2KK EAROLD’HARTi,EY”HlS-Bffl)K . r\rv ^ iraiwSwpS lOiAjOs ■■jjjl wtwws WPnMfttm W MliM mtfcra fynhrH EXHIBITION wm irCS VQUR.T tfl LonYoW.mo CATALOGUE MERCIA pr-ice's Cold Medal Palmitine Candles GRAND PRIX PARIS 1889. “HEW PATENT;’ “CHILDS” A. “ROYAL CASTLE” NIGHT LIGHTS PRICE’S PATENT CANDLE COMPANY LIMITED, Exhibit in the Ducal Hail, MODELS ILLUSTRATING THE PROGRESS OF THE INDUSTRY DURING THE SIXTY YEARS REIGN, 1837-1897. Also specimens of their Candles, &c., See. PRICE’S PHTERT CURDLE CO. LID., Manufacturers of GRAND PRIX ANTWERP 1894. GRAND CROSS OF HONOUR AMSTERDAM 1895. The Awards to the Company from the above and other Exhibitions number 75. THE ESMOND SADDLE is A NEW DEPARTURE. The Rider moves the Saddle. Not the Saddle the Rider. NO FRICTION. NO SADDLE SORENESS, OS w s o Q W c« < W PS O g NO VIBRATION NO PERINEAL PRESSURE, .1 1 ; TH R E SM°N D S ADDLE is not immovably fixed to the Cycle, but is slung from an eli^tical bar attached to the L pin, so that the rider glides over all obstacles, and the vibra- tion and shocks sustained by the machine are not communicated to him. In addition to svvinging motion from back to front it has a slight rock from side to side which allows f ld ^ F r ? SSXir f of th . e leg mu£cles in mak “g th e stroke on the Pedals, permitting the full weight of the rider to bear on them, giving greatly increased power. See it at Stall No. 42, Western Arcade. THE ESMOND CYCLE SADDLE CO., LTD., 10 & 12, EASTCHEAP, LONDON. E.C. ERAD ICATES SCURF PREVENTS HAIR FALLING . _ANJ DANDRIFF . PROMOTES GROW TH, THURSTON & CO. Alone in 18M. The Parent House of The Trade. LTD. Foremost in 1897. BILLIARD TABLES. Sole Warrant of Her IVlajesty, The Queen. By Appointment to H.R.H, The Prince of Wales. Visitors should see the Royal Billiard Tables, Thurston’s Exhibit, in the Ducal Hall THURSTON & CO. are the Patentees and introducers of ALL the chief and permanent improvements in Billiard Tables, from the original Rubber Cushions and Slate Bed early in the Century'to the “PERFECT” LOW CUSHION, now in use on Her Majesty’s Tables at Windsor Castle, Buckingham Palace and Osborne. All Billiard Requisites of Best Quality and Finish. Prices Moderate. Rhftw Rnnm Wli Victorian Era EXHIBITION. *¥■ 1897 , Carls Court, j.ondoq, 5- V. DIRECTOR-GENERAL : IMRE KIRALFY. CATALOGUE, COUPRCIAL, INDUSTRIAL, SCIENTIFIC, AND ECONOMIC SECTIONS. Conbon : RIDDLE & COUCHMAN, 22, Southwark Bridge Road, S.E. Copyrighted, 1897 / f Earls Court, London, S.W. DIRECTOR GENERAL Imre Kiralfy Victorian Era Exhibition . 1897 . Warwick Road Entrance. Scientific Seotion. Economic Section. Ciuak Room. Commercial and Industrial Seotion (1st Division), lioral Fountain. New Music Pavilion. Luke. Eleotrio Boat Station. J ubilee Bridge. Jubilee Garden. Island. Rockery. West Brompton Entrance. Victoria Bridge. Victorian Garden. Belvedere Tower. Historical & Commemorative Section (1st Division). General Fine Art Seotion, Musio Boom. 21. Old Bridge. 22. Police and Fire Station, 28. Central Hall. Musical Instruments Divi- sion of Music Section. Musioal Publications Divi- sion of Musio Seotion. 2(1. Music aud Drama Sections, 27. Empress Theatre Promenade. 28. Company's Offices. 29. Lillie Road Entrance. 80. Dist. Rly. Booking Offioes, 81. Eleotric Power House. 82. Woman’s Work Section (His- torical Sub-Division). 24. 25. 83. Do. (District Nursing Sub- Division). 34. Do. (Hospital Work Sub- Division). 85. Do. (Fine Avt Sub-Division), 86. Do. do. 37. Do. do. 38 Do. (Ladies' Committee Room and Secretary's Office). 39. Do. (Art Schools Division). 40. Do. (Patents by Women and Philanthropy). 41. Do. (Music Room). 42. Do. (Role of Honor). 43. Do. (Mrs. Meredith’s Prison Mission). 44. Do. (Philanthropy). 49, 46. I^Do. (Applied Arts Sub-Divi- 47- I sion. 48. Do. (General Educational Sub-Division. Do. (Kindergarten t, Do. (Demonstration Room). Do, (Industrial Division). Post Office. Commercial and Industrial Seotion (2nd Division). Musio Pavillo 54. Coronatiou Fair. Marionette Theatre. Richardson’s Show. Rifle Range. Show. Show (Illusionist). Show. Eccentric Photographer. Show. Show. Illusion d’Art. 73. Ore Extraction. Pioturesque England. Commercial and Industrial Seotion (3rd Division). Sports Section, 2nd Division of Historical and Com. raemorative Seotion, 76. Rollason’s Wind Motor, 77 West Kensington Entrauoe. 78. Elysia Bridge, 79. Sanger’s Circus. 80. Soientifio Show 81. Entrance to Switohbaok Rly. 82. Infant Incubator. 83. Panorama of Auciont Rome. 84. Lecture Hall, Women’s Work Section &Pantomimograph. 85. North Eod Road Entrauoe. 86. Arcade Bazaar. 87. Welcome Club. 88. Musio Pavilion. Electrophone. Fair Bridge. V Gentlemen’s Lavatory. 90. Ladies’ Lavatory. RESTAURANTS and REFRESHMENT P. Viotoria Bar. Q. Grill Room. A. Quadrant Restaurant E. Western Bar. Ga. Theatre Bar. L. B. Weloomo Club. F, Theatre Bar. H. Refreshment Bar. M. Fair Bar. C. Rotunda Bar. Fa, Do. I. Refreshment Bar. N, Canteen. R. Viotoria Restaurant. D. Chon House. G. Do. J. O. Bridge Bar. S. T. Lager Beer Hall. London, May. 24 ™ 1897. THE Island of Montserrat, W.I. Barquentine “Hilda” Loading- Lime Juice in Montserrat. Island of Rednnda on Horizon Considerable attention has been drawn to the above beautiful little Island, on account of the disastrous floods and the distress caused thereby, and for which the Secretary of State for the Colonies, the Right Hon. J. Chamberlain, made a public appeal. “MONTSERRAT” is the source of PURE Lime Fruit Juice. “MONTSERRAT” Lime Fruit Juice is the most Refreshing, Cooling, and Healthful Beverage. “MONTSERRAT” Lime F ruit Juice and Cordials have imitations, therefore CAUTION should be exercised to see that the Trade Mark is on capsule and label of each bottle, as well as name of Sole Consignees — EVANS, SONS & CO., Liverpool, Also LONDON, SYDNEY, MELBOURNE, PARIS, dc. EVANS & SONS, Ltd., M< “ u.s.a From all Chemists, Grocers, Wine Merchants, &c., everywhere. Photo iby w & d. Downey.] THE VICTORIAN ERA EXHIBITION, 18 3 7 - 1897 , EARL’S COURT, S.W. proprietors. THE LONDON EXHIBITIONS, LTD., Exhibition Buildings, Earl’s Court, S.W. directors. PAUL CREMIEU JAVAL, J.P., Chairman. IMRE KIRALFY, Managing Director. HAROLD T. HARTLEY. JAMES MARSHALL FRESHWATER. HERMAN HART. Secretary : R. CLAUDE GARNETT. Bankers : THE LONDON & COUNTY BANKING Co., Limited. 2lut>itors : Messrs. WOODTHORPE BEVAN & CO., Leadenhall Buildings, E.C. Solicitors: Messrs. LINKLATER, ADDISON, BROWN & JONES 2, Bond Court, Walbrook, E.C. CONTENTS, page Title Page 3 Illustration 5 London Exhibitions, Limited > 7 General Committee 9 Scientific Committee 12 Scientific Article by Charles Bright, F.R.S.E 13 Special Plan of Scientific, Economic, Commercial, and Industrial Sections facing 16 General Plan of Exhibition facing 16 Scientific Catalogue 26 Economic Committee 37 Economic Article by Harold Cox 37 Commercial and Industrial Committee 43 Article on Commerce and Industries 43 Commercial and Industrial Catalogue — (First Division) Ducal Hall 50 (Second Division) Imperial Court 55 (Third Division) Picturesque England 58 Victoria n Era Exhibition. 1837 - 1897 , EARL’S COURT. HONORARY COMMITTEE OF ADVICE. President. His Royal Highness The DUKE of CAMBRIDGE, K.G. Viee«Pi*esidents. The Right Hon. The MARQUIS of LORNE, K.T., M.P. The Right Hon. The LORD MAYOR of LONDON. Sir EDWARD J. POYNTER, P.R.A. The Rt. Hon. The Earl of Meath. Field-Marshal The Lord Roberts of Kandahar, G.C.B., G. C.S.I., G.C.I.E., V.C. The Rt. Hon. The Lord Burton. The Hon. Sir H. Stafford Northcote, Bart., C.B., M.P. The Rt. Hon. A. J. Mundella, M.P. The Rt. Hon. Sir Bernard Samuelson, Bart., F.R.S. The Rt. Hon. Professor F. Max Muller. The Rt. Hon. Sir John Kennaway, Bart., M.P. Sir J. S. Barrington Simeon, Bart., M.P. Sir Daniel Cooper, Bart., G.C.M.G. Sir William Agnew, Bart. So- Edward Burne Jones. S.r Richard Webster, Q.C., G.C.M.G., M.P. Captain Sir Douglas Galton, R.E., K.C.B., F.R.S. Admiral Sir F. Leopold M'Clintock, K.C.B., F.R.S , D.C.L., L.L.D. , Colonel Sir Edward S. Hill, K.C.B., M.P. Major-General Sir John Donnelly, R.E., K.C.B. Sir Augustus W. Franks, K C.B.. F.R.S. j Sir Clements Markham, K.C.B. , F.R.S., President Royal Geographical Society. Sir Charles E. Bernard, K.C.S.I. Major-General Sir Oliver R. Newmarch, K.C.S.I. Sir Benjamin Baker, K.C.M.G. Sir David Evans, K.C.M.G. Sir U. M. Kennedy, K.C.M.G., C.B. Sir George Bird wood, K.C.I.E., C.S.I., M.D., L.L.D. Sir Edwin Arnold, K.C.I.E., C.S.I. Sir Arthur Sullivan, Mus. Doc., Hon. R.A.M. Colonel Sir C. Howard Vincent, C.B., M.P. Sir William Anderson, D.C.L., K.C.B. Sir Philip Magnus. Sir A. C. Mackenzie, Mus. Doc., P. R.A.M. Sir Owen Roberts, M.A., D.C.L., F.S.A. Sir Arthur W. Blomfield, M.A., A.R.A. Sir H. Trueman Wood, M.A. Sir Henry Waring. Sir James D. Linton, P.R.I. Sir Henry Irving. The Rev. Norman Macleod Ferrers D.D., F.R.S., Master of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. The Rev. Bartholomew Price, D.D., F.R.S., Master of Pembroke College, Oxford, and Canon of Gloucester. The Rev. James H. Rigg, D.D., Principal of the Westminster Training College. Professor W. C. Roberts-Austen, C D.. F.B.S. R. Thorne Thorne, Esq , M.D., C.B . F.R.S W. H. Preece, Esq., C.B., F.R.S. J. C. Lamb, Esq., C.B., C.M.G. R. E. Sprague Oram, Esq., C.B. General James Michael, C.S.I. A. J. R. Trendell, Esq., C.M.G. Walter H. Harris, Esq., G.M.G- 10 HONORARY COMMITTEE OF ADVICE- continued. J. Pljrdon Clakkis, Esq., C.I.E. Arthur N. Wool asxon, Esq., C.I.E. . Edmund Neel, Esq., C.I.E. Robert Farquiiarson, Esq., M.D., M.P. CriARi.Es Harrison, Esq., M.P. James W. Lowjiher, Esq., M.P. C. J. Monk, Esq., M.P. Thomas Brook, Esq., R.A. J. B. Burgess, Esq., R.A. E. Onslow Ford, Esq., R.A. W. P. Frith, Esq., R.A. Peter Graham, Esq., R.A. Professor Hubert IIeiikomer, R.A. J. C. Horsley, Esq , R.A. H. Stacey Marks, Esq., R.A. J. MacWiiirter, Esq., R.A. W. Q. Orchardson, Esq., R.A. Valentine C. Prinsep, Esq., R.A. Briton Riviere, Esq., R.A. (f. F. Watts, Esq., R.A. Frank Bramley, Esq., A.R.A. George Clausen, Esq., A.R.A. E. J. Gregory, Esq., A.R.A. Arthur Hacker, Esq., A.R.A. ( olin, Hunter, Esq., A.R.A. Seymour Lucas, Esq., A.R.A. David Murray, Esq., A.R.A. John, Sargent,. Esq., A.R.A. Solomon J. Solomon, Esq., A.R.A. G. A. Storey, Esq., A.R.A- John M. Swan, Esq., A.R.A. W. L. Wyllie, Esq., A.R.A. Professor W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S. George Alexander, Esq. 3. B. Bancroft, Esq. Edward Bauing-Gould, Esq. Oscar Barrett, Esq. Wilson Barrett, Esq. W. A. Baskcomb, Esq, W. Bendarl, Esq. D. J. Blaikley, Esq. J. F. Bridge, Esq., Mus. Doq., Gresham Professor. F. Travers Birdw&od, Esq. C. I. Boosey, Esq. T. Craig Brown, Esq. J. Comyns Carr, Esq. J. S. Clarke, Esq. F. H, Cowen, Esq,, Hon. R.A.M. F. Cellier, Esq. T. Chappell, Esq. R. M. Cocks, Esq. Major Craigie, F.S.S. W. fl. Cummings, Esq., E.S.A., Hon. R.A M., Principal of the Guildhall School of Music. J Spencer Curwen, Esq.. F. R.A.M , President Tonic-Sol Fa College. G. Donaldson, Esq. James Dredge, Esq. T Arthur Duncan, Esq., J.P. George Edwardes, Esq, Francis Elgar, Esq., F.R.S., L.L.D. T. H. Elliott, Esq., E.S.S. E. Enoch, Esq. Charles S. Fagan, Esq., F.R.G.S. C. Le. Neve Foster, Esq., D.Sc. W. Ganz, Esq. Algernon Graves, Esq., F.S.A. W. S. Gilbert, Esq. Stefano Gatti, Esq. Otto Goldschmidt, Esq., Hon, R.A.M., RC.O. J. Grego, Esq. J. M. Garrard, Esq., Edward German, Esq. . Professor D. E. Hughes, F.R.S. Arthur G. Hill, Esq., M.A., F.S.A. Arthur Frederick Hill, Esq. A. J. Hipkins, Esq. G. T. Harper, Esq., J.P. Victor Horsley, Esq., F.R.S. Marcus B. Huish, Esq. Rudolf Lehmann, Esq. Alfred Littleton, Esq. Arthur J,' Lewis, Esq. Hamish MacCunn, Esq. W. R. Mallett, Esq. J. M. McLaSeK. Esq., J.P. Dr. W, G. McNaught. C. Lloyd Morgan, Esq., Principal University College, Bristol. Sir Herbert S. Oakkley. Mrs. Doc. Edmund Oldfield, Esq., F.S.A, Jonathan Peate, Esq. J.P. Hubert Parry, Esq., Mus., Doc., Director of the Royal College of Music. J, Paxman, Esq. A. W. Pinero, Esq. A. W. Rucker, Esq., M A., F.R S. Ca,v. A. Ranoegger, Hon. R.A.M. George Rose, Esq. Edwin 0. Sachs, Esq, Horace A. D. Seymour, Esq. G. R. Sims, Esq. Clement Scott, Esq. R. Phene Spiers, Esq. Alexander Siemens, Esq. C. E. Spagnoletti, Esq. W. Barclay Squire, Esq. G. A. Storey, Esq.. A.B.A. C. Villiers Stanford, Esq., Mus. Professor of University of Cambridge. Professor S. P. Thompson. F.I'.S W. A. Tilden, Esq., D.Sc., F.R.S. Edward Terry, Esq. H. Beer&ohm Tree, Esq. W. P. Vi cca us, Esq. Albert Visetti, Esq. Mark Wiiitweli,. Esq. Henry J. Wood, Esq. ; Charles Wyndham, Esq. I CHAMPAGNE Louis roederer. 