G£(> .£ .WOODWARt GEO X • ^ W ARC® , v - >bwa G E O . E . \ V O JD vV A R D, ? if • ‘ / i ,'*» »* %* » >\ „ \ t . r .» . , \ « 1 '*,% • \* » ♦* *-'• POPULAR TECHNOLOGY OR, PROFESSIONS AND TRADES. BY EDWARD HAZEN, A. M., AUTHOR OF “THE SYMBOLICAL SPELLING-BOOK,” “THE SPELLER AND DEFINER,” AND “A PRACTICAL GRAMMAR.” EMBELLISHED WITH EIGHTY-ONK ENGRAVINGS. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. NEW-YORK: HARPER AND BROTHERS, 82 CLIFF-ST. 184 2 , Co /o S T 7 7 77 a I? Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1841, by Harper & Brothers, in the Clerk’s Office of the Southern District of New-York. THE GET TV CtMcrt LIBRARY CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. Page Preface. 7 The Agriculturist.13 The Horticulturist . . ..* 28 The Miller.34 The Baker.39 The Confectioner.44 The Brewer, and the Distiller.47 The Butcher.55 The Tobacco Planter, and the Tobacconist . . .59 The Manufacturer of Cloth.66 The Dyer, and the Calico-Printer.77 The Hatter.84 The Rope-Maker.91 The Tailor . .96 The Milliner, and the Lady’s Dress-Maker .... 100 The Barber.104 The Tanner, and the Currier.Ill The Shoe and Boot Maker.116 The Saddler and Harness-Maker, and the Trunk-Maker . . 121 The Soapboiler, and the Candle-Maker.125 The Comb-Maker, and the Brush-Maker.134 The Tavern-Keeper.142 The Hunter ..147 The Fisherman.154 The Shipwright.171 The Mariner.178 The Merchant.187 The Auctioneer . .204 The Clergyman.208 The Attorney at Law.215 The Physician.221 The Chemist.''.229 The Druggist and Apothecary.236 The Dentist . 240 The Teacher . 249 I PREFACE. The following work has been written for the use of schools and families, as well as for miscellaneous readers. It embraces a class of subjects in which ev¬ ery individual is deeply interested, and with which, as a mere philosophical inspector, of the affairs of men, he should become acquainted. They, however, challenge attention by considera¬ tions of greater moment than mere curiosity; for, in the present age, a great proportion of mankind pur¬ sue some kind of business as means of subsistence or distinction ; and in this country especially, such pur¬ suit is deemed honorable and, in fact, indispensable to a reputable position in the community. Nevertheless, it is a fact that cannot have escaped the attention of persons of observation, that many in¬ dividuals mistake their appropriate calling, and engage in employments for which they have neither mental nor physical adaptation; some learn a trade who should have studied a profession ; others study a pro¬ fession who should have learned a trade. Hence arise, in a great measure, the ill success and discon¬ tent which so frequently attend the pursuits of men. For these reasons, parents should be particularly cautious in the choice of permanent employments for their children ; and, in every case, capacity should be especially regarded, without paying much attention to the comparative favor in which the several employ¬ ments may be held ; for a successful prosecution of an humble business is far more honorable than inferior¬ ity or failure in one which may be greatly esteemed. To determine the particular genius of children, pa¬ rents should give them, at least, a superficial knowl¬ edge of the several trades and professions. To do this effectually, a systematic course of instruction PREFACE. vm should be given, not only at the family fireside and in [the schoolroom, but also at places where practical ex¬ hibitions of the several employments may be seen. /These means, together with a competent literary edu¬ cation, and some tools and other facilities for mechan¬ ical operations, can scarcely fail of furnishing clear indications of intellectual bias. The course just proposed is not only necessary to a judicious choice of a trade or profession, but also as means of intellectual improvement; and as such it should be pursued, at all events, even though the choice of an employment were not in view. We are endowed with a nature composed of many faculties both of the intellectual and the animal kinds, and the reasoning faculties were originally designed by the Creator to have the ascendency. In the pres¬ ent moral condition of man, however, they do not commonly maintain their right of precedence. This failure arises from imbecility, originating, in part, from a deficiency in judicious cultivation, and from the su¬ perior strength of the passions. This condition is particularly conspicuous in youth, and shows itself in disobedience to parents, and in various other aberrations from moral duty. If, there¬ fore, parents would have their children act a reasona¬ ble part, while in their minority, and, also, after they have assumed their stations in manhood, they must pursue a course of early instruction, calculated to se¬ cure the ascendency of the reasoning faculties. The subjects for instruction best adapted to the cul¬ tivation of the young mind are the common things with which we are surrounded. This is evident from the fact, that it uniformly expands with great rapidity un¬ der their influence during the first three or four years of life ; for, it is from them, children obtain all their ideas, as well as a knowledge of the language by which they are expressed. The rapid progress of young children in the acqui sition of knowledge often excites the surprise of pa¬ rents of observation, and the fact that their improve¬ ment is almost imperceptible, after they have attained PREFACE .v7;> - . 13 to the age of four or five years, is ec x y surprising Why, it is often asked, do not children Continue to ad?- vance in knowledge with equal and increased rapidity^ especially, as their capabilities increase with age? The solution of this question is not difficult. Chih dren continue to improve, while they have the means of doing so ; but, having acquired a knowledge of the objects within their reach, at least, so far as they may be capable at the time, their advancement must consequently cease. It is hardly necessary to re¬ mark, that the march of mind might be continued with increased celerity, were new objects or subjects continually presented. In supplying subjects for mental improvement, as they may be needed at the several stages of advance¬ ment, there can be but little difficulty, since we are surrounded by works both of nature and of art. In fact, the same subjects may be presented several times, and, at each presentation, instructions might be given adapted to the particular state of improvement in the pupil. Instructions of this nature need never interfere in¬ juriously with those on the elementary branches of education, although the latter would undoubtedly be considered of minor importance. Had they been al¬ ways regarded in this light, our schools would now present a far more favorable aspect, and we should have been farther removed from the ignora ce and the barbarism of the middle ages. Were this view of education generally adopted, teachers would soon find, that the business of commu¬ nicating instructions to the young has been changed from an irksome to a pleasant task, since their pupils will have become studious and intellectual, and, con¬ sequently, more capable of comprehending explana¬ tions upon every subject. Such a course would also be attended with the incidental advantage of good conduct on the part of pupils, inasmuch as the eleva¬ tion of the understanding over the passions uniformly tends to this result. For carrying into practice a system of intellectual PREFACE. pcprjjhe following work supplies as great an yfflm ormaterials as can be embodied in the same Boftnpass. Every article may be made the foundation Sof one lecture or more, which might have reference foot only to the particular subject on which it treats, but also to the meaning and application of the words. The articles have been concisely written, as must necessarily be the case in all works embracing so great a variety of subjects. This* particular trait, however, need not be considered objectionable, since all who may desire to read more extensively on any particular subject, can easily obtain works which are exclusively devoted to it. • Prolix descriptions of machinery and of mechani¬ cal operations have been studiously avoided; for it has been presumed, that all who might have perseve¬ rance enough to read such details, would feel curiosi¬ ty sufficient to visit the shops and manufactories, and see the machines and operations themselves. Never¬ theless, enough has been said, in all cases, to give a general idea of the business, and to guide in the re¬ searches of those who may wish to obtain informa¬ tion by the impressive method of actual inspection. A great proportion of the whole work is occupied in recounting historical facts, connected with the in¬ vention and progress of the arts. The author was in¬ duced to pay especial attention to this branch of his¬ tory, from the consideration, that it furnishes very clear indications of the real state of society in past ages, as well as at the present time, and also that it would supply the reader with data, by which he might, in some measure, determine the vast capabilities of man. This kind of historical information will be especial¬ ly beneficial to the youthful mind, by inducing a habit of investigation and antiquarian research, in addi¬ tion to this, a knowledge of the origin and progress of the various employments which are in active oper¬ ation all around, will throw upon the busy world an aspect exceedingly interesting. It may be well, however, to caution the reader PREFACE. against expecting too much information otirfJi|jJ in regard to most of the trades practised in ver3!ln[ cient times. Many of the most useful invention^ were effected, before any permanent means of record had been devised; and, in after ages, among the Greeks and Romans, the useful arts were practised almost exclusively by slaves. The latter circumstance led to their general neglect by the writers among these distinguished people. The information which may be obtained from this work, especially when accompanied by the inspection of the operations which it describes, may be daily ap¬ plied to some useful purpose. It will be particularly valuable in furnishing subjects for conversation, and in preventing the mind from continuing in, or from sinking into, a state of indifference in regard to the busy scenes of this world. In the composition of this work, all puerile expres¬ sions have been avoided, not only because they would be offensive to adult individuals of taste, but because they are at least useless, if not positively injurious, to younger persons. What parent of reflection would suffer his children to peruse a book calculated to in¬ duce or confirm a manner of speaking or writing, which he would not have them use after having arri¬ ved to manhood ? Every sentence may be rendered perfectly plain by appropriate explanations and illus¬ trations. No formal classification of the professions and trades has been adopted, although those articles which treat of kindred subjects have been placed near each other, and in that order which seemed to be the most natural. The paragraphs of the several articles have been numbered for the especial accommodation of classes in schools, but this particular feature of the work need meet with no serious objection from mis¬ cellaneous readers, as it has no other effect, in refer¬ ence to its use by them, than to give it the aspect of a school-book. While writing the articles on the different subjects, the author consulted several works which embraced PREFACE. Id Sciences generally, as well as many which were-more circumscribed in their objects. He, ; however, relied more upon them for historical facts than for a knowledge of the operations and processes which he had occasion to detail. For this he depend¬ ed, as far as practicable, upon his own personal re¬ searches, although in the employment of appropriate phraseology, he acknowledges his obligations to pred¬ ecessors. With the preceding remarks, the author submits his work to the public, in the confident expectation, that the subjects which it embraces, that the care which has been taken in its composition, and that the skill of the artists employed in its embellishment, will se¬ cure to it an abundant and liberal patronage. THE AGRICULTURIST. 1. Agriculture embraces, in its broad applica¬ tion, whatever relates to the cultivation of the fields, with the view of producing food for man and those animals which he may have brought into a state of domestication. 2. If we carry our observations so far back as to reach the antediluvian history of the earth, we shall find, from the authority of Scripture, that the culti¬ vation of the soil was the first employment of man, after his expulsion from the garden of Eden, when he was commanded to till the ground from which he had been taken. We shall also learn from the same source of information, that “ Cain was a husbandman,” and that “Abel was a keeper of sheep.” Hence it may be inferred, that Adam instructed his sons THE AGRICULTURIST. e^aH of husbandry ; and that they, in turn, com. nicated the knowledge to their posterity, together th the superadded information which had resulted their own experience. Improvement in this art probably thenceforth progressive, until the over¬ whelming catastrophe of the flood. 3. After the waters had retired from the face of the earth, Noah resorted to husbandry, as the cer¬ tain means of procuring the necessaries and com¬ forts of life. The art of cultivating the soil was un¬ interruptedly preserved in many branches of the great family of Noah; but, in others, it was at length entirely lost. In the latter case, the people, having sunk into a state of barbarism, depended for subsist¬ ence on the natural productions of the earth, and on such animals as they could contrive to capture by hunting and fishing. Many of these degenerate tribes did not emerge from this condition for several suc¬ ceeding ages; while others have not done so to the present day. 4. Notwithstanding the great antiquity of agricul¬ ture, the husbandmen, for several centuries immedi¬ ately succeeding the deluge, seem to have been but little acquainted with any proper method of restoring fertility to exhausted soils ; for we find them frequent¬ ly changing their residence, as their flocks and herds required fresh pasturage, or as their tillage land be¬ came unproductive. As men, however, became more numerous, and as their flocks increased, this practice became inconvenient and, in some cases, impractica¬ ble. They were, therefore, compelled, by degrees, to confine their flocks and herds, and their farming oper¬ ations, to lands of more narrow and specified limits. 5. The Chaldeans were probably the people who first adopted the important measure of retaining per¬ petual possession of the soil which they had cultiva¬ ted ; and, consequently, were among the first who be- THE agriculturist; ! 5 came skilful in agriculture. But all the g¥earffl9 tions of antiquity held this art in the highest estimaS tion, and usually attributed its invention to superhu* man agency. The Egyptians even worshipped thJS image of the ox in gratitude for the services of tne living animal in the labours of the field. 6. The reader of ancient history can form some idea of the extent to which this art was cultivated in those days, from the warlike operations of different nations ; for, from no other source, could the great armies which were then brought into the field, have been supplied with the necessary provisions. The Greeks and the Romans, who were more celebrated than any other people for their military enterprise, were also most attentive to the proper cultivation of the soil; and many of their distinguished men, espe¬ cially among the Romans, were practical husbandmen. 7. Nor was agriculture neglected by the learned men of antiquity. Several works on this subject, by Greek and Latin authors, have descended to our times ; and the correctness of many of the principles which they inculcate, has been confirmed by modern experience. 8. Throughout the extensive empire of Rome, ag¬ riculture maintained a respectable standing, until the commencement of those formidable invasions of the northern hordes, which, finally, nearly extinguished the arts and sciences in every part of Europe. Du¬ ring the long period of anarchy which succeeded the settlement of these barbarians in their newly-acquired possessions, pasturage was, in most cases, preferred to tillage, as being better suited to their state of civ¬ ilization, and as affording facilities of removal, in ca¬ ses of alarm from invading enemies. But, when per¬ manent governments had been again established, and when the nations enjoyed comparative peace, the reg¬ ular cultivation of the soil once more revived. 16 THE AGRICULTURIST. jOJTbe art of husbandry was at a low ebb in Eng- Bffluluj nl the fourteenth century, when it began to be ifmrclsed with considerable success in the midland and southwestern parts of the island ; yet, it does not seem to have been cultivated as a science, until the latter end of the sixteenth century. The first book on husbandry, printed and published in the English language, appeared in 1534. It was written by Sir A. Fitzherbert, a judge of the Common Pleas, who had studied the laws of vegetation, and the nature of soils, with philosophical accuracy. 10. Very little improvement was made on the the¬ ory of this author, for upwards of a hundred years, when Sir Hugh Platt discovered and brought into use several kinds of substances for fertilizing and resto¬ ring exhausted soils. 11. Agriculture again received a new impulse, about the middle of the eighteenth century ; and, in 1793, a Board of Agriculture was established by an act of Parliament, at the suggestion of Sir John Sin¬ clair, who was elected its first president. Through the influence of this board, a great number of agri¬ cultural societies have been formed in the kingdom, and much valuable information on rural economy has been communicated to the public, through the me¬ dium of a voluminous periodical under its superin. tendence. 12. After the example of Great Britain, agricultu¬ ral societies have been formed, and periodical jour¬ nals published, in various parts of the continent of Europe, as well as in the United States. The prin¬ cipal publications devoted to this subject in this coun¬ try, are the American Farmer , at Baltimore ; the New - England Farmer, at Boston ; and the Cultivator , at Albany. 13. The modern improvements in husbandry con¬ sist, principally, in the proper application of manures, THE AGRICULTURIST. 17 in the mixture of different kinds of earths, inahgfensfil of plaster and lime, in the rotation of crops, iix jg gani - ing the crop to the soil, in the introduction ot'new kinds of grain, roots, grasses, and fruits, as well as in improvements in the breeds of domestic animals, and in the implements with which the various opera¬ tions of the art are performed. 14. For many of the improved processes which re¬ late to the amelioration of the soil, we are indebted to chemistry. Before this science was brought to the aid of the art, the cultivators of the soil were chiefly guided by the precept and example of their predeces¬ sors, which were often inapplicable. By the aid of chemical analysis, it is easy to discover the constitu¬ ent parts of different soils ; and, when this has been done, there is but little difficulty in determining the best mode of improving them, or in applying the most suitable crops. 15. In the large extent of territory embraced with¬ in the United States, there is great variation of soil and climate; but, in each state, or district, the atten¬ tion of the cultivators is directed to the production of those articles which, under the circumstances, prom¬ ise to be the most profitable. In the northern por¬ tions of our country, the cultivators of the soil are called farmers. They direct their attention chiefly to the production of wheat, rye, corn, oats, barley, peas, beans, potatoes, pumpkins, and flax, together with grasses and fruits of various kinds. The same class of men, in the Southern states, are usually de¬ nominated planters, who confine themselves princi¬ pally to tobacco, rice, cotton, sugar-cane, or hemp. In some parts of that portion of our country, however, rye, wheat, oats, and sweet potatoes, are extensively cultivated ; and, in almost every part, corn is a fa¬ vourite article. 16. The process of cultivating most of the produc- B 2 is THE AGRICULTURIST. J|ons which have been mentioned, is nearly the same. ( Tn general, with the occasional exception of new lands, [the plough is used to prepare the . ground for the re- reeption of the seed. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, ^and the seeds of hemp and flax, are scattered with the hand, and covered in the earth with the harrow. In Great Britain, such seeds are sown in drills ; and this method is thought to be better than ours, as it admits of the use of the hoe, while the vegetable is growing. 17. Corn, beans, potatoes, and pumpkins, are cov¬ ered in the earth with the hoe. The ground is ploughed several times during the summer, to make it loose, and to keep down the weeds. The hoe is also used in accomplishing the same objects, and in depositing fresh earth around the growing vegetable. 18. When ripe, wheat, barley, oats, and peas, are cut down with the sickle, cradle, or scythe ; while hemp and flax are pulled up by the roots. The seeds are separated from the other parts of the plants with the flail, or by means of horses or oxen driven round upon them. Of late, threshing machines are used to effect the same object. Chaff, and extraneous mat¬ ter generally, are separated from the grain, or seeds, by means of a fanning-mill, or with a large fan made of the twigs of the willow. The same thing was for¬ merly, and is yet sometimes, effected by the aid of a current of air. 19. When the corn, or maize, has become ripe, the ears, with the husks, and sometimes the stalks, are deposited in large heaps. To assist in stripping the husks from the ears, it is customary to call together the neighbours. In such cases, the owner of the corn provides for them a supper, together with some means of merriment and good cheer. 20. This custom is most prevalent, where the great¬ er part of the labour is performed by slaves. The blacks, when assembled for a husking match, choose THE AGRICULTURIST. a captain, whose business it is to lead the song, whil the rest join in chorus. Sometimes, they divide the corn as nearly as possible into two equal heaps, an apportion the hands accordingly, with a captain each division. This is done to produce a contest the most speedy execution of the task. Should the owner of the corn be sparing of his refreshments, his want of generosity is sure to be published in song at every similar frolic in the neighborhood. 21. Maize, or Indian corn, and potatoes of all kinds, were unknown in the eastern continent, until the dis¬ covery of America. Their origin is, therefore, known with certainty; but some of the other productions which have been mentioned, cannot be so satisfacto¬ rily traced. This is particularly the case with re¬ gard to those which have been extensively cultivated for many centuries. 22. The grasses have ever been valuable to man, as affording a supply of food for domestic animals. Many portions of our country are particularly adapt- ed to grazing. Where this is the case, the farmers usually turn their attention to raising live stock, and to making butter and cheese. Grass reserved in meadows, as a supply of food for the winter, is cut at maturity with a scythe, dried in the sun, and stored in barns, or heaped in stacks. 23. Rice was first cultivated in the eastern parts of Asia, and, from the earliest ages, has been the prin¬ cipal article of food among the Chinese and Hindoos. To this grain may be attributed, in a great measure, the early civilization of those nations; and its adapt¬ ation to marshy grounds caused many districts to be¬ come populous, which would otherwise have remain¬ ed irreclaimable and desolate. 24. Rice was long known in the east, before it was introduced into Egypt and Greece, whence it spread over Africa generally, and the southern parts of Eu- THE AGRICULTURIST. r |v bo **W)pe. It is now cultivated in all the warm parts of Sthe globe, chiefly on grounds subject to periodical in¬ undations. The Chinese obtain two crops a year from the same ground, and cultivate it in this way frdm generation to generation, without applying any manure, except the stubble of the preceding crop, and the mud deposited from the water overflowing it. 25. Soon after the waters of the inundation have retired, a spot is inclosed with an embankment, light¬ ly ploughed and harrowed, and then sown very thick¬ ly with the grain. Immediately, a thin sheet of water is brought over it, either by a stream or some hy¬ draulic machinery. When the plants have grown to the height of six or seven inches, they are transplant¬ ed in furrows ; and again water is brought over them, and kept on, until the crop begins to ripen, when it is withheld. 26. The crop is cut with a sickle, threshed with a flail, or by the treading of cattle; and the husks, which adhere closely to the kernel, are beaten off’ in a stone mortar, or by passing the grain through a mill, similar to our corn-mills. The mode of culti¬ vating rice in any part of the world, varies but little from the foregoing process. The point which re¬ quires the greatest attention, is keeping the ground properly covered with water. 27. Rice was introduced into the Carolinas in 1697, where it is now produced in greater perfection than in any other part of the world. The seeds are drop¬ ped along, from the small end of a gourd, into drills made with one corner of the hoe. The plants, when partly grown, are not transferred to another place, as in Asia, but are suffered to grow and ripen in the original drills. The crop is secured like wheat, and the husks are forced from the grain by a machine, which leaves the kernels more perfect than the meth¬ ods adopted in other countries. THE AGRICULTURIST. 21 28. Cotton is cultivated in the East and West Ir$ dies, North and South America, Egypt, and in many other parts of the world, where the climate is suffi¬ ciently warm for the purpose. There are several species of this plant; of which three kinds are culti¬ vated in the southern states of the Union—the nankeen cotton, the green seed cotton , and the black seed , or sea island cotton. The first two, which grow in the mid¬ dle and upland countries, are denominated short sta¬ ple cotton : the last is cultivated in the lower country, near the sea, and on the islands near the main land, and is of a fine quality, and of a long staple. 29. The plants are propagated annually from seeds, which are sown very thickly in ridges made with the plough or hoe. After they have grown to the height of three or four inches, part of them are pulled up, in order that the rest, while coming to maturity, may stand about four inches apart. It is henceforth man¬ aged, until fully grown, like Indian corn. 30. The cotton is inclosed in pods, which open as fast as their contents become fit to be gathered. In Georgia, about eighty pounds of upland cotton can be gathered by a single hand in a day; but in Ala¬ bama and Mississippi, where the plant thrives better, two hundred pounds are frequently collected in the same time. 31. The seeds adhere closely to the cotton, when picked from the pods ; but they are properly separa¬ ted by machines called gins; of which there are two kinds,—the roller-gin , and the saw-gin. The essen¬ tial parts of the former are two cylinders, which are placed nearly in contact with each other. By their revolving motion, the cotton is drawn between them, while the size of the seeds prevents their passage. Th is machine, being of small size, is worked by hand. 32. The saw-gin is much larger, and is moved by animal, steam, or water power. It consists of a re- THE AGRICULTURIST. ceiver, having one side covered with strong wires, placed in a parallel direction about an eighth of an inch apart, and a number of circular saws, which re¬ volve on a common axis. The saws pass between these wires, and entangle in their teeth the cotton, which is thereby drawn through the grating, while the seeds, from their size, are forced to remain on the other side. 33. Before the invention of the saw-gin, the seeds were separated from the upland cottons by hand,—a method so extremely tedious, that their cultivation was attended with but little profit to the planter. This machine was invented in Georgia by Eli Whit¬ ney, of Massachusetts. It was undertaken at the re¬ quest of several planters of the former state, and was there put in operation in 1792. 34. In the preceding year, the whole crop of cot¬ ton in the United States was only sixty-four bales; but, in 1834, it amounted to 1,000,617. The vast in¬ crease in the production of this article has arisen, in part, from the increased demand for it in Europe, and in the Northern states, but, chiefly, from the use of the invaluable machine just mentioned. 35. Sugar-cane was cultivated by the Chinese, at a very early period, probably two thousand years be¬ fore it was known in Europe ; but sugar, in a candied form, was used in small quantities by the Greeks and Romans in the days of their prosperity. It was prob¬ ably brought from Bengal, Siam, or some of the East India Islands, as it is supposed, that it grew nowhere else at that time. 36. In the thirteenth century, soon after the mer¬ chants of the West began to traffic in Indian articles of commerce, the plant was introduced into Arabia Felix, and thence into Egypt, Nubia, Ethiopia, and Morocco. The Spaniards obtained it from the Moors, and, in the fifteenth century, introduced it into the 2 THE AGRICULTURIST. • Canary Islands. It was brought to America, and tcfl the West India Islands, by the Spaniards and Portu¬ guese. It is now cultivated in the United States, be¬ low the thirty.first degree of latitude, and in the warm parts of the globe generally. 37. Previous to the year 1466, sugar was known in England chiefly, as a medicine; and, although the sugar-cane was cultivated, at that time, in several pla¬ ces on the Mediterranean, it was not more extensive¬ ly used on the continent. Now, in extent of cultiva tion, it ranks next to wheat and rice, and first in mar¬ itime commerce. 38. The cultivators of sugar-cane propagate the plant by means of cuttings from the lower end of the stalks, which are planted in the spring or autumn, in drills, or in furrows. The new plants spring from the joints of the cuttings, and are fit to be gathered for use in eight, ten, twelve, or fourteen months. While growing, sugar-cane is managed much like Indian corn. 39. When ripe, the cane is cut and brought to the sugar-mill, where the juice is expressed between iron or stone cylinders, moved by steam, water, or animal power. The juice thus obtained is evaporated in large boilers to a syrup, which is afterwards removed to coolers, where it is agitated with wooden instru¬ ments called stirrers. To accelerate its cooling, it is next poured into casks, and, when yet warm, is con¬ veyed to barrels, placed in an upright position over a cistern, and pierced in the bottom in several places. The holes being partially stopped with canes, the part which still remains in the form of syrup, filters through them into the cistern beneath, while the rest is left in the form of sugar, in the state called mus - covado. 40. This sugar is of a yellow colour, being yet in a crude, or raw state. It is further purified by various 24 THE AGRICULTURIST. processes, such as redissolving it in water, and again boiling it with lime and bullocks’ blood, or with ani¬ mal charcoal, and passing the syrup through several Canvas filters. 41. Loaf-sugar is manufactured by pouring the syrup, after it has been purified, and reduced to a certain thickness by evaporation, into unglazed earth¬ en vessels of a conical shape. The cones have a hole at their apex, through which may filter the syrup which separates from the sugar above. Most of the sugar is imported in a raw or crude state, and is af¬ terward refined in the cities in sugar-houses. 42. Molasses is far less free from extraneous sub¬ stances than sugar, as it is nothing more than the drainings from the latter. Rum is distilled from in¬ ferior molasses, and other saccharine matter of the cane, which will answer for no other purpose. 43. Sugar is also manufactured from the sap of the sugar-maple, in considerable quantities, in the north¬ ern parts of the United States, and in the Canadas. The sap is obtained by cutting a notch, or boring a hole, in the tree, and applying a spout to conduct it to a receiver, which is either a rude trough, or a cheap vessel made by a cooper. This operation is performed late in the winter, or early in the spring, when the weather is freezing at night, and thawing in the day. 44. The liquid in which the saccharine matter is suspended, is evaporated by heat, as in the case of the juice of the cane. During the process of evapo¬ ration, slices of pork are kept in the kettle, to prevent the sap or syrup from boiling over. 45. When a sufficient quantity of syrup, of a cer¬ tain thickness, has been obtained, it is passed through a strainer, and, having been again placed over the fire, it is clarified with eggs and milk, the scum, as it rises, being carefully removed with a skimmer. THE AGRICULTURIST. 25 When sufficiently reduced, it is usually poured into* tin pans, or basins, in which, as it cools, it consoli¬ dates into hard cakes of sugar. 46. Most of the lands in a state of nature, are cov¬ ered with forest trees. This is especially the case in North America. When this division of our conti¬ nent was first visited by Europeans, it was nearly one vast wilderness, throughout its entire extent; and even now, after a lapse of three centuries, a great portion of it remains in the same condition. The in¬ dustrious settlers, however, are rapidly clearing away the natural encumbrances of the soil; and, before a similar period shall have passed away, we may ex¬ pect, that civilized men will have occupied every por¬ tion of this vast territory, which may be worthy of cultivation. 47. The mode of clearing land, as it is termed, va¬ ries in different parts of the United States. In Penn¬ sylvania, and in neighborhoods settled by people from that state, the large trees are deadened by girdling them, and the small ones, together with the under¬ brush, are felled and burned. This mode is very ob¬ jectionable, for the reason, that the limbs on the stand¬ ing trees, when they have become rotten, sometimes peril the lives of persons and animals underneath. It seems, however, that those who pursue this method, prefer risking life in this way to wearing it out in wielding the axe, and in rolling logs. 48. A very different plan is pursued by settlers from New-England. The underbrush is first cut down, and piled in heaps. The large trees are then felled, to serve as foundations for log-heaps ; and the small¬ er ones are cut so as to fall as nearly parallel to these as practicable. The smaller trees, as well as the limbs of the larger ones, are cut into lengths of twelve or fifteen feet. 49. At a proper season of the year, when the brush C 26 THE AGRICULTURIST. has become dry enough, fire is applied, which con¬ sumes much of the small stuff*. The logs are next hauled together with oxen or horses, and rolled into heaps with handspikes. The small stuff* which has escaped the first burning, is thrown upon the heaps, and, fire being applied, the whole is consumed to¬ gether. 50. In the Northern, Middle, and Western states, where a great proportion of the timber is beech, ma¬ ple, and elm, great quantities of ashes are obtained in this mode of clearing land. From these ashes are extracted the pot and pearl ashes of commerce, which have been, and which still are, among the principal exports of the United States. 51. The usual process of making potash is as fol¬ lows : the crude ashes are put into large tubs, or leeches , with a small quantity of salt and lime. The strength of this mixture is extracted by pouring upon it hot water, which passes through it into a reservoir. The water thus saturated is called black ley, which is evaporated in large kettles. The residuum is call¬ ed black salts, which are converted into potash by applying to the kettle an intense heat. 52. The process of making pearlash is the same, until the ley has been reduced to black salts, except that no lime or salt is used. The salts are baked in large ovens, heated by a blazing fire, which proceeds from an arch below. Having been thus scorched , the salts are dissolved in hot water. The solution is al¬ lowed to be at rest, until all extraneous substances have settled to the bottom, when it is drawn off* and evaporated as before. The residuum is called white salts. Another baking, like the former, completes the process. 53. Very few of the settlers have an ashery, as it is called, in which the whole process of making either pot or pearl ash is performed. They usually sell the black salts to the store-keepers in their neighborhood, who complete the process of the manufacture. 54. The trade in ashes is often profitable to the settlers ; some of them even pay, in this way, the whole expense of clearing their land. Pot and pearl ashes are packed in strong barrels, and sent to the cities, where, previous to sale, they are inspected, and branded according to their quality. THE HORTICULTURIST. 1. The Creator of the Universe, having formed man from the dust of the ground, provided a mag- nificent garden for his residence, and commanded him “ to dress it and to keep itbut, having transgressed the commandment of his lawful Sovereign, he was driven from this delightful paradise, thenceforth to gain a subsistence from the earth at large, which had been cursed with barrenness, thorns, thistles, and briars. . 2. Scripture does not inform us, that Adam turned his attention to gardening ; nor have we any means of determining the state of this art, in the centuries previous to the flood ; but it is highly probable, that it had arrived to considerable perfection, before the advent of this destructive visitation from Heaven. THE HORTICULTURIST. 29 3. Gardens, for useful purposes, were probably made, soon after the waters had subsided ; and the statement in Scripture, that “ Noah planted a vine¬ yard,” may, perhaps, be regarded as evidence suffi¬ cient to establish it as a fact. If this were the case, the art, doubtless, continued progressive among those descendants of Noah, who did not sink into a state of barbarism, after the confusion of tongues. 4. Among savage nations, one of the first indica¬ tions of advancement towards a state of civilization, is the cultivation of a little spot of ground for raising vegetables ; and the degree of refinement among the inhabitants of any country, may be determined, with tolerable certainty, by the taste and skill exhibited in their gardens. 5. Ornamental gardening is never attended to, in any country, until the arts in general have advanced to a considerable degree of perfection ; and it uni¬ formly declines with other fine or ornamental arts. Accordingly, we do not read of splendid gardens among the Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, Ro¬ mans, and other nations of antiquity, until they had reached an exalted state of refinement; and when these nations descended from this condition, or were overthrown by barbarians, this art declined or dis¬ appeared. 6. During the period of mental darkness, which prevailed between the eighth and thirteenth centuries, the practice of ornamental gardening had fallen into such general disuse, that it was confined exclusively to the monks. After this period, it began again to spread among the people generally. It revived in Italy, Germany, Holland, and France, long before any attention was paid to it in England. 7. In the latter country, but few culinary vegeta¬ bles were consumed before the beginning of the six¬ teenth century, and most of these were brought from C 2 30 THE HORTICULTURIST. Holland ; nor was gardening introduced there, as a source of profit, until about one hundred years af¬ ter that period. Peaches, pears, plums, nectarines, apricots, grapes, cherries, strawberries, and melons, were luxuries but little enjoyed in England, until near the middle of the seventeenth century. The first hot and ice houses known on the island, were built by Charles II., who ascended the British throne in 1660, and soon after introduced French gardening at Hamp¬ ton Court, Carlton, and Marlborough. 8. About the beginning of the eighteenth century, this art attracted the attention of some of the first characters in Great Britain, who gave it a new im¬ pulse in that country. But the style which they im¬ itated was objectionable, inasmuch as the mode of laying out the gardens, and of planting and trimming the trees, was too formal and fantastical. 9. Several eminent writers, among whom were Pope and Addison, ridiculed this Dutch mode of gar¬ dening, as it was called, and endeavoured to introduce another, more consistent with genuine taste. Their views were, at length, seconded by practical horticul¬ turists ; and those principles of the art which they advocated, were adopted in every part of Great Brit¬ ain. The English mode has been followed and emu¬ lated by the refined nations of the Eastern continent, and by many opulent individuals in the United States. 10. Since the beginning of the present century, horticultural societies have been formed in every kingdom of Europe. In Great Britain alone, there are no less than fifty; and, it is satisfactory to add, that there are also several of these institutions in the United States. The objects of the persons who com¬ pose these societies are, to collect and disseminate in¬ formation on this interesting art, especially in regard to the introduction of new and valuable articles of cultivation. THE HORTICULTURIST. 31 11. The authors who have writfen upon scientific and practical gardening, at different periods, and in different countries, are very numerous. Among the ancient Greek writers, were Hesiod, Theophrastus, Xenophon, and iElian. Among the Latins, Varo was the first ; to whom succeeded, Cato, Pliny the elder, Columella, and Palladius. 12. Since the revival of literature, horticulture, in common with agriculture, has shared largely in the labours of the learned ; and many works, on this im¬ portant branch of rural economy, have been publish¬ ed in every language of Europe. But the publica¬ tions on this subject, which attract the greatest at¬ tention, are the periodicals under the superintendence of the great horticultural societies. Those of Lon¬ don and Paris, are particularly distinguished. 13. It is impossible to draw a distinct line between horticulture and agriculture ; since so many articles of cultivation are common to both, and since a well- regulated farm approaches very nearly to a garden. 14. The divisions of a complete garden, usually adopted by writers on this subject, are the following: 1st. the culinary garden ; 2d. the flower garden ; 3d. the orchard, embracing different kinds of fruits ; 4th. the vineyard ; 5th. the seminary, for raising seeds ; 6th. the nursery, for raising trees to be transplanted ; 7th. the botanical garden, for raising various kinds of plants; 8th. the arboretum of ornamental trees ; and, 9th. the picturesque, or landscape garden. To become skilful in the management of even one or two of these branches, requires much attention ; but to become proficient in all, would require years of the closest application. 15. In Europe, the professed gardeners constitute a large class of the population. They are employed either in their own gardens, or in those of the wealthy, who engage them by the day or year. There are pj 32 THE HORTICULTURIST. many in this country who devote their attention to this business ; but they are chiefly from the other side of the Atlantic. In our Southern states, the rich as¬ sign one of their slaves to the garden. 16. In the United States, almost every family m the country, and in the villages, has its garden for the production of vegetables, in which are also usu¬ ally reared, a few flowers, ornamental shrubs, and fruit-trees: but horticulture, as a science, is stud¬ ied and practised here by very few, especially that branch of it called picturesque, or landscape. To produce a pleasing effect, in a garden of this kind, from twenty to one hundred acres are necessary, ac¬ cording to the manner in which the ground may be situated. In an area of that extent, every branch of this pleasing art can be advantageously embraced. 17. Delicate exotic plants, which will not bear ex¬ posure to the open air during the winter, are pre¬ served from the effects of the cold in hot or green houses, which may be warmed by artificial heat. A hot-house is exhibited in the representation of a gar¬ den, at the head of this article. It is composed chief¬ ly of window-glass set in sashes of wood. A green¬ house is usually larger; and is designed for the pres¬ ervation of those plants requiring less heat. 18. The vegetables commonly cultivated in gar¬ dens for the table, are,—corn, potatoes, tomatoes, peas, beans, squashes, cucumbers, melons, strawber¬ ries, raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries, currants, beets, parsnips, carrots, onions, radishes, cabbages, asparagus, lettuce, grapes, and various kinds of fruits. The flowers, ornamental shrubs, and trees, are very * numerous, and are becoming more so by accessions from the forests, and from foreign countries. 19. The scientific horticulturist, in laying off his garden, endeavours to unite beauty and utility, loca¬ ting the flowers, ornamental shrubs, and trees,, where THE HORTICULTURIST. 33 they will be most conspicuous, and those vegetables less pleasing to the eye, in more retired situations, yet, in a soil and exposure adapted to their con¬ stitution. In improving the soil of his garden, he brings to his aid the science of chemistry, together with the experience of practical men. He is also careful in the choice of his fruit-trees, and in in¬ creasing the variety of their products by engrafting, and by inoculation. THE MILLER. 1. The Miller belongs to that class of employ¬ ments which relates to the preparation of food and drinks for man. His business consists, chiefly, in re¬ ducing the farinaceous grains to a suitable degree of fineness. 2. The simplest method by which grain can be re¬ duced to meal, or flour, is rubbing or pounding it be¬ tween two stones ; and this was probably the one first practised in all primitive conditions of society, as it is still pursued among some tribes of uncivil¬ ized men. 3. The first machine for comminuting grain, of which we have any knowledge, was a simple hand- mill, composed of a nether stone fixed in a horizontal position, and an upper stone, which was put in motion THE MILLER. 35 with the hand by means of a peg. This simple con¬ trivance is still used in India, as well as in some se¬ questered parts of Scotland, and on many of the plan, tations in the Southern states of our Union. But, in general, where large quantities of grain are to be ground, it has been entirely superseded by mills not moved by manual power. 4. The modern corn and flour mill differs from the primitive hand-mill in the size of the stones, in the ad¬ dition of an apparatus for separating the hulls and bran from the farinaceous part of the grain, and- in the power applied for putting it in motion. 5. The grinding surfaces of the stones have chan¬ nels, or furrows, cut in them, which proceed oblique¬ ly from the centre to the circumference. The fur¬ rows are cut slantwise on one side, and perpendicu¬ lar on the -other ; so that each of the ridges which they form, has a sharp edge ; and, when the upper stone is in motion, these edges pass one another, like the blades of a pair of scissors, and cut the grain the more easily, as it falls upon the furrows. 6. By a careful inspection of the following picture, the whole machinery of a common mill may be un¬ derstood. 36 THE MILLER. A represents the water-toheel; B, the shaft to which is attached the cog-wheel C, which acts on the trun¬ dle-head, D ; and this, in turn, acts on the moveable stone. The spindle, trundle-head, and upper stone, all rest entirely on the beam, F, which can be eleva¬ ted or depressed, at pleasure, by a simple apparatus ; so that the distance between the stones can be easily regulated, to grind either fine or coarse. The grain about to be submitted to the action of the mill, is thrown into the hopper, H, whence it passes by the shoe, or spout I, through a hole in the upper stone, and then between them both. 7. The upper stone is a little convex, and the other a little concave. There is a little difference, how¬ ever, between the convexity and the concavity of the two stones: this difference causes the space between them to become less and less towards their edges; and the grain, being admitted between them,"is, con¬ sequently, ground finer and finer, as it passes out in that direction, in which it is impelled by the centrifu¬ gal power of the moving stone. 8. If the flour, or meal, is not to be separated from the bran, the simple grinding completes the opera¬ tion ; but, when this separation is to be made, the comminuted grain, as it is thrown out from between the stones, is carried, by little leathern buckets fas¬ tened to a strap, to the upper end of an octagonal " sieve, placed in an inclined position in a large box. The coarse bran passes out at the lower end of the sieve, or bolt, and the flour, or fine particles of bran, through the bolting-cloth, at different places, accord¬ ing to their fineness. At the head of the bolt, the superfine flour passes ; in the middle, the fine flour ; and at the lower end, the coarse flour and fine bran ; which, when mixed, is called caneL or shorts . 9. The best matreial of which mill-stones are made, is the burr-stone, which is brought from France THE MILLER. 37 in small pieces, weighing from ten to one hundred pounds. These are cemented together with plaster of Paris, and closely bound around the circumfer¬ ence with hoops made of bar iron. For grinding corn or rye, those made of sienite, or granite rock, are frequently used. 10. A mill, exclusively employed in grinding grain, consumed by the inhabitants of the neighborhood, is called a grist or custom mill; and a -portion of the grist is allowed to the miller, in payment lor his ser¬ vices. The proportion is regulated by law ; and, in our own country, it varies according to the legisla¬ tion of the different states. 11. Mills in which flour is manufactured, and pack¬ ed in barrels for sale, are called merchant mills. Here, the wheat is purchased by the miller, or by the owner of the mill, who relies upon the difference be¬ tween the original cost of the grain, and the probable amount of its several products, when sold, to remu¬ nerate him for the manufacture, and his investments of capital. In Virginia, and, perhaps, in some of the other states, it is a common practice among the farmers, to deliver to the millers their wheat, for which they receive a specified quantity of flour. 12. The power most commonly employed to put heavy machinery in operation, is that supplied by water. This is especially the case with regard to mills for grinding grain ; butf, when this cannot be had, a substitute is found in steam, or animal strength. The wind is also rendered subservient to this pur¬ pose. The wind-mill was invented in the time of Augustus Caesar. During the reign of this emperor, and probably long before, mules and asses were em¬ ployed by both the Greeks and Romans in turning their mills. The period at which water-mills began to be used cannot be certainly determined. Some writers place it as far back as the Chiistian era. D 38 THE MILLER. 13. Wheat flour is one of the staple commodities of the United States, and there are mills for its man¬ ufacture in almost every part of the country, where wheat is extensively cultivated ; but our most cele¬ brated flour-mills are on the Brandywine Creek, Del., at Rochester, N. Y., and at Richmond, Va. 14. In our Southern states, hommony is a favor¬ ite article of food. It consists of the flinty portions of Indian corn, which have been separated from the hulls and eyes of the grain. To effect this separa¬ tion, the corn is sometimes ground very coarsely in a mill; but the most usual method is that of pound¬ ing it in a mortar. 15. The mortar is excavated from a log of hard wood, between twelve and eighteen inches in. diam¬ eter. The form of the excavation is similar to that of a common iron mortar, except that it is less flat at the bottom, to prevent the corn from being reduced to meal during the operation. The pestle is usually made by confining an iron wedge in the split end of a round stick, by means of an iron ring. 16. The white flint corn is the kind usually chosen for hommony ; although any kind, possessing the re¬ quisite solidity, will do. Having been poured into the mortar, it is moistened with hot water, and im¬ mediately beaten with the pestle, until the eyes and hulls are forced from the flinty portions of the grain. The part of the com which has been reduced to meal by the foregoing process, is removed by means of a sieve, and the hulls, by the aid of the wind. 17. Hommony is prepared for the table by boiling it in water for twelve hours with about one fourth of its quantity of white beans, and some fat bacon. It is eaten while yet warm, with milk or butter ; or, if suffered to get cold, is:again warmed with lard or some other fat substance, before it is brought to the table. THE BAKER. 1. The business of the Baker consists in making bread, rolls, biscuits, and crackers, and in baking va¬ rious kinds of provisions. 2. Man appears to be designed by nature, to eat all substances capable of affording nourishment to his system ; but, being more inclined to vegetable than to animal food, he has, from the earliest times, used farinaceous grains, as his principal means of suste¬ nance. As these, however, cannot be eaten in their native state without difficulty, means have been con¬ trived for extracting their farinaceous part, and for converting it into an agreeable and wholesome ali- •ment. 3. Those who are accustomed to enjoy all the ad¬ vantages of the most useful inventions, without re- 40 THE BAKER. fleeting on the labour expended in their completion, may fancy that there is nothing more easy than to grind grain, to make it into paste, and to bake it in an oven ; but it must have been a long time, before men discovered any better method of preparing their grain, than roasting it in the fire, or boiling it in wa¬ ter, and forming it into viscous cakes. Accident, probably, at length furnished some observing person a hint, by which good and wholesome bread could be made by means of fermentation. 4. Before the invention of the even, bread was ex¬ clusively baked in the embers, or ashes, or before the fire. These methods, with sometimes a little varia¬ tion, are still practised, more or less, in all parts of the world. In England, the poor class of people place the loaf on the heated hearth, and invert over it an iron pot or kettle, which they surround with embers or coals. 5. The invention of the oven must have added much to the conveniences and comforts of the ancients ; but it cannot be determined, at what period, or by whom, it was contrived. During that period of re¬ mote antiquity, in which the people were generally erratic in their habits, the ovens were mad^of clay, and hardened by fire, like earthenware; and, being small, they could be easily transported from place to place, like our iron bake-ovens. Such ovens are still in use in some parts of Asia. 6. There are few nations that do not use bread, or a substitute for it. Its general use arises from a law of our economy, which requires a mixture of the an¬ imal fluids, in every stage of the process of digestion. The saliva is, therefore, essential; and the mastica¬ tion of dry food is required, to bring it forth from the glands of the mouth. 7. The farinaceous grains most usually employed in making bread, are,—wheat, rye, barley,-maize, and THE BAKER. 41 oats. The flour or meal of two of these are often mixed ; and wheat flour is sometimes advantageously combined with rice, peas, beans, or potatoes. 8. The component parts of wheat, rye, and barley flour, are,—fecula, or starch, gluten, and saccharine mucilage. Fecula is the most nutritive part of grain. It is found in all seeds, and is especially abundant in the potato. Gluten is necessary to the production of light bread; and wheat flour, containing it in the greatest proportion, answers the purpose better than any other. The saccharine mucilage is equally ne¬ cessary, as this is the substance on which yeast and leaven act, in producing the internal commotion in the particles of dough during fermentation. 9. There are three general methods of making bread; 1st. by mixing meal or flour with water, or with water and milk; 2d. by adding to the foregoing materials a small quantity of sour dough, or leaven, to serve as a fermenting agent; and, 3d. by using yeast, to produce the same general effect. 10. The theory of making light bread, is not diffl-' cult to be understood. The leaven or yeast acts upon the saccharine mucilage of the dough, and, by the aid of heat and moisture, disengages carbonaceous mat¬ ter, which, uniting with oxygen, forms carbonic ficid gas. This, being prevented from escaping by the gluten of the dough, causes the mass to become light and spongy. During the process of baking, the in¬ creased heat disengages more of the fixed air, which is further prevented from escaping by the formation of the crust. The superfluous moisture having been expelled, the substance becomes firm, and retains that spongy hollowness which distinguishes good bread. 11. Many other substances contain fermenting qual ities, and are, therefore, sometimes used as substi¬ tutes for yeast and leaven. The waters of several mineral springs, both in Europe and America, being D 2 42 THE BAKER. impregnated with carbonic acid gas, are occasionally employed in making light bread. 12. The three general methods of making bread, and the great number of materials employed, admit of a great variety in this essential article of food ; so much so, that we cannot enter into details, as re¬ gards the particular modes of manufacture adopted by different nations, or people. There are, compar¬ atively, but few people on the globe, among whom this art is not practised in some way or other. 13. It is impossible to ascertain, at what period of time the process of baking bread became a particular profession. It is supposed, that the first bakers in Rome came from Greece, about two hundred years before the Christian era; and that these, together with some freemen of the city, were incorporated into a college, or company, from which neither they nor their children were permitted to withdraw. They held their effects in common, without possessing any individual power of parting with them. 14. Each bake-house had a patron, or superintend¬ ent ; and one of the patrons had the management of the rest, and the care of the college. So respectable was this class of men in Rome, that one of the body was occasionally admitted, as a member of the sen¬ ate ; and all, on account of their peculiar corporate association, and the public utility of their employ¬ ment, were exempted from the performance of the civil duties to which other citizens were liable. 15. In many of the large cities of Europe, the price and weight of bread sold by bakers, are regu¬ lated by law. The weight of the loaves of different sizes must be always the same; but the price may vary, according to the current cost of the chief ma¬ terials. The law was such in the city of London, a few years ago, that if a loaf fell short in weight a single ounce, the baker was liable to be put in the THE BAKER. 43 pillory; but now, he is subject only to a fine, varying from one to five shillings, according to the will of the magistrate before whom he may be indicted. 16. In this country, laws of a character somewhat similar have been enacted by the legislatures of sev¬ eral states, and by city authorities, with a view to pro¬ tect the community against impositions ; but whether there is a law or not, the bakers regulate the weight, price, and quality of their loaves by the general prin¬ ciples of trade. 17. There is, perhaps, no business more laborious than that of the baker of loaf bread, who has a regu¬ lar set of customers to be supplied every morning. The twenty-four hours of the day are systematically appropriated to the performance of certain labours, and to rest. * 18. After breakfast, the yeast is prepared, and the oven-wood provided: at two or three o’clock, the sponge is set: the hours from three to eight or nine o’clock, are appropriated to rest. The baking com¬ mences at nine or ten o’clock at night; and, in large bakeries, continues until five o’clock in the morning. From that time until the breakfast hour, the hands are engaged in distributing the bread to customers. For seven months in the year, and, in some cases, du¬ ring the whole of it, part of the hands are employed, from eleven to one o’clock, in baking pies, puddings, and different kinds of meats, sent to them from neigh¬ boring families. 19. In large cities, the bakers usually confine their attention to particular branches of the business. Some bake light loaf bread only ; others bake unleavened bread, such as crackers, sea-biscuit, and cakes for people of the Jewish faith. Some, again, unite sev¬ eral branches together ; and this is especially the case in small cities and towns, where the demand for different kinds of bread is more limited. THE CONFECTIONER. 1. The Confectioner makes liquid and dry con¬ fects, jellies, marmalades, pastes, conserves, sugar¬ plums, ice-creams, candies, and cakes of various kinds. 2. Many of the articles just enumerated, are pre¬ pared in families for domestic use ; but, as their prep¬ aration requires skill and practice, and is likewise at¬ tended with some trouble, it is sometimes better to • preserves made of various kinds of fruits and berries, the principal of which are,—peaches, apricots, pears, quinces, apples, plums, cherries, grapes, strawberries, gooseberries, currants, and raspberries. The fruit, of whatever kind it may be, is confected by boiling it in a thick clarified syrup of sugar, until it is about half cooked. purchase them of the confectioner 3. Liquid and dry confects are THE CONFECTIONER. 45 Dry confects are made by boiling the fruit a little in syrup, and then drying it with a moderate heat in an oven. The ancients confected with honey ; but, at present, sugar is deemed more suitable for this pur. pose, and is almost exclusively employed. 4. Jellies resemble a thin transparent glue, or size. They are made by mixing the juice of the fruits men- t tioned in the preceding paragraph, with a due propor¬ tion of sugar, and then boiling the composition down to a proper consistence. Jellies are also made of the flesh of animals ; but such preparations cannot be long kept, as they soon become corrupt. 5. Marmalades are thin pastes,*usually made of the pulp of fruits that have some consistence, and about an equal weight of sugar. Pastes are similar to marmalades, in their materials, and mode of prep¬ aration. The difference consists only in their being reduced by evaporation to a consistence, which ren¬ ders them capable of retaining a form, when put into moulds, and dried in an oven. 6. Conserves are a species of dry confects, com-, pounded of sugar and flowers. The flowers usually employed, are, — roses, mallows, rosemary, orange, violets, jessamine, pistachoes, citrons, and sloes. Or¬ ange-peel is also used for the same purpose. 7. Candies are made of clarified sugar, reduced by evaporation to a suitable degree of consistence. They receive their name from the essence, or sub¬ stance, employed in giving them the required flavour. 8. Sugar-plums are small fruits, seeds, little pieces of bark, or odoriferous and aromatic roots, incrusted with hard sugar. These trifles are variously denom¬ inated ; but, in most cases, according to the name of the substance inclosed by the incrustation.\ 9. Ice-cream is an article of agreeable refreshment in hot weather. It is sold in confectionary shops, as well a.s at the public gardens, and other places of tern- 46 THE CONFECTIONER. porary resort in cities. It is composed, chiefly, of milk or cream, fruit, and lemon-juice. It is prepared by beating the materials well together, and rubbing them through a fine hair sieve. The congelation is effected by placing the containing vessel in one which is somewhat larger, and filling the surrounding va¬ cancy with a mixture of salt and fine ice. 10. Cakes are made of a great variety of ingre¬ dients ; the principal of which are, flour, butter, eggs, sugar, water, milk, cream, yeast, wine, brandy, rai¬ sins, currants, caraway, lemoq, orange, almonds, cin¬ namon, nutmeg, allspice, cloves, and ginger. The different combinations of these materials, produce so great a variety of cakes, that it would be fedious to detail even their names. 11. The confectioner, in addition to those articles which may be considered peculiar to his business, deals in various kinds of fruits and nuts, which grow in different climates. He also sells a variety of pick¬ les, which he usually procures from those who make it a business to prepare them. 12. Soda-water is likewise often sold by the con¬ fectioner. This agreeable drink is merely water, im¬ pregnated with carbonic acid gas, by means of a for¬ cing-pump. The confectioners, however, in large cit¬ ies, seldom prepare it themselves, as they can procure it at less expense, and with less trouble, ready made. 13. Sometimes, the business of the pastry-cook is united with that of the confectioner, especially with that branch of it which relates to making cakes. Pies and tarts consist of paste, which, in baking, becomes a crust, and some kind of fruit or meat, or both, with suitable seasoning. The art of making pies and tarts is practised, more or less, in every fam¬ ily : it is not, therefore, essential to be particular in naming the materials employed, or the manner in which they are combined. THE BREWER, AND THE DISTILLER. THE BREWER. 1. Brewing is the art of preparing a liquor, which has received the general denomination of beer. This beverage can be brewed from any kind of farinaceous grain ; but, on various accounts, barley is usually pre¬ ferred. It is prepared for the brewer’s use bv con¬ verting it into malt, which is effected by the follow¬ ing process. 2. The grain is soaked in a cistern of water about two days, or until it is completely saturated with that fluid. It is then taken out, and spread upon a floor in a layer nearly two feet thick. When the inside of this heap begins to grow warm, and the kernels to ; germinate, the malster checks the rapid growth of the grain in that situation by changing it to the out- 48 THE BREWER. side. This operation is continued, until the saccha¬ rine matter in the barley has been sufficiently evolved by the natural process of germination. 3. The grain is next transferred to the kiln, which is an iron or tile floor, perforated with small holes, and moderately heated beneath with a fire of coke or stone coal. Here, the grain is thoroughly dried, and the principle of germination completely destroy¬ ed. The malt thus made is prepared for being brewed, by crushing it in a common mill, or between rollers. Malting, in Great Britain, and in some oth¬ er parts of Europe, is a business distinct from brew¬ ing ; but, in the United States, the brewers generally make their own malt. 4. The first part of the process of brewing is call¬ ed mashing. This is performed in a large tub, or tun , having two bottoms. The upper one, consisting of several moveable pieces, is perforated with a great number of small holes; the other, though tight and immoveable at the edges, has several large holes, furnished with ducts, which lead to a cistern beneath. 5. The malt, designed for one mashing, is spread in an even layer on the upper bottom, and thoroughly saturated and incorporated with water nearly boiling, by means of iron rakes, which are made to revolve and move round in the tub by the aid of machinery. The water, together with the soluble parts of the malt, at length passes off, through the holes before men¬ tioned, into the reservoir beneath. 6. The malt requires to be mashed two or three times in succession with fresh quantities of water; and the product of each mashing is appropriated to making liquors of different degrees of strength. 7. The product of the mashing-tun is called wort , which, being transferred to a large copper kettle, is boiled for a considerable time with a quantity of hops, and then drawn off into large shallow cisterns, 49 THE BREWER. called coolers. When the mixture has become cool enough to be submitted to fermentation, it is drawn off into the working tun. 8. The fermentation is effected with yeast, which, acting on the saccharine matter, disengages carbonic acid gas. This part of the process requires from eighteen to forty-eight hours, according to the degree of heat which may be in the atmosphere. 9. The beer is then drawn off into casks of differ, ent dimensions, in which it undergoes a still further fermentation, sometimes called the brewer's cleansing. During this fermentation, the froth, or yeast, works out at the bung-hole, and is received in a trough, on the edges of which the casks have been placed. The froth thus discharged from the beer, is the yeast used by the brewers. 10. The products of the brewery are denominated beer , ale , and porter. The difference between these liquors arises, chiefly, from the manner in w hich the malt has been prepared, the relative strength impart¬ ed to each, and the extent to which the fermentation has been carried. 11. There are several kinds of beer; such as ta. ble beer, half and half, and strong beer. They are adapted to use soon after being brewed, and differ from each other but little, except in the degree of their strength. 12. Ale and porter are called stock liquors; be- cause, not being designed for immediate consumption, they are kept for a considerable time, that they may improve in quality. Porter is usually prepared for consumption by putting it into bottles. This is done either at the brewery, or in bottling establishments. In the latter case, the liquor is purchased in large quantities from the brewer by persons who make it their business to supply retailers and private families. 13. We have evidence that fermented liquor was E 50 THE DISTILLER. in use three thousand years ago. It was first used in Egypt, whence it passed into adjacent countries, and afterward into Spain, France, and England. It was sometimes called the wine of barley; and one kind of it was denominated Pelusian drink, from the city Pelusium, where it was first made. 14. Among the nations of modern times, the Eng¬ lish are the most celebrated for brewing good liquors. London porter is especially in great repute, not only in that city 2 but in distant countries. Much ferment¬ ed liquor of .the different kinds, is consumed in the United States, where it is also made in considerable perfection. THE DISTILLER. 1. Although alcohol can be extracted from any substance containing saccharine matter, yet sugar¬ cane, grapes, apples, peaches, rye, corn, and rice, on account of their abundance, and superior adaptation to the purpose, are more commonly used than any other. As whiskey is the chief article of this kind, manufactured in the United States, it will be selected to illustrate the general principles of distillation. 2. Corn and rye are the materials from which this liquor is mostly extracted ; and these are used either together or separately, at the option of the distiller. The meal is scalded and mashed in a large tub: it is then permitted to stand, until it has become a little sweet, when more water is poured upon it, and, at a suitable temperature, a quantity of yeast is added. To aid in producing rapid fermentation, a little malt is sprinkled on the top. 3. After an adequate fermentation has taken place, the beer , as it is called, is transferred to a large close tub, from the top of which leads a tube extending to the worm in another tub filled with cold water. The THE DISTILLER. 51 worm is a long pewter tube, twisted spirally, that it may occupy a small space. 4. The beer is heated in the close tub, by means of steam, which is conveyed to it, from a large kettle or boiler, by a copper or iron pipe. The heat causes the alcoholic particles to rise like vapour, and pass into the worm, where they are condensed into a wa¬ tery fluid, which passes out into a receiver. 5. At first, pure alcohol distils from the worm ; but the produce becomes gradually weaker, until, at length, the spirit in the beer being exhausted, it consists only of water condensed from steam. The remains of the beer are given as feed to hogs and cattle. 6. Brandy is distilled from grapes, rum from sugar¬ cane, arrack from rice, whiskey from various kinds of grain, peach - brandy from peaches, and cider- brandy from apples. 7. The great variety of articles employed in the productions of different kinds of ardent spirits, must necessarily vary the process of distillation in some particulars ; but, in all cases, fermentation and heat are necessary to disengage the alcoholic properties of the saccharine matter, and also an apparatus for condensing the same from a gaseous to a liquid form. In some countries, the alembic is used as a condenser, instead of a worm. The form of this instrument is much like that of the retort; and when applied, it is screwed upon the top of the boiler. 8. Spirits, which come to market in a crude state, are sometimes distilled for the purpose of improving their quality, or for disguising them with drugs and colouring substances, that they may resemble supe¬ rior liquors. The process by which they are thus changed, or improved, is called rectification. Many distilleries in large cities, are employed in this branch of business. 52 THE DISTILLER. 9. There is, perhaps, no kind of merchandise in which the public is more deceived, than in the quality of ardent spirits and wines. To illustrate this, it is only necessary to observe, that Holland gin is made by distilling French brandy with juniper-berries ; but most of the spirits which are vended under that name, consist only of rum or whiskey, flavoured with the oil of turpentine. Genuine French brandy is dis¬ tilled from grapes ; but the article usually sold under that denomination, is whiskey or rum coloured with treacle or scorched sugar, and flavoured with the oil of wine, or some kind of drug. 10. The ancient Greeks and Romans were ac¬ quainted with an instrument for distillation, which they denominated ambix. This was adopted, a long time afterward, by the Arabian alchemists, for ma¬ king their chemical experiments ; but they made some improvements in its construction, and changed its name to alembic. 11. The ancients, however, knew nothing of alco¬ hol. The method of extracting this intoxicating sub¬ stance, was probably discovered some time in the twelfth or thirteenth century ; but, for many ages after the discovery, it was used only as a medicine, and was kept for sale exclusively in apothecary shops. It is now used as a common article of stim¬ ulation, in almost every quarter of the globe. 12. But the opinion is becoming general, among all civilized people, that the use of alcohol, for this purpose, is destructive of health, and the primary cause of most of the crimes and pauperism in all places, where its consumption is common. The for¬ mation of Temperance Societies, and the publication of their reports, together with the extensive circula¬ tion of periodical papers, devoted to the cause of temperance, have already diminished, to a very great extent, the use of spirituous liquors. THE DISTILLER. 53 13. Although the ancients knew nothing of distil¬ ling alcohol, yet they were well versed in the art of making wine. We read of the vineyard, as far back as the time of Noah, the second father of nations ; and, from that period to the present, the grape has been the object of careful cultivation, in all civilized nations, where the climate and soil were adapted to the purpose. 14. The general process of making wine from grapes, is as follows. The grapes, when gathered, are crushed by treading them with the feet, and rub¬ bing them in the hands, or by some other means, with the view to press out the juice. The whole is then suffered to stand in the vat, until it has passed through what is termed the vinous fermentation, when the juice, which, in this state, is termed must, is drawn off into open vessels, where it remains until the pressing of the husks is finished. 15. The husks are submitted, in hair bags, to the press; and the must which is the result of this op¬ eration, is mixed with that drawn from the vat. The whole is then put into casks, where it undergoes an¬ other fermentation, called the spirituous, which oc¬ cupies from six to twelve days. The casks are then bunged up, and suffered to stand a few weeks, when the wine is racked off from the lees, and again re¬ turned to the same casks, after they have been per¬ fectly cleansed. Two such rackings generally ren¬ der the wine clear and brilliant. 16. In many cases, sugar, brandy, and flavoring substances, are necessary, to render the wine palate- able ; but the best kinds of grapes seldom require any of these additions. Wine-merchants often adulterate their wines in various ways, and afterwards sell them for those which are genuine. To correct acidity, and some other unpleasant qualities, lead, copper, antimony, and corrosive sublimate, are often used E 2 54 THE DISTILLER. by the dealers in wine ; though the practice is at¬ tended with deleterious effects to the health of the consumers. 17. The wines most usually met with in this coun¬ try, are known by the following denominations, viz., Madeira and Teneriffe , from islands of the same names ; Port, from Portugal; Sherry and Malaga, from Spain ; Champagne, Burgundy , and Claret, from France; and Hock, from Germany. 9 THE BUTCHER. 1. Man is designed by nature, to subsist on vege¬ table and animal food. This is obvious, from the structure of his organs of mastication and digestion. It does not follow, however, that animal food is, in all cases, positively required. In some countries, the mass of the people subsist chiefly or entirely on vege¬ tables. This is especially the case in the East In¬ dies, where rice and fruits are the chief articles of food. 2. On the other hand, the people who live in the higher latitudes subsist principally on the flesh of an¬ imals. This is preferred, not only because it is bet- ter suited to brace the system against the rigours of the climate, but because it is most easily provided. 56 THE BUTCHER. In temperate climates, a due proportion of both an¬ imal and vegetable substances is consumed. 3. Although the skins of beasts were used for the purpose of clothing, soon after the fall of man, we have no intimation from the Scriptures, that their flesh, or that of any other animal, was used, until af¬ ter the flood. The Divine permission was then given to Noah and his posterity, to use, for this purpose, “ every moving thing that liveth.” But in the law of Moses, delivered several centuries after this period, many exceptions are to be found, which were intend¬ ed to apply only to the Jewish people. These restric¬ tions were removed, on the introduction of Christi¬ anity. The unbelieving Jews, however, still adhere to their ancient law. 4. The doctrine of transmigration has had a great influence in diminishing the consumption of animal food. This absurd notion arose somewhere in Cen¬ tral Asia, and, at a very early period, it spread into Egypt, Greece, Italy, and finally among the remote countries of the ancient world. It is still entertained by the heathen nations of Eastern Asia, by the tribes in the vicinity of Mount Caucasus, and by some of the American savages, and African negroes. 5. The leading feature of this doctrine is, that the souls of departed men reappear on earth in the bod¬ ies of animals, both as a punishment for crimes com¬ mitted during life, and as a means of purification from sin. This dogma was adopted by the Pythagoreans, a sect of Grecian philosophers ; and, as a natural con¬ sequence, it led them, as it has ever done the votaries of this opinion, to the veneration of animals, and to abstinence from their flesh, lest they might devour that of some of their deceased friends or relatives. 6. People who dwell thinly scattered in the coun¬ try, rear and slaughter the animals for the supply of their own tables; but, in villages, large towns, and THE BUTCHER. 57 cities, the inhabitants depend chiefly on the butcher for their meat. The animals commonly slaughtered are, sheep, cattle, and hogs. 7. The butchers obtain their animals from the farm¬ ers, or from drovers, who make it a business to pur¬ chase them in the country, and drive them to market. The farmers near large cities, who have good grazing farms, are accustomed to buy lean cattle, brought from a distance, with a view to fatten them for sale. There are also persons in the cities, who might, with propriety, be called cattle brokers; since they supply the butchers of small capital with a single animal at a time, on a credit of a few days. 8. Every butcher who carries on the business, has a house in which he kills his animals, and prepares them for sale. When it is intended to slaughter an ox, a rope is thrown about his horns or neck, with which he is forced into the slaughter-house, and brought to the floor by the aid of a ring. The butch¬ er then knocks him on the head, cuts his throat, de¬ prives him of his hide, takes out his entrails, washes the inside of his body with water, and cuts him up into quarters. The beef is now ready to be convey¬ ed to the market-house. The process of dressing other quadrupeds varies but little from this in its gen¬ eral details. The cellular substance of mutton, lamb, and veal, is often inflated with air, that the meat may appear fat and plump. 9. In large cities and towns, the meat is chiefly sold in the market-house, where each butcher has a stall rented from the corporation. It is carried there in a cart, and cut into suitable pieces with a saw, knife, and a broad iron cleaver. 10. In some of the large cities, it is a practice among the butchers, to employ runners to carry the meat to the houses of those customers who may de¬ sire this accommodation. In villages, where there is 58 THE BUTCHER, no market-house, the butcher carries his meats from door to door in some kind of vehicle. 11. Those who follow this occupation usually en- joy good health, and, as they advance in years, in most cases, become corpulent. Their good health arises from exercise in the open air ; and their cor¬ pulency, from subsisting principally on fresh meats. It is thought, however, that their longevity is not so great as that of men in many other employments. < THE TOBACCO PLANTER, and THE TOBACCONIST THE TOBACCO PLANTER. 1. Tobacco is a native production of America, which was in common use among nearly all of the Indian tribes, when this continent vyas discovered by Europeans. Its original name among the nations of the islands, was yoli; whilst, with those of the con¬ tinent, it was termed petum. The Spaniards, how¬ ever, chose to call it tobacco, a term in the Haytian language, which designated the instrument in which the herb was smoked. 2. This plant was first introduced into Spain, then into Portugal and France, and, at length, into other countries of the Eastern continent. Sir Walter Ra¬ leigh carried it from Virginia to England, and taught his countrymen the various methods of consuming it among the natives. 60 THE TOBACCO PLANTER. 3. The introduction of this nauseous plant into Eu¬ rope, was everywhere attended with ridicule and op¬ position. Hundreds of pamphlets were published, in various languages, dissuading from its use in the strongest terms. Even James the First, king of Great Britain, did not regard it as inconsistent with the royal dignity to take up his pen on the subject. In his “ Counterblast to Tobacco ,” published in 1603, occurs the following remarkable passage : “ it is a custom loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harm¬ ful to the brain ; and, in the black fume thereof, near¬ est resembling the horrible Stygian smoke of the pit that is bottomless.” 4. Pope Urban VIII. excommunicated those who took tobacco in churches; and Queen Elizabeth also prohibited its use in houses of public worship. In 1689, an ordinance was published in Transylvania, threatening those who should plant tobacco with the confiscation of their estates. The grand-duke of Moscow, and the king of Persia, prohibited its use under the penalty of the loss of the nose, and even of life. At present, however, the consumption of tobac¬ co is looked upon with so much greater indulgence, that all the sovereigns of Europe, and most of those of other nations, derive a considerable revenue from the trade in this article. 5. But it is truly astonishing, that a nauseous weed, of an acrid taste, disagreeable odour, and deleterious qualities, should have had so great an influence on the social condition of nations ; that its culture should have spread more rapidly than that of the most use¬ ful plants ; and that it should, consequently, have be- come an article of extensive commerce. 6. Of this plant there are several species, which differ from each other, in size, strength, and flavour. Some one or more of these varieties, are cultivated in various parts of the world ; but especially in North THE TOBACCO PLANTER. 61 and South America, and in the West Indies. It is one of the staple productions of Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and Ohio. The whole value of the tobac¬ co, exported annually from the United States, amounts to about five millions of dollars. 7. The following description of the mode of cul¬ tivating this plant, and preparing it for the tobacco¬ nist, is applicable to the state of Maryland. A little variation in some of the details, would render it ap¬ plicable to other parts of the world. 8. A small piece of ground, say one-sixteenth of an acre, is prepared by burning a large quantity of brush upon it. The surface is rendered light and even, by means of a hoe and rake ; and the seeds, mixed with ashes, are sown as equally as possible. After they have been covered with earth, the ground is trodden down with the bare feet. The tobacco beds are made in March, and the plants become fit for the field in eight or ten weeks. 9. The field, in which the cultivation of the crop is to be continued, is ploughed two or three times, and then cross-ploughed into equal checks, in each of which is made a hill. Immediately after a rain, the plants are transferred to these hills, in the same man¬ ner in which cabbages are transplanted. While the tobacco is growing, the ground is ploughed several times, in order to keep it light, and to aid in destroy¬ ing the weeds. When the plants are nearly grown, the tops are loppefd or cut off, to prevent them from running to seed, and to cause the leaves to grow larger and thicker. 10. In July or August, the tobacco-worms begin to make their appearance, and to threaten the whole crop with destruction. To arrest the ravages of these insidious enemies, all hands, both great and small, together with all the turkeys that can be mus¬ tered, are brought into the field. These worms are P 62 THE TOBACCONIST. produced from the eggs of a large insect, called the horn-bug. 11. The tobacco, when ripe, is cut near the ground, and hung on small sticks about five feet in length, generally by pegs driven into the stalks. These sticks are then laid upon poles, arranged at proper distances from each other in the tobacco-house, shed, or hovel, as the case may be. It is then suffered to dry gradually in the atmosphere ; or a large fire is made in the tobacco-house, to effect the drying more rapidly. 12. The leaves are next stripped from the stalks, and tied in small bunches according to their quality. This can only be done when in order , or rather, when the leaves are rendered tough by the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere. These bunches, when the leaves are so damp that they will not break, and so dry that they will not heat, are packed in hogs¬ heads by the aid of a large lever press. The tobac¬ co is inspected in public warehouses, by men who have been appointed for the purpose by the public authorities. THE TOBACCONIST. 1. It is the business of the tobacconist to convert the leaves of the tobacco plant into snuff, cigars, and smoking and chewing tobacco. 2. Although there may seem to be a great variety of snuffs, yet they may be all reduced to three kinds, viz., Scotch, rappee, and maccouba. These are va¬ riously modified by the quality of the tobacco, by some little variation in the manufacture, and by the articles employed in communicating the desired fla¬ vour. 3. In manufacturing snuff, the tobacco is ground in a mill of a peculiar construction. Before the weed is submitted to this operation, it is reduced to a cer- THE TOBACCONIST. 63 tain degree of fineness, by means of a cutting ma¬ chine ; and then spread in a heap, one or tv\*o feet thick, and sprinkled with water, that it may heat and sweat. The time required in this preparation de¬ pends upon the state of the weather, and the kind of snuff for which the tobacco is designed. 4. Scotch snuff is made of the strongest sort of tobacco, and is put up in bladders and bottles without being scented. Rappee and maccouba are put up in jars and bottles; and the former is generally scented with bergamot, and the latter with the ottar of roses. Sometimes, several ingredients, agreeable to the ol¬ factory nerves, are employed. 5. Cigars are composed of two parts, called the wrapper and the filling. The former is made of pie¬ ces of thin leaves, cut to a proper shape, and the lat¬ ter of those which are more broken. In all cases, the leaves used in the manufacture of cigars are de¬ prived of the stems, which are reserved, either to be converted into inferior kinds of snuff, or for exporta tion to Holland, where they are usually flattened be tween rollers, and afterwards cut fine for smoking tobacco, to be sold to the poorer class of people. 6. The value of cigars depends chiefly on the qual¬ ity of the tobacco. The best kind for this purpose, grows on the island of Cuba, near Havana. Tobac¬ co from this seed is raised in many other places ; and such, among tobacconists, is called seed ; but it pass¬ es, among smokers of limited experience, for the real Havana. A very fine silky tobacco of this sort, is cultivated in Connecticut, which is much esteemed. 7. An expert hand will make five or six hundred Spanish cigars in a day, or from one thousand to fif¬ teen hundred of those composed of Maryland or Ken¬ tucky tobacco. Making cigars, being light work, is well adapted to females, of whom great numbers are regularly employed in this branch of business. To- 64 THE TOBACCONIST. bacco jntended for the pipe, is cut in a machine ; and, after Having been properly dried, it is put up in pa¬ pers of different sizes. 8. Chewing tobacco is almost exclusively prepared from the species of this plant which is cultivated in Virginia, chiefly in the vicinity of James river. It is better adapted to this purpose than any other, on ac¬ count of its superior strength, and the great amount of resinous matter which it contains. 9. The first operation in preparing chewing tobac¬ co, is that of depriving the leaves of the stems. The former are then twisted by hand into plugs of differ¬ ent sizes, or spun into a continued thread by the aid of the tobacco-wheel, which is a simple machine moved by a crank. The thread thus produced is formed into bunches, or twists, containing a definite amount of tobacco. 10. The tobacco, having been put into the form desired, is moistened with water, packed in strong kegs, and then pressed with powerful screw-presses. The whole process is completed by heating the kegs, with their contents, for several days, in an oven or a tight room made for the purpose. The same change in the quality of the tobacco is also produced by suffer¬ ing it to stand nine or twelve months, before it is dis- posed of to the consumers. 11. Snuff is very commonly used in the Southern states, as a dentifrice ; or, at least, it is applied to the teeth with this ostensible object. The application is made-by means of a small stick, having the fibres minutely divided at one end. Although the tobacco seems to have the desired effect upon the teeth, so far as respects their appearance, yet its stimulating and narcotic powers are more to be dreaded in this mode of using it than in any other. Many females ruin their complexion and constitution, by rubbing snuff; THE TOBACCONIST. 65 and the deleterious effects of the practice are so well known, that few are willing to avow it. 12. Tobacco is used, in some one of its various forms, by a great majority of mankind ; and, although it is generally acknowledged to be, in most cases, in¬ jurious to the constitution, and often destructive of health, yet its consumption seems to be on the in¬ crease. It is one of the objects of trade, even in the most obscure parts of the world; and its devotees must and will have a supply, even though they stint themselves in food and clothing. 13. As regards the influence which this plant as¬ sumes over its votaries, it may be classed with alco¬ hol and opium ; although its effects are not so de¬ structive ; nor is the expense so considerable ; yet this is an item by no means unworthy of attention, as the aggregate sum annually expended for this useless narcotic in the United States, would be sufficient for the support of common schools in every part of the country. 14. The general use of tobacco is perpetuated from generation to generation, by the desire, common to children and young people, to act and appear like older persons. Few ever begin the use of this nau¬ seous weed, because it is agreeable to the senses to which it is applied ; but because they fancy, in their childish simplicity, that it confers upon them some additional importance. F 2 THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. 