Fur- 
 ther to the right is 
 a fourth, who is 
 drawing up the 
 folds of her dress, 
 and probably about 
 to fasten her girdle. 
 The woman sitting 
 next her on the 
 easy chair holds an 
 object in front of 
 her which is not 
 quite distinct — 
 possibly a mirror, 
 represented in pro- 
 file, in which she is 
 looking at herself- 
 near her stands a 
 maid, holding in 
 her right hand a 
 pot of ointment, in 
 the left some un- 
 determined object, 
 perhaps a pin- 
 cushion. 
 
 The fulling of 
 the woven materials 
 was not undertaken 
 at home, since it 
 
156 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 was a difficult operation and required special arrange- 
 ments ; it was done by the fuller, to whom any soiled 
 cloth garments were also sent. Simple woollen clothes, - 
 as well as linen garments, were, of course, washed at 
 home. 
 
 The charming description in the "Odyssej^" of 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
 Nausicaa, who goes with her companions to the 
 sea-shore to wash the clothes, is well known; doubt- 
 less similar scenes might be seen in later times, even 
 though no king's daughter took part in them, and no 
 god-like hero alarmed the maidens by his unexpected 
 appearance. Fig. 83 represents a vase picture, show- 
 ing how an artist of the fifth century imagined that 
 scene m Phaeacia, according to the analogy of his own 
 time. On the left side of the picture, not represented 
 here, stand Odysseus and Athene, and several articles 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 157 
 
 of clothing are hanging up to dry on the branches of 
 a tree ; on the right, which is here represented, some 
 girls are engaged in hanging out the clothes. The 
 finished, or newly-washed, clothes were then care- 
 fully folded and laid in chests, since wardrobes for 
 hanging up dresses, such as we have, seem to have 
 been unknown. 
 
 The vase picture represented in Fig. 84 shows us 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 two women occupied in folding some kind of em- 
 broidered garment ; on the left another woman is 
 turning round to look at them ; on the floor stand a 
 cliair and a chest, on the wall hang a mirror and a 
 garment. 
 
 Notwithstanding these numerous domestic occu- 
 pations, the women seem to have had sufficient time 
 to devote to their toilet. In spite of the few oppor- 
 tunities they had of appearing elegantly dressed 
 before strange men, or their own friends, Greek 
 women seem to have been no exception to their sex 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 159 
 
 in their fondness for dress and fine clothes. Consider- 
 able attention was devoted to the care of the body. 
 Washing and bathing were, of course, very common. 
 Scenes from the bath are often represented on monu- 
 ments ; especially we often find in sculpture or paint- 
 ing representations of Aphrodite, or some beautiful 
 mortal, stooping down while a maid pours water over 
 her back from ajar. In the vase picture represented 
 in Yig 85, next to which a scene from the toilet is 
 depivJted, one woman is pouring water into a basin, 
 while another has disrobed, and is arranging her hair 
 before a mirror. We must suppose the locality of 
 these scenes to have been a special bathroom, which 
 was always found in the better class of houses on the 
 lower storey. 
 
 The usual morning wash was performed in large 
 basins standing on high feet, or sometimes at the 
 well itself, which was situated in the courtyard of 
 a house ; women of the lower classes probably washed 
 at one of the public wells. On a picture representing 
 the Judgment of Paris, of which some figures are 
 represented in Fig. 86, a vase painter naively repre- 
 sents Athene thus performing her toilet before pre- 
 senting herself to the judge; she is holding both 
 hands under the water flowing from the fountain, 
 evidently intending to wash her face ; she has care- 
 fully drawn her dress between her knees in order to 
 keep the water from it. There were also large public 
 baths for women, but ancient authorities tell us very 
 little about their construction and use ; still, notices 
 here and there in writing, or on monuments, enable 
 us with certainty to assert their existence. The vase 
 painting, Fig. 87, gives a wonderfully vivid picture of 
 one of these public baths for women. It is a hall, 
 supported by Doric columns, covered to the height of 
 
Fig 86, 
 
Q 
 
162 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 about a toot with water, which is always flowing fresh 
 from the heads of animals below the capitals of the 
 pillars ; probably the water was led through the pipes 
 passing from column to column, on which the women 
 have hung their clothes. The women, with their hair 
 plaited in single braids to prevent it getting wet, are 
 standing under the douches and letting the water 
 pour over their head, back, arms, and legs, while they 
 rub themselves with their hands. We cannot tell 
 whether women of the better classes also went to 
 these public baths ; in any case, the middle classes, 
 who probably had no bathrooms of their own, formed 
 the greater part of the attendance. 
 
 Bathing was accompanied by anointing and rub- 
 bing with oils or other fragrant essences ; this, too, 
 we often find represented on monuments, where a 
 lady herself makes use of a little oil-flask (XtjkvBo^;), or 
 an attendant rubs her body with it. In fact, rich 
 women always had a slave who acted as lady's-maid 
 to help them at their toilet, and on the many toilet 
 scenes depicted on the Greek vases we seldom see women 
 dressing without assistance. Thus, in Fig. 88 (Frontis.), 
 two women are helping a third to dress ; the mistress 
 stands in the middle, and is about to fasten her girdle, 
 and, in order not to be hindered by the falling folds 
 of her chiton, she is holding the tip in her mouth ; in 
 front of her stands an attendant holding a mirror; 
 another woman standing behind her, apparently rather 
 a friend than a slave, holds a jewel casket in the left 
 hand, and with the right hands a pearl necklace taken 
 from it to the lady. On Attic Stelai we very com- 
 monly find a lady represented with her lady's-maid 
 and jewel casket. The use of the mirror is also a 
 favourite subject in works of art, especially connected 
 with, the arrangement of the hair and veU. Thus, in 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 163 
 
 Fig. 86, we find that even Hera, before showing 
 herself to Paris, finds it necessary, with the help of 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 her hand-mirror, to make some slight alteration in 
 her veil. A similar scene is depicted by the pretty 
 terra-cotta from Tanagra (Fig. 89). Fig. 90 represents 
 
164 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 a lady fully dressed, perhaps a bride, attended 
 by two lady's-maids, one of whom holds an open 
 jewel casket before her, in order that she may 
 choose something more out of it, in spite of the fact 
 that she is so carefully veiled that all ornament 
 
 seems superfluous. Besides these toilet scenes. Fig. 
 91 represents a vase picture giving other scenes from 
 the life of women, which, however, have not yet been 
 clearly interpreted. The woman represented here is 
 seated on a chair, her right leg is uncovered, and the 
 foot is placed on a curious rest, in her hand she 
 holds a bandage, as though she intended to fasten it 
 round her foot. Another woman stands and looks 
 on; a spinning-basket and a stool are also in- 
 cluded in the picture. It is impossible to say 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 165 
 
 whether this should also be regarded as a toilet 
 
 scene. 
 
 Greek women made use of many cosmetics for 
 
 Fio. 91. 
 
 their toilet. They not only anointed their bodies 
 with fragrant essences and their hair with sweet- 
 scented oils and pomades, but the practice of rougeing 
 was also a very common one. The Spartan women, 
 whose healthy complexions were celebrated, probably 
 made little use of it ; but the ancient writers supply 
 Bufficient testimony to its commonness at Athena 
 
166 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 This practice probably originated in the East, and its 
 great popularity among the women of the Ionic-Attic 
 race is probably due to the fact that want of fresh air 
 and exercise gave them a pale, sickly complexion, and 
 they therefore considered it necessary to improve it 
 artificially, though it were only to please their own 
 husbands. They supplied the tender colouring of 
 forehead and chin with white lead, the redness of 
 their cheeks with cinnabar, fucus, and bugloss. or 
 other (usually vegetable) dyes ; there was a special 
 flesh tint used for painting below the eyes. The eye- 
 brows were dyed with black paint, which was made of 
 pine blacking or pulverised antimony, and dyeing the 
 hair was quite common as early as the fifth century 
 B.C., and by no means unusual even among men. 
 The rouge was put on either with the finger or a Uttle 
 brush. In vain the poets, especially the comic writers, 
 aimed the sharpest arrows of their wit at this evil 
 practice; in vain they described in drastic colours 
 how, in the heat of summer, two little black streams 
 poured down from the eyes over the face, while the 
 red colour from the cheeks ran down to the neck; 
 and the hair falling over the forehead was dyed green 
 by the white lead. The best cure would doubtless 
 have been found, if every man had been as sensible as 
 the young husband described in Xenophon's story 
 alluded to above (p. 130), who cured his wife of 
 rougeing by representing to her the absurdity of this 
 practice, showing her how impossible it was for a 
 woman to deceive her own husband in this way, 
 since the truth might come to light at any moment. 
 He also advised his wife not to spend the whole day 
 in her room, but to move about the house, superintend 
 the servants' work, help the housekeeper, and herself 
 lend a hand in kneading the dough, and other such 
 
MARTIIAGE A^<D WOMEN. 
 
 167 
 
 occupations, while supplying exercise for herself by shak- 
 ing out and folding up the clothes. Then she would 
 have a better appetite for her meals, be in better health, 
 and naturally have a better complexion. But such 
 sensible husbands were rare, and probably all the women 
 were not so obedient as the wife of Ischomachus. 
 
 We do not intend to penetrate any further into 
 the toilet mysteries of Greek ladies, but, instead, will 
 give our readers a representation of a vase picture 
 equally remarkable for fineness of drawing and variety 
 in the scenes represented. (Fig. 92.) It is the decora- 
 tion of a lid of some terra-cotta jar or box, and 
 was probably used for cosmetic purposes. Here we 
 see a large number of girls, most of whom are occupied 
 with their toilet. In spite of the modesty of their 
 dress and behaviour, it does not seem probable that 
 we are here obtaining an insight into a family dwel- 
 ling ; the numerous little Cupids represented, and 
 also the presence of a young man, lead us to suppose 
 that we see hetaerae before us. The young man is 
 leaning against the seat of a richly-clad lady, who 
 appears somewhat more matronly than the others ; she 
 holds an open jewel casket in her hand, from which 
 she is about to take some object. The young man is 
 leaning on a stick, at the end of which a Cupid is 
 climbing up in play. If we follow the view of 
 L. Stephani, in regarding this woman as the 
 superintendent of the girls, he is probably right 
 in his further interpretation, that the youth has 
 given the casket to this lady in order to win her 
 favour and access to the girls. To the left of this 
 group we find a girl holding a hand mirror before 
 her, apparently about to arrange her hair, as she is 
 holding one hand up, but this might also be inter- 
 preted as a gesture of pleased surprise at her 
 
168 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 appearance. Next to her is an attendant helping a 
 girl arrange her head-dress ; both her hands are occu- 
 pied with it, while the girl bends her head a little 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 forward, and in her hands already holds the necklace 
 which she is going to put on. Two Cupids stand 
 beside her, one carrying some indistinct object, per- 
 haps a tympanum, the other apparently holding two 
 bracelets. On an easy-chair, under which appears a 
 bird, perhaps a duck, a girl is sitting holding an 
 open casket, out of which a woman, standing in front 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 169 
 
 of her, has taken some fine material, or a veil, which 
 she is now unfolding. Between the two, on the ground 
 stands an incense-burner (dv/jLLarrjpLov), next a Cupid 
 holding an oil-flask in his hands. A richly-dressed 
 woman leans against a terminal figure of the bearded 
 Dionysus, bending a branch into a wreath with both 
 hands ; in front stands a dog, looking up at her. 
 Further to the left a girl is sitting on a stool, while an 
 attendant is arranging her hair ; she has placed both 
 hands on her knees, and is sitting quite quietly while 
 the other, to judge from the posture of her left hand, 
 appears to be saying something to her; the Cupid, 
 kneeling on the ground, is fastening the sandals of 
 the seated girl ; an incense-burner stands beside them. 
 Next them stands a woman with richly-dressed hair ; 
 her right hand hangs down and holds a mirror; 
 at her feet is some object whose meaning is not clear. 
 Still further we see a little table on three goat-shaped 
 feet, at which two girls are sitting opposite one 
 another, one on an easy-chair, the other on a simpler 
 seat ; under the easy-chair is a cage with a little bird. 
 We cannot determine the oco - ipation of the girls who 
 have placed their hands on the table, while one o^ 
 them holds some indistinct object in her left hand — 
 probably they are playing some game ; above them 
 hovers a Cupid with a wreath of leaves ; near him we 
 observe a beautifully ornamented little chest. The 
 last of these female figures stands in front of a washing 
 basin, in which she has placed both hands, probably 
 to wash them, rather than, as Stephani supposes, in 
 order to wash some object in the basin ; for a domestic 
 occupation such as the washing of any garment would 
 not be appropriate to the rest of the scenes. On the 
 ground stands a beautifully-shaped water-jar. 
 
 It would not be easy to pass judgment on Greek 
 
170 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 women in general, as differences of race have consider- 
 able influence. Nor can we place much confidence in 
 our literary authorities, least of all in Aristophanes, 
 who says in the Thesmophoriazusae that the men 
 could place no trust whatever in their wives, and were 
 obliged to keep them under lock and key, and keep 
 Molossian hounds on purpose to frighten away their 
 lovers, while they deprived them even of the keys of 
 the storeroom. This is, of course, exaggerated inven- 
 tion, as is also the statement that all the suspicion ot 
 the women is due to the calumnies of Euripides. The 
 poets of the Old Comedy directed the arrows of their 
 wit only at women of ill fame ; and the Newer Attic 
 Comedy chooses most of its heroines from among the 
 hetaerae (though a favourite denoument was the dis- 
 covery that these were really long-lost legitimate 
 daughters of citizens) ; and consequently the women 
 are generally treated from their worst side, and the 
 men represented as poor victims. The aim of comedy, 
 which is to provoke laughter, is more easily attained- 
 by the representation of characters whose morality is 
 not unimpeachable ; and it would be equally unfair in 
 our own time to form a picture of modern morals 
 based on the representations of the stage. Undoubt- 
 edly, the Athenian women were far inferior to the 
 Spartan in morality, and in some towns — especially 
 Corinth and Byzantium — female morality seems to 
 have been at a very low ebb ; but we must not on that 
 account condemn all Greek women indiscriminately. 
 One reproach is too often heard, and too clearly 
 proved to be discredited, and that is inclination to 
 drink. This vice was so common that in some places 
 women were actually forbidden to drink wine, and it 
 was this that sometimes compelled husbands to take 
 the keys from their wives. 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 171 
 
 We cannot close this section without a word on 
 that class of women who sold their favours to any who 
 would pay the price for them. The Greeks euphem- 
 istically called these hetaerae {eTotpai), female com- 
 panions. They seem to have been unknown in the 
 heroic age, but in historic times they were found 
 almost everywhere, and association with them was so 
 common that it was hardly a cause of reproach even 
 to married men. The law regarded their existence as 
 not only a matter of course, but even as necessary, 
 and the State promoted the establishment of houses 
 for them. There were many such at all the ports, 
 and many large manufacturing or trading cities, such 
 as Corinth, obtained a distinct reputation on this 
 account; though at the same time it was often said 
 that a stay there was both dangerous and expensive. 
 Besides these public establishments, the visitors to 
 which paid a fixed entrance fee, the amount of which 
 varied according to the elegance of the house, there 
 were also private establishments of a somewhat differ- 
 ent character. These were kept by a man or woman, 
 sometimes an old hetaera, whose property the girls in 
 the house became, by being bought direct as slaves 
 or obtained in some other way. Many of these poor 
 girls had been exposed in their infancy, and brought 
 up by the owners of these houses, who repaid them- 
 selves for the cost of nurture by the income thus 
 brought in. Such girls were often the heroines of 
 comedies, and in the end ware happily united to their 
 lovers. The flute-girls, who played at the symposia, 
 were also often kept in such houses, and their owners 
 not only provided rich and elegant clothing, but also 
 spent much money on their education, and especially 
 on the training of their musical talents, which enabled 
 them to earn higher pay. 
 
172 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 But far the greater part of the hetaerae Uved alone, 
 and every large town possessed ^ number of these 
 women, who were classed in different grades according 
 to their education. Some of them were rich women, 
 owning large numbers of slaves; their fame spread 
 through the whole of Greece, and their rooms were 
 crowded by men of the first rank in politics, literature, 
 and art ; great artists vied in representing them in 
 bronze and marble, and their fame has descended even 
 to our own times. Among all these, the most cele- 
 brated was the older Aspasia, the friend of Pericles, a 
 woman of the highest intellectual endowments and 
 most cultivated taste, who attracted men rather by 
 the power of her intellect than of her charms. Other 
 celebrated hetaerae, such as Lai's and Phryne, owe their 
 renown, which has descended even to the present day, 
 chiefly to their extraordinary beauty and the numer- 
 ous anecdotes current about their life and also about 
 their greed for money, and shameless character. These 
 hetaerae, who thus lived by themselves, were either 
 freed women or foreigners : some of them are not 
 unattractive characters, whose wit and grace may 
 easily have attracted even men of note, while others 
 were mere courtesans, covetous, superficial, and dress- 
 loving. 
 
 In order to understand the possibility of their 
 social intercourse with men of unblemished reputa- 
 tion, and the fact that these girls played a part in 
 Greek literature almost more important than that of 
 honest women, we must bear in mind the slight 
 education and retired life of the Greek women. Even 
 this can hardly account for the permission granted 
 to a hetaera like Phryne to dedicate her statue by 
 Praxiteles at Delphi, or her venturing to bathe in the 
 sea, completely naked, like an Aphrodite Anadyomene, 
 
MARRIAGE AND WOMEN. 
 
 173 
 
 in the presence of numerous admiring spectators. 
 We can only explain this by remembering the intense 
 Hellenic love of beauty, apart from the considerations 
 of morality, that looked on a beautiful human 
 body as a divine work demanding adoration, which 
 made it possible to forget the moral weaknesses 
 inherent in it. At Corinth, in the temple of Aphro- 
 dite, more than a thousand temple slaves {lepoSovkoc) 
 were maintained, who were regarded as in the service 
 of the goddess, and this conception of love as worship 
 was very common throughout the East. But although 
 much was openly done in ancient times which would 
 be concealed at the present day, it would be a mistake 
 to suppose that the position occupied by these women 
 was a really honourable one. 
 
 Although there was no ofhcial control kept over 
 them, yet they were not left absolutely free ; in most 
 towns they had to pay a tax to the State. Later 
 writers have maintained, but with what accuracy is 
 uncertain, that a special dress was prescribed for 
 them ; probably they were only distinguished from 
 other women by conspicuous bright clothing and more 
 elaborate dress. The legal protection generally ac- 
 corded to women in case of wrongful treatment, could 
 naturally not be claimed by them, and a hetaera who 
 had a child could not claim from its father money for 
 its support. In fact, the lot of the majority was at 
 best but gilded misery, and many ended their days in 
 extreme poverty. 
 
 Greek art is very rich in scenes from the life of 
 hetaerae; many have been already represented here 
 (compare Figs. 17 and 92), and others will follow. 
 We must face the fact that the very period which is 
 renowned in Greek literature and art as that of the 
 greatest splendour, was a time, also, of moral rottennesa 
 
174 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Where there is much hght we must expect much 
 shade ; and in modern art, too, the highest development 
 of painting and sculpture was contemporaneous with 
 the religious and moral degeneracy of the Middle 
 ages ; indeed, the Rome of Alexander VI. and Leo X. 
 was probably far more immoral than the Athens of 
 Periclea. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 DA.ILY LIFE WITHIN AND WITHOUT THE HOUSE. 
 
 A-t Sparta — At Athens — Chronology — Sun-dials— Breakfast — Morning 
 Occupations — Lunch — The Afternoon — Warm Baths — Dinner — 
 Amusements — The Gymnasia — Greek Hospitality. 
 
 A PICTURE of the daily life of the Greeks must of 
 necessity be subject to various changes according to 
 time and place. Life in the sixth century B.C. was 
 different from that in the fourth ; the daily occupation 
 and the mode of life of a Spartan differed from those 
 of an Athenian or Theban ; and again, the rich and 
 free citizen spent his time in a very different way from 
 the small arcisan or countryman, who was dependent 
 on the work of his own hands. 
 
 There is very little to say about the heroic period, 
 and we cannot form any complete picture of it. 
 Homer describeji. only the life of the nobles, but he 
 does not tell us how they spent their time when they 
 were not fighting^ though this was a very common occu- 
 pation, owing to the numerous feuds and predatory 
 expeditions against their neighbours. It is not likely 
 that the princes and nobles spent all their time at 
 festive banquets, delighting in plentiful food and drink, 
 and listening to the songs of the bard, though there 
 are many passages in Homer which might lead us 
 to suppose so. No doubt the pleasures of the feast 
 and of wine were held in very high estimation in the 
 heroic period, yet serious and respectable citizens 
 can hardly have spent their whole day in luxurious 
 
176 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 idleness, like the wooers of Penelope, who daily feasted 
 at the expense of others. Laertes, who, even in his 
 old age, worked in his garden, was far more typical of 
 the Homeric noble, who was in reality only a landed 
 proprietor on a large scale, and devoted the greater 
 part of his time to agricultural pursuits, himself often 
 taking active part in them. He was also occupied 
 with gymnastic exercises, and occasionally by political 
 duties, such as attendance at the popular assemblies 
 which concerned the interests of the country. 
 But the great mass of the people, as opposed to the 
 few members of the nobility, occupied themselves 
 chiefly with agriculture and cattle rearmg, and, to a 
 small extent, with handicrafts which were but slightly 
 developed at this time, when many things were 
 imported from other countries, and others chiefly 
 made at home. Of course they all had to attend their 
 Prince as vassals in case of war, and in consequence 
 there must have been military training for the lower 
 classes, even in time of peace. Apart, however, from 
 military details, we learn nothing from Homer about 
 the life of these classes of society, and very little about 
 that of the nobility, for his description of the life of 
 the Phaeacians bears only a very partial analogy to 
 Greek circumstances at that time, since the poet 
 desires to represent this people as specially fortunate 
 beyond others. We may, therefore, forsake the misty 
 domain of legend and turn to those ages which are 
 enlightened for us by writers, though even there we 
 shall find many gaps unfilled. 
 
 It is a natural consequence of the nature of our 
 authorities that, even in historic times, the descriptions 
 of authors present us principally with a reflection of 
 life in towns, and especially large towns or capitals. 
 At the present day life in large towns difl'ers in many 
 
DAILY LIFE. 
 
 177 
 
 essential respects from that in small ones, and even 
 more from that in the country ; and doubtless, even in 
 antiqiiitj^ there were strong contrasts, though, perhaps, 
 less clearly marked than in modern times. In large 
 towns, too, there were many differences due to the 
 character of the race and the nature of the town 
 itself; the life of a citizen in a large trading city 
 must have been very different from that at a place 
 where there was very little trade, and the interest 
 of the inhabitants was centred in agriculture. But of 
 all this in reality we know very little. 
 
 The hfe of the Spartan citizens was the most 
 regular and uniform, and this in consequence of the 
 fixed and severe demands made on them by the State. 
 Their dwellings, though large and roomy, were of the 
 simplest description, and in other respects, too, the 
 life of the Dorians was distinguished by simplicity, 
 yet even here refinements of life gradually gained 
 ground, and in the Dorian colonies often went so far as 
 to produce effeminacy. Life at Sparta itself adhered 
 longest to its primitive simplicity. Here, too, the old 
 Dorian custom of common meals, called Syssitia or 
 Pheiditia, prevailed longest; a Spartan took his 
 meals, not with his family, but with other com- 
 panions, usually connected by relationship. They 
 were small parties of about fifteen men, who clubbed 
 together foi this purpose; each contributed his 
 appointed share to the expenses of the meal, parti} in 
 kind (especially barley, wine, cheese, figs, or dates), 
 partly in money for the purchase of meat. This last 
 was, however, supplied in part by the frequent sacri- 
 fices, and also by hunting, for the custom prevailed of 
 contributing additional gifts now and then, apart from 
 the legal contribution : sometimes some game or 
 wheaten bread, instead of the usual barley bread, or 
 
178 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 poultry, young cattle, fruits, etc., according to oppor- 
 tunity or season. The notorious " black broth," which 
 played a great part at these meals, was not so much 
 soup as a solid meat dish with broth, and though 
 simple and easily prepared, was probably not as bad as 
 it seemed to the dainty palates of the other Greeks. 
 These common meals, though by no means luxurious 
 were not in any sense meagre ; and though plentiful 
 drinking after the meal was not as customary at Sparta 
 as in other places, yet every guest had his cup beside 
 him filled with mixed wine, and as soon as it was 
 empty it was filled up again by the cup-bearer. The 
 intercourse among these men was cheerful and free , 
 they discussed political and military matters, and 
 also found time for merriment and even singing. 
 Women dined alone at home with the smaller children 
 and the daughters ; the boys, as soon as they had 
 outgrown their mother's care, were taken by their 
 fathers to the mess, and sat beside them there on low 
 stools, receiving little portions of the dishes which 
 were considered suitable for youth. When they grew 
 older they dined together with their own mess. 
 
 No Greek race despised handicrafts when pursued for 
 the sake of money as much as the Dorians ; no Spartan 
 would pursue a craft or trade. Still the life of the 
 Laconian must not be imagined as one of pure idleness ; 
 there were sufficient opportunities for other occupa- 
 tions. In the first place there were the gymnastic and 
 military exercises, which occupied a great part of the 
 day, then there was the study of music, which was 
 continued even after their education had ended ; 
 hunting, too, was a very favourite occupation among 
 the Dorians, and was valued on account of its tendency 
 to harden the body. Some time, too, was occupied by 
 State matters, and also by the exercise of religious 
 
DAILY LIFE. 
 
 179 
 
 duties, such as sacrifices, choruses, etc. Moreover, 
 there was a great deal of social life araong the men. 
 In most Dorian cities there were special meeting-halls, 
 or club-rooms (Xecrxcii), which existed at Athens also 
 and other places. The older citizens used to assemble 
 there and discuss various matters of interest. 
 
 We must now turn to Athens, where, in con- 
 sequence of the more numerous literary authorities, 
 we can gain a clearer idea of the conditions, and 
 attempt also to form a picture of the town itself, such 
 as it appeared in its most flourishing period under 
 Pericles, and after his time. It would be a great 
 mistake to form an idea of the appearance of the 
 whole city from the splendid buildings on the Acro- 
 polis, the temples which are partly standing at the 
 present day, and the other public buildings which 
 were constructed and decorated without regard to ex- 
 pense. Most private houses were quite plain outside ; the 
 ground- floor generally had no windows ; there were no 
 splendid porticoes, or elaborate facades, and they were low, 
 seldom having more than two storeys. There was no 
 regular arrangement of streets in the older period, any 
 more than there was in our cities in the middle ages ; 
 and even after the burning of the city by the Persians, 
 when dwellings had to be constructed for the returning 
 population, the town was quickly rebuilt without any 
 regular plan. It was not till later that streets were 
 methodically laid out, and this was largely due to the 
 influence of Hippodamus of Miletus, who flourished 
 about the middle of the fifth century, and reformed 
 the ancient style of building cities. Athens itself 
 could not profit by his system, which adopted a 
 uniform artistic plan for the construction of a whole 
 town ; but he was able to carry out his scheme in the 
 building of the lower city, near the Peiraeus, which 
 
180 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 took place under Pericles. Here Hippodamus con- 
 structed a network of straight broad streets, cutting 
 each other at right angles, and in the middle he placed 
 a large market, evidently in the form of a square, 
 called the Market of Hippodamus." The land 
 belonging to this suburb had probably been very little 
 built on ; we do not know whether the State had any 
 right of ownership over these new buildings. The 
 flourishing suburbs, the numerous public squares 
 planted with trees and laid out in the manner of parks, 
 did much to improve the appearance of the city, but 
 a great deal must still have been wanting to make it 
 appear really comfortable to us moderns, or even to the 
 Romans of the Empire. In the first place, the streets 
 were unpaved, and there were no sidewalks; these 
 improvements were not introduced until the Roman 
 period, and Greek antiquity was content with ordinary 
 high joads ; it is natural, therefore, that in dry weather 
 the dust, and in rainy weather the mud, should have 
 been disagreeable. Very little attention was paid to 
 the cleanliness of public roads ; all kitchen refuse, bath 
 water, etc., was simply poured out of doors ; at night 
 it was even thrown straight from the windows on to 
 the street, and though it was usual to call, " Out of the 
 way," yet careless people might sometimes be be- 
 sprinkled on their way hume at night. There was no 
 public cleansing of the streets; it was left to beneficent 
 rains to wash away all uncleanness, although the 
 street and market police {aarwofioK and a^yopavoixoL)^ 
 whose duty it was to maintain order in the streets and 
 market places, were supposed to see that they were 
 kept in proper condition, and could compel proprietors 
 who threw out ashes or other refuse to clear this 
 away ; yet they probably confined themselves to keep- 
 ing the streets in fairly good building condition, and 
 
DAILY LIFE. 
 
 181 
 
 seeing that all was in order when processions had 
 to pass along certain roads. Generally speaking, 
 Nissen^ is probably right when he maintains that, to 
 form an idea of the life at Athens by any modern 
 counterpart, we must not think of Florence or Munich, 
 but rather of Cairo or Tunis. 
 
 As regards the interior of the houses, we know 
 very little about the arrangement and appointment of 
 the rooms. Naturally these were liable to variations, 
 since a small family might inhabit a modest little 
 dwelling, or there might be larger houses, containing 
 numerous apartments. The front door, which opened 
 (sometimes outwards) into the street, at which those 
 who desired entrance knocked with their fingers or 
 the knocker, was opened by a slave, acting as 
 porter, and generally led to a hall, through which, 
 either direct or through a second door, an open hall 
 surrounded with a colonnade (Peristylium) was 
 reached, which in the dwelling-houses of the historic 
 period corresponded to the open courtyard of the 
 Homeric palace, and bears an analogy to the Atrium 
 of the Roman house. This space, which was un- 
 covered in the middle, and surrounded by colonnades, 
 was the usual dwelling-place of the family ; sometimes 
 they took their meals there, and the altar to Zeus 
 Herkeios, generally stood there. Round about were 
 apartments whose doors, and probably windows, too, 
 opened into the central hall ; for it was not custom- 
 ary to have ground-floor windows opening on the 
 street, and the sides of the houses usually touched 
 the walls of the neighbouring buildings, so that the 
 rooms on the ground-floor could, as a rule, only 
 obtain their light from the central hall. Some of 
 these apartments were destined for the men, and 
 
 * Nisseu. — '* Pompeianische Studieu." 
 
182 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 others for the women, but there was no general 
 room. If the house was built on a considerable 
 space, and had only one storey, the men's rooms 
 generally opened direct on the central hall, while 
 the women's were placed behind these, and were 
 separate from them, having a special door, and 
 doubtless, too, a special corridor, through which 
 the women could reach the street without passing 
 through the men's apartments. If the house was 
 small it was built in two storeys, and the women's 
 apartments were then situated in the upper storey. 
 This latter arrangement appears to have been the 
 more frequent. We often find allusions to women 
 looking down on to the street from the windows of 
 the upper storeys, and we also often find women 
 represented on vase pictures sitting at upper-storey 
 windows. These window openings were closed either 
 by bars or wooden shutters, since glass panes were 
 unknown in the Greek period. Where there were a 
 good many slaves, it seems that the male slaves slept 
 in the men's apartments, and the female in the 
 women's apartments, except in those cases where the 
 master allowed certain couples to live together. In 
 larger houses, which contained a great number of 
 rooms, we must imagine not only special sleeping and 
 dining apartments, along with guest-chambers, rooms 
 for the slaves, store-rooms, work-rooms, library, bath- 
 room, etc., but also a second hall in the centre of the 
 women's apartments, and gardens connected with 
 this ; though flower gardens seem to have been a late 
 introduction at Athens — it is said, indeed, that they 
 date from the time of Epicurus. We must not 
 assume that everyone had his own house in ancient 
 Athens. It is true that a house could be acquired 
 for a very low price, as is proved by the case of 
 
DAILY LIFE. 
 
 183 
 
 Socrates, whose whole wealth was taxed as five minae 
 (something under twenty pounds), and yet included a 
 house ; but still there were a great number of poorer 
 citizens who hired their dwellings. The upper storey, 
 which no doubt had a special entrance, and which 
 occasionally projected beyond the ground-floor, was 
 let to lodgers, while the owner lived on the ground- 
 floor. Large lodging-houses, many storeys high, such 
 as existed at Rome, were probably not found at 
 Athens in the classical period. 
 
 We have no certain information about the place of 
 the kitchen. It was probably always on the ground- 
 floor, and was certainly the only room in the house 
 which had a chimney, since there was no heating 
 apparatus m the dwelling rooms. There appears to 
 have been a complete absence of all sanitary con- 
 veniences. 
 
 At the present day an indispensable factor in our 
 daily occupations is some apparatus for measuring the 
 time. This was not of so much c<^nsequence in Greek 
 antiquity, and, in fact, the means for exact divisi'>]i 
 were wanting. They had no regular arrangement of 
 days extending from, midnight to midnight, with 
 twenty-four hours of equal length, but instead they 
 distinguished between day-time and night-time, cal- 
 culating from sunrise to sunset, and naturally the 
 length of these periods differed according to the time 
 of year. These two chief divisions were again sub- 
 divided ; first came early morning (from about 6 till 
 9, if we take the equinoctial periods), the forenoon, 
 when the market-place began to fill (9 to 12), the 
 mid-day heat (12 to 3), and the late afternoon (3 to 6); 
 in the night there was, first, the time when the lamps 
 were Ht (6 to 10), next the dead hours of the night (10 
 to 2), last the dawn (2 to 6). Besides this, they divided 
 
184 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the day into twelve equal divisions, the length of 
 which naturally varied according to the length of the 
 day. For this purpose they made use of the sun, 
 which was, of course, only available on cloudless days, 
 though these are by no means infrequent in the 
 south. All these arrangements for measuring the 
 time were probably invented by the Babylonians in 
 very ancient times, and introduced among the Greeks 
 by Anaximander about 500 B.C. The most primitive 
 is the " shadow-pointer," which is only a pointed stick 
 fixed in the earth, or a column, or anything else of 
 the kind ; the length of the shadow, which varies with 
 the position of the sun, supplied the standard for 
 calculating the hours. The length of the shadow, 
 which changed from morning to evening, made a 
 superficial division of time possible, but it could not fix 
 the time once for all, for all days of the year, but had 
 to be specially calculated according to the changes of 
 the seasons. Twelve divisions of the day, to be deter- 
 mined by the shadow, corresponded with ours only at 
 the equinox ; these hours, if we may use the expres- 
 sion, were longer in summer and shorter in winter 
 than our equinoctial hours. This explains why the 
 time of the chief meal, which was usually taken at 
 about five or six in the afternoon, was indicated some- 
 times by a 7-foot, sometimt^s by a 10- or 12-foot, or 
 even a 20-foot shadow ; for though at midsummer 
 the shadow would be quite small at this time, it would 
 have a considerable length at the equinox, and at the 
 time of the winter solstice it is probable that they did 
 not dine until after sunset. Unfortunately, we have 
 not suSicient information to determine exactly the 
 length of this shadow-pointer, which was doubtless 
 always the same, in order to prevent confusion. The 
 assumption that the pointer was about the average 
 
DAILY LIFE. 
 
 185 
 
 height of a human being, and that people even used 
 their own shadows for measuring time, is very im- 
 probable. Such shadow-pointers probably stood in 
 public places, where everyone could make use of them 
 with help of the lines drawn on the ground ; they 
 could only be set up in private dwellings when these 
 had large open spaces (which was not often the case) 
 to which the sun could have access all day long. In 
 later times inventions were made which supplied what 
 was wanting in this mode of reckoning time ; lines 
 were graven on the stone floor on which the shadow- 
 pointer stood, which gave, at any rate, some indication 
 of the change in the length of the hours according to 
 the months ; a network of lines of this description 
 belonged to the obelisk which Augustus set up on 
 the Campus Martins, and also used as a shadow- 
 pointer. 
 
 The sun-dials, invented later than the shadow- 
 pointers, probably by Aristarchus, about 270 B.C., 
 were different ; here the shadow of a stick placed in 
 a semicircle, on which the hours were marked 
 by lines, indicated the time of day. There were 
 three kinds : first, those that were calculated at the 
 place on which they were set up, and could not be 
 moved, and which indicated the hours of the day 
 according as they changed in the course of the year ; 
 second, those which were arranged for moving, and 
 could be set up at different places ; and, third, those 
 used by mathematicians, which showed the equi- 
 noctial hours such as we use to-day. It is impossible, 
 however, to determine whether the Greeks were 
 acquainted with all the three kinds which we find 
 in use in the Eoman period. 
 
 Besides this, water clocks were used, and here 
 again we must distinguish two kinds. The common 
 
186 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 water clock, which, like our hour-glass, marked a 
 definite period of time by the flowing away of a 
 certain quantity of water, is certainly a very ancient 
 invention. This clock consisted of a vessel of clay or 
 glass, in the shape of a jar or a basin, which was 
 filled with water by an opening above, and a second 
 cup-shaped vessel, on the top of which the former 
 was arranged in such a way that the water poured out 
 slowly through little sieve-like openings into the lower 
 vessel. Water clocks of this kind probably existed in 
 most households, but were not real clocks, since they 
 did not indicate the hour of the day, but were only 
 used for calculating some particular period of time. 
 They were chiefly used in the law courts to mark the 
 time allowed to each speaker, and when a speech was 
 interrupted in order to hear witnesses, or to read out 
 documents, or for any othor purpose, the flow of the 
 water was stopped, and it was set going again when 
 the orator continued his speech. These water clocks 
 were also used on other occasions wherever certain 
 periods of time had to be calculated, and this might 
 take place in any household. The same principle 
 underlay the water clocks which were supposed to 
 have been invented by Plato, and perfected by the 
 Alexandrine Ctesibius, by means of which a long 
 period of time could be subdivided into equal parts, 
 and thus the hours of the night could be calculated, 
 which was of great importance. These water clocks 
 could only be constructed when it was possible to 
 make transparent glass vessels large enough to hold 
 a quantity of water sufficient to last for twelve 
 hours and longer ; on the glass there was a scale 
 graven, which gave the relation of the hours to the 
 height of the water. But as the length of the 
 night decreases and increases in the course of the 
 
DAILY LIFE. 
 
 187 
 
 year, like that of the day, and therefore the length of 
 the night hours is continually decreasing and in- 
 creasing, a very complicated network of lines was 
 required ; four vertical lines denoted the length 
 of the hours at the two solstices and the two 
 equinoxes, so that the exact ratio was given 
 for these days. At other times they had to 
 make shift with a more or less exact calculation, 
 assisted by horizontal ^22^ ^ 
 
 curves, which con- 
 nected together the 
 third, sixth, ninth, 
 and twelfth hours 
 (Compare the scheme ' 
 represented in Fig. 
 93, which shows the ^ 
 network of lines en- a 
 graved on the glass 
 vessel.) The longest 
 
 and shortest days 
 
 1 ^ 1 2^ ^jfe 
 
 are here set down 
 according to the lati- 
 tude of Athens, the former as 14 hours, 36 minutes, 56 
 seconds, the latter as 9 hours, 14 minutes, 16 seconds. 
 The improvement of Ctesibius consisted in adding a 
 table with horizontal hour-lmes to the water-vessel, on 
 which a metal wire, fastened to a cork that swam on 
 the water, marked the time by its position, which rose 
 according to the increase of the water. These clocks 
 could, of course, be used in the daytime, when the 
 weather made the sun-dial useless, but a different 
 scale was required from that of the night clocks. 
 Still, as the difference between the longest night and 
 the longest day, and the shortest night and the 
 shortest day, is very slight, the same scale could 
 
188 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 really be used for day and night, but in reverse order, 
 as indicated by Fig. 98. 
 
 Let us now consider the manner in which an 
 Athenian citizen usually divided his time. We can- 
 not, of course, name any definite hour for rising, still 
 it seems probable that early rising was the rule at 
 Athens, and that not only the artisans began their 
 work directly after sunrise, but that the schools, too, 
 often opened early. The morning toilet does not 
 seem to have occupied much time. In washing, a 
 slave poured water over his master from an ewer over 
 
 fast was a scanty meal, and generally consisted of 
 unmixed wine and bread. After that, artisans or 
 others who had a definite trade went to their 
 daily occupations; but the citizens who had no 
 regular profession, unless attracted by some other 
 occupation, such as hunting, generally spent the 
 morning hours visiting their friends, practising 
 gymnastics, or, supposing they put off these oc- 
 cupations to a later hour, visiting the barber to 
 have their hair arranged or their beards cut or 
 shaved. As we have already discussed the ques- 
 tion of hair-dressing (p. 65), we will here only give 
 a picture of some ancient bronze razors (Fig. 94), 
 which are of semi-circular shape, and differ essentially 
 from our modern ones. The pretty terra-cotta group 
 
 Fig. 94. 
 
 a basin, and some sub- 
 stitute for soap, such 
 as fuller's earth or lye. 
 was used ; men who 
 lived very simple lives, 
 like Socrates, probably 
 performed their ablu- 
 tions at one of the 
 public wells. Break- 
 
DAILY LIFE. 189 
 
 from Tanagra, in Fig. 95, transports us to a barber's 
 shop ; a worthy citizen, apparently covered by a long 
 dressing-mantle, is seated on a low stool, while a 
 
 Fig 95. 
 
 short man standing behind him — perhaps a slave — is 
 carefully cutting his hair with a pair of scissors. 
 Barbers undertook tho care of both hair and beard, 
 and cut and cleaned the nails. These barbers' shops 
 were also meeting-places for the citizens — not only 
 for idlers, but, gene rally speaking, for all who desired 
 to hear the news. This custom still prevails in many 
 
190 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 parts of Italy, especially in the south, where the 
 Salone is a general meeting-place. Even in ancient 
 times barbers had a reputation for being talkative. 
 Every day many people entered their shops, and 
 among them strangers who brought news and ex- 
 pected to receive some in exchange. It is well known 
 that the news of the defeat of the Athenian expe- 
 dition to Sicily was first made known in a barber's 
 shop in the Peiraeus by a stranger who had just 
 landed. 
 
 All this occupied about the first quarter of the 
 day ; the second part was devoted to visiting the 
 market. The market-place served not only its 
 original end as a place for selling, but was also the 
 place where acquaintances met and business Avas 
 transacted. Here stood the money-changers and the 
 bankers, at their booths or shops ; here were shady 
 arcades, with comfortable seats, where the hot rays of 
 the sun might be avoided in summer, while there was 
 opportunity in the winter of profiting by the warmth 
 of the workshops situated close by the market-place. 
 It was a very general custom in cold weather to go to 
 public baths or smiths' workshops, where a warm 
 stove could certainly be found, and poor people, who 
 did not possess the means of warming themselves 
 at home, often pressed so eagerly to the bath-stoves 
 that they singed their clothes. In fact, it was a very 
 general custom to enter any workshop or booth to 
 have a chat with the owner or the visitors there, even 
 without any intention of making purchases. We 
 need not, therefore, be surprised when we hear of 
 Socrates visiting a shoemaker or a sculptor or any 
 other artisan and beginning a discussion with him ; 
 this custom was so general that meetings were 
 arranged in the workshops — thus, for instance, the 
 
DAILY LIFE. 
 
 191 
 
 people of Decelea, when they came to Athens, always 
 met at a particular barber's shop. 
 
 The men also went to market with the object of 
 making purchases, for at Athens, curiously enough, 
 this shopping was not undertaken by the women or 
 their servants, but by the men instead, who were 
 accompanied by a slave, and themselves purchased 
 the required food, and in particular the fish, so very 
 popular at Athens, for which there was a special 
 market, whose beginning vas announced by a bell. 
 Later on, in the third century, it seems to have been 
 no longer regarded as correct for the master of the 
 house to make his own purchases; in the richer houses 
 there was a special slave {ayopa(TTri<;) kept for this 
 purpose ; female slaves, too, were sometimes sent. 
 
 At mid-day the market was usually over ; then the 
 men went home and took a slight repast, not by any 
 means the chief meal of the day, but rather something 
 like our lunch. This meal, of course, varied a good 
 deal according to individual fancy ; many people con- 
 tented themselves with the remains of the previous 
 day's dinner, others had fresh warm dishes served 
 them ; and in Sicily and Magna Graecia, where great 
 stress was laid on good and plentiful food, this 
 often became a really substantial meal. Some people 
 entirely omitted this lunch, and either took a late 
 breakfast or an earlier dinner. Still, most well-to-do 
 people seem to have taken some meal at the end of 
 their morning's business. 
 
 The afternoon was spent in various ways. The heat 
 which prevails at this time during the greater part of the 
 year generally compelled people to stay at home then ; 
 some took a little mid-day nap, but this was not very 
 general. Men of serious disposition devoted these hours 
 to reading or other intellectual pursuits, while thoso 
 
192 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 who were inclined to idleness probably went, even in 
 the afternoon, to the houses devoted to dice-throwing 
 and drinking, or else dawdled about in the barbers' 
 shops, workshops, etc. ; the club rooms, which were 
 specially devoted to social intercourse among the 
 citizens, were probably very full at this time. Between 
 the third and fourth divisions of the day, they generally 
 took a bath as a preparation for dinner. The custom 
 of taking a warm bath daily had at first found much 
 opposition in Greece. In Homer we find warm baths 
 only mentioned as a refreshment after long journeys 
 or other fatigues, or else used for purposes of cleanli- 
 ness ; later on, cold baths, especially in the sea or in 
 streams, were recommended as good for the health 
 and strengthening for the nerves, while warm baths 
 were looked upon as enervating ; still the custom 
 became very common of taking a bath before dinner, 
 either at home or in one of the public baths. We 
 have already introduced our readers to a public bath 
 for women ; Fig. 96 represents a public bath for men, 
 taken from a vase picture. In the middle is the bath 
 room, where the water is pouring out of two animals' 
 heads. On the right and left are youths who have 
 already taken their bath, and are about to anoint 
 themselves with oil. We know very little about these 
 public baths from writers or from remains of the 
 buildings. They were certainly not nearly so large or 
 so luxurious as the Thermae of the Roman Empire; 
 but even in the Greek baths there were separate 
 apartments for warm, cold, and vapour baths, with 
 large reservoirs or smaller basins, in which water was 
 poured out over the body, also rooms for undressing, 
 anointing, etc. The more the custom grew of remain- 
 ing for hours in these places or connecting them with 
 the gymnasia, the more extensive they became and 
 
DAILY LIFE. 
 
 193 
 
 the more luxurious. We cannot accurately ascertain 
 to what extent the State sometimes owned these 
 public baths and attended to their maintenance, but 
 admission was not free even to these ; a small fee was 
 paid to the bath 
 attendant, who 
 superintended 
 the place, and 
 rendered assist- 
 ance in the bath, 
 not perhaps to 
 cover the ex- 
 penses of main- 
 tenance, so much 
 as for his own 
 trouble and la- 
 bour. The owners 
 of private estab- 
 lishments were 
 obliged to charge 
 higher fees if 
 they wanted not 
 only to cover 
 their expenses, 
 but also to gain 
 a profit ; mention 
 is made of a 
 private bathing 
 establishment 
 
 which was sold for 3,000 drachmae, and must, there- 
 fore, have brought in corresponding interest to the 
 purchaser, which could only be obtained by the 
 entrance fees of the bathers. The owner and atten- 
 dants were responsible for the care of the bath, but 
 
 not for the clothes of the bathers, which were often 
 11 
 
194 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 stolen. Those who had plenty of slaves used, there- 
 fore, to bring one with them to carry the utensils 
 required for the bath, such as towels, oil flasks, and 
 strigils, and to watch over his master's clothes while 
 he was bathing. As the custom of taking a warm 
 bath daily became more general, the scene in the bath 
 houses an hour before dinner grew more and more 
 animated. Talking and joking went on ; cheerfully- 
 disposed people even sang, though that was regarded 
 as unseemly; in the rooms devoted to refreshment 
 after the bath they played knuckle-bones, or dice, or 
 ball, sometimes even cottabus, for which game wine was 
 necessary, and hence we must infer that opportunity 
 for wine drinking was also given there in later times. 
 
 Towards sunset, or in winter after sunset, they 
 returned home for the principal meal, or else went to 
 the house of some friend who had invited guests. In 
 the latter case the meal was generally a good deal 
 prolonged, and followed by drinking, which extended 
 far into the night. Those who dined at home with 
 their wives and children generally finished their meal 
 very quickly, and as the custom of early rising pre- 
 vailed, they were probably in the habit of retiring 
 early, unless the cares of business, study, or other 
 serious pursuits kept some of them awake by lamp- 
 light ; for the quiet of the night was a propitious 
 time for serious thought after the noise of the day, 
 which was probably as great in ancient times in the 
 busy south as it is to-day. It is well-known that 
 Demosthenes prepared nearly all his speeches at night. 
 
 There were also many other occupations, partly 
 serious, partly entertaining, which filled up the life of 
 the Greek citizen. At the time of the highest political 
 development of Athens, in the fifth and fourth centuries, 
 the political and judicial duties occupied a consider- 
 
DAILY LIFE. 
 
 195 
 
 able amount of a citizen's time. Even if he did not 
 fill any of the numerous unpaid posts, or sit in the 
 Council of Five Hundred, the Bonle, whose duty it 
 was to hold preliminary discussions, he still had to 
 devote about forty days of the year to the ordinary 
 popular assemblies, in addition to which there were 
 often extraordinary meetings. Supposing the lot 
 should have appointed him to be one of the 6,000 
 jurymen {fjXiaaraL) annually chosen, this gave him 
 plenty to do for his year of office, for, besides the 
 meetings, he had to acquire information about various 
 suits at which he had to give his opinion ; and wo 
 know, chiefly from Aristophanes, how devoted many 
 citizens were to their judicial duties, and how all their 
 thoughts and actions were often centred in this 
 activity, which by no means always exercised a good 
 moral influence over them. Rich citizens also per- 
 formed voluntary public services {XeirovpylaL), which 
 consisted partly in entertaining the people by provid- 
 ing scenic or choric representations, gymnastic games, 
 torchlight processions, etc., partly in important services 
 to the State, such as equipping a man-of-war at their 
 own expense. These voluntary services not only 
 imposed on the rich citizens considerable money 
 burdens, which in later times, when the Athenian 
 wealth had diminished, could no longer be met by 
 one individual, but also took up a great deal of 
 their time, since they had not only to supply the 
 necessary money, but also to superintend and 
 arrange the work. Another change in the monotony 
 of daily life was supplied by the religious festivals, in 
 which the Attic calendar was unusually rich, and the 
 theatrical and other performances connected with 
 them, with which we shall deal later on. 
 
 ThobO who possessed estates in the country, even 
 
196 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 when they Hved in town, often went out to them to 
 look after the management ; hunting and bird-catching 
 were also very popular occupations. The former 
 especially was a favourite amusement. Hunting in 
 ancient times was very different from what it is at 
 the present day ; this is partly due to the great 
 difference between our modern firearms and the hunt- 
 ing implements of the ancients, partly to their almost 
 universal custom of using nets, into which they drove 
 the game and there killed it. These nets were used 
 for nearly all quadrupeds which they hunted, and the 
 strength and density of the meshes differed according 
 to the object hunted, as well as the method of arrange- 
 ment. There were in particular bag nets, which 
 were drawn together behind the game when it ran 
 into it, and falling nets, which were hung loosely on 
 forked sticks, and when the animal ran against them 
 fell down from the sticks and entangled it. Snares 
 were also used for catching not only hares and 
 foxes, but also larger four-footed game, such as boars 
 and stags. In consequence of bhis custom of driving 
 the game, and bringing it to bay, bows which were 
 calculated for longer distances were of very little use 
 in hunting ; the animals were either killed by a light 
 javelin thrown from a small distance, or, if the game 
 had turned to bay, with a hanger, which was especially 
 useful in boar hunting. Dogs were used for starting 
 the game and driving it into the nets at bay, and the 
 ancients devoted a good deal of care to their training ; 
 indeed, the important part played by dogs in Greek 
 hunting is expressed by the Greek name for huntsman, 
 which means " dog leader " (kvvtjjo^;). They used to 
 hunt boars, stags, hares ; beasts of prey, such as wolves 
 and jackals, were only hunted when they were danger- 
 ous to the herds ; and larger animals, such as lions 
 
DAILY LIFE. 
 
 197 
 
 and bears, did not exist at all in Greece in historic 
 ages, although the numerous legends of lion hunts 
 bear sufficient testimony to their existence in earlier 
 times. Birds were caught with nets, snares, traps, and 
 lime; and, since Greece was by no means rich in 
 quadrupeds suitable for hunting, bird-catching was 
 one of the most popular occupations, and also a lucra- 
 tive one. On the other hand, fishing, which was 
 carried on with both lines and nets, seems never to 
 have become a regular sport. 
 
 We have already alluded to the practice of visiting 
 the gymnasia, and the military duties of the citizens. 
 There were also public houses and gaming houses, but 
 these do not appear to have played a great part in 
 the lives of the men. The drinking parties supplied 
 sufficient opportunity for social meetings. Those who 
 visited the public drinking bars usually did so for 
 other purposes as well — to see pretty girls or to meet 
 companions for dice, though both these purposes 
 could be effected in special houses. It is natural, 
 therefore, that it was not regarded as respectable to 
 visit these wme taverns, and that grave men, as well 
 as youths of good principle, avoide J them. Still, even 
 here the custom seems to have gradually relaxed, and 
 though the Athenians were never as bad as the in- 
 habitants of Byzantium, who were accused of spending 
 the whole day at the bars, yet at the end of the fourth 
 and in the third century B.C. it was very common for 
 young men, or people of the lower classes, to dawdle 
 about in the wine bars and gambling houses. 
 
 Travelling played a far less important part in the 
 life of the Greeks than it does at the present day. In 
 ancient times almost the only inducement for travel- 
 ling was business. The merchant plied his trade 
 chiefly as a sailor, the small shopkeeper travelled 
 
198 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOMK 
 
 about the country as a pedlar. In the heroic period 
 we also find artisans and travelling singers on their 
 wanderings, and in the first centuries of the develop- 
 ment of art, and to some extent even afterwards, 
 sculptors and architects were summoned from a 
 distance to execute commissions under the orders 
 of the State, or some special board of officials. 
 But those who were neither merchants nor artisans 
 had less inducement to travel; for military expeditions, 
 which of course were numerous, can hardly be included 
 among journeys. There were also official embassies 
 and pilgrimages to celebrated shrines, or visits to 
 the great national festivals. Again, Solon, Herodotus, 
 and others travelled for political or scientific purposes, 
 with a view to study history or ethnography, that they 
 might learn to know foreign nations, their manners 
 and customs, countries and buildings. In the Alexan- 
 drine period, journeys were also undertaken for 
 purposes of natural science. Our modern custom of 
 visiting foreign lands for the sake of their natural 
 beauty was unknown in Greek antiquity, but we must 
 not on that account suppose that the ancients had no 
 feehng for natural beauty. The Odyssey gives a 
 picture of travel in heroic times ; the common man 
 trudges along on foot, while the rich man goes in his 
 carriage, draAvn by horses or mules, and the fact that 
 the latter was possible even in the mountainous Pelo- 
 ponnesus, proves that even at that period good roads 
 must have existed there. The Greeks never attained 
 as great perfection in road-making as the Komans; 
 apparently those roads were kept in best condition 
 which led to the national sanctuaries, and here regular 
 tracks were cut out of the rocky ground, and there 
 were places for passing other carriages, halting places, 
 etc. This was not, however, the case with all the 
 
DAILY LIFE. 
 
 199 
 
 roads, and we must not assume that ancient Greece 
 possessed a well-kept complicated network of streets, 
 such as the practical Eomans constructed at every 
 place to which their legions came ; indeed, in historic 
 times it appears that people travelled very little in 
 carriages. Of course these had to be used on long 
 journeys, especially when women were travelling ; then 
 they used four-wheeled carriages, which were some- 
 times used for sleeping in ; and they also had smaller 
 two- wheeled carts. But as a rule men travelled on 
 horse-back or mule-back, and very often merely on 
 foot, followed by one or many slaves, who carried the 
 baggage required for the journey, in particular bed- 
 coverings, clothes, utensils, etc. 
 
 If it was necessary to spend the night anywhere 
 on a journey of several days, the widespread beautiful 
 custom of hospitality which prevailed in ancient times, 
 and made men regard every stranger as under the 
 protection of Zeus, enabled them to find shelter ; and, 
 though this custom could not maintain itself in later 
 times in its full extent, yet the effects of it still 
 remained, and many people entered into a sort of 
 treaty of hospitality with men in other towns, which 
 was usually handed on to the descendants. By this 
 they pledged themselves on the occasion of visits 
 from members of one or the other family, to receive 
 them in their houses and afford them the rights 
 of hospitality ; some little token of recognition 
 previously agreed on — such as a little tablet, a ring 
 broken into two halves, or something else of the 
 sort — was used in such cases to legitimise the 
 stranger. Sometimes whole districts entered into 
 a league of this kind with one another, or one single 
 rich man became the " guest-friend " of some foreign 
 community, and entertained them when they came to 
 
200 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 his home. The service of the " guest- friend was not 
 always extended so far as to supply complete enter- 
 tainment to the stranger as well as lodging ; often he 
 only supplied the lodging, the necessary coverings for 
 the bed, and the use of the fire, which could not 
 easily be procured, but in other respects left the 
 guest, if he had brought servants with him, to pro- 
 vide for himself ; some additional gifts of hospitality 
 were usually sent him. Still this custom of " guest- 
 friendship " was not sufficient to supply shelter for all 
 travellers ; therefore inns were opened in large trading 
 cities, near harbours, and places of pilgrimage, such 
 as Delos, Delphi, Olympia, etc., where strangers were 
 entertained for payment. These inns were of very 
 various character — some of them apparently supplied 
 only rooms and a little furniture, especially bedsteads 
 while the stranger brought his own bed and coverlets^ 
 and had to provide his own food ; others supplied 
 food and drink, and were often houses of ill-fame, and 
 in consequence it is natural that the position of inn- 
 keeper should have been generally looked down upon 
 in Greek antiquity. Probably these inns were not 
 particularly pleasant places to stay in ; very often the 
 landlord cheated the travellers, and it was customary 
 to arrange the price of everything beforehand ; there 
 were also inns which were used as hiding-places 
 by robbers and thieves, and thus might prove dan- 
 gerous quarters for the guests. Another disagreeable 
 accompaniment of southern inns, even in the present 
 day, is hinted at by Aristophanes in the Frogs," 
 when Dionysus, on his journey to Hades, inquires for 
 the inns in which there are fewest fleas. Travellers do 
 not seem to have troubled themselves about passports ; 
 a legitimation was only necessary when the town to 
 which they were going was engaged in war, or when 
 
DAILY LIFE. 
 
 201 
 
 they went into a hostile country in time of war. But 
 to travel at all at such times was not advisable, 
 for the roads, which at no time were specially safe, 
 were then infested by travelling mercenaries or 
 marauders. Sometimes travellers had to submit to 
 an examination of their luggage. Ofiicial*^ generally 
 farmed out the tolls to private undertakers, and these 
 therefore had, or at any rate took, the right, if they 
 suspected travellers of trying to smuggle dutiable 
 articles, to stop them and examine their luggage, and 
 sometimes even to open letters which they had by 
 them. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 
 
 Banquets — The Various Courses — The Symposium — Its Character- 
 Conversation — Music — Entertainments — Jugglers — Flute-Girls— 
 Riddles — Games — Excessive Drinking. 
 
 At Athens, and probably throughout Greece — except, 
 perhaps, at Sparta— the chief meal of the day was 
 taken in the evening. This was not, however, the 
 case in the Homeric period, when it was taken at 
 mid-day, and the evening meal was of less import- 
 ance. The customs of the heroic age differed in 
 many respects from those of later times. In par- 
 ticular, the practice of sitting on chairs at meals then 
 prevailed, and, in fact, there was no large common 
 table used by all, but each guest had his own little 
 table before him, on which the attendants placed the 
 food which had been carved at a special board used 
 for the purpose. Another difference is that, though 
 the Homeric heroes, in accordance with the condition 
 of their times, which laid special stress on the pleasures 
 of the senses, cared a good deal for plentiful food and 
 drink, and though full cups were continually circling 
 at the meals, still the regular drinking parties which 
 were common in later times, and which followed the 
 meal itself, were quite unknown in the heroic age. 
 
 In considering the meals of the historical period, 
 particularly at Athens, we must remember that we 
 are dealing specially with large common banquets, 
 which were very frequent among men, and not with 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 
 
 203 
 
 the usual family meal, which the master of the house 
 took in the circle of his family. We know veiy little 
 of the proceedings at these family dinners, and that 
 only from works of art. On Greek reliefs on tomb- 
 stones we often find, from the classical to the Imperial 
 period, representations of the family meal, where the 
 master of the house lies on his couch, his wife sitting 
 on it at his feet, for it was not considered correct for 
 women to lie down at meals as the men did, and when 
 we see on works of art women lying down along with 
 the men, we may be certain that these are hetaerae, 
 who were not bound by the same rules of custom. 
 The children of the house sat round the table on 
 chairs. But as a rule, the wife and children only 
 dined in the most intimate family circle ; when guests 
 were invited they dined alone in the women's apart- 
 ments, and only on some few occasions, especially 
 weddings and family festivals, were the women 
 allowed to appear before the men. 
 
 The custom of entertainments for men alone was 
 far more common in antiquity than at the present 
 day; for these banquets took the place not only of 
 our parties and other social gatherings, but they 
 also gave the men an opportunity, especially in the 
 drinking which followed, while sitting together over 
 their wine, to discuss at their leisure both serious and 
 frivolous matters. There were also plenty of festive 
 occasions which gave opportunities for these common 
 banquets; a public or private sacrifice was a very 
 common excuse, if only because the flesh of the 
 victim — of which, as a rule, only the entrails were 
 burnt — could be best made use of in this manner. 
 There were also birthdays, funerals, victories in some 
 contest or game, departure or return from a journey 
 of a friend, etc. ; all these occasions were celebrated 
 
204 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME 
 
 by feasts, and there were also great public banquets, 
 which were usually of a simpler character, owing to 
 the number of guests and the fact that the expenses 
 were publicly defrayed. Besides these meals, to which 
 individuals invited their friends or relations, picnics 
 were very common. Very often all who participated 
 sent baskets of provisions into the house of one who 
 gave up his rooms for the purpose ; but it was even 
 commoner for each to contribute a certain share of 
 money, and thus to defray the expenses of the meal, 
 which was taken at the house of one of the par- 
 ticipants, or of some obliging hetaera. We do not 
 know what arrangement was made about the wine, 
 and whether the expenses of this were also defrayed 
 out of the general charge. 
 
 Generally speaking, in the fifth and fourth centuries 
 there was a great deal of simple and pleasant social 
 intercourse; friends were invited without any ceremony, 
 during the course of the day, to come to the e^'ening 
 meal. If they did not appear at the appointed hour, 
 the meal began without them, and if the guest put 
 in his appearance later on, this was regarded as a 
 matter of coarse. It seems not to have been unusual 
 to go even uninvited to the meal or to the Symposium 
 which followed it, and one of the speakers in Plato's 
 " Symposium " suggests the following version of a line 
 in Homer : — 
 
 " To the feasts of the good, the good unbidden go." 
 
 Sometimes idle fellows, such as the parasites who 
 were alwaj/S hunting for a dinner, made too liberal use 
 of this hospitality, or persons made their appearance 
 who did not suit with the rest of the company and 
 would have disturbed the general harmon}^ In such 
 cases the door keeping slave received the order to 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 205 
 
 send away certain persons, saying, " My master is not 
 at home," or else, " He has already retired to rest." 
 
 The usual course of proceedings at one of these 
 banquets was as follows. The invited guests, who 
 according to custom had previously attended the bath, 
 first took their places sitting on the couches placed 
 ready for them. The slaves of the host, or even of 
 the guest^^ who often brought them to help wait at 
 table, then took off their masters' sandals or shoes, 
 and as the dust of the street might have soiled their 
 feet, which were but slightly protected by the soles, 
 these were washed once more by the slaves, a proceed- 
 ing which was the more necessary, as in lying down 
 they often rested on couches covered with very 
 valuable coverlets. Hereupon they lay down, as a 
 rule two guests on one sofa, but the monuments 
 often show us three or even more persons on a single 
 couch, and we cannot always determine with certainty 
 whether the artist has adhered to the actual practice 
 or introduced arbitrary changes of his own. In lying 
 down they rested on their left elbow, or on numerous 
 cushions at their back ; the right arm was left free, in 
 order to take the food from the table and reach it 
 to the mouth; but plates, dishes, cups, etc., were also 
 taken in the left hand. When the guests had all lain 
 down and washed their hands in bowls handed round 
 for the purpose, the little three-legged dining tables 
 were brought in, which were always a little lower than 
 the sofas. On these the food was arranged in dishes 
 or plates, and always cut up small, for forks were 
 never used at table, but only in the kitchen by the 
 cooks for carving the meat, whilst the guests made 
 use, instead, of a spoon or sometimes of a piece of bread 
 hollowed out, and very seldom used a knife. Table 
 cloths and napkins were unknown ; the place of the 
 
206 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 latter was taken by soft dough, on which the fingers 
 were rubbed. At large banquets, sometimes towels 
 and water for washing the hands were handed round 
 between the courses, and this was always done at the 
 end of a meal. The practice of using the fingers for 
 eating made this indispensable. 
 
 Luxurious living, which was of course unknown 
 at Sparta, was far less common at Athens, too, 
 than in many other Greek states, such as Thessaly, 
 and in particular Sicily and Magna Graecia. In 
 these places the gastronomic art was cultivated 
 to a high degree, and there were books in which 
 the various kinds of joints and ragouts, fishes and 
 sweets, etc., were enumerated in verse, sometimes 
 in a comic manner and sometimes with due serious- 
 ness. The Boeotians, on the other hand, had a bad 
 name for consuming great quantities of food, and this 
 of a coarse description. At Athens, in the classic 
 period, meals were, as a rule, simple and modest. 
 In the various descriptions of banquets handed down 
 to us by different writers, no mention is ever made of 
 the cooking, and the simplicity of Plato's meals may 
 be inferred from the somewhat malicious remark 
 commonly made that those who had dined with Plato 
 would be in excellent health next morning. 
 
 The meat most in use was that of the sacrificial 
 animals, especially oxen, sheep, goats, and swine ; this 
 last was very popular, both roast and salted or smoked, 
 and was also used for sausages. The ancients were 
 acquainted with various kinds of sausage; we find 
 allusions to these even in Homer; they were also 
 acquainted with the practice of adulterating them by 
 introducing the flesh of dogs or asses. In poultry, 
 they had fowls, ducks, geese, quails, and also wild 
 birds, such as partridges and wood pigeons; the 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 207 
 
 special favourites were thrushes, which were a very 
 popular dainty in the poultry market, where dis- 
 honest poulterers blew the birds up in order to make 
 them seem fatter and in better condition. A favourite 
 kind of game was hare, which is very frequently 
 mentioned ; they even had a proverb, " To live in the 
 midst of roast hare," which means to be in a land of 
 plenty. Fish, too, was eaten in great quantities. In 
 the Homeric period the taste for it did not yet exist, 
 but in later times it was very much sought after. A 
 special delicacy was eels, from Lake Copais, which 
 are often mentioned, and were favourites with all the 
 Athenian gourmets. Otherwise, sea fish was pre- 
 ferred to fresh-water fish, and there seems no end to 
 the various kinds mentioned, which were also pre- 
 pared in many different ways. The inexhaustible 
 wealth of the neighbouring sea permitted even the 
 poor people to have fish in plenty ; in particular, the 
 delicate sardines, which were caught in the harbour 
 of Phalerum, and which were cheap and also quickly 
 prepared, formed an important article of food for the 
 Athenians. There were also great quantities of salt 
 and smoked fish, which were prepared in the large 
 smoking establishments of the Black Sea and on the 
 coast of Spain, and brought by traders to Greece. 
 The salted tunnies, herrings, etc., were excellent and 
 also cheap, and therefore very common as food for 
 the people. In the houses of the richer classes the 
 finer kinds were also used — various sorts of fish 
 sauces, caviar, oysters, turtles, etc., which added to 
 the variety of the bills of fare, and could satisfy even 
 the daintiest palates. 
 
 Under the heading of vegetable food, we must 
 first of all consider bread and porridge. The kinds of 
 grain chiefly used were wheat and barley, as well as 
 
208 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME 
 
 spelt; rye was not cultivated in Greece, and rye 
 bread was regarded as food for barbarians. Bread 
 was made chiefly of wheat, and was white or brown, 
 according to the greater or less addition of bran and 
 the finer quahty of the flour. But the common 
 people did not eat much wheaten bread ; the chief 
 daily food of the poorer people was a kind of barley 
 cake, called maza, a sort of porridge, which was 
 moistened and dissolved in water, and of which there 
 were various kinds with different savoury additions. 
 This porridge seems to have resembled the polenta 
 still used in the south, but was probably not much 
 eaten by the richer classes. They had also green 
 vegetables and salads, asparagus, radishes, mush- 
 rooms, lentils, peas, lupins, etc. These leguminous 
 vegetables supplied nourishing fare for poor people, 
 and were therefore sold by street cooks hot from the 
 fire, at a low price. We find even in antiquity the 
 fondness for onions and garlic still shown by southern 
 nations, and these were eaten raw with bread. Be- 
 sides salt, pepper, and vinegar, various spices were 
 used to flavour the dishes, such as sesame, coriander, 
 caraway, mustard, etc., and also silphium, which was 
 much sought after, but very expensive, and was im- 
 ported from Gyrene, but could no longer be obtained 
 at the beginning of the Ghristian era. Olive oil was 
 used for cooking. 
 
 The second course, which played an important part 
 at large dinners, consisted of cheese (butter was not in 
 use for food), all kinds of fruit, and cakes. Athens 
 was especially distinguished for its cakes, because the 
 excellent honey of Hymettus supphed good material for 
 it : confectioners knew how to make the most various 
 kinds of cakes, and often produced them in the shapes 
 of animals, human beings, and other objects. 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 209 
 
 It is commonly supposed that the Greeks did not 
 drink at all during their meals, but this is an untenable 
 opinion. The great number of salt or highly-spiced 
 dishes which they had, must of necessity have induced 
 thirst. In fact, many allusions in the writers show us 
 that some drinking went on during dinner, but in a 
 very moderate degree when compared with the 
 symposium which followed the meal, and only with a 
 view to quenching thirst. In any case, when the last 
 course was brought in, they took a draught of unmixed 
 wine in honour of the " good genius." Then the tables 
 were taken away, and, if no drinking party followed, 
 the guests arose from their couches after once more 
 washing their hands. Usually, however, these banquets 
 were followed by a symposium. 
 