1892, CUYEE E, EXTRA DRY & BRUT. 1889, GUVEE P, EXTRA DRY & BRUT. T HIS CELEBRATED CHAMPAGNE used formerly to be somewhat sweet, but, to meet the public taste, its style was altered early in 1894, since when it has only been shipped either VERY DRY or BRUT. The above-mentioned Cuvees Vintages 1889 and 1892, will be found to be of unsurpassed quality, and are strongly recommended. Consumers who wish to obtain the genuine LOUIS ROEDERER Champagne are earnestly requested to ascertain that the name of LOUIS ROEDERER is on the Label and the Corks branded £7 ROEDERER. FOR INFANTS AND INVALIDS. *£UJJV$ FOOD When prepared is similar to Breast Milk. Samples post free from MELLIN S FOOD WORKS, PECKHAM, S.E SCIENTIFIC SECTION HONORARY SUB-COMMITTEE. SCIENTIFIC. Major-General Sir John Donnelly, R.E., K.C.B., Chairman. W. H. Preece, Esq., C.B., F.R.S., Vice-Chairman. Sir William Anderson, M.D., F.R.S. Professor W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S. Sir Benjamin Baker, KG.M.G. Francis Elgar, Esq., F.R.S., LL.D. C. Le Neve Foster, Esq., D.Sc. Victor Horsley, Esq., F.S.A. Professor D. E. Hughes, F.R.S. Sir Charles Kennedy, K.C.M.G., C.B. J. C. Lamb, Esq., C.B., C.M.G. Professor W. C. Roberts-Austen, C.B., F.R.S. A. W. Rucker, Esq., M.A., F.R.S Alexander Siemens, Esq. Professor S. P. Thompson, F.R S. W A. Tilden, Esq., D.Sc., F R.S. Sir H. Trueman Wood, M.A. C. E. Spagnoletti, Esq. SCIENCE, 1837-1897, By Charles Bright, F.R.S.E. The Main The Elizabethan Era was most celebrated in history for its Feature of the learning and its literature. The Victorian may, or may not, Era. be accounted equally pre-eminent in these respects : its chief and most glorious distinction will doubtless be the pheno- menally rapid progress effected in the domain of scientific discovery and invention. In no other recorded period of sixty years have such gigantic strides been made by mankind towards its complete emancipation from the thraldom of nature.* As citizens of this Empire, we may truthfully, and without The Part Our exaggeration, add the boast, Quorum Pars Magna Fiiimus ! Race For it is to this country, together with the great sister-country has Played, across the Atlantic— the home of Fulton and Morse, of Edison and Maxim — that the lion’s share of the scientific triumphs of this age is due. The Sons of Great Britain, of Ireland, of America, the Anglo- Celtic races generally, wherever established, have led the van of progress. England, in particular, has been throughout, in nearly all departments, the improver and perfecter. She has been the most successful — that is to say, in turning to practical account, presenting in a perfect and “full-fledged ” form, many inventions, as well as scientific laws and doctrines, the foundations of which have been wholly or partly laid by others. Most of the visitors to this Exhibition will be familiar with, The Results of at least, the broad results of experiment, research, and study in Science Open the main branches of science. To the few who are not, it may to All. respectfully be suggested here that their interest in life, their interest in the world into which they have been born, would be greatly enhanced by a short course of reading on this all-important subject. The present is a particularly suitable occasion for either commencing or completing such self-education. As Mr. Grant Allen has reminded us, while only a small part of the world can aspire to become proficient in natural science, all easily may, and all should, acquaint themselves with its main results. It is not necessary to be a surveyor or an explorer in order to acquire a good serviceable knowledge of geography. Why should not the history and the general results, to date, of other branches of science be studied by the non-scientific world on the same principle ? In this sense, at least, it should be considered almost a disgrace for anyone, making a pretence to culture, to be “ unscientific.” * An illustration of this was to be found in the Great Exhibition of 1851 -the conception of the late Prince Consort— of which the late Sir Charles Fox was the Engineer. 14 SCIENTIFIC SECTION. It would be quite impossible to accomplish, and, therefore, Necessary presumptuous to attempt, in the space available, anything like Limitations of a complete survey of the scientific progress of the era. Pure this Survey. Science especially — nay, even Applied Science in the higher and more comprehensive sense, cannot be adequately treated in such an introduction as the present. Among what are, perhaps, the most noteworthy advances in the former department may be enumerated the following : — (1) Mathematics. — Allusion may be made to the develop- Adyances in ment of the higher algebra, originating with Cayley and Pure Science : Sylvester : also to the geometrical systems of Chasles and of its Laws and the Italian School, turned to such excellent account in this its Doctrines, country by Hirst, Clifford, and others. The perfection and confirmation of the doctrine of the Conservation of Energy by the labours of Joule, William Thomson (now Lord Kelvin), Grove, Helmholtz, and other illustrious workers, both at home and on the Continent, belong partly to this and partly to the next section. The chief function, indeed, of the higher mathematics is that of handmaid to physics and mechanics ; the latter, in their turn, as well as chemistry, astronomy, and other sciences, frequently acquit their obligations to mathematics by establishing or modifying her theories. ( 2 ) The Experimental Sciences.— (a) Generally. — The correlation of the physical forces may be described as the twin-doctrine to that of the Conservation of Energy. It has arisen out of some of the same experiments. The mechanical equivalent of heat was determined mainly as a result of the researches of Mayer and Joule, from 1842. In different departments the process of “ building up this doctrine has been going on ever since, the late Professor Tyndall being among the most substantial contributors to this work. ( b ) Chemistry. — Since the discovery of Lanthanum by Mosander, in 1842, a number of new elements have been added to the list. Among the quite recent additions should be mentioned Argon, separated from the residual constituents of the atmosphere by Lord Rayleigh and Professor Ramsay ; and Helium, which the latter has succeeded in identifying as a terrestrial as well as a solar con- stituent. The rectification of the atomic weights, commenced by Gerhardt in 1842, was completed by Cannizaro in 1858, thus setting the seal of practical applicability upon Dalton’s atomic theory. Great progress has been made in different branches of what may be vaguely described as physico-chemical research ; still greater, perhaps, taking the whole period together, in organic chemistry. The scientific agriculture of the day owes much to this branch, ever since Baron Liebig took up the subject in 1841. Photography, as an invention, requires more special notice under that category : its study, however, has become quite a special branch of Chemistry. In chemical methods, Spectrum- Analysis, foreshadowed by Brewster in 1832, has become the most prominent and the most fruitful feature of the last few decades This brings us naturally to' the border- land between Chemistry and one branch of (c) Physics. Wheatstone, in 1835, had shown that the spectrum emitted by the incandescent vapour of metal was formed of bright lines, and that these lines differed for different metals. Stokes Thomson, and others in this country, worked further upon these lines, in a very literal sense. But it was left to Kirchhoff and Bunsen to build up something like a complete edifice out of the materials accumulated by these and still earlier workers in the field. The names of Balfour Stewart and Angstrom should also be remembered in this connection. The spectra of the terrestrial elements have now been completely mapped out and grouped. A still more sensational result of experiments made with the spectroscope is the analysis of the chemical SCIENCE. 15 constituents of the sun and other celestial bodies — due to the researches of Norman Lockyer and Thalen, as well as those already named, with whom must also be associated Huggins, Newton, Herschell, Roscoe, Airy, and the younger generation of astronomical observers. The recent discovery of the cathode, or “ X ” rays,* by Professor Rontgen links chemical optics with the science and art of photography.f In pure optics, one great advance made since the Queen’s accession has been the complete establishment, by Foucault’s experiments, in 1850, of the Undulatory Theory of Light. Clerk-Maxwell has endeavoured, further, to show that light itself is but a manifestation of Electro-Magnetic conditions. Such connections, established or supposed, between different forms of Force, are very characteristic of the present tendencies of science. The central manifestation of energy, so to speak, or that with which all the others appear to be connected up, is Heat. Its relation to Light, Sound, Electricity, Magnetism, Chemical Force, and Mechanical Force have been abundantly illustrated by scientific experiments conducted with the most diverse objects and from the most different standpoints. The undulating theory was shown about the commencemert of the present era — as a result of Forbes and Melloni’s discovery of the polarisation of heat — to be as applicable to heat as it was to light and sound. Later on the old “ caloric ” theory was proved to be quite untenable. Our knowledge of radiant heat was increased by the use of the electric pile— first, at the hands of Melloni, who studied the solid and liquid forms of matter ; and subsequently by Tyndall, who also studied the gases in this respect. Ever since the time of Faraday (whose brilliant career overlapped the present era), enormous progress has gone on in what may be described as his pet subject — for it was but one out of man}- — electricity. Still, the advances which have been made in the theoretical domain of this science — as worked out mainly by Weber, Helmholtz, Clerk-Maxwell, and Lord Kelvin — must be admitted to be more numerous than sensational. J The most noteworthy results of progress in the departments of electricity and magnetism are described among the various sections of inventions. The relations of magnetism and (whether directly or indirectly) of the electric current to sound-vibrations have been studied, and partially demonstrated by Professor D. E. Hughes, F.R.S., and in America by Edison, Graham Bell, and Dolbear. Terrestrial magnetism is much better understood now than it was at the beginning of this era, as a result of the systematic and regular observations taken at Greenwich, Kew, and elsewhere. Both in the case of electricity and in that of magnetism, improvements in instruments and standards have greatly assisted the progress effected. The recent history of acoustics, apart from its relations to other sciences above referred to, presents little worth noting. Mechanics (including hydraulics, hydrostatics. &c.) shows chiefly a record of inventions rather than of scientific discoveries. (3) The Biological Sciences. — From the point of view of this Exhibition there is very little to be said about this group. Discoveries of a concrete character are exemplified in the various scientific gardens and museums ; while the immense progress made in it, in the domains of law and theory, can only be rightly appreciated by studying the labours of the great biologists and * Followin'! on the researches of Professor William Crookes. F ILS., in radiant matter with highly exhausted tubes, as well as the experiments of Hertz and of Lenard. t It is said that Rontgen himself does not know whether to call these rays manifestations of light, electricity, or what. X If an exception is to be made to this statement, it is due to a discovery, even now only half revealed to us, of an undulatory form of electricity. Lord Kelvin, F.R.S., Mr. W. H. Preece. C.B., F.R.S., and other electricians, have been feeling in this direction for some time past, but its confirmation and embodiment in the concrete form of a most remarkable and epoch-making telegraphic invention is now attributed to the young Italian scientist. Signor Marconi, referred to in another part of this Introduction. SCIENTIFIC SECTION. 16 physiologists of the era, such as Darwin, Wallace, Huxley, Spencer, Hoeckel, Lister, Hooker, Ray Lankester, and Lubbock. The grand doctrine, now almost confirmed as a law, which has revolutionised the tendency of the whole range of biology, and has passed beyond it into other branches of science and philosophy, such as ethics and sociology, is that known p.s the Theory of Evolution. By the side of it should be placed the contributory theories of heredity, variation, and natural selection. A great deal of the progress made in biology (under which generic term are included the sciences of botany, zoology, anthropology, physiology of plants and animals, and anatomy, with a few minor or cross branches) must be ascribed to concurrent progress in the more purely experimental sciences of chemistry, heat, electricity, &c. Some training in these is absolutely essential to success in biological research. Perhaps the department which shows the greatest advance in quite recent times is that of bacteriology. This practically commenced with the Queen’s reign, when Schwann first demonstrated that fermentation was due to the activity of the yeast cells. The applied sciences of sanitation and preventive medicine are greatly indebted to Schwann and Pas- teur, as well as to Koch and other recent followers in Pasteur’s illustrious steps. (4) Other Sciences. — Sir John Lubbock includes among the principal results of science for the fifty years preceding 1881 the demonstration of the antiquity of man. This was, of course, a result of labour mainly in two fields of science, viz., archaeology and geology. The deductions from the former have, perhaps, the most practical interest for us, as they indicate the immense period (8,U00 years at the very least) that civilisation of some form has existed among mankind.