1. Men, in the primitive ages, were clad with the skins of animals, until they had acquired sufficient skill to employ a better material. It cannot be deter¬ mined from history, at what time cloth began to be manufactured from animal or vegetable fibre ; but it is evident, that it was done at a very early period, even long before the flood. 2. The fibres of the vegetable kind, most common¬ ly applied to this purpose, are the bark of several kinds of trees, together with hemp, flax, and cotton ; and those of the animal kingdom are, silk, the wool of the sheep and lama, and the hair, or wool, of the goat and camel. 3. That the general process of manufacturing cloth may be perfectly understood, the manner of perform- THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. 67 ing several operations must be separately described. For the purpose of illustration, cotton, wool, and flax, will be selected ; because these are the materials of which our clothing is principally fabricated. The operations of making cloth, may be comprised under carding and combing , spinning , weaving , and dressing . 4. Carding and Combing .—Wool and cotton are carded, with the view of disentangling the fibres, and arranging them longitudinally in small rolls. This is done by means of the teeth of two instruments, called cards, used by hand on the knee, or by the carding machine, which acts on the same principle, although far more expeditiously. 5. Machines for carding wool are to be found in every district of country in the United States, in which the people manufacture much of their woollen cloths in their own families. On account of the rough- ness of the fibres of wool, it is necessary to cover them well with grease or oil, that they may move freely on each other during the carding and spinning. 6. Long, coarse, or hard wools, used in the man¬ ufacture of camlets, bombazines, Circassians, and oth¬ er worsted fabrics, are not carded, but combed. In England, and in other countries where much of this kind of wool is used, wool-combing forms a distinct trade. The operation consists, chiefly, in drawing the locks through steel combs, the teeth of which are similar to our common flax-hatchel. The comb is heated to a certain temperature, to cause the fibres to straighten, and to remove from them the rough¬ ness which might otherwise cause the cloth made of them to thicken in washing, like flannel. 7. The old method of combing wool, however, has been in part superseded by the application of ma¬ chines, the first of which was invented by Edmund Cartwright, of England, about the year 1790. The fibres of flax are arranged in a parallel direction, 68 THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. and freed from tow, by drawing them through a hatchel. 8. Spinning .—The process of spinning consists in twisting the fibres into threads. The most simple method by which this is effected, is that by the com- mon spinning-wheel. Of this well-known machine there are two kinds; one of which is applied to spin¬ ning wool, cotton, and tow, and the other, to spinning flax. 9. This operation is, in most cases, performed by females in the following manner. The roll of cotton or wool is attached to the spindle, which is put in rapid motion by a band passing over it from the rim, or periphery of the wheel. While the spinster is turning the wheel with the right hand, she brings back from the spindle her left, with which she has laid hold of the roll a few inches from the upper end. When the yarn thus produced has been sufficiently twisted, she turns it upon the spindle, and repeats the same operation, until it is full. This yarn is formed into skeins by winding it upon a reel. 10. The mode of spinning tow is a little different. The material having been formed into bats by hand- cards, the fibres are drawn out from between the fingers and thumb by the twisted thread, while the spinster gradually moves backward. Worsted is spun from combed wool nearly in the same manner. 11. The flax or little wheel is moved by the foot, so that both hands of the spinster are used in supply¬ ing, disposing, and occasionally wetting the fibres, as they are drawn from the distaff. Two bands pass from the periphery of the wheel, each of which per¬ forms a distinct office : the one keeps in motion the spindle, which twists the thread ; the other moves the fliers, which wind the thread upon a spool, as fast as it is produced. 12. Spinning was almost exclusively performed in THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. 69 the modes just described, until the year 1767, when Richard Heargreaves, of England, invented a machine for spinning cotton, which he called a jenny. This consisted, at first, of eight spindles, moved by a com¬ mon wheel, or cylinder, which was turned by hand. The number of spindles was afterwards increased to eighty-four. 13. In 1769, Richard Arkwright, also an English¬ man, invented the water-spinning-frame. The essen¬ tial and most important feature of this invention, con¬ sists in drawing out the cotton, by causing it to pass between successive pairs of rollers, which revolve with different velocities, and which act as substitutes for the thumb and fingers, as applied in common spin¬ ning. These rollers are combined with the spindle and fliers of the common flax-wheel. 14. Another machine was invented by Samuel Crompton, in 1779. It is called a mule, because it combines the principles of the two preceding machines. It produces finer yarn than either of them, and has nearly superseded the jenny. Before the cotton is submitted to the spinning machine, it is prepared by several others, by which it is carded, extended, and partially twisted. 15. In the manufactories, the fine, short wools, used in the fabrication of broadcloths, flannels, and a variety of other cloths, are carded by machinery, and spun on a stubbing or roving-machine, or on a jenny or mule, in each of which the spindles are mounted on a carriage, which is moved backwards in stretching and twisting the material, and forwards in winding the thread upon the spindle. 16. Worsted still continues to be spun, in most cases, on the common spinning-wheel, as it can be done more perfectly in this way, than by any other machine which has hitherto been invented. Several machines have been constructed, which spin coarse 70 THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. threads of flax very well, and with great rapidity; but the materials for fine linen fabrics are still spun on the ancient flax-wheel. 17. Weaving .—The first step preparatory to weav¬ ing, is to form a warp, consisting of a number of threads, which extend through the whole piece. To produce this parallel arrangement, the yarn is wound upon spools, which are afterwards placed in a frame perpendicularly by means of rods, on which they move as upon an axle. From these spools, the yarns are stretched upon pegs to the length of the proposed web, and are carried round or doubled a sufficient number of times to make it the proper width. The same object is more expeditiously effected, by wind¬ ing the yarn spirally on a revolving frame. 18. The next step consists in winding the warp on a cylindrical beam, which is usually about ten inches in diameter. The threads, having been put through a harness, composed of moveable parts, called heddles , and also through a sley, or reed, are fastened on the other side to a large rod, from which three ropes ex¬ tend to another cylinder, on which the cloth is wound, as fast as it is woven. 19. The heddles are suspended from cross-pieces, on the top of the loom, by means of cords and pul¬ leys, and, during the operation of weaving, are mo¬ ved up and down alternately by the aid of treadles . This reciprocal motion causes the web to open ; and, while in this position, a shuttle, containing the vioof weft , or filling on a quill or bobbin, is passed through from right to left, or from left to right, as often as the position of the warp is changed. The threads of the filling are beaten up by the reed, or sley, which is placed in the lay. 20. Weaving is a business extensive in its applica¬ tion, being divided into almost as many branches as there are woven fabrics. Plain cotton, linen, wool- THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. 71 len, and twilled cloths, silks, satins, carpets, &c., are all woven in looms of some kind, constructed on the same general principles. Power-looms, driven by water or steam, are now generally introduced into the cotton and woollen manufactories, both in Europe and in this country. One person can attend to two of these looms at the same time, and each one will weave between twenty and forty yards in a day. 21. Dressing .—Cotton fabrics, when the webs are taken from the loom, are covered with an irregular nap, or down, formed by the protruding ends of the fibres. From the finest cottons, this is removed, by drawing them rapidly over an iron cylinder, kept red- hot by a fire within. The flame of coal-gas has re¬ cently been applied, to effect the same object. 22. Common domestic fabrics are taken from the loom, and, without further preparation, are folded up into pieces for sale. Finer articles are usually whi¬ tened and calendered, before they pass from the hand of the manufacturer. Stuffs of all kinds, made of ve¬ getable fibres, are now whitened by immersing them in a solution of oxymuriate of lime. Cotton and lin¬ en goods, with a view of making them smooth and glossy, are calendered, or pressed, between steel roll¬ ers. 23. Many of the fine cottons are converted into calicoes, by transferring to them various colors. The process by which this is done, is called calico-print¬ ing, which will be described in a separate article. 24. The texture of the fabrics made of worsted, or long wool, is completed, when issued from the loom. The pieces are subsequently dyed, and then pressed between heated metallic plates, to communicate to them the required gloss. But weaving does not al¬ ways complete the texture of the stuffs made of the short wools. When taken from the loom, the web is too loose and open, to answer the purposes to 72 THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. which such cloths are usually applied. It is, there¬ fore, submitted to another process, called fulling. 25. Fulling , in common with almost every other operation pertaining to the manufacture of cloth, con¬ stitutes a separate trade. The art is only applied to stuffs composed of wool, or hair, as these only possess the properties which render it applicable. The prac¬ ticability of fulling cloth depends on a certain rough¬ ness of the fibres, which admits of motion in one way, and retards it in another. This may be more fully understood by consulting the article on making hats. 26. The cloth, having been prepared by a proper cleansing, is deposited in a strong box, with a quan¬ tity of water and fuller’s earth or soap, and submitted to the action of the pestles, or stampers, which are moved in a horizontal direction, backwards and for¬ wards, by means of appropriate machinery. This operation reduces the dimensions of the cloth, and greatly improves the beauty and stability of the tex¬ ture. The cloth is afterwards dried in the open air on frames prepared for the purpose. 27. After the cloth has been dyed, a nap is raised on one side of it by means of the common teazle. The nap is next cut off to an even surface. This was formerly done with a huge pair of shears ; but, with¬ in a few years, it has most commonly been effected by a machine, the essential part of which is a spiral blade, that revolves in contact with another blade, while the cloth is stretched over a bed, or support, just near enough for the projecting filaments to be cut off at a uniform length, without injuring the main texture. Pressing and folding the cloth complete the whole process. 28. A great proportion of the woollen fabrics worn in the United States, are manufactured in families, part of which is sent to the clothiers to be dressed. Much cotton yarn, spun at the manufactories, is pur- THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. 73 chased for domestic use. Formerly, the raw mate¬ rial was procured, and spun into yarn on the big wheel. Coarse linens are also extensively manufac¬ tured in families, especially among the German pop¬ ulation. 29. The manufacture of cloth from wool was in¬ troduced into Britain by the Romans, some time in the Augustan age. At Winchester, they conducted the business on a scale sufficiently large to supply their army. After the Romans withdrew from the island, in the fifth century, the art was comparatively neglected, and gradually declined, until the reign of Edward III. This monarch invited into his domin¬ ions workmen from Flanders, in which country the manufacture had, for a long time, been in a flourish¬ ing condition. 30. Shortly after the first immigration of the Flem¬ ish manufacturers into England, an act was passed prohibiting the wearing of cloths made in any other country ; and, in the time of Elizabeth, the manufac¬ ture had become so extensive, that the exportation of the raw material was forbidden by law. 31. It is supposed that there are now, in Great Britain, thirty millions of sheep ; whose annual prod¬ uce of wool is worth, on an average, about seven millions of pounds sterling ; to this may be added five millions of pounds weight from foreign countries. This amount is increased in value, by manufacturing skill, to twenty or thirty millions of pounds. Not less than three millions of persons are supposed to be employed in this branch of British industry. 32. Both the woollen and cotton manufactures have arisen to great importance, of late years, in the Uni¬ ted States; and, from the mechanical skill of our countrymen, the abundance of the raw material, and the vast amount of water-power, there is every rea- G 74 THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. son to anticipate a rapid and continual increase in these divisions of American enterprise. THE SILK-WORM. 1. Silk is the production of a worm, of the cater¬ pillar species, which, in due course, passes through several transformations, and at length becomes a butterfly, like others of the genus. It is produced from an egg, and when about to die, or rather again to change its form, spins for itself an envelope, called a cocoon. The worm then changes to a chrysalis, and, after remaining in this state from 5 to 8 days, the butterfly, or moth, comes out, forcing its way through the cocoon. The moths, or butterflies, eat nothing, and die as soon as they have provided for the propagation of their species. Enough of these are suffered to come to maturity, to provide a suffi¬ cient stock of eggs. The rest are killed, in a few days after they have spun their task, either by heat¬ ing them in an oven, or by exposing them to the rays of the sun. 2. The fibres are wound upon a reel. To render this practicable, the cocoons are put into water heat¬ ed to a suitable temperature, which dissolves the gum¬ my substance that holds the fibres together. A num¬ ber of threads being detached, and passed through a hole in an iron bar, form, by the aid of the remain¬ ing glutinous matter, one thread, which is wound upon a reel into skeins. 3. The raw silk, thus produced and prepared, is sold to the manufacturers, who twist and double the fibres variously, and finally form them into threads for sewing; or weave them into a great variety of fabrics, which are too well known to need particular description here. 4. According to the ancients, the silk-worm was originally a native of China, and the neighboring THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. 75 parts of Asia, and had there been domesticated for a long time, before it was known in Europe. For many years after silk was sold among the nations of the West, even the merchants were ignorant of both the manner and place of its production. 5. The Greeks became acquainted with silk, soon after the time of Alexander the Great; and the Ro¬ mans knew little of the article, until the reign of Augustus. Dresses, composed entirely of this ma¬ terial, were seldom worn ; but the fabrics which had been closely woven in the East, were unravelled, and the threads were recomposed in a looser texture, in¬ termixed with linen or woollen yarn. 6. The prodigal Heliogabalus is said to have been the first individual, in the Roman empire, who wore a robe of pure silk. It is also stated, that the Emperor Aurelian refused his wife a garment of this descrip¬ tion, on account of its exorbitant price. At that time, as well as at previous periods, it usually sold for its weight in gold. 7. A kind of gauze, originally made by the women on the island of Cos, was very celebrated. It was dyed purple, with the substance usually employed in communicating that colour in those days ; but this was done before it was woven, as in that state it was too frail to admit of the process. Habits, made of this kind of stuff, were denominated “ dresses of glass because the body could be seen through them. 8. The Roman empire had been supplied with silk through the medium of the Persians, until the time of Justinian, in the year 555. This emperor, having become indignant at the rapacity of the silk-mer¬ chants, determined, if possible, to supply his people from the insect itself. 9. After many unsuccessful attempts, he at length obtained a small quantity of the eggs from India, by the assistance of two Persian monks, who had con- 76 THE MANUFACTURER OF CLOTH. trived to conceal them in the hollow of their canes. The seeds of the mulberry-tree, on the leaves of which the worm feeds, were also procured at the same time, together with instructions necessary for the manage¬ ment of the worms. 10. For six hundred years after the period just mentioned, the rearing of these worms, in Europe, was confined to the Greek empire ; but, in the twelfth century, Roger, king of Sicily, introduced it into that island, whence it gradually spread into Italy, Spain, France, and other European countries. 11. The silk-worm was introduced into England by James the First; but it has never succeeded well in that country, on account of the dampness and cold¬ ness of the climate. The manufacture of fabrics from silk, however, is there very extensive, the raw mate¬ rial being obtained, chiefly, from Bengal and Italy. In the latter of these countries, in France, and other parts of Europe, as well as in Asia, the manufacture is also extensive. 12. Some attention has been paid to the rearing of silk-worms in the United States, and attempts have been made to introduce the manufacture of silks. The mulberry has been planted in various parts of the Union; and it is highly probable, that, in a few years, we shall be able to obtain excellent silks, with¬ out sending for them to foreign countries. THE DYER, AND THE CALICO-PRINTER. > V ' ' - THE DYER. 1. The art of dyeing consists in impregnating flex¬ ible fibres with any color which may be desired, in such a manner, that it will remain permanent, under the common exposures to which it may be liable. 2. The union of the coloring matter with the fibres receiving the dye, is purely chemical, and not mechanical, as in the case of the application of paints. Wool has the greatest attraction for coloring sub¬ stances ; silk comes next to it; then cotton ; and, lastly, hemp and flax. These materials, also, absorb dye-stuffs in different proportions. 3. Previous to the application of the dye, the grea¬ sy substance which covers the fibres of wool, and the gluey matter on those of silk, are removed by some G 2 78 THE DYER. kind of alkali. Their natural color is, also, dischar- ged by the fumes of sulphur. The resinous matter and natural color of cotton and linen, are removed by bleaching. 4. The materials used in dyeing are divided into two classes— substantive and adjective. The former communicates durable tints without the aid of any other substance previously applied ; the latter re¬ quires the intervention of some agent which possess¬ es an attraction for both the coloring matter and the stuff to be dyed, in order to make the color per¬ manent. The substances used for this purpose are usually termed mordants. 5. Agents capable of acting in some way as mor¬ dants, are very ’numerous; but alumina, alum, the sulphate or acetate of iron, the muriate of tin, and nut- galls, are principally employed. The mordant not only fixes the color, but, in many cases, alters and improves the tints. It is always dissolved in water, in which the stuffs are immersed, previous to the ap¬ plication of the dye. Dyeing substances are also very numerous ; but a few of the most important have, in practice, < taken precedence of the others. 6. Blue, red, yellow, and black, are the chief col¬ ors, for which appropriate coloring substances are applied ; but, by a judicious combination of these same materials, and by a proper application of mor¬ dants, intermediate hues of every shade are produced ; thus, a green is communicated by forming a blue ground of indigo, and then adding a yellow by means of quercitron bark. 7. The blue dye is made of indigo ; the red dye, of madder, cochineal, archil, Brazil-wood, or safflowers ; the yellow dye, of quercitron bark, turmeric, hickory, weld, fustic, or saffron ; the black dye, of the oxide of iron combined with logwood, or the bark of the com¬ mon red, or soft maple, and the sulphate or acetate THE DYER. 79 of iron. The dyes made of some of these substances require the aid of mordants, and those from others do not. 8. In communicating the intermediate hues, the different dye-stuffs forming the leading colors, are sometimes mixed ; and, at other times, they are made into separate dyes, and applied in succession. 9. In this country, the business of the dyer is often united with that of the clothier; but, where the amount of business will justify it, as in manufactories, and in cities or large towns, it is a separate business. The dyers sometimes confine their attention to par¬ ticular branches. Some dye wool only or silk, while others confine themselves to certain colors, such as scarlet and blue. The principal profits of the dyer, when unconnected with manufacturing establishments, arise from dyeing garments or stuffs which have been partly worn. 10. The origin of the art of dyeing is involved in great obscurity, as the ancients have not furnished even a fable, which might guide us in our researches. It is evident, however, that the art must have made considerable progress, long before authentic history begins. Moses speaks of stuffs dyed blue, purple, and scarlet, and of sheep-skins dyed red. The know¬ ledge of the preparation of these colors, implies an advanced state of the art, at that early period. 11. Purple was the favorite color of the ancients, and appears to have been the first which was brought to a state of tolerable perfection. The discovery of the mode of communicating it, is stated to have been accidental. A shepherd’s dog, while on the sea-shore, incited by hunger, broke a shell, the contents of which stained his mouth with a beautiful purple; and the circumstance suggested the application of the shell¬ fish, as a coloring substance. This discovery is J 80 THE DYER. •. thought to have been made about fifteen hundred years before the advent of Christ. 12. The Jews esteemed this color so highly, that they consecrated it especially to the service of the Deity, using it in stuffs for decorating the tabernacle, and for the sacred vestments of the high.priests. The Babylonians and other idolatrous nations clothed their idols in habits of purple, and even supposed this color capable of appeasing the wrath of the gods. 13. Among the heathen nations of antiquity gen¬ erally, purple was appropriated to the use of kings and princes, to the exclusion of their subjects. In Rome, at a later period, purple habits were worn by the chief officers of the republic, and, at length, by the opulent, until the emperors reserved to themselves the distinguished privilege. 14. There were several kinds of shell-fish, from which this coloring substance was obtained, each of which communicated a shade somewhat different from the others. The kind collected near Tyre was the best; and hence the Tyrian purple acquired especial celebrity. So highly was it esteemed by the Romans, in the time of Augustus, that wool imbued with this color was sold for one thousand denarii per pound, which, in our currency, amounts to one hundred and sixty-eight dollars. 15. After all, the boasted purple of antiquity is supposed to have been a very inferior dye, when com¬ pared with many which we now possess ; and this is only one among many instances, wherein modern science has given us a decided superiority over the ancients. 16. The color, second in repute with the people of antiquity, was scarlet. This color was commu¬ nicated by means of an insect, called coccus , and which is now denominated kermes. Besides the various hues of purple and scarlet, several others were in THE DYER. 81 some degree of favor; such as green, orange, and blue. The use of vegetable dyes appears to have been but little known to the Romans; but the Gauls had the knowledge of imparting various colors, even the purple and scarlet, with the juice of certain herbs. 17. The irruption of the northern barbarians into the Roman empire, destroyed this, with the rest of the arts of civilization, in the western parts of Eu¬ rope ; but, having been preserved, more or less, in the East, it was again revived in the West, principal¬ ly by means of the intercourse arising from the Cru¬ sades. 18. Although indigo seems to have been known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, yet it does not appear to have been used for dyeing. The first that was applied to this purpose in Europe, was brought from India by the Dutch ; but its general use was not established without much opposition from interested individuals. It was strictly prohibited in England, in the reign of Elizabeth, and, about the same time, in Saxony. Many valuable acquisitions were made to the materials employed in this art, on the discovery of America, among which may be enumerated, coch¬ ineal, logwood, Brazil-wood, and Nicaragua, together with the soft maple and quercitron barks. 19. The first book on the art of dyeing was pub¬ lished in 1429. This, of course, appeared in man¬ uscript, as the art of printing had not then been discovered. An edition was printed in 1510. The authors to whom the world is most indebted for cor¬ rect information on this subject, are Dufuy, Hallet, Macquir, and Berthollet, of France; and Henry and Bancroft, of England ; all of whom wrote in the eigh¬ teenth century. 82 THE CALICO-PRINTER. THE CALICO-PRINTER. 1. Calico-printing is a combination of the arts of dyeing, engraving, and printing, wherewith colors are applied in definite figures. This art is applicable to woven fabrics, and chiefly to those of which the ma¬ terial is cotton. 2. The first object, after preparing the stuffs, as in dyeing, is to apply a mordant to those parts of the piece which are to receive the color. This is now usually done by means of a steel or copper cylinder, on which have been engraved the proposed figures, as on plates for copperplate-printing. 3. During the printing, the cylinder, in one part of its revolution, becomes charged with the mordant, the superfluous part of which is scraped off by a straight steel edge, leaving only the portion which fills the lines of the figures. As the cylinder re¬ volves, the cloth comes into forcible contact with it, and receives the complete impression of the figures, in the pale color of the mordant. 4. The cloth, after having been washed and dried, is passed through the coloring bath, in which the parts previously printed, become permanently dyed with the intended color. Although the whole piece receives the dye, yet, by washing the cloth, and bleaching it on the grass in the open air, the color is discharged from those parts not impregnated with the mordant. 5. By the use of different mordants, successively applied, and a single dye, several colors are often communicated to the same piece of cloth; thus, if stripes are first made with the acetate of alumina, and then others with the acetate of iron, a coloring bath of madder will produce red and brown stripes. The same mordants, with a dye of quercitron bark, give yellow and olive or drab. 6. Sometimes, the second mordant is applied by THE CALIC OP R I N T E R. 83 means of engravings on wooden blocks. Cuts, de¬ signed for this purpose, are engraved on the side of the grain, and not on the end , like those for printing books. 7. Calico-printing, so far as chemical affinities are concerned, is the same with dyeing. The difference consists, chiefly, in the mode of applying the mate¬ rials, so as to communicate the desired tints and fig¬ ures. The dye-stuffs, most commonly employed by calico-printers, are indigo, madder, and quercitron bark; by a dexterous application of these and the mordants, a great variety of colors can be produced. Indigo, being a substantive color, does not require the aid of mordants, but, like them, when other dyes are used, is applied directly to the cloth, sometimes by the engraved cylinder or block, and at others with the pencil by hand. 8. Calico-printing was practised in India twenty- two centuries ago, when Alexander the Great visited that country with his victorious army. The opera¬ tion was then performed with a pencil. This method is still used in the East to the exclusion of every oth¬ er. The art was also practised in Egypt in Pliny’s time. 9. Calicoes were first brought to England in the year 1631. They derive their name from the city of Calicut, whence they were first exported to Eu¬ rope. This branch of business was introduced into London in the year 1676. Since that time, it has been encouraged by several acts of Parliament ; but it never became extensive in England, until the intro¬ duction of machinery for spinning cotton. It is sup¬ posed, that the amount of cottons annually printed in the United States, cannot be less than twenty mil¬ lions of yards. THE HATTER. 1. The business, peculiar to the batter, consists in making hats from the fur or hair of animals, by the process called felting. The hair of animals is the only material which can be firmly matted together in this way ; yet, that of every animal is not suitable for this purpose. The fur of the beaver, the otter, the seal, the muskrat, the rabbit, the hare, the coney, and the nutria, together with the wool of the lama, sheep, and camel, are employed to the exclusion of almost every other. 2. The skin of all animals having fur, is covered with two kinds of hair; the one, long and coarse; the other, short, fine, and thickly set. The coarse hair is pulled out from the skin, by the aid of a shoe- knife, and thrown away, while the fine, which is the THE HATTER. 85 fur, is cut from it with one of a circular form, such as the saddlers and harness-makers use in cutting leather. 3. In the application of the materials, the first ob¬ ject of the hatter is to make the body. In the com¬ mon three, four, and five dollar hats, the body is com¬ posed of the wool of the sheep ; but, in those of great¬ er value, it is usually made of the wool of the lama, and different kinds of cheap furs. In describing the process of making hats, one of the latter kind will be selected. 4. A sufficient quantity of the materials for the body is weighed out, and divided into two equal parts. One of these is placed on a table, or, as the hatters call it, a hurl. The individual hairs composing this portion, are separated, and lightly and regularly spread out into a proper form, by the vibrations of a bow¬ string, which is plucked with a wooden pin. 5. The fur is then carefully compressed with a flat piece of wicker-work, denominated a hatter’s basket, and covered with a damp piece of linen cloth, in which it is afterwards folded, pressed, and worked, with the hands, until it becomes matted together into a bat. This bat is next folded over a triangular piece of pa¬ per, and formed into a conical cap. 6. When another bat has been made in the same way, from the other half of the materials, the two are put together to form one, which is then worked in the damp cloth as before, until it is much contracted and matted together. After this, having been conveyed to another room, it is rolled in a woollen cloth, press¬ ed, rubbed, and worked, with the hands and a rolling- pin, around a kettle of hot water, into which it is often plunged during the operation, which is called 'planking. 7. In this way, the materials are consolidated into felt, and the body contracted to the proper size. The H 86 THE HATTER. reason why the process just described produces this effect, may be found in the nature of the fibres them- selves. Upon a close examination, it will be observ¬ ed, that these are covered with little scales, or beards, which admit of motion in one direction, but retard it in the other. This peculiar formation causes them to interlock in such a way as to become closely mat¬ ted together. 8. When the body has been dried, and shaved on the knee with a sharp knife, to free it from projecting filaments, it is stiffened with gum-shellac dissolved in alcohol, and then steamed in a box, to cause the stif¬ fening to set . It is now prepared for being napped . 9. The fur for the nap is prepared on the hurl, like the conical cap first described. In applying the nap to the body, the latter is wet with hot water, and flakes of the former are matted down upon it, by working it on the planks around the kettle. After three layers have been put on in this way, the cap is beaten, while wet, with sticks, to raise the nap, and then drawn over a cylindrical block, which gives it the general form of a hat. 10. The nap having been raised with a card, the hat is prepared to be colored. The dye is made, chief¬ ly, of the extract of logwood, copperas, and verdigris. The hats, to the number of forty-eight or more, are hung upon a wheel by means of pegs, which pass through the centre of the blocks. This wheel can be turned, so as to keep one half of the hats alternately in the dye. After having been properly colored, they are taken from the blocks, washed, and dried. 11. The hat is now prepared for the finisher , who first whips up the nap with a ratan, and, after having rendered it pliable with steam, draws it over \he fin¬ ishing -block. The fibres composing the nap, are prop¬ erly disposed with a card and brush, and rendered smooth and glossy by means of a hot iron. The su- THE HATTER. 87 perfluous part of the rim is cut off with a blade, placed in a gauge. The hat is finished by adding suitable trimmings, the nature of which, and the mode of ap¬ plication, can be easily learned by examining differ¬ ent kinds of hats. 12. Hats of various colors have been worn ; but those most in use are black, white, and drab. The white hats, which are intended only for ladies and children, have a nap of rabbits’ fur, selected from the white skins. Drab hats are also made of stuffs of the natural color, assorted for that purpose. 13. The value of hats depends, of course, upon the workmanship, and the cost of the materials used in the manufacture. So great is the difference in these respects, that their price ranges between seventy-five cents and fifteen dollars. The woollen bodies used by hatters are now often procured from persons, who devote their attention exclusively to their manufac¬ ture. 14. Several years ago, woollen cloths were made in England, by the process of felting ; but, on trial, they were found to be deficient in firmness and durability. Since the year 1840, an American citizen has been manufacturing cloths by this method; but, whether they are liable to the objection just mentioned, is yet uncertain. 15. Some kind of covering for the head, either for defence or ornament, appears to have been usually worn in all ages and countries, where the inhabitants have made the least progress in the arts of civilized life. 16. The form, substance, and color, of this article of dress, have been exceedingly various in different ages, according to the circumstances or humor of the wearer. The ancient Persians wore turbans, similar to those of the modern Turks; and the nations in¬ habiting the Indian Peninsula, wore a kind of head- 88 THE HATTER. dress so large, that it divested the person of all pro¬ portion. 17. The imperial turban is said to have been com¬ posed of a great many yards of muslin, twisted and formed into a shape nearly oval, and surmounted with a woollen cap, encircled with a radiated crown. The turban of the prime minister was smaller in its di¬ mensions, but of greater altitude. The chief magi, on account of his superior eminence, wore a higher turban than those of the monarch and minister united. Those worn by the inferior magi, were regulated by the dignity of the stations which they held. 18. The Jewish people and the neighboring nations borrowed the turban from the Persians ; but, at a la¬ ter period, they very commonly adopted the cap which the Romans were accustomed to give to their slaves, on their manumission. 19. The ancient helmet, made of steel, brass, and sometimes of more costly materials, was worn as a piece of defensive armor in war, instead of the ordi¬ nary coverings, used while engaged in peaceful oc¬ cupations. 20. Roman citizens went bare-headed, except upon occasions of sacred rites, games, and festivals ; or when engaged in travelling or in war. They were accustomed, however, in th6 city, to throw over their head the lappet of their toga, as a screen from the wind or sun. The people of Scotland used to wear a kind of bonnet, as in some parts of that country they do at the present time ; and the English, before the invention of felt hats, covered the head with knit caps and cloth hoods, and sometimes with hats made of thrummed silk. 21. The Chinese do not wear hats, but use a cap of peculiar structure, which the laws of civility will not allow them to put off in public. The form and material of this is varied with the change of the sea- — THE HATTER. 89 4 son. That used in summer is shaped like a cone, is made of a beautiful kind of mat, and lined with satin ; to this is added, at the top, a large tuft of red silk, which falls all round to the lower part of the cap, and which fluctuates gracefully on all sides, while the wearer is in motion. The kind worn in winter is made of shaggy cloth, bordered with some kind of fur, and ornamented in a similar manner. 22. Head-dresses, from their variety, simplicity, and mutability, were but little regulated by commer¬ cial or manufacturing interests, until the introduction of felt hats, which has occasioned a uniformity in this article of dress, unknown in former ages. 23. Curiosity is naturally excited to become ac¬ quainted with the particulars of the invention of the hat, and the subsequent stages of improvement in the manufacture. But the operation of individual inter¬ est, so generally connected with the useful arts, seems to have concealed the whole in obscurity; and little information on the subject can now be obtained. 24. The hatters have a tradition, that the art of felting originated with St. Clement, the fourth bishop of Rome. Under this impression, in Catholic coun¬ tries, they adopt him as their patron saint, and hold an annual festival in his honor. The principle of felting is said to have been suggested to his mind by the following circumstance; while fleeing from his per¬ secutors, his feet became blistered, and, to obtain re¬ lief, he placed wool between them and his sandals. On continuing his journey, the wool, by the perspira¬ tion, motion, and pressure of the feet, assumed a com¬ pact form. 25. Notwithstanding this tradition, it appears, that felt hats were invented at Paris, by a Swiss, about the commencement of the fifteenth century ; but they were not generally known, until Charles the Seventh made his triumphal entry into Rouen, in the year H 2 90 THE HATTER. 1492, when he astonished the people by wearing a hat, lined with red silk, and surmounted with a plume of feathers. 26. When some of the clergy first adopted this ar¬ ticle of dress, it was considered an unwarrantable in¬ dulgence. Councils were held, and regulations pub¬ lished, forbidding any priest or monk to appear abroad wearing a hat; and enjoining them to keep to the use of chaperons, or hoods, made of black cloth, with de¬ cent cornets ; if they were poor, they were, at least to have cornets fastened to their hats, upon penalty of suspension and excommunication. 27. At length, however, the pope permitted even the cardinals to wear hats ; but, enjoined them to wear those of a red color at public ceremonials, in token of their readiness to spill their blood for their religion. 28. In England, considerable opposition was made to the use of the hat. By a statute, enacted in the thirteenth year of the reign of Elizabeth, every per¬ son between certain ages was obliged, on Sundays and holidays, to wear a woollen cap, made by some of the cappers of that kingdom, under the penalty of three shillings and four-pence for every day’s neglect. This law continued in force, for about twenty-five years. The manufacture of hats was commenced, in England, in the time of Henry the Eighth, by Dutch¬ men and Spaniards. 29. Hats made of plaited straw, grass, or chip, are much used in the summer; and caps of cloth or fur are now frequently substituted for hats, in cold weath¬ er. Silk hats have also been much worn, since the year 1825. They are made of the common hat body, and a texture of silk with a long nan. The silk is fastened to the body with glue. THE ROPE-MAKER. 1. Ropes may be made of any vegetable substance which has a fibre sufficiently flexible and tenacious. The Chinese and other orientals, in making ropes, use the ligneous parts of certain bamboos and reeds, the fibrous covering of the cocoa-nut, the filaments of the cotton pod, and the leaves of certain grasses ; but the bark of plants and trees, is the most productive of fibrous matter suitable to this manufacture. That of the linden.tree, the willow, and the bramble is fre¬ quently used. In Europe and America, however, the fibres of hemp and flax are more frequently employ¬ ed, for this purpose, than any other material. 2. The operations of rope-making are commonly performed in rope-walks , which are sometimes more than a quarter of a mile in length. These are usual- 92 THE R 0 P E-M AKER. ly covered with a slight shed, the nature and appear¬ ance of which are well exhibited in the preceding picture. 3. The first part of the process consists in spin¬ ning the material into yarn. The principle on which this is effected, is the same as that by which cotton or wool is drawn out and twisted into threads, al¬ though the machinery, and the mode of operating, are different. 4. The kind of wheel employed in spinning rope- yarn, is also exhibited in the cut. A band passes around the periphery, and over the semicircle above it, in which is placed a number of wheels, the pivots of which terminate, on the other side, in a small hook. 5. The spinner, having a quantity of the material properly disposed about the waist, attaches a number of fibres to one of the hooks, which, being put in mo¬ tion by the band passing over the whirl, twists them rapidly into yarn. The part already twisted draws along with it more fibres from the bundle, and v as the spinner is regulating their uniform arrangement, he walks backward towards the other end of the walk. 6. When the thread has been spun to the proposed length, the spinner cries out to another, who imme¬ diately takes it off from the hook, gives it to a third person, and, in turn, attaches his own fibres to the same hook. In the meantime, the first spinner keeps fast hold of the end of his yarn, to prevent it from untwisting or doubling; and, as it is wound on the reel, proceeds up the walk, keeping the yarn of an equal tension throughout. 7. The second part of the process consists in form¬ ing the yarn into various kinds of ropes. The com¬ ponent parts of cordage are called strands ; and the operation of uniting them with a permanent twist, is THE ROP E-M AKER. 93 called laying , when applied to small ropes, and closing , when applied to cables or other large ropes. 8. The simplest twist is formed of two strands. The thread used by sail-makers, and pack-thread, fur¬ nish examples of this kind; but cordage with two strands is not much used ; that with three is the most usual. Lines and cords less than one and a half inches in circumference, are laid by means of the spinning-wheel. Preparatory to this operation, the workman fastens the hither end of the yarns to sep¬ arate whirl-hooks, and the remote ends to the hook of a swivel, called the loper. 9. The strands having been properly distended, the spinning-wheel is turned in the same direction as when twisting the yarns. A further twisting of the strands, during this part of the process, is prevented by the motion of the loper, which gives way to the strain, and, at the same time, causes the strands to entwine about each other, and form a cord. To prevent them from entwining too rapidly, an instrument is inter¬ posed, which, from its form, is called the top. It has two or more notches, which terminate at the apex, and a handle, called a staff. As the top is moved from the loper to the wheel, it regulates the degree of twist which the cord or rope is to receive. 10. The principle on which large cordage is laid, or closed, is the same, although some part of the ma¬ chinery is different. The strands for large ropes and cables are formed of many yarns, and require consid¬ erable hardening. This cannot be done with whirls driven by a wheel-band ; it requires the power of a crank, turned by hand, or by some other considerable force. The strands, also, when properly hardened, become very stiff, and, when bent round the top, can¬ not transmit force enough to close the unpliant rope : it is, therefore, necessary that the loper, also, be mo¬ ved by a crank. 94 THE ROP E-M AKER. 11. Cordage, which is to be exposed to the alter¬ nate action of air and water, is usually tarred. The application of this substance is made, in most cases, while the material is in a state of yarn. In effecting this object, the threads are drawn through boiling tar, and then passed between rollers, or through holes sur¬ rounded with oakum, to remove the superfluous tar. In like manner, ropes and cables are superficially tarred. • 12. Various improvements have been made in the machinery, for performing the different operations of rope-making ; but, these not having been generally adopted, it is unnecessary to notice them more par¬ ticularly ; especially, as they do not affect the gen¬ eral principles of the art. 13. Within a few years, cotton-yarn has been em¬ ployed in the manufacture of ropes ; but this material has not yet been sufficiently tested, to determine its fitness for the purpose. A kind of vegetable fibre, brought from Manilla, and hence called Manilla hemp, is very extensively applied in making ropes, and, for some purposes, is preferred to other materials. 14. The intestines of animals are composed of very powerful fibres, and those of sheep and lambs are manufactured into what is called cat-gut, for the use of musical instrument-makers, hatters, watch¬ makers, and a variety of other artificers. Animal hair, as that from the tail and mane of horses, is frequently employed as the material for ropes ; and such are durable, elastic, and impervious to moisture. They, however, are not applicable in cases, where the rope is subject to considerable friction. 15. Hemp is cultivated in various parts of the world, and especially in Russia, whence it is export¬ ed to other countries in great quantities. It is also produced, to a considerable extent, in the state of Ken¬ tucky, and in many other parts of the United States. THE R 0 P E-M AKER. 95 Flax is still more generally cultivated than hemp; but its chief application is to the manufacture of cloth, as it does not answer well for any cordage larger than a bed-cord. The formation of cloth from hemp is also very common ; and, in this case, the yarn for the coarse cloths is spun on the rope-maker’s wheel in the manner already described. The cloth is gen¬ erally used for making bags, sacking-bottoms for beds, and sails for vessels. 16. Rope-making is a manufacture of general util¬ ity, as cordage of some kind is used more or less in every family in all civilized communities ; nor are there many trades capable of being carried on, with convenience, without it. But the great utility of cord¬ age, in all its varieties, is most conspicuous in the rigging and equipment of vessels ; and the extensive demand for it, in this application, renders rope-ma¬ king one of the most important and extensive of the primitive trades. 17. Nor does the utility of cordage end with its application to the purposes for which it was originally designed. Old ropes are converted into oakum by untwisting and picking them to pieces. The oakum thus produced is driven into the seams of vessels, to render them water-tight. • 18. As regards the invention of this art, nothing can be gathered from ancient records. We only know, in general, that cordage was in considerable use among the nations of antiquity, especially among the Greeks and Romans, who probably learned its ap. plication to rigging vessels from the Phoenicians. I THE TAILOR. 1. The business of the tailor consists, principally, in cutting out and making clothes for men and boys, together with habits and cloaks for ladies. It is usu¬ al for persons who carry on this business in cities and large towns, to keep a stock of cloths and other stuffs adapted to the season, which they make up into gar¬ ments to the order of customers. In such cases, they are termed merchant tailors. 2. The operation, preparatory to cutting out the cloth for a garment, is that of taking the measure of the person for whom it is designed. This is done with a narrow strip of paper or parchment, and the dimensions are either marked on the measure with the scissors, or entered in a pattern-hoojc kept for the purpose. THE TAILOR. 97 3. The cloth is cut to the proper shape, with a large pair of shears. This is performed either by the individual who carries on the business, or by a foreman. The parts are sewed together, and the trimmings applied, by means of thread and silk ; this is commonly done by those who devote their attention to this branch of the trade. It sometimes happens, however, that the same person performs the whole of the work, particularly in country places, where the business is very limited in extent. 4. Females often serve an apprenticeship to this business. Many of them learn to cut out, and make with skill, certain kinds of garments, and are after¬ wards employed in families, or by the tailors. Most of the ready-made clothing, kept for sale in cities, is made up by females. 5. The instruments employed in performing the op¬ erations of the tailor, are few and simple; the prin¬ cipal of these are the shears, the scissors, the needle, the thimble, the bodkin, the goose, and the press- board. 6. The great art of a master tailor consists in fit¬ ting the dress to his customer, in such a manner as to conceal any defect of form, and display his person to the best advantage. He should, therefore, be a good judge of the human figure ; as, from this knowl¬ edge, arises, chiefly, the superiority of one workman over another in this branch of the business. 7. The first hint on the art of clothing the human body, was given to man by the Deity himself; for we read in the Scriptures, that ‘‘Unto Adam and to his wife, the Lord God made coats of skins, and cloth¬ ed them.” From that time to the present, the art of cutting out garments, and of sewing their different parts together, has been practised, more or less, in every place, where there has been any degree of civ¬ ilization. I 98 THE TAILOR. 8. For a long time, it is probable, that thongs and the sinews of animals were used, for want of thread made of silk or vegetable fibre ; and, doubtless, the same necessity caused the substitution of pointed bones and thorns, instead of needles. Such rude ma¬ terials and instruments are still employed for similar purposes by savage nations. The dresses of the peo¬ ple of Greenland are sewed together with thongs made of the intestines of the seal, or of some fish, which they have the skill to cut fine, after having dried them in the air; and even the inhabitants of Peru, although considerably advanced in civilization, when that country was first visited by the Spaniards, made use of long thorns, in sewing and fixing their clothes. 9. We have no means of determining the period of the world, when this art was first practised, as a particular profession. We know, in general, that the dress of the ancients was usually more simple in its construction than that of the people of modern times ; and, consequently, it required less skill to put the ma¬ terials in the required form. It may, therefore, be inferred, that either the females or the slaves of each family usually made up the clothing of all its members. 10. The distinguishing dress of the Romans was the toga , or gown; as that of the Greeks was the pallium, or cloak. The toga was a loose, woollen robe, and covered nearly the whole person; it was round and close at the bottom, and open at the top, having no sleeves, but a large flap, or lappet, which was either thrown over the left shoulder, or over the head, to protect it from the heat or cold. 11. The Romans, at an early period of their his¬ tory, used no other dress, and it was also, at that time, worn by the women. Afterwards, they wore, under the toga, a white woollen vest called tunica , THE TAILOR. 99 which extended a little below the knee. At first it was without sleeves. Tunics, reaching to the ancles, or having 'sleeves, were reckoned effeminate ; but, under the emperors, they became fashionable. 12. The toga was usually assumed at the age of seventeen. Until then, the youth wore a kind of gown, bordered with purple, denominated toga prce - texta ; and such a garment was also worn by females, until they were married. The youthful dress was laid aside, and the toga virilis, or manly toga, assu¬ med with great solemnity ; as, by this act, the indi¬ vidual assumed the responsibilities of a citizen. The toga was worn chiefly in the city, and only by Ro¬ man citizens. THE MILLINER, and THE LADY’S DRESS-MAKER. THE MILLINER. 1. The milliner is one, who manufactures and re¬ pairs bonnets and hats for ladies and children. Her business requires the use of pasteboard, wire, buck¬ ram, silks, satins, muslins, ribands, artificial flowers, spangles, and other materials too numerous to be mentioned. 2. The first part of the process of making a hat, or bonnet, consists in forming a crown of buckram ; which operation is performed on a block of suitable size and shape ; and to this is applied pasteboard, or buckram, edged with wire, to form the front part. The foundation having been thus laid, it is usually- covered and lined with some of the materials just enumerated, and finished by applying to it the trim- THE MILLINER. lOx mings required by the fashion, or by the individual customer. 3. Ladies’ hats are also made of rye straw, and a kind of grass, which grows in Italy ; those made of the latter material are called Leghorns , from the name of the city, in or near which they are principally made. A few years since, these had almost superseded those made of straw; but the latter, of late, have nearly regained their former ascendency. 4. In the United States, and likewise in various parts of Europe, there are several establishments for making straw hats, in which the proprietors employ females to perform the whole labor. The - straw is first cut into several pieces, so as to leave out the joints, and then whitened by smoking them with the fumes of brimstone. They are next split longitudi¬ nally into several pieces by a simple machine, and af¬ terwards plaited with the fingers and thumbs. The braid, or plait, thus produced, is sown together to form hats adapted to the prevailing fashion. 5. Great quantities of straw are, also, plaited in families, especially in the New-England states, and sold to neighboring merchants, who, in turn, dispose of it to those who form it into hats. The milliners usually keep a supply of Leghorn and straw hats, which they line and trim according to the fancy of their customers. 6. Head-dresses were probably used nearly as early as any other part of dress ; and their form and mate¬ rial have likewise been equally variable. In the ear¬ ly days of Rome, the head-dress of the women of that city was very simple ; and, when they went abroad, which was seldom, they covered their faces with a veil; but, when riches and luxury had in¬ creased, dress became, with many, the principal ob¬ ject of attention ; hence, a woman’s toilet and orna¬ ments were called her world . I 2 102 THE lady’s dress-maker. 7. The head-dresses of the ladies, in various parts of Europe, especially in the eighteenth century, were particularly extravagant, being sometimes so high, that the face seemed to be nearly in the centre of the body. In 1714, this fashion was at its height in France ; but two English ladies visiting the court of Versailles, introduced the low head-dresses of their own country. 8. The high head-dresses had no sooner fallen into disuse in France, than they were adopted in England, and even carried to a greater degree of extravagance. To build one of these elevated structures in the fash¬ ionable style, both the barber and milliner were ne¬ cessary. The head-dresses of the ladies of the pres¬ ent age, are characterized by great simplicity, when compared with those of several periods in preceding ages. THE LADY’S DRESS-MAKER. 1. This business is nearly allied to the foregoing, and is, therefore, often carried on in conjunction with it. This is especially the case in villages and small towns, where sufficient business cannot be obtained in the exclusive pursuit of one branch. 2. The customers of the lady’s dress-maker are not always easily pleased, as they frequently expect more from her skill than it is possible to accomplish. She, however, can do much towards concealing the defects of nature ; and, by padding and other means, can sometimes render the person tolerably well pro¬ portioned, when, in its natural shape, it would be quite inelegant. It is to be regretted, however, that dress-makers are guided by fashion and whim in moulding the external form of females, rather than by the best specimens of the human figure, as exhibited by eminent painters and sculptors. 3. The dress-maker should have some acquaint- the lady’s dress-maker. 103 ance with the anatomy and functions of those parts to which pressure is usually applied ; for, who that knows the structure, size, and office of the liver, and other internal organs of digestion and vitality, would venture to apply to them a compressive force calcu¬ lated to interfere most seriously, if not dangerously, with their healthful action ? 4. The fashions for ladies’ dresses are chiefly pro¬ cured from France, and the dress-makers from that country are, therefore, often preferred by fashionable ladies. Sometimes, however, a dress-maker, having a name with a French termination, will answer the purpose. 5. Corset-making is frequently a separate branch of business ; but corsets have become less necessary ; inasmuch as small waists are less admired by the gen¬ tlemen than formerly. On this account, also, the la¬ dies have discovered that tight lacing is somewhat uncomfortable, especially in hot weather, and in crowd¬ ed assemblies. THE BARBER. 1. It is the business of the barber to cut and dress the hair, to make wigs and false curls, and to shave the beards of other men. In ancient times, he used also to trim the nails ; and even at the present day, in Turkey, this is a part of his employment. 2. The period, when men began to shave their beards, is not certainly known. It appears that the practice was common among the Israelites in the time of Moses ; as that legislator has left on record a pro¬ hibitory law concerning it. They probably borrowed the custom from the Egyptians. It is stated by Plu¬ tarch, that Alexander the Great ordered his men to be shaved, that their enemies might not lay hold of their beards in time of battle. Before this time, how¬ ever, many of the Greeks shaved their beards. THE BARBER. 105 3. The practice does not appear to have been in¬ troduced amongst the ancient Romans, until about the year 296 before the Christian era, when Paulus Ticinius Msenas brought to Rome a number of bar¬ bers from Sicily. Scipio Africanus was the first man who shaved his beard every day. 4. At first, the barbers had no shops, but shaved their customers at the corners of the streets. After a while, they followed their vocation in shops, or shades ; and, at this period, it was customary for fe¬ males to officiate in the various branches of the art. These places, however, were frequented only by the poorer class of the people, as opulent families gen¬ erally kept slaves for the performance of these duties. The day on which a young Roman first cut off his beard, was celebrated by him and his friends as one of peculiar interest; and this much-desired indication of manhood was consecrated to some one of the gods, generally to Jupiter Capitolinus. 5. The return of barbarism, in the fifth and sixth centuries, banished this custom from the Western em¬ pire ; nor was it again revived in Europe, until the seventeenth century. During the reigns of Louis XIII. and Louis XIV. of France, both of whom as¬ cended the throne in boyhood, the courtiers and fash¬ ionable people began to use the razor, that they might appear with smooth chins, and thus resemble, in this particular, the youthful monarchs. From France, the fashion, at length, spread all over Europe. At one time, in the reign of the English queen Elizabeth, the fellows of Lincoln’s Inn were compelled by statute to shave their beards, at least, once in two weeks. Omission was punished with fine, loss of commons, and finally with expulsion. 6. The custom of shaving was introduced into Russia by Peter the Great, who compelled his subjects to pay a tax for the privilege of retaining their beards. 106 THE BARBER. This singular impost was exceedingly unpopular, and excited greater complaints amongst the people than any other measure of that emperor. The decree was rigidly enforced, and every one who would not, or could not, pay the tax, was forcibly deprived of this favorite ornament, if he would not remove it volun. tarily. Some of the people saved the sad trimmings of their chins; and, that they might never be entire¬ ly separated from these precious relics, ordered that they should be deposited with their bodies in their coffins. 7. Among the European nations that have been curious in whiskers, the Spaniards have been partic¬ ularly distinguished ; and the loss of honor among them used to be punished by depriving the individual of his whiskers. 8. The Portuguese were but little, if at all, behind the Spaniards in their estimate of these valuable or¬ naments. As an evidence of this, it is stated, that, in the reign of Catharine, Queen of Portugal, the brave John de Castro, having taken the castle of Diu in In¬ dia, and being afterwards in want of money, applied to the inhabitants of Goa to loan him one thousand piastres, and, as security for that sum, sent them one of his whiskers, telling them that “ All the gold in the world cannot equal the value of this natural ornament of my valor.” The people, in admiration of his mag¬ nanimity, sent him the money, and, at the same time, returned his incomparable whisker. 9. In the reign of Louis XIII. of France, whiskers attained the highest degree of favor. They also con¬ tinued in fashion during the early part of the succeed¬ ing reign. Louis XIV. and the great men of France, took a pride in wearing them. It was no uncommon thing, at that time, for the ladies to comb and dress the whiskers of their beaux ; and the men of fashion THE BARBER. 107 were particular in providing whisker-wax, and every article necessary to this agreeable pastime. 10. The whiskers belonging to the image of the Chinese philosopher Confucius, which is preserved by his countrymen, are supposed to be capable of confer¬ ring upon those who might wear them, a portion of the wisdom and manly beauty of that illustrious sage. Great care, however, is taken that none shall enjoy these great personal qualifications by such easy means; as decapitation is the penalty for plucking the whis¬ kers from the position which they occupy. 11. When the practice of shaving off the beard was again revived in Europe, instrumental music was employed in the barber’s shop, to amuse customers waiting their turn; but, at the present time, news¬ papers are furnished for this purpose. In taking off the beard, soft water, good soap, a brush, and a sharp razor, are the usual requisites. The razor should be placed nearly flat on the face, and be moved from point to heel. Barbers have usually some regular customers, many of whom have a box of soap and a brush appropriated to their individual use. . • • 12. In ancient times, great attention was paid to dressing the hair. The Hebrew women plaited, and afterwards confined it with gold and silver pins ; they also adorned it with precious stones. The Greeks, both male and female, at every period of their ancient history, wore long hair, which they usually permitted to hang gracefully upon the shoulders, back, and sometimes upon the breast. 13. Adult males, among the Romans, usually wore their hair short, and dressed with great care, espe¬ cially in later ages, when attention to this part of the person was carried to such excess, that ointments and perfumes were used even in the army. The hair was cut for the first time, when the boy had attained his seventh year, and the second time, when he was four- 108 THE BARBER. teen years old. His locks, at each cutting, were commonly dedicated to Apollo or Bacchus. 14. Both men and women, among the Greeks and Romans, sometimes permitted their hair to grow in honor of some divinity. The Jews, also, when un¬ der the vow of a Nazarite, were not permitted to trim their hair or beards. In grief and mourning, the Ro¬ mans suffered their hair and beards to grow. The Greeks, on the contrary, when in grief, cut their hair and shaved their beards, as likewise did some of the barbarous nations of early time. 15. Artificial hair began to be fashionable, at an early period, and was used by the Greeks, Carthagin¬ ians, and Romans. In the time of Ovid, blond hair was in great favour at Rome; and those ladies who did not choose to wear wigs, powdered their hair with a kind of gold dust. They wore hanging curls all round the head, to which they were fastened with cir¬ cular pins of silver. Every wealthy Roman lady of fashion kept at least one slave to frizzle and curl the hair. 16. The time, when wigs first came into use, can¬ not now be ascertained. It is certain, however, that they were worn by females a long time before they became fashionable among the men. 17. Wigs, perukes, or periwigs, were revived in the seventeenth century. In the reign of Louis XIII., or about the year 1629, they became fashionable at Paris; and, as that city was generally imitated by the rest of Europe in things of this nature, they soon be¬ came common. The wigs were very large, as may be seen by examining ancient portraits, and were covered with a profusion of hair-powder. At first, it was disreputable for young people to wear them, as the loss of the hair at an early age was attributed to a disease, which was, of itself, discreditable. 8. When wigs were first introduced into England, THE BARBER. 109 some of the clergy opposed them violently, consider¬ ing their use more culpable than wearing long hair; since, as they alleged, it was more unnatural. Many preachers inveighed against wigs in their sermons, and cut their own hair shorter to manifest their ab¬ horrence of the reigning mode. 19. The worldly-wise, however, observed that a periwig procured for the wearer a degree of respect and deference which otherwise might not have been accorded; and hence there was a strong tendency to the use of this appendage. The judges and physi¬ cians, especially, understood well this influence of the wig, and gave to it all the advantages of length and breadth. The fashion, at length, was adopted by the ecclesiastics themselves, not only in England, but in most of the European kingdoms, as well as in the British colonies of America. 20. The fashion, however, except in cases of bald¬ ness, wherein alone it is excusable, is now nearly ban¬ ished from Europe and America. This desirable change was effected principally by the example of re¬ publican America, and by the influence of the French Revolution. The law passed in England in 1795, imposing a tax of a guinea a head per annum on those who wore hair-powder, contributed to the same result, as well as to diminish the use of that article. 21. The manufacture of wigs and false curls is an important branch of the business of the barber. The first process in forming a wig is to produce, in the hair about to be used for this purpose, a disposition to curl. This is done by winding it on a cylinder of wood or earth, and afterwards boiling it in water. It is then dried, and baked in an oven. Thus prepared, it is woven on a strong thread, and is subsequently sewn on a caul fitted to the head. False curls are made on the same principle. 22. Wigs and false curls were not made in ancient K no THE BARBER. times precisely in the same manner; although their appearance, when finished, was probably similar. The hair was then attached directly to a piece of thin leather, by means of some adhesive substance, or composition. 23. Many barbers, especially those who have a rep¬ utation for making wigs and false curls in a fashion¬ able style, keep for sale perfumery, as well as a vari¬ ety of cosmetics. 24. From the eleventh to the eighteenth century, surgical operations were almost exclusively perform¬ ed by the barbers and bath-keepers. As phlebotomy was one of the chief sources of profit to the barbers, they adopted a sign emblematical of this operation. It consisted of a pole, representing the staff which the individual held in his hand, while the blood was flowing from the arm. The white band wound spi¬ rally about the pole, represented the fillet of linen with which the arm was afterwards secured. 25. It is hardly necessary to remark, that the same sign is still employed by the barbers ; although, with a few exceptions, they have ceased to perform the operation of which it was significant. THE TANNER, AND THE CURRIER. THE TANNER. 1. The art of tanning consists in converting hides and skins into leather, by impregnating them with as¬ tringent matter. 2. It is impossible to determine the period at which the art of tanning was discovered. It was doubtless known to the ancients, and probably to the antedilu¬ vians, in some degree of perfection ; since skins were applied as means of clothing the human body, before the arts of spinning and weaving were practised. It is likely, however, that they were applied to this pur¬ pose, for a considerable time, in their natural state ; and that accident, at length, suggested the means of rendering them more applicable, by saturating them with certain mineral or vegetable substances. 3. Although the art of converting skins into leather 112 THE TANNER. was practised in remote ages, yet .it was not until near the end of the eighteenth century, that the true principle of the process was understood. Before this time, it was supposed, that the astringent principle of the agents employed, was a resinous substance, which adhered mechanically to the fibres, and thus render¬ ed them firm and insoluble. The correct explana¬ tion was first given by Deyeux, and afterwards more fully developed by M. Seguin. These chemists clear¬ ly proved, that the formation of leather was the re¬ sult of a chemical union between a substance called tannin, and the gelatinous part of the skin. 4. The subject, however, was not thoroughly un¬ derstood, and reduced to scientific principles, until the year 1803, when Sir Humphrey Davy gave it a careful investigation, in a series of chemical experi¬ ments. These inquiries resulted in the conviction, that the method of tanning which had been in gen¬ eral use, may, with a few alterations, be considered preferable to that by which the process is carried on with more rapidity. 5. The skin which envelopes the bodies of animals, consists of three layers. That on the outside is a thin, white, elastic membrane, called the cuticle, or scarf skin; that on the inside is a strong membrane, de¬ nominated the cutis, or true skin ; between these two is a very thin membrane, to which anatomists have given the name rete mucosum, and in which is situa¬ ted the substance which gives color to the animal. The cutis is com’posed of fibres, which run in every direction, and, being by far the thickest layer, is the one that is converted into leather. 6. The skins of large animals, such as those of the ox and horse, are denominated hides ; and those of smaller animals, as of the calf, goat, and sheep, are called skins. Of the former description, is made thick, of the latter, thin leather. The process of tan¬ ning ditferent skins varies in many particulars, ac- THE TANNER. 113 cording to the nature of the leather, and the uses to which it is to be applied. 7. The general process of changing thick hides into sole-leather, is as follows : They are first soaked in water, to free them from dirt and blood ; and then, if rigid, they are beaten and rubbed, or rolled under a large stone, to render them pliable. They are next soaked in lime-water, or hung up in a warm room, and smoked, until a slight putrescency takes place. The hair, cuticle, rete mucosum, on one side, and the fleshy parts on the other, are then scraped off, on a learn, with a circular knife. 8. Nothing now remains but the cutis, or true skin. Several hides, in this state of preparation, are put to¬ gether into a vat, for the purpose of impregnating them with tannin. This substance is found in astringent vegetables, and is obtained, in a proper state for appli¬ cation, by infusion in water. In that condition, it is called ooze, which is first applied in a weak state. 9. After the ooze, of different degrees of strength, has been renewed several times, they are put between layers of bark, and suffered to remain several months, fresh bark, from time to time, being supplied. The whole process generally occupies from twelve to six¬ teen months. When strong solutions of tannin are used, the leather is formed in a much shorter time; but, in that case, it is much more rigid, and more liable to crack. It is rendered smooth and compact, by beating it with a wooden beetle, or by passing it be¬ tween rollers. 10. Oak bark, on account of its cheapness, and the quantity of tannin which it contains, is more exten¬ sively employed by tanners than any other vegetable substance. In sections of country, where this kind cannot be conveniently obtained, the bark of the hem¬ lock, spruce, and chestnut, the leaves of the sumach, and various other astringents, are substituted. K 2 114 THE TANNER. 11. The process of tanning calf-skins is somewhat different in many of its details. They are first put into a solution of lime, where they remain during ten or fifteen days, and are then scraped on both sides, on the beam, with a circular knife, as in the former case, and for the same purpose. They are then wash¬ ed in water, and afterwards immersed in an infusion of hen or pigeon’s dung. Here they are left for a week or ten days, according to the state of the weath¬ er and other circumstances ; during which time, they are frequently handled , and scraped on both sides. By these means, the lime, oil, and saponaceous mat¬ ter, are discharged, and the skin is rendered pliable. 12. They are next put into a vat containing weak ooze, and afterwards removed to several others of regularly increasing strength. In the mean time, they are taken up and handled every day, that they may be equally acted upon by the tanning principle. The time occupied in the whole process, is from two to six months. The light and thin sorts of hides, de¬ signed for upper leather, harnesses, &c., are treated in a similar manner. 13. The tanner procures his hides and skins from various sources, but chiefly from the butcher, and from individuals who kill the animals for their own con¬ sumption. Great quantities of dry hides are also ob¬ tained from South America, where cattle are killed in great numbers, principally for the sake of this valu¬ able envelope of their bodies. THE CURRIER. 1. It is the business of the currier to dress the thinner kinds of leather. In most cases, in the Uni¬ ted States, except in and near large cities, the busi. ness of tanning and currying are usually united in the same individual; or, at least, the two branches of business are carried on together, by the aid of work¬ men, skilled in their respective trades. THE CURRIER. 115 2. The mode of dressing the different kinds of skins, varies in some respects; but, as the general method of operating is the same in every sort, a de¬ scription applicable in one case will convey a suffi¬ ciently accurate idea of the whole. We shall, there¬ fore, select the calf-skin, since it is more frequently the subject of the currier’s skill than any other. 3. The skin is first soaked in water, until it has become sufficiently soft, and then shaved with the currier's knife, on the inner side, over the currier's beam. It is then placed on a table, somewhat in¬ clined from the workman, and scoured on both sides with the edge of a narrow, smooth stone, set in a han¬ dle, and again, with an iron sleeker of a similar shape. The skin is next stuffed with a composition of tallow and tanner’s oil, on the flesh side, and then hung up to dry. Afterwards it is rubbed on the hair side with a board, and again scraped on the flesh side with the knife. Having been thus prepared, the skin is black¬ ed on the flesh side with lampblack and tanner’s oil, and subsequently rubbed with paste, applied with a brush. When it has been dried, the whole process is finished by rubbing both sides with a glass sleeker. 4. Horse hides are blacked on the hair side, or, as the curriers term it, on the grain, with a solution of copperas water. Leather designed for harnesses, for covering carriages, and for other similar purposes, is also blacked on that side in the same manner. 5. The trade of the currier is divided into two or three branches. Some dress only calf-skins and other thick leather designed for shoes, harnesses, and car¬ riages ; others confine themselves to dressing skins, which are to be applied to binding books, and to other purposes requiring thin leather. It may be well to remark here, that the dressers of thin leather usually tan the skins themselves, using the leaves of sumach, instead of bark. THE SHOE AND BOOT MAKER. 1. As the shoe is an article of primary utility, it was used, more or less, in the earliest ages. Some writers suppose, that the Deity, in clothing man with skins, did not leave him to go barefooted, but gave him shoes of the same material. 2. The shoes of the ancient Egyptians were made of the papyrus. The Chinese, as well as the inhab¬ itants of India, and some other nations of antiquity, manufactured them from silk, rushes, linen, wood, the bark of trees, iron, brass, silver, and gold, and some¬ times ornamented them with precious stones. 3. The Romans had various coverings for the feet, the chief of which were the calceus and the solea. The calceus somewhat resembled the shoe we wear at present, and was tied upon the instep with a latchet THE SHOE AND BOOT MAKER. 117 or lace. The solea, or sandal, was a thick cork sole, covered above and beneath with leather, and neatly stitched on the edge. It left the upper part of the foot bare, and was fastened to it by means of straps, which were crossed over the instep, and wound about the ankle. Roman citizens wore the calceus with the toga, when they went abroad in the city, v/hile the solea was worn at home and on journeys. The solea was also used at entertainments; but it was changed for the calceus, when the guests were about to surround the table. 4. The senators wore shoes, which came up to the middle of the leg, and which had a golden or silver crescent on the top of the foot. The shoes of the women were generally white, sometimes red, scarlet, or purple, and were adorned with embroidery and pearls ; but those of the men were mostly black. On days of public ceremony, however, the magistrates wore red shoes. 5. Boots were used in very ancient times, and were primarily worn, as a kind of armor, with a view of protecting the lower extremities in battle. They were, at first, made of leather, afterwards of brass or iron, and were proof against the thrusts and cuts of warlike weapons. The boot was called ocrea by the Romans, who, as well as the Greeks, used it in the army, and in riding on horseback, and sometimes in pedestrian journeys. 6. The fashion of boots and shoes, like every other part of dress, has been subject to a number of chan¬ ges, as regards both their form and material. In Eu¬ rope, about one thousand years ago, the greatest prin¬ ces wore shoes with wooden soles. In the reign of William Rufus, of England, the shoes of the great had long, sharp points, stuffed with tow, and twisted like a ram’s horn. The clergy preached against this fash¬ ion ; but the points continued to increase in length, 118 THE SHOE AND BOOT MAKER. until the reign of Richard the Second, when they were tied to the knees with chains of silver or gold. In the year 1463, Parliament interposed, and prohibited the manufacture or use of shoes or boots with pikes exceeding two inches in length. 7. Lasts adapted to each foot, commonly called rights and lefts, were not introduced into England, until about the year 1785; nor was cramping, or crimping, the front part of boots practised there for ten years after that period. These improvements did not become generally known, or, at least, were not much used, in the United States, for many years after their adoption in Great Britain. 8. Many facts, besides the preceding, might be ad¬ duced to prove, that the art of making shoes and boots, although uninterruptedly practised from the earliest ages, has received many important improve¬ ments within the last fifty years. 9. In Europe and America, boots and shoes are commonly made of leather. In shoes for females, however, it is not unusual to use prunello, which is a kind of twilled, worsted cloth. In all cases, thick leather is used for the soles. 10. The business of making boots and shoes is car¬ ried on very systematically in large establishments. The materials are cut out and fitted by the foreman, or by the person who carries on the business, whilst the pieces are stitched together, and the work finish¬ ed, by workmen who sit upon the bench. 11. As a matter of convenience, the trade have fixed upon certain sizes, which are designated by numbers; and, corresponding to these, the lasts are formed by the last-maker ; but, to be still more exact, individuals sometimes procure lasts corresponding to their feet, on which they cause their boots and shoes to be made. 12. The following is a description of the process THE SHOE AND BOOT MAKER. 119 of making a leather shoe: after the materials have been cut out according to the measure, or size, and the parts of the uppers have been stitched together, the sole-leather is hammered on the lapstone, tacked to the last, and trimmed with a knife. The upper leather is next stretched on the last with a pair of pincers, fastened to its proper place with tacks, and then sewed to the bottom of the sole with a waxed thread. A narrow strip of leather, called a welt , is also fastened to the sole by similar means, and to this is stitched another sole. A heel being added, the shoe is finished by trimming and polishing it with ap. propriate instruments. 13. The edges of fine leather shoes and boots, are trimmed with thin strips of the like material, whilst those of prunello, and other thin shoes for ladies, are bound with narrow tape. The binding is applied by females with thread, by means of a common needle. 14. Shoe-thread is commonly spun from flax ; that from hemp is much stronger, and was formerly pre¬ ferred ; but it is now used only for very strong work. The greater part of the shoe-thread used in the Uni¬ ted States, is spun by machinery, at Leeds, in Eng¬ land, from Russian flax. The wax employed by shoe¬ makers, was formerly composed of tar and rosin ; but it is now most usually made of pitch. 15. The shoemaker, in sewing together different parts of his work, uses threads of various sizes, which are composed of several small threads of different lengths. A hog’s bristle is fastened to each end of it, which enables the workman to pass it with facility through the holes made with the awl. 16. An expeditious way of fastening the soles of boots and shoes to the upper leathers, is found in the use of wooden pegs or br^ss nails. The old method, however, is generally preferred, on several accounts; 120 THE SHOE AND BOOT MAKER. but chiefly, because the work is more durable, and be¬ cause it can be more easily repaired. 17. Journeymen working at this trade most usually confine their labours to particular kinds of work ; as few can follow every branch with advantage. Some make shoes and boots for men ; others confine their labours to those designed for ladies ; but, by their aid, the master-shoemaker can, and usually does, supply every kind at his store. 18. It is no uncommon thing in the country, for the farmers to purchase leather, and employ the shoe¬ maker to make it up; and this is done, in most cases, on their own premises. The shoemaker employed in this way, removes from house to house, changing his location, whenever he has completely served a whole family in his vocation. In such cases, he is said, by the trade, to be whipping the cat. The set of tools with which he operates, is called his kit. 19. The shoemaker usually buys his leather from the manufacturer ; and procures his tools, tacks, and various other articles of a similar nature, at the jind. ing stores. In some cases, the shoemaker with little or no capital, gets his materials from the leather-cut - ter , who makes it a business to supply them ready cut to the proper size and shape. There are, how¬ ever, but few leather-cutters in our country; but, in England, this branch of trade is one of considerable importance, and is frequently connected with that of the leather-dresser. THE SADDLER AND HARNESS-MAKER, AND THE TRUNK-MAKER. THE SADDLER AND HARNESS-MAKER. 1. The invention of the saddle has been attributed to the Selians, a people of ancient Franconia. Un¬ der this impression, it has been supposed that the Lat¬ ins gave it the name of sella. The period at which it was first used, cannot be ascertained. It is certain, however, that the horse had been rendered subservi¬ ent to man, several centuries before this convenient article was thought of. 2. At first, the rider sat upon the bare back of the animal, and guided him with a switch, but afterwards with a strap put round the nose. In the course of time, the rider came to use, upon the back of the horse, the skins of beasts, in order to render his seat L 122 THE SADDLER AND HARNESS-MAKER. more easy. The Greeks, and many other refined nations of antiquity, sometimes used superb trappings, composed of cloth, leather, and skins dressed with the hair on ; and, in addition to .the gold, silver, and pre¬ cious stones, with which these were ornamented, the horses were often otherwise decked with bells, col¬ lars, and devices of various kinds. 3. The Romans, in the days of the republic, deem¬ ed it more manly to ride on the bare back of the ani¬ mal than on coverings. At a later period, they used a kind of square pannel, without stirrups; and about the year 340 of the Christian era, they began to ride on saddles. It appears, that those first employed were very heavy, as the Emperor Theodosius, in the same century, forbade the use of any which weighed over sixty pounds. The use of saddles was estab¬ lished in England by Henry the Seventh, who enjoin¬ ed on his nobility the practice of riding upon them. 4. The frame of a saddle is called a tree. It is not made by the saddlers, but by persons who confine their attention to this branch of business. The trees are constructed of wood, with a small quantity of iron, and covered with canvas. 5. In making a common saddle, the workman first extends two strips of straining web from the pommel to the hinder part of the tree, and fastens them with tacks. The tree is then covered on the upper side with two thicknesses of linen cloth, between which a quantity of wool is afterwards interposed. A cover¬ ing of thin leather, usually made of hog’s-skin, is next tacked on, and the flaps added. Under the whole are placed the pads and saddle-cloth ; the former of which is made of thin cotton or linen cloth, and thin leather, stuffed with hair. The addition of four straps, two girths, two stirrup-leathers, and as many stirrups, completes the whole operation. 6. The roughness, or the little indentations in the THE TRUN K-M AKER. 123 flaps, are produced by passing the leather between rollers, in contact with a rough surface, or by beating it with a mallet, on the face of which has been fasten¬ ed a piece of the skin from a species of shark, com¬ monly called the dog-fish. 7. Saddles are often covered with buckskin, curi¬ ously stitched into figures, and having the spaces be¬ tween the seams stuffed with wool ; this is particu¬ larly the case in side-saddles. The form of saddles, and the quality of the materials, together with the workmanship, are considerably varied, to suit the pur¬ poses to which they are to be applied, and to accom¬ modate the fancy of customers. 8. The process of making bridles, and harness for horses, is extremely simple. The leather is first cut out with a knife of some description, but usually with one of a crescent-like form, or with a blade set in a gauge, and then stitched together with the kind of thread used by shoemakers. The awl employed in punching the holes is straight; and needles are most commonly used, instead of the bristles which point the shoema¬ ker’s threads. The mode of manufacturing saddle¬ bags, portmanteaus, and valises, is too obvious to need description. THE TRUNK-MAKER. 1. The manufacture of trunks is equally simple with that of making harness. In common cases, it consists chiefly in lining the inside of a wooden box with paper, or some kind of cloth, and covering the outside with a skin, or with leather, which is fasten¬ ed to the wood by means of tacks. Narrow strips of leather are fastened upon hair trunks with brass nails, by way of ornament, as well as to confine the work. 2. Instead of a wooden box, oblong rims of iron, and very thick, solid pasteboard, fastened together by 124 THE TRUNK-MAKER. means of strong thread, are used in the best kinds of trunks. The frame or body, thus formed, is covered with some substantial leather, which is first stuck on with paste, and then secured by sewing it to the paste¬ board with a waxed thread. Over the whole, are ap¬ plied strips of iron, fastened with brass or copper nails with large heads. The lines and figures on the leather, added by way of ornament, are produced by a crease, a tool made of wood, ivory, or whalebone. Its form is much like that of the blade of a common paper-folder. 3. How long trunk-making has been a separate trade, cannot be exactly ascertained. The trunk- makers in France were incorporated into a company, in 1596. In the United States, this branch of busi¬ ness is very commonly united with that of the saddler and harness-maker. , . f. - v % \ ) ( v. THE SOAP-BOILER, AND THE CANDLE-MAKER. THE SOAP-BOILER. 1. The business of the soap-boiler consists in man¬ ufacturing soap, by the combination of certain oily and alkaline substances. 2. The earliest notice of this useful article occurs in the works of Pliny, in which it is stated, that soap was composed of tallow and ashes ; that the mode of combining them was discovered by the Gauls; but that the German soap was the best. 3. For many ages before the invention of soap, saponaceous plants, and several kinds of earth, to¬ gether with animal matters and the ley from ashes, were employed for the purpose of cleansing the skin, and articles of clothing. The idea of combining L 2 126 THE S 0 A P-B OILER. some of these substances, with the view of forming soap, probably originated in accident. 4. The vegetable oils and animal fats, capable of saponification, are very numerous ; but those most commonly employed in the manufacture of the soaps of commerce, are olive-oil, whale-oil, tallow,' lard, palm-oil, and rosin ; and the alkalies with which these are most frequently combined, are soda, the ley of ashes, or its residuum, potash. 5. Soda is sometimes called the mineral alkali; be¬ cause it is found, in some parts of the world, in the earth. It was known to the ancients, at a very early period, under the denomination of natron. It receiv¬ ed this appellation from the lakes of Natron, in Egypt, from the waters of which it was produced by evapo¬ ration, during the summer season. 6. The soda of commerce is now chiefly obtained from the salsola , a genus of plants which grows on the sea-shore. In Spain, the plant from which soda is obtained is denominated barilla; hence, the sub¬ stance produced from it by incineration has received the same appellation. The ashes of a sea-weed which grows on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland, is called kelp. In Europe, barilla and kelp are more extensively employed in the manufacture of soap than any other alkaline substances ; but, in this country, where wood is so much used for fuel, common ashes are generally preferred. 7. The process of making the ordinary brown or yellow soap, from wood-ashes, is conducted in the following manner. The alkali is first obtained in a state of solution in water, by leeching the ashes as described in page 26, and then poured, in a weak state, into a copper or iron caldron, having a large wooden tub carefully affixed to the top of it. 8. When the ley has been properly heated, the tallow, either in a tried state or in the suet, is grad THE SOAP-BOILER. 