 The proceedings at the symposium were generally 
 as follows : — The servants in attendance removed the 
 larger tables which had been used at dinner, and 
 brought in instead other smaller tables, which were 
 also three-legged, but had round tops. On these they 
 arranged the drinking cups, bowls, and cooling vessels, 
 plates with all kinds of dessert, and little dainties that 
 would induce thirst. Then wreaths were given to the 
 guests to adorn their heads, and sometimes to put 
 round their necks, and sweet-scented ointments were 
 handed round. While the guests were occupied in 
 adorning themselves, the servants brought in the wine 
 in large mixing bowls, generally three at the beginning 
 of the feast, and later more, as occasion required. The 
 customary drink at these feasts was a mixture of wine 
 and water. Even at the present day southern nations 
 seldom drink strong wine unmixed with water, and 
 in ancient times unmixed wine was only drunk in 
 very small quantities ; at the symposium, when it 
 was customary to drink deep and long, they had only 
 
210 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 mixed wme, sometimes taking equal parts of wine and 
 water, and sometimes, which was even commoner, three 
 parts of water to two parts of wine. Generally, at the 
 beginning of every symposium, a president, or " Sym- 
 
 posiarch," was ap- 
 pointed by lot or 
 dice to take com- 
 mand for the rest 
 of the evening, 
 and it was his 
 duty to determine 
 the strength of 
 the mixture, for 
 this might be of 
 various kinds, as 
 weak even as two 
 parts of wine to 
 five of water, or 
 one to three, or 
 even one part of 
 wine to five of 
 water, which last 
 was certainly a 
 somewhat taste- 
 less drink, and was 
 contemptuously 
 called "frog's 
 wine." In early 
 times it was usual to put the water first into the 
 mixing bowl and pour the wine upon it ; afterwards 
 the reverse proceeding took place. 
 
 The commoner sorts of wine were very cheap, and 
 in consequence it was the universal drink, of which 
 even the poor people and slaves partook ; better kinds 
 were more expensive, and the best came from the 
 islands, especially Lesbos and Chios ; Rhodian and 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMElNTS. 211 
 
 Thasian wines were also largely exported. Beer was 
 by no means unknown to antiquity ; in Egypt, Spain, 
 Gaul, Thrace, etc., they brewed a malt liquor which 
 must have had 
 some resemblance 
 to our beer, but 
 the Greeks dis- 
 liked this drii)\, 
 and always spoke 
 of it contemptu- 
 ously. The gift 
 of Dionysus re- 
 mained the na- 
 tional drink of the 
 Greeks, but it 
 differed in many 
 respects from our 
 wines of the pre- 
 sent day. Much 
 of the ancient 
 wine must have 
 resembled in taste 
 the resin wine 
 of modern Egypt, 
 since resin was 
 added to it, and 
 as the large clay 
 casks in which the wine was exported were painted 
 over internally with pitch, this must of necessity 
 have given a taste to the wine. Nor did they know 
 how to clear their wine; it was usually thick, and, 
 in order to be made at all bright, had to be filtered 
 through a fine sieve or cloth each time before it was 
 used. To return to the symposium. Figs. 97 and 
 98, taken from pictures on the outside of painted 
 cups, give representations of drinking parties. In 
 
212 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Fig. 97 we see three bearded men with wreaths lying 
 near one another ; in front of them are two bowls, a 
 wine can, a cooling vessel, a footstool, and a shoe. The 
 man on the right holds a cup in his left hand and puts 
 his right hand to his head, which is bent backwards ; 
 his open mouth shows that he is supposed to be sing- 
 ing. The guest in the middle is playing energetically 
 on the double flute, the one on the right holds a lyre, 
 and in his right hand the rod, but he is not striking 
 the strings ; near him, on the wall, hangs a flute-case. 
 Fig. 98 also represents three men, and in front of them 
 a bowl, a can, a cooling vessel, another vessel of curious 
 shape, and three shoes. The man on the left is stretch- 
 ing out his right hand with a cup to a boy with a wine 
 can near him ; the one in the middle also holds a cup 
 and turns in conversation to the one on the right, who 
 in his right hand holds a goblet {aKv^os;). 
 
 The symposium began with three libations, offered 
 to the Olympian deities, the heroes, and to Zeus Soter ; 
 sometimes incense was burnt meantime, and if the 
 flute girl, who as a rule did not make her appearance 
 till afterwards, was present at the beginning of the 
 symposium, the solemn proceedings were probably 
 accompanied by flute playing. For these libations 
 they used three mixing bowls which had previously 
 been made ready, taking one libation from each ; after 
 the libation from the first, they sang in chorus a short 
 hymn in praise of Dionysus (Paean), which was 
 repeated if, as often happened, a new mixture had 
 to be prepared in the course of the evening. The 
 drinking, as well as the rest of the procedure was 
 carried on according to certain fixed rules, which 
 somewhat resembled those still practised by German 
 students. If a president or symposiarch was ohosen, 
 he had to appoint not only the strength of the 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 213 
 
 mixture, but also the kind of cup, whether large or 
 small, from which it was to be drunk, and, in fact, 
 generally undertook the direction of the conversation, 
 the toasts, forfeits, etc. We generally find on the 
 monuments flat, two-handled cups in use at the 
 symposium, but sometimes also large, deep goblets, 
 and after drinking for some time, it seems that they 
 even occasionally drank from the capacious vessels, 
 really destined for cooling the wine by means of 
 snow-water, and that practised drinkers, such as 
 Socrates and Alcibiades, could empty them at a 
 draught. It was a very common custom to empty 
 goblets thus, and many drinking cups were shaped 
 in such a way that they must be emptied at 
 once, as they could not stand upright. Every 
 guest had to submit to the ordinances of the 
 symposiarch ; he exercised unlimited authority in the 
 matter of drinking, unless, indeed, the arrangement 
 had been made from the first that everyone should 
 drink little or much, as he pleased, during that 
 evening. Those who disobeyed the commands of the 
 president had to submit to some punishment, which 
 consisted either in drinking a certain quantity, or 
 else was directed at some personal infirmity; thus, 
 for instance, a bald man was told to comb his hair, a 
 stammerer to sing, a lame man to hop, etc. This 
 compulsion of submitting to the ordinances of the 
 president naturally led to very deep drinking, and 
 even the mixture of the water with the wine was 
 insuflicieiit defence against this practice. It was 
 also very common to drink to one another, and 
 propose the health of friends or popular girls. It 
 was customary for the drinking to circulate to the 
 right, and this practice was also kept up for all 
 other performances which were expected from 
 
214? GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 every guest, such as the singing of songs, guessing of 
 riddles, etc. 
 
 Though the main object of the symposium was, 
 undoubtedly, the drinking, yet we must not compare 
 the Greek symposia with the wild drinking bouts 
 customary in Germany during the middle ages, which 
 continued till the 17th century. In consequence of 
 the weakness of the mixture, it must have taken some 
 time for the intoxicating effects to make themselves 
 apparent. Moreover, there were various kinds of 
 amusement which caused the drinking to fall somewhat 
 into the background, but these naturally varied a good 
 deal according to the degree of culture and character 
 of the guests. Symposia, such as those described by 
 Xenophon and Plato, at which there was very deep 
 drinking, but also really intellectual conversation and 
 discussion of deep problems, are, of course, idealised ; 
 and, even in Plato's Symposium, the presence of the 
 flute girl shows that the sensual element was regarded 
 as well as the intellectual entertainment. As a rule, 
 music played an important part at the symposia. 
 Even in the Homeric period, song was an important 
 feature of the banquet. The cunning singer, who sang 
 the stories of gods and heroes to the accompaniment 
 of the " lyre," and who was listened to eagerly by all, 
 was never absent from any banquet at which a great 
 number of guests were present. In historic times, the 
 musical entertainment took a different character, for 
 the guests, instead of merely listening, took part in it 
 themselves, singing generally as well as playing. 
 There were three kinds of singing ; choruses, sung by 
 all together, such as the Paean already mentioned ; 
 part songs, in which all shared, not together, but each 
 in his turn ; and solos, sung by those who had special 
 musical ability and education. These solos were 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 215 
 
 especially popular; the singer accompanied himself 
 with the harp, and here, too, they adhered to the 
 custom of always passing to the right the harp and 
 the myrtle bough, which the singer had to hold in 
 his hand during the performance. Of especial im- 
 portance among these solo songs, from a literary 
 point of view, were the " Scolia," which were usually 
 of a serious character, either religious, patriotic, or of 
 a general moral nature. A well-known scolion sang 
 the praises of the two conspirators who murdered 
 the tyrant Hipparchus ; it began as follows : — 
 
 "In myrtle veiled I will the falchion wear ; 
 
 For thus the patriot sword 
 Harmodius and Aristogeiton bare, 
 
 When they the tyrant's bosom gored ; 
 And bade the men of Athens be 
 Regenerate in equality. 
 Beloved Harmodius, oh, never 
 Shall death be thine, v^ho livest for ever. 
 Thy shade, as men have told, inherits 
 The islands of the blessed spirits, 
 Where deathless live the glorious dead, 
 Achilles, fleet of foot, and Diomed." * 
 
 Other songs celebrated the praise of wine, the joys o^ 
 love, the happiness of friendship ; there were also special 
 drinking songs, some composed by very great poets, 
 such as Alcaeus, Sappho, Anacreon, Simonides, Pindar, 
 who composed them in various metres. A vase 
 painting shows us a reveller lying on a couch with a 
 wreath on his head, holding a lyre in his hand, and 
 singing, while raising his head as though inspired ; the 
 words written underneath by the vase painter show us 
 that he is singing an ode by Theognis in praise of a 
 beautiful boy. Here, too, changes in taste took place 
 in the course of time ; many of the old songs were 
 
 • Callistratus, translated by Elton. 
 
216 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 regarded as old-fashioned, even in the time of Aris- 
 tophanes, and he who when his turn came sang a 
 song by Simonides, instead of some grar.d air from 
 Euripides, was regarded as quite behind the times. 
 
 Very commonly flute or harp girls were present at 
 the symposium, and entertained the guests by playing 
 and singing, and probably also by dancing. These girls 
 were either specially invited and paid by the host for 
 the evening, or else entered of their own accord a house 
 where they imagined there was a merry company, or 
 they were sometimes introduced by guests who came 
 late in the evening. Thus, in Plato's Symposium we 
 find a flute girl present at the beginning ; she accom- 
 panies the introductory libation with her playing, but 
 one of the guests suggests that they should send her 
 away, and let her either play to herself or to the women 
 in their own apartments, since men preferred to enter- 
 tain each other by sensible conversation. But Plato 
 was almost alone in this opinion, which he expresses 
 far more strongly in another place, sayi»g that educated 
 men did not require flute or harp girls or dancers, or 
 any such foolish entertainment while drinking. Most 
 people regarded these playing girls as equally indis- 
 pensable at the symposium with the entertainments 
 and wreaths, and accordingly in Plato's banquet, 
 towards the end of the evening, Alcibiades, coming 
 from another drinking party, already in a state of 
 intoxication, is supported by a flute girl who accom- 
 panies him. On the vase pictures these girls are 
 seldom wanting ; and these pictorial representations, as 
 well as other allusions to the symposia, show that the 
 presence of these girls was not due only to a desire for 
 music. The flute and harp girls were almost always 
 hetaerae, and liberties of various kinds were taken with 
 them ; for instance, a guest might be ordered to carry 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 217 
 
 the flute girl several times round the room, or she 
 might be put up for auction, and handed over to the 
 highest bidder as his property for the evening ; and in 
 consequence of the presence of these girls the drinking 
 parties often became veritable orgies, in which Eros 
 was honoured no less than Dionysus. The vase painters 
 sometimes give us a picture almost too truthful, though 
 this degeneracy of custom seems to have increased 
 rather than diminish- 
 ed in later times. 
 
 Other kinds of 
 amusements were also 
 offered to the guests 
 at the symposia. In 
 the "Banquet" of 
 Xenophon, at an early 
 stage of the proceed- 
 ings, a Syracusan ap- 
 pears, who has been 
 invited by the host, 
 with a flute girl, a Fig. 99. 
 
 dancing girl, and a 
 
 beautiful boy who plays a harp and dances. They play 
 and perform pantomimic dances; in particular, there is 
 a full description of one such dance, which represents 
 in very graceful fashion the meeting of Ariadne with 
 Dionysus. Conjurers, too, so-called " Thaumaturgists," 
 show their skill on these occasions. The dancing girl 
 in Xenophon's " Banquet " throws twelve rings into the 
 air while dancing, and catches them all in turn ; then 
 she performs a bold sword dance, turning head over 
 heels into a stand round which sharp knives are set, 
 and out again in the same fashion. We often find 
 similar representations on vase paintings ; thus, Fig. 99 
 shows a girl walking on her hands and performing a 
 
218 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 dangerous dance between sharp swords. In a similar 
 posture the woman represented in Fig. 100 shoots an 
 arrow with her toes from a bow held between her feet. 
 The ancient jugglers seem to have known all the many 
 tricks which are still admired at fairs and other popular 
 festivals, such as swallowing swords, eating fire, etc. ; 
 a feat unknown at the present day was writing on a 
 quickly-revolving potter's wheel, or reading something 
 written on it. It was very common to invite such 
 
 jugglers at weddings or after feasts, but it was un- 
 doubtedly a confession of weakness to have recourse 
 to such trivialities instead of carrying on an intellectual 
 and interesting conversation. On a similar low level 
 were the official " entertainers," who in ancient times 
 took the place of the Court fools of the middle ages. 
 The jokes of these " entertainers," who travelled from 
 house to house, from meal to meal, who were always 
 hungry, and glad to supply their jokes in return for 
 entertainment and payment, were as a rule very poor 
 and shallow, and their chief point seems to have 
 - consisted in leading the young men to make fun of 
 ' t each other, and to submit good-humouredly to jokes 
 > practised upon them. 
 
 Pig. 100. 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 219 
 
 On a higher level were those social entertamments 
 which laid the intelligence and wit of the participants 
 under contribution. To begin with, there was free 
 conversation, dealing with the many questions of the 
 day, politics, literature, etc.; but they generally avoided 
 serious subjects, and Anacreon says : — 
 
 " That man hold I not dear, who drinking his wine from 
 a full bowl, 
 
 Ever of conquest and war sings but the dolorous strain, 
 But who the glorious gifts of the Muses and fair 
 Aphrodite, 
 
 Mingling together, recalls feelings of joy and of love.'' * 
 
 They amused themselves with games requiring 
 thought— riddles and such-like — as, for instance, 
 naming an object which contained a certain god's 
 name, or singing a verse in which one particular letter 
 must not appear, or whose first and last syllables 
 must have a particular meaning, etc. In circles where 
 the culture was above the average, a definite subject 
 was sometimes given the guests for oratorical discus- 
 sion. Here, as in the drinking and singing, the 
 turns also went to the right after the subject had 
 been previously discussed and fixed by all together. 
 The appointed tasks were of various kinds. A 
 favourite amusement seems to have been to compare, 
 the guests present with particular objects, such as 
 mythical monsters, etc., and here opportunity was 
 given for showing wit and making innocent jokes. 
 Sometimes, when a professional " entertainer was 
 present, the task was left to him, but as he was not 
 always plentifully supplied with wit, it often happened 
 that the poor man, who practised his jokes from neces- 
 sity, grew quite sad at the disregard of his witticisms. 
 
 * Translated by T J. Arnold. 
 
^20 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 A more difficult task, and one making greater demand 
 on the intellect, was to make a little improvised 
 speech on some set subject, to praise or blame some 
 particular thing, and this became especially common 
 with the development of the rhetorical art. Thus, in 
 the " Banquet " of Xenophon, each guest has to say 
 what he is proud of, and to give his reasons ; in 
 Plato's symposium, the glorification of Eros is the 
 task appointed. In the ages of the Alexandrine 
 learning, this even led to learned discussions, in which 
 scientific problems of all kinds were treated over the 
 cups. Those who were successful in these intellectual 
 contests, who solved difficult riddles, etc., were re- 
 warded, receiving wreaths or fillets, or sometimes 
 kisses ; on the other hand, the symposiarch inflicted 
 punishments on those who were unsuccessful, and 
 these usually consisted in drinking, at a draught, a 
 whole cupful of unmixed wine, or, which was worse, 
 wine mixed with salt water. 
 
 There were also a great number of games played 
 at the symposium, and also at other times, chiefly by 
 young people. The one which was the most popular 
 at the symposia, and which in consequence we find on 
 numerous monuments, was Cottabus, a game intro- 
 duced from Sicily, which fell into disuse during the 
 age of Alexander's successors, and was unknown to 
 the Romans, so that the accounts we have of it are 
 somewhat confused. This much is certain, that it 
 consisted in skilfully throwing drops of wine left in 
 the cup at some definite goal, and producing a cer- 
 tain eftect in striking it. The cup was held, not by 
 the foot, but by one handle with the fingers, and they 
 did not use the whole arm in throwing it, but only the 
 wrist, or, if the arm was bent, only the lower arm. 
 There were various ways of playing this game ; for the 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 221 
 
 commonost, they seem to have used a stand something 
 like a high candelabrum (see the one represented in 
 Fig. 101), the shaft of which could be screwed higher or 
 lower according to requirement. On the top of it was 
 balanced, placed loosely upon it, a Httle saucer or 
 bowl of brass, and the wine which w^s thrown had to 
 fall with a ringing noise upon it, and throw down 
 the disc ; it is clear, from various vase paintings, that 
 this was not fastened to the top, since we see girls in 
 the act of laying the disc on the top of the shaft. 
 This, however, was not enough ; various complications 
 were added to increase the difficulty. On some of 
 the cottabus stands they fastened the figure of a 
 slave, called " Manes,'' made of brass, which must also 
 be struck in throwing, and according as it was fast- 
 ened on the shaft, either first or last. Sometimes the 
 disc on to which the wine was thrown must, when 
 struck, fall down on to another small scale fixed a 
 little lower down, and the sound then made, accord- 
 ing as it was strong or weak, was regarded as a kind 
 of oracle in love. In Fig. 101, the bearded man lying 
 on the couch is in the act of throwing the wine left in 
 his cup, which he holds by the first finger of the right 
 hand, at the cottabus stand. Near him lies a youth 
 with a thyrsus, who is handing fruit, or something 
 of the kind, to a woman with a tambourine, sitting on 
 a cushion in front of him. On the right is a cup- 
 bearer, a naked boy with a wine can. Sometimes 
 they seem to have spirted the wine from their mouths 
 instead of from a cup ; or they set little saucers or nut- 
 shells to swim empty on the water, and tried to fill them 
 by throwing in the wine drops and making them sink. 
 This occupation, in spite of the great popularity it 
 seems to have had in the fifth and fourth centuries, 
 can but be regarded as a very unintellectual one. 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 223 
 
 We may deal at once with the other most import- 
 ant games, in which grown-up people took part in 
 their hours of leisure. Many of these were also 
 children's games, in particular the game of ball, which 
 we find even in Homeric times, and it was very popular 
 throughout the whole of antiquity, especially in the 
 hours of recreation after the bath or after physical 
 exercises in the gymnasium, and it was especially 
 recommended by physicians as healthy exercise. Some 
 other games also bore a semi-gymnastic character, and 
 will therefore be mentioned afterwards under the 
 heading of gymnastics. Games of skill or chance, 
 which were played with boards^ figures, dice, etc., 
 were very popular. We meet with these board 
 games, which were already known to the Egyptians, 
 even in the Homeric period. In later times, too, they 
 were a favourite amusement, and we often find them 
 represented on ancient monuments. Among the various 
 modes of playing these, some bore a great resemblance 
 to our modern games ; the " game of towns " may be 
 compared to our draughts ; two opponents played at 
 a board divided into squares with thirty stones apiece, 
 which differed in colour, and the game was, by enclosing 
 a hostile stone, either to capture it or to prevent it from 
 moving. The terra-cotta group represented here in 
 Fig. 102 probably shows a game of this kind. A youth 
 and a woman are playing together, while a third person, 
 a caricature, is looking on; the board is roughly 
 divided into forty- two squares, and there are twelve flat 
 stones, but we cannot from this draw any conclusion 
 about the nature of the game. 
 
 In this game, as in chess or draughts, the victory 
 depended entirely on the skill of the player, but an 
 element of chance was added when the defence ot 
 the stones on their lines or squares depended on the 
 
224 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 throwing of dice, which was the case in the game of 
 " five-lines {TrevTeypa/jL/jLo^), But even here there seem 
 to have been modifications, which would enable a skilful 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
 player to compensate him self for an unfavourable throw, 
 by the choice of various moves open to him. The 
 games played with knuckle-bones and dice were pure 
 games of chance, and were very often played for money. 
 Tn playing dice they used several, generally three, dice, 
 corresponding exactly to those of the present day, and 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 225 
 
 a cup from which they threw them, and a board or a 
 table Avith a raised edge on to which they were thrown. 
 The victory depended on the number of points thrown. 
 The best throw, three times six, was called the Coan," 
 the worst, three times one, was called the " dog," but 
 there were various rules of the game dealing with 
 particular combinations, such as is still the case in 
 dice-playing at the present day. 
 
 There were several ways of playing with astragals, 
 or knuckle-bones, which were really the ball of the 
 ankle-joint of a lamb, or else were artificially imitated 
 in other material. One way of plajdng, chiefly used by 
 children, but also sometimes by grown-up people, was 
 a real game of skill and consisted in throwing up a 
 number, usually five, of knuckle-bones, pebbles, beans, 
 coins, etc., and catching them again on the back 
 of the hand, meantime picking up with the stretched- 
 out fingers those which had fallen down. Sometimes 
 they only played " odd or even," and one of the players 
 had to guess straight away whether the other had an 
 odd or even number of those astragals, which took the 
 place of our counters, in his closed hand. At others 
 they played with astragals in the same way as with 
 dice. In this case the four large sides of the bone, on 
 which it might fall, had a particular numerical value, 
 which was not written upon it, but depended on the 
 shape of the bone, as each side differed from the others. 
 The convex narrow side counted as one, the other, 
 concave, narrow side as six, the broad convex side as 
 three, and the broad concave side as four ; two and 
 five were wanting altogether, for the other little surfaces 
 of the bone were not counted, since it could never fall 
 upon them. Four pieces were generally used for play- 
 ing, and they were treated just like dice ; the best throw 
 was that in which each of the astragals lay in a different 
 J 
 
226 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 position, and thus all values were represented, soine- 
 
 FiG. 103. 
 
 thrown. In works of art we very often see girls play- 
 ing astragal One of the prettiest of these is the terra- 
 cotta figure from Tanagra, represented in Fig. 103. 
 
 Another game of chance was " fast and loose," which 
 yery closely resembled the game still played at fairs 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 227 
 
 by sharpers. A strap was folded double and wound 
 round several times on a table ; the player then pricked 
 it with a dagger or other pointed instrument, and if, 
 when the strap was unwound, it appeared that the 
 point had gone between the layers of the strap, he 
 won ; but he lost if the strap could be entirely wound 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 off. Another favourite game was similar to morra, 
 still popular in Italy. Two players quickly thrust out 
 their right hands with some fingers bent in and others 
 stretched out, and they have at one glance to notice 
 and exclaim how many fingers of both hands together 
 are stretched out. This game is often represented 
 on ancient works of art ; for instance, on the vase paint- 
 ing depicted in Fig. 104. Here a youth and a girl ore 
 playing, both are seated, though raorra players of the 
 present day stand ; in their left hands they hold a stick, 
 
228 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the object of which is to prevent them in the excite- 
 ment of the game from using their left hands by mis- 
 take. Similarly the Italians put their left hands 
 behind their backs while playing. The youth is stretch- 
 ing out fQur fingers, the girl two, so that the number 
 to be called out in this case is six. A Cupid seated 
 above is handing a wreath to the girl, and thus point- 
 ing her out as victorious. 
 
 A popular amusement in Greece was cock and 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 quail fighting, a pursuit which played so important 
 a part at Athens that even the great theatre of 
 Dionysus had to be used for the purpose, and the 
 Athenians actually maintained that this was a spec- 
 tacle calculated to rouse the courage of the citizens to 
 brave deeds. Fighting cocks were trained at Tanagra 
 and Rhodes ; both young and old men aimed at the 
 possession of fighting cocks or quails, carried them 
 about for hours, and tried by all possible means to 
 excite their courage in order to obtain prizes. For 
 this purpose they were fed with garlic, and sometimes 
 brazen spurs were even tied on them in order to make 
 the wounds they inflicted more serious. The repre- 
 sentations (compare the vase painting, Fig. 105) show 
 
MEALS AND SOCIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 229 
 
 that before the beginning of the fight each owner took 
 his bird in his hand, knelt down, and thus gradually 
 approached the cocks to one another in order to 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 excite them from a distance ; then they were sent 
 against each other, and the owners stood up again. 
 Sometimes the hens were present at the fight, because 
 the cocks were more inclined to fight in their pres- 
 ence. A curious custom is mentioned — namely, that 
 the owner of the defeated bird took it up as quickly 
 as possible and shouted loud into its ear ; the object 
 
230 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 of this was supposed to be to prevent the defeated 
 cock from hearing the triumphant crow of his 
 conqueror, and thus being discouraged for future 
 combats. 
 
 To return to the symposium. We have already 
 mentioned that, in spite of the custom of mixing the 
 wine with water, the great quantities consumed, since 
 drinking went on far into the night, did often conduce 
 to drunkenness. The scenes which were sometimes 
 enacted by the hght of the quivering oil lamps were 
 not always very attractive or indicative of the grace 
 and moderation which we are apt to regard as the 
 special qualities of Greeks. The vase painting de- 
 picted in Fig. 106 shows us the immediate conse- 
 quences of excessive drinking : we see a youth 
 vomiting his wine, w\ ile a pretty girl is smiling and 
 holding his head. 
 
 The official termination of the symposium was a 
 libation to Hermes, but even then they did not always 
 set out on their homeward journey in company with 
 the slaves who were waiting for their masters with 
 torches or lanterns, but sometimes their excitement 
 led them to wander noisily through the streets with 
 the flute girls and torch bearers in a Comus (/cwyu-o?), and 
 they thus entered the houses of friends who were still 
 sitting at their wine, or carried on all manner of jokes 
 and absurdities. This naturally led to other scenes, 
 such as fighting, etc., especially if one of the partici- 
 pants tried to obtain entrance to an hetaera, when a 
 quarrel often ensued between the rivals. The vase 
 painting depicted in Fig. 107 represents a scene from 
 the comus, the chief person in which is the drunken 
 Hercules, accompanied by satyrs, but in reality it is 
 only a scene from real life transported to the heroic 
 domain. The hero, who is lying dead drunk on the 
 
232 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 ground, appears to have demanded admittance at a 
 door which remained closed to him, and some old 
 woman has poured water upon him from a window 
 over the doorway. Two young satyrs, adorned with 
 fillets and wreaths, of whom one bears a thyrsus and 
 a basket of fruit and cakes, the other a mixing-bowl 
 and fillets, and a harp girl with a thyrsus wand, and a 
 flute player with a torch, are the attendants of this 
 night wanderer. These scenes furnish an unpleasant 
 contrast to the conclusion of the Platonic Symposium, 
 when Socrates, who has been drinking hard all night, 
 but at the same time carrying on serious conversation 
 with some friends as staunch as himself, gets up at 
 daybreak, while the rest of the participants have 
 fallen fast asleep, walks with steady step to the well 
 in the Lyceum, and then, as usual, proceeds to his 
 day's occupations. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 
 
 The Great Plague — Homer's References to Physicians — Asklepiadae 
 — The Oath of Hippocrates — General Practitioners and Specialists 
 — Pliitus of Aristophanes — Customs connected with Death, Burial, 
 and Burning — Tombs and their Ornaments. 
 
 Greek mythology tells us that in the golden age 
 mankind lived without trouble or sorrows, equally 
 unacquainted with vice and with cruel disease ; but 
 when fatal curiosity opened the disastrous box of 
 Pandora, along with a thousand other troubles which 
 pursue mankind, there came forth also the countless 
 diseases which attack men by day and night. The 
 myth thus expresses in simple language that, with 
 the advance of civilisation and the disappearance 
 of the ancient simple mode of life in accordance 
 with nature, the number of diseases also increased. 
 But the greater the number of these attacks on the 
 health and life of mankind, the more eagerly do men 
 seek to avoid them, though, at first, in a purely 
 empirical manner, and, therefore, the beginnings of 
 the healing art are as ancient as human civilisation 
 itself The oldest literary monument of Greek life, 
 the Homeric Epic, makes little mention of disease, 
 with the exception of the great plague, which devas- 
 tated the camp of the Greeks before Troy. The 
 reason of this, however, lies in the nature of the poet's 
 subject, and we must not on that account infer that, 
 illness was little known. Even in Homer mention is 
 made of physicians, and though the Homeric doctors 
 I* 
 
234 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 were chiefly concerned with heahng the wounds in- 
 flicted in war, still they possessed some surgical skill 
 in cutting arrows out of wounds, putting on bandages, 
 etc., and wore also acquainted with the healing 
 qualities of certain herbs, which they used not only 
 for external treatment of injuries, but also apparently 
 for internal use, in reducing fever, etc. Knowledge of 
 this kind always appears very early, even among 
 nations of slight civilisation, and is handed down from 
 generation to generation. But the healing art was 
 not confined to heroes or demigods, such as Aesculapius 
 and Podalirius, who were afterwards regarded as 
 ancestors of the physicians' profession, and who traced 
 their origin and their knowledge alike to the gods. 
 There were also, even at that time, professional 
 physicians, and certainly it cannot have been left to 
 chance to determine that some persons possessing 
 surgical and medical knowledge should be with every 
 army. 
 
 It is no longer possible to trace in detail the de- 
 velopment of the medical profession after the times of 
 Homer. In the historical period we find the healing 
 art developed in two special directions; first, as 
 practised by an actual medical profession; secondly, 
 as a kind of religious mystery in the hands of priests ; 
 besides these, quackery was known in antiquity, as in 
 all times. 
 
 The professional physicians, who, even in later 
 times, regarded their art as divine, and handed down 
 by their ancestor Aesculapius (on which account they 
 also called themselves Asklepiadae), were probably 
 a development from the priestly physicians. It is 
 very likely that in the first centuries after Homer, 
 the practice of the medical art was still directly con- 
 nected with the worship of Aesculapius, and that the 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 235 
 
 separation which we find in the historic period, where 
 some remained as medical assistants to the priests In 
 the sanctuaries, and others practised independently 
 on their own account, only gradually made way. It 
 cannot be a mere chance that the places where the 
 most celebrated medical schools of antiquity existed, 
 Cos and Cnidus, were also regarded as the chief seats 
 of the worship of Aesculapius. The professional 
 physicians, who practised their art independently, and 
 were not connected with the sanctuaries, naturally 
 received a fee, and though this brought them into 
 somewhat bad repute, with which every art that con- 
 duced to making money was regarded, yet their 
 occupation stood in much higher general estimation 
 than any of the trades, and it was a serious reproach 
 if they, as sometimes happened, insisted on receiving 
 their payment beforehand, and in case of inability to 
 pay, refused to give any treatment at all. Their 
 knowledge was not acquired at colleges or hospitals, 
 like that of our modern physicians, but, as a rule, they 
 became assistants or apprentices to old experienced 
 physicians, whom they accompanied on their visits, 
 and by whom they were instructed in diagnosis and 
 therapeutics, as well as in the preparation of medicines- 
 There were sellers of drugs, who kept the most im- 
 portant remedies, but there were no apothecaries in our 
 modern sense, and physicians always prepared their 
 own medicines. There does not appear to have been any 
 examination necessary in early times before practising 
 the medical profession, or any direct control or super- 
 vision of the doctors, but in later times physicians 
 seem to have held together in a sort of guild, and, 
 perhaps, even solemnly dismissed their apprentices at 
 the end of their period of instruction before their 
 assembled colleagues. This is suggested by the oath 
 
236 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 of Hippocrates, which has been preserved to us, in 
 which the young disciple of Aesculapius promises to 
 keep only the welfare of his patient before him, to 
 keep silence, to give no one poison, even at his own 
 request, etc. Probably this oath was only used in the 
 school of Hippocrates and his followers. 
 
 Among the professional physicians there was a 
 further distinction between those who p rac tised privately 
 and those who had official positions. The former either 
 gave their advice at home or else visited their patients. 
 Slight invalids, who were able to go out, generally 
 visited the physician in his consulting hours, and there 
 they received not only advice but sometimes also direct 
 treatment, since other apartments for bathing, operating, 
 etc., were connected with the consulting room, and the 
 physician also prepared and dispensed his medicines 
 here. Even those who were very ill, as, for instance, 
 the wounded Lamachus in the " Acharnians " of Aris- 
 tophanes, were carried straight to the doctor when 
 the case was pressing. Of course a very celebrated 
 physician could not himself treat all his patients, and he 
 therefore employed assistants in his consulting room, 
 who also accompanied him when he paid visits abroad, 
 in order to profit by the master's experience at the 
 sick bed ; and it may not have been very pleasant for the 
 patients when the doctor thus arrived in company of 
 a not inconsiderable troop of students. It was still 
 more unpleasant, however, if want of means compelled 
 them to resort to inferior assistants, who sometimes 
 were even slaves. These slave doctors were not only 
 summoned to the slave population, but they also 
 treated free people, chiefly those who were too poor to 
 pay a high fee. Of these it was said that they differed 
 from the better physicians, who were careful and who 
 studied and watched their patients, in paying very 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 237 
 
 hasty visits, scarcely taking time to inquire after the 
 nature of the illness, and hurrying on after giving any 
 directions that might occur to them. Sometimes a 
 citizen had one of his slaves taught the healing art by 
 some physician, supposing he showed any ability for 
 this profession, and by this means he had someone in 
 the house who, in case of need, could supply help at 
 once. The position of the Greek slaves, especially in 
 Attica, was a comparatively free one, and therefore 
 we must not be surprised that they were willing to 
 entrust the welfare of their body to a slave, seeing that 
 they even left much of the moral training of their 
 children to him. Complaints were often made, too, 
 about free physicians, not on account of their hastiness 
 and carelessness, but rather because of their boastful 
 and haughty bearing ; thus, for instance, Menecrates, 
 a physician of Syracuse, was accused of always dress- 
 ing in the most elaborate fashion, and wishing to be 
 called Zeus. Others were rude or inconsiderate to 
 their patients, like that doctor who answered a patient, 
 when he expressed fear of death, with the words of 
 Homer : — " Patroclus, too, is dead, and he was a better 
 man than thou." Others gave annoyance by careless- 
 ness in their dress and noisy manner, loud talk, etc. 
 Hippocrates insisted that a physician should aim at a 
 certain amount of elegance in dress and care in regard 
 to his person, though he adds characteristically that 
 any doctor is at liberty to do otherwise supposing his 
 patients prefer it. 
 
 The position of the public physicians, who were 
 chosen and paid by a community, ?nd therefore bound 
 to receive no fees for their treatment, was a different 
 one, though it is not clear whether they treated all the 
 citizens or only the poor ones. These public physicians 
 sometimes received very high salaries Thus the 
 
238 
 
 «REEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 pliysician Democedes, as public doctor at Aegina, re- 
 ceived a salary of one talent (about £326) ; thereupon 
 he was summoned to Athens with a salary of a hundred 
 minae (£393), and in the following year the tyrant 
 Polycrates, of Samos, invited him, probably to fill the 
 post of public physician, not as his own private doctor, 
 and gave him a salary of two talents (probably Attic 
 talents, therefore £471). On the other hand we 
 sometimes hear of rich physicians treating the poor 
 free of charge. 
 
 Specialists do not seem to have been common in 
 ancient Greece, the same doctors treated external and 
 internal complaints, and also men and women. It 
 seems, however, from the oath of Hippocrates that 
 there were specialists who undertook the operation of 
 cuttino^ for stone. Oculists were unknown till a later 
 period, when the medical practice generally developed 
 in various ways, and in particular the influence of 
 gymnastics, and the dietetics connected therewith had 
 a very important influence on medical methods. 
 
 These physicians, although they at times made use 
 of strange or " sympathetic " means of treatment, yet 
 in general aimed at scientific methods, building on the 
 knowledge handed down to them by their predecessors, 
 and enriching it by their own experience and studies. 
 On the other hand, the healing processes, to which the 
 priests of the Aesculapian sanctuaries resorted, seem 
 to have occupied a very doubtful position between 
 empirical therapeutics and superstitious hocus-pocus. 
 It had been a custom from ancient times for the priests 
 of Aesculapius to practise the healing art. Their 
 knowledge was supposed to be in part very ancient, 
 handed down by the god himself, and in part divino 
 revelation, which was continually renewed. Some of 
 the sanctuaries of Aesculapius were renowned and 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 239 
 
 visited beyond all others on account of their wonder- 
 ful and successful cures, in particular Cos, Cnidus, 
 Tricca, but especially Epidaurus, and afterwards also 
 Pergamum. To these sanctuaries the invalids who 
 sought healing went as pilgrims, just as people still go 
 in Catholic countries to wonder-working shrines, and 
 as in these we see countless memorials of successfa' 
 cures, pictures and descriptions of diseases, wax or 
 silver imitations of the part or limb that was 
 healed, etc., so in ancient times thank-offerings were 
 made to Aesculapius, sometimes in the shape of coin, 
 sometimes also imitations of hands, legs, eyes, ears, and 
 breasts, etc., in marble, silver, or gold, or else in simple 
 wax or clay, together with the name of the person who 
 found healing there. Some also dedicated tablets, on 
 which was inscribed a detailed account of their illness 
 and cure, and the priests set up large tablets in the 
 domain of the temple, on which all manner of wonder- 
 ful cures were described. The geographer Strabo tells 
 us of bach inscriptions, describing diseases, in the 
 Banctuaries of Epidaurus, Cos, and Tricca. Pausanias 
 Baw in the temple domain at Epidaurus six large 
 tablets of this kind. Very considerable fragments of 
 two of these were found a few years ago, which give 
 us a very interesting insight into the proceedings at 
 the Aesculapian sanctuaries. 
 
 The healing methods of the priests of Aesculapius 
 were especially distinguished from those of the pro- 
 fessional physicians by the veil of secrecy and miracle 
 which surrounded them, since they rightly understood 
 that the love of wonders among the common people 
 would always bring them success. The healing was 
 effected by what was called " incubation " ; the patient 
 had to lie down at night in the sanctuary and sleep ; 
 in a dream the god appeared to him, and either 
 
240 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 suggested to him the remedy which would cure him, 
 or else undertook, on the spot, to heal the sleeper, so 
 that the patient, when he awoke, found himself restored 
 to health, and went joyfully away ! Aristophanes, in 
 his " Plutus," drastically depicts one of these cures in 
 the temple. The blind god of riches comes to the 
 temple of Aesculapius to seek for healing; after 
 taking a bath in the sea, he is conducted to the sanc- 
 tuary ; he offers a sacrifice and then lies down to sleep, 
 together with other patients, and one of the temple 
 servants warns them to keep unbroken silence. The 
 servant who accompanies Plutus, and who relates the 
 proceedings, seems to be a somewhat free-thinking 
 rogue. He cannot sleep, and as he observes that 
 after the invalids have gone to sleep, the priests take 
 away and pocket the offerings laid upon the altars, 
 he also takes the opportunity to filch a pot of 
 porridge from an old woman near him. After a time 
 the god himself appears, accompanied by two goddesses 
 of healing. He goes round, examines the individual 
 patients, and, at last, comes also to Plutus ; he feels 
 his head, dries his eyelids with a linen cloth, and one 
 of the goddesses puts a purple veil over his face. 
 Suddenly two great snakes come from the interior of 
 the temple, creep under the veil, and lick the eyelids of 
 Plutus, who thus recovers the power of sight. Here 
 the cure takes place during sleep, as also in the stories 
 which are related on the inscriptions of Epidaurus, 
 mentioned above. There, too, an account is given of 
 the cure of a blind woman to whom Aesculapius 
 appears in a dream, and restores her sight by drop- 
 ping some healing lotion into her eyes, in return for 
 the promise that she will dedicate a silver pig to 
 Aesculapius (to whom pigs were often sacrificed), as a 
 penalty for having come to the temple in a state of 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 241 
 
 unbelief. Such cures of blindness are often mentioned 
 in the inscriptions ; sometimes the dog, which was 
 also sacred to Aesculapius, takes the place of the 
 god, as the snakes did in Aristophanes, and cures 
 the eyes by licking them ; in another case the 
 snake of Aesculapius cures the wounded toes of a 
 patient by licking. Many cases are even more 
 wonderful. A man, who has completely lost one of 
 his eyes, receives the lost eye again by means of 
 heahng lotion poured into his sockets by the god 
 during sleep. A woman, who has a worm in her 
 body, dreams that Aesculapius cuts it open for her, 
 takes the worm out, and sews it up again. A man 
 has moles on his forehead, which the god removes by 
 laying a bandage over his brow, whereupon next 
 • moment it appears perfectly white and pure, while 
 the moles are left on the bandage ; another man has 
 lost the use of the fingers of one hand, the god jumps 
 on his hand and pulls his fingers straight again, 
 whereupon he is once more able to use them, etc., etc. 
 Indeed, Aesculapius not only cures sick people, but 
 also lifeless objects. A slave has broken his master s 
 cup, and as he sits sadly looking at it, a passer-by 
 laughingly says that even Aesculapius could not mend 
 that. That suggests to him taking the fragments 
 into the temple, and next morning, when he opens the 
 case in which he has put them, behold, the cup is 
 whole again ! 
 
 It is difficult to say which part of these storiefi 
 is mere charlatanism and what refers to real medical 
 treatment by means of operation. It is but natural 
 that the priests at first got information by questioning 
 each patient about his illness. The sleep in the 
 sanctuary, which was indispensable for healing, was 
 probably not a natural one, but either a mesmeric 
 
242 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 sleep — since undoubtedly the ancients were acquainted 
 with this — or else a half-sleep induced by some narcotic, 
 during which the priests in the service of Aesculapius 
 or their assistants appeared and performed slight 
 surgical operations on the sick people. This hypothesis 
 is the more probable, since all the cures mentioned in 
 these inscriptions from Epidaurus (which, though 
 dating from the time of Alexander the Great, are copies 
 of older inscriptions, probably of the fifth century) deal 
 only with external means and never with internal 
 treatment ; no medicine or healing drink is mentioned. 
 
 The cures which took place later on in the 
 sanctuaries of Aesculapius by means of incubation, or 
 temple sleep, which were customary even in the Roman 
 period, were of a different nature. The invalids were 
 not actually cured during their sleep, but they received ' 
 in a dream an indication from the god of the manner 
 in which they could be freed from their sufferings, 
 directions sometimes in reference to dietetic measures, 
 such as baths, fasting, etc., and sometimes to medicines. 
 In these cases, too, we must suppose that the invalid 
 fell into a state of half-sleep, during which a priest in 
 the form of the god appeared, and gave the directions 
 in question, for which a quantity of medical knowledge, 
 gradually acquired by experience, stood the priests in 
 good stead. Sometimes healing thermae, or springs, 
 which were found near some of the sanctuaries, did 
 good service, especially if the invalids remained there 
 for some time. The Greek sanctuaries of Aesculapius 
 were almost always situated on high ground, where the 
 air was healthy and pure. There must always have 
 been houses for the reception of sick people, especially 
 those who came from a great distance. Thus the 
 sanctuary of Aesculapius at Epidaurus was aboat four 
 miles from the town, but, to prevent any pollution of 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 243 
 
 the holy place, no children must be bom there and no 
 one must die there, and on this account pregnant 
 women and dying people were mercilessly sent away. 
 Of course the priests did not give their aid»f or nothing, 
 but were repaid in money or offerings to the shrine, 
 and we find many allusions to these offerings ; indeed, 
 the sanctuary at Epidaurus could vie in wealth with 
 that at Delphi. 
 
 It was not only in the temples of Aesculapius that 
 dream oracles existed. Many other gods or heroes 
 took similar care for suffering humanity, just as at the 
 present day the shrines which possess miraculous 
 pictures of Madonnas or relics vie with one another. 
 Thus sick people were received in the temple of Hades, 
 situated between Tralles and Nysa, in Lydia, but here 
 it was the priests and not the patients to whom the 
 method of cure was revealed in sleep, and this was 
 also the case in the temple of Amphiaraus at Oropus, 
 on the borders of Attica and Boeotia. 
 
 Mention must also be made of quackery and 
 sympathetic cures. The belief in the latter was very 
 general in antiquity, and was shared even by unpre- 
 judiced men of considerable education. This was 
 effected by amulets, supposed to ward off or heal 
 diseases, and also by magic woi^ds wbich we should now 
 describe as conjuring; laying on ot Hands, symbolical 
 washing, etc. The sellers of drugs were specially 
 occupied with quackery ; besides rouge, paint, and other 
 means of promoting beauty, they also sold medicines 
 and offered their wares in mountebank fashion. Very 
 often, when sick people had failed to obtain alleviation 
 or cure from a regular physician, they gave him up 
 and resorted to quackery instead. 
 
 There were a number of half symbolical, half super- 
 stitious, customs connected with death and burial, 
 
244 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 which were partly due to the behef that the soul would 
 be more easily received and allowed to remain in the 
 dark realm of shadows in consequence of this care of 
 the body ; but the ancients also regarded fitting burial 
 and care for the grave as the fulfilment of a duty 
 imposed by the gods, and likely also to bring blessing 
 to the surviving members of the race. This duty was, 
 therefore, only neglected in the very rarest cases. 
 Criminals were buried without any ceremony, or were 
 left to rot unburied ; suicides, too, were refused the 
 common honours of public burial, and were put away 
 by night, a time which was not customary for funerals. 
 
 In order to gain some insight into these customs, 
 let us turn once more to that house which we visited 
 in order to be present at the birth and early life of an 
 Athenian of the well-to-do class. Let us suppose that 
 after spending a long and honourable life in the 
 service of his country, he has lain down to take his 
 last rest. Surrounded by the nearest members of his 
 family, he has breathed his last breath, after having 
 himself, with his dying hand, drawn one of the points 
 of his garment over his face, in order to spare his 
 friends the painful sight of the death struggle. 
 One of the survivors now steps up to the bed, 
 uncovers the face of the dead man, and softly closes 
 his eyes and mouth. According to the curious 
 ancient belief, not peculiar to the Greeks, that a 
 human being is unclean immediately after entrance 
 into life, and also on his departure from the world, 
 and as this uncleanness is extended to the whole 
 house and all who associate with it, immediately 
 after the death a vessel of consecrated water, which 
 must be brought from another house, is placed before 
 the door, and everyone who leaves the dwelling 
 sprinkles himself from it, in order to be once more 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 245 
 
 pure and able to associate with others. The corpse is 
 then washed by the women of the family, anointed 
 with fine oil and sweet-scented essences, and clothed 
 in pure white garments. These are the dress of 
 common life — the chiton and the himation, but so 
 put on that both arms are covered and only the 
 head and feet seon. Youths were probably clad in 
 the chlamys, and the Spartans preferred to clothe 
 their dead in the scarlet military cloak, while at 
 Athens coloured garments were sometimes used in- 
 stead of white. On the dead man's head they put a 
 wreath of real flowers — whatever the season might 
 supply — or else laurel, olive, or ivy. At burial, 
 this was often replaced by an artificial wreath of 
 beaten gold leaf, and numerous remains of these 
 death- wreaths, which were often of very artistic work- 
 manship, have been found in Greek graves. Kelations 
 and friends also sent fresh wreaths and garlands as a 
 token of sympathy, and these were used for decking 
 the bier and grave. In the dead man's mouth they 
 put a coin, as passage money for the ferryman who 
 had to ferry the souls over the Styx; for after the 
 belief in Charon, which was unknown in the Homeric 
 period, had taken firm root among the Greeks, it was 
 regarded as a pious duty to supply the dead man, as 
 soon as possible, with this passage money, in order 
 that the shade might not wander too long restlessly 
 by the shore of Styx. The coin was put in his mouth, 
 because in common life it was not unusual to put 
 single coins in the hollow of the cheek, since pockets 
 were unknown in ancient costume ; large sums were 
 seldom carried about, or else they were put in a bag. 
 It was a similar superstition which made people in 
 some places put a honey-cake by the side of the 
 corpse to pacify the dog Cerberus, the fierce guardian 
 
246 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 of the lower regions. Previous to the funeral there 
 was a solemn laying-out of the body, when friends 
 and acquaintances came to see the departed for the 
 last time, and the near relations took part in the 
 funeral lament for the dead. This laying- out, or 
 irp66eaL<^, usually took place in the central hall of 
 the house, but care was taken that the sun should not 
 shine on the corpse, since even the Sun god must 
 not pollute himself by the sight of a dead body. On 
 a couch covered with cushions and hangings, adorned 
 with flowers and branches, the dead man was laid, his 
 feet turned towards the house door, through which he 
 must take his last journey ; round about him, at any 
 rate at Athens, they placed large or small oil flasks 
 iXrjicvOoi), adorned with paintings, all depicting scenes 
 dealing with death or graves, which were made in one 
 of the Attic vase factories specially for this purpose, 
 and were probably sent by sympathetic friends as 
 funeral offerings. Besides the nearest relations, in- 
 timate friends also took part in the solemn funeral 
 lament, and were sometimes specially invited for the 
 purpose. The servants of the house also stood by the 
 couch with the other mourners, and joined with them 
 in the lament, in which men and women, standing 
 apart, joined alternately. This lament was no wild, 
 irregular wail, but a regular hymn of sorrow, and very 
 often singers were specially hired in order to add to 
 the beauty of the performance, and the hymn was 
 sometimes broken from time to time by choruses sung 
 either by the whole assembly or by semi-choruses. 
 Many external marks of sorrow were also shown, such 
 as are customary in the south, where the character of 
 the people is more violent and excitable, viz., beating 
 the breast, lacerating the cheeks, tearing out the hair, 
 rending the garments ; and sometimes cries of grief 
 
GREEK LIF^ AT HOME. 
 
 interrupted the 
 song of mourning 
 Solon had ordered 
 moderation in these 
 marks of sorrow, 
 but it must have 
 been difficult, if not 
 impossible, to keep 
 within bounds by 
 any legal decrees 
 the expression of 
 wild despair, 
 especially on the 
 part of the women. 
 
 The custom of 
 these funeral 
 laments is a very 
 ancient one. We 
 find it universally 
 adopted in the 
 Homeric period, 
 and here, too, in 
 the form of respon- 
 sions ; the Avai] is 
 heard at Troy by 
 the corpse of Hec- 
 tor, as well as in the 
 Greek camp by the 
 bier of Achilles. 
 We find the laying- 
 out of the corpse 
 and the funeral 
 lament represented 
 on a great many 
 vase paintings, as, 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 249 
 
 for instance, in the one depicted in Fig. 108. Here 
 we see the dead man lying on a richly-decked 
 couch, in front of which stands a footstool; he is 
 enveloped in his mantle up to his neck, he wears a 
 wreath, and his head rests on several cushions. In 
 front of the couch and at the sides stand six women, 
 all raising their arms with gestures of grief; some of 
 them are touching their heads, as though to tear 
 out their hair. A little girl in a similar attitude 
 stands at the foot of the bed ; on the right, turning 
 away from the scene, stands a boy. Fig. 109 is 
 similar. Here we see under the dead man's couch 
 his shield, helmet, and cuirass ; of the wailing women, 
 who are almost all tearing out their hair, one holds a 
 lyre in her hand, and another a fillet ; the former is 
 accompanying the lament, the other is about to 
 deck the corpse or the bier. The hot climate of the 
 south generally necessitated limiting the duration of 
 this ceremony to a single day, and, indeed, Solon 
 expressly commanded that this should be done; only 
 where special measures were taken for preserving 
 the body was it possible to leave it for several 
 days. Embalming was not customary in Greece ; 
 it was only when the corpses of those who had died 
 in foreign lands were brought home to be buried, 
 that they were placed in some substance to check 
 the dissolution — for instance, in honey, as the Spar- 
 tans did with those of their kings who died away 
 fr >m home. 
 
 The funeral usually took place in the early morn> 
 ing before sunrise, and throughout the whole of 
 antiquity both burying and burning were common, 
 sometimes subsisting side by side, while at other 
 times one fashion or the other was more general. It 
 seems as though burying had at first been more 
 
250 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 common among the Greeks than burning. It is true 
 we find only burning mentioned in the Homeric 
 poems, but we must not forget that we are concerned 
 with exceptional circumstances in the Iliad, since 
 the warriors who fell before Troy did not die at home ; 
 and in such cases, even in later times, burning was 
 preferred, since it enabled the survivors to bring 
 the ashes of the dead man home with them. Still, 
 even in those early times, burying was very common, 
 as is proved, in spite of the lack of literary evidence, 
 by the ancient burial grounds discovered at many 
 places in Greece ; and similarly, in the historic period, 
 the burning of dead bodies, though certainly prac- 
 tised, was not so common as burying, if only for the 
 very practical reason that the latter was far cheaper 
 and much less troublesome. Whichever form was 
 chosen by the friends, or had been appointed by 
 the dead man himself, the solemn funeral proces- 
 sion was never omitted ; the crematoria, like the 
 cemeteries, . were outside the city gates, since at 
 Athens, and probably in most Greek states, they were 
 not allowed to bury their dead within the walls ; the 
 Doric states alone seem to have made an exception 
 to this rule. A very ancient painted vase seems to 
 afford a proof that it was customary in early times to 
 convey the dead to the cemetery on a car drawn by 
 horses, but in the historical age, at any rate, the 
 corpse was taken to the grave on the same couch 
 on which it had been exposed to view. This duty 
 was generally performed by the slaves of the house- 
 hold, and where there were not sufficient of these, 
 gravediggers were specially hired ; while in the case 
 of men who had deserved well of their country, the 
 citizens regarded . it as an honour to perform this 
 duty themselves. If the dead man had died a violent 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 251 
 
 death, a spear was carried in front of him, which 
 pointed to the revenge to be taken ; the spear was then 
 fixed in the earth near the grave, and the nearest rela- 
 tion pronounced a curse against the murderer, after 
 which the place was watched for three days. This did 
 not, however, point to revenge on the part of the relations 
 alone, but to the punishment to be inflicted by the legal 
 authorities. As a rule, the male relations and friends 
 walked at the head of the processions, and the women 
 l)ehind the corpse ; but one of Solon's ordinances 
 limited the fexnale followers to the nearest relations 
 not extending beyond the nieces. Among the more 
 distant relations, only women over sixty years of age 
 were allowed to follow. This law does not, however, 
 seem to have been quite strictly observed. All the 
 mourners wore grey or black mourning ; the nearest 
 relations cut their hair off, for the cuetom of shaving 
 the hair in case of death is a very old one, and even 
 in Homer we read that the hair cut off was sometimes 
 placed in the dead man's hand. During the proces- 
 sion laments were again sung, and accompanied by 
 the wailing tones of a flute ; but here customs differed 
 somewhat, and at Ceos, for instance, where the ordi- 
 nances concerning burial, differing in many respects 
 from the Attic customs, have been preserved to us, 
 there were especial directions that the body should 
 be carried out in silence. The dead man wore 
 the clothes in which he had been laid out, but 
 extravagance and excessive luxury necessitated 
 some limitations by the law, so that Solon expressly 
 ordained that the number of garments should not 
 exceed three, and the above-mentioned ordinance 
 allowed only one under garment, one cloak, and 
 one pall or covering, the whole value not to exceed 
 300 drachmae, and also ordained that the couch on 
 
252 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 which the dead man was carried to the grave, and the 
 other hancring^s or cushions, should not be burnt or 
 buried, but brought back again. 
 
 There were various ways of burying the dead. If 
 they were placed in a grave it was customary to make 
 use of a coffin, which was let down into the grave by 
 the bearers. We see this represented on the vase 
 
 FiQ. no. 
 
 picture. Fig. 110. Two men, who look like barbarian 
 slaves or men of the lower classes, are standing in the 
 grave and holding up their hands in order to receive the 
 coffin, which is carefully let down by two men of similar 
 appearance ; on the right and left stand weeping 
 women. The coffins were sometimes made of wood, 
 especially Cyprus wood, which was occasionally decorated 
 with costly carving and painting ; sometimes of clay^ 
 less often of stone, although stone sarcophagi have 
 been found in Greece, but the custom of decorating 
 their sides with sculptured pictures did not become 
 common until the Roman period. The shapes of the 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 253 
 
 coffins differed ; there were square box-like coffins, and 
 also others of an oval shape, or pointed coffins, made 
 of flat terra-cotta tiles. Poor people were generally 
 buried in some common cemetery, in simple coffins, 
 and in graves made to hold a large number. Richer 
 people had special vaults, which were either constructed 
 
 Fig. 111. 
 
 by hollowing out the rocky ground below or above the 
 earth, or by the artificial building up of a tumulus 
 The curious tholos buildings of Mycenae, Orcho- 
 menus, Attica, etc., are generally supposed now to be 
 nothing but large vaults of this description; and, 
 indeed, throughout the whole of Greece, Sicily, and 
 Lower Italy, numerous tombs, either vaulted out of 
 the rock or constructed of large blocks of stone, have 
 been discovered, not to speak of the temples and towers 
 which are chiefly found in Asia Minor, and usually 
 appear to be due to non-Greek origin or influence. In 
 
254 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 these vaults, which often served for whole families,, they 
 laid their dead, either in coffins or without them, merely 
 in their grave clothes, generally resting on a flat stone. 
 Thus the Attic vase picture in Fig. Ill represents the 
 dead raan in his tomb, the vaulting of which the painter 
 has imitated, wrapped in a white cloth, a cushion under 
 his head ; fillets hang down from above. In Attica it 
 was the custom to place the bodies so that their heads 
 turned to the west and their feet to the east, while the 
 opposite position was usual at Megara, where the 
 customs differed in other ways, and three or four 
 corpses were sometimes put in the same coffin. The 
 custom of placing various objects required in daily life in 
 the grave by the side of the dead man was universal, 
 chiefly the things with which he had been occupied in 
 his lifetime, or which belonged to his profession; 
 clothes, money, oil-flasks, and other vases were put in, 
 and besides them, in the case of a child, his toys ; in the 
 case of a warrior his arms ; a woman's spindle or orna- 
 ments and mirror ; a young man's strigil and oil-flask ; a 
 musician's flute or lyre. We owe nearly all the small 
 art treasures which have come down to us from 
 antiquity, such as vases, terra-cottas, cameos, gold 
 ornaments, caskets, etc., to this custom of adorning the 
 graves of the dead with the objects used in daily life. 
 Many of these, especially vases, lamps, candlesticks, 
 arms, etc., seem to have been specially made with a 
 view to being placed in the grave, since they were often 
 of no use for practical purposes. There were no doubt 
 special places outside the walls devoted to burning the 
 bodies, though it is quite possible that some people 
 were burnt on their own land if that happened to be 
 large enough. Wood, twigs, and other easily-com- 
 bustible substances were used for erecting a pile ; the 
 body was laid on it, along with the cushions destined 
 
SICKNESS AND PHYSICIANS, DEATH AND BURIAL. 255 
 
 to be burnt, among which, besides the objects already 
 mentioned, the favourite animals of the dead were often 
 included ; and the pile was lighted wi^h a torch. 
 Round about stood the mourners, who called aloud 
 many times on the dead, bidding him farewell. There 
 do not appear to have been any other ceremonies 
 connected with the funeral, nor did it bear a specially 
 religious character, such as would be given it by the 
 presence of priests or the offering of sacrifices; still, 
 we must not forget that the mere act of burying 
 or burning was regarded as a religious one. Funeral 
 orations were only pronounced in the case of soldiers 
 who had fallen in war, or men who had deserved 
 specially well of their country. When the corpse 
 was consumed by the fire and the pile had burned 
 down, the glowing remains were quenched with 
 water or wine. This act is represented on a vase 
 painting (Fig. 112), which gives a scene from the 
 Apotheosis of Hercules. The ashes and pieces 
 of bone which had not been completely consumed 
 were then collected and put in a special vessel. 
 For this purpose they used urns, coflfin-like boxes, and 
 small vessels, which were afterwards placed in larger 
 cases. These were constructed of ditierent materials, 
 clay or stone, brass, lead, sometimes even silver or gold. 
 The urns were then placed, like the coffins, in a vault 
 or under the earth. 
 
 When the burying or burning was ended, it was 
 the custom for the relations and intimate friends of 
 the deceased to return to the house of the latter, and 
 after both the house and its inhabitants had been 
 purified from the pollution connected with the death, 
 by means of incense and sprinkling, or washing with 
 consecrated water, they took part together in a funeral 
 banquet. At this the near relations, who had hitherto 
 
256 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 refrained from food, or at any rate from meat, for the 
 first time again partook of it, a custom which could 
 probably only be carried out when the funeral took 
 place on the second day after the death. On the third 
 
 and ninth days after, the nearest relations went to tlie 
 grave with lil)ations, which consisted in part of blood- 
 less offerings, such as milk, honey, wine, etc., and 
 partly in the sacrifice of real victims. On the spot 
 where the body or the ashes were buried, unless the 
 remains were placed in some vault above the earth, 
 they erected a funeral monument, which bore the 
 name of the family and home of the deceased, some- 
 times in metrical form ; and even gave details about 
 
258 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 his life and his virtues. This was usually decorated 
 in an artistic manner. The commonest form was 
 the "Stele/' which was sometimes a tall column, 
 at others merely a horizontal gravestone, and re- 
 presented the dead man in some occupation of daily 
 life. A boy might be seen playing with his ball, and 
 a girl with her doll ; a young man holds his quoit ; a 
 strong warrior stands fully armed as though ready 
 to depart ; a countryman accompanied by his faithful 
 dog, leans on his knotted stick; a young wife sits 
 near her work-basket or gazes with pleasure at her 
 ornaments, like the one represented on the rehef in 
 Fig. 113, where the lady seems to be taking a ring 
 from a jewel case held for her by her attendants ; 
 others represent the dead person alone or with others, 
 not engaged in any occupation, but in some simple 
 natural attitude, like the two women on the stone 
 represented in Fig. 114 ; others suggest death, since the 
 relations are taking leave of a member of a family. 
 On one it is the mother who is dying, and the small- 
 est of the children is creeping up to her (compare Fig. 
 62), or they are holding out to her a child still 
 wrapped in swaddling clothes for her last kiss (com- 
 pare Fig. 58) ; the husband steps to his wife, who is 
 resting in an easy chair, and gives her his hand for a 
 last farewell, with an expression of sorrow mingled 
 with self-control. On some tombstones of a longer 
 shape the family meal is represented; the husband 
 lies on the couch, the wife sits near him, the children 
 are pressing around them, and even the faithful 
 animals, the dog and favourite horse, are not for- 
 gotten. This subject is a very common one ; some- 
 times it is a simple scene from daily life, sometimes 
 the master is represented in a more heroic attitude 
 as already {JpA-d, and his relations are paying the 
 
Fio. 114, 
 
260 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 departed the fitting honour and adoration. There seems 
 to be Httle attempt at representing real portraits on 
 most Greek tombstones; they are ideal types, often ol 
 extraordinary beauty, now and then, perhaps, with 
 some slight resemblance to the dead, but by no means 
 reahstic portrait statues. But whether it is a scene 
 
 Yio. 115. 
 
 from real life that is represented by art, or the bitter 
 Last farewell, or whether it is any hint of the life in a 
 future state, which last is by no means uncommon, 
 these reliefs are always distinguished by their modera- 
 tion in the expression of pain, and a peaceful feeling ot 
 calm and worthy expression of sorrow, which can but 
 have an elevating effect even on those who have 
 grown up in the views of Christianity. This is the 
 case even where some simple stonemason has roughly 
 expressed in stone the thought of parting and 
 reunion ; how much more, then, in those magnificent 
 
262 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 creations of the finest period of Attic art to which tho 
 examples represented above belong. 
 
 There were many other shapes adopted for these 
 tombstones. Very often the stelai were decorated 
 with painting instead of reliefs ; in some the sur- 
 face was extended and the background hollowed out, 
 which gave them an altar-like character, and they were 
 often framed in correspondingly by pillars and gables. 
 Occasionally the stones bore the shape of a vase, 
 especially of the oil-flask, so important in its asso- 
 ciation with death, and this, too, might be decorated 
 with sculpture. Sometimes they set low columns 
 of round or square shape on the grave, on which 
 they often represented a siren, who had a special 
 significance as singer of mourning songs ; sometimes 
 whole statues — ideal pictures or portraits of the de- 
 ceased — were placed there, though the custom was 
 more common in the Hellenic period than in the 
 best ages of art. 
 
 Childish affection and belief led them to decorate 
 these graves still further with wreaths, fillets, growing 
 plants, etc. These were often renewed, and especially 
 on the anniversaries of birth and death the relations 
 came with libations and sacrifices, pouring out sweet 
 odours or wine, or by other means showed that the 
 memory of the departed was not gone from them. 
 There are many pictures extant, especially on vases^ 
 depicting the care of the graves. Fig. 115, from a vase 
 painting, shows two women approaching a stele, 
 carrying plates with flasks and fillets. Similarly, in 
 Fig. 116, the weeping woman at the end of the stele 
 is drawn with especial grace. 
 
 Thus the Greeks held the memory of their dead 
 worthily in honour, although their time of mourning 
 did not last nearly as long as is customary with us, but 
 
FiQ. 117. 
 
264 
 
 Oreek life at home. 
 
 was generally limited to one or a few months. Even 
 in the case of those who had died away from home, 
 and whose remains could not be brought back, as, 
 for instance, those who were drowned at sea, or 
 altogether lost to sight, they erected cenotaphs, in 
 order to have some spot with which to connect the 
 ceremonies devoted to the memory of the dead. The 
 tombstone represented in Fig. 117 was probably that 
 of a man who had lost his life in some such way, 
 perhaps in a shipwreck. The relief shows the dead 
 man sitting sadly on land near his ship, and gazing 
 towards his distant home which he was not permitted 
 to see again. In the empty space below, his name and 
 probably also the details of his death were inscribed 
 in writing, which has now been effaced. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 GYMNASTICS. 
 
 Jumping — Use of Dumb-bells — Running — The Torch-race — Quoit* 
 throwing— The Javelin — Wrestling — Boxing — Pancration — Fen* 
 tathlon — Ball-games — Archery — Training. 
 
 We have already had occasion to allude to the im- 
 portant part played by gymnastics in Greek life. In 
 the Doric states it was the basis of the education of 
 girls as well as boys, and even at Athens the training 
 of the body was an important feature of the education 
 of boys and youths, and was also diligently cultivated 
 even afterwards for the sake of developing and 
 strengthening the body. We have now to consider 
 the most important of these gymnastic exercises, and 
 the mode in which they were carried on, dealing first 
 with the easier and simpler ones, and afterwards with 
 the more difficult and complicated. 
 
 One of the chief exercises in the gymnastic 
 schools and at the sports was jumping. Along with 
 running, quoit- throwing, wrestling, and boxing, jump- 
 ing was regarded even in the Homeric age as part 
 of gymnastics, but we know very little of the mode 
 in which it was practised. In the historic period 
 we find the same kinds of jumping as at the pre- 
 sent day, namely, the high jump, the long jump, 
 and the high long jump ; among these the long jump 
 was of the first importance, and was the only one 
 in use at the contests. While we, however, confine 
 J* 
 
266 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 ourselves more to the jump with or without a spring- 
 board, and use no artificial means except perhaps 
 a pole, in ancient times weights (oXrfjpe^) were 
 largely in use, and though they required a greater 
 effort on the part of the jumper on account of the 
 additional weight, yet they gave him some advantage 
 by increasing the impetus. These weights are simply 
 dumb-bells made of metal or stone, and resemble in 
 shape those which we use at the present day for very 
 different purposes. There were two kinds. The older 
 form resembled the segment of a circle, somewhat 
 smaller than a semicircle, part of the circle being 
 used as a handle. This older kind of dumb-bell, which 
 is rei)resented on many vase pictures, was used in later 
 times chiefly for hygienic purposes. Another kind 
 came into general use for sports, and especially the 
 Pentathlon; these exactly resembled our modern 
 dumb-bells, for which, indeed, they served as models. A 
 round ball is fastened at either end of a massive 
 handle, bent into something of a curve, and some- 
 times — especially when they were used not merely 
 to exercise the arms but in leaping — one of these 
 balls was larger and heavier than the other, and this, 
 in the leap, was thrust forward. 
 
 We are expressly told that these dumb-bells were 
 also used in ancient gymnastics for strengthening the 
 shoulders, arms, and fingers, and on many old vase 
 paintings, where we see dumb-bells in the hands of 
 youths, the attitude suggests such exercises and not 
 jumping. In the painting represented in Fig. 118 one 
 of the men holds two such dumb-bells in his hands ; 
 it is not easy to decide whether he is preparing to 
 jump, as is usually supposed, or is only practising 
 dumb-bell exercises. Still, the latter seems to have 
 been a subordinate use only, and the chief use of the 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 267 
 
 dumb-bell was in jumping. In running, previous to 
 jumping, they held the dumb-bells behind them, and 
 at the moment of jumping thrust the arms violently 
 forward ; the impulse given by the weight then com- 
 municated itself 
 also to the legs, 
 and enabled 
 them to cover a 
 longer distance. 
 We, therefore, 
 often find jump- 
 ers represented 
 in pictures hold- 
 ing their arms 
 stretched in 
 front of them ; 
 and practical at- 
 tempts in recent 
 times have con- 
 vinced us that 
 the importance 
 of the dumb- 
 bells in jumping 
 was due not so 
 much to a back- 
 ward motion 
 communicated 
 by them, as to 
 the thrusting forward of the arms. On springing 
 down the arms were thrust backward again, as we may 
 also learn from the pictures, and thus a firm and 
 safe standing posture was attained. In the case of the 
 youth represented with dumb-bells in Fig. 119, taken 
 from an engraved discus (compare below. Fig. 126), it 
 is uncertain whether he is using them merely to 
 
268 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 exercise his arms or to help him in jumping ; possibly 
 he is taking a preliminary run. Other representations 
 of jumpers are given below, in Figs. 121 and 127. It 
 is very probable that these spring- weights were used 
 for the long jump, but not for the high jump, where 
 they would be rather an impediment than an assistance. 
 