* They throw light upon the early history of useful arts and inven- tions, as well as that of the fine arts. The actual antiquity of man, as such, and the few fossilised links with which geological exploration has presented as between man and the anthropical apes, are only of absorbing interest to a comparative few. We now come to what is, after all, the main purpose of an The Main article like the present. This is, to remind our readers of such Purpose of this great achievements in engineering and in the various branches Introduction, of scientific invention during the present reign as may fairly be denominated landmarks of human progress. To this the short and very imperfect sketch here presented of advances in scientific dis- covery and theory seemed to be a necessary prelude. Even in the department to which we now proceed it is impossible to offer more than a sort of skeleton or framework upon which students of the subjects in question may work. A study of the exhibits, as here catalogued with their descriptions, will, no doubt, help them materially in filling in some of the gaps. Such a comparison should certainly give zest to the further pursuit of scientific knowledge. It is to be hoped that the Exhibition, used in this way. may serve not only as a mine of practical information for the engineer and the man of business, and as a pleasant resort for the curious, but also as a convenient means of self-education for students and for all who desire to be well informed. With the above general objects in view it has been con- Classification sidered suitable to divide the rest of this introduction into Adopted. sections referring to the applications rather than to the sciences applied. Thus applications of chemistry may be found (although by no means always referred to as such) in all these sections ; * Lubbock considered that Egyptian exploration bad. by 1881 established that the Pyramids are at least G.OOO years old. Quite recent discoveries of ancient tablets in Mesopotamia indicate that the Chaldeans had attained quite a respectable degree of civili- sation 4.000 B.c. SCIENCE. 17 applications of electricity and magnetism in many of them. It is hoped that this arrangement, as well as the complete omission of some inventions which are deemed important mainly from the professional and professorial points of view, will not be the cause of dissatisfaction. (1) By Land.— W hat was practically the first real passenger Steam railway worked by steam, viz., the Liverpool and Manchester, Locomotion, &c. had been open a few years before Queen Victoria’s accession. It was not until that year, however, that Liverpool was con- nected by rail with Birmingham, while the present L. & N.W.R. continuation to London had to wait until the year after. Koughly speaking, therefore, the commencement of the reign coincides with the establishment of the first great trunk line of railway ever laid. Part of the Great Western line, with Brunei as engineer, was also opened in 1838. It cost its promoters £89,197 in Parlia- mentary proceedings alone !* These lines have since been followed by those of the Midland, Great Northern, North-Eastern, Great Eastern, London & South-Western, South-Eastern, London, Chatham & Dover, and London, Brighton & South Coast Kailway Com- panies.! Visitors interested in studying the early types of engines employed will turn to the exhibits of the G.W.R. and the L. & N.W.R. In France, horse railways had existed for many years before George Stephen- son’s, or even Watt’s, time,;]; and appear to have been employed for more general purposes than in England. The French did not follow our example, so far as to build a long passenger-line worked by steam-power, until 1843, when the Paris- Rouen Railway was opened. Among recent achievements of railway engi- neering in this country, other than bridges, should be mentioned the Severn Tunnel and the Mersey Tunnel. The former was eventually constructed by the late Sir John Hawkshaw, P.R.S., for the G.W.R. Co., and opened for passenger traffic in 1885. The Mersey Tunnel was formally opened in January, 188G, after several years’ boring. The introduction of the Pullman car, and the greater extension of third-class traffic are the only noticeable features, besides improvements in boilers, signalling apparatus, and the mechanical plant generally — with a consequent speed increase — in modern English railway pro- gress. The introduction of steam railways struck a heavy blow to canal traffic in this country. In their turn, they — and even the future electric railway — seem destined to suffer from the competition of at least two new forms of trac- tion, viz., light railways, in which the motive-power may be the same or different (but the gauge of which will in most cases differ from that of the old lines), and the various automobile road-carriages and wagons— or “ auto-cars,” as they have been somewhat barbarously dubbed. Suburban railways are likely to suffer considerably from this competition, and even from that of bicycles. (2) By Sea. — Steam navigation, as is well known, antedated railways by a good many years. The first practical experiments were made on rivers by Symington in this country, and by Fitch and Rumsey in America. The chief name which has gone down to history as that of the father of steam navigation is Robert Fulton, another American, the builder of * Attempts were made in the forties by Mr. .T. D'A. Samuda, F.R.S., and other eminent engineers, to establish a system of railways in which the train was propelled atmospheri- cally. Heavy initial cost was perhaps the main objection to such a plan, though worked for some time between Exeter and Plymouth. t The late Mr. Thomas Brassey was probably contractor for a greater length of railway at home and abroad than any other man. besides contracting for the Victoria and other Docks. Later on Messrs. Lucas & Aird followed in Mr. Brassey’s footsteps. t The remains of stone tramways are found in the streets of Pompeii, destroyed 1,818 years ago. 18 SCIENTIFIC SECTION. the Clermont. But again, for the first ocean- going steamer, entirely dependent upon its engines , we have to come back to the mother-country, and to wait, just as for the first trunk line of railway, till the second year of Her present Majesty’s reign — 1838 ! In April of that year the Great Western and the Sirius made the first successful steam voyages across the Atlantic, the former — to quote a now almost classic account — “ having on board 660 tons of coal and seven adventurous passengers.” By 1840 the Red Sea and Indian Ocean had a regular service of steam-packets, as they were then usually designated. The steamer is an excellent illustration of the progress made in engineering science during these sixty years commencing 1837. The paddle has, for all the larger craft, been superseded by the screw ; the compound has replaced the simple engine ; wood has given place to iron, and iron in its turn to steel. The speed has been increased from nine knots to twice nine— and more. Steam pressure has been increased, and coal consumption brought down in a corresponding manner. Among our exhibits, Messrs. Hall & Co.’s models show the contrast between the ships of ’37 and those of ’97. At the moment of writing, the public is awaiting with some curiosity the result of a trial in the Channel of an entirely new type of passenger boat, viz., M. Ernest Bazin’s “roller” steamship. Possibly it was in part so named on the lucus a non lucendo principle, since one of its professed objects is to obviate that rolling with which travellers are so unpleasantly familiar. (1) In bridges also, the Victorian Era nearly coincides with Bridges, Docks, a complete revolution in their construction — namely, the and almost universal use of iron, in some form, as a material. So Waterways, far back as 1830, indeed— just prior to the opening of John Rennie’s London Bridge — cast iron began to be used in arched bridges, in spans of 160 to 200 ft. ; and wrought iron in large span suspension bridges. Thus Telford created some sensation with his wrought-iron suspension bridge over the Menai Straits, but this was not adapted to the weight of railway locomotives. As the President of the Institution of Civil Engineers * reminds us, whilst the strength of timber had been patiently investigated by engineers, the best form for the use of iron girders and struts was only beginning to attract attention. It was not until twenty years later that Robert Stephenson and William Fairbairn erected the tubular bridge at Menai, followed by the more scientific bridge erected by Brunei, of Great Eastern fame, at Saltash. It was the association of the chemist with the mechanical engineer and inventor that led to the complete evolution of the modern railway-bridge, and many other branches of engineering. The introduction of the processes of Bessemer, Sie- mens, and Whitworth respectively, together with Nasmyth’s steam hammer (all noticed further on), are the true starting points of the great age of iron and steel in which we now live. Among the achievements of the first half of this age, familiar to Londoners, may be mentioned the Chelsea Bridge (1858), and the broad Victoria Bridge over the Thames at Pimlico (1865), by which the L.C. & D.R. approaches its West-end terminus. The first Tay Bridge, more notorious than illustrious, through the terrible accident which its destruction by a gale in 1879 occasioned to a mail train passing over it at the time, was commenced in 1871, but not opened until 1878. It consisted of 85 spans, and was considered at the time a triumph of British engineering. Even over its construction no less than twenty lives were sacrificed. The new bridge, designed by Mr. W. H. Barlow, F.R.S., was not open for public traffic until the summer of 1887. The most conspicuous bridge-building successes within quite recent times * Mr. J. Wolfe Barry, C.B., F.R.S. SCIENCE. 9 are those of the Forth and the Tower of London. The former gigantic affair was carried out, on behalf of the proprietary company and the railway com- panies associated with it, by Messrs. Arrol & Co.* The engineers to whom it was entrusted, namely, Mr. (now Sir John) Fowler, F.R.S., and Mr. (now Sir Benjamin) Baker, F.R.S., based their plans on the cantilever principle. Its span is 1,700 ft., highest part 361 ft., and the clear headway under its centre stands 152 ft. above high-water. Since its opening in June, 1890, it has firmly withstood at least one violent gale (1892), and seems decidedly “ made to stay.” Sir B. Baker — who was especially active in the undertaking — contributes a model to this Exhibition. The Tower Bridge over the Thames was designed and carried out by Mr. Wolfe Barry, already referred to. It is a monument of contemporary science and skill too familiar to all Londoners to require description. (2) The progress and extension of ordinary commercial, as well as naval docks during the present era, although the area covered by them has been increased some five-fold, hardly comes within our present scope. The general principles of dock construction have not been radically changed during this period. The chief novelty, perhaps, for us to note is the great floating dock of Bermuda constructed at North Woolwich, and towed across the Atlantic by two ships of war in 1869. (3) The canal industry, as already mentioned, was hit very hard by the advent of railways.f During a great part of the present reign canals rather declined than advanced. Latterly, however, there has been a marked tendency to revival in this department of engineering. The great Manchester Ship Canal (carried out under the engineership of Sir E. Leader Williams) is the most signal proof of this. Irrigation canals, not much required in this country, but very badly in certain more arid parts of our vast dominions, are, on the whole, enterprises of the future rather than of the present or the past. An important exception, however, is the Ganges Canal, carried out, in face of great difficulties, by Sir Proby Cautley, and opened in 1854. Communica- (1) The Electric Telegraph. — The railway train and the tions by Signal steamship constitute, with the electric telegraph, the three or by Speech most conspicuous emblems of latter-day civilisation. J This from a distance, became a truism in the sixties or earlier, and has remained so ever since. Like its fellow emblems, the telegraph was an outcome of many years of persevering effort on the part of many inventors and scientific investigators : like them also, it was first perfected for prac- tical use on both sides of the Atlantic, by men of our own race and speech, such as Cooke, Wheatstone, Morse, and Bain. The first telegraph line in the world, namely, that on the Great Western Railway from Paddington to West Drayton, was opened in 1838, the year of the first trunk line of railway, and the first ocean steamer. Improvements and novelties in telegraphic instru- ments were now being made by inventors from all the leading civilised nations, e.g ., Morse and Vail (as well as Royal E. House) in America, Breguet in France ; Siemens and Halske in Germany, and Schilling in Russia, to say nothing of Alexander Bain, Hughes, and Jacob Brett, in this country. Werner Siemens, * Sir Thomas Tancred, Bart., had been the senior partner in this firm (then Tancred Arrol & Co.) when the contract was first placed. t But for the latter there can be little doubt that the successors of the Duke of Bridge- water would by this time have covered the island with a mighty network of canals of different dimensions. 