127 ually added. More ley, of greater concentration, is poured in ; and the ingredients are moderately boiled for several hours ; while a person, as represented in the preceding cut, aids their chemical union by agi¬ tating them with a wooden spatula. 9. After a quantity of rosin has been added, and properly incorporated with the other materials, the fire is withdrawn until the next morning, when it is again raised ; then, with the view of forming th e paste into hard soap, a quantity of muriate of soda (com¬ mon salt) is added. The muriatic acid of this sub. stance, uniting with the potash, forms with it muriate of potash, which dissolves in the water, while the soda combines with the tallow and rosin. Hard soap, therefore, contains no potash ; although this alkali is generally employed during the early part of the pro¬ cess of making it. 10. After the addition of the muriate of soda, the boiling and stirring are continued two or three hours, when the fire is withdrawn, and the contents of the caldron are suffered to be at rest. When the soap has completely separated from the watery part and extraneous matters, it is laded into another caldron, again diluted with strong ley, and heated. The paste having been brought to a proper consistence, more common salt is added as before, and for the same purposes. , 11. The chemical part of the process having been thus completed, the soap is laded into single wooden boxes, or into one or more composed of several dis¬ tinct frames, which can be removed separately from the soap, after it has become solid enough to stand without such support. The soap is c.ut into bars, of nearly a uniform size, by means of a small brass wire. 12. Manufacturers of soap have contrived various methods of adulterating this article, or of adding in- 128 THE S 0 A P-E OILER. gredients which increase its weight, without adding to its value. The most common means employed for this purpose is water, which may be added, in some cases, in considerable quantities, without greatly di¬ minishing the consistence of the soap. * 13. This fraud may be detected by letting the soap lie for some time exposed to the atmosphere. The water will thus be evaporated, and its quantity can be known by weighing the soap, after its loss of the superfluous liquid. To prevent evaporation, while the soap remains on hand, it is said, that some deal¬ ers keep it in saturated solutions of common salt. Another method of adulteration is found in the use of pulverized lime, gypsum, or pipe-clay. These sub¬ stances, however, can be easily detected by means of a solution in alcohol, which precipitates them. 14. The process of manufacturing soft soap, differs but little in its details from that described in the pre¬ ceding paragraphs. The chief difference consists in omitting the use of salt. Soft soap, therefore, is com¬ posed of a greater proportion of water, and more al¬ kali than is necessary to saturate the unctuous mat¬ ters. Soft soap is made by almost every family in the country, from ashes, grease, and oily matters, re¬ served for the purpose. 15. The celebrated Marseilles white soap, is com¬ posed of A Sodflj ....... 6. Olive-oil,.60. Water, .34. Castile soap, of Soda, ....... 9. Olive-oil,.76.5. Water, with a little coloring matter, . 14.5. Fine toilet-soaps are made with oil of almonds, nut- oil, palm-oil, suet, or butter, combined with soda or THE CANDL E-M A K E R. 129 potash, according to their preparation in a solid or pasty state. 16. In the manufacture of white soap, the tallow is more carefully purified, and no rosin is used. In other particulars, the process differs but little from that employed in the production of the common kind. Two tons of tallow should yield three tons of white soap. In making the same quantity of common brown or yellow soap, twelve hundred weight less is required, on account of the substitution of that amount of yellow rosin. 17. The mottled appearance of some soaps is caus¬ ed by dispersing the ley through it, towards the close of the operation, or by adding a quantity of sulphate of iron, indigo, or the oxide of manganese. Castile soap, now manufactured in the greatest perfection at Marseilles, in France, receives its beautifully marbled appearance from the sulphate of iron. THE CANDLE-MAKER. 1. The subject of the candle-maker’s labors may be defined to be a wick, covered with tallow, wax, or spermaceti, in a cylindrical form, which serves, when lighted, for . the illumination of objects in the absence of the sun. The business of candle-making is divi¬ ded into two branches ; the one is confined to the manufacturing of tallow candles, and the other, to ma¬ king those composed of wax or spermaceti. 2. The process of making candles from tallow, as conducted by the tallow-chandler, needs only a brief description, since it differs but little from the method pursued by families in the country, with which most persons are familiar. The difference lies chiefly in the employment of a few conveniences, by which the candles are more rapidly multiplied. 3. The first part of the process consists in pre¬ paring a wick, to serve as a foundation. The coarse 130 THE CANDL E-M AKER. and slightly twisted yarn used for this purpose, is spun in the cotton-factories; and, being wound into balls, is, in that form, sold to the tallow-chandlers, as well as to individuals who make candles for their own con¬ sumption. 4. A sufficient number of threads is combined, to form a wick of a proper size ; and, as they are wound from the balls, they are measured off, and cut to the proper length, by a simple contrivance, which consists of a narrow board, a wooden pin, and the blade of a razor. The pin and razor are placed perpendicular to the board, at a distance determined by the length of the proposed wick. The wicks are next put upon cylindrical rods, about three feet long ; and a great number of these are arranged on a long frame. 5. To obtain the tallow in a proper state for use, it is separated from the membranous part of the suet, by boiling the latter in an iron or copper kettle, and then subjecting the cracklings to the action of a press The substance that remains, after the tallow has been expressed, is called greaves, which are sometimes ap¬ plied to fattening ducks for market. This is espe¬ cially the case in the city of London. 6. The tried tallow is prepared for application to the wicks, by heating it to a proper temperature. It is then poured into a suitable receptacle, where it is kept in order either by a moderate fire underneath, or by the occasional addition of hot tallow. 7. The broaches, as the sticks with their wicks are called, are taken up, several at a time, either between the fingers or by means of a simple instrument de¬ nominated a rake, and dipped into the tallow. They are then returned to the frame, and suffered to cool, while successive broaches are treated in the same way. The dipping is repeated, until the candles have been thickened to the proper size. 8. In the preceding plate, is represented a work- THE C A N D L E-M AKER. 131 man in the act of dipping several broaches of candles, suspended on a rake, which he holds in his hands. The mode of making dipped candles just described, is more generally practised than any other, and in this manner five or six hundred pounds can be made by one hand, in a single day. In some establish¬ ments, however, a more complicated apparatus is used, by which every part of the process is greatly expedited. 9. Mould candles are made very differently. The moulds consist of a frame of wood, in which are ar¬ ranged several hollow cylinders, generally made of pewter. At the lower extremity of each cylinder, is a small hole, for the passage of the wick, which is in¬ troduced by means of a hook on the end of a wire. The cotton is fastened at the other end, and placed in a perpendicular situation in the centre of the shafts, by means of a wire, which passes through the loops of the wicks. The melted tallow, having been pour¬ ed on the top of the wooden frame, descends into each mould. After the candles have become sufficiently cold, they are extracted from the cylinders with a bodkin, which is inserted into the loop of the wick. One person can thus mould two or three hundred pounds in a day. 10. Candles are also made of bees-wax and sper¬ maceti ; but the mode of their manufacture differs in no particular from that of common mould candles. The wicks for wax-candles are usually made of a pe¬ culiar kind of cotton, which grows in Asiatic Turkey. 11. Before the wax is applied to this purpose, the coloring matter is discharged. This is effected by bleaching the wax, in the following manner. It is first divided into flakes, or thin laminse, by pouring it, in a melted state, through a colander upon a cy. lindrical wheel, which, at the same time, is kept re¬ volving, while partly immersed in cold water. The 132 THE CANDL E-M AKER. wax, having been removed from the water, is placed upon a table or floor covered with some kind of cloth. Here it is occasionally sprinkled with water, until the bleaching has been completed. The process oc¬ cupies several weeks, or even months, according to the state of the weather, that being best which is most favorable to a rapid evaporation. 12. Spermaceti is a substance separated from sperm oil, which is obtained from a species of whale, called pliyseter macrocephalus, or spermaceti cachalot. This oil is obtained from both the head and body of the an¬ imal, but that procured from the former contains twice the quantity of spermaceti. 13. To separate the spermaceti from the oil yield¬ ed by the body, it is first heated, then put into casks, and suffered to stand two or three weeks, in order to granulate. The oily part is now filtrated through strainers ; and the remainder, which is calledybote, is again heated, and put into casks. After having stood several weeks, these are put into bags, and submitted to the action of a powerful press. The spermaceti thus obtained, is melted and moulded into cakes. The oil thus separated from the spermaceti, is called spring or fall strained ; because it is filtered and ex¬ pressed only during those seasons of the year. 14. The oil from the head of the whale is treated like that from the body, in almost every particular. The difference consists, principally, in omitting the use of the strainer, and in the employment of strong¬ er bags and a more powerful press. The oil obtain¬ ed from the head-matter , is called pressed , since it is separated by the action of the press only. It is also denominated winter-strained , because the operation is performed in the cold weather. 15. The spermaceti, having been melted and mould¬ ed into cakes, is reserved until the succeeding sum¬ mer, when it is cut into thin shavings, by means of a THE CANDL E-M AKER. 133 large shave, similar to the spoke-sliave of the wheel¬ wrights, and again pressed as before. The oil of this last pressing is called taut pressed, and is the least valuable kind, since a slight degree of cold causes it to become thick. The spermaceti obtained from the oil of the body, and that from the head-matter, are melted together, and purified by means of potash-ley. 16. The sperm-oil, thus freed from the spermaceti, is extensively used in lamps as a means of illumina¬ tion ; and, for many purposes, it is far more conve¬ nient than tallow. In the country, lard is frequently employed instead of oil, especially by the German population. In some European and Asiatic countries, vegetable oils supply the place of animal fats, in this application. 17. The origin of the art of making candles is not known. It is evident, however, that the business is comparatively modern, since the Greeks and Romans, as well as other nations of antiquity, employed torch¬ es of pine and fir, and lamps supplied with oil, in the production of artificial light. The words in the Scrip¬ tures translated candle, imply nothing more nor less than a light produced by some kind of oil consumed in a lamp. 18. The tamps in ancient times were suspended by a chain or cord from the ceiling, or supported on stands and moveable tables, which were called by the Romans lampadaria, or candelabra. Many speci¬ mens of this utensil are preserved in several museums of Europe, and some have lately been found in the ruins of Herculaneum. 19. The Chinese make their candles from the tal¬ low obtained from the seeds and capsules of the ta'i- low-tree. This tree, which is produced in great abundance in China, is said to grow in various parts of South Carolina and Georgia. In appearance, it resembles the Lombardy poplar. M THE COMB-MAKER, AND THE BRUSH-MAKER. THE COMB-MAKER. 1. The comb is a well-known instrument, employ¬ ed in cleansing, dressing, and confining the hair. It is made of various materials, but most commonly of tortoise-shell, the horns and hoofs of cattle, ivory, bone, and several kinds of hard wood. 2. It is impossible to determine the period of the world at which it was introduced, since history and tradition, the sources from which we obtain informa¬ tion of this nature, are silent with regard to its ori¬ gin. It is evident, however, that the comb is an in¬ strument of primary necessity ; and hence it must have been invented in the earliest ages. This opin¬ ion is confirmed by the fact, that the comb has been THE COM B-M AKER. 135 frequently found in use amongst savages, when first visited by civilized men. 3. Combs employed in fixing the hair, are made of tortoise-shell, or of the horns of cattle. The genuine tortoise-shell is taken from the testudo imbricata , or hawk's-bill turtle ; but a kind of shell, inferior in qual¬ ity, is obtained from the testudo caretta, or loggerhead turtle. These turtles inhabit the seas of warm and temperate climates ; but they are especially numer¬ ous in the West Indian seas, where shell is a valua¬ ble article of commerce. That ffom St. Domingo is especially esteemed for its brilliancy of shade and color. 4. The shell of the hawk’s-bill turtle was exten¬ sively employed for ornamental purposes by the re¬ fined nations of antiquity ; although we have no ac¬ count of its application to the manufacture of combs. The Greeks and Romans decorated with it the doors and pillars of their houses, as well as their beds and other furniture. The Egyptians dealt largely with the Romans in this elegant article. 5. The general length of the hawk’s-bill turtle is about three feet from the bill to the end of the shell; but it has been known to measure five feet, and to weigh five or six hundred pounds. In the Indian Ocean, especially, specimens of prodigious magnitude are said to have occurred. 6. The shell employed in the arts, grows upon the back and feet of the animal. That on the back, con¬ sists of thirteen laminse, or plates, which lap over each other, like tiles on the roof of a house. The plates vary in thickness from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch, according to the age and size of the tur¬ tle. The quantity of merchantable shell obtained from a single subject of the usual size, is about eight pounds, which, at the usual price, is worth sixty or seventy dollars. 136 THE COM B-M AKER. 7. The process of making combs from the horns of cattle, is not difficult to be understood. The tips and buts are first cut off with a saw, and the remain¬ ing portion is also divided longitudinally on one side with the same instrument. The horns are then soak¬ ed for several days, and afterwards boiled in oil, to render them pliable. They are next spread out and pressed between hot iron plates. This operation clarifies the horn, and produces a plate of proper thickness. 8. After the plaffis thus produced, have been cut in pieces corresponding in size to the proposed combs, and when these have been shaved to a suitable thick¬ ness with instruments adapted to the purpose, the teeth are cut either with a twinning saiu , as represent¬ ed in the preceding cut, or with a twinning machine. 9. In the former case, the plate is fastened with a wooden clamp , by the part which is designed to be left for the back of the comb; and when twins, or two combs, are to be formed from one piece, the other end is bent down, so as to render the upper surface considerably convex. To this surface the twinning saw is applied by the hand of the workman, who makes a number of incisions ; which are completed both ways with two different kinds of saws, and the end of each tooth is cut from the back of the opposite comb with an instrument called a plugging awl. 10. The twinning machine was invented, about twen¬ ty years ago, by a Mr. Thomas, of Philadelphia ; but it has been successfully improved by several individ¬ uals since that time. It is, altogether, an ingenious and useful contrivance. The cutting part consists of two chisels, which are made to act on the plate alter¬ nately, and in a perpendicular direction, each chisel cutting one side of two teeth, and severing one from the opposite back, at every stroke. It is impossible, however, to form a clear conception of the manner in THE COM B-M AKER. 137 which the machine operates,Except by actual inspec¬ tion. It performs the work with great rapidity; since from one to two hundred dozens of combs can be cut in twelve hours; whereas, not one-fourth of that number can be twinned in the old method, during the same time. 11. After the teeth have been rounded, and in other respects brought to the proper form with suita¬ ble instruments, the combs are polished by rubbing them first with the dust- of a peculiar kind of brick, then by applying them to a moving cylinder covered with buff leather, charged with rotten-stone, ashes, or brick-dust; and, finally, by rubbing them with the hand, charged with rotten-stone and vinegar. 12. The combs are next colored, or stained ; and, as the tortoise-shell is by far the best and most ex¬ pensive material for this kind of comb, the great ob¬ ject of the manufacturer is to produce colors as near¬ ly resembling those of the real shell as practicable. This is done in considerable perfection, in the follow¬ ing manner: 13. The combs are first dipped in aqua-fortis, and then covered with a paste made of lime, pearlash, and red lead. To produce the requisite variety of shades, both taste and judgment are necessary in applying the composition, and in determining the time which it should remain upon the combs. To give the combs a still strqnger resemblance to shell, they are also im¬ mersed for fifteen or twenty minutes in a dye of Nic¬ aragua. 14. The combs having been covered with oil, they are next heated upon iron plates, and brought to the desired shape by bending them upon wooden blocks with a woollen list. The whole process is finished by rubbing off the oil with a silk handkerchief. 15. The general process of making shell combs differs but little from that which has been just de- M 2 138 THE BRUS H-M AKER. scribed, varying only in a few particulars, in compli¬ ance with the peculiar nature of the material. 16. On account of the great value of shell, the workmen are careful to make the most of every por¬ tion of it; accordingly, when a piece falls short of the desired size, it is enlarged by welding to it another of smaller dimensions. The union is effected, by lap¬ ping the two pieces upon each other, and then press¬ ing them together between two plates of hot iron. The heat of the iron is prevented from injuring the shell, by the interposition of a wet linen cloth, and by immersing the whole in hot water. In a similar man¬ ner, broken combs are often mended; and by the same method, two pieces of horn can also be joined together. 17. Both horn and shell combs are often stamped with figures, and otherwise ornamented with carved work. In the latter case, the ornaments are produ¬ ced, by removing a part of the material with a saw and graver. The saw employed is not more than the twelfth of an inch in width ; and, being fastened to a frame, it is moved up and down, with great rapidity, by means of the foot, while the part of the comb to be cut away is applied to the teeth. The operator is guided in the work by a pattern, which has been struck on paper from an engraved plate. 18. Combs for dressing and cleansing the hair, are made of horn, shell, bone, ivory, and wood ; but it is unnecessary to be particular in describing the manner in which every kind of comb is manufactured. We will only add, that the teeth of fine ivory and bone combs are cut with a buzz, or circular saw, which, fastened to a mandrel, is moved in a lathe. THE BRUSH-MAKER. 1. There are few manufactured articles in more general use than brushes. This has arisen from their THE BRUSH-MAKER. 139 great utility, and the low prices at which they can be purchased. The productions of the brush-maker’s labor are denominated variously, according to the purposes to which they are to be applied. 2. The operations connected with this business are very simple, as there is scarcely a tool employed which is not familiar to every other class of mechan¬ ics. The brush-maker, however, does not manufac¬ ture every part of the brush. He procures his wood¬ en stocks and handles from various sources, but chiefly from the turner, and bone handles, from the tooth¬ brush handle-maker. 3. The first part of the process which may be con¬ sidered as belonging particularly to the brush-maker, consists in boring the holes for the reception of the bristles. This is done with a lit of a proper size, which is kept in motion with a lathe, while the wood is brought against it with both hands. To enable the operator to make the holes in the right place and in the proper direction, a pattern is applied to the hither side of the stock. 4. The greater part of the bristles used by the brush-makers in the United States, are imported from Russia and Germany. Large quantities, however, are obtained from Pennsylvania, and some parts of the Western States. American bristles are worth from thirty to fifty cents per pound, a price sufficient¬ ly high, one would suppose, to induce the farmers to preserve them, when they butcher their swine. Were this generally done, a tolerable supply of the shorter kinds of bristles might be obtained in our own country. 5. When the bristles come into the hands of the brush-maker, the long and short, and frequently those of different colors, are mixed together. These are first assorted, according to color ; and those of a whitish hue are afterwards washed with potash-ley and soap, to free them from animal fat, and then 140 THE B R U S H-M AKER. whitened by bleaching them with the fumes of brim¬ stone. 6. The bristles are next combed with a row of steel teeth, for the purpose of placing them in a par¬ allel direction, and with a view of depriving them of the short hair which may be intermixed. The work¬ man, immediately after combing a handful, assorts it into separate parcels of different lengths. This is very readily done, by pulling out the longest bristles from the top, until those which remain in the hand have been reduced to a certain length, which is de¬ termined by a gauge marked with numbers. At each pulling, the handful is reduced in height near half an inch. 7. The stocks and the bristles having been thus prepared, they are next fastened together. This is effected either with wire or by a composition of tar and rosin. The wire is used in all cases in which the fibre is doubled ; but when the bristles are required in their full length, as in sweeping-brushes, the adhe¬ sive substance is employed. 8. It is superfluous to enter into detail, to show the manner in which the wire and composition are ap¬ plied in fixing the bristles, as any person, with an or¬ dinary degree of observation, can readily comprehend the whole, by examining the different kinds of brushes which are met with in every well-regulated house¬ hold. The bristles, after having been fixed to the stock or handle, are trimmed with the shears or knife, according as they are required to be equal or unequal in length. 9. The brush is next handed over to the finisher , who applies to the back of the stock a thin veneer of wood, which secures the wire against the oxidizing influence of the atmosphere, and gives to tire brush a finished appearance. The stock, together with the veneer, is then brought to the desired shape with suit- THE BRUSH-MAKER. 141 able instruments, polished with sand-paper, and cov¬ ered with varnish. 10. Those brushes which the manufacturer designs to be ornamented, are sent in great quantities to the ornamenter, who applies to them various figures, in gold or Dutch leaf, japan or bronze, and sometimes prints, which have been struck on paper from en¬ graved plates. ' / v ' ' w THE TAVERN-KEEPER. 1. A house in which travellers are entertained is denominated a tavern, inn, coffee-house, hotel, or house of public entertainment; and an individual who keeps a house of this description, is called an inn¬ keeper or tavern-keeper. Of these establishments there are various grades, from the log cabin with a single room, to the splendid and commodious edifice with more than a hundred chambers. 2. This business is one of great public utility; since, by this means, travellers obtain necessary re¬ freshments and a temporary home, with very little trouble on their part, and that, in most cases, for a reasonable compensation. This is especially the case in the United States, where the public houses, taking them together, are said to be superior to those of any other country. THE TAVERN-KEEPER. 143 3. Travellers, in the early ages of the world, either carried with them the means of sustenance, and pro¬ tection from the weather, or relied upon the hospital¬ ity of strangers ; but, as the intercourse between dif¬ ferent places for the purposes of trade, increased, houses of public entertainment were established, which at first were chiefly kept by women. 4. The people of antiquity, in every age and na¬ tion, whether barbarous or civilized, were, however, remarkable for their hospitality. We find this virtue enjoined in the Mosaic writings, and scriptures gener¬ ally, in the poems of Homer, as well as in other dis¬ tinguished writings, which have descended to our times. The heathen nations were rendered more observant of the rites of hospitality by the belief, that their fabulous gods sometimes appeared on earth in human shape; and the Jews and ancient Christians, by the circumstance, that Abraham entertained angels unawares. 5. On account of the occasional acts of violence committed by both the guest, and the master of the house, it became necessary to take some precautions for their mutual safety. When, therefore, a stranger applied for lodgings, it was customary among the Greeks for both to swear by Jupiter, that they would do each other no harm. This ceremony took place, while each party stood with his foot placed on his own side of the threshold ; and a violation of this oath by either party, excited against the offender the greatest horror. 6. The Greeks and Romans, in common with the people of many other nations, were in the habit of making arrangements with persons at a distance from their homes, for mutual accommodation, when ei¬ ther party might be in the vicinity of the other. In these agreements, the contracting parties included their posterity, and delivered to each other tokens, 144 THE TAVERN-KEEPER. which might be afterwards exhibited in proof of an¬ cient ties of hospitality between the families. They swore fidelity to each other by the name of Jupiter, who was surnamed the Hospitable ; because he was supposed to be the protector of strangers, and the avenger of their wrongs. 7. This relation was considered a very intimate one, especially by the Romans ; and, in their lan¬ guage, it was called hospitium, or jus hospitii; hence, the guest and entertainer were both called hostes , a word from which host is derived, which is employed to designate both the landlord and the guest. The Roman nobility used to build, for the reception of strangers, apartments called hospitaUa, on the right and left of the main building of their residence. 8. During the middle ages, also, hospitality was very commonly practised; and the virtue was not considered one of those which might be observed or neglected at pleasure ; the practice of it was even enjoined by statute, in many countries, as a positive duty, which could not be neglected with impunity. In some cases, the moveable goods of the inhospita¬ ble person were confiscated, and his house burned. If an individual had not the means of entertaining his guest, he was permitted to steal, in order to obtain the requisite supply. 9. The nobles of Europe, during this period, were generally distinguished for their cordial entertainment of strangers, and their immediate adherents. Their extraordinary liberality arose, in part, from the gen¬ eral customs of the age, and partly from a desire to attach to their interests as great a number of retain¬ ers as possible, with a view to maintain or increase their political importance. Strangers were also en¬ tertained at the monasteries, which were numerous in almost every kingdom of Europe. Several of these institutions were established in solitary places, THE TAVERN-KEEPER. 145 with the express purpose of relieving travellers in distress. 10. It is evident, that the arrangements for mutual accommodation, and the hospitable character of the ancients, were unfavorable to the business of keeping tavern ; but the free intercourse between different nations, which arose from the Crusades, and the re¬ vival of commerce, contributed greatly to the habit of regularly entertaining strangers for a compensa¬ tion, and led to the general establishment of inns. 11. These inns, however, were not, at first, well supported ; inasmuch as travellers had been long ac¬ customed to seek for lodgings in private houses. In Scotland, inns were established by law, A.D. 1424 ; and, to compel travellers to resort to them, they were forbidden, under a penalty of forty shillings, to use private accommodations, where these public houses were to be found. 12. How far legislative enactments have been em¬ ployed for the establishment of inns in other countries, we have not been able to learn, as the authorities to which we have referred for information on this point are silent with regard to it. We know, however, that laws have been made in almost every part of Eu¬ rope, as well as in the United States, with the view of compelling the landlord to preserve proper order, and to accommodate his customers at reasonable charges. 13. In the United States, and in all other commer¬ cial countries, this business has become one of great importance, not only to the individuals who have en¬ gaged in it, but also to the community in general. Within the present century, the amount of travelling has greatly increased, and the excellence of the pub¬ lic houses has advanced in the same ratio. Some of these establishments in the cities and large towns, are among the most extensive and splendid edifices of the country ; and, in every place through which there N 146 THE TAVER N-K EEPER. is much travelling, they are usually equal or superior to the private dwellings of the neighborhood. 14. The business of keeping tavern, however, is not always confined to the proper object of entertain¬ ing travellers, or persons at some distance from home. A public house is frequently the resort of the people who live in the immediate vicinity, and is often the means of doing much injury, by increasing dissipation. 15. In all cases in which ardent spirits are pro¬ posed to be sold, a license must be obtained from the public authorities, for which must be paid the sum stipulated by law; but any person is permitted to lodge travellers, and to supply them with every neces¬ sary means of cheer and comfort for a compensation, without the formality of a legal permission ; yet, a license to sell liquors is called a tavern-license ; be¬ cause most tavern-keepers regard the profits on the sale of ardent spirits as one of their chief objects. 16. A public house in which no strong drink is sold, is called a temperance tavern ; and such estab¬ lishments are becoming common; but they are not, at present, so well supported as those in which the popular appetite is more thoroughly complied with. The time, however, may not be far distant, when the public sentiment will undergo such a salutary change, that the tavern-keepers generally will find it their best policy to relinquish the sale of this poisonous article. 17. As travellers often apply to the bar for “ some¬ thing to drink,” merely to remunerate the landlord for the use of his fire, or some little attention, the friends of temperance would essentially promote their cause, by encouraging the practice of paying for a glass of water, or some trifle of this kind. This would increase the number of temperance taverns, and, perhaps, be the means of preventing many gen¬ erous people from forming those dissipated habits, which are so often attended with ruinous results. THE HUNTER. 1. Hunting and fishing are usually considered the primary occupations of man ; not because they were the first employments in which he engaged, but be¬ cause they are the chief means of human sustenance among savage nations. 2. The great and rapid increase of the inferior an¬ imals, and, probably, the diminished fertility of the soil after the deluge, caused many branches of the family of Noah to forsake the arts of civilized life, especially after the dispersion caused by the confusion of tongues. 3. Many of these families, or tribes, continued in this barbarous state for several ages, or until their in¬ crease of numbers, and the diminished quantity of wild game, rendered a supply of food from the objects 148 THE HUNTER. of the chase extremely precarious. Necessity then compelled them to resort to the domestication of cer¬ tain animals, and to the cultivation of the soil. But the practice of hunting wild animals is not confined to the savage state; as it is an amusement prompted by a propensity inherent in human nature. 4. The earliest historical notice of this sport is found in the tenth chapter of Genesis, in which Nim¬ rod is styled, “ a mighty hunter before the Lord.” So great was his prowess in this absorbing pursuit, that he was proverbially celebrated on this account even in the time of Moses. Nimrod is the first king of whom we read in history ; and it is by no means improbable, that his skill and intrepidity in subduing the wild beasts of the forest, contributed largely to¬ wards elevating him to the regal station. 5. Although the spoils of the chase are of little con¬ sequence to men, after they have united in regular communities, in which the arts of civilized life are cultivated; yet the propensity to hunt wild animals continues, and displays itself more or less among all classes of men. 6. The reader of English history will recollect, that William the Conqueror, who began his reign in the year 1066, signalized his passion for this amusement, by laying waste, and converting, into one vast hunt¬ ing-ground, the entire county of Hampshire, contain¬ ing, at that time, no less than twenty-two populous parishes. Severe laws were also enacted, prohibiting the destruction of certain kinds of game, except by a few persons having specified qualifications. With some modifications, these laws are still in force in Great Britain. 7. In other countries of Europe, also, large tracts have been appropriated by the kings and nobles to the same object. This tyrannical monopoly is attempted to be justified by the unreasonable pretension, that all THE HUNTER. 149 wild animals belong, of right, to the monarch of the country, where they roam. 8. The quadrupeds most hunted in Europe, are the stag, the hare, the fox, the wolf, and the wild boar. These beasts are pursued either on account of their intrinsic value, or for sport, or to rid the country of their depredations. In some instances, all three of these objects may be united. The method of captur¬ ing or killing the animals is various, according to the character and objects of the persons engaged in it. 9. In Asia, the wolf is sometimes hunted with the eagle ; but, in Europe, the strongest greyhounds are employed to run him down. This task, however, is one of extreme difficulty, as he can easily run twenty miles upon a stretch, and is besides very cunning in the means of eluding his pursuers. Chasing the fox on horseback, with a pack of hounds, is considered an animating and manly sport, both in Europe and in North America. 10. The most prominent victim of the hunter, in Africa, is the lion. He is usually sought in small parties on horseback with dogs ; but sometimes, when one of these formidable animals has been discovered, the people of the neighborhood assemble, and encircle him in a ring, three or four miles in circumference. The circle is gradually contracted, until the hunters have approached sufficiently near to the beast, when they dispatch him, usually with a musket-ball. 11. In the southern parts of Asia, tiger-hunting is a favorite amusement. Seated upon an elephant, trained especially for the purpose, the hunter is in comparative safety, while he pursues and fires upon the tiger, until his destruction is effected. 12. The white bear and the grisly bear are the most formidable animals in North America ; yet they are industriously hunted by both Indians and white N 2 150 THE HUNTER. men, on account of the value of their flesh and skins. Bisons, or, as they are erroneously called, buffaloes, are found in great numbers in the vast prairies which occur between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mount¬ ains. They are commonly met with in droves, which sometimes amount to several thousands. 13. When the Indian hunters propose to destroy these animals, they ride into the midst of a herd, and dispatch them with repeated wounds ; or, they get a drove between themselves and a precipice, and, by shouting and yelling, cause the animals to crowd each other off upon the rocks below. In this manner, great numbers are disabled and taken at once. The hunters, at other times, drive the bisons into inclo¬ sures, and then shoot them down at their leisure. The hide of this animal is dressed with the hair ad¬ hering to it; and skins, in this state, are used by the savages for beds, and by the white people, in wagons, sleighs, and stages. 14. North America, and the northern parts of Asia, have been, and, in some parts, still are, well stocked with fur-clad animals ; and these are the principal objects of pursuit, with those who make hunting their regular business. Some of these animals were com¬ mon in every part of North America, when this por¬ tion of the western continent was first visited by Eu¬ ropeans ; and a trade in peltries, more or less exten¬ sive, has been carried on with the natives, ever since the first settlement of the country. 15. For the purpose of conducting this trade with advantage, a company was formed in England, in 1670, by Prince Rupert and others, to whom a char¬ ter was granted, securing to them the exclusive priv¬ ilege of trading with the Indians about Hudson’s Bay. Another company was formed in 1783-4, called the North-West Fur Company. Between these compa¬ nies, there soon arose dissensions and hostilities, and THE HUNTER. 151 many injuries were mutually inflicted by the adhe¬ rents of the parties. Both associations, however, were at length united, under the title of the Hudson’s Bay Fur Company. The Indian trade, on the great lakes and the Upper Mississippi, has long been in possess¬ ion of the North American Fur Company. Most of the directors of this company reside in the city of New-York. 16. The companies just mentioned supply the In¬ dians with coarse blue, red, and fine scarlet cloths, coarse cottons, blankets, ribands, beads, kettles, fire¬ arms, hatchets, knives, ammunition, and other articles adapted to the wants of the hunters, receiving, in re¬ turn, the skins of the muskrat, beaver, otter, martin, bear, deer, lynx, fox, &c. 17. The intercourse with the Indians is managed by agents, called clerks, who receive from the com¬ pany a salary, ranging from three to eight hundred dollars per annum. The merchandise is conveyed to the place of trade, in the autumn, by the aid of Ca¬ nadian boatmen and half-Indians. The most con¬ siderable portion of the goods are sold to the Indians on a credit, with the understanding of their making payment in the following spring ; but, as many neg¬ lect this duty, a high price is affixed to the articles thus intrusted to savage honesty. The clerk furnish¬ es the debtor with a trap, having his own name stamp¬ ed upon it, to show that the hunter has pledged every thing which may be caught in it. 18. Each clerk is supplied with four laborers and an interpreter. The latter attends to the store in the absence of the clerk, or watches the debtors in the Indian camp, lest they again sell the produce of their winter’s labors. The peltries, when obtained by the clerk, are sent to the general agent of the company. 19. The fur trade is also prosecuted, to some ex¬ tent, by a class of men in Missouri, who proceed 152 THE HUNTER. from the city of St. Louis, in bodies comprising from fifty to two hundred individuals. After having ascend¬ ed the Missouri river, or some of its branches, and, perhaps, after having passed the Rocky Mountains, they separate, and pursue the different animals on their own individual account, either alone or in small parties. The Indians regard these men as intruders on their territories ; and, when a favorable oppor¬ tunity is presented, they frequently surprise and mur¬ der the wandering hunters, and retain possession of their property. 20. In consequence of the unremitted warfare which has, for a long time, been carried on against the wild animals of North America, their number has been greatly diminished ; and, in many parts, al¬ most every species of the larger quadrupeds, and the fur-clad animals, has been exterminated. Even on the Mississippi, and the great lakes, the latter descrip¬ tion of animals has been so much reduced in number, that the trade in peltries, in those parts, has become of little value. Another half century will, probably, nearly terminate the trade in every part of North America. 21. The fur trade was prosecuted with consider¬ able success, during the latter part of the last century, principally by the English, on the north-west coast of America, and the adjacent islands. The peltries obtained by these enterprising traders, were carried directly to China. The trade was interrupted for a while by the Spaniards, who laid claim to those re¬ gions, and seized the British traders engaged there, together with the property in their possession. This affair, however, was afterwards amicably adjusted by the Spanish and English governments ; and the whole trade, from California north and to China, was open¬ ed to the latter. 22. The fur trade, in those parts, is now chiefly in THE HUNTER. 153 the hands of the Russian Company in America, which has a capital of a million of dollars invested in the business. Most of the persons owning the stock, are merchants, residing at Irkutsk, a town of Siberia, which is the centre of the fur trade of that country. The skins obtained in Russian America are chiefly procured from the sea-otter, and several species of seal, together with those from foxes, of a blue, black, and gray color, which are brought from the interior. Parties of Russian hunters have already passed the Rocky Mountains, and interfered with the trade of the Hudson’s Bay Company. The fur trade of Si¬ beria is chiefly carried on with China. 23. The chief objects of the hunters in Siberia, are the black fox, the sable, the ermine, the squirrel, the beaver, and the lynx. In the region near the Frozen Ocean, are also caught blue and white foxes. Sibe¬ ria is the place of banishment for the Russian empire ; and the exiles were formerly required to pay to the government an annual tribute of a certain number of sable-skins. The conquered tribes in Siberia, were also compelled to pay their taxes in the skins of the fox and sable ; but now, those of less value, or money, are frequently substituted. 24. Although the skins of beasts were the first means employed to clothe the human body, yet it does not appear that the Greeks and Romans, and the other refined nations of antiquity, ever made use of furs for this purpose. The custom of wearing them, originated in those regions, where the fur-clad animals were numerous, and where the severity of the climate required this species of clothing. The use of furs was introduced into the southern parts of Europe by the Goths, Vandals, Huns, and other bar¬ barous nations, which overran the Roman empire. fHE FISHERMAN. 1. Although permission was given by the Deity, immediately after the flood, to employ for human sus¬ tenance “every moving thing that liveth,” yet it is not probable, that fishes were used as food, to any considerable extent, for several centuries afterwards. It is stated by Plutarch, that the Syrians and Greeks, in very ancient times, abstained from fish. Mene- laus, one of Homer’s heroes, complains, on a certain occasion, that his companions had been reduced by hunger to the necessity of eating fish; and there is no mention in Homer, that the Grecians, at any time, used this food at the siege.of Troy, although, for the ten years during which that contest was carried on, their camp was on the sea-shore. 2. Moses, the Jewish lawgiver, is very explicit in THE FISHERMAN. 155 designating the land animals which might be used by the Israelites as food ; and he was equally so with regard to the animals which inhabit the waters. We learn, from the twelfth chapter of Numbers, that the children of Israel, while journeying to the land of Canaan, “ remembered the fish which they did eat,” in Egypt. < 3. This is the earliest notice on record, of the ac¬ tual use of that class of animals for food ; although it is probable, that they had been applied to this pur¬ pose, in Egypt, six or seven hundred years before that period, or soon after the settlement of this coun¬ try by the descendants of Ham. 4. For a long time before the advent of Our Sa¬ viour, fishing had been a regular business, even in Ju¬ dea ; and from the class of men who followed this occupation, he chose several of his apostles. At the time just mentioned, fish had become a common ar¬ ticle of diet, in all parts of the world subject to the Roman power, and probably in almost ail other coun¬ tries. 5. The methods of catching fish, pursued in an¬ cient times, were similar to those of the present day ; for then, as now, they were caught with a hook, with a spear, and with a seine or net, according to the character of the animal, and the nature of the fishing station. But the great improvements in navigation, made since the twelfth century, have given modern fishermen the command of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and, consequently, a knowledge of many spe¬ cies of fish which were formerly unknown. 6. According to Linnseus, the great naturalist, about four hundred species of fish have come to our knowledge; and he presumes, that those which re¬ main unknown are still more numerous. Notwith¬ standing this great variety, the chief attention of fish¬ ermen is confined to a few kinds, which are the most 156 THE FISHERMAN. easily caught, and which are the most valuable when taken. 7. Every place which contains many inhabitants, and which is located in the vicinity of waters well stored with fish, is supplied with these animals by men who make fishing a business; still, these fish¬ eries may be considered local in their benefits, and perhaps do not require particular notice in this arti¬ cle. We will only remark, therefore, that, in large cities, fresh fish are sold either in- a fish-market, or are hawked about the streets. The wives of the fish¬ ermen are very often employed in selling the fish caught by their husbands. The fisheries w'hich are of the greatest consequence, in general commerce, are those which relate to herring, mackerel, salmon, seal, and whale. 8. Herring Fishery .—There are several species of herring ; but, of these, four kinds only are of much importance, viz., the common herring, the shad, the hard head, and the alewife; of which, the first is the most valuable, being by far the most numerous, and being, also, better adapted than the others for preser¬ vation. 9. The winter residence of the common herring is within the arctic circle, whence it emigrates, in the spring, to more southern portions of the globe, for the purpose of depositing its spawn. The first body of these migratory animals, appears on the coasts of both Europe and America, in April, or about the first of May ; but these are only the precursors of the grand shoals which arrive in a few weeks afterwards. 10. Their first approach is indicated by the great number of birds of prey, which follow them in their course ; but, when the main body appears, the num¬ ber is so great, that they alter the appearance of the ocean itself. In this last and principal migration, the shoals are five or six miles in length, and three or THE FISHERMAN. 157 four in breadth; and, before each of these columns, the water is driven in a kind of ripple. Sometimes, the fish sink together ten or fifteen minutes, and then rise again to the surface, when they reflect, in clear weather, the rays of the sun, in a variety of splendid colors. 11. These fish proceed as far south as France, on the coasts of Europe, and as far as Georgia, in Amer¬ ica, supplying every bay, creek, and river, which opens into the Atlantic. Having deposited their spawn, generally in the inland waters, they return to their head.quarters in the Arctic Ocean, and recruit their emaciated bodies for another migration in the follow¬ ing spring. 12. In a few weeks, the young ones are hatched by the genial heat of the sun; and, as they are not found in southern waters in the winter, it is evident that they proceed northward in the fall, to their pa¬ ternal haunts under the ice, and thus repair the vast destruction of their race, which had been caused by men, fowl, and fish, in the previous season. 13. These fish are caught in nearly every river, from Maine to Georgia, which has a free communi¬ cation with the Atlantic ; but the most extensive fish¬ eries are on the Hudson and Delaware Rivers, and on those which flow into the Chesapeake Bay. 14. The instrument employed in catching these fish is called a seine , which is a species of net, some¬ times in length several hundred fathoms, and of a width suiting the depth of the water in which it is to be used. The two edges of the net-work are fasten¬ ed each to a rope; and, to cause the seine to spread laterally in the water, pieces of lead are fastened to one side, and pieces of cork to the other. 15. In spreading the seine in the water, one end is retained on land by a number of persons, while the rest of it is strung along from a boat, which is rowed O 158 THE FISHERMAN. in the direction from the shore. The seine having been thus extended, the further end is brought round, in a sweeping manner, to the shore ; and the fish that may be included are taken into the boats with a scoop- net, or are hauled out upon the shore. In this way, two or three hundred thousands are sometimes taken at a single haul. This fish dies immediately after having been taken from the water; hence the com¬ mon expression, “ As dead as a herring.” 16. The herrings are sold, as soon as caught, to people who come to the fishing stations to procure them ; or, in case an immediate sale cannot be effect¬ ed, they are cured with salt, and afterwards smoked, or continued in brine. In the Southern states, the herring is generally thought to be superior to any other fish for the purpose of salting down; although the shad and some others are preferred while fresh. 17. The importance of this fishery is superior to that of any other; since the benefits resulting from it are more generally diffused. The ancients, how¬ ever, do not appear to have had any knowledge of this valuable fish. It was first brought into notice by the Dutch, who are said to have commenced the her¬ ring fishery on the coasts of Scotland, in the year 1164, and to have retained almost exclusive possess¬ ion of it, until the beginning of the present century. 18. The shad is a species of herring, which inhab¬ its the sea near the mouths of rivers, and which as¬ cends them in the spring, to deposit its spawn. It is caught in all the rivers terminating on our Atlantic coasts, as well as in some of the rivers of the North of Europe. This fish is captured in the same man¬ ner and often at the same time with the common her¬ ring. It is highly esteemed in a fresh state ; although it is not so good when salted, as the herring and some other kinds of fish. 19. Mackerel Fishery .—The common mackerel is THE FISHERMAN. 159 a migratory fish, like the herring, and ranks next to that tribe of fishes in regard to numbers, and perhaps in general utility. Its place of retirement in the win- ter, is not positively known; but it is supposed by some, to be far north of the arctic circle; and by others, to be in some part of the Atlantic farther south. Shoals of this fish appear on the coasts of both Europe and America, in the summer season. Of this fish there are twenty-two species. 20. The mode of catching the mackerel, is either with a net or with hooks and lines. The latter meth¬ od succeeds best, when the boat or vessel is driven forward by a gentle breeze; and, in this case, a bit of red cloth, or a painted feather, is usually employed as a bait. Several hooks are fastened to a single line, and the fish bite so readily, that the fishermen occasionally take one on each hook at a haul. The mackerel is cured in the usual manner, and packed in barrels, to be sold to dealers. 21. This fish was well known to the ancients, as one of its places of resort, in the summer, was the Mediterranean Sea. It was highly esteemed by the Romans, for the reason, that it was the best fish for making their sarum, a kind of pickle or sauce much esteemed by this luxurious people. 22. Salmon Fishery .—The salmon is a celebrated fish, belonging to the trout genus. It inhabits the seas on the European coasts, from Spitzbergen to Western France ; and, on the western shore of the Atlantic, it is found from Greenland to the Hudson River. It also abounds on both coasts of the North Pacific Ocean. The length of full-grown salmon is from three to four feet; and their weight, from ten to fifteen pounds. 23. As soon as the ice has left the rivers, the sal¬ mon begin to ascend them, for the purpose of deposit¬ ing their spawn. It has been ascertained, that these 160 THE FISHERMAN. fish retain a remarkable attachment to the river which gave them birth; and, having once deposited their spawn, they ever afterwards choose the same spot for their annual deposits. This latter fact has been es¬ tablished by a curious Frenchman, who, fastening a ring to the posterior fin of several salmon, and then setting them at liberty, found that some of them made their appearance at the same place three successive seasons, bearing with them this distinguishing mark. 24. In ascending the rivers, these fish usually pro¬ ceed together in great numbers, mostly swimming in the middle of the stream; and, being very timid, a sudden noise, or even a floating piece of timber, will sometimes turn them from their course, and send them back to the sea ; but having advanced a while, they assume a determined resolution, overcoming rap¬ ids and leaping over falls twelve or fifteen feet in per¬ pendicular height. 25. Salmon are caught chiefly with seines, and sometimes seven or eight hundred are captured at a single haul; but from fifty to one hundred is the most usual number, even in a favorable season. They are also taken in weirs , which are inclosures so con¬ structed that they admit the ingress, but not the re¬ gress of the fish. 26. The salmon fisheries are numerous in Great Britain and Ireland, as well as in most of the north¬ ern countries of Europe. In the United States, the most valuable fisheries of this kind are on the rivers in Maine, whence the towns and cities farther south are principally supplied with these fish, in a fresh condition. They are preserved in ice, while on their way to market. In the cured state, salmon is highly esteemed ; although it is not easily digested. 27. Cod Fishery .—There are several species of cod-fish, or gadus ; but the most important and inter¬ esting of the class, is the common cod. These fish THE FISHERMAN. 161 are found in great abundance on the south and west coasts of Iceland, on the coasts of Norway, off the Orkney and Western Isles, and in the Baltic Sea. Farther south, they gradually diminish in numbers, and entirely disappear, some distance from the Straits of Gibraltar. 28. But the great rendezvous of cod-fish is on the coasts of Labrador, the banks of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and Nova Scotia. They are invited to these situations by the abundance of small fish, worms, and other marine animals of the crustaceous and testa¬ ceous kinds, on which they feed. The fishermen re¬ sort, in the greatest numbers, to the banks, which stretch along the eastern coasts of Newfoundland about four hundred and fifty miles. The water on these banks varies from twenty to fifty fathoms in depth. 29. By negociations with Great Britain, the French, Dutch, Spanish, and Americans, have acquired the right to catch and cure fish, both on the Grand Banks, and several other places on the coasts of the English possessions in North America. The number of ves¬ sels employed on the several fishing stations, during each successive season, amounts to six or seven thou¬ sand, each measuring from forty to one hundred and twenty tons, and carrying eight or ten men. 30. The fishing on the Grand Banks commences in April, and continues until about the first of August. Here, the fish are caught exclusively with hooks, which are usually baited with a small fish called the capelin, as well as with herring, clams, and the gills' of the cod itself. But this fish is not very particular in its choice of bait, it biting greedily at almost any kind which may be presented. An expert fisherman will frequently catch from one hundred to three hun¬ dred cod in a single day. 31. As soon as the fish have been caught, their O 2 162 THE FISHERMAN. heads are cut off, and their entrails taken out. They are then salted away in bulk in the hold ; and, after having lain three or four days to drain, they are taken to another part of the vessel, and again salted in the same manner. The fishermen from New-England, however, give them but one salting while on the fish¬ ing station; but, as soon as a cargo has been obtain¬ ed, it is carried home, where conveniences have been prepared for curing the fish to greater advantage. By pursuing this plan, two or three trips are made during the season. Some of the fish are injured be¬ fore they are taken from the vessel; and these form an inferior quality, called Jamaica jish, because such are generally sold in that island, for the use of the negroes. 32. The fish which are caught on the coasts of Labrador, at the entrance of Hudson’s Bay, in the Straits of Belleisle, and on fishing stations of similar advantages, are cured on the shore. They are first slightly salted, and then dried in the sun, either on the rocks, or on scaffolds erected for the purpose. In these coast fisheries, the operations commence in June, and continue until some time in August. The cod are caught in large seines, as well as with hook and line. 33. Seal Fishery .—There are several species of the seal ; but the kind which is most numerous, and most important in a commercial view, is the common seal. It is found on the sea-coasts throughout the world, but in the greatest numbers in very cold cli¬ mates, where it furnishes the rude inhabitants with nearly all their necessaries and luxuries. 34. The animal is valuable to the civilized world, on account of its skin and oil. The oil is pure, and is adapted to all the purposes to which that from the whale is applied. In the spring of the year, the seals are very fat; and, at that time, even small ones will « THE FISHERMAN. 163 yield four or five gallons of oil. The leather manu¬ factured from the skins, is employed in trunk-making, in saddlery, and in making boots and shoes. 35. Since the whale fishery has declined in pro¬ ductiveness in the northern seas, sealing has arisen in importance ; and accordingly, vessels are now fre¬ quently fitted out for this purpose, in both Europe and America ; whereas, a few years since, it was regard¬ ed only as a part of the objects of a whaling voyage. 36. Our countrymen of New-England have partic¬ ularly distinguished themselves in this branch of bu¬ siness ; and the part of the globe which they have found to be the most favorable to their objects, has been the islands in the Antarctic Ocean. A sealing voyage to that quarter often occupies three years, during which time the hunters are exposed to great hardships, being often left in small detachments on desolate islands, for the purpose of pursuing the ani¬ mals to greater advantage. 37. The best time for sealing in the Arctic Ocean, is in March and April, when the seals are often met with in droves of several thousands on the ice, which is either fixed, or floating in large pieces. When the sealers meet with one of these droves, they attack the animals with clubs, and stun them by a single blow on the nose. After all that can be reached, have been disabled in this way, the skin and blubber are taken off together. 38. This operation is called flenching, and is some¬ times a horrible business ; since some of the seals, being merely stunned, occasionally recover, and, in their denuded state, often make battle, and even leap into the water, and swim off. The skins, with the blubber attached to them, are packed away in the hold ; and, in case the vessel is to return home soon, they are suffered to remain there, until she arrives in port; but, when this is not expected, the skins, as 164 THE FISHERMAN. soon as convenient, are separated from the blubber, and the latter is put into casks. There are other methods of capturing the seal ; but it is, perhaps, not necessary to enter into further details. 39. Whale Fishery .—There are five species of the whale, of which the Balance Physalis , or razor-back, is the largest.. When full grown, it is supposed to be about one hundred feet in length, and thirty or thirty- five feet in circumference. It is so powerful an ani¬ mal, that it is extremely difficult to capture it; and, when captured, it yields but little oil and whalebone. The species to which whalers direct their attention, is denominated the Mystecetus, or the right whale. 40. The mystecetus is found, in the greatest num¬ bers, in the Greenland seas, about the island of Spitz- bergen, in Davis’ Straits, in Hudson’s and Baffin’s Bays, and in the northern parts of the Pacific Ocean. It is also found in the Antarctic Ocean, and along the coasts of Africa and South America, and occasionally on the coasts of the United States. 41. Each vessel engaged in this fishery, is gener¬ ally fitted out by several individuals, who receive, of the return cargo of oil and whalebone, a portion cor¬ responding to the amount which they have contribu¬ ted to the common stock, after the men have received their proportion of it. Should the voyage prove al¬ together unsuccessful, which seldom happens, the owners lose the amount of the outfit, and the captain and hands, their time. 42. The whalers commence operations in the north¬ ern latitudes, in the month of May ; but the whales are most plentiful in June, when they are met with between the latitudes 75° and 80°, in almost every variety of situation, sometimes in the open seas, at others in the loose ice, or at the edges of the fields and fioes, which are near the main, impervious body of ice. THE FISHERMAN. 165 43. On the fishing station, the boats are kept al¬ ways ready for instant service, being suspended from davits, or cranes, by the sides of the ship, and being furnished with a lance and a harpoon, to the latter of which is attached about one hundred and twenty fath¬ oms of strong but flexible rope. When the weather and situation are favorable, the crow's nest , which is a station at the mast-head, is occupied by some per¬ son with a telescope. 44. The moment a whale is discovered, notice is given to the watch below, who instantly man one or two boats, and row with swiftness to the place. Sometimes, a boat is kept manned and afloat near the ship, that no time may be lost in making ready; or, two or three are sent out on the look-out , having every thing ready for an attack. 45. The whale being very timid and cautious, the men endeavor to approach him unperceived, and strike him with the harpoon, before he is aware of their presence. Sometimes, however, he perceives their approach, and dives into the water, to avoid them; but, being compelled to come again to the surface to breathe, or, as it is termed, to blow, they make another effort to harpoon him. In this way, the whalers often pursue him for a considerable time, and fre¬ quently without final success. The animal, when un¬ molested, remains about two minutes on the surface, during which time he blows eight or nine times, and then descends for five or ten minutes, and often, while feeding, for fifteen or twenty. 46. When the whale has been struck, he generally dives towards the bottom of the sea either perpen¬ dicularly or obliquely, where he remains about thirty minutes, and sometimes nearly an hour. The har¬ poon has, near its point, two barbs, or withers, which cause it to remain fast in the integuments under the skin ; and the rope attached to it, is coiled in the bow 166 THE FISHERMAN. of the boat in such a way, that it runs out without in¬ terruption. When more line is wanted, it is made known to the other boats by the elevation of an oar. Should the rope prove too short for the great descent of the whale, it becomes necessary to sever it from the boat, lest the latter be drawn under water; for this emergency, the harpooner stands ready with a knife. 47. When the whale reappears, the assisting boats make for the place with their greatest speed ; and, if possible, each harpooner plunges his weapon into the back of the creature. On convenient occasions, he is also plied with lances, which are thrust into his vitals. At length, overcome with wounds, and ex¬ hausted by the loss of blood, his approaching dissolu¬ tion is indicated by a discharge of blood from his blow-holes, and sometimes by a convulsive struggle, in which his tail, raised, whirled, and jerked in the air, resounds to the distance of several miles. The whale having been thus conquered, and deprived of life, the captors express their joy with loud huzzas, and communicate the information to the ship by stri¬ king their flag. 48. A position near a large field of solid ice is very advantageous; because a whale diving under it is obliged to return again to blow ; and this circum¬ stance gives opportunity to make upon him several attacks. Close fields of drift ice present great diffi¬ culties ; since the boats cannot always pass through them with sufficient celerity. In that case, the men sometimes travel over the ice, leaping from one piece to another, and carrying with them lances and har¬ poons, with which they pierce the animal as often as possible. If they succeed in thus killing him, they drag him back under the ice with the fast line. 49. The whale, having been towed to the ship, and secured alongside, is raised a little by means of pow- THE FISHERMAN. 167 erful blocks, or tackle. The harpooners, with spurs fastened to the bottom of their feet to prevent them from slipping, descend upon the huge body, and, with spades anff knives adapted to this particular purpose, cut the biuober into oblong pieces, which are peeled off, and hoisted upon deck with the speck-tackle. These long strips are then cut into chunks, which are immediately packed away in the hold. After the an¬ imal has been thus successively flenched, and the whale-bone taken out, the carcase is dismissed to the sharks, bears, and birds of prey. 50. The blubber is somewhat similar, in consist¬ ence, to the fat which surrounds the body of the hog, although not quite so solid. In young whales, its color is yellowish white; and, in old ones, yellow or red. Its thickness varies in different parts and in dif¬ ferent individuals, from eight to twenty inches. The weight of a whale sixty feet in length, is about seven¬ ty tons, of which the blubber weighs about thirty tons. 51. The whale-bone is situated in the mouth. About three hundred laminae, or blades, grow parallel to each other on either side of the upper jaw, being about half an inch thick, and ten or twelve inches wide, where they are united by the gum. As the ‘whale grows old, they increase in length, and ap¬ proach from each side to the roof of th£ mouth. The whale, while feeding, swims with his mouth wide open, which admits a great quantity of water containing insects or small fish, on which he subsists. The whale-bone acts as a filter, or strainer, in retaining the little animals, while the water passes off at the corners of the mouth. 52. Before the whalers leave the fishing station, they cut the blubber into small pieces, and put it into close casks. Sometimes, however, when the ship has been very successful, there is a deficiency of casks. In that case, it is slightly salted, and packed away in 168 THE FISHERMAN. the hold. But, as the ship must necessarily pass through a warmer climate, on her voyage homeward, the blubber, while packed in this manner, is liable to melt and be wasted, unless the weather should prove uncommonly cool. 53. When the vessel has arrived in port, the blub¬ ber is found to be melted. To separate the oil from the fritters, or fenks, as the integuments and other im¬ purities are called, the contents of the casks are pour¬ ed into copper boilers, and heated. The heat causes a part of the latter to sink to the bottom, and the for¬ mer is drawn off into coolers, where other extraneous matters settle. The pure or fine oil is then drawn off for sale. An inferior quality of oil, called brown oil , is obtained from the dregs of the blubber. 54. The spermaceti cachalot, or Physeter Macro . cephalus, is an animal belonging to the norwal genus ; although it is generally denominated the spermaceti whale. It is found in the greatest abundance in the Pacific Ocean, where it is sought by American and other whalers, for the sake of the oil and spermaceti. This animal is gregarious, and is often met with in herds containing more than two hundred individuals. 55. Whenever a number of the cachalot are seen, several boats, manned each with six men provided with harpoons and lances, proceed in pursuit; and, if possible, each boat strikes or fastens to a distinct animal, which, in most cases, is overcome without much difficulty. Being towed to the ship, it is de¬ prived of its blubber, and the matter contained in the head, which consists of spermaceti combined with a small proportion of oil. The oil is reduced from the blubber, soon after it has been taken on board, in “ try works,” with which every ship engaged in this fishery is provided. 56. About three tons of oil are commonly obtained from a large cachalot of this species, and from one THE FISHERMAN. 169 to two tons from a small one, besides the head-mat¬ ter. The manner in which these two products are treated, when brought into port, has been described in the article on candle-making. 57. The Biscayans were the first people who pros¬ ecuted the whale fishery, as a commercial pursuit. In the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, they carried on this business to a considerable ex¬ tent ; but the whales taken by them were not so large as those which have since been captured in the polar seas. At length, the whales ceased to visit the Bay of Biscay, and the fishery in that quarter was of course terminated. 58. The voyages of the English and Dutch to the Northern Ocean, in search of a passage to India, led to the discovery of the principal haunts of the whale, and induced individuals in those nations to fit out ves¬ sels to pursue these animals in the northern latitudes, the harpooners and part of the crews being Biscay¬ ans. The whales were found in the greatest abun- dance about the island of Spitzbergen, and were, at first, so easily captured, that extra vessels were sent out in ballast, to assist in bringing home the oil and whalebone ; but the whales, retiring to the centre of the ocean, and to the other side to the Greenland seas, soon became scarce about that island. 59. The whale fishery was revived, as above sta¬ ted, about the beginning of the seventeenth century ; and, with the Dutch, it was in the most flourishing condition in 1680, when it employed about two hun¬ dred and sixty ships, and fourteen thousand men. The wars about the beginning of the nineteenth cen¬ tury, extending their baleful influence to almost every part of the ocean, annihilated this branch of business among the Dutch ; and, in 1828, only a single whale- ship sailed from Holland. 60. The English whale fishery was, at first, car- P 170 THE FISHERMAN. ried on by companies enjoying exclusive privileges; but the pursuit was attended with little success. In 1732, Parliament decreed a bounty of twenty shillings per ton, on every whaler measuring more than two hundred tons ; and, although this bounty was increas¬ ed in 1749 to forty shillings, yet the English whale fishery has never been very flourishing. 61. The whale fishery has been carried on with greater success from the United States than from any other country. It was begun by the colonists, on their own shores, at a very early period ; but the whales having abandoned the coasts of North Amer¬ ica, these hardy navigators pursued them into the northern and southern oceans. 62. The number of American vessels now employ¬ ed in pursuit of the spermaceti cachalot and the mys- tecetus, amounts to about four hundred, and the num¬ ber of men to about ten thousand. The inhabitants of the island of Nantucket, and of the town of New- Bedford, are more extensively engaged in these fish¬ eries than the people of any other part of the United States. THE SHIPWRIGHT. 1. The earliest notice we have of the construction of a building to float on water, is that which relates to Noah’s Ark. This was the largest vessel that has ever been built, and the circumstance proves that the arts, at that early period, had been brought to con¬ siderable perfection ; yet, as several centuries had elapsed, after the flood, before the descendants of Noah had much occasion for floating vessels, the art of constructing them seems to have been measurably lost. 2. Early records, which perhaps are worthy of credit, state that the Egyptians first traversed the river Nile upon rafts, then in the canoe ; and that, to these succeeded the boat, built with joist, fastened to¬ gether with wooden pins, and rendered water-tight by 172 THE SHIPWRIGHT. interposing the leaves of the papyrus. To this boat was, at length, added a mast of acanthus, and a sail of papyrus ; but, being prejudiced against the sea be¬ cause it swallowed up their sacred river, which they worshipped as a god, they never attempted to con- truct vessels adapted to marine navigation. 3. The Phoenicians, a nation nearly as ancient as the Egyptian, being situated directly on the sea, with¬ out the advantages of a noble river, were compelled to provide means for sailing on a wider expanse of water. It is said, however, that they first traversed the Mediterranean, and even visited distant islands, with no better means of conveyance than a raft of timber. This is rendered somewhat probable, from the fact, that the Peruvians, even at the present time, venture upon the Pacific Ocean on their balza, a raft made from a spongy tree of that name. 4. The vessels first constructed by the Phoenicians, were used for commercial purposes. They were flat- bottomed, broad, and of a small draught; and those of the Carthaginians and Greeks were similar in shape. The ships of war, in early times, were gen¬ erally mere row-boats, in which the combatants rush¬ ed upon each other, and decided the combat by valor and physical strength. 5. By successive improvements, the ships of an¬ tiquity were, at length, brought to combine good pro¬ portion with considerable beauty. The prows were sometimes ornamented with the sculptured figures of heathen deities, and otherwise adorned with paint and gilding, while the sterns, which were usually in the form of a shield, were elaborately wrought in carved work. The approved length of a ship of war, was six or eight times its breadth; and that for mercan¬ tile purposes, four times the breadth ; hence, the dis¬ tinction of long ships, and round ships. 6. Both the long and round ships had a single mast, which could be taken down or elevated at pleasure. THE SHIPWRIGHT. 173 These vessels were, however, propelled with oars on occasions that required it; and the former, in their improved state, were properly galleys with one, two, or three banks of oars, which extended from one end of the vessel to the other. The rowers were all placed under the deck; and, in time of battle, the combatants contended above, being in part defended from the missiles of opposing foes by shields carried on the arm, and by screens and towers placed on the deck. The bow of each vessel was armed with a brazen or iron beak, with which the contending par¬ ties often stove in the sides of each other’s vessels. 7. The general size of vessels in the best days of antiquity, was not greater than that of our sloops and schooners; but there are instances on record, which prove that they occasionally equalled in capa¬ city the largest of modern times. In the early ages, they were very small, and, for several centuries, were drawn upon the shore at the termination of every voyage. Stranding, however, became impracticable, after the increase in size, and the addition of the keel. The anchor and cable were, therefore, invented, to confine the ship at a suitable distance from the shore. At first, the anchor was nothing more than a large stone. Afterwards, it was wood and stone combined ; and, finally, iron was the sole material. 8. The invasion of the Roman empire by the north¬ ern barbarians, caused the operations of war to be almost exclusively conducted on the land. This, to¬ gether with the destruction of commerce during the general desolation of those ruthless incursions, and the barbarism of the conquerors, occasioned a retro¬ gression, and, in some parts of Europe, nearly the total destruction of the art of building ships. 9. The active trade which arose in the Mediterra¬ nean, during the middle ages, and the naval enter¬ prises connected with the Crusades, occasioned a re- P 2 174 THE SHIPWRIGHT. vival of the art of constructing ships ; yet, it did not advance beyond the condition in which the Cartha¬ ginians had left it, until about the middle of the four¬ teenth century. At this era, the inconsiderable gal¬ leys of former times began to be superseded by lar¬ ger vessels, in which, however, oars were not entirely dispensed with. 10. The great change in the general construction of vessels, arose from the discovery of the polarity of the magnet, and the application of astronomy to nautical pursuits ; for, by these means, the mariner was released from his dependance on the sight of the land, in guiding his vessel on its course. Larger ships were therefore constructed, capable of with¬ standing more violent storms and loftier waves. 11. To the Italians, Catalans, and Portuguese, was ship-building most considerably indebted, in the early days of its revival. The Spaniards followed up their discovery of the New World with a rapid improve¬ ment in both the form and size of their ships; some of which even rated at two thousand tons burden. In more modern times, it is said, that the Spaniards and French are entitled to the credit of nearly all the im¬ provements which have been made in the theory of the art, the English having never contributed essen¬ tially to advance it, although the greatest naval power of this or any other time. 12. In the United States, very great improvements have been made in the construction of vessels, since the commencement of the present century. Our builders, however, are less guided by scientific rules than by experience and a practised eye; yet, it is generally conceded, that our ships of war and first- rate merchantmen, are superior in swiftness and beau¬ ty to those of any other country. 13. In Europe, the first thing done towards build¬ ing a vessel, is to exhibit it in three distinct views by as many separate drawings ; but, in the United States, THE SHIPWRIGHT. 175 the builder commences by framing a complete wood¬ en model of the proposed construction—the thing it¬ self in miniature. From this practice of our naval architects, have arisen the superior beauty and excel¬ lence of our vessels. 14. The timber generally used in the construction of American vessels, is live-oak, pine, chestnut, lo¬ cust, and cedar. ‘ The trees of mature growth are chosen, and girdled in the beginning of winter, at which time they contain but little sap. When suffi¬ ciently dry and hardened, the trees are felled ; and, after the timber has been roughly hewn, it is carefully stored in some dry, airy place, not much exposed to wind or sun. 15. In collecting ship-timber, the greatest difficulty is found in procuring the crooked sticks, which form the sides or ribs of the skeleton of a vessel. In coun¬ tries where ship-timber has become an object of care¬ ful cultivation, this difficulty is anticipated by bending the young trees to the desired form, and confining them there, until they have permanently received the proper inclination. The timber is brought to market in its rough state, and sold by the foot. 16. The timber having been selected, the workmen proceed to fashion the various parts of the proposed vessel with appropriate tools, being guided in their operations by patterns, which have been made after the exact form of the various parts of the model. Much care is taken to avoid cutting the wood contrary to the grain, that its strength may not be impaired. 17. After all the parts of the frame have been made ready, they are put together. The several blocks of timber on which the vessel is raised, are called the slocks; and to these pieces, the foundation, called the keel, is temporarily fastened in an inclined position. The keel is inserted into the stern-post at one end, and into the stem at the other. Th e floor-timbers are next fixed in the keel, every other one being there 176 THE SHIPWRIGHT. firmly bolted and riveted. Each of these timbers is a branch and part of the body of a tree; and, when composing a part of a vessel, they bear the same re¬ lation to it as the ribs to the human body. With equal propriety, the keel has been compared to the vertebral column, or back-bone. 18. The next step is to apply and fasten the planks, which serve not only to exclude the water, but to bind all the parts firmly and harmoniously together. Sim¬ ple as this part of the operation may seem to be, it is the most difficult to be effected, and requires a pre¬ concerted plan as much as any other part of the fab¬ ric. When it is necessary to bend a plank at the bow or stern, it is heated by steam, and then forced into place with screws and levers. The planks are fastened with iron or copper bolts. 19. The planking having been finished, and sev¬ eral particulars attended to, which cannot be well un¬ derstood from description, the vessel is ready for the work of the caulker, who carefully stops all the seams with oakum, and smears them with pitch. After the superfluous pitch has been cleared away with the scrajper, water is pumped into the hold, to ascertain if there is any leak. 20. The bottom of the vessel is next sheathed ei¬ ther with sheets of copper or pine boards, to protect it from the worms. The latter materials are em¬ ployed when the planks have been fastened with iron ; since the copper would cause the bolt-heads to cor¬ rode, if placed against them. In either case, sheets of paper, soaked in hot pitch, are interposed between the planks and the sheathing. 21. The vessel is now ready to be removed from the stocks to the water. This removal is called launching, which, in many cases, requires much skill in the preparation and successive management. If there is no permanent inclined plane in the slip, on which the vessel may glide into the water, a tempo- THE SHIPWRIGHT. 177 rary ofle is prepared, consisting of two platforms of solid timber, erected one on each side of the keel, at a distance of a few feet from it, and extending from the stem into the water. Upon this double platform, which is called the ways, is erected another set of timbers, and the space between these and the vessel is filled all along with wedges. The whole of this superstructure is called the cradle, and the extremi¬ ties of it are fastened to the keel, at the bow and stern, with chains and ropes. 22. Every thing having been thus prepared, the wedges are simultaneously driven on both sides. By this means, the vessel is raised from the stocks, and made to rest entirely on the cradle. After the shores have been all removed, the cradle, with its weighty burden, begins to move ; and, in a moment, the ves¬ sel is launched upon its destined element. 23. Among the ancients, a launch was ever an oc¬ casion of great festivity. The mariners were crown¬ ed with wreaths, and the ship was bedecked with streamers and garlands. Safely afloat, she was pu¬ rified with a lighted torch, an egg, and brimstone, and solemnly consecrated to the god whose image she bore. In our less poetic times, there is no lack of feasting and merriment; although the ceremony of consecration is different, the oldest sailor on board merely breaking a bottle of wine or rum over the fig¬ ure-head—still, perchance, the image of father Nep¬ tune or Apollo. 24. The vessel, now brought to the wharf, is to be equipped. The mode of doing this, is varied accord¬ ing as it may be a ship, brig, hermaphrodite brig, schooner, or sloop. The masts are first erected, and these are supplied with the necessary apparatus of spars, rigging, and sails. The latter are furnished by the sail-maker, who is sometimes denominated the ship’s tailor. THE MARINER. 1. The business of the mariner consists in navi¬ gating ships and other vessels from one port to an¬ other. This is an employment that requires much decisive resolution ; and Horace has well said, that “ his breast must have been bound with oak and triple brass, who first committed his frail bark to the tem¬ pestuous sea.” There is certainly nothing which speaks louder in praise of human ingenuity, than that art by which man is able to forsake the land, contend successfully with winds and waves, and reach, with unerring certainty, his destined port in some distant part of the world. 2. Nor are the skijl and intrepidity exhibited in this arduous employment, more worthy of our admiration, than the wonderful advantages resulting from it; for, THE MARINER. 179 we are indebted to the exercise of this art, for those improvements in our condition, which arise from the exchange of the superfluities of one country for those of another, and, above all, for the interchange of sen¬ timents, which renders human knowledge coextensive with the world. 3. Ship-building is so intimately connected with the art of navigation, that the historical part of the for¬ mer subject is equally applicable to the latter. It is, therefore, unnecessary to be particular on this point. We shall merely supply some omissions in the pre¬ ceding article. 4. The sailors of antiquity confined their naviga¬ tion chiefly to the rivers, lakes, and inland seas, sel¬ dom venturing out of sight of land, unless, from their knowledge of the coasts ahead, they were certain to meet with it again in a short time. When they thus ventured from the land, or were driven from it by tempests, the stars and planets were their only guides. 5. The qualifications of a skilful pilot or master, even for the Mediterranean seas, in those days, re¬ quired more study and more practical information, than are necessary to render a mariner a complete general navigator, in the present improved state of the science of navigation ; for then he must needs be acquainted, not only with the general management of the ship, but also with all the ports, land-marks, rocks, quicksands, and other dangers, which lay in the track of his course. Besides this, he was required to be familiar with the course of the winds, and the indica¬ tions that preceded them, together with the move¬ ments of the heavenly bodies, and the influence which they were supposed to exert on the weather. Nor was the ability to read the various omens which were gathered from the sighing of the wind in the trees, 1 the murmurs of the waters, and their dash upon the ISO THE MARINER. shore, the flight of birds, and the gambol of fishes, a qualification to be dispensed with. 6. A voyage, in ancient times, was a momentous undertaking, and was usually preceded by sacrifices to those gods who were supposed to preside over the winds and the waves. All omens were carefully re¬ garded ; and a very small matter, such as the perch¬ ing of swallows on the ship, or an accidental sneeze to the left, was sufficient to delay departure. When, under proper auspices, a vessel or fleet had set sail, and had advanced some distance, it was customary to release a number of doves, which had been brought from home. The safe arrival of these birds at the houses of the voyagers, was considered an auspicious omen of the return of the fleet. 7. Having escaped the multiplied dangers of the sea, the sailors, on their return, fulfilled the vows which they had made before their departure, or in seasons of peril, offering thanks to Neptune, and sac¬ rifices to Jupiter, or some other of their gods, to whose protection they may have committed themselves. Those who had suffered shipwreck, felt themselves under greater obligations of gratitude; and, in addi¬ tion to the usual .sacrifices, they commonly offered the garment in which they had been saved, together with a pictorial representation of the disaster. If the individual escaped only with life, his clothing having been totally lost, his hair was shorn from the head, and consecrated to the tutelar deity. 8. There is much that is beautiful in these simple acts of piety ; and similar customs, with regard to shipwrecked mariners, are still in existence in the Catholic countries of the Mediterranean ; but the wor¬ ship of the heathen deities having been discontinued, a favourite saint, or perchance the true God, is sub¬ stituted for them. Although such acts of piety may not avail to avert impending danger, yet their natural THE MARINER. 181 tendency doubtless is to inspire courage to meet it, when it may arise. 9. The Carthaginians, for several centuries, were more extensively engaged in commerce, than any other people of antiquity; and, as they carried on their lucrative trade with other nations and their own colonies, by means of ships, they exceeded all others in the art of navigation. Not content with exploring every nook and corner of the Mediterranean, they passed the Pillars of Hercules, as the promontories of the Straits of Gibraltar were then called, and visit¬ ed the Atlantic coasts of Europe, as far north as the Scilly Islands, then denominated the Cassorides. It is asserted by Pliny, that Hanno even circumnaviga¬ ted Africa. 10. The destruction of Carthage by the Romans, in the year before Christ 146, interfered with im¬ provements in the art of navigation ; and the invasion of the northern barbarians, several centuries after¬ wards, extinguished nearly all the knowledge which had been previously acquired; nor was it again re¬ vived, and brought to the state in which it existed in the most flourishing era of antiquity, until about the middle of the fourteenth century. 11. After the period just mentioned, improvements in this art followed each other in close succession. The chief cause of this rapid advance was the discov¬ ery of the polarity of the magnet, and the consequent invention of the mariner’s compass. The power of the loadstone to attract iron, was early known to the Greeks and Chinese ; but its property of pointing in a particular direction, when suspended, and left to move freely, was not suspected until about the year 1200 of our era. 12. At first, mariners'were accustomed to place .the magnetic needle on a floating straw, whenever they needed its guidance ; but, in 1302, one Flavio Q 182 THE MARINER. Giaio, an obscure individual of the kingdom of Na¬ ples, placed it on a permanent pivot, and added a circular card. Still, it was nearly half a century after this, before navigators properly appreciated, and implicitly relied on this new guide. The compass did not reach its present improved state, until the middle of the sixteenth century. 13. As soon as the reputation of this instrument had become well established, navigation assumed a bolder character ; and the capacity of vessels having been enlarged to meet this adventurous spirit, oars were laid aside as inapplicable, and sails alone were relied upon, as means of propulsion. 14. Navigation, in the early days of its revival, was indebted to the Portuguese for many valuable improvements. To them, also, is the world under ob¬ ligation for many splendid discoveries, among which was that of a passage by sea to India. This long- desired discovery was made in 1497, by Vasco de Gama, who had been sent out for the purpose by Emanuel, king of Portugal., 15. Five years before Vasco de Gama had found his way to India, by the way of the Cape of Good Hope, Columbus made his discovery of the New World. This great man had conceived or adopted the idea, that the form of our earth was spherical, in opposition to the generally received opinion, that it was an extended plane; and learning that India stretched to an unknown distance eastward, he sup¬ posed, that, by sailing in an opposite direction, the navigator would meet with its eastern extremity. 