 Another difficult question is whether the ancients 
 made use of leaping-poles. There is not a single 
 picture of which we can say with certainty that it re- 
 presents exercises with a leaping-pole, although on vase 
 
 paintings of gymnastic 
 scenes we do very fre- 
 quently see sticks or 
 poles, but it is always 
 possible to find another 
 interpretation for these. 
 Thus they may be jave- 
 lins, such as were used 
 for throwing, or measur- 
 ing rods, with which the 
 superintending teachers 
 Fig. 119. or judges measured the 
 
 length of a jump or a 
 quoit- throw, or they may be merely sticks carried in 
 token of official position. None of the writers afford 
 any direct information about the use of leaping-poles ; 
 they are hardly mentioned except in references to 
 occasional leaps over trenches with the help of a 
 pole, and mounting horses by help of a lance ; and, 
 accordingly, we may infer that they did not play an 
 important part in ancient gymnastics. 
 
 Another disputed question is whether the ancients 
 used a spring-board. Some references among the 
 later writers seem to suggest that they made use of 
 a Uttle elevation {^arrjp), from which they took the 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 269 
 
 long jump, which was far the commonest and the only 
 kind in use in the contests. There is nothing, how- 
 ever, to show that this elevation was of wood, and 
 thus gave the jumper an advantage in consequence of 
 its elasticity ; it seems to have been only a little 
 mound of earth. The course of events was something 
 of this sort: all who took part in the contest took 
 their stations in a row behind a line drawn in the sand 
 of the wrestling school, and jumped from there in 
 turn ; of course, this was not done without previous 
 running, for some of the achievements of the ancients 
 in the long jump would have been quite impossible 
 without running. Accordingly, they must have run 
 from the appointed place to the mound and jumped 
 from that. Where the first jumper stopped a fresh 
 line was drawn with a pick-axe, such as we often see 
 on vase pictures in the hand of a youth or superinten- 
 dent, and they were also used to loosen the earth in 
 order to lessen the shock in jumping down. Those 
 that followed, of course, tried to jump even further, 
 and every longer jump Avas again marked by a line, 
 while the short ones were left unnoticed, unless, as in 
 the case of the Pentathlon, the object was to have 
 several victors. Finally, the result of the various 
 jumps was determined by long measuring chains. 
 What the ancient writers have told us about the 
 wonderful achievements of the Greek athletes in the 
 long jump, sounds almost fabulous ; especially the 
 story about Chionis, who is said to have jumped 52 
 feet, and Phayllus, who jumped 55. Modern writers 
 on gymnastics have declared these statements im- 
 possible and exaggerated, in spite of the fact that 
 they rest on good authority ; but it is not right to 
 declare our disbelief simply on account of our modern 
 gymnastic training, which is entirely different from 
 
270 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the Greek, since the elasticity of the sinews and 
 the muscles, which come into play in jumping, has not 
 been nearly so well developed from earliest youth up- 
 wards as it was in Greece ; moreover, these accounts 
 refer to especial tours de fo^ce, and were only remark- 
 able exceptions. In any case, Greeks must have 
 demanded a great deal even from ordinary jumpers, 
 otherwise they would not have considered the jump, 
 which in itself is one of the easiest exercises, one of the 
 most difficult achievements in the gymnastic contests. 
 
 Running is already mentioned by Homer among 
 the sports practised by the youth of Phaeacia; it was 
 very popular, too, in after times, and formed an 
 important part of the gymnastic contests which took 
 place at the great Hellenic festivals. Speed was not 
 of as much importance as endurance, and overcoming 
 difficulties of ground ; for they did not run on firm 
 earth, but in soft sand, where it was doubly difficult 
 to run fast, since the feet sank in if they were too 
 firmly set down. There were four kinds of racing, 
 according to the length of the course : the single 
 course {o-rdSLov), the double course (S/auXo?), the horse 
 race (iirino^^ hp6^io<=;), and the long course {So\l'xo(;), 
 The single course was the length of the race-course, 
 or stadium — that is, six hundred feet ; the runner 
 had to measure the course from beginning to end. 
 In the double course the same space was passed 
 over in both directions — that is, twice. In the horse 
 race they ran twice backwards and forwards, conse- 
 ([uently four stadia, which therefore was the length of 
 the course on horseback, and hence its name. There 
 are very different accounts about the length of the 
 long course ; seven, twelve, twenty, and even twenty- 
 four stadia have been mentioned ; the last (about 
 three miles') seems to have been the usual length at 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 271 
 
 Olympia. It is impossible to say whether these 
 various statements are due to erroneous calculations 
 or differing customs ; still there is no reason to doubt 
 even the longest course mentioned, since many of our 
 modern runners can achieve far greater distances, so 
 that a course of twenty^four stadia might very well 
 have been required as the highest achievement of a 
 good athlete. Our authorities, however, do not inform 
 us what degree of speed was usual. We know that 
 the educational and practical value of running de- 
 pended not only on the attainment of great speed 
 over a short distance, but also on the endurance 
 necessary for achieving a long distance ; and among 
 the exercises in the gymnasia they probably laid as 
 much stress on an even pace in the long races as on 
 speed. But when running was practised at the con- 
 tests, the moderation in speed of course gave way to 
 the attempt to be first in the race and in conse- 
 quence we hear of cases in which the victorious 
 runner, on reaching the winning-post, fell down dead 
 in consequence of excessive exertion, like the runner 
 Ladas, whose statue Myron made. Therefore, the 
 runners, as well as others who engaged in gymnastic 
 contests, were in the habit of previously rubbing their 
 bodies with oil in order to make their limbs flexible. 
 In running, three or five generally entered at the 
 same time ; when there were more they seem to have 
 been divided into parties of four, and in that case the 
 winning party had to run once more to decide the 
 final victory. The signal for running was given by 
 the dropping of a rope stretched out in front of the 
 runners ; in running, they either held their arms with 
 the elbows closely pressed to their sides or swung 
 them violently and regularly backwards and forwards, 
 corresponding in time to the feet ; the former attitude 
 
272 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 was probably reserved for the long course, when it 
 was a question of preserving an equal speed, and the 
 latter for the quickest course, in which the swinging 
 of the arms might be a help; even here, however, 
 the rule held that a good runner should adopt a 
 slower motion at first, and only gradually proceed to 
 his greatest speed. The pictures of runners, which 
 
 Fig. 120. 
 
 are very common on vase pictures, especially on the 
 so-called Panathenaic prize amphorae, generally 
 show the peculiarity of holding the front leg very 
 high up, while the other is set far backwards, and 
 seems only to touch the ground with the toes. Now 
 in ordinary pictures of runners we generally see the 
 front leg resting on the ground and the other thrown 
 out far behind, and this is sometimes found on antique 
 pictures, but less often ; we therefore must suppose 
 that quick running in ancient times consisted rather 
 in a series of wide jumps, in which only the toes 
 touched the ground. In the vase painting repre- 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 273 
 
 sen ted in Fig. 120 we see four runners moving thus 
 from left to right ; their left legs are thrown far 
 forward, their right legs back, and the arms swing 
 with a motion corresponding to that of the legs. The 
 hypothesis formerly current that on the vase paintings 
 the runners from left to right are running the single, 
 
 Fig. 121. 
 
 those from right to left the long course, is, however, 
 not tenable. The two men practising, on the vase 
 picture Fig. 121, are jumping in exactly the same 
 manner; behind them another man is preparing to 
 jump with dumb-bells, near them stands a teacher or 
 superintendent in a cloak, with a switch in his hand ; 
 on the ground lies a quoit. 
 
 In ancient times, runners usually wore some 
 drapery round their loins, but afterwards they had no 
 clothing at all. There was, however, a special kind of 
 race, called " armour-race," {oTrXcToBpG/jLia), which was 
 
274 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 not introduced into the Olympic games till the year 
 520, in which the runners wore the heavy armour of 
 Hoplites. In ancient times, they seem to have run in 
 
 full armour- 
 that is, with 
 helmet, cuirass, 
 greaves, sword 
 and spear; 
 afterwards, if 
 we may trust 
 the representa- 
 tions on the 
 vases, the 
 armour - race 
 consisted in 
 running with 
 helmet and 
 round shield, 
 as in Fig. 122. 
 This kind ot 
 race, which, 
 of course, re- 
 quired still 
 greater exer- 
 tion, seems to 
 have been only 
 in use for the 
 single and double course, and chiefly for the latter, 
 but not for the horse-course, or the long course. 
 
 The torch-race (XafjL7raSoSpo/jLia) was more a matter 
 of skill than of speed or bodily strength. This was 
 especially popular at Athens, and there constituted an 
 important part of certain festivals, especially the 
 Panathenaea, and the festivals of Hephaestus and 
 Prometheus, but had nothing to do with the gym- 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 275 
 
 nastic contests at the great national games. The 
 youths who took part in the torch-race, Kghted their 
 torches at an altar in the Academy, and ran together 
 from there, with burning torches to some appointed 
 place in the town. In this race the victor was not he 
 who ran fastest, but he who first arrived at the goal with 
 a burning torch. It was important, therefore, to run 
 quickly, and at the same time cautiously, so that the 
 torch might not be put out. The expenses of the 
 arrangements, which, however, cannot have been very 
 considerable, belonged to the so-called Liturgies, the 
 charges voluntarily undertaken by certain wealthy 
 citizens. They also had to superintend the practising, 
 or, at any rate, to see to its being done. If we may 
 judge from ancient representations of the torch-race, 
 the runners sometimes, besides the torch, bore a 
 shield on their left arm, and also some head-covering, 
 and, since it was not really a question of great speed, 
 some light article of clothing. 
 
 In the third place, we must consider quoit-throw- 
 ing. This exercise, in which the object was to throw 
 a heavy disc as far as possible, is also mentioned in 
 the Odyssey. The youth of Phaeacia played it, but 
 Odysseus excels them all, and sends the disc hurled 
 by him beyond all the marks of the other players. 
 Quoits are also mentioned as an amusement of the 
 suitors, and among the funeral games in honour of 
 Patroclus. Homer mentions stone and iron quoits ; 
 in later times metal, chiefly iron or bronze, was the 
 commonest material. They were round and flat in 
 shape, somewhat raised on each side, with a diameter 
 of about a foot, and were, therefore, very heavy, and 
 not easy to grasp on account of their smoothness. 
 The descriptions of ancient writers and monuments 
 give us a very clear idea of the manner in which these 
 
129 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 277 
 
 discs were thrown. The quoit-player, first of all, took 
 a firm stand, and while he measured the space over 
 which he had to throw his disc, he held it in his 
 left hand in order not to tire the right too soon ; 
 this is the position in which we see the standing 
 " Discobolus " in the Vatican, represented in Fig. 123. 
 The attitude adopted when actually throwing is best 
 given by the Discobolus of Myron, which has come down 
 to us in several copies, and which is thus described by 
 Lucian : " He is stooping down to take aim, (his body) 
 turned in the direction of the hand which holds the 
 quoit, one knee slightly bent, as though he meant to 
 vary his posture and rise with the throw." The 
 thrower, therefore, bent his whole body somewhat in 
 the moment when he threw back the right hand with 
 the disc, in order to give it the necessary impulse, 
 pressing his left leg firmly on the ground, and digging 
 his toes into the sand, at the same time bending the 
 right knee in order to give the disc increased power 
 by springing up from his bent position at the moment 
 of throwing. In this attitude the position of the head 
 followed the whole direction of the body with a slight 
 inclination to the right (the left jf ::he spectator), as 
 we may learn from the best copies preserved to us of 
 Myron's Discobolus, a statue in the Palazzo Massimi, 
 at Kome, and a bronze statuette at Munich: the 
 downward bending of the head, in the Vatican copy, 
 represented in Fig. 124, and on the other replicas of 
 the statue, is due to a mistake in restoration. We 
 may also assume with some certainty that they did 
 not remain on the same spot at the moment of throw- 
 ing, but had space enough to run a little way forwar-d, 
 as is done even now in playing skittles — a game which 
 differs but little from quoit-playing — for the force of 
 the throw would be checked by remaining in one 
 
278 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 place. Thus the bronze statue, Fig. 125 (though this 
 is sometimes interpreted as a wrestler running to the 
 attack), shows the disc thrower running forward a 
 few steps, the upper part of his body bent forwards, 
 and trying to follow the result of his throw. Probably 
 the little elevation from which, according to the 
 ancient writers, the thrower hurled the quoit, supplied 
 the necessary space for this forward movement, and 
 the extreme edge of this elevation (^aX^k) was also 
 the limit which, in case of a contest prevented any 
 from running further than others, or throwing their 
 discus from a nearer point, so that the conditions of 
 the contest might be alike for all. The umpires or 
 superintendents carefully marked, by lines or some 
 other means, the place to which each combatant threw 
 his disc, and he whose quoit flew the farthest was 
 the victor. 
 
 Quoit-throwing, as well as running and jumping, 
 was taught even to boys, but undoubtedly they used 
 smaller and lighter discs than men. The disc from 
 Aegina, now in the Berlin Museum, one side of which 
 is represented above in Fig. 119, was only eight inches 
 in diameter, and about four pounds weight, but was 
 probably never used as an actual implement of the 
 school. 
 
 Throwing the javelin was also taught in the boys' 
 gymnastic schools. This was originally a military 
 exercise; we find it mentioned in heroic times, not 
 only as a mode of fighting, but also as a game. In the 
 gymnastic schools of the boys and youths they often 
 used, as we may tell from the pictures, instead of a real 
 spear, a blunt stick of about the same length, but they 
 must sometimes have made use of actual spears with 
 sharp points for their exercises, since the orator 
 Antiphon tells us that one of the older boys at the 
 
Fig. 124. 
 
Fig. 125. 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 281 
 
 mnasium killed a younger one, who had by mistake 
 run in the way, and this would have been impossible 
 if a mere stick had been used. Probably the weight 
 of the spears was gradually increased, as also of the 
 quoits, and the youths used heavier weapons than the 
 boys, while the men in their turn used still heavier 
 ones. We may, however, infer that, besides throwing 
 a mere stick in which certainty of aim would be the 
 object, they used actual spears, and studied especial 
 ways of managing them, since the javelin, which was 
 supplied with a loop or strap, had to be thrown in a 
 quite pecuhar way, while the stick had no loop, and 
 could be quite differently thrown. This loop was near 
 the lower end of the javelin ; the thrower put the first 
 and second fingers of his right hand through it — some- 
 times it was a double loop, so that each finger grasped 
 a separate strap — he laid his thumb on the wood of the 
 spear, which rested on the third or fourth fingers 
 placed underneath, or else on the third finger alone ; 
 in this position the hand was drawn backwards and 
 then aim was taken at some definite goal, the nature 
 of which we are not acquainted with. This we learn 
 from the Berlin disc already mentioned (Fig. 126), 
 and also from various vase paintings, and the figure 
 of the giant frieze from Pergamum. The throw was 
 either horizontal, if distance was aimed at, which was 
 most usual, or upwards towards some raised mark. 
 Among gymnastic exercises represented in a vase 
 painting (Fig. 127), throwing the spear also plays a 
 part. We see here, on the left (near the handle), a 
 youth represented as just about to run ; on the right, 
 near him, a second is practising dumb-bells, or else pre- 
 paring to jump. Near a long-robed flute-player, whose 
 music is accompanying the exercises, a spear- thrower 
 is running forward, but his face is not turned forward 
 
282 
 
 GREEIt LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 to the mark, but backward towards the hand which 
 holds the spear (like the throwing Discobolus), so 
 that we must suppose that it was not a question of 
 throwing the spear at a definite mark, but only of send- 
 ing it as far as possible. Next to a bearded superin- 
 tendent, wearing a cloak and holding a switch, follows 
 a quoit-player, who is about to throw the disc which 
 he holds in the right hand. Lastly, we have a pair of 
 boxers, whose attitude will be discussed further on. 
 
 Other representations 
 show us that, in throw- 
 ing upwards, the handle 
 with the loop was held 
 downwards, but in 
 throwing to a distance, 
 if the object was to 
 throw as far as possible, 
 the right arm was dra^ n 
 back as in Fig. 119 and 
 here ; but if a mark was 
 Fig. 126. aimed at, the upper arm 
 
 was kept in a horizontal 
 position, about the height of the ear, and the aim care- 
 fully taken before throwing. The javelin used in gym- 
 nastic exercises and contests differs from that used in 
 war in being constructed of very light wood, and 
 having no lance-head like the one used in battle, but, 
 as Fig. 119 shows, a very thin and rather long head, 
 obviously in order that the spear may cling more 
 easily to the mark which was probably made of wood. 
 
 Throughout the whole of antiquity the favourite 
 contest was wrestling, and the importance of this 
 depended on the fact that the whole body was 
 exercised at the same time, and all the muscles 
 came into play ; and also that it was not an exercise 
 
284 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 performed by one single man, but was an immediate 
 measuring of strength by two opponents, and, there- 
 fore, even more than the other contests, required full 
 bodily power. Even in the Homeric age, therefore, 
 wrestling played an important part, and the deep hold 
 it took on Greek life is shown by the great number 
 of technical expressions taken from wrestling which in 
 metaphorical form found their way into the ordinary 
 e very-day language ; no other exercise had so large a 
 store of technical expressions ; indeed, it is absolutely 
 impossible for us to find words to express them 
 all at the present day. Wrestling, like other gym- 
 nastic exercises, was carried on at first with some 
 drapery round the loins, and afterwards without any 
 clothing. As a preparation, the combatants rubbed 
 their whole bodies with oil, with a view to making 
 their limbs more supple and elastic. For this pur- 
 pose there were special rooms in the gymnasia and 
 wresthng schools, in which stood large vessels, filled 
 with oil, from which they filled their own little flasks; 
 then they poured a little oil out of these into their 
 hands, and either rubbed their bodies with it or else 
 had them rubbed by one of the attendants of the 
 gymnasia appointed for the purpose (aXe/Trr?;?). But 
 as this oiling and the perspiration which resulted from 
 the contest would have made the body too smooth 
 and slippery, and absolutely impossible to grasp, 
 they covered themselves,, when the anointing was 
 finished, with fine dust, taken from special pits, or else 
 prepared on purpose. This was supposed also to serve 
 a hygienic purpose, for it was assumed that the dust 
 prevented excessive perspiration, and in consequence 
 saved the strength ; it was also regarded as advan- 
 tageous because it closed the pores and sheltered 
 them from the air. which might have an injurious 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 285 
 
 effect. Oil, perspiration, dust, and also the soft sand, 
 which, when the wrestlers continued their contest 
 on the ground, ckmg to their bodies, together 
 formed a thick crust, which could not have been 
 completely removed by a mere warm bath ; therefore 
 the wrestlers used a stlengis, or strigil, for cleansing 
 their bodies, rubbing off the dirt partly themsehes 
 and partly with the help of attendants, and afterwards 
 took a warm bath. The action of this scraping, 
 which, in spite of its unaesthetic nature, gave rise to 
 many graceful attitudes, has been often plastically 
 represented by artists ; a good copy has come down 
 to us of the most celebrated of these figures, the 
 Apoxyomenos of Lysippus. The bath was usually 
 followed by oiling the body once more, because the 
 use of oil was regarded as good for the health and 
 tending to strengthen the limbs. As already men- 
 tioned, this anointing was accompanied by a kind of 
 massage, a pressing and kneading of the body, which 
 the rubber understood, and which was regarded as a 
 hygienic method, so that one who was specially skilled 
 in it was called a medical-rubber (larpaXeLTrTrjf;), and in 
 a measure combined the duties of physician and 
 rubber. The constant exposure to fresh air and 
 accustoming of the naked body to the rays of the sun, 
 combined with the oiling and dusting mentioned above, 
 produced in the wrestlers especially, though to some 
 extent in all the athletes, a very dark complexion, 
 which the ancients regarded as a mark of health 
 and of manly courage, and often held up to admiration 
 in contrast to the pale colouring of the artisans and 
 stay-at-homes who " sat in the shade." There were 
 two principal methods in ordinary wrestling — stand- 
 ing and ground wrestling. In the first kind of 
 contest everything depended on throwing an opponent, 
 
286 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 either by skill, or by certain tricks which were allowed 
 in wrestling, in such a way that his shoulder touched 
 the earth, while the other kept his position ; throwing 
 once, however, did not decide the victory, but in order 
 to be victorious in the standing wrestling-bout it was 
 necessary for a man to throw his opponent three times 
 in this manner When both opponents fell together 
 while wrestling without clasping each other, they 
 jumped up and began the contest afresh ; but if the}'' 
 grasped each other firmly when they fell, so that the 
 contest was not yet decided, the wrestling usually 
 passed into the second stage, in which both wrestled 
 while lying on the ground, when now one now the 
 other might get the advantage, until one of the two 
 declared himself conquered, and gave up the struggle. 
 The wrestlers in the celebrated Florentine marble 
 group, represented in Fig. 128, are in this position. 
 This wrestling on the ground, however, only took place 
 in the boys' gymnastic school, and afterwards in the 
 public contests of Pancratiasts (see below, page 296), 
 and professional athletes ; in the great contests and 
 the Pentathlon only standing wrestling was allowed. 
 The mode in which the wrestlers began the combat 
 has been clearly described by several writers, and 
 often represented on monuments. Each combatant 
 took his place, with his legs somewhat apart, his right 
 foot forward, stretched out his arms, drew his head a 
 little between his shoulders, and thrust forward the 
 upper part of his body, back, shoulders, and neck, in 
 order to protect the lower part somewhat from the 
 attack of his opponent. In this manner the cou)- 
 batants stepped towards each other, each watching for 
 the moment when the other would expose himself in 
 some way of which he could take advantage, and as 
 they were naturally both as much as possible on their 
 
Fio. 128. 
 
288 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOMK 
 
 guard, it was often a considerable time before they could 
 begin the contest by seizing hold of their opponents. 
 But when it was once begun, the masters or other offi- 
 cials who superintended watched to see that no tricks 
 
 contrary to tra- 
 dition and rule 
 were made use 
 of, that there was 
 no hitting or 
 biting; but still, 
 they were al- 
 lowed to make 
 use of certain 
 tricks or feints 
 in order to de- 
 ceive the enemy 
 or gain an ad- 
 vantage over 
 him. Among 
 the methods al- 
 lowed was throt- 
 tUng, either by 
 touching the 
 opponent's neck 
 or throwing an 
 arm round it, 
 or pushing the 
 elbow under 
 his chin, and sometimes the combatant who was 
 attacked in this way was forced from want of 
 breath to declare himself conquered, even without 
 being thrown ; similarly his opponent might force him, 
 by pressing his body together to abandon the contest ; 
 and in the ground wrestling it sometimes happened 
 that the combatant who had the upper hand knelt 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 289 
 
 down on the one who had been thrown to the ground 
 and throttled him until he asked for mercy. Twisting 
 and bending the limbs was also allowed, thrusting an 
 arm 01 a foot into the opponent's belly, pushing or forcing 
 him from the spot, 
 which, if the hands 
 were occupied, was 
 often done by means 
 of the forehead, the 
 two combatants dash- 
 ing their heads against 
 each other like two 
 angry bulls ; this was a 
 very favourite trick, 
 and is frequently 
 shown on works of art. 
 In Fig. 129, taken from 
 a vase painting we see 
 two wrestlers who have 
 grappled, each hold- 
 ing his opponent's 
 right arm with his 
 own left; their fore- 
 heads are pressed to- 
 gether, one has drawn 
 back his right foot in 
 order to increase his 
 resisting power. The 
 combatants in Fig. 130, are fighting in a similar manner, 
 the left hand of one seizes the right arm of his opponent, 
 while his right arm is thrown round his body ; the left 
 hand of the other meantime attacks his enemy's back. 
 On the left a superintendent, who Avears a cloak, and 
 holds a branch in his hand, stands looking on ; on the 
 right a young man is running quickly away. Among 
 
290 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the permitted feints was a sudden thrust of the leg, 
 which hit the opponent's knee from behind with the 
 foot in such a manner as to throw him, or, if this was 
 impossible, a similar blow was attempted on the side ; 
 they also seized an opponent by the leg or ankle in 
 such a way as to lift it from the ground with a violent 
 impulse, so that he must fall backwards. Sometimes 
 a strong and skilful wrestler would put his arms round 
 his opponent's hips in such a way as to lift him entirely 
 from the ground, and turn him over with his head 
 downwards. On the vase painting represented in 
 Fig. 131, in the group on the right, one of the wrestlers 
 has lifted up his opponent in this manner, and the 
 latter is trying to free himself from the arms which are 
 holding him. In the other group, one of the wrestlers 
 with his right arm seizes the left arm of his opponent 
 and tries to press him down with his body, thrusting 
 his head over the left shoulder of the other ; the latter, 
 however, thrusts his head over his opponent's back, 
 and with his right arm seizes his opponent's right arm 
 from behind. The richly-clad youth standing by 
 presents an almost feminine appearance, holding a 
 staff and flower in his hands, and it is not clear for what 
 purpose he is there. Simikir tricks and manoeuvres 
 were used in ground wrestling. Besides this they also 
 attempted to entangle the opponent's legs in theirs, in 
 order to prevent him from standing up again. There 
 were a great many similar modes or plans of wrestling, 
 all with a special terminology, and it seems as though 
 no gymnastic exercisehad been so thoroughly developed 
 mto a real art as that of wrestling. 
 
 Boxing, which we hear of among the funeral games 
 in honour of Patroclus, was also practised in the 
 historic period, but as a mode of fighting it was not 
 actuall^^ necessary for the gymnastic training of every 
 
292 
 
 -GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Greek, but was rather studied by those who desired to 
 win prizes in the pubhc games, and to obtain honouT 
 and reward by their bodily skill and strength. We are 
 accustomed to regard the gymnastic training of the 
 Greeks as tending not only to the development of the 
 body, but also to that of the mind ; and we cannot deny 
 that boxing, especially in the form which it assumed 
 in the course of centuries, was a rough sport, and that 
 the pleasure which the Greeks undoubtedly took in 
 watching it, though not quite of so degrading a nature 
 as the cruel delight taken by the Romans in the fights 
 of gladiators and wild beasts, yet, considered in con- 
 nection with certain other popular sports, s^uch as 
 cock-fighting, must be taken as a sign that even 
 the high degree of culture, which the Athenians had 
 undoubtedly attained by the fifth centurj'-, was not 
 quite sufficient to suppress completely the animal 
 instinct in man. After all, our much-lauded nineteenth 
 century is not unacquainted with such amusements as 
 boxing, pigeon-shooting, and similar sports. 
 
 Boxing, like wrestling, was subject to special rules, 
 from which we see that more stress was laid on artistic 
 and elegant methods than on the mere evidence of 
 great bodily strength and rude force. Specially skilful 
 boxers, indeed, devoted themselves chiefly to wearing 
 out their enemy by keeping strictly on the defensive — 
 that is, parrying all his blows with their arms, and thus 
 forcing him at last to give up the contest, rather than 
 making him unfit to fight by well-aimed blows. They 
 distinguished, too, in the defensive between correctly- 
 aimed blows and mere rough hitting, which sometimes 
 gave a combatant the victory if he happened to possess 
 considerable strength, but by no means won reputation 
 i'ov him. All the same, severe bodily injuries, or, at 
 any rate, Lasting deformities, especially in the head and 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 293 
 
 face, were inevitably connected with boxing, and it was 
 by no means unusual for boxers to have their ears 
 completely disfigured and beaten quite flat, and, 
 indeed, we see this on some of the ancient heads ; 
 afterwards it became customary to use special bandages 
 for protecting the ears. A practice which made boxing 
 especially rough, and sometimes even dangerous to life, 
 was that of covering the hands with leathern thongs. 
 Originally these thongs were tolerably harmless ; they 
 consisted merely of leather, and were put on in such a 
 way that the fingers remained free, while the thongs 
 extended a little way above the wrist and covered part 
 of the lower arm — of course, in such a way as not to 
 check the motion of the hand. But this gentler kind, 
 which were still capable of inflicting rather serious 
 injuries, were afterwards in use only for the preliminary 
 practice before a serious contest ; for the latter they 
 used heavy boxing-gloves of hardened bull's hide, into 
 which knobs of lead, etc., were worked. We can easily 
 imagine what terrible wounds might be inflicted by a 
 blow from one of these. Many of the old athletes 
 could show bodies covered with wounds like that of an 
 old soldier, and the writers of epigrams laughingly 
 compared the bodies of athletes to sieves full of holes. 
 And although they were forbidden purposely to give 
 blows which threatened the life of an opponent, yet 
 it sometimes happened, as in the notorious contest 
 between Creugas and Damoxenus, that in the excite- 
 ment of the moment the combatants forgot the 
 established rules, and the professional contest turned 
 into mere brutality, from which those of the spectators 
 whose feelings were of a less coarse nature turned away 
 with horror. 
 
 For the contest they generally took their position 
 in such a manner as not to turn their whole body to 
 
294 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the enemy, but only one side, and, as a rule', the left 
 It was in the nature of the contest that a constant 
 change between attack and defence must take place ; 
 the attitude represented on numerous monuments, in 
 which the left arm is used for parrying, the right for 
 
 attack, was 
 the common 
 one, not only 
 as an open- 
 ing, but re- 
 peated at 
 each new 
 p h a s e , 
 though a 
 change 
 would some- 
 times take 
 place, and 
 the right 
 arm be used 
 in defence, 
 the left for 
 attack. On 
 the vase 
 painting re- 
 presented in 
 Fig. 132 
 we see two 
 boxers, 
 
 whose huge proportions show tluil tlicy were endowed 
 with unusual strength ; both have covered their arm« 
 and hands with heavy thongs, one is apparently 
 countering with the left, the other parrying with the 
 right ; his left aims at his enemy's head. On the right 
 stands a winged Goddess of Victory, on the left a 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 295 
 
 boxer with the thongs, raising his left arm to his head. 
 
 The vase painting, Fig. 188, represents two boxers, one 
 of whom aims a well-directed blow with his left at the 
 breast of the other, who totters. On one side lie some 
 poles, as well as implements belonging to the wrestling 
 
 school, strigil, sponge, etc. There are also two boxers 
 on the vase painting represented in Fig. 127. The one 
 to the right has " got home " so effectively on the head 
 with his left, that the other, who has tried to guard 
 with his left arm, iias to give ground, and seems to have 
 had enough, for he is raising the first finger of his right 
 
296 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 hand, a sign that he begs for mercy and declares hhn- 
 self conquered. The thongs here are only worn on the 
 right hand of one of the combatants, but this was prob- 
 ably merely an omission on the part of the painter. 
 
 As preliminary practice in boxing, especially 
 in learning the commonest attacks and parries, they 
 used a kind of quintain {KoopvKos;), a bladder or leather 
 ball, hung up and filled with sand ; this exercise is 
 often represented on old monuments, and most clearly 
 on the so-called " Ficoronese Cista." This striking at 
 the quintain was one of the regular contests in the 
 gymnasium, for though the dangerous fighting with 
 the leaded thongs was left to professional athletes, yet 
 a trial of skill in the commoner kind of harmless box- 
 ing, in which there was no risk of losing teeth, etc., 
 was a very favourite practice, and this, no doubt, is 
 meant when we find boxing mentioned even among 
 the gymnastic exercises of boys. 
 
 Similar was the Pancration, as difficult as it was 
 dangerous, which was unknown to the heroic age, a 
 combination of boxing and wresthng, which, though 
 included among the exercises of the boys and youths, 
 was only of real importance for professional athletes. 
 Here all the parts of the body came into play, tricks 
 and cunning feints to lead an opponent astray were 
 permissible, and as important as bodily strength and 
 powerful fists. The combatants fought naked, like 
 the wrestlers, after oiling and strewing dust over 
 their bodies ; but they did not use thongs, which 
 would have been in the way in wrestling, nor were 
 they permitted to strike with the whole fist, but 
 only with the bent fingers. They began the fight 
 standing, as in wrestling, and the special difficulty 
 was, in taking the offensive, to avoid beinq- seized 
 by an opponent as well as to parry an unexpected 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 297 
 
 blow from his fist. Blows were dealt not only in the 
 standing fight, but also in the ground wrestling, and 
 in the pancration they made even more use of their 
 feet for hitting and kicking than in the separate con- 
 tests in wrestling and boxing ; they also tried to twist 
 their opponent's hands and break his fingers, since 
 the main object was to make him incapable of fight- 
 ing. It is, therefore, natural that among professional 
 athletes the pancration was regarded as the most 
 important of all modes of fighting. 
 
 Another contest, the Pentathlon, was of a very 
 different nature. In the pancration the two modes 
 of wrestling and boxing were combined together, but 
 in the pentathlon the different contests were under- 
 taken one after another by a number of competitors, 
 and he who did well in all of them, and took the first 
 place in some, was declared victor in the whole. 
 The contest consisted in jumping, running, throwing 
 the quoit, throwing the spear, and wrestling. Although 
 the combination of these five contests was arranged 
 with a view to the public games, yet it also had some 
 educational importance ; for ditficult and easy contests 
 were here combined, both those which required skill 
 as well as those in which mere bodily strength 
 carried off the palm, and thus the pentathlon was well 
 calculated to develop the whole body harmoniously, 
 ana to keep professionals from devoting too much 
 attention to one side of gymnasiics to the disad- 
 vantage of the others. For this reason it was 
 introduced among the exercises of the boys. We 
 have no conclusive information about the proceedings 
 in the pentathlon, the order in which the various 
 contests followed one another, and the conditions on 
 which a combatant was declared to be victorious. 
 There is a good deal of difference of opinion among the 
 K ^ 
 
29S GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 moderns who have ventured hypotheses on the subject. 
 One great difficulty in deciding this question arises 
 from the fact that, though a considerable number of 
 combatants might take part in the four first-mentioned 
 contests, wrestling must in the nature of things be per- 
 formed by only two ; we must therefore assume that 
 the contests were arranged in such a manner that only 
 two combatants should be left for the last. Probably 
 they began with running, for which a considerable 
 number could enter; supposing there were very 
 many, they may have had several series of com- 
 bats afterwards. The five best runners would then 
 enter upon the second contest, perhaps throwing 
 the spear; then the worst of these five would be 
 thrown out, and the remaining four enter for the 
 next, the jump ; the three best jumpers would then 
 throw the quoit, and the two best quoit-throwers 
 would wrestle finally for the palm. Whether this or 
 something similar was the arrangement, it might happen 
 that a combatant who had never taken the first place 
 in one of the first four contests might carry off the 
 victory at last, but they avoided this by the rule that, 
 if anyone took the first place in the first three contests 
 or in three of the four, the two last or the last might 
 be left out, and he would be considered victor in the 
 pentathlon. Consequently, the final wrestling match 
 only took place if after the fourth contest the victory 
 was still undecided — that is, if among the two best 
 quoit- throwers neither had taken the first place three 
 times. It might, therefore, happen that a man who 
 took the first place twice and the second place once 
 in the first three contests was thrown out in the 
 fourth, and the victory fell to another who had never 
 taken the first place except at the last Still, this 
 apparent injustice was counterbalanced by the fact 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 299 
 
 that the last contest was really the most difficult, while 
 a certain average excellence in the former contests was 
 required of everyone who entered the pentathlon at 
 all ; also it was no small merit to keep a place among 
 the victors in all five concests, though it might not 
 be the first or second. Of course these are merely 
 hypotheses; we have not sufficient materials for 
 attaining certainty in this matter. 
 
 A number of other gymnastic exercises were of 
 greater importance for the gymnasium than for the 
 public games. Among those which were merely pre- 
 liminary training for more serious tasks we have 
 already mentioned the dumb-bells and the quintain. 
 Others bear some resemblance to our own gymnastics ; 
 thus, for instance, exercises in bending the knees, 
 w^hich were especially popular at Sparta, and also 
 practised by girls there ; thrusting the arms for- 
 ward and backward whilst standing on tiptoe, 
 hopping on one foot, or changing the foot, etc. Ball 
 was also included among the games of a semi-gymnastic 
 character, as with us, too, it plays some part in 
 gymnastic exercises ] rope-pulling was also a favourite 
 practice, but throughout the whole of antiquity far 
 the most popular recreative game in the gymnastic 
 schools was ball-playing, and there were special 
 places devoted to it, just as there were after- 
 wards in the baths or thermae. The ancient writers 
 mention several other occupations of this kind, half- 
 way between serious exercises and mere games ; un- 
 doubtedly there were many others concerning which 
 we have no information, and the relief in Fig. 134 
 probably shows us one of these. It seems to repre- 
 sent a game with a large hard ball, which was 
 thrown up into the air and caught on the thigh, and 
 perhaps, thrown up again into the air from there. 
 
300 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Many exercises of a partly military character were 
 also practised in the gymnasia. Besides throwing 
 the spear, which was regarded as an entirely gym- 
 nastic exercise, and was practised at the public con- 
 tests, there was archery, which, in the Alexandrine 
 age, as we previously mentioned, even foimd a place 
 in the curriculum of the Attic youths. This was 
 also the case with the Cretans, wlio were renowned as 
 
 excellent archers at the time of Plato, and probably 
 even earlier. They used for the purpose a bow con- 
 structed of horn or hard wood; bows were of two 
 different shapes, one which was common in the East, 
 and was already described by Homer, in which two 
 horn-shaped ends were connected by a straight 
 middle piece; the other was a simpler shape, in' 
 which the whole bow consisted of one piece of elastic 
 wood, scarcely curved at all when the bow was not 
 bent, and which, when bent, acquired a semicircular 
 shape. As a rule, when the bow was not in use the 
 string was only fastened at one end. Before shooting, 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 134. 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 301 
 
 it was attached to the hook at the other end by 
 means of a little ring or eye. A good deal of strength 
 was needed to bend the bow far enough to attach 
 the string. In shooting, they drew back the feathered 
 arrow, on which a notch fitted, along with the string 
 towards the breast, holding the bow firmly in the left 
 hand. The vase painting depicted in Fig. 135 repre- 
 sents archery practice. The target here is the wooden 
 figure of a cock set upon a column; of the three 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 
 youths who are practising one shoots standing, the 
 second kneeling, the common position for an archer, 
 and the third is just about to draw his bow press- 
 ing his knee against it. All three use the second 
 kind of bow. It is, of course, only an artistic licence 
 that the archers are placed so near their goal; similarly 
 the arrows are still flying while the two archers are 
 about to shoot fresh ones. 
 
 We have already had occasion several times to 
 point to the difference between the gymnastic train- 
 ing of youths, continued into manhood with a view to 
 strengthening the body, and the professional gym- 
 nastics of the athletes ; we must, therefore, say a few 
 
802 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 words about the position as well as the training of 
 the latter. As the public games increased in import- 
 ance, and the glory gained by the victors induced 
 ambitious j^ouths and men to strive for a wreath in 
 the gymnastic contests, and thus gain undying 
 fame for themselves and their native city, it gradually 
 became the custom for especially strong and skilful 
 athletes (aycovLo-Tal) to make the development of their 
 body for these gymnastic contests the object of their 
 life, in order, by constant practice, by a particular diet 
 and mode of life calculated to increase their strength, 
 to attain the highest position in this profession, and 
 thus to be almost sure of victory. In this way 
 " agonistics," which was originally only a development 
 of gymnastics in accordance with the rules of art, 
 became a regular profession, and those who devoted 
 themselves to it were distinctively known as athletes. 
 As athleticism became a profession and a means of 
 making money, it ceased, of course, to be an occupa- 
 tion worthy of a free and noble citizen ; and it is, 
 therefore, natural that at Sparta, where every pro- 
 fession by which money could be made was looked 
 down upon, it should have made no way, and that in 
 other places, too, it was only men of the lower classes 
 who devoted themselves to it, however enticing it 
 might seem to an ambitious youth who desired to 
 attain the material advantages enjoyed by the victors 
 in these contests, as well as the glorious honours with 
 which they were specially distinguished. 
 
 The athletes received their training from a trainer 
 (yvfjLvaaTrj^), who must be carefully distinguished from 
 the gymnastic teacher of the boys {iraLhorpL^ri^). The 
 trainer instructed his pupils in the higher branches of 
 gymnastics, practised frequently with them, and prob- 
 ably also accompanied them to the public games, in 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 303 
 
 order to instruct them to the very last moment, since 
 the victory of a pupil was also honourable and advan- 
 tageous to the master. The exercises probably took 
 place in the gymnasia belonging to the trainers, or on 
 the public gymnastic places; and consisted not merely 
 in a methodical increase in the usual gymnastic 
 exercises until the highest achievements were 
 attained, but also in many which were not practised 
 elsewhere, and which were not calculated to harden 
 the body or make the limbs supple. Along with the 
 gymnastic training they observed, as already men- 
 tioned, a very careful mode of life, which was superin- 
 tended by the rubber, whose half-medical training has 
 been already alluded to. This diet was in part 
 observed at all times, but was especially severe just 
 before the games, at which an athlete had to appear. 
 In ancient times the principal nourishment of the 
 athletes was fresh cheese, dried figs, and wheaten 
 porridge ; in later times they abandoned this vegeta- 
 rian diet for meat, and gave the preference to beef, 
 pork, and kid. Bread might not be eaten with meat, 
 but was taken at breakfast, while the principal meal 
 consisted of meat ; confectionery was forbidden ; wine 
 might only be taken in moderate quantities. In 
 addition to this diet, which was prescribed to the 
 athletes for the whole year, a special training had to 
 be followed at times, especially when preparing for 
 the games, which lasted for more than three-quarters 
 of the year; at these times the athletes every day, 
 after th*e conclusion of their practice, had to consume 
 an enormous quantity of such food as was permitted 
 them, and then digest it in a long-continued sleep. 
 By gradually increasing the amount, an athlete suc- 
 ceeded at last in consuming an enormous quantity of 
 meat, and at length this became a habit and even a 
 
304 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 necessity. By this means they attained, not, it is 
 true, hardening of the muscles, but the corpulence 
 which is often represented in the ancient pictures, 
 and which might be advantageous in certain contests, 
 especially in wrestling and the pancration, since it 
 enabled them more easily to press down and wear 
 out their opponents; on the other hand, this arti- 
 ficially-produced corpulence was very unhealthy, and 
 it is natural that these athletes were liable to many 
 kinds of disease, especially apoplectic strokes. 
 
 The training and mode of life of the athletes just 
 described was obviously not suitable for all kinds of 
 gymnastic contests. Such diet would have been very 
 pernicious for running and jumping ; wrestling and 
 boxing and the pancration were their chief domain, 
 and it was in these that the more celebrated athletes 
 of antiquity, whose names have come down to us — 
 viz., Milo, Polydamas, Glaucus, and the rest — were 
 specially distinguished. Their rewards were of various 
 Liuds. The victors in the Olympic games were 
 allowed to set up a statue in the Grove of Altis, at 
 Olympia, at their own expense or that of their 
 relations, sometimes even of the state to which the 
 victor belonged ; and at home, too, they very fre- 
 quently had the same honour of a pubhc statue 
 assigned to them. When they returned from the 
 games, they held a solemn entry into their own 
 town, dressed in purple, riding on a car drawn by 
 four white horses, accompanied by their friends and 
 relations and a rejoicing crowd ; it was even an 
 ancient custom to pull down a piece of the city wall, 
 in order to show that a city which could produce 
 such citizens required no walls for its defence. 
 Then followed a banquet in honour of the victor, in 
 which hymns were sung in his praise. Rewards were 
 
GYMNASTICS. 
 
 305 
 
 also given in coin. At Athens, after the time of Solon, 
 the victor in the Olympic games received 500 
 drachmae, the victor in one of the three other great 
 national contests a hundred drachmae ; in later times 
 they even had the right of dining every day at the 
 public expense in the town-hall {irpvTaveiov), and they 
 also enjoyed the honour of sitting on the front benches 
 of the theatre {irpoeopta). Moreover, most of the pro- 
 fessional athletes, if they lived carefully and abstained 
 from all departures from their customary diet and 
 mode of life, were able to continue their contests for 
 a good many years, sometimes thirty or more, and 
 were thus able to pile honour on honour and reward 
 on reward. The unlimited admiration which the 
 mass of the people, and especially the youth, who 
 were easily won by exhibitions of strength, gave to 
 these combatants, who seem to us at the present day 
 to have been but rough prize-fighters, stands in strong 
 contrast to the judgment pronounced on them by men 
 of real intellectual development, especially by the 
 philosophers. They rightly complained that this one- 
 sided development of the body was perfectly useless to 
 the State, since the athletes were only capable in their 
 own domain, but were quite unable to endure fatigues 
 and undertake military service ; they pointed out that 
 the mode of life which aimed merely at increasing the 
 bodily strength tended to dwarf the intellect, and 
 that, therefore, the athletes were absolutely useless for 
 political as well as for all intellectual purposes. Wise 
 educators, therefore, disapproved of athletic training, 
 and, indeed, the greatest warriors and statesmen of 
 Greece seem always to have despised it. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 Stringed Instruments — The Lyre — The Cithara— Wind Instruments 
 — The Flute — Trumpets, Tambourines, and other Instruments 
 — Dancing as a Popular Amusement — The Dance in Religious 
 Ceremonies. 
 
 We do not intend in this place to discuss the history 
 and theory of ancient music, but only to supplement 
 what has been said already about the musical instruc- 
 tion of youth, by indicating the most important 
 branches of music which were studied in Greece and 
 describing the instruments in use. We shall pass 
 over vocal music entirely, since it played no great part 
 in antiquity apart from instrumental accompaniment, 
 and its chief purpose was for song and the drama. 
 
 The commonest instruments in ordinary use 
 were stringed. These were well suited for solo- 
 playing as well as for accompanying songs, and the 
 singer could accompany himself with them, which 
 would have been impossible in the case of wind instru- 
 ments. The stringed instruments used in Greece were 
 all played by striking or thrumming, and not by means 
 of a bow; in fact, it is a disputed point whether the 
 ancients, and in particular the Egyptians, were at all 
 acquainted with the bow ; in any case we do not find 
 it in classical antiquity. Among the various kinds of 
 stringed instruments which had either existed in 
 Greece since the oldest times or been introduced from 
 foreign countries, especially from the East or from 
 Egypt, there were only two which were of special 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 307 
 
 importance for educational and ordinary purposes. 
 These were the lyre and the cithara, which were closely 
 related to one another, and only distinguished by 
 the effect of the sound. Of these the simpler, and 
 probably also the older, was the lyre, which, according 
 to a Greek legend, was an invention of Hermes, who 
 constructed the first lyre out of a tortoise, which he 
 used as a sounding-board, stretching cords across it. 
 Even in later times tortoise-shells seem to have been 
 actually used in the construction of lyres, and on 
 works of art, especially vaso pictures (compare the 
 " Bowl of Duris," which represents school teaching in 
 Attica, Fig. 75), we can plainly distinguish the mark- 
 ings of the tortoise on the outer side of the instrument. 
 It must, however, have been more usual to construct 
 the sounding-board of wood, and only adorn it extern- 
 ally with tortoise-shell or other decorative materials ; 
 the writers mention boxwood and ilex as the principal 
 materials for lyres, as well as ivory, which last was 
 probably used for decorative purposes. In the 
 Homeric hymn to Hermes, in which the invention ol 
 the lyre by the god is described in detail, Hermes cuts 
 little stems of reed, which he fastens into the shell in 
 gridiron fashion and covers with ox-skin, and by this 
 means obtains the necessary covering for the sounding- 
 board. In later times the proceeding was probably 
 different, since the usual material for the sounding- 
 board was undoubtedly wood, and the covering was, 
 no doubt, made of wood also. But the shape of the 
 sounding-board always remained the same ; the outer 
 side was a good deal raised, while the inner side on 
 which the strings were attached was a level surface. 
 Into this sounding-board two arms were fixed, which 
 are almost always represented on Greek monuments 
 as merely curved pieces of wood fastened on the inner 
 
308 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 side of the sounding-board ; but the custom which in 
 later times, especially in the Alexandrine and Roman 
 periods, became very common, of not merely con- 
 structing these arms in the shape of horns, but even 
 making them of real horns of chamois or gazelles, 
 no doubt existed even in the ancient Greek period. 
 
 At their upper ends the two arms, which might be 
 called horns, were fastened together by a cross-piece, 
 called the yoke, which was usually constructed of hard 
 wood, and on to this the strings, constructed of sheep- 
 guts, were stretched. Of these the lyre usually had 
 seven, all of equal length, which was also the case 
 in the cithara. These strings, as we can clearly see 
 in the lyres of the above-mentioned bowl (Fig. 75), 
 passed downwards over a bridge consisting of a piece 
 of reed fixed on the flat covering of the sounding- 
 board, and were then fastened singly, probably to a 
 little square board, such as we see on the lyre hanging 
 on the wall in Fig. 75. Probably this little board 
 could be taken out, and thus, if a string were to 
 break, the injury could be easily repaired. Occa- 
 sionally the strings were merely tied to the yoke ; 
 but, as this primitive method would make it im- 
 possible to tune them, we must assume that there 
 was usually some other contrivance, though neither 
 writers nor monuments give us sufficient informa- 
 tion about it. On the lyres in Fig. 75, and also in 
 other pictures of stringed instruments, we perceive at 
 the upper ends of the strings, longish rolls which 
 in other places are shaped more like rings or discs, 
 and are probably set at an angle to the stretched 
 strings. An hypothesis has been set up by Von Jan, 
 who infers, from ancient writers, after comparing 
 similar contrivances in Nubian stringed instruments, 
 that these rolls were constructed of thick skin or 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 309 
 
 hide, taken from the backs of oxen or sheep ; the 
 strings were fastened into these adhesive covers and 
 twisted along with them round the yoke of the lyre 
 until they attained the right tune, and they were then 
 fastened into their proper -position by strongly press- 
 ing down these rolls of hide. Still, this rough mode 
 of fastening which could only permit of very super- 
 ficial tuning of the strings, does not appear very 
 satisfactory ; indeed, Von Jan himself calls attention 
 to a far more artistic contrivance observed in some 
 of the pictures, which has not yet, however, been 
 satisfactorily explained. There seems also to have 
 been a third mode of fastening ; sometimes the whole 
 yoke was divided into as many little pulleys con- 
 nected by pegs as there were strings, so that each 
 string had, as it were, its own yoke, by the tightening 
 of which it could be tuned without the other strings 
 being affected. We have no further details about 
 this construction. 
 
 On the vase painting represented in Fig. 136, 
 which presents a number of women with musical in- 
 struments, perhaps Muses, one is leaning back comfort- 
 ably m her easy-chair, and playing on the lyre, here 
 represented with six strings ; the woman standing in 
 front of her seems about to tune the strings of her 
 cithara. The cithara differed from the lyre chiefly in 
 the form and structure of the sounding-board. This 
 was constructed of wood, often artistically decorated 
 and adorned with valuable materials, precious stones, 
 etc., and was much larger and more arched than the 
 sounding-board of the lyre. It usually had a straight 
 base, and sometimes sounding holes, which was less 
 often the case with the lyre, and its arms were far 
 wider and squarer, and, being also hollow, seem to 
 have helped to strengthen the sound. On some 
 
310 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 instruments it is clear 
 that the sounding- 
 board and the arms 
 which rise out of it 
 were constructed out 
 of a single piece, and 
 that, consequently, 
 the cavities are in 
 connection ; on some 
 the arms are of a dif- 
 ferent colour from the 
 s 0 u n d i n g-b o a r d, 
 usually white, which 
 would suggest ivory; 
 still, we must not on 
 this account conclude 
 that they were con- 
 structed separately, 
 since it is possible 
 that the different 
 colouring was only an 
 external ornamenta- 
 tion or veneer for the 
 arms, and need not 
 lead us to assume a 
 different material for 
 the whole structure. 
 The arms were usually 
 slightly curved out- 
 wards, but turned in- 
 wards again at the 
 top. The instrument 
 in Fig. 136 is one of 
 the simplest, since the 
 arms are quite plain ; 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 311 
 
 on other examples we often see elaborate carving 
 The bridge which unites the two arms is either a 
 perfectly simple rod, as in the case of the lyre (com- 
 pare Fig. 136), or else the arms have at their pro- 
 jecting ends solid handles or crooks, which probably 
 assisted the tuning. The number of strings was 
 originally limited in the cithara ; seven was at first 
 the usual number, and this number was even fixed 
 by law at Sparta, but in other places nine, ten, or 
 eleven strings were used. The writers and pictures 
 give us no more accurate information about the mode 
 in which these strings were fastened to the yoke and 
 to the sounding-board than they do about the lyre ; 
 the pictures dating from the Roman period are much 
 clearer in that respect, but we cannot safely use them 
 as authorities. 
 
 The lyre was generally played sitting. This in- 
 strument, which was a light one, was held close to the 
 left side, as we see in Figs. 75 and 136, and supported 
 by the seat of the chair. The cithara was played 
 standing, and it was therefore necessary, on account of 
 the considerable weight of the instrument, to suspend 
 it by a band over the shoulders. This band is seldom 
 represented in works of art, but it must always be 
 assumed to be there, since the mode in which the 
 stringed instruments were played would not leave a 
 hand free for holding it. Both lyre and cithara were 
 played in such a manner that the strings were 
 thrummed from without by the left hand, but struck 
 from within by an instrument called plectrum, held 
 in the right hand, and constructed of wood, ivory, or 
 some half-precious stone. This plectrum was fastened 
 by a string to the instrument (compare again Fig. 75). 
 There were, however, exceptions to this mode of play- 
 ing ; thus, a woman in Fig. 136 apparently does not 
 
312 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 use the plectrum, but thrums the strings of the lyre 
 with both hands, and at other times it seems as though 
 the left hand and the plectrum, which was held in the 
 right, were noc used at the same time, but in turns. 
 Thus, in Fig. 75, both teacher and pupil are only 
 thrumming the instrument with their left hand, and 
 leaving the pler:Lrum at rest. The practical object ol 
 fastening the plectrum to the instrument was that it 
 enabled the player at any moment to pass from the 
 use of the plecirum to the fingers of the right hand, 
 and vice versa. An hypothesis based on works of art, 
 and apparently very plausible, has been made by Von 
 Jan, who supposes that musicians, as a rule, accom- 
 panied their song with the play of the left hand, and 
 only used the plectrum in the pauses. 
 
 Besides the lyres and citharae, among which we 
 must certainlv include the Homeric Phorminx, of 
 which we find various kinds but all with the same 
 main features, there are several other stringed instru- 
 ments, to which we can, as a rule, assign the ancient 
 names with some certainty, though we find a very 
 great number of designations for these instruments in 
 different writers, and apparently most of them were 
 introduced into Greece from the East and from 
 Egypt. One of the safest identifications relates to a 
 large, many-stringed instrument, of a shape which 
 closely resembles our modern harp (Fig. 136). This is 
 played by the third woman in the centre, and is also 
 found elsewhere (compare the vase painting, Fig. 137). 
 We almost always find this instrument in the hands 
 of women ; they play it seated, resting the horizontal 
 base on their laps, while the broader sounding-board 
 which joins this at an angle, rests against the upper 
 part of their body ; they strike the short strings near 
 them with the right hand, without a plectrum, and 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 313 
 
 with the left hand the long strings which are further 
 from them. The pictures sometimes show contriv- 
 ances for tuning, shortening, or lengthening the strings; 
 
 the number of strings varies. As the shape is usually 
 triangular, we may probably assume that this instru- 
 ment is the one called Trigonon. Possibly some of 
 the examples may be instances of the Sambuca, since 
 this, too, had a triangular form. 
 
 We also hear of many other stringed instruments, 
 of which we know only the names, some with a 
 
314 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 small number of strings — three or four, others with 
 a large number — thirty to forty; but we know 
 
 little or nothing about 
 their shape, and, there- 
 fore, will not enter 
 into details concern- 
 ing them, especially 
 as their use must have 
 been very rare as com- 
 pared with that of the 
 instruments already 
 described. We must 
 just mention the Bar- 
 hiton, since it seems 
 probable that an instrument 
 which appears very often on 
 ancient monuments, very nar- 
 row and long, with a sounding- 
 board closely resembling the 
 lyre, but smaller, and with a 
 very few strings, which was 
 played with the hand and the 
 plectrum, may have been the 
 barbiton which was popular at 
 festive gatherings, and for ac- 
 companying love-songs. 
 
 Among wind instruments we 
 must, in the first instance, con- 
 sider the flute. Although for a 
 time this was not popular in 
 the most fashionable circles at 
 Athens, still it was much in use 
 in Boeotia, and also in the rest 
 of Greece, even among amateurs, and at all times 
 was of great importance, especially for choruses 
 
 Fig. 138. 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 315 
 
 and festive perforin ances, for entertainments during 
 meals, dancing, and other such occasions. The form 
 of this instrument 
 wliich is commonest 
 on the monuments is 
 the double flute. The 
 ancient flute (auXo?) 
 differed in shape and 
 use from that which 
 bears the name at 
 the present day, since 
 the players did not 
 blow into it at the 
 side, but made use of 
 a mouthpiece like that of a 
 clarinet. This mouthpiece, which 
 was usually of the same ma- 
 terial as the flute proper, has 
 an easily vibrating tongue cut 
 in its upper part, which vibrates 
 within the mouth, as the greater 
 part of the mouthpiece is taken 
 right into the mouth by the 
 player. The principal part of 
 the flute, the pipe, which is 
 either of the same thickness 
 throughout, or else somewhat 
 widened at the lower end, was 
 sometimes formed of a single 
 piece and sometimes of several 
 component parts. Various notes 
 were produced by the holes, of 
 which there were at first only 
 three or four, but afterwards a larger number ; there 
 w^ere also holes at the side, which helped to increase 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 
316 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the compass of the flute, and various other helps, 
 such as valves on the side, rings which in turning 
 either opened or closed the holes, etc. In spite of the 
 very numerous practical attempts instituted during 
 the present century to procure some notion of the 
 mode of playing and the effect of the ancient flute, 
 it does not seem possible to obtain any proper 
 conception of it. 
 
 The pipe seems never to have been used singly in 
 Greece, but only as the double flute, as we see on so 
 many representations, and, as a rule, the flutes are 
 both of equal length. In order to facilitate the play- 
 ing on two instruments at the same time or in quick 
 succession, and perhaps also to prevent the escape of 
 air, they often, though not always, made use of a 
 cheek-piece round the mouth. The bronze statue of a 
 flute player, of which both sides are represented in 
 Figs. 138 and 139, shows very plainly the mode in 
 which this bandage was fastened by two leathern 
 thongs passed round the head ; we can also recognise 
 it in the flute player in Fig. 140, a vase painting 
 which undoubtedly, as the pedestal on which he 
 stands indicates, represents a flute player at a public 
 contest ; this is also suggested by his curious cos- 
 tume — the long festive robe and short jacket without 
 sleeves. 
 
 In the vase painting represented in Fig. 127, the 
 flute player, who accompanies the gymnastic exer- 
 cises, is also playing the double flute with the mouth 
 bandage; over his arm hangs the flute case, which was 
 usually made of skin, and with which the case for the 
 mouthpieces, of which they had several, was con- 
 nected. On the other hand, the youth in Fig. 75 
 has no bandage ; nor yet the two women in Fig. 126, 
 or the seated hetaera in Fig. 142, nor the youth who, 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 317 
 
 Fig. 140. 
 
 in the vase painting represented in Fig. 141, with a 
 double flute in his hand, mounts the pedestal from 
 which he intends to perform to the audionce who are 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 319 
 
 seated close by. On the Greek monuments of the pre- 
 Roman period we always find two similar flutes con- 
 nected together, but afterwards, and especially Id 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
 pictures connected with the worship of Cybele, one of 
 the flutes very often has a curved horn, which seems 
 to have been a special peculiarity of the Phrygian 
 flute. This was apparently not known to the Greeks 
 in ancient times. 
 
 The other wooden wind instruments are of no 
 
320 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 special importance for music or art. The SyrinXy 
 or pan-pipe, constructed of a number of reeds fastened 
 together, which in one kind of syrinx Avere all of equal 
 length, but in others varied from short to long, was 
 used by the shepherds, and is often seen in pictures, 
 especially of Pan and other forest and field divinities, 
 but played no part in actual music. Still more is 
 this the case with the Plagiaulos, answering to the 
 modern. Flute traversiere, which originated in Egypt, 
 and with various other kinds of single flutes which 
 have been described to us. 
 
 Metal wind instruments, or trumpets (o-akTrty^), 
 were only used for military and religious purposes. 
 They were usually made of bronze, with a bone mouth- 
 piece, were of a longish shape, with avery broad mouth. 
 Among other musical instruments in use among the 
 Greeks we must mention tambourines (rv/jLTrava), 
 cymbals, and castanets (KporaXa), which were used 
 in the worship of Dionysus and Cybele, and in dances 
 of an orgiastic character ; in Fig. 142 a girl, dancing 
 to the sound of a flute, holds castanets in her hands. 
 But, in spite of the frequency with which these 
 instruments are represented on works of art, especi- 
 ally those which are connected with Dionysus, their 
 use in daily life must have been very rare, except 
 for the dancing girls who appeared at the symposia, 
 and who marked the time of their motions with them. 
 
 There is very little to say about dancing among 
 the Greeks; in spite of its importance in religious 
 observances and plays or choruses, it was of little 
 account in daily life. We do not find it mentioned 
 among the usual subjects of instruction, except, in- 
 deed, at Sparta. Dancing was a popular amusement, 
 especially as an entertainment during banquets 
 a id drinking feasts ; but the guests did not dance 
 
MUSIC AND DANCING. 
 
 321 
 
 themselves, but contented themselves with looking 
 on at professional performers. Still, no doubt, it 
 sometimes happened that when the revellers had 
 drunk a good deal of wine, they felt inspired to 
 join the dance ; there were certainly opportunities 
 for learning it, since we are expressly told that Socrates 
 took lessons in dancing at an advanced age. It is 
 almost always solo dancing that is in question ; this 
 consisted chiefly in rhythmic movements of hands 
 and feet in a variety of well-chosen postures, and was 
 essentially connected with gymnastics, in which the 
 training in dancing was sometimes included. Dancing 
 together by people of different sexes, such as is 
 customary with us, was unknown in the social life of 
 antiquity, and would in any case have been impossible 
 in Greece, owing to the separation which existed in 
 ordinary life between men and women. 
 
 The chief use of the dance was for religious purposes. 
 In the most ancient times solemn dances were always a 
 part of worship; merry dances were part of the service 
 of Dionysus ; and sometimes both sexes took part in 
 these choric dances, but even here there was no ques- 
 tion of round dancing, but only of a series of move- 
 ments regulated by music, and of a dignified and 
 rhythmical character. The dances in armour which 
 were popular in the Doric states, and were, of course, 
 only performed by men, were of a livelier character. 
 The dancers were equipped with helmet, shield, and 
 sword, and went through a number of choregraphic 
 evolutions ; the dances at country festivals, which very 
 often had a pantomimic character, were also of a lively 
 nature. Here, as well as in the solemn religious dances, 
 it was very common for the dancers to sing as they 
 danced, and sometimes even accompany themselves on 
 some instrument ; in fact, this distinction holds good 
 L 
 
322 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 between dancing in ancient and in modern times, that 
 in antiquity it was not an object in itself, but was 
 always closely connected with the other musical arts. 
 The ancient dance attained its highest development 
 and perfection in the drama, where dancing, music, 
 and pantomime were most perfectly combined; but 
 we shall have occasion to refer to this later on, in 
 discussing the tlieatre of the Greeks. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 
 
 Greek Religion— The Functions of the Priest — Forms of Worship, 
 Prayer, and Sacrifice —Purification — Holy Water — Two Forma 
 of Sacrifice, Bloody and Bloodless — Libations— Prophecy and 
 Divinations — The Oracles. 
 
 In a description of Greek life it is impossible entirely 
 to pass over the many customs connected with the 
 worship of the gods, and their importance in the Kfe 
 of individuals. Greek religion did not appoint anj' 
 fixed ceremonies to be observed every day, as the 
 Jewish or Mahometan religions do; but still it placed a 
 believer in connection with the Deity, and thus gave 
 occasion for some religious act every day. There were 
 also some special occasions which led them to turn to 
 their gods, and it is, therefore, natural that religious 
 worship should have played a very important part in 
 the life of the Greeks, especially as it was only in rare 
 cases that they required to resort to the mediatory 
 help of a priest ; as a rule, any Greek might perform 
 the various religious ceremonies himself. It is a dis- 
 puted question whether Greek natural religion in its 
 first beginnings was acquainted with temples, images 
 of . the gods, and priests as a separate class; in any 
 case, in the oldest literary monument of Greek life, the 
 Homeric poems, worship was chiefly in the hands of 
 laymen, and service in the temples and priesthood 
 generally played a very subordinate part in the life of 
 mankind. 
 
 Greek religion was unacquainted with regular 
 
324 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 worship returning on certain appointed days, for which 
 priests and laymen assembled together in the House 
 of God. It is true the temple was regarded as the 
 dwelling of the god ; but the believer, as a rule, only 
 entered it if he had some special prayer to make, and 
 otherwise performed his religious duties at home in his 
 own dwelling. This he could generally do without the 
 help of a priest ; the priest existed, in the first place, 
 for the sake of the god, and only in the second in 
 order to facilitate the intercourse between god and 
 man. The gods desired worship and sacrifice, and, as 
 it could not be left to chance whether some one person 
 would supply these, since there must be no interrup- 
 tion to the worship, it was necessary to have a class 
 of men whose work in life was the performance of 
 these duties towards the divinity. It was probably 
 this idea which led them to appoint a priestly class ; 
 and it was only as a consequence of this that laymen 
 sometimes called upon the help of the priest, especially 
 in important cases, since these men, who were in con- 
 stant intercourse with the gods, were assumed to have 
 the most accurate knowledge of the forms well-pleasing 
 to the divinities. Consequently, as the development 
 of civilisation made greater claims on ordinary people 
 in their professional activity, such as military service, 
 politics, studies, etc., and thus drew them away from 
 divine things, it became commoner to make use of 
 the mediatory assistance of the priest, and thus the 
 influence and importance of the priestly class con- 
 tinued to increase. There was another reason which 
 led the laymen to make use of the priests. According 
 to Greek belief, the gods revealed their will to man- 
 kind by various signs and visions ; it was not everyone, 
 however, who knew how to interpret these signs ; a 
 deep knowledge of the divine nature and will, as well 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 
 
 325 
 
 as a rich treasure of experience were required, and 
 it was, therefore, natural that they turned for this 
 purpose to those who had devoted their whole life to 
 discovering the will of the gods. These were the 
 seers or interpreters who were closely connected with 
 the priests, though they must not be identified with 
 them. 
 
 When we speak of a priestly class among the 
 Greeks, we must not take it in the literal sense of the 
 word ; the Greek priests did not constitute a class in 
 our modern sense of the word, since there were no 
 preliminary studies required for the office. Greek 
 religion possessed no dogmas ; the priest's duty was 
 only to perform certain rites and ceremonies, and these 
 were easily learnt. Consequently, the priesthood in 
 Greece was limited to no age and no sex ; boys and 
 girls, youths and maidens, men and married women 
 could perform priestly functions for a long or short 
 period. The essential requirement was legitimate 
 birth and participation in the community in which 
 the priestly functions had to be performed; bodily 
 purity and moral character were also required ; mem- 
 bers of ancient and noble families were especially 
 privileged, and sometimes bodily strength and beauty 
 were regarded in the choice. Generally speaking, 
 however, the requirements made differed not only 
 according to the gods in whose service they were to 
 stand, but also according to local or other accidental 
 circumstances. Thus sometimes priestesses were re- 
 quired to be virgins, if not for their whole life, at any 
 rate for the duration of their priesthood; in other 
 cases, however, married women might undertake the 
 priestly functions. The same held good for the men. 
 Although, as a rule, priests entered for their whole 
 life, yet it sometimes happened that their priestly 
 
326 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 functions were only performed for a time, as for 
 instance, in the case of boys or girls who entered the 
 service of the temple until they attained their man 
 or womanhood, or in other cases where citizens were 
 made priests for one or several years, and, when 
 the time was up, retired again and let others take 
 their place. 
 
 There were various modes of appointing priests. 
 They were either elected from among several candi- 
 dates, in which case the right of election lay with 
 the citizens or their representatives, or else by lot, or 
 the right was given from birth. Certain priesthoods 
 were hereditary in families ; either the first-bom was 
 appointed as such, or else the lot had to decide 
 between the various members of a family ; sometimes, 
 if disputes ensued, a legal decision might even be 
 given. Consequently, it is clear that the pri-ests in 
 Greece did not form a special caste, and as they very 
 often retired again to private life, their influence was 
 not extensive or very important. 
 
 The duties of the priests consisted, in the first 
 instance, in performing those acts of worship to the 
 divinity which might also be performed by any lay- 
 man — viz., prayers and sacrifices ; and in the second, 
 those which belonged to the worship of the particular 
 divinity, and recurred at certain fixed periods, and 
 particularly those which they undertook at the re- 
 quest of others. Besides this, there were various 
 duties connected with the care of the temple and 
 divine images, the fulfilment of the various cus- 
 toms connected with the worship of each divinity,, 
 the performance of mysterious dedications and puri- 
 fications, guarding of the temple treasure, etc. To 
 this were due various ordinances concerning their 
 mode of life, foed, clothing, etc. Their persons were 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 
 
 327 
 
 regarded as sacred, just as the sanctuary was, and 
 they also received their share in the adoration paid 
 to the gods, being regarded, in a measure, as their 
 representatives. Verj^ often they had a house in the 
 temple domain, and received a share of its income, 
 which had, in the first instance, to supply the means 
 for performing the service of the god, erecting neces- 
 sary buildings, statues, etc., but which often supplied 
 the priests also with considerable profit; thus, the 
 skins and certain parts of the sacrificial animals fell 
 to their lot. In some of the sanctuaries the income 
 derived from the temple property and the money 
 lent out for interest from the temple treasure, was 
 very considerable, and far exceeded the means re- 
 quired for the maintenance of the sanctuary and 
 the service of the god. Another privilege enjoyed by 
 the priests was the right of occupying places of honour 
 in the theatre and at public meetings. They were 
 usually distinguished by their dress from the rest ol 
 the citizens ; they wore the long chiton, which had 
 gone out of fashion for ordinary people ; it was gener- 
 ally of white or purple colour, and they had wreaths 
 and fillets in their long hair, and probably carried a 
 staff as a token of dignity. 
 
 The priests were assisted in their duties in the 
 temples by a large number of attendants and servants. 
 Some of these only took part occasionally in a pro- 
 cession or sacrifice, and, as this was regarded as an 
 honour, they gave their service without return. Some 
 were permanent temple servants, who either per- 
 formed for pay certain menial services connected with 
 the worship and the care of the temple, or else were 
 slaves and the property of the god. Among these were 
 included the so-called " temple-sweepers " (vea^opoL), men 
 and women whose duty it was to clean and care for 
 
328 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the temple. There were also heralds, sacrificial servants, 
 butchers, bearers of the sacred vessels, singers and 
 musicians, etc., concerning whom inscriptions give us 
 a good deal of information. Even these positions, so 
 long as the services to be performed were not menial 
 but honourable, were an object of ambition to citizens, 
 or regarded as a valuable privilege inherited by certain 
 families ; thus, for instance, atOlympia, the descendants 
 of Pheidias had charge of the statue of Zeus, which 
 was the masterpiece of their ancestor. 
 