1 Indeed, it may be truly said that the application of this force of Nature to the * 1 ' service of human intercourse has effected a change in political, commercial, and social relations even more complete than that wrought by steam locomotion. 20 SC r K \ T I V IC - SECTION . again, led the way in employing gutta-percha as an insulating cover for wires under water. The first effective submarine telegraph cable was laid under the Straits of Dover by the late Mr. T. R. Crampton, in the autumn of 1851. The first cable successfully linking Great Britain with Ireland was laid by the late Sir Charles Bright. He it was also who first succeeded (1858) in demonstrating the feasibility — scouted at by most — of laying 2,000 miles of continuous cable at a two-mile depth under the Atlantic Ocean. Messrs. Glass, Elliot & Co. (now the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Co.) shared the manufacture with Messrs. R. S. Newall & Co. This accomplishment was, from the engineer’s point of view, even a more historic event than that of the first Channel cable or the first land-line. By the year 1866 a good many shorter lengths of cable had been laid in different parts of the world, all by Englishmen. The knowledge and experience gained from all these undertakings, in the construction of cables,* and in their electrical working paved the way for a complete and lasting success for the next Atlantic venture in 1866. The able engineer in charge of this expedition was Sir Samuel Canning (assisted by Mr. Henry Clifford), who succeeded not only in laying the new cable, but in picking up the broken one of 1865. Prior to this, Professor Thomson (now Lord Kelvin) had not only shown the electrical requirements — in which he was supported by the brothers Varley and by Latimer Clark — but had invented signalling instruments of extremely sensitive character to put them into effect. The late Mr. Willoughby Smith had also advanced the electrical side of submarine cable work. Since this time the enormous network of land-lines and ocean cables which has been created has placed the whole civilised world (together with many parts of the globe which cannot yet be dignified by that title) in electrical communi- cation. To give even a summary of the systems and companies comprised in this network would be impossible here. Among submarine lines the Eastern and its allied companies on the one hand, and the “pooled” Atlantic systems on the other, constitute the most gigantic financial groups. Among those whose lines are entirely or largely overland, the Western Union of America, the Great Northern, and the “Indo-European” are prominent. The old telegraph companies of the United Kingdom (of which the most important were the Electric and Magnetic) were bought out by the State long ago, viz., in 1861). Among improvements in telegraphic instruments effected since the pioneer days of the industry, Thomson’s Siphon Recorder, the Stearns, Muirhead, and Taylor systems of duplex and quadruplex telegraphy, and the modern machine trans- mitter are perhaps the most important. It would be hazardous to predict the future, even the immediate future ; but, from the accounts which have trans- pired of trials lately supervised by Mr. Preece at the General Post Office, it would appear that Signor Marconi’s much-talked-of invention for “ telegraphy without wires ” really promises to achieve success. The important development of a whole armoury of electrical laboratory and testing apparatus, as well as the improvement and elaboration of standards in this science, have had a great influence on the progress of telegraphy, as well as electric lighting and other branches. They must be left, however, with this general allusion only. Field telegraphs, fire and police alarms, are also subjects for the discussion of which there is not space. The historical collection of the G.P.O. and the exhibits of Messrs. Siemens Brothers should be visited y all. * A Board of Trade inquiry on this subject (presided overby Captain Sir Douglas Galt on K.C.B., F.lt.S.) took place in 18.50, and lasted over a year. SCIENCE. 21 (2 The Telephone and Microphone. — There is decidedly less of adventure, so far, connected with the history of telephony than with that of telegraphy. Yet the telephone has, perhaps, a more secure, and even a greater, future before it than its elder sister in the art of electrically transmitting words and signals to a distance. There are many other conceivable ways of telegraphing letters and conventional signals (electrically, visually, or otherwise), some of which are now in practical operation,- and are noted below. On the other hand, there is but one effective way discovered or at present conceivable of transmitting the human voice over long distances, viz., by telephonic or microphonic apparatus. A magnetically-actuated diaphragm at one end, and either the same or a micro- phonic contact at the other, together with some continuous conductor between, seem to be essentials. The names which come uppermost in the mind, as those of pioneers in this marvellous application of electricity and magnetism to the exact reproduction of sound at a distance, are those of Reiss, Elisha Gray, and Hughes. Of these, Professor Hughes was the first who, by his microphone (exhibited before the Royal Society in 1878), demonstrated the true principle upon which his immediate successors (whether consciously or not) worked. His was the invention of a savant : he gave his results freely to the world. So much, at least, may be claimed on his behalf without stirring up the dry bones of a controversy with which we are not concerned. Among the first practically successful telephonic instruments must be mentioned those of Edison, of Berliner, of Dolbear, and of Gower and Graham Bell combined. But, as in the case of the two other best-known applications of electricity — namely, the telegraph and the electric light — the name of inventors and inventions during the great telephonic “boom ” of 1881 to 1885 is legion. The historical collec- tion of telephonic apparatus contributed to this Exhibition by the National Telephone Company deserves study by all interested in the subject.* We live now in quieter, but not less practical times than those of the early eighties. The formation of the National Telephone Company, that of the United Tele- phone Company, the concessions made by the Post Office to the Telephone Companies in 1884, the opening of telephonic communications between London, Birmingham, and Liverpool in 1890, between London and Paris in 1891, and the gradual development of exchanges, mark what are, perhaps, the most important stages in the history of telephony, so far as this country is concerned. But we are by no means so pre-eminent, either as inventors, as engineers, or as business men, in this art, as we were in that of telegraphy. In its practical application to life, we still lag decidedly behind the people of the United States and Continental Europe. (3) Military and Naval Signalling. — Under this heading the most conspicuous invention of the age is the heliograph. The general principle of telegraphing in clear atmospheres by means of mirrors flashing the rays of the sun appears to have been known to the ancients, and to have been employed in the time of Alexander the Great (about 333 b.c.). It was reserved to the present generation, however, to develop a truly scientific application of this principle, and the credit for doing so is chiefly due to Sir Henry Mance, C.I.E., President of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. He first brought out the portable heliograph in 1875. The whole system of naval signalling has been revolution- ised during the present reign, largely through the ingenuity of officers, among whom the name of Vice-Admiral P. H. Colomb will always be illustrious. * Should the reader desire further information he would do well to study the lecture delivered by that eminent civil engineer Sir Frederick Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S., delivered before the Institution of Civil Engineers on March 1, 183;?, and reprinted in the Minutes of their Proceedings. 22 SCIENTIFIC SECTION. We have now dealt, very far from completely, but perhaps The Over- sufficiently for the present purpose, with what are still the whelming three most typical groups of inventions and industries of the Multitude of era, namely, railways, steamships, and telegraphs. We have Modern also dwelt at some length on the subject of iron bridges, in Inventions, certain respects the most monumental and enduring of all characteristics of the time. The space at our command obliges us to deal much more sketchily than we should have wished with some of the most conspicuous of the remaining branches of invention and engineering. As to the others, their overwhelming multitude is a sufficient excuse for simply enumerating some, and entirely leaving out the rest. This branch is by no means the next in order of importance, Lighting, but it has attracted considerable attention, being a subject Public and that is literally brought before the eyes of everybody. The Domestic. application of coal gas to illumination was first made by Murdock, in Cornwall, forty-five years before the Queen’s accession. For many years its employment was almost confined to factory lighting and other industrial purposes. Its supply was greatly cheapened, and became universal in the towns and principal villages in the fifties and sixties, A “ Central Gas Company ” was first established in London in 1849. Towards the end of the seventies the introduction of Gramme’s and Siemens’ machine — following the primitive design of Pacinotti — caused the starting of a number of electric lamps and electric lighting projects, which did not take deep root at first After Jablochkoff’s “ candle ” and the Brush, Crompton, and other arc-lamps came a little group of incandescent vacuum-filament lamps, the first in the field being those of Swan, Lane Fox, and Edison. The Paris Electrical Exhibition of 1881 focussed and brought into prominence all these inventions, besides the storage system of Faure, since developed by others. Then came the mighty rush of “ systems ” and companies in 1882. Most of this speculative enthusiasm and enterprise was premature ; it was necessary to train up a stock of competent electric light engineers before more solid progress could be expected. Now, the supply of these gentlemen has become plentiful, and accordingly electric lighting, thanks to Dr. John Hopkinson, Professor George Forbes, Dr. Kennedy, Mr. Fenanti, Professors Thompson, Ayrton, and Perry, and others already named, is being successfully undertaken everywhere,* both by municipal corporations and by limited companies. But the electric light has a powerful rival to contend with in the new incandescent gas light ; moreover, acetylene promises well as a cheap and beautiful source of light. f Although we must not attempt to do justice to it here, this The Instru- is, from the national and politico-economic point of view, one ments and of the most important of all the groups into which inventions Methods of may naturally be divided — possibly the most important. Allu- Produclion. sion has already been made (in connection with bridges) to the revolution which has taken place in the manufacture of iron and steel. About 1880 Neilson had introduced the hot blast for iron smelting. Cowper subsequent!) applied Siemens’ regenerative furnace for heating the blast. Sir '* The Eddystone Lighthouse is a notable example of the different methods of illumination through which we have passed since the 17th century. First constructed in 1696, the tower was entirely' rebuilt by Smeaton in 1709, tallow' candles being the illuminant The present, structure of Douglas was first used in 1882, and has in turn employed oil, gas and electricity I The process for producing this gas is the invention of Mr. T. L. Willson, of New York. By it chalk or lime (carbonate of calcium) are decomposed on being subjected to a power- ful electric current. Carbide of calcium thus formed unites with water to form the gas acetylene. The exhibit of Messrs. Infante & Barker shows the generation of this new illuminant. SCIENCE. 