16. Pursuing this idea, he applied successively to the governments of several states and kingdoms for patronage to enable him to test its correctness; and having, at length, succeeded in obtaining three small vessels, with the necessary equipments, from Ferdi¬ nand and Isabella, sovereigns of Arragon and Castile, THE MARINER. 183 he proceeded on his proposed voyage, which resulted in the discovery of the American continent. 17. These two great discoveries gave another pow¬ erful impulse to navigation ; and inventions and im¬ provements multiplied in rapid succession. The learned and ingenious, who at different times have turned their attention to the subject of navigation, have supplied the mariner with various means, by which he can direct his course on the deep with ac curacy and certainty. 18. The instruments now employed in navigation, are the mariner’s compass, the azimuth compass, the quadrant, the sextant, the chronometer, the half min¬ ute-glass, the log, and the sounding-line. In addition to these, the general navigator needs accurate maps and charts, lists of the latitude and longitude of every part of the world, the time of high water at every port, and a book of navigation, containing tables, to aid him in performing various calculations with facil¬ ity ; and, with a view to calculate the longitude by observation, he should be furnished with the Nautical Almanac, containing the places and declinations of the fixed stars and planets, and especially the dis¬ tances of the moon from the sun and other heavenly bodies. 19. The mariner’s compass, as has been before ob¬ served, is employed to indicate the various points of the horizon ; but the magnetic needle varying more or-less from the exact northern and southern direction, the azimuth compass is used, to show the degree of that variation. The quadrant and sextant are em¬ ployed to ascertain the altitude and relative position of the heavenly bodies, that the mariner may deter¬ mine the latitude and longitude in which his vessel may be. The chronometer is nothing more than a watch, designed to measure time with great accuracy. This instrument is used to determine the longitude. 184 THE MARINER. 20. The log is used for ascertaining the velocity of the ship on the water. It consists of a quadran¬ gular piece of wood, eight or nine inches long, to which is attached a small cord, having knots in it, at proper distances from each other, in the applica¬ tion, the log is thrown upon the water, where it will not be disturbed by the wake of the ship; and the cord, being wound upon a reel, passes from it as fast as the vessel moves in the water. The number of knots, which pass off every half minute, indicates the number of miles which the ship sails per hour ; hence, in nautical language, knots and miles are synonymous terms. The sounding-line is a small cord, with sev- eral pounds of lead of a conical figure attached to it; and is employed in trying the depth of the water, and the quality of the bottom. 21. Navigation is either common or proper. The former is usually called coasting, as the vessel is ei¬ ther on the same or neighboring coast, and is seldom far from land, or out of sounding. The latter is ap¬ plied to long voyages upon the hiain ocean, when considerable skill in mathematics and astronomy, to¬ gether with an aptness in the use of instruments for celestial observations, are required in the captain or master. 22. The application of steam to the purposes of navigation, is one of the greatest achievements of modern science and art. The great utility of this agent is particularly conspicuous in our vast country, where large rivers and bays and mighty lakes are nu¬ merous, and where an energetic people and an ac¬ tive commerce require a rapid intercommunication. Steamboats are but little used on the great oceans ; as merchandise can there be more cheaply and safely transported in vessels propelled by sails. Since the year 1839, two lines of steam packets have been run¬ ning regularly between this country and Great Brit- THE MARINER. 185 ain. They commonly occupy, in crossing the Atlan¬ tic, between twelve and fifteen days. 23. The chief obstacle to the employment of steam, in long voyages, arises from the difficulty of generating a sufficient quantity of this agent, with the fuel which could be carried without overburdening the vessel; but a remedy for this inconvenience will probably be found, in improvements in the construc¬ tion of steam-generators. 24. The power of connfied steam acting by its expansive force, was discovered by the celebrated Marquis of Worcester, about the middle of the seven¬ teenth century; but the first working steam-engine was constructed in 1705, by Thomas Newcomer, a blacksmith of Dartmouth, Devonshire, England. About the year 1769, James Watt, a native of Glas¬ gow, added a great number of improvements of his own invention. 25. Steam navigation was first suggested in Eng¬ land, in 1736, by Jonathan Hulls. It was first tried in practice in France, in 1782, by the Marquis de Jouffroy, and nearly at the same time by James Rum- sey, of Virginia, and John Fitch, of Philadelphia; but it was first rendered completely successful at New-York, in 1807, by Robert Fulton. 26. The sailors employed by the captain, to aid him in navigating his ship, are called a crew; and the individuals composing it are responsible to the captain, the captain to the owners, and the owners to the merchants, for all damages to goods, arising from negligence or bad management. 27. In England, ample provisions are made at Greenwich Hospital or by pensions, for seamen dis¬ abled by age or otherwise. These benefits, however, are extended only to those who have been engaged in the national service. This noble and politic institu¬ tion is supported partly by public bounty, and in part 186 THE MARINER. by private donations, and a tax of sixpence per month, deducted from the wages of all the seamen of the nation. Marine Hospitals, for the temporary accom¬ modation of seamen, suffering from disease, have been established in several cities of the continent of Europe, as well as of the United States. 28. Mariners have ever been a distinct class of men, and, in their general characters, very similar in every age of the world. Their superstitious regard of the many signs of good and bad luck, is nearly the same now, that it was two or three thousand years ago. In ancient times, they had their lucky and un¬ lucky days; and now, very few sailors are willing to leave port on Friday, lest the circumstance bring upon them some disaster, before the conclusion of the proposed voyage. 29. Superstitions of this nature, however, are not confined to the navigators of the deep. Even in this country, where the inhabitants enjoy superior intel¬ lectual advantages, and boast a high degree of intel¬ ligence, thousands of persons who have never been on board of a ship, are still under the influence of such heathen notions, notwithstanding their pretended belief in Christianity, which, in all cases, when prop¬ erly understood, would prevent the forebodings of evil, or expectations of good, from unimportant prog¬ nostics. THE MERCHANT. 1. The word merchant , in its most extended appli¬ cation, signifies, a person who deals in merchandise. This definition, with some exceptions, agrees very well with general usage in this country ; although, in England, the term is principally restricted to those dealers who export and import goods on their own account, either in their own or in chartered vessels. In the United States, dealers of this class are denom¬ inated importing and exporting merchants ; or simply, importers and exporters. 2. Such merchants, both here and in Europe, are distinguished from each other by the kind of goods in which they traffic, or by the foreign country in which they have their chief correspondence ; thus, one who deals in tobacco is called a tobacco-merchant; a 138 THE MERCHANT. wholesale dealer in wines is called a wine-merchant; a West India, East India, or Turkey merchant, ex¬ ports goods to, and imports goods from, those respect¬ ive countries. 3. The business of merchants, in foreign countries, is usually transacted by agents, called factors, or com¬ mission merchants, to whom goods are consigned to be sold, and by whom other articles of merchandise are purchased and returned according to order. Sometimes an agent, called a supercargo, accompa¬ nies the vessel; or the captain may act in this ca¬ pacity. Goods, however, are often obtained by or¬ der, without the intervention of an agency of any kind. 4. Almost every sort of foreign merchandise is subject to the imposition of duties by the government of the country in which it is received. These duties •/ are paid at the Custom-House , to persons appointed by the constituted authorities to collect them. As soon as a vessel from abroad has entered the harbor, it is visited by a custom-house officer, called a Tide- Waiter , whose business it is to see that no part of the cargo is removed, until measures have been taken to secure the customs. 5. Goods brought into the country by importers, are frequently sold, in succession, to several mer¬ chants of different grades, before they come to the hands of the consumers. Cloths or stuffs of different kinds, for instance, may be first sold by the bale to one merchant, who, in turn, may dispose of them by the package to another, and this last may retail them in small quantities to a greater number of customers. 6. Dealers in a small way, in cities and large towns, are frequently denominated shop-keepers ; but those who do an extensive retail business, are usually called merchants or grocers, according as they deal in dry goods or groceries. In cities, the extensive THE MERCHANT. 189 demand for goods enables retailers to confine their attention to particular classes of articles; such as groceries, hardware, crockery, a few kinds of dry goods, or some articles of domestic manufacture; but in other places, where trade is more limited, the merchant is obliged to keep a more general assort¬ ment. 7. The general retail merchant is compelled to transact business with a great number of wholesale dealers, to whom he pays cash in hand, or agrees to pay it at some future period, say, in four, six, nine, or twelve months. The people in his vicinity, in turn, purchase his goods on similar conditions, with this difference, that they often substitute for cash ag¬ ricultural and other productions, which the merchant, at length, turns into ready money. 8. Barter, or the exchange of commodities, pre¬ vails to a great extent, in country places, in almost every part of the United States. In such exchanges, the currency of the country is made the standard of reference : for example ; a merchant receiving from a customer twenty bushels of wheat, estimated at one dollar per bushel, gives in return twenty dollars’ worth of goods, at his marked prices ; or, in other words, he gives credit for the wheat, and charges the goods. On the same principle, merchants of the first class often exchange the productions of their own country for those of another. 9. Merchants, or store-keepers, as they are indif¬ ferently called in some places, whose location is dis¬ tant from the seaboard, visit the city in which they deal once or twice a year, for the purpose of laying in their stock of goods ; but, in order to keep up their assortment, they sometimes order small lots in the interim. Retailers more conveniently situated, pur chase a smaller amount of goods at a time, and re¬ plenish their stores more frequently. 190 THE MERCHANT. 10. Commerce, on the principles of barter, or a simple exchange of one commodity for another, must have been practised in the early days of Adam him¬ self ; although we have no positive record of the fact ; for it cannot be imagined that the arts, which are sta¬ ted in the Scripture to have flourished long before the flood, could have existed without commercial trans¬ actions. The period at which the precious metals began to be employed as a standard of value, or as a medium of commercial intercourse, is not known. They were used for this purpose in the time of Abra¬ ham, and probably many centuries before his day. 11. The earliest hint respecting the existence of trade between different nations, is to be found in the book of Genesis, where the transaction regarding the sale of Joseph to the Ishmaelites, or Midianites, is mentioned. These merchants, it appears, were trav¬ elling in a caravan to Egypt, then the most cultivated and refined part of the world. Their camels were loaded with balm, myrrh, and spices. The first of these articles was the production of Gilead ; the sec¬ ond, of Arabia; and the last was probably from In¬ dia ; as in that country the finer spices are produced. If this were really the case, commerce, in its widest sense, was carried on much earlier than is generally supposed. 12. The fertility of Egypt, and its central position, made it an emporium of commerce ; and there it flourished, in an eminent degree, long before it was cultivated in Europe and in Western Asia. For sev¬ eral ages, however, the Egyptians, on account of their superstitious prejudices against the sea, carried on no maritime commerce. 13. The Phoenicians were the first people who used the Mediterranean Sea, as a highway for the transportation of merchandise. Tyre and Sidon were their chief cities; and the latter was called a great , THE MERCHANT. 191 and the former a strong city, even in the time of Joshua, fifteen hundred years before the advent of Christ. These people, in their original association as a nation, possessed but a small territory; and, being surrounded by many powerful nations, they never at¬ tempted its enlargement on the land side. 14. The settlement of the Israelites in the “ Prom¬ ised Land,” circumscribed their limits to a very small territory, and compelled them to colonize a great number of their inhabitants. The colonies which they formed in the various countries bordering upon the Mediterranean and on the islands, enlarged the boundaries of civilization, and greatly extended their trade. 15. The Phoenicians continued their colonial sys¬ tem for many centuries after the period just mention¬ ed, and even extended it to the Atlantic coasts of Eu¬ rope. But the most distinguished of all their colo¬ nies was the one which founded the city of Carthage, on the northern coast of Africa, about the year 869 before Christ. Elissa, or, as she is otherwise called, Dido, the reputed leader of this colony, makes a con¬ spicuous figure in one of the books of Virgil’s iEneid. 16. Carthage, adopting the same system which had so long been pursued by the great cities of Phoenicia, rose, in a few centuries, to wealth and splendor. But, changing, at length, her mercantile for a military character, she ruled her dependent colonies with a rod of despotism. This produced a spirit of resist¬ ance on the part of her distant subjects, who applied to Rome for aid to resist her tyranny. The conse¬ quence of this application was the three “ Punic wars,” so renowned in history, and which terminated in the destruction of Carthage, in the year 146 before the Christian era. During the first Punic war, Car- * thage contained seven hundred thousand inhabitants; but at its destruction, scarcely five thousand were found within its walls. 192 THE MERCHANT. 17. The period of the greatest prosperity of Tyre, may be placed 588 years before Christ, at which time the remarkable prophecies of Ezekiel concerning it were delivered. Soon after this, it was greatly injured by Nebuchadnezzar; and was finally destroyed by Alexander the Great, about the year 332 before Christ. 18. A new channel was opened to commerce by the monarch just mentioned, he having founded a city in Egypt, to which he gave the name of Alexandria. His object seems to have been, to render this city the centre of the commercial world ; and its command¬ ing position, at the mouth of the Nile, was well cal¬ culated to make it so ; since it was easy of access from the west by the Mediterranean, from the east by the Red Sea, and from the central countries of Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. 19. The plans of Alexander were carried out with vigor by Ptolemy, who received Egypt as his portion of the Macedonian empire, after the death of his mas¬ ter ; and, by his liberality, he induced great numbers of people to settle in the new metropolis for the pur¬ poses of trade. Far south, on the Red Sea, he also founded a city, which he called Berenice, and which he designed as a dep6t for the precious commodities brought into his kingdom from India. From this city, goods were transported on camels across the country, to a port on the Nile ; and thence they were taken down the river to Alexandria. 20. Ptolemy also kept large fleets both on the Mediterranean and on the Red Sea, for the protection of commerce, and the defence of his dominions ; yet, the Egyptians, even under the Ptolemieg, never at¬ tempted a direct trade to India. They, as the Phoe¬ nicians and their own progenitors had done for ages, depended upon the Arabian merchants for the pro¬ ductions of that country. 21. The Greeks, before their subjugation to the THE MERCHANT. 193 Roman power, had paid much attention to nautical affairs; but this had been chiefly for warlike domin- •ion, rather than for commercial purposes. The city of Corinth, however, had become wealthy by the at¬ tention of its inhabitants to manufactures and trade; but it was destroyed by the same barbarian people who, about this time, annihilated Carthage. Both of these cities were afterwards favored by Julius Csesar ; but they never regained anything like their former importance. 22. Rome having, at length, obtained the complete dominion of the Mediterranean Sea, and the coun¬ tries bordering upon it, as well as that of many others more distant, and less easy of access, became the great mart for the sale of merchandise of every de¬ scription, from all parts of the known world. For the various commodities brought to the city, the Ro¬ mans paid gold and silver; as they had nothing else to export in return. The money which they had ex¬ acted as tribute, or which they had obtained by plun¬ der, was thus returned to the nations from which it had been taken. 23. The subjected provinces continued to pour their choicest productions into Rome, as long as she retained the control of the empire ; and thus they contributed to enervate, by the many luxuries they afforded, the power by which they had been subdued. The eternal city , as she is sometimes called, in the days <3f her extensive dominion, contained about three millions of inhabitants ; and, although this immense population was chiefly supplied by importations, the Romans never esteemed the character of a merchant. They despised the peaceful pursuits of industry, whilst they regarded it honorable to attack without provo-* cation, and plunder without remorse, the weaker na¬ tions of the earth. 24. In the year 328 of the Christian era, Byzan- R 194 THE MERCHANT. tium was made the seat of government of the Roman empire by Constantine, who, with a view of perpetu¬ ating his own name, called his new capital Constanti¬ nople. However necessary this removal may have been, to keep in subjugation the eastern provinces, it was fatal to the security of the western division. The rivalry between the two cities produced frequent con¬ tests for dominion ; and these, together with the gen¬ eral corruption and effeminacy of the people them¬ selves, rendered it impossible to resist the repeated and fierce invasions of the barbarous people from the northern parts of Europe. 25. These invasions commenced in the latter part of the fourth century ; and, in less than two hundred years, a great portion of the inhabitants was destroy¬ ed, and the whole Western empire was completely subverted. The conquerors were too barbarous to encourage or protect commerce ; and, like the arts of peace and civilization generally, it sunk, with few exceptions, amid the general ruin. 26. The empire of Constantinople, or, as it is usu¬ ally called, the Eastern empire, continued in exist¬ ence several centuries after the Western empire had been overrun ; and commerce continued to flow, for a considerable time, through some of its former chan¬ nels to the capital. At length, the Indian trade, which had so long been carried on chiefly through Egypt by the Red Sea, was changed to a more north¬ ern route, through Persia. " 27. Soon after the commencement of the pretend¬ ed mission of Mohammed, or Mahomet, in 609 of the Christian era, the power of the Arabians, since called Saracens, began to rise. The followers of the Proph¬ et, impelled by religious zeal, and allured by plunder, in less than 150 years extended their dominion almost to the borders of China on the one side, and to the Mediterranean and Atlantic on the other. The trade THE MERCHANT. 195 of the East, of course, fell into their hands ; and they continued to enjoy it, until they, in turn, were sub¬ dued by the Turks. 28. So great was the prejudice of the Christians against the followers of Mohammed, that, for a long time, it was considered heretical for the former to trade with the latter ; but the Saracens having a vast extent of territory, and having control of the Mediter¬ ranean and Red Seas, as well as of the Persian Gulf, carried on an extensive trade among themselves. 29. The first European power which rose to com¬ mercial eminence, after the destruction of the West¬ ern empire, was the republic of Venice. This im¬ portant city owed its origin to some fugitives, who fled for their lives to a number of small islands in the Adriatic Sea, during the invasion of Italy by the Huns, under Attila, in the year 452. 30. The houses first built by the refugees, were constructed of mud and seagrass ; and, so insignifi¬ cant were they in their appearance, that a writer of that period compares them to a collection of the nests of water-fowls. The number of these islands, on which so splendid a city was afterwards built, was, according to some, seventy-two ; but, according to others, ninety, or even one hundred and fifty. For a considerable time, the distinction of rich and poor was not known; for all lived upon the same fish-diet, and in houses of similar form and materials. 31. In less than a century, the inhabitants of these islands had established a regular government; and, in the year 732, we find them venturing beyond the Adriatic into the Mediterranean, even as far as Con¬ stantinople, trading in silks, purple draperies, and In¬ dian commodities. In 813, the French commenced trading to Alexandria, and, in a few years, the Vene¬ tians followed their example, in despite of the eccle¬ siastical prohibitions against intercourse with the fol- 196 THE MERCHANT. lowers of Mohammed. In the tenth century, Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, and Florence, began to rival Venice in trade. 32. The crusades, which, for two centuries from the year 1095, engaged so much of the attention of the Christian nations of Europe, greatly promoted the interests of the commercial cities of Italy ; as the ar¬ mies in these expeditions were dependent on them for provisions, and for the means of crossing the sea, which lay between them and the Holy Land. They also gave a new and powerful impulse to commerce in general, by giving the people, in the unrefined parts of Europe, a knowledge of the elegances and luxuries of the East. 33. In the thirteenth century, commerce and man ufactures began to command considerable attention in Germany and the adjacent states ; but as the seas and rivers were infested with pirates, and the roads with banditti, it became necessary for those engaged in commerce to adopt measures to protect their com¬ modities, while on the way from one place to another. The citizens of Hamburg and Lubeck first united for this purpose; and the advantages of such a union of strength becoming apparent, many other cities soon entered into the confederation. 34. This association was denominated the Hanse , or league, and the cities thus united were called Hanse Towns. Most of the commercial towns in the north- ern parts of the continent of Europe, at length, be¬ came parties to the Hanseatic league. The number of these cities varied, at different periods ; but in the days of the greatest prosperity of the association, it amounted to eighty-five. 35. Representatives from the different cities met triennially at Lubeck, where their common treasury and archives were kept. By this assembly, which was called a diet, rules for the regulation of commercial THE MERCHANT. 197 intercourse were made, and other business transact¬ ed, which related to the general welfare of the con¬ federation. 36. In the fourteenth century, the league, in all parts of Europe, attained a high degree of political importance, and developed that commercial policy which it had originated, and which has since been adopted by all civilized nations. The objects of the allied cities were now declared to be—to protect their commerce against pillage, to guard and extend their foreign trade, and, as far as possible, to monopolize it, to maintain and extend the privileges obtained from the princes of different nations, and to make rules or laws for the regulation of trade, as well as to establish the necessary tribunals for their due execu¬ tion. The decisions of their courts were respected by the civil authorities of the countries to which their trade extended. 37. The treasury was chiefly supplied by duties on merchandise ; and the great wealth thus acquired enabled the allied cities to obtain commercial privile¬ ges from needy princes, for pecuniary accommoda¬ tions. The league, in defending its commerce, even carried on wars against kingdoms ; and, at length, by its wealth and naval power, became mistress of the Northern seas, and rendered the different cities of the confederation in a great measure independent of the sovereigns of the countries in which they were sit¬ uated. 38. The conduct of the Hanse Towns, at length, excited the jealousies of those sovereigns who had, for a long time, favored their union ; and the princes of Europe generally, becoming acquainted with the value of commerce, both as means of enriching their people, and of filling their own coffers, combined against the association. In 1518, the governments of several states commanded all their cities to with- R 2 198 THE MERCHANT. draw from the league, which soon after voluntarily excluded some others. After this the Hanse gradu¬ ally sunk in importance, and finally ceased to exist in 1630. 39. The trade to the East Indies continued to be carried on through Persia and Egypt, subject to the extortions of the Saracens, and the still severer exac¬ tions of the merchants of the Italian cities, until the route to those countries, by the Cape of Good Hope, was discovered. 40. The use of this new pathway of commerce, combined with the discovery of America, caused an entire change in both the political and commercial state of Europe. A strong desire of visiting the re¬ mote parts of the world, thus laid open to the people of Europe, immediately arose, not only among the Portuguese and Spaniards, but also among other na¬ tions. Colonies were soon planted in the East and in the West; and the whole world may be said to have been inspired with new energy. 41. The Portuguese, being considerably in advance of the other Atlantic nations in the art of navigation, soon gained the entire control of the East India trade, and were thus raised to great eminence, prosperity, and power. Their dominions became extensive in Africa and Asia, and their navy superior to any that had been seen for several ages before. 42. In 1580, or eighty-three years after Yasco de Gama found his way, by the Cape, to Calicut, Portu¬ gal was subdued by Philip II., king of Spain. The Spaniards, however, were not enriched by the con¬ quest ; since their commercial energy and enterprise had been destroyed, by the vast quantities of the pre¬ cious metals obtained from their American posses¬ sions. 43. In 1579, the people of Holland, with those of six neighboring provinces, being then subject to Spain, THE MERCHANT. 199 united, under the Prince of Orange, for the purpose of regaining their liberties. This produced a san¬ guinary war, which continued for thirty years, during which time the Dutch wrested from the Spaniards most of their Portuguese possessions in India, and, in addition to this, formed many other settlements in va¬ rious places from the River Tigris even to Japan. Batavia, on the Island of Java, was made the grand emporium of trade, and the seat of the government of their East India possessions. 44. The prosperity of the United Provinces in¬ creased with great rapidity; and, as they were but little interfered with by other nations in their Eastern dominions, they enjoyed, for half a century or more, almost the whole of the trade of the East. Besides this, they shared largely with the rest of the world in almost every other branch of trade. After the year 1660, other nations, by great exertions, succeeded in obtaining considerable shares of the commerce of the East; yet the Dutch still retain valuable possessions there. 45. The chief articles exported from Britain, in ancient times, were tin, lead, copper, iron, wool, and cattle; for which they received in return, gold, silver, and manufactured articles. But the commerce of the British Islands was inconsiderable, when com¬ pared with that of many kingdoms on the Continent, until the beginning of the eighteenth century. 46. When Elizabeth ascended the throne of Eng¬ land, in 1558, the circumstances of the nation re¬ quired an extensive navy for its protection ; and the great attention which the queen paid to this means of defence, gave animation to all maritime concerns. Under her patronage, several companies for trading in foreign countries were formed, which, at that time, and for a long period afterwards, were very beneficial to trade in general. In her reign, also, the colonial 200 THE MERCHANT. system of England had its origin, which contributed eventually, more than any thing else, to the commer¬ cial prosperity of that nation. Since the reign of this wise and judicious princess, the commerce and manufactures of Great Britain have been, with a few interruptions, steadily advancing ; and, in these two particulars, she surpasses every other nation. 47. The United States possess superior local ad¬ vantages for trade, and embrace a population unsur¬ passed for enterprise and energy. Since the Revo¬ lution, the resources of our country have been rapid¬ ly developing. Our exports and imports are already next in amount to those of Great Britain and France ; and the extensive improvements which have been made by the different states, to facilitate internal in¬ tercourse, are increasing with great rapidity. 48. The banking system is very intimately inter¬ woven with commercial affairs in general. Banks are of three kinds, viz., of discount , of deposit, and of circulation. The term bank, in its original appli¬ cation, signified a place of common deposit for money, and where, in commercial transactions, individuals could have the amount, or any part of the amount, of their deposits transferred to each other’s accounts. 49. The term bank is derived from the Italian word banco, which signified a kind of bench, or table, on which the Jews were accustomed to place the money which they proposed to lend in the markets of the prin¬ cipal towns. The first bank was established in Ven¬ ice, about the middle of the twelfth century ; the Bank of Genoa, in 1345 ; the Bank of Amsterdam, in 1607 ; the Bank of Hamburg, in 1619 ; the Bank of Rotter¬ dam, in 1635. These were all banks of mere deposit and transfer. 50. Lending-houses may be traced to a very an¬ cient origin. They were, at first, supported by hu¬ mane persons, with a view of lending money to the THE MERCHANT. 201 poor, on pledges, without interest. Augustus Caesar appropriated a part of the confiscated effects of crim¬ inals to this purpose; and Tiberias, also, advanced a large capital, to be lent for three years, without in¬ terest, to those who could give security in lands equal to twice the value of the sum borrowed. 51. In the early ages of Christianity, free gifts were collected and preserved by ecclesiastics, partly to defray the expenses of divine service, and partly to relieve the poor of the church; and the funds thus provided came, at length, to be called monies pietatis —mountains of piety. This appellation was after¬ wards applied to the loaning-liouses , established in modern Italy in imitation of those of antiquity. 52. In course of time, the loaning-houses were permitted by the Roman pontiff to charge a moderate interest on a part of their capital, and, finally, upon the whole of it; still, they retained, for a long period, the original denomination of monies pietatis. The receiving of interest on loans was declared lawful by the Pope, about the middle of the fifteenth century. Soon after this period, all the cities of Italy hastened to establish these institutions ; cq^i their example was, at length, followed in other parts of Europe. 53. But long before the Pope had granted this privilege, individuals were in the habit of loaning money at an exorbitant usury. These were princi¬ pally Jews and merchants from Lombardy; hence, all persons in those countries, who dealt in money, came to be called Lombard merchants. The prohibi¬ tions of the Church against receiving interest were eluded, when necessary, by causing it to be paid in advance, by way of present or premium. 54. In the twelfth century, many of the dealers in money were expelled from England, France, and the Netherlands, for usurious practices; and, in order to regain possession of their effects, which they had, in 202 THE MERCHANT. their haste, left in the hands of confidential friends, they adopted the method of writing concise orders or drafts. Hence originated bills of exchange, so con¬ venient in commercial transactions. 55. The Bank of England was established in the year 1694. Hitherto, the banks of deposit, and loan- ing-houses, were entirely distinct; but, in this insti¬ tution, these two branches of pecuniary operations were united. It seems, also, that this was the first bank that issued notes, to serve as a medium of cir¬ culation, and to supply, in part, the place of gold and silver. «• - 56. In the United States, banking institutions are very numerous. They are all established by com¬ panies, incorporated by the legislatures of the differ¬ ent states, or by the congress of the United States. The act which grants the privileges of banking, also fixes the amount of the capital stock, and divides it into equal shares. The holders of the stock choose the officers to transact the business of the corpora¬ tion. 57. Our banks receive deposits from individual cus¬ tomers, loan money^pn notes of hand, acceptances, and drafts, issue notes of circulation, and purchase and sell bills of exchange. They are usually author¬ ized, by their charters, to loan three times the amount, and to issue bank-notes to twice the amount, of the capital stock paid in. Few banking companies, how¬ ever, exercise these privileges to the full extent, lest the bank be embarrassed by too great a demand for specie. As soon as a bank ceases to pay specie for its notes, it is said to be broken, and its operations must cease. 58. The Bank of North America was the first in¬ stitution of this kind, established in the United States. It was incorporated by Congress, in 1781, at the sug¬ gestion of Robert Morris. In 1791, after the union THE MERCHANT. 203 of the states had been effected under the present con¬ stitution, the first Bank of the United States was in¬ corporated, with a capital of ten millions of dollars. Most of the states soon followed this example ; and, before the beginning of the present century, the whole banking capital amounted to near thirty millions of dollars. 59. The charter of the first Bank of the United States expired, by its own limitation, in 1811 ; and a new one, with a capital of thirty-five millions of dol¬ lars, was established in 1816, which also closed its concerns, as a national bank, in 1836, President Jack- son having vetoed the bill for its recharter. In that year the number of banks was 567, and the bank cap¬ ital $251,875,292. In the year 1840, the number of banks had increased to 722, and their capital to $358,442,692. THE AUCTIONEER. 1. The Auctioneer is one who disposes of property at public sale to the highest bidder. The sale of property in this manner is regulated, in some par- ticulars, by legislative enactments, which have for their object the prevention of fraud, or the imposi¬ tion of duties. c 2. In Pennsylvania, the present law provides for three classes of auctioneers, each of which is required to pay to the state a specified sum for a license. The first class pays two thousand dollars per annum ; the second, one thousand ; and the third, two hundred ; and, besides this, one and a half per cent, on the amount of all their sales is required to be paid into the treasury of the state. To each class are granted privileges corresponding to the cost of the license. THE AUCTIONEER. 205 3. In the state of New-York, the number of auc¬ tioneers for the cities, villages, and counties, is limit- ed by law ; and all persons who would follow the business are compelled to give security for the faith¬ ful execution of its duties. The state requires a duty of one per cent, on all merchandise imported from beyond the Cape of Good Hope, one and a half per cent, on such as may be imported from other foreign countries, and two per cent, on wines and ardent spirits, whether foreign or domestic. The laws and usages regarding sales at auction, in most of the Uni¬ ted States, are similar, in their general principles, to those of Pennsylvania or New-York. 4. A great amount of merchandise, both foreign and domestic, in our principal cities, is sold by auc¬ tion ; and the price which staple commodities there command is generally considered a tolerable criterion of their value at the time. It very frequently hap¬ pens, however, that articles which are not in steady demand, are sold at a great sacrifice. Auctioneers seldom import goods, nor is it usual for them to own the property which they sell. 5. In all cases, before an auction is held, due no¬ tice is given to the public. This is usually done by the circulation of a printed hand-bill, by a crier, or by an advertisement in a newspaper ; or all three of these modes may be employed to give publicity to one and the same sale. 6. Persons desirous of becoming purchasers at the proposed auction, assemble at the time appointed ; and, after the auctioneer has stated the terms of sale, as regards the payment of whatever may be purcha¬ sed, he offers the property to the persons present, who make their respective bids, he, in the mean time, cry¬ ing the sum proposed. When no further advance is expected, he knocks down the article to the last bidder. 7. A mode of sale was formerly, and, in some S 206 THE AUCTIONEER. cases is still, practised, in various parts of Europe, called sale by inch of candle. The things for sale are offered in the ordinary manner, as has been described in the preceding paragraph, and, at the same time, a wax-candle, an inch in length, is lighted. The pur¬ chasers bid upon each other, until the candle has been all consumed ; and the last bidder, when the light goes out, is entitled to the articles or goods in question. 8. Auctioneers, in large cities, hold their sales at regular periods; sometimes, every day or evening. On extensive sales of merchandise, credits of two, three, four, six, or nine months, are commonly given. In such cases, the auctioneer often gives his own ob¬ ligations for the goods, and receives in return those of the purchasers. 9. This mode of sale is employed in the disposi¬ tion of property taken by process of law for the payment of debts, in every part of the world, where the influence of European law has extended. It is used in preference to any other; because it is the most ready way of sale, and is moreover the most likely method to secure to the debtor something like the value of his property. ( 10. Executors and administrators often employ this convenient method of sale, in settling the estates of deceased persons ; and they, as well as sheriffs and constables, ex-officio, or by virtue of their office, have a lawful right to act in the capacity of auction¬ eer, in performing their respective duties ; and no tax is required by the state, in such cases. 11. The sale by auction was in use among the Ro¬ mans, even in the early days of their city. It was first employed in the disposition of spoils taken in war ; hence a spear was adopted as a signal of a public sale; and this continued to be the auctioneer’s emblem, even after this mode of sale was extended THE AUCTIONEER. 207 to property in general. The red flag and spear, or rather the handle of that instrument, both emblemat¬ ical of blood and war, are still employed for the same purpose. 12. Several attempts have been made in the Uni¬ ted States, to suppress sales of merchandise by auc¬ tion ; but these endeavors were unsuccessful, since experience had proved this mode of effecting ex¬ changes to be prompt and convenient; and since some of the states had derived considerable revenue from the duties. So long as conflicting interests re¬ main as they are, this mode of sale will be likely to continue. , *- V THE CLERGYMAN. 1. The Lord Jesus Christ, our Saviour, during his visit of mercy to the world, chose from among his disciples twelve men, to be his especial agents in es¬ tablishing his church. These men, in our translation of the New Testament, are denominated apostles. The grand commission which they received was, “Go ye into all the world, and preach my gospel to every creature.” 2. The apostles commenced their noble enterprise on that memorable day of Pentecost, which next oc¬ curred after the ascension of their Master; and, in the city of his inveterate enemies, soon succeeded in establishing a church of several thousand members. The doctrines of Christianity soon spread to other cities and countries; and, before the close of that THE CLERGYMAN. 209 century, they were known and embraced, more or less, in every province of the Roman empire. 3. The apostles, however, were not the only agents engaged in spreading and maintaining the doctrines of Christianity; for, in every church, persons were found capable of taking the supervision of the rest, and of exercising the office of the ministry. These were ordained either by the apostles themselves, or by persons authorized by them to perform the cere¬ mony. 4. After the Church had passed through a great variety of persecutions, during a period of nearly three centuries, the Christians became superior in numbers to the pagans in the Roman empire. In the early part of the fourth century, a free toleration in religious matters was declared by Constantine the Great, who took the Church under his especial pro¬ tection. 5. The Christians of the first and second centuries usually worshipped God in private houses, or in the open air in retired places, chiefly on account of the persecutions to which they were often subjected. It was not until the third century, that they ventured to give greater publicity to their service, by building churches for general accommodation. When the Cross had obtained the ascendency, in^the subsequent age, many of the heathen temples were appropriated to Christian purposes; and many splendid churches were erected, especially by Constantine and his suc¬ cessors. 6. In the middle ages, a great number of edifices were erected for the performance of divine worship, which, in loftiness and grandeur, had never been sur¬ passed ; and the greater part of these remain to the present day. Some of the most famous churches are, St. Peter’s, at Rome ; Notre Dame, at Paris; St. Stephen’s, at Vienna; the church of Isaac, at St. Pe- S 2 210 THE CLERGYMAN. tersburg; the minsters at Strasburg and Cologne ; and St. Paul’s, in London. 7. Up to the time of the great change in favor of Christianity, just mentioned, the whole Church had often acted together in matters of common interest, through the medium of general councils; and this practice continued for several centuries afterwards. But the variance and dissensions between the Pope of Rome, and the Patriarch of Constantinople, combined with some other causes, produced, about the close of the ninth century, a total separation of the two great divisions of the Church. 8. At the time of this schism, the whole Christian world had become subject to these two prelates. The part of the Church ruled by the Patriarch, was called the Eastern , or Greek Church; and that part which yielded obedience to the Pope, was denominated the Western, or Latin Church. Many attempts have been since made to reunite these two branches of the Church ; but these endeavors have hitherto proved unsuccessful. 9. The conquest of the Roman empire, so often mentioned in the preceding pages, was particularly injurious to the Church, especially that part of it sub¬ ject to the Roman pontiff; since it nearly extinguish¬ ed the arts and sciences, and since the barbarous con¬ querors were received into the Church, before they had attained the proper moral qualifications. From these causes, chiefly, arose the conduct of the Church, in the middle ages, which has been so much censured by all enlightened men, and which has been often un¬ justly attributed to Christianity herself, rather than to the ignorance and barbarism of the times. 10. In the year 1517, while Leo X. occupied the papal chair, Martin Luther, of Saxony, commenced his well-known opposition to many practices and doc¬ trines in the Church, which he conceived to be de- THE CLERGYMAN. 211 partures from the spirit of primitive Christianity. He was soon joined in his opposition by Philip Melanc- thon, Ulric Zuingle, and finally by John Calvin, as well as by many other distinguished divines of that century, in various parts of Europe. 11. These men, with their followers and abettors, for reasons too obvious to need explanation, received or assumed the appellation of Reformers ; and, on ac¬ count of a solemn protest which they entered against a certain decree which had been issued against them, they also became distinguished by the name of ProU estants. The latter term is now applied to all sects, of whatever denomination, in the western division of the Church, that do not acknowledge the authority of the Roman See. 12. The Protestant division of the Church is called by the Roman Catholics, the Western schism, to dis¬ tinguish it from that of the Greek Church, which is termed the Eastern schism. The Protestants are di¬ vided into a great number of sects, or parties ; and. although they differ from each other in many of their religious sentiments, they agree in their steady oppo¬ sition to the Roman Catholics. 13. The ostensible object of the founders of all the churches differing from the Romish communion, has been, to bring back Christianity to the state in which it existed on its first establishment; and to prove their positions in doctrine and church government, they ap¬ peal to the Scriptures, and sometimes to the Christian writers of the first four or five centuries. The advo¬ cates of the “ mother church,” on the contrary, con¬ tend that, being infallible, she can never have depart¬ ed from primitive principles, on any point essential to salvation. 14. As to the government of the several churches, it is, in most cases, either Episcopal or Presbyterian. In the former case, three orders of clergymen are re- 212 THE CLERGYMAN. cognized ; viz., bishops , presbyters, and deacons ; and these three orders are supposed, by the advocates of episcopacy, to have been ordained by the apostles. This opinion is supported by the circumstance, that these orders are mentioned in the Scriptures ; and also by the fact, supposed to be sustained by the prim¬ itive fathers, that they were uniformly established ear¬ ly in the second century. 15. It is believed by Episcopalians, that these three orders of ministers were instituted in the Christian Church, in imitation of the Jewish priesthood; the bishop representing the high-priest; the presbyters, the priests ; and the deacons, the Levites. 16. On the other hand, the advocates of the Pres¬ byterian form of government, assert, that in the first century of the Church, bishop and presbyter were the same order of ministers, and that the former was nothing more than a presbyter, who presided in Christian assemblies, when met to consult on church affairs. 17. The deacons in the churches that have re¬ nounced episcopacy, are not classed among the cler¬ gy, but are chosen from among the private members, to manage the temporalities of the congregation, or church, to which they belong, to assist the minister, on some occasions, in religious assemblies, or to take the lead in religious worship in his absence. Under this form of government, therefore, there is recogni¬ zed but one order of ministers, and every clergyman is denominated presbyter, priest, or elder. 18. The literary and religious qualifications re¬ quired of candidates for orders have varied in differ¬ ent ages of the Church, according to the existing state of literature and religion ; and the requirements in these two particulars are now different, in the several denominations. Nearly all, however, require the pro¬ fession in the candidate, that he believes he is moved THE CLERGYMAN. 213 by the Holy Ghost to take upon him the office of the ministry. Some churches require a collegiate educa¬ tion, with two or three years of the study of divinity ; but others, only such as is usually obtained in com- mon schools, combined with a tolerable capacity for public speaking. 19. The clergy in the Roman Catholic Church, is of two kinds ; the one regular , comprehending all the religious who have taken upon themselves monastic vows ; the other secular , comprehending all the eccle¬ siastics who do not assume these obligations. The latter, however, in common with the former, take a vow of perpetual celibacy. 20. It is the especial duty of clergymen, to preach the gospel, to administer the ordinances, and to en¬ force the discipline of that branch of the Church to which they belong. They are also expected to ad¬ minister consolation to persons in distress of mind, arising from the complicated evils of this life, to unite persons by the bonds of matrimony, and, finally, in attending on the burial of the dead, to perform the last ceremony due from man to man. 21. Ministers of the gospel occupy an elevated stand in all Christian communities, both on account of the high tone of moral feeling which they gener¬ ally possess, and on account of the interest which the people at large feel in the subject of religion. The work of the ministry is emphatically a work of be¬ nevolence ; and no man can perform it with satisfac¬ tion to himself, or with acceptance to the people of his charge, if destitute of love to God and man. 22. In most of the kingdoms of Europe, some one of the several denominations is supported by legal enactments ; but, in the United States, every branch of the Church enjoys equal favor, so far as legislation is concerned. In most cases, the institutions of reli¬ gion are supported by voluntary contributions or sub¬ scriptions. 214 THE CLERGYMAN. 23. The salary received by ministers of the gos¬ pel, in the United States, is exceedingly various in the different denominations, and in the same denomi¬ nation from different congregations. In some in¬ stances, they receive nothing for their services, in others, a liberal compensation. 24. It is but justice to this profession to remark, that, taking the ability of its members into account, there is no employment less productive of wealth; and this is so evidently the case, that some denomi¬ nations distribute, annually, a considerable amount among the widows and orphans of those who have devoted their lives to the ministry. 25. The meagre support which the ministry usu¬ ally receives, arises, in part, from the opinion too commonly entertained, that this profession ought to be one of benevolence exclusively, and that ministers should, therefore, be contented with a bare subsist¬ ence, and look for their reward in the consciousness of doing their duty, and in the prospect of future fe¬ licity. This is a very convenient way of paying for the services of faithful servants, and of relieving the consciences of those whose duty it is to give them a liberal support. ATTORNEY AT LAW. 1. A lawyer is one who, by profession, transacts legal business for others, who, in this relation, are called clients. A lawyer is either an attorney or councillor, or both. The part of legal business, be¬ longing peculiarly to the attorney, consists in prepa¬ ring the details of the pleadings and the briefs for the use of the councillor, whose especial province it is to make the argument before the court. When the lawyer prepares his own case and makes the argu¬ ment, as he generally does, he acts in the capacity of both attorney and councillor. In the court of chan¬ cery the lawyer is denominated solicitor, and in the admiralty court, proctor. Before a person is permit¬ ted to practise law in our courts, he is required to pass through a regular course of study, and after- 216 ATTORNEY AT LAW. wards undergo an examination before persons learned in the law. 2. This profession has its foundation in the numer¬ ous and complicated laws which have been adopted by men, to govern their intercourse with each other. These laws, as they exist in our country, may be di¬ vided into constitutional and municipal. Constitutional law is that by which the government of the United States, and those of the different states, have been established, and by which they are governed in their action. The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the land. 3. Municipal law embraces those rules of civil conduct prescribed by the supreme power of the state, or of the United States ; and is composed of statute and common law. Statute law is the express will of the legislative part of the government, rendered authentic by certain forms and ceremonies prescribed by the Constitution. 4. Common law is a system of rules and usages, which have been applied in particular cases of litiga¬ tion. It originated in the dictates of natural justice, and cultivated reason, and is found more particularly in the reports of the decisions of the courts of jus¬ tice. The common law is employed in cases which positive enactments do not reach, and in construing and applying positive enactments. The common law of England has been adopted by every state in the Union, except Louisiana. 5. The Constitution of the United States, and those of the several states, provides for three departments in their respective governments, viz., the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. It is the chief prov¬ ince of the first to enact laws, and of the second and third to see that they are duly executed. 6. The judicial power of the United States is vest, ed in one sup r eme court and two inferior courts. The ATTORNEY AT LAW. 217 Supreme Court is now composed of seven justices, who commence their session in the Capitol, at Wash¬ ington, on the second Monday in January. The two inferior courts are the District and Circuit Courts. In the first of these presides a single judge; in the sec¬ ond, one of the justices of the Supreme Court, and the district judge. 7. The judiciary of the United States takes cogni¬ sance of all cases which arise under the Constitution, laws, and treaties, of the United States, and likewise of those cases arising under the law of nations. It also embraces all cases ^of admiralty and maritime iurisdiction, as well as those controversies to which the government of the United States is a party, the controversies between two states, between a state and citizens of another state, between citizens of differ¬ ent states, and between a state or citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 8. The judicial systems of all the states corre¬ spond, in many respects, with each other. In all, the office of justice of the peace is similar. To these magistrates, the general police of the counties is chiefly committed, as they have authority to cause criminals, and other disturbers of the peace, to be ar¬ rested ; and, if the offence is small, to fix the penal¬ ty ; but, if the offence is too great to be brought within their jurisdiction, they commit the offenders to prison, to be reserved for trial before a higher tribunal. 9. In many of the states, the common magistrates of the county, or a select number of them, form a court, called County Sessions, which has a compre¬ hensive jurisdiction in matters of police, and in regu¬ lating the affairs of the county; such as building courthouses, assessing county taxes, opening roads, and licensing taverns. 19. In Virginia, the County Sessions is an impor- T 218 ATTORNEY AT LAW. tant court. Its jurisdiction extends to many criminal cases, and to those of a civil nature involving the amount of $300. Although a great arpount of busi¬ ness passes through these courts, the justices discharge all their duties without compensation. In most of the states, the common magistrates, in their individ¬ ual or collective capacity, have jurisdiction over civil cases, varying in their greatest amount from thirteen to one hundred dollars, a right of appeal being re¬ served to a higher court. 11. No definite qualifications are required by law or usage for practising in the magistrates’ courts; accordingly, there are many persons who plead causes here, who do not properly belong to the profession of law; these are called pettifoggers , and the practice itself, by whomsoever performed, is called pettifogging. Lawyers of inferior abilities and acquirements are, also, frequently termed pettifoggers. 12. In all the states, a class of county courts is estab¬ lished, denominated Courts of Common Pleas, County Courts, District or Circuit Courts, which have origi- ' nal jurisdiction of civil actions at law, or indictments for crimes. Over these are established the Superior or Supreme Courts, or Courts of Error and Appeal, to which appeals are admitted from the inferior courts. 13. Civil cases are frequently decided on princi¬ ples of equity ; and, in some states, courts of chan¬ cery are established for this purpose. But, in most of the states, there are no decisions of this kind; or the same courts act as courts of law and equity, as is the case with the courts of the United States. 14. There are several other courts that might be mentioned ; but enough has been said of these insti¬ tutions, to give an idea of the extensive range of the profession of the law. It may be well to remark here, that few lawyers aspire to the privilege of practising in the supreme courts ; since, to be successful there, ATTORNEY AT LAW. 219 it would require not only great abilities, but more ex¬ tensive reading than the profession generally are will¬ ing to encounter. 15. When a client has stated his case in detail to his attorney, it is the province of the latter to decide upon the course most proper to be pursued in regard to it. If the client is the plaintiff, and litigation is determined upon, the attorney decides upon the court in which the case should be brought forward, and also upon the manner in which it should be conducted. 16. The suit having been brought, say into the County Court, it is tried according to law. If it in¬ volves facts or damages, it is canvassed before a jury of twelve men, who are bound by oath or affirmation to bring in their verdict according to the evidence presented by both parties. It is the business of the lawyers, each for his own client, to sum up the evi¬ dence which may have been adduced, and to present the whole in a light as favorable to his own side of the question as possible. 17. When the case involves points of law which must needs be understood by the jury, to enable them to make a correct decision, the advocates of the par¬ ties present their views with regard to them ; but, if these happen to be wrong, the judge, in his charge to the jury, rectifies the mistake or misrepresentation. The case having been decided, each party is bound ta submit to the decision, or appeal, if permitted by law, to a higher tribunal. 18. Causes to be determined on legal 'principles only, are brought before the judge or judges for adju¬ dication. In such cases, the advocates present the statute or common law supposed to be applicable, and then reports of similar cases, which may have been formerly decided in the same or similar courts. . These reports are the exponents of the common law of the case, and are supposed, in most instances, to furnish data for correct decisions. 220 ATTORNEY AT LAW. 10. Besides the management of causes in public courts, the lawyer has a great mass of business of a private nature ; such as drawing wills, indentures, deeds, and mortgages. He is consulted in a great variety of cases of a legal nature, where litigation is not immediately concerned, and especially in regard to the validity of titles to real estate ; and the many impositions to which the community is liable from de¬ fective titles, render the information which he is able to afford on this subject, extremely valuable. 20. In the preceding account of this profession, it is easy to perceive that it is one of great utility and responsibility. It is to the attorney, that the oppress¬ ed repair for redress against the oppressor; and to him, the orphan and friendless look, to aid them in obtaining or maintaining their rights. To this pro¬ fession, also, as much as to any other, the American people may confidently look for the maintenance of correct political principles. v / THE PHYSICIAN. 1. Among the various avocations of men, that of the physician deserves to be placed in the foremost rank. The profession is founded in the multiplicity of diseases to which humanity is liable, and in the medical qualities of certain substances, which have been found to supply a remedy. 2. It is implied, though not expressly declared, in the Scriptures, that the diseases and other calamities pertaining-to our earthly condition, originated in the fall of man from his pristine innocence ; and the Gre¬ cian fable of Pandora’s box appears to have origina¬ ted in a similar tradition. It seems that Jupiter, being angry at Prometheus, ordered Vulcan to make a wo¬ man endowed with every possible perfection. This workman having finished his task, and presented the T 2 222 THE PHYSICIAN. workmanship of his hands to the gods, they loaded her with presents, and sent her to Prometheus. 3. This prince, however, suspecting a trick, would have nothing to do with her ; but Epimetheus was so captivated with her charms, that he took her to be his wife. The curiosity of Epimetheus led him to look into a box, given to her by Jupiter, which he had no sooner opened, than there issued from it the compli¬ cated miseries and diseases, which have since afflict¬ ed the family of man. He instantly shut the box ; but all had flown, save Hope, which had not time to escape ; and this is consequently the only blessing that permanently remains with wretched mortals. 4. Since the introduction of moral evil into the world, it cannot be supposed that man has ever en¬ joyed the blessing of uninterrupted health ; and, as it is an instinct of our nature to seek for means of re¬ lieving pain, we may safely infer that medicinal rem¬ edies were applied in the earliest ages of the human race. , . 5. Among some of the ancient nations, the origin of diseases was attributed to the malignant influence of supernatural agents. This notion produced a cor¬ responding absurdity, in the means of obtaining re¬ lief. Accordingly, idolatrous priests, astrologers, and magicians, were resorted to, who employed religious ceremonies, astrological calculations, and cabalistic incantations. 6. The healing art was cultivated at a very early period in Egypt; but it was crippled in its infancy by ordinances, enjoining, without discrimination, the remedies for every disease, and the precise time and mode of their application. The practice was- confined to the priests, who connected with it the grossest su¬ perstitions. 7. We are informed by the most ancient historians, that the Chaldeans and Babylonians exposed their sick THE PHYSICIAN. 223 in places of public resort, and on the highways ; and that strangers and others were required by law to give some advice in each case of disease. Amid the variety of suggestions which must necessarily have been given under such circumstances, it was expect¬ ed that some would prove efficacious. This custom was well calculated to enlarge the boundaries of med¬ ical knowledge. 8. The first records of medicine were kept in the temples dedicated by the Greeks to Esculapius, who, on account of his skill in medicine, was honored as the god of health. The name or description of the disease, and the method of cure, were engraved on durable tablets, which were suspended, where they could be readily seen by visitors. 9. But medicine did not assume the dignity of a distinct science, until the days of Hippocrates, who reckons himself the seventeenth from Esculapius in a lineal descent. This great man, who flourished about 400 years before the Christian era, is universally esteemed the “Father of Medicine.” After his death, the science was cultivated by the philosophers of Greece, to whom, however, it owes but few improve¬ ments. 10. After the dismemberment of the Macedonian empire, learning retreated from contending factions to Egypt, where it was liberally fostered by the Ptol¬ emies. Under their patronage, a medical school at Alexandria became eminent, and the healing art flour¬ ished beyond all former example. To the disciples of this school, is the world indebted for the first cor¬ rect description of the human structure. Their knowl¬ edge on this subject was obtained from the dissection of the bodies of criminals, which had been assigned to them by the government. 11. The acquisitions of the Greeks in medical science at length became the inheritance of the Ro- 224 THE PHYSICIAN. mans ; but Rome had existed 535 years before a pro¬ fessional physician was known in the city. This in¬ attention to the subject of medicine arose, chiefly, from an opinion, common to the semi-barbarous nations of those times, that maladies were to be cured by the interposition of superior beings. The sick, therefore, applied to their idolatrous priests, who offered sacri¬ fices to the gods in their behalf, and practised over the body of the patient a variety of magical ceremo¬ nies. 12. Sacrifices were especially offered to the gods in cases of pestilence $ and, on one occasion of this kind, a temple was erected to Apollo, who was re¬ garded as the god of physic ; and, on another, Escu- lapius, under the form of a serpent, was conducted from Epidaurus, in Greece, and introduced, with great pomp, upon an islet in the Tiber, which was thence¬ forth devoted to his particular service. 13. Archagathus, a Greek, was the first who prac¬ tised physic, as an art, at Rome; and he was soon followed by many more of his professional brethren. These pioneers of medicine, however, were violently opposed by Cato the Censor, who publicly charged them with a conspiracy to poison the citizens. But the patients under their care generally recovering, he began to regard them as impious sorcerers, who coun¬ teracted the course of nature, and restored men to life by means of unholy charms. 14. Cato having succeeded in producing a general conviction, that the practice of these physicians was calculated to enervate the constitutions, and corrupt the manners of the people, restrictions were laid upon the profession, and practitioners were even forbidden to settle at Rome. But after the people had become more vicious and luxurious, diseases became more frequent and obstinate, and physicians more necessa¬ ry. The restrictions were, therefore, at length re¬ moved. THE PHYSICIAN. 225 15. Among the Roman writers on medicine, Cel- sus was the first who is worthy of consideration. He has been denominated the Roman Hippocrates, because he imitated the close observation and practice of that physician. His work, as well as that of his great prototype, is read with advantage, even at the present day. He flourished at or near the time of our Saviour. 16. In the second century of the Christian era, Ga¬ len, a Greek physician from Pergamus, and a disciple of the Alexandrian school, settled in Rome. He was learned in all branches of medicine, and wrote more copiously on the subject generally, than any other person amongst the ancients. For 1300 years, his opinions were received as oracular, wherever medi¬ cine was cultivated. 17. After the destruction of the Western empire by the barbarous nations, the science of medicine was cultivated only in the Greek empire, and chiefly at Alexandria, until it began to arrest the attention of the Arabians, in the seventh century. The works of several Greek philosophers and physicians were translated into Arabic, under the patronage of the caliphs, several of whom were zealous promoters of learning. 18. In the eighth century, the Caliph Almansur established, at Bagdad, a hospital for the sick, and an academy, in which, among other branches of knowledge, was taught the medical art. But it was in Spain, that Arabian learning rose to the high¬ est point, and produced the most successful results. The University of Cordova became the most celebra¬ ted in the world, and continued to maintain its repu¬ tation for a long series of years. Arabian medicine reached fts greatest eminence, in the eleventh centu- t ry, under Avicenna. 19. In the tenth century, this science began to be 226 THE PHYSICIAN. taught in the schools of other parts of Europe ; but its professors derived their knowledge of the subject from the Arabian school, or from Arabic translations of the ancient authors; and this continued to be the case, until the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, in 1453. At this time, many erudite Greeks fled into Italy, and carried with them the ancient writings. 20. Before the general revival of this science in Europe, the cure of diseases was chiefly confided, in the western nations, to the priests and monks, who, however, generally relied more upon religious cere¬ monies, and the influence of sacred relics, than upon the application of medical remedies. The supersti¬ tions of those barbarous times, respecting the means of curing diseases, have not yet entirely disappear¬ ed, even from the most enlightened nations of Chris¬ tendom. 21. The science of chemistry began to attract much attention about the beginning of the sixteenth century; and the many powerful medical agents which it supplied, at length produced a great change in the theory and practice of medicine. Many val¬ uable medicines of the vegetable kind, were also ob¬ tained from America. The discovery of the cir¬ culation of the blood by William Harvey, in 1620, imparted a new impulse to medicine ; but, like chemistry, it gave rise to many absurd and hurtful theories. 22. Researches in different branches of medicine were continued with ardor in the seventeenth centu¬ ry, in various parts of Europe; and numerous dis¬ coveries of importance were made, especially in an¬ atomy. Many theories regarding the origin of dis¬ eases, and their treatment, were proposed, advocated, and controverted ; but all these were overthrown by n. THE PHYSICIAN. 227 Stahl, Boerhaave, and Hoffman, three eminent theo¬ rists, in the early part of the eighteenth century. 23. These distinguished men were followed by oth¬ ers of equal celebrity, in the same century, who, in part at least, exploded the doctrines of their predeces¬ sors. The present century, above all other periods, is remarkable for men eminent in this profession; and, although all do not exactly agree in opinion, yet, guided in their conclusions by a careful observation of facts, they are less under the influence of visionary theories than physicians of former times. Besides, many of the subjects of former controversy having been satisfactorily settled, there are now fewer causes of division and excitement among the medical pro¬ fession. 24. Medical science comprises several branches, of which the following are the principal; viz., Anato¬ my, Surgery, Materia Medica, Chemistry, the Theory and Practice of Physic. On these subjects, lectures are given in several colleges and universities in Eu¬ rope, and in the United States. In this country, an attendance on two regular courses of lectures entitles the student to the degree of Doctor of Medicine, pro¬ vided he can sustain with sufficient ability, an exam¬ ination before the professors, or, as they are usually termed, the medical faculty. 25. The degree of M.D. conferred by a college or university, is a passport to practice, in every state of the Union ; and, in some states, none are permitted to attend the sick, professionally, without having first obtained a diploma conferring such degree. In other states, however, no legal restrictions are imposed on the practitioners of the healing art; or, they are li¬ censed by a board of physicians, constituted by law for the purpose. 26. The practice of this profession is generally attended with great labor, and, in many cases, with much perplexity. Diseases are often stubborn or in¬ curable, and effectually baffle the most skilful prac¬ titioner. In most cases, however, diseases are under the control of medical skill; and the high satisfac¬ tion which a benevolent physician feels, in relieving the sufferings of his fellow-creatures, may serve as a recompense for the many adverse circumstances which attend the profession. THE CHEMIST. 1. This globe, and every thing appertaining to it, is composed of substances, which exist either in a compound or simple state. It is the object of the scientific chemist to investigate the properties of these substances, and to show their action upon each other. By this science, therefore, compound bodies are re¬ duced to the pimple elements of which they are com¬ posed, or new combinations formed. 2. According to the preceding definitions, chemis¬ try comprehends an immense variety of objects. It is scarcely possible to name a thing or phenomenon in the natural world, to which it does not directly or indirectly apply; even the growth of vegetables, and the preparation and digestion of our food, depend upon chemical principles. U 230 THE CHEMIST. 3. The word chemistry is supposed to be of Egyp¬ tian origin, and, in its primary application, was the same with our phrase natural philosophy. Its mean¬ ing was afterwards restricted to the art of working those metals which were most esteemed. In the third century, it came to be applied to the pretended art of transmuting baser metals into gold. The science, in the latter sense of the word, was eagerly cultivated by the Greeks; and from them it passed to the Ara¬ bians, who introduced it into Europe under the name of alchemy. 4. The professors of the art were dignified with the appellation of alchemistic philosophers, and the leading doctrine of the sect was, that all metals are composed of the most simple substances ; and that, consequently, base metals were capable of being changed into gold ; hence, the chief object of their researches was the discovery of an agent, by which this great change was to be effected. The substance supposed to possess this wonderful property was call¬ ed “ the philosopher’s stone the touch of which was to change every kind of metal into gold. 5. The greatest rage for alchemy prevailed be¬ tween the tenth and sixteenth centuries. The writers on this subject who appeared during that period, are very numerous, most of whom are unintelligible, ex¬ cept to those initiated into the art. Many of them, however, display great acuteness, and an extensive acquaintance with natural objects. They all boast, that they are in possession of the philosopher’s stone, and profess the ability of communicating a knowledge of making it to others. 6. Their writings and confident professions gained almost implicit credit, and many unwary persons were thus exposed to the tricks of impostors, who offered to communicate their secret for a pecuniary reward. Having obtained the sum proposed, they THE CHEMIST. 231 either absconded, or wearied out their patrons with tedious and expensive processes. 7. Chemists, for a long time, had supposed it pos¬ sible to discover, by their art, a medicine which should not only cure, but prevent all diseases, and prolong life to an indefinite period, even to immortality. This notion gradually becoming prevalent, the word chem¬ istry acquired a more extensive application, and em¬ braced not only the art of making gold, but also that of preparing “ the universal medicine.” Some of these visionary men asserted, that the philosopher’s stone was this wonderful panacea. 8. Few readers need be informed, that the research¬ es for the philosopher’s stone, and the universal rem¬ edy, were, at length, abandoned, as fruitless and vis¬ ionary; yet the numerous experiments which had been instituted on these accounts, were attended with the incidental advantage of a considerable dexterity in the performance of chemical operations, together with the discovery of many new substances and val¬ uable facts, which, without these strong incentives, would have remained, at least, much longer in ob¬ scurity. 9. Although none of the medicines, produced in the chemical laboratory, answered the chimerical ex¬ pectations of the chemists, in curing all diseases, and in rendering the perishable body of man immortal, yet they proved sufficiently valuable in the healing art, to command the attention of the profession all over Europe. The adoption of chemical medicines, however, was, at first, everywhere opposed, either as unsafe remedies, or as being inferior in efficacy to those which had been used for so many centuries. 10. These prejudices having given way to the light of experience, chemical medicines came, at length, to occupy a conspicuous place in the Materia Medica; and their value within the present century has become 232 THE CHEMIST. still more manifest. One of the most useful branch¬ es of chemistry, therefore, is to make the various preparations used in the medical art. 11. The most efficient agent in the introduction of chemical medicines, was Theophilus Paracelsus. This singular individual was born near Zurich, in Switzerland. Having studied chemistry under two masters, he commenced a rambling life, in pursuit of chemical and medical knowledge ; and, having visited Italy, France, and Germany, where he met With many whimsical adventures, which contributed greatly to advance his reputation, he was elected, in 1527, to fill the chair of chemistry, in the University of Basle. 12. One of the first acts of this arrogant professor was to burn, with the utmost solemnity, while seated in his chair, the works of Galen and Avicenna, de¬ claring to his audience, that if God would not impart the secrets of physic, it was not only allowable, but even justifiable, to consult the devil. He also treated his contemporaries with the same insolence, telling them, in a preface to one of his books, that “ the very down on his bald pate had more knowledge than all their writers; the buckle of his shoes more learning than Galen and Avicenna ; and his beard more ex¬ perience than all their universities.” 13. It could not be expected, that a man with such a temper could long retain his situation ; and, accord¬ ingly, he was driven from it, in 1528, by a quarrel with those who had conferred the appointment. From this time, he rambled about the country, chiefly in Germany, leading a life of extreme intemperance, in the lowest company. Nevertheless, he still main¬ tained his reputation as a physician, by the extraor¬ dinary cures occasionally effected by his powerful remedies ; although his failures were equally con¬ spicuous. 14 But the most signal failure of his remedies oc- THE CHEMIST. 233 curred in his own person ; for, after having boasted for many years of possessing an elixir which would prolong life to an indefinite period, he died, in 1541, at Salzburg, with a bottle of his immortal catholicon in his pocket. The medicines on which Paracelsus chiefly relied, were opium, antimony, and various preparations of mercury. He has the merit of apply¬ ing the last, especially, to cases in which they had not been before used ; and upon this circumstance, his great reputation depended. 15. We have been thus particular in noticing this individual, because he was the first who gave public lectures on chemistry in Europe, and because he gave the first great impulse in favor of chemical medicines. He also carried his speculations concerning the phi¬ losopher’s stone and the universal remedy, to the greatest height of absurdity ; and, by exemplifying their inutility and fallacy in his own person, he con¬ tributed more than any one else to their disrepute, and subsequent banishment from the science. 16. Researches for the philosopher’s stone, and the universal remedy, having been, at length, relinquish¬ ed, the chemical facts which had been collected be¬ came, in the general estimation, a heap of rubbish of little value. At this time, there arose an individ¬ ual thoroughly acquainted with these facts, and capa¬ ble of perceiving the important purposes to which they might be applied. 17. The name of this individual was John Joachim Becher. He published a work in 1669, entitled “ Physica Subterranica,” by which he gave a new direction to chemistry, by applying it to analyzing and ascertaining the constituent parts of material bodies ; and his system is the foundation of the sci¬ ence, as it now exists. 18. George Ernest Stahl, a medical professor in the University of Halle, adopted the theory of Becher, U 2 234 THE CHEMIST. and, after his death, edited the work just mentioned ; but he so simplified and improved it, that he made it entirely his own ; and, accordingly, it has always been distinguished by the appellation of the Stahlian theory. The principal work of Stahl, on this subject, was published in 1729 ; and, since that time, chem¬ istry has been cultivated with ardor in Germany, and in other countries in the north of Europe. 19. In France, chemistry became a fashionable study, about the middle of the eighteenth century. It had, however, been cultivated there by a few individ¬ uals, long before that period. Men of eminence now appeared in all parts of the kingdom, and discoveries in the science were made in rapid succession. Some attention was also paid to it in Italy and Spain. 20. In Great Britain, this subject attracted but lit¬ tle attention, except from a few individuals, until Dr. Cullen had become professor of the science, in the University of Edinburgh, in 1756. This accurate in¬ vestigator of natural phenomena, succeeded in en¬ kindling an enthusiasm for chemical investigations among the students ; and the subsequent experiments of Dr. Black, Mr. Cavendish, Dr. Priestley, and Lavoi- , sier, which resulted in the discovery of the constitu¬ ent parts of air and water, diffused the same ardor through every part of the kingdom. 21. Lavoisier, the celebrated French chemist, hav¬ ing proved the Stahlian theory to be incorrect, found¬ ed another on the chemical affinities and combina¬ tions of oxygen with the various substances in nature. This system has been generally adopted; since it explains a great number of phenomena more satis¬ factorily than any other ever proposed. The great chemical agent, in the Stahlian system, was supposed to be an inflammable substance, which was denom¬ inated by the theorist phlogiston. To distinguish, therefore, the new theory from the one which it su- THE CHEMIST. 235 perseded, it was called the pneumatic, or anti-phlo¬ gistic system. 22. In 1787, a new technical nomenclature was de¬ vised, by the aid of which all the chemical facts are easily retained in the memory. Twelve or fifteen terms have been found sufficient for the foundation of a methodical language ; and, by changing the ter¬ minations of these radicals, or by prefixing certain words or syllables, the changes that take place in bodies are clearly expressed. This valuable innova¬ tion originated with Lavoisier and three other French chemists. 23. In the present century, many important dis¬ coveries have been made in this science ; and, among those who have been distinguished for their research¬ es into its mysteries, Sir Humphrey Davy, of Great Britain, shines pre-eminent. In the United States, it has many able professors; among whom are Profes¬ sors Hare and Mitchell, of Philadelphia, Torrey, Ren- wick, and Draper, of New-York, Henry, of Princeton, Beck, of Albany, Silliman, of New-Haven, and John¬ son, of Middletown. 24. Chemistry is so extensive in its application, that we will not attempt to describe any of the op¬ erations of the laboratory. We, therefore, conclude this article by recommending this science to general attention ; assuring the uninitiated, that it is beset with fewer difficulties than they are apt to suppose, and that every effort in the course will be attended with interesting facts and phenomena, which will abundantly reward the labor of investigation. THE DRUGGIST AND APOTHECARY. 1. The druggist is a wholesale dealer in drugs, which, in commerce, embrace not only articles used or recommended by the medical profession, but also spices, dye-stuffs, and paints. The commodities of his trade are obtained from almost every quarter of the globe ; but especially from the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean Sea, and from the East In¬ dies and Spanish America. 2. The chemist looks to the druggist for most of the materials employed in his laboratory ; and from him the apothecary, physician, and country merchant, obtain their chief supply of medicines. There are, however, but few persons in the United States, who confine themselves exclusively to this branch of bu¬ siness ; for most of the druggists are also apotheca- DRUGGIST AND APOTHECARY. 237 ries, and sometimes operative or manufacturing chem¬ ists. 3. Medicinals, when they come into the warehouse of the druggist, are usually in a crude state ; and many, or most of them, must necessarily undergo a variety of changes, of a chemical or mechanical na¬ ture, before they can be applied in practice. The art by which these changes are effected is called Phar¬ macy, or Pharmaceutics; and the books which treat of pharmaceutical operations are denominated Phar¬ macopoeias, or Dispensatories. 4. The operations of Pharmacy, which depend upon chemical principles, are conducted chiefly by •the operative chemist; but those which consist mere¬ ly in mechanical reduction, or in mixing together dif¬ ferent ingredients, to form compounds, belong prop¬ erly to the vocation of the apothecary. 5. The apothecary sells medicines in small quan¬ tities, prepared for application. Many of the stand¬ ing compound preparations which have been author¬ ized by the Pharmacopoeias, and which are in regular demand, he keeps ready prepared ; but a great pro¬ portion of his business consists in compounding and putting up the prescriptions of the physician, as they are needed by the patient. 6. In country places, where there are generally no apothecary-shops, the physicians compound and pre¬ pare their own prescriptions; but in cities, where these establishments are numerous, the medical pro¬ fession prefer to rid themselves of this trouble. In most cases, however, they keep by them a few reme¬ dies, which can be applied in cases of emergency. 7. In Great Britain, the apothecary is permitted to attend sick persons, and administer medicines either according to his own judgment, or in conformity with the directions of the physician. He is, therefore, a physician of an inferior order; and, as his fees are f 238 DRUGGIST AND APOTHECARY. more moderate than those of the regular profession, his practice is extensive among persons who, from necessity or inclination, are induced to study economy. 8. The apothecaries in England, Scotland, and Ireland, are obliged to make up their standing medi¬ cines according to the formulas of the Dispensatories adopted in their respective countries; and their shops are subject to the visitation of censors, who have au¬ thority to destroy those medicines which they may consider unfit for use ; so that unwholesome or inef¬ ficient remedies be not imposed upon the sick. The apothecaries’ halls, in France, are also under the su¬ pervision of the medical faculty. 9. In the United States, there is no censorship of this kind established by the public authorities ; yet the physicians are careful to recommend apothecaries, in whom they have confidence, to prepare their pre¬ scriptions. The professors in our medical schools are, also, particular in naming to their students those druggists whom they consider men of honor ; and omit, at least, to name those who have been detected in selling adulterated medicines. 10. We have, also, an incorporated college of pharmacy both in New-York and Philadelphia, and in each of these, chemical and pharmaceutical lec¬ tures are delivered by regular professors. These in¬ stitutions, although of recent origin, have exerted an important influence in reforming and preventing abuses in the preparation of medicines; and public opinion, especially in the cities, is beginning to render it important for students in pharmacy to obtain a de¬ gree from one of these colleges. Under the auspices of the institution at Philadelphia, is published a quar¬ terly journal, devoted to pharmaceutical science. 11. A Pharmacopoeia for the United States was formed at Washington, in 1820, by a delegation of physicians from the principal medical societies of the DRUGGIST AND APOTHECARY. 239 Union. A revision of this work is expected to be made every ten years. Dispensatories, as they exist in this country, are founded upon the Pharmacoepias, and may be properly considered commentaries upon them, since the former contain the whole of the latter, together with more minute descriptions of the sensi¬ ble and real properties of the medicines, as well as their history and exact mode of preparation. i i 'i ' y k THE DENTIST. 1. The human family is subject to a variety of dis¬ eases in the teeth, which generally cause the final de¬ struction or loss of these important instruments, un¬ less judicious remedies are applied in proper season. These remedies are administered by the dentist. 2. There are few persons, in proportion to the great mass of the people, who seem to be aware of the utility of dentistry ; for, taking the United States together, not more than one person in a hundred ever resorts to the professors of this art, with the view of obtaining a remedy for any dental disease with which he may be afflicted. The common sentiment seems to be, that diseases of the teeth, and their final loss, at different periods of life, are inevitable inconveni- THE DENTIST. 241 ences, to which we must submit with the same phi¬ losophy with which we meet other misfortunes. 3. To enable readers who have never examined this subject, to comprehend its general nature, we will give a slight sketch of some of the irregular¬ ities and diseases to which the teeth are liable, and, as we proceed, speak of the remedies applied by the dentist. 4. Two sets of teeth regularly appear, at different periods of life ; one in infancy, and the other, at a later period. The first set consists of twenty, and the second of thirty-two teeth ; the former are called infant, and the latter adult; and all these, at the age of six or seven, are upon the jaws at the same time. 5. At the age just mentioned, the infant teeth be¬ gin to give way to those which lie deeper in the sock¬ ets, and which are designed to supersede the former. As the new teeth advance, the roots of the first are absorbed ; and, after having been thus deprived of their support, they are easily removed ; sometimes, by a slight pressure of the tongue. 6. In a majority of cases, the whole process is car¬ ried on by nature with the utmost regularity; but, as she is not uniformly successful in this operation, there is no other period at which the teeth of children re¬ quire so much attention and care. Sometimes the second set rise in the socket without causing the ab¬ sorption of the roots of the first. In such cases, the former approach in an improper direction ; and, un¬ less the latter are removed in season, deformity will be the consequence. 7. Wjien, however, these precautions have been neglected, and the teeth stand in an irregular manner, they can sometimes be reduced to symmetry by the dentist, without occasioning much pain. When the front teeth are too much crowded by reason of the restricted dimensions of the jaw, the small teeth, sit, X 242 THE DENTIST. uated next behind the eye, or canine teeth, are ex¬ tracted, one on each side, to give room to the rest. 8. From the ages of six to fifteen years, the teeth of children should be examined, at least once in six months, by a dentist, who, if skilful, can seldom fail of rendering these ornaments of the human counte¬ nance regular, healthy, and beautiful. It is custom¬ ary in England and France, for the proprietors of seminaries of learning to employ a dentist to visit their establishments regularly, for the purpose of per¬ forming such operations, and of administering such remedies, as their pupils may require. 9. The teeth are composed of very hard bone and enamel. The latter is a substance exceeding in den¬ sity any other in the body. It covers the crown of the teeth, and is thickest in those parts which are most exposed to forcible contact in mastication ; but, in no place, is it more than the twelfth of an inch in thickness. 10. The most common disease of the teeth is ca¬ ries, or decay, and almost every part of them is liable to be affected by it, but especially the sides of those in front, and the crowns of those on other parts of the jaws. 11. The disease begins its attack either on the en¬ amel or on the bony portion, and gradually extends itself over the tooth, until it reaches the nerves which supply its natural cavity. These having become ex¬ posed to the sudden changes of temperature, and to the contact of extraneous substances in mastication, pain and inflammation are produced, and the extrac¬ tion of the tooth very commonly becomes the only means of relief. 