 The two forms in which the worship of the ancients 
 chiefly consisted were prayer and sacrifice. Prayer, 
 either to all the gods together or to some single one, 
 consecrated the beginning and end of the day ; com- 
 bined with libations, it attended the beginning and end 
 of the meals, and was, in fact, an essential part of every 
 important action of daily life. These prayers were, of 
 course, of a general character, but there were other 
 occasions when special prayers were used, adapted to 
 particular cases ; thus it was a matter of course that 
 in the assemblies of the people the blessing of the god 
 should be invoked on the discussion. When they set 
 out to war they called on the help of the god in the 
 coming fight, and similarly private citizens asked for 
 divine aid in their undertakings and help in difficulties, 
 though some wiser men — and especially those who had 
 had a philosophical training — could not disguise from 
 themselves that it was a foolish hope to expect that 
 their prayers should necessarily be heard, and they 
 looked upon prayer rather as a religious consecration 
 of human actions. Kneeling and folding the hands 
 were unknoAvn to the ancients. In praying they stood 
 and stretched out their hands to the region which they 
 supposed to be the dwelling of the godhead invoked ; 
 thus, they held them upward when praying to one of 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 
 
 329 
 
 the Olympian deities, forward when praying to a sea 
 god, and down to the ground if the prayer was addressed 
 to one of the infernal deities, at the same time trying 
 to attract his attention by stamping on the ground. 
 The commonest position was towards the east ; when 
 ihey prayed in the temple they turned towards the 
 altar and the statue of the god, and sometimes even 
 embraced the altar. In fact, the worship of the temple 
 statues led to a very sensual conception of prayer; 
 they not only threw kisses to the god they were wor- 
 shipping, but even touched or kissed his statue; 
 while suppliants threw themselves on the ground 
 before the temple image, or at any rate knelt down 
 before it. 
 
 In order to ensure the efficacy of the prayer, those 
 who offered it must be free from every bodily and 
 moral taint and, therefore, if necessary, submit to 
 purification. There were a number of occasions 
 which rendered a man unclean and unfit for inter- 
 course with the deity; such were birth and death, 
 which required the purification of all those who 
 had come in contact with the mother or the dead 
 person, not only in order that they might appear un- 
 tainted before the deity, but also to prevent their 
 communicating their impurity to others, and to en- 
 able them once more to enter into intercourse with 
 human beings. Even apart from these special occa- 
 sions it was impossible to tell whether some accidental 
 contact might have produced impurity, and on this 
 account it was usual to precede the act of prayer by 
 washing, or, at any rate, by a symbolical purification, 
 such as sprinkling with holy water. For this purpose 
 a vessel with holy water and a whisk for sprinkling 
 were placed in the entrance of every temple for the 
 use of those who entered the domain ; similar arrange- 
 
330 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 ments were made in private houses, and preference 
 was given to flowing water, especially sea- water, which 
 was supposed to have special purifying power ; for 
 sprinkling they used a branch of some sacred tree, 
 such as laurel. This purification was extended not 
 only to the person of those who approached the 
 divinity, but also to their garments and the utensils 
 used for prayer and sacrifice, as well as the dwelling 
 generally ; consequently, purification by fire and 
 smoke — especially by means of burnt sulphur — 
 played an important part along with the washing. 
 There were also certain plants to which a purifying 
 power was ascribed ; thus, it was customary to hang 
 up a sea-leek over the house door. 
 
 Purification of this kind was, of course, even more 
 necessary when some actual crime, such as a murder, 
 even if an accidental one, had been committed, or any 
 other action performed which would render a man 
 unfit to come into the presence of the deity. In these 
 cases an important part was also played by sacrifices, 
 for it was an ancient belief — found also in the Jewish 
 ritual — that sins could be laid on the victim, and in 
 this way removed from the sinner. Special cere- 
 monies were used on such occasions, such as puri- 
 fication by the blood of swine, since these animals 
 were supposed to have a special lustral power. At 
 Athens it was the custom to sacrifice sucking-pigs 
 before the assembly of the people was held ; the 
 slaughtered animals were carried round the as- 
 sembly, the seats sprinkled with their blood, and 
 the bodies thrown into the sea. On a vase painting 
 representing the purification of Orestes after the 
 murder of his mother, Apollo himself holds a sucking- 
 pig above the head of the murderer ; a similar pro- 
 ceeding is represented by the vase painting Fig. 143, 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 
 
 331 
 
 where the woman who is performing the lustral rites 
 . — probably a priestess — holds in her right hand a 
 sucking-pig, in her left a basket with offerings, while 
 three torches stand on the ground in front of her, 
 the smoke of which also possessed purifying power. 
 Similar ceremonies were observed by those who, 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 according to a very common superstition, regarded 
 themselves as bewitched, or who desired to protect 
 themselves from the injurious influence of philtres 
 or other witchcraft, or else to cure madness, which 
 was traced to the wrath of the infernal gods ; in these 
 cases, Hecate was the goddess to be propitiated, and 
 part of the curious ceremony consisted in carrying 
 about young dogs. 
 
 Next to prayer, the commonest observance was 
 sacrifice. The anthropomorphic conception of the 
 gods induced the Greeks to try to win their favour, 
 
332 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 as they would that of powerful princes, by means of 
 gifts, in the belief that they would be more inclined 
 to fulfil human wishes if they were propitiated by 
 valuable presents. These gifts consisted in dedicatory 
 offerings and also in sacrifices, and these had to be 
 regularly offered in order to preserve the goodwill 
 of the divinities. Generally speaking, any gift offered 
 
 Fig. 144. 
 
 to the god might be regarded as a sacrifice ; but, as 
 a rule, this name was only applied to those offerings 
 which were not to be a lasting possession of the god 
 but were only given for momentary enjoyment, and 
 must, as a rule, be destroyed, generally by means of 
 fire. The idea underlying these sacrifices was the 
 participation of the gods in the material posses- 
 sions of men. The gifts included under the heading 
 of offerings were not all of such a nature as to be 
 destroyed at once ; thus, first-fruits of the field, fruit, 
 jars of cooked lentils, flowers, fillets, and other such 
 things could not be regarded as real gifts, owing to 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 
 
 333 
 
 their transitory nature; and these were merely laid 
 on the altar of the god, or else hung up beside it ; 
 sometimes there was a special table near the altar to 
 receive these gifts. On the vase painting (Fig. 144) a 
 
 Fig. 145. 
 
 table of this kind is represented near the altar; be- 
 hind it we perceive the antiquated statue of Dionysus, 
 on one side stands a woman with a goat destined for 
 sacrifice, and on the right another woman is approach- 
 ing carrying a flat dish, probably containing cakes. 
 The offerings represented in Figs. 145 and 146 were 
 probably also destined for Dionysus. A satyr, carry- 
 ing in his left hand a branch, in his right a dish, 
 probably containing cakes, is approaching an altar, on 
 which similar gifts have already been placed ; on the 
 
334 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 other side, near the table for offerings, on which lie 
 fruit and cakes, a woman, probably a Maenad, is seated, 
 holding in her right hand a branch, in her left a flat 
 basket with little dedicatory offerings. Although 
 these gifts were not immediately destroyed by fire, 
 they were of so transitory a nature that they could 
 not be counted among those destined to be a lasting 
 possession of the gods. The Greeks called these gifts 
 fireless sacrifices. 
 
 Fig. 146. 
 
 Sacrifices were usually divided into two classes 
 — bloody and bloodless. The bloodless seem to be 
 the most ancient ; they consisted chiefly in the first- 
 fruits of the field and cakes, usually made of honey^ 
 which were regarded as a specially welcome gift by 
 some of the gods. Very often cakes were used as a 
 substitute for animals, since poor people, who could 
 not afford the considerable expense of sacrificing real 
 animals, fashioned the dough into the shape of oxen, 
 swine, sheep, goats, geese, etc. In this class we may 
 include smoke offerings. The custom of burning sweet- 
 scented woods and spices probably came to Greece 
 from Asia, where it had long prevailed. At first they 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 335 
 
 made use of tlie products of the country, especially 
 cedar wood ; afterwards frankincense, storax, and other 
 fragrant substances were introduced from foreign 
 countries. These smoke offerings were often connected 
 with animal sacrifices, since grains of incense were cast 
 into the flames of the altar on which the flesh of the 
 animal was burnt, in order to overpower the smell of 
 burning meat. Libations, too, may be included among 
 bloodless sacrifices. Just as the gods required a 
 portion of the food of men, they desired also to share 
 in their drink, for they were supposed to require 
 food and drink as men did. Libations were therefore 
 offered before partaking of wine after a meal, or drink- 
 ing any other draught, and Socrates even wished to 
 ofier some of his hemlock to the gods. On other occa- 
 sions too libations were offered, as for instance before 
 public speeches, on the occasion of sacrifices for the 
 dead, invocation of the gods for especial purposes, etc. 
 The part of the wine or other liquid destined for 
 the god was poured from a flat cup either on to 
 the ground or into the flame of the altar, and words 
 of consecration were spoken meantime. It was most 
 usual to use unmixed wine, but there were some 
 gods to whom no wine might be offered, in particular 
 the Erinnys, the infernal deities, nymphs. Muses, etc. ; 
 to these they dedicated libations of honey, milk, or oil, 
 either separately or mixed together, or with water. 
 On these occasions there were certain fixed ceremonies 
 to be observed, but these were not the same in all parts 
 of Greece. 
 
 There are numerous indications in legends which 
 show that the Greeks were not originally unac- 
 quainted with the custom of human sacrifices; but 
 these are no longer heard of in the historic period, 
 and wherever they had formerly existed their place 
 
336 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 was taken by symbolic actions, or the sacrifice of 
 animals instead of human beings. The commonest 
 victims were animals, and the choice of the par- 
 ticular victim depended on the god to whom the 
 sacrifice was offered. Here, as in the case of the blood- 
 less sacrifices, some gods rejected gifts which were 
 well-pleasing to others, and special animals were offered 
 to particular gods. It is not always easy to trace the 
 origin of this choice, though in some cases it can be 
 done ; thus, for instance, goats were offered to Dionysus 
 because they destroyed the vineyards, and swine to 
 Demeter because they injured the corn-fields. Oxen 
 and sheep were the commonest victims next to goats 
 and swine, and very often several animals were offered 
 in a common sacrifice. Horses were offered to 
 Poseidon and Helios, dogs to Hecate, asses to Apollo, 
 etc. Birds, too, were sacrificed ; for instance, geese, 
 doves, fowls, and, in particular, cocks to Aesculapius. 
 Game and fish were very seldom employed for the 
 purpose, probably because they were not much used 
 for food in ancient times; for in most cases the 
 standard of eating decided which animals should be 
 used, though there were exceptions, too, among the 
 classes already named. 
 
 It was originally the custom to burn the whole 
 animal, with skin and hair, but though this extravagant 
 mode of sacrificing was sometimes in use in later 
 times, it became common to burn only the thigh 
 bones and certain flesh parts of the animal, and to 
 use the rest for a festive banquet. In consequence the 
 number of victims was often calculated according to 
 the number of persons invited to the banquet; in 
 other cases it depended on the importance of the 
 occasion, or the fortune of the sacrificers, and even in 
 historical times it was not unusual for whole commu- 
 
RELIGTOUS WORSHIP. 
 
 337 
 
 nities or very rich private citizens to offer a hecatomb 
 (a sacrifice of a hundred oxen), or even several, on 
 which occasions the sacrifice only supplied the oppor- 
 tunity for entertaining the people on a magnificent 
 scale. As a rule, the animals sacrificed must be sound 
 and healthy in every respect; but at Sparta, which 
 was often reproached with excessive economy in sacri- 
 fices, diseased cattle were sometimes used. There 
 were several other necessary conditions to be observed ; 
 thus, the animals must never have been in the service 
 of man; the ox that drew the plough might not be 
 sacrificed. The sex of the victim generally corre- 
 sponded to that of the deity to whom it was offered. 
 Even the colour was of importance; white animals 
 were usually offered to the gods of light, black to the 
 infernal gods. There do not seem to have been any 
 fixed regulations with regard to age, except that the 
 animals must have attained a certain maturity. 
 
 The ceremony observed at sacrifices was much the 
 same throughout the whole of antiquity, and remained 
 such as it is described by Homer. The victim which 
 had been dedicated to the god, was adorned with 
 wreaths and fillets, and led to the altar by servants or 
 attendants; Homer speaks of gilding the horns of 
 bulls, and this was customary afterwards. If pos- 
 sible, they tried to induce the animal to go forward 
 of its own free will, since violent struggling was re- 
 garded as an unpropitious omen, and sometimes led 
 to the rejection of the victim. It was even customary 
 to require the animal to give a sort of consent, by 
 nodding its head ; this consent of the victim was, of 
 course, produced by artificial means, such as pouring 
 water into the ears, etc. Hereupon all the participants 
 in the solemn action were prepared by sprinkling with 
 holy water, which was sanctified by dipping into it a 
 
338 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 firebrand taken from the altar, and they were exhorted 
 to keep unbroken silence. The actual sacrifice then 
 began by strewing roasted barleycorns, as the oldest 
 food of their ancestors, on the animal, and in token of 
 dedication they cut a bundle of hairs from its fore- 
 head and threw it into the fire, which was already 
 burning on the altar. In heroic ages, the princes, as 
 high priests, themselves killed the animals; afterwards 
 this duty was undertaken by priests or attendants. 
 They gave the animal a blow on its forehead with 
 a club or axe, and then cut its throat with a sacri- 
 ficial knife, and sprinkled the altar with the blood ; 
 in so doing they usually bent the head backwards ; 
 or, if sacrificing to the infernal gods, or the shades 
 of the departed, they pressed it down to the ground. 
 When the victim fell, the women who stood round 
 uttered a low cry, and in the ages after Homer it 
 was very usual to accompany the whole ceremony 
 by the sound of the flute. Experienced attendants 
 then flayed the animals and cut up the bodies, 
 whereupon the parts destined for the gods, espe- 
 cially the thigh bones surrounded with fat, were 
 burnt in the flames of the altar with incense and 
 sacrificial cakes, and at the same time libations were 
 poured out ; the flesh was held in the fire by means of 
 long forks. This is very often represented on ancient 
 works of art. In the vase painting in Fig. 147 we 
 see an altar on which wood appears to be regularly 
 piled up ; parts of the sacrifice are recognised in the 
 flames. An attendant wearing a short garment round 
 his loins kneels in front, holding a piece of flesh in 
 the flames on a long pole or spit ; on his left a man 
 holds a cup for libations, into which a goddess of 
 victory, flying over the altar, pours the liquid ; on the 
 right stands Apollo, with lyre and plectrum. 
 
340 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 The flesh of the animals which was not used for 
 the sacrifice was usually consumed at the feast which 
 followed the ceremony ; this custom was only departed 
 from in the case of sacrifices to the shades of the dead 
 or for purposes of propitiation, and then the flesh 
 which was not burnt was buried or destroyed in some 
 other way, and, in fact, on these occasions many of the 
 ceremonies were of a different kind. 
 
 As a rule, another purpose was combined with 
 the sacrifice ; it was necessary not only to win the 
 favour of the gods, or atone for some crime, but 
 also to discover the will of the gods by interpreta- 
 tion of signs. Although prayer was called for from 
 all men — from labourer as well as from priest — 
 and sacrifices, though usually offered by priests, 
 could also be performed by others, the interpre- 
 tation of omens was an art which depended on 
 ancient traditions and knowledge of ritual, and was 
 almost entirely confined to the priests, though, in the 
 nature of things, it could be undertaken by anyone. 
 This mode of prophecy had existed in various forms 
 since the most ancient times. The commonest, 
 though unknown in the time of Homer, was the 
 examination of the entrails, in which the structure, 
 that is, colour, form, and integrity of the inner parts 
 of the victim, especially the liver, gall, etc., were 
 regarded as of fortunate or unfortunate omen. Some 
 anatomical knowledge of the inner parts of animals 
 was therefore indispensable,, and in consequence it is 
 natural that this branch of knowledge was kept in 
 the hands of the priests. The older kind of pro- 
 phecy described in Homer was of a dilTerent nature, 
 since it depended on all manner of phenomena 
 appearing during the sacrifice ; whether the flame 
 attacked the victim quickly or slowly, whether it 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 
 
 341 
 
 burnt clearly, whether it rose upwards, whether it 
 was not put out until the whole animal was con- 
 sumed, whether the wood crackled loudl}^ what 
 shape was assumed by the ashes of the victim and 
 of the wood, etc. 
 
 Apart from sacrifices, prophecy and divination 
 played a great part in the life and religion of the 
 Greeks. A distinction made by the ancients them- 
 selves was between prophecy by art and without art. 
 Prophecy without art was regarded as inspiration 
 of a human being by the divine spirit, and was not 
 dependent on external signs or on the interpretation 
 of an experienced person. There were three kinds: 
 ecstasy, in which the gift of prophecy was com- 
 municated to a human being without his own assist- 
 ance by divine strength and power ; dreams, in which 
 the gods revealed directly to men their will or coming 
 events ; and thirdly, the oracles, which were of a 
 somewhat different character, being connected with 
 professional prophecy. They were also regarded as 
 direct revelations of the will of the god, so the mode 
 in which this was expressed differed a good deal 
 according to the various oracles ; but the questioner 
 was not immediately inspired, as in ecstasy and 
 dreams, but required a mediator, one who was alone 
 able to interpret the revelations of the gods. 
 
 Of these three classes, the least important during 
 the historic period is ecstasy ; the seers in the real 
 sense of the word, whom we so often meet with in 
 legends, had no importance later on. The second 
 kind, the dream oracle, is of for greater importance. 
 The idea that dreams were communications from the 
 gods, no less than other oracles and signs, was so 
 universally adopted that it not only took firm root in 
 the popular belief, but was shared by educated men, 
 
342 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 even by those who had more or less discarded the 
 old belief in the gods. The ancient writers give us 
 numerous accounts of portentous dreams; unlucky 
 dreams were averted by religious ceremonies, sacri- 
 fices to the gods who could turn away ill fortune, 
 sprinkling with holy water, etc. It was usual to pray 
 for prophetic dreams, and, as we have already seen, 
 these were specially produced by sleeping in the 
 temple of Aesculapius, though they often required 
 interpretation afterwards at the hands of the priests. 
 It is a very old belief that dreams reveal the will of 
 the gods, not directly and immediately, but in the 
 form of parables or images, which require special 
 comprehension and secret knowledge, and thus the 
 interpretation of dreams became an especial art, 
 which led to a whole literature of dream-books 
 (remains of which have been preserved to us ; in 
 particular the dream-book of Artemidorus, dating 
 from the second century A.D.), and to the profession 
 of interpreters, who, although not held in especial 
 honour, were yet greatly sought after by all classes 
 of the community. 
 
 The influenjce of the oracles was even more im- 
 portant. In Greece and Asia Minor there were several 
 hundred places where oracles were given ; this much 
 is common to all of them, that it was not a divinely- 
 inspired human being, but the god himself who 
 announced his will by special tokens, while the 
 priests were only the interpreters of the god's will; 
 the signs and methods of interpretation difiered con- 
 siderably. The oracles of Apollo were far the most 
 celebrated, since he was specially the god of prophecy; 
 among these, the oracle of Delphi surpassed all others 
 in importance. Here the medium through which 
 the god revealed his will to mankind was the holy 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 
 
 343 
 
 priestess called Pythia ; a vapour which rose from a 
 cleft in the earth p:»-oduced ecstasy in the Pythia, 
 who had previously puritled herself by chewing laurel 
 leaves and drinking from the sacred spring, and clad 
 in rich garments with a golden head-dress, long 
 flowing robes, and buskins, and had taken her place 
 on a tripod over the cleft. In this condition she 
 uttered the oracles, which were, as a rule, incompre- 
 hensible to ordinary people. It was then the duty of 
 the priests who were present during the ecstasy with 
 the questioners, to discover the real meaning and 
 sense of the senseless sounds, and arrange the answer 
 in poetic form, usually in hexameters, which were, as 
 a rule, cunningly arranged so as to have a two-fold 
 meaning. At first this took place only once a year, 
 but when the reputation of the oracle increased, and 
 thousands of people came every year to Delphi, or 
 sent messengers with questions to the temple, it 
 became the custom to supply answers all the year 
 round, and, in consequence of the great numbers, 
 two Pythiae had to mount the tripod alternately, 
 while a third was at hand to take their place occa- 
 sionally. Only a few days in the year were regarded 
 as unlucky, and then no oracles were given. At the 
 time of the Empire, when the influence of the Delphic 
 oracle had considerably diminished, it was only ac- 
 cessible once a year. The order in which the sup- 
 pliants were to enter was generally decided by lot; 
 in some few cases it may have been determined by 
 rank. Prayer and sacrifice of course preceded the 
 sacred ceremony ; goats were chiefly offered, because, 
 according to the legends, the discovery of this 
 miraculous vapour was due to a goat. 
 
 At the other oracles of Apollo the proceedings 
 were different: at Hysiae, in Boeotia, the prophet 
 
344 
 
 OREElt LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 sought his inspiration in a well; at Argos, in the 
 blood of a victim ; at the Clarian temple of Apollo, at 
 Colophon, a priest descended into the sacred cave 
 and drank holy water, whereupon the gift of prophecy 
 was granted to him ; at the sanctuary of the Bran- 
 chidae, at Didymae, near Miletus, the oracles were 
 given by a priestess, who moistened the hem of her 
 garment and her feet at a well, and then let the 
 rising vapour act upon her. At other oracles the god 
 revealed his will or the events of the future by 
 signs instead of words, which the priest then had 
 to interpret. This was the case with the oldest 
 and most sacred of all the Greek oracles — that of 
 Zeus, at Dodona in Epirus. These signs were of 
 various kinds : sometimes it was the rustling of 
 the branches in the sacred oak, sometimes the mur- 
 muring of the spring at its foot, sometimes the sound 
 given by a brass bowl. The excavations lately under- 
 taken at Dodona have supplied some information about 
 the nature and variety of the questions, though not 
 about the mode in which the oracle was given. Those 
 who desired an oracular answer had to hand in their 
 question in writing, usually on a tablet of lead, on 
 which it was scratched. This was laid in a vessel and 
 placed in the sanctuary, so that the priestess might 
 learn what the question was; the answer was then 
 given on a similar tablet, sometimes the same on 
 which the question had been written. The examples 
 found of these tablets show that these questions were 
 not always of political import, and sent by whole com- 
 munities or princes, but that even private affairs were 
 sometimes made the subject of a question. Thus, on 
 the tablet represented in Fig. 148, a certain Lysanias 
 inquires whether the child which his wife is about to 
 bear him is really his own ; another inquires whether 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 
 
 S45 
 
 it would be profitable for him to rear sheep ; a third 
 asks who has stolen the cushions he has lost. These 
 questions on leaden tablets were also in use at other 
 places. At the oracle 
 of ApoUo-Coropaeus, in 
 the Peninsula Magnesia, 
 in Thessaly, the ques- 
 tioners had to give 
 their names to the 
 temple scribe to be 
 written on the tablet; 
 they were then called 
 in turn and conducted 
 to the sanctuary, where 
 the leaden tablets were 
 handed them. On these 
 they wrote their ques- 
 tions ; the tablets were 
 then collected and 
 placed in a vessel, which 
 was sealed with the 
 official seal of the tem- 
 poral and spiritual 
 officials, and left for 
 the night in the sanc- 
 tuary. Next morning 
 the seals were broken, 
 the names of the ques- 
 tioners called according 
 to the list, and the 
 tablets given back with 
 the answers. Among 
 oracles we must mention that of Zeus Ammon, in the 
 Libyan Desert, which enjoyed a great reputation in 
 Greece even in early times j that of Zeus Trophonius, 
 
346 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 at Lebadia, in Boeotia ; that of Ampliiaraus, at Oropus, 
 which last was induded among the dream oracles, since 
 the mediation of the priests was not required here, and 
 the questioners received their revelation direct from 
 the god. It would be impossible to enumerate all the 
 oracles and the customs observed there ; throughout 
 the whole of Greek antiquity they played a very 
 important part in the life of the nation and the in- 
 dividual, and were often decisive in political matters, 
 as well as in trivial details of daily life. 
 
 Of no less importance than the modes of prophecy 
 already mentioned are those which may be called pro- 
 fessional, and which did not depend on a direct 
 revelation of the will of the god, so much as on the 
 observation and interpretation of certain apparently 
 fortuitous signs, which were, however, supposed to 
 proceed from the divinity. Of course, many oracles 
 were very closely connected with these professional 
 prophecies. Here, too, we may distinguish several 
 different kinds. In the first place, there is interpre- 
 tation of signs which appear though unsought for. 
 The number of these is, of course, countless, since the 
 whole realm of nature and life affords scope for them. 
 Signs of the sky, atmospheric phenomena, change in 
 the course of rivers, earthquakes, clefts in the ground, 
 abnormal births, all which are frequently mentioned 
 in ancient history, may be included in this class, as 
 also the flight of birds, to which particular attention 
 was given, though the proceedings of other animals 
 were also watched, or the mere fact of their appear- 
 ance was supposed to announce good or evil fortune. 
 Then there were phenomena relating to human beings, 
 such as sneezing, singing in the ears, words spoken 
 by chance, etc., and the place where these things 
 occur is of great importance, as, for instance, whether 
 
RELIGIOUS WORSHIP. 
 
 347 
 
 on the right or the left hand. The second class of 
 professional prophecy is that in which man seeks for 
 the signs and calls upon the god to grant him a token 
 of his presence and will. In this class we may include 
 prophecy from sacrifice and also some of the oracles, 
 but in particular the private oracles — if we may use 
 this expression — by means of which individuals pro- 
 cured signs by any means whatever, and either in- 
 terpreted them themselves or got some skilled prophet 
 to do it for them. This closely resembles our modern 
 fashion of telling fortunes from cards, and in these 
 cases it was not usually a priest, but some cheat or 
 conjurer who interpreted the prophecy ; thus dice and 
 sieves were used for prophesying, and fortunes were 
 told from physiognomy, or the lines of the hand, as 
 they still are at the present day. 
 
 The interpreters of prophecy and signs, whether 
 belonging to the class of priests or laymen, naturally 
 represented their art as coming direct from the gods, 
 and loved to envelop it in the veil of mystery, though 
 in other respects Greek religion aimed at publicity 
 and universal comprehension. There were, however, 
 some ceremonies which were closelv concealed from 
 the world without ; and those who took part in them 
 were required to observe absolute secrecy, and were 
 subject to a gradual initiation, passing through several 
 stages before they attained the final one. We refer to 
 the mysteries which were universally known through^ 
 out Greece, and, owing to the great number of those 
 who sought initiation, played an important part in the 
 life of the ancient Greeks. Our knowledge of these 
 secret doctrines is very small, as is natural under the 
 circumstances, and, consequently, the most recent in- 
 vestigations have led to very different hypotheses. 
 Still, the latest discoveries enable us to feel sure that 
 
GREEK LIFE AT IIOME. 
 
 these mysteries were not, as was formerly supposed, 
 remains of ancient revealed wisdom containing purer 
 and better doctrines than were known to the 
 popular religion ; nor were they, as Voss supposes, 
 merely priestly trickery. They represented the 
 religious myths, and their form corresponded to 
 the ordinary religious worship ; the mystery was due 
 simply to the fact that in the myth the symbolic 
 and allegorical elements prevailed, and in the worship 
 the purifications and expiations had a specially im- 
 portant place ; while the other ceremonies connected 
 therewith, such as sacrifices, signs, dances, etc., bore a 
 strongly orgiastic and ecstatic character. There were 
 also dramatic or pantomimic representations of the 
 mythical actions, and a great number of artistic and 
 decorative means were used to dispose the mind of 
 the initiated to a condition suited for solemn and 
 mysterious doctrines. There were no really deep 
 secrets hidden behind these mysteries, which were 
 so numerous that almost each god had his own ; and 
 indeed, the initiation was not a difficult one, and was 
 open to every free and blameless Greek. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 The Olympic Festival — The Gymnastic and Equestrian Contests— 
 The Hippodrome — The Judges — The Preliminary Ceremonies — 
 The Course of the Festival— Honours to the Victors— The Delphic 
 Festival and Pythian Games — The Isthmian and Nemean Games 
 — The Athenian Festivals — The Festivals of Dionysus. 
 
 In ancient and in modern times alike it has been 
 usual to connect public festivals with some religious 
 observance, even though the actual occasion might be 
 the celebration of the change of the seasons or some 
 resrular event connected with as^riculture. Greek 
 worship was naturally of a cheerful nature. The 
 sacrifices were usually followed by banquets, which 
 communicated a festive character to an act of worship, 
 and this was often accompanied by singing and 
 dancing, sometimes of a serious and solemn nature, 
 at other times lively and cheerful. As a rule, sacri- 
 fices to the heavenly deities were offered early in the 
 day, but the banquet did not take place till the after- 
 noon, and thus opportunity was afforded for de- 
 voting the interval to entertainments, among Avhich, 
 along with song and dance, dramatic and gymnastic 
 performances soon began to occupy a place, and 
 gradually to assume the character of regular com- 
 petitions. Sacrifices to the infernal deities took place 
 in the afternoon or evening, and were, in consequence, 
 followed by a festival at night, which often degenerated 
 into a wild orgy. These festivities, which were partly 
 connected with the worship and partly celebrated for 
 their own sake or connected with ancient national 
 
350 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 games, were at first a natural consequence of the 
 religious ceremonies and the manner in which a 
 nation of the cheerful disposition of the Greeks would 
 celebrate them. But as these performances and 
 festivities came to be more closely connected with the 
 religious festivals, they gradually became an integral 
 part of them, and were no longer left to the arbitrary 
 disposition of the persons concerned, but were taken 
 in hand by the state or community, and subject to 
 regular arrangement. 
 
 The entertainments most commonly added to the 
 religious ceremonies at the festivals were, in the first 
 place, those of a musical character, partly vocal, partly 
 instrumental, or a combination of both ; in the second, 
 dances, both choric and pantomimic, lastly scenic repre- 
 sentations, gymnastic contests, processions, national 
 games, etc. Among these the musical, choregraphic, 
 scenic, and gymnastic representations were first 
 raised to the dignity of regular competitions. Of 
 course, different festivals were celebrated in different 
 ways ; apart from local differences, the very character 
 of the divinity in whose honour the festival was held, 
 and the different phases of the legend, necessitated 
 differences in the mode of celebration and in the 
 regulation of those who were to take part in them ; 
 thus some festivals were celebrated by both sexes 
 together, and others by only one, to the exclusion of 
 the other. In one point, especially, the Hellenic 
 differed from our modern Christian festivals. It is 
 a natural consequence of the Christian religion that 
 the great festivals are celebrated at the same time by 
 all believers in all parts of the civilised world, while 
 the Greek religion knew of no such religious festivals 
 common to all Hellenic tribes. There were a number 
 of national festivals which were of equal importance 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALa 
 
 351 
 
 to all Greeks; but these were not celebrated simul- 
 taneously throughout the country, but only at one speci- 
 ally appointed place, to which spectators came from all 
 parts, and which thus provided an opportunity for 
 great national meetings recurring at regular intervals. 
 In consequence of the decentralisation of the country, 
 these provided the only means of awakening and 
 maintaining national feeling among the Greeks. 
 Other festivals were peculiar to particular countries, 
 or even to towns or communities ; the differences 
 existing in Greek belief, which are often closely con- 
 nected with national traditions and racial peculiarities, 
 were also marked in the act of worship. Even those 
 regular festivals which were celebrated alike in most 
 of the Greek states were not all held on the same 
 day, but at different times, which was probably 
 due to the fact that Greek antiquity was acquainted 
 with no common calendar. The proceedings at these 
 festivals also differed greatly according to the place. 
 We know very little "about the majority; most 
 details have come down to us concerning the Attic 
 calendar and the customs in use there, though even 
 here our knowledge is very incomplete. The great 
 Hellenic national festivals, which were celebrated at 
 Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and on the isthmus of 
 Corinth, will first claim our attention. 
 
 Of these the Olympic festival is the oldest, at any 
 rate as regards its national importance. The festival 
 and the games celebrated there existed long before 
 the year 776 B.C., after which its regular recurrence 
 was used for expressing the date of the year ; still, it 
 is only from this time onward that we can regard it 
 as a really national festival. The Pythians did not 
 begin to calculate by their games till the year 586, 
 the Isthmians in 582, and the Nemeans in 573. The 
 
352 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Olympic and Pythian festivals recurred every four 
 years, the other two every two years ; the Olympic 
 festivals always took place at the first full moon of 
 the summer solstice, the Pythian in the autumn of 
 the third year of an Olympiad ; we cannot determine 
 the exact period of the others, and only know that the 
 Isthmian games were held at midsummer, and the 
 Nemean alternately in winter and in summer. The 
 main features of all, next to the usual acts of worship, 
 such as prayer, sacrifices, etc., was the gymnastic con- 
 tests connected with them. All four had attained so 
 great a reputation even beyond the frontiers of their 
 narrow home that most of the Greek states took part 
 in them by means of official embassies (Oecopiai) and 
 numbers of spectators came from a distance, and a great 
 market was held there in consequence. This universal 
 interest taken in the festivals gave them a character of 
 inviolability, so that they were able to continue even in 
 time of war, since there was always a truce as long as 
 the games lasted, and all who took part in them were 
 allowed to travel undisturbed, as soon as the heralds 
 of peace had announced the beginning of the sacred 
 month, first in their own state, and afterwards in that 
 of all the Greeks who took part in the contests. We 
 possess far more details concerning the Olympic 
 festival than any other, and, in fact, it exceeded them 
 all in importance. The games constituted the most 
 important part, and it was for their sake that spec- 
 tators came from most distant parts of the ancient 
 world to the plain of the Alpheus ; and, indeed, the 
 myth concerning the origin of the festival is inti- 
 mately connected with these games. Every free-born 
 Greek was allowed to take part in them. Barbarians 
 were strictly, rejected, at any rate in the best period of 
 the Olympic festival, and it was not till the time of 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 353 
 
 the Roman Empire, when its glory had long departed, 
 that this practice was abandoned. They also ex- 
 cluded all who had committed murder or any other 
 great crime, or forfeited the rights of citizenship, 
 and before the beginning of the contest a strict exami- 
 nation was held into the claims of all who desired to 
 take part. At first only youths and men were ad- 
 mitted; from 632 onwards boys were allowed to 
 contend, at any rate in some of the sports. We hear 
 of women taking part or being victors in the Olympic 
 games, but this does not mean that they appeared in 
 person ; in the chariot races and riding it was not the 
 custom for the owner of a horse to drive or ride, and 
 thus rich women who were interested in the training 
 of horses could let them run at the Olympic games ; 
 and since it was not the charioteer or rider, but the 
 trainer and owner of the horses who was crowned, 
 they might thus obtain the prize. 
 
 The contests at Olympia were of a gymnastic or 
 equestrian nature ; musical contests were excluded. 
 But the perfect development of gymnastics as 
 shown at the Olympic competitions only took 
 place very gradually. At first the contests consisted 
 only in running, and this was the case for the first 
 thirty Olympiads after the time when the counting 
 began. Then the double-course was introduced, and 
 soon afterwards the long course (724 B.C.). In the 
 year 708 the pentathlon was added, and thus the most 
 important sports — -jumping, throwing the spear and 
 quoit, and wrestling — were introduced, along with 
 running, and henceforward were regarded as among the. 
 most attractive parts of the whole contest. In 688 a 
 boxing-match was added ; in 680, chariot races with 
 four full-grown horses ; in 648, riding races and the 
 pancration. No more contests were added; further 
 
 M 
 
354 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 changes were only slight modifications, such as the 
 admission of boys, who at first took part only in the 
 running and wrestling, then for a short time in the . 
 pentathlon, and afterwards in the boxing-match, and 
 only in very late times (200 B.c.) in the pancration. 
 In the year 520 the race in full panoply was intro- 
 duced, and in 408 the chariot race with two horses. 
 Attempts were made to introduce mules and mares, 
 but these were soon abandoned ; colts were, however, 
 introduced for the contest with four and two horses, 
 and also for riding. It was natural that when there 
 was so large a number of events they could not all, 
 as at first, take place on one day; and, indeed, it 
 would hardly have been worth the journey from such 
 great distances. From time to time, as new sports 
 were added, another day was given to the festival, 
 so that when the number was complete it generally 
 lasted for five days, divided in such a way that the 
 three intermediate days were devoted to the contests, 
 the first and last to the public and private sacrifices, 
 processions and banquets. 
 
 The gymnastic contests have been already dis- 
 cussed in a previous section ; we must give some 
 details here about the equestrian competitions, among 
 which racing with four-horse chariots was always 
 regarded as one of the most splendid. They employed 
 for the purpose the light two-wheeled chariots used in 
 battle in the heroic age ; these had, as a rule, wheels 
 with four spokes, and the car was open at the back 
 and closed in a semicircular shape in front, with two 
 bent hoops turned back behind, which were used to 
 catch hold of in jumping up. (Compare the vase 
 painting, Fig. 149.) Here we see the preparations 
 for driving; the charioteer, clad in a long garment 
 according to ancient custom, stands behind the two 
 
356 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 horses, which are yoked to the chariot, and seems 
 about to complete the arrangement of the harness, 
 while an attendant in a short garment is helping him ; 
 another attendant leads a third horse, which is 
 probably also to be yoked to the chariot ; while 
 the owner holds in his hand the reins and the goad 
 with which to urge on the horses. The usual plan 
 was to fasten the middle horse to a yoke at the end 
 of the pole which is raised in front, while the outer 
 horses were connected with ropes at either side, 
 fastened to a ring in front of the chariot. The reins 
 were all drawn through a ring or loop at the top 
 of the pole, and the pin on to which this ring was 
 fastened was connected with a vertical rod in front of 
 the chariot by a line drawn very tight, the object of 
 which is not clear ; perhaps it was to establish equi- 
 librium between the car, which was drawn backwards 
 by the weight of the driver, and the forward pressure 
 given to the pole by the pull of the horses. This 
 picture aLsc shows other details of harnessing, the 
 bridle, etc. 
 
 The races took place in the Hippodrome ; but the 
 one at Olympia is completely destroj^ed, and all the 
 knowledge we possess of its situation is due to Pau- 
 sanias, who gives us no information concerning the 
 length of the course to be run twice by full-grown 
 horses. However, he supplies a detailed description 
 of the starting places, which were very complicated, 
 since no competitor must have an advantage over 
 another by starting earlier or having a shorter piece 
 of ground to cover. For this purpose the two long 
 sides of the Hippodrome were of unequal length, and 
 the one at the end of which were the goal and the 
 seats of the judges was rather shorter than the other ; 
 the stands for the chariots were not in a straight line, 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 357 
 
 but in the form of the segment of a circle. The ropes, 
 which prevented the chariots from starting before 
 theappoin ted time, did not all drop at the same moment, 
 but one after another in such a way that the chariots 
 started first from the more distant stands, and reached a 
 given point at the same time as those from the nearer 
 stands, which started a few seconds later, so that the 
 racing began at this place under equal conditions. The 
 signal was given by the sound of trumpets, and also 
 by some ingenious mechanism which caused a bronze 
 dolphin on an elevated place at the beginning of the 
 course to fall, while an eagle, which till then had 
 rested on an altar, rose into the air with extended 
 wings. At this sign the barriers fell, and the chariots 
 started in the appointed order over the longer side of 
 the course, and then, turning back, returned by the 
 shorter side. This was the exciting contest which 
 has been so magnificently described by Homer in his 
 account of the funeral games in honour of Patrochis, 
 and by Sophocles in the "Electra.' The victor 
 who first reached the goal, near which sat the 
 umpires, received the much-coveted reward of a 
 wreath ; but even the nexi «jeems to have had some 
 distinction or, at any rate, an honourable mention. 
 
 Racing with four full-grown horses was always 
 most popular, but there were also races with two- 
 horse chariots and with colts. AfterAvards, when 
 riding races came into fashion, they became extremely 
 popular, although they never attained the great im- 
 portance claimed by the chariot races in the 
 Olympic games. In both contests it was the trainer 
 of the horse who was regarded as victor, and though it 
 sometimes happened that the owner or his son drove 
 or rode himself, yet it was more commonly done 
 by strangers, very often by professional charioteers 
 
858 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 and riders hired for the purpose, Kke our jockeys 
 of the present day. Instead of the wreath, which 
 was not allotted to them, they received a fillet as 
 a token of victory. 
 
 The judges (EWavohUai) were appointed by the 
 Elians, on whose territory the games took place. Their 
 number varied in the course of years. At first, in 
 576 B.C., two citizens were chosen by lot to arrange 
 and superintend the contests; but a hundred years 
 later there were nine judges appointed, three for the 
 equestrian contests, three for the pentathlon, and 
 three for the rest of the sports ; to these nine a tenth 
 was soon added, then for a short time the number 
 was reduced to eight, and afterwards once more in- 
 creased to ten, which remained the appointed number. 
 They were chosen by lot even in later times. As their 
 decisions were of extreme importance, it was regarded 
 as no small matter to undertake this responsible office ; 
 in fact, the judges had to be trained in a special build- 
 ing in the market-place of Elis, in the arcades of 
 which they spent the greater part of the day for ten 
 months, to be instructed in their duties by the 
 guardians of the laws {vofjLO(f)v\aK€<;), and in particular 
 to acquire an accurate knowledge of gymnastic rules. 
 When the time of the games arrived, they took a 
 solemn oath in the court-house at Olympia, before 
 the altar of Zeus Herkeios; their period of office 
 extended only over a single festival. 
 
 Their duties were to make the arrangements for 
 the contests, and all the festivals connected therewith ; 
 to examine the competitors as to their right to enter ; 
 to superintend the training of the athletes and their 
 teachers in the gymnasium ; to see that the athletes 
 really entered for the contests which they had chosen, 
 and that every thing was done according to established 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 359 
 
 custom, and the laws of the games were in no way 
 broken; for this purpose they also had disciplinary 
 power, and a right to impose considerable fines, and 
 even sometimes inflict corporal punishment. Finally, 
 in case of uncertainty, they had to give judgment about 
 the victory, if necessary, by a majority of votes. A 
 combatant who was not satisfied could appeal against 
 their decision to the council {^ovXrj) of Olympia, but 
 he could not afterwards be pronounced victor ; the 
 most he could obtain, should it appear that the judges 
 were in the wrong, was their condemnation to pay a 
 fine. Under the judges were officials who helped to 
 maintain order and carry out their ordinances; and 
 all the attendants present — and this must have been 
 a considerable number, owing to the great concourse 
 of spectators and combatants — were under their 
 orders. 
 
 We can form some general idea of the succession 
 of events and the arrangement of festivities during 
 the five days of the festival, although we are 
 not fully acquainted with all the details. A pre- 
 liminary ceremony was the entrance of the embassies 
 from the various Hellenic states. All the states con- 
 sidered it a matter of importance to send their repre- 
 sentatives equipped with as much splendour as possible, 
 and therefore the richest people were always chosen 
 for the purpose. Since a great deal of splendour was 
 shown by these delegates at the festive processions 
 with their chariots and horses, their magnificent 
 utensils, etc., they probably held a grand entry on 
 their arrival, and thus the spectators, at the very 
 beginning of the festival, were able to gratify their 
 love of fine sights. No doubt the whole proceeding 
 began with a sacrifice to Zeus, in whose honour the 
 games were held, and who was regarded as their 
 
S60 
 
 GtlEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 director. Next, the umpires, the athletes who entered 
 for the contests, and the trainers who had come with 
 them, took a solemn oath in the court-house at 
 Olympia. After a swine had been sacrificed, the 
 competitors had to swear that they posses!;;ed the full 
 rights of citizens, that they had fulfilled all the con- 
 ditions which were necessary for admission, and were 
 ready to submit to the regulati'.>ns. In spite of this 
 oath, an examination into their claims took place ; it 
 was not only necessary to prove the right of citizen- 
 ship, but also the appointed training for the contests 
 by the athletic diet already described, and on this 
 account the presence of the trainers was desirable, if 
 not indispensable, at the examination and oath. The 
 horses for the races were also examined. It is un- 
 certain whether the lots to determine the groups of 
 competitors were drawn on this first day. The draw- 
 ing was preceded by a prayer to Zeus Moiragetes, 
 the Director of Destiny ; then the charioteers drew lots 
 for their places at starting, and the others for their 
 order of entry. The runners were divided into groups, 
 probably of four ; the lot decided the order in which 
 they were to follow one another ; and the victors in 
 these races had then to run once more for the prize. 
 This however was probably only the case with the 
 single and double course, since it is not likely that 
 there were so many competitors for the more difiicult 
 long course and the race in full panoply. Wrestlers, 
 boxers, and pancratiasts drew lots from an urn, in 
 which small lots, of which a pair was marked with 
 the same letters, were thrown ; each competitor drew 
 out one. Those who drew the same letters had to 
 fight together ; the victors then fought afresh. If there 
 were more than two victors, they probably drew lots 
 again in the same way. At last there was only one pair 
 
I'tTBLlC FESTIVALS. 
 
 361 
 
 left, of which one was victor in the whole contest. It 
 sometimes happened that when these lots were drawn 
 the number of combatants was unequal, and thus one 
 was left without an opponent. He was called the 
 third combatant (e</)^Spo9), and it was a very lucky 
 thing to draw this lot. Of course, it would be a very 
 unusual piece of luck for one person to be third com- 
 batant at all the drawings, and thus be able at last to 
 meet, with his strength unbroken, un opponent who 
 would have sustained many contests already ; still, to 
 draw this lot even once was to have a distinct ad- 
 vantage. There was, of course, a certain amount of 
 unfairness connected with it, but they seem to have 
 found no other way out of the dilemma ; still, in most 
 cases, when the victors and the third combatant 
 drew afresh, it might be left to chance to see that one 
 person was not too highly favoured. Sometimes a 
 competitor was lucky enough to obtain a wreath 
 without any contest at all ; for instance, if only two 
 had entered for a particular contest, and one of them 
 did not appear in time or abandoned the fight. Many 
 celebrated athletes could obtain a prize thus by the 
 mere terror of their names. 
 
 The gymnastic and equestrian competitions con- 
 tinued from the second to the fourth day; probably 
 the boys contended on the second, the men on the 
 third and fourth days. We know little about the 
 order of events ; still, it is probable that on the third 
 da)'- the racing took place first, and in this order — 
 long, single, and double course, then wrestling, boxing, 
 t^^nd pane ration; on the fourth day the equestrian 
 contests, the pentathlon, and, last of all, the race in 
 ! all panoply. There would then be several changes of 
 I cality, since the eques-trian contests took place hi 
 the Hippodrome; the races, pentathlon, and other 
 
362 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME 
 
 gymnastic sports in the Stadium. Ti ere was, of course, 
 a gymnasium at Olympia, but this could not contain 
 the multitude of spectators as well as the Stadium, 
 and, therefore, the wrestling school and gymnasium at 
 Olympia were used exclusively for the proTious train- 
 ing of the competitors who came there for the contests. 
 On the last day the prizes were distributed. The prize, 
 as is well known, was the simplest possible — a mere 
 wreath of olive, which a boy, both whose parents 
 must be alive, according to the old tradition, cut 
 with a golden knife from a wild olive tree in the 
 Grove of xiltis. Another outward token of victory was 
 the palm branch granted to the victor, and, in con- 
 sequence, the palm as a token of victory often appears 
 in the statues of the Olympic conquerors. In olden 
 times the wreaths to be distributed were placed on a 
 brazen tripod ; but Kolotes, a pupil of Pheidias, con- 
 structed a magnificent table of gold and ivory for the 
 purpose, which was usually kept in the temple of Hera. 
 It was the duty of one of the judges to crown the head 
 of the victor with the wreath after it had been previously 
 surrounded by a woollen fillet. During this solemn 
 act the herald announced the name of the victor, 
 as well as of his father and his native city. The 
 importance attributed by the ancients to the victory 
 in the Olympic games was such that this proud 
 moment, when the victor received his reward amid 
 tho applause of the whole people, and, as it were, 
 before the eyes of all Greece, was a sufficient com- 
 pensation for all the troubles and difficulties involved 
 in the preparation for the contest. Still, there were 
 many other honours which fell to his lot, both in 
 Olympia and at home in his own country. 
 
 After the name of the victor had been announced, 
 sacrifices and banquets took place. It is not certain 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 363 
 
 whether the great sacrifice of the EHans, a hecatomb 
 offered to Zeus as the supreme director of the contests, 
 took place at the conclusion of the festival, or at the 
 beginning ; in any case, numerous sacrifices of thanks- 
 giving were offered by the victors and also by the 
 delegates sent from other states. Very orten the 
 victor's sacrifice was combined with that of his country- 
 men; for the state to which the conqueror belonged 
 considered itself honoured by his victory, and it was 
 the duty of the delegates to exhibit as much splendour 
 as possible at the sacrifice as well as at the procession 
 connected with it. These solemn processions, which 
 made the last day of the feast a specially magnificent 
 one, were accompanied by flutes and citharas, and, 
 perhaps, also by the singing of choruses. They probably 
 marched at first round the altars, while the flames of 
 the sacrifices were burning on them, and afterwards 
 touched at all the sacred places near the holy Altis. 
 
 In the afternoon a great banquet, given by the 
 Elians to the victors, united them all in the town hall 
 {irpvTavetov)\ but even this was not the end of the 
 festivities, for feasting continued in the evening and 
 far into the night at entertainments given by the 
 victors to their relations and friends, who had hurried 
 to the spot. These were more or less magnificent 
 according to the means of the givers, though some- 
 times the state to which they belonged bore a part 
 of the expenses These festive gatherings were also 
 honoured by music and song, and it was on these 
 occasions that the songs of victory {eTrivUta), specially 
 composed in praise of the victor and his family^ were 
 often sung, along with old songs, supposing it to have 
 been possible in this short interval to write, compose, 
 and study one of these hymns of victory. Most of the 
 odes, especially those of Pindar, which have come down 
 
364 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME, 
 
 to US, were not performed on these occasions, but at 
 the festivities held in honour of the victor in his own 
 country, which were often celebrated there from year 
 to year. 
 
 Herewith the oflficial programme of the festivities 
 came to an end, but there was no lack of further 
 entertainment; for the opportunity of appearing 
 before so great a number of their countrymen, and 
 thus attaining sudden fame, was a very attractive 
 one for poets and writers, who in those days were 
 little assisted by the bookselling trade. The custom 
 of holding lectures or reciting poems before the 
 assembled people originated in the 5th century, 
 when it is said to have been introduced by Herodotus, 
 who read aloud a portion of his history at Olympia, 
 though this story is not entirely removed from doubt. 
 It is, however, a fact that from that time onwards 
 recitations of this kind became commoner; thus 
 Gorgias the Sophist, and Hippias the Elian, held 
 long discourses here; and similarly, Prodicus and 
 Anaximenes, Lysias, Isocrates, etc., lectured at 
 Olympia; and in later times this was a frequent 
 occurrence. Occasionally, though less often, works 
 of art were here exposed to view; thus, a painter, 
 Aetion, exhibited his picture of the marriage of Alex- 
 ander the Great and Koxana, and the astronomer, 
 Oinopides, of Chios, exhibited a brass tablet which 
 was to explain a new method of calculating the 
 time, discovered by him. This last, however, turned 
 out a failure. The publicity of the Olympic festival 
 was also used in other ways. Important decrees 
 relating to solemn pledges, treaties among states, 
 mutual acknowledgment of meritorious actions, de- 
 cisions to confer crowns, or other matters of import- 
 ance, which it was desirable to bring into universal 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 865 
 
 notice as soon as possible, were proclaimed by the 
 solemn voice of the her^ild and then graven in 
 bronze or stone^ and set up in the Altis. 
 
 Every free man might be present at the contests 
 and other festivities, provided his means permitted 
 him to defray the expenses of the journey and of 
 a stay in the festive city. Naturally the greater 
 number of the spectators came from the neigh- 
 bouring states of the Peloponnesus ; but, still, many 
 came very long distances. So great was the 
 interest roused by these contests that people from 
 all classes came to view them ; and even men of the 
 highest intellectual eminence took pleasure in them. 
 Statesmen and generals, such as Themistocles, Cimon, 
 Philopoemen; philosophers, such as Thales, Chiron, 
 Pythagoras, Socrates, Plato ; orators, such as Gorgias, 
 Lysias, Demosthenes ; poets, such as Pindar, Simon- 
 ides, were among the spectators ; and though 
 some of the poets, especially Euripides, and philo- 
 sophers were inclined to criticise rather, severely the 
 value of the performances at Olympia, yet these 
 were but isolated opinions, and in no way tended to 
 diminish the popularity of the games or the glory of 
 the victors in the eyes of the general public. This 
 interest was revealed by the endurance with which 
 the spectators continued to watch the games, in spite 
 of the fact that they took place in the very hottest 
 season, and lasted for the greater part of the day; 
 from early morning, wheti they went to the Stadium 
 in order to secure a good place^ till late in the after- 
 noon, when the decision was given, they watched and 
 endured the heat, dust, crowding, and thirst, either 
 standing or squatting, according as space permitted, 
 with that patience and endurance of which only the 
 people of the south are capable. No doubt there 
 
366 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 were noisy expressions of sympathy during the 
 contests, encouraging or mocking cries, applause 
 and sounds of sorrow, since all feelings are ex- 
 pressed in a violent manner by southern nations. 
 Women were not allowed to be present at the games. 
 The statement that the maidens of Elis were an ex- 
 ception to this rule is scarcely credible. Those 
 women or girls who had come to the festival to 
 accompany competing husbands, sons, or brothers, 
 had to remain on the other side of the Alpheus. In 
 consequence of the great number of spectators, inns 
 and lodging-houses were built to accommodate those 
 who had not, like the sacred envoys, brought their 
 own tents with them. Moreover, as already indicated, 
 a kind of fair was connected with the Olympian fes- 
 tivities ; traders, with all manner of wares, some of 
 them objects directly connected with the festival, such 
 as fillets, flowers, food, etc., and other useful articles, 
 set up their booths and tents ; and, thus, along with 
 the festival, there was a busy commercial activity, 
 such as was common in every place where great 
 crowds of people met together at fixed times. 
 
 The game§ performed at Delphi in honour of 
 Pythian Apollo bore the name of the Great Pythia, to 
 distinguish them from the Lesser Pythia, held every 
 year at Delphi, and also from the festival of the same 
 name celebrated in other places. This festival, which 
 at first was held every eight years, had been changed 
 to a quadrennial one after the beginning of the 6th 
 century B.C.; it lasted several days, and gradually 
 many additions were made to the original con- 
 tests. At first the musical competition, which com- 
 prised cithara and flute playing, was the only one ; 
 in later times, too, it was the principal part of the 
 festival, but after the example of the Olympian games, 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 367 
 
 gymnastic and equestrian contests were also added. 
 A general truce was connected with the Pythian 
 games as well as with the Olympic, and this lasted 
 long enough to enable spectators from the distant 
 colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean to journey 
 in safety to Delphi and back. The chief events of 
 the festival and the order of proceedings wero some- 
 thing of this sort. 
 
 A great sacrifice to the three gods, Apollo, Artemis, 
 and Leto, called Trittyes probably formed the in- 
 troduction. Then followed an important part of the 
 festival, calculated to arouse lively interest in the 
 public, the Pythian Nomos, the subject of which 
 was the celebrated fight with the dragon Pytho by 
 Apollo. Many suggestions have been made about 
 the nature of this performance. One is that 
 the fight was presented in dumb show; another 
 that it was a song, accompanied by instruments ; 
 and, again, another very popular theory is that this 
 Pj^thian Nomos was a concerto of flute solos, by 
 means of which various staires of the fight with the 
 dragon were represented in Lone painting. Probably 
 the most important situations — the fight, thanks- 
 giving, and hymn of victory — could be thus repre- 
 nented, and, indeed, they must have attained consider- 
 able proficiency in tone painting, since even the 
 gnashing of the dragon's teeth was musically repre- 
 sented. With a view to strengthening these effects, 
 the flute, which always remained the chief instrument, 
 was afterwards reinforced at certain places by trum- 
 pets and shepherds' pipes. This Pythian Nomos 
 constituted part of the musical contest, which was of 
 greater importance in the Pythian games than the 
 gymnastic competition, smce Apollo was essentially 
 the representative of the nmsical arts. Besides the 
 
368 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 solo flute playing, the musical competition included 
 songs with cithara accompaniment, and at first also 
 with the flute, but this last was discontinued, being 
 regarded as too sad and gloomy ; and, instead, cithar.i, 
 playing without song was introduced in the musical 
 contest. It was only in much later times, when 
 troops of artists were called in to make the festival 
 more splendid, with the consent of the officials of the 
 land, that dramas were also presented at the Pythian 
 games. 
 
 We know but Uttle of the gymnastic contests 
 which gradually found a place in the Pythian games. 
 In essentials they were the same as those at Olympia, 
 but the double course and the long course for boys 
 were also added, while at Olympia these two contests 
 were only open to men. The order of events, too, was 
 different; the competitors were classed according to 
 age, and each class, after completing its own contest? 
 was able to rest while the others went through the same 
 exercise, so that these intervals for rest enabled the 
 boys to perform greater feats of running than they 
 could at Olympia, where they had to enter for all 
 their contests before the men's turn came at all. To 
 the usual gymnastic sports were afterwards added the 
 race in full panoply and the pancration for boys. 
 Equestrian competitions were early introduced : racing 
 with full-grown horses, with four-horse chariots, and 
 afterwards with two-horse chariots ; when colts wore 
 introduced at Olympia the example was also foUoAved 
 at Delphi: probably the events followed in such a 
 way that the musical contest was connected with the 
 acts of worship, and was followed by the gymnastic, 
 and this by the equestrian contests. The gymnastic 
 SDorts were held, at the time of Pindar, in the neidi- 
 bourhood of the ruined city Cirrha, south of the 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS 
 
 8C9 
 
 mouth of the Pleistos ; afterwards the Delphic Stadium 
 was to the north-west of the city, while the driving 
 and. riding races took place in the old Stadjum near 
 the ruined city of Cirrha. In later times there was 
 also a theatre for the performance of the musical 
 contests. 
 
 Here, as at Oljmapia, punctual attendance was 
 required of the competitors; those who entered un- 
 lawfully were expelled by the servants of the Amphic- 
 tyons, who were entrusted with disciplinary power. 
 It was they who had the superintendence of the 
 games, as well as the right of judging. Originally 
 both these privileges had belonged to the inhabitants 
 of Delphi ; but after the reorganisation of the games 
 in the year 586, the duties of superintendents and 
 judges passed to the Amphictyons, or to officials 
 appointed by them. It seems that we must dis- 
 tinguish between the Amphictyonic superintendents 
 (eTTCfjbeXrjTai), in whose hands were the arrangement 
 of the programme, and all matters of expense, 
 the appointment or ratification of the festive ofiicials, 
 etc. (aycovoOeaia), and the real umpires {/Spafirjs:), 
 who had themselves to make the most important 
 arrangements for the contests, such as assigning the 
 places for the chariots in the races and giving deci- 
 sions about the victory; but we cannot attain any 
 certainty in this matter. Sometimes, towards the 
 end of the age of Greek freedom, the right of super- 
 intendence Y/as conferred on princes — as, for instance 
 on Philip of Macedon — and in the time of the Empire 
 it was not unusual for a rich man to bear the expenses 
 of the ceremony wholly or in great part ; though even 
 here the old custom was, at any rate externally, 
 observed. The prizes of victory were originally valu- 
 able gifts, tripods, etc. ; at the rearrangement of the 
 
370 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 games the custom originated of giving, instead, a 
 wreath, as was done at Olympia, made of laurel sacred 
 to Apollo. They also followed the example of Olympia 
 in introducing lectures and recitations by historians 
 and poets; thus Gorgias the Sophist, delivered an 
 oration on one of these occasions. A very im- 
 portant part of the festival was the great pro- 
 cession {irofjLirr}), in which ?trangers who came to the 
 games, embassies with their dedicatory offerings, the 
 officials and priests, took part ; and besides the offer- 
 ings, which were often very splendid, valuable treasures, 
 usually kept in the treasuries, were exhibited ; costly 
 weapons and armour, splendid garments and jewels, 
 vases, etc., were exposed to view, so that this pro- 
 cession, which probably marched from the suburb 
 Pylaea, upwards to the temple of Apollo, must have 
 presented a very varied and richly-coloured picture. 
 As well as the triple sacrifice already mentioned, there 
 were other solemn sacrifices, among them a hecatomb 
 to Apollo; this was, of course, connected with the 
 great banquet, at which there was no lack of musiccl 
 entertainment. 
 
 The Isthmian games, the third of the great 
 Hellenic national festivals, were celebrated on the 
 isthmus of Corinth, in the sacred pine grove of 
 Poseidon, where a hippodrome and a stadium for 
 equestrian and gymnastic contests had been erected. 
 The festival, which from the year 582 onwards, be- 
 came national and Hellenic, took place every two 
 years, in the first and third years of an Olympiad; 
 it consisted of musical, gymnastic, and equestrian 
 contests. W e do not hear of any differences between 
 these games and those at Olympia, and we may 
 assume that there were the usual competitions for 
 men and boys; in addition to them there was nn 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 371 
 
 intermediate class of the beardless ones — that is, 
 youths {e^Tj^oi). Of course, there was a universal 
 truce during the Isthmian games, and numerous 
 and splendid embassies attended it, since the 
 site between two seas facilitated attendance. 
 The arrangement of the progro.mm.e fell to the 
 Corinthians, who also appointed the umpires, prob- 
 ably from among the rich and respected citizens. 
 The prize of victory was a wreath of ivy, for which 
 they afterwards substituted one of pine, and this 
 seems to have been still the custom at the time of 
 Ibycus, who, as Schiller tells us, met his death on 
 the way to this " contest of chariots and song." In 
 the later period, especially in the Hellenistic and 
 Roman times, there were also rhetorical and poetical 
 recitations at the Isthmian games, but they did not 
 form a part of the musical contest. 
 
 The Nemean games were held at Argolis, in 
 a valley between Cleonae and Phlius, in a grove 
 belonging to the sanctuary of Zeus-Nemeios, and they 
 did not attain national importance till the year 573. 
 These, like the Isthmian games, were held every two 
 years, in the second and fourth years of an Olympiad. 
 The contests here also comprised musical, gymnastic, 
 and equestrian competitions ; we are incidentally in- 
 formed that cithara and flute players appeared in the 
 musical contest. We have no information about the 
 length of its duration, but it must certainly have 
 lasted for several days. The Cleonaeans were for a 
 long time superintendents and umpires, but when the 
 Argives gained possession of the Nemean sanctuary 
 they also claimed this privilege. The prize of victory 
 here, as at the Isthmian games, was a wreath of ivy ; 
 there were the same arrangements for a universal truce, 
 and visits of sacred envoys, as at other great festivals. 
 
372 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 From this consideration of the Hellenic national 
 celebrations we must now turn specially to Athens, 
 with whose festive calendar we are much better ac- 
 quainted; but we must content ourselves with a selec- 
 tion from among the most important. The first place 
 is due to the greatest festival of the Athenians, the 
 Panathenaea celebrated in the first month of the 
 Athenian calendar, Hekatombaeon (probably our 
 July). We must distinguish between the lesser and 
 the greater Panathenaea; the former was celebrated 
 every year ; the latter, introduced by Peisistratus, 
 every four years ; the real difference was that, at the 
 greater Panathenaea the contests were more splendid 
 and probably lasted a longer time. The festival was 
 held in honour of the patron goddess in the ancient 
 temple of Athene Folias ; it consisted of sacrifices and 
 competitions, equestrian, gymnastic, and also musical. 
 The oldest musical contest was a competition between 
 rhapsodists, perhaps introduced by Peisistratus. The 
 performances of the rhapsodists were probably chiefly 
 concerned with the Homeric poems, which had been 
 collected and edited at the command of Peisistratus, 
 but we do not know in what way they contended for 
 the prize ; the place of recitation was the Odeon. 
 Afterwards the Homeric rhapsodies fell into the back- 
 ground, when Pericles extended the musical contests 
 by introducing cithara and flute playing and song. 
 We learn from the inscriptions that songs with cithara 
 accompaniment, as well as with flute accompaniment, 
 were usual, and they also speak of cyclic choruses, 
 that is, dithyrambs, sung by choruses while circling 
 round the altar on which the sacrifice was burning. 
 The prize for the musical contest was a gold wreath 
 and some money. The gymnastic contests were ar- 
 ranged according to age (boys, youths, men); the 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 373 
 
 youngest entered first, and each class ended its com- 
 petitions before the next one began. Similarly the 
 competitions advanced from easy to difficult ; they 
 were of the usual kinds already described, but it was 
 only the men from whom all were required. Boys and 
 youths in the earliest period entered for racing, wrest- 
 ling, and boxing, pancration, and pentathlon. After- 
 wards the pentathlon was abandoned, and the double 
 and long course introduced instead, though probably 
 the requirements for these were reduced, since the 
 usual attainments of these contests would have been 
 too great for boys. We do not know exactly where 
 the gymnastic competitions took place, since the 
 Panathenaeic Stadion was not built till the latter half 
 of the fourth century. Before that there seems to have 
 been a place to the west of the Peiraeus, where both 
 equestrian and gymnastic contests were carried on; 
 here, too, the victors were proclaimed, and the prizes 
 conferred on them. These consisted in a quantity of 
 oil from the celebrated olive-trees of Athene in the 
 Academy, and this was drawn into earthen amphoras, 
 on one side of which was represented the image of the 
 patron goddess, and on the other generally a scene 
 from the gymnastic compstition. Many imitations of 
 these amphoras exist, and no small number of them 
 have come down to us, and are known as Panathanaeic 
 prize amphoras. 
 
 There were several events peculiar to the eques- 
 trian contests at Athens. Thus, in Attica and Boeotia 
 chariot-jumping was a popular sport. Besides the 
 charioteer on the two-wheeled car there was a second 
 person (aTro/Sar^;?), who, while the chariot was moving 
 at full speed, jumped down from the car and up again, 
 assisted by the charioteer ; this performance is traced 
 back by legend to the time of Erichthonius. There 
 
374 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 were also martial contests, in which warriors in full 
 panoply stood in their chariots; and also races of 
 javelin- throwers, who aimed at a fixed goal from their 
 running horses ; but these sports connected with the 
 Panathanaea are known to us only by casual allusions, 
 and not by accurate description. Here, as elsewhere, 
 we learn from the inscriptions that the usual kinds of 
 racing took place, namely, with four horses, and after- 
 wards, too, with colts, as well as riding races. Here, 
 as in the gymnastic contests, the prize consisted in 
 jars of oil ; in both cases the first prize was generally 
 five times the value of the second. 
 
 To the festivities of the Panathanaea belonged also 
 a performance of the Pyrrhic war dance (Trvpptxn) 
 which originated at Sparta, and was probably intro- 
 duced at Athens at the time of Solon and Peisistratus. 
 In later times they distinguished three kinds, accord- 
 ing to age. The various classes, clad in magnificent 
 armour, combined together in bands and performed a 
 dance to the music of the flute, which partook of the 
 double nature of choregraphic and military movements. 
 A still extant relief from the Acropolis, set up by a 
 choragus who had won the prize (rich citizens under- 
 took the equipment of the Pyrrhic choruses as a 
 public service or liturgy), presents a number of youth- 
 ful dancers performing a measured dance in light 
 helmets, and holding their shield in their left hand, 
 but without any clothing ; they are in two divi- 
 sions ; the choragus stands superintending them in a 
 long chiton (as festive garment) and himation. Wo 
 do not know how the victory of a Pyrrhic chorus was 
 decided. The prize of victory was an ox. 
 
 Another contest peculiar to the Panathenaea was 
 a muster of men (evavSpla), Like the dramatic repre- 
 sentations, the torch -race, and the Pyrrhic dance, this 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 375 
 
 was a liturgy, that is, a voluntary service performed 
 by a rich citizen. It was his duty to select the hand- 
 somest and strongest men of his tribe, to clothe and 
 equip them, and present them at the festival ; that 
 tribe which, in the opinion of the judges, made the 
 best impression, received the prize. This curious 
 custom originated after the expulsion of the Peisistra- 
 tidae, since they would not have been permitted, 
 during the tyranny, to bring forward the armed 
 citizens in this manner. Another liturgy was the 
 torch-race (Xa/xTraSoc^op/a), which was superintended 
 by the gymnasiarchs ; the victor in this contest 
 received a water-jar. The contests of the Panathenaea 
 were concluded by a regatta, which took place at the 
 Peiraeus. Here, again, it was not individuals, but 
 tribes, that competed for the prize, which was not' 
 inconsiderable, since the victorious tribe received 300 
 drachmae, and money for a festive banquet. 
 
 The expenses of these various contests, if they did 
 not happen to be voluntary services, were defrayed from 
 the treasury of Athene PolLas ; the sacrifices, in par- 
 ticular the hecatomb offered tothegoddess at the greater 
 Panathenaea, were provided by the superintendents of 
 sacrifice {lepo'KOiOL)^ appointed as the ten representa- 
 tives of the ten tribes, but there were sometimes 
 special subscriptions for the purpose, and, at the great 
 festivals at any rate, the Attic client cities sent their 
 contributions to the sacrifices, apparently each one 
 cow and two sheep. The hecatomb was offered on 
 the chief day of the feast ; another sacrifice was per- 
 formed to Athene-Hygeia, and a third on the Areo- 
 pagus, but we do not know when these took place, 
 nor whether they were also offered at the lessei 
 Panathenaea. 
 