23 Henry Bessemer showed, in 1856, that iron and steel could be produced by passing the blast through fluid pig metal, thus obviating the necessity of puddling, and converting it by cementation into steel. This Bessemer process, as it is known, followed by. Siemens’ regenerative furnace, by Whitworth’s compressed steel process , and by the use of alloys, and many other improvements, have advanced a multitude of industries. Next must be mentioned, in this connection, the most powerful tool in the hand of the practical metallurgist, viz., Nasmyth’s steam hammer. The first gas engine was patented by Barnett in 1838. An engine of this class was exhibited in 1876, and this has been succeeded by the “ Otto ” Silent Engine as made by Crossley. The much more general employ- ment of the metal aluminium of late years, through new metallurgical methods cheapening its extraction, heralds in another very notable advance in industry generally, mainly on account of its extreme lightness. Thus the reader should turn to the exhibit of the British Aluminium Company. Togo backwards again, Whitworth’s improvements in machine tools constitute a further important branch of this subject, which can come in for mere allusion here. Lord Arm- strong’s improvements in hydraulic machinery have done wonders for the con- venience of man in every department of manufacture and trade. Lace-making machinery, and improvements in all kinds of plant used in the textile industries must be added to the list. Electro-plating , due largely to Faraday’s suggestions, is another characteristic industry of the age — as exemplified mainly by Elkington’s process, introduced about 1840. In printing, again, the introduction of the Marinoni and other machines has absolutely revolutionised the production of newspapers and books. The original multiplication of literature by the invention of printing is simply as nothing to its enormous further multiplication during the Victorian Era. A very incongruous collection here, apparently, although we Inventions of do but sample the whole. Among the smallest, but most Domestic important, nevertheless, must be reckoned the lucifer match ; Application or rather those improvements in its manufacture which brought (mainly). it into universal use. Photography deserves a section to itself, its application not being confined to personal or domestic purposes. Mr. Fox Talbot, in 1839, improved greatly upon Daguerre’s process, by producing a “ negative ” from which any number of positive copies could be obtained ; Sir John Herschell added the use of glass plates, and Mr. Archer collodion. Professor Wheatstone was the means of introducing the stereoscope, now so often employed for turning photographs to the best account. Quite recently, again, Captain Abney, C.B., F. R.S., has shown us how to reproduce colours in photography. A general application of this* plan may be expected before long. Among the most important of modern domestic paraphernalia may be added sewing machines, watches (the process of making which has been immensely cheapened by machinery), and velocipedes , i.e., bicycles and tricycles. The enormous improvements constantly being made to this last class, and the cheapening of their production, will probably soon bring them as much within the reach of all as sewing machines and watches. Lord Lister (theD Mr. Joseph Lister) first employed carbolic Medicine and acid in the treatment of wounds early in the present reign. For Sanitation, this, as well as for general disinfecting purposes, the use of antiseptics soon became universal. The artificial culture and modification of microbic germs for inoculation purposes is a more recent devel- opment of the results of bacteriological research, from which much has already been effected {e.g., in the cure of diphtheria), and still more is expected. In the purification of water and of sewage , the united efforts of the chemist and the 24 SCIENTIFIC SECTION. sanitary engineer have made great progress. The practice of intermittent filtration, the object of which is to secure constant oxygenation of the pores of the filter (thus fostering the growth of those micro-organisms which act as scavengers) has proved very successful. The subject has been placed on a thoroughly scientific footing since the experiments recently instituted by the Massachusetts Board of Health. Another important department which has grown up during the present era is the use oi'ancesthetics in surgical operations, &c. Ether was first employed by Simpson, in 1846, since when the use of chloroform, ether, and nitrous oxide have been the means of enabling physicians and surgeons to save an enormous number of lives. In lieu of chemically- induced anaesthesia hypnotism has also been tried with some amount of success within recent years by the late Dr. Charcot in Paris, and other Continental medical men, as well as by a few English practitioners. Ronigen’s “X” rays are now being applied for many surgical diagnoses, and other purposes. From salvation of life we now pass to destruction. In the Implements construction of artillery, perhaps the most marked advances and Materials are due to the mathematical accuracy with which guns are of War. now turned out. Lord (formerly Sir W. S.) Armstrong first constructed his rifled ordnance in 1854. The use of manganese- chromium, and other metals as alloys with iron has resulted in the production of steels possessing all the varied qualities required for different guns and projectiles. In armour plates the cementation process for adding carbon to one face of the plate is a notable modern improvement.* Another is the introduc- tion of wire-wound guns, based on the principle advocated, as long ago as 1856, by the late Mr. James A. Longridge. This system increases the maximum admissible pressure some 40 to 50 per cent.: it has rendered it possible to reduce the weight and size of guns, which had previously gone on increasing to an alarmingly extravagant extent. Perhaps the most striking of all recent develop- ments of ingenuity in the service of the God of War are machine guns. In the Maxim gun, the recoil is utilised to deliver a continuous stream of bullets at the rate of 10 per second.! For modern ammunition the whole range of the nitro-explosives are now placed under contribution. Smokeless powder is another matter in which Mr. Maxim has exercised his inventive genius to good purpose, besides Nobel, Abel, Anderson, and Dewar. The Gatling pneumatic gun was one outcome of this greater variety of explosives. In shot and shell, cast iron is, for the most part, superseded by east and wrought steel. The torpedo is another remarkable child of this era. The modern man of war might take a long chapter to himself, together with the torpedo boats of Thornycroft and Yarrow. Under the heading of instruments of production, the The immense improvements effected by Sir Joseph Whitworth, Instruments of Nasmyth, Siemens, and others, in machine tools have already Scientific been referred to. The spectroscope, the galvanometer, and and Industrial other instruments of the laboratory and testing room form an Progress. entirely different, but perhaps equally important, branch of the same general subject, viz., the instruments of further progress The photographic camera, and various improvements in microscopes, pyrometers, telescopes, &c., may also be simply referred to under this heading. Perhaps the : Besides typifying the revolution in methods of warfare, the modern warship is, indeed as good an illustration as we could wish of the ad ranee of science during this decade associated with the names of Reed. Barnahy, White, and others. . t Palliser. Armstrong. Xordenfelt, and Krupp have also at various times done much in this direction. SCIENCE. 25 greatest heritage of all which the present generation will leave to the next is the discovery of electrical methods and appliances for the transmission of force to a distance, and its storage, transformation, and distribution as required. The most recent achievement of engineering in this department is the successful distribution (to works in the neighbourhood, and as far as the town of Buffalo, 26 miles distant) of electric power derived from the Falls of Niagara. In this country, the utilisation — in aluminium works, and for other purposes — of the Falls of Foyer is another case to the point. Professor George Forbes, F.R.S., is said to be studying the application of the Nile Cataracts to similar purposes as Niagara. Several of the instruments belonging to this section, including sound- ing appliances, are to be seen among Messrs. Siemens’ exhibits. The navigation of the air is perhaps the greatest practical Aeronautic, problem of the age, the satisfactory solution of which still remains unaccomplished. Little, therefore, can be said about it here. The cigar-shaped “navigable balloon” of Captain Renard, and other Continental and American models, is one possible direction in which success may be achieved. Another — more promising, perhaps — is the “ Aeroplane ” of Mr. Hiram Maxim, from whose undoubted genius, as evidenced by his achieve- ments in other fields of invention, the world is entitled to expect important results Miscellaneous. — In the implements of war , by land and by sea, in sanitation and public hygiene, in the instruments of further progress , whether peaceful or warlike — tools, philosophical instruments, chemical apparatus, improved stan- dards — and in a number of other departments which cannot be treated here, vast progress has been made during this reign* ; whilst the storage, transmission, and distribution of electric power is still in a vigorous infancy. It only remains to be said that as much has been stated here with reference to the scientific branch of this Exhibition as could be called to mind in the time and space at disposal. * Besides typifying the revolution in methods of warfare, the modern warship is indeed as good an illustration as we could wish for of the advance of science during this decade, associated with the names of Reed, Barnaby, White, and other-, as well a- the torpedo boats, of Thomycroft and Yarrow. Not more so. however, than the naval and militarv machine guns, apart from small arm?, we now often see and sometimes hear— due to Palliser, Nordenfeldt, Armstrong, Maxim, Gat t ling, and Krupp. Again, enormous advances have been made in explosives, and we now have smokeless powders, thanks to Noble, Abel, Anderson, and Dewar— all familiar names in this country. SCIENTIFIC CATALOGUE. 1. Her Majesty’s Postmaster-General. (1) Cooke and Wheatstone’s earliest needle telegraph, 1837. A five needle in- strument ; the letters of the alphabet were indicated by the convergence of two of the needles ; five lines were required ; these were inserted in grooves in a triangular piece of wood which was buried under the ground. (2) Specimens of the first telegraph line, 1837 ; this specimen was dug up on the railway incline between Euston and Camden Town ; the line was used in connection with the first experiments made with Cooke and Wheatstone’s earliest instrument in 1837. (3) Cooke and Wheatstone’s four-needle telegraph, 1838 ; in this instrument some of the letters were indicated hy the diver- gence of two needles, as in the five-needle instrument No. 1 ; the other let- ters were indicated by the deflection of one needle only ; four-line wires required. (4) Cooke and Wheatstone’s double-needle telegraph, with alarum, 1844 ; the letters in this instrument were indicated by the movements of one or both the needles ; two movements were required for indicating cer- tain letters and three for others ; two-line wires were used ; this instrument was used on the line erected between Paddington and Slough for the purpose of exhibiting the invention in 1844, and was one of the identical instruments by the aid of which Tawell, the Salt Hill murderer, was arrested. (5) High- ton’s single-needle telegraph, 1848 ; used by the British and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company ; the signals indicating the letters were similar to those used with the Cooke single-needle telegraph ; one line was required. (6) Dering’s single-needle telegraph, 1852 ; used by the Electric and International Telegraph Company. (7) Henley’s magnetic-electric double- needle telegraph, 1848 ; used by the British and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company ; the instrument is worked by magnetic-electric currents gene- rated by the movements of the handles ; the instrument requires two-line wires. (8) Bright’s bell telegraph, 1855 ; used by the British and Irish Mag- netic Telegraph Company ; the. single-needle alphabet is produced by striking two bells of different tones. (9) Vertical galvanometer, 1855 ; used in connection with telegraphic apparatus for showing whether a current is passing and its approximate strength. (10) Cooke and Wheatstone’s ABO telegraph receiver, 1840. (11) Morse embosser, 1853; used by the Electric Telegraph Company ; the dots and dashes of the Morse alphabet are made by a rounded steel point. (12) Wheatstone’s typeprinting instrument, 1841; the paper band passes under the type, and the printing is performed by an SC I E N TIPI C DIVISION. 