12. All persons are more or less subject to this disease, but some much more than others ; and caries of a peculiar character has been so often traced through whole families, from one generation to an- THE DENTIST. 243 other, that it is considered hereditary, as much as any other disease to which the system is liable. In many cases, caries seems to be the effect of some serious disease which affected the constitution, while the teeth were in the early stages of formation. 13. Although the teeth of some individuals possess but little durability, and, when caries attacks them, go on rapidly to decay, in spite of all the aid which sci¬ ence and skill can afford, yet, there are comparative¬ ly but few instances in which seasonable and judi¬ cious treatment will not arrest the progress of the disease. 14. When the teeth are but slightly affected with caries, especially on the sides, a cure may be accom¬ plished by the removal of the decayed portion. This is effected, by the most approved dentists, chiefly with small cutting instruments. Formerly, the file and the saw were employed for this purpose ; and, by their indiscriminate and injudicious use, many teeth were ruined, and the art of dentistry itself brought into disrepute. 15. Notwithstanding the injuries which have been inflicted by the improper application of the saw and file, in some instances they are indispensable; and, in the hands of the scientific operator, they need not be feared. They are especially useful in preparing the way for the employment of other instruments; for, in some cases, the affected part can with diffi¬ culty be reached by any other means. But filing the teeth for the purpose of improving their appearance, or for rendering the sides more accessible to the tooth.pick and brush, seems to be reprobated by the most intelligent part of the profession. 16. When the caries has penetrated far into the tooth, and, in its removal, a cavity of suitable form and dimensions can be produced, it is filled with some substance, with the view of protecting the bone from 244 THE DENTIST. the action of extraneous agents. The dentist is care¬ ful to remove every particle of the decayed portion, and to render the cavity perfectly dry by repeated applications of lint or raw cotton, before he attempts to fill it. 17. Gold is the only substance which possesses sufficient solidity to withstand the ordinary friction of mastication, and which, at the same time, is capable of resisting the chemical action of the substances that come in contact with it; yet lead and tin are frequently employed ; and many have been made to believe that they answer as good, if not a better pur¬ pose, than gold itself. The durability of these met¬ als, however, can never be depended upon, and they ought not to $>e employed, where the tooth is capable of resisting the mechanical force required to fill it properly with gold. 18. The metal is prepared for the use of the den¬ tist by the gold-beater, in the manner described in-the article which treats upon the business of the latter. The leaves, however, are not beaten so thin as those designed for the common purposes of the arts. The portion to be applied is cut from the leaf, and, after having been twisted a little, is forced into the cavity. The metal is rendered perfectly solid by means of instruments adapted to the purpose. 19. This operation, properly performed under fa¬ vorable circumstances, generally renders the tooth as serviceable, to the end of life, as if it had never been diseased. The hopes of the patient, however, are sometimes disappointed by the unskilfulness of the operator, or by the general unhealthiness of the mouth, arising from tartar, other decayed teeth, or want of care in keeping them free from the lodgment of particles of food. 20. It is a common practice to have teeth extract¬ ed, when they are affected with pain ; but this opera- THE DENTIST. 245 tion is not always necessary. In many cases, the nerve can be paralyzed, and the tooth plugged. By these means, teeth which, under the ordinary treat¬ ment, would be prematurely sacrificed, are often re¬ tained, for years, in a serviceable state. 21. The next most destructive affection to which the teeth are liable, is the accumulation of tartar. This is an earthy substance, deposited from the sali¬ va, and is more or less abundant in different individ¬ uals. This deposit is extremely troublesome, and generally does much injury to the mouth, even before those who suffer from it are aware of the mischief. 22. The tartar on the teeth of some individuals, is of a black or greenish color, and very hard ; on those of others, brown or yellow, and not so firm. When it is first deposited, it is soft, and can be easily re¬ moved with a tooth-brush; but, if suffered to remain, it soon becomes indurated, and gradually increases in thickness about the neck of the teeth. The gums become irritated and inflamed. The sockets are next absorbed, and the teeth, being left without their nat¬ ural support, either fall out, or become so loose, that they can be easily removed. 23. From this cause, old people lose their teeth, when, in many cases, they are perfectly sound; but comparatively very few are aware of the origin of this deprivation, or suppose that these valuable in¬ struments can be retained in old age. The loss is attributed to the deleterious effects of calomel, or is imagined to be an evil inseparable from advanced age. 24. The affection of the gums, arising from causes just mentioned, is frequently called scurvy, and, like caries, produces fetor of the breath ; but, when these two diseases are combined, as is frequently the case, they render it extremely offensive. Besides, the efflu¬ via arising from these diseased parts give rise to X 2 246 THE DENTIST. many maladies which terminate fatally, if a remedy is not applied sufficiently early to save the patient. 25. The obvious remedy for diseases arising from tartar, is the removal of their cause. This is effect¬ ed by the dentist, with small sharp cutting instru¬ ments of a suitable form. To prevent the tartar from accumulating again, and to restore the gums to a healthy state, nothing more is generally requisite than the daily use of a stiff, elastic brush, and the occasional application of some approved dentrifice or astringent wash. Sometimes it may be necessary to scarify the gums, or to apply leeches to them. 26. The operations of dentistry, mentioned in the preceding part of this article, are those which relate to the preservation of the teeth ; and, if performed in a proper manner, and under favorable circumstances, they will, in most instances, prove effectaul. But, as few persons resort to the dentist, until the near approach of deformity, or until they are impelled by pain to seek relief, a great proportion of dental oper¬ ations consists in inserting artificial teeth, and in ex¬ tracting those which are past recovery. 27. When a tooth has gone so far to decay, that it cannot be cured by stopping , it should not be suffered to remain in the mouth, lest it infect the rest. Front teeth, however, when the roots remain sound, and firmly based in the sockets, ought not to be extracted, as upon the latter artificial teeth can be placed with great advantage. In such cases, the removal of the crown only is necessary. 28. The instruments commonly employed in ex¬ tracting teeth, are the key, or turnkey, the forceps, the hook, and the graver, or punch. These are sup¬ posed to be sufficient to perform all the operations of this kind which occur in practice ; and, although many attempts have been made to invent others which might answer a better purpose, yet those we THE DENTIST. 247 have mentioned, in their improved state, are likely to continue in general use. 29. It seems to be a common opinion, that any one can pull teeth, who has a turnkey, and sufficient phys¬ ical strength to use it; accordingly, blacksmiths, bar¬ bers, and medical students, are the chief operators in this line of dental surgery. The many fatal acci¬ dents which must inevitably be the consequence, such as breaking the tooth or jaw-bone, are considered matters of course. These, however, seldom happen with skilful dentists ; and it is to be regretted, that the latter are not always employed, where unskilfulness may produce such serious consequences. 30. In the cut, at the head of this article, is repre¬ sented a dentist, about to extract a tooth for a lady, who may be supposed to be in a state of alarm at the sight of the instruments; but he, having thrown his right hand, which holds them, behind him, shows the other containing nothing, with the view of allaying her fears. The manner in which teeth are extracted, needs no description, since it is an every-day opera¬ tion in all parts of the world. 31. One of the chief sources of income to this pro¬ fession, is the insertion-of artificial teeth; for, al¬ though few are willing to expend much to prevent the loss of their teeth, many will incur great expense in supplying the deficiencies, after they have occurred. So perfectly and neatly is this operation performed, by some dentists, that it is difficult to distinguish between teeth which are natural, and those which are artificial. 32. The materials for artificial teeth were former¬ ly found chiefly in the teeth and tusks of the hippo¬ potamus, and in the teeth of some domestic animals; but, within a few years, a mineral composition, called porcelain, has come into great repute, since it is very beautiful, and is entirely proof against the most pow¬ erful acids. 248 THE DENTIST. 33. Surgical operations upon the teeth were per¬ formed in ancient Greece and Rome, many of which were similar to those of the present day. The ex¬ traction of teeth must have been practised at a period of antiquity to which the records of medicine do not reach. The operation is recommended by Hippocra¬ tes, who describes many of the diseases to which the teeth are liable. He also mentions the practice of fixing the teeth by means of gold wire, and gives sev¬ eral formulas for making dentrifices. 34. Celsus, a Roman writer on medicine, who flourished about the beginning of the Christian era, seems to have been the first author who described the method of extracting teeth, and the first who no¬ tices the removal of tartar by means of cutting instru¬ ments, as well as filling carious teeth with lead and other substances, with the view of preventing further decay. Soon after this period, false teeth, of bone and ivory, were introduced. Actius, a writer of the fourth century, is the first who mentions the operation of filing the teeth. 35. The return of barbarism to Europe, nearly ex¬ tinguished the knowledge of dentistry. As a branch of surgery, however, it was revived by the Arabian writer, Albucasis, in the tenth century ; but, for many hundred years after this period, it received but little attention from men of science, the operations of sur¬ gery being confined chiefly to the barbers. 36. The first modern work on the diseases of the teeth was published at Lyons, in 1581. This was fol¬ lowed by many other publications on the same subject, in the succeeding century. In the year 1700, it be¬ gan to be required in France, that all persons who in¬ tended to practise dentistry in that country, should undergo an examination, to test their qualifications. From this period is dated the establishment of the dental art as a distinct branch of medical practice. THE TEACHER. 1. Education, in antiquity, was entirely a matter of domestic concern. In countries where priestly or royal despotism prevailed, schools for the benefit of the sons of the great, and for the priests, were estab¬ lished. Moses, the Jewish lawgiver, was educated in a priestly school in Egypt, and Cyrus, at a seminary belonging to the Persian court. In Palestine, the Scriptures were taught in the schools of the proph¬ ets ; and, at later periods, in the synagogues, and in the schools of the Rabbies, reading, committing to memory the sacred books, and hearing explanations of their meaning, constituted the chief exercises. 2. In the Grecian cities, boys and girls were taught reading, writing, and arithmetic in private schools; and, after having completed the primary course, those 250 THE TEACHER. who aspired to higher degrees of knowledge, resorted to the instructions of the philosophers and sophists. This system was commenced as early as 500 years before the advent of Christ. 3. Two hundred years after this period, the Ro¬ mans began to have primary schools for boys, in the cities ; and, from the time of Julius Caesar, who con¬ ferred on teachers the right of citizenship, they pos¬ sessed the higher institutions of the grammarians and the rhetoricians. In the former of these, were taught the Latin and Greek languages ; and in the latter, young men of talent were prepared, by exercises in declamation, for speaking in public. * 4. Children, among the Greeks and Romans, were accompanied to school by slaves, who, from the per¬ formance of this duty, were called pedagogues; but, after slaves and freedmen had made acquirements in literature and science, they were frequently employed as tutors ; hence the term, at length, came to imply a teacher of children, and it is still used in reference to this employment, although we usually connect with it the idea of pedantry. 5. Until the time of Vespasian, who commenced his reign in the year 70 of the Christian era, the schools were sustained entirely by private enterprise. That emperor instituted public professorships of gram¬ mar and rhetoric with fixed salaries, for the purpose of educating young men for the public service ; and, in A.D. 150, Antonius Pius founded imperial schools in the larger cities of the Roman empire. The most celebrated place for the cultivation of science, in the ancient world, was Athens ; and, to this city, students from all parts of Europe resorted, even as late as the ninth century. 6. Christianity, by degrees, gave a new turn to education; and, in the East, it came gradually under the influence of the clergy. Schools were instituted THE TEACHER. 251 in the cities and villages for catechumens, and, in some places, those of a higher grade, for the educa¬ tion of clergymen. Of the latter kind, that in Alex¬ andria was the most flourishing, from the second to the fourth century. 7. From the fifth century, these higher institutions began to decline, and others, called cathedral or epis¬ copal schools, seem to have taken their place. In these, besides theology, were taught the seven liberal • arts —grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music ; of which the three first were called the trivium , and the four last the quadrivium. The text-book employed was the Encyclopaedia of Marcianus Capella, of Africa. This compendium « was published at Rome, A.D. 470; and, although a meagre production, it maintained its reputation in the schools of Europe more than 1000 years. 8. The imperial schools established by Antoninus Pius, declined, and finally became extinct, in the con¬ fusion that followed the irruption of the barbarians; but their places were supplied by the parochial and cathedral schools just mentioned. These, however, were surpassed, in the sixth century, by the conventual schools, which were originally designed to prepare persons for the monastic life, but which soon began to be resorted to by laymen. 9. These schools were connected with the convents belonging to the order of St. Benedict, and served as the chief glimmering lights during the darkest period between ancient and modern civilization, in Europe. They flourished in Ireland, England, France, and Germany, from the sixth to the eleventh century. The teachers of these seminaries were called scholas¬ tic^ and from them the scholastic philosophy derived its origin and name. 10. In the year 789, Charlemagne, king of the Franks, issued a decree for the improvement of the 252 THE TEACHER. schools of his empire, and for increasing their num¬ ber. Not only every bishop’s see and every convent, but every parish, was to have its school; the two for¬ mer for the education of clergymen and public offi¬ cers, and the latter for the lower classes of people. This monarch instituted an academy of learned men, to whom he himself resorted for instruction, and whom he employed to educate his children, and a select number of the sons of the nobility and distin¬ guished persons. 11. The encouragement which these schools had received from government was soon discontinued af¬ ter the death of this monarch, and his school estab- * lishment declined like that of Alfred the Great, which was commenced in the ninth century, on a scale of equal liberality. The designs of the English mon¬ arch were frustrated by the invasions of the Danes. 12. In the mean time, the Jewish rabbies had schools in Syria and in Northern Africa, as well as in Europe, which contributed to the preservation of an¬ cient learning. Arabian schools were also establish¬ ed, in the ninth century, by the followers of Moham¬ med, in their Eastern and African caliphates, and in their Moorish dominions in Spain. Through these institutions, the mathematical and medical sciences were again revived in Europe. 13. The cathedral and conventual schools contin¬ ued, for a long time, the principal institutions for edu¬ cation in Europe ; and from them proceeded many eminent men. By degrees the light of science began to shine more brightly ; teachers of eminence ap. peared in different places, who collected around them a great number of scholars ; and a new kind of schools arose, the heads of which assumed the name of rectores . 14. In Paris, several of these teachers gave in¬ structions in various branches, but chiefly in rhetoric, THE TEACHER. 253 philosophy, and theology. The schools thus collected under different masters, were, in 1206, united under one rector; and, on this account, the whole mass of teachers and scholars was denominated universitas. Universities, in other parts of Europe, arose in a sim¬ ilar manner, and some of them, about the same time. Those of Oxford and Cambridge, according to some writers, were established about the year 1200; and the two first of these institutions in Germany were founded at Prague and Vienna, the former in 1348, and the latter in 1365. 15. The division of the students into four nations was an essential feature in the early universities. It arose from the circumstance that the pupils coming from different countries, spoke different languages. Those whose language was the same or similar, would naturally associate together, and attend the instruc¬ tions of the same teachers. This division into na¬ tions is supposed to have grown up at Paris, previous to the formal union of the several schools under one rector. 16. The first teachers, from whose exertions the universities originated, commenced their public in¬ structions without permission from established au¬ thority. Subsequently, the state and university were careful to prevent all persons from giving lectures, who were not well qualified for the employment. Ex¬ aminations were therefore instituted to determine the capabilities of students. Those who were found com¬ petent, received a formal permission to teach, accom¬ panied with certain symbols in the spirit of the age. 17. The first academical degree was that of bacca - laureus; the second, licentiatus; and the third magis - ter . The last of these entitled the student to all the privileges of his former teachers, and constituted him one of the facultas artium—the faculty of the seven liberal arts , since called the philosophic faculty. The Y * 254 THE TEACHER. other faculties were those of theology, law, and med¬ icine. The first of these was instituted at Paris in 1259, and the two last, in 1260. The faculties elect¬ ed deans from among their number, who, with the procuratores, or heads of the four nations of students, represented the university. These representatives possessed the power of conferring degrees in the dif¬ ferent departments of literature and science. 18. Among the public institutions of the early uni- * versities were the colleges, [collegia,) buildings in which students, especially those who were poor, might live together, under superintendents, without paying for their lodging. In some cases, they received their board, and frequently other allowances, gratis. These institutions were commenced at Paris ; but here, as well as in other places, they did not continue the asy¬ lums of the necessitous only. In France and Eng¬ land, the buildings of universities are composed chiefly of these colleges, in which the students reside, and in which the business of instruction is mainly car¬ ried on. 19. The teachers in the universities were at first paid for their services by the students. At a later period, the magistrates of the town or city where the institution was located, made presents to eminent scholars, to induce them to remain. This practice finally led to the payment of regular salaries. From and after the fourteenth century, universities were not left to grow up of themselves as formerly, but were expressly established by public authorities or by the popes. 20. The inactivity and luxury of the clergy, had led to the neglect of the old seminaries of learning. The universities were therefore necessary, not only to revive the taste for science and literature, but also to form a new body of teachers. These institutions, however, at length became subject to undue clerical THE TEACHER. 255 influence, since the monks obtained admission into them as teachers, and then labored to increase the importance of their several orders, as well as the power of the Roman pontiff. 21. The monks, also, connected, with their con¬ vents, popular schools, and undertook the education of the children in the cities. But their method of in¬ struction was exceedingly defective, since the intelli¬ gent investigation of the subjects studied was little encouraged, and since the memory of the pupils was brought into requisition to the almost entire exclusion of the other faculties of the mind. 22. In the lower parish schools, the children were not permitted to learn to write, the monks being de- sirotis of confining to the clergy the practice of this art, which was very lucrative before the invention of printing. The art was called ars clerical™ ; and, for a long time, the privilege of establishing writing schools for the children of citizens, was a matter of negotiation between the magistrates and the clergy. 23. But the citizens becoming, at length, more in¬ dependent, the magistrates themselves began to su¬ perintend the education of youth. Trivial schools were established, in which the trivium , and reading and writing, were taught; but for these, as well as for the cathedral and parish schools, which had been neglected for some time by the higher clergy, itiner¬ ant monks and students were employed as teachers. 24. The elder pupils of the highest class frequently wandered from one school to another, under the pre¬ tence of pursuing their studies, sometimes taking with them younger scholars, whom they compelled to beg or steal, in order to supply their wants. As late as the sixteenth century, Luther complains that these vacantivi (or idlers) were the persons chiefly employ¬ ed as schoolmasters in Germany. 25. A pious fraternity, called Jeronymites, consist- 256 THE TEACHER. ing of clergymen and laymen, who lived together, and occupied themselves partly in mechanic arts, and partly in the instruction of youth, exerted considerable influence on education in general. They first estab¬ lished themselves in Italy, and afterwards in the Neth¬ erlands, on the Rhine, and in Northern Germany. 26. Much was done during the last half of the fourteenth century, and in the one hundred years that followed, to encourage the study of the ancient classics. The attention of literary men was turned to these interesting remains of antiquity by the arri¬ val of many learned Greeks, who had fled from Turk¬ ish oppression, and who had brought with them the ancient writings. 27. These treasures of former civilization were unfolded to the modern world by the art of printing, which was invented in 1441; and the reformation, which commenced in 1517, also aided the advance¬ ment of education. The corporations of the German cities in which the reformed religion was received, founded seminaries, called gymnasia, and lyceums, with permanent professorships. A vast amount of prop¬ erty, belonging to the convents and the Church, was confiscated by the governments, and appropriated chiefly to the promotion of education. 28. The schools in the countries which adhered to the Roman Catholic religion, however, continued in nearly the same state, until the Jesuit schools arose, towards the end of the sixteenth century. These, on account of the ability with which they were con¬ ducted, soon gained the ascendency, and for a long time maintained their reputation ; but they, at length, degenerated, and finally became extinct, on the sup¬ pression of the order of Jesuits in 1773. 29. Italy, Spain, and Portugal, have, for a long time, been inactive in relation to education, it being left en¬ tirely to the clergy, and the efforts* of the people in THE TEACHER. 257 their individual capacity. Much has been done in Austria, within fifty years, to advance this important interest. Under the late emperor, professorships were constituted, in the universities and cathedral semina¬ ries, for the instruction of teachers; and gymnasia, common and Sunday schools, were established in al¬ most every part of the kingdom. 30. The general organization of schools in France, in the eighteenth century, was similar to that of most other Catholic countries. The government did no¬ thing for the education of the people at large ; and the Church, which possessed a large proportion of the property of the nation, left the people in total igno¬ rance ; whence may have arisen much of the atrocity which marked the early part of the revolution. 31. During the popular reign, the education of youth was declared to be under the care of the state, and many schools, called 'polytechnic , were establish¬ ed. Napoleon, also, afterwards instituted several mil¬ itary schools, and contemplated the introduction of a system of general education. With this view, he in¬ stituted an imperial university, which was to have the supreme direction of instruction in France ; but his designs were but partially carried into effect. 32. When the Bourbons were again restored to the throne of France, they, with the clergy, labored to restore the old order of things ; and, to keep the com¬ mon people from becoming dangerous, the Lancas- terian schools, established in 1816, were abolished. Efficient measures, however, have been lately adopt¬ ed by Louis Philip to establish schools of different grades throughout his kingdom. 33. In England and Ireland, although the middling and higher classes are comparatively well educa¬ ted, no system of general instruction has ever been established for the benefit of the common people. Much, however, has been accomplished by charity Y 2 253 THE TEACHER. and Sunday schools ; the former of which were com¬ menced in 1698, and the latter in 1812. Besides these, there are numerous charitable foundations on which many persons of limited means have been ed- ucated at the higher institutions. 34. In Scotland, more liberal provisions have been made for general education. The system was com- menced in the reign of William and Mary, when, by an act of Parliament, every parish was required to maintain a school. The people have so far improved their privileges, that nearly all of the inhabitants of that part of Great Britain can read and write. 35. The government of Russia, during the last and present century, has directed some attention to the promotion of education. According to the decrees of the Emperor Alexander, schools of different grades were to be established throughout the empire ; but these decrees have been yet only partially executed. 36. In no part of the world has the education of all classes of people been more encouraged than in the United States. This has arisen chiefly from the circumstance, that a remarkable proportion of the col¬ onists were persons of education. This was particu¬ larly the case with those of New-England, where the instruction of youth, from the very beginning of the settlements, was made a matter of public concern. 37. The principle of making public provision for this purpose, thus early adopted, has never been de¬ serted ; on the contrary, it has become so deeply in¬ terwoven with the social condition of the people of New-England, that there are few families in that part of the Union, which are not within reach of a public school; and, in every state where the influence of the people from that section of the country is predom¬ inant, public schools have been organized by legal provisions, and a fund has been provided, by which at least a part of the expense of supporting them is paid. THE TEACHER. 259 38. In all the states in which these primary insti¬ tutions are established by legislative enactments, they are kept in operation, in country places, between six and nine months of the year. A master is employed in the winter, and a mistress, in the summer: the for¬ mer receives for his services from ten to fifteen dol¬ lars per month, and the latter, from seventy-five cents to two dollars per week, together with boarding. The teachers, however, during their engagement are com¬ pelled to reside in the different families of the district, their stay at each place being determined, with scru¬ pulous exactness, by the number of children sent to the school. 39. From the low salaries received for these im¬ portant services, and the short periods for which en¬ gagements are made, it is evident, that teaching a district school cannot be pursued as a regular em¬ ployment. These schools are, therefore, supplied by persons who, during the rest of the year, follow some other business; or by students, who rely, in part or entirely, on their own exertions to defray the ex¬ penses of their academical, collegiate, or professional education. 40. These schools are, no doubt, institutions of great value ; but, in the states where they have been established, they are evidently much overrated. They fail in accomplishing the ends for which they have been instituted, through the extreme tenacity with which the people adhere to ancient and defective methods of instruction, the frequent change of teach¬ ers, and the small compensation allowed for the ser¬ vices of competent instructors. 41. In the cities and populous towns or villages, the public schools are kept up during the whole of the year, and the system of instruction is generally better than that pursued in the country. In New- York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and in some other cit- 260 THE TEACHER. ies, the Lancasterian plan of mutual instruction, with many modifications, is preferred, principally on ac¬ count of its cheapness. 42. Select-schools and private academies are, also, very numerous. These are located chiefly in the cities and populous towns, and are supported entirely by fees for tuition received from the parents or guar¬ dians of the pupils. These institutions do not differ essentially from those of a private nature in similar situations in other parts of the United States, where common schools are not established by law. 43. In the Southern states, wealthy families often employ private tutors. Sometimes two, three, or more families, and even a whole neighborhood, unite for the purpose of forming a school; and, to induce a teacher to commence or continue his labors among them, an adequate amount is made up beforehand by subscription. South of Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the Ohio River, such engagements are commonly made for a year, as, in that section of the Union, the opinion prevails, that a teacher can do but little to¬ wards improving his pupils in a much shorter time. 44. The literary institutions which are next above the common schools, and which are established by legislative authority, are the academies, of which there are between five and six hundred in the United States. Some of these have been founded by the funds of the state in which they are located, some, by the union of a few spirited individuals, or by private bequests. 45. The course of instruction pursued in these seminaries of learning varies considerably from each other. In some of them, it is confined chiefly to the common branches of education ; in others, the course is pretty extensive, embracing natural and moral philosophy, chemistry, belles lettres, and a sound course of mathematics, together with Latin, Greek, THE TEACHER. 261 \ and some of the modern languages. One great ob¬ ject in these institutions is to prepare students for col¬ lege. The teacher who has charge of an academy is called the principal, while the teacher who may aid him in his labors is denominated the assistant or usher . 46. The highest institutions of learning among us are the colleges and universities. Between these, however, there seems to be but little difference, since the course of studies is nearly or quite the same in both, and since the charters obtained from the legis¬ latures grant to both similar powers of conferring honorary degrees. The whole number of these es- tablishments in the United States is about eighty. 47. The principal teachers in the colleges are de¬ nominated professors, who confine their labors to communicating instructions in particular branches of literature or science. These are aided by assistants called tutors. The latter are generally young men, who devote two or three years to this employment, before entering upon the practice of a profession. The number of professors and tutors in the several colleges varies according to their amount of funds, and number of students. v END OF VOL. I. '' \ • p t \ 1 CATALOGUE OF BOOKS. Harper & Brothers, 82 Cliff-street, New-York, have just issued a new and complete catalogue of their publications, which will be forwarded, without charge, to any part of the United States, upon appli¬ cation to them personally or by mail post paid. In this catalogue may be found over one thousand vol¬ umes, embracing every branch of literature, standard and imaginative. The attention of persons forming libraries, either private or public, is particularly di¬ rected to the great number of valuable standard his¬ torical and miscellaneous works comprised in the list, among which are the following : The Family Library (each work is sold separately) contains . . . vols. The Classical Library . . . .... 36 vols. The School District Library . .... 200 vols. Boys’ and Girls’ Library . . vols. Mrs. Sherwood’s Works . . vols. Miss Edgeworth’s Works . . .... 15 vols. Sparks’s American Biography .... 10 vols. Hannah More’s Works . . . vols. Shakspeare’s Works . . . vols POPULAR TECHNOLOGY; OR, PROFESSIONS AND TRADES. BY EDWARD HAZEN, A. M., AUTHOR OF “THE SYMBOLICAL SPELLING-BOOK,” “THE SPELLER AND DEFINER,” AND “A PRACTICAL GRAMMAR.” EMBELLISHED WITH EIGHTY-ONE ENGRAVINGS. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. II. NEW-YORK: HARPER AND BROTHERS, 82 CLIFF-ST. 1842 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1841, bj Harper & Brothers, In the Clerk’s Office of the Southern District of New-York. r V ' v CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. The Musician, and the Musical Instrument Maker ... 7 The Sculptor.18 The Painter.29 The Engraver.42 The Copperplate Printer.51 The Lithographer.54 The Author.58 The Printer.63 The Type-Founder.73 The Stereotyper.77 The Paper-Maker, and the Bookbinder , . . .81 The Bookseller ..92 The Architect.97 The Carpenter.Ill The Stone-Mason, the Brick-maker, &c.114 The Painter, and the Glazier.129 The Turner.136 The Cabinet-Maker, and the Upholsterer .... 140 The Chair-Maker ..149 The Carver, and the Gilder.153 The Cooper.. .157 The Wheelwright.161 The Potter.169 The Glass-Blower.178 The Optician.. . . . 187 The Goldbeater, and the Jeweller.198 The Silversmith, and the Watchmaker.213 The Coppersmith, the Button-Maker, &c. .... 224 The Tin-Plate Worker, &c.233 The Iron-Founder . . ;.242 The Blacksmith, and the Nailer.255 The Cutler.261 The Gunsmith.266 The Veterinary Surgeon.271 A 2 THE MUSICIAN, AND THE MUSICAL INSTRUMENT MAKER. THE MUSICIAN. 1. The word Music, in its modern application, has reference to the science which treats of the combina¬ tion of sounds. It is founded upon the law of our nature, that every leading passion has its peculiar tone or note of expression understood by all human beings. Music, therefore, may be supposed to have been practised in the earliest ages ; although it must have been a long time before it arose to the import¬ ance of a science. 2. According to the Mosaic records, Jubal, one of the descendants of Cain, played upon musical instru¬ ments, many hundred years before the flood. In the early period of the nations of antiquity, and in fact 8 THE MUSICIAN. among all semi-barbarous people of later periods, the character of poet and singer were united in the same individual; and the voice was frequently accompa¬ nied by musical instruments. The oldest song which has descended to our times, and which is stated to have been exhibited in this manner, was that sung by Miriam, the sister of Moses, on the occasion of the passage of the Red Sea by the children of Israel. 3. The Hebrews employed music in their celebra¬ tion of religious worship, which consisted, in part, in chanting solemn psalms with instrumental accompa¬ niments. It was also used by them on the occasion of entertainments, as well as in the family circle. It reached its greatest perfection amongst the Jews, in the days of David and Solomon. It is supposed, that the priests of Egypt were versed in music, before the settlement of the family of Jacob in that country ; but how far the Israelites were indebted to them for a knowledge of this pleasing art, is altogether uncer¬ tain. 4. Music was held in very high estimation among the Greeks, who attributed to it incredible effects. They even assure us that it is the chief amusement of the gods, and the principal employment of the blessed in heaven. Many of their laws, and the in¬ formation relative to the gods and heroes, as well as exhortations to virtue, were written in verse, and sung publicly in chorus to the sound of instruments. 5. It was the opinion of the philosophers of Greece, that music was necessary to mould the character of a nation to virtue ; and Plato asserts, that the music of his countrymen could not be altered, without af¬ fecting the constitution of the state itself. But in his time and afterwards, complaints were made of the degeneracy in this art, and a deterioration of national manners through its influence. The degeneracy probably consisted in its application to the expression THE MUSICIAN. 9 of the tender passions; it having been previously ap¬ plied, in most cases, to awaken patriotic and religious feeling. 6. The invention of music and of musical instru¬ ments, as in the cases of most of the arts and sciences among the Greeks, was attributed by the poets to some of the gods, or else to individuals of their own nation. It appears, however, from their traditions, that they received this art, or at least great improve¬ ments in its execution, from Phoenicia or Asia Minor. It began to be cultivated scientifically in Greece about 600 years before the advent of Christ. 7. The Romans seem to have derived the music which they employed in religious services from the Etruscans, but that used in war and on the stage from the Greeks. At an early period of their his¬ tory, it was a great impediment to the progress of the art, that it was practised only by slaves. 8. The Roman orators pitched their voice, and reg¬ ulated the different intonations through their speech, by the sound of instruments; and on the stage, the song, as well as part of the play itself, was accompa¬ nied with flutes. Wind-instruments of various kinds, comprised under the general name of tibia, and some¬ times the cythera and harp, accompanied the chorus. In all these applications of music, the Romans had been preceded by the Greeks. 9. The Hebrews employed accents to express mu¬ sical tones, but most other nations of antiquity used letters of the alphabet for this purpose ; and, as they had not yet conceived the idea of the octave or par¬ allel lines, to express a variety of tones in a similar manner by the aid of a key, they required a number of notes that must have been exceedingly perplexing. 10. The Greeks are said to have had about one thousand notes, half of which were for vocal, and the other half, for instrumental music. All these were 10 THE MUSICIAN. "T expressed by placing the letters of their alphabet, or parts of them, in different positions. Accents were also used, partly by themselves, and in connexion with the letters. 11. The lines of a poem, set to music, were placed under the letters expressing the tones. The letters for the instrumental part were placed first, and under them those for the voice. The notes of the Greeks and Romans were not required to indicate the time in which they were to be pronounced, since in gen¬ eral the syllables of their language had a natural and distinct quantity. In the cases in which there was a liability to mistake, the syllables were marked with A, if long, and with B, if short. 12. The Romans expressed the fifteen chief tones of the Greeks with the fifteen first letters of the Latin alphabet; and these were reduced to seven, by Pope Gregory I., towards the end of the sixth century; so that the first seven capital letters were used for the first octave, the small letters for the higher octave, and the small letters doubled, for the highest octave. Parallel lines were soon after invented, on which the letters were written. 13. Musical sounds were expressed in this manner until the year 1024, when, according to some authors, Guido Aretine, a monk of Arezzo, invented points and rhombuses. He also introduced the use of five parallel lines, upon and between which his notes were written. The seven letters which had formerly been used as notes, now became clifs. 14. Still, however, the means of determining the duration of sound belonging to each note, without consulting the quantity of syllables in the verses to be sung, were yet to be provided. This desideratum was supplied by one Franco, a German of Cologne, who lived towards the end of the eleventh century. Some, however, attribute this improvement to John de Murs. THE MUSICIAN. 11 The division of one note into others of less value was invented, in the sixteenth century, by Jean Mouton, chapel-master to King Francis I. of France. 15. The knowledge, of music, as a science, was preserved in Europe, after the overthrow of the West¬ ern empire, through the influence of the Church. The apostles, and Hebrew converts generally, had been accustomed to the sacred music of the Jews; and, on this account, it was easy to continue the use of the same psalms and hymns in the Christian Church. 16. Many of the Grecian and Roman melodies were also set to words adapted to Christian worship. In regard to the manner of singing, in the early days of the Church, it was sometimes in solo , sometimes in alternate strains , and at other times in chorus; in which the whole assembly joined, repeating what had been before sung or read. In the fourth century, with the view of securing the proper execution of this part of divine worship, precentors were instituted, who were considered regular officers of the Church. 17. Pope Gregory I., surnamed the Great, distin¬ guished himself by establishing a new singing-school, which became a model for many others, in the west¬ ern division of the Church. In consequence of these schools, the singing became more artificial; and this, together with the circumstance that the hymns were in Latin, which had become obsolete, at length ex¬ cluded the people from any participation in this part of the public worship. 18. Gregory also made a selection of the existing songs of the Church, and introduced a chant , which, through his influence, and that of his successors, was at length extended throughout Europe. It received the appellation of the Gregorian chant from his name. It was also called the choral song, because it was sung by a choir. This chant is said to be the foundation of our present church-music. 12 THE MUSICIAN. 19. Music, in distinct parts, was not known until after the introduction of the improved method of writing music, invented, as before stated, by Guido Aretine and Franco. The development of harmony, in four parts, was assisted by the choral; but it was more particularly advanced by musical instruments, and especially by the organ. In the fifteenth century, music began again to be treated scientifically. 20. The Reformation produced great changes in the character of sacred music. Before that event took place 3 , this part of religious worship was confined to a few fixed forms of texts, as in the mass, and this is still the case in the Roman Catholic Church; but the Protestants allow great variety both in the poetry and music. Luther’s agency in the production of these changes was very considerable. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, church music became continually more brilliant, and always more corrupted, by the intermixture of profane mysic. 21. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries* there grew up, at the courts of the European mon^ archs, the free chamber style, from which arose that which was afterwards used in the theatre. The opera* which originated with three young noblemen at Flor¬ ence in 1594, has contributed especially to the splen¬ dor and variety of modern vocal music, the advance¬ ment of which is claimed particularly by the Italians* as that of the instrumental kind is claimed by the Germans and French. 22. The composition of music, and its execution either vocally , or instrumentally, as well as the busi¬ ness of imparting a knowledge of it to others, are embraced in the employment of the musician; al¬ though it is seldom, that all these branches are prac« tised by one and the same individual. Music is one of the fine arts, and, during the middle ages, was one of the branches of what was then considered a learn ed education. MUSICAL INSTRUMENT-MAKER. 13 23. Since the scientific revival of music, the art has had so many distinguished professors, that we will not even attempt to give a list of their names. Their number was increased, and the art greatly perfected, by the singing-schools, called conservatories , estab¬ lished especially in Italy, either at the public expense, or by the liberality of individuals. MUSICAL INSTRUMENT-MAKER. 1. This artist unites in his business some of the operations of the cabinet-maker, turner, and brazier. He also is dependent upon the wire.drawer, and the tanner and currier, for some of his materials. So great, however, is the number of musical instruments, and so different their nature and construction, that the business of making them is divided into several branches, all of which are never pursued, or carried on, by one person. But, without reference to the several divisions of this business, we will proceed to mention or describe the principal instruments which are now in most common use. 2. The organ is the largest of all musical instru¬ ments, and, in its improved state, so complex that a mere description of it cannot be well understood. Nevertheless, we will endeavor to give the reader some idea of the general principles on which it is constructed. 3. The most essential and prominent parts of this machine are the wind.chest, the pipes , and the bellows. The former of these is an oblong box, made perfectly air-tight, and placed in a horizontal position. The top of this chest is perforated with several rows of holes of different sizes, and into these are inserted the pipes. Those for the higher notes are of a cyl¬ indrical form, and are made of a mixture of metals, chiefly of tin and lead ; but those designed for the expression of the lowest notes of the base are made II.—B 14 MUSICAL INSTRUMENT-MAKER. of wood, in a square form. The dimensions of these pipes are regulated by a diapason , or scale. 4. There are as many of these rows of pipes, which are called stops, as there are kinds of tones in the organ; and to every row or stop is a plug, at¬ tached to a slide, which is denominated a register, and which is designed to regulate the admission of wind into the pipes. The pipes are also furnished with valves, which can be opened at pleasure, by means of keys similar to those of the piano-forte. Some organs have few, others have many stops ; and, in order to regulate the force of sound, most church or¬ gans have two or three rows of keys, whereby a greater or less number of pipes may be filled, and the powers of the instrument may be controlled in what is called the small organ , or let loose, so as to become the full organ. 5. The fingering of an organ is similar to that of the piano-forte, so far as relates to the position of the keys; but, on account of the great number of holding notes in organ music, and the manner in which the sound is produced, the fingers are more kept down ; whence it is considered injurious for per¬ formers on the piano-forte to practise on the organ, lest that lightness of touch, so necessary for the for¬ mer instrument, be affected. It is hardly necessary to remark that, during the performance on the organ, the wind-chest is filled by means of the bellows. 6. The structure of the organ is lofty, elegant, and majestic ; and its solemnity, grandeur, and volume of tone, have obtained for it a pre-eminence over every other instrument for the sacred purposes to which it has been applied. The largest organ known is in St. Peter’s Church, at Rome. It has one hundred stops. 7. The church organ was probably suggested by the water organ of the Greeks, which was invented MUSICAL INSTRUMENT-MAKER. 15 five or six hundred years before our era. At what period, organs began to be employed in churches, can¬ not now be ascertained. By some, it is said that Pope Vitelianus caused them to be used in Rome in the seventh century. Others are of opinion, that they were not introduced until three hundred years later. But, be this as it may, the church organ was not in common use until the fourteenth century; and now it is very different in its construction from that of early times. It has received many additions and im¬ provements since the beginning of the fifteenth cen¬ tury. 8. The hand or barrel organ consists of a movea¬ ble cylinder, on which, by means of wires, pins, and staples, are marked the tunes which it is intended to perform. These pins and staples, by the revolution of the barrel, act upon the keys within, and give ad¬ mission to the wind from.the bellows to the pipes. The hand organ is so contrived that the revolution of the barrel gives motion to the bellows. 9. There are several instruments belonging to the class of horns, all of which are made of brass or sil¬ ver. Those of the latter kind of metal are by far the softest in tone, but brass is the material most com¬ monly employed. The chief instruments belonging to this class are the trumpet, the French horn, the bugle, the Kent bugle, the trombone, and the bass- horn. The serpent seems to be the connecting link between the trumpet and the flute. 10. The instruments classed with the flute, are the common flutes of various keys, German flutes, and several kinds of flageolets. Nearly allied to these are the clarionet, the hautboy, and bassoon. The breath is applied ^ to the flageolet through an ivory tube at the end; and, in the three last named instru¬ ments, a thin reed, capable of a free vibration, is a part of the mouth-piece. 16 MUSICAL INSTRUMENT-MAKER. . 11. Of the instruments which produce musical sounds by the vibration of strings, there are a great number, of which the following are the principal;— the lyre, the harp, the guitar, the lute, the dulcimer, the harpsichord, the spinnet, the piano-forte, the vio¬ lin, the violincello, and the base-viol. The strings of the three last are agitated with a bow ; but those of this class first mentioned, are vibrated by the thumb and fingers, by some little instrument held in the hand, or by little hammers, moved by keys, as in the piano¬ forte. 12. The piano-forte is said to be the invention of Gottlieb Schroder, of Hohenstein, in Saxony, born in Dresden, about the year 1717. Before the introduc¬ tion of this instrument, the clavichord, harpsichord, and spinnet, supplied its place. On all of these in¬ struments complete harmony can be produced by a single performer, and the most difficult series of tones can be executed with rapidity, by means of a simple mechanism. 13. The pianoforte has been gradually improved, until it has become one of the most elegant instru¬ ments in the whole compass of musical practice. In firmness and strength of tone, the English piano¬ fortes formerly surpassed all others ; but, within a few years, they have been equalled, and in some re¬ spects excelled, by those of American workmanship. The manufacture of this instrument constitutes the most extensive branch of musical instrument-making. 14. The instruments of percussion are the military drum, base-drum, kettle-drum, tabor, tamborine, and the triangle. The kettle-drum has received its name from its conformation. It has but one head, and is used in orchestres, and by the cavalry of modern ar¬ mies, especially in Europe. The tabor has two heads, about three inches apart, and is beaten with one stick. The tamborine has one head, drawn over a hoop, to MUSICAL INSTRUMENT-MAKER. 17 which are attached small bells and bits of tin, to make a jingling sound. The time is beaten on the head with the hand. 15. The bag-pipe is a wind instrument of high an¬ tiquity among the northern nations of Europe ; but it has been so long a favorite with the natives of Scot¬ land, that it may be considered their national instru¬ ment. It consists of a leather bag and three pipes. The first of the pipes is that by which the droning noise is produced, the second emits wind from the bottom of the bag, and the third is that on which the music is made. 16. During the performance on the bag-pipes, the bag is placed under the arm, and worked like a bel¬ lows, while the notes are modulated as on a flute or hautboy, by stopping and opening the holes, nine in number, with the ends of the fingers and thumb. The bag is filled by means of the breath blown into it through a pipe. In Rome, at the time of Advent, the peasants of the mountains express their veneration for the Virgin by playing on this instrument before her image. B 2 1 i THE SCULPTOR. 1. Sculpture is one of the fine arts. In its most extended sense, it includes not only modelling figures in clay, wax, and plaster of Paris, and carving them in wood, stone, and marble, but also casting them in bronze, lead, or iron, as well as enchasing and en¬ graving. 2. The productions of this art are known under various denominations, but the principal are statues , busts, and bas-reliefs. The first of these are entire representations of men or animals in full relief; the second are upper parts of statues; and the last are figures more or less elevated from the body or ground on which they are formed. 3. The different degrees of elevation in reliefs, are expressed by various terms borrowed from t' e Ital- THE SCULPTOR. 19 ian. A figure is said to be in alto relievo, or high re¬ lief, when but a small proportion of it is buried in the back-ground; in mezzo relievo, or middle relief, when one half of it is above the surface ; and in basso relie¬ vo, or low relief, when but little elevated, like figures upon coin. Bas-reliefs are usually applied as orna¬ ments to buildings, and to the pediments of statues. 4. The subjects of sculpture, with a few exceptions, are the same as those of painting; and the course of study essential to proficiency in either, is very simi¬ lar. They both require much taste and practice, and a thorough knowledge of the human form and other objects frequently represented. The young artist be¬ gins with imitating the most perfect models of Grecian art; and, after having become well acquainted with their beauties, he proceeds to the imitation of nature. 5. When any considerable work in stone or mar¬ ble is to be done, the sculptor forms a model of clay or wax, to guide him in the execution. The soft ma¬ terial is moulded to the proposed form with the hands and small instruments of ivory. The model is by far the most difficult part of the work, and it is here the genius of the artist is to be displayed. The process of copying the model in stone or in any other sub¬ stance, is an operation merely mechanical, and can often be done by another person as well as by the scientific sculptor himself. 6. The model having been prepared, the block of marble or stone is marked at certain points corre¬ sponding to its chief elevation and concavities. The material is then wrought to the rough outline of the figure, by means of strong steel points, drills, and other perforating tools; and the asperities are after¬ wards removed with chisels, and with rasps and files of different shapes. When a high polish is required, it is produced by friction with pumice-stone, tripoli, and straw ashes. 20 THE SCULPTOR. 7. Marble and stone are carved in a similar man¬ ner ; but the latter, being softer, can be wrought with less difficulty. The defects which may be met with in the stone are repaired with a composition of plas¬ ter of Paris and the same stone, pulverized and mixed with water. 8. Casts in plaster of Paris and bronze are taken from models, statues, busts, bas-reliefs, and living per¬ sons. To do this, it is necessary to form a mould from the subject to be copied. This is done by spread¬ ing over it some soft substance, which can be readily forced into all the cavities, and which will harden by drying or cooling. Plaster of Paris is the most usu¬ al material employed for this purpose. 9. When the subject is a bas-relief, or any other one-sided figure of a similar kind, the mould can be withdrawn without injury, in a single piece ; but if it is a statue, or any other figure of like form, it is ne¬ cessary to divide the mould into several pieces, in or¬ der to a safe removal. These pieces again united constitute a perfect mould. While the artist is form¬ ing the mould on the face of a living person, the lat¬ ter breathes through tubes inserted into the nostrils. 10. In taking casts from such a mould, the inter¬ nal surface is oiled to prevent adhesion, and then plas¬ ter mixed with water is poured into it through a small orifice. The mould is afterwards turned in every di¬ rection, that the plaster may cover every part of the surface ; and when a sufficiency of it has been dis¬ tributed to produce the requisite strength, and the plaster has acquired the proper solidity, the several pieces are removed from the cast, which, of course, is an exact resemblance of the subject on which the mould was formed. 11. Superfluous portions of the material, produced by the seams in the mould, are removed with suitable instruments, and applications of fresh plaster are THE SCULPTOR. 21 made, where necessary to repair blemishes. The cast is finished by dipping it in a varnish made of soap, white wax, and water, and afterwards rubbing it with soft linen. The poli’sh produced in this man¬ ner, approaches that of marble. 12. The durability of plaster casts, exposed to the weather, is greatly increased by saturating them with linseed oil combined with wax or rosin. They are made to resemble bronze by the application of a soap composed of linseed oil and soda, and colored with the sulphate of copper and iron. 13. Moulds are, also, formed of a warm solution of glue, which hardens upon cooling, and such are call¬ ed elastic moulds. This material is sometimes pre¬ ferred on account of its more easy separation from irregular surfaces. For small and delicate impres¬ sions in bas-relief, melted sulphur is sometimes em¬ ployed ; also a strong solution of isinglass in proof spirits. All three of the substances last mentioned yield sharper impressions than plaster of Paris. 14. Statues designed to occupy situations in which they may be exposed to the weather and mechanical violence, are often made of bronze cast in moulds. The external portions of the mould are made on the pattern, out of plaster, brick-dust, and water. The mould is then covered on the inside with a coating of clay as thick as the bronze is intended to be, and the several pieces are afterwards put together, or dosed. The internal cavity is next filled with a composition like that on the other side of the clay. 15. When this has been done, the several pieces forming the outside of the mould are separated, and the clay carefully removed. These having been again united, and the core or internal portion of the mould secured in its true position, the whole is bound with iron hoops, and thoroughly dried. The melted bronze is poured into the cavity formed by the remo- 22 THE SCULPTOR. val of the clay, through an aperture made for the purpose. The cast is afterwards rendered smooth by mechanical means. 16. It is conjectured with much reason, that sculp¬ ture was one of the arts practised before the deluge, and that it was transmitted to posterity by the survi¬ vors of that catastrophe. The first images were probably made for the purpose of perpetuating the memory of the dead ; but, in process of time, they became objects of adoration. As the Chaldeans were unquestionably the first idolators after the flood, so are they supposed to have been the first who made progress in sculpture. 17. The first notice of this art in the Mosaic wri¬ tings, is found in the passage relative to the teraphim, or idols, which Rachel, the wife of Jacob, carried clandestinely from her father’s house ; and the first persons mentioned in the Bible, as artists, are Aholi- ab and Bezaleel, who formed the cherubim which cov¬ ered the mercy-seat, together with some other furni¬ ture of the tabernacle, and the sculptured ornaments of the garments of the high-priest. 18. From the same authority, we learn that the nations expelled from Canaan, by the Jewish people, were not ignorant of sculpture and painting; for Mo¬ ses repeatedly commands the latter to destroy the 'pictures and molten images which might be discover¬ ed in their progress through the land. The Israel¬ ites crossed the river Jordan about 1500 years before the commencement of our era. 19. From this time to the end of the Jewish poli¬ ty, we often meet in the Scriptures with indications of the fine arts; but the splendor of Solomon’s tem¬ ple, clearly points out the days of that prince as the period in which they had attained their greatest per¬ fection in Judea. 20. The Babylonians, Assyrians, and Phoenicians, THE SCULPTOR. 23 became considerably skilful in sculpture, at a very early period, as we learn from early history, and some existing remains. The same remark is also applicable to the inhabitants of Hindostan. But wri¬ ters have been more particular in noticing the style of design among the Egyptians, because the prog¬ ress of the arts among that people is more easily traced, and because it is supposed to elucidate that of most other ancient nations. 21. The chief objects of sculpture, among the Egyptians, were pillars, and other architectural or¬ naments, idols, the human figure, animals, and hiero¬ glyphics, engraved in a kind of bas-relief on public edifices, and the forms of animals. Most of the great works of this nation are supposed to have been exe¬ cuted during and after the reign of Sesostris, who lived in the days of Rehoboam, king of Israel, or about 1000 years before the Christian era. 22. But of all the nations of antiquity, the Greeks were the most distinguished for sculpture. They de¬ rived the first rudiments of the art from the Phoeni¬ cians, or Egyptians, although they assert that they themselves were its inventors. Its existence, in a rude state, among that people, preceded that of let¬ ters or scientific architecture. 23. Dcedalus, who lived about 100 years after Mo¬ ses, was the first sculptor among the Greeks, of any notoriety. The statues made before his time, were stiff, formal figures, having the arms attached to the body, and the legs united, like the mummy-shaped productions of Egyptian art. He separated the legs of his statues, and placed them, and the upper ex¬ tremities, in a natural position. He also was the first sculptor who made the eyes of his statues open. On account of these improvements, the Greeks said, that his divine genius made statues walk, and see, and speak. 24 THE SCULPTOR. 24. The disciples and imitators of Daedalus were called his sons, and artists, generally, Dcedalides . Soon after this period, schools of design were estab¬ lished in the island of iEgina, at Corinth, at Sicyon, and in Etruria, in Italy: but it seems that no good representations of the human form were effected un¬ til near the time of Phidias, who was born 444 years before Christ. 25. This most distinguished of all the votaries of sculpture, flourished at or near the same time with the dramatic poets, iEschylus, Euripides, and Sopho¬ cles ; the philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Anaxago¬ ras ; and the statesmen and commanders, Pericles, Miltiades, Themistocles, Cimon, and Xenophon. This was the most refined period of Grecian history, and of all others, the most favorable in its moral and po¬ litical circumstances, for the development of genius. 26. Phidias was the author of the ideal style , which, in the fine arts, may be defined, the union of the per¬ fections of any class of figures. Among the distin¬ guished productions of this artist, the colossal statues of Minerva and Jupiter Olympius, made of gold and ivory, have excited the greatest astonishment. The former, executed for the Parthenon of Athens, was twenty-six cubits in height; and the latter, for a splendid temple at Elis, was about the same height, although seated upon a throne. 27. The favorite disciples of Phidias, were Alca- menes, of Attica, and Agoracritus, of Paros; and at the same time with them, flourished Polycletus, of Ar¬ gos, Miron, of Boeotia, and Pythagoras, of Rhegium. The beautiful style soon succeeded to the ideal; the authors of which, were Praxiteles and Scopas, who brought the art to the highest perfection,—since, in their productions, they united beauty and grace. Af¬ ter the days of these two artists, sculpture began to decline; although it continued to be practised with THE SCULPTOR. 25 considerable success, for some centuries after this period. 28. The great superiority of the Greeks in the art of sculpture, is ascribed to various causes; among which are classed, their innate love of beauty, and their own elegance of form, combined with the fre¬ quent opportunities of studying the human figure, in places where youth were in the habit of performing athletic exercises in a state of nudity. To these may be added, the practice of awarding to citizens a statue of their own persons, for eminent services to the state, and for excelling in exercises at the public games. 29. The fine arts were nearly extinguished in Greece, by the conquest of the Romans; who, with ruthless rapacity, seized upon, and transferred to their metropolis and villas, the superb works of taste with which the country abounded. By these means, how¬ ever, a taste for the arts was produced among the Romans, who encouraged with great liberality the Greek artists who resorted’in great numbers to their city. 30. The arts at length declined at Rome, and finally became nearly extinct in that city, soon after Byzan¬ tium was made the capital of the Roman empire, in 329 of the Christian era. The new capitol was en¬ riched by the most valuable statuary of the old me¬ tropolis, and by a farther pillage of Greece. Artists were also encouraged with a munificence similar to that of former times; and many new subjects in painting and sculpture, in illustration of the Christian scriptures, were executed as embellishments for the sacred buildings of the city. 31. The art of sculpture necessarily declined du¬ ring the time of the unsettled state of Europe, which followed the conquests by the barbarous nations. It, however, was not altogether lost, but was occasion- II.—C 26 THE SCULPTOR. ally practised, although in a very rude manner, in several kingdoms of Europe. In the eleventh cen¬ tury, after the terrors of the northern invasions had passed away, and the governments had become more established, the arts of design began a regular course of improvement, which has been denominated their revival. 32. This improvement was promoted by means of the frequent intercourse which had sprung up between the commercial cities of Italy and the Greek empire. In 1016, the Pisans founded their great church, called the Dome of Pisa; and, in its construction, they em¬ ployed many noble pillars and other fragments of Grecian edifices. They also engaged upon the work several Grecian sculptors and painters, who exerted in their service the little skill which had come down from antiquity. 33. The specimens of ancient art thus introduced at Pisa, and the works of these artists, at length in¬ cited several Italians to emulation ; among whom was Nicolo Pisano, who became the restorer of true taste in the arts, in the thirteenth century. At this period, the crusades had diffused such a zeal for the Christian religion, that magnificent churches were built in every part of Italy, in the designing of which, and in their decoration with sculpture, Pisano and his scholars were universally employed. 34. John Pisano, the son of Nicolo, was also an architect and sculptor of eminence; and by him was built, for King Charles, a castle, and several church¬ es, at Naples. He also executed several pieces of sculpture, and superintended the construction of some edifices in Tuscany. This sculptor, who died in 1320, had several pupils, of whom Agostino and Agnolo Sanesi were the best sculptors of the time. 35. In 1350, an academy of design was formed at Florence by the union of several painters, sculptors, THE SCULPTOR. 27 and architects. This institution was called after St. Luke, whom tradition makes a painter by profession. The society was afterwards munificently patronised by the Medici, a noble and wealthy family of that city. 36. From this school, there soon proceeded a great number of skilful artists, among whom were the sculptors Lorenzo Ghiberti, Donatello, and Bruniles- chi; and after these, others perhaps still more distin¬ guished, until it produced Michael Angelo Buonarotti, who, as a universal genius in the arts of design, has excelled every other artist, whether ancient or modern. 37. This great man was born in Florence, in 1474. His father, having discovered his talent for designing, made him a pupil of Dominic Ghirlandaio, who in¬ structed him in the first principles of the art of draw¬ ing. He studied statuary under Bartoldo; and, in his sixteenth year, copied the head of a satyr in mar¬ ble, to the admiration of all connoisseurs. On account of his great promise, he was liberally patronised by Lorenzo de Medicis, who, besides allowing him a pension, gave him a lodging in the palace, and a place at his table. After the death of this prince, he en¬ joyed the same favors from his son, Pietro de Medicis. 38. His reputation as an artist having been estab¬ lished at Florence, he was called to Rome by Julius II. From this time, he remained chiefly in the ser¬ vice of the popes, for whom he executed many inimi¬ table works, both of sculpture and painting. He was also an architect of the first order; and, as such, was employed on St. Peter’s Church, as well as on several other public edifices. He died in 1564, at an ad¬ vanced age. 39. Sculpture, having been brought to as high a state of perfection as it was ever likely to be carried, began to decline in Italy, as it had done before, under similar circumstances, in ancient times; but as bar¬ barism did not again occur to overwhelm it, it did not 28 THE SCULPTOR. entirely disappear. It continued to be practised, al¬ though in a very inferior degree, until it was again revived by Antonio Canova, near the close of the eighteenth century. 40. The French nation, from its vicinity and in¬ tercourse with Italy, obtained from that country the means of improvement in every branch of the fine arts. Accordingly, native artists of considerable merit occasionally appeared. The kings of France, also, often employed Italian architects and sculptors on their great public works. In the reign of Francis I., Leonardo da Vinci, and two other artists from Italy, established a school of fine arts similar to that of St. Luke, at Florence; and the genius of the peo¬ ple, added to national munificence, have kept a re¬ spectable school of sculpture to the present time. 41. Considerable ability in sculpture has likewise been exhibited by native artists of Spain, Germany, Holland, England, and some other countries of Eu¬ rope ; but whatever skill has been displayed in any of these countries has been derived, in an indirect manner, at least, from Italy. In the United States, the fine arts have been cultivated with considerable spirit. An academy for this purpose has been estab¬ lished both in New-York and Philadelphia, and a pic¬ ture gallery has been connected with the Athenaeum in Boston, in which the annual exhibition of paintings is respectable. X THE PAINTER. 1. Painting is the art of representing visible ob¬ jects, by means of lines and colors, on a plane sur¬ face, so as to produce the appearance of relief. It is justly ranked among the highest of that class of arts denominated fine, or liberal; and its tendencies and powers being similar to those of poetry, it is consid¬ ered an employment worthy of men of the most ex¬ alted rank. 2. The theory and practice of this ingenious and delightful art, are divided by its professors into five distinct branches,— invention, composition, design, chi¬ aroscuro, and coloring . Invention relates to the choice of subjects to be introduced into a picture. It is this which gives the highest character to the artist, as it C 2 30 THE PAINTER. affords the greatest opportunity to display the powers of his mind. 3. Composition regards the general distribution and grouping of figures, the choice of attitudes, the dispo¬ sal of draperies, the situation of the scene itself, as well as the arrangement and connexion of the various parts of the scenery. Invention and composition are employed particularly in the first rough sketch of a picture. 4. Design refers to the expression of a proposed picture in simple contour, or outlines. It is applied in making the first rough sketch of the picture, wheth¬ er in miniature or in its full size, as well as in the more accurate expression of the form of the figures, in its final finish. The artist, in making his design, is guided in drawing his lines by the rules of perspect¬ ive, according to which he is able to foreshorten ob¬ jects, and thereby diminish the space which they oc¬ cupy, without giving them the appearance of dimin. ished magnitude. 5. Perspective has been defined the art of deline¬ ating the outlines of objects on any given surface, as they would appear to the eye, if that surface were transparent, and the objects themselves were seen through it, from a fixed position. For example; when we look through a window at a mass of build¬ ings, and observe that part of the glass to which each object, line, or point appears opposite, we find thai their apparent position is very different from their real. A delineation of these objects on the glass, as they appear, would be termed a representation in perspective. 6. Correct perspective is the foundation of scien¬ tific painting; and, next in importance to this, is a proper distribution of light and shade. This branch of the art is called chiaro-obscuro , or, when abridged, chiaro-scuro. The term is Italian in its origin, and THE PAINTER. 31 its literal meaning is clear and obscure. To the skil¬ ful management of light and shade, we are indebted for the strength and liveliness of pictures, and their relief, or the elevation which certain parts appear to assume above the plane upon which the objects are represented. 7. By the aid of perspective and chiaro-scuro, very good representations in one color are attained. Draw¬ ings in India-ink and crayons, as well as pictures ta¬ ken from engraved plates and wood-cuts, are speci¬ mens of such productions. But a nearer approach to the appearance of nature, is made by the employment of colors analogous to those which are found to exist in the objects to be represented. 8. To produce various hues in painting, the artist employs coloring substances, which, either alone or by mixture, are analogous to them all; and, in their use, he is careful to apply them in such a manner, that the true colors remain distinct from the lights and shades necessary to produce the objects in relief. Artificial colors are divided into warm and cold. The former are those in which red and yellow predom¬ inate ; the latter are blue, gray, and others allied to them. 9. Before coloring substances can be applied in painting, they must be reduced to extreme fineness, and be mixed with some tenacious fluid, to cause them to adhere to the surface on which they are to be spread. The fluid employed for this purpose, and the mode of applying the colors, have given rise to the different kinds of painting, of which the following are the principal: crayon, water-color, distemper,fres¬ co, and oil-painting. 10. The most simple mode of applying the colors is by means of crayons. They are made of black lead, a species of chalk, or of a mixture of coloring matter with gum, size, or clay. For painting in wa - 32 THE PAINTER. ter-colors, the substances employed in communicating the tints are combined with gum, and formed into cakes or lozenges. When about to be used, they are dissolved in water, on glass or a glazed surface. The application in painting, is made by means of a cam- el’s-hair pencil. 11. Painting in distemper is used for the execution of works on a large scale, such as stage scenery, and the walls of apartments. The coloring substances are mixed with water, rendered tenacious by size or solutions of glue, or by skimmed milk, increased in tenacity by a small quantity of thyme. Linseed or poppy oil often serves as a vehicle for the colors, in this kind of painting. 12. Paintings in fresco are executed on walls of plaster. The coloring matter mixed with water, being applied to the plaster while the latter is in a fresh state, sinks in, and incorporates itself with it, so as to become very durable. During the execution of the work, the plaster is applied to the wall in success¬ ive portions, no more being added at a time, than can be conveniently painted before it becomes dry. Works of this kind must be executed with great ra¬ pidity ; and, on this account, patterns, called cartoons , are previously drawn on large paper, to guide the artist in his operations. 13. Oil painting derives its name from the mixture of the colors in oil. The oils used for this purpose are extracted from vegetables ; and, on account of the rapidity with which they dry, are denominated ydrying oils. For most purposes, this mode of paint¬ ing is decidedly superior to all others. It admits of a higher finish, as it allows the artist to retouch his works with greater precision. The colors also blend together more agreeably, and produce a more delicate effect. Oil paintings are executed on canvas, wood, or copper. THE PAINTER. 33 14. Paintings are imitated with surprising elegance, by cementing together colored pieces of glass and marble, as well as those of wood. Representations by these means, are called Mosaics, or Mosaic paint¬ ings. The cause of their having received this appel¬ lation cannot be ascertained. Some, without much reason, attribute the origin and name of this branch of the art to Moses. Others suppose that works of this kind have been thus denominated, because they were first employed in grottoes dedicated to the Muses. 15. Drawings and paintings are divided into class¬ es, according to the nature of the objects represented, the principal of which are historical, architectural, landscape, marine, portrait, still life, grotesque, botan¬ ical, and animal. The subordinate divisions of these branches are very numerous. 16. The propensity to imitation, so deeply rooted in the human mind, is the foundation of the arts of design ; and there can scarcely be indicated a length¬ ened period in the history of man, in which it was entirely inactive. It may have first been accidentally exhibited in tracing the form of some object in the sand ; or resemblances in sticks and stones, may have originally suggested the idea of imitations by means of lines and colors. ^ 17. Although painting and sculpture may be sup¬ posed to have existed, at least in a rude state, at a very early period, and even before the deluge, yet the reign of Semiramis, queen of Assyria, 2000 years before Christ, is the earliest to which authentic his¬ tory extends. Diodorus Siculus relates that the queen, having thrown a bridge across the Euphrates, at Babylon, erected a castle at each end of it, and in¬ closed them with walls of considerable height, with towers upon them. The bricks of which they were constructed, were painted before they underwent the 34 THE PAINTER. fire, and were so put together, that single figures, and even groups of them, were represented in colors. 18. This author supposes also, that the arts had attained nearly an equal degree of cultivation about the same time in Egypt, sculpture, as best serving idolatrous purposes, being in both countries much in advance of the sister art of painting. But, in neither country, was painting or sculpture brought to a great degree of perfection. 19. In Egypt, independent selection of objects, and variety of exhibition, never appear to have been much regarded. When a specific form of character had been once adopted, so it remained, and was repeated unchanged for ages. Little action, and no expression, was given to figures. The chief employment of the Egyptian artists, seems to have been the painting of the chests of mummies, and the ornaments on barges and earthenware. 20. Painting, in the early days of its existence, was employed chiefly in the exhibition and preserva¬ tion of historical facts ; and, wherever it remained faithful to these objects, it was obliged to sacrifice the beautiful to the significant. Only in those countries where alphabetical writing existed, could painting ele¬ vate itself to a fine art. 21. The Pelasgi, who expelled or subdued the ear lier inhabitants of Greece, and colonized that country, probably brought with them the rudiments of this art; and it at length grew up with its sister arts. In some of the stages of its progress, this intelligent people, no doubt, received useful hints from other countries, and especially from Egypt; yet they finally surpassed all the nations of antiquity in this branch of art. 22. The Greeks, with singular care, have preserved the names of their artists from the earliest periods of their practice. Ardens, of Corinth, Telephanes and Crato, of Sycion, and some others, are noticed as 7 THEPAINTER. 35 such, when painting had advanced no farther than the mere circumscription of shadows by single lines. 23. The different kinds of painting, as marked by the successive stages of the art among the Greeks, are as follows; 1. The skiagram , or drawing in sim¬ ple outlines, as in the circumscriptions of shadows. 2. The monogram , including both the outlines and others within them. 3. The monochrom , or picture in a single color. 4. The jpolyclirom , or picture of many colors. 24. Although the names of the Grecian artists were carefully preserved, the time in which they lived was not distinctly marked until the 16th Olym¬ piad, or 719 years before the commencement of our era. At this time, Candaules, king of Lydia, pur¬ chased a picture called the Battle of the Magnetes, for which he paid its weight in gold, although painted on boards. The name of the fortunate artist was Bularchus. 25. Notwithstanding the fame of this picture, Ag- laophon and Polygnotus, of Thasos, who flourished 300 years after this period, were the first eminent painters. Polygnotus is said to have been the first who gave a pleasing air to the draperies and head¬ dresses of females, and to have opened the mouth so far as to exhibit the beauty of the teeth. 26. Still, painting is considered to have been in an inferior state, until the appearance of Timanthes, Parrhasius, and Zeuxis, who flourished about 375 years before Christ. These again were surpassed by their successors, Protogenes, Pamphilus, Melanthius, Antiphilus, Theon, Euphranor, Apelles, and Aristides, who carried the art to the greatest perfection to which it attained in ancient times. 27. Of the preceding list of artists, Apelles was the most famous, especially as a portrait painter. He was the intimate friend of Alexander the Great, who 36 THE PAINTER. would never permit any other person to paint his likeness. His most celebrated painting, was this prince holding the lightning with which the picture is chiefly illuminated. By a happy application of per¬ spective and chiaro-scuro, the hand with the lightning seemed to project from the picture. 28. From the time of these great masters, painting gradually declined, although the art continued to be practised by a succession of eminent men, who con¬ tended against the blighting influence of the luxury and the internal broils of their countrymen. But soon after Greece became subject to the Roman pow¬ er, the practice of the fine arts nearly ceased in that country. 29. Before the foundation of Rome, the arts were cultivated, to some extent, in Etruria and Calabria; but the first Roman painter mentioned in history, was Fabius, a noble patrician, who painted, in the year of the city 450, the temple of the goddess Sal us, and thereby obtained for himself and family the surname of Pictor. Yet the citizens do not seem to have profited by this example; for no other painter ap¬ peared among them until 150 years after that period. At this time, Pacuvius, the poet, amused himself, in the decline of life, with painting the temple of Her¬ cules. 30. They were thus inattentive to the cultivation of this, as well as of the other fine arts, because they considered warfare, and the arts which tended direct¬ ly to support this interest, as alone worthy of the at¬ tention of a citizen of their republic ; and painting, ■ even after the time of Pacuvius, was considered ef¬ feminate and disgraceful. Rome, therefore, cannot be said, at any time, to have produced a single artist who could approach the excellences of those of its refined neighbors, the Greeks. 31. They, however, having ornamented their me- THE PAINTER. 37 tropolis and villas with specimens of the arts plunder¬ ed from the cities of Greece and Sicily, began, at length, to appreciate their excellences ; and finally, under the first emperors, they encouraged, with great munificence, the Greeks who resorted to their city for employment. 32. But, both sculpture and painting, as well as ar¬ chitecture, declined with Roman civilization. Still, they continued to exist, especially in the Byzantine or Eastern empire, although in a very inferior state. The art under consideration was preserved chiefly by its application to the purposes of Christianity. It was revived in Italy, in the beginning of the twelfth century, by means of several Grecian artists, who had been employed to ornament the churches, and other edifices at Pisa, Venice, and Florence. 33. The works of Apollonius, one of these Greeks, excited in Giovanni Cimabue a spirit of emulation ; and, having been initiated into the practice of the art, he executed a picture of the Virgin Mary, as large as life, for a church dedicated to her, at Florence. This production excited enthusiastic delight in his fellow- citizens, who carried it in procession, with the sound of trumpets, to its place of destination, and celebrated the day as a public feast. 34. Encouraged by this applause, Cimabue pur¬ sued the art with ardor ; and, although considered a prodigy in his time, his utmost efforts failed to pro¬ duce tolerable specimens of the art. He, however, far excelled his immediate predecessors ; and, by in¬ troducing more correct proportions, by giving more life and expression to his figures, and by some other improvements, he became the founder of the art as it exists in modern times. He was born at Florence, in 1240, and died at the age of sixty. 35. The favorite pupil of Cimabue, was Giotto, whom he raised from a shepherd to be a painter ; and II*—D 38 THE PAINTER. by him the art was still more relieved from the Greek imperfections. He abandoned the use of labels as means of distinguishing the different figures of a pic¬ ture, and aimed at, and attained to, real expression. He marked out to the Italians the course in which the art should be pursued, as Polygnotus had done to the Greeks near 1800 years before; although, like him, he failed in fully exemplifying his principles. 36. His abilities procured him the patronage of Pope Boniface "VIII., who employed him at Rome. From this time, the art of painting became attached to the papal dignity, and few succeeding pontiffs have neglected its use. The skill and celebrity of this in¬ genious artist excited great emulation, and the arts having obtained an earnest of profit and honor, no longer wanted skilful professors or illustrious patrons. 37. In 1350, fourteen years after the death of Gi¬ otto, his disciple, Jacopo Cassentino, and nine other artists, founded the Academy of St. Luke, at Flor¬ ence. This was a grand epoch of the arts ; as from this institution arose a large display of talent, increas¬ ing in splendor until, within 150 years, it gave to the world, Masaccio, Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Ange¬ lo Buonarotti, and Raphael, besides others of great ability. 38. The art advanced but little after the time of Giotto, until the appearance of Masaccio. Under the hand of this great master, painting is said to have been greatly improved; and it was to him, that the artists who succeeded were indebted for a more sure and full direction of the course in which they ought to proceed. He was born in 1402, and died in 1443. 39. Leonardo da Vinci, who was born about two years after the death of Masaccio, brought the art to still greater perfection ; and being endowed with un¬ common genius, all the arts and sciences did not seem to afford a field sufficient for the exertion of his tal- THE PAINTER. 39 ents. He grasped at all, and succeeded far better than his predecessors in everything he undertook ; but he wasted much of his time in experiments. Had he confined his great powers to the art of painting, he would probably have never been exceeded. 40. About the year 1410, oil came to be used as a vehicle for paints. It seems to have been first ap¬ plied to this purpose in Flanders, by John Van Eyck, of Brussels ; or it was, at least, first used by him successfully. The first hint of its utility in this ap¬ plication is thought, with reason, to have been obtain¬ ed from its use as a varnish to pictures painted in water-colors. 41. The art of painting was introduced into Flan¬ ders about the time of Giotto, by several Flemings, who had been to Italy for the express purpose of learn¬ ing it. It was also diffused in practice, about the same time, in Germany ; and a particular style of the art grew up in each of these countries. But it was in Italy alone that the art may be said to have flour¬ ished in a high state of cultivation ; and even there, the principal productions originated from artists of the Florentine school. 42. The art of painting was perfected, perhaps, as far as human ability can carry it, in the first half of the sixteenth century, by Michael Angelo Buonarotti, Raphael, Titian, and Correggio ; although it cannot . be said that all its excellences were united in the productions of any one of these distinguished profes- ors. Such a union has never yet been displayed, nor can it hardly be expected. 43. The art was essentially aided in its progres¬ sive stages of advancement by the liberal patronage of the family of the Medici, at Florence, and by the pontiffs, at Rome. Angelo and Raphael were both employed at Rome by Julius II. and Leo X., as well as by others who succeeded them in the papal chair, 40 THE PAINTER. in ornamenting the palaces and sacred buildings. Their productions have never been exceeded in any country, and they still remain the objects of careful study by artists of this profession. 44. Titian was also liberally patronised at Rome, and in other parts of Italy, as well as in Spain and Germany, chiefly as a portrait and landscape painter. The unrivalled productions of these great masters, however, were fatal to the art in Italy, since their su¬ perior excellence extinguished emulation, by destroy¬ ing the prospect of equal or superior success. 45. The flourishing state of the art in Italy, for so long a period, might be expected to have produced a taste for its cultivation in other parts of Europe; but this was the case only to a limited extent. No other countries have yet been particularly distinguished for artists in this branch of the fine arts, except Flanders and Holland; and these were chiefly indebted for the distinction to Peter Paul Rubens, of Antwerp, who was born at Cologne, in 1577, and to Paul Van Rhyn Rembrandt, who was born in 1606, in his father’s mill, near Leyden. Some of the scholars of these masters were eminent painters. Anthony Vandyck, a pupil of the former, in particular, is said to have never yet been equalled as a portrait-painter. 46. Very little is known of the art in Spain, until about the year 1500, although it is supposed to have been cultivated with some success before that time. The examples which were left there by Titian pro¬ duced a favorable impression, and several native ar¬ tists of considerable eminence afterwards appeared; but the art became nearly extinct in the following age. 47. The proximity of France to Italy, and the em¬ ployment of Leonardo da Vinci and other eminent artists of Italy by Francis I., together with the estab¬ lishment of a school of fine arts, as stated in the pre- THE PAINTER. 