 We have only a general notion of the order of the 
 
376 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 festivities. They began with the contests, which 
 lasted several days, taking the musical contest firsts 
 which was followed by the gymnastic, and this again 
 by the equestrian. With these were probably con- 
 nected the Pyrrhic dance and the muster of men. 
 Then came the chief day of all, the glory of the 
 festival, introduced the evening before by a festivity 
 combined with a torch-race, and lasting far into the 
 night (Travvvx^)' At sunrise began the great pro- 
 cession which was peculiar to the greater Panathenaea. 
 Here the goddess received her splendid robe, which 
 was renewed every four years, and artistically worked 
 by the Attic women and maidens, so as to represent 
 the battle of the gods and giants. This procession, of 
 which a wonderfully idealised representation has come 
 down to us in the friezes of the Cella of the Par- 
 thenon, combined all the chief splendour and glory of 
 Athens, all the proud youth and fair beauty of women. 
 In it marched priests and prophets, archons, and the 
 treasurers of Athene, the superintendents of sacrifice, 
 generals, envoys from the Attic colonies, with their 
 dedicatory offerings, and other delegates sent to the 
 feast. Behind these dignified men followed beautiful 
 maidens, carrying sacrificial vessels, censers, etc. ; then 
 came the resident foreigners {fiiToiKoC), with flat dishes 
 filled with honey-cakes, fruits, and other sacrificial 
 offerings, and jars containing the wine required for 
 the sacrifices ; their daughters carried sunshades and 
 scats for the daughters of Attic citizens. Next came 
 the numerous herds of cows and sheep for the sacri- 
 fices, accompanied by drovers. These were followed 
 by the Attic citizens, venerable old men and men in 
 the prime of life, carrying their knotty sticks and olive 
 branches in their hands ; then came the four-horse 
 chariots, which had entered for the contests of the 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 377 
 
 previous days. The greater part of the procession 
 was taken up by the cavalry, in which appeared the 
 citizens who served on horseback in the army, as well 
 as other owners of fine horses ; the fondness for horse- 
 rearing peculiar to Attica made this part of the pro- 
 cession especially large and splendid. There were also 
 the heavy-armed infantry under the command of 
 their officers, and the musicians, who played during 
 the march on their instruments — flutes and citharas ; 
 of course, the victors in the various competitions took 
 part in the procession, though probably each walked 
 with the members of his own tribe. The most con- 
 spicuous place was occupied by the robe of the 
 goddess, which, at any rate after the beginning of 
 the fourth century, was suspended like a sail on the 
 mast of a ship, running on rollers, and spread out 
 in such a way that all might admire the splendid 
 workmanship. 
 
 This endless procession moved from the Kera- 
 meikos to the market-place, then eastwards to the 
 Eleusinion, north of the Acropolis, and round this to 
 the western ascent of the citadel, where the ship halted, 
 and the robe was taken off in order to be carried in 
 procession to the temple of Athene Polias, the Erech- 
 thaeum. Here the hecatomb was offered on the great 
 altar in front of the temple, as well as the sacrifices of 
 the Attic clients. A plentiful banquet concluded this 
 chief day of the festival, for the meat sacrificed was 
 divided among the people, being distributed among 
 all the domes separately, who specially told off a 
 number of members to receive their share, llie meals 
 took place also according to demos. The after-cele- 
 bration at the Peiraeus consisted in the regatta already 
 mentioned. We cannot tell how long the whole festi- 
 val of the greater Panathenaea lasted ; opinions var^^ 
 
378 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 between six and nine days, according as a longer oi 
 shorter period is assumed for the various competitions. 
 The general direction of the procession and the sacri- 
 fices, as well as of the night festivity, was under the 
 control and superintendence of the annual superin- 
 tendents of sacrifice; while ten judges {a6\odeTai\ 
 appointed for a period of four years, undertook the 
 direction of the contests. 
 
 The annual Sacred Festival of the Eleusinia 
 must be distinguished from the lesser Eleusinia 
 celebrated at Agrae in spring. It took place in 
 the month of Boedromion, about September, m 
 honour of Demeter of Eleusis. This was a celebration 
 of the mysteries, and, therefore, no national festival, 
 but still the number of the initiated was so great, and 
 the mysteries were renowned so far even beyond the 
 bounds of Attica, that it might be regarded as 
 Hellenic, especially as the holding of the mysteries 
 was announced in the neighbouring states by 
 special envoys or heralds, whose office was hereditary 
 in certain families, and a general truce prevailed during 
 the celebration. The whole festival consisted of two 
 parts, of which the first was held at Athens, the 
 second at Eleusis. It began with a general assembly, 
 of which we only know that it was probably a noisy 
 procession, such as was very common at the celebration 
 of mysteries. Another feature of the beginning of the 
 festival were the public addresses to the community^ 
 delivered in the Stoa PoiJdle (Painted Porch) at 
 Athens, where the Hierophant, the chief priest of the 
 Eleusinian sanctuaries, and one of the chief priests 
 in Attica, and the torch-bearer (SaSovxo^^), another 
 Eleusinian official, acquainted the candidates for 
 initiation with the arrangement of the festival and 
 the conditions on which participation in the cere- 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 379 
 
 mony depended. It was the duty of the Initiators 
 (/xi;crTa7ft)7ot )tosee that the numerous people assembled 
 really fulfilled these conditions ; these were not officials 
 but private people who had passed through all the 
 degrees of initiation, and were acquainted with all the 
 rites; and foreigners who attended the mysteries vere 
 obliged to prove their initiation in the first place to 
 these. Either on this day oi the next ensued that 
 ceremony which received its name from the cry, " To 
 the sea, ye Mystae 1 " when the whole community de- 
 scended to the sea coast in order to purify themselves 
 and the sacrificial animals, which on this occasion were 
 swine, in the sea water for the impending sacrifices. 
 Sometimes, if a visitor to the contests was conscious of 
 special and numerous acts of wrongdoing, this purifi- 
 cation was repeated several times, and the efficacy 
 further ensured by fasting for nine days — that is, re- 
 fraining from food during the tin*e between sunrise 
 and sunset. On the following days sacrifices were 
 offered, especially the great Thankoffering (orwTTjpta), 
 brought by the superintendents of the mysteries to 
 Demeter and Kora and the other gods, probably in the 
 town of Eleusinia. Another sacrifice offered by a town 
 was the Epidauria, which was said to have been 
 founded in honour of Aesculapius, who arrived belated 
 from Epidaurus. We are not acquainted with the 
 place of this ceremony, nor with the time or other 
 circumstances connected with it ; the fourth and the 
 fifth days of the festival have been suggested. Next 
 followed the main part of the festival, the great pro- 
 cession which escorted lacchus, the sacred child of the 
 gods, from Athens to Eleusis. In the 6ourse of the 
 day the participants in the procession, who often 
 numbered several thousand, assembled at various parts 
 of the city, and were drawn up in order in the Agora 
 
380 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 and the Kerameikos. The priests and oflScials, as well 
 as the whole band of Mystae, were decked with myrtle 
 and ivy leaves, and carried ears of corn and agri- 
 cultural implements in their hands, as well as 
 torches, for they did not reach Eleusis before night- 
 fall. The leader of the procession was lacchus him- 
 self, though, at the same time, he was led. His sacred 
 image was fetched, along with the temple utensils, 
 from the sanctuary of lacchus, and placed on a car, 
 accompanied by attendants (laKxaycojoi), at the 
 head of the procession, which set out from the 
 Kerameikos to the gate known as Dipylon amid 
 loud shouts of "lacchus," and through this began 
 its long journey along the sacred road to Eleusis. 
 The procession moved on, singing a song especially 
 composed for it> as was believed, by the god himself, 
 accompanied by dancing and other ceremonies. The 
 journey lasted four hours, and, in consequence of its 
 length, rich women used to ride in carriages until the 
 orator Lycurgus forbade this by a special law. During 
 this long march they stopped to worship at various 
 sanctuaries on the way, and also entertained each other 
 with jokes, such as were customary at the festivals of 
 Demeter and Dionysus : at the Kephisos especially 
 there was jesting and mockery. At the fountain of 
 KaUichoros dances and games were carried on by 
 torchlight. Of course, all this detained the procession 
 longer than the mere length of the journey would have 
 required, so that after the arrival at Eleusis, when 
 the image of the god had been put in its place, the 
 pilgrims required rest and refreshment before going 
 on to the remainder of the festival. 
 
 The rites at Eleusis also lasted several days. 
 Besides solemn sacrifices and the festive banquets 
 connected with them, there was the ceremony of 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 381 
 
 seeking the Maiden (fcoprj) and the sacred representa- 
 tions. The former was an imitation of the sad 
 wanderings of Demeter, when seeking her daughter, 
 who had been stolen from her ; the Mystae ran about 
 with torches in the white raiments of the Eleusinian 
 sanctuaries, and frequent jokes, some of a coarse 
 description, reminded them that Demeter in her 
 wanderings had been similarly cheered in her deep 
 sorrow by the coarse jests of her maid lambe. The 
 mystae also imitated the goddess in drinking a 
 strengthening potion {kvk6o)v), which, according to 
 a legend, the goddess drank at Eleusis after her 
 long fast. The main feature, however, was the per- 
 formance, on a stage in the sanctuary, of the rLysterious 
 sacred dramas which presented the secret doctrines 
 of the Eleusinian mysteries to the new initiates, and 
 also brought them clearly before the eyes of those 
 who had been already initiated. We must not, how- 
 ever, suppose that all were present at the same repre- 
 sentations. It was, in fact, here that the difference of 
 degrees required different representations ; beginners, 
 among whom there were some not far removed from 
 the age of childhood were only admitted to repre- 
 sentations corresponding to the ordinary legends of 
 Demeter and Persephone, while the highest degrees, 
 which were granted only to those of advanced years, 
 went beyond these popular presentations, and repre- 
 sented the new-born lacchus reunited in bliss with 
 Persephone and Demeter. On these occasions even 
 the highest dignitaries of the Eleusinia did not 
 scorn to appear as actors; the Hierophant as the 
 TJemiurgos, the leader of the initiates as Helios, 
 the altar priest as Selene, the herald {lepoicripv^) as 
 Hermes, etc. These dramas, which fully occupied 
 the eighth and ninth days, thus concluded the chief 
 
382 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 part of the ceremony. The last act of worship was 
 to take two earthen vessels filled with water, as was 
 done at funerals, and pour them out to east and west 
 amid mystic words (irXr^f.iO'xpai). Then followed some 
 days occupied with entertainments of all kinds — 
 gyrr nxstic contests, national games, song and dance, 
 and in later times also scenic representations. 
 
 The festival of the Thesmophoria, held in 
 Pyanepsion (October), was in honour of Demeter 
 alone ; it lasted five days, and only women might 
 take part in it. These women had to undergo a 
 solemn preparation of nine days, during which they 
 kept apart from their husbands, and purified them- 
 selves in various ways. After this they went to 
 Halimus, the scene of the Thesmophoria, not in a 
 long procession, but in small groups and at night- 
 time. The comic side of the Demeter festivals was 
 visible here also : those who went alone met each 
 other on the way, and demanded and gave tokens of 
 recognition in jest, amid much laughter, which 
 became excessive if, as sometimes happened, a man 
 fell into their hands. At Halimus, in the sanctuary 
 of the Thesmophoria, the mysteries took place by 
 night ; the day was occupied with purifying baths in 
 the sea, and playing and dancing on the shore. After 
 this had gone on for a day or a day and a half, the women 
 set out again for Athens, this time in a long pro- 
 cession, carrying the laws of Demeter, the Thesmoi 
 whence the festival took its name, in caskets on the 
 head of sacred women, and the festival was then 
 continued at Athens, either in the Thesmophorion of 
 the town or in that of Peiraeus. This further celebra- 
 tion occupied two days, besides the day of return; 
 first came the day of " fasting," so-called because on 
 this day the women sat in deep mourning on the 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 383 
 
 ground and took no food, probably singing dirges and 
 observing other customs common in case of a death ; 
 they also sacrificed swine to the infernal gods. The 
 third day (KaWiyeveia) bore a more cheerful character. 
 Its name, signifying " the birth of fair children," seems 
 to refer to Demeter, who was assumed to be appeased 
 and who gave the blessing of fair children to women. 
 This day was occupied with sacrifices, dances, and 
 merry games, of which we know very little. At all 
 these festivals the presence of men was most sternly 
 forbidden ; only those women who were full citizens 
 might take part, and probably none who were un- 
 married. 
 
 There were various smaller festivals which we 
 must pass over, and turn to the festivals of Dionysus, 
 which had an important influence on life in Greece, 
 as well as on its literature and art. There were four 
 of these every year at Athens ; in the month of 
 Poseidon (February), the country Dionysia, called also 
 "the lesser," took place. Naturally this was a vine 
 festival, as would result from the character of the god ; 
 but the common opini':^n, that it was to celebrate the 
 vintage, is open to many objections, especially since 
 the time of the feast seems too late for the vintage. 
 It is more probable that the new wine was then tasted 
 for the first time. This festival was not connected 
 with any special place ; country Dionysia were cele- 
 brated in every village, and not only in Attica, but 
 everywhere in Greece where vines were cultivated, 
 and it always bore the character of a cheerful national 
 feast connected with fun and merry frolic. In the 
 " Acharnians " of Aristophanes a peasant celebrates 
 the festival alone with his family; it begins with 
 prayer and a procession to the sacrifice, in which the 
 daughter, as basket-bearer {/cav7](l)6po<;), carries the 
 
384 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 basket of offerings on her head ; the slave with the 
 Phallus, the sj^mbol of fertihty and the never ex- 
 tinct producing power of the earth, next follows; 
 and the master of the house sings his merry phallic 
 song, while his wife looks on at the procession frcin 
 the roof of the house. What was done here on a 
 small scale by a single family, we must assume was 
 performed on a larger scale in the real ceremony 
 by all the assembled villagers. There were also other 
 parts of the festival, especially the chorus, which stood 
 round the altar during the sacrifice of the goat, and 
 praised the god in speech and song, probably also in 
 answering refrain ; they sang the birth, sufferings, and 
 death of Dionysus, and were the origin of the dith}''- 
 ramb as well as of the drama, since this latter, as is 
 well known, owes its origin to the festivals of Dionysus. 
 Often there were real dramatic representations at 
 the lesser Dionysia ; it was especially the custom 
 for strolling actors on these occasions to perform 
 before the country people old plays, which had been 
 already represented in the towns. Among the other 
 entertainments, along with the festive processions, 
 choruses, and banquets, one is especially worthy 
 of mention (dcrKcoXLo). This was a game in which the 
 young people of the village hopped about on greased 
 wine skins, and tried to push each other down, 
 while the falls were greeted with laughter by the 
 bystanders; those who succeeded in retaining their 
 place received prizes. This entertainment, which 
 may be set on a par with our own running in sacks, 
 was customary, too, at other festivals of Dionysus. 
 
 The second Athenian festival of Dionysus was 
 peculiar to Athens, but was probably only one of the 
 country Dionysia transferred to the town; it was 
 called Lenaru, after the place where it was usually 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 385 
 
 held, the Lenaeon, in the suburb Limnae, and was held 
 in the month of Gamelion (January). The name 
 suggests a feast of wine-presses, which does not coin- 
 cide with the time of the celebration ; many attempts 
 have been made to explain this difficulty, but with- 
 out result. The festival, or at any rate a special 
 part of it, bore the name Ambrosia, probably 
 because they drank a great deal of the new wine to 
 which they assigned this divine name ; and, in fact, 
 plentiful drinking was a characteristic of all the 
 festivals of the wine god. A great banquet accom- 
 panied the festivities, for which the State provided 
 everything, and there was also a solemn procession 
 'into the town, in which many people drove, amid jest 
 and frolic, so that the "jokes from the car" became 
 proverbial. In the Lenaeon, to which the procession 
 first marched with the sacrificial animals, solemn 
 dithyrambs were sung in competition, and the prize 
 was a wreath of ivy ; there were also dramatic repre- 
 sentations, at which both old and new pieces were 
 performed. 
 
 The third festival of Dionysus was the Anthes- 
 teria, in the month Anthesterion (February), which 
 lasted three days, and was even more distinctly associ- 
 ated with the tasting of the new wine than the 
 Lenaea. The first day of the festival bore the dis- 
 tinctive name of " Cask-opening " {TndoLyia), It was 
 essentially a family festival. The casks, with the new 
 wine which was to be used next day for the banquet, 
 were brought in by the servants and opened ; the wine 
 was drawn off into amphoras or other vessels, and 
 naturally many a draught was drunk, and in par- 
 ticular the slaves had their share. For the Athenians, 
 who always treated their slaves well, did not grudge 
 them their fair share on this festive occasion, and 
 
 N 
 
386 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 when they offered their sacrifices at the Cask-openings 
 and helped to draw off the wine, they probably them- 
 selves filled ajar for their servants and workmen with 
 the new gift of Bacchus. All other work ceased for 
 this day and the next, and the children, too, had 
 holidays. The old image of Dionysus, which was to 
 make its solemn entry into the town in the procession 
 of the following day, was also brought on this first 
 day from its temple in the Nemaeon to a chapel in 
 the outer Kerameikos. But this festival was only 
 a preparation for the principal day, called " The 
 Feast of Pitchers," which began at sunset — the time 
 when all festivals commenced — with a great proces- 
 sion. Those who took part in it appeared wreathed 
 and bearing torches (for the procession did not take 
 place till dark) in the outer Kerameikos ; children, 
 too, except those under three years, took part in it, 
 probably accompanied by their mothers, or in car- 
 riages, for many participants drove ; and here, as in 
 the country Dionysia, it was the custom to mock the 
 passers-by from the carriage. In fact, this part of the 
 festival bore the character of a merry carnival ; many 
 people appeared in costume as Horae, Nymphs, Bacch- 
 antes, etc., and crowded g^ily around the triumphant 
 car on which the statue of Bionysos-Elewtheros, which 
 had been fetched from its temple on the previous day, 
 was conducted to the town. On the way religious 
 rites were observed at various places sanctified by 
 legend. At one place the BasUinna, that is, the 
 wife of the Archon Basileus, had to sit on the car 
 next the statue of Dionysus, for on this day she 
 was the bride of the god, and thus, on her wedding- 
 car, she entered the Lenaeon, where a mystic 
 Bacrifice was offered for the welfare of the State in 
 the innermost part of the temple, by the BasiUnna, 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 387 
 
 together with the fourteen ladies of honour ap- 
 pointed for this purpose by the Archon (yepapal). 
 These took a solemn oath to the queen before the 
 ceremony took place, and in so doing followed an 
 ancient formula inscribed on stone columns in the 
 temple. After the sacrifice, with which other secret 
 ceremonies were connected, followed the symbolical 
 marriage of the Basilinna and Dionysus. While these 
 sacred ceremonies, to which but few were admitted, 
 were taking place in the interior of the temple, the 
 other celebrants enjoyed themselves in different ways. 
 On the next day the actual Pitcher Feast took place 
 — the great banquet, with the drinking contest, that 
 followed it. At this great public feast the Archon- 
 Basileus was superintendent of the festival, but 
 the State defrayed the expenses, originally, probably, 
 in kind, but afterwards in such a way that each 
 citizen received a fixed sum of money, and with this 
 supplied his food and also the can of pure wine which 
 stood in front of everyone, and gave its name to this 
 day. Both the banquet and the drinking contest 
 were probably held in the theatre in the Lenaeon, 
 where the chief priest of Dionysus had to provide 
 cushions, tables and other conveniences. A proclama- 
 tion by the herald, in ancient style, introduced the 
 most interesting event — the drinking contest. At a 
 signal given by a trumpet, all who took part in it 
 set their pitchers to their mouths, and the judges 
 allotted the victory to him who first emptied his ; the 
 prize consisted in a skin of wine, cakes, or something of 
 the kind. Besides this public banquet there were also 
 private hospitalities, provided by those who preferred 
 to celebrate the day by themselves in the circle of a 
 few intimate friends, and here, too, much drinking 
 went on ; the Sophists, in particular, who received 
 
388 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 their honorarium and presents on this day, were in 
 the habit of inviting their acquaintances to a feast. 
 Thus things went on merrily till the beginning of the 
 night; then each guest took his pitcher and the 
 wreath of fresh flowers which he had worn at the 
 feast to the sanctuary of Dionysos-Eleutheros, that 
 was divided off with a rope, and here the wreaths 
 were handed to the priestess, and the remains in the 
 pitcher poured out as a libation to the god. 
 
 The third day was called the "Feast of Pots" 
 (X^Tpo^)> fi'om a sacrifice offered to Hermes Chthonios 
 and the spirits of the dead, and here they observed the 
 traditional custom of first sacrificing to those who had 
 perished in the Flood of Deucalion. At these sacri- 
 fices, pots containing a number of vegetable sub- 
 stances cooked together, played an important part, 
 and these dishes also constituted the meal of this day, 
 on which no flesh was eaten. The ladies of honour 
 also offered sacrifices to Dionysus at sixteen specially 
 erected altars, and there were probably other cere- 
 monies connected with this ; in fact, this third day of 
 the " Anthesteria," with its serious ceremonial, formed 
 a strong contrast to the merriment of the previous 
 days, and suggests a similar contrast between our 
 Shrove Tuesday and Ash Wednesday. But even, on 
 the " Day of Pots " there was no lack of amusements 
 for the people ; sacred choruses were conducted by the 
 poets, but it does not seem that any regular dramas 
 were performed. Possibly dramatic contests had been 
 the custom in earlier times, or else only such competi- 
 tions were allowed as determined the admission of the 
 poets and actors, who won the prize on this occasion, 
 to competition at the greater Dionysia. The chief 
 festival of Dionysus in Attica was the greater, or city 
 Dionysia, in Elaphebolion (March), which lasted at 
 
PUBLIC FESm^ALS. 
 
 389 
 
 least five days, and perhaps even longer, and whose 
 chief importance consisted in the plays acted during 
 these days. The first solemn ceremony of the greater 
 Dionysia was in honour of Aesculapius, to whom a 
 public sacrifice was brought. Here, too, there was a 
 procession, in which the statue of Dionysos-Eleutheros 
 was carried; whether it was the old wooden image 
 which was carried at the Lenaea, or the new statue 
 by Alcamenes, is uncertain, but the latter was of 
 gold and ivory, and, therefore, not easily portable; 
 in any case the statue was fetched from the sanc- 
 tuary at Lenaea, and carried by torchlight to the 
 theatre of Dionysus, where it was set up in the 
 orchestra. On the following day came the procession, 
 in which the sacrificial animals, as well as the presents 
 sent by allies, probably appeared. The procession 
 stopped in the market place, and a cyclical choru? 
 performed a dance round the altar to the Delphic 
 gods who stood there. When they passed on they 
 seem to have fetched away the Dionysus statue from 
 the theatre, and carried it once more in a festive pro- 
 cession to the sanctuary in the Lenaeon. This process 
 sion was followed by sacrificial banquets, and on the 
 other days plentiful feasting was also a part of the 
 celebration. The following days were chiefly occupied 
 by the performances, which seem to have followed in 
 some such order as this : First of all, lyric choruses ; 
 both men and boys entered, and the expenses, which 
 were heavy, were defrayed by citizens acting as choragi. 
 Perhaps this day was concluded by a " Comus,*' as 
 public processions of this kind often followed common 
 banquets, and since it was the god of wine who was 
 specially to be honoured, it was, no doubt, very splen- 
 didly equipped. The next days were occupied with 
 representations of tragic tetralogies and comedies; it 
 
390 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 is not certain whether these lasted two or more days, 
 but it is probable that they continued for three 
 days, and that on each of these a tetralogy was per- 
 formed in the morning and a comedy in the afternoon. 
 On the evening of the third day of the performances, 
 which concluded the whole festival, the prizes were 
 distributed ; in <^hese musical contests they consisted 
 oi bulls and tripods. These last were often set up 
 in a public street on a high pedestal by the victors, 
 and hence it acquired thi; name Street of Tripods." 
 
 Very different in character from these Dionysiac 
 festivals of Attica were the night celebrations which 
 took place in some parts of Greece, but especially on 
 the Cithaeron and Parnassus, on the Islands, and in 
 Asia Minor, every other year, and in which only 
 women, both married and unmarried, took part. 
 The wild and orgiastic character of these Dionysia 
 originated in Thrace, but spread very quickly, and 
 found much favour among the women, who were 
 inclined to this kind of ecstatic worship. They fell in 
 the middle of winter, about the time of the shortest 
 day ; the women dressed for the purpose in Bacchic 
 costume, threw deer-skins over their shoulders, let 
 their hair fly loose, and took in their hands the 
 thyrsus staff and tambourine, and thus wandered to 
 the hills near their homes, and there performed all 
 manner of mysterious ceremonies, sacrifices, dances, 
 etc., amid the wildest merriment resulting from the 
 juice of the grape, which was seldom allowed them. 
 We can form some notion of the wild nature of 
 the proceedings from the descriptions of the poets 
 and artistic representations of Maenads ; still, we 
 must always remember that both poets and artists 
 described not so much the customs of their own 
 day as those of mythical or heroic periods, and 
 
PUBLIC FESTIVALS. 
 
 391 
 
 permitted themselves many exaggerations which did 
 not correspond to reality. 
 
 These descriptions of Greek, and especially 
 Athenian, festivities must suffice, and we pass over 
 a number of festivals in Greece and the colonies, 
 of which we know little more than the names. 
 Those who desire a striking picture of a great 
 festival, which, though Oriental in its origin, had 
 become Hellenised, celebrated in a great city in 
 the Alexandrine age, should read the splendid de- 
 scription by Theocritus in his Fifteenth Idyll of the 
 Feast of Adonis at Alexandria 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE THEATRE. 
 
 Origin of the Greek Drama — The Structure of the Theatre— 
 The Theatre of Dionysus — The Theatre at S>Tacuse — The 
 Auditorium — The Stage — The Orchestra — Scene-painting — Stage 
 Accessories — The Greek Drama — Tragedy, Comedy, and Satire — 
 The Choragia — Theatrical Masks — Costumes — Conditions of Ad- 
 mission to the Theatre — The Securing of Seats — The Audience. 
 
 Greek drama, both tragedy and comedy, originated 
 in the national amusements and performances of the 
 choruses at the Dionysiac festivals. A few words 
 must also be said about the arrangements of the 
 theatre, such as they were at the time of the 
 greatest glory of the drama at Athens. Here, for- 
 tunately, we have so large a store of information and 
 monuments still extant, that we can form a very clear 
 picture of these representations, differing as they did 
 entirely from our modern performances. 
 
 In spite of the great advance made by Greek drama 
 from the rough popular beginnings till the time of its 
 greatest glory, and in spite of the enormous difference 
 between the tragedies of the three great masters ind 
 the comedies of Aristophanes, both in their wnole 
 character as well as in the details of their structure and 
 performance, and the cyclic choruses and rustic sports 
 of the old Dionysia, yet there are a few points in which 
 the drama, even in its highest development, shows the 
 traces of its origin. One of these is the custom of 
 giving theatrical representations only at certain festive 
 seasons of the year, and in some way connected with 
 the worship of Dionysus as actual religious acts, though 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 393 
 
 towards the end of the ancient Hellenic period theat- 
 rical representations were also given at festivals not in 
 
 Fig. 150. 
 
 honour of Dionysus. In consequence of this the 
 structure of the theatres, and especially the place for 
 the spectators, had to be far larger than at the present 
 day. As performances only took place a few times in 
 
394 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the year, and not only the whole population of the 
 town and neighbourhood, but even many strangers 
 from a distance, collected together for them, the space 
 for the audience had to be so large that many thousands, 
 even tens of thousands, might have room there, and it 
 must also be built in such a way that the performance 
 could be conveniently seen from every place. These 
 remarks refer in particular to Athens, with whose 
 theatrical arrangements we are best acquainted, and 
 which, moreover, was the model for most of the others. 
 In the first place, it was impossible to have a covered 
 space ; covered theatres — concert-halls (wSeia), as they 
 were called — were destined, not for dramatic, but for 
 musical performances ; secondly, the performances 
 took place by daylight, in consequence of which much 
 of the illusion was lost. Again, the great size of the 
 structure and the considerable distance of most of the 
 seats from the actors necessitated certain peculiarities 
 in the costume of these latter which we must discuss 
 later on. 
 
 The memory of the origin of the drama from 
 choruses, to which in the course of time was added 
 dramatic action, was preserved in a separation between 
 the performers who presented the action and the 
 chorus who only accompanied it — a separation which 
 only gradually disappeared at a time when means 
 were insufficient for defraying the considerable ex- 
 penses of equipping a chorus. This distinction 
 between actors and chorus was not only observed in 
 the composition of the drama, but also in locality ; 
 the chorus, who not only sang, but also danced and 
 marched, required a very large space for their evolu- 
 tions, while the actors, whose number was very small, 
 could do with less. Therefore, while the modern 
 theatre consists of only two parts, the stage with its 
 
396 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 accessories and an auditorium, the Greek theatre 
 consisted of three parts ; besides the auditoriura and 
 the structure of the stage, there was between the 
 two a space for the chorus known as orchestra. In 
 considering the arrangement of the buildings, we 
 derive assistance from the descriptions of the ancients, 
 as well as the still existing remains of Greek theatres. 
 
 Fig. 152. 
 
 Fig. 150 represents the ground plan of the ruins of 
 the great theatre of Dionysus at Athens, though we 
 must remember that this structure, built originally in 
 the fifth and fourth centuries B.C., had experienced 
 considerable changes in the Roman period. Fig. 151 
 gives a view of the theatre of Syracuse in its present 
 condition, and the ground plan restored is seen in 
 Fig. 152 ; while Fig. 153 gives a restored view of the 
 theatre of Segesta, reconstructed by Strack. We 
 
398 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 may regard the orcliestra as tlie centre of the whole 
 structure. This was originally only a level dancing 
 place, and its shape was usually an incomplete circle, 
 since part was cut off' by the stage, which extended at 
 right angles along the orchestra. Opposite to this 
 the circumference of the orchestra was surrounded in 
 concentric lines by the raised seats of the auditorium, 
 the theatre in the true sense of the word. There is 
 no lixed standard for the shape of the orchestra and 
 the corresponding auditorium ; sometimes it is a 
 semicircle with the circumference extended a little 
 way on both sides, sometimes it is lengthened by a 
 tangent, or some other line at right angles to the 
 circle. In the great theatre of Dionysus the orchestra 
 was originally a perfect circle ; a complete semi- 
 circle, which is common in the Roman theatres, was 
 very unusual in those of Greece. Here, as in the 
 structures used for games, such as the Stadia and 
 Hippodromes, the Greeks tried as far as possible to 
 utilise the natural conditions of the ground for their 
 theatres. If possible, therefore, they placed the audi- 
 torium on some natural elevation ; thus, the great 
 theatre of Dionysus extends up the southern slope 
 of the Acropolis ; and if there was no such elevation 
 they often supplied it by artificial mounds of earth 
 differing thus from the custom of the Romans, who, 
 in consequence of the greater development of their 
 architectural knowledge, were able to build a theatre 
 on an open space, and to support the auditorium bj 
 strong sub-structures. The Greek mode of buildinj( 
 had the advantage of greater cheapness and security, 
 and, if the nature of the ground permitted, also 
 enabled them to make exits and entrances for the 
 public besides those below. In the theatre of Dionysus 
 there were side approaches on the high ground also. 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 899 
 
 The auditorium of the Greek theatre was usually 
 situated in some beautiful spot, from which the 
 visitors to the theatre, at any rate those on the higher 
 ground, who were not hindered by the structure of 
 the stage opposite, had an extensive view. Thus the 
 theatre of Syracuse (Fig. 151) had a glorious view 
 over the harbour and town — in fact, nearly all the 
 theatres in the neighbourhood of the sea are usually 
 so built that the auditorium is open towards the sea, 
 and the fresh breeze may refresh the public during 
 the hot hours of the day. 
 
 The seats, according to the nature of the locality, 
 were either hewn direct out of the rocky ground 
 or based on artificial foundations. At Athens the 
 spectators originally sat on the bare ground of the 
 Acropolis slope or on wooden benches placed there ; 
 in the fourth century stone steps were made there. 
 At Syracuse, Sicyon, and other places, nearly the 
 whole auditorium and the steps were hewn out of the 
 rock; the ends or wings of the auditorium, which 
 jutted out where the seats ended, close by the stage, 
 had to be of specially massive construction. Some- 
 times, though more often in the Koman than the 
 Greek theatres, the auditorium touched the side 
 wings of the stage; but this was not a particularly 
 convenient method, since a considerable number 
 of the places along this stone wall had no view of 
 the stage or, at any rate, only a very unsatisfactory 
 one. Entrance was procured for the public by the 
 great gates which led on the right and left between 
 the auditorium and the stage, and which, when the 
 spectators were assembled, also formed the entrances 
 for the chorus (TrdpoSoc). When a theatre was situated 
 on elevated ground, there were also other approaches 
 leading to the gangways of the upper storeys ; probably 
 
too 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 these were only used for emptying the theatre, and 
 not for admission, since on entering the spectators 
 had to pay for their admission, or else present their 
 tickets, and therefore the number of entrances was 
 probably limited with a view to simplifying the 
 control. In those theatres where the seats extended 
 as far as the stage, the approaches which were below 
 the seats had to be covered over (compare the view of 
 the theatre at Syracuse), but, as a rule, we must sup- 
 pose that they were uncovered. The seats were 
 arranged in such a manner that the steps, which rose 
 from the orchestra to the top of the theatre, were also 
 used as seats ; people sat on the actual stone, unless, 
 as sometimes happened, they brought cushions with 
 them, or had these carried by slaves. There were 
 a number of places in the lower rows distinguished 
 from the others by seats of honour, made also of stone, 
 usually of costly marble ; some of these seats, dating, 
 however, from the Eoman period, have been found in 
 the theatre of Dionysus. The usual height of the 
 steps was from about 16 to 19 inches, and the depth 
 from 24 to 28. There was no division of seats, and 
 though probably care was taken that too many per- 
 sons should not be crowded together, yet there were 
 no lines drawn to mark out the appointed places. 
 There was a very convenient and at the same 
 time simple arrangement for preventing the feet of 
 those who sat on a higher row from inconveniencing 
 those in front. The depth of the seat was often suf- 
 ficient to prevent contact, but, besides that, it was the 
 custom to hollow out that part of the step where the 
 spectators would put their feet. Some of the steps, 
 in fact, have three distinct surfaces : the nearest of 
 these to the row above was hollowed out for the feet ; 
 then came a gangway for those who wished to move 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 401 
 
 to or from their places, who could thus pass along 
 without incommoding those who were seated ; and 
 the third surface was that on which the next row 
 below were seated. There were, as a rule, no backs 
 to the seats, but in places where there was a wider 
 gangway, and thus one row of spectators did not 
 come into immediate contact with the next, they 
 were sometimes introduced and made of one piece 
 with the seat. 
 
 In larger theatres the audito^-ium was almost 
 always divided into several storeys by gangways. 
 These gangways ran round the auditorium concen- 
 trically with the seats, and their object was to 
 facilitate the cii'culation of the public; they were 
 therefore of considerable breadth (compare Fig. 153), 
 and sometimes two such gangways were put close to 
 each other, one higher and one lower, so that the 
 public could circulate easily on them without pushing 
 each other. The separate seats were everywhere 
 connected by steps. Although the arrangement of 
 the whole auditorium with its raised seats was that of 
 a circus, yet the seats were far too high to be used as 
 steps also, and these had to be specially constructed. 
 They were of two kinds ; small steps in the direction 
 of the seats, the object of which was to enable people 
 to mount from one seat to the next, and the principal 
 staircases, which intersected the seats through their 
 whole extent from top to bottom, and formed, as it 
 were, radii of the circle represented by the auditorium. 
 The number of these staircases was larger or smaller 
 as occasion required; sometimes the number was 
 doubled at the top, where the distances increased, by 
 introducing a third staircase between each pair ; 
 sometimes the staircases which began below did not 
 continue at the top, but there was a change in the 
 
402 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 radii. It was most common, however, for these stair- 
 cases to intersect the whole theatre right up to the 
 highest seats, and thus to divide the whole auditorium 
 into a number of wedge-shaped divisions, which, in 
 fact, received the designation of wedges (/cep/ctSe?). 
 Sometimes these wedges had special names, being 
 called after statues which were placed there, as, for 
 instance, in the theatre at Syracuse, and these desig- 
 nations facilitated the finding of places. As a rule, 
 the steps were so arranged that there were two to 
 every seat, thus each step was half the height of 
 the seat. 
 
 In later times the upper seats led to open arcades ; 
 when the ground permitted it, the Eomans often laid 
 out walks and gardens on the elevation of the theatre, 
 where the spectators might refresh themselves during 
 intervals ; below, near the orchestra, the auditorium 
 was cut off by a wall, which must be so low that the 
 spectators on the first seat could conveniently see 
 the stage, which was raised a good bit above the 
 orchestra. Sometimes the first gangway for the 
 circulation of the public was placed behind this 
 wall, which was bounded by a low breastwork; 
 when this was the case, steps of the first-mentioned 
 kind led up sideways to the orchestra (compare Fig. 
 153). 
 
 The size of the auditorium varied greatly. If our 
 measurements of ruined theatres are correct, the 
 theatre at Ephesus was the largest of all; Falkener 
 has calculated that it could contain 56,700 people. 
 The largest theatre in Europe was that of Megalopolis, 
 which was calculated to have 44,000 seats, and 
 the theatre of Dionysus 30,000. These calculations 
 are, however, very uncertain, since we do not know 
 how many feet were allotted to each person, and a 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 403 
 
 variation of half a foot would make a very consider- 
 able difference. 
 
 The most important question connected with the 
 orchestra deals with the ThyraeUy often alluded to 
 by ancient writers. It was formerly assumed that 
 this represented the ancient altar of Dionysus, round 
 which the choruses originally danced, and that it was 
 situated in the centre of the orchestra, while the 
 chorus grouped around it, and that the leader of 
 the chorus stood near the Thymele or on its steps, 
 and the officials of the theatre also took their stand 
 there. The view given by Strack in Fig. 153 is con- 
 structed according to this hypothesis ; and a structure 
 resembling an altar with steps is placed in the middle 
 of the orchestra. But this interpretation of the 
 Thymele has proved untenable, and though it is not 
 possible to decide this question with any certainty, 
 yet, among the various hypotheses, that of Wieseler 
 seems the most probable — viz., that the Thymele was 
 a wooden scaffolding constructed in the orchestra, on 
 which the chorus performed its dances. The main 
 object of this scaffolding, or podium, was not so much 
 to place the chorus on higher ground as to facilitate 
 their games and dancmg, because it was easier to 
 move and dance on the elastic floor of a wooden 
 scaffolding than, as formerly, in the dusty orchestra, 
 which, in fact, from this circumstance received the 
 name "dust-place" (Koviarpa), or even on the stone 
 pavement which seems to have been afterwards laid 
 down in the orchestra. We do not know whether 
 there were steps leading from the floor of the 
 orchestra to this scaffolding, and, in fact, we cannot 
 even determine its height. The size of the podium 
 must have been considerable, since it must have 
 supplied sufficient space for a large chorus. Besides 
 
404 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 its members, the number of which in cychc choruses 
 often amounted to fifty, the mvisicians who 
 accompanied took their place there, and, apparently, 
 even the constables (pa^Sotpopoc), who superintended 
 the theatre; for, strange as it may seem to us that 
 the officials whose duty it was to keep order among 
 the public should be placed in so prominent a position 
 at the side of the chorus, yet the proofs in favour of 
 this arrangement seem decisive. The usual entrances 
 to the orchestra for the chorus were the same as those 
 used by the public ; here, as in the arrangements on 
 the stage, the rule was that the entrance on the right 
 hand of the spectators indicated approach from the 
 neighbourhood, from the town or harbour, and the 
 left arrival from a distance. 
 
 The stage in the early days of the theatre was not 
 much more than a mere wooden scaffolding, on which 
 the actors appeared, while the chorus performed its 
 dances in the orchestra below. There was a tent on 
 the side turned away from the orchestra which served 
 as a place of waiting for the actors when they had 
 nothing to do on the stage, and it was this tent 
 {a-ic7)vrj) which gave its name to the stage, although 
 even afterwards distinction was made between the 
 actual stage and the structures connected with it. 
 The real stage was an oblong surface, raised from ten 
 to twelve feet above the orchestra ; it was called the 
 proscenium {irpoaicrjVLov), and sometimes the speaking- 
 place (Xoyelov). The lower front wall was decorated 
 in the Roman period with architectural designs, 
 reliefs, or painting ; we do not know whether this was 
 also the case in the Greek theatre, as S track has 
 assumed in his reconstruction, but it is very probable 
 that the front scene, which was turned to the specta- 
 tor.<4 was not left quite bare. In Strack's view there 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 405 
 
 were also steps leading from the orchestra to the 
 speaking-place. We cannot tell whether these were 
 regularly placed in the theatres. Still, steps between 
 the orchestra and stage were indispensable in those 
 plays in which (as, for instance, in " Philoctetes ") 
 the chorus leaves the orchestra and ascends to the 
 stage ; but it is quite possible that there were special 
 wooden steps used for this purpose, which were taken 
 away again when this connection was not required. 
 The existence of these movable steps is especially 
 mentioned in ancient writers. 
 
 Connected with this proscenium were the build- 
 ings belonging to the stage ; these usually formed a 
 structure several storeys in height, which enclosed 
 the stage on three sides (compare Fig. 153) in the 
 plan of the theatre of Dionysus (Fig. 150). The 
 older walls belonging to the fourth century are 
 sketched more lightly than the later restorations; 
 here the walls of the stage, the actual skene, is the 
 piece marked G. Z. ; on the right and left were side 
 wings {irapaaicr]VLa), and these were terminated by the 
 walls 12 and 13. The latest investigations of Dorp- 
 feld prove that the stage of the theatre of Dionysus, 
 constructed by the orator Lycurgus, had originally no 
 fixed proscenium, but that a fresh wooden stage was 
 constructed on every occasion. In later times they 
 cut off* a piece of the two side wings and fixed scenery 
 between them. Several doors led from the tent to 
 the stage ; as a rule, there were three in the back- 
 ground, of which the middle one was the entrance of 
 the chief actor, called "Protagonist," and was sup- 
 posed to lead either from a royal palace, or a dwelling, 
 or a cave, according to the nature of the play ; the 
 door on the right was for the second actor, the one 
 on the left had no special significance. We must not, 
 
406 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 however, regard these statements as universal. Prob- 
 ably there were usually three entrances to the stage, 
 though in the theatre of Dionysus there is only a 
 single door; but as the front was usually covered 
 by some decoration, these entrances were not directly 
 used, but the actors came through, them into the 
 narrow space between the wall of the stage and the 
 decorations, and thence through the doors in the 
 decorations on to the stage. The scenery of the 
 background varied according to the nature of the 
 action, and sometimes required several doors or 
 entrances ; sometimes there may have been no door 
 at all, since the actors also had at their disposal the 
 entrances by the side wings. These statements, there- 
 fore, only refer to certain plays, especially those 
 tragedies in which the chief personage is a king ; in 
 this case, probably, the middle door was the one sup- 
 posed to lead to the royal palace, and used, therefore, 
 only by the protagonist, although we must not on 
 that account suppose that he always came and went 
 through this door, since the nature of the plays would 
 of itself forbid this. Very often, too, a king appeared 
 in the play whose part was an unimportant one, not 
 given to the protagonist, and then, of course, the rule 
 above quoted could not be observed. 
 
 The side wings were used for the actors to wait in, 
 and it is very probable that the chorus also before 
 making their appearance, and during the time when 
 they were not present in the orchestra, retired thither, 
 and that there were passages leading thence to the 
 side entrances. There were also doors communicating 
 with the stage, and these, like those in the orchestra, 
 had their special significance ; through the right- 
 hand door came those actors who were supposed to 
 come from the town, and through the left those who 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 407 
 
 came from a distance, such as messengers, guests, 
 friends returning home, etc. 
 
 The decorations were only on the stage, the 
 orchestra was left quite bare, and probably had not 
 even any movable properties. It is pure fantasy to 
 suppose that in some plays a connection was established 
 between the stage and orchestra by making the whole 
 represent a mountain with rocky caves, etc. The 
 Greeks assumed a certain amount of illusion, but con- 
 fined this to the stage; they did not trouble about 
 the space in front, any more than we care to-day 
 about the appearance of the orchestra in front of the 
 opera. It was the scene represented on the stage 
 that gave its significance to the orchestra ; if a palace 
 was represented, and the stage represented the place 
 in front of it, then the orchestra became an open 
 space, on which the people assembled ; if the back- 
 ground was a temple, the orchestra was the sacred 
 space immediately in front of it (Tefi6vo<;), and so on. 
 Possibly the wall under the front of the stage was 
 connected with the decoration, so that if the stage, 
 for instance, represented a wild forest with a cave, the 
 front of the scene was similarly decorated. 
 
 Scene-painting, in which Greek art first made an 
 attempt at perspective drawing, had no such difficult 
 and complicated tasks to accomplish in those times as 
 in ours. The chief pieces of scenery were the back- 
 ground and the revolving pieces {ireptaKTo), The back- 
 ground of the proscenium had to cover the wall of 
 the stage, and also indicate the place of the action, 
 whether a square in front of a palace, or a street 
 with private houses, or a forest, etc. We must not 
 think of the great variety of scenery known to our 
 modern stage ; no doubt, too, they were content with 
 very simple execution, merely hinting at the scene 
 
408 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 required. The background was probably suspended 
 in a wooden scaffolding or frame, and placed imme- 
 diately before the inner scene front on the floor of the 
 stage. We do not know, however, how the decoration 
 of the background was changed, for change of scene 
 was sometimes necessary even in the ancient drama ; 
 perhaps they were in the habit in such cases of placing 
 one of the scenes in front of another, so that, as at 
 the present day, the front decoration had only to be 
 moved, either by dropping it or by dividing it in two 
 parts drawn to the side (for iii the absence of rods 
 they could not draw them up), and thus the second 
 scene became visible behind. 
 
 The second kind of decoration, which took the 
 place of our movable scenes, were the revolving pieces. 
 These were two contrivances shaped like a three-sided 
 prism, placed on either side of the stage at a little 
 distance from the side-wings ; their axis was attached 
 to the wooden floor of the stage, and round this 
 they moved. Each of them had three surfaces for 
 decoration, so that, by turning them round, three 
 different scenes could be represented, and this was 
 doubtless enough for any play, for in the pieces which 
 have come down to us there is only change of scene 
 in two, the " Eumenides " of Aeschylus, and the " Ajax " 
 of Sophocles, and in both these tragedies there is only 
 one change. These revolving pieces must also have 
 had a little store of decorations, for it was very easy 
 to cover them with a change of picture, as they 
 appear to have been simple stands. The theory that 
 the ancient stage had altogether only three scenes for 
 these stands — viz., one for tragedy, one for comedy, and 
 one for the satyric drama, is undoubtedly mistaken. 
 
 The Greek stage had no other scenery than that 
 for the background and the revolving pieces : there 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 409 
 
 must have been some movable properties, such as 
 benches, altars, tombs, etc., which are indicated by the 
 contents of many plays preserved to us. It is very 
 doubtful whether the Greek theatre resembled the 
 Roman in the use of a curtain, which, instead of 
 drawing up, sank down into the ground when the 
 play opened ; there is no absolute proof that this was 
 the case. The modern prompter's box was unknown, 
 and it is evident that they did not make use of a 
 prompter. 
 
 The' machinery of the ancient stage seems to have 
 been very complicated. Of most of the theatrical 
 machines we know only the names, and can form but 
 a very insufficient conception of them. A contrivance 
 in very frequent use was the " rolling-out machine " 
 (€K/cvKXrjfjia), which, according to the statements of 
 ancient writers, was used to show the spectators pro- 
 ceedings in the interior of a house — as we should 
 say, behind the scenes ; " for in the Greek drama the 
 scene was never laid inside a room, but everything 
 went on in the open air. Our authorities do not., how- 
 ever, enable us to form any clear conception of this 
 contrivance ; probably the background opened out in 
 some way, and the person or group which was to be 
 seen on the machine was rolled out on a wooden 
 scaffolding moving on rollers or wheels, which must, of 
 course, have been decorated in some way; in some 
 cases it may have been unnecessary to open out the 
 background, and sufficient for the machine to be 
 pushed in through one of the three doors. There was 
 a similar contrivance for rolling out persons who were 
 to be shown in the upper storey of a house at a corre- 
 sponding height above the stage, as we see from the 
 " Acharnians" of Aristophanes, where Euripides appears 
 in this manner on a sort of balcony in the upper storey. 
 
410 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Another contrivancebore the special name of "machine" 
 {lJi'r}')(avri)y and was the origin of the expression Dens 
 ex machina, used when a god, descending from 
 Olympus, violently cut the knot of the action ; this 
 was used for suspending in the air gods, heroes, or 
 mortals, but especially those persons who had to 
 appear above as though flying. We cannot tell 
 where this machine was attached, and how it was 
 worked ; there seems to have been a contrivance of 
 this kind on either side of the stage, above the side 
 entrances, near the side pieces, and the one on the 
 left was used by gods, while that on the right was 
 used for other purposes. The machine itself must 
 usually have been kept in some upper storey of the 
 stage structure. It must have been a somewhat 
 dangerous means of transit; the actors who had to 
 perform this aerial journey were usually bound fast 
 with ropes or girths, and in the "Peace" of Aristophanes 
 Trygaeus, when mounting on his aerial horse, the dung- 
 beetle, which must have been a similar flying machine, 
 implores the manager of the machinery, who has to 
 superintend all these arrangements, to be very careful 
 that he does not come to grief. The " gods' speakilig- 
 place " (OeoXoyelov) appears to have been a scaffolding 
 above the chief entrance in the background, on which 
 the gods appeared, probably surrounded by clouds ; 
 it differed from the " machine " in showing the gods 
 peacefully throned above, instead of bringing the 
 Olympian deities down to earth. Connected with the 
 " machine " was the " crane " (yepavos), a crane-like 
 machine let down from above, which was used when 
 human beings were to be lifted up from the stage ; as, 
 for instance, when Eos carried away the corpse of 
 Memnon through the air. 
 
 They also had machines for producing thunder 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 411 
 
 and lightning. We do not know how the lightning 
 was made, and it is difficult to imagine that it could 
 have been produced with any great result in broad 
 daylight. The thunder was caused by roUing bladders 
 full of little stones to and fro on brass plates in the 
 hollow space under the stage. In this hollow space 
 were also probably the " steps of Charon," a contrivance 
 for bringing the spirits of the dead on to the stage. 
 Nothing certain is known concerniDg these steps, but 
 it is very probable that they were managed after the 
 fashion of our trap-doors, for undoubtedly the floor 
 of the stage covered a hollow space, and thus a con- 
 trivance of this kind was very easily produced. 
 
 We must next consider the plays which had to 
 be performed here. On the old Greek stage there 
 were three kinds of drama — tragedies, comedies, 
 and satyric dramas. The comedies were acted 
 singly, and each constituted a complete whole; but 
 tragedy, as it developed out of the Dionysus legend 
 and the division of the action into three connected 
 therewith, was so constructed that a large circle 
 of myth was treated in three separate tragedies, 
 whose contents were connected, but which were 
 structurally complete in themselves, and these were 
 called a Trilogy. But about the same time the 
 curious custom originated of following up these 
 three serious pieces, with their deeply pathetic con- 
 tents, by a merry satyric drama by the same author, 
 — a wild farce, in which a chorus of satyrs was intro- 
 duced in connection with some mythical action, which 
 of course, only appeared in travesty ; and this com- 
 bination of four dramas was called a Tetralogy. 
 Unfortunately no tetralogy has come down complete 
 to us ; the trilogy of Aeschylus alone, which deals with 
 the story of Orestes, gives us some notion of the mode 
 
412 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 in which the tragic poets arranged their material in 
 the form of a trilogy. The first part, " Agamemnon/' 
 represents the murder of Agamemnon by Clytem- 
 nestra and Aegisthus ; the second, the " Choephorae," 
 the vengeance taken by Orestes on the murderers ; 
 the third, the " Eumenidcs/' the absolution for the 
 murder of his mother by the Areopagus. The tragic 
 poets did not very long abide by the custom of pre- 
 senting complete tetralogies at the Dionysia, in which 
 the trilogy presented one connected subject. It at- 
 tained its complete development under Aeschylus, 
 but Sophocles already began to depart from it, and in 
 the tetralogies with which he and Euripides competed, 
 the internal connection between the tragedies was 
 wanting. In later times it was customary for tragedies 
 complete in themselves to be acted singly, so that the 
 poets competed with drama against drama ; still, the 
 inscriptions show us that even in the fourth century 
 tetralogies were acted, though they may not have 
 been connected. Each of these three kinds of drama 
 underwent several changes during the course of Greek 
 literature. 
 
 In tragedy, whose subject was usually legend, but 
 which also dealt with questions of the day, such as the 
 occupation of Miletus and the wars with the Persians, 
 there was at first a distinct preponderance of the lyric 
 element supplied by the chorus over the purely 
 dramatic part. Before the time of Aeschylus there 
 was little idea of dramatic treatment ; at that time 
 there was only a single actor who, together with the 
 chorus, supplied the whole action, and confined him- 
 self chiefly to recitations, so that there could be no 
 question of striking situations and dialogue. Aeschylus 
 then introduced a second actor ; and as these actors, 
 by a change of dress, could undertake several parts, 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 413 
 
 the action was enlarged and animated, and the dialogue 
 grew more interesting. When Sophocles added a 
 third actor — an innovation of which Aeschylus, too, 
 made use in his later period, and which constituted 
 the highest number ever used in the Greek drama — 
 the victory of the dramatic part over the lyric was 
 accomplished ; and from that time onward the chorus 
 sank in importance compared with the actors, and at 
 last disappeared altogether. In the tragedies of 
 Euripides the dramatic element had become so im- 
 portant that the chorus could really be dispensed 
 with ; true, Euripides could not venture entirely to 
 discard this custom, which was sanctified by ireligion 
 and tradition, but, by gradually diminishing the share 
 of the chorus in the action, he prepared for its com- 
 plete abandonment. In Aeschylus, therefore, the 
 solemn songs and reflections of the chorus occupy a 
 considerable space, and the chorus even sometimes 
 takes an active part in the action, since it preponde- 
 rates in the play, and may be regarded as an acting 
 personage ; in Euripides its presence is more acci- 
 dental — it expounds the dogmas and opinions of the 
 poet, but takes no part in the action, and in tragedies 
 it might be entirely left out without injury. In Sopho- 
 cles alone the chorus and dialogue are harmoniously 
 balanced. Corresponding to these changes in the 
 position of the chorus was the amount assigned to 
 them for declamation. We may say in general that 
 the chorus sang an entrance song {irdpoho^), and 
 afterwards during the further course of the play 
 choric songs to mark pauses in the action, ac- 
 companied by marching, but without leaving the 
 orchestra, and these were called standing songs 
 {(TTao t/jLo) ; these long odes divided the drama into a 
 series of parts, called episodes {eTreiaohia), which may 
 
414 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 be compared to our acts, since the action stops during 
 the song, and the spectator has time to collect himself 
 and to let what he has heard and seen act upon him, 
 Av^hile the song continued through the interval helps 
 him to keep the impression produced by the action, 
 or else prepares him for what is to follow. 
 
 The older comedy, of which Aristophanes is the 
 chief representative, made use of chorus and dialogue 
 in the same way as tragedy. Its subjects referred to 
 actual life, and dealt with political, social, and 
 literary questions, and others of universal interest, 
 but in a fantastic manner, with the most eccentric 
 masques and absurd contrivances, dealing out hits all 
 round with the wildest licence, and sparing neither 
 the common citizen nor the most powerful and exalted 
 personages. The part played by the chorus differed 
 in many respects from that undertaken in tragedy; 
 the comic chorus very often stepped entirely outside 
 the action, and, as the mouthpiece of the poet, who 
 used this opportunity to bring his political or other 
 opinions before the public, to fight out personal 
 quarrels, and, in general, to say whatever he pleased, 
 it directed itself to the public ; such are those comic 
 choruses which bear the name Parabasis, The 
 comic chorus was also adequately distinguished from 
 the tragic, both in the difference of costume and in 
 the number of its members ; the latter were generally 
 only twelve, and the former twice as many. Again, 
 the dances and rhythmic movements of the comic 
 choruses differed greatly from those of the tragic. 
 But even during the lifetime of Aristophanes, the 
 transformation of the comedy began in its outer form 
 as well as in its real nature. The outer change con- 
 sisted in the abolition of the chorus, the expenditure 
 of which the citizens were no longer willing to defray, 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 415 
 
 and thus an excellent opportunity was lost of saying 
 rough truths with a laughing face, and the way was 
 paved for a gradual change of subject. The change 
 was accomplished by the so-called newer Attic 
 Comedy, which had no chorus, and, instead of politi- 
 cal or social satire, took as its subject pictures from 
 Athenian life, love intrigues, comic misunderstand- 
 ings, etc., and, in fact, more closely resembled our 
 modern comedies. Then the lyric element naturally 
 vanished, which in the older comedy, as in tragedy, 
 appeared not only in the chorus but also in the 
 dramatic performance of the actors ; the action was - 
 presented only by dialogue, and the musical element, 
 which had formerly played a very important part in 
 comedy, was confined to accompaniment of the recita- 
 tion, and thus became entirely subordinate. 
 
 The satyric drama is the one in which we can trace 
 the fewest changes, but it had only a short exist- 
 ence. It was invented by Pratinas, a contemporary of 
 Aeschylus, probably with the intention of compensat- 
 ing the public, who must have sadly missed the 
 popular sports which had formerly enlivened the 
 celebration of the Dionysia, and to satisfy their desire 
 for coarser fare. At first the satyric drama seems to 
 have preceded the tragedies, but this was soon 
 changed. In the best period of the drama we never 
 find satyric plays alone without tragedies preceding 
 them ; they were so essentially a part of the tj^agedy 
 that we only hear of tragic writers as composers of 
 satyric dramas. The best period of the satyric drama 
 was the time of Pratinas and Aeschylus ; Sophocles 
 and Euripides, too, composed them — one by the latter 
 has come down to us, the " Cyclops " — but at that 
 time its best period was already over, since it no 
 longer formed the necessary conclusion of a dramatic 
 
416 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 tetralogy. Still, satyric dramas retained their position 
 on the stage until the second century, and, in fact, 
 the Alexandrine poets made a fresh attempt to con- 
 nect the satyric drama with tragedies in a tetralogy. 
 We know very little about the subject of these later 
 satyric dramas. The titles of Alexandrine plays that 
 have come down to us show that at that time actual 
 life was introduced, though the mythological subjects 
 which had formed the sole basis of the ancient satyric 
 drama were also used. 
 
 The ancient drama, under which we include 
 tragedy, satyric drama, and comedy, was a combina- 
 tion of three arts — poetry, music, and dancing. The 
 last was, as a rule, confined to the chorus, and it very 
 seldom happened that an actor in the play performed 
 a dance, but the musical part belonged not only to 
 the chorus but also to the actors ; for though the 
 usual dialogue consisted merely in recitation, yet 
 there were long passages in the purely dramatic part 
 which were not declaimed by the actors, but sung. 
 Our modern writers express very different opinions 
 about the mode in which the dialogues were recited. 
 It appears to us most probable that in comedy there 
 was, as a rule, only speaking, without any musical 
 accompaniment ; while in tragedy continuous musical 
 composition was introduced alternating with dramatic 
 speech — that is, spoken recitation, accompanied by 
 music — and even with simple declamation. Then 
 there were also solo songs by the actors, of which the 
 metre was lyric, and these bore some resemblance to 
 the airs of our modern opera ; they are less common 
 in the older tragedy than in Euripides, with whom 
 they sometimes take a disproportionately large place. 
 There were also musical dialogues between the actors 
 and chorus, in particular its leader. The instruments 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 417 
 
 ased for accompaniment were the lyre and cithara, and 
 also the flute. The stringed instruments were used 
 chiefly for striking a few notes Hke the chords struck 
 at our recitations ; the flute only indicated the chief 
 notes, and accompanied the melody of the chorus and 
 the solo song either at the same height or one or two 
 octaves higher. Flute playing accompanied most of 
 the choric songs ; with the chorus entered a flute 
 player, who always took his place on the thymele. 
 In later tragedy the music, which had formerly been 
 very simple, grew more elaborate and complicated; 
 several flute players played at the same time, and 
 with their shrill music very often drowned the sing- 
 ing; but the solo performances on the stage were 
 accompanied by only a single flute. 
 
 The choregraphic element in the drama, which be- 
 longed especially to the chorus in tragedy, consisted 
 chiefly in marching with various figures, much like 
 our modern polonaise. The dances in comedy were 
 much more lively and often of a lascivious character, 
 and those of a satyric chorus were also of a burlesque 
 nature. But, doubtless, the choric dancing consisted 
 not merely in certain regular movements of the feet 
 adapted to the music, but also in rhythmic motions of 
 the whole body, and especially of the hands and arms, 
 so that their dancing must have somewhat resembled 
 our modern ballet. It is not easy to get any complete 
 conception of it ; the later hypotheses are by no 
 means proved, and many strange statements have 
 been made about the recitation of the chorus, the 
 division of verses and words of the song among the 
 semi-chorus, leaders, or individual members. In any 
 case the task of the chorus was no easy one, since the 
 members were not professional artists like the actors, 
 but amateurs, who had to be specially trained for 
 o 
 
418 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 each performance. This was due to the institution 
 
 of the Choragia. 
 
 In ancient times the equipment and performance 
 of plays was not, as afterwards, a duty of the State ; 
 the poet undertook the expenses, and tried to cover 
 them by entrance money. But when the theatrical 
 representation became a regular part of the Dionysiac 
 festivals, the State took the matter in its own hands, 
 and arranged things in such a way that the expenses 
 for the chorus were undertaken by some wealthy 
 citizen as a liturgy, while the rest of the expenses 
 were defrayed by the State. This liturgy was called 
 Choragia, because originally the person who defrayed 
 the expenses also trained and led the chorus. For 
 the various choric performances required at the many 
 festivals — since besides tragic and comic choruses there 
 were also cyclic and other choral representations — each 
 tribe chose its " choragus," and this was done a year 
 in advance, because the preparations required a great 
 deal of time. If a poet wanted to perform one of his 
 dramas at a festival, he need not consider how to pro- 
 cure the necessary actors, but only how to get his 
 chorus. For this purpose he addressed himself to 
 that archon whose duty it was to make the arrange- 
 ments for the festival in question, and begged him to 
 assign him a choragus. It appears to have been in 
 the power of this official to accept or refuse the play. 
 Probably the poets handed in the manuscript of their 
 plays. The only limitations in applying were that 
 the poet must be a citizen, and of unstained reputa- 
 tion; and in comedy, on account of its political 
 character, he must be of a certain age — thirty years, 
 according to most of the statements. If the archon 
 accepted the drama, he assigned the poet one of 
 the choragi, either by election or lot. It was by no 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 419 
 
 means a matter of indifference whether this was 
 required for tragedy or comedy; for at the time when 
 they competed with tetralogies, tragedy involved at 
 least as much expense as did comedy with its larger 
 chorus. It is probable, therefore, that the choragi were 
 sometimes assisted by the State, especially as in later 
 times, when the glory of Athens had departed, and its 
 citizens were no longer so rich, it became more and 
 more difficult to find people ready to undertake these 
 great expenses ; and in later times it was not 
 unusual for several choragi together to undertake a 
 chorus. 
 
 The first duty of the choragus was to collect the 
 necessary number of persons and to pay those who 
 were not bound to appear unpaid. He had also to 
 choose and pay a chorus teacher, who had to train the 
 chorus ('xopoSiSdaKaXos:), and usually undertook the 
 place of chorus-leader at the performance. In former 
 times, when this instruction of the chorus was not a 
 profession as it was later on, and the poet often helped 
 in the training, the choragus frequently trained the 
 chorus himself, and even appeared as their leader at 
 the performance ; but in later times this was unusual. 
 The choragus had also to procure, or if necessary hire, 
 a place for the training of the chorus, to keep the 
 members during the time of training, and to provide 
 them with festive garments and wreaths for the per- 
 formance. It rested with him to spend a large or a 
 small amount for this last purpose, but a choragus 
 who equipped a comic chorus economically, risked 
 being made the subject of the poet's sarcasm on 
 some future occasion, and in the allotment of prizes, 
 too, the appearance of the chorus would be con- 
 sidered, as well as the manner in which it performed 
 its task. 
 
420 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 The chorus-members were usually free citizens ; 
 strangers were jealously excluded. Their task was by 
 no means a light one ; bodily dexterity wae required 
 for the dances, and good musical training, good de- 
 livery and comprehension of the poetic text were 
 necessary in order to give a satisfactory representation 
 of the poet's work before the keenly critical Attic 
 public. It is, therefore, natural that a good choragus 
 took considerable trouble to procure a good chorus, 
 the rather as the choragia was a contest in which not 
 only the poet but also the choragi contended for the 
 prize. Besides those already mentioned, the choragi 
 had also other duties : to procure the requisites, such 
 as decoration for the side-scenes, perhaps even to 
 supply sacrificial animals if they were required in the 
 play. In later times, when the chorus had lost its 
 importance, and the expenses were less considerable, 
 the choragus had also to supply the dresses of the 
 actors, though this was never the case in the best 
 period of the drama. In fact, as we may learn from 
 the inscriptions, a complete change in the choragia 
 took place in the Hellenistic period. It became the 
 custom for the people to choose presidents of con- 
 tests (ajayvoOeraL), whose duty it was to provide for 
 the musical competitions at the Dionysia and other 
 festivals. They had to attend to the regular and 
 suitable performance of the contests, to supply certain 
 sacrificial animals, etc. ; this was often a very expen- 
 sive undertaking, and, like all officials, they had to 
 make a statement concerning their office at the con- 
 clusion of its duration. This institution in a way 
 placed the choragia in the hands of the people, who 
 transferred their duties to the presidents, and these 
 had then to equip all the choruses, which were no 
 longer so numerous as they had been formerly. This 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 421 
 
 innovation was necessitated by the fact that the 
 number of rich famiUes of whom these pecuniary 
 sacrifices could be demanded, had become very small, 
 and these now supplied the presidents. This change 
 in the arrangements of the choragia seems to have 
 taken place under the rule of Demetrius of Phalerum, 
 towards the end of the fourth century b.c. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that in the ancient theatre 
 women never appeared on the stage, and all women's 
 parts were presented by men ; we have also noted the 
 fact that there was at first only a single actor, who 
 represented various parts one after another, and en- 
 tered into a dialogue with the leader of the chorus, 
 and that Aeschylus added a second, and Sophocles a 
 third. Originally the poet himself appeared as actor, 
 and when there were several actors, as protagonist — 
 that is he represented the chief part. When Sophocles, 
 who had himself appeared a few times, abandoned 
 this custom, it gradually fell into disuse, and the tirst 
 actor, as well as the two others, was supplied to the 
 poet by the State. As a rule, the actors were allotted 
 to the poets by lot ; it seems, however, that before the 
 State undertook to pay an actor, he had to submit to 
 examination, and that only those who had already 
 appeared, and whose performances were well known, 
 v/ere excluded from this examination. The State, 
 then, engaged for each festival a number of protag- 
 onists, deuteragonists, and tritagonists, correspjnding 
 to the number of poets contending; thus, if there 
 were three poets competing, they required nine actors, 
 supposing the same actors continued to porform 
 throughout the whole tetralogy, of which Ave cannot 
 be certain. The lot assigned to each of the poets 
 one out of the three classes ; still, we know that some 
 poets always had the same protagonist, who appeared 
 
422 
 
 GREEK IJFE AT HOME. 
 
 in all their plays, and for whom, in fact, they some- 
 times wrote a special part; therefore, it must ha^^e 
 been customary for poets who had already been vic- 
 torious to ask for a particular protagonist without 
 drawing lots, and this custom probably became the 
 rule afterwards. We cannot, however, say how the 
 two others were chosen. 
 
 The parts of the play were now divided between 
 these three actors ; the chief part, which, as a rule, was 
 the most difficult, fell to the protagonist ; the next in 
 importance — viz., the one which was brought into 
 the closest connection with the chief person, fell to 
 the deuteragonist ; the tritagonist undertook unim- 
 portant parts, such as messengers, heralds, etc., and 
 these actors of the lowest class did not stand in par- 
 ticular estimation with the public. But as the plays 
 contained more than three parts, each actor had to 
 undertake several, and therefore, even while composing 
 a play, the poet had to be careful that the actors, if 
 they had to appear in another part, had sufficient time 
 for change of costume, and that the absence of an 
 actor who was to be used for another part should be 
 in some way explained. There were, however, plays 
 in which it was absolutely impossible to manage with 
 three actors, and for these there was a contrivance 
 about which the exponents of passages referring to it 
 hold very different opinions, and, indeed, there seem 
 to be mistakes or misrepresentations in the authors 
 themselves. It is most probable that when a poet 
 required more than the three actors assigned him by 
 the State he applied to the choragus, and came to 
 an agreement with him ; he then supplied a fourth 
 actor, or even a fifth, since it was only small parts 
 that had to be thus undertaken, and, if necessary, 
 the choragus also provided a second, or minor, 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 423 
 
 chorus, such as was required in certain plays 
 (7rapaxop7]yr]fjia). There were also dumb personages, 
 or statists, called also " spear-bearers," since these 
 parts were frequently merely standing parts. We do 
 not know whether the State or the choragus paid for 
 these. We have, in fact, little information about the 
 payment given to the actors, which must have been, 
 however, different in proportion to their performances ; 
 in the Macedonian period celebrated actors received 
 very high pay. In the Hellenistic period a complete 
 transformation took place in acting. When the chorus 
 was abolished, and the representation of dramas in 
 consequence became easier, and took place at other 
 festivals as well as the Dionysia, unions of actors were 
 formed, calling themselves "Dionysiac artists/' con- 
 cerning which the inscriptions give us a good deal of 
 interesting information. A number of these companies 
 combined together into sacred guilds, which had their 
 seat in the large towns, and sent their members in 
 companies into small towns and also into the provinces 
 as far as Asia Minor, for festive representations. We 
 are best acquainted with the arranp^ements of the 
 Dionysiac artist company of Teos, an Ionic town on 
 the coast of Lydia. This not only appeared in Asia 
 Minor, but Imd also rights in Delphi, Thebes, and 
 Tliespiao. ft numbered a great many members, not 
 only actors, but also writers of tragedies, comedies, and 
 satyric dramas, epic poems, and encomia ; composers, 
 musicians, dancers, machinists, decorators, wardrobe 
 owners, etc. They also instituted a dramatic musical 
 school, a kind of Conservatorium, in which pupils from 
 various parts of Greece were trained, and usually in 
 turn became members of the guild. It is very interest- 
 ing to examine the details, management, inner organi- 
 sation, and life of the members of these actors' guilds 
 
424 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 in the Alexandrine period, but unfortunately space 
 does not permit us to do so here. 
 