27 electro-magnet. (13) Wheatstone’s automatic telegraph puncher, 1858 ; an apparatus for perforating the paper strip for use. with automatic telegraph transmitter. (14) Wheatstone’s automatic telegraph electrical puncher, 1858. (15) Wheatstone’s automatic telegraph puncher, 1865 ; in this form the keys, instead of being worked direct by the fingers, are struck by small handles, one of which is held in each hand. (16) Whitehouse’s relay, 1854. (17) Earliest form of relay with an inducing magnet, 1855. (18) Preece’s duplex relay, 1855 ; a relay on the principle of the Wheatstone needle instrument : used for Duplex working on the “ leakage ’ principle; (19) Varley’s Mill, 1855; used by the Electric Telegraph Company ; this contrivance was used in connection with relays and translators. (20) Double current key, 1855 ; used by the Electric Telegraph Company ; a key for sending a short reversal after each signal. (21) Varley’s wheel key, 1855 ; a double current key, so called from the wheel shape of the commutator. (22) Various lightning protectors. (23) Set of wire joints, showing the old and modern methods of jointing aerial telegraph wires. (24) Umschalter or universal switch, 1860 ; a switch for enabling any one circuit in a system to be connected to any other circuit. (25) Train signalling instrument, 1840 ; an instrument for starting and stopping the endless rope by which the Black- wall Railway was first worked. (26) Dial train signalling instrument, 1844. A step by-step train indicator. (27) Siemens’ ABC telegraph, 1862. A magnetic electric telegraph. (28) Preece’s electrical semaphore, 1S60 ; an apparatus used for train signalling on the block system. (29) Induction coil, 1857, used for working the first (1857) Atlantic cable. (30) Specimens of earliest insulators for aerial lines. (31) Specimen of first telegraph line (fossil). (31a) Specimen of first submarine telegraph cable. (315) Specimen of first Atlantic cable. (32) Specimen of first gutta-percha underground wire. (33) Specimen of early lead-covered gutta-percha wire. (34) Specimen of first iron-sheathed submarine cable. (35) Specimen of early form of indiarubber covered wire. (36) Specimens of various old submarine cables. (37) Ditto, ditto. (38) Specimen of underground wire damaged by lightning. (39) Specimens of Post Office telegraph cables, modern types. (40) Specimens of latest four wire telegraph cable (Anglo-German). (41) Specimen of lead-covered paper-insulated telephone cable. (42) Woodpecker pole, showing damage done to telegraph pole by the woodpecker. (43) Wheat- stone’s ABC telegraph, modern form ; the signals are read from the pointer on the indicator, which is made to stop at the letter required. (44) Single needle ; the signals are read from the movements of the needle to either side. (45) Double plate sounder ; the signals are read by sound from the two side plates, which are struck as required. (46) Morse printing tele- graph ; the signals are formed on the band in dots and dashes. (47) Morse sounder ; the signals arc read by sound, as dots and dashes. (48) Wheat- stone high-speed automatic telegraph ; the system is used mainly for press or news messages, and is worked very extensively at 400 words per minute. (49) Hughes’ type-printing telegraph ; the signals cause the letters or figures to be recorded from a typed wheel in Rom*m characters upon the band, which passes through the instrument. This form of telegraphy is used almost exclusively for international telegraphy between England and the Continent. (50) Delany multiplex ; by means of this system six messages may be sent simultaneously over one wire. (51) Modern block signalling telegraph, Preece’s, as used by the London & South-Western Railway Com- pany. (52) Post Office telephone, ordinary pattern. (53) Post Office telephone for table use. (54) Operator’s telephone and transmitter, as used by the SCIENTT FIC SECTION. 28 Exchange switch clerks. (55) Pneumatic tube apparatus and signalling appliances ; this system is very largely used in London and other large cities of the United Kingdom for sending actual messages through between the central office and branch offices. (56) Batteries used in the Postal Telegraph service. (57) Model of travelling post office, complete ; three carriages, with apparatus for picking up and dropping mails. (£8) Collection of notices showing the regulations made, and instruments issued, with reference to some of the more important changes in post office facilities. (59) Specimens of insulators, of various types, as now used. (60) Model of a mail coach, 1837. 2. The National Telephone Company, Ltd., 34, Gerrard-street, Soho, W. A collection of apparatus illustrative of the progress of telephony from its introduction to the present t me. 3. Great Western Railway Company. (a) Section of automatic vacuum brake as applied to rolling stock. (b) Rail section and sleeper, showing method of fastening in 1838. (c) Carriage and wagon stampings comprising various articles, 57 in number, demonstrating the various processes and principles applied in hydraulic stamping as applied to rolling stock details. These stampings are produced from steel in plate and bar, and replace articles previously made in cast iron, being stronger, cheaper, and lighter. 4. The British Aluminium Company, Ltd., 9, Victoria-street, S.W. 5. COLLECTIVE RAILWAY SIGNALLING APPARATUS. A. The New Phonopore Telephone Company, Limited, 85, Queen Victoria- street, E.C. Telephone type R, to work simultaneously with other apparatus on the same line wire. B. Mr. John Neale, M.I.E.E., Electrical Engineer and Superintendent, North Staffordshire Railway, Stoke-on-Trent. (1) Set of Neale’s single wire train signalling instruments with route indicator added for trains approaching junctions, &c. ; (2) Neale’s acoustic dial for reading ordinary single needle by sound. C. C. E. Spaonoletti, Bishop’s-road Station, London. (1) Set of apparatus illustrating block system and electrical locking of railway signals. (2) Disc block instrument. (3) Single needle instrument with patent induced coils. D. Telegraph Department, London, Chatham, and Dover Railway, Victoria Station. Two double arm bell train-signalling instruments as in use on main line, and worked in conjunction with Syke’s electric locking apparatus on L.C. & D.R. E. Saxby & Farmer, Ltd., Canterbury-road, Kilburu. Union of lock and block systems, improved appliances for securing the safe working of traffic on railways consisting of (1) Improved block instrument. (2) Electric slot for controlling outdoor signals irrespective of distance SCIENTIFIC DIVISION. 29 (3) Improved treadle or rail contact for automatic control of signals by train action. (4) Model of interlocking system invented by Saxby in 1856. (5) Model of latest improved lever locking frame. 6. London and North-Western Railway, Euston, N.W. (1) Photographs of Richard Trevithick’s locomotive, 1803; Stephenson’s “ Rocket ” and tender, 1829 ; a “ Bury ” passenger locomotive, 1835 ; an old Crewe passenger locomotive, 1857 ; L. & N.W. passenger locomotive, origin- ally built in 1862, rebuilt as shown; L. & N.W. passenger locomotive, four wheels coupled, driving wheels 6 ft. 6 in. diameter, 1874; L. & N.W. compound express passenger locomotive “Jennie Deans’' (F. W. Webb’s system), 1889; L. & N.W. compound express passenger locomotive “ Queen Empress” (F. W. Webb’s system), 1891 ; L. & N.W. side tank passenger locomotive, four wheels coupled, driving wheels 5 ft. 6 in., 1890 ; L. & N.W, express goods locomotive (Joy’s valve gear), 1880 ; L. & N.W. eight wheels coupled, compound goods locomotive, 1893; “Dignity and Impudence,” representing the largest and smallest-wheeled locomotives on L. & N.W. : L. & N.W. corridor dining saloon, 1897 ; passenger trains as run on the old Liverpool and Manchester Railway. (2) Models representing Her Majesty's saloon carriages, as used on the L. & N. W. (3) Working model of the L. &N.W. compound express passenger locomotive “ Queen Empress.” 7. Frederick Siemens, 10, Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W. (1) Model of a Siemens’ regenerative gas continuous tank glass furnace, (2) an iron and steel heating furnace, (3) and a gas producer ; (4) diagrams of Siemens’ furnaces. 8. The Wilkinson Sword Company, Limited, 27, Pall Mall. Glass case containing swords, bayonets, &c., as worn in Her Majesty’s Forces from 1837 to 1897. 9. Maxim-Nordenfelt Gun and Ammunition Co., Ltd., 32, Victoria-street, S.W. (1) Thirty-seven mm. Maxim automatic machirm gun on naval cone mounting complete with ammunition box and belt. (2) Maxim automatic rifle calibre machine gun on tripod mounting, on wheels complete with ammunition box and belt. (3) Maxim automatic rifle calibre machine gun, light pattern, on light tripod mounting, complete with ammunition box and belt, infantry knapsack to carry the gun and tripod, and knapsack to carry the ammunition boxes. 10. Siemens Bros. & Co., Ltd., 11, Queen’s Anne’s-gate, S.W. (1) Deep sea thermometer, designed by Dr. C. W. Siemens for Professor Agassiz, and used on board the U.S. surveying ship Blake in 1881 : (a) Thermo-electric coils and cable for sea ; (5) containing vessel used on ship (2) Electrical pyrometer, for determining the temperature of furnaces by means of the variation in resistance of a metallic conductor; invented by Dr. C. W. Siemens, and described in a letter to Professor Tyndall, December, 1860: (3) (a) Iron tube containing a metal conductor; (b) differential galvano- meter ; (c) resistance box ; (d) connecting cable with three conductors ; (e) battery of cells; (/) spare platinum wire coil; (g) differential voltameter; (h) battery of cells ; N.B. — Either the differential galvanometer or the differential voltameter may be used for measuring the change of resistance of the platinum coil. Deep-sea photometer, used on the Challenger expedi- tion for obtaining photographs at various depths under the sea. Selenium photometer, constructed by Dr. W. von Siemens in 1876, as a means of 30 SCIENTIFIC SECTION. comparing luminous intensities without the aid of the eye : (4) (a) Photometer brush, with prepared selenium cell ; (b) special form of reflecting galvano- meter ; (c) scale and lamp for ditto. (5) Universal galvanometer, as constructed in 1867, so as to combine in one instrument the apparatus for measuring resistance, current, and electromotive force. (6) Complete testing set, 1897 pattern, for measurement of resistance, insulation, and capacity. (7) Dead heat mirror galvanometer, with bell magnet and copper damping sphere, constructed in 1873. (8) Mirror galvanometer, 1897 pattern: (a) galvano- meter; (6) portable arrangement of lamp, scale, and stand for ditto. (9) Tangent-sine galvanometer, described in 1859 before the Austro- German Society of Telegraph Engineers, and used for all the tests during the laying of the Red Sea cable in 1859. (10) Obach tangent galvanometer, with moveable ring : ( a ) galvanometer ; ( b ) standard cells for calibration. (11) Electro-dynamometer, old form, on wooden stand, described 1880. (12) Electro-dynamometer, newest pattern, 1897. (13) Galvanic cells, with paper pulp diaphragm, first invented in 1869 with a view to obtain a constant cell. (14) Obach dry cells, 1897 pattern. (15) Telegraph instruments for punching the messages in paper strip, and automatically transmitting them, designed and- constructed for use on the Indo-European Overland Telegraph Line in 1867: — (a) Punching instrument for guide holes; (6) key-board perforated for paper strip ; (c) automatic transmitter for sending messages. ( 16) A pair of magneto-electric ABC telegraphic instruments ; this kind of telegraph dates from 1856, and in it the Siemens’ shuttle armature was first used. (17) Telegraph key for submarine cables for use with alternating currents, used on the Indo-European Line, 1867. (18) Telegraph key for submarine cables, modern type. (19u) Polarised relay, constructed in 1858, and used in the Red Sea cable. (196)Polarised relay, 1897 pattern, for land lines. (20) Polarised relay. 1897 pattern, for submarine cables. (21) Set of four telegraph instruments, self-starting double current, as used on the Indo-European Line. (22) Morse telegraph instrument, 1897pattern. (23) Various types of insulators on dummy pole. (24) Samples of submarine cables (a) Platino Brazilina ; (6) Com- mercial Cable Company, 1894 ; (c) Amazon River, 1896. (25) Lightning dis- charger, 1848 pattern. (26) Lightning discharger, new type, with brass plates and fine wire coil. (27) Magneto-electric machine with double T armature ; first constructed in 1850. (28) Magneto-electric machine, modern type. (29) Original dynamo electric machine with double T armature, made in 1867, and exhibited by Dr. C. W. Siemens before the Royal Society. (30) Horizontal dynamo, 1874 type. (31) Vertical dynamo, 1880 type, (32) Vertical dynamo, 1897 type. (33) Original bar ” armature made 1882. (34) Motor generator with double armature, constructed in 1883. (35) Motor generator, modern type, two dynamos coupled. (36) Original alternator with shuttle armature and two slip rings, constructed prior to 1872 ; magnets provided with water- cooling arrangement. (37) Alternator with revolving bobbins wound with wire, constructed about 1879. (38) Alternator with narrow bobbins wound with strip; more modern type. (39) Dynamo exploder for firing fuse, as constructed prior’to 1872. (40) Dynamo exploder, 1896 type. (41) Inclined rail arc lamp about 1875. (42) Horizontal carbon arc lamp, 1878. (43) Clockwork lamp, square shape, 1873. (44) Pendulum lamp, 1878. (45) Differential lamp, 1879. (46) Band lamp, 1897. 11. Bilbie, Hobson, & Co., 80, Queen Victoria-street, E.C. 17 effective horse-power “ Stookport ” gas engine, with all recent improve- ments, and specially fitted for driving dynamo for electric lighting. SCIENTIFIC DIVISION. 31 12. The National Telephone Company, Ltd., 34, Gerrard-street, W. Telephone Exchange and call room. 13. Richard Hornsby & Sons, Ltd., Grantham (Spittlegate Iron Works) ; 75a, Queen Victoria-street, E.C. Harvester, self-binding, improved steel frame, and all the latest improve- ments. Frame containing photographs of the first types of Hornsby harvesters. 14. Brown & May, Ltd., North Wilts Foundry, Devizes, and 100b, Queen Victoria-street, E.C. (1) “ Old style ” portable steam-engine, made about the year 1840; one of the first portable steam-engines made for agricultural purposes ; “ modern style ” 12 h.p. (nominal) compound portable engine. 