41 ceding article, might have been expected to lay the foundation of exalted taste in this kingdom. Never¬ theless, the only French painters whose names have come down to us with any pretensions to excellence for one hundred and fifty years, were Jean Cousin, Jaques Blanchard, Nicholas Poussin, and Charles Le Brun. The last, although inferior to Poussin, is at the head of the French school of painting. 48. The successors of Le Brun were not wanting in ability, yet, with a few exceptions, they failed in reaching an enviable eminence in the art, on account of their servile imitation of the false taste of their popular model. The fantastic style of Le Brun be¬ came unpopular in France some time previous to the revolution in that country; and another, of an oppo¬ site character, and by artists of other nations thought to be equally distant from true taste, has been since adopted. 49. Very little is known of the state of the fine arts in England until the time of Henry VIII., who encouraged the abilities of Hans Holbein, an eminent painter from Switzerland. But painting and sculp¬ ture, and particularly the former, having become inti¬ mately interwoven with the religion of the Church of Rome, fell into disrepute in England after the change of opinion on this subject in that country. They, however, began to revive in the eighteenth century, and England and English America have since pro¬ duced some eminent painters, among whom are Ho¬ garth, Reynolds, Opie, West, Copley, Trumbull, and Peale. D 2 THE ENGRAVER. Engraving is the art of cutting letters or figures in wood, metals, or stone. It was practised in very ancient times, and in different countries, for the pur¬ poses of ornament and monumental inscription ; but the idea of taking impressions on paper, or on any other substance, from engraved surfaces, is compara¬ tively modern. THE WOOD ENGRAVER. 1. The Chinese are said to have been, the first who engraved figures or letters on wood, for the purpose of printing. The precise time at which they com¬ menced the practice, is totally unknown ; but a book printed by them in the tenth century, is now extant. It is thought by some antiquarians, that the Euro- THE ENGRAVER. 43 peans derived the art from the Chinese, through the Yenitians, who traded in that part of the world ear¬ lier than any other Europeans. 2. This opinion is somewhat probable, from the circumstance that the tools employed by the early en¬ gravers in Europe, are similar to those used in China ; and also, like the Chinese, they engraved on the side of the grain. However this may be, it is certain that the art was practised in various parts of Europe in the fourteenth century. The earliest subjects exe¬ cuted, were figures of saints, rudely engraved in out¬ line. The prints taken from them were gaily color¬ ed, and sold to the common people as original paint¬ ings. The principal persons engaged in this traffic were monks, to whom the art was confined for a con¬ siderable time. 3. At length, larger subjects, with inscriptions in imitation of manuscript, were executed. The suc¬ cess of these prints gave rise to a more extensive ap¬ plication of the art. Scriptural subjects, of many figures, with texts of scripture, were engraved, and impressions were taken from them on one side of the paper, two sheets being pasted together to form a leaf. Entire sets were bound up together, and thus were formed the first printed books, which, being produced entirely from wood-cuts, are known by the name of block-books. These books made their appearance about the year 1420. 4. One of the earliest of these productions is de¬ nominated “ The Apocalypse of St. John another, “ The Poor Man’s Bible.” But one of the latest and most celebrated, is called “The Mirror of Salvation,” published in 1440. Part of the text was printed from solid blocks, and part, from moveable wooden types. From this fact, it is easy to discover the origin of printing. After this, most, if not all, of the books, were printed from moveable types; but, as they were 44 THE ENGRAVER. embellished with wood cuts, the demand for such en¬ gravings was very much increased, although they were, at first, by no means elegant. 5. Near the close of the fifteenth century, the art began to assume a higher character, principally by the talents of Michael Wolgermuth and William Pluy- denwurf. Albert Durer made still greater improve¬ ments, and, in 1498, published his celebrated Apoca¬ lypse of St. John, printed from folio blocks. Other celebrated engravers succeeded him in the sixteenth century, which may be considered the era when wood engraving was at its highest point of elevation. After this, the art declined, and was considered of little im¬ portance, until it was revived in 1775, by the distin¬ guished William Bewick, of Newcastle, England. It is still practised, especially in England and the United States, in a manner which reflects credit on the ingenuity of the age. 6. The earlier artists operated on various kinds of wood, such as the apple, pear, and beech; but these, being too soft, are now used only for calico-printing and other common purposes. Box-wood, on account of its superior texture, is used for every subject that can be termed a work of art. That from Turkey is the best. 7. The engravers, in the infancy of the art, pre¬ pared the wood as the common block-cutters now do. The tree was cut the way of the grain, in planks, and of course they engraved on the side of the grain, as upon a board. This mode of preparation enabled them to execute larger subjects. The engravers now prefer the end of the grain, and therefore cut the log transversely. 8. The end on which the engraver is to exert his skill, is planed and scraped, to render the surface smooth, and the block having been cut to the proper size, the drawing is made upon it in India ink, or with THE ENGRAVER. 45 a lead-pencil. The block is now ready for the artist, who, in executing the work, holds it with one hand, on a cushion made of sand and leather, while, with the other, he cuts away the superfluous wood. The part intended to make the impression in printing, is left standing. 9. Wood engravings, well executed, are scarcely inferior to those of copper and steel, and, for many purposes, they are preferred. They are remarkably convenient, since they can be inserted into a page of types, where illustrations or embellishments may be required, and be printed without separate expense. They will also bear a great number of impressions— generally 100,000. In this respect, they are deci¬ dedly superior to metallic plates. They can likewise be multiplied indefinitely by the process of stereo¬ typing. THE COPPERPLATE ENGRAVER. 1. The engravers on metallic surfaces are termed copperplate engravers, not because copper is the only metal on which they exert their skill, but because it is the one on which they usually operate. The plates are prepared for the artist by the coppersmith, by rub¬ bing them with brickdust and charcoal, after having cut them of a proper size from sheets of copper. 2. The instruments employed by this artist are few and simple, the principal of which are, the graver , the dry-point, the scraper, and the burnisher. The graver is a small bar of steel, of a square or lozenge form, and, with the short handle into which it is inserted, about five inches in length. One of the angles of the bar is always on the under side of the instrument, and the point is formed by bevelling the end from the up¬ per side, or angle. The square form is used for broad strokes, and the lozenge for fine ones. 3. The dry point, or needle, is a steel wire with a 46 THE ENGRAVER. long cylindrical handle ; or it is simply a wire of suf¬ ficient length and size to be used without a handle. The scraper has nearly the form of a triangular pyr¬ amid ; and the cutting part, which has three edges, is two or three inches long. The burnisher has a form nearly conical, and, without the handle, is about three inches long. The last two instruments are frequently made of the same piece of steel, properly forged at each end. In such case, the middle part of the steel is the handle by which they are held. 4. Of engraving on copper, the following are the principal varieties or styles: 1. Line engraving; 2. Stippling ; 3. Etching; 4. Mezzotinto ; 5. Aquatinta. For the purpose of conveying some idea of these dif¬ ferent branches, we will describe them under distinct heads. 5. Line engraving . The first thing done, in this species of engraving, is to transfer to the plate an ex¬ act copy of the outlines of the design to be executed. In accomplishing this, the plate is moderately heated, and covered with a thin coating of white wax. A piece of transparent paper is then laid over the design to be copied, and traced in outline with a black-lead pencil. The outline thus sketched is turned down upon the coating of white wax, and the whole is sub¬ jected to the action of a rolling-press ; or it is kept for a while under heavy weights. By the application of this pressure, the lines are transferred from the paper to the wax on the plate in a reversed position, which is necessary to make the impression of the finished plate resemble the original. 6. The pencil-marks on the wax having been light¬ ly traced on the copper with the dry-point, and the wax having been melted off, a perfect outline is found on the plate. Small subordinate parts of the design are transferred to the plate in the same manner, ex¬ cept that the transparent paper is brought in forcible THE ENGRAVER. 47 contact with the waxed surface by means of the bur¬ nisher. 7. At this stage of the process, the artist com¬ mences the use of the graver. While operating with this instrument, he holds the handle in the palm of his hand, and pushes the point forward with a firm and steady motion, until a line is produced by a re¬ moval of a portion of the metal. By a succession of such strokes, judiciously applied, the work is com¬ pleted. The burrs, or little elevations of the copper, left by the graver on each side of the lines, are re¬ moved by means of the scraper and burnisher. Mis¬ takes or blemishes are erased from the plate, either with the burnisher, or by friction with charcoal. 8. Stippling . The second mode of engraving is called stippling. This resembles the last method in its process, except that the effect is produced by means of minute punctures or excavations, instead of lines. These are made either with the dry-point or graver. When produced by the former instrument, they are of a circular form ; when by the latter, they are rhom- boidal or triangular. This style of work is always more slow, and consequently more expensive, than en¬ graving in lines. It has, however, some advantages in the softness and delicacy of its lights and shades, and the prints struck from it approach more nearly to paintings. 9. Etching. This mode of engraving is far more easy than any other, being performed chiefly by chem¬ ical corrosion. In fact, any person who can draw, may etch coarse designs tolerably well, after having learned the theory of the operation. To perform it, the plate is first covered with a thin coating of some resinous substance, upon which the acid employed can have no action. The design, and all the lines it requires, are next traced on the plate with steel points, called etching needles, which are instruments similar to the dry-point. 48 THE ENGRAVER. 10. The second part of the process is the corro¬ sion, or, as it is technically called, biting in. This is effected by pouring upon the design a quantity of di¬ luted nitric acid, after having surrounded the edges of the plate with a wall of soft wax, to prevent the escape of the fluid. A chemical action immediately takes place in all the lines or points where the cop¬ per has been denuded by the needle. After the first biting has been continued long enough, in the judg¬ ment of the operator, the acid is poured off, and the plate examined. 11. The light shades, if found sufficiently deep, are then covered with varnish, to protect them from fur¬ ther corrosion. The biting is then continued for the second shades, in the same manner, and afterwards, for the third and succeeding shades, until the piece shall have been finished. The plate having been cleaned, and carefully examined by the aid of a proof impression, the deficiencies which may be discovered are supplied with the graver. 12. Mezzotinto. In the production of this kind of engraving, the whole surface of the plate is first roughened, or covered with minute prominences and excavations too small to be obvious to the naked eye ; so that an impression taken from it, in this state, would present a uniform velvety, black appearance. This roughness is produced mechanically by means of a small toothed instrument, called a cradle. 13. When the plate has been thus prepared, the rest of the process is comparatively easy. It con¬ sists in pressing down or rubbing out the roughness of certain parts of the plate, with the burnisher and scraper. Where strong lights are required, the plate is restored to a smooth surface; for a medium light, it is moderately burnished, or partially erased; and, for the deepest shades, the ground is left entire, and sometimes etched, and corroded with nitric acid. THE ENGRAVER. 49 Impressions from mezzotinto plates approach more nearly to oil paintings than any other prints. This kind of engraving was invented by Prince Rupert, in 1649. 14. Aqua4inta. There are several methods by which this kind of engraving can be executed ; we, however, will describe the one which seems to be the most simple and obvious. The outline of the picture having been etched or engraved in the usual manner, the surface of the copper is sprinkled equally with minute particles of rosin. This dust is fixed to the surface by heating the plate until the rosin has melted. 15. The ground having been thus laid, the parts of the plates not intended to be occupied by the design are stopped out by means of thick varnish. The plate is now surrounded with a wall of wax, as for etching, and diluted nitric acid is poured upon it. A chemical action immediately takes place, by which the surface exposed between the resinous particles is minutely excavated. 16. The lighter shades are stopped out at an early stage of the process, and the biting in is continued for the darker ones. After the plate is judged to be sufficiently corroded, it is cleansed, and an impression is taken on paper. The process is finished by bur¬ nishing the shades, to give them greater softness, and by touching up the defective parts with the graver. 17. This mode of engraving is well adapted to light subjects, sketches, landscapes, &c.; but, owing to the fineness of the ground, the plates wear out rapidly, and seldom yield, when of ordinary strength, more than six hundred impressions. The prints taken frofn such plates bear a strong resemblance to paintings in Indian ink, or to drawings in black-lead pencil. Aqua-tinta is the most precarious kind of engraving, and requires much attention on the part of the artist. It was invented by a Frenchman, named Leprince, II.—E 50 the engraver. who, for a time, kept the process a secret, and sold his impressions for original drawings. 18. Steel engraving. The process of engraving on steel plates differs but little in its details from that on copper plates ; and the chief advantage derived from this method, arises from the hardness or toughness of the material, which renders it capable'of yfeldirg^a greater number of impressions. 19. This mode of engraving was first practised, in, England, by the calico-printers; but steel was first employed for bank-notes, and for common designs, by Jacob Perkins, of Newburyport, Massachusetts ; and by him, in conjunction with Asa Spencer, of New- London, and Gideon Fairman, of Philadelphia, the use of steel in this application was generally introduced, not only in the United States, but also in Great Brit¬ ain, some time before the year 1820. 20. The plates are prepared for the engraver from sheets of steel about one-sixth of an inch in thickness. A plate cut from a sheet of this kind is first softened by heating it with charcoal, and suffering it to cool gradually in the atmosphere. It is next planished , or hammered on a peculiar kind of anvil, to make it per¬ fectly level, and afterwards ground on one side upon a grindstone. The operation is completed by polish¬ ing it with Scotch stone and charcoal. When steel was first substituted for copper, it was hardened be¬ fore it was used in printing ; but it is now used in its soft state, as it comes from the hands of the artist. o THE COPPERPLATE-PRINTER. 1* The copperplate-printer takes impressions on paper from engraved plates by means of a rolling press. This machine, together with some of the op- erations in its application, are well exhibited in the above picture. 2. The period at which the practice of printing from engraved plates commenced, cannot be ascer¬ tained with any degree of certainty. The Dutch, the Germans, and the Italians, contend for the honor of introducing it; but the weight of testimony seems to be in favor of the claims of the Italian sculptor and goldsmith, Tommaso Finiguera, who flourished at Florence, about the middle of the fifteenth century. 3. It is stated that this artist, accidentally spilling some melted brimstone on an engraved plate, found, 52 THE COPPERPLATE-PRINTER. on its removal, an exact impression of the engraving, marked with black, taken out of the strokes. This suggested to him the idea of taking an impression in ink on paper, by the aid of a roller. It is hardly ne¬ cessary to state, that the experiment succeeded. Cop¬ perplate-printing was not used in England until about 150 years after its first employment at Florence, when it was introduced from Antwerp, by Speed. 4. The ink used in this kind of printing is made of a carbonaceous substance, called Frankfort black, and linseed or nut oil. Oil is used, instead of water, that the ink may not dry during the process ; and it is boiled till it has become thick and viscid, that it may not spread on the paper. The materials are incor¬ porated and prepared with the stone and muller, as painters prepare their colors. 5. In taking impressions from an engraved plate, it is first placed on an iron frame over a heated stove, or over a charcoal fire in a furnace, and while in this position, the ink is spread over it with a roller covered with coarse cloth, or with a ball or rubber made of the same material, and faced with buckskin. The heat renders the ink so thin that it can penetrate the minute excavations of the engraving. The plate hav¬ ing been thus sufficiently charged, is wiped first with a rag, then with the hand, until the ink has been re¬ moved from every portion of it, except from the lines of the engraving. 6. The plate is next placed on the platform of the press, with its face upwards, and the paper, which has been previously dampened, is laid upon it. A turn of the cylinders, by means of the arms of the cross, car¬ ries the plate under a strong pressure, by which por¬ tions of the paper are forced into all the cavities of the engraving. The ink, or part of it, leaves the plate, and adheres to the paper, giving an exact rep¬ resentation of the whole work of the artist. The roll- THE COPPERPLAT E-P R I N T E R. 53 er by which the pressure is applied is covered with several thicknesses of broadcloth. 7. The number #f good impressions yielded by en¬ graved copperplates, depends upon various circum¬ stances, but chiefly on the fineness and depth of the work ; and these qualities depend mainly upon the style in which it has been executed. Line engravings will admit of four^pr five thousand, and, after having been retouched, a considerable number more. 8. Plates of steel will yield near ten times as many good impressions as those of copper, and this too without being hardened. Besides, an engraving on steel may be transferred to a softened steel cylinder, in such, a manner that the lines may stand in relief; and this cylinder, after having been hardened, may be brought in forcible contact with another plate, and thus the design may be multiplied at pleasure. 9. The bank-note engravers have now a great va¬ riety of designs and figures on steel rollers, which they can easily transfer to new plates. This practice, as applied to plates for bank-notes, originated with Jacob Perkins. It is supposed that he must have been led to it by an English engraver in his employ, who may have explained to him the manner in which the British calico-printers produced engravings on copper cylinders. This is not altogether improbable, since the principle in both cases is substantially the same. 10. In consequence of the increased demand for maps and pictorial embellishments in books, as well as for single prints as ornaments for rooms, engraving and copperplate-printing have become employments of considerable importance ; and these arts must doubtless continue to flourish to an indefinite extent, in a country where the taste for the fine arts is rap¬ idly improving, and where wealth affords the means of liberal patronage. E 2 THE LITHOGRAPHER. 1. The word lithography is derived from two Greek words— lithos, a stone, and grapho , to write ; and the art to which the term is applied has reference to the execution of letters, figures, and drawings, on stone, and taking from them fac-simile impressions. The art is founded on the property which stone possesses, of imbibing fluids by capillary attraction, and on the chemical repulsion which oil and water have for each other. 2. Every kind of calcareous stone is capable of being used for lithography. Those, however, which are of a compact, fine, and equal grain, are best adapted to the purpose. The quarries of Solenhofen, near Pappenheim, in Bavaria, furnished the first plates, and none have yet been found in any other THE LITHOGRAPHER. 55 place, to equal them in quality; although some that answer the purpose tolerably well, have been taken from quarries in France and England. 3. In preparing the stones for use, they are first ground to a level surface, by rubbing two of them face to face, sand and water being interposed. Then, if they are designed for ink drawings , they are polish¬ ed with pumice-stone ; but, if for chalk drawings, with fine sand, which produces a grained surface adapted to holding the chalk. 4. When stones of proper size and texture cannot be conveniently obtained, slabs are sometimes con¬ structed of lime and sand, and united with the case¬ ous part of milk. The first part of the process which may be considered as belonging peculiarly to the art, consists in making the drawing on the stone. This is done either in ink, with steel pens and camel’s hair pencils, or with crayons made of lithographic chalk. The process of drawing on stone differs but little from that on paper, with similar means. 5. For lithographic ink, a great number of receipts have been given ; but the most approved composition consists of equal parts of wax, tallow, shell-lac, and common soap, with a small proportion of lamp-black. Lithographic chalk is usually composed of the same materials, combined in different proportions. 6. When the drawing has been finished, the litho¬ graphic printer prepares, it for giving impressions, by using upon its surface a weak solution of acid and other ingredients, which corrode the surface of the stone, except where it is defended from its action by the grease of the chalk or ink. As soon as the stone has been sufficiently eaten away, the solution is re¬ moved by the application of spirits of turpentine and water. 7. The ink employed in this kind of printing, is similar in its composition to other kinds of printing 56 THE LITHOGRAPHER. ink. It is applied to the drawing by means of a small wooden cylinder covered with leather. The paper, which has been suitably dampened, is laid upon the stone, and after it has been covered, by turning down upon it a thick piece of leather stretched upon an iron frame, a crank is turned which brings the stone suc¬ cessively under the press. 8. An impression of the drawing having been thus communicated to the paper, the sheet is removed, and the process is repeated, until the proposed number of prints have been taken. Before each application of the ink, the whole face of the stone is moderately wet with water by means of a sponge ; and although the roller passes over the whole surface of the stone, yet the ink adheres to no part of it, except to that which is covered with the drawing. 9. The number of impressions which may be taken from chalk drawings, varies according to their fine¬ ness. A fine drawing will give fifteen hundred ; a coarse one, twice that number. Ink drawings and writings give considerably more than copperplates, the finest yielding six or eight thousand, and strong lines and writings many more. 10. Impressions from engravings can be multiplied indefinitely, with very little trouble, in the following manner. A,print is taken in the usual way from the engraved plate, and immediately laid with its face upon water. When sufficiently wet, it is .carefully applied to the face of a stone, and pressed down upon it by the application of a roller, until the ink is trans¬ ferred to the stone. Impressions are then taken in the manner before described. 11. The invention of lithography is ascribed to Aloys Senifelder, the son of a performer at the thea- tre of Munich. Having become an author, and being too poor to publish his works in the usual way, he tried many plans, with copperplates and compositions. THE LITHOGRAPHER. 57 in order to be his own printer. A trial on stone, which had been accidentally suggested, succeeded. His first essays to print for publication, were some pieces of music, executed in 1796. 12. The first productions of the art were rude, and of little promise ; but, since 1806, its progress has been so rapid, that it now gives employment to a great number of artists ; and works are produced, which rival the finest engravings, and even surpass them in the expression of certain subjects. The ear¬ liest date of the art in the United States, is 1826, when a press was established at Boston, by William Pendleton. 4 THE AUTHOR. 1. The word author, in a general sense, is used to express the originator or efficient cause of a thing; but, in the restricted sense in which it is applied in this article, it signifies the first writer of a book, or a writer in general. The indispensable qualifications to make a writer are—a talent for literary composi¬ tion, an accurate knowledge of language, and an ac¬ quaintance with the subject to be treated. 2. Very few persons are educated with the view to their becoming authors. They generally write on subjects pertaining to the profession or business in which they have been practically engaged : a clergy¬ man writes on divinity ; a physician, on medicine ; a lawyer, on jurisprudence ; a teacher, on education; and a mechanic, on his particular trade. There are THE AUTHOR. 59 subjects, however, which occupy common ground, on which individuals of various professions often write. . 3. Authorship is founded upon the invention of let¬ ters, and the art of combining them into words. In the earliest ages of the world, the increase of knowl- edge was opposed by many formidable obstacles. Tradition was the first means of transmitting infor¬ mation to posterity; and this, depending upon the memory and will of individuals, was exceedingly pre¬ carious. 4. The chief adventitious aids in the perpetuation of the memory of facts by tradition, were the erection of monuments, the periodical celebration of days or years, the use of poetry, and, finally, symbolical draw¬ ings and hieroglyphical sketches. Nevertheless, his¬ tory must have remained uncertain and fabulous, and science in a state of perpetual infancy, had it not been for the invention of written characters. 5. The credit of the invention of letters was claim¬ ed by the Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Jews, as well as by some other nations ; but as their origin prece¬ ded all authentic history not inspired, and as the book of inspiration is silent in regard to it, no satisfactory conclusion can be formed on this point. Some anti¬ quarians are of opinion, that the strongest claims are presented by the Phoenicians. 6. The Pentateuch embraces the earliest specimen of phonetic or alphabetic writing now extant, and this was written about 1500 years before Christ. Many persons suppose that, as the Deity himself inscribed the ten commandments on the two tables of stone, he taught Moses the use of letters; and, on this suppo¬ sition, is founded the claim of the Jewish nation to the honor of the first human application of them. 7. If we may believe Pliny, sixteen characters of the alphabet were introduced into Greece by Cadmus, the Phoenician, in the days of Moses ; four more were 60 •the auth or. added by Palamedes during the Trojan war, and four afterwards, by Simonides. Alphabetical writing evi¬ dently sprung from successive improvements in the hieroglyphical system, since a great part of the lat¬ ter has been lately discovered to be syllabic or al¬ phabetic. 8. A considerable number of very ancient alphabets still exist on the monumental remains of some of the first post-diluvian cities, and several of later date, in manuscripts which have descended to our times. The letters employed in different languages have ever been subject to great changes in their confor¬ mation. This was especially the case before the in¬ troduction of the art of printing, which has contribu¬ ted greatly towards permanency in this respect. 9. The mode of arranging the letters in writing has, also, varied considerably. Some nations have written in perpendicular lines, as the Chinese and an¬ cient Egyptians ; others from right to left, as the Jews ; and others, again, alternately from left to right, as was the method at one period among the Greeks- The mode of writing from left to right now generally practised, is preferable to any other, since it leaves, uncovered that portion of the page upon which writing has been made. 10. In ancient times, literary productions were con¬ sidered public property; and, consequently, as soon as a work was published, transcribers assumed the right to multiply copies at pleasure, without making the authors the least remuneration. They, however, ' were sometimes rewarded with great liberality, by princes or wealthy patrons. This literary piracy continued, until a long time after the introduction of the art of printing. 11. In almost every kingdom of Europe, and in the United States, the exclusive right of authors to pub¬ lish their own productions, is now secured to them by law, at least for a specified number of years. The THE AUTHOR. 61 first legislative proceeding on this subject in England, took place in 1662, when the publication of any book was prohibited, except through the permission of the lord-chamberlain. The title of the book, and the name of the proprietor, were, also, required to be en¬ tered in the record of the Stationers’ Company. 12. This and some subsequent acts having been repealed in 1691, literary property was left to the protection of the common law, by which the amount of damages which could be proved to have actually occurred in case of infringement, could be recovered, and no more. New applications were, therefore, made to parliament; and, in 1709, a statute was passed, by which the property of copyright was guarded for fourteen years, with severe penalties. This privilege was connected with the condition, that a .copy of the work be deposited in nine public libra¬ ries specified in the act. 13. In 1774, the Parliament decided that, at the end of fourteen years, the copyright might be renew¬ ed, in case the author were still living. The law con¬ tinued on this footing until 1814, when the contin¬ gency with regard to the last fourteen years was re¬ moved ; and, if the author still survived, the privilege of publication was extended to the close of his life. 14. In the United States, the jurisdiction of this subject is vested by the Constitution in the Federal Government; and, in 1790, a law was passed by Con¬ gress, securing to the authors of books, charts, maps, engravings, &c., being citizens of the United States or resident therein, privileges like those granted in England, in 1774. In 1831, the law was altered, and again made to conform to that of England in regard to the period of the privileges. The English and American laws differ in no essential provision. Until the year 1839, foreigners were permitted to hold copy¬ rights in England. II.—F 62 THE AUTHOR. 15. In France, the first statute regarding literary property was passed in 1793, when the right of authors to their works was secured to them during their lives, and to their heirs for ten years after their decease. The decree of 1810 extended the right of the heirs to twenty years. In Russia, the period of copyright is the same as in France, and the property is not lia¬ ble for the payment of the author’s debts. 16. In some of the German states, the right is given for the lifetime of the author ; in others, it is made perpetual, like any other property; but then the work may be printed with impunity in any of the other states in which a right has not been secured. In Germany and Italy, especially, authors are very poorly remunerated ; and in Spain, the book trade has been so much oppressed by a merciless censor¬ ship, that authors are compelled to publish their works on their own account. 17. From the preceding statement it appears, that few legislators have been willing to place the produc¬ tions of intellectual labor on the same honorable foot¬ ing with other kinds of property. No reason, how¬ ever, can be assigned for the distinction, except the unjust and piratical usage of two or three thousand years. 18. Authors seldom publish their own works. They generally find it expedient, and, in fact, neces¬ sary, to intrust this part of the business to booksellers and publishers, from whom they usually receive a specified amount for the entire copyright, or a certain sum for each and every copy which may be sold du¬ ring the term of years which may be agreed upon. The compensation is commonly insufficient to pay them for preparing the works for the press; but they are as well paid in this country as in any other. In this particular, however, there has been a manifest improvement within the last ten years. THE PRINTER. 1. From what has been said in a preceding article, it is manifest that the art of printing arose from the practice of engraving on wood. Letters were cut on wood as inscriptions to pictures, and were printed at the same time with them, by means of a hand-roller. The impressions were taken on one side of the paper; and, in order to hide the nakedness of the blank side, two leaves were pasted together. These leaves were put up in pamphlet form, and are now known under the denomination of block-books , because they were printed from wooden blocks. 2. Although the art of typographical printing can be clearly traced to wood engraving, yet so much un¬ certainty rests upon its history, that the honor of its invention is claimed by three cities—Harlem, in Hoi- 64 THE PRINTER. land, and Strasburg and Mentz, in Germany; and, at the present time, it is difficult to determine satisfacto¬ rily the merits of their respective claims. The ob¬ scurity on this point has arisen from the desire of the first printers to conceal the process of the art, that their productions might pass for manuscripts, and that they might enjoy the full benefit of their invention. 3. The advocates of the claims of Harlem state, that Laurentius Coster applied wooden types, and some say, even metal types, as early as 1428, and that several persons were employed by him in the bu¬ siness up to the year 1440, when his materials were stolen from him by one of his workmen or servants, named John, while the family were engaged in cele¬ brating the festival of Christmas eve. The thief is said to have fled first to Amsterdam, then to Cologne, and, finally, to have settled in Mentz, where, within a twelvemonth, he published two small works, by means of the types which Laurentius Coster had used. 4. These claims in favor of Harlem, however, were not set forth until 120 years after the death of Coster; and the whole story, as then stated by Ha- driamus Junius, was founded altogether upon tradi¬ tionary testimony. Perhaps wood engravings, with inscriptions, may have been executed there ; if so, the account may have originated from that circumstance. 5. The statements which seem to be the most wor¬ thy of credit, bestow the honor of this invention on a citizen of Mentz. Here, it appears, that John Geins- fleisch, or Guttemburg senior, published two small works for schools, in 1442, on wooden types ; but, not having the funds necessary to carry on the busi¬ ness, he applied to John Faust, a rich goldsmith, who became a partner, in 1443, and advanced the requi¬ site means. Soon afterwards, J. Meidenbachius and some others were admitted as partners. 6. In the following year, John Guttemburg, the THE PRINTER. 65 brother of Geinsfleisch, made an addition to the firm. For several years before this union, or from 1436, Guttemburg had been attempting to complete the in¬ vention at Strasburg; but it is said that he had never been able to produce a clean printed sheet. The brothers may, or may not, have pursued their exper¬ iments without receiving any hints from each other, before their union at Mentz. 7. Soon after the formation of this partnership, the two brothers commenced cutting metal types, for the purpose of printing an edition of the Bible, which was published in Latin, about the year 1450. Before this great achievement of the art had been effected, Geinsfleisch appears to have retired from the concern, some say, on account of blindness. 8. The partnership before mentioned, was dissolv¬ ed, in 1450, and Faust and Guttemburg entered into a new arrangement, the former supplying money, the latter, personal services, for their mutual benefit; but various difficulties having arisen, this partnership was also dissolved, in 1455, after a lawsuit between them, which was decided against Guttemburg. 9. Faust, having obtained possession of the print¬ ing materials, entered into partnership with Peter Shceffer, who had been for a long time a servant, or workman, in the printing establishment. In 1457, they published an edition of the Psalter , which was then considered uncommonly elegant. This book # was, in a great measure, the work of Guttemburg, since, during the flSur years in which it was in the press, he was, for tvyo years and a half, the chief op¬ erator in the printing-office. 10. Guttemburg, by the pecuniary aid of Conrad Humery and others, established another press in Mentz, and, in 1460, published the “ Catholicon Joan- nis Januensis.” It was a very handsome work, but not equal in beauty to the Psalter of Faust and Shaef- F 2 66 THE PRINTER. fer. The latter was the first printed book known to have a genuine date. From this time, it has been the practice for printers to claim their own produc¬ tions, by prefixing to them their names. 11. Notwithstanding the great advancement which had been made in the art of printing, the invention cannot, by any means, be considered complete, until about the year 1458, when Peter Shoeffer contrived a method of casting types in a matrix, or mould. The first book executed with cast metal types was called “ Durandi Ralionale Divinorum Officiorum ,” published in 1459. Only the smaller letters, however, were of this description, all the larger characters which occur, being cut types. These continued to be used, more or less, as late as the year 1490. 12. In 1462, Faust carried to Paris a number of Latin Bibles, which he and Shoeffer had printed, and disposed of many of them as manuscripts. At first, he sold them at five or six hundred crowns, the sums usually obtained by the scribes. He afterwards low¬ ered the price to sixty. This created universal as¬ tonishment ; but, when he produced them according to the demand, and when he had reduced the price to thirty, all Paris became agitated. 13. The uniformity of the copies increased the wonder of the Parisians, and information was finally given against him to the police as a magician. He was accordingly arrested, and a great number of his Bibles were seized. The red ink with which they were embellished, was supposed to be his blood. It was seriously adjudged, that the prisoner was joined in league with the devil; and had he not disclosed the secret of his art, he would probably have shared the fate of those whom the magistrates of those su- perstitious times condemned for witchcraft. 14. It may be well to inform the reader, that, al¬ though the story of Faust’s arrest, as above detailed, THE PRINTER. 67 is related as a fact by several authors, yet by others it is thought to be unworthy of credit. It is also gen¬ erally supposed, that the celebrated romance of “ Doc¬ tor Faustus and the devil” originated in the malice of the monks towards Faust, whose employment of printing deprived them of their gain as copiers. It seems more probable, however, that it arose from the astonishing performances of Doctor John Faust, a dealer in the black art, who lived in Germany in the beginning of the sixteenth century. 15. Faust and Shceffer continued their printing operations together, at least, until 1466, about which time it is conjectured, that the former died of the plague, at Paris. Geinsfleisch, or, as he is sometimes called, Guttemburg senior, died in 1462; and his brother Guttemburg junior, in 1468, after having en¬ joyed, for three years, the privileges of nobility, which, together with a pension, had been conferred upon him by Archbishop Adolphus, in consideration of his great services to mankind. 16. More copies of the earliest printed books were impressed on vellum than on paper; but very soon paper was used for a principal part of the edition, while a few only were printed on vellum, as curiosi¬ ties, to be ornamented by the illuminators, whose in¬ genious art, though in vogue before and at that time, did not long survive the rapid improvements in print¬ ing. 17. We are informed, that the Mentz printers ob¬ served the utmost secrecy in their operations; and, that the art might not be divulged by the persons whom they employed, they administered to them an oath of fidelity. This appears to have been strictly adhered to, until the year 1462, when the city was taken and plundered by Archbishop Adolphus. Amid the consternation which had arisen from this event, the workmen spread themselves in different direc- 68 THE PRINTER. tions; and, considering their oath no longer obliga¬ tory, they soon divulged the secret, which was rapidly diffused throughout Europe. 18. Some idea may be formed of the celerity with which a knowledge of printing was extended, from the fact that the art was received in two hundred and th ree places, prior to the year 1500. It was brought to England, in 1471, by William Caxton, a mercer of the city of London, who had spent many years in Germany and Holland. The place of the first loca¬ tion of his press was Westminster Abbey. The first press in North America was established at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1639. 19. Printed newspapers had their origin in Ger¬ many- They first appeared in Augsburg and Vien¬ na, in 1524. They were originally without date or place of impression ; nor were they published at regu¬ lar periods. The first German paper with numbered sheets was printed, in 1612; and, from this time, must be dated periodical publications in that part of Europe. 20.. In England, the first newspaper appeared du¬ ring the reign of Elizabeth. It originated in a desire to communicate information in regard to the expected invasion by the Spanish armada, and was entitled the Ai English Mercury,” which, by authority, was print¬ ed at London by Christopher Barker, her highness’s printer, in 1588. 21. These, however, were extraordinary gazettes, not regularly published. Periodicals seem to have been first extensively used by the English, during the civil wars in the time of the Commonwealth. The number of newspapers in Great Britain and Ireland amounted, in 1629, to 325, and the sums paid to the government for stamps and duties on advertisements, amounted to about £678,000 sterling. 22. No newspaper appeared in the British colonies THE PRINTER. 69 of America until 1704, when the “News Letter” was issued at Boston. The first paper published in Phil¬ adelphia, was issued in 1719 ; the.first in New.York, in 1733. In 1775, there were 37 ; and in 1801, there were, in the whole United States, 203; in 1810, 358 ; at the present time, there are about 1500, and the number is annually increasing. 23. The first periodical paper of France originated with Renaudot, a physician in Paris, who, for a long time, had been in the habit of collecting news, which he communicated verbally to his patients, with the view to their amusement. But, in 1631, he commen¬ ced the publication of a weekly sheet, called the “ Ga¬ zette de France,” which was continued with.'very lit¬ tle interruption, until 1827. There are now, prob¬ ably, in France, about 400 periodical publications, most of which have been established since the com¬ mencement of the revolution of 1792. 24. Periodicals devoted to different objects have been established in every other kingdom of Europe ; but, in many cases, they are trammelled by a strict censorship of the respective governments. This is especially the case with those devoted to politics or religion. But all Europe, with its 200,000,000 of inhabitants, does not support as many regular publi¬ cations as the United States, with its 17,000,000. 25. The workmen employed in a printing-office are of two kinds : compositors , who arrange the types according to the copy delivered to them ; and pressmen, who apply ink on the types, and take off impressions. In many cases, and especially where the business is carried on upon a small scale, the workmen often practise both branches. 26. Before the types are applied to use, they are placed in the cells or compartments of a wooden re¬ ceptacle called a case, each species of letter, character and space, by itself. The letters which are required 70 THE PRINTER. most frequently, are lodged in the largest compart¬ ments, which are located nearest to the place wkere the compositor stands, while arranging the types. 27. The compositor is furnished with a composing, stick, which is commonly an iron instrument, surround¬ ed on three sides with ledges about half an inch in height, one of which is moveable, so that it may be adjusted to any length of line. The compositor, in the performance of his work, selects the letters from their several compartments, and arranges them in an inverted order from that in which they are to appear in the printed page. 28. At the end of each word is placed a quadrat, to produce a space between that and the one which fol¬ lows. The quadrats are of various widths, and being considerably shorter than types, they yield no impres¬ sion in printing. A thin brass rule is placed in the stick, on which each successive line of types is arran¬ ged. When the composing-stick has been filled, it is emptied into the galley, which is a flat board, partly surrounded with a rim. 29. On this galley, the lines are accumulated in long columns, which are afterwards divided into pages, and tied together with a string, to prevent the types from falling asunder, or into pi, as the printers term it. A sufficient number of pages having been com¬ pleted to constitute a form, or, in other words, to fill one side of a sheet of printing-paper, they are arran¬ ged on an imposing-stone, and strongly locked up, or wedged together, in an iron chase . 30. The first impression taken from the types is called the proof. This is carefully read over by the autljpr or proof-reader, or both, and the errors and corrections plainly marked in the margin. These corrections having been made by the compositor, the form is again locked up, and delivered to the press¬ man. THE PRINTER. 71 31. The pressman having dampened his paper with water, and put every part of his press in order, takes impressions in the following manner : he places the sheet upon the tympan , and confines it there by turning down upon it the frisket; he then brings them both, together with the paper, upon the form, which has been previously inked. He next turns a crank with his left hand, and thereby places the form direct¬ ly under the platen , which is immediately brought, in a perpendicular direction, upon the types, by means of a lever pulled with his right hand. 32. After the impression has been thus communi¬ cated, the form is returned to its former position, and the printed sheet is removed. The operation just described, is repeated for each side of every sheet of the edition. In the cut at the head of this article, the pressman is represented as in the act of turning down the frisket upon the tympan. The business of the boy behind the press is to apply the ink to the types by means of the rollers before him. In offices where much printing is executed, the roller-boy is now dispensed with, simple machinery, attached to the crank of the press, called a patent roller-boy , being substituted in his place. 33. Within the present century, great improve¬ ments have been made in the printing business gen¬ erally, especially in the presses, and in the means of applying the ink. In the old Ramage press, the pow¬ er was derived from a screw which was moved by a lever ; but, in those by several late inventors, from an accumulation of levers. 34. In 1814, printing by machinery was commen¬ ced in London, and rollers became necessary for ink¬ ing the forms. These were made of molasses, glue, and tar, in proportions to suit the temperature of the weather. From these originated composition balls in the following year, and in 1819, hand rollers. For- 72 THE PRINTER. merly the ink was applied by means of pelt balls stuff¬ ed with wool. 35. The power-press first used in this country, was invented, in 1823, by Mr. Treadwell, a scientific me¬ chanic, of Boston, who was originally a watch-maker by trade. It acts on the same principle with the hand press, and is equal to three of these of the best con¬ struction. Daniel Fanshaw, who first applied steam to printing in the United States, introduced several of these presses into New-York, in 1826. Messrs. Adams and Tufts, of Boston, have each invented a power-press which act on the same principle with Mr. Treadwell’s. 36. The presses noticed in the preceding paragraph, are used chiefly in printing books and periodicals re¬ quiring moderate speed in their production. But they do not answer the purposes of the daily press in large cities, where from twenty thousand to sixty thousand impressions of a single paper are required every day. To supply this immense demand of the public was the original aim of the inventors of power-presses in Eng¬ land. The first attempt to construct a printing ma¬ chine was made, in 1790, by William Nicholson, ol London ; but his machine was never brought into use. The next attempt was made by Mr. Konig, an ingeni¬ ous German, who but partially succeeded. The first really useful machine was constructed by Messrs. Ap¬ plegate and Cowper. 37. The machines used in this country are modifi¬ cations of that originally invented by Mr. Napier, of England. The paper is brought in contact with the form of types by means of a cylinder, while the form is passing underneath it. The press is constructed with one or two cylinders. A double cylinder press will give from 4000 to 6000 impressions an hour. The improvements on this press were made by Robert Hoe & Co., who have permitted Mr. Napier to introduce them into his press in England. THE TYPE-FOUNDER. 1. The types cast by the type-founder are oblong square pieces of metal, each having, on one end of it, a letter or character in relief. The metal of which these important instruments are composed, is common¬ ly an alloy consisting principally of lead and antimo¬ ny, in the proportion of about five parts of the former to one of the latter. This alloy melts at a low tem¬ perature, and receives and retains with accuracy the shape of the mould. Several hundred pounds of type- metal are prepared at a time, and cast into bars filled with notches, that they may be easily broken into pie¬ ces, when about to be applied to use. 2. In making types, the letter or character is first formed, by means of gravers and other tools, on the end of a steel punch. With this instrument, a matrix II.—G 74 THE TYPE-FOUNDER. is formed, by driving it into a piece of copper of suit¬ able size. A punch and matrix are required for ev¬ ery character used in printing. A metallic mould for the body of the type is also made; and, that the workman may handle it without burning his hands, it is surrounded with a portion of wood. The mould is composed of two parts, which can be closed and sep¬ arated with the greatest facility. 3. The type-metal is prepared for immediate use by melting it, as fast as it may be needed, in a small crucible, over a coal fire. The caster having placed the matrix in the bottom of the mould, commences the operation of casting by pouring the metal into the mould with a small ladle. This he performs with his right hand, while with the other he throws up the mould with a sudden jerk ; then, with both hands he opens it, and throws out the type. All these move- ments are performed with such rapidity, that an ex¬ pert hand can cast about fifty types of a common size in a minute. Some machines have been lately intro¬ duced, which operate with still greater rapidity. 4. Each type, when thrown from the mould, has attached to it a superfluous portion of metal, called a jet , which is afterwards broken off by hand. The jets are again cast into the pot, or crucible, and the types are carried to another room, where the two broad sides are rubbed on a grindstone. They are next arranged on flat sticks about three feet long, and delivered to the dresser , who scrapes the two sides not before made smooth on the grindstone, cuts a groove on the end opposite the letter, and rejects from the row the types which may be defective. 5. The whole process is completed by setting up the types in a printer’s composing-stick, and tying them up with packthread. Much of the work in the type-foundry is performed by boys and females. In the preceding cut are represented a man casting types THE T Y P E-F Ol'NDER. 75 at a furnace, and a boy breaking off the jets ; also two females rubbing types on a large grindstone. The fumes arising from melted lead in the casting-room are considered deleterious to health. 6. Various sizes of the same kind of letter are ex¬ tensively used, of which the following are most em¬ ployed in printing books—Pica, Small Pica, Long Primer, Bourgeois, Brevier, Minion, Nonpareil, Pearl, and Diamond. A full assortment of any particular size is called a fount, which may consist of any amount, from five pounds to five hundred, or more. The master type-founder usually supplies the printer with all the materials of his art, embracing not only types, leads, brass rules, and ordinary ornaments, but also cases, composing-sticks, galleys, printing-presses, and other articles too numerous to be mentioned. 7. The inventor of the art of casting types was Peter Shoeffer, first servant or workman employed by Guttemburg and Faust. He privately cut a matrix for each letter of the alphabet, and cast a quantity of the types. Having shown the products of his ingenuity to Faust, the latter was so much delighted with the contrivance, that he made him a partner in the print¬ ing business, and gave him his only daughter, Chris¬ tina, in marriage. 8. The character first employed was a rude old Gothic, mixed with secretary, designed on purpose to imitate the hand-writing of those times, and the first used in England were of this kind. To these suc¬ ceeded what is termed old English, or black letter, which is still occasionally applied to some purposes; but Roman letter is now the national character not only of England, but of France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy. In Germany, and in the states surrounding the Baltic, letters are used which owe their foundation to the Gothic, although works are occasionally print¬ ed for the learned in Roman. 76 THE T Y P E-F OUNDER. 9. The Roman letter owes it origin to the nation whence it derives its name, although the faces of the present and ancient Roman letters differ materially, on account of the improvements which they have un¬ dergone at various times. For the invention of the Italic character, we are indebted to Aldus Manutius, who set up a printing-office in Venice, in 1496, where he also introduced Roman types of a neater cut. 10. Before the American revolution, type-founding was carried on at Germantown, Pennsylvania, by Christopher Sower, at Boston by Mr. Michelson, and in Connecticut by Mr. Buel; but there was too little demand for types, to afford these enterprising individ¬ uals much patronage. Soon after the close of the revolution, John Baine established a foundery in Phil¬ adelphia. The printers, however, were not supplied with every necessary material and implement of the art from American founderies, until 1796, when Messrs. Binny & Ronaldson commenced the business in the same city. Baine and Ronaldson were both from Edinburgh, Scotland. The first type-foundery was established in New-York, in 1809, by Robert Lothian, a Scotch clergyman, and father of the in¬ genious type-founder, George B. Lothian. 11. In the year 1827, William M. Johnson, of New- York, invented the machine for casting types now used by John T. White, and irl 1838, David Bruce, Junr., produced another, which was purchased by George Bruce. George B. Lothian has also lately invented a machine for the same purpose, and likewise one for reducing types to an equal thickness. Both of these machines act with great accuracy. There are now in the United States sixteen type-founderies ; viz., two in Boston, six in New-York, three in Philadelphia, one in Baltimore, one in Pittsburg, one in Cincinnati, one in Louisville, and one in St. Louis. THE STEREOTYPER. 1. The word stereotype is derived from two Greek words— stereos , solid, and tupos, a type. It is appli¬ ed to pages of types in a single piece, which have been cast in moulds formed on common printing types or wood-cuts. They are composed of lead and antimo¬ ny, in the proportion of about six parts of the former to one of the latter. Sometimes a little tin is added. 2. The types are set up by compositors , as usual in printing, and imposed , or locked up, one or several pages together, in an iron chase of a suitable size. Having been sent to the casting-room , the types are slightly oiled, and surrounded with a frame of brass or type-metal. They are then covered with a thin mixture of finely pulverized plaster and water. In about ten minutes, the plaster becomes hard enough to be removed. G 2 78 THE STEREOTYPER. 3. The mould, thus formed, having been baked in an oven, is placed in an iron pan of an oblong shape, and sunk into a kettle of the melted composition above mentioned, which is admitted at the four corners of the cover to the cavities of the mould beneath. The pan is then raised from the kettle, and placed over water. When the metal has become cool, the con¬ tents of the pan are removed, and the plaster is bro¬ ken and washed from the plate. 4. As fast as the pages are cast, they are sent to th e finishing-room. Here they are first planed on the back with a machine, for the purpose of making them level and of an equal thickness. The letters are then examined, and, when deficient, are rendered perfect by little steel instruments called picks. Corrections and alterations are made by cutting out original lines, and inserting common printing types, or lines stereo¬ typed for the purpose. The types are cut off close to the back with pincers, and fastened to the place with solder. The plates, when they are finished, are about one-sixth of an inch in thickness. 5. When all the pages of a work have been com¬ pleted, they are packed in boxes, which are marked with certain letters of the alphabet, to indicate the form or pages which they contain. While the pages are applied in printing, they are fastened to blocks of solid wood, which, with the plates, are intended to be the same in height with common types. 6. The first stereotype plates were cast by J. Van der Mey, a Dutchman, who resided at Leyden about the year 1700. A quarto and folio Bible, and two or three small works, were printed from pages of his casting; but at his death, the art appears to have been lost, although the plates of these two Bibles are still extant, the former at Leyden, and the latter at Amsterdam. 7. In 1725, William Ged, of Edinburgh, without THE STEREOTYPER. 79 knowing what had been done in Holland by Van der Mey, began to make stereotype plates. But being unable to prosecute the business alone for want of funds, he united in partnership with three others. One of the partners being a type-founder, supposing that success in the enterprise would injure his busi¬ ness, employed men to compose and print the propo¬ sed works in a manner that he thought most likely to spoil them. 8. Accordingly, the compositors, while correcting one error in the proof, made intentionally several more ; and the pressmen battered the letter, while printing the books. By these dishonest and malicious proceedings, the useful enterprise of Mr. Ged was de¬ feated. He, however, afterwards printed, in an accu¬ rate manner, two or three works. The first of these was a Sallust, the pages of which were set up by his son, James Ged, who was but an apprentice to the printing-business. This part of the work was per¬ formed in the night, when the workmen were absent from the office. 9. After the death of Mr. Ged, no attention was paid to the art, and a knowledge of it was lost at the decease of his son, which took place, about the year 1771: but it was a third time invented by Alexander Tilloch, Esq., who, in conjunction with Mr. Foulis, printer to the University of Glasgow, made many ex¬ periments, until plates were produced yielding im¬ pressions which could not be distinguished from those of the types from which they had been cast. But owing to circumstances unconnected with the real utility of the art, the business was not prosecuted to a great extent. 10. About the year 1804, the art was again revived by the late Earl Stanhope, assisted by Mr. A. Wil¬ son, a printer, who turned his whole attention that way. In their efforts to complete the invention, they 80 THE STEREOTYPER. were assisted by Messrs. Tilloch and Foulis; and, although they succeeded after many experiments, they were strenuously opposed in their efforts to introduce the practice, the printers supposing, perhaps with some reason, that it would prove injurious to their business. 11. This useful art was introduced into the United States by J. Watts, an Englishman from London, who had acquired a knowledge of the process from A. Wilson. He entered into a partnership with Jo¬ seph D. Fay and Pierre C. Van Wyck, Esquires. They first stereotyped the Westminster Catechism, which was printed by J. Watts & Co., for Messrs. Whiting & Watson, in 1813. They also stereotyped a New Testament. But the business proving to be unproductive, Fay and Van Wyck retired from the concern. Watts afterwards stereotyped about one third of an octavo Bible. The moulding of all the plates produced in Watts’s foundery was executed by Mrs. Watts. On the 21st of March, 1815, Watts sold all his plates, together with his materials and knowl¬ edge of the process, to B. S. and J. B. Collins, for $6500. The Messrs. Collins afterwards carried on the business successfully. 12. In 1812, David Bruce went to England for the express purpose of obtaining a knowledge of the art, as it was kept a profound secret by Watts ; and having learned the method of one Nicholson, of Liverpool, and having also acquired some knowledge of Earl Stan¬ hope’s plan, he returned to New-York, and commen¬ ced stereotyping, in conjunction with his brother, George Bruce, in the year 1813. They soon com¬ pleted two setts of 12mo plates for the New Testa¬ ment, one of which they sold to Matthew Carey, Nov. 8, 1814. Soon afterwards, they finished the whole Bible. David Bruce invented the machine for planing the plates, in 1815. THE PAPER-MAKER, AND THE BOOKBINDER. THE PAPER-MAKER. 1. The materials on which writing was executed, in the early days of the art, were the leaves and bark of trees and plants, stones, bricks, sheets of'lead, cop¬ per, and brass, as well as plates of ivory, wooden tab¬ lets, and cotton and linen cloth. 2. The instruments with which writing was prac¬ tised were adapted to the substance on which it was to be formed. The stylus , which the Romans em¬ ployed in writing on metallic tablets covered with wax, was made of iron, acute at one end, for forming the letters, and flat or round at the other, for erasing what may have been erroneously written. 3. For writing with ink, the calamus , a kind of reed, sharpened at the point, and split like our pens, 82 THE PAPE R*M AKER. was used. Some of the Eastern nations still write with bamboos and canes. The Chinese inscribe their characters with small brushes similar to camel’s hair pencils. We have no certain evidence of the appli¬ cation of quills to this purpose until the seventh cen¬ tury. 4. As the literature of antiquity advanced, a mate¬ rial adapted to works of magnitude became necessary, and this was found both in the skins of animals, and in the celebrated plant papyrus, of Egypt; but the time when they were first applied to this purpose can¬ not be determined, although it is probable that the former has the preference as regards priority. 5. The papyrus was an aquatic plant, which grew upon the banks of the Nile. In the manufacture of paper from this reed, it was divested of its outer cov¬ ering, and the internal layers, or laminae, were sep¬ arated with the point of a needle or knife. These layers were spread parallel to each other on a table, in sufficient numbers to form a sheet; a second layer was then laid with the strips crossing those of the first at right angles ; and the whole having been moist¬ ened with water, was subjected to pressure between metallic surfaces. The pressure, aided by a glutinous substance in the plant, caused the several pieces to become one uniform sheet. 6. Parchment was manufactured from the skins of sheep and goats. In the preparation, these were first steeped in water impregnated with lime, and after¬ wards stretched upon frames, and reduced by scraping with sharp instruments. They were finished by the application of chalk, and by rubbing them with pum¬ ice-stone. The skins of very young calves, dressed in a similar manner, was called vellum. Parchment and vellum are still used for deeds and other impor¬ tant documents. 7. When Attalus, about 200 years before Christ, THE PAPE R-M AKER. 83 was about to found a library at Pergamus, which should rival that of Alexandria, one of the Ptolemies, then king of Egypt, jealous of his success, prohibited the exportation of papyrus; but the spirited inhabi¬ tants of Pergamus manufactured parchment as a sub¬ stitute, and formed their library principally of manu¬ scripts on this material. From this fact, it received the name of Pergamena among the Romans, who gave it also the appellation of Membrana. 8. The greatest quantity of paper was manufac¬ tured at Alexandria, and the commerce in this article greatly increased the wealth of that city. In the fifth century, paper was rendered very dear by taxation; and this probably was an inducement for an effort to produce a substitute. Accordingly, in the eighth cen¬ tury, it began to be superseded by cotton paper, al¬ though it continued in use in some parts of Europe, until three hundred years after the period last men¬ tioned. 9. The manufacture of cotton paper was intro¬ duced into Spain, in the eleventh century, by the Ara¬ bians, who became acquainted with it in Bucharia as early as A.D. 704. About the year 1300, it was commenced in Italy, France, and Germany; and, in some of the paper-mills of these countries, paper was made from cotton rags. Linen paper is thought to have originated in Germany, about the year 1318. 10. The first paper-mill in England was erected by a German, named Spillman, in 1588 ; but no paper, except the coarse brown sorts, was made in that coun¬ try, until about the year 1690. The finer kinds, both for writing and printing, were, before that time, im¬ ported from the Continent. But the paper of English manufacture will now compare with that of any other country. The French also make very fine paper. 11. In the United States, this manufacture has rap¬ idly increased in amount within a few years. Ac- 84 THE PAPE R-M AKER. cording to an estimate made in 1829, it appears that the whole annual product of the mills is worth be¬ tween five and seven millions of dollars, and that the rags collected in this country amount to about two millions. The number of hands employed in the bu¬ siness are ten or eleven thousand, of whom about one- half were females. The manufacture has since been considerably increased, although the number of oper¬ atives may have been diminished, on account of the introduction of improved machinery. 12. Nature has supplied us with a great variety of substances from which paper may be fabricated, as flax, hemp, cotton, straw, grass, and the bark of sev¬ eral kinds of trees; but the fibres of the three first productions, in the form of rags, are the most usual materials. Most of these are primarily purchased from the people at large, by retail booksellers, country merchants, and pedlers, who in turn dispose of them to persons called rag-merchants, or directly to the pa¬ per-makers. When the rags come from the original collectors, all kinds are mixed together; but they are assorted according to their color and the nature of their original fibre, either by the rag-merchants, or by the paper-makers themselves. 13. In our attempts to afford the reader an idea of this manufacture in general, letter-paper has been se¬ lected, as affording the best means of illustration ; since for this kind of paper, the best stock is employ¬ ed, and the greatest skill is exerted in every stage of the process. 14. The process of the manufacture is commenced by cutting the rags into small pieces, by the aid of a sharp instrument, commonly a piece of a scythe, which is placed in a position nearly perpendicular before the operator. In the reduction of very coarse rags, such as sail-cloth, a cutting machine is also em¬ ployed. Then, with the view of sifting out the loose THE PAPER-MAKER. 85 particles of dirt, the rags are deposited in a large oc¬ tagonal sieve made of coarse wire, and placed in a close box in a horizontal position. The sieve is moved by machinery, like the bolt of a flour-mill. 15. The second stage of the process consists chiefly in the reduction of the rags to a pulp . This is effect¬ ed by the action of a cutting machine, the essential parts of which are two sets of blunt knives, the one stationary, and the other revolving. The machine is placed in a large elliptical tub, in which the rags are also deposited, with a suitable quantity of water. The liquid and fibrous contents of the tub are kept moving in a circle by the action of the machine, through which it passes at one point of its revolution. 16. The maceration occupies from ten to twenty hours, according as the material is more or less rigid ; and, during part of this time, water is permitted to run in at one side of the tub, and out at the other, to render the pulp perfectly clean. Towards the close of this process, the pulp, if necessary, is bleached by means of chloride of lime, and oil of vitriol. It is also sometimes colored by adding a quantity of dye¬ stuff*. The bleaching and coloring are effected with¬ out interrupting the action of the machine. The rags having been thus reduced, the pulp, together with a suitable quantity of water, is let out into a reser¬ voir, from which it is drawn off into a vat, as fast as it may be needed for the production of the paper. 17. With this vat is connected the paper-making machine ; and the part of the latter which first comes in contact with the material is a hollow cylinder, sur¬ rounded with a fine web of wire-cloth. This cylin¬ der being immersed in the contents of the vat more than one-half of its diameter, the water passes off with a uniform rapidity, and the fibrous particles which had been suspended in it, settle with a remark¬ able uniformity on the outside of the brazen web. As II.—H 86 THE PAPE R-M AKER. the cylinder revolves, a continued sheet is produced, which is taken up by an endless web of woollen cloth, and carried round another cylinder of equal diameter, and then between two more, by which it is partially pressed. 18. From between these rollers, the paper passes out, in a continued sheet, upon a large cylindrical reel, called the lay-loy; and when a certain quantity of it, which is determined by a gauge, has been accumu- lated, the lay-boy is removed to a low table. The paper is then cut, with a toothless handsaw, into sheets twice the size of letter-paper. This part of the operation is very quickly performed, as a work¬ man can cut up and pile in heaps, to be pressed, twenty reams in half that number of minutes, and attend to the machine at the same time. 19. After the paper has been successively pressed, and handled by separating the sheets two or three times, it is hung up on small poles, in an airy room, to be dried; and having been again pressed, it is sized by holding a quantity of the sheets at a time in a thin solution of glue and alum, the former of which is prepared in the paper-mill for the purpose, from shreds and parings of raw hides. The paper is freed from superfluous portions of the size, by submitting it to the action of a press. It is again dried as before, and again pressed ; after which, the several sheets are examined, and freed from lumps and other extra¬ neous substances. _ V 20. They are then severed in half with a cutting machine, and afterwards calendered, by passing the sheets successively between rollers; or they are pressed between smooth pasteboards. In the latter case, hot metallic plates are sometimes interposed be¬ tween every few quires of the sheets. The paper, when treated in this way, is called hot-pressed. It is next counted off into half-quires, put up into reams THE PAPE R-M AKER. 87 pressed, trimmed, and finally enveloped in two thick sheets of paper, which completes the whole process of the manufacture. 21. The manufacture of paper, as just described, seems to be a tedious process ; yet with two machines and a suitable number of hands, say sixty or eighty, three hundred reams of letter-paper can be produced from the raw material in a single day. It is hardly necessary to remark, that paper is of various quali¬ ties, from the finest bank-note paper, down to the coarsest kinds employed in wrapping up merchandise, and that, for every quality, suitable materials are chosen. The process of the manufacture is varied, of course, to suit the materials. None but writing and drawing paper requires to be sized. 22. Until after the beginning of the present cen- tury, paper was made exclusively by hand , and this method is still continued in a majority of the mills in the United States, although it is rapidly going out of use. It differs from that just described chiefly in the manner of collecting the pulp to form the paper, this being effected by means of a mould , a frame of wood with a fine wire bottom, of the size of the proposed sheet. In the use of this instrument, a quantity of the pulp is taken up, and while the vatman , or dipper , holds it in a horizontal position, and gives it a gentle shaking, the water runs out through the interstices of the wire, and leaves the fibrous particles upon the mould in the form of a sheet. The sheets thus pro- duced are pressed between felts, and afterwards treat¬ ed as if they had been formed by means of a machine. 23. The first idea of forming paper in a continued sheet originated in France; but a machine for this purpose is said to have been first made completely successful in England, by Henry and Sealy Fourdri- nier. Many machines made after their model, as well as those of a different construction, are in use in the 88 THE BOO K-B INDER. United States, to some of which is attached an ap¬ paratus for drying, sizing, and pressing the paper, as well as for cutting it to the proper size. Very few ma¬ chines, however, yield paper equal in firmness and te¬ nacity to that produced by hand. THE BOOKBINDER. 1. Bookbinding is the art of arranging the pages of a book in proper order, and confining them there by means of thread, glue, paste, pasteboard, and leather. 2. This art is probably as ancient as that of wri¬ ting books ; for, whatever may have been the sub¬ stance on which the work was executed, some method of uniting the parts was absolutely necessary. The earliest method with which we are acquainted, is that of gluing the sheets together, and rolling them upon small cylinders. This mode is still practised in some countries. It is also everywhere used by the Jews, so far as relates to one copy of their law deposited in each of their synagogues. 3. The name Egyptian is applied to this kind of binding, and this would seem to indicate the place of its origin. Each volume had two rollers, so that the continued sheet could be wound from one to the other at pleasure. The square, or present form of binding, is also of great antiquity, as it is supposed to have been invented at Pergamus, about 200 years before Christ, by King Attalus, who, with his son Eumenes, established the famous library in that city. 4. The first process of binding books consists in folding the sheets according to the paging. This is done by the aid of an ivory knife, called a folder; and the operator is guided in the correct performance of the work by certain letters called signatures, placed at the bottom of the page, at regular intervals through the book. THE BOOKBINDER. 89 5. Piles of the folded sheets are then placed on a long table in the order of their signatures, and gather¬ ed, one from each pile, for every book. They are next beaten on a stone, or passed between steel roll¬ ers, to render them smooth and solid. The latter method has been introduced within a few years. This operation certainly increases the intrinsic value of the book ; but it is not employed in every case, since it is attended with some additional expense, and since it diminishes the thickness of the book, and consequent¬ ly its value in the estimation of the public at large. 6. The sheets, having been properly pressed, are next sewed together upon little cords, which, in this application, are called bands. During the operation, these are stretched in a perpendicular direction, at suitable distances from each other, as exhibited in the foregoing cut. The folded sheets are usually notched on the back by means of a saw, and at these points they are brought in juxta-position with the bands. After the pages of several volumes have been accumulated, the bands are severed between each book. The fold¬ ing, gathering, and sewing, are usually performed by females. 7. At this stage of the process, the books are re¬ ceived by the men or boys, who generally take on one hundred at a time. The workman first spreads some glue on the backs of each book with a brush. He then places them, one after the other, between boards of solid wood, and beats them on the back with a ham¬ mer. By this means the back is rounded, and a groove formed on each side for the admission of one edge of the pasteboards. 8. These having been applied, and partially fastened by means of the bands, which had been left long for the purpose, the boolts are pressed, and the leaves of which they are composed are trimmed with an instru¬ ment called a ‘plough. The pasteboards are also cut H 2 90 THE BOOKBINDER. to the proper size by the same means, or with a huge pair of shears. In the preceding picture, a workman is represented at work with the plough. The edges are next sprinkled with some kind of coloring matter, or covered with gold leaf. A strip of paper is then glued on the back, and a head-band put upon each end. 9. The book is now ready to be covered. This is done either with calf, sheep, or goat skin, or some kind of paper or muslin ; but, whatever the material may be, it is cut into pieces to suit the size of the book ; and, having been smeared on one side with paste, if paper or leather, or with glue, if muslin, it is drawn over the outsides of the pasteboards, and doub¬ led in upon the inside. 10. The covers, if calf or sheep skin, are next sprinkled or marbled. The first operation is per¬ formed by dipping the brush in a kind of dye, made for the purpose, and beating it with one hand over a stick held in the other; the second is performed in the same manner, with the difference that they are sprinkled first with water, and then with the coloring matter. 11. After a small piece of morocco has been past¬ ed on the back, on which the title is to be printed in gold leaf, and one of the waste leaves has been pasted down on the inside of each of the covers, the books are pressed for the last time. They are then glazed by applying the white of an egg with a sponge. 12. The books are now ready for the reception of the ornaments, which consist chiefly of letters and • other figures in gold leaf. In executing this part of the process, the workman cuts the gold into suitable strips or squares on a cushion. 13. These are laid upon the books by means of a piece of raw cotton, and afterwards impressed with types moderately heated over a charcoal fire; or the THE BOOKBINDER. 91 strips of gold are taken up, and laid upon the proper place with instruments called stamps and rolls , which have on them figures in relief. The portion of the leaf not impressed with the figures on the tools, is easily removed with a silk rag. The books are finish¬ ed by applying to the covers the white of an egg, and rubbing them with a heated steel polisher . 14. The process of binding books, as just described, is varied, of course, in some particulars, to suit the different kinds of binding and finish. A book stitched together like a common almanac, is called a pamphlet. Those which are covered on the back and sides with leather, are said to be full-bound; and those which have their backs covered with leather, and the sides with paper, half bound, 15. The different sizes of books are expressed by terms indicative of the number of pages printed on one side of a sheet of paper; thus, when two pages are printed on one side, the book is termed a folio ; four pages, a quarto; eight pages, an octavo; twelve pages, a duodecimo ; eighteen pages, an octodecimo. All of these terms, except the first, are abridged by prefixing a figure or figures to the last syllable : thus, 4to for quarto, 8vo for octavo, 12mo for duodecimo, &c. 16. The manufacture of account-books, and other blank or stationary work, constitutes an extensive branch of the bookbinder’s business. It is not neces¬ sary, however, to be particular in noticing it, as the general process is similar to that of common book¬ binding. Those binders who devote much attention to this branch of the trade, have a machine by which paper is ruled to suit any method of keeping books, or any other pattern which may be desired. THE BOOKSELLER. 1. The book-trade has arisen from small beginnings to its present magnitude and importance. Before the invention of typography, it was carried on by the aid of transcribers ; and the booksellers of Greece, Rome, and Alexandria, during the flourishing state of their literature, kept a large number of manuscript copyists in constant employ. Among the Romans, the trans¬ cribers or copyists were chiefly slaves, who were very valuable to their owners, on account of their capacity for this employment. 2. In the middle ages, when learning was chiefly confined to the precincts of monastic institutions, the monks employed much of their time in copying the ancient classics and other works; and this labor was often imposed upon them as a penance for the com- THE BOOKSELLER. 93 mission of sin. From this cause, and from an igno- ranee of the true meaning of the author, much of their copying was inaccurately performed, so that great pains have been since required in the correction of the manuscripts of those times. 3. This mode of multiplying copies of books was exceedingly slow, and, withal, so very expensive, that learning was confined almost exclusively to people of rank, and the lower orders were only rescued from total ignorance by the reflected light of their superiors. For a long time, during the reign of comparative bar¬ barism in Europe, books were so scarce, that a pres- ent of a single copy to a religious house was thought to be so valuable a gift, that it entitled the donor to the prayers of the community, which were considered efficacious in procuring for him eternal salvation. 4. After the establishment of the universities of Paris and Bologna, there were dealers in books, called stationarii, who loaned single manuscripts at high prices ; and, in the former place, no person, after the year 1432, could deal in books in any way, without permission from the university, by which officers were appointed to examine the manuscripts, and fix the price for which they might be sold or hired out. 5. For a long time after the invention of printing, the printers sold their own publications ; and, in doing this, especially at some distance from their establish¬ ments, they were aided by those who had formerly been employed as copyists. Some of these travelling agents, at length, became stationary, and procured the publication of works on their own account. 6. The first bookseller who purchased manuscripts from the authors, and caused them to be printed with¬ out owning a press himself, was John Otto, of Nurem- burg. He commenced this mode of doing business, in 1516. In 1545, there were, for the first time, two such booksellers in Leipsic. The great mart for the 94 THE BOOKSELLER. sale of their books was Frankfort on the Maine, where were held three extensive fairs every year. Leipsic, however, soon became, and still continues, the centre of the German book-trade. 7. The first Leipsic catalogue of books appeared as early as the year 1600 ; but the fairs at that place did not become important, as regards the book-trade, until 1667, when it was attended by nineteen foreign book¬ sellers. The booksellers of Germany, as well as some from distant countries, meet at the semi-annual fairs held in that city, to dispose of books, and to settle their accounts with each other. Every German pub¬ lisher has also an agent there, who receives his pub¬ lications, and sends them, according as they are or¬ dered, to any part of Germany. 8. In no other part of the woijld, has such a connex¬ ion of booksellers been formed, altljpough almost every kingdom of Europe has some city or cities in which this branch of trade is chiefly concentrated; as Lon¬ don, in England; Edinburgh, in Scotland; and Am¬ sterdam, Utrecht, Leyden, and Haerlem, in the Neth¬ erlands. In Spain and Portugal, the price of every book is regulated by the government. 9. A very convenient method of effecting the sale and exchange of books among booksellers, has been adopted in the United States ; and this is by auction. A sale of this kind is held in Boston once, and in New- York and Philadelphia twice, every year; and none are invited to attend it but the trade; hence such sales are denominated trade-sales. 10. The sale is usually conducted by an auctioneer who has been selected by a committee of the trade in the city in which it is to be held. In order to obtain a sufficient amount of stock for the purpose, the agent issues proposals, in which he informs publishers and others concerned in this branch of business, of his irf- tention, and solicits invoices of books, to be sold at THE BOOKSELLER. 95 the time specified. A catalogue of all the books thus sent for sale, is distributed among the booksellers. 11. The booksellers having assembled, the books which may have been accumulated from different parts of the Union, are offered in convenient lots, and struck off to the highest bidder. Each purchaser holds in his hand the printed catalogue, on the broad margin of which he marks, if he sees fit, the prices at which the books have been sold; and the record thus kept affords a tolerable means of determining their value, for a considerable time afterwards. 12. A sale of this kind occupies from four to six days ; and, at the close of it, a settlement takes place, in which the parties are governed by the terms pre¬ viously published. The payments are made in cash, or by notes at four or six months, according to the amount which the purchaser may have bought out of one invoice. The conductors of the sale are allowed about five per cent, commission for their services. 13. A vast number of books is also sold, every year, at auction, to miscellaneous collections of people, not only in the cities and considerable towns, but likewise in the villages throughout the country. By many booksellers, this method of sale is thought to be inju¬ rious to the trade, since it has reduced the prices of books, and interfered with the regular method of doing business. These disadvantages, however, have been far overbalanced by the increased number of readers which has been thus created. 14. The circulation of books is likewise promoted by means of travelling agents, who either sell them at once, or obtain subscriptions for them with the view to their future delivery. These methods have been employed more or less from the very commencement of the printing business; and they have probably con¬ tributed more to the general extension of knowledge than the sale of books by stationary booksellers. In 96 THE BOOKSELLER. fact, they are among the most prominent causes of the vast trade in books, which is now carried on, especially in the United States. 15. Nevertheless, publishers, who do not employ agents to vend their books, generally consider them interlopers upon their business ; and the people them¬ selves, who owe a great share of their intellectual cul¬ tivation to this useful class of men, are generally averse to afford them the necessary patronage, because they require a small advance on the city prices to pay travelling expenses. 16. A considerable amount of books is also sold by merchants who reside at some distance from the cities and large towns. They, however, seldom venture to purchase those which have not been well known and approved in their neighborhood ; and, in a majority of cases, regard them as mere subjects of merchandise, without taking into consideration the effects most like¬ ly to be produced by these silent, but powerful agents, when circulated among their customers. 17. Some booksellers in Europe confine their trade' chiefly to particular departments ; such as law, theolo¬ gy, and medicine. Others deal in toy-books, and books of education, or in rare and scarce books- This is the case, to a limited extent, in the United States, although our booksellers commonly keep an assortment of miscellaneous publications, as well as various articles in the stationary line ; such as paper, quills, inkstands, and blank work. i I THE ARCHITECT. 1. Architecture, in the general sense of the word, is the art of planning and erecting buildings of all kinds, whether of a public or private nature; and it embraces within its operations a variety of employ¬ ments, at the head of which must be placed the Ar¬ chitect. Architecture is of several kinds, such as civil, naval , military, and aquatic; but it is the first only that we propose to notice in the present article. 2. The construction of buildings as means of shel¬ ter from the weather, appears to have been among the earliest inventions ; and, from the skill exhibited in the construction of the ark, we have reason to be¬ lieve that architecture had been brought to consider¬ able perfection before the deluge. This opinion is also supported by the fact stated in holy writ, that the II.—I 98 THE ARCHITECT. descendants of Noah, not more than one hundred years after the great catastrophe just mentioned, at- tempted to build a city and a lofty tower with bricks burned in the fire. This project could never have been thought of, had they not been influenced by the knowledge of former centuries. 3. The confusion of the language of the people caused their dispersion into different parts of the earth; and, in their several locations, they adopted that method of constructing their dwellings, which the climate required, and the materials.at hand ad¬ mitted ; but, whatever the primitive structure may have been, it was continued, in its general features, from age to age, by the more refined and opulent in¬ habitants ; hence the different styles of building, which have been continued, with various modifica¬ tions, to the present day. 4. The essential elementary parts of a building are those which contribute to its support, inclosure, and covering ; and of these the most important are the foundation, the column, the wall, the lintel, the arch, the vault, the dome, and the roof. Ornamental and refined architecture is one of the fine arts ; neverthe¬ less, every part of an edifice must appear to have utility for its object, and show the purpose for which it has been designed. 5. The foundation is usually a stone wall, on which the superstructure of the building rests. The most solid basis on which it is placed is rock, or gravel which has never been disturbed; next to these are clay and sand. In loose or muddy situations, it is al¬ ways unsafe to build, unless a solid basis can be arti¬ ficially produced. This is often done by means of timber placed in a horizontal position, or by driving wooden piles perpendicularly into the earth; on a foundation of the latter description, the greater part of the city of Amsterdam has been built. THE ARCHITECT. 99 6. The column , or 'pillar , is the simplest member of a building, although it is not essential to all. It is not employed for the purpose of inclosure, but as a support to some part of the superstructure, and the principal force which it has to resist is that of per¬ pendicular pressure. The column is more frequently employed in public than in private buildings. 