 All the arrangements already described show 
 strong contrasts between ancient and modern theatres, 
 and perhaps there is nothing which strikes us as so 
 extraordinary as the Greek theatrical costume, and 
 especially the appearance of actors in masks. It is 
 impossible for us to understand this complete dis- 
 regard of expression and change in representing feel- 
 ings, and this perpetual stare of the unchanging 
 mask. This curious custom has been explained in 
 many different ways. It is a mistake to suppose that 
 the Greek theatres were too large for the play of an 
 actor's expression to be observed, and that the coarse 
 features of the mask were arranged with a view to 
 this distance, in which their want of change would be 
 less striking. Since they played in broad daylight, in 
 the sharp clear light of a southern sky, the spectators, 
 even in the most distant places, could have followed 
 the play of the actor's features, especially since the 
 ancients had better eyes than our present generation. 
 Nor is it correct to suppose that the masks were 
 required in order that the funnel-shaped contrivance 
 applied to its mouth should strengthen the sound; for 
 the acoustics in the Greek theatres were usually so 
 good that the very slightest word even whispered on 
 the stasre could be heard in the auditorium. Un- 
 doubtedly it would have been impossible without 
 masks for the same actor to undertake many parts in 
 quick succession; but at the same time we may ask 
 whether they would have held so strictly to this 
 system of dividing all the parts among three actors if 
 they had not already possessed the masks, and thus 
 the possibility of abiding within these limitations. 
 The introduction of real characters, whose features 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 425 
 
 were to be faithfully imitated was also facilitated by 
 the masks, but good mimics could achieve this even 
 without, as examples on the modern stage have 
 shown. Consequently, none of these reasons really 
 explain the use of masks ; in reality they originated 
 in the religious customs which were the origin of the 
 drama, and afterwards were simply maintained with 
 many other rehcs of its religious origin, as people had 
 got accustomed to them and found them convenient. 
 It had formerly been the practice at the Dionysia, 
 whence the drama originated, for people to disguise 
 their faces by smearing them over with husks of 
 grapes, etc., or to cover them up completely, or dis- 
 guise them with wreaths of ivy, etc. Instead of paint- 
 ing and covering them with leaves they gradually 
 began to use pieces of linen, at first quite shapeless 
 and destined only to cover the face and prevent 
 recognition, but afterwards by imitating human 
 features, these developed into masks. This custom 
 continued, then, as sanctified by tradition, and, indeed, 
 all the theatrical arrangements were regarded as a 
 sacred ceremony in honour of Dionysus. 
 
 The theatrical masks, the material of which in 
 later times, too, was linen, covered with plaster of 
 Paris, or else wood, bark, etc., differed from our modern 
 masks in covering not only the face, but the whole 
 head of the actor. The actor who had put on the 
 mask could, of course, only see through the slits for 
 the eyes, and, indeed, it sometimes happened — and in 
 the oldest period seems to have been common — that, 
 instead of cutting out a slit for the whole eye, there 
 was only one for the pupil, and the iris was repre- 
 sented on the mask itself, and coloured, so that the 
 actor had the difficult task of looking only through 
 the place for the pupil ; still, as the dimensions of the 
 
426 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 masks were usually larger than those of a human 
 face, this may have been larger than his own. Of 
 course, the masks were completely painted over ; the 
 eyebrows, lips, cheeks^ wrinkles, etc., were marked ; the 
 beard and hair were made of real hair, or wool, or 
 some other succedaneum. Some of the tragic masks 
 had a high bunch of hair above the forehead to 
 increase the height ; this was called the " superficies " 
 (o7«:o9), and its object was mainly to increase the 
 height of the actor and make him appear of greater 
 size — an object at which many other peculiarities of 
 the tragic costume also aimed. The ears were not 
 always visible. The mouth was usually open very 
 wide, with lips and sometimes artificial teeth. The 
 object of the great width of the mouth opening was to 
 enable the actor to declaim and sing unhindered. The 
 comic masks (see below. Figs. 156 and 157), very often 
 had a funnel-shaped mouth opening, which gave a 
 very grotesque expression to the whole face, and may 
 have been connected with some special technical 
 object, or else merely destined to increase the comic 
 effect. In putting on the masks they took hold of 
 the chin, and drew them on from bottom to top ; they 
 were then fastened under the chin with strings, and 
 the actor's neck was almost completely covered by 
 the mask and his clothing; hence the curious, we 
 might almost say asthmatic, impression given by the 
 pictures of ancient actors. 
 
 Generally speaking, we may distinguish three kinds 
 of masks, according to the three kinds of drama — 
 tragic, comic, and satyric ; and it is not difiicult among 
 the numerous representations of masks on ancient 
 works of art to distinguish between these three kinds, 
 especially since the expression is, as a rule, decisive. 
 In the tragic masks we see calm solemnity, deep grief, 
 
428 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 or wild passion ; every feeling is expressed on a largo 
 and usually dignified scale. The comic masks, on the 
 other hand, always incline to caricature; and those 
 used for the satyric drama, since they were meant for 
 satyrs, naturally represent the physiognomy of animals. 
 But, besides these general indications, there were a 
 large number of gradations — some of them very finely 
 marked — which proves to us that the old makers of 
 masks, which was a special branch of trade, thoroughly 
 understood their work and also human physiognomy. 
 In olden times they seem to have made the masks 
 specially for each drama, so that they might correspond 
 exactly to the characters. This was the case in tragedy 
 as well as in the older comedy. Aeschylus, to whom 
 in particular innovations and inventions in this domain 
 are ascribed, required quite new masks for his " Eume- 
 nides," which had never before appeared on the stage ; 
 as did Aristophanes and the other poets of the older 
 comedy for their fantastic characters — Frogs, Clouds, 
 Birds, etc., as also for the real personages represented 
 in their comedies, such as Euripides, Socrates, Cleon, 
 and could only use the already existing masks for the 
 usual typical figures of citizens and citizens' wives, 
 slaves, etc., as well as for the mythological personages, 
 Hercules, Dionysus, etc. The newer Attic comedy, 
 with its typical characters, very seldom required 
 specially-constructed masks, and it thus -became the 
 custom for the properties of eveiy stage or acting 
 company to include a considerable supply of character 
 masks of every kind, which in most cases were sufficient 
 for the demand. Consequently, to speak simply of 
 tragic or comic masks is to express ourselves rather 
 superficially ; for though an actually comic mask— that 
 is, one whose absurdity excites to laughter — could never 
 be used in a tragedy, yet there were serious masks 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 429 
 
 which might be used in a comedy ; and it would be 
 wrong to suppose that all the persons in a comedy 
 for instance by Menander, appeared in masks which 
 could be designated as specially comic. 
 
 Among the typical masks they distinguish between 
 sex, age, and differences of figure ; thus there was a 
 mask called " the young girl/' another " the thin old 
 woman," " the fat old woman," etc. ; then they distin- 
 guished according to the colour or cut of the hair : there 
 was the "curly-headed youth," the "short-haired 
 maiden," the " fair man," the " grey satyr," or by the 
 beard : the " man with a long beara," the " beardless 
 satjrr," or by the complexion: the ''brown man," the 
 "fair woman with flowing hair " and even by the shape of 
 the nose, as the " satyr with a pug-nose." Other masks 
 were characterised by the social position they were to 
 represent, such as " the old housewife," " the country- 
 man," "the old hetaera," " the soldier," "the lady's maid 
 with elaborate coiffure," or according to special peculi- 
 arities of mind or character : " the worthy young 
 man," "the talkative old woman." Even varying moods 
 of mind or feelings were represented by the masks, and 
 it is probable therefore, that when an important change 
 took place in any one person, the actor changed his 
 mask behind the scenes. The writers also supply 
 various instances to show the different means by which 
 special traits of character were represented. One of 
 these tokens was the colour of the complexion ; a brown 
 complexion characterised healthy men, hving much 
 out of doors, or devoting themselves to physical exer- 
 cise; a white complexion was given to women and 
 to delicate or effeminate youths; pale or yellowish 
 to invalids, or those whose mind was disordered or 
 suffering, as for instance unhappy lovers. The colour 
 and expression of the eyes was also important ; they 
 
430 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 distinguished between dull, piercing, dark, gloomy, 
 sad, etc., and all this was not represented by the actor, 
 but was already indicated in the mask. The eyebrows, 
 too, were of importance ; when they were drawn up high 
 they indicated, in comedy, pride and boastfulness, and 
 were thus allotted to parasites, soldiers, etc. ; narrow 
 eyebrows indicated seriousness or a sad state of mind. 
 No less important for the character of the mask was 
 the treatment of the forehead, nose, etc. To explain 
 all this we give, in Figs. 154 and 155, the front and 
 side view of a tragic terra-cotta mask, whose wide- 
 open mouth, staring eyes, brows drawn upwards, and 
 wrinkled forehead indicate fear and terror. A con- 
 trast to these is the comic mask (Figs. 156 and 157), 
 with the funnel-shaped mouth opening, the pug-nose, 
 squinting eyes, and eyebrows drawn down towards the 
 middle. Similar is the mask worn by the comic actor 
 in Fig. 158, who in other respects appears in the 
 costume of ordinary life — ^^that is, in the short slave's 
 dress — and the mask of the comic actor in Fig. 159 is 
 a similar caricature. 
 
 Besides the regular masks, from which the actors 
 chose those that suited their part, unless the poet had 
 already prescribed what they were to wear, others 
 were in later times adapted for extraordinary situa- 
 tions — for personages of quite abnormal figure, alle- 
 gorical characters, etc. — and these could not be used 
 for ordinary performances. Tragedy especially was 
 often obliged to bring unusual masks on the stage; and 
 the comedy of Southern Italy, which treated mytho- 
 logical subjects in grotesque fashion, may have occa- 
 sionally required quite special masks. Thus, on the 
 Pompeian wall-painting (Fig. 160), which, doubtless, 
 was copied from a Greek picture, the masks relate to 
 the legend of Andromeda ; the one on the left belongs 
 
432 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 to a youth with a broAvn complexion, whose winged 
 
 cap and harp resting on 
 the ground mark him 
 out as Perseus ; this is a 
 special mask, and so is 
 that of the monster in 
 the middle, while that 
 of Andromeda above on 
 the right, and the others 
 on the right below, which 
 are not quite distinct, 
 may easily have formed 
 part of the ordinary 
 supply. 
 
 Equally strange and 
 different from the 
 modern was the rest of 
 the costume of the Greek 
 stage. Speaking of 
 tragic equipment, we 
 may characterise the 
 contrast between that 
 day and our own by say- 
 ing that Greeks, in the 
 choice of their tragic 
 costume, aimed at the 
 type, while we desire to 
 indicate the individual. 
 In theatrical costume, as 
 in art, we wish to repre- 
 sent everything with 
 historical truth ; the 
 history of costume and 
 special study for modern 
 stage managers. Ancient tragedies very seldom 
 
 Fig. 158. 
 
 fashion is a subject of 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 433 
 
 dealt with historical subjects, but usually with 
 legends ; therefore a costume must, as it were, be 
 invented for the characters. Art could assist them 
 but little, since it generally represented the gods 
 and heroes in the nude ; but the theatre, which at 
 the same time was a religious institution in which 
 all the co-operators were particip- 
 ants in the celebration, sought its 
 effects chiefly by splendour of cos- 
 tume. Thus was developed the 
 ordinary tragic dress, which be- 
 longed neither to actuality nor to 
 the past, but was an ideal costume 
 most closely resembling the gar- 
 ments of religious festivities. 
 There were also certain special 
 means adopted for increasing the 
 height of the actor beyond reality, 
 but we must not suppose that this 
 was required by the great distance 
 at which the actors were seen; 
 these attempts at magnifying were 
 father caused by the desire to 
 make the actors appear super- 
 human, heroic personages, excel- 
 ling the men of the day in physical 
 power and dignity, just as the wonderful deeds of the 
 Homeric heroes exceeded the weak actions of their de- 
 scendants. The requirements of costume in comedy 
 were somewhat different ; for gods and heroes the same 
 costume was used as in tragedy, but slaves or persons of 
 ordinarj^ life were also introduced, and these could not 
 be clad in solemn garments. It is difficult to find a 
 fixed standard in comedy, since we must take into 
 account not only the difference between the older and 
 
 Fig. 169. 
 
434 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the newer comedy, but also the comedy outside Attica 
 — for instance, that of the Sicyonians, the Tarentines, 
 etc. — which had its peculiar character, and, doubtless, 
 also peculiar dress, just as the " Arlecchino " of the 
 Venetian popular comedy appears in a different dress 
 from the Florentine " Stenterello,'* and the Neapolitan 
 Pulcinella,'' although originally they were all three 
 the same person. A special costume was not required 
 for the satyric chorus, since all that was necessary 
 here was to imitate as well as possible what was 
 represented by works of art. In stage costume, as 
 in that of real life, we must distinguish between 
 upper and lower garments. The lower garment of 
 the tragic actor, as well as of the chorus, both in 
 male and female parts, was the long chiton, which 
 was worn in Attica before the time of Pericles, and 
 traced its origin to Ionia ; this dress was maintained 
 on the stage because it was especially a festive gar- 
 ment, and, like these festive garments, the theatrical 
 dresses were many-coloured, richly adorned with 
 embroidery or borders, and often very costly, if a rich 
 choragus desired to equip his chorus splendidly. As 
 a rule, this chiton was girded in the old fashion, 
 which we see also in the cithara players, immediately 
 under the shoulders, thus forming a very high waist. 
 They also wore long sleeves reaching down to the 
 hands, a peculiarity of festive costume which had dis- 
 appeared from real life. To increase the magnificence, 
 the chiton often had a train, not only for women but 
 even for men. The upper dress was either the hiuia- 
 tion and chlamys, common in ordinary life, or else 
 garments peculiar to the stage, of which a number 
 of names have come down to us, but no exact 
 details of their shape and mode of wearing. Here, 
 too, colour was the rule ; black clothing was worn 
 
436 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 by wretched and persecuted people. In their case, 
 of course, the festive costume, which would have 
 formed too sharp a contrast with their parts, 
 was discarded ; Philoctetes, Telephus, etc., did not 
 appear in royal splendour, but in simple garments 
 or even in rags. We may remember the description 
 given in the " Oedipus at Colonus " of the appearance 
 of the unhappy exiled prince ; and Aristophanes' jokes 
 show us that Euripides aimed specially at attracting 
 the pity of the spectators by wretched beggars' dress. 
 The dress of the women, generally speaking, was 
 similar ; perhaps there was a difference in the mode 
 in which the upper garment was put on. Subordinate 
 personages in tragedy — messengers, satellites, slaves, 
 etc. — wore the short chiton ; paidogogoi appeared in 
 the barbaric dress already described ; and thus variety 
 in the appearance of the actors was produced, while 
 the ceremonious dress was reserved for the most ini- 
 portant personages. The ivory statuette of an actor, 
 of which two sides are represented in Figs. 161 and 
 162, gives an excellent notion of the tragic costume. 
 He wears a long chiton, with sleeves (painted blue in 
 the original) decorated with three broad stripes, de- 
 scending from the girdle to his feet, and with horizontal 
 stripes round his sleeves. The mask, with the high 
 superficies, bears an expression of wild anger ; the 
 size of the slits for the eyes is remarkable, and we can 
 see through them the eyes of the actor, as well as a 
 piece of the face immediately round them. As a rule, 
 only the pupil so appears in Greek masks, and there- 
 fore the editor (C. Kobert) surmises that this points to 
 a Roman custom of the Imperial age. This statuette 
 is also interesting for the shape of the " cothurnus," 
 the usual foot-gear of the tragic actor. The cothurnus 
 was a tolerably high shoe, but made to fit either foot ; 
 
very high cork soles, which considerably increased the 
 height of the wearer. As may here be seen, the foot 
 
438 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 with the actual cothurnus is hidden under the dress, 
 only the high soles are visible beneath it. When the 
 height of the actor was thus increased by the super- 
 ficies and cothurnus, it was necessary to give a larger 
 appearance to the rest of the figure ; for this purpose 
 they stufted themselves out with cushions, and wore 
 gloves with long fingers, which seem to have been 
 fastened to the sleeves, etc. The whole produced an 
 effect that would hardly have suited our taste, but in 
 reality was not nearly so strange as the costume of 
 the heroes of Corneille and Racine, to whose court 
 dress and long wigs the seventeenth century seems to 
 have taken no exception. Of course, there were various 
 necessary additions to this costume : arms for the 
 warriors, a sceptre for the kings, a lion's skin and club 
 for Hercules, and a fawn skin for Artemis, etc. In 
 comedy the women probably appeared in the costume 
 of ordinary life. For the male characters, except the 
 fantastic parts, the short chiton seems to have been 
 commonest, especially for persons of the lower classes ; 
 and the slaves, who were never absent from the newer 
 comedy, wore the " exomis,'' the common workman's 
 dress. The skin garments of the country people were 
 also worn, and knapsacks and knotty sticks completed 
 their equipment. In later comedy special characters 
 were marked out by the colour of the dresses : thus, 
 the parasites wore black or green dresses ; others, 
 again, coloured dresses with cloaks ; slaves, the white 
 exomis ; youths, the white chiton with purple border ; 
 cooks, unfulled garments, etc. Similarly the feminine 
 characters were marked out : there were the old women, 
 the daughters of citizens, the rich heiresses, hetaerae, 
 etc. In the comedy of Southern Italy, the costume of 
 which is represented on many vase paintings, the actors 
 of male parts usually wear a closely-fitting dress, 
 
440 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 covering the legs as far as the ankles, and the arms 
 down to the hand, and over this a tight-fitting tunic, 
 leaving arms and legs free (compare Fig. 163). Here 
 it is evident that the lower garment takes the place 
 of our tricot ; the arms and legs are supposed to be 
 bare. If the object was to represent absolute nudity, 
 the tunic was replaced by a close-fiiting vest, usually 
 provided with a false stuffing, on which the breasts and 
 navel were marked. To this was sometimes added the 
 comic phallus, a remnant of the old coarse popular 
 jokes, in which the Older Comedy frequently indulged. 
 But in the New Comedy it fell gradually into disuse, 
 and was entirely absent from the representations of 
 ordinary life, though introduced into farces which 
 burlesqued the myths and tales of the heroes. 
 
 We give here several examples of pictures from 
 ancient comedy. In Fig. 163, the meaning of which 
 is not clear, the stage has on its left side a scaffolding 
 covered in with a roof, to which a staircase leads ; on 
 the floor of this erection lie a bundle of beds or car- 
 pets, a cap, and a litter. Chiron, whose name appears 
 on the plate, is climbing up the staircase with diffi- 
 culty, and bending down leaning on his rough knotty 
 stick ; a slave is pushing him up from behind, while 
 Xanthias, standing on the top of the stairs, seizes hold 
 of his head as though to draw him up. In the back- 
 ground we see two not specially attractive nymphs, of 
 whom only the upper part is visible ; these again are 
 designated in the inscription ; the youth on the right, 
 in the himation, and without a mask, is not one of 
 the actors. Possibly this is a representation of the 
 sick Chiron seeking healing at a sanctuary of the 
 nymphs. The costume and the tricots, as well as the 
 grotesque masks, are worthy of notice. The vase 
 painting in Fig. 164 has not been satisfactorily 
 
GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 explained. It is evident that Hercules is engaged 
 in some love adventure, as is proved by the Kon's skin 
 in which the actor, who is jesting with a girl, is 
 dressed, and the club which rests beside him. The 
 figure on the right probably represents an old woman; 
 on' the left is a man contemplating the scene. With 
 the exception of the girl and the woman in the 
 middle, the masks are extreme caricatures ; the cos- 
 tume of the two men resembles that in Fig. 163. 
 Fig. 165, a Pompeian wall-painting, may be here com- 
 pared, because it evidently imitates Greek prototypes, 
 and the scene represented in the centre belongs to 
 the later comedy. The one actor with a curious head- 
 dress and a spear seems to be a sort of Miles 
 Gloriosus, the man in a reverential position speaking 
 to him a parasite. The three youths who stand near 
 wear no masks, and it is therefore doubtful whether 
 they are to be regarded as part of the representation 
 in the character, perhaps, of statists, who may have 
 appeared without masks. Two old men to the right 
 and left of the central scene, seated on a somewhat 
 lower plane, and leaning on their knotty sticks, with 
 serious official mien, are doubtless theatrical police, 
 who had to keep order during the performance. It is 
 not easy to say what place in the theatre they were 
 supposed to occupy. 
 
 We gain some information concerning the costume 
 of the satyric drama from a very interesting vase 
 painting, which cannot, however, for various reasons, 
 be represented here, and w^hich we propose, there- 
 fore, shortly to describe. This represents the per- 
 sonages taking part in a satyric drama before the 
 commencement of the performance ; a group in 
 the centre of the top row does not belong to the 
 performers: this represents Dionysus resting oil a 
 
444 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 couch with Ariadne, near him is a woman holding 
 up a mask, probably a Muse, and the little Eto8 
 Himeros. To the right and left of this group, which 
 must be regarded as the ideal scene, stand three 
 actors, each holding his mask in his hand (the strings 
 by which they were held are visible) ; next on the 
 right is Hercules, who may be recognised by his lion's 
 skin, club, and quiver; near him is the " Papposilenus." 
 his whole body covered with skin, a panther's skin 
 thrown over his left arm, and holding a short staff; 
 we do not know the name of the third actor on 
 the left. The chorus of satyrs consists of eleven 
 persons, of whom only one has as yet put on his 
 mask. That one is practising a dance in preparation 
 for the performance. Most of the chorus are dressed 
 alike with only a little covering of skin round their 
 loins, and the short satyr's tail ; one of them, however, 
 has a little garment of some material with a pattern, 
 and another wears an embroidered dress with hima- 
 tion ; he might be taken for an actor if his mask did 
 not bear the satyric type like the rest, the pug nose 
 and the pointed ears. In the middle of the lowest 
 row two musicians are represented : a splendidly 
 dressed flute player seated, in front of him stands a 
 cithara player. Further to the left sits a young man 
 holding a roll in his hand, another roll lies on the 
 ground, a lyre is visible behind him. In spite of his 
 striking youthfulness, this young man is probably the 
 teacher of the chorus or the poet himself. The actors 
 are bearded men, the chorus beardless youths. Two 
 tripods close by probably suggest the prize to be com- 
 peted for. 
 
 We must now say a few words about the external 
 details of the performance, the public, and the recep- 
 tion of the pieces. Originally, admission to theatrical 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 445 
 
 representations was free, as to a religious festival in 
 which the whole population were to take part. But 
 when the crowd of spectators became greater this had 
 its disadvantages, and very often quarrels for places 
 ensued between citizens and strangers. We know 
 little of the conditions in other places ; but at Athens, 
 when in 500 B.C. the old wooden theatre fell down 
 during a performance, and the new stone theatre 
 of Dionysus was erected, they took advantage of 
 the occasion to levy an entrance fee, the amount 
 of which is uncertain. Even at the beginning of 
 the fifth century the income from this source 
 seems to have belonged to a theatrical lessee, whose 
 duty it was in consequence to keep the building in 
 proper condition. He paid a fixed sum to the State, 
 and in return received the entrance money. It is 
 well known that Pericles, partly with a benevolent 
 desire of making the theatre accessible for the poorer 
 class of citizens, and partly also in order to increase 
 his popularity by this democratic measure, introduced 
 a law by which every citizen received the price of 
 admission from the State. This was the "show- 
 money" (^ewpt/coi;), an institution which seems to have 
 lasted for centuries, but the arrangements connected 
 with it are by no means clear. In the first place, it 
 was probably calculated for the poor people only; 
 but the rich, too, made use of it, if only to escape 
 from possible reproach of pride or haughtiness by 
 some of the numerous informers who at that time 
 existed at Athens. There was a special board en- 
 trusted with the distribution; the show-money was 
 allotted to the citizens according to tribes by 
 cashiers appointed by lot, whose duty it was to 
 see that none received it without proper claim. It 
 was therefore distributed in the separate tribes 
 
446 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 according to the registers of citizens in the demes. 
 The statements of the ancients do not agree about 
 the amount of the money ; but the most probable of 
 the newer hypotheses is that for one day it amounted 
 to two obols, for the three days of the great Dionysia 
 one drachma. The money was paid, on admission 
 into the theatre, to the lessee, who either received it 
 in person, or levied it by means of his controllers or 
 cashiers ; the same people took the fees from those 
 who had not received the show-money, such as the 
 resident foreigners, strangers, etc. It is very diffi- 
 cult to decide whether this Avas paid in coin or 
 not; one hypothesis is that, instead of money, 
 the citizens received tickets, which had the value 
 of money, and simplified the paying out as well 
 as the paying back ; many' such counters bearing 
 theatrical emblems, have come down to us, and are 
 supposed to have been admission passes. Still, 
 weighty objections have been made to this hypo- 
 thesis ; and it is more probable that the citizens 
 really received the actual money, with which they 
 could do what they pleased ; they either bought a 
 ticket for the theatre — and very likely these coun- 
 ters were really entrance tickets — or spent it in 
 any other way they pleased. It was not possible 
 to control this; and herein, no doubt, lay the dis- 
 advantage of the institution, which has often been 
 spoken of as injurious to the Attic democracy, since 
 it was followed by similar institutions at other times, 
 and consequently the unproductive expenses of the 
 Attic budget extended more and more. A number 
 of places in the theatre were given free, or were 
 places of honour: thus, for instance, those re- 
 served by the State for foreign envoys, the places 
 for the priests and others who had a right to special 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 447 
 
 seats ; naturally, the expenses of these places had 
 to be paid by the State to the theatrical lessee. 
 
 The question whether women and children might 
 visit the theatre is often asked. Undoubtedly women 
 were allowed to be present at the tragedies, since there 
 are sufficient passages to prove this. Now, tragedy 
 was followed by the satyric drama, which was often 
 exceedingly coarse both in language and gesture ; 
 obviously then the women must have sat this out, 
 and this need not appear so very strange to us, since 
 there does not seem to have been much prudery 
 among the Greek women. Moreover, the satyric 
 drama was only indecent now and then, and the 
 jokes were vulgar according to our ideas, but not 
 exactly frivolous, and no worse than modern operettas 
 to which ladies are in the habit of going. The come- 
 dies were different, especially the older comedies, for 
 the whole contents are often coarse, and situations 
 occur in them which make it impossible for us to 
 imagine that women or boys should have been present. 
 Still, all indications seem to prove that they were seen 
 by women, with this limitation, that respectable 
 women who had regard for their reputation did not 
 go to comedies ; hetaerae, who are often alluded to as 
 eager theatre-goers, probably constituted the greater 
 part of the feminine public. It also seems that 
 boys were present. Slaves were allowed to visit the 
 theatre ; some even earned money, and could there- 
 fore pay their own admission, others may have gone 
 in attendance on their masters, or have received the 
 money for their entrance in some other way ; but it 
 is unlikely that they sat among the citizens ; prob- 
 ably there were special places allotted them; indeed 
 it has been suggested that there were distinct seats 
 for every class. The only places about which this 
 
448 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 is certain are the lowest rows, which were seats 
 of honour for officials, priests, etc. Moreover, it is' 
 probable, but not quite certain, that the highest 
 places were reserved for strangers. It has also been 
 assumed that the women sat in the more distant 
 places, or, at any rate, not in the front rows, and this 
 seems probable ; otherwise, there is no passage which 
 proves for certain that the seats for the men at 
 Athens were distinct from those of the women. 
 
 Another question is the manner in which the non- 
 reserved places were allotted. It seems certain that 
 they were not numbered, and, indeed, this would 
 have been scarcely possible among so many thou- 
 sands ; but there may have been a general division of 
 the theatre according to the wedges, and the separate 
 divisions of each wedge, and these may have been 
 indicated on the entrance counters. Benndorf has 
 suggested that at Athens each wedge may have been 
 assigned to the members of a particular tribe, and 
 that on the counter given to each citizen the tribe in 
 question was marked by some symbol. But this 
 hypothesis is only probable if we assume, with 
 Benndorf, that the citizens received not money but 
 counters; if the spectators bought their theatre 
 tickets from the lessee with the show-money, or at 
 their own expense, it was impossible for there to be 
 any division of places according to tribes, for this 
 would have necessitated a fresh and very troublesome 
 control of the registers of citizens. We must there- 
 fore assume that the counters bought of the theatrical 
 lessee were marked according to wedges and division, 
 and the spectators had to take their places accordingly 
 but that, with the exception of a few classes of spec- 
 tators, there was no compulsion to take a place in any 
 special division. 
 
THE THEATRE. 
 
 449 
 
 Of the three musical contests celebrated at the 
 greater Dionysia, each kind, namely, the tragedies 
 with the satyric dramas, the comedies, and the cyclic 
 choruses had their special judges. At the appoint- 
 ment of the choragi, which took place a long while 
 before the festival, the Council of the Five Hundred, 
 probably under the presidency of the Archon, in 
 the presence of the elected choragi, elected these 
 by ballot, and the lot once more decided which of 
 them was to pronoimce judgment. We know lor 
 certain that five judges were appointed for comedy, 
 probably the same number was required for tragedy, 
 although an exceptional case is mentioned, dur- 
 ing a contest between Aeschylus and Sophocles, in 
 which there were ten judges, a departure from the 
 ordinary custom, which was required by the great 
 excitement in the public and the fear that the judges 
 might be influenced in their decision by it. The 
 judges had to pronounce on three points : the 
 work of the poet, the performance of chorus and 
 choragus, and the acting. The reward for the 
 victorious poet was a wreath of ivy; the choragus 
 received permission to set up a public monument in 
 token of his victory, and, as already mentioned, the 
 choragi in the tragic choruses usually dedicated 
 tripods, those of the comic choruses fillets, thyrsus 
 wands, and other festive apparatus ; their decisions 
 were also commemorated by inscriptions. The prize 
 of the actors probably consisted in additional gifts 
 of money besides the fees that were legally due to 
 them. 
 
 p 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 WAR AND SEAFARINa. 
 
 The Heroic Period — Tribal Wars — The Chariot — Characteristics oi 
 Greek Warriors — The Spartans— The Athenian Array — Greek 
 Arms — Cavalry — Greek Sieges — Greek Ships — The Trireme. 
 
 Scarcely any changes seem to have taken place in 
 the character of the ofTensive and defensive arms of 
 the Greeks from the most ancient period until the 
 Roman time, though the conduct of warfare made 
 enormous advances in the thousand years between the 
 Trojan War and the age of Alexander the Great and 
 his successors. Our authorities for the earliest period 
 are but few, but the wars of the fifth and fourth 
 centuries B.C. have been carefully described by 
 historians, some of whom themselves possessed 
 military knowledge. We must therefore be content 
 to obtain our knowledge of warfare in early times 
 from the descriptions of poets,* who naturally aimed 
 at a very different result from the historian. The 
 Homeric Epics are not authorities which we can 
 follow absolutely in every respect, but still they 
 enable us to form a picture of the warfare of that 
 period, and gain some general notion of the mode 
 in which it was conducted. 
 
 The military conditions of that time bore the same 
 patriarchal character which characterised the govern- 
 ment of the heroic age, Greece, which even in the 
 historic age Ffts broken up into a number of separate 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 451 
 
 nationalities, was in the heroic period merely a 
 collection of tribes living in constant feud with one 
 another, and undertaking continual predatory expedi- 
 tions on their neighbours' territory ; the nobles placing 
 themselves at the head of a number of enterprising 
 men, and regarding these proceedings as in no way 
 dishonourable to them. Sometimes a great common 
 undertaking combined several tribes under one head, 
 but even then the power of this chief was by no 
 means an unlimited one ; the separate tribes who took 
 part in the expedition under their own princes and 
 nobles stood under their immediate command, and 
 it depended on the goodwill of these little kings 
 whether they submitted to the ordinances of the 
 chief commander or not. Consequently there could 
 be no question of a common arrangement of the 
 army, or of a subdivision of the people according to 
 the nature of the arms they used ; the battle order 
 was drawn up according to tribes. 
 
 Nor were they acquainted with any definite plan 
 of battle. The main brunt of the fight was borne by 
 the nobles, who fought from their chariots, and whose 
 single combat with renowned leaders on the other side 
 excited such universal interest that very often the 
 battle stopped meantime. Moreover, these duels were 
 often decisive for the victory or defeat of the whole 
 army. The nobles appeared in full armour, accom- 
 panied by their charioteers, on their war chariots, 
 usually drawn by two horses. On the vase painting 
 depicted in Fig. 166 the painter has represented four 
 horses drawing the chariot, but in so doing he was not 
 following an old tradition, since in his time the custom 
 of fighting with chariots had long ceased, but ratlier 
 the universal practice of ancient vase painting, which 
 always represented war chariots with four horses, 
 
452 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 following the example of the Quadrigae used in races. 
 The warrior stands holding the reins in his left hand, 
 and his spear in the right, and has not yet mounted 
 his chariot ; he is in full armour, and so is the warrior 
 standing in front of the chariot, and consequently we 
 are justified in supposing that this really represents a 
 war chariot. The Greeks, when they fought from 
 their chariots, dashed at full speed from their own 
 ranks against the foe, and often challenged an enemy 
 to single combat with words of bitter mockery ; this 
 was begun with lances, and afterwards, when the com- 
 batants had got close together and possibly left their 
 chariots, with the sword ; even stones were not despised 
 in the heat of combat. Cavalry was unknown in the 
 time of Homer ; the masses of infantry seldom fought 
 hand to hand, but usually from a distance with bows 
 and javelins. But when they came to close quarters 
 they closed their ranks and locked their shields 
 together ; for the principle of the closed phalanx, 
 which became so important for Greek warfare, was 
 indicated even in the heroic age. Their mode of war- 
 fare shows the uncivilised condition of the Greeks at 
 that time. Cunning and ambush were regarded as 
 permissible, and cruelty and harshness to the fallen 
 enemy were universal. The captives taken in war 
 became slaves if they were not ransomed, and were 
 sometimes even mercilessly sacrificed. It was con- 
 sidered a glorious deed to rob the fallen enemy of his 
 armour in the midst of the fight, nor was it ignoble co 
 leave his corpse unburied, to be consumed by the wild 
 beasts. Still, there were traces of noble self-sacrifice 
 and comradeship in their conduct towards their own 
 fellow-countrymen. 
 
 In the following centuries, after manj^ revolu- 
 tions and internal contests, the tribes were combined 
 
454 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 together into separate states, in the manner which 
 continued with sHght territorial changes down to the 
 Macedonian period. But as the Greeks never suc- 
 ceeded in becoming one great united power, or even a 
 federation of states, they never attained to a common 
 army, and the armies of Greece were as manifold and 
 various as the circumstances in the various small 
 states of Hellas. Details have come down to us con- 
 cerning very few ; we know most of Sparta and Athens. 
 
 Sparta in particular was warlike in the whole 
 character of its inhabitants, and consequently the 
 whole constitution was based on military principles. 
 Every " Spartiate," that is, everj'' man descended 
 from an ancient Spartan family, was bound to mili- 
 tary service in his country from his twentieth to his 
 sixtieth year. Of course, they did not call upon all 
 capable of bearing arms in time of war, but in each 
 case the Ephors decided which classes were to be 
 levied. Each of the five communities of Sparta sup- 
 plied one division (\6xo^) ; these were again subdivided 
 in companies (fiopai), who messed in common. In 
 later times, towards the end of the fifth century, the 
 divisions were changed. The whole Lacedaemonian 
 army was then divided into six divisions, each of these 
 into two companies ; the size of these divisions varied 
 according to requirement. The non-citizens too were 
 called to military service ; the " Perioiki " formed 
 separate divisions, who as a rule did not fight in the 
 same ranks with the Spartiates, but still served like 
 these, as heavy-armed infantry {oTrXirai), while the 
 " Helots,'' who were actual slaves, followed their 
 masters to battle as attendants, chiefly as shield- 
 bearers, and were sometimes used in battle as light- 
 armed troops. The command in time of war fell 
 to one of the two kings, and it was the citizens who 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 455 
 
 decided which of the two should take the chief com- 
 mand on a particular occasion. Each separate division 
 of troops had its own leader, who was probably 
 entrusted in time of peace also with the military train- 
 ing and exercise of his men. In military matters the 
 Spartans far excelled most of the other Greeks, because 
 their whole training and education rested on a military 
 basis, and no glory was regarded as greater than that 
 achieved in war. Moreover no Spartiate might work 
 at any profession or trade, but was obliged to dedicate 
 all his powers to the State, and therefore the Spartans 
 were professional soldiers in the true sense of the word. 
 It is true they were only strong in infantry ; the 
 cavalry was insignificant both in quality and quantity. 
 Each division had some cavalry, but for this purpose 
 they took the weaker men, who were incapable of 
 serving as heavy-armed infantry, and, in consequence, 
 the cavalry played a very unimportant part in the 
 Spartan army, and they were often obliged to engage 
 foreign mercenaries for the purpose. 
 
 The warlike Spartans regarded a military expedi- 
 tion as a desirable opportunity of putting to the test 
 their powers acquired in time of peace, and it was 
 really a kind of festival to them. They set out for a 
 campaign after sacrificing and taking auspices. In 
 the enemy's country they set up a camp, and this 
 was not square as was the usual Greek custom, but 
 round and unfortified; it was guarded by the out- 
 posts and the cavalry, who were sent out to patrol. 
 The helots were encamped outside. Military drill 
 was carried on very energetically within, but still, on 
 the whole, the life and discipline in the field were 
 less severe than at home; and on these occasions 
 purple garments were worn, and the hair was care- 
 fully curled and decked with wreaths, a thing which 
 
456 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 was never done at home in time of peace. Before a 
 battle they offered sacrifices in the early hours of the 
 morning ; then they set out against the enemy, with 
 closed ranks and regular step, to the joyous sound of 
 flutes and the marching song, in which the whole 
 army joined. The heroic courage and self-denying 
 endurance with Avhich the Lacedaemonians fought, 
 even without hope of victory, are everywhere re- 
 nowned, and the noble friendships between older 
 and younger men on these occasions stood out in 
 the brightest light. 
 
 At Athens too the citizens were bound to military 
 service till their sixtieth year, but this obligation was 
 not so general as at Sparta. According to the consti- 
 tution of Solon, it was only the citizens of the three 
 highest classes who were bound to military service ; 
 the " Thetes," who formed the fourth class, were 
 exempt, and only in exceptional cases, such as 
 occurred in later times, during long and serious wars, 
 they were levied as light-armed troops, or more often 
 as sailors for the fleet. After the Eevolution of Clei- 
 sthenes, when Attica was divided into ten tribes, this 
 political division was also maintained for the levy ; 
 the register of citizens was made the basis of a roll 
 of the men in each tribe and deme who were liable 
 to military service, and on each separate occasion the 
 decree of the people decided what ages were to be 
 levied. It was the rule, however, that the first two 
 ages, from the eighteenth to the twentieth year, i.e., the 
 ephebi, should not be called for service in the field, 
 but only in the country as riding patrol, and it was 
 not till their twentieth year that citizens were re- 
 quired to serve outside the country. The members of 
 the council, as well as the higher officials, were 
 exempt from military service during their period of 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 457 
 
 office. The Athenian army was divided into ten 
 divisions (ra^e^?) according to the number of tribes , 
 these, again, were divided into companies and further 
 subdivisions, whose strength varied according to the 
 size of the levy and the conditions of the country. 
 The resident foreigners, who were also bound to 
 military service, served in the fleet, and also in the 
 land army among the infantry, but never in the 
 cavalry ; they were chiefly used to garrison fortified 
 places and defend cities. The cavalry were far more 
 important at Athens than at Sparta. Every tribe 
 supplied a hundred horsemen, and altogether these 
 formed two divisions of five hundred men, com- 
 manded by the Hipparchs. As the State did not 
 provide the horses, but expected the soldiers to pro- 
 cure and feed their own, this service was a very ex- 
 pensive one, and consequently was only undertaken 
 by the first two classes. These cavalry regiments, 
 which were the pride of the Athenian citizens, were 
 exercised in time of peace also, and from time to 
 time inspected by the Council of Five Hundred ; we 
 have already mentioned that the cavalry played an 
 important part at the Panathenaic procession. In 
 ancient times the army was commanded in time of 
 war by the king, and afterwards by the archon as 
 long as there was only one ; when there were nine 
 archons this duty fell to one of them, called the 
 Polemarch. After the reforms of Cleisthenes, it 
 became customary for each tribe to elect a general 
 {aTpaT7]jG^) , and for the chief command in time of 
 war to fall to all these generals in turn, each com- 
 manding for a day. Next came the Taxiarchs,'' and 
 the two " Hipparchs," and ten " Phylarchs," but nearly 
 all these offices lost their importance, as did also 
 the military organisation of the citizens, when the 
 
458 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 mercenary sj^'stem was introduced. This began as early 
 as the time of the Peloponnesian war, and gradually 
 gained ground. Originally they hired troops from 
 foreign nations of a kind which were wanting in their 
 own army ; thus, javelin throwers were brought from 
 Rhodes, and archers from Crete, but in the course of the 
 fourth century the actual Hellenic population, and in 
 particular that of Attica, became more and more 
 
 Fia. 167. 
 
 unwarlike, and as the princes of Macedonia and other 
 non-Hellenic states began to form standing armies of 
 well-disciplined mercenary troops, the Hellenic re- 
 publics were forced to follow this example as their 
 own military power diminished. This mercenary 
 system did a great deal to undermine the independ- 
 ence of Greece, and facilitate its subjection under the 
 Macedonian dominion. Even in the time of the 
 Peloponnesian war, the Arcadians were willing to fight 
 for anyone who would pay them, against their own 
 countrymen ; in the expedition of the Ten Thousand, 
 they formed an important part of the troops of 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 459 
 
 the younger Cyrus, and by no means the worst part. 
 As the population was impoverished by many wars, 
 they became more wilUng to respond to the invi- 
 tation of any capable Gondottiere, and collected from 
 all states, but chiefly from Peloponnesus ; and it 
 sometimes happened that the members of a single 
 state or tribe united together as a special division of 
 the army. As the warlike spirit disappeared among 
 
 Fig. 168. 
 
 the citizens, who were unwilling to undergo the 
 fatigues of service, these standing mercenary troops, 
 under the command of excellent ^3nerals, became 
 more and uiore disciplined and capable. The pay for 
 a common soldier was usually four obols a day (about 
 fivepence), half of which was pay and the other half 
 ration-money ; this amount was sometimes increased. 
 The captain of a company received twice as much, the 
 general four times, but the prospect of booty was even 
 more attractive than the money ; for according to the 
 conditions of warfare of that time, every campaign wa^ a 
 predatory and ravaging expedition, and the mercenary 
 
460 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 troops who went to war- from purely personal motives 
 spared neither friend nor foe, and herein simply- 
 followed the example of their leaders. 
 
 We must now say a few words about Greek arms, 
 
 Fig. 169. 
 
 in which, as already mentioned, very few changes took 
 place. The full armour of a Homeric hero consisted 
 of greaves, cuirass, helmet, shield, sword, and one or 
 two spears, and in all essentials this was also the 
 armour of the heavy-armed soldiers of the historic 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 461 
 
 period ; there were, however, a few raodifications in 
 the centuries which followed Homer. The defensive 
 armour of the infantry consisted in helmet, cuirass, 
 greaves, and shield. As a rule, they began by putting 
 
 Fig. 1 7 ). 
 
 the greaves on first, as it would have been difficult to 
 bend the body after putting on the cuirass, and we 
 see this rule observed in most old works of art, though 
 there are some exceptions. The greaves were half- 
 bent plates of brass, lined within with leather or wool ; 
 
462 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 they had to be elastic, because they were bent out- 
 " wards in putting on, and by means of their elasticity 
 they clung to the leg, the front of which they covered, 
 extending above the knee; still, there must have been a 
 ring round the ankle to hold them fast, and perhaps 
 there was another fastening above. In Fig. 167, which, 
 with Fig. 168, represents pictures from a painted bowl 
 with red figures, we see on the right a young warrior 
 stooping down to put on one of his greaves, which he 
 is bending outwards for this purpose ; contrary to the 
 usual custom, the youth has already put on the cuirass 
 and chlamys over his chiton. In Fig. 169 the inner 
 picture of a drinking cup, representing the murder of 
 Dolon, the Greek hero Diomede wears greaves, on 
 which we can clearly recognise the ring below. 
 
 The cuirass of the heroic and historic periods is 
 shorter than that which was customary with the 
 Komans, but still descends far enough to cover the 
 greater part of the body below, and may be seen on 
 works of art ; but, as a rule, the massive parts do not 
 extend below the waist, and there are movable lappets 
 attached to it to protect the parts below. The cuirass 
 was generally made of bronze, and consisted of two 
 plates, one of which covered the breast, the other the 
 back, and these were fastened together at the lower 
 edges, and also below and above the shoulders by 
 buckles or other fastenings. In later times, shoulder- 
 pieces were added, which are not mentioned in Homer ; 
 these were fastened to the back, and when the cuirass 
 was put on-drawn from there over the shoulder, and 
 made firm in front wiih little chains or cords to rings 
 or hooks. In Fig. 168, the man on the right, who is 
 putting on his armour, has already drawn on his 
 cuirass ; the two shoulder-pieces are still open, and he 
 is just on the point of pulling the right shoulder-piece 
 
464 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 forward, in order to fasten it there to the front piece 
 of his cuirass. In Fig. 170, a heroic genre picture, we 
 
 Fig. 172. 
 
 see this more clearly. Here Achilles bandages the 
 arm of the wounded Patroclus; the right shoulder- 
 piece of Patroclus is fas'tened, but the left is opened 
 in order not to hurt the wounded arm. The mode 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 465 
 
 in which the shoulder-pieces were fastened to the 
 cuirass is very clearly represented in the figure of 
 Amphiaraus, in Fig. 171, a vase painting represent- 
 ing the Farewell of Amphiaraus/' There were two 
 kinds of cuirass : those with stiff plates, and those 
 with scales. In the former, those plates are com- 
 monest which do not fit closely to the body, but only 
 roughly represent its shape; of this kind are the 
 cuirasses of the warriors in Figs. 167 and 168, and also 
 that of Amphiaraus in Fig. 171. In Fig 172, taken 
 from a bowl painted by Duris, the youth who is going 
 to battle receives a cuirass of this kind (compare also 
 Fig. 166). Sometimes this cuirass was made in a 
 shape common among the Komans, imitating the form 
 of the human body and representing its chief features. 
 The warriors in Fig. 170 wear scale armour ; the 
 cuirasses are evidently made of leather, covered with 
 little brass plates, arranged one over another like scales. 
 Some parts of the cuirasses seem also to be made of 
 plates ; for instance, the girdle of Achilles and a strip 
 behind, also the upper part of the breast-plate of 
 Patroclus ; the shoulder-pieces, however, are made of 
 scales, for flexibility was of special importance here. 
 The belly was protected by leather strips or lappets, 
 covered with metal, hanging down at the lower edge 
 of the cuirass, and covering part of the thighs (com- 
 pare Figs. 169 and 170). The cuirass was gener- 
 ally fastened round the hips by a leathern belt, with 
 brass coverings ; perhaps this is the object which the 
 boy in Fig. 168 is offering to the warrior putting on 
 nis armour. 
 
 Below the cuirass they wore a short chiton woven 
 of especially strong threads, and frequently mentioned 
 by Homer as twisted or woven; the sleeves were 
 usually cut short, falling a little way below the 
 
466 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 shoulders, and it only descended over part of the 
 thighs. (Compare the pictures.) Homer also makes 
 mention of a broad girdle {/jbirpa), plated with brass, 
 worn immediately over the chiton in such a manner 
 
 Fig. 174. Fig. 175. 
 
 that the upper part of the girdle was covered by the 
 cuirass, while the lower was exposed. This girdle 
 seems to have fallen into disuse soon after the 
 Homeric age, for we can find no trace of it on any 
 works of art. The linen tunics mentioned in Homer, 
 which became commoner in later times, were probably 
 woven of strong thread, and covered with brass at the 
 most exposed places. 
 
 The helmet, which, even in the earhest ages, took 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 467 
 
 the place of the original head- covering of skin, 
 was usually of bronze, and, according to the state- 
 ments of Homer and originals still existing, was 
 of three thicknesses, strongest in the middle, with a 
 thinner layer above and below. The chief part ot 
 the helmet fitted close to the head like a cap, and 
 covered forehead and temples ; in front it hung down 
 in two separate pieces over the cheeks; there were 
 two openings for the eyes between the nose-piece and 
 
 Fig. 176. 
 
 cheek-pieces. In ancient times the skull cap and 
 cheek-pieces were made of a single piece, as we see on 
 the ancient Greek helmets from Olympia and Sar- 
 dinia, represented in Figs. 173 to 175 ; these are also 
 provided with nose-pieces, so that not much could be 
 recognised of the warrior who was covered in this 
 way. The helmet acquired an additional protection 
 by a ridge extending ovei; the middle of the skull cap 
 from the back of the head to the forehead, in which 
 the crest was fastened ; there were also helmets with 
 two ridges to increase the resisting power, and this 
 
468 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 then had two crests. Very often the crest, which was 
 of great size, was not fastened directly into the ridge, 
 but connected with it by means of a tall, narrow 
 elevation, so that it towered high above the helmet. 
 The vase painting represented in Fig. 176 shows 
 helmets of this kind belonging to two warriors who 
 are playing draughts ; one of them has taken off* his 
 helmet and placed it on the shield beside him ; tho 
 other keeps his on, but has raised the part over the 
 forehead ; the shape resembles the originals repre- 
 sented in Figs. 173 to 175. Sometimes the crest was 
 fastened straight into the skull cap without any ridge, 
 as on Fig. 166, in the helmet belonging to the warrior 
 on the right. In later times, many changes took 
 place in the shape of helmets ; the nose-piece and 
 cheek-pieces were sometimes flexible and sometimes 
 stiff, but of a different shape ; thus the helmet of 
 Achilles, in Fig. 170, has the stiff forehead and nose- 
 piece, but the cheek-pieces move on a hinge, and for 
 the sake of comfort the hero has tur'ied them up- 
 wards. Of the three helmets in Fig. 167, the one on 
 the ground on the right seems also to have movable 
 cheek-pieces, but there is no nose-piece, and only a 
 protection for the forehead, which could probably also 
 be pushed back ; the two others have stiff nose- and 
 cheek-pieces in one with the skull cap, but the cheek- 
 pieces are not pointed, as was usually the case in the 
 older kind, but rounded off. (Compare also Figs. 166, 
 169, and 172.) There was usually also a protectirg 
 piece for the neck, as may be seen on many other 
 pictures. Works of art show manifold ways of 
 decorating the helmets. , (Compare the helmet of 
 Diomede in Fig. 169.) Sometimes they made them 
 in the shape of a human face, imitating the lines of 
 the forehead, eyebrows, etc., in bronze. Curiously 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 469 
 
 enough, this mask form was sometimes transferred 
 even to the back of the helmet, as may be seen 
 in Fig. 177, representing the death of Memnon, 
 where the long hair of the warrior descends below 
 the helmet, though this may have been due to a 
 mistake on the part of the artist ; another point of 
 interest about this helmet is its two crests. Besides 
 
 these high and usually splendid helmets, the simple 
 cap-shaped helmets were also extant in later times, 
 and these were strengthened by ridges or plates of 
 brass nailed on them ; such is the helmet worn by 
 Amphiaraus in Fig. 171. To prevent excessive pressure 
 on the head, they usually wore a close-fitting cap 
 below it, as we see in the case of Patroclus, in 
 Fig. 170. 
 
 In the Homeric age, there were two chief kinds of 
 shields : a small circular one, and an oval shield of 
 
470 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 almost human height. They were made of several 
 layers of bull's hide, sewn on the top of one another, 
 and covered, as a rule, on the outer side, with bronze. 
 As the diameter of the skins decreased from without 
 to within, and the strength of the metal coverings de- 
 creased from the middle to the edge, the result was 
 that the middle of the shield, which had to offer the 
 greatest resistance, was also the strongest part ; besides 
 this, a boss or convex bronze plate (o/x^aXo?), was also 
 fixed in the centre of the outer side, but in later times 
 they put the coat of arms in its place. The smaller 
 circular shield seems to have been carried by a double 
 handle, through one part of which, in the middle of 
 the hollow, the arm was thrust, while the other at the 
 edge was clasped by the hand (compare Fig. 169). 
 This mode of carrying would be impossible for the 
 large shields, and these must have been managed by 
 a single handle, though we must not forget that these 
 very heavy shields were also suspended from the body 
 by straps. In later times, too, we find the round and 
 oval shields still in use, but the latter were considerably 
 diminished in size, which is very natural, since it must 
 have been extremely inconvenient and troublesome 
 in battle to carry these enormous shields. Both kinds 
 were moderately vaulted, and had a somewhat project- 
 ing edge ; the shields, both round and oval, often had 
 two slits at the sides, the object of which was to enable 
 the warrior to peep at the enemy from behind his 
 shield, and also perhaps to send his spear through the 
 opening ; these slits may be recognised in the shields 
 in Fig. 176. As to the mode in which they were 
 carried, we sometimes find two handles, both at a little 
 distance from the centre, as on the shield in Fig. 171, 
 of which the inner side is visible ; sometimes a cross- 
 bar extended over the whole inner breadth of the 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 471 
 
 shield, through which the arm was thrust, while there 
 were various straps at the edge which could be easily 
 grasped, and which made it possible to go on using the 
 shield even if one of these handles should have been 
 torn off. There is a rather different contrivance in a 
 shield in Fig. 167, of which we see the inner side; 
 instead of one crossbar used as a diameter of the 
 circle, there are three like radii meeting together in 
 
 Fig. 180. 
 
 the centre. Here, too, there were probably loops at 
 the edge. Very often the shields were lined inside 
 with coloured materials, and decorated with tassels or 
 cords; on small round shields we sometimes find a 
 broad lappet of leather, or some such material, hang- 
 ing down, to give the combatant a further protection 
 for the lower part of his body. The coats of arms, 
 which were very various and full of meaning, were 
 either put on in relief like the head of a satyr in the 
 centre of a shield in Fig. 176, or else inlaid of metal 
 of another colour, or nailed on. 
 
472 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Offensive arms may be divided into those which 
 were used in close combat, especially lance and sword, 
 and those which were used from a distance, in par- 
 ticular, javelin, bow, and sling. The spear, or lance, con- 
 sisted in a shaft usually made of ash, provided 
 at both ends with a bronze point ; one of these 
 . points was used for attack, the other (compare 
 Fig. 166) to fix the spear in the ground when it 
 was not required. The material for the point, 
 in the heroic age, was usually bronze : in later 
 times, iron. The blade of the point required 
 for attack was usually leaf-shaped and two- 
 edged (compare Figs. 178 to 181, taken from 
 originals in Dodona) ; its length was from 7 to 8 
 inches, its breadth about 2^ in the middle ; it 
 I was fastened to the upper pointed end of the 
 
 I shaft by a socket, and this socket was sur- 
 rounded by a ring in order to increase the firm- 
 ness. The lower end was usually only a short 
 conical point. The length of the spear was 
 greater in the heroic age than afterwards. 
 Homer mentions spears about five yards long, 
 and in naval warfare even one about ten 
 yards long, but this was constructed of several 
 pieces fastened together, and was probably 
 only used in naval warfare to keep off the grap- 
 pling irons ; in later times the usual length was 
 from two to two and a quarter yards. That 
 181. is about the length of the spears represented 
 in Figs. 167, 168, and 171. We often find, 
 as in Fig. 176, two spears in the hand of a 
 warrior ; this usually happened when the soldier used 
 his long spear not only for thrusting, but also foi 
 throwing, in which case he would require a re- 
 serve spear. In thrusting, as well as in throwing, he 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 473 
 
 clasped the spear in the middle with the right hand 
 alone. 
 
 The sword is an even 
 more useful weapon for 
 hand • to - hand combat 
 than the spear, which on 
 account of its length can 
 only be used from some 
 distance. Originally 
 swords were constructed 
 of bronze, and this is 
 the only kind mentioned 
 by Homer, afterwards of 
 iron; the blade was two- 
 edged, and in the heroic 
 age tolerably long, prob- 
 ably shaped Uke that in 
 Fig. 182, which was 
 brought from Mycenae 
 and is twenty- four inches 
 long; the two-edged 
 blade and the top of the 
 handle, which was de- 
 corated by plates of 
 wood, bone, or such like, 
 fastened on by nails, but 
 which has not been pre- 
 served, were formed of a 
 single piece. As this 
 sword and the others re- 
 sembling it were equally 
 well calculated for thrust- 
 ing and piercing, Hel- 
 big's theory that they 
 Homeric swords, is a very probable one. The swords 
 
 Fig. 182. Fig. 183. Fio. 184. 
 
 most closely resemble the 
 
474 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 in Figs. 183 and 184, also from Mycenae, are of a dif- 
 ferent kind ; the blades are two-edged, and measure 
 
 thirty-two inches 
 in length ; the top 
 of the hilt is 
 formed of the same 
 piece with the 
 blade, and covered 
 with plates of a 
 different material, 
 but this weapon 
 seems to have been 
 exclusively used for 
 piercing. Of another 
 kind are those in 
 Figs. 185 and 186, 
 but these date from 
 Italian lake dwell- 
 ings, though the 
 same kind is said 
 to have been also 
 found in Greece. 
 The two - edged 
 blade is short here, 
 very broad at the 
 top, but growing 
 gradually narrower, 
 so that the shape 
 almost resembles 
 an acute - angled 
 triangle. The handle, the lower end of which is 
 bent outwards in the shape of a semicircle, is 
 worked out of a separate piece of bronze, and 
 connected with the blade by nails. In the historic 
 age the swords are usually short, the blade about 
 
 Fig. 185. 
 
 Fig. 186. 
 
WAR AND SEAFAl^TNG. 
 
 475 
 
 twenty inches long, reed-shaped, and two-edged, 
 adapted for thrusting and piercing ; the handle, which 
 is generally suited for parrying strokes, is rather 
 small (compare the sword in Fig. 169, where the 
 sheath and shoulder-belt are well represented). The 
 sheath was often of some costly material, and 
 artistically decorated, ordinary kinds were made of 
 leather ; the shoulder-belt was usually a leather strap, 
 with metal plates ; it was suspended over the right 
 shoulder, and was so long that the sword hung down 
 by the left side, but in later times they sometimes 
 wore the sword on the right side. Besides the kinds 
 of swords already mentioned there were some others ; 
 in particular that which is specially designated as the 
 Lacedaemonian sword, the blade of which is slightly 
 curved on one side from the handle onwards, and very 
 sharp, while the other edge is straight and evidently 
 blunt ; this kind of sword could of course only be 
 used for thrusting. Towards the end of the Hellenic 
 period, Iphicrates again introduced long swords in 
 the Greek armies ; they measured as much as a yard 
 with the hilt, but the heavy-armed infantry prob- 
 ably continued to use the short sword. 
 
 There were two other weapons for close encounter, 
 the club and the battle-axe, but they are not im- 
 portant for Greek warfare. The former was chiefly 
 used in the mythical contests of pre-historic times, the 
 latter, represented on works of art as the usual weapon 
 of the Amazons, is sometimes mentioned in Homer as 
 used by Greek heroes, but it was afterwards only in 
 use as an actual military weapon among some Oriental 
 nations. 
 
 Throwing weapons were chiefly used by light- 
 armed troops. In the heroic ages the javelin was 
 only a hunting weapon ; the heroes usually used their 
 
476 
 
 GHEEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 ordinary long lances for throwing. The light javelin, 
 about two and three-quarter yards in length, became 
 a very common weapon of attack in the next period, 
 when the light-armed troops formed a regular part of 
 the army; this closely resembled the javelin used in 
 the gymnastic contests, especially in the Pentathlon, 
 and like this was provided with a loop, which the 
 thrower wound round his fingers. We have already 
 discussed the method of throwing this spear. 
 
 Next we have to consider bow and arrows. There 
 were two kinds of bows : in the first place, a simple 
 one formed of a single piece of elastic wood bent 
 outwards at the ends ; its form is slightly bent, and 
 only attains the shape of a strong curve when it 
 is drawn. This bow was called the " Scythian," 
 or " Parthian," but we find it also on Greek works 
 of art, and it was probably the older kind. The 
 other shape is that of the double bow, in which 
 two curved pieces of horn are connected together 
 by a cylindrical piece of metal; this shape was the 
 commoner in the Greek army, and even when they 
 gave up using goat and gazelle horns for the bow, 
 but constructed it of wood, it retained the shape. 
 The metal plate in the middle was also used as a rest 
 for the arrow, and the ends of the bow to which the 
 string was fastened, were usually plated with metal. 
 The cord was made of plaited guts, and as a rule, 
 when the bow was not in use, was fastened only 
 to one end, and hung down loose, in order that the 
 bow might not lose its elasticity through the constant 
 strain of the string. The arrow was a shaft abouc 
 twenty-four inches long, usually of light reed, on 
 which the point, supplied with two or more barbs, was 
 fastened with a string; at the other end, it usually 
 had a little weight, supplied with a notch for setting 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 477 
 
 it more firmly against the string. We have evidence 
 in Greek excavations of the three-edged arrow men- 
 tioned by Homer; compare Fig. 187, an arrow-head 
 from MegalopoUs. The arrows were kept in a quiver 
 made of leather or basket-work, of which two kinds 
 are found : one wide kind of triangular form, worn 
 on the left side, and generally used with the so-called 
 Scythian bow ; and a smaller cylindrical shape, which 
 hung down on the back over the left shoulder, and 
 belonged to the Greek bow. The sling consisted in a 
 cord or strap, broad in the middle, 
 and narrower at the two ends, by 
 means of which little plummets 
 were thrown ; these were placed 
 on the broad centre of the strap 
 the two ends of which were pressed 
 together in the hand and swung 
 a few times round the head ; with 
 a careful aim they then let go one 
 end of the strap, whereupon the 
 shot flew in the direction which it 
 had received by the impulso of swinging. In the 
 heroic age the sling-shots were always stone balls; 
 afterwards they also used plummets of clay or lead, 
 very often in the shape of an acorn. The most im- 
 portant part of the Greek army in the heroic age, 
 both in the period of citizen armies and in that of 
 mercenary troops, were the heavy-armed soldiers 
 (oTrXlraL). The weight which they had to carry, in- 
 cluding offensive and defensive armour, amounted to 
 about 70 lbs., but this considerable weight was only 
 carried by a soldier in battle. On the march, part of 
 the armour was carried in baggage-carts, or else the 
 shield, or even the helmet, was given to a slave to 
 carry {yiraairuyrris:). But as the inconvenience of the 
 
4?8 
 
 Greek tirti a* HoMg. 
 
 baggage-waggons was great, and the number of slaves 
 — ^which had formerly been very considerable, so that 
 among the Lacedaemonians there were sometimes 
 seven helots to one Spartan — gradually diminished, 
 we notice a tendency to decrease the weight of the 
 soldier's armour, first hy substituting for the brazen 
 cuirass a tunic of leather plated with brass and 
 shoulder-pieces, and afterwards by using a small 
 round shield for the large oval one. In the time of 
 the Persian wars the light infantry took the place of 
 the slaves, who had formerly, in order that they might 
 not be a useless addition to the army, been armed 
 with javelins and stones. But as the skill required 
 of the light-armed troops was not equally developed 
 among all nationalities, it was necessary here to supply 
 their defects by mercenary soldiers. Thus, as we have 
 already mentioned, the Cretans were celebrated 
 archers; excellent slingers came froip Ehodes and 
 Thessaly ; and the best javelin-throwers from 
 Acarnania and Aetolia. These three kinds of light- 
 armed troops were distinct; they all went to battle 
 without any defensive armour, not even wearing a 
 helmet, but only a light felt cap or some national hat. 
 Besides these, and standing midway between slaves 
 and light-armed soldiers, were the " Peltasts," 
 originally a Thracian troop, deriving their name 
 from the pelta, a small wooden shield covered with 
 leather, which resembled the crescent-shaped shield 
 of the Amazons ; their offensive weapons were the 
 sword, a long spear, and foar or five little javelins. 
 The light-armed troops and peltasts were placed in 
 the field, now in front, now behind the main body of 
 the army, on the wings, or wherever seemed good to 
 the general ; they were also used a good deal for 
 sallies, archery, as spies, in ambushes, etc. 
 
WAR A.ND SEAFARING. 479 
 
 The Greeks did not attach any great importance 
 to the cavalry, which was in part the result of the 
 mountainous nature of their country, where cavalry 
 regiments could seldom be properly deployed. Con- 
 sequently the Greek cavalry, as a rule, rode badly 
 and with uncertainty ; they only fought against each 
 other, and never attacked closed ranks of mfantry, but 
 
 Fig. 188» Fig. 189. 
 
 pursued them when they were thrown into confusion ; 
 regular cavalry attacks, in which the horse not only 
 carries its rider, but also is a means of attack, were 
 unknown. The horses wore saddle-cloths, not regular 
 saddles, and bit and bridle, and armour — consisting of 
 head-piece, breast-plate, and side-pieces. The rider 
 wore a brazen cuirass, with neck-pieces, protected his 
 abdomen by the usual leathern apron with metal 
 coverings, and also wore a special kind of mail over 
 arms and shoulders; the hips were also protected 
 
480 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 The shield was not used for ordinary service, the 
 offensive weapons were a long lance and a sword. 
 There can be no doubt that spurs were used at that 
 time, but it is possible that they wore them only on 
 one foot, as the statues of the Amazons seem to show ; 
 Figs. 188 and 189 represent Greek spurs, still in 
 existence. Horse-shoes and stirrups were unknown, 
 the rider sprang on his horse with the help of his 
 lance, or else used some stone, branch, or other object 
 to enable him to mount. 
 
 We do not propose to enter into detail concerning 
 the arrangement and discipline, tactics and strategy, 
 of the Greek armies. A few words must be said 
 about Greek sieges. Schliemann's excavations at 
 Mycenae and Tiryns have proved to us the magni- 
 ficence of some ancient fortifications. It is, therefore, 
 natural that the siege of a strongly-fortified place was 
 a difficult matter for a Greek army, since effective be- 
 sieging machines were only very gradually invented. 
 For centuries they contented themselves with simply 
 surrounding a city and trying to force it by hunger ; 
 an even more favourite device was trickery or treach- 
 ery; they were neither able to storm a town nor 
 make breaches in the wall. The first machine for 
 storming made use of by the Greeks was the ram, an 
 invention of the Carthaginians, but this, too, was 
 ineffectual against very strong walls. They, therefore, 
 very often resorted to the device of undermining the 
 walls in order to make them fall ; sometimes they 
 raised the ground for attack by constructing a mound, 
 or made movable towers in order to enable them to 
 fight from the same height as the garrison. There 
 were various devices, too, for setting the town, or at 
 any rate its fortifications, on fire ; and if the local con- 
 ditions permitted it, they sometimes tried to reduce 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 481 
 
 the besieged to extremities by cutting oflf their drink- 
 ing water, or producing an artificial flood. This pri- 
 mitive kind of siege warfare only gave way to a more 
 rational method during the Macedonian wars ; it was 
 in particular the merit of King Philip, instead of 
 enclosing a city, to concentrate the attack on one 
 point in the wall, in which breaches were made. The 
 discovery of heavy artillery, the perfection of breaching 
 implements, movable batteries, protective apparatus, 
 
 and revolving turrets, did not take place till the Alex- 
 andrine age. 
 
 It was a natural consequence of the geographical 
 position of Greece that seafaring developed far more 
 quickly. Even in the heroic period fairly good 
 ships were built, though they were better suited for 
 coasting than sailing in the open sea. They were 
 moved by twenty to fifty sailors, seated on thwarts 
 on either side of the ship, while their oars were sus- 
 pended in leathern straps between the rowlocks; if 
 the wind was favourable, they replaced the oars by a 
 Bail suspended from the mast by a sail-yard; in the 
 Q 
 
482 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 stem, the helmsman directed the course of the ship 
 with the rudder. The ship of Odysseus was thus 
 represented, even in later art, cutting its way through 
 the sea (compare Fig. 191). Still, this picture, which 
 dates from a much later period, cannot give us a 
 proper conception of the build of the Homeric ships ; 
 
 Fig. 191. 
 
 we should rather turn to the representations from 
 ancient vases on Figs. 192 and 193, in spite of the 
 roughness and smallness of the drawing. Both these 
 have a strong spur at the prow, and were, therefore, 
 apparently used for naval warfare, with which the 
 Homeric age was not yet acquainted. Probably the 
 ships of the heroic age had high projecting ends both 
 forward and aft. 
 
 As in the Homeric age, so probably also in the 
 following period, the ships were constructed in such a 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. 
 
 483 
 
 manner as to be tolerably flat, and accommodate only 
 one line of rowers on each side ; consequently, in 
 large ships there would be fifty oarsmen or more on 
 either side. But they soon began to build the ships 
 higher and to arrange the oarsmen in several ranks 
 one above another, in two rows, as in Fig. 194, but 
 
 Fig. 193. 
 
 more commonly in three rows, and these ships were 
 then called Triremes ; in later times, especially after 
 the fourth century, there were four or even six rows, 
 and possibly still more. The arrangement of these 
 rowers' benches is of particular interest, and is made 
 tolerably clear by the Athenian relief represented in 
 Fig. 195.* The rowers' benches occupied the whole 
 
 * Compare an essay by Raoul Lemaitre, " Sur la disposition des 
 rameurs sur la triere antique," in the " Revue Archeologique " foi 
 1883, pp. 89 and fol. His conclusions, however, differ from Graser'i. 
 The question of the arrangement of oars is still an open one. 
 
484 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 space of the two long sides of the ship, with the 
 exception of the two ends ; they were arranged over 
 one another in rows of different heights, not separated 
 by partitions, but only by the open structure of wood. 
 In each row each rower sat immediately in front of 
 the next man in a straight line, but there is a differ- 
 ence of opinion as to the manner in which the rowing 
 benches were arranged. According to Graser, they 
 
 were immediately under one another, but the rowers 
 did not sit perpendicularly above each other ; but in 
 order to save space as much as possible, and partly to 
 facilitate their movements, they were arranged in 
 such a way that the seat of the next highest was in 
 the same direction and height as the head of the man 
 on the next seat below, so that each man, instead of 
 sitting directly under the man above, sat a little 
 towards the back, and, in moving, kept his arms 
 immediately under the seat of the man above. 
 Lemaitre, on the other hand, assumes that only the 
 lowest benches were close to the edge, and those 
 
WAR AND SEAFARING. ^OO 
 
 above were removed by the breadth of the thwart, 
 the third by two breadths, in which case the height 
 must have been so arranged that the oar of the man 
 above always passed over the head of the one imme- 
 diately below. It is impossible to attam any certainty 
 
 Fig. 195. 
 
 about this matter ; both hypotheses are open to objec- 
 tion. For the length of the oars naturaUy mcreased 
 in proportion to the distance of the rowers from the 
 water, and those of the highest row must have been 
 longest ; according to Graser's arrangement, the length 
 of the oars mcreased 1 yard for each row, so that m 
 a ship of five, rows the lowest rank had oars 2| yards 
 long, the highest 6i; according to the arrangement 
 
486 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 of Lemaitre, the length was even greater, but there 
 was this advantage, that the longer oars had also 
 longer leverage, and could consequently be more 
 easily controlled. The larger the number of rows, 
 the greater in consequence was the length of the oars, 
 but still they were able to build and control ships of 
 fifteen or sixteen rows. The splendid ship of Ptolemy 
 Philopater is said to have had no less than forty rows, 
 and the length of the highest oars waB 18| yards ; 
 but this was not a ship of war, and was only used in 
 calm water — in fact, a modern authority on seafaring 
 regards the whole description of this forty-decker as 
 a satire. Of course, the larger the ships the greater 
 the number of oarsmen required, since the number 
 of rows would be greater ; a " trireme " was rowed 
 by 174 men, a " quinquereme " by 310, the arrange- 
 ment being that each higher row had two men more 
 than the one below, because the bulk of the ship was 
 broadened towards the top. In rowing the greatest 
 regularity of movement was indispensable ; this was 
 attained by the command of a special captain, and 
 also by marking time with flutes, so that all the oars 
 might strike the water at the same moment. Here 
 we meet with a problem, hitherto unsolved : how was 
 it possible for the long oars of the upper rows to 
 keep stroke with the short ones of the lower rows ? 
 This would have been impossible if the same word 
 of command was given to all the rowing benches, 
 since the stroke of a long oar would naturally require 
 more time than that of a short one. Another diffi- 
 culty is the great number of oarsmen which would 
 have been required for Attica, where the number of 
 ships was very considerable; still, the number of 
 sailors and marines was very small, as in naval 
 warfare the main object was to sink the enemy's ship 
 
War AMD SEAi^ARtl^G. 
 
 48^ 
 
 by means of the prow, while they did not trouble 
 iiiuch about shooting and fighting at a distance. 
 
 As to the construction of the ships, the prow and 
 stern were, generally speaking, of similar build ; both, 
 as a rule, ended in curves, but there was usually a 
 lofty decoration of leaves or feathers for the stern, 
 while at the prow they put the image of a god, or the 
 head of an animal, or some other picture, which often 
 showed the name of the boat ; these were constructed 
 of wood or bronze, and a flag waved at the top. Below 
 the prow, for the most part under water, lay the strong 
 beak, made of boards firmly fastened into the bow, 
 and protected in front by massive iron points. On 
 the deck there was usually a little canopy at both 
 ends; in Fig. 194 this is seen on the front deck, 
 and apparently also in Fig. 191, though this may be a 
 little tent used as a protection against the sun, such 
 as was often placed on the upper deck. The tower 
 at the back, and the little hut for the helmsman from 
 which he directed both rudders, are wanting on these 
 pictures. The old ships had two rudders, to the right 
 and left of the stern ; by means of a mechanical con- 
 trivance, which is, however, not represented in the 
 pictures, these two rudders could be directed at the 
 same time in a parallel direction. 
 
 In Figs. 192 and 193 we observe near the bow a 
 round opening, corresponding to a similar hole in 
 Fig. 191 ; the object of this was to enable the anchor- 
 ropes to pass through the ship to the anchors, which 
 resembled our modern ones in all essentials, and were • 
 hung up when not in use on little projections at both 
 sides of the prow, which also served the purpose of 
 keeping off the enemy's ship when avoiding an attack. 
 On the great mainmast there were, as a rule, two 
 square yard sails, fastened one over another, with a 
 
488 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 third above them, and at the top of the mast two 
 triangular topsails. The ships of war also had two 
 sails following the length of the ship, which were of 
 particular importance for turning when the v/ind 
 blew from the side. The Attic inscriptions give us 
 many other details about seafaring, but these are only 
 of special interest for professional sailora. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AND HANDICRAFT. 
 
 Hie Ancient Greek Prejudice Against Labour— Cultivation of tlfe 
 Soil — Agricultural Implements — Cattle Rearing — Handicrafts — 
 The Organisation of Labour — Various Trades — Wholesale and 
 Retail — Bankers and Money- Changers. 
 
 The domains on which the activity of the ancients 
 was chiefly concentrated were agriculture and cattle 
 rearing, trade, and handicraft. Intellectual or artistic 
 labour, which at the present day plays a very im- 
 portant part as a means of earning a livelihood, was 
 hardly considered at all in Ancient Greece, and the 
 artist, if he worked for pay, was put on the same 
 footing as the artisan; in fact there were very few 
 intellectual professions connected with money. These 
 circumstances changed somewhat in the Hellenistic 
 period; but even there the intellectual labour of 
 teachers, physicians, etc., would be placed in the 
 same class with other occupations, though gradually, 
 as the payment of this labour increased, so did also 
 the estimation in which it was held. 
 
 As to the statistical relation in which agriculture, 
 industry, and trade stood to one another, there were 
 naturally many changes as civilisation advanced ; and 
 again, local circumstances in every part of Greece, in 
 every district, and perhaps even every city, as well 
 as the geographical position, the nature of the land, 
 the adaptability of the soil for cultivation, etc., - 
 were of importance for these branches; and again, 
 
490 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 peculiarities of race, national prejudices, were often of 
 great weight in the choice of a profession. It was an 
 idea not peculiar to the Doric races, though most 
 strongly developed among them, that in reality every 
 kind of work done for pay was unsuitable for a citizen, 
 and that his whole activity should be given without 
 reward to the State ; but this theory—though the main 
 features of it are defended even by philosophers such 
 as Plato and Aristotle, and it rests on the assumption 
 that every citizen must have sufficient possessions for 
 himself and his family, and obtain what he requires by 
 the labour of slaves — was only gradually developed, 
 and was quite foreign to the Homeric age, as well as 
 to the period immediately following, in which Hesiod 
 could venture to say that not work but idleness was 
 disgraceful. Changes in political conditions pro- 
 duced other changes as well. When the old Monarchy 
 was succeeded by the rule of the Oligarchs, and the 
 privileged class being in possession of landed pro- 
 perty and numerous slaves, devoted its whole activity 
 to military and political matters, the prejudice 
 originated that only such occupations were worthy uf 
 a free and noble citizen, and that all work was low 
 and servile ; and it is natural that this opinion should 
 have been obstinately maintained at Sparta, because 
 the constitution there kept the character of the Olig- 
 archy most rigidly. In other places a healthier con- 
 ception of work gradually prevailed, and, in particular, 
 the tyrants of the older period tried to combat the 
 disinclination of the citizens for professional activity ; 
 in their case, however, it was not only reasons of 
 political economy, but also political expediency that 
 influenced them, since they did not wish to see their 
 rule threatened by an unoccupied warlike population 
 longing for a share in the government. But these 
 
AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AND HANDICRAFT. 491 
 
 efforts were only partially crowned with success, and 
 though in the time of absolute democracy many 
 citizens practised occupations connected with money, 
 yet the old idea still prevailed that those really stood 
 on a higher footing whose fortune permitted them to 
 live without any definite occupation, and we con- 
 stantly meet with traces of it even in a philosopher 
 like Socrates, whose statement that idleness was the 
 sister of freedom reflects the opinion of the majority 
 with particular emphasis. 
 
 The prejudice against msmy professions was not 
 equally directed against all. Agriculture was least 
 liable to it. In the heroic period, agriculture was the 
 chief occupation, not only of the lower classes, but 
 even of the nobles and princes, who regarded it as 
 no disgrace to perform with their own hands, or super- 
 intend, many duties connected with farming. It was 
 natural that a change should be gradually introduced 
 in these patriarchal conditions, and this was due not 
 only to political revolutions, but also to the advance 
 of civilisation, and the growth of industrial and com- 
 mercial life in Greece ; yet agriculture always remained 
 one of the most respected occupations, especially in 
 those states whose geographical position cut them off 
 from trade, and the nature of whose soil was suited 
 for agriculture and cattle-rearing ; in these places the 
 citizens too took part in these occupations, though in 
 other places, especially at Sparta, any work performed 
 with the hands was regarded as unsuitable for citizens, 
 and was assigned to slaves or free subjects. In the 
 large towns, such as Athens, where trade and industry 
 attained a great height, and democracy, growing freer 
 and freer, tended to advance idleness by official gifts to 
 citizens, such as the show-money and public meals, agri- 
 culture lost in general estimation, and the citizen of a 
 
492 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 large town regarded the industrious countryman as a 
 creature of a lower rank. This was but natural, and we 
 find analogy for it in many of our modern conditions. 
 Local circumstances naturally had a good deal to do 
 in determining the position occupied by an agricul- 
 tural population. Where the land was good and the 
 profits considerable, the farmer occupied a better 
 position than in those places where but a poor 
 harvest rewarded his toil. The soil of Greece 
 was not everywhere suited for agriculture, and in 
 many places it required the most careful labour to 
 win any fruits from it. In Hellas, the mountainous 
 districts are more extensive than the plains suitable 
 for cultivation ; consequently in many places they 
 had to construct artificial terraces, because the stony 
 ground would not otherwise have borne any fruit. In 
 other places too, want of water, which in the hot 
 season of the year often amounted to actual drought, 
 necessitated artificial irrigation by means of canals 
 and drainage, and again, the mountain brooks, which 
 often overflowed their banks in the rainy season 
 and threatened destruction to the fields, had to be 
 regulated by means of dykes. Descriptions of such 
 structures have come down to us, and many traces of 
 them may still be found in Greece, some of them even 
 pointing to very considerable technical knowledge; 
 the State, too, sometimes undertook work of this kind, 
 as is proved by the ofiice of water-superintendent, 
 who, in many places, had the control of the natural 
 and artificial watercourses, and whose duty it was to 
 prevent undue use, and to inflict fines in such cases. 
 
 We know very little about the management of 
 farms and the arrangements for dividing land among 
 large landowners or small cultivators, in the separate 
 districts of Greece. Greek antiquity shows no traces of 
 
AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AND HANDICRAFT. 493 
 
 latifundia, such as gradually made way in Italy ; there 
 were some large estates with numerous slave- workers, 
 but small farms were commonest. In some districts, 
 as for instance in Arcadia, a small peasantry were the 
 chief part of the population, and it is not surprising, 
 therefore, that even the leaders of the State did not 
 shrink from taking part in agricultural labour, though 
 the larger landowners left this to their slaves and 
 overseers. The Athenians, however, regarded the 
 rough manners of these smaller farmers as coarse, and 
 the citizens of the larger towns, accustomed to the 
 refinements of ordinary life, mocked at their rustic 
 manners ; we scarcely over find any recognition of the 
 fact that a strong and healthy race of peasants to- 
 gether with an industrious middle-class is the best 
 means for maintaining the life of a state. 
 
 In its technical aspects, ancient agriculture re- 
 mained in much the same state throughout the whole 
 of antiquity as it occupied in the heroic age, and 
 probably this was the common inheritance of the 
 Indo- Germanic race. In Homer, we find the custom 
 which always prevailed afterwards, of alternating onl}- 
 between harvest and fallow ; even the succeeding agch 
 seem to have known nothing of the rotation of crops. 
 The implements used for the necessary farming occu- 
 pations were of the simplest kind, in particular the 
 primitive plough, which was not sufficient to tear up 
 the earth, so that they had to use the mattock in 
 addition ; they had no harrow or scythe, in place of 
 w^hich they used the sickle, and their threshing ar- 
 rangements were most unsatisfactory, since they sii nply 
 drove oxen, horses, or mules over the threshing floor, 
 and beat out the ears with their hoofs, by which means 
 a great part of the harvest was lost. It was only the 
 large number of labourers at the disposal of the 
 
GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 farmers, in consequence of the 
 numerous slaves, to which at 
 times, when there was a press 
 of work, they added hirec 
 labourers, and the great care 
 taken in manuring and im- 
 proving the ground, etc., that 
 enabled them to earn a hving 
 at all. Great wealth was never 
 attained in ancient Greece by 
 agriculture, certainly not by 
 growing corn ; vines and olives 
 supplied better profits, though 
 here too the instruments used 
 were of the simplest, but the 
 ground was especially favour- 
 able to their cultivation. Oil, 
 in particular, could be supplied 
 by Greece to foreign countries, 
 but corn did not grow in a 
 quantity sufficient to provide 
 their own population, and con- 
 sequently they had to import a 
 groat deal from foreign coun- 
 tries, especially from the Black 
 Sea, and afterwards too from 
 Egypt. 
 
 Greek writers give us very 
 little information about the life of 
 the country people; a few simple 
 pictures taken from vase paint- 
 ings afford some little notion of 
 it. Fig. 196 represents three 
 countrymen surrounded by a 
 variety of animals : deer, lizards. 
 
AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AND HANDICRAFT. 495 
 
 a tortoise, a strange bird, and another creature, perhaps 
 meant to represent a locust ; each of the men is direct- 
 ing a plough drawn by two oxen, holding the handle in 
 one hand, and in the other the goad-stick for urging on 
 the beasts. Behind one of the ploughmen walks a man 
 with a large basket on his left arm, in which, no doubt, 
 there are supposed to be seeds, which he is about to 
 
 Fig. 197. 
 
 scatter with his right hand. Fig. 197 represents a scene 
 from the olive harvest. On the right and left of an 
 olive tree sit two men, before them on the ground 
 stand jars ; one of them holds a little flask in his left 
 hand, and appears to be squeezing the juice of an olive 
 into it through a funnel, in order to test the quality of 
 the harvest. The inscription on the picture is, " 0, 
 Father Zeus, would that I might grow rich!" The 
 reverse side of the vessel, not represented here, shows 
 the fulfilment of this simple prayer in the picture 
 and inscription. 
 
496 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Cattle-rearing played a very important part in 
 Greek farming. In the time of Homer it even ex- 
 ceeded agriculture in importance ; the wealth of great 
 people at that time consisted chiefly in herds ; to gi^re 
 cattle as a bridal gift was very common; in calcu- 
 lations of value cattle formed the basis instead of 
 coined money, which was at that time unknown. The 
 kinds especially cultivated in the historic period were 
 horses, asses, mules, and oxen, and also sheep, goats, 
 and swine. Except in a few districts, horse-rearing 
 was of little importance. The mountainous nature of 
 the country made the use of horses for driving difficult, 
 nor do thej^ seem to have been required for carrying 
 burdens ; they were chiefly used for riding purposes, 
 for the cavalry, and also for travelling, racing, etc. ; 
 and in connection with racing horse-rearing became a 
 favourite occupation of the aristocracy, and almost a 
 mania at Athens at the time of the Peloponnesian 
 war, when many young men were ruined by it. 
 Horse-rearing was best developed in Thessaly, where 
 the wide plains were suitable for the purpose. The 
 Thessalian cavalry was always noted for its quantity 
 and excellence. For domestic use mules and asses 
 took the place of horses, especially as beasts of burden. 
 The mules were used for drawing and for the plough, 
 while the asses were chiefly employed for carrying 
 burdens. Cattle-rearing seems to have been more im- 
 portant in the Homeric age than afterwards, when the 
 needs of the population could not be satisfied by the 
 home growth, and importation of foreign cattle from 
 the Black Sea and from Africa was necessary. The 
 small number of herds of cattle was probably due to 
 the fact that in Greek antiquity very little cow's milk 
 was drunk, but chiefly goat's milk. Sheep-rearing, 
 however, was very general, and brought to great 
 
AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AND HANDICRAFT. 497 
 
 perfection, since they not only used the flesh and milk 
 of the sheep for food, but in particular required their 
 skin and wool for clothing. Linen was not much worn ; 
 the country people wore sheepskins, and the rest of 
 their dress was almost entirely made of sheep's wool. 
 Excellent qualities of this were produced by Hellas 
 proper, as well as by the Greek colonies in Asia Minor 
 and Lower Italy, and a great deal of it was exported 
 to foreign countries, where the woollen stuffs of Asia 
 Minor, Attica, and Megara, were held in great repute 
 from most ancient times. Goats were chiefly kept 
 for the sake of the milk ; the skins were used by the 
 peasants for clothing. The goat's hair was woven into 
 stuff, not in Greece itself, but probably in Northern 
 Africa and Cilicia, where a kind of coarse cloth was 
 manufactured of it, which however was not often used 
 for clothing. The facility of goat-rearing, which re- 
 quired no special care, and could be carried on even on 
 rocky ground, where but little grass grew, enabled it 
 to become very extensive, and we find it, in fact, 
 throughout almost the whole of Greece in ancient 
 times. Swine-rearing, on the other hand, played a very 
 small part, for it was not sufficiently remunerative. 
 Although the flesh was used for food, yet, in the 
 historic period it was not so popular a dish as in the 
 age of Homer, and they did not understand how to 
 draw a profit in other ways from swine. Cattle-rearing 
 was conducted on tolerably rational principles. They 
 were very careful in the choice of the animals used for 
 breeding, and in very early times attempts were made 
 to improve the race by importing foreign kinds from 
 other countries. The cattle were chiefly fed on pas- 
 ture ; the herds were driven out not only in summer, 
 but even in winter, when the climate permitted it ; 
 and in summer they were taken to the mountains 
 
498 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 and forests, in winter to the plains. The sheep got 
 most attention, because the excellence of the wool 
 depended on the care they received, and Diogenes is 
 supposed to have said that it was better at Megara to 
 be a ram than the son of a citizen, for the sheep were 
 carefully covered up, but the children were allowed to 
 run about naked. This custom of covering the sheep 
 with skins to preserve the wool existed in other places 
 too. As Greece was not rich in pasture land, there 
 was a difficulty occasionally in providing sufficient 
 pasture for the herds ; sometimes they had to be sent 
 to very distant parts, it even happened that states 
 made treaties together, which permitted the citizens 
 of one state to use the pasture land of another for a 
 fixed period. 
 
 During the Homeric age, handicraftsmen seem 
 to have been in a position which, corresponding to 
 the ideas entertained in ancient times about physical 
 labour, was by no means despised. This is easily 
 comprehensible, since even the gods were represented 
 as undertaking the labour of artisans ; Hephaestus 
 working at a forge, Athene weaving ; and we find even 
 the heroes, the princes, and nobles sometimes them- 
 selves working as carpenters and joiners, and with 
 their own hands constructing some object for their 
 home ; nowhere in Homer do we find a trace of con- 
 tempt for hand-work. Of course, handicrafts were 
 not much developed at that time, and there were only 
 a small number of crafts which could be looked upon 
 as actual trades, such as that of smiths, workers in 
 gold, carpenters, stone masons, etc., while many occu- 
 pations which afterwards formed a distinct trade were 
 performed at home by the masters and slaves. In 
 later times a very important change took place con- 
 nected with the political and social revolutions already 
 
AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AND HANDICRAFT. 499 
 
 mentioned. Agriculture and cattle-rearing were still 
 regarded as an occupation which a free citizen might 
 carry on without degrading himself, since the more 
 menial part of the work was performed by slaves or 
 hired labourers, and the master only superintended; 
 but the work of the handicraftsmen was designated 
 by them with the word mechanical {^dvavao<^\ a 
 word indicating a contempt that cannot be expressed 
 in the translation. This word expressed the full scorn 
 felt by the free citizen living on his own fortune, and 
 devoting all his intellectual and physical powers to the 
 State — of the gentleman, in fact — for the man with the 
 horny hand, who toiled in his workshop to earn his daily 
 bread. This reproach of "mechanical" was never 
 aimed at the rich owner of a number of slaves, who 
 worked for his benefit ; a factory owner need not take 
 part in the work himself, but had his overseers to 
 attend to that; it was the little man who had no 
 other hands to work for him, and who wielded the 
 hammer himself, or who worked the cloth in the 
 fuller's shop, whom ^;hey looked down on. In vain 
 wise lawgivers tried to call the attention of the 
 citizens to the blessing of handicraft, and the honour- 
 able nature of this occupation ; in vain the democrats 
 gave political equality to artisans by permitting them 
 to vote and speak in the Assembly of the people 
 along with the other citizens ; while there was even a 
 law forbidding anyone publicly to reproach a citizen 
 with his occupation. There were some states in which 
 an important part of the prosperity depended on 
 handicrafts, and there a more moderate view gradually 
 made way, but, generally speaking, the contempt for 
 handicraft remained and continued, the rather as 
 even philosophers regarded it as but a necessary 
 evil. Doubtless they recognised the usefulness of 
 
500 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 handicrafts, but still they maintained that work of this 
 kind in the workshop, near the hot furnace or in the 
 gloomy room, was not suited to a free citizen, and 
 that the effort of gaining money which was connected 
 with it was injurious to the mind, and made it coarse 
 and uncultivated, and it was thus that the word 
 banausos came to be synonymous with common, 
 low, and stupid. No wonder that even the artists, 
 whose work depended on handicraft, and who, with 
 few exceptions, worked for pay, were put in the same 
 class with shoemakers, bakers, and smiths ! It is 
 strange indeed, that this depreciation of handicraft 
 observed throughout Greek literature in no way pre- 
 vented the development and perfection of the technical 
 arts of Greece. There were many branches of it which 
 continued for centuries at the same point without 
 making any technical advances; but still trades attained 
 a high degree of perfection in antiquity, though it was 
 chiefly in those where the practical element was not 
 as important as the artistic that the natural sense of 
 beauty of the Greeks made itself felt, so that 
 there are numerous productions of ancient handicraft 
 which even our modern trades cannot rival. In fact, 
 we might almost say that, with the exception of such 
 trades as bakers, butchers, or fullers, Greek handicraft 
 in almost every branch developed into art, while at 
 the present day there are only a few branches which 
 rise above the ordinary craft level. 
 
 The handicrafts were partly in the hands of 
 citizens, and partly in those of free settlers (jiiroiKOL) 
 and slaves. The proportion in which they were 
 divided among these three classes varied a good deal 
 according to time and the nature of the occupation. 
 {i.t Athens the number of free citizens who carried on 
 handicrafts was not small, in spite of the contempt in 
 
AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AND HANDICRAFT. 501 
 
 which they were held ; in Peloponnesus, it was only 
 Sparta where the free citizen kept aloof from all 
 trades, while in the other states the conditions wore 
 much the same as at Athens and elsewhere. The 
 resident foreigners formed a very important part of 
 the workmen ; at the time when industry flourished 
 most in Attica, trade seems to have been almost 
 entirely in their hands ; and it is but natural that in 
 those countries where the free citizens kept aloof 
 from trade, the settlers who performed their labour 
 with the help of slaves should have formed a great 
 part of the working population. Every master work- 
 man whose position permitted kept working slaves; 
 rich capitalists invested their money in large under- 
 takings, in which the work was done by a great 
 number of slaves, who either belonged to them or 
 were hired for the purpose. We shall have occasion 
 later on to discuss the conditions under which they 
 worked. 
 
 We know very little about the organisation of 
 labour. There were no castes compelled by law to 
 undertake certain trades, though in some places special 
 occupations were hereditary; thus, for instance, at 
 Sparta, the cooks and flute players always belonged to 
 particular families. Otherwise, when we find any 
 occupation hereditary, this is not due to legal com- 
 pulsion, but to natural causes; thus the sons of 
 sculptors very often became sculptors, or the medical 
 profession was handed down in certain families, and 
 so on. Nor do we meet with the guilds so early 
 developed in Italy ; these are not heard of until the 
 Roman period, when we find them in Asia Minor. It 
 is uncertain to what extent the State was concerned 
 with trade and its productions. There do not seem 
 to have been any limitations put upon it except 
 
502 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 certain police regulations, such as that at Athens, 
 which compelled tanners and cheesemongers to have 
 their workshops and booths outside the denser parts 
 of the city on account of the smell. There do not 
 
 seem to have been any taxes on 
 trade ; at Athens there was a toll 
 onhetaerae; at Byzantium jugglers, 
 soothsayers, etc., paid one; but 
 there is no reason to suppose 
 that handicrafts were taxed in the 
 same way. 
 
 It would be impossible to enter 
 into the technical details of all the 
 trades. A few pictures taken from 
 the life of artisans must suffice 
 instead. The terra -cotta figure. 
 No. 198, represents an artisan in his 
 usual costume, the exomis, which 
 left the right side free, and the 
 piles, or felt cap; it is not clear 
 from the picture what occupation 
 he is carrying on, since the object 
 in his left hand is not distinct. 
 Fig. 199 introduces us to a shoe- 
 maker at his work ; he is seated on 
 a low stool in front of his work- 
 table, and with one hand holds a 
 
 Fig. 198. piece of leather, stretched over a 
 
 board of hard wood ; he is just 
 about to cut it out with the curved shoemaker's 
 knife ; a second knife is suspended above near some 
 shoes, a hammer, and some strips of leather on 
 the wall. Fig. 200 also introduces us into a shoe- 
 maker's workshop. Here a girl is being measured 
 for a pair of shoe-s ; for t^is purpose she has got 
 
AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AND HANDICRAFT. 503 
 
 on the table, so that the bearded workman, who is 
 sitting in front of it, may mark the outhne of her 
 soles on the leather on which she is standing. In his 
 
 Fig. 199. 
 
 right hand the shoemaker holds his crescent, a knife 
 with a curved blade ; the apprentice, seated on the 
 other side, is holding a piece of leather bent together, 
 probably destined to make the upper part of the shoes. 
 A white-haired old man, perhaps the master of the 
 
504 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 workshop, or tlie father of the girl, stands by giving 
 directions ; tools, lasts, strips of leather, and such like, 
 are hung round on the walls. Fig. 201, the counter- 
 part to Fig. 200, represents a smithy. Near the hearth, 
 of which only a portion can be seen, crouches a young 
 workman, holding a piece of iron on the anvil with 
 the forceps in his right hand, while another workman, 
 also without any clothing, strikes the iron with a 
 massive hammer, suspended above his head by both 
 hands. Two men wearing the himation, perhaps 
 visitors to the workshop, are seated on low stools. On 
 the ground lie a hammer and forceps ; on the walls 
 hang tools, such as hammers, chisels, drills, and pro- 
 ductions of the workshop, viz. a sword and a can. 
 
 Fig. 202 introduces us to the workshop of an 
 artist and a metal founder. In the presence of two 
 men dressed in the himation, leaning on their sticks, 
 two workmen are occupied in chiselling or working 
 over the colossal figure of a warrior, represented in a 
 posture of attack, which is placed under a scaffolding. 
 There is another colossal figure of a naked youth, who 
 has fallen to the ground, and is stretching out his 
 arms as though praying for help. Here the head has 
 not yet been added, for as a rule the ancients com- 
 posed their large bronze figures in several pieces ; the 
 head lies on the ground near the statue, at which a 
 workman is doing something with liis hammer, per- 
 haps trying to smooth away roughness produced in 
 the casting. This second figure seems to be connected 
 with the first, and the whole to represent a group of 
 combatants. A little further is the furnace, behind 
 which stands an assistant looking round ; a workman 
 crouching on a low stool wears the cap usually worn by 
 labourers with fire, and consequently represented in 
 pictures of Hephaestus ; he is stoking the coals in the 
 
506 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 furnace to a fresh glow with a long pole curved at tha 
 end, and a second apprentice stands looking at him, 
 leaning on his hammer. On the walls hang a variety 
 of tools — hammers, files, a saw, etc. ; also models of 
 feet and heads, and little tablets representing sketches 
 of whole men and animals. 
 
 No less interesting is the workshop of a vase 
 painter, represented in Fig. 203. Here we see a youth 
 seated in an armchair, with a large two-handled cup 
 on his knee, which he is painting with the brush held 
 in his right hand ; near him stands a little low table, 
 on which are several pots containing paints or varnish. 
 Behind him a young apprentice, who also has pots on 
 the ground near him, is painting a large amphora ; on 
 the right a second boy and a girl are working at a cup 
 and another amphora, while a jar and a large drink- 
 ing-cup {KCLvOapo^) stand on the ground, and other 
 vessels hang on the wall. Athene, the patroness of 
 the arts, and Nike are hasting to crown the skilful 
 labourers as the reward of industry. 
 
 It is difficult to determine the kind of work which 
 the magnificent old man in Fig. 204, a terra-cotta 
 figure from Tanagra, is doing ; in front of him is a 
 board with which he is occupied, and a little gridiron. 
 Some have pronounced him a baker, others a maker 
 of plaster of Paris tablets, others a tanner ; perhaps he 
 might be a cook, seated in the street, and frying some 
 quickly-cooked dish over the gridiron, in order to sell 
 it to the common people, who often procured their 
 food in this way from travelling cooks. 
 
 Even worse than the position of the artisans was 
 that of the hired workmen, that is, those labourers 
 who, thjugh free citizens, had not learnt any technical 
 art with which they could earn their living, and who 
 were therefore obliged to hire themselves out for 
 
508 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 hard bodily labour. Not only 
 citizens, but even their wives, 
 were often driven by need to 
 perform such menial offices as 
 day labourers in mills or in the 
 fields ; many such workmen 
 carried weights in the harbour, 
 or helped to load or unload the 
 goods, to carry stones for build- 
 ing, etc. The pay was very 
 small, if only on account of the 
 competition of slave labour; 
 sometimes a day's wages was 
 three or four obols, though higher 
 amounts are mentioned. The 
 fleets, and in particular the row- 
 ing boats, were manned out of 
 this class, which was socially re- 
 garded as the lowest, and which 
 bore the name of " thetes." 
 
 In the eyes of the Greeks, 
 tradesmen stood on the same 
 footing as mechanical labourers. 
 There was, of course, a distinc- 
 tion ; if the cultured Greek, who 
 occupied himself only with 
 higher intellectual pursuits, de- 
 spised the artisan because he 
 regarded his bodily activity as 
 unworthy of a free man, the 
 tradesman seemed to him con- 
 temptible because he was in- 
 fluenced only by desire for gain, 
 and all his striving was to get 
 the advantage over others. The 
 
510 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 profit and wealth accruing to so many Greek states 
 from trade was not sufficient to decrease the prejudice 
 against money-making occupations, even the common 
 people were not able to understand that the merchant, 
 on account of the risk of injury, or even loss of his 
 goods, changing conditions of price, and all his own 
 trouble involved, was obliged to demand a higher 
 price for his wares than what had been originally paid 
 by himself; and the opinion that the merchant's 
 business was based on love of gain and deceit 
 was so common that even a philosophical intellect 
 Uke Aristotle's was under the influence of this 
 prejudice. It is possible that the Greek merchants 
 often deserved the reputation of dishonesty which 
 they bore ; their predecessors, the Phoenicians, who 
 had formerly carried on the whole trade of Greece, 
 had not unduly been reproached with deceit and even 
 robbery and piracy, and it is possible that there were 
 traces of this still visible in the Greek merchants. 
 Still the contempt for the merchant class was not 
 equally directed at all ; the wholesale dealer who im- 
 ported his wares from a distance, and had little 
 personal contact with the public, was less affected by 
 it; in trading cities, such as Aegina and Athens, 
 a great number of the rich citizens belonged to this 
 class. But the small trader was the more exposed to 
 the reproach of false weights and measures, adultera- 
 tion of goods, especially food, and all manner of 
 deceitful tricks. Some complaints were made that 
 are still heard at the present day, that the wine 
 dealers mixed water with their wine, that the cloth - 
 workers used artificial dressing to make their materials 
 look thicker, that the poulterers blew out the birds 
 to make them seem fatter, etc. Worst of all was the 
 reputation of the corn dealers. The division between 
 
512 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 wholesale and retail traders seems to have been some- 
 what sharper in Greek antiquity than at the present 
 day, partly because the former were not only mer- 
 chants but also seafarers. The wholesale dealers as a 
 rule were owners of ships ; they fetched their goods 
 themselves on their journeys, or commissioned respon- 
 sible subordinates in their place. The ship was laden 
 at home with goods which were likely to find a good 
 sale at the port to which she journeyed ; of course the 
 owner made inquiries beforehand about the best 
 places for disposing of his goods, the private conditions, 
 possible competition, etc. It was, therefore, very im- 
 portant to hit the right moment, and artificial 
 manoeuvres for sendmg up the price of goods were 
 not unknown. Arrived at their destination, the wares 
 were publicly sold, for which purpose bazaars were 
 erected in large harbours ; then the goods were either 
 bought collectively by a wholesale dealer, or in small 
 quantities by smaller traders ; there were also agents 
 who undertook the mediation between the buyer and 
 seller in return for a commission. As a rule, there- 
 fore, goods were purchased with the money, chiefly 
 products of the country which might be sold with 
 advantage at home ; it was almost necessary to make 
 fresh purchases, since the money of another state 
 would have no value at home, though Attic money 
 could pass current anywhere. A merchant did not 
 always content himself with putting in at one single 
 port ; he often visited a succession of neighbouring 
 ports, calling at smaller stations on the way, some- 
 times selling, sometimes buying, and often the cargo of 
 a ship changed three or four times during a journey. 
 Probably these wholesale dealers did not deal only 
 with particular goods as at the present day, but took 
 anything which was likely to find a good sale, such as 
 
AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AND HANDICRAFT. 513 
 
 corn, wine, oil, honey, skins, wool, clothes, textile 
 ware, metal work, even statues and books. Payment 
 was made in coined money, and the calculation cannot 
 always have been an easy one, owing to the variety of 
 money systems prevailing in antiquity. In the 
 Homeric age barter was usual, but afterwards this 
 ceased in civilised countries, though in some districts, 
 as for instance the neighbourhood of the Black Sea, 
 it continued for some time longer. 
 
 Very difterent was the position and occupation of 
 the retail dealer or pedlar. He did not travel by sea, 
 scarcely even by land, but usually carried on his 
 business at one place ; he either bought his goods 
 direct from the producers or from the wholesale 
 dealers, and offered them for sale in open shops or in 
 booths on the market-place; in large towns there 
 were special stands or markets for particular goods, 
 but those who offered their wares at these places were 
 usually the producers themselves, thus at the Pot 
 Market at Athens, the wares were offered by real 
 potters, who had doubtless made them themselves. 
 We must therefore distinguish between shopkeepers 
 who lived only by trade, and did not themselves pro- 
 duce, and producers, who brought their own goods to 
 market ; the latter were regarded as merchants by 
 the ancients, and the hatred, where it existed, was 
 chiefly directed at the small shopkeepers, who sold 
 their wares for as high prices as possible. In small 
 cities the circumstances may have been somewhat 
 diffeient, for it was only the most important trades 
 connected with food and clothing that were carried 
 on there, and many branches were not represented at 
 all ; consequently many kinds of goods had to be 
 imported for sale by the small shopkeepers. No 
 doubt the inhabitants of the small towns and even 
 
514 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the country people often went to the capital to satisfy 
 their wants, especially to the great markets held 
 on fixed days of the month, usually on the first; the 
 national festivals too provided opportunities for many 
 kinds of purchases, since a sort of fair was usually 
 connected with them. 
 
 In the market-places of large towns there were 
 usually covered arcades in which the merchants and 
 dealers set up their wares ; in some places there 
 were market-halls of this kind for special goods, 
 such as corn, oil, ointments, etc. Besides these 
 permanent places of sale, there were light booths of a 
 temporary nature, constructed in tent fashion of woven 
 reeds and linen. The life in the market-place prob- 
 ably resembled that of the present day in the south ; 
 the custom of calling out and extolling goods existed 
 in ancient Greece as well, and so did the excessive 
 demands of the seller and the depreciation on the 
 part of the purchaser, and even the notorious rude- 
 ness of the fish-wives seems to have been known to 
 the Greeks. We find mention also of peddling, and 
 carrying wares from house to house, and this was 
 chiefly the case with provisions. 
 
 Greek art supplies very few pictures from the 
 trader's life. Fig. 205, taken from a vase-painting, 
 though a caricature, has an' especial interest on account 
 of its subject : a certain king Arcesilas of Gyrene 
 (probably mythical), is represented as a dealer in 
 silphium ; it is well known that the silphium plant, 
 so much valued by ancient epicures, came from 
 Cyrene, and was an important article of trade. Under 
 a canopy, the curtains of which are suspended by 
 rings, stands a large pair of scales, at which five men 
 are weighing goods, some of which are heaped up on 
 the scales and others lying about on the ground 
 
AGRICULTQRE, TRADE, AND HANDICRAFT. 515 
 
 Most of the goods are as yet unpacked; these work- 
 men, however, have ah^eady filled large w^oollen sacks 
 with them, and one of them is in the act of tying his 
 up, while another is carrying his away. The weighing 
 
 Fig. 205. 
 
 and packing are conducted under the superintendence 
 of king Arcesilas, who is seated close by, holding 
 in his left hand his sceptre, and with his right ap- 
 parently giving directions to a workman standing 
 before him. His costume is very extraordinary. The 
 panther under the prince's seat, a lizard, a stork (or 
 
516 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 crane), a monkey, and several pigeons, give life to the 
 picture, and partly indicate the place where the scene 
 is laid. Below the main picture, where we must sup- 
 pose the cellar for the stores to be, workmen are 
 piling up finished packets, under the direction of a 
 man in a cloak. 
 
 Occupations connected with money were largely 
 developed in antiquity. The merchants who dealt 
 with such business — the bankers and money-changers 
 — were called by the Greeks " table-merchants " 
 {rpaTTe^lTai), from the table at which they originally 
 carried on their occupations. Their duties were of a 
 double nature ; besides the actual business of chang- 
 ing, they undertook the investment of capital and 
 the transaction of money business. When the in- 
 creased coinage of money and the augmentation of 
 trade and travel brought large sums into the hands of 
 individuals, those who had not invested their possess- 
 ions in wares or property or slaves, naturally desired 
 to profit by it in some other way, and thus the loan 
 business was gradually developed, in which capitalists 
 lent money to those who required it for any mercan- 
 tile undertaking, in return for a security and interest. 
 In the bond executed in the presence of witnesses, the 
 amount of the capital, the interest agreed upon, as 
 well as the time for which the loan was arranged, had 
 to be entered. For greater safety, a third person 
 usually became security for the debtor, or else some 
 possession was mortgaged, the value of which corre- 
 sponded to the sum lent. They distinguished between 
 pledges in movable objects, such as cattle, furniture, 
 slaves, etc. ; and mortgages given partly on movable 
 objects, such as factory slaves, and partly on immovable 
 property. Mortgages of this kind were very common 
 in seafaring business. The merchant who borrowed 
 
AGRICULTURE, TRADE, AND HANDICRAFT. 517 
 
 money from a rich citizen in order to carry on a par- 
 ticular business with it, pledged his ship or the goods 
 with which he dealt, or perhaps both, to his creditor 
 in a formal contract. Thej^ endeavoured to obtain as 
 much security as possible by very exact arrangements 
 concerning the object of the journey, the nature of the 
 goods, etc. ; moreover, the interest in business of this 
 kind was very high, because the creditor ran the risk 
 of losing his bargain entirely, or in part, by storms, or 
 pirates, or other misfortunes. Mortgages were also 
 given on property in land, and the creditor's right of 
 ownership was inscribed on stone tablets set up on the 
 property in question, with the name of the creditor 
 and the amount of the debt. In some places the 
 State itself conducted books for mortgages, in which 
 all the property was entered, together with the 
 amount of the mortgages upon it. Here, as in other 
 loans, interest was high, and this was due to the in- 
 security of trade and the vory incomplete develop- 
 ment of agricultural conditions. There were no laws 
 against usury ; from ten to twenty per cent., or higher 
 if it was for risk at sea, was common, but there were 
 even cases where thirty-six or forty-eight per cent, 
 were taken. Of course, in these circumstances com- 
 plaints of extortion were made. 
 
 The arrangement of this money business was 
 chiefly in the hands of the bankers. Their original 
 and chief occupation was the changing of money — 
 the various kinds of coinage which became current 
 through foreign trade ; and here they got their profit 
 from the rate of exchange. They also lent money, 
 both small sums and capital for trade and other business 
 undertakings, and this was their share in these mono 
 tary transactions. Rich people often invested their 
 money with these bankers, who paid them interest 
 
518 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 and gave them security or pledges ; they then them-^ 
 selves lent the money to men of business, and on 
 account of the risk naturally demanded higher interest 
 than they paid. But even when money was lent 
 direct by a capitalist to a merchant, the mediation 
 of a banker was often resorted to in concluding 
 the contract; for these men were well known to 
 the public on account of their extensive business, 
 and possessed considerable business knowledge. As a 
 rule, though some were known as usurers, and trickery 
 and bankruptcy occasionally occurred, they enjoyed 
 so much confidence that they were gladly engaged as 
 witnesses in business contracts, and requested to take 
 charge of the documents. Money also was deposited 
 with them, for which no particular use appeared at 
 the moment, and which would not be safe if kept at 
 home ; of course, if this capital lay idle the banker 
 could pay no interest, but often demanded a sum for 
 taking charge of the deposit. Some of them left their 
 money in the hands of money-changers to increase 
 the business capital, and the extent to which this was 
 done is proved by the fact that the banker Pasion, at 
 the time of Demosthenes, in a business capital of 50 
 talents (£11,700), had 11 talents (£2,593) lent by 
 private persons. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 SLAVERY. 
 
 Slaves in Ancient Greece — Captives Taken in War — The Slave 
 Trade— The Price of Slaves— Native Serfs— The Helots— The 
 Penestae and the Clarotae — The Status of the Slave — Protection 
 against Ill-treatment — The Slave's Duties — Modes of Liberation. 
 
 All the social and economic conditions of antiquity 
 are based on the institution of slavery, and without it 
 would have been impossible ; in fact, slavery is so 
 closely interwoven with the whole life of antiquity 
 that even the political development of the ancient 
 nations and their achievements in the domain of art and 
 industry would be inexplicable without the existence 
 of a large slave population. So great was the import- 
 ance of slavery in antiquity that any account of Grreek 
 life would be incomplete, which did not give some 
 slight sketch of these peculiar conditions. 
 
 The institution of slavery in Greece is very ancient; 
 it is impossible to trace its origin, and we find it even 
 in the very earliest times regarded as a necessity of 
 nature, a point of view which even the following ages 
 and the most enlightened philosophers adopted. In 
 later times voices were heard from time to time pro- 
 testing against the necessity of the institution, showing 
 some shght conception of the idea of human rights^ 
 but these were only isolated opinions. From the very 
 earliest times the right of the strongest had estab- 
 lished the custom that captives taken in war, if 
 not killed or ransomed, became the slaves of the 
 
520 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 conquerors, or were sold into slavery by them. This 
 custom, which was universal in the Homeric age, 
 continued to exist in the historic period also, so that 
 not only was it adopted in contests between Hellenes 
 and barbarians, but even in the numerous feuds 
 between Hellenes and Hellenes they often condemned 
 their own countrymen to the hard lot of slavery ; in 
 later times, however, it was only in cases of special 
 animosity that they resorted to this expedient ; as a 
 rule, they exchanged or ransomed captive Greeks. 
 Besides the wars, piracy, originally regarded as by no 
 means dishonourable, supplied the slave markets ; 
 and though in later times endeavours were made to 
 set a limit to it, yet the trade in human beings never 
 ceased, since the need for slaves was considerable, not 
 only in Greece, but still more in Oriental countries. 
 
 In the historic period the slaves in Greece were 
 for the most part barbarians, chiefly from the districts 
 north of the Balkan peninsula and Asia Minor. The 
 Greek dealers supplied themselves from the great 
 slave markets held in the towns on the Black Sea 
 and on the Asiatic coast of the Archipelago, not 
 only by the barbarians themselves, but even by Greeks, 
 in particular the Chians, who carried on a considerable 
 slave trade. These slaves were then put up for sale 
 at home ; at Athens there were special markets held 
 for this purpose on the first of every month ; the 
 slaves were arranged on platforms, so that the buyers 
 might examine them on all sides, for they sought 
 chiefly to obtain physical perfection and strength of 
 limb for hard work, and therefore, if the purchasers 
 desired it, the slaves had to be undressed. Of course, 
 those slaves who were bought merely for the sake 
 of their bodily strength were least valuable ; a higher 
 price was given for those who had any special skill or 
 
SLAVERY. 
 
 521 
 
 were suited for posts of confidence, and considerable 
 prices were also given for pretty female slaves or 
 handsome boys. Consequently, there was great variety 
 of price ; at the time of Xenophon the price foi" a 
 common male slave, who was only suited for rough 
 work, was half a mina (about £2), else the ordinary 
 average was two minae (about £8); for slaves who 
 possessed any technical skill or higher education the 
 price rose from five to ten minae (£20-£40), and even 
 in exceptional cases amounted to one talent (£240). 
 
 A large portion of the slave population consisted 
 of those who were born in slavery ; that is, the chil- 
 dren of slaves or of a free father and slave mother, 
 who as a rule also became slaves, unless the owner 
 disposed otherwise. We have no means of knowing 
 whether the number of these slave children born 
 in the houses in Greece was large or small. At Rome 
 they formed a large proportion of the slave popula- 
 tion, but the circumstances in Italy differed greatly 
 from those in Greece, and the Roman landowners 
 took as much thought for the increase of their slaves 
 as of their cattle. Besides these two classes of slave 
 population, those who were taken in war or by piracy 
 and those who were born slaves, there was also a third, 
 though not important, class. In early times even free 
 men might become slaves by legal methods ; for 
 instance foreign residents, if they neglected their 
 legal obligations, and even Greeks, if they were insol- 
 vent, might be sold to slavery by their creditors, a 
 severe measure which was forbidden by Solon's legis- 
 lation at Athens, but still prevailed in other Greek 
 states. Children, when exposed, became the property 
 of those who found and educated them, and in this 
 manner many of the hetaerae and flute girls had 
 become the property of their owners. 
 
622 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Finally, we know that in some countries the 
 Hellenic population originally resident there were 
 subdued by foreign tribes, and became the slaves of 
 their conquerors, and their position differed in but 
 few respects from that of the barbarian slaves pur- 
 chased in the markets. Such native serfs were the 
 Helots at Sparta, the Penestae in Thessaly, the Clarotae 
 in Crete, etc. We have most information about the 
 position and treatment of the Helots ; but here we 
 must receive the statements of writers with great 
 caution, since they undoubtedly exaggerated a good 
 deal in their accounts of the cruelty with which the 
 Spartans treated the Helots. Still, it is certain that 
 in many respects their lot was a sad one. The con- 
 stant fear of general insurrection on the part of the 
 Helots entertained by the Spartans, whose own 
 numbers were far fewer, and the terrible severity 
 with which they punished, not only real insurrection, 
 but even merely suspected revolution, prove to us 
 that the statements concerning the cruel treatment 
 of the Helots are not absolutely without foundation. 
 But, as a rule, they did not perform menial slave 
 offices in the houses of the free citizf "»s, but cultivated 
 their lands, and as they were only obliged to hand 
 over a certain part of the profit to the owners, they 
 were able to keep the remainder for themselves, and 
 sometimes to accumulate fortunes and even to pur- 
 chase their freedom. Nor do we hear of cases in 
 which individual Spartans treated the Helots who 
 were subordinate to them with especial severity — 
 most of the cases of cruelty towards Helots are those 
 in which State reasons seemed to require such pro- 
 ceedings, and were aimed, not at individuals, but at 
 the whole mass of slaves. This was due to a curious 
 arrangement by which the Helots were not, like other 
 
SLAVERY. 
 
 523 
 
 slaves, private property of the individual citizens, but 
 State property and assigned to a particular piece of 
 land, and along with it to the owner for the time 
 being, without enabling him to maintain right of 
 ownership over them. We must not therefore regard 
 the Helots in the same light as ordinary slaves ; they 
 were rather public serfs, and on this account they 
 were better off than those who belonged to 
 individual owners. There seems no doubt that besides 
 the Helots there were also private slaves at Sparta, 
 who rendered personal services in the households. 
 
 The position and treatment of the slaves varied in 
 different periods, and differed also in the different 
 parts of Greece. Here, ton the conditions of the 
 heroic age were patriarchal, and the distinction 
 between free men and slaves was not so great as after- 
 wards. Trustworthy slaves superintended extensive 
 farms and numerous herds ; old female slaves had the 
 whole direction of the household; they were often 
 intimately connected with the inmates of the house, 
 and showed touching fidelity and affection for their 
 masters, with whom they lived on a familiar footing. 
 Similar conditions existed in later times too, but only 
 in remote pasture districts, such as Arcadia, where 
 even in the historic age the slaves were almost 
 regarded as members of the family, ate at the same 
 table as their masters, and shared their labours and 
 recreations. Generally speaking, the Dorians were 
 regarded as stern masters, and the Athenians as 
 kinder and more considerate ; in fact, a common 
 reproach against the Athenians was that their kind- 
 ness degenerated into weakness, and that the slaves 
 were nowhere so insolent as at Athens ; they expressed 
 themselves freely, it was said, did not give way even 
 to free citizens in the street, they drank, they met 
 
524 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 togother for common banquets, carried on love affairs, 
 etc.. just like free men. These reproaches seem not 
 to have been altogether exaggerated, as is proved by 
 the important part played by slaves in the newer 
 Attic comedy ; they were usually insolent, cunning 
 fellows, who cared little for an occasional beating, and 
 were always ready to play their masters a trick, or to 
 intrigue with the sons against their stern fathers. 
 Still it was not unusual in Attica for slaves to run 
 away, and therefore the slave-owners tried to prevent 
 this by stern supervision, and even by chaining and 
 branding. It is natural that the temperament of 
 the Athenians, which changed quickly from extreme 
 to extreme, should not often succeed in finding the 
 right mean between sewiity and kindness, and 
 therefore, in their sudden transitions from excessive 
 consideration to severest cruelty, a real feeling of 
 attachment between slaves and masters was very 
 rare ; still there were instances of devoted fidelity 
 on the part of the slaves, and many inscriptions still 
 extant speak of such devotion continuing even to 
 the grave. 
 
 The rights assigned by law to the master over his 
 slaves were very considerable. He might throw them 
 in chains, put them in the stocks, condemn them to 
 the hardest labour — for instance, in the mills — leave 
 them without food, brand them, punish them with 
 stripes, and attain the utmost limit of endurance ; but, 
 at any rate at Athens, he was forbidden to kill them. 
 These severe punishments were generally reserved for 
 special cases of obstinacy, theft, or such like ; as a 
 rule, the slaves were treated much as our servants are. 
 Their masters gave them the ordinary dress of arti- 
 sans and workmen — the exomis, or short garment 
 with sleeves (compare the terra-cotta figure, No, 206); 
 
SLAVERY. 
 
 525 
 
 their food was simple but nutritious, chiefly barley 
 porridge and pulse, sometimes meat; iheir drink 
 was the cheap wine of the country ; they had their 
 own sleeping apartments, usually those of the niale 
 slaves were separated from those of the female, except 
 when the master allowed a 
 slave to found a family and to 
 live with one of his fellow- 
 slaves. Legal marriages be- 
 tween slaves were not possible, 
 since they possessed no personal 
 rights ; the owner could at any 
 moment separate a slave family 
 again, and sell f^parate mem- 
 bers of it. On the other hand, 
 if the slaves were in a position 
 to earn money, they could ac- 
 quire fortunes of their own ; 
 they then worked on their own 
 account, and only paid a certain 
 proportion to their owners, 
 keeping the rest for themselves, 
 and when they had saved the 
 necessary amount they could 
 purchase their freedom, suppos- 
 ing the owner was willing to Fm. 206. 
 agree, for he was not compelled. 
 
 Generally speaking, the position of the public slaves 
 was even more favourable. There were certain occu- 
 pations which free men were unwilling to undertake, 
 and for this purpose the State used slaves ; thus, 
 for instance, at Athens the executioner, torturers, 
 gaolers, and police were all slaves ; they had their own 
 dwellings assigned them by the State, could possess 
 property, and received a small salary from the State 
 
526 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 out of which they had to feed and clothe themselves ; 
 they could also earn money by other kinds of work, 
 and sometimes attained a position of fortune. Some 
 of them, as for instance the Athenian police, held a 
 position which gave them certain rights over the 
 citizens, and, therefore, the position of these public 
 slaves must have been a very independent one, while 
 the numerous temple slaves also felt the hardness ol 
 their position much less than those whose owners 
 were private persons. 
 
 The protection given to slaves by the State was 
 very small, but here again there were differences in 
 different states. It was only in cases of the utmost 
 emergency that the State interfered between master 
 and slave. In the oldest period the owner had 
 power of life and death over his slave, but later legis- 
 lation put an end to this, and at Athens, in particular, 
 the master might not even kill a slave if he found 
 him committing a crime, the penalty of which was 
 death ; cases of necessary defence, or such where the 
 crime could only be prevented by killing the per- 
 petrator, were, of course, excluded. If any owner had 
 killed his slave without being able to justify himself, 
 he was punished for so doing, not as severely as 
 though he had murdered a free man, but only as if 
 it were a case of manslaughter. Further protection 
 against excessive ill-treatment from their masters 
 was given by the right of sanctuary, which per- 
 mitted the slave to take refuge at the altar of some 
 god, where he found, at any rate, protection for the 
 time being ; they might even, supposing they were 
 too cruelly used by their masters, ask to be sold to 
 another master, and it eveii appears as if the owner 
 could be legally compelled to grant this request. In 
 other respects the State took little notice of slaves. 
 
SLAVERY. 
 
 527 
 
 except to forbid certain things, such as gymnastic 
 exercises, love-making with free citizens, participation 
 in certain festivals and sacrifices. Very curious and 
 characteristic of the view they held of slaves, were the 
 arrangements when a slave had to give evidence in a 
 court of law. So bad was their opinion of the moral 
 character of barbarians, and especially of those who 
 were not free, that they thought the slaves could only 
 be induced to speak the truth by direct physical com- 
 pulsion, and consequently they were always questioned 
 under torture. If in a suit one party required the 
 testimony of his opponent's slave, the latter could re- 
 fuse it, but he did so at the risk of losing the suit. 
 Sometimes a master voluntarily offered his slave as 
 witness. If the torture, of which there were various 
 grades, some of them very severe, inflicted any lasting 
 injury on his body or health, the owner might demand 
 compensation, supposing that he was not the loser in 
 the case. 
 
 The mode in which slaves were used varied a good 
 deal, according as an owner required his slaves for his 
 own personal service \" household, or used them for 
 work in the field or at some trade, or sent them out 
 to work for others. Among those in the personal 
 service of their master were all who were occupied 
 with the duties of the household and service and 
 attendance on their master and his family. Their 
 number was, of course, regulated by the size of the 
 household ; a poor family had often to content itself 
 with a single slave, but very few were so poor as not 
 to have any ; in large houses a whole army of slaves 
 was kept, who all had their special duties, though 
 often very slight ones. There were the door-keeper, 
 the slaves who attended their master or his family in 
 the street, the paidagogos, the lady's maid, the cook, 
 
528 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 the coachman, the stable boys, water carriers, wool 
 workers, etc. This whole army of servants was usually 
 under the direct supervision of a superintendent or 
 steward, himself a slave, but a particularly trust 
 worthy one, who was often trusted so much by his 
 master as to have charge of his keys and his signet 
 ring. The office of these stewards was of particular 
 importance on the country estates, where they 
 had all the slaves required for farming purposes 
 immediately under them, and had to assign them 
 occupations and superintend their work, unless the 
 master undertook this or himself took up his dwelling 
 on the estate. Slaves who could fill such posts of 
 confidence would, of course, fetch a very high price, 
 and their position can in no way be compared with 
 that of ordinary slaves. The same may be said of 
 those who possessed some intellectual culture, and 
 could serve their masters as secretaries or readers, or 
 even help them in scientific labours, by making ex- 
 tracts, etc. ; but this was far rarer among the barbar- 
 ian slaves of the Greeks than among the Greek slaves 
 of the Romans. The slaves could also render their 
 masters important assistance by technical skill ; thus, 
 in a rich household, there would be, besides the cook, 
 a special baker for bread and cakes, also weavers, 
 fullers, embroiderers, whose duty it was to provide the 
 clothing. And as the slaves in the country had to 
 work in field and meadow, to attend the vineyards, 
 and olive gardens, to guard and attend the cattle so 
 the artisan set his slaves to work in his workshop, and 
 either instructed them himself in his art or bought 
 such as were already trained for the purpose. Even 
 physicians often had slave assistants, ^nd some of 
 these were so much trusted by their masters that 
 they took their place by the sick bed. 
 
SLAVERY. 
 
 529 
 
 It was very common, too, for people who were not 
 themselves artisans to own a number of slaves who 
 practised some particular trade, as in a factor}^. 
 Among the ancients slaves took the place of 
 machinery, for they were tolerably cheap to buy and 
 maintain, and thus a factory of this kind, worked by 
 slaves, was a good investment for capital, especially if 
 the owner understood enough business to undertake 
 the direction himself, or if he had a good overseer. 
 These factory owners also escaped the prejudices 
 against artisans ; to own slaves who made money by 
 the work of their hands was not regarded as " mechani- 
 cal" so long as they kept their own hands from 
 the work. Thus the father of Demosthenes possessed 
 a knife factory, that of Isocrates a flute factory, 
 Lysias and his brother owned a shield factory of one 
 hundred and twenty workers. The slaves who worked 
 in these were not all necessarily the property of 
 the owner. Very often a slave proprietor who did 
 not understand a business himself, let his house to 
 someone who carried it on at his own risk ; or, sup- 
 posing a master to possess among his slaves one who 
 understood some particular trade, he let him out 
 for a certain time at a fee (which was paid not to 
 the slave, but to the master) to someone who could 
 make use of him, perhaps in a large factory. In this 
 way slaves were often let out for work in the mines, 
 which required a great many hands; in fact, they 
 might be let out for a long or short period, even for 
 days and half-days, for work in the fields, domestic 
 occupations, personal service, etc. Many of the flute 
 girls and hetaerae were slaves, and were hired out 
 by their owners by the hour, day, or month, an 
 arrangement with which we are familiar from ancient 
 comedy. 
 
530 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 Moreover, it sometimes happened that slaves who 
 had learned some profession made an agreem-^nt with 
 their masters to pay them a certain proportion ol 
 their earnings, and keep the rest for themselves ; 
 sometimes these lived in their own houses and paid 
 for their own food, and might easily earn enough 
 to purchase their freedom. 
 
 There were various ways of liberating slaves, and 
 the proceedings were different in different states; it 
 was a matter of some importance too, whether a 
 slave was private property or owned by the State or 
 by some sanctuary. There was no definite legal 
 formula for the manumission of private slaves as at 
 Rome ; the State did not interfere in the matter, but 
 only demanded a certain tax from the liberated slave. 
 As a rule, the act of manumission was performed 
 before witnesses or publicly in some large assembly, 
 at the Theatre, in courts of law, etc., in order to give 
 the freed man a guarantee of its validity. It often 
 happened that an owner gave all or some of his slaves 
 their freedom in his will, either immediately upon his 
 death or on the condition that the slave should serve 
 his heirs for a certain period, or pay a certain sum to 
 *them out ot his own earnings in return for his free- 
 dom. If a slave purchased his freedom during the 
 lifetime of his master there was a curious arrangement 
 for establishing the legality of the proceeding, since 
 a slave was not able to conclude a legally valid 
 contract. We owe our knowledge of this proceeding 
 chiefly to documents at Delphi. A mock sale had to 
 be carried on ; the master sold the slave for a sum 
 mentioned in the contract (which was paid by the 
 slave himself, unless it was remitted by the master) 
 to some god, e.g. at Delphi to Apollo, under the con- 
 dition that he should be free as soon as he entered 
 
SLAVERY. 
 
 531 
 
 the possession of the god. The slave did not then 
 become a temple slave, but was set free by the god, 
 probably in return for some small payment to the 
 sanctuary. As these contracts were concluded in the 
 presence of witnesses, usually priests of the divinity 
 in question, and deposited in the sanctuary, the freed 
 slave had the security of not being afterwards claimed 
 by his former master or his heirs, and again losing 
 his freedom. Sometimes these contracts contained 
 clauses which pledged the slave to certain obligations 
 towards his master as long as he lived, or towards 
 his heirs, or to care for the burial and grave of his 
 former master, etc. In most cases the freed slave 
 did not immediately lose all connection with his 
 old master; he was not a citizen, and therefore his 
 former owner became his legal patron. It was not 
 unusual for the contract to specify that in case the 
 slave should die without children, his property should 
 belong to his former master cr his heirs, and some- 
 times this even extended to the children of the slave, 
 supposing they in turn died without legal heirs. It 
 may have often happened, as was also the case among 
 some of the Russian serfs in our own time, that 
 the freed slave was richer than his master, and we 
 may thus explain such obligations as those already 
 mentioned, or the condition that the liberated slave 
 should maintain his master until his death. The right 
 of citizenship was seldom conferred on slaves when 
 they were set free ; supposing this was the case, of 
 course, all such obligations were omitted. This was 
 usually done when a slave had deserved especially 
 well of his country ; thus, for instance, all those who 
 fought at the battle of Arginusae received their free- 
 dom and the right of citizenship. The conditions at 
 Sparta were different ; sometimes the Helots received 
 
532 
 
 GREEK LIFE AT HOME. 
 
 their freedom from the State, especially those child reu 
 of Helots who were educated and brought up together 
 with the sons of citizens, but the right of citizenship 
 was never combined with this freedom. Still, it was 
 not unusual for children who were born of Spartan 
 fathers and Helot mothers to be both free men and 
 citizens ; the celebrated Spartan generals Lysander, 
 Gylippus and Callicratidas, were sons of Spartans and 
 Helots. 
 
 It would be impossible to make a guess at the 
 Qumber of slaves in Greece. Statements on the sub- 
 ject are extant, but these are insufScient to give us 
 any general idea. There can be no doubt that the 
 number was a very large one ; it was a sign of the 
 greatest poverty to own no slaves at all, and Aeschines 
 mentions, as a mark of a very modest household, that 
 there were only seven slaves to six persons. If we 
 add to these domesti(3 slaves the many thousands 
 working in the country, in the factories, and the 
 mines, and those who were the i)roperty of the State 
 and the temples, there seems no doubt that their 
 number must have considerably^ exceeded that of the 
 free population. The injurious influence of this part 
 of the population, who were chiefly barbarians, was 
 felt in many different ways ; and though it is not 
 as evident in Greece as in Rome, where the disastrous 
 results of slavery are most marked, j^et we cannot 
 hesitate to afiirm that the speedy fall of Greece fr(jm 
 her political and social height, and the sad picture 
 she offered under Roman dominion, was due, among 
 other causes, in very great part to the institution 
 of slavery. 
 
LIST OF AUTHORITIES CONSULTED FOR 
 THIS BOOK. 
 
 I. — Works Bearing on the Subject Generally. 
 
 J. A. St. John. The Hellenes." London, 1844. 
 
 J. P. MahafFy. "Social Life in Greece from Homer to 
 Menander." London, 1875. 
 
 W. A. Becker. " Charikles neu bearbeitet von H. Goell." 
 Berlin, 1877. 
 
 C. F. Hermann. " Griechische Privataltertiimer," 3rd ed., 
 edited by H. Bliimner. Freiburg and Tiibingen, 1882. 
 
 Panofka. "Bilder antiken Lebens." Berlin, 1843. 
 
 Panofka. Griechen und Griechinnen." Berlin, 1844. 
 
 Weiszer. Lebensbilder aus dem Klassichen Altertum." 
 Stuttgart, 1862. 
 
 A. Baumeister. "Denkmaler des Klassichen Altertums." 
 Munich, 1884. 
 
 Th. Schreiber. " Kulturhistorischer Atlas des Altertums/' 
 Leipzig, 1885. 
 
 H. Bliimner. " Kunstgewerbe im Altertum." Leipzig and 
 Prague. 
 
 II. — Works Dealing with Special Subjects. 
 
 1. Costume, 
 
 W. Helbig. " Das homerische Epos aus den Denkmalern 
 erlkutert.'' Leipzig, 1884, pp. 115—180. 
 
 J . Boehlau. " Quaestiones de re vestiaria Graecorum." 
 Weimar, 1884. 
 
 Fr. Studniczka. " Beitrage zur Geschichte der altgriech- 
 ischen Tracht." Vienna, 1886. 
 
 Th. Schreiber. " Mitteilungen des Hpiitschen archaeo- 
 logischen Instituts in Athen." Vol. VIIL (1883), pp. 246 f. ; 
 IX. (1884), pp. 232 f. 
 
534 
 
 LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 2. Birth and Early Childhood. 
 
 H. V. Swiecicki. "Die Pflege der Kinder bei den 
 Griechen." Breslau, 1877. 
 
 Becq de Fouqui^res. " Les jeux des anciens." Paris, 1869. 
 
 L. Grasberger. " Erziehung und Unterricht im Kiassischen 
 Altertum." Wiirzburg, 1864-1881. 
 
 3. Education. 
 
 L. Grasberger. {See 2.) 
 
 J. L. Ussing. "Erziehung nnd Jugendunterricht bei den 
 Griechen und Romern.'' Berlin, 1885. 
 
 4. Marriage and Women.'* 
 No special books quoted. 
 
 6. Daily Life within and without the House, 
 
 G. Bilfinger. "Die Zeitmesser der antiken Volker." 
 Stuttgart, 1886. 
 
 6. Meals and Social Entertainments. 
 
 Anastasios Maltos. A modern Greek work on the 
 symposia of the Ancient Greeks. Athens, 1880. 
 
 7. Sickness and Physicians ; Death and Burial, 
 Welcker. " Kleine Schriften." III., pp. 1 f. 
 
 8. Gymnastics. 
 
 L. Grasberger. {See 2.) 
 
 J. H. Krause. "Die Gymnastik und Agonistik der Hel: 
 lenen." 2 vols. Leipzig, 1841. 
 
 Ed. Finder. " Ueber den Fiinfkampf der Hellenen.'* Berlin 
 1867. 
 
 H. Marquardt. " Zum Pentathlon der Hellenen." 1886. 
 
 9. Music and Dancing. 
 
 K. V. Jan. "Die Griechischen Saiteninstrumente. Pro- 
 gramm des Lyceums von Saargemiind." Leipzig, 1882. 
 
 Gevaert. " Histoire et theorie de la musique dans Tan- 
 tiquit^." Vol. II. (1881), pp. 241 f. 
 
 K. V. Jan. An article in " Baumeister's Denkmaler des 
 ^Kiassischen Altertums." I., 553 f. 
 
 10. Religion. 
 
 -K. F. Hermann. "Lehrbuch der gottesdienstlichen Alter- 
 tiimer der Griechen." Second edition. Revised by K. B. Stark. 
 Heidelberg, 1858. 
 
LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 635 
 
 Metzger. An article entitled Divinatio in Pauly's " Realen- 
 cyklopadie." 11. , pp. 1 1 1 3 f. 
 
 Bouche-Leclerque. " Histoire de la divination dans Tan- 
 tiqiiite." Paris, 1880. 
 
 Biichsenschiitz. " Traum und Traumdeutung im Altertum." 
 Berlin, 1882. 
 
 11. Games and Festivals, 
 
 J. H. Krause. " 'Ew-nviKa,'' Part I. Olympia. Vienna, 
 1838. Part II., Pythien, Nemien, und Isthriiien. Leipzig, 
 1841. 
 
 E. Curtius. Olympia. Berlin, 1852. 
 Ad. Bottiger. Olympia. "Das Fest und seine Statte." 
 Second Edition. Berlin, 1886. 
 
 Holwerda. An article in the " Archaeologische Zeitung." 
 for 1880, pp. 169 f. 
 
 A. Mommsen. "Delpliica." Leipzig, 1878, pp. 149—214. 
 
 H. Guhrauer. " Der Pythische Nomos " in " Supplemente 
 der neuen Jahrbiicher fiir Philologie und Padogogie." 
 Vol. VIII., pp. 309 f. 
 
 A. Mommsen. " Heortologie. Antiquarische Untersuch- 
 ungen iiber die stadtischen Feste der Athener." Leipzig, 1864. 
 
 A. Michaelis. "Der Parthenon." Leipzig, 1871. 
 
 Preller. An article in Pauly's " Eealencyklopadie.' 
 Vol. IIL, pp. 83 f. 
 
 Preller. " Demeter und Persephone." p. 342 f. 
 
 12. The Theatre. 
 
 Wieseler. An article entitled " Griechisches Theater," in 
 Ersch. Gruber's "Encyklopadie." First series. Vol. LXXXIIL, 
 pp. 243 f. 
 
 Wieseler. " Theatergebaude und Denkmaler des Biihnen- 
 wesens." Gottingen, 1851. 
 
 Alb. Miiller. " Lehrbuchder szenischen Altertiimer." Frei- 
 burg-im-Br., 1886. 
 
 W. Donaldson. " Theatre of the Greeks." Ninth edition, 
 London, 1879. 
 
 Liiders. "Die Dionysischen Kiinstler." Berlin, 1873. 
 
 Sommerbrodt. "Scaenica." Berlin, 1876. pp. 199 f. 
 
 Arnold. An article in " Verhandlungen der 29ten Philolo- 
 gen Versammlung," 1875. pp. 16 f. 
 
 Wieseler. " Das Satyrspiel." Gottingen, 1848. 
 
536 
 
 LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 
 
 O. Benndorf. " Beitrage zur Kenntnis des Attischen 
 Theaters," an article in the "Zeitschrift fiir osterreichischd 
 Gymnasien." 1875. 
 
 13. War and Seafaring. 
 
 W. Eiistow and H. Kochly. " Geschichte des Griech/sehen 
 Kriegswesens." Aarau, 1852. 
 
 Helbig. "Das Homerische Epos aus den Denkmalern 
 erlautert." pp. 195—250. 
 
 Jahns. "Handbuch einer Geschichte des Kriegswesens 
 von der Urzeit bis zur Renaissance." Leipzig, 1880. 
 
 A. Miiller. An article in Baumeister's Denkmaler dea 
 Klassischen Altertums." Vol. I., pp. 525 f. 
 
 Boeckh. "Urkunden liber das Seewesen des Attischen 
 Staates." Berlin, 1840. 
 
 Graser. "De veterum re navali." Berlin, 1864. 
 
 A. Cartault. " La triere Ath^nienne." Paris, 1880. 
 
 A. Breusing. " Die Nautik der Alten." Bremen, 1886. 
 
 Raoul Lemaitre. " Sur la disposition des rameurs sur la 
 triere antique," an article in the Revue Archeologique for 
 1883. pp. 89 f. 
 
 14. Agriculture, Trade, and Commerce, 
 Biichsenschiitz. " Besitz und Erwerb." Halle, 1869. 
 Biichsenschiitz. "Die Haupstatten des Gewerbfleiszes im 
 
 klassischen Altertum." Leipzig, 1869. 
 
 W. Drumann. " Die Arbeiter und Kommunisten in Griech- 
 enland und Rom." Konigsberg, 1860. 
 
 Bliimner. "Die gewerbliche Thatigkeit. der Yolker des 
 klassischen Altertums.^' Leipzig, 1869. 
 
 Bliimner. "Technologie und Terminologie der Gewerbe 
 und Klinste bei Griechen und Romern." 4 vols. Leipzig, 
 1875—1887. 
 
 15. Slaves, 
 
 Wallon. " Histoire de I'esclavage dans Pantiquite." Second 
 edition. Paris, 1879. 
 
 Biichsenschiitz. " Besitz und Gewerb." pp. 104—208. 
 
I K D E X. 
 
 Ahacus, The, 111 
 
 Academy, The, at Athens, 119, 127 
 Acarnania, Javelin throwers of, 478 
 "Achaeans Curly-haired," 64, 72 
 Achilles, Wail at the death of, 248 ; 
 
 bandaging the arm of Patroclns, 
 
 464 
 
 Acropolis, Buildings on the, 179 
 
 Actors, Dress of, 4, 46; Gloves of, 56; 
 sometimes poets, 421 ; selected by 
 poets, and examined by the State, 
 421 ; Division of parts to, 422 ; 
 Dumb, 423 ; Payment of, 423 ; 
 Guilds and Schools of, 423 ; Cos- 
 tumes and masks of, 422 — 444 ; 
 Prizes of, 449 
 
 Adonis, Festival of, 152 
 
 Aeschines, Figure of, 2 ; his employ- 
 ment in boyhood. 104 ; his allusion 
 to slaves, 532 
 
 Aeschylus, The Trilogy of, 411 ; his in- 
 troduction of a second actor, 412 ; 
 Songs and Chorus of, 413 ; his 
 "Eumenides," 428 ; his contest 
 with Sophocles, 449 
 
 Aesculapius, 234 ; Sanctuaries of, 238 ; 
 Sacrificial offering of cocks to, 336 
 
 Aesop's Fables, 88 
 
 Action exhibits his picture at Olympia 
 of Alexander's Marriage, 364 
 
 Aetolia, Javelin-throwers of, 478 
 
 Agesilaus, Dress of, 50 ; Anecdote of, 
 and the hobby-horse, 93 
 
 Agora, The, 128 
 
 Agrae, The lesser Eleusinla at, 378 
 
 Agricultural implements, 493 
 
 Agricultural pursuits, 176 
 
 Agriculture, in statistical relation to 
 industry and trade, 489 ; the chief 
 occupation in the heroic period, 
 491 ; at Sparta, 491 ; at Athens, 
 491 ; Irrigation in, 492 ; in Arcadia, 
 493 ; Allusion in Homer to, 493 ; 
 Implements of, 493 
 
 Alcibiades, Shoes named after, 65 ; at a 
 banquet, 216 
 
 Alcmene, her song to her children, 85 
 
 Alexander the Great and Roxana; picture 
 of their marriage, by Action, 364 
 
 Aiexandria, School of, 128 
 
 Alexandria Troas, Ruins of Wrestling 
 
 School at, 121 
 Alexandrine period, Varieties of female 
 
 dress in the, 43 
 Altis, Grove of, 121, 304, 362, 365 
 Amazons, Chiton of, 39 ; Battle-axe of, 
 
 475 ; Shields of, 478 
 Ambrosia, Festival of, 385 
 Amorgos, Looms of, 48 
 Ampechonion, The, 43 
 Amphiaraus, Temple of, 243 ; Oracle of, 
 
 346 ; Figure of, 465 ; Helmet of, 
 
 469 
 
 Amphictyons, The, 369 
 Amphidromia, The, 82, 83, 84 
 Amphoras, 373 
 
 Amulets for infants, 83, 84 ; in curing 
 
 disease, 243 
 Anacreon on Conversation, 219 
 Anaximander introduces methods of 
 
 measuring time, 184 
 Anaximenes lecturing at 01ymi)ia, 364 
 Andromache, Head-dress of, 74, 145 
 Andromeda, Masks relating to, 430 
 Animals, Sacrifice of, 137, 138, 203, 336, 
 
 337 
 
 Animals, wild, Hunting, 196 
 
 Anthesterian Festival, The, 385 
 
 Antioch, School of, 128 
 
 Antiphon on spear-throwing, 278 
 
 Antisthenes, 127 
 
 Aphrodite Anadyomene, 172 
 
 Aphrodite bathing, 159 
 
 Aphrodite Pandemos, 134 
 
 Aphrodite Urania, 134, 151 
 
 Apollo, Figure of, 4 ; The chlamys of, 
 19 ; Head-dress of, 66 ; invoked at 
 weddings, 137, 144 ; at the purifi- 
 cation of Orestes, 330; Sacrifice of 
 asses to, 336 ; Oracles of, 342 ; Clariau 
 Temple of, 344 ; Sacrifice at Pythian 
 Games to, 367 ; Hecatomb to, 370 ; 
 A slave set free by, 531 
 
 Apollo-Coropaeus, Oracle of, 345 
 
 Apoxyomenos, The, of Lysippus, 285 
 
 Arcadians, The, 458 
 
 Arcesilas of Cyrene, 514 
 
 Archery, Skill of Cretans in, 300 ; In- 
 struction in, 124 (See, also, Bow and 
 Arrows) 
 
538 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Archon Basileus, Dress of the, 4 
 
 Areopagus, The, 102 
 
 Argimisae, the battle of, Slaves at, 
 
 531 
 Argolis, 371 
 
 Argos, Prophecy at, 344 
 Ariadne, 444 
 
 Aristarchus, inventor of sun-dials, 185 
 
 Aristophanes, his allusions to chitons 
 and mode of wearing the hair, 69 ; 
 allusions to nurseries, 85 ; allusion 
 to the mother of Pheidippides, 98 ; 
 his descriptions of marriage, 134, 
 170 ; Birds " of, 140 ; " Frogs " of, 
 200 ; allusion to fidelity of citizens 
 to judicial duties, 195 ; The"Achar- 
 nians" of, 236, 383; his account of the 
 recovery of Plutus from blindness, 
 240 ; Comedies of, 392 ; Jokes of, 436 
 
 Aristotle, Shaven face of, 73 ; his allu- 
 sion to the flute, 112 ; teaches in 
 the Lyceum, 127 ; his opinion of 
 work, 490, of tradesmen, 510 
 
 Arithmetic in Spartan education, 101 ; 
 in Attic education. 111, 127 
 
 " Armour-race," The, 273, 274 
 
 Arms, Exposure of, 18 
 
 Arms, presented to ephebi, 118 ; used in 
 war, 452 ; of Homeric soldiers, 460 ; 
 of later times, 462—480 
 
 Army of Sparta, 454—456 ; of Athens, 
 456—460 (See, also, Soldiers) 
 
 Artemidorus, Dream-book of, 342 
 
 Artemis, Chiton of, 29 ; Dolls offered to, 
 92 ; invoked at weddings, 137, 144 ; 
 Sacrifice at Pythian Games to, 367 
 
 Artist, Profession of, 489, 500 ; Work- 
 shop of an, 504 
 
 Askolia, Game of, 384 
 
 Aspasia, 172 
 
 Astragals (See Knuckle-bones) 
 Astronomy in Attic schools, 114, 127 
 Athene at her toilet, 159 ; as a weaver, 
 498 
 
 Athene-Hygeia, 375 
 
 Athene Polias, 372, 376, 377 
 
 Athens, Dress at, 12; Shoes worn at, 
 55 ; Walking-sticks at, 64 ; Mode of 
 dressing the hair at, 68 ; System of 
 education at, 102—132 ; Tribes and 
 clans of, 143 ; Daily life in, 179— 
 201 ; Streets and suburbs of, 179, 
 180 ; Houses at, 179, 181 ; Duties 
 and voluntary services of citizens of, 
 194, 195; Banquets in, 203—232; 
 Festivals of, 372—390 ; Theatre of, 
 396 ; Military service in, 456 
 
 Athletes, Hair of, 69 ; Complexion of, 
 285 ; Position and training of, 302 
 —305 ; useless to the State, 305; at 
 Olympia, 358 
 
 Auditorium of theatres, 398—402 
 
 Augustus, Obelisk of, in the Campus 
 Martins, 185 
 
 Babylonians, their arrangements for 
 
 meas^iring time, 184 
 Ball, Game of, 223, 299 
 Bankers, 190, 516, 517, 518 
 
 Banquets for men, 208 ; Order of pro- 
 ceedings at, 205 ; The various dishes 
 served at, 206, 207 ; Drinking at, 
 209 ; at religious festivals, 349 ; at 
 Olympia, 363 {See, aUo, Symposium) 
 
 Barbers' shops, 189, 190 
 
 BarbUon, The, 314 
 
 Barley-cake, 208 
 
 Barter, 51S 
 
 Basilinna, 386, 387 
 
 Baskets for learning to walk, 86 
 
 Bathing children, 85 
 
 Baths for new-born infants, 80 ; in gym- 
 nasia, 121 ; for bride and bridegroom, 
 137 ; of women, 159 ; for men, 192 
 —1^4 ; Public and private, 192, 193 ; 
 connected with the gymnasia, 192 
 
 Battering-ram, 480 
 
 Battle-axe, The, 475 
 
 Beard, the. Modes of wearing, 71—74 
 
 Beer, 211 
 
 Bib, The, 24, 28, 32, 33, 35, 36, 39 
 Birds, Snaring, 197 ; Sacrifice of, 836 
 Birds of Aristophanes, 140 
 Birth and Infancy, Period of, 78—98 
 Birthdays, 203 
 
 Black broth," 178 
 Blindness, Cures for, 240 
 Board of Inspection in Sparta, 99 
 Boating, 126 
 
 Boehlau on the woman's chiton, 21 
 Boeotians, Food of, 206 
 Bogies, 88 
 Boots, 52, 53 
 Boule, The, 195 
 
 Bow and Arrows, Teaching the use of, 
 124 ; Construction of, 300 ; in war, 
 476, 477 (See, also, Archery) 
 
 *♦ Bowl of Duris," The, 307 
 
 Boxing, 116, 123, 291, 292 ; subject to 
 special rules, 292 ; Injuries from, 
 293 ; Methods of, 293—296 ; Thongs 
 used in, 293, 296 ; at Olympia, 353 
 
 Boys, Clothing of, 100, 118 ; Education 
 of, 99—132 ; Gymnastic exercises of, 
 100, 115, 116, 119—124 ; Oath taken 
 by, 117 ; period when classed as 
 epheheia, 117 ; exercised in arms, 
 124; horse-riding, swimming, boat- 
 ing, and marching, 124—126; Ad- 
 vanced instruction of, 127, 128 ; at 
 quoit-throwing, 278 : as priests, 
 325, 326; at the Olympic games, 
 353, 354 ; at Pythian games, 368; at 
 theatres, 447; as slaves, 521 
 
 Branchidae, The Sanctuary of, 344 
 
 Bread, 207, 208 
 
 Bridal dress, 138 
 
 Bridal presents, 135 
 
 Bridal procession, 139 
 
 Bridal song, 140 
 
 Bridal torches, 139 
 
 Brooches, 6 
 
 Brygos, vase painter, 30 
 Burning the dead, 250, 254, 255 
 Byzantium, Intemperance at, 197 
 
 Cakes, 207, 208 ; for Cerberus, 245 
 Callirhoe, The sacred water of, 137 
 
INDEX. 
 
 539 
 
 Calypso, 146 
 
 Camps, 455 
 
 Caps, Shape and material of, 59 
 Captives taken in war, 452 
 Carriages for infants, 90 ; of the rich, 198 
 Caryatid, Dress of a, 37 ; Head-dres« of 
 
 a, 75 
 Castanets, 320 
 Cattle rearing, 176, 496, 497 
 Cavalry, 452, 457, 479, 480 
 Cenotaphs, 264 
 
 Ceos, Burial ordinances of, 251 
 Cerberus, 245 
 Chairs, 202 
 
 Cliariot races, 353, 354 - 357, 368, 373 
 Charioteers, Costume of, 4, 354 
 Chariots, Fighting from, 451 
 Charon, The pilos of, 59 ; his fees, 245 
 Chemises, 43 
 
 Children, Customs at +he birth of, 78— 
 80; Swaddlings for, 80; Suckling, 
 81 ; Legitimation of, 81 ; Exposure 
 of, 82 ; Naming, 83 ; Welcome and 
 Dedication of, 82, 84 ; Charms for, 
 84 ; in the nui-sery, 85 ; Bathing, 
 85 ; Weaning, 85 ; learning to walk, 
 87 ; Clothing of, 88 ; Threats for 
 quieting, 88 ; Stories for, 88 ; Toys 
 for, 89- -92 ; Games of, 92—97 ; Chas- 
 tisement of, 98 ; Education of, 98 ; 
 Registration of new-born, 143; 
 bound to obedience, 148 ; at meals, 
 178 ; at the Feast of Cans, 386 ; as 
 slaves, 621 ((See, also, Boys and 
 Girlsj. 
 
 Chionib, J umping feat of, 269 
 
 Chiton, The, long and sliort, and by 
 whom worn, 3,4; Homeric descrip- 
 tions of, 6 ; Change in the cut of, 8 ; 
 of Hermes, 11 ; of workmen and 
 others, ] 2 ; Modes of wearing the, 
 14, 15 ; combined with the himation, 
 17 ; worn at home, 19 ; its resem- 
 blance to the peplos, 20 ; worn by 
 women, 21, 24 — 26 ; Changes in, 
 30 ; Construction of, 33 ; Folds of, 
 33, 34 ; Arrangement of, 37 ; Varie- 
 ties of, 39—41 ; Colour of, 44, 45 ; 
 Patterns of, 46 ; Material of, 47, 
 48 ; on the stage, 438 ; of soldiers, 
 465 
 
 Chlaina (Cloak), 3; shape of, 7, 8; 
 
 material of, 15 
 Chlamys, The, 7 ; place of its origin, 17 ; 
 
 shape and mode of wearing, 18 ; 
 
 of Hermes and Apollo, 18, 19 
 Choragia, The, 418 
 
 Choruses, 214, 350, 389, 392, 394, 413, 
 415; Training of, 417, 419, 420; 
 Prizes to, 419 ; The selection of, 
 420 ; Dress of, 444 
 
 Circe, 145 
 
 Cirrha, 368 
 
 Cithara, Tlie, taught in Attic schools, 
 112 ; Construction of, 309—311 ; 
 Manu?»" of playing, 311 ; at Pythian 
 games, 366 
 
 Cithara player, Dress of, 32 ; at ban- 
 quets, 133 
 
 Citizens, Daily life of, 188—201 ; Jndi- 
 cial duties and voluntary services 
 of, 195 ; as soldiers, 456 
 
 Civic rights of young men, 133 
 
 Civil duties, 195 
 
 Clans at Athens, 143 
 
 Clarian Temple of Apollo, The, 344 
 
 Clarotae, The, 522 
 
 Cleisthenes, Reforms of, 457 
 
 Cleon, 428 
 
 Cloak, The, 7 ; Mode of wearing, 15, 17, 
 
 19 ; Coloured, 47 
 Clocks, Water, 185—187 
 Clothes, Washing, 156, 157 
 Club, The, 475 
 Club-rooms, 179, 192 
 Cnidus, Medical school of, 235, 239 
 Cock and quail fighting, 228 
 Cortins, Material and shapes of, 252, 253 
 Coins put into mouths of dead men, 245 
 Callicratidas, 532 
 Colours of dress, 44—47 
 Comedy, 414, 415, 436—442 
 Comus, The, 230 
 Concubinage, 145, 146 
 Condottiere, The, 459 
 Conjurers, 217 
 
 Conversations and discussions at sym- 
 posia, 219 
 Cooking, 206 
 
 Corinth, Female morality at, 170 ; The 
 hetaerae of, 171 ; Temple of Aph- 
 rodite at, 173 
 
 Corn dealers, 510 
 
 Corymbus, The, 68 
 
 Cos, Medical school of, 235, 239 
 
 Cosmetics, 165 
 
 Costume, Knowledge of, essential to a 
 
 complete picture of past ages, 1 ; 
 
 Theatrical, 432—444 (See, also, Di-ess) 
 Costume, Greek, Incorrect ideas of, 2 ; 
 
 Two kinds of, 2 ; Names of garments 
 
 in, 3 (See, also, Dress) 
 " Cothurnus," The, 436 
 Cottabus, Game of, 194, 220, 221 
 Cotton garments, 49 
 Council of Five Hundred, 195, 449 
 Cradles, 81 
 Crematoria, The, 250 
 Crepida, 54 
 
 Crete, Marriage custom at, 145 ; skill 
 of its people in archery, 300, 478 
 
 Crobylus, The, 68, 75 
 
 Ctesibius, Water clock of, 187 
 
 Cuirass, The, 460, 462, 464, 465, 479 
 
 Culture of Greeks, 110 
 
 Cup-bearers, 178, 221 
 
 Cups, Wine, 213 
 Curl-holders," 61, 71 
 
 Curls worn by men, 64, 65, 68 
 
 Curse on murderers, 251 
 
 Cybele, Musical instruments used in the 
 woi ship of, 319, 320 
 
 " Cyclops," The, 415 
 
 Cymbals, 320 
 
 Cynic philosophers. Dress of, 20 , 3are 
 feet of, 49 ; Beards of, 74 ; ^ the 
 Cynosarges, 127 
 
 Cynosarges, The, at Athens, 119 
 
540 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Cyrene, Sili)liium of, 514 
 
 Daily life at Sparta, 175—179 ; at 
 Atliens, 179-201 
 
 Dancing, at symposia, 216 ; Pantomimic, 
 217 ; cliiefly confined to professional 
 performeis, 321 ; between the sexes 
 unknown, 321 ; for religious pur- 
 poses, 321 ; in the worship of 
 Dionysus, 321 ; in armour, 321 ; 
 Singing combined witli, 321 ; Dis- 
 tinction in ancientand modern, 322 ; 
 in connection with religious mys- 
 teries, 348 ; after religious cere- 
 monies, 350 ; Choric, 417 
 
 " Daugliter of Niobe, A," 39 
 
 Death and burial, Customs connected 
 with, 244—264 
 
 Delos, Proficiency in swimming of in- 
 habitants of, 126 
 
 Delphi, Oracle of, 342, 343; Pythian 
 games at, 366 — 370 
 
 Demeter, Otfering of swine to, 336 ; 
 Wanderings of, 381 ; Festival in 
 honour of, 382 
 
 Democedes, the physician, 238 
 
 Demosthenes, 194 ; Factory of the 
 fatlier of, 529 
 
 Dice, 97, 192, 194, 223, 224, 225, 347 
 
 Diogenes, his allusion to the care taken 
 of sheep, 498 
 
 Diomede, Helmet of, 468 
 
 Dionysus, Fillet on forehead of, 71 ; 
 Festival of, 118 ; in a vase picture, 
 169; his journey to Hades, 200; 
 Hymn in jiraise of, 212 ; Worship 
 of, 320 ; Sacrifice to, 333 ; Goats 
 offered to, 336 ; Festivals of, 383— 
 390 ; Theatre of, 298, 403, 445 ; on 
 the stage, 442 
 
 " Dionysus, The Little," 96 
 
 Dionysos-Eleutheros, 386, 389 
 
 Diplax, The, 8 
 
 Discipline in Sparta, 100 
 
 " Discobolus," The, in the Vatican, 277 
 
 Diseases, described in inscriptions, 239 ; 
 Modes of curing, 239—243 
 
 Dishes at a birth -festival, 84 ; some- 
 times enumerated in verse, 206 
 
 Divorce, Grounds of, 148, 149 
 
 Dodona, Oracle of Zeus at, 344 
 
 Dogs for hunting, 196 ; carried about in 
 the propitiation of Hecate, 331 
 
 Dolls, 90—92 
 
 Door, Decking the, on the birth of A 
 child, 78 
 
 Doric and Ionic costume, Differences 
 between, 22—30 
 
 Dough, as a substitute for table-nap- 
 kins, 206 
 
 Dowry, Bride's, 135, 136 ; Return of, 149 
 Dragon, Apollo's fight with the, 367 
 Drama, Origin of, 392 ; Divisions of the, 
 411, 416; Choregraphic element in 
 the, 417 ; Representation of the, 
 421—448 
 
 Dramas at Eleusinian festivals, 381 ; 
 
 at the Feast of Cans, 389, 390. 
 Drapery in Egypt 4000 b.c, 9 ; among 
 
 the Phoenicians, 9; as shown ixi 
 
 vase i>aintings, 30, 33, 34 
 Drawing, Teaching of, 113, 127 
 Di awing lots at Olympia, 360 
 Dream oracles, ^0—243 
 Dream-book of Artemidorus, 342 
 Dreams, 341 ; revealing the will of the 
 
 gods, 342 
 
 Dress, of actors, 4; at Athens, 12; of 
 charioteers, 4 ; of cynic philoso- 
 phers, 20 ; of flute players, 4 ; of 
 gods, 3 ; of harp players, 4 ; in 
 Ionia, 12 ; of the age of Pericles, 2 ; 
 of priests, 4, 327; of riders, 18, 
 125; of soldiers, 8, 18, 455; in 
 Sparta, 12; of workmen, 12, 19, 
 50i; of youths, 18, 100, 106, lift ; 
 of women, 20 — 49 ; Colour and 
 pattern of, 44 ; with designs of 
 figures, 47 ; Matt -ial of, 47, 48 ; 
 of hetaerae, 48 ; of CiJldren, 87, 8h' ; 
 paidagogoi, 103 ; of female gymnast, 
 132; of bride, 138; of bridegroom, 
 139 ; of a corpse, 245 ; of funeral 
 mourners, 251 ; of peasants, 497 ; 
 of slaves, 524 
 
 Drinking parties, 197, 202, 209 ; Re- 
 presentations of. 212 
 
 Drinking songs, 215 
 
 Drunkenness, 230; of women, 170 
 
 Dumb-bells, 116 ; used in jumping, 266 
 
 Duris, vase-painter, 30 ; his representa- 
 tion of school-teaching, 106 
 
 Dwellings in Sparta, 177 ; in Athens, 
 179, 181 
 
 Dyeing the hair, 166 
 
 Early rising, 194 
 Ear-rings, 65 
 Ecstasy, 341i 
 
 Education, Distinction in the Doric 
 and Ionic states in system of, 99 ; 
 in Sparta, 99—102, 130, 132 ; in 
 Athens, 102—132 (See, also. Schools) 
 
 Egypt, Drapery in, 9 
 
 Eleusinian celebrations, 151, 377 — 382 
 
 Elians, The, 358, 363 
 
 Embalming, 249 
 
 Embroidery, 45, 130 
 
 Ephebi, 117; Double use of the term, 
 117 ; The oath taken by, 117 ; their 
 change of dress, and dedicatory 
 rites, 118 ; Military education of. 
 124, 126, 127, 456 
 
 Ephesus, Ruins of wrestling school at, 
 121 ; theati-e of, 402 
 
 Epliors, Tlie, 454 
 
 Epicureans, The, 128 
 
 Epidaurian sacrifice, 379 
 
 Epidaurus, Sanctuary of Aesculapius at, 
 239, 242, 243 
 
 Epithalamium of Helen, 141 
 
 Erinnys, The, 335 
 
 Ei os, Glorification of, 220 
 
 Ethics, 110 
 
 Etruscan graves, Spirals found in, 65 
 Euphorbus, The hair of, 65 
 Euripides, his tirades against married 
 life, 134, 170 ; Songs from 216 ; on 
 
INDEX. 
 
 541 
 
 Olympic games, 365 ; Tetralogies of, 
 412 ; " Cyclops " of, 415 ; repre- 
 sented on the stage, 428 
 Evil eye. The, 83 
 
 Exoniis, mode of wearing the chiton, 
 
 13 ; on the stage, 438 
 Exposure of infants, 82 
 Eyebrows, Dyeing the, 166 
 
 Factories, 529 
 
 Fair at Olympic Festival, 367 
 Fairy tales, 88 
 
 Farms, Management of, 492. 493 
 ** Fast and Loose," Game of, 226 
 Feast of Adonis at Alexandria, 391 
 
 Feast of Pitc hers," The, 386 
 F» -^-, ihe. Coverings for, 49—55 
 r^lt uiirments, 49 
 FeiM-iiig, 124 
 
 Festivals, Costume for. 3, 46 ; at the 
 birth of children, '82— 84 ; of the 
 Panathenaea, 124 ; at marriages, 
 138 ; for women, 151 ; of Adonis, 
 152 ; Religious, 195, 349, 350, 351 ; 
 Frequency of, 203 ; National, 350 ; 
 at Olympia, 351—366 ; at Delphi, 
 3(56—370 ; Isthmian, 370 ; Nemean, 
 371 ; Athenian, 372—391 
 
 Fibulae, 6, 32, 33, 39, 69 
 
 " Ficoronese Cista," The, 296 
 
 Fireless sacrifices, 334 
 
 Fish, Eating, 207 
 
 Fish-market, 191 
 
 Fisliing, 197 
 
 " Five-lines," Game of, 224 
 
 Flowers for funeral wreaths, 245 
 
 Flute, the. Instruction in, 107, 112 ; 
 neglected at Athens, but popular at 
 Thebes, 112; its Bacchic origin, 
 112; carefully avoided in Sparta, 
 113 ; Construction of, 315 ; playing, 
 316—319 ; at Pythian games, 366 
 
 Flute players Costume of, 4 ; at sym- 
 posia, 214, 216 ; at sacrificial cere- 
 monies, 338 ; as slaves, 521 
 
 Forfeits, 213 
 
 Fortune-telling, 347 
 Frogs," The, of Aristophanes, 200 
 
 *' Frog's wine," 210 
 
 Fruits, 208 
 
 Fuller's earth used in wasldr.;, 188 
 Funerals, 203, 245—264 ; Bearers at, 252 ; 
 
 Cars at, 250 ; Gaines a", 290 ; 
 
 Laments at, 246 ; Orations at, 255 
 
 Gamelion, The month, favourite time 
 
 for weddings, 136 
 Games of childien, 92—97, 223 ; at the 
 
 symposium, 220, 223—229 
 Gaming liouses, 197 
 Gaolers, 525 
 Gardens at Athens, 182 
 Geometry in Attic schools, 114, 127 
 Gifts for new-born children, 83 
 Girdle, The, 11, 20, 23, 24, 35, 39 
 Girls, Early marriages of, 92 ; Education 
 of, 129; Domestic instruction of, 
 130 ; Plato on the education of, 
 180; their gymnastic training in 
 
 Sparta, 130, 131 ; debarred from 
 social intercourse, 133 ; as priest- 
 esses, 325, 326 ; of Elis, 366 
 
 Glaucus, 304 
 
 Gloves, 55, 56 
 
 Goat-rearing, 497 
 
 Gods, Costume of, 3; Libations to, 212; 
 Temples of, 324; modes of revealing 
 their will, 324; their desire f«>r 
 worship and sacrifice, 324 ; Prayers 
 to, 328 ; Sacrifices to the, 331—335 
 Gold masks discovered at Mycenae, 72 
 " Good genius," the. Drinking in 
 
 honour of, 209 
 Gorgias, his discourses at Olympia, 304 
 Graser on arrangement of rowing- 
 benches, 484 
 Grasshoppers, Golden, for the hair, 68, 
 69, 71 
 
 Graves, 252 ; Adornment of, 254 ; Liba- 
 tions at, 256 ; Cai e of, 262 
 Greaves, 460, 461, 462 
 Greece, Conditions in heroic period, 451 
 " Guest-friend," The, 199, 200 
 Guests, Reception of, 203, 204 
 Gylippiis, 532 
 
 Gymnasia, The, 115; State institutions, 
 119 ; at Athens, and their arrange- 
 ment, 119, 120 ; of Rome, 120 ; 
 Teachers in, 122, 123 
 
 Gymnasiarchs, The, 122 
 
 Gymnastic exercises, 265 — 305 ; in 
 Sparta, 301 ; in Athens, 115—124 ; 
 of Spartan girls, 130, 131 
 
 Hades, Temple of, 243 
 
 Hair, the, Modes of wearing, of men, 
 64 — 74 ; of women, 74 — 77 ; curled, 
 64, 75 ; plaited, 66, 67, 75 ; orna- 
 mented, 65, 68, 77 ; cut short, 69 : 
 Modes of cutting, 71 ; Shaving, 
 71 ; Soenting, 74 ; Kerchiefs for 
 76, 77 ; parted in the middle, 76 ; 
 with " Greek knot," 76 ; with a 
 fillet, 77 ; of ephebi, 118 ; Laconian 
 custom of cutting off the bride's, 
 144 ; dyeing, 166 ; cut off at 
 funerals, 251 ; of soldiers, 455 
 
 Handicrafts, 176 ; of gods, 498 ; depre- 
 ciation of, 499, 500 ; in the hands of 
 three classes, 500 ; of forei^jners, 501 
 
 Hands, Washing, at meals, 205, 2)6 ; 
 Lines of, 347 
 
 Hangmen, 525 
 
 Harp, The, 215 
 
 Harp players. Costume of, 4; 'i lym- 
 
 posia, 215 
 
 Hats, Place of origin of, 56 ; Various 
 
 shapes of, 56—59 ; of straw, for 
 
 women, 61 
 Head, the. Coverings for, 56—61 
 Hecate, Propitiation of, in cases of 
 
 madness, &c., 331, 336 
 Hecatomb, Offering of a, 337 ; to Apollo 
 
 at the Pythian Festival, 370; lo 
 
 Athene Polias, 377 
 Hector, 145 ; Wail at death of, 248 
 Helen, Epithalamium of, 141 
 Helios, Sacrifice of horses to, 8d£ 
 
542 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Helmer, The, 466—469; of Diomede, 
 468 ; of Amphiaraus, 469 
 
 " Helots," The, 454, 455, 478, 522 
 
 Hephaestus, The pilos of, 59 ; Gifts to 
 newly-wedded pair from, 143 ; at 
 the forge, 498 
 
 Hera, invoked at weddings, 137 ; with 
 her mirror, 163 ; Temple of, 362 
 
 Herbs, Medical, 234 
 
 Hercules, Drunken, 230 
 
 Hermes, The chiton of, 11 ; The hima- 
 tion of, 15 ; The chlamys of, 18 ; 
 The petasos of, 56 ; Cradle of, 81 ; 
 Libation to, at symposia, 230; 
 Inventor of the lyre, 307 
 
 Herodotus, on female dress, 22, 30 ; 
 Travels of, 198 
 
 Hesiod, in Attic schools, 110 ; his 
 opinion of work, 4^0 
 
 Hetaerae, Dress of, 48 ; Literary culture 
 of, 129; Position of, 133, 173 ; 
 without legal protection, 173 ; at 
 meals, 203 ; at symposia, 216 ; as 
 slaves, 521 ; reason of their social 
 intercourse with men, 172 ; Tax 
 exacted from, 173 ; in Old Comedy, 
 170 ; sanctioned by the State, 171 ; 
 Celebrities amongst, 172 ; their in- 
 fluence on the marriage relation- 
 ship, 148; in a vase picture, 167; 
 at the theatre, 447 
 
 Hiero, vase painter, 9, 30 
 
 Himation. The, 3, 6 ; mode of wearing, 
 15 ; of youths, 18 ; of women, 26, 
 41 ; as a scarf, 41 ; Colour of, 14, 
 45 ; Embroidery of, 47 ; drawn over 
 the head, 60 
 Hip]>archs," The, 457 
 
 Hipparchus, 215 
 
 Hippias, Discourses at Olympia of, 364 
 
 Hippocrates, Oath of, 236 
 
 Hii»podamus of Miletus, 179 
 
 Hippodrome, The, 356, 361 
 
 Hobby-horse, The, 93 
 
 Homer, his reference to skins as the 
 dress of soldiers, 8 ; his allusion to 
 Laertes gardening, 55 ; in Attic 
 schools, 110 ; his description of the 
 life of nobles, 175 ; his allusion to 
 warm baths, 192 ; allusion to phy- 
 sicians, 233 ; his account of the 
 funeral games in honour of Patro- 
 clus, 357 ; his allusions to armour, 
 465, 466, 467, 475 ; to agriculture, 
 493 ; to handicraftsmen, 498 
 
 Honey, of Hymettus, 208; used to 
 check dissolution of a corpse, 249 
 
 Horace's Plagosus Orbilius^ 105 
 
 Horae, The, 143 
 
 Horse-cloths, 125 
 
 Horse-racing, 270, 357 
 
 Horse-rearing, 496 
 
 Horse-shoes, 480 
 
 Hospitality, Custom of, 199 
 
 Human sacrifice, 335 
 
 Hunting, among the Dorians, 178 ; 
 among the Athenians, 196 
 
 Hymen, Torch of, 140 
 
 UymeTumiSt 140 
 
 Hysiae, Prophecy at, 848 
 
 lacchus, 379, 380 
 
 Immorality of the age of Pericles, 174 
 Implements of agriculture, 493 
 *' Incroyables," 94. 
 
 "Incubation" in the cure of disease^ 
 239-242 
 
 Infantry, 452 ; Armour of, 461 ; in the 
 
 time of Persian wars, 478 
 Inferna] deities, 335, 349 
 Inns, 200, 366 
 
 Inscriptions on tombs, 256, 257 
 Intcr])retcrs of dreams, 342 ; of prophe. 
 
 cios, 343—347 
 Ionia, Dress in, 12 ; Shaving in, 72 
 Ionic and Doric costumes. Differences 
 
 between, 22—30 
 Iphicrates, Shoes named after, 55 ; re- 
 introduces the sword into the Greek 
 army, 475 
 
 Ismenus, The sacred water of the, 137 
 Isocrates, 128; lecturing at Olympia, 
 
 364 ; Factory of the father of, 529 
 Isthmian games, The, their similarity to 
 the Olympic, 370 ; Prizes and recita- 
 tions at, 370 
 
 Javelin-throwing, 278, 279, 282, 478 
 Javelins, Hunting with, 196, 475 ; in 
 
 war, 476 
 Jewel caskets, 164 
 Judges at Olympic games, 358 
 Judgment of Paris, The, 159 
 Judicial duties, 195 
 Jugglers, 218 
 
 Jumping, 116, 121; Varieties of, 265; 
 Dumb-bell used in, 266, 267 ; Leap- 
 ing-poles in, 268 ; Spring-boards in, 
 269 ; Distances covered in, 269, 270 ; 
 at Olympia, 353, 360 
 
 Jurymen, 195 
 
 Kerameikos, The, 377 
 Kerchiefs for the hair, 76, 77 
 Kisses in the worship of gods, 329 
 Kitclien, The, 183 
 Kite-flying, 93 
 Kladeos, The, 121 
 
 Knees, the. Exercises in bending, 299 
 "Knuckle-bones, 97, 194, 224 ; Mode of 
 
 playing with, 225 
 Kolotes. Table of, at Olympia, 362 
 Kolpos, The, 11, 28, 30, 33 
 
 Laconian marriage custom, 144 
 Ladas, Tiie runner, 271 
 Lady's maid, 162 
 Laertes, 55, 145, 176 
 Lais, 172 
 
 Lament, Funeral, 246 
 
 Lance, The, 472, 476, 480 
 
 Laws of Lycurgus, 100 
 
 Laying-out a corpse, 246, 249 
 
 Leaping-poles, 268 
 
 Leather tunics, 49 
 
 Lectures at Olympic Festivals, 864 
 
 Legends told to chiklren, 88 
 
 Legitimation of children, 81 
 
INDEX. 
 
 543 
 
 Lenaea, Festival of, 884 
 
 Leto, Sacrifice at Pythian games to, 367 
 
 Libations, Daily. 328; as bloodless 
 
 sacrifices, 335 ; at the sacrifice of 
 
 animals, 338 
 Linen garments, 22, 29, 47, 497 
 Lions, 196, 197 
 
 *• Liturgies," The, 276, 375, 418 
 Lots, Drawing, at Olympia, 360 
 Love, Idea of, in " New Attic Comedy," 
 134 ; in Aphrodite Urania^ and 
 Aphrodite Pandemos, of, 134. 
 Love-charms, 95 
 Lunch in Athens, 191 
 Lycabettos, The, at Athens, 119 
 Lyceum, The, at Athens, 119, 127 
 Lycurgus, Laws of, 100 
 Lye, as a substitute for soap, 188 
 Lyre, the. Instruction in, 107, 112 ; 
 played at banquets, 215 ; an inven- 
 tion of Hermes, 307 ; Construction 
 of, 307—309; Manner of playing, 311 
 Lysander, 532 
 
 Lysias, lecturing at Olympia, 364 ; owner 
 
 of a shield factory, 529 
 Lysippus, the Apoxyomenos of, 285 
 
 Machinery in the Greek theatre, 409—411 
 Madness, Methods supposed to cure, 331 
 Maenads, The, 390 
 
 Magic, Antidotes to, 84 ; in curing 
 disease, 243 
 
 Magna Graecia, Lunch in, 191 ; Luxuri- 
 ous living in, 206 
 
 Manuring tlie ground, 494 
 Market of Hippodamus," 180 
 
 Market-place, The, 190, 514 
 
 Marriage, entered into early by girls, 92, 
 136 ; Tirades of Aristophanes and 
 Euripides against, 134 ; a matter of 
 contract between fathers or guar- 
 dians, 135 ; Bride's dowry at, 135 ; 
 Homeric custom of bridegroom 
 bringing presents at, 135 ; Engage- 
 ment prior to, 136 ; Favourite month 
 and days for, 136 ; Ceremonies of, 
 137 ; Banquet at a, 138 ; Dress of 
 bride and bridegroom at, 138, 139 ; 
 Bridal procession at, 139 ; Singing 
 and torches at, 140, 141 ; Gifts and 
 congratulations after, 142 ; Monu- 
 mental representations of, 143, 144 ; 
 Laconian custom of, 144 ; Laws of 
 Lycurgus respecting, 146 ; Grounds 
 for dissolution of, 148, 149; Sym- 
 bolical customs at, 140, 141 
 
 Masks, theatrical, Material of, 425 ; 
 Designs of, 426 ; Three kinds of, 
 426, 428; for different sexes, ages, 
 phases of character, and moods of 
 mind, 429 ; for mythological cha- 
 racters, 430 
 
 Massage in gymnasia, 123, 285 
 
 Match-makers, 135 
 
 Mattock, The, 493 
 
 Maza, 208 
 
 Meals, in Sparta, 177, 178 ; in Athens, 
 191, 194 ; in the evening, 202 ; Re 
 dining at, 205 ; Simplicity of, in 
 
 Athens, 206 ; The various dishes at. 
 
 206, 207 
 Meat, Varieties of, 206 
 Medical schools of Cos and Cnidus, 235, 
 
 239 
 
 Medical students, 236 
 Medusae, The, 88 
 Meeting-halls, 179 
 Megalopolis, Theatre of, 402 
 Memnon, Figure of death of, 469 
 Menander, Sliaven face of, 73 
 Meneerates, 237 
 Merchants, 197, 512, 517 
 Metal-foimders, 504 
 Milo, 304 
 
 Military expeditions, 198 (See, also, War) 
 Military training of ephebi, 124, 126, 127 ; 
 
 of lower classes, 176, 455 
 Miracle, Love of, in connection with the 
 
 healing art, 239 
 Mirrors, 162, 163 
 Money-changers, 190, 516 
 Money systems, 513 
 Monuments, Drapery of, 9 
 Morra, The game of, 227 
 Mortgages, 516, 517 
 Mountebanks, 243 
 Moustache, The, 72 
 Mules and asses, 496 
 Murderers, Curse on, 251 
 Muses, The, 335 
 
 Musio, Compulsory instruction in Sparta 
 j in, 101 ; Instruction at Attic schools 
 
 in, 111 — 113 ; at a symposium, 212 ; 
 
 Branches and instruments of, 306— 
 
 320 ; after religious ceremonies, 35U ; 
 
 at Pythian games, 366 ; of the stage, 
 
 413-421 
 Musical contests, 449 
 Musical dialogues, 416 
 Muslin garments, 49 
 Mycenae, Discoveries at, 3 ; Gold masks 
 
 at, 72 
 
 Myron's statue of Ladas, 271 ; of Disco- 
 bolus, 277 
 
 Mythology taught in Attic schools, 110 
 Myths, Religious, 348 
 
 Nails, Cutting the, 189 
 Naming children, 83, 84 
 Nausicaa on the sea-shore, 146, 15 
 Nemean games, 371 
 
 New Attic Comedy," The, 134 
 Nissen on life at Athens, 181 
 Nobles, Daily life of, 175, 176 ; in the 
 
 heroic period, 451 
 Nurseries, 85 
 
 Nurses, children's, Duties of, 85 
 
 Oath taken by epheb% 117; of Hippo- 
 crates, 236 ; taken by athletes, 360 
 Obedience to elders in Sparta, 100 
 Oculists, 238 
 
 Odysseus, The pilos of, 59 ; Fidelity of, 
 145 : playing at quoits. 275 ; Ship 
 of, 482 
 
 "Odyssey," The, Description of Nau- 
 siqaa in, 156; Quoit- throwing 
 mentioned in, 276 
 
544 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 " Oedipus at Colonus," 436 
 
 Oils, Sweet-scented, for the hair, 74 ; 
 
 for the body, 162 ; for a corpse, 245 ; 
 
 used by runners, 271 ; used by 
 
 wrestlers, 284 ; supplied to foreign 
 
 countries, 494 
 Oinopides, 364 
 Olives, 494, 495 
 
 Olympia, Arrangements of gymnasia at, 
 120 ; Wrestling school of, 121 
 
 Olympic Festival, the, Chronology of, 
 851 ; Mythic origin of, 352 ; Persons 
 excluded from, 352, 353 ; Contests 
 at, 353—359 ; Embassies, and sacri- 
 fice to Zeus at, 359 ; Swearing of 
 competitors at, 360 ; Drawing of 
 lots by competitors and prayer to 
 Zeus Moiragetes at, 360 ; Order of 
 competitions at, 361 ; Distribution 
 of prizes at, 362 ; Sacrifices at, 362, 
 363 ; Banquets at, 363 ; Recita- 
 tions, art exhibitions, and official 
 announcements at, 364 ; Represent- 
 atives of all classes at, 365; Fair 
 connected with, 366 
 
 Olympic games, 274, 304, 352—359 
 
 Omens, Interpretation of, 340 
 
 Oracles, The, 341 ; of Apollo, 342 ; 
 uttered by Pythia, 343 ; at various 
 places, 343 - 346 ; Questions to, 344 
 
 Orations, Funeral, 255 
 
 Orchestra of theatres, 398, 403 
 
 Orestes, Purification of, 330 
 
 Ornaments for the hair, 65, 68, 71, 77 ; 
 of bride, 138 
 
 Paean, The, 214 
 
 Paidagogos, Duties of a, 102, 116; his 
 bad influence, 103 ; on the stage, 436 
 
 Painting school of Sicyon, 113 
 
 Paintings, The chiton in, 4; Folds of 
 dress in, 9; Representations of 
 daily life in, 19 ; at Olympia, 364 
 
 Palm branch, The, 362 
 
 Pamphilias, 113 
 
 Panathenaea, Festivals of the, 124, 151 ; 
 The lesser and greater, 372 ; Con- 
 tests at the, 372—375 ; Pyrrhic war 
 dance, 374 ; Muster of men at, 374, 
 375 ; Torch-race at, 376 ; Procession 
 at, 376 ; Judges at, 378 
 
 Pancratium, The, 116, 123, 296 ; its 
 importance as a mode of fighting, 
 297 ; at Olympia, 353 
 
 Pandora, Box o.", 233 
 
 Pantomimic dancing, 217 
 
 Papyrus in schools, 109 
 
 Parabasis, The, 414 
 
 Paris, The chiton of, 11 ; The himation 
 of, 15 ; The hair of, 64, 163 
 
 Parthenon marbles. Female drapery of 
 the, 2 ; Hats in, 56 ; Walking-sticks 
 in, 64 ; Head-dresses in, 76 
 
 Patroclus, Fuiiei al games in honour of, 
 290, 357 ; his arm bandaged by 
 Achilles, 404 
 
 Pciusanias, 239 ; his allusion to the Hip- 
 po* I r«>me, 356 
 ants 493. 494, 495 
 
 Pedlars, 613, 614 
 
 Peisistratus, 372 
 
 Peitho invoked at weddingi, 187 
 
 Peleus and Thetis, 143 
 
 Peloponnesus, the. Soldiers fron. 459' 
 
 Handicrafts in, 501 
 "Peltasts," The, 478 
 Penelope, 145 ; at the loom, 163, 154 ; ' 
 
 Wooers of, 176 
 Penestae, The, 522 
 
 Pentathlum, The, 116, 123, 297, 298, 353 
 
 Peplos, the, Shape and mode of wearing, 
 20, 21 ; The Homeric supposed to be 
 identical with the Doric, 21, 22 ; of 
 Athenian women, 22 ; on vase pic- 
 tures, 22, 23 
 
 Pergamum, School of, 128 
 
 Pericles, Dress of the age of, 2; Beard 
 of, 73 ; and Aspasia, 172 ; Immoral- 
 ity of the age of, 174; and the 
 theatre, 445 
 
 " Perioiki," The, 454 
 
 Peronatris (robe). The, 43 
 
 Persephone, 381 
 
 Petasos (hat), 56, 57, 59 ; of women, 61 
 Phaeacians, The, 176 
 Phayllus, Jumping feat of, 269 
 Pheidias, Costume of the age of, 87 ; his 
 descendants as temple - servants, 328 
 Pheidippides, The mother of, 98 
 Pheiditia, 177 
 
 Philosophy, Schools of, 127, 128 
 Philtres, 331 
 
 Phocylides in Attic schools, 110 
 
 Phoenicians, the. Drapery among, 9 ; 
 Dishonesty of, 510 
 
 Phorminx, The, taught in Attic schools, 
 112, 312 
 
 Phryne, 172 
 
 " Phylarchs," The, 457 
 
 Phj'sicians, and the treatment of infants, 
 80 ; their early connection witli 
 priests, 234; Guild of, 235; their 
 apprentices, 235 ; Two classes of, 
 236 ; Complaints against, 237 ; 
 Salaries of public, 238; as specialists, 
 238 ; their methods of treatment, 238 
 
 Physiognomy, Fortunes told from, 347 
 
 Picnics, 204 
 
 Pilgrimages, to shrines, 198 ; of invalids 
 
 to medical sanctuaries, 239 
 Pindar, Odes of, 363 
 Pipe, The, used as the double flute, 316 
 Plagiaulos, The, 320 
 
 Plague, Great, in camp of the Greeks, 233 
 
 Plaiting the hair, 66, 67 
 
 Plato, on the care of children, 87 ; recom- 
 mends fencing, 124 ; teaching at the 
 Academy, 127 ; on the education of 
 girls, 130; supposed to have invented 
 water clocks, 186 ; The " Sympo- 
 sium " of, 204, 214 ; simplicity of his 
 meals, 206 ; on music at symposia, 
 216 ; his opinion of work, 490 
 
 Plays of Greek stage, of three kinds, 
 411 ; Tragic, 412—414 ; Comic, 414, 
 415 ; Satyric, 416, 416 
 
 Plough, The, 493, 495 
 
 Plutus, his reoovery f^om blindness, 240 
 
INDEX. 
 
 545 
 
 Podalirius, 234 
 
 Poets at Olympic festival, 864, 866 
 
 Polenta, 208 
 
 Police of Athens, 180, 525, 526 
 Polycrates, 238 
 Polydamas, 304 
 
 Polygnotus, his paintings of women, 76 
 Pomades, 64, 72, 74 
 Porridge, 207, 208 
 Poseidippus, Shaven face of, 73 
 Poseidon, Dress of, 19 ; Sacrificial offer- 
 ing of horses to, 336 
 Pot Market, The, 513 
 Poultry, 206 
 Pratinas, 415 
 
 Praxiteles, Statue of Phryne by, 172 
 
 Prayer, offered by priests, 326 ; Times 
 for offei ing, 328 ; for special occa- 
 sions, 328 ; Attitude in, 328 ; Quali- 
 fications to ensure the efficacy of, 
 329 ; at the utterance of oracles, 
 343 ; to Zeus Moiragetes, 360 
 
 Presents, Bridal, 142 
 
 Priam, Figure of, 4 
 
 Priestesses, Qualifications of, 325 ; with 
 the gift of prophecy, 343, 344 
 
 Priests, Costume of, 4 ; Practice of 
 healing art by, 238 ; their office, 
 and gradual increase of their in- 
 fluence, 324 ; of both sexes, 325 ; 
 Qualifications of, 325 ; Modes ot 
 appointing, 327 ; their duties, 326 ; 
 their privileges and distinguishing 
 dress, 327 ; their attendants, 327 
 
 Prizes at Olympic festival, 362 ; of 
 poets and actors, 449 
 
 Prodicus, Discourses at Olympia of, 
 364 
 
 Prophecy and divination, 341—348 (See, 
 
 also. Oracles) 
 '* Protagonist," or chief actor, 405 
 Ptolemy Philopater, Ship of, 486 
 Public houses, 197 
 
 Purification, after childbirth, 84; be- 
 fore offering prayer, 329 ; by fire, 
 smoke, and the sea-leek, 330 ; of 
 Orestes, 330 
 
 Pyrrhic war dance, 374 
 
 Pythia, utterer of oracles, 843; the 
 Great and the Lesser, 366 
 
 Pythian games. The musical competi- 
 tion at, 366 ; Sacrifices and the 
 Pythian Nomos at, 367 ; Gymnastic 
 and Equestrian contests at, 368 ; 
 The Amphictyons at, 369; Ex- 
 penses of, and prizes at, 369 ; Reci- 
 tations and offerings at, 370 
 
 Pythian Nomos, The, 367 
 
 Quackery, 243 
 Quadrigae, The, 452 
 Quail-fighting, 228 
 Quince, The, 141 
 Quintain, Striking at the, 296 
 Quoits, 121, 276, 277, 278 
 
 Racing, Various kinds of, 270, 273 
 •* Rape of Helen, The," 9 
 Razors, 188 
 
 S 
 
 Reading and writing at Sparta, 101 ; at 
 
 Athens, 108—110 
 Recitations at Olympic festivals, 364 
 
 Reclining at meals, 205 
 Reeds for writing, 109 
 Regattas, 126, 377 
 
 Registration of new-born children, 143 
 Reliefs, Representations of daily life in, 
 19 
 
 Religious festivals, 196 
 
 Religious myths, 348 
 
 Religious worship, 323—348 ; chiefly in 
 the hands of laymen in Homeric 
 times, 323 ; Tlie two forms of, 
 328 ; its cheerfulness, 349 
 
 Resin wine, 211 
 
 Rliajisodists, Competition between, 372 
 Rhetoric, 128 
 
 Rhodes, 228 ; Slingers of, 478 
 
 Riders, The chlamys of, 18 
 
 Riding, Instruction in, 124, 125 
 
 Riding races, 353 
 
 Riddles, 214, 219, 220 
 
 R' ad-making, 198 
 
 Rubbers, 200, 201 
 
 Rope-pulling, 299 
 
 Rougeing, Practice of, 165, 166 
 
 Rowers, 482—486 
 
 Running, The course for, 270 ; Speed 
 attained in, 271 ; Starting-signal for, 
 and method adopted for making the 
 limbs flexible in, 271 ; Mode of, 
 272, 273 ; at Olympia, 353 
 
 Sacrifice at a birth-festival, 84 ; at 
 weddings, 136, 137 ; a common oc- 
 currence, 203 ; of swine and suck- 
 ing-pigs, 330 ; object of, 331 ; the 
 idea underlying, 332 ; variety of gifts 
 offered in, 332, 333 ; bloody and 
 bloodless, 834, 335 ; ceremonies ob- 
 served in, 837 ; for discovering the 
 will of the gods by interpreta- 
 tion of signs, 340 ; at the utterance 
 of oracles. 343; time of offering, 
 849 ; at Olympia, 363 ; The Epid- 
 aurian, 379 ; before war, 456 
 
 Sailors, 481, 483—486 
 
 Salone, The, 190 
 
 Sambuca, The, 313 
 
 Sandals worn by men and women, 50 ; 
 how made, 51 ; Children chastised 
 with, 98 ; removed at banquets, 205 
 
 Satyric drama, 415, 442, 444 
 
 Satyrs, 333 
 Sauces, 207 
 Sausages, 206 
 
 Scarf, The, 11 ; of Paris, 12 
 Scenery in the Greek theatre, 407 — 409 
 Schools of Athens, 102—132 ; Masters 
 and teachers of, 104 ; Furniture ot, 
 104, 108 ; Fees of, 104 ; Corporal 
 punishment in, 105; Hours of tuition 
 in, 106 ; Holidays in, 106 ; Repre- 
 sentation by Duris of teaching in, 
 106 ; System of tuition in, 108—115 ; 
 Text-books in, 110 ; Instruction in 
 music in. 111- 113; Geonioti^ in^ 
 114, 127 ; Time of opening, 168 
 
546 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Schools of philosophy, 127, 128 
 Science, Travelling for purposes of, 198 
 "Scolia," The, 215 
 
 Scourge-bearers " of Sparta, 100 
 Sculptors, 501 
 Scythe, The, 493 
 Seafaring, 481—488 
 See-saw, 95 
 
 Seers, or interpreters, Connection with 
 
 the priests, 325 
 Segesta, Theatre of, 396 
 Sewing, 130 
 
 •* Shadow-pointers," 184, 185 
 Shaving, 72, 73 
 Shawls, 42 
 
 Sheep-rearing, 496, 498 
 
 Shields, 469—471, 480 
 
 Ships, Mode of navigating, 481; Con- 
 struction of, 482- 488 
 
 Shirt, The, 20 
 
 Shoemakers, 502, 503, 504 
 
 Shoes, Various desi^ais of, 52, 54, 55 
 
 Shopkeepers, 190, 197 
 
 Sicily, 190, 191 ; Luxurious living in, 206 
 
 Sicyon, Painting school of, 113 
 
 Sieges, Modes of conducting, 480, 481 
 
 Sieves used for prophecy, 347 
 
 Signs, Interpretation of, 346, 347 
 
 Silk garments, 49 
 
 Silphium, 614 
 
 Simonides, 216 
 
 Singers, Travelling, 198 
 
 Singing at weddings, 140, 141 ; at the 
 baths, 194 ; at a symposium, 214 
 
 Skins, Clothes made of, 8, 49 
 
 Slavery interwoven with the life of anti- 
 quity, 519 ; regarded as a necessity 
 of nature, 519 ; of captives taken in 
 war, 519, 520 ; foreigners sold to, 521 ; 
 Solon's legislation against, 521 ; one 
 of the causes of the fall of Greece, 
 532 
 
 Slaves, 78 ; entrusted with the education 
 of children, 98 ; employed in writ- 
 ing, 109 ; fetching water, 151 ; as 
 ladies' maids, 162 ; Sleeping apart- 
 ments of, 182, 525 ; sent to market, 
 191 ; at the baths, 194 ; as porters, 
 181, 204 ; taught the healing art, 
 237, 528 ; at a funeral, 250 ; at the 
 theatre, 447 ; Captives of war be- 
 coming, 452 ; The Helot class of, 
 454, 522 ; in agriculture, 490, 494 ; 
 Markets for, 520, 521 ; Prices paid 
 for, 521 ; their condition and treat- 
 ment, 523 ; their characters, 524 ; 
 Masters' rights over, 624 ; Dress of, 
 624 ; their food, 625 ; working on 
 their own account and purchasing 
 their freedom, 526 ; as hangmen, 
 gaolers, &c., 526 ; Dwellings of, 
 
 626 ; Protection of, 526 ; Torture of, 
 
 627 ; Various classes of, 528 ; in 
 factories, 629 ; their liberation, 530, 
 631 ; their numbers in Greece, 632 
 
 Sleeves of chitons, 4, U ; of women's 
 
 chitons, 21^ 2% 31, §9. 41 
 Sling, The, 477 ' ' * ' 
 Slippers, 54, 6& 
 
 Smoke offerings, 335 
 
 Snow-water for cooling wine, 213 
 
 Soap, Substitutes for, 188 
 
 Social life among Spartan men, 179 
 
 Socrates, 49. 50; Wealth of, 183; 
 visiting shops, 190 ; Ablutions of, 
 188 ; after the sym])osium, 232 ; said 
 to have taken lessons in dancing,32 1 ; 
 wishing to offer some of his hem- 
 lock to the gods, 335 ; represented 
 on the stage, 428 ; on idleness, 491 
 
 Soldiers, Skins as the dress of, 8 ; The 
 chlamys of, 18 ; of Sparta, 454—456; 
 of Athens, 456— 460; hired, 458; Pay- 
 ment of, 469 
 
 Solon, Oath for ephehi composed by, 
 117 ; Symbolical marriage custom 
 ordained by, 141 ; Travels of, 198 ; 
 on funeral laments, 248 ; on the 
 garments of a corpse, 251 ; on 
 military service, 466 ; his legislation 
 against the slavery of foreigners, 621 
 
 Song in praise of the murderers of 
 Hipparchus, 215 
 
 Songs, Drinking, 215 ; of victory, at 
 Olympic festivals, 363 ; on the 
 stage, 416 
 
 Soplxists, The, 127; at the Feast of 
 Pitchers, 387 
 
 Sophocles, Figure of, in the Lateran, 
 217 ; Beard of, 73 ; his account of 
 the funeral games in honour of 
 Patroclus, 357 ; Tetralogies of, 412 ; 
 Chorus and dialogue of, 413 ; 
 Satyric dramas of, 415 ; contest 
 with Aeschylus, 449 
 
 Sparta, Dress of male population of, 
 12 ; Wearing of shoes forbidden in, 
 49 ; Mode of wearing the hair in, 
 71 ; Hardening infants in, 80, 82 ; 
 System of education in, 99 — 102 ; 
 Clothing and discipline of boys in, 
 100 ; Indifierence to pain in, 100 ; 
 Study of music in, 101, 113 ; Gym- 
 nastic exercises in, 101, 132 ; High 
 reputation of women of, 132 ; 
 Domestic relations at, 146 ; Daily 
 life at, 175—179 ; Opinion of work 
 in, 490 ; Handicrafts in, 501 
 
 " Spartiates," The, 464, 455 
 
 Spear, Throwing the, 121, 124, 281, 282, 
 353 ; of soldiers, 472 
 
 Spinning, 130, 152—154 
 
 Spring-boards, 268, 269 
 
 Spring-weights, 268 
 
 Spurs, 480 
 
 Stadium, The, 362, 365 
 Stage of the Greek theatre, 404—411 
 Statues, Representations of daily life 
 in, 19 
 
 Stelai, Decoration of, 258—262 
 Stirrups, 480 
 
 Stca Poikile, The, 127, 378 
 Stockings, Substitutes for, 55 
 Stoics, The, 127 
 Stones used in war, 477, 478 
 Strabo, 239 
 
 Streets of Athens, 179, 180 
 Stringed instruments, 306—314 
 
INDEX. 
 
 647 
 
 Btrophion, The, 
 
 Btudniczka on the shape of the peplos, 
 21 
 
 Styx, 245 
 
 Squares, Public, 180 
 Street of Tripods, 390 
 Suburbs of Athens, 180 
 Sucking-])igs offered in sacrifice, 330 
 Suckling infants, 81 
 Sun-dials, 185 
 Sunshaies, 61—63, 152, 376 
 Superintendents of schools at Athens, 
 102 
 
 Superstitious customs at death and 
 
 burial, 243—264 
 Swaddling clothes, 80 
 Swimming, Practice of, 126 
 Swine offered in sacrifice, 330, 360 ; 
 
 Rearing of, 497 
 Swings, 95 
 
 Sword, The, 473—475 ; the '* Lacedae- 
 monian," 475, 480 
 
 Sword-dance, 217 
 
 Sympathetic cures, 243 
 
 Symposium, The, 204, 209 ; Proceedings 
 at, 209 ; Games and riddles at, 219— 
 230 ; Regulations at, 213 ; Music at, 
 214 ; sometimes became tn orgy, 
 216 ; its ending, 230 
 
 Syracuse, Theatre of, 390 
 
 Syrinx, The, 320 
 
 Syssitia, 177 
 
 •* Table-merchants," 516 
 
 Tables, 202, 205, 209 
 
 Tal)lets for writing, 108 109 
 
 Tambourines, 320 
 
 Tanagra, 228 
 
 " Taxiarchs," The, 457 
 
 Temple-sweepers, 327 
 
 Temples, Medical, 239—243 
 
 Temples, Religious, regarded as the 
 dwellings of the gods, 324 
 
 Ten Thousand, the, Expedition of, 458 
 
 Terra -cottas, Women's dress in, 43 ; 
 Head - coverings in, 61 ; Playing 
 games in, 223, 226 
 
 Thalamus, The, 141 
 
 " Tliaumaturgists," 217 
 
 Th. atre, The, Origin of, 392 ; Daylight 
 performances in, 394; Auditorium, 
 stage and orchestra of, 396 ; of 
 Dionysus, of Syracuse, and of 
 Segesta, 396 ; Plan and structure 
 of, 398 ; Situation and seats of, 
 399 ; Seats of honour in, 400; Gang- 
 ways and staircases in, 401 ; Ar- 
 cades and size of, 402 ; of Ephesus, 
 and of Megalopolis, 402 ; The 
 tliymele of orchestra in, 403 ; En- 
 trances to orchestra in, 404 ; De- 
 coration of proscenium in, 404 ; 
 Stage doors of, 405 ; Scenery of, 
 406, 407 ; Various uses of the 
 orchestra in, 407 ; Revolving pieces 
 of scenery in, 408 ; Machinery of, 
 409 ; Gods in, 410 ; Plays acted in, 
 411—421 ; Actors of, 421—432 ; 
 Masks used in, 425—432 ; Costumes 
 
 of performers in, 432—444 ; Admis- 
 sion of the public to, 444—448; 
 Prizes of actors in, 449 
 
 Theocritus, Allusions to women's 
 dress by, 43; Alcmene's song to 
 her children in, 85 ; Epithalamium 
 of Helen in, 141 ; his allusion to 
 the women at the Festival of 
 Adonis, 152, 390 
 
 Theognis, in Attic schools, 110; Song 
 by, 215 
 
 Thermae, The, of the Roman Empire, 
 192 
 
 Thesmophoria, The, 151, 382, 383 
 Thesmophoriazusae, The, of Aristophanes, 
 170 
 
 Thessaly, and the origination of the 
 chlamys, 17 ; Luxury in, 206 ; Slin- 
 gers of, 478 ; Horse-rearing in, 496 
 
 " Thetes," The, 456 
 
 Tholia, The, 61 
 
 Tholos buildings, 253 
 
 Threshing, 493 
 
 Throwing the javelin, 278, 279, 282 ; 
 
 quoits, 121, 275, 277, 278 ; the 
 
 spear, 121, 124, 281, 282 
 Thucydides, his allusion to male dress, 
 
 12 ; allusion to dressing the hair, 68 
 Thymele, The, 403 
 Time, Measurement of, 183 
 Tolls, 201, 502 
 
 Tombs, 254; Inscriptions and designs 
 on, 258—262 
 
 Torch-race, The, 274, 275, 376 
 
 Torches, Bridal, 139, 140 
 
 Tortoise, The, as a symbol of domestic 
 life, 151 ; Lyre of Hermes con- 
 structed out of a, 307 
 
 Torture of slaves, 527 
 
 Torturers, 525 
 
 Towns, Life in, 177 
 
 '* Towns, Game of," 223 
 
 Toys, 89—93 
 
 Trades (See Handicrafts, &c.) 
 
 Tradesmen, Contempt for, 508, 509 
 Dishonesty of, 510 
 
 Tragedies, 411— 414, 430 
 
 Trainees of youth in Sparta, 99 
 
 Travelling, 197—201 
 
 Tribes, at Athens, 143 ; of Greece in 
 heroic period, 451 ; in later cen- 
 turies, 453, 454 
 
 Trigonon, The, 313 
 
 Trousers, 20 
 
 Trumpets, 320 
 
 Tumulus, 253 
 
 Tunics, 49 
 
 Tyndareus, The chiton of, 11 
 
 Umpires at Olympic gimes, 358, 359 
 Urns, 255 
 Usury, 617 
 
 Vase painter, Workshop of a, 506 
 Vase paintings. The chiton in, 4; Re- 
 presentations of daily life in, 19; 
 Female dress in, 22,28, 30 ; Drapery 
 in, 33, 34 ; Coloured patterns in, 
 45 ; Ephebi racing on horseback in, 
 
648 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 125; Bridal procession /in, 144; 
 
 Representations of women in, 153— 
 
 159, 164, 167 ; Drinking scemes in. 
 
 230 ; Charioteers in, 451 
 Vaults for the dead, 253, 254 
 Vegetables, 207, 208 
 Vines, 494 
 Visiting, 194 
 
 Vitruvius, his description of a gym ■ 
 nasiura, 120 
 
 Wail, Funeral, 248 
 
 Walking-sticks, 63, 64 
 
 War, Authorities on the subject of, 450 ; 
 Part taken by nobles in, 451; Chariot- 
 eers in, 451, 452 ; Arms used in, 
 452, 460-480 ; Cavalry in, 452, 479 ; 
 Infantry in, 452; The closed phalanx 
 in, 452 ; Captives taken in, 452 ; 
 Modes in heroic age of, 452 ; regarded 
 as a festival, 455 ; Sacritice before 
 entering upon, 456 ; Sieges, 480, 481 
 
 Washing clothes, 156, 157 ; at wells, 159 
 
 Water, Holy, 137 ; sprinkled after death, 
 244, 255 ; in the temples, 329 ; its 
 use at the time of sacritice, 337 
 
 Water clocks, 185—187 
 
 Weaning, 85 
 
 Weaving, 130, 152 
 
 Wedding banquets, 138 (See, aZao, Mar- 
 riage) 
 
 Weights and measures. False, 510 
 
 Wind instruments, 314—320 
 
 Wine, forbidden to women, 170 ; l)/iiik- 
 ing, 178, 202, 209 ; mixed with water, 
 210 ; Varieties of, 210 ; used in the 
 game of cottabus, 221 ; offered in 
 sacrifice to gods, 335 ; at the Anthes- 
 terian festival, 385 
 
 Witchcraft, Protection from, 331 
 
 Witches, 88 
 
 Wives, their admission among the clans- 
 men, 142 ; their honourable position 
 at Sparta, 146 ; their subordinate 
 position among the Athenians, 147 ; 
 Infidelity of, 148 ; of poorer citizens, 
 150 ; Advice for, 166, 167 
 
 Women, ' Dress of, 20—49; Head-cover- 
 ings of, 60—63 ; Head-dress of, 74— 
 77 ; suckling their children, 81 ; 
 their part in the Amphidromia, 83, 
 84 ; purification after childbirth, 84 ; 
 amusing their children, 88 ; their 
 high reputation in Sparta, 132; their 
 position in relation to men and in 
 the household, 145 ; their impoi tant 
 position in heroic times, 145 ; their 
 household duties, 146 ; as wives, 146 
 — 149 ; their apartments, 150 ; fetch- 
 ing water from the wells, 151 ; at- 
 tended by slaves, 151, 182 ; their 
 seclusion, 151 ; their few public ap- 
 pearances, 151, 152 ; their weaving 
 and spinning, 152 — 154 ; Vase paint- 
 ing representations of, 155, 164, 167; 
 
 washing clothes, 156, 157 ; at their 
 toilet, 157, 159 ; Baths for, 169, 162 ; 
 anointing tric body, 162; Maids of, 
 162 ; rougeing, dyeing the hair, &,c., 
 165, 166 ; Inferiority of the Athenian 
 to the Spartan, 170 ; addicted to in- 
 temperance, 170 ; dining, 178, 203 ; 
 sitting at windows, 182 ; at funerah., 
 245, 246, 251 ; at a sacrificial cort - 
 mony, 338 ; forbidden to witness thw 
 Olympic games, 366 ; at Eleusinian 
 festivals, 380 ; at the festival of 
 Demeter, 382 ; at night celebrations 
 of Dionysus, 390 ; at the theatre, 
 447; as slaves, 521, 523 
 
 Woollen clothing, 11, 47, 497 
 
 Work, how regarded by Doric and other 
 races, 490 ; Hesiod's opinion of, 490 ; 
 encouraged by the tyrants, 490; 
 Opinion of Socrates of, 491 ; Depre- 
 ciation of, 499, 500 
 
 Workmen, Dress of, 12, 19, 188 ; travel- 
 ling, 198; Citizens* con tempt for, 498; 
 Hired, 506 ; Wages of, 508 
 
 Workshops, 190, 192, 502—506 
 
 Wreaths, given to guests at a sympo- 
 sium, 209 ; on the dead, 245 ; on 
 tombs, 262 ; of priests, 327 ; at 
 Olympic games, 361, 362 
 
 Wrestling, Technical expressions of, 
 284 ; Preparations for, 284 ; Tlie 
 process of cleansing after, 285 ; Two 
 principal methods of, 285 ; repre- 
 sented in the Florentine marble 
 group, 286 ; Tricks or feints in, 288 ; 
 Superintendents of, 288, 289 ; its 
 thorough development into an art, 
 290 ; at Olympia. 353 
 
 Wrestling school. The, 115 ; its manage- 
 ment, 116 ; Method and object of 
 instruction in, 116, 282 ; of Olymj'ia, 
 121 ; of Ephesus and Alexandria 
 Troas, 121 
 
 Xenophon's Oikonomilcos, Allusion to, 
 180, 166 ; description of symposia, 
 214, 217, 220 
 
 Youths, Dress of, 18 ; Hair of, 69 ; 
 Beards of, 74 {See, also. Boys) 
 
 Zeus, as represented in works of art, 
 19 ; Beard of, 73 ; witness to the 
 oath taken by ephehi, 118 ; invoked 
 at weddings, 137 ; protector of stran- 
 gers, 199 ; statue by Pheidias, 328 ; 
 Oracle of, 344 ; Sacrifice at Olympic 
 festival to, 359 ; Appeal from olive- 
 growers to, 495 
 Zeus Ammon, Oracle of, 345 
 Zeus Herkeios, Altar to, 181, 358 
 Zeus Moiragetes, Prayer to, 360 
 Zeus-Nemeios, Sanctuary of, 371 
 Zeus Soter, Libations to, 212 
 Zeus Trophonius, Oracle of, 345 
 
GETTY CENTER LIBRARY 
 
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