15. Great Western Railway Company, Paddington. (1) “ North Star ” locomotive broad gauge engine built by R. Stephenson & Co.,Newcastle-on-Tyne, in 1837, and used from that period to December, 1870, in running express passenger trains on the Great Western Railway. (2) “ Lord of the Isles,” a later locomotive broad gauge engine built at the Great Western Company’s works at Swindon in 1851 to the designs of Mr. Daniel Gooch (afterwards Sir Daniel) and exhibited at the first International Exhibition in Hyde Park in 1851, at Edinburgh, Chicago, and Cardiff. Engines of this description were used for running express trains from Pad- dington to Newton Abbot up to May, 1892. The “ Lord of the Isles ” continued at work until July, 1891, and ran a total mileage of 789,300 miles. (3) Old Great Western telegraph instrument. (4) Easels containing photographs of antiquities ; photograph of the “ Fire Fly,” which engine ran with passenger trains on the G.W.R. from May, 1840, to July, 1870; photograph of “ Waverley ” broad gauge passenger loco- motive used in express trains from Paddington from April, 1855, to June, 1876 ; photogragh of broad gauge Royal saloon ; photograph of broad gauge convertible and non-convertible engines ; photograph of broad gauge shunting engine ; photographs of Royal trains and various engines ; photograph of modern Great Western engine ; photograph of modern per- manent way on Great Western system, and old broad gauge permanent wdy ; photograph of Severn Tunnel, showing longitudinal and cross sections; photograph of s.s. Christopher Thomas , illustrating the class of steamboat used for crossing the Severn between Portskewett and New Passage previous to opening of tunnel ; panoramic map of Thames district ; photograph of large girder constructed at Swindon works and afterwards carried complete to Bristol, a distance of 41 miles — weight, 51 tons 12cwts. ; photographs of old G.W.R. third-clavs carriage, modern G.W.R. sleeping carriage, dining-car, saloon; time-table, dated 1839, when the line extended from London to Maidenhead ; copy of G.W. time-table, dated 1840, when the line extended from London to Farringdon-road, now Uffington ; railway calendar for 1839 ; Maidenhead coach list, dated 1837, showing the times of departure of the stage coaches from Maidenhead to London, Bristol, Birmingham, and other places ; photo- graph of the late Mr. Isambard Kingdom Brunei, first engineer of the G.W.R. ; photograph of Sir Daniel Gooch, late chairman of the G.W.R. ; photograph of Mr. James Grierson, late General Manager of G.W.R. ; photograph of Mr 32 SCIENTIFIC SECTION. Joseph Armstrong, late locomotive and carriage superintendent of G.W.R. ; photograph of first telegraph station in England, Slough, G.W.R. ; map of G.W.R. 1838 ; map of G.W.R. 1897 ; sundry photographs of viaducts, &c. ; rail sections on board, showing the development of the permanent way from 1837 to 1894. 16. British Aluminium Company, Ltd., 9, Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W. (1) Bauxite. (2) Alumina. (3) Pure aluminium notched ingots. (4) Wolf- raminium alloy. (5) Romanium alloy. (6) Aluminium alloy for castings. (7) Pure aluminium sheets, rods, tubes, wire, screws, rivets. (8) Aluminium bronze. 17. The Royal Photographic Society, 12, Hanover-square, W. Collective Historic Photographic Exhibit. (1) Model of tissue-making machine, lent by J. W. Swan. (2) Model to show different depths of tint for different thicknesses of colouring matter, lent by J. W. Swan. (3) Early photographic portrait in case, lent by Valentine Blanchard. (4) Portrait of Daguerre, crystalotyped by J. A. Whipple, 1855, lent by Edgar Clifton. (5) Two negatives, by Fothergill’s collodis-albumen process, lent by F. Beasley. (6) Detective camera, lent by T. Bolas. (7) Negative in half-tone bitumen, made insoluble by the action of light, lent by T. Bolas. (8) Illustrations of a method of enlargement, as proposed by V. Blanchard in 1873 : (1) transparency, from 7| in. by 4£ in. negative ; (2) waxed paper negative from No. 1 ; (3) print of No. 2, lent by Valentine Blanchard. (9) One of Archer’s first cameras for the collodion process, with stereoscopic arrangement, 1854, lent by F. Bedford. (10) Carbon negative, stripped by Wenderoth’s process, lent by E. Bolas. (11) Latimer Clarke’s stereoscopic camera (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (12) Johnson’s pantoscopic camera, with slide and negative taken by same (Royal Photo- graphic Society’s Museum). (13) Morssard’s lens-testing apparatus (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (14) Set of Daguerreotype apparatus, consisting of plate boxed and plates, plate holder, polishing buff with charcoal and tripoli bags, board and wheel for binding plates, five sensitising boxes of various patterns, developing chamber with mercury trough and spirit lamp (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (15) Sutton’s panoramic water lens, with butterfly stop (Royal Photographic) Society’s Museum). (16) Port- able wet plate camera of the pattern devised by Piazzi Smyth, carrying four plates in a special form of combined dark slide and silver bath (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (17) Goddard landscape lens (Royal Photo- graphic Society’s Museum). (18) Original compound portrait lens, by A. Ross, lent by Ross & Co. (19) Archer’s earliest water lens, lent by Ross & Co. (20) Daguerreotype lens, by Lerebours, of Paris (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (21) Series of prints, produced by the so-called carbon process ; also plaster cast and electrotypes. Carbon print, 1864, obtained by double transfer. Early carbon print, by T. & R. Annan. “Holy Street Mill,” carbon prints on six different tints, 1865. Plaster cast from a carbon print of Kenilworth, showing the relief. Electrotypes from a carbon relief lent by J. W. Swan. The first preserved plates (3 to 21 days) taken in 1854. (22) The “ Deliguescent Process ” — nitrates of magnesia and zinc, glycerine, &c. (nine prints), lent by J. Spiller. (23) Early Talbotype photo- graphs (27), 1844 to 1852, lent by R. C. Murray. (24) Instantaneous views of Paris, wet collodion, taken in 1861, lent by W. England. (25) Instanta- neous views ; wet collodion, taken 1856-65 (12), lent by Valentine Blanchard. SCTEXTI FIC DIVISION. (26) Illustrations of Paul Pretsch’s photo-gal vano-graphic process, 1856, four prints, lent by Edgar Clifton. (27) Stereoscope, made in 1858, lent by W. England. (28) Two direct positive views on glass (not reversed), taken in May, 1857, lent by Charles A. Wells. (29) Two Daguerreotype portraits, two portraits on glass, one portrait on paper, lent by Mrs. Andrews. (30) Early nitrate of silver bath (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (31) Grubb single landscape lens (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (32) Early form of opera glass hand camera (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (33) Examples of Pizzighelli’s Anthracotype dusting process on bichromated gela- tine (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (34) Stereoscopic pair of Harrison’s globe lenses (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (35) Modi- fication of Brewster Stereoscope, by Oliver Wendell Holmes, lent by Valentine Blanchard. (36) Photography at the seat of war ; four photographs taken by Mr. Roger Fenton at the Crimea, lent by Sydney Keith. (37) Three prints from negatives on ceroline paper, a modification of Le Grey’s wax paper process, 1861-69, by G. Fowler Jones, F.R.I.B.A, (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (38) Kenilworth, from a Calotype negative, taken in 1852 by G. Fowler Jones, F.R.I.B.A. (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (39) Rievaulx Abbey, from negatives on Morgan & Kidd’s ordinary bromide paper, taken May, 1882, by G. Fowler Jones, F.R.I.B A. (two prints), (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (40) Print from negative on Alpha paper, sup- posed to be the first ever taken on it, taken in 1882 by G. Fowler Jones, F.R.I.B.A. (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (41) A pigeon post film (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (42) Portable wet plate camera of the pattern devised by Piazzi Smyth, with three combined dark slides and silver baths, each constructed to carry four plates (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (43) Dubronis wet plate field apparatus (Royal Photo- graphic Society’s Museum). (44) “ Manual of Photography,” with frontispiece reproduced from a photograph by the photo-gal vano-graphic process, lent by T. Bolas. (45) Photogravure by Fox Talbot, 1858, lent by T. Bolas. (46) Photo- gravure by Fox Talbot, 1866, lent by T. Bolas. (47) Photo-lithograph by Belloc & Jacott, forming the frontispiece of Belloc’s “ Les quartre branche de la Photographic,” lent by T. Bolas. (48) A stannotype mould by Mr. Walter Bentley Woodbury, being one of those from which the next exhibit was produced, lent by T. Bolas. (49) “ Traite practique de photoglyptie,” by Leon Vidal, containing a stannotype print, lent by T. Bolas. (50) “ Manual of the Stannotype Process,” lent by T. Bolas. (51) Talbotype negative and print by Fox Talbot (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (52) Talbot’s “Pencil of Nature,” the earliest work illustrated by photography (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (53) Talbot’s “ Sun Pictures in Scotland,” a work illustrated by photography, which appeared during the publication of the “ Pencil of Nature ” (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (54) Simple form of water lens, formerly the property of Daguerre (Royal Photo- graphic Society’s Museum). (55) Stereoscopic Daguerreotype of the 1851 Exhibition (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (56) A relief block by the network process, made by Walter Bentley Woodbury in 1872. (57) A print from the same (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (58) A negative and print by 0. G. Rejlander (Royal Photographic Society’s Museum). (59) Old form of folding camera, lent by W. Coles. 18. King’s College, Strand, London, W.C. Wheatstone’s Experimental Apparatus. (1) Daniell’s battery. (2) Clark’s magneto machine. (3) Faraday’s loadstone and coil. (4) Wheatstone’s mirror. ^5) Original Wheatstone bridge. (6) & .34 SCIENTIFIC SECTION. Wheatstone ooncertina. (7) Wheatstone table eoncertina. (8) Wheatstone shadow clock. (9) Wheatstone polar clock. (10) Wheatstone dynamo. (11) Kinetoscope. (12) Stereoscope, and two cards. 19. Lieut.-Col. Henry Moorsom, Penwortham, Preston, Lancashire. Water-colour drawing of the Lickey incline on the railway between Birmingham and Gloucester, which, in the early part of Her Majesty’s reign, was probably the steepest gradient in the world successfully worked by a locomotive engine. This incline was designed by the late Captain M. S. Moorsom, M.Inst.C.E*, and formerly of the 52nd . Light Infantry, and was worked by an engine described as haying cylinders of only 10| in. diameter, with a length of stroke of 18 in. and driving wheels of 4 ft., the engine when in working order weighing under 10 tons. 20. Lady Bright, 53, West Cromwell-road, S.W. Coloured print H.M.S. Agamemnon and U.S.S.S. Niagara setting out to lay the first Atlantic Cable. 21. Charles Bright, F.R.S.E., 53, West Cromwell-road, S.W. Engraving. Portrait of the late Sir Charles Bright, C.E., M.P., on being knighted at the age of twenty-six for laying the first Atlantic Cable, with specimens of the latter twined round it. 22. Her Majesty’s Postmaster-General. (1) Lord Kelvin’s syphon, (2) recorder as used for submarine cables working on long cables. 23. James Wimshurst, 7, Crescent-grove, Clapham Common. A large electrical influence machine, having many rotating discs. It is self exciting under every condition of atmosphere. When excited the flow of electricity is not liable to reverse. 24. Sir John Fowler, Bart., K.C.M.G., Sir Benjamin Baker, K.C M.G., Queen Anne’s-mansions, Westminster, S.W. Electro-plated model of Forth Bridge, scale 40 ft. = 1 in, 25. City and Guilds Central Technical College, Professor Ayrton, F.R.S. Exhibition -road. Permanent Magnet Instruments. — First Ayrton & Perry commutator permanent magnet ammeter, 1880. Permanent magnet ammeter, 1882. Direct reading ammeter and voltmeter, 1883. Magnifying Spring Instru- ments. — First Ayrton & Perry magnifying spring ammeter, 1883. Later form magnifying spring ammeter, 188G. Self-induction Instruments. Ex- perimental Ayrton & Perry sechommeters, 1887, first form, second form, third form, fourth form ; present form of sechommeter, 1897. Original form of variable standard of self-induction, 1887. Variable standard of self- induction, 1897. Electrostatic Voltmeters. — Ayrton & Mather electro- static voltmeters, 1890, 1, 2, 3. Ayrton & Mather electrostatic voltmeter, 1893. Ayrton & Mather reflecting electrostatic voltmeter, 1895. Other Instruments. — Ayrton & Perry ohmmeter, 1881. First wattmeter in England, 1881. First wheel and pinion ammeter, 1882. First gaining clock supply meter, 1882. Experimental hotwire voltmeter, 1887. Hotwire voltmeter, 1889. Ayrton A Mather field tester, 1896. Ayrton & Mather universal shunt, 1896, SCIENTIFIC DIVISION. -35 26. A. Hall & Co., Shipbuilders, Aberdeen. Model of wooden brigantine Victoria, 109 tons register, launched on September 1, 1837, also copy of builder’s certificate of same vessel. Model of iron four- masted sailing ship Port Jackson , 2,212 tons register, launched September, 1882. Models of steam trawlers, Annie Walker , Mizpah, M. A. Dodcls. Draw- ing of steam line fishing-boat Prestige. Drawing of engines of steam line fishing-boat Prestige. Drawing of engines of steam trawler Hermes. Photo- graphs of trawlers Hermes, line boat Star of Hope, Peterhead whaling steamer Hope , Newfoundland sealer Vanguard. Model of steam yacht Queen Mary. Model of schooner yacht Salamander. Photograph of yacht Queen Mary. Photograph of steam yacht Linnet. Original builder’s certificate of yacht Fox. Extract from the Field victory of Queen Mary. 27. Henry Blacklock & Co., 12, Albert-square, Manchester. Case of Bradshaw’s Guides, Past and Present. 28. Cross COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL SECTION. During Her Majesty’s reign, botli these qualities have been main- tained by British manufacturers. Probably the most important advance made in this industry during the past sixty years has been the application of steam-power for the weaving of Brussels, Wilton, Kidderminster, and Axminster carpets, reducing the cost of produc- tion so materially as to place a good carpet within the purchasing ability of all classes. Marked progress has also been made to meet the growing demand for seamless carpet squares. During the “ forties,” goods 27 in. to 3G in. wide were made ; now, squares 144 in. wide, with variable length from 5 yards and upwards, in one piece can be obtained. An excellent example of enterprise in this direction will be found in John Crossley & Sons’ exhibit in the Ducal Hall. Her Majesty’s reign has also been marked by signal artistic advance in carpet designs, and it may be said that English carpets are now recognised among the best woven floor coverings in the world, which can be purchased at moderate cost. Hosiery. — Perhaps during Her Majesty’s reign there has been more alterations and improvements in the machinery for making hosiery than in almost any other manufacture. At the commence- ment of her reign stockings were only made in machines such as one to be seen in Messrs. Cooper, Corah & Sons’ exhibit of a hand- frame, certainly over a hundred years old. These machines only made one stocking at a time, and the most an able-bodied man could get after working fully twelve hours per day would be eight or nine shillings per week. The first improvement was a machine for making two at once, and this was increased until three stockings were made at one time upon one machine. After this a very clumsy rotary machine, worked by steam power, was introduced, which was improved from time to time until some twenty-five or thirty years ago a Mr. Cotton, of Loughborough, Leicestershire, invented a self-acting power machine which for a few years revolutionised almost every other process of manufacture. About this time an American named Griswold invented a hand machine for making seamless hosiery, which has been improved almost year by year, until it is now an automatic machine worked by power. In this ' class of machine probably more than half the children’s socks and gentlemen’s half -hose are now made. Ladies’ fine hose are amongst the latest productions of these machines, one of which COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY; -.47 is also shown in the above firm’s exhibit. More than half the military half-hose now worn are made in Griswold machines. By means of inventions of this nature knitted goods have been much lowered in price, and the wages of the operatives have been raised, whilst the trade of the hosiery districts has rapidly increased. The exhibit of Messrs. Cooper, Corah & Sons, of Leicester, shows the progress and the present condition of this branch of English woollen manufactures. Glovemaking is an old English industry. The processes of manufacture are complex, and to show them completely would require much space. The skins of many thousands of animals are worked up, and in preparing them vast quantities of the yolk of eggs, dyes, and chemicals are used. It is thus an industry which both directly and indirectly affords employment to a large number of people. The exhibit of Messrs. Fownes is there- fore of interest in itself, and will show to Colonial visitors the present position of this industry. Cutlery is another old English manufacture, and Sheffield has been known as the seat of this industry since the fourteenth century. Messrs. Joseph Rodgers & Sons, Ltd., began the occupation of a por- tion of their premises in 1730, and have extended their buildings with unbroken success since that date. Early in the present century they made table cutlery, razors, and scissors their special articles of trade, and obtained a world -wide reputation for them — so much so that a South American Republic, in framing a Customs tariff, imposed an extra duty on cutlery marked “Rodgers ” on the ground that it possesses an exceptional value. This industry affords a very striking example of subdivision of operations, each branch being, in fact, regarded as a separate trade. For instance, not only are forging and grinding in themselves different occupations, but. the forging and grinding of table blades is distinct from that of the blades of pocket-knives, and the latter work is distinct from that of pen-knives, and these several operations are performed by different workmen. Messrs. Rodgers are the specially appointed cutlers to Her Majesty, and have come forward with much public spirit to carry out the objects of the Victorian Era Exhibition. Pottery. — The extraordinary development of our ceramic industries has been as evident during the last few years as during the earlier years of Her Majesty’s reign. In sanitation and 48 COMMERCIAL AM) INDUSTRIAL SECTION. chemistry this has been specially apparent ; in fact, it may be said that the modern science of sanitation has advanced pari-passu with the use of pottery. In no establishment can this expansion and adaptability to ever- growing needs be seen so well as in the firm of Doulton’s. To this well-known house has been entrusted the honour of representing at this Exhibition the growth of the potter’s art during the Victorian Era. Founded some twenty years before the Queen’s accession, the establishment was only of small extent in 1837, but, by succes- sive stages, the parent works at Lambeth have grown to an enormous size, while new works at various places in the provinces and abroad have one by one been founded and developed. The productions — at first limited to household potter — have increased in variety until, at the present day, they cover the entire field of ceramics, from paving-bricks up to the most delicate china. It was not until 1867 that any serious attempt was made at Lambeth to decorate the stoneware for which Doulton’s were already celebrated, and even then it was somewhat tentative ; but by the year 1871 the “Lambeth Sgraffito,” or “ Doultonware,” had assumed a definite artistic character, and almost every year since then has witnessed some interesting addition to the technical methods. By the acquisition of their Staffordshire works in 1877, Messrs. Doulton were enabled to add to their resources the production of fine earthenware and china. In Sir Henry Doulton the pottery trade has a typical representa- tive, and by the award to him in 1885 of the “ Albert Medal,” “in recognition of the impulse given by him to the production of artistic pottery in this country,” the industry as a whole was honoured. He had already, after the Paris Exhibition of 1878, received the distinction of a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and in 1887 was knighted by Her Majesty the Queen. The Victorian Era Exhibition affords typical illustrations, in the models shown by the Cunard, Peninsular & Oriental, and Union Steamship Companies, of the extraordinary progress which has been made in navigation during the Queen’s reign — greater, in the application of new principles and in the results accomplished, than that effected in any previous period of the history of the world. The greatest achievements of the last sixty years have been brought about by the active co-operation of practical and scientific men. In COMMERCE AND INDUStRY. 49 no departments have the benefit of this union of theory and prac- tice been more marked than in naval architecture and marine engi- neering. In 1837 steam navigation was only in its infancy : in 1897 it is the general mode of maritime communication. In its gradual, and now universal, adoption, the materials of which ships and their engines are constructed have undergone immense improvement, in consequence of the great advance effected in the manufacture of steel, not merely as regards plates and beams, but equally in stern frames, rudders, and propellers. The structural arrangement of hulls has also improved ; double bottoms have come into use ; water-tight bulkheads have been introduced ; and engine and boiler hatches are enclosed. Great progress has further been made in the utilisation of high-pressure steam. Triple-expansion engines have come into general use. The weight of hulls and engines has been reduced. The carrying power of vessels has been increased. The efficiency with which steam-power is applied has been considerably augmented. A rate of speed unthought of in 1837 is now universal. Comfort, safety, and economy in navigation have been carried for- ward to conditions never anticipated in 1837. The limitation of these exhibits to products of the United King- dom will, it is hoped, be the means of bringing them this year, under very favourable circumstances, to the notice of Colonial and foreign visitors who will be in London in connection with events which will be remarkable in history, and possess a lasting personal interest to these visitors themselves. The directors did not, at first, intend to allow any sales within the area of the Commercial and Industrial Section; but this condition will be slightly relaxed, in order to meet the wishes of visitors, more especially those from distant lands, who desire to take away with them souvenirs of the unprecedented events of the present year. The directors trust that the whole results of the Commercial Section of the Victorian Era Exhibition will tend to render the position of various branches of the industry of our country more secure in Colonial and foreign markets. They hope that benefits may thus accrue to the working classes of the United Kingdom. Above all they trust that their undertaking may aid one of the highest aims of the Victorian Era, namely, that of uniting more closely the material as well as the social and political interests of the component portions of the British Empire. COMMERCIAL & INDUSTRIAL CATALOGUE. EXHIBITS IN DUCAL HALL. (FIRST DIVISION.) 1. Spink & Son, 1 and 2, Gracechurch-street, E.C. Circular medals commemorative of the sixty years reign of Her Majesty the Queen, or badges, brooches, charms, and pendants made up of such medals, with attached ornament in white metal or pewter, bronzed, silver, gold, &c. 2, 3. Union Steamship Company, 94 to 96, Bishopsgate-street Within. Model of R.M.S. Mexican, 4,661 tons. Model of twin-screw R.M.S. Gaul, 4,744 tons. Pictures, photographs, &c., illustrating the advancement in size, speed, and comfort of vessels in the Union Steamship Company’s service between England and South Africa. 4 — 8. Cunard Steamship Company, Ltd., 93, Bishopsgate-street. Model of R,M.S. (paddle) Britannia , 1840, wood, 1,154 tons, 740 i.li.p., 8'5 knots. Model of R.M.S. (paddle) Scotia, 1862, iron, 3,871 tons, 4,900 i.h.p., 14-4 knots. Model of R.M.S. (screw) Rtissia, 1867, iron, 2,960 tons, 3,100 i.h.p., 14*4 knots, Models of R.M. S. (twin screw) Campania and Lucania, 1893, steel, 12,950 tons, 26,000 i.hp., 22'1 knots. 9. Cooper, Coraii & Sons, St. Margaret’s Works, Leicester. Hosiery, machinery, old hand frames, modern frames by power. All classes of hosiery representing different periods in the reign of Her Majesty Queen Victoria. Novelties in ladies’ jerseys, ladies’ golf jerseys, men’s yachting jerseys, athletic jerseys, shirts, pants, &c. 12. R. Bell & Co., Ltd., Bromley-by-Bow, E. Wax vestas, wood matches, gas lighting tapers, and all the different descrip- tions of card and tin boxes used therewith ; also exhibits of the various articles used in the present manufacture of matches and vestas, such as cotton, spirits, stearine, wax, gum, chemicals, &c.; also specimens of the anoient methods of procuring fire, tinder-boxes, sulphur, matches, &c. 13. Gillett & Johnston, Croydon, West. A varied collection of clocks, including the old clock which was removed from St. James’s Palace, working models of carillon and bellringing machines, musical and automaton clocks, turret clocks “ ancient and modern,” turret movement with clock over. 14. Wm. Woollams & Co., 100, High-street, Manchester-square. Wall paper printing table, printing blocks, non-arsenical colours, accessories and apparatus for the manufacture of paper hangings by block printing, with demonstration by practical paperstainer, together with a historic collection of wall papers of the best qualities made betwocn 1836 and 1897, illustrating the progress made ill the art of paperstainiug during the Queen’s reign. # COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL DIVISION. 51 14a. W. Dickinson