7. The wall may be considered the lateral continu¬ ation of the column, answering the purposes both of support and inclosure. It is constructed of various materials, but chiefly of brick, stone, and marble, with a suitable proportion of mortar or cement. Walls are also made of wood, by first erecting a frame of timber and then covering it with boards; but these are more perishable materials, which re¬ quire to be defended from the decomposing influence of the atmosphere, by paint or some other substance. 8. The lintel is a beam extending in a right line from one column or wall to another over a vacant space. The floor is a lateral continuation or con¬ nexion of beams, by means of a covering of planks. The strength of the lintel, and, in fact, every other el¬ ementary part of a building used as a support, can be mathematically determined by the skilful architect. 9. The arch answers the same purpose as the lin¬ tel, although it far exceeds it in strength. It is com¬ posed of several pieces of a wedge-like form, and the joints formed by the contact of flat surfaces point to a common centre. While the workmen are con¬ structing the arch, the materials are supported by a centring of the shape of its internal surface. The upper stone of an arch is called the key-stone. The supports of an arch are called abutments; and a con¬ tinuation of arches, an arcade. 10. The vault is the lateral continuation of an arch, and bears the same relation to it that a wall bears to a column. The construction of a simple 100 THE ARCHITECT. vault is the same with that of an arch, and it distrib¬ utes its pressure equally along the walls or abutments. A complex or groined vault is made by the intersec¬ tion of two of the common kind. The groined vault is much used in Gothic architecture. 11. The dome , or cupola , is a hemispherical or convex covering to a building or a part of it. When built of stone it is a very strong kind of structure, even more so than the arch, since the tendency of the parts to fall is counteracted by those above and below, as well as by those on each side. During the erection of the cupola, no centring is required, as in the case of the arch. 12. The roof is the most common and cheap cov¬ ering to buildings. It is sometimes flat, but most commonly oblique, in shape. A roof consisting of two oblique sides meeting at the top, is denominated a pent roof; that with four oblique sides, a hipped roof; and that with two sides, having each two incli¬ nations of different obliquities, a curl or mansard roof. In modern times, roofs are constructed of wood, or of wood covered with some incombustible material, such as tiles, slate, and sheets of lead, tin, or copper. The elementary parts of buildings, as just described, are more or less applicable in almost every kind of architecture. 13. The architecture of different countries has been characterized by peculiarities of form and con¬ struction, which, among ancient nations, were so dis¬ tinct, that their edifices may be identified at the pres¬ ent day even in a state of ruin ; and, although nearly all the buildings of antiquity are in a dilapidated state, many of them have been restored, in drawings and models, by the aid of the fragments which remain. 14. The different styles of building which have been recognised by the architect of modern times, are, the Egyptian, the Chinese, the Grecian, the Ro- THE ARCHITECT. 101 man, the Greco-Gothic, the Saracenic, and the Goth¬ ic. In all these, the pillar, with its accompaniments, makes a distinguished figure. The following picture has therefore been introduced by way of explanation. The columns are of the Corinthian order of architec¬ ture. . 15. The Egyptian style .—The first inhabitants of Egypt lived in mounds, caverns, and houses of mud; and, from these primitive structures, the Egyptians, at a later period, derived their style of architecture. The walls of their buildings were very thick, and sloping on the outside; the roof was flat, and com¬ posed of blocks of stone, extending from one wall or pillar to another; and the columns were short and 12 102 THE ARCHITECT. large, being sometimes ten or twelve feet in diameter. Pyramids of prodigious magnitude, and obelisks com¬ posed of a single stone, sometimes often exceeding seventy feet in height, are structures*peculiarly Egyp¬ tian. The architecture of the Hindoos seems to have An Egyptian Temple. been derived from primitive structures of a similar character. 16. The Chinese style. —The ancient Tartars, and other wandering tribes of Asia, appear to have lived in tents; and the Chinese buildings, even at the pres¬ ent day, bear a strong resemblance to these original habitations, since their roofs are concave on the up¬ per side, as if made of canvas instead of wood. THE ARCHITECT. 103 Their porticoes resemble the awnings spread out on our shop-windows in the summer. The Chinese build chiefly of wood, although they sometimes use brick and stone. 17. The Grecian style. —This style of building had its origin in the wooden hut or cabin, the frame of which primarily consisted of perpendicular posts, transverse beams, and rafters. This structure was at length imitated in stone, and by degrees it was so modified and decorated in certain parts, as to give rise to the several distinctions called orders of archi¬ tecture. The Greeks, in perfecting their system of architecture, were probably aided by Egyptian exam¬ ples, although they finally surpassed all other nations in this important art. 18. Orders of architecture. —By the architectural orders are understood certain modes of proportioning and decorating the column and entablature. They were in use during the best days of Greece and Rome, for a period of six or seven centuries. The Greeks had three orders, called the Doric, the Ionic , and the Corinthian. These were adopted and modified by the Romans, who also added two others, called the Tuscan and the Composite. 19. Doric order. —The Doric is the oldest and most massive order of the Greeks. The column, in the examples at Athens, is about six of its diameters in height; in those of an earlier date, it is but four or five. The temple here adduced to illustrate this or- The Temple of Theseus. der was built by Cimon, son of Miltiades, about the 104 THE ARCHITECT. year 450 before Christ. It is said to be in a state of better preservation than any other of the ancient Greek edifices at Athens. It will be seen that the shafts ar e fluted, that is, cut in semicircular channels, in a longitudinal direction. The United States’ Bank, at Philadelphia, is a noble specimen of this order. 20. Ionic order .—This order is lighter than the Doric, its column being eight or nine diameters in height. Its shaft has twenty-four or more flutings, separated from each other by square edges ; and its capital consists, in part, of two double scrolls, called volutes , usually occupying opposite sides. These vo¬ lutes are supposed to have been copied from ringlets of hair, or from the horns of the god Jupiter Ammon. The following example of this order consists of three temples, each of which was dedicated to a different individual, viz., Erectheus, Minerva Polias, and the nymph Pandrosus, 21. Corinthian order .—The Corinthian is the light¬ est and most decorated of all the Grecian orders. Its column is usually ten diameters in height, and its shaft is fluted like that of the Ionic. Its capital is shaped like an inverted bell, and was covered on the outside with two rows of the leaves of the plant acan¬ thus, above which are eight pairs of small volutes. It is said that this beautiful capital was suggested to the sculptor Callimachus by the growth of an acan¬ thus about a basket, which had been accidentally left in a garden. THE ARCHITECT. 105 22. The Greeks sometimes departed so far from the strict use of their orders, as to employ the stat¬ ues of slaves, heroes, and gods, in the place of col¬ umns. A specimen of this practice is exhibited in the cut illustrative of the Ionic order. It belongs to the temple dedicated to Pandrosus. 23. The most remarkable buildings of the Greeks were their temples. The body of these edifices con¬ sisted of a walled cell, usually surrounded by one or more rows of pillars. Sometimes they had a colon¬ nade at one end only, and sometimes at both ends. Their form was generally oblong, and as the cells were intended as places of resort for the priests rather than for assemblies of the people, they were but im¬ perfectly lighted. Windows were seldom employed; and light was admitted at the door at one end, or through an opening in the roof. 24. Grecian architecture is supposed to have been at its greatest perfection in the days of Pericles and Phidias, when sculpture is admitted to have attained its highest excellence. It was distinguished, in gen¬ eral, by simplicity of structure, fewness of parts, ab¬ sence of arches, and lowness of pediments and roofs. 25. Roman style .—The Romans adopted the three Grecian orders, with some modifications ; and also added two others, called the Tuscan and Composite. The former of these they borrowed from the nation whose name it bears, and the latter they formed by uniting the embellishments of the Doric and the Co¬ rinthian. The favorite order in Rome and its colo¬ nies was the Corinthian. Examples of single pillars of these orders may be seen at the end of this article. 26. The temples of the Romans generally bore a strong resemblance to those of the Greeks, although they often differed from the specimens of that nation in several particulars. The stylobate of the latter was usually a succession of platforms, which likewise 106 THE ARCHITECT. served the purposes of steps, by which the building was approached on all sides. Among the Romans, it was usually an elevated structure, like a continued pedestal, on three sides, and accessible in front by means of steps. The dome was also very commonly employed rather than the pent roof. The following is an example of a temple at Rome. Temple of Antonius and Faustina. 27. Greco-Gothic style .—After the dismemberment of the Roman empire, the practice of erecting new buildings from the fragments of old ones became prevalent. This gave rise to an irregular style of building, which continued in use during the dark ages. It consisted of Greek and Roman details combined under new forms, and piled up into structures wholly unlike the original buildings from which the materials had been taken. Hence the appellations Greco-Gothic and Romanesque have been applied to it. The effect of this style of building was very imposing, especially when columns and arches were piled upon each other to a great height. 28. Saracenic style .—This appellation has been given to the style of building practised by the Moors THE ARCHITECT. 107 and Saracens in Spain, Egypt, and Turkey. It is distinguished, among other things, by an elliptical form of the arch. A similar peculiarity exists in the domes of the Oriental mosques, which are sometimes large segments of a sphere, appearing as if inflated; and at other times, they are concavo-convex on the outside. Several of these domes are commonly placed upon one building. The minaret is a tall slender tower, peculiar to Turkish architecture. 29. Gothic style .—The Goths, who overran a great part of the Western empire, were not the inventors of the style of architecture which bears their name. The term was first applied with the view to stigma¬ tize the edifices of the middle ages, in the construc¬ tion of which, the purity of the antique models had not been regarded. The term was at first very ex¬ tensive in its application ; but it is now confined chiefly to the style of building which was introduced into various parts of Europe six or eight centuries ago, and which was used in the construction of cathe¬ drals, churches, abbeys, and similar edifices. Gothic Cathedral at York. 30. The Gothic style is peculiarly and strongly marked. Its principles seem to have originated in the imitation of groves and bowers, under which the Druid priests had been accustomed to perform their sacred rites. Its characteristics are, pointed arches, 108 THE ARCHITECT. pinnacles and spires, large buttresses, clustered pil¬ lars, vaulted roofs, and a general predominance of the perpendicular over the horizontal. 31. The ecclesiastical edifices of this style of build¬ ing are commonly in form of a cross, having a tower, lantern, or spire, erected at the point of intersection. The part of the cross situated towards the west is called the nave; the eastern part, the choir; and the transverse portion, the transept. A glance at the fol¬ lowing diagram will enable the reader to understand the form of the ground-work more fully. a, - w Nave £ Choir -< - os - 32. Any high building erected above a roof is called a steeple , which is also distinguished by dif¬ ferent appellations, according to* its form: if it is square topped, it is a tower; if long and acute, a spire; or if short and light, a lantern. Towers of great height in proportion to their diameter are de¬ nominated turrets. The walls of Gothic churches are supported on the outside by lateral projections, called buttresses , which extend from the bottom to the top, at the corners and between the windows. On the top of these are slender pyramidal structures or spires, called pinnacles. The summit or upper edge of a wall, if straight, is called a parapet; if indented, a battlement. 33. Gothic pillars or columns are usually cluster¬ ed, appearing as if a number were bound together. They are confined chiefly to the inside of buildings, and are generally employed in sustaining the vaults which support the roof. The parts which are thrown THE ARCHITECT. 109 out of a perpendicular to assist in forming these vaults, have received the appellation of pendentives. The Gothic style of building is more imposing than the Grecian ; but architects of the present day find it difficult to accomplish what was achieved by the builders of the middle ages. 34. In the erection of edifices at the present day, the Grecian and Gothic styles are chiefly employed, to the exclusion of the others, especially in Europe and America. Modern dwelling-houses have neces¬ sarily a style of their own, so far as relates to sto¬ ries, windows, and chimneys ; and no more of the styles of former ages can be applied to them, than what relates to the unessential and decorative parts. II.—K Doric. Ionic. Corinthian. Composite. Tuscan I pillars and entablatures of the five orders. THE CARPENTER. 1. It is the business of the carpenter to cut out and frame large pieces of timber, and then to join them together, or fit them to brick or stone walls, to con¬ stitute them the outlines or skeleton of buildings or parts of buildings. 2. The joiner executes the more minute parts of the wood-work of edifices, comprehending, among other things, the floors, window-frames, sashes, doors, mantels, &c. Carpentry and joinery, however, are so nearly allied to each other, that they are commonly practised by the same individuals ; and, in this article, they will be treated together. 3. Carpentry and joinery, as well as all other trades connected with building, are subservient to the architect, when an individual of this particular profes- 112 THE CARPENTER. sion has been employed ; but it most commonly hap¬ pens, that the master-carpenter acts in this capacity. This is especially the case in the erection of common dwellings, and, in fact, of other edifices where nothing very splendid is to be attempted. It is to be regret¬ ted, however, that the professional architect has not been oftener employed; for, had this been the case, a purer taste in building would have generally prevailed. 4. Contracts for the erection of buildings are often made with the carpenter, as master-builder or archi¬ tect. In such cases, it is his business to employ per¬ sons capable of executing every kind of work re¬ quired on the proposed edifice, from the bricklayer and stone-mason to the painter and glazier. It not unfrequently happens, however, that the person him¬ self, who proposes to erect a building, chooses to em¬ ploy the workmen in the different branches. 5. The constituent parts of buildings having been explained in the article on architecture, it is unneces¬ sary to enter here into minute details on this point; nor would a particular description of the various op¬ erations of the carpenter and joiner be useful to the general reader, since, in every place, means are at hand by which a general view of this business may be obtained by actual inspection. 6. The carpenter and joiner are guided, in the per¬ formance of their work, by well-defined rules, drawn chiefly from the science of Geometry, and which they have learned from imitation and practice, as well as, in many cases, from the valuable works which have been published on these branches of the art of building. 7. The principal tools with which they operate are the axe, the adze, the saw, the auger, the gauge, the square, the compasses, the hammer, the mallet, the crow, the rule, the level, the maul, and the plane; and of many of these there are several kinds. THE CARPENTER. 113 8. The timbers most employed in building in the United States are chiefly pine, oak, beech, black wal¬ nut, cypress, larch, white cedar, and hemlock; but of these pine is in the greatest use. Oak and beech are much used in constructing frames, in which great strength is required. Of the pine, there are several species, of which the white and yellow are the most valuable ; the former of these grows in the greatest abundance in the Northern, and the latter, in the South¬ ern states. 9. Vasrquantities of timber are annually cut into boards in saw-mills, and floated down the rivers from the interior, during the time of high water in the spring and fall, and sometimes at other seasons of the year. The boards, or, as they are frequently denominated, planks, are placed in the water, one tier above an¬ other, and fastened together with wooden pins. Sev¬ eral of such rafts are connected by means of withes to form one ; and, at each end of this, are placed one or two huge oars, with which it may be guided down the stream. Upon these rafts, shingles and laths are also brought to market. 10. Logs and scantling to be employed in the frames of buildings are also conveyed down the rivers in the same manner. The business connected with the pro¬ duction of shingles, laths, boards or planks, and staves, is called lumbering; and it is carried on, more or less extensively, in the regions near the sources of all the large rivers in the United States, and in the British possessions in North America. 11. The trade in lumber has also given rise to an¬ other class of men, called lumber merchants ; these purchase the lumber from the original proprietors, who bring it down the rivers, and, in their turn, sell it to builders and others. The lumbering business em¬ ploys a large capital, and a numerous class of our citizens. K 2 THE STONE-MASON, THE BRICKMAKER, &c. THE MASON. 1. The art of Masonry includes the sawing and cutting of stones into the various shapes required in the multiplied purposes of building, and in placing them in a proper manner in the walls and other parts of edifices. It is divided into two branches, one of which consists in bringing the stones to the desired form and polish, and the other, in laying them in mortar or cement. 2. The rocks most used in building in the United States, are marble, granite, greenstone, scienite, soap¬ stone, limestone, gypsum, and slate. These are found in a great many localities, not only on this continent, but on the other side of the Atlantic. Of these stones, there are many varieties, which are frequently desig¬ nated by their sensible qualities, or by the name of THE MASON. 115 the place or country whence they are obtained; as variegated , Italian , Egyptian , or Stockbridge marble , and Quincy stone . 3. The Stone-cutter. —Stone-cutters procure their materials from the quarry-men, whose business it is to get out the stones from the quarries, in which they lie in beds, consisting either of strata piled upon each other, or of solid masses. Stones of any desirable dimensions are detached from the great mass of rock, by first drilling holes at suitable points, and then dri¬ ving into them wedges with a sledge. These blocks are usually removed from the quarries, and placed on vehicles of transportation, by means of huge cranes, with which is connected suitable machinery. 4. The blocks of stone, received in their rough state by the stone-cutter, are divided, if required, into pieces of smaller size, by means of a toothless saw, aided by the attrition of sand and water. The other rough sides of the blocks are reduced to the proper form by means of steel points and chisels driven with a mallet. A kind of hammer with a point or chisel¬ like edge, is also used to effect the same object, espe¬ cially in the softer kinds of stone. 5. For some purposes, the stones are required to be polished. This is especially the case with those employed in the ornamental parts of buildings. In the execution of this part of the work, the surface is rubbed successively with sand, freestone, pumice- stone, Scotch stone, crocus, and putty. When the face is a plane, the sand is applied by means of an¬ other stone, which is moved backwards and forwards upon it. In this way, two surfaces are affected at the same time. 6. In polishing irregular surfaces, the different kinds of stone are used in masses of convenient size ; and the part applied to the surface to be pol¬ ished is first brought to a form corresponding to it 1 116 THE STONE-MASON. The putty is an oxyde of tin, in form of powder. Crocus is the peroxyde of iron. The building-stone capable of receiving the highest polish is marble; and it is on this material that the stone-cutter, and the architectural carver or sculptor, exert their ut¬ most skill; but some of the other stones which have been mentioned, possess the same quality to a consid¬ erable extent. 7. Carving architectural ornaments, such as pil¬ lars with their capitals, is a refined branch of this bu¬ siness ; or it may rather be considered, of itself, a branch of sculpture. In the execution of this kind of work, the operator is guided by patterns, formed from the well-defined rules of the science of building. Very few stone-cutters attempt the execution of work so very difficult. 8. From the manufacture of mantel-pieces and monuments for the dead, the stone-cutter derives a great proportion of his profits. This will be manifest even to the superficial observer who may visit a few of the many stone-cutters’ yards, to be found in any of our large cities. In some of these, blocks of mar¬ ble are cut into slabs by the aid of steam-power. 9. In districts of country, also, where valuable stone is abundant, water is extensively employed for the same purpose. This is especially the case in Berkshire county, Massachusetts, where marble of a good quality is abundant. A great proportion of the marble slabs used by the stone-cutter are obtained from such mills. Some other operations of this busi¬ ness are also sometimes performed by the aid of ma¬ chinery. THE STONE-MASON. 1. In Philadelphia, and in many other cities not only in this country, but also in Europe, the stone-cut¬ ters set their own work ; and this practice has led to THE S T 0 N E-M A S O N. 117 the habit of applying the term stone-mason to both stone-cutters and those who lay stone in mortar and cement. In New-York, however, as well as in some of the cities farther east, these two employments are kept more distinct. The stone-cutters in Philadelphia are sometimes denominated marble-masons. 2. But, in every city, there are persons called stone¬ masons, whose business consists exclusively in con¬ structing the walls and some other parts of buildings with stone ; and their operations are considerably en¬ larged in those places where there are no marble-ma¬ sons. In many cases, the bricklayer is also so far a stone-mason, as to lay the foundation-walls of the buildings which he may erect. This is especially the case in the country, where the divisions of labor are not so minute as in cities. It may be well here to remark, also, that the bricklayers, in some places, per¬ form the services of the marble-mason. 3. The marble-mason, in joining together several pieces in a monument, employs a kind of cement composed of about six parts of lime, one of pure sand, a little plaster, and as much water as may be necessary to form it to the proper consistency. No more of this cement is used than is required to hold the blocks or parts together, as one great object of the artist is to hide the joints as much as possible. The substance thus interposed, becomes as hard as the marble itself. 4. The cement employed in laying marble in com¬ mon or large edifices, is somewhat different from that just described, as it consists of about three fourths of lime and one of sand. The latter substance is ob¬ tained, in an unmixed state, on the bays in every part of the world; hence it has received the appellation of bay sand. 5. When it cannot be conveniently had in a pure state, particles of the same kind can be separated in 118 THE S T 0 N E-M A S 0 N. sufficient quantities from their admixture with other substances. This is effected by sifting the compound through a sieve, into a small stream of water, which carries off the lighter particles that are unfit for use, whilst the sand, by its superior specific gravity, sinks to the bottom. The part which may be too coarse, remains in the sieve. This, however, except the rub¬ bish, can be used in the coarser kinds of masonry. 6. The mortar, used in laying bricks and common stone, has a greater proportion of sand, which is gen¬ erally of an inferior quality. Besides, the materials are incorporated with less care. Lime for the pur¬ poses of building is procured chiefly by calcining limestone in a kiln, with wood, coal, or some other combustible substance. It is also obtained by burn¬ ing chalk, marble, and marine shells. Water poured upon newly-burnt or quick lime, causes it to swell, and fall to pieces into a fine powder. In this state it is said to be slacked. 7. Masonry is often required in situations under water, especially in the construction of bridges and locks of canals. Common mortar resists the action of the water very well, when it has become perfectly dry; yet, if it is immersed before it has had time to harden, it dissolves, and crumbles away. 8. The ancient Romans, who practised building in the water to a great extent, discovered a material, which, when incorporated with lime, either with or without sand, possessed the property of hardening in a few minutes even under water. This was a kind of earth found at Puteoli, to which was given the name of pulvis puteolanus, and which is the same now called puzzolana. 9. A substance denominated tarras, terras , or tras f found near Andernach, in the vicinity of the Rhine, possesses the same quality with puzzolana. It is this material which has been principally employed by the THE STONE-MASON. 119 Dutch, whose aquatic structures are superior to those of any other nation in Europe. Various other sub¬ stances, such as baked clay and calcined greenstone, reduced to powder, afford a tolerable material for water-cements. Several quarries of water lime, which is similar in appearance to common limestone, has been lately discovered in the United States, which, being finely pulverized and mixed with sand, makes very good water-cement. 10. In buildings constructed with marble and oth¬ er costly stones, the walls are not composed of these materials in their entire thickness; but, for the sake of cheapness, they are formed on the inside with bricks, commonly of a poor quality, so that in re¬ ality they can be considered only brick walls faced with stone. These two kinds of materials have no other connexion than what is produced by the mortar which may have been interposed, and the occasional use of clamps of iron. Such walls are said to be lia¬ ble to become convex outwardly from the difference in the shrinking of the cement employed in laying the two walls. 11. The principal tools employed in cutting and laying stone are the saw, various kinds of steel points, chisels and hammers, the mallet, the square, the com¬ passes, the level, the plumb-rule, the trowel, and the hod, to which may be added, the spade and the hoe. The last three instruments, however, are handled al¬ most exclusively by laborers. 12. Besides these, contrivances are required to raise heavy materials to the various positions which they are to occupy. These consist, for the most part, of one or two shafts, commonly the mast of an old vessel, to which are attached tackle extending in va¬ rious directions, and also those by which the blocks are to be raised. The rope belonging to the hoisting tackle is pulled by a machine worked with a crank. 120 THE BRICKMAKER. 13. Masonry is one of the primitive arts, and was carried to great perfection in ancient times. The pyramids of Egypt are supposed to have stood about three thousand years, and they will probably remain for centuries to come, monuments as well of the folly as of the power and industry of man. The temples and other magnificent structures of Greece and Rome, exhibit wonderful skill in masonry, and leave but little, if anything new, to be achieved in modern times. THE BRICKMAKER. 1. Brick is a sort of artificial stone, made princi¬ pally of argillaceous earths formed in moulds, dried in the sun, and burned with fire. 2. The earliest historical notice of bricks is found in the book of Genesis, where it is stated that the pos¬ terity of Noah undertook to build a city and a lofty tower of this material. Whether the bricks were really exposed to the action of fire, as the passage re¬ ferred to seems to imply, or only dried in the sun, is. an unsettled point. But Herodotus, who visited the spot many centuries afterwards, states that the bricks in the tower of Babylon were baked in furnaces. 3. It is evident, however, that the earliest bricks were commonly hardened in the sun; and, to give them the requisite degree of tenacity, chopped straw was mixed with the clay. The manufacture of such bricks was one of the tasks imposed upon the Israel¬ ites, during their servitude with the Egyptians. 4. The extreme dryness and heat of the climate in some of the eastern countries, rendered the application of fire dispensable; and there are structures of un¬ burnt bricks still remaining, which were built two or three thousand years ago. Bricks both sun-dried and burned, were used by the Greeks and the Romans. 5. The walls of Babylon, some of the ancient struc¬ tures of Egypt and Persia, the walls of Athens, the THE BRICKMAKER. 121 rotunda of the Pantheon, the temple of Peace, and the Thermae, or baths, at Rome, were all built of brick. The most common bricks among the Romans were seventeen inches long and eleven broad ; a size, cer¬ tainly, far preferable, as regards appearance, to those of modern manufacture. 6. In the United States, a great proportion of the edifices, particularly in the cities and towns, are con¬ structed of bricks, which are usually manufactured in the vicinity of the place where they are to be used. The common clay, of which they are made, consists of a mixture of argillaceous earth and sand, with a little oxyde of iron, which causes them to turn red in burn¬ ing. The material for bricks is dug up, and thrown into a large heap, late in the fall or in the winter, and exposed to the influence of the frost until spring. 7. The operation of making bricks is conducted very systematically; and, although every part of the work seems to be very simple, it requires considerable dexterity to perform it properly and to the best advan¬ tage. The workmen, in the yards about Philadelphia, are divided into gangs consisting of three men and a boy. The first is called the temperer, who tempers the material with water and mixes it with a spade; the second is called the wheeler, who conveys it on a barrow to a table, where it is formed in moulds by the moulder , whence it is carried to the floor by the boy, who is denominated the off-bearer. 8. The bricks are suffered to remain on the floor a day or two, or until they have become dry enough to be handled with safety. They are then removed and piled into a hack, under cover, in such a manner that the air may circulate freely between them. It is the business of the whole gang to remove the bricks from the floor, and also to place them in the kiln to be burned. In both cases, each one has his due pro¬ portion of labor to perform. II.—L 122 THE BRICKMAKER. 9. The day’s work of a gang, when the weather is favorable, is to make and pile in the hack a tale of bricks, which consists of 2332, or an even 2000. The former number is called a long tale , and the latter, a short tale. Considerable skill and much care are re¬ quired in burning the bricks in a proper manner; too much fire would cause them to vitrify, and too little would leave them soft, and unfit for atmospheric exposure. 10. In many places, the clay is mixed or prepared for the moulder by driving round upon it a yoke of oxen, or by means of a simple machine, consisting of a beam, into which has been driven a great number of spokes. One end of this beam is confined in a cen¬ tral position, while the other is moved round in a sweep by animal power. 11. Machines have also been invented by the aid of which the clay may be both mixed and moulded; but these have been very little used. A machine, however, is often employed in pressing bricks which have been formed in the usual manner. The pressing is done after the bricks have become partially dry. Such bricks are employed in facing the walls of the better kinds of structures. 12. Tiles .—Tiles are plates used for covering roofs. They resemble bricks in their composition and mode of manufacture, and are shaped in such a man¬ ner that when placed upon a building, the edge of one tile receives that next to it, so that water cannot per¬ colate between them. Tiles, both of burnt clay and marble, were used by the ancients ; and the former continue to be employed in various parts of Europe. Flat tiles are used for floors in many countries, and especially in Italy. THE BRICKLAYER. 123 THE BRICKLAYER. 1. The particular business of the bricklayer is to lay bricks in mortar or some other cement, so as to form one solid body ; but he frequently constructs the foundations of buildings in rough stones, and, in some cities, he sets hewn stone in the superstructure. In the country, plastering is likewise connected with this business. 2. Bricklaying consists in placing one brick upon another in mortar, chiefly in the construction of walls, chimneys, and ovens. In connecting these mate¬ rials, especially in walls, two methods are employed, one of which is called the English bond , and the other, the Flemish bond. In the former method, the bricks are most commonly of one quality, and are laid crosswise and lengthwise in alternate rows. The bricks which are laid across the wall are called head¬ ers , and those which are laid in the other direction are called stretchers. The brick-work of the Romans was of this kind, and so are the partition-walls of many modem brick edifices. 3. The bricks employed in the walls constructed according to the Flemish method, are of two, and fre¬ quently of three, qualities. Those placed in the front, or on the external surface, are manufactured with greater care, and, in some cases, are formed in a lar¬ ger mould. A wall put up on this principle may be said to consist of two thin walls composed of stretch¬ ers, with occasional headers, to unite them together. The space between them, when the wall is thick, is filled in with the inferior bricks. 4. The inclosing walls of all brick edifices are erected on this plan, although they are thought to be more insecure than those constructed on the old Eng¬ lish method. The reasons alleged for the prefer¬ ence, are its superior beauty, and a considerable sa- 124 THE BRICKLAYER. ving in the most expensive kind of bricks. Greater security might be attained by the use of larger bricks, say sixteen inches in length, and wide and thick in proportion. Besides, an edifice constructed of well- made bricks of this size would be but little inferior in appearance to marble itself. 5. Most of the instruments used by the bricklay¬ er are also employed by the stone-mason; and they have, therefore, been already mentioned. The par¬ ticular method of laying bricks, in their various appli¬ cations, can be learned by actual inspection in almost every village, city, or neighborhood, in our country, a more particular description of the bricklayer’s oper¬ ations is hence unnecessary. 6. Before closing this subject, however, it may be well to state that the chimney appears to be an in¬ vention comparatively modern, since the first certain notice we have of it is found in an inscription at Ven¬ ice, in which it is stated that, in 1347, a great many chimneys were thrown down by an earthquake. It is conjectured that this valuable improvement origi¬ nated in Italy, inasmuch as it was here that chimney¬ sweeping was first followed as a business. 7. Before the introduction of the chimney, it was customary to make the fire in a hole or pit in the centre or some other part of the floor, under an open¬ ing formed in the roof, which, in unfavorable weath¬ er, could be closed by a moveable covering. Among the Romans, the hearth or fire-place was located in the atrium or hall, and around it the lares, or house¬ hold gods, were placed. To avoid being infested with smoke, they burned dry wood soaked in the lees of oil. In warming other apartments of the house, they used portable furnaces, in which were placed embers and burning coals. 8. It is said by Seneca, who flourished about the middle of the first century of the Christian era, that THE PLASTERER. 125 in his time, a particular kind of pipes was invented, and affixed to the walls of buildings, through which heat from a subterranean furnace was made to circu¬ late. By this means, the rooms were heated more equally. In the southern parts of Italy and Spain, there are still very few chimneys. The same may be said of many other countries, where the climate is pleasant or very wai'm. 9. Hollinshead, who wrote during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, thus describes the rudeness of the preceding generation in the arts of life : “ There were very few chimneys even in capital towns : the fire was laid to the wall, and the smoke issued out at the roof, or door, or window. The houses were wattled, and plastered over with clay; and all the furniture and utensils were of wood. The people slept on straw pallets, with a log of wood for a pillow.” THE PLASTERER. 1. In modern practice, plastering occurs in many departments of architecture. It is more particularly applied to the ceilings and interior walls of buildings, and also in rough-casting on their exterior. 2. In plastering the interior parts of buildings, three coatings of mortar are commonly applied in succes¬ sion. The mortar for the first coat is composed of about twelve parts of sand, six of lime, and three of hair, with a sufficient quantity of water to bring it to the proper consistence; that for the second coat con¬ tains a less proportion of lime and hair; and that for the third coat is composed exclusively of lime and water. 3. The mortar is applied directly to the solid wall, or to thin strips of wood called laths, which have been fastened with small nails to the joists, and other parts of the frame of the building. The tools with which the plasterer applies the mortar are trowels of different L 2 126 THE PLASTERER. I I sizes and shapes, and the hawk. The latter instru¬ ment is a board about a foot square, with a short handle projecting at right angles from the bottom. 4. In all well-finished rooms, cornices are run at the junction of the wall and ceiling. The materials of these cornices are lime, water, and plaster. The lime and water are first incorporated, and the plaster is added with an additional quantity of water, as it may be needed for immediate application. The com¬ position is applied in a semifluid state, but the plaster causes it to set , or to become solid immediately. In the mean time, the workman applies to it, in a pro¬ gressive manner, the edge of a solid piece of wood, in which an exact profile of the proposed cornice has been cut. 5. Ornaments of irregular shape are cast in moulds of wax or plaster of Paris, and these are formed on models of the proposed figures in clay. Such orna¬ ments were formerly the productions of manual opera¬ tions performed by ingenious men called ornamental plasterers. The casts are all made of the purest plas¬ ter ; and, after having been polished, they are fastened to the proper place with the same substance saturated with water. 6. The branch of this business called rough-casting, consists in applying mortar to the exterior walls of houses. The mode in which the work is performed varies but little from that adopted in plastering the walls of apartments. It, however, requires only two coats of the cement; and, when these have been ap¬ plied, the surface is marked off in imitation of masonry. It is likewise sometimes colored, that it may resemble marble or some other stone. 7. The cement is commonly made of sharp sand and lime ; but sometimes a kind of argillaceous stone, calcined in kilns and afterwards reduced to powder by mechanical means, makes a part of the composition. THE SLATER. 127 The qualities of this material were first discovered by a Mr. Parker, who obtained letters patent for this ap. pHcation of it, in England, in 1796 ; hence it has been called Parker's cement . THE SLATER. 1. Slate stone is valuable for the property of split¬ ting in one direction, so as to afford fragments of a sufficient size and thinness to answer several purposes, but especially for covering houses and for writing slates. The best slates are those which are even and compact, and which absorb the least water. 2. The slates used in the United States, are obtain¬ ed either from our own quarries, of which there are several, or from those of Wales, in the county of Caer¬ narvonshire. The stone is quarried in masses, which are afterwards split into pieces of suitable thinness. These are trimmed to an oblong figure by means of a knife and a steel edge, which act upon the slate much in the manner of a large pair of shears. 3. As it is impossible to dress all the slates to the same size without much waste of material, those en¬ gaged in their manufacture have introduced several sizes, the smallest of which are made of the fragments of the larger kinds. These are designated by names known to the trade, and to those practically conver¬ sant with the art of building. 4. The slates, when brought to market, especially those from Wales, require additional dressing to fit them for use. The manner of applying them to roofs differs but little from that employed in putting on shingles, as they are lapped over each other in the same way, and confined to their place by means of nails of a similar kind. The nails, however, have a broader head, and are somewhat larger, varying in size to suit the dimensions of the slate. The holes in the slate for the nails are made with a steel point at- 128 THE SLATER. tached to the slater’s hammer, or to his knife, tech¬ nically called a saix. 5. Slates are preferable to shingles on account of their durability, and, in a majority of situations, for their fire-proof quality. They, however, are objec¬ tionable on account of their weight and expensiveness, and are therefore beginning to be superseded in this country by sheets of zinc, and by those of iron coated with tin. Copper and lead are also used for roofs, but the metals just mentioned are beginning to ex¬ clude them altogether. 6. A serious objection to metal roofs has been their liability to crack, caused by the contraction and expan¬ sion of the material, in consequence of variations in the temperature of the weather; but a particular method of putting the sheets together has been lately devised, which appears to obviate the difficulty. Tiles are not used in this country, although in Europe they are very common. THE PAINTER, AND THE GLAZIER. THE HOUSE AND SIGN PAINTER. 1. The painting which is the subject of this article relates to forming letters and sometimes ornamental and significant figures on signs, as well as to the ap¬ plication of paints to houses and other structures, for the purpose of improving their appearance, and of preserving them from the influence of the atmosphere and other destructive agents. 2. The substances capable of being employed by the house and sign painter, comprise a great variety of articles, derived from the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms ; but he ordinarily confines his se¬ lection to but few, among which are white lead, lith¬ arge, Spanish brown, yellow ochre, chrome yellow, 130 THE PAINTER. red ochre, terra di sienna, lampblack, verdigris, lin¬ seed-oil, spirits of turpentine, and gold-leaf. 3. White lead and litharge are manufactured in great quantities at chemical works, sometimes estab¬ lished for the express purpose of making these and some other preparations of lead. The substances of which we are now speaking, are produced in the fol¬ lowing manner : the lead, in form of a continued sheet, about three feet long, six inches wide, and one line in thickness, is wound spirally up in such a manner, that the coils may stand about half an inch apart. 4. The metal in this form is placed vertically in earthen vessels, at the bottom of which is some strong vinegar. These vessels, being placed in sand, horse manure, or tan, are exposed to a gentle heat, which causes the gradual evaporation of the vinegar. The vapor thus produced, assisted by the oxygen which is present, converts the exposed surface into a car¬ bonate of lead, the substance known as white lead, or ceruse. 5. The corrosion of one of these sheets occupies from three to six weeks, during which time it is re¬ peatedly uncoiled and scraped. Litharge, or flake white, is nothing more than the densest and thickest scales produced in the manner just described. It can be obtained in a pure state from the dealers in paints, whereas the white lead of commerce is most common¬ ly adulterated with chalk. 6. Spanish brown, yellow ochre, and terra di sien¬ na, are earths impregnated with iron in different de¬ grees of oxydation. Red ochre is yellow ochre burn¬ ed. Chrome yellow is extensively manufactured in Baltimore, from the chromate of iron, found near that city. In chemical phraseology, the manufactured ar¬ ticle is the chromate of lead, since the chromate is THE PAINTER. 131 separated from the iron by the aid of a solution of the nitrate or acetate of lead. 7. Linseed.oil is obtained from flax-seed by press¬ ure. It is afterwards filtered, and then suffered to remain at rest, to precipitate and clarify. This oil improves in quality by keeping, as it becomes, in a few years, as transparent as water. In this state, it is employed in the finest painting. 8. Before the oil is used, it is commonly boiled with a small quantity of litharge and red lead, to cause it to dry rapidly, after the paint has been ap¬ plied. During the boiling, the scum is removed as fast as it rises, and this is mixed with inferior paints of a dark color. Linseed-oil, thus prepared, is vend¬ ed by dealers in paints, under the name of boiled oil. 9. Spirits of turpentine is produced by distilling with water the resinous juice or sap of several species of the pine. The residuum, after distillation, is the turpentine of commerce. Spirits of turpentine is mixed with paints, to cause them to dry with rapidity. Like oil, it improves with age, and it is sold in the same manner by the common wine measure. 10. White lead, and several other principal paints, are purchased in their crude condition, and reduced to a state of minute division in paint-mills. They are afterwards mixed with boiled oil, and put up in kegs of different sizes for sale. Many articles, however, are pulverized, and sold in a dry state. The prepar¬ ation of paints is commonly a distinct business, and very few painters seem to be acquainted with the mode in which it is performed. 11. In mixing colors for house and sign painting, white lead forms the basis of all the ingredients. This the color preparer, or the painter himself, mod¬ ifies and changes by the addition of coloring mate¬ rials, until it is tinged with the proposed hue. The pigments derived from vegetable bodies, produce, when 132 THE PAINTER. first applied to surfaces, a brilliant effect; but they cannot long resist the combined influence of air and light, while the mineral colors, in the same exposure, remain unchanged. 12. Painters, in the execution of their work, com- monly lay on three coats of paint. In communicating a white, the two first coats are composed of white lead and oil; and in the last, spirits of turpentine is substituted for the oil, for the inside work. For the outside of buildings, especially in warm and dry cli¬ mates, this liquid is inapplicable, since it causes the paint to crack and flake off*. It is, however, frequent¬ ly used, when the painter is compelled to do his work at too low a rate, or when he is regardless of his rep¬ utation. 13. For other colors, the composition for the dif¬ ferent coats is the same, except for the two last, in which other coloring substances are added to the ma¬ terials just mentioned, to give the proposed hue. The tools for painting houses are few in number, and con¬ sist chiefly of brushes of different sizes, made of hog’s bristles. 14. Graining is understood, among painters, to be the imitation of the different species of scarce woods used for the best articles of furniture. But the man¬ ner in which this kind of work is executed can be hardly gathered from a concise description, although it may be easily learned from a practical exhibition of the process by a painter. 15. Ornamental painting embraces the execution of friezes and other decorative parts of architecture on walls and ceilings. The ornaments are drawn in out¬ line with a black-lead pencil, and then painted and shaded, to give the proper effect. Some embellish¬ ments of this kind are executed in gold-leaf, in the same manner with gold letters on signs. This kind of work is called gilding in oil. THE GLAZIER. 133 16. Painting in oil, as applied to the execution of designs, seems to have been invented, or at least to have been brought into notice, in the early part of the fifteenth century, by John Van Eyck, of Flanders. Before this time, house-painting, so far as the exterior was concerned, could have been but little, if at all, practised. 17. One profitable branch of common painting is that of painting and lettering signs. In performing this kind of work, the sign is first covered with two or three uniform coats of paint. The letters are next slightly sketched with chalk or a lead-pencil, and then formed in colors with a camels’-hair brush. When the letters are to be gilt, the process, so far, is precisely the same. The leaf is laid upon the letters, while the paint is in a tenacious state, and is suffered to remain untouched, until the oil has become dry, after which the superfluous gold is removed. The whole is then covered with an oil varnish, which, in plain lettering, completes the operation. THE GLAZIER. 1. Glazing, as practised in this country, consists chiefly in setting panes of glass in window-sashes. In the performance of this operation, the glazier first fits the panes to the sash by cutting away, if neces¬ sary, a part of the latter with a chisel; he then fast¬ ens the glass slightly with little pieces of tin, which have been cut to a triangular shape; and, lastly, he applies putty at their junction with the sash, and by this means confines them firmly and permanently to their place. The putty is made of linseed-oil and whiting. The latter of these materials is chalk cleared of its grosser impurities, and ground in a color-mill. 2. Plain glazing is so simple, that no person need serve an apprenticeship to learn it; and there are but few who confine their attention to this business exclu- II.—M 134 THE GLAZIER. sively. It is commonly connected with some other of greater difficulty, such as that of the carpenter and joiner, or house and sign painter, but with the latter more frequently than any other. 3. When the glass, as received from the manufac¬ turer, may not be of the size and shape required for a proposed application, the panes are cut by means of a diamond fixed in lead, and secured by a ferrule of brass, which is fastened to a small cylindrical han¬ dle of hard wood. This instrument is used, in con¬ junction with a straight edge, like a pencil in ruling lines on paper for writing. The glass is afterwards broken in the direction of the fracture, by a slight pressure downwards. 4. Although glass windows seem to us to be indis¬ pensable to comfort, yet glass had been manufactured many centuries in considerable perfection, before it was applied to this purpose. The houses in oriental countries had commonly no windows in front, and those on the other sides were provided with curtains, or with a moveable trellis-work in summer, and in winter with oiled paper. 5. In Rome and other cities of the empire, thin leaves of a certain kind of stone called lapis specula - ris were used. Windows of this material, however, were employed only in the principal apartments of great houses, in gardens, sedans, and the like. Paper made of the Egyptian papyrus, linen cloth, thin plates of marble, agate, and horn, seem likewise to have been used. 6. The first certain information we have of the employment of glass panes in windows, is found in the writings of Gregory of Tours, who flourished in the last quarter of the sixth century. This prelate states that the churches were furnished with windows of colored glass, in the fourth century after Christ. The oldest glass windows now in existence were of THE GLAZIER. 135 the twelfth century, and are in the Church of St. Denis, the most ancient edifice of this description in France. 7. ./Eneas Sylvius accounted it one of the most striking instances of splendor which he met with in Vienna, in 1458, that most of the houses had glass windows. In France, all the churches had these con¬ veniences in the sixteenth century, although there were but few in private dwellings. Talc, isinglass, plates of white horn, oiled paper, and thinly shaved leather, were used instead of glass. A similar state of things prevailed in England. 8. The glass used for the windows of churches and other public buildings, after the fourth century, was very commonly intrinsically colored or superficially painted. Painting on glass had its origin in the third century, and at first it consisted in the mere arrange¬ ment of small pieces of glass of different colors in some sort of symmetry, and constituted a kind of mo¬ saic-work. 9. Afterwards, when more regular designs came to be attempted, such as the human figure, the whole ad¬ dress of the artist went no farther than drawing the outlines of the objects in black on glass resembling in color the subjects to be represented. The art, in this state of advancement, was spread over a great part of Europe. 10. About the beginning of the fifteenth century, a method of fixing metallic colors in glass by means of heat was discovered, and from this the art derived great advantages. It flourished most during the fif¬ teenth and sixteenth centuries; but it declined in the following age, and in the eighteenth century it was very little practised in any country. It has, however, been partially revived, of late, in Germany. A very good specimen of this kind of painting, as well as of colored glass, may be seen in St. John’s Church, in Philadelphia. THE TURNER. 1. Turning is a very useful art, by which a great variety of articles are almost exclusively manufactu¬ red. Besides this, it constitutes a considerable part of the operations of several trades and occupations, such as the chairmaker, machinist, cabinet-maker, brass-founder, &c., since every substance of a solid' nature can be submitted to the process. 2. Turning is performed in a lathe, an apparatus constructed in various ways, according to the particu¬ lar purposes to which it is to be applied, although, in all cases, the general principle of its operation is the same. The kind represented in the above picture, is used for plain or circular turning in wood. On ex¬ amination, it will be perceived, that two wheels of dif¬ ferent sizes make essential parts of it. On the extend- THE TURNER. 137 ed axle of the smaller one, is fastened the piece to be turned; and immediately in front of this is the rest , on which the cutting instrument is supported during the performance of the operation. 3. When the material to be turned is wood, it is commonly cut to the proper length with a saw, and brought to a form approaching to the cylindrical by means of an axe or drawing-knife. It is next fasten¬ ed in the lathe. This is done by different means, varying according to the particular form of the thing to be turned. In plain circular turning, as applied to bed-posts, legs of tables, and rounds for chairs, the piece is supported at each end. That at the left hand is driven upon a piece of steel, which has been screwed upon the extended axle of the small wheel; and the other end is fixed upon a steel point, placed in an up¬ right moveable piece called a puppet.Jiead. 4. In case the wood is to be turned on the inside, as in making a bowl, cup, or mortar, the piece is sup¬ ported altogether at one end, by means of a hollow cylinder of wood, brass, or iron, called a chuck , which receives it on one side, and on the other is screwed upon the end of the axle. The axle is sometimes called the mandril, and any extension of it, by means of a piece added to it for a centre, on which anything may be turned which will admit of a hole through it, is denominated an arbor . 5. The tools used in turning wood and ivory, are gouges and chisels of different sizes and shapes. In using these, they are placed upon the rest , and brought in contact with the revolving material of the proposed figure. The gouge is employed in cutting away the rough exterior, and the chisel, in producing a still fur¬ ther reduction, and a greater smoothness of surface. 6. In working in very hard wood and in ivory, the grooving tool, a sharp pointed instrument somewhat similar to the graver, is used in the first part of the M2 138 THE TURNER. operation; and by this the grain of the substance is cut into contiguous grooves, and prepared for an easy reduction by the chisel. The instruments for turning metals are numerous, but they differ in some respects from those for cutting wood. 7. In almost every kind of turning, a tool called the calipers is necessary for measuring the diameters of the work. In its form, it bears some resemblance to the compasses or dividers. One or both of the legs, however, are curved ; and one kind of this instrument has four legs, two curved, or two straight, at each end, with a pivot in the centre, on which it is opened and shut. The former of these is employed in measuring the dimensions of outside work, and the latter, for that on the inside. This kind is called the in-and-out cal¬ ipers ; and it is especially useful in turning a cylinder, or pin, which shall exactly fit an internal cylinder al¬ ready made, and vice versd . 8. There is but little difference in the management of turning different substances. The principal thing to be attended to is to adapt the velocity of the motion to the nature of the material; thus wood will work best with the greatest velocity that can be given to it. Brass should have a motion about half as quick as wood, and iron and steel still less; for, in operating on metallic substances, the tool is liable to become hot, and lose its temper ; besides which, a certain time is requisite for the act of cutting to take place. 9. When compared with many other mechanical operations, the art of turning may be considered as perfect in its accuracy and expedition. The lathe is, therefore, resorted to for the performance of every work of which it is capable; nor is its use confined to the production of forms perfectly cylindrical, for it can be easily made to produce figures of irregular shape, such as lasts, gunstocks, &c. 10. The lathe was well known to the Greeks and THE TURNER. 139 Romans, as well as to many other nations of antiquity. Diodorus Siculus, who wrote in the time of Julius Caesar and Augustus, says that it was invented by one Talus, a nephe of Daedalus. Pliny ascribes it to Theodore, of Samos, and mentions one Thericles, who had rendered himself very famous by his dexterity in managing the lathe. The Greek and Latin authors frequently mention this instrument; and, among the ancients, it was customary to express the accuracy and nicety of a thing by saying, it was formed in a lathe. THE CABINET-MAKER,'AND THE UPHOLSTERER. THE CABINET-MAKER. 1. It is the business of the cabinet-maker to man¬ ufacture particular kinds of household furniture, such as tables, stands, bureaus, sideboards, desks, book¬ cases, sofas, bedsteads, &c., as well as a certain de¬ scription of chairs made of mahogany and maple. Many of the operations of this business are similar to those of the carpenter and joiner, although they re¬ quire to be conducted with greater nicety and exact¬ ness. 2. The qualifications of a finished cabinet-maker are numerous and of difficult acquisition ; so that they are seldom concentrated in any single individual. He requires not only a correct taste, but also a knowl¬ edge of drawing, architecture, and mechanics, besides the abilities of a good practical workman. THE CABINE T-M AKER. 141 3. A knowledge of drawing is especially useful in designing new articles of furniture, or in improving the form of those which have been already introduced. It also enables the artist to determine with accuracy what would be the general effect of furniture, were different pieces of it placed in any proposed apart¬ ment ; and, combined with architectural knowledge, it enables him to adapt the style of his wares to that of the building for which they may be designed. 4. In general, the principles of this business are fixed, so far as relates to the mode of operating in the execution of the work; yet continual changes are made in the form and construction of its various arti¬ cles, so as to keep pace with the advancement of cor¬ rect taste, or with the caprices of fashion. In fact, the shapes of furniture are almost as changeable as those of female dress; and this causes many expen¬ sive pieces to fall into disuse, while others are in¬ troduced, which, for a time, are considered indispen¬ sable to comfort, and which in turn enjoy but a tem¬ porary favor. 5. The cabinet-maker uses various kinds of wood in the manufacture of his wares ; but those which are most frequently employed in the United States are pine, maple, poplar, cherry, black walnut, white oak, beach, mahogany, and rose, all of which are abundant in this country, except the last two. Mahogany is brought in great quantities from the West Indies and South America; rose-wood is obtained chiefly from the West Indies and Brazil, although it was first in¬ troduced into notice from the island of Cyprus. 6. The applicability of mahogany to the manufac¬ ture of cabinet-ware, was accidentally discovered in London, about the year 1724. A physician, named Gibbons, received a present of some of the planks from his brother, a sea-captain, who had brought them from the W jst Indies, chiefly as ballast. The 142 THE CABINE T-M AKER. doctor was, at that time, erecting a house, and, sup- posing them to be adapted to the purposes of building, gave them to his workmen, who, on trial, rejected them as being too hard to be wrought with their tools. 7. A cabinet-maker was next employed to make a candle-box of some of it, and he also complained of the hardness of the timber; but, when the box was finished, it outshone in beauty all the doctor’s other furniture. He then required a bureau to be made of the same kind of material; and this, having been fin¬ ished, became the subject of exhibition to his friends, as a piece of remarkable beauty. The wood was immediately taken into general favor, and it soon be¬ came an article of merchandise of considerable im¬ portance. 8. In giving the reader a view of the operative part of this business, we have selected the bureau as affording the best means of illustration. The mate¬ rial which composes the frame and drawers of this piece of furniture, is commonly some kind of soft wood, such as pine or poplar; and this is faced with thin layers of mahogany in those parts which are to be exposed to view. 9. The materials for the frame and drawers are first marked out, and the several pieces reduced to the form and dimensions required, with planes and other instruments. Thin pieces of mahogany are firmly fixed to the surfaces which require them. This part of the work is called veneering. The work¬ man prepares the surface of the soft wood for the ve¬ neer, by cutting it into small contiguous grooves by means of a small plane, the cutting edge of which is full of little notches and teeth. 10. -Melted glue having been spread upon both sur¬ faces with a brush, the parts are placed in contact, and firmly pressed together by means of hand-screws. Before the screws are applied, the surface of the ve- THE CABINE T-M AKER. 143 neer is covered with a piece of heated board, termed, in this application, a caul. One piece of this kind commonly serves a veneer on each side of it at the same time. 11. The mahogany thus attached to the softer wood, is afterwards wrought with the toothed-plane , and others of the common kind. It is then scraped with a flat piece of steel, having edges which act upon the surface in the same manner as pieces of broken panes of glass. The polishing is finished, so far as it is carried at this stage of the process, by the use of sand-paper. 12. The several pieces which compose the frame of the bureau are put together with the joint called mortice and tenon; and those which form the four sides of the drawers, with that called dove-tail . The bottom is united to the sides on the right and left, and sometimes in front, by the groove-and-tongue , and its rear edge is fastened with a few nails. The hearers of the drawers are fastened on by means of nails. 13. The joints are made to fit not only by the ac¬ curacy of the work, but by the application of glue previous to the union of the parts; this is especially the case with the mortice and tenon. The back of the bureau is composed of some cheap wood, such as pine or poplar ; but the panel at each end is most commonly plain mahogany through its entire thick¬ ness. 14. The parts which are to be exposed to view are next to be varnished and polished. The material for the former purpose is called copal varnish, because one of the principal ingredients in it is a kind of gum called copal, which is obtained from various parts of South America. This kind of varnish is made by melting the gum with an equal quantity of linseed-oil and spirits of turpentine or alcohol. 15. To give the work a complete finish, four coats 144 THE CABINE T-M AKER. of varnish are successively applied; in addition to these, a particular kind of treatment is used after lay¬ ing on and drying each coat. After the application of the first coat, the surface is rubbed with a piece of wood of convenient form ; after the second, with sand¬ paper and pulverized pumice-stone; after the third, with pumice-stone again; and after the fourth, with very finely powdered pumice-stone and rotten-stone. A little linseed-oil is next applied, and the whole pro¬ cess is finished by rubbing the surface with the hand charged with flour. 16. Some parts of several pieces of furniture are turned in the lathe ; and, in large cities, this part of the work is performed by professed turners. The veneering of certain kinds of work of a cylindrical form is, also, in some cases, a distinct business ; but, in places distant from large cities, the whole work is commonly performed by the cabinet-maker himself. 17. Mahogany is brought to market in logs hewn to a square form ; and persons who deal in it, com¬ monly purchase it in large quantities, and cause it to be sawn into pieces of suitable dimensions for sale. Formerly, and in some cases at present, slabs were sawn into thin pieces for veneering by hand ; but, within a few years, a more expeditious method, by the circular saw, has been adopted. In performing the operation by this means, the slab is placed upon its edge, and shoved along against the teeth of the rapid¬ ly-revolving saw. It is kept in the proper position by holding the right side of it firmly against an up¬ right plank, called the rest. 18. Mahogany is either plain , mottled, or crotched; nevertheless, the different kinds expressed by these terms are met with in the same tree. The variega¬ ted kinds are found at or near the joining of the limbs to the trunk; and these are used almost exclusively for veneering. The plain sort is employed for more THE UPHOLSTERER. 145 common purposes, and in those parts of furniture re¬ quired to be less splendid in appearance. It may be well to remark, also, that plain mahogany is often ve¬ neered, as well as the softer woods. Black walnut, white oak, rose, and several other woods, are likewise used for veneering, although not so much as mahog¬ any. Our native woods will be hereafter more used in this way, since mahogany is becoming scarce. 19. In Europe, particularly in England, the busi¬ ness of the cabinet-maker is commonly united with that of the upholsterer ; and this is sometimes the case in the United States. All, however, who make sofas and chairs, intrude enough upon the latter bu¬ siness to cover and stuff them ; or they employ a journeyman upholsterer to perform this part of the work. c |1 > - / ^ . I t ‘ 4 - ‘ ' "... THE UPHOLSTERER. 1. The upholsterer makes beds, sacking-bottoms, mattresses, cushions, curtains for windows and beds, and cuts out, sews together, and fastens down, car¬ pets. One branch of his business, also, consists in covering or lining and stuffing sofas, and particular kinds of chairs, the frames of which are made by cab¬ inet-makers and fancy chair-makers. 2. Beds are stuffed with the feathers of geese and ducks. The sack which contains them, when in use, is called a tick, and the striped stuff of which it is composed, is called ticking . The feathers used by the upholsterer, are purchased from the feather-mer¬ chants, who in turn procure them from country mer¬ chants and pedlers. The dealer in feathers also em¬ ploys travelling agents to collect them in different parts of the country. 3. Beds and pillows are also made of down obtain¬ ed from the nests of the eider-duck, which is found in the northern parts of Europe and America, above lat- II.—N 146 fHE UPHOLSTERER. itude 45°. Eider-down is worth about two dollars per pound, and five or six times that quantity is suffi¬ cient for a bed of common size. 4. Mattresses are made of curled hair, moss, sha¬ vings of ratan, flock, straw, corn-husks, and cat-tail flag. The hair most employed for this purpose grows upon the tails of cattle, and upon the manes and tails of horses. It is purchased, in its natural state, from tanners, by persons who make it a business to pre¬ pare it for use. The last process of the preparation consists in twisting it into a kind of rope. These ropes are picked to pieces by the upholsterer, and the hair, in its curled and elastic state, is applied to stuf¬ fing mattresses, cushions, chairs, and sofas. 5. Moss is obtained from the Southern states of our Union, where it is found in great abundance, and of a good quality. Flock is made by reducing to a de¬ gree of fineness, by machinery, coarse tags of wool, pieces of woollen cloth, old stockings, and other wool¬ len offals of little or no value in any other application. Of all the materials for stuffing upholstery, hair is much the best, and, although it costs more in its ori¬ ginal purchase, it is much cheaper in the end. 6. In making and putting up window and bed cur¬ tains, considerable taste is required to insure success. A knowledge of drawing is particularly useful here, in improving the taste, as well as in exhibiting to customers the prevailing fashions, or any changes which may be proposed. The trimmings consist chief¬ ly of tassels, fringes, and gilded or brass fixtures. 7. We have not space for a particular description of the manner in which any of the operations of the upholsterer are performed ; nor is this necessary, since the work itself, in almost every specimen of it, affords obvious indications of the manner of its exe¬ cution. We will merely remark, that a great propor¬ tion of it is performed by females. THE UPHOLSTERER. 147 8. In the first ages of the world, it was the univer¬ sal practice to sleep upon the skins of beasts, and this is still the custom among the savage nations of the present* day. The Greeks and the Romans, in the early part of their history, slept in this manner, and so did the common people of some parts of Germany, even until modern times. 9. The first advancement from the use of skins was the substitution of rushes, heath, or straw, which was primarily strewed loosely on the ground or floor, and finally confined with ticking; and these and sim¬ ilar materials are still used by the poor in various parts of the world. So late as the close of the thir¬ teenth century, the royal family of England slept on beds made of straw. 10. During the civilized periods of antiquity, the wealthy commonly filled their beds with feathers. After the Romans had become luxurious, they used several kinds of beds, among which were the lectus cubicularis, or chamber bed, whereon they slept; the lectus discubitorius , or table bed, whereon they ate ; and the lectus lucubratorius, on which they studied. 11. The Romans adopted the Eastern fashion of reclining at their meals, at the close of the second Pu¬ nic war, about 200 years before Christ, when Scipio Africanus brought some little beds from Carthage, which were thence called Punicani. These beds were low, made of wood, covered with leather, and stuffed with hay or straw. Before this time, they sat down to eat on plain wooden benches, in imitation of the heroes of Homer, or after the manner of the Cre¬ tans and Lacedaemonians. 12. From the greatest simplicity, the Romans at length carried their supping beds to the most surpri¬ sing magnificence. The bedsteads were sometimes made of gold or silver, and very commonly of wood, adorned with plates of these metals or with tortoise 148 THE UPHOLSTERER. shell. On the couch was laid a mattress or quilt, stuffed with feathers or wool. 13. Three persons commonly occupied one couch. They lay with the upper part of the body reclined on the left arm, the head a little raised, the back support¬ ed by cushions, and the limbs stretched out at full length or a little bent. The feet of the first were placed behind the back of the second, and his feet behind the back of the third. Reclining at meals was customary in Asia, in the time of our Savior, as is clearly shown in John, xiii., 23 and 25, and this ren¬ dered it convenient for Mary to anoint the feet of Jesus, while at the table. 14. The Romans, during the republic, made their tables of a square form, and on three sides of it was placed a couch; but, under the emperors, a long couch of a semicircular form having been introduced, the ta¬ ble was made of a similar shape to conform to it. In either case, one side was left empty, to admit of the approach of the servants. 15. We have no certain evidence that carpets were known in the civilized periods of antiquity. They appear to have originated in Persia, at a time compar¬ atively modern, and to have spread in a gradual man¬ ner towards the West. They were unknown in Eng¬ land in the reign of Elizabeth; for it was then the fashion to strew the floor with hay and rushes. Even the presence-chamber of this princess was covered in this manner. The manufacture of carpets was not commenced in England, until the year 1750. They are now extensively manufactured in the United States. THE CHAIR-MAKER. 1. The chair was invented at so early a period, that its origin cannot now be ascertained. It was used by all the civilized nations of antiquity; and some of their patterns for this species of furniture have been revived, with some modifications, in mod¬ ern times; for example, a stool for sitting at the piano, now called the X, is the lower part of a chair used in the Roman empire near two thousand years ago. The seat and back were stuffed with some soft elastic substance. 2. The seats used by the barbarous conquerors of the Roman empire, hardly deserve the name of chairs, as they commonly consisted of little or nothing more than a stool with three or four legs. Even the great Alfred, who swayed the sceptre of England in the N 2 150 THE C H A I R-M AKER. latter part of the ninth century, possessed nothing ap¬ proaching nearer to a chair than a three-legged stool made of oak timber. This species of seat was at length improved into a chair by the addition of anoth¬ er leg and a back. 3. The next step in the art of chair-making was to cover the seats with cloth, and to stuff them with some kind of wadding. The material of which the frames were made was oak; and for a long period, they were exceedingly heavy and inconvenient. The armed-chair is said to have been contrived by an aider- man of Cripplegate. Such chairs, however, were in use among the ancient Greeks and Romans. 4. Our old-fashioned chair, with four upright posts, several horizontal rounds and slats, together with wooden splints or flags for the bottom, is compara¬ tively modern, although it is impossible to state the period of its introduction. Very few of any other kind were used in the United States, until near the beginning of the present century. 5. The Windsor chair seems to have been first used for a rural seat in the grounds about Windsor castle, England ; whence its name. It was originally constructed of round wood, with the bark on ; but the chair-makers soon began to make them of turned wood, for the common purposes of house-keeping. We can¬ not learn that any were made in this country before the close of the revolution, in 1783. 6. A great proportion of the chair-maker’s stuff is brought to the proper form by means of the lathe; and this machine is used for this purpose in every practicable case ; but this part of the work is not per¬ formed in the cities, since it is found to be less expen¬ sive and more convenient, to purchase the timber turn¬ ed in the country. Slats for the back, bent to the proper shape, are also obtained from the same source. 7. The Windsor chair is varied in its construction THE CHAIR-MAKER. 151 and finish, in some particulars ; but, in all cases, it has a seat made of thick plank of cypress, bass, or some other soft wood. The slats, when employed, are also made of the same wood, or of soft maple. The parts which are turned, are commonly of the wood last mentioned. 8. In constructing chairs from these materials, the workman undertakes several at a time, say from one to two or three dozens. We may suppose, as is fre¬ quently the case, that he first cuts up a quantity of planks to the proper size for the seats, and reduces them to the proposed form and smoothness by means of the drawing-knife, adze, spoke-shaves, and sand¬ paper. He next cuts the various pieces which are to compose the frame, to the proper length, turns the ends of those which need it, to make the joint, and bores the requisite holes with a bit. In putting the parts.together, the joints are made to fit very closely, and their union is rendered permanent by means ot glue. 9. The chairs are next covered with three coats of paint, and with two coats of copal or some other kind of varnish ; and this, for plain work, completes the whole process of the manufacture. But, when they are to be ornamented, gold or copper leaf or bronze is put on before the application of the last coat of var¬ nish. The bronze used by painters, is finely pulver¬ ized copper, tin, or zinc. 10. The ornamenter uses paper patterns, which he applies to the surface to be ornamented, to guide him in the execution of his work. The powder is laid on with a camel’s-hair brush, or with a piece of raw cot¬ ton. Light and shade are produced by a proper dis¬ tribution of the powder, or by paint of a dark colour. The bronze is made to adhere by means of size, which has been previously laid on. 11. Several other kinds of chairs are, also, made 152 THE C H A I R-M AKER. by the common chair-maker; and the frames, or some parts of them, are sawn out of planks with a narrow-bladed saw, which can be easily guided upon the line of any pattern. The principal parts of the frame are commonly put together with the mortice and tenon ; and the bottoms are composed of cane, flags, or a peculiar kind of rush. The cane is likewise used in the backs of chairs, especially in those having rock¬ ers. 12. The manufacture of mahogany chairs with stuffed seats, sometimes constitutes a distinct branch of business; at other times, it is connected with that of making sofas; and again, with cabinet-making in general. It is generally supposed, that rockers were first applied to chairs in this country, but at what time or by whom, it cannot be determined J THE CARVER, AND THE GILDER. THE CARVER. 1. Carving, in its widest sense, is the art of forming figures in various hard substances by means of some cutting instruments, such as a chisel or graver; but, in the restricted sense in which the term is generally applied, it has reference to the production of figures in wood. 2. Carving in wood, in all countries where it has been practised, has ever preceded sculpture, or carving in stone. It is, therefore, an art of the highest anti¬ quity ; and, although the same with sculpture in some of its applications, yet it differs from it somewhat in the mode of execution, according with the nature of the material. 3. The art of carving is very extensive in its appli- 154 THE CARVER. cation, being used in the decorative parts of architec¬ ture, both civil and naval, and likewise in ornamenting cabinet-ware, as well as in forming patterns for cast¬ ing in metals, particularly in iron and brass. The Gothic style of architecture is peculiarly rich in car¬ ved work; and the productions of some ages are more so than those of others. 4. The style of Louis the Fourteenth, of France, so called because practised in his reign, was more overloaded with ornament than any other. A lighter and more beautiful style succeeded, which is still em¬ ployed for some purposes; but generally the chaste and simple line of Grecian ornament now prevails. 5. In executing any proposed work, a drawing is first made on paper, commonly with a lead-pencil. The part of the paper not embraced in the outline is then cut away, and the remaining portion is laid upon the surface of the wood. The outlines are next drawn on the wood, by moving the pencil around those on the paper. The design having been thus transferred, the superfluous portions of the wood are cut away with carving tools, of which there is a considerable variety of both size and form. The tools are driven with a mallet or with the palm of the hand, but in most cases with the latter. 6. A capacity for designing, and a knowledge of drawing and modelling, are particularly necessary to make a finished carver. Without these qualifications, at least in some degree, one may be a mechanic, but not an artist. The subject most difficult of execu¬ tion, is the human- figure, and in producing it with ac¬ curacy, the same qualifications in the artist are re¬ quired, and the same general process is pursued, as in producing it in marble. THE GILDER. 155 THE GILDER. 1. Carving and gilding are, in most cases, osten¬ sibly united as one business, although in fact they are branches of manufacture totally distinct. The gilder, therefore, who writes over his door, “Carver and Gilder,” seldom has any practical knowledge of car¬ ving. For every thing in this line of work, he is de¬ pendent on the carver, who commonlj pursues his business in a private way. 2. The operation of gilding, as performed by those whose business is now under consideration, is execu¬ ted chiefly on wood. It is employed most frequently for picture and looking-glass frames, and for uphol¬ stery fixtures. It is a mechanical process, and con¬ sists in applying gold-leaf to surfaces, in such a man¬ ner as to adhere with tenacity. 3. Before the application of the metal, a tedious process muse be performed, by way of preparation. The surface to be gilded is successively covered with from five to seven coats of glutinous size, made by boiling scraps of parchment in water, with the addi¬ tion of a little whiting. The average thickness of the coat thus produced, is about one-sixteenth of an inch. 4. The surface is next rubbed with freestone and pumice stone, of a shape corresponding with the pat¬ tern of the frame, while a small quantity of water is occasionally applied, to increase their effects. After this, the sizing is rendered still smoother, by friction with sand-paper. This surface is then covered with three coats of burnished gold size, which is composed of English pipe clay, venison suet, and French bole, or red chalk, mixed in a suitable quantity of weak parchment size. The preparation is completed by rubbing the surface with worn sand-paper, by washing it in water with a sponge, and by rubbing it with a piece of cloth. 156 THE GILDER. 5. The leaf is laid on with a broad, but thin brush, called a tip. Before the gold is applied, however, the surface is well wet with alcohol and water. When dry, the parts designed to be bright, are burnished with a polished agate or flint. In the best kind of work, a second coat of the leaf is required. In gild¬ ing irregular surfaces, such as the ornaments at the corners of frames, a size made of linseed-oil, white lead, yellow ochre, and japan, is laid on a few hours before the application of the leaf. This is called gild¬ ing in oil. 6. The ornaments on the frames are cast in moulds, and are made of a composition of glue, whiting, rosin, turpentine, and Burgundy pitch. The moulds are ta¬ ken from patterns, originally executed by the carver. ' ■ v"> *&■ ‘ / THE COOPER. 1. The cooper manufactures casks, tubs, pails, and various other articles for domestic use, as well as vessels for containing all kinds of liquids and mer¬ chandise of a dry nature. He also applies hoops to boxes which are to be transported, with their valuable contents, to a distance from the cities. 2. The productions of this art being of prime ne¬ cessity, the trade must have been exercised at a very early period. Roman writers on rural economy speak of the existence of its productions more than two thousand years ago; nevertheless they are still un¬ known in some countries, and there the inhabitants keep or carry liquids in skins daubed over with pitch. 3. Bottles of this kind were used, more or less, in all parts of the Roman empire, in the days of our Sa¬ vior ; and to such he alluded, when speaking of put- II.—O 158 THE COOPER. ting new wine into old bottles. Earthen vessels of various dimensions, were also in extensive use at the same time. The custom of keeping wine in such vessels, is still common in the southern parts of Eu¬ rope. Pliny accords to the Piedmontese the merit of introducing casks. In his time, they were daubed with pitch. 4. Cedar and oak are the woods chiefly employed as materials in this business; and the persons who carry it on, as well as journeymen, confine their at¬ tention to the production of wares from one or the other of these woods ; hence the division of the work¬ men into cedar coopers and oak coopers. 5. It is not always the case, however, that every cooper executes all kinds of work belonging to either one of these divisions of the trade ; but this is not be¬ cause there is any peculiar difficulty attending any part of the business, but because some particular kind of coopering is required in preference to others ; for example, in some places, flour barrels are the casks most needed ; in others, those for sugar, tobacco, pearlash, or some kind of spirits. 6. In illustrating the general operations of this bu¬ siness, we will describe the process of making a tub. The timber is first cut to the proper length with the kind of saw used in the cities for cutting fire-wood. It is next split into pieces with a frow, the curvature of which corresponds, at least with some degree of exactness, to that of the proposed vessel. The sev eral pieces are then shaved on the edges with a straight drawing-knife, on the inside with one of a concave form, and on the outside with one of corre¬ sponding convexity. 7. After this, they are jointed on a long plane, which is placed with its face upwards, in an inclined position. The workman is guided in giving the prop¬ er angle to the surface cut with the plane, by a wood- THE COOPER. 159 en gauge of peculiar form. The staves, having been thus prepared, are set up in a truss-hoop; and after this has been driven down, one or two others which are to remain are put on. The outside is then made smooth with a onvex drawing-knife, and the inside with a smoothing-plane, the edge of which is circular, to correspond with the form of the surface. The in¬ side of small wooden vessels is generally made smooth with a crooked drawing-knife. 8. The staves are now sawn off to a uniform length at the bottom, and a groove is cut for the insertion of the bottom. The latter operation is performed by means of a cutting instrument fixed in a kind of gauge. The several pieces to compose the bottom are brought to the proper form and smoothness with a straight drawing-knife ; and, having been slightly fastened together by wooden pins, the whole, as one piece, is inserted in its proper place by driving it down from the top on the inside. The whole process is finished by driving on the hoops, and making the holes in the handles'. 9. The cedar employed in this business is a con¬ siderable tree, which grows in various parts of the world, but especially in the United States, where it occupies large tracts called cedar or cypress swamps. The wood is soft, smooth, and of an aromatic smell. It is likewise much used for shingles. The Dismal Swamp, lying in Virginia and North Carolina, con¬ tains an abundance of this kind of timber. 10. The operations in oak vary from those in cedar so far us to conform to the nature of the material, and the form of the vessels manufactured. In bringing the staves to the proper form, the workman is guided altogether by the eye ; and, if they must be bent, they require to be heated. The fire for this purpose is made of shavings and chips in a small furnace of sheet iron, called a crusset . The hoops, both for ce- 160 THE COOPER. dar and oak wares, are made of thin strips of iron, or of small oak, hickory, ash, or cedar saplings. With¬ in a few years, several machines have been invented, for getting out staves, and for bringing them to the proper form, as well as for performing several other parts of the cooper’s operations. 11. The coopers in England derive a great deal of their employment from the West India trade. Barrels, puncheons, and hogsheads, are carried out of the country filled with dry goods, and are returned •filled with rum and sugar. In the United States, * much work of this kind is done for the same market; but then the staves and heads are only fitted and marked here, to be afterwards put together in the West Indies. v \ THE WHEELWRIGHT. 1. The artisan who makes the wood-work of com¬ mon wheel carriages, or the wheels of coaches, is de¬ nominated a wheelwright; but, under this head, we propose to include whatever we may say on con¬ structing and finishing wheel carriages in general. 2. It must be evident, even to a superficial observ¬ er, that this business, in its different branches, occu¬ pies a large space in our domestic industry, since almost every farmer in the country owns a vehicle of some sort, and since the streets of our busy cities and towns exhibit, during a great part of the day, scenes of bustle occasioned, in a great measure, by the pass¬ ing and repassing of carriages of different kinds. 3. The principal kinds of wheel carriages made in this country, are the cart, the wagon, the gig, and O 2 162 THE WHEELWRIGHT. the coach; and of each of these there are various sorts, differing in strength and mode of construction, to suit the particular purposes to which they are to be applied. The business of making these vehicles is divided into a number of branches ; but, as the man¬ ufacture of the coach embraces a greater variety of operations than any other species of carriage, we have selected it as affording the best means of explain¬ ing the operations of the whole business. 4. In large establishments for making coaches and other vehicles of the best workmanship, the opera¬ tors confine their attention to the execution of partic. ular parts of the work ; for example, one man makes the wheels, another the carriage and body, another fashions and applies the iron, another does the paint¬ ing and polishing, and another the trimming. In smaller establishments, a greater proportion of the work is executed by one person. 5. The wheels of the coach, as well as those of every other vehicle in which they are used, are com¬ posed of a hub , and several spokes , and felloes. The hubs are commonly made of a kind of tough wood, called gum, which is reduced to the desired form in the lathe. The hole through the centre is made with a common auger, and enlarged with one tapering to¬ wards the point, and having through its whole length two cutting edges. The mortices for the spokes are made with a chisel driven with a mallet. 6. The spokes are made of white oak, and the fel¬ loes, of ash or hickory ; and both are brought to the required form and smoothness with the saw, axe, drawing-knife, spoke-shave, chisel, and sand-paper. The constituent parts of the carriage , or running gears, are the axles, perch, and spring-beds, or bolsters , to which are added the tongue, or pole, and some other parts connected with it. 7. The joints in this part of the vehicle are ma'de THE WHEELWRIGHT. 163 perfectly tight by the application of putty; whereas, in the body, glue is used for this purpose. The lat¬ ter substance will not answer in the former case, since it cannot bear exposure to water. The wood gener¬ ally employed for the carriage part, as well as for the frame of the body, is ash; and the several parts are sawn from planks of suitable thickness. In this part of the work, the operator is guided by patterns made of thin pine boards. The panels of the body are made of thin boards of poplar or bass-wood. The manner in which the several parts are dressed and put together is too obvious to need description. 8. The wheels and the carriage, after having re¬ ceived one coat of paint, are sent to the blacksmith to be ironed. The hub is bound, at each end- with hoops of iron, commonly plated with brass or silver, and the outside rim or felloes are bound with an iron tire , and fastened with strong nails or spikes. The tires are made red-hot before they are applied, that they may be made to fit in every part with accuracy. 9. Bands, bolts, or strips of iron, are applied to those parts of the wood-work which may be exposed to friction, or which require additional strength. The axles are also made of wrought iron, either by the blacksmith who executes the other iron work, or by persons who manufacture them by the quantity for sale. The same remark is applicable to the thorough- boxes, which are inserted into the hub to prevent in¬ jury by friction, and to cause the wheel to revolve with freedom and accuracy. 10. The painting, varnishing, and polishing, of the body of the coach, when done in the best manner, comprise a tedious process. It is first covered with a coat of paint; the grain of the wood is then filled up with putty, and the surface is again covered with paint. Five coats of filling , composed of ochre, japan varnish, and spirits of turpentine, are next success- 164 THE WHEELWRIGHT. ively applied. After the surface has been rubbed with a solid piece of pumice-stone, it is again painted, and rubbed with sand-paper. Several coats of paint are next laid on, and the work is finished by the ap¬ plication of a few coats of copal-varnish, and by the use of pumice-stone. The painting and varnishing of the wheels and carriage part, is far less expensive and tedious. 11. The nature of the trimmings, and the manner in which they are put together and applied, need not be described, since a few moments’ inspection of a finished vehicle of this kind, will give any one a clear conception of the whole of this branch of the business. So far as trimming the inside, and the manufacture of cushions are concerned, the operations are similar to those of the upholsterer. 12. Wheel carriages may be classed among the primitive inventions, although the first authentic no¬ tice we have of their use, we find in the scripture his¬ tory of Joseph, the son of Jacob, in which it is rela¬ ted, that this great and good man “ was made to ride in the second chariot” of the king’s, and that he sent wagons from Egypt to convey thither his father and family from the land of Canaan. 13. Covered wagons were used in the days of Mo¬ ses ; and the wandering Scythians, in the time of the Romans, had them covered with leather. The seat for the driver is said to have been invented by Oxylus, an iEtolian, who took possession of the kingdom of Elis, about 1100 years before Christ. Many of the nations of antiquity used chariots in the field of bat¬ tle, and the axles were sometimes armed with scythes or some other sharp cutting instruments. Two per¬ sons commonly occupied one vehicle, one of whom drove the horses, and the other fought the enemy. The inhabitants of the promised land fought in char¬ iots, even before the settlement of the people of Is- THE WHEELWRIGHT. 165 rael in that country; and the Greeks likewise em¬ ployed them, for warlike purposes, at the siege of Troy. 14. The carriages used by the Romans were of va¬ rious kinds, some of which were carried on the shoul¬ ders of men, and others, having two or four wheels, were drawn by horses, asses, mules, or oxen. Nev¬ ertheless, neither they, nor any other nation of anti¬ quity, ever suspended the body of any carriage on Leathers, or supported it on springs; and the use of almost every species of vehicle for the conveyance of persons, was banished by the policy of the barbarous nations that afterwards became masters of civilized Europe, the feudal lords conceiving it important, that their military vassals should serve them on horseback. 15. Even as late as the sixteenth century, minis¬ ters rode to court, and magistrates of imperial cities to council, on the back of this animal; and, in the same manner, kings and lords made their public entry on the most solemn occasions. In accounts of papal ceremonies which occurred during several centuries, we find no mention of a state-coach; but, instead of it, state-horses or state-mules. The horse for his ho¬ liness was required to be a gentle and tractable nag, of a gray color; and a stool with three steps was ne¬ cessary to aid him in mounting. The emperor or kings, if present, held his stirrup, and led his beast. Bishops also made their public entrance on horses or asses richly decorated. 16. Covered carriages, however, were known in the principal states of Europe in the fifteenth and six¬ teenth centuries ; but they were at first used only by women of rank, since the men thought it disgraceful to ride in them. At this period, when the electors of the German empire did not choose to be present at the meetings of the states, they excused themselves to the emperor by stating that their health would not 166 THE WHEELWRIGHT. permit them to ride on horseback, and it was not be¬ coming for them to ride like women. 17. But, for a long time, the use of carriages was forbidden even to women ; and, as late as the year 1545, the wife of a certain duke obtained from him, with great difficulty, the privilege of using a covered carriage in a journey to the baths. The permission was granted on the condition that her attendants should not enjoy the same favor. Nevertheless, it is certain that emperors, kings, and princes, began to employ covered carriages on journeys, in the fifteenth century; and a few instances occur of their use in public solemnities. Ambassadors appeared, for the first time, in coaches, at a public solemnity, in 1613, at Erfurth. 18. In the history of France, we find many proofs, that, in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centu¬ ries, the French monarchs commonly rode on horses, the servants of the court on mules, and the princess¬ es, together with the principal ladies, sometimes at least, on asses. Carriages of some sort, however, appear to have been used at a very early period there. An ordinance of Philip the Fair, issued in 1294, for¬ bids their use by the wives of citizens. 19. In the year 1550, three coaches were intro¬ duced into Paris ; one of which belonged to the queen, another to Diana de Poictiers, and the third to Rai- mond de Laval, a cavalier of the court of Francis I., who was so large that no horse could carry him. It is not certain, however, that the body of these ve¬ hicles were suspended on leather straps. The in¬ ventor of this material improvement cannot be ascer¬ tained, nor is it positively determined, that it had been made, until about the middle of the seventeenth century. 20. Coaches were introduced into Spain and Por¬ tugal, in the year 1546, and into Sweden near the THE WHEELWRIGHT. 167 close of the same century. In the capital of Russia, there were elegant coaches as early as the beginning of the seventeenth century. In Switzerland, they * were rare, as late as 1650. Carriages began to be used at Naples in the thirteenth century; from this place they spread all over Italy ; and here, also, glass panels originated. 21. Carriages of some sort were used in England at a very early period, and those first employed by the ladies, were called whirlicoats. According to some authors, coaches were introduced in the year 1555; but, according to others, not until twenty-five years after this period. Before the latter date, Queen Eliz¬ abeth, on public occasions, rode on the same horse with her chamberlain, seated behind him on a pillion ; although, in the early part of her reign, she owned a * chariot. 22. In 1601, men were forbidden the use of the coach by act of Parliament, the legislators supposing such indulgence to be too effeminate ; but this law seems to have been little regarded, as this vehicle was in common use, about the year 1605. Twenty years after this time, hackney coaches began to ply in Lon¬ don ; but these were prohibited, in 1635, on the alleged ground that the support of so many horses increased the expense of keeping those belonging to the king. Two years after this, however, fifty coaches were li¬ censed, and, in 1770, there were one thousand. 23. The stage-coach was first employed in France, and was introduced into England, near the middle of the eighteenth century, by Jethro Tull, the celebrated agriculturist. They were not employed, in any coun¬ try, in the transportation of the mail, until the year 1784. Before this time, it was carried chiefly on horseback, 24. In the United States, the manufacture of car¬ riages of every kind has greatly increased within a few 168 THE WHEELWRIGHT. years, and those lately made exhibit many improve¬ ments on those of former periods. The places which • seem to be most distinguished for the manufacture of good carriages, in this country, are Philadelphia, New¬ ark, and Troy. { ' S ' i THE POTTER. 1. The artisan called the potter converts plastic materials into hard and brittle vessels of various kinds, denominated, in general terms, earthen ware . 2. Alumine is the basis of all clays, and is the only earth that possesses the degree of plasticity which ren¬ ders the operations of the potter practicable. It is, however, never found or used in a pure state, but in combination with other substances, particularly with silex, lime, magnesia, and the oxyde of iron. 3. In the manufacture of vessels from argillaceous compounds, the different degrees of beauty and cost¬ liness depend upon the quality of the raw materials, and the labor and skill expended in the operation. The various productions of the pottery may be class¬ ed under the following denominations—common earth- II.—P 170 THE POTTER. en ware, white earthen ware, stone ware, and porce¬ lain ; but of each of these there are many varieties. 4. Common earthen ware .—This ware is made of a kind of clay very generally diffused over the earth, and which is essentially the same with that employed in making bricks. The potters are often supplied with this material by the brickmakers, who select for them that which is too tenacious, or fat, for their own purpose. All common clays contain more or less of the oxyde of iron, which causes the wares made of them to turn red in burning. 5. In preparing the clay for use, the potter adds to it, when necessary, a portion of fine loam, in order to lessen its tenacity, and to prevent the vessels to be made of it from cracking, while undergoing the fire. When the materials have been mixed, and partially incorporated with water, the mass is thrown into a tub, fixed in the ground about one-half of its depth. In the centre of this tub, is placed a shaft, in a per¬ pendicular position, from which radiate, in a horizon¬ tal direction, a number of knives or cutters. 6. This machine is put in motion by horse-power, a-nd by it the clay is repeatedly cut, and properly kneaded. The workman then cuts it into thin slices with a small wire, and, having rejected all matters not fit for his purpose, he further kneads it with his hands, and forms it into lumps, corresponding in amount of matter with the different vessels which he proposes to make. 7. For the best kinds of this ware, the same spe¬ cies of clay is used ; but then it is differently pre¬ pared. It is first dissolved in water ; and, when the coarser particles have settled to the bottom of the vessel, the fluid suspending the rest is drawn off, and made to pass through a sieve into a reservoir. After the particles of the material have precipitated, the water is drawn off. and the residuum is thrown upon THE POTTER. 171 a large flat pan or reservoir made of bricks, where the mass is freed from its superfluous moisture by evaporation in the air, or by means of artificial heat applied beneath. It is then laid by in a damp place, for future use. 8. Before the clay, thus purified from extraneous and coarser particles, is formed into vessels, it is beat¬ en with a stout piece of wood, until the mass has be¬ come of an equal consistence throughout, and then repeatedly cut into two pieces with a wire, and slap¬ ped together to expel the air. The former of these operations is called wedging, and the latter, slapping. 9. White and cream-colored wares are made of clays which contain so little oxyde of iron, that it does not turn red in burning, but, on the contrary, improves in whiteness in the furnace. There are several species of white clay, found in many different localities, most of which, however, are known under the denomination of pipe-clay; or they are distin¬ guished by the names of the places where they are obtained. 10. In preparing these clays for use, they are re¬ duced to a minute division by machinery, and after¬ wards dissolved in water, and otherwise treated in a manner similar to that used for the better kinds of common wares, as described in the seventh and eighth paragraphs. For the purpose of diminishing the shrinkage in the fire, and with the view of increasing the whiteness of the ware, pulverized flint-stone is added to the clay, in the proportion of about one part of the former to five of the latter. 11. In reducing the silex to the requisite fineness, it is first brought to a red heat; and, while in this state, it is thrown into cold water, to diminish the co¬ hesion of its parts. It is then pounded by machinery, levigated with water in a mill, sifted, mashed, and 172 THE POTTER. otherwise treated like the clay. The materials are mixed while in a state of thin pulp. 12. The several operations performed by the pot¬ ter, in converting the clay thus prepared into differ¬ ent kinds of vessels, and in completing the whole pro¬ cess of the manufacture of earthen ware, may be in¬ cluded under the following divisions, viz., throwing, turning, pressing, burning, painting and printing, and glazing. They are not, however, all used in produ¬ cing and finishing vessels of every shape and quality. 13. Throwing .—This operation is performed on a potter’s wheel, which consists of a round table, and some simple means to put it in motion. The clay having been placed on the centre of this machine, the workman communicates to the latter a rotary motion with his foot, and gives the proposed form to the ma¬ terial with his hands, which have been previously wet with water, to prevent them from sticking. This method is used for all vessels and parts of vessels of a circular form ; and, in many cases, no other opera¬ tion is necessary to give them the requisite finish, so far as their conformation is concerned. 14. Turning .—The vessels are cut from the throw¬ er’s wheel with a small wire ; and when, by the evap¬ oration of moisture, they have become firm enough to endure the operation, they are turned on a lathe. The objects of this operation are to communicate to them a more exact shape, and to render them more uniform in thickness. The potter’s wheel, with the addition of some contrivance to hold the pieces in a proper position, is frequently used for turning. The coarser kinds of common wares are never turned. 15. Pressing. —Vessels, or parts of vessels, which are of an irregular shape, and which cannot be form¬ ed on the wheel, are usually made by a process called pressing. This kind of work is executed in moulds made of plaster of Paris, and these are formed on THE POTTER. 173 models of clay or wood, which have been made in the exact shape of the proposed vessel. Sometimes in¬ dividual specimens of the wares of one country or pottery are used as models in another; in such ca¬ ses, the expense of the moulds is considerably di¬ minished. 16. The moulds frequently consist of several parts, which fit accurately together ; for example, the mould for a pitcher is composed of two pieces for the sides, and one for the bottom. In forming a pitcher in such a mould, the material, which has been spread out to a proper and uniform thickness, is laid upon the in¬ side of each portion of it, and the superfluous clay is trimmed off with a knife. The mould is then closed, and thin strips of clay are laid over the seams ; the removal of the several pieces of the mould, completes the operation. 17. Handles, spouts, figures in relief, and other additions of this nature, are separately made in moulds, and stuck on the vessel with the same kind of materials, sometimes mingled with a small propor¬ tion of plaster of Paris. These appendages are ad¬ ded after the vessels have become partially solid in the air. 18. Burning .—All vessels, even after they have been dried in the atmosphere, are in a very frangible state ; and, to render them sufficiently firm for use, they are submitted to the process of burning in a kiln. To preserve the ware from injury while en¬ during the fire, the several pieces are enclosed in cylindrical boxes called saggers , which are made of baked clay. These boxes are placed one above an¬ other around the sides of the kiln, which is of a cir¬ cular form, and gradually tapering to the top. 19. In burning the coarser wares, every piece is not thus inclosed; but, between every two saggers, a naked piece is placed. A moderate fire is first raised. P 2 174 THE POTTER. which is gradually increased, until the contents of the kiln are brought to a red heat. The burning occu¬ pies between twenty-four and forty-eight hours. All wares, except the coarsest kinds, are twice, and some¬ times thrice, burned ; and, after having been once submitted to the process, they are said to be in a state of biscuit. 20. Painting and 'printing .—When the vessels are to be ornamented with colors, it is necessary, in most cases, that this part of the work be done after the first burning. In China, and at the porcelain manufactory in Philadelphia, the drawings are executed by hand with a pencil. The same method is used in Europe in elaborate pieces of workmanship. But, in the com¬ mon figured wares, where but one color is used, the designs are first engraved on metallic plates, and im¬ pressions are taken from them on thin paper, by means of a copperplate printing-press. 21. In transferring to vessels designs thus pro¬ duced, the paper, while in a damp state, is applied closely to the surface of the biscuit, and rubbed on with a piece of flannel. The porosity of the earthen material causes the immediate absorption of the col¬ oring matter, which, in all cases, is some metallic oxyde. For a blue color, the oxyde of cobalt is used ; and for a black, those of manganese and iron. The paper is washed from the ware with a sponge. 22. Glazing .—To prevent the penetration of fluids, and to improve the appearance of the ware, a super¬ ficial vitreous coating is necessary. This can be produced by the aid of various substances; but, in a majority of cases, red lead is the basis of the mixture employed for this purpose. Equal parts of ground flints and red lead are used for the common cream- colored wares. These materials are mixed with, and suspended in, water, and each piece is dipped in the liquid. The moisture is soon absorbed by the clay, THE POTTER. 175 leaving the glazing particles on the surface, which, in the burning that follows, is converted into a uniform and durable vitreous coating. 23. Stone ware .—The materials of this ware, as well as the mode of preparing them, differ but little from those of the common and better kinds of earthen wares. The clays, however, which contain but little or no oxyde of iron are chosen, since this substance would cause the ware to melt and warp, before a suf¬ ficient degree of heat could be applied to give it the requisite hardness. 24. The glazing is formed by a vitrification of the surface of the vessels, caused by the action of common salt thrown into the kiln, when it has been raised to its greatest heat. This glazing is more perfect than that on ordinary earthen wares, being insoluble by most chemical agents. It is hardly necessary to re¬ mark that this method of glazing precludes the use of saggers. 25. Porcelain .—This ware exceeds every other kind in the delicacy of its texture, and is peculiarly distinguished by a beautiful semi-transparency, which is conspicuous when held against the light. In China, it is made chiefly of two kinds of earth ; one of which is denominated petuntze, and the other kaolin; but both are varieties of feldspar, found in the mount¬ ains, in different localities. They are brought to the manufactories from a distance in the form of bricks ; the materials, as taken from the mines, having been reduced to an impalpable powder in mortars, either by the labor of men or by water-power. 26. These materials are combined in different pro¬ portions in the manufacture, according to the quality of the proposed ware. In the best kind, equal quan¬ tities are used ; but for those of inferior quality, a greater proportion of petuntze is employed. The translucency so much admired in porcelain, or tseki, 176 THE POTTER. as the Chinese call k, is owing to the petuntze, which, in burning, partially melts, and envelops the infusi¬ ble kaolin. 27. It is not known who was the inventor of por¬ celain, as the Chinese annals are silent with regard to this point; nor do we know more of the date at which the manufacture was commenced. It is certain, how¬ ever, that it must have been before the fifth century of the Christian era. Since this ware has been known to Europeans, it has been manufactured chiefly, and in the greatest perfection, in the large and populous village of King-te-ching. 28. Porcelain was first brought to Europe from Japan and China, and for a long time its materials and mode of manufacture remained a secret, in spite of the efforts of the Jesuit missionaries, who resided in those countries. At length, in 1712, Father Entre- colles sent home to France, specimens of petuntze and kaolin, together with a summary description of the process of the manufacture. 29. Shortly after this important event had trans¬ pired, it was discovered that materials nearly of the same kind existed in abundance in various parts of Europe. The manufacture of porcelain was, there- > fore, soon commenced in several places; and it has since been successfully carried on. 30. The porcelain wares of Europe are superior to those of the Chinese, in the variety and elegance of their forms, as well as in the beauty of the designs executed upon them ; but, as some of the processes successfully practised in China, remain still to be learned by the Europeans, the Oriental porcelain has not yet been equalled in the hardness, strength, and durability of its body, and in the permanency of its glaze. The man¬ ufacturers of Saxony are said to have been the most successful In their imitations in these respects. HI. The .porcelain earths are found in various parts V THE POTTER. 177 of the United States, but particularly at Wilmington, in the state of Delaware. Nevertheless, there is now but one porcelain manufactory in our country, and this is yet in its infancy. The establishment is loca¬ ted in Philadelphia, and it has been lately incorpora¬ ted, with the privilege of one hundred thousand dol¬ lars capital. 32. The principle of induration by heat, is the same in the manufacture of earthen wares as in making bricks ; and, as the latter can be more easily dis¬ pensed with than the former in a primitive state of so¬ ciety, it is but reasonable to suppose that earthen ware was first invented ; but the art of making bricks must have been practised before the deluge, or the posterity of Noah would not have attempted so soon as about one hundred years after that catastrophe, to build a city and a tower of these materials. It is, therefore, evident, that this art was of antediluvian origin ; and it was probably one of the earliest brought to any degree of perfection. 33. The art of the potter was practised more or less by every nation of antiquity, and the degree of perfection to which it was carried in every country corresponded with the state of the arts generally. The Greeks were consequently very celebrated for their earthen wares. The Etruscans have also been particularly noted for their manufacture of the elegant vases which have been dug, in modern times, from the depositories of the dead, in Lower Italy. 34. Until the commencement of the manufacture of porcelain in Europe, this art continued in a very rude condition, although practised to a considerable extent in many places. It was much improved in England about the year 1720, by the addition of flints to the usual material; and, between thirty and forty years after this, it was brought to great perfection, in all its branches, chiefly through the scientific exer¬ tions of the celebrated potter, Josiah Wedgewood. i THE GLASS-BLOWER. 1. Glass is a substance produced from a combina¬ tion of silicious earths with alkalies, and, in many cases, with metallic oxydes. The basis of every spe¬ cies of glass is silex, which is found in a state nearly pure in the sands of many situations. It is also found in the common flints and quartz pebbles. 2. When quartz pebbles or flints are employed, they must be first reduced to powder. This is done by grinding them in a mill, after they have been par¬ tially reduced, by heating them in the fire, and plun¬ ging them into cold water. Sand has the advantage of being already in a state of division sufficiently minute for the purpose. To prepare it for application, it only requires to be washed and sifted, in order to free it from the argillaceous and other substances unfit for THE GLASS-BLOWER. 179 use. A great proportion of the sand employed in the manufacture of the better kinds of glass in the United States, is taken from the banks of the Delaware River. 3. The alkaline substances used are potash and soda. For the finer kinds of glass, pearlash, or soda procured by decomposing sea-salt, is used; but, for the inferior sorts, impure alkalies, such as barilla, Scotch and Irish kelp, and even wood-ashes, as well as the refuse of the soap-boiler’s kettle, are made to answer the purpose. Lime, borax, and common salt, are also frequently used as a flux in aid of some of the other substances just mentioned. 4. Of the metallic oxydes which make a part of the materials of some glass, the deutoxyde of lead, or, as it is usually denominated, red lead, is the most common. This substance is employed in making flint glass, which is rendered by it more fusible, heavy and tough, and more easy to be ground or cut, while, at the same time, it increases its brilliancy and refrac¬ tive power. 5. Black oxyde of manganese is also used in small quantities, with the view of rendering the glass more colorless and transparent. Common nitre produces the same effect. White arsenic is also added to the materials of this kind of glass, to promote its clear¬ ness ; but, if too much is used, it communicates a milky whiteness. The use of this substance in drink¬ ing vessels is not free from danger, when the glass contains so much alkali as to render any part of it soluble in acids. 6. The furnace in which the materials are melted is a large conical stack, such as is represented at the head of this article. In some cases, it is surrounded by a large chimney, which extends above the roof of the building. In the sides are several apertures, near which are placed the crucibles, or melting-pots, con¬ taining the materials. The fuel is applied in an arch, 180 THE GLASS-BLOWER. which is considerably lower than the surface of the ground on which the operators stand, while at work. 7. The melting-pots are made chiefly of the most refractory clays and sand. Much of the clay used for this purpose, in many of the glass-houses in the United States, is imported from Germany. The ma¬ terials, having been sifted, and mixed with a suitable quantity of water, the homogeneous mass is formed into crucibles, by spreading it on the inside of vessels which are much in the shape of a common wash-tub. After the clay has become sufficiently solid to sustain itself, the hoops are removed from the vessel, and the several staves taken apart. 8. The crucibles are suffered to dry in the atmo¬ sphere for two or three months, after which they are applied to use as they may be needed. Before they are placed in the main furnace, they are gradually raised to an intense heat in one of smaller dimen¬ sions, built for this express purpose. The fuel em¬ ployed in fusing the metal is chiefly pine wood, which, in all cases, is previously dried in a large oven. Four of the five furnaces near Philadelphia, which belonged to Doctor Dyott, were heated with rosin. 9. The materials having been mixed, in the pro¬ posed proportions, which are determined by weight, they are thrown into the melting-pots, and, by a grad¬ ually increasing heat, reduced to a paste, suitable for application by the blower. This part of the process is commonly performed at night, while the blowers are absent from the works. 10. The applications of glass are so exceedingly extensive, that it is inconvenient, if not impossible, to manufacture every spec-ies of it at one glass-house or at one establishment. Some, therefore, confine their attention to the production of window glass, and such articles of hollow ware as may be made, with profit, from the same kind of paste. Others make THE G L A S S-B LOWER. 181 vials and other species of ware, employed by the drug¬ gist, apothecary, and chemist. And again, the efforts, at some factories, are confined entirely to the manufac¬ ture of flint glass, or to that of plate glass for mirrors. 11. The principal operations connected with the manufacture of different species of glass, after the paste has been prepared, may be included under the following heads; viz., blowing, casting, moulding, pressing and grinding; although all these are never performed in one and the same establishment. 12. Blowing .—The operation of blowing is nearly or quite the same in the production of every species of glass ware, in which it is employed. The manipu¬ lations, however, connected with making different ar¬ ticles, are considerably varied, to suit their particular conformation. This circumstance renders it impos¬ sible for us to give more than a general outline of the process of this manufacture. 13. In the formation of window glass, the work¬ man gathers upon the end of an iron tube a sufficient amount of the metal, which he brings to a cylindrical form by rolling it upon a cast iron or stone table. He then blows through the tube with considerable force, and thus expands the glass to the form of an in¬ flated bladder. The inflation is assisted by the heat, which causes the air and moisture of the breath to ex¬ pand with great power. 14. Whenever the glass has become too stiff, by cooling, for inflation, it is again softened by holding it in the blaze of the fuel, and the blowing is repeated, un¬ til the globe has been expanded to the requisite thin¬ ness. Another workman next receives it at the oth¬ er end, upon an iron rod, called a punt, or punting iron , when the blowing iron is detached. It is now open¬ ed, and spread into a smooth sheet, by the centrifugal force, acquired by the rapid whirl given to it, in the manner exhibited in the preceding cut. The sheet II.—Q 182 THE GLASS-BLOWER. thus produced is of a uniform thickness, except at the centre, where the iron rod had been attached. 15. An inferior kind of window glass, the materi¬ als of which are sand, kelp, and soap-boilers’ waste, is made by blowing the metal into cones, about a foot in diameter at their base; and these, while hot, are touched on one side with a cold iron dipped in water. This produces a crack, which runs through the whole length of the cone. The glass then expands into a sheet somewhat resembling a fan. This is supposed to be the oldest method of manufacturing window or plate glass. 16. The window glass produced in the manner first described, is called crown glass; and the other, broad glass. But by neither of these methods can the lar¬ gest panes be produced. The blowing for these differs from the methods just described, in that the material is blown into an irregular cylinder, open at its further end. When a sufficient number of these cylinders have accumulated, the end to which the blowing iron had been attached, is capped off by drawing round it a circle of melted glass, and the cylinder is divided longitudi¬ nally by touching it through its whole length with a hot iron. The cylinders, in this state, are put into the annealing oven, where, by aid of a heat which raises the glass to redness, it is expanded into sheets. These sheets are then broken into panes of several sizes by the aid of a diamond and a straight edge, as in the case of glass blown by other methods. 17. Casting .—Plate glass formed by the method last mentioned, is denominated cylinder glass; and ii is used not only for windows, but also for mirrors not exceeding four feet in length. Plates of greater di¬ mensions are produced by a process called casting . The casting is performed by pouring the material, in a high state of fusion, upon a table of polished copper of large size, and having a rim elevated above its gen- THE GLASS-BLOWER. 183 eral surface, as high as the proposed plate is to be thick. To spread the glass perfectly, and to render the two surfaces parallel, a heavy roller of polished copper, resting upon the rim at the edges, is passed over it. 18. Plates thus cast are always dull and uneven. To render them good reflectors, it is necessary to grind and polish them. The plate to be polished is first cemented with plaster of Paris to a table of wood or stone. A quantity of wet sand, emery, or pulver¬ ized flints, is spread upon it, and another glass plate, similarly cemented to a wooden or stone surface, is placed upon it. The two plates are then rubbed to¬ gether, until their surfaces have become plane and smooth. The last polish is given by colcothar and putty. Both sides are polished in the same manner. 19. Moulding .—Ornamental forms and letters are produced on the external surface of vessels, by means of metallic moulds; and the process by which this kind of work is performed is called moulding. In the execution, the workman gathers upon the end of his iron tube, a proper amount of the material, which he extends, and brings to a cylindrical form, by rolling it upon his table. He then expands it a little by a slight blast, and afterwards lets it down into the mould, which is immediately filled by blowing still stronger through the tube. 20. The vessel is then taken from the mould, and dis¬ engaged from the tube. The same tube, or a punting iron having been attached to the bottom, the other end is softened in the fire, and brought to the proposed form with appropriate tools, while the iron is rolled up and down upon the long arms of the glass-blower’s chair. The ornamental moulds are made of cast iron, brass, or copper, and are composed of two parts, which open and shut upon hinges. The moulds for plain vials, castor oil bottles, small demijohns, &c., are 184 THE GLASS-BLOWER. made of the kind of clay used for the crucibles. These consist merely of a mass of the clay, with a cylindrical hole in it of proper diameter and depth. 21. Pressing .—This process is applied in the pro¬ duction of vessels or articles which are very thick, ^nd which are not contracted at the top. The opera¬ tion is performed in iron moulds, which consist of two varts, and which have upon their internal surfaces the figures to be impressed upon the glass. The material, while in an elastic condition, is put into the lower part of the mould ; and the other part, called the follower , is immediately brought upon it with considerable force. 22. Every species of glass, before it can be used with safety, must be annealed, to diminish its brittle¬ ness. The annealing consists merely in letting down the temperature by degrees. Small boys, therefore, convey the articles, whatever they may be, as fast as they are made, to a moderately heated oven, which, when filled, is suffered to cool by degrees. 23. Cutting .—The name of cut glass is given to the kind which is ground and polished in figures, ap¬ pearing as if cut with a sharp instrument. This op¬ eration is confined chiefly to flint glass, which, being more tough and soft than the other kinds, is more ea¬ sily wrought. In addition to this, it is considerably more brilliant, producing specimens of greater lustre. 24. An establishment for grinding glass contains a great number of wheels of cast iron, stone, and wood, of different sizes ; and the process consists entirely in holding the glass against these, while they are revolving with rapidity. When a considerable portion of the material is to be removed, the grinding is commonly commenced on the iron wheel, on which is constantly pouring water and sharp sand, from a vessel above, which, from its shape, is called a hopper . 25. The period of the invention of glass is quite unknown; but the following is the usual story of its THE GLASS-BLOWER. 185 origin. Some merchants, driven by a storm upon the coasts of Phoenicia, near the River Belus, kindled a fire on the sand to cook their victuals, using as fuel some weeds which grew near. The ashes produced by the incineration of these plants, coming in contact with the sand, united with its particles, and, by the influ¬ ence of the heat, produced glass. 26. This production was accidentally picked up by a Tyrian merchant, who, from its beauty and proba¬ ble utility, was led to investigate the causes of its for¬ mation, and who, after many attempts, succeeded in the manufacture of glass. The legend probably ori¬ ginated in the fact, that glass was very anciently made at Tyre; and that the sand on the seashore in the immediate neighbourhood of the Belus, was well adapt¬ ed to glass-making. 27. It is certainly probable, that an accidental vit¬ rification might have given rise to the discovery; but the circumstance would have been more likely to take place in some operation requiring greater heat than that necessary for dressing food in the open air. The invention of glass must have been effected as early as fifteen hundred years before our era. It was manu¬ factured very anciently in Egypt; but whether that country or Phoenicia is entitled to the preference, as regards priority in the practice of this art, cannot be determined. 28. Glass was made in considerable perfection at Alexandria, and was thence supplied to the Romans as late as the first quarter of the second century. Before this time, however, Rome had her glass man¬ ufactories, to which a particular street was assigned.’ The attention of the workmen was directed chiefly to the production of bottles and ornamental vases, speci¬ mens of which still remain, as monuments of their ex¬ traordinary skill. 29. In modern times, the manufacture of glass was Q 2 186 THE GLASS-BLOWER. confined principally to Italy and Germany. Venice became particularly celebrated for the beauty of the material, and the skill of its workmen ; and as early as the thirteenth century, it supplied the greatest part of the glass used in Europe. The artists of Bohe¬ mia, also, came to be held in considerable reputation. 30. The art was first practised in England, in the year 1557, when a manufactory was erected at Crutched Friars, in the city of London, and shortly afterwards, another at the Savoy, in the Strand. In these establishments, however, were made little else than common window glass, and coarse bottles, all the finer articles being still imported from Venice. In 1673, the celebrated Duke of Buckingham brought workmen from Italy, and established a manufactory for casting plate glass for mirrors and coach win¬ dows. The art, in all its branches, is now extensively practised in great perfection, not only in Great Brit¬ ain, but in many of the other kingdoms of Europe. 31. Before the commencement of the late war with England, very little, if any, glass was manufactured in the United States, except the most common win¬ dow glass, and the most ordinary kinds of hollow ware. Apothecaries’ vials and bottles, as well as every other variety of the better kinds of glass wares, had been imported from Europe, and chiefly from England. 32. Our necessities, created by the event just men¬ tioned, produced several manufactories, which, how¬ ever, did not soon become flourishing, owing, at first, to inexperience, and, after the peace, to excessive importations. But adequate protection having been extended to this branch of our national industry, by the tariff of 1828, it is now in a highly prosperous condition—so much so, that importations of glass ware have nearly ceased. THE OPTICIAN. 1. The word optician is applicable to persons who are particularly skilled in the science of vision, but especially to those who devote their attention to the manufacture of optical instruments, such as the spec¬ tacles, the camera obstura, the magic lantern, the telescope, the microscope, and the quadrant. 2. Light is an emanation from the sun and other luminous bodies, and is that substance which renders opaque bodies visible to the eye. It diverges in a di¬ rect line, unless interrupted by some obstacle, and its motion has been estimated at two hundred thousand miles in a second. 3. A ray of light is the motion of a single particle ; and a parcel of rays passing from a, single point, is called a pencil of rays. Parallel rays are such as al¬ ways move at the same distance from each other. 188 THE OPTICIAN. Rays which continually approach each other, are said to converge; and when they continually recede from each other, they are said to diverge. The point at which converging rays meet is called th e focus. 4. Any pellucid or transparent body, as air, water, and glass, which admits the free passage of light, is called a medium. When rays, after having passed through one medium, are bent out of their original course by entering another of different density, they are said to be refracted; and when they strike against a surface, and are sent back from it, they are said to be refected. 5. A lens is glass ground in such a form as to col¬ lect or disperse the rays of light which pass through it. These are of different shapes ; and they have, therefore, received different appellations. A plano¬ convex lens has one side flat, and the other convex; a plano-concave lens is flat on one side, and concave on the other; a double convex lens is convex on both sides ; a double concave lens is concave on both sides; a meniscus is convex on one side, and concave on the other. By the following cut, the lenses are exhibited in the order in which they have been mentioned. 6. An incident ray is that which comes from any luminous body to a reflecting surface; and that which is sent back from a reflecting surface, is called a re¬ flected ray. The angle of incidence is the angle which is formed by the incident ray with a perpendicular to the reflecting surface ; and the angle of refection is the angle formed by the same perpendicular and the reflected ray. TIIE OPTICIAN. 189 7. When the light proceeding from every point of an object placed before a lens is collected in corre¬ sponding points behind it, a perfect image of the ob¬ ject is there produced. The following cut is given by way of illustration. 8. The lens, a , may be supposed to be placed in the hole of a window-shutter of a darkened room, and the arrow at the right to be standing at some distance without. All the light reflected from the latter ob¬ ject towards the lens, passes through it, and concen¬ trates, within the room, in a focal point, at which, if a sheet of paper, or any other plane of a similar color, is placed, the image of the object will be seen upon it. 9. This phenomenon is called the camera obscura , or dark chamber, because it is necessary to darken the room to exhibit it. The image at the focal point within the room is in an inverted position. The rea¬ son why it is thrown in this manner will be readily understood by observing the direction of the reflect¬ ed rays, as they pass from the object through the lens. In the camera obscura, it is customary to place a small mirror immediately behind the lens, so as to throw all the light which enters, downwards upon a whitened table, where the picture may be convenient¬ ly contemplated. 10. From the preceding explanation of the came¬ ra obscura, the theory of vision may be readily com¬ prehended, since the eye itself is a perfect instrument of this kind. A careful examination of the following 190 THE OPTICIAN. representation of the eye will render the similarity obvious. The eye is supposed to be cut through the middle, from above downwards. a a, the sclerotica; b b, the choroides ; c c, the retina; d d, the cor¬ nea ; e, the pupil ; f f, the iris; g, the aqueous humor ; h , the crystal¬ line humor ; i i, the vitreous humor. 11. The sclerotica is a membranous coat, to which the muscles are attached which move the eye. The cornea is united to the sclerotica around the circular opening of the latter, and is that convex part of the eye, which projects in advance of the rest of the or¬ gan. The space between this and the crystalline lens is occupied by the aqueous humor and the iris. The iris is united to the choroides, and it possesses the power of expanding and contracting, to admit a greater or less number of rays. 12. The crystalline lens is a small body of a crys¬ talline appearance and lenticular shape, whence its name. It is situated between the aqueous and vitre¬ ous humors, and consists of a membranous sack filled with a humor of a crystalline appearance. The vit¬ reous humor has been thus denominated on account of its resemblance to glass in a state of fusion. The retina is a membrane which lines the whole cavity of the eye, and is formed chiefly, if not entirely, by the expansion of the optic nerve. 13. The rays of light which proceed from objects pass through the cornea, aqueous humor, crystalline lens, and vitreous humor, and fall upon the retina in a focal point, to which it is brought, chiefly by the in- THE OPTICIAN. 391 fluence of the cornea and the crystalline lens. The image, in an inverted position, is painted or thrown on the cornea, which perceives its presence, and con¬ veys an impression of it to the brain, by means of the optic nerve. 14. Optical instruments. —The art of constructing optical instruments is founded upon the anatomical structure, and physiological action of the eye, and on the laws of light. They are designed to increase the powers of the eye, or to remedy some defect in its structure. In the cursory view which we may give of a few of the many optical instruments which have been invented, we will begin with the spectacles , since they are the best known, and withal the most simple. 15. The visual point , or the distance at which small objects can be distinctly seen, varies in different indi¬ viduals. As an average, it may be assumed at eight or nine inches from the eye. In some persons, it is much nearer, and in others, considerably more dis¬ tant. The extreme, in the former case, constitutes myopy , or short-sightedness , and, in the latter case, presbyopy, or long-sightedness . 16. Myopy is chiefly caused by too great a convex¬ ity of the cornea and the crystalline lens, which caus¬ es the rays to converge to a focus, before they reach the retina. Objects are, therefore, indistinctly seen by myoptic persons, unless held very near the eye to throw the focus farther back. This defect may be palliated by the use of concave glasses, which render the rays proceeding from objects more divergent. 17. Presbyopy is principally caused by too little convexity of the cornea and crystalline lens, which throws the focal point of rays reflected from near ob¬ jects, beyond the retina. This defect is experienced by most people, to a greater or less degree, after they have advanced beyond the fortieth year, and occa- 192 THE OPTICIAN. sionally even by youth. A remedy, or, at least, a palliation, is found in the use of convex glasses, which render the rays more convergent, and enable the eye to refract them to a focus farther forward, at the prop¬ er point. 18. The opticians have their spectacles numbered, to suit different periods of life; but, as the short¬ sighted and long-sighted conditions exist in a thousand different degrees, each person should select for him¬ self such as will enable him to read without effort at the usual distance. 19. The great obstacle to viewing small objects at the usual distance, arises from too great a divergence of the light reflected from them, which causes the rays to reach the retina before they have convened to a focus. This defect is remedied by convex lenses, which bring the visual point nearer to the eye, and consequently cause the rays to concentrate in a large focus upon the retina. The most powerful microsco¬ pic lenses are small globules of glass, which permit the eye to be brought very near to the object. 20. Microscopes are either single or double. In the former case, but one lens is used, and through this the object is viewed directly; but, in the latter case, two or more glasses are employed, through one of which a magnified image is thrown upon a reflect¬ ing surface, and this is viewed through the other glass, or glasses, as the real object is seen through a single microscope. 21. The solar microscope , on account of its great magnifying powers, is the most wonderful instrument of this kind. The principles of its construction are the same with those of the camera obscura. The dif¬ ference consists chiefly in the minor circumstance of placing the object very near the lens, by which a mag¬ nified image is thrown at the focal point within the room. THE OPTICIAN. 193 22. In the case of the camera obscura, the objects are at a far greater distance from the glass on the out¬ side than the images, at the focal point, on the inside. The comparatively great distance of the object, in this case, causes the image to be proportionably smaller. In the solar microscope, a small mirror is used to receive the rays, and to reflect them directly upon the object. 23. The magic lantern is an instrument used for magnifying paintings on glass, and for throwing their images upon a white surface in a darkened room. Its general construction is the same with that of the solar microscope ; but, in the application, the light of a lamp is employed instead of that from the sun. 24. Telescopes are employed for viewing objects which from their distances appear small, or are invis¬ ible to the naked eye. They are of two kinds, re¬ fracting and refecting. The former kind is a com¬ pound of the camera obscura and the single micro¬ scope. It consists of a tube, having at the further end a double convex lens, which concentrates the rays at a focal point within, where the image is viewed through a microscopic lens, placed at the other end. 25. In the construction of reflecting telescopes, concave mirrors, or specula, are combined with a double convex lens. A large mirror of this kind is so placed in the tube, that it receives the rays of light from objects, and reflects them upon another of a smaller size. From this they are thrown to a focal point, where the image is viewed through a double convex lens. The specula are made of speculum metal, which is a composition of certain proportions of copper and tin. 26. Many optical appearances are of such frequent recurrence, that they could not have escaped the ear¬ liest observers ; nevertheless, ages appear to have elapsed, before any progress was made towards an II.—R 194 THE OPTICIAN. explanation of them. Empedocles, a Greek philoso¬ pher, born at Agrigentum in Sicily, 460 years before * Christ, is the first person on record who attempted to write systematically on light. 27. The subject was successively treated by several other philosophers; but the ancients never attained to a high degree of information upon it. We have reason to believe, however, that convex lenses were, in some cases, used as magnifiers, and as burning glasses, although the theory of their refractive power was not understood. 28. The magnifying power of glasses, and some other optical phenomena, were largely treated by A1 Hazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished about the year 1100 of our era ; and, in 1270, Vitellio, a Polander, published a treatise on optics, containing all that was valuable in A1 Hazen’s work, digested in a better manner, and with more lucid explanations of various phenomena. 29. Roger Bacon, an English monk, who was bom in 1214, and who lived to the age of seventy-eight, described very accurately the effects of convex and concave lenses, and demonstrated, by actual experi¬ ment, that a small segment of a glass globe would greatly assist the sight of old persons. Concerning the actual inventor of spectacles, however, we have no certain information ; we only know that these useful instruments were generally known in Europe, about the beginning of the fourteenth century. 30. In the year 1575, Maurolicus, a teacher of mathematics, at Messina, published a treatise on op¬ tics, in which he demonstrated that the crystalline hu¬ mor of the eye is a lens, which collects the rays of light from external objects, and throws them upon the retina. Having arrived at a knowledge of these facts, he was enabled to assign the reasons why some'peo¬ ple were short-sighted, and others long-sighted. THE OPTICIAN. 195 31. John Baptista Porta, of Naples, was contem¬ porary with Maurolicus. He invented the camera ob- scura, and his experiments with this instrument con¬ vinced him, that light was a substance, and that its re¬ ception into the eye produced vision. These discov¬ eries corresponded very nearly with those by Maurol¬ icus, although neither of these philosophers had any knowledge of what the other had done. The impor¬ tance of Porta’s discoveries will be evident, when it is observed, that, before his time, vision was supposed to be dependent on what were termed visual rays , pro¬ ceeding from the eye. 32. The telescope was invented towards the latter end of the sixteenth century. Of this, as of many other valuable inventions, accident furnished the first hint. It is said, that the children of Zacharias Jansen, a spectacle-maker, of Middleburg in Holland, while playing with spectacle-glasses in their father’s shop, perceived that, when the glasses were held at a certain distance from each other, the dial of the clock ap¬ peared greatly magnified, but in an inverted position. 33. This incident suggested to their father the idea of adjusting two of these glasses on a board, so as to move them at pleasure. Two such glasses inclosed in a tube completed the invention of the simplest kind of the refracting telescope. Galileo greatly improved the telescope, and constructed one that magnified thirty-three times, and with this he made the astro¬ nomical discoveries which have immortalized his name. 34. John Kepler, a great mathematician and astron¬ omer, who was born at Weir, in Wurtemburg, in the year 1571, paid great attention to the phenomena of light and vision. He was the first who demonstrated that the degree of refraction suffered by light in pass¬ ing through lenses, corresponds with the diameter of the circle of which the concavity or convexity is the 196 THE OPTICIAN. portion of an arch. He very successfully pursued the discoveries of Maurolicus and Porta, and asserted that the images of external objects v/ere formed upon the optic nerve by the concentration of rays which proceed from them. 35. In 1625, the curious discovery of Scheiner was published, at Rome, which placed beyond doubt the fact, that vision depends upon the formation of the image of objects upon the retina. The fact was dem¬ onstrated by cutting away, at the back part, the two outside coats of the eye of an animal, and by present¬ ing different objects before it. The images were dis¬ tinctly seen painted on the naked retina. 36. Near the middle of the seventeenth century, the velocity of light was discovered by Roemer; and, in 1663, James Gregory, a celebrated Scotch mathe¬ matician, published the first proposal for a reflecting telescope. But, as he possessed no mechanical dex¬ terity himself, and as he could find no workman capa¬ ble of executing his designs, he never succeeded in carrying his conceptions into effect. This was reserv¬ ed for Sir Isaac Newton; who, being remarkable for manual skill, executed two instruments of this kind, in the year 1672, on a plan, however, somewhat different from that proposed by Gregory. 37. In the course of the year 1666, the attention of Sir Isaac Newton was drawn to the phenomena of the refraction of light' through the prism ; and, having observed a certain surprising fact, he instituted a va¬ riety of experiments, by which he was brought to the conclusion, that light was not a homogeneous sub¬ stance, but that it is composed of particles, which are capable of different degrees of refrangibility. 38. By the same experiments, he also proved, that the rays or particles of light differ from each other in exhibiting different colors, some producing the color red, others that of yellow, blue, &c. He applied his THE OPTICIAN. 197 principles to the explanation of most of the phenomena of nature, where light and color are concerned ; and almost every thing which we know upon these sub¬ jects, was laid open by his experiments. 39. The splendor of Sir Isaac Newton’s discoveries obscures, in some measure, the merits of earlier and subsequent philosophers; yet several interesting dis¬ coveries in regard to light and color, as well as many important improvements of optical instruments, have been made since his time, although the light by which these have been achieved, was derived principally from his labors. R 2 v THE GOLD-BEATER, AND THE JEWELLER. GOLD. 1. The metals most extensively employed in the arts are gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and iron. These are sometimes found uncombined with any other sub- stance, or combined only with each other; in either of these cases, they are said to be in a native state. But they are more frequently found united with some substances which, in a great measure, disguise their metallic qualities, or, in other words, in a state of ore . The mode of separating the metals from their ores, will be noticed in connexion with some of the trades in which they are prepared for, or practically applied in, the arts. 2. Gold is a metal of a yellow color, a characteris¬ tic by which it is distinguished from all other simple GOLD. 199 metallic bodies. As a representative of property, it has been used from time immemorial; and, before coinage was invented, it passed for money in its native state. In this form, gold is still current in some parts of Africa; and even in the Southern states of our own country, in the vicinity of the gold mines, the same practice, in a measure, prevails. 3. Gold is rarely employed in a state of perfect purity, but is generally used in combination with some other metal, which renders it harder, and consequently more capable of enduring the friction to which it is exposed. The metal used for this purpose is called an alloy, and generally consists of silver or copper. 4. For convenience in commerce, this precious metal is supposed to be divided into twenty-four equal parts, called carats. If perfectly pure, it is denomi¬ nated gold 24 carats fine; if alloyed with one part of any other metal or mixture of metals, it is said to be 23 carats fine. The standard gold coin of the United States and Great Britain is 22 carats fine; or, in other words, it contains one-twelfth part of alloy. Gold, made standard by equal parts of copper and silver, approaches in color more nearly to pure gold than when alloyed in any other manner. 5. Gold is found in veins in mountains, most usu¬ ally associated with ores of silver, sulphurets of iron, copper, lead, and other metals. It is often so minute¬ ly distributed, that its presence is detected only by pounding and washing the ores in which it exists. But the greatest part of the gold in the possession of mankind, has been found in the form of grains and small detached masses, amid the sands of rivers and in alluvial lands, where it had been deposited by means of water, which had detached it from its original posi¬ tion in the mountains. 6. To separate or extract gold from the foreign matters with which it may be combined, the whole is 200 GOLD. first pounded fine, and then washed by putting it in a stream of water, which carries off the stony particles, while the gold, by its specific gravity, sinks to the bottom. To render the separation still more perfect, this sediment is mixed with ten times its weight of quicksilver, and put into a leather bag, in which it is submitted to a pressure that forces the fluid part through its pores; while the more solid part of the amalgam, which contains most of the gold, remains. 7. To separate the quicksilver from the gold, the mass is subjected to the process of sublimation in earthen retorts, which, as applied to metals, is similar in its effects to distillation, as applied to liquids. When gold is contained in the ores of other metals, they are roasted, in order to drive off the volatile parts, and to oxydize the other metals. The gold is then extracted by amalgamation, by liquefaction with lead, by the aid of nitric acid, or by other methods adapted to the na¬ ture of the ore. 8. Gold obtained in any of these methods is always more or less alloyed with some other metal, especially with silver or copper; but a separation is produced, so far as it is required for the purposes of commerce, by two processes, one of which is called cupellation, and the other parting . The former of these opera¬ tions consists in melting the gold with a quantity of lead, which readily oxydizes and vitrifies, and which causes the same changes to take place in the metal to be detached from the mass of gold. The operation is called cupellation, because it is usually performed on a cupel, a vessel formed of bone-ashes, or sometimes of wood-ashes. 9. Cupellation is effectual in removing copper, but not so with regard to silver; the latter is separated by means of a process called parting. The metal is rolled out into thin sheets or strips, and cut into small pieces. These are put into diluted nitric acid, which, THE GOLD-BEATER. 201 by the aid of a moderate heat, dissolves, the silver, leaving the gold in a porous state. 10. Another process, called cementation, is also sometimes used. It is performed by beating the al¬ loyed metal into thin plates, and arranging them in alternate layers with a cement containing nitrate of potash, and sulphate of iron. The whole is then ex¬ posed to heat, until a great part of the baser metals has been removed by the action of the nitric acid lib¬ erated by the nitre. Cementation is often employed by goldsmiths, to refine the surface of articles in which the gold has been combined, in too small a proportion, with metals of less value. 11. The average amount of gold annually obtained in every part of the globe cannot fall far short of twenty-millions of dollars in value, of which South America supplies about one half, and Europe, about one twenty-fifth part. The amount yielded by the Southern states of our Union, cannot be accurately ascertained, but the whole sum coined at the United States’ Mint in 1834, from gold obtained in this quar¬ ter, amounted to $898,000, and since 1824 to that time, to $3,679,000. In 1824, the sum was but $5000. Our Southern mines will probably continue to increase in productiveness. THE GOLD-BEATER. 1. Gold, not being subject to intrinsic change by atmospheric action, or by that of common chemical agents, is extensively used in gilding various substan¬ ces, either with the view of preserving them from de¬ cay, or for the purpose of embellishment. To prepare the gold for application in this manner is the business of the gold-beater. 2. The metal is first melted with some borax in a crucible, and formed into an ingot by pouring it into an iron mould. The mass is next hammered a little 202 THE GOLD-BEATER. on an anvil, to increase the cohesion of its parts, and afterwards repeatedly passed between steel rollers, until it has become a riband as thin as paper. 3. Two ounces and a half of this riband are cut into 150 pieces of equal dimensions. These are ham¬ mered a little to make them smooth, and then interlaid with pieces of fine vellum four inches square. The whole, with twenty other pieces of vellum on each side, is inclosed in two cases of parchment. The packet is then beaten on a marble anvil with a hammer weigh¬ ing sixteen pounds, until the gold has been spread to near the size of the vellum leaves, it, in the mean vime, being often turned over. 4. The gold leaves are next divided into four equal squares, with a steel knife on a leather cushion; and the 600 leaves thus produced, are interlaid with a kind of leather or parchment made of the intestines of the ox, and beaten with a hammer weighing twelve pounds, until the leaves have been extended as before. They are again quartered and interlaid, and beaten with a hammer weighing six or eight pounds. 5. The gold having now been sufficiently extended, the packets are taken apart, and the leaves cut to a proper and uniform size, by means of a cane frame on a leather cushion. The leaves, as fast as they are trimmed, are placed in a book, the paper of which has been covered with red bole, to prevent the gold from sticking. Of the two ounces and a half of gold thus treated, only about one ounce remains in perfect leaves, which, altogether, amount to 2000 three inches and three-eighths square. The books contain twenty- five leaves, so that one ounce of gold makes eighty books. 6. Gold extended into leaves, is alloyed, in a greater or less degree, with silver or copper, or both, because, in a pure state, it would be too ductile. The newest skins will work the purest gold, and make the thinnest THE G 0 L D-B EATER. 203 leaf, because they are the smoothest. The alloy va¬ ries from three to twenty-four grains to the ounce, but in general it is six, or one part of alloy to eighty of gold. 7. A kind of leaf called party gold , is formed by the union of a thin leaf of gold and a thicker one of silver. The two are laid together, and afterwards heated and pressed, until they have cohered. They are then beaten and otherwise treated, as in the process just described. Silver, and likewise copper, are also beat¬ en into leaves, although they will by no means bear so great a reduction as gold. Considerable quantities of copper leaf are brought from Holland, which in commerce is known by the denomination of “Dutch leaf,” or “ Dutch gold.” 8. The ancient Romans were not ignorant of the process of gold-beating, although they did not carry it so far as we do. Pliny informs us that they some¬ times made 750 leaves four fingers square, from an ounce of gold. At Praeneste was a statue of For¬ tune, gilt with leaves of a certain thickness; hence those beaten to the same degree of thickness were called Prcenestines. Those of another and less de¬ gree of thickness, were called qucestoriales , for a simi¬ lar reason. 9. The Romans began to gild the interior of their houses immediately after the destruction of Carthage. The wainscots of the Capitol were first ornamented in this manner; and afterwards it became fashionable to gild the walls and ceilings of private dwellings, as well as articles of furniture. 10. Gold wire .—The ductility of gold is more con¬ spicuous in wire than in leaves. The wire thus de¬ nominated, is in reality silver wire covered with gold. It is formed by covering a silver rod with thick leaves of gold, and then drawing it successively through coni¬ cal holes of different sizes, made in plates of steel. 204 THE JEWELLER. The wire may be reduced, in this manner, to a de¬ gree of extreme fineness, the gold being drawn out with the silver, and constituting for it a perfect coating. 11. Wire thus formed is often used in the manu¬ facture of gold thread. Before it is applied in this way, it is flattened between rollers of polished steel, and then wound on yellow silk by machinery. The coating of gold on the silver wire employed in this way, does not exceed the millionth part of an inch in thickness. THE JEWELLER. 1. The jeweller makes rings, lockets, bracelets, brooches, ear-rings, necklaces, watch-chains, and trin¬ kets of like nature. The materials of the best qual¬ ity of these ornaments are gold, pearls, and precious stones, although those of an inferior kind are often used. 2. There are several stones to which is applied the epithet precious , of which the following are the princi¬ pal : the diamond, the ruby, the sapphire, the topaz, the chrysolite, the beryl, the emerald, the hyacinth* the amethyst, the garnet, the tourmalin, and the opal. To these may be added rock crystal, the fine flints of pebbles, the cat’s-eye, the oculis mundi or hydro- phanes, the chalcedony, the moon-stone, the onyx, the- carnelian, the sardonyx, agates, and the Labrador- stone. These stones, together with different kinds of pearl, are also called gems or jewels. 3. The precious stones are valuable, as articles of merchandise, in proportion to their, scarcity, weight, transparency, lustre, and hardness. In most of these particulars, the diamond is superior to any other ; but those of the same size are not always of equal value, for all are not of the same color or brilliancy. The very best are said to be diamonds of the first wa¬ ter. The diamond was called adamant by the an- THE JEWELLER. 205 cients, although this term was not confined exclusively to this stone. 4. The weight and consequent value of the most precious stones are estimated in carats , one of which is equal to four grains troy weight, and the value of each carat is increased in proportion to the size of the stone. In England, the cost of a cut diamond of the first water is thus estimated : 1 carat is - = l .8 2 do. is 2x2x8 = 32 / 3 do. is 3x3x8 = 72 4 do. is 4x4x8 == 128 By the foregoing examples, it will be seen that the weight is multiplied by itself, and the product by the price per carat, which may be some other sum, ac¬ cording to the general characteristics of the stone. 5. This rule, however, is not extended to diamonds of more than 20 carats in weight; nor is this or any other rule of estimate strictly adhered to in every case; nevertheless, it probably comes pretty near to general usage. In the same country, a perfect ruby of 3£ carats is worth more than a diamond of equal weight. A ruby weighing one carat may be worth 10 guineas ; two carats, 40 guineas ; three carats, 150 guineas ; six carats 1000 guineas. A ruby of a deep red color, exceeding 20 carats, is called a car¬ buncle ; and of these, 108, weighing from 100 to 200 carats each, are said to have been in the throne of the Great Mogul. 6. Some of the European sovereigns have, in their possession, diamonds of great value, several of which were originally brought to England from India. The Pitt or Regent diamond was purchased in India by Robert Pitt, grandfather of the Right Honorable William Pitt, for £12,500 sterling. It was brought to England in a rough state, and £5000 were there expended in cutting it; but the cuttings themselves II.—S 206 THE JEWELLER. were worth £7000 or £8000. It was sold to the Duke of Orleans, for the King of France, at the enor¬ mous price of £136,000. Its weight is 136 carats; and, before it was cut, it was as large as a common pullet’s egg. 7. A celebrated diamond, in the possession of the emperor of Russia, is denominated the Effingham, or Russian diamond . It was brought to E ngland by the Earl of Effingham, while governor-general of India, and sold to the Empress Catharine for £90,000. It is inferior in shape to the last mentioned, but superior to it in magnitude, it weighing 198 carats. The Queen of England has a diamond which cost £22,000. 8. The largest diamond hitherto known was found in the island of Borneo, and it is now in the posses¬ sion of the Rajah of Mattan. Many years ago, the governor of Batavia offered, in exchange for it, $150,000, and two large brigs of war with their equipments and outfit; but the rajah refused to part with the jewel, to which the Malays supposed miracu¬ lous power belonged, and which they believed to be connected with the fate of his family. The weight of this diamond is 367 carats. 9. Other jewels, belonging to different sovereigns, as well as to private persons, might be mentioned ; but a sufficient number has been noticed to enable the reader to form some idea of the extravagant expendi¬ tures often made for articles of imaginary value. We will merely add that the royal family of Portugal is in possession of a stone which was formerly sup¬ posed to be a diamond, but which has lately proved to be some kind of crystal of little value. The weight of this stone is 1680 carats ; and, until its real char¬ acter was discovered, it was valued at 224 millions sterling. 10. The value of precious stones was much in¬ creased in ancient times, by the absurd notion com- THE JEWELLER. 207 monly entertained, that they possessed miraculous powers in preventing or curing diseases, as well as in keeping off witches and evil spirits. These notions^ still prevail more or less in heathen nations; and many, even in countries called Christian, wear them, or something else, as amulets for the same or similar purposes. 11. The Gem-sculptor .— Figures and letters are often cut in precious stones by the gem-engraver, or gem-sculptor, whose art, according to the opinion of some writers, originated with the Babylonians; but, according to others, it had its commencement in India or Egypt. In the latter country, it was first employ¬ ed in the production of hieroglyphical figures on basalt and granite rocks. This art, which is denominated lithoglyptics, or the glyptic art, was held in great es¬ timation by the Greeks in ancient times. It arose to eminence with the other fine arts; and, like them, it had its zenith of perfection, was buried with them in the ruins of the Roman empire, and with them re¬ vived towards the end of the fifteenth century. 12. The productions of gem-sculpture are chiefly of two kinds. The first of these are cameos , which are little bas-reliefs, or figures raised above the sur¬ face. They are commonly made of stones, the strata of which are of different colors, so that the figure is different in color from the ground on which it has been raised. The other productions of this art are denominated intaglios. The work of these is the re¬ verse of that first mentioned, since the figure is cut below the surface of the stone, so that they serve as seals to produce impressions in relief upon soft sub¬ stances. 13. This artist performs his work by means of a lathe, with the aid of diamond dust. The instru¬ ments are made of soft iron, and are fixed in leaden chucks, which can be readily fastened to one end of 208 THE JEWELLER. the mandrel. The diamond dust is made into thin paste with olive oil, and is applied to the point of the instrument. The small invisible particles insinuate themselves into the iron, where they remain perma¬ nently fixed. In producing figures and letters with a tool thus charged with the hardest substance in na¬ ture, the precious stone is brought in contact with it while in rapid motion. 14. The engraved gems of antiquity have been greatly esteemed, as works of art, by the curious, and various methods have, therefore, been devised to im¬ itate them. This has been done in glass in such per¬ fection, both as to form and color, that good judges can scarcely distinguish the imitations from the ori¬ ginals. The impression of the gem is first taken in some kind of fine earth; and, upon the mould thus formed, the proposed material is pressed, while in a plastic state. 15. The precious stones generally have likewise been imitated with great success. The basis of the different compositions is a paste made of the finest flint glass, the materials of which have been selected and combined with great care. The desired color is produced with metallic oxydes. A great number of complex receipts are in use among manufacturers of these articles. 16. The Lapidary .-—The precious stones and im¬ itations of them in glass are brought to the desired form by the lapidary. The instrument with which this artist chiefly operates is a wheel which is made to revolve horizontally before him. It is put in mo¬ tion by means of an endless rope extending from an¬ other wheel, which is moved with the left hand of the operator, while, with his right, he holds, in a proper position, the substance to be reduced. 17. The precious stones, being of small size, can¬ not be held with steadiness on the wheel with the THE JEWELLER. 209 hand, nor with any holding instrument; they are, therefore, first fastened, by means of sealing-wax, - to the end of small sticks. By this simple means, and a small upright post, against which the hand or the other end of the stick is rested, the workman can hold a stone in any position he may desire. 18. The lapidary’s wheel is made of different kinds of metals. The diamond is cut on a wheel of soft steel, by the aid of its own dust mixed with olive oil. The Oriental ruby, sapphire, and topaz, are cut on a copper wheel in the same manner, and polished with tripoli and water. Stones of a less degree of hard¬ ness are cut and polished on a leaden or tin wheel with emory and rotten stone. 19. The ancients were not acquainted with any method of cutting the diamond, although they applied its powder to polishing, cutting, and engraving other stones. Gems of this kind, either rough, or polished by nature, were set as ornaments, and were valued according to the beauty and perfection of their crys¬ tallization and transparency. The value of any pre¬ cious stone, or jewel, depends much upon the skill of the lapidary. 20. The Pearl-fisherman. — Pearls are obtained from a testaceous fish of the oyster kind, found in the waters of the East and West Indies, as well as in other seas of different latitudes. These oysters grow in some parts of the globe, in clusters, on rocks in the depths of the sea. Such places are called pearl-hanks , of which the most celebrated are near the islands of Ceylon and Japan, and in the Persian Gulf. The finest and most costly pearls are the Oriental. 21. Pearls are considered by some to be morbid concretions, or calculi, produced by the endeavor of the animal to fill up the holes which may have been made from without by small worms. Others suppose them to be mere concretions of the animal juice about S 2 210 THE JEWELLER. some extraneous matter which may have been intru¬ ded by some means into the shell. 22. To collect the shells containing these singular productions, is the business of divers , who have been brought up to this dangerous occupation. They must generally descend from eight to twelve fathoms, and must remain beneath the surface of the water for sev¬ eral minutes, during which time they are exposed to the attacks of the voracious shark. In addition to the danger from this cause, the employment is very de¬ structive of health. 23. In preparing a diver for his descent, a rope is tied round the body, and a stone, weighing twenty or thirty pounds, is fastened to the foot to sink him. His ears and nostrils are filled with cotton, and a sponge dipped in oil is fastened to his arm, to which he may now and then apply his mouth, in order to breathe without inhaling water. In addition to these equipments, he is furnished with a knife, with which the shells may be detached from the rocks, and with a net or basket, in which they may be deposited. 24. Thus equipped, he descends to the bottom, and having filled his depository, or having stayed below as long as he may be able, he unlooses the stone, gives the signal to his companions above, who quickly draw him into the boat. At some pearl-fisheries, the diving-bell is employed, which in some degree obvi¬ ates some of the dangers before stated. 25. The shells thus obtained are laid by, until the body of the animal has putrified, when they common¬ ly open of themselves. Those which contain any pearls, generally have from eight to twelve. The pearls having been dried, are assorted according to their various magnitudes; and, to effect this separa¬ tion, they are passed through nine sieves of different degrees of fineness. The largest pearls are about THE JEWELLER. 211 the size of a small walnut; but such are very rare. The smallest are called seed pearls. 26. Pearls are of various colors, such as white, yel¬ low, lead-color, blackish, and totally black. The “ white water” is preferred in Europe, and the “ yel¬ low water,” in Arabia and India. In regard to their form, they vary considerably, being round, pear-form¬ ed, onion-formed, and* irregular. The inner part of the pearl muscle is called nacre or mother of pearl , and this is manufactured into beads, snuff-boxes, spoons, and a variety of other articles. 27. Pearls were objects of luxury among the an¬ cients. A pearl valued by Pliny at a certain sum, which, reduced to our currency, amounts to $375,000, was dissolved by Cleopatra, and drunk to the health of Antony, at a banquet. These beautiful productions are not estimated so highly at present. The largest will sometimes command four or five hundred dollars, although very few, which are worth over forty or fifty dollars, are ever brought to this country. 28. The gem-engraver and the jeweller were both employed by Moses, in preparing the ornaments in the ephod and breast-plate of the high-priest. In the former were set onyx stones, and in the latter, twelve different stones. On the gems of both ornaments, were engraved the names of the twelve tribes of Israel. 39. We, however, have evidence of the practice of the arts, connected with the production of jewelry, long before the days of the Jewish lawgiver. We learn from the twenty-fourth chapter of Genesis, that the servant of Abraham presented a golden ear-ring, and bracelets for the hands, to Rebecca, who after¬ wards became the wife of Isaac. Perhaps these were brought from Egypt by the patriarch, about seventy years before. 30. Men have ever been fond of personal ornaments, and there have been but few nations since the flood, 212 THE JEWELLER. which have not encouraged the jeweller in some way or other. In modern times, the art has been greatly improved. The French, for lightness and elegance of design, have surpassed other nations ; but the Eng¬ lish, for excellence of workmanship, have been consid¬ ered, for ages, unrivalled. 31. In the United States, the manufacture of jew¬ elry is very extensive, there being large establishments for this purpose in Philadelphia, and in Newark, N. J., as well as in several other places. So extensive have been the operations in this branch of business, and to such advantage have they been carried on, that impor¬ tations from other countries have ceased, and this, too, without the influence of custom-house duties. 32. The capital necessary in carrying on the busi¬ ness of the jeweller, is considerable, inasmuch as the materials are very expensive. The operations like¬ wise require the exercise of much ingenuity. These, however, we shall not attempt to describe, since our article on this subject has already been extended be¬ yond its proper limits, and since, also, they could be hardly understood without actual inspection. s THE SILVERSMITH, AND THE WATCH-MAKER. SILVER. 1. * Silver is a metal of a fine white color, and, in brilliancy, inferior to none of the metals except steel. In malleability, it is next to gold, it being capable of reduction into leaves not more than the ygoVoo °f an inch in thickness, and of being drawn into wire much finer than a human hair. 2. The relative value of silver and gold has varied considerably in different ages. In the prosperous pe¬ riod of ancient civilization, one pound of gold was worth twelve of silver. In Great Britain, the relative value of the two metals is one to fifteen and one-fifth ; and, on the continent of Europe, it is about one to fif¬ teen. In the United States, the relative value of these two metals has been recently established by Congress 214 SILVER. at one to sixteen. In China and Japan, it is said to be one to nine or ten. 3. There are two methods of separating silver from its various ores, and these are called smelting and amalgamation. In the former method, the ore and a due proportion of lead are heated together; and the latter, from its great affinity for silver, unites with it, and separates it from other substances. The two metals are afterwards separated from each other, by melting them on a cupel, and then exposing them to a current of atmospheric air, by which the lead is con¬ verted into an oxyde, while the silver remains un¬ touched. This process is called cupellation. 4. In the other method, the first thing done is to roast the ore, to expel the sulphur and other volatile parts. It'is then reduced to an impalpable powder by machinery; and having been sifted, it is agitated sixteen or eighteen hours in barrels, with a quantity of quicksilver, water, and iron, combined in certain pro¬ portions. This agitation causes the several substan¬ ces composing the charge , to unite according to their respective affinities. . 5. The silver and mercury combine, forming an amalgam, which, having been put into a leather sack, a part of the latter is separated from the rest by filtra¬ tion, still leaving six parts of this metal to one of the silver. The amalgam is next submitted to the action of heat in a distilling furnace, by which the mercury is sublimated. 6. The value of the silver annually taken from the mines in all parts of the world, is supposed to be about $20,000,000, of which Mexico and South America yield the greater part. The several silver mines of Europe and Asia produce about two millions and a half. THE SILVERSMITH. 215 THE SILVERSMITH. 1. The artisan who forms certain articles of gold and silver, is called indifferently a goldsmith or a sil¬ versmith. The former denomination is most com¬ monly employed in England, and the latter, in the United States. 2. The most common subjects of manufacture by the silversmith are cups, goblets, chalices, tankards, spoons, knives, forks, waiters, bread-trays, tea-pots, coffe-pots, cream-pots, sugar-bowls, sugar-tongs, and pencil-cases. Many of these articles he sometimes makes of gold; this is especially the case in Europe, and some parts of Asia. In the United States, the people are commonly satisfied with the less expensive metal. 3. A great proportion of the silver used by this mechanic, has been previously coined into dollars. In working these into different utensils or vessels, he first melts them in a crucible, and casts the silver into solid masses by pouring it into iron moulds ; and hav¬ ing forged it on an anvil, he reduces it still further, and to a uniform thickness, by passing it several times between steel rollers. In giving additional explana¬ tions of the operations of the silversmith, we will de¬ scribe the manner in which a plain tea-pot is manu¬ factured. 4. In forming the body, or containing part, the plate, forged and rolled as just described, is cut into a circu¬ lar form, and placed on a block of soft wood with a concave face, where it is beaten with a convex ham¬ mer, until it has been brought to a form much like that of a saucer. It is then placed upon an anvil, and beaten a while with a long-necked hammer with a round flattish face. 5. It is next raised to the proposed form by forging it on a long slender anvil, called a stake , with a nar- 216 THE SILVERSMITH. row-faced hammer, which spreads the metal perpen¬ dicularly from the bottom, or laterally, according to the position in which it may be held when brought in contact with the metal. 6. After the piece has been thus brought to the pro¬ posed form, it is planished all over by beating it with a small hammer on the outside, while it rests on a small steel head on the inside. During the perform¬ ance of these operations, the silver is occasionally an¬ nealed by heating it in the fire ; but it is worked while in a cold state, except in the first forging, when it is wrought while a little below red heat. 7. The several pieces which compose a tea-pot of ordinary construction, amount to about fifteen, nearly all of which are rolled and forged in the manner just described. The knob on the lid, the handle, and the spout, are sometimes cast, and at other times, the two pieces of which they are formed are cut from a plate, and brought to a proper figure by impressing them with steel dies. 8. The figures seen on the cheaper kinds of silver tea-pots, as well as on other vessels and utensils, are commonly made by passing the plates or strips be¬ tween engraved steel rollers, or by stamping them with steel dies. The dies are commonly brought in sudden and violent contact with the metal by means of an iron drop, which is let fall from a height upon it. 9. After the several parts have been brought to the proper shape, and to the requisite finish, they are firm¬ ly united together by means of a solder composed of about three parts of silver and one of brass and cop¬ per. Before the spout and handle are soldered on, the other parts, which have been thus united into one piece, are brought to a certain degree of polish. 10. This is effected chiefly in a lathe, by holding against the piece, while in rapid motion, first a file, then a scraper, and afterwards pumice stone and THE SILVERSMITH. 217 Scotch stone. It is then held against a rapidly re¬ volving brush, charged with fine brickdust and sweet oil. The handle and spout are next soldered on. After this, the vessel is annealed, and put in pickle , or, in other words, into a weak solution of oil of vitriol. It is then scoured with sand and water, and the whole operation is completed by burnishing the smooth parts with a steel instrument. 11. In the more expensive kinds of wares, the raised figures and the frosty appearance are produced by a process called chasing. In executing this kind of work, a drawing is first made on the silver with a lead pencil. The several parts are then raised from the other side, corresponding as nearly as possible to it. The vessel or piece is then filled with, or placed upon, melted cement, composed of pitch and brick-dust; and, after the cement has become hard by cooling, the chaser reduces the raised parts to the form indicated by the drawing, by means of small steel punches. The roughness of surface, and frosty appearance, are produced by punches indented on the end. 12. The operations of the silversmith are exceed¬ ingly various, many of which could be hardly under¬ stood from mere description. We would, therefore, recommend to the curious, actual inspection, assuring them that the ingenuity displayed in executing the work in the different branches of the business, is well worthy of their attention. We will merely add, that spoons, knives, and forks, are not cast, as is frequent¬ ly supposed, but forged from strips of silver cut from rolled sheets. 13. The earliest historical notice of gold and silver is found in the thirteenth chapter of Genesis, where it is stated that Abraham returned to Canaan from Egypt, “ rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold.” This event took place about 1920 years before Christ, it being but little more than 400 years after the deluge. From II.—T 218 THE CLOCK AND WATCH MAKER. the authority of the same book, we also learn, that during the life of this patriarch, those metals were employed as a medium of commercial intercourse, and as the materials for personal ornaments, vessels, and utensils. 14. From the preceding facts, we have reason to believe that gold and silver were known to the antedi. luvians ; for, had not this been the case, they could hardly have been held in such estimation so early as the time of Abraham. In short, they were probably wrought even in the days of the original progenitor of the human race, as was evidently the case with iroiv and copper. THE CLOCK AND WATCH MAKER. 1. The great divisions of time, noted by uncivil¬ ized men, are those which are indicated by the chan¬ ges of the moon, and the annual and diurnal revolu¬ tions of the earth ; but the ingenuity of man was very early exercised in devising methods of measuring more minute periods of duration. 2. The earliest contrivance for effecting this object was the sun-dial. This instrument was known to the ancient Egyptians, Chaldeans, Chinese, and Bramins. It was likewise known to the Hebrews, at least as early as 740 years before Christ, in the days of Ahaz the king. The Greeks and the Romans borrowed it from their Eastern neighbors. The first sun-dial at Rome was set up by Papirius Cursor, about 300 years before Christ. Before this period, the Romans determined the time of day by the rude method of observing the length of shadows. 3. The sun-dial, as it is now constructed, consists of a plate, divided into twelve equal-parts, like the face of a clock, on which the falling of a shadow indi¬ cates the time of day. The shadow is projected by the sun, through the intervention of a rod or the edge THE CLOCK AND WATCH MAKER. 219 of a plate stile erected on the plane of the dial. But, since the dial was useful only in the clear day, an¬ other instrument was invented, which could be used at all times, in every variety of situation ; and to this was given the name of clepsydra. 4. This instrument is supposed to have been in¬ vented in Egypt; but, at what period, or by whom, it is not stated. Its construction was varied, in dif¬ ferent ages and countries, according with the partic¬ ular modes of reckoning time ; but the constant drop¬ ping or running of water from one vessel into another, through a small aperture, is the basis in all the forms which it has assumed. The time was indicated by the regularly increasing height of the water in the receiving vessel. 5. The clepsydra was introduced into Greece by Plato, near 400 years before Christ, and, about 200 years after this, into Rome, by Scipio Africanus. It is said that Pompey brought a valuable one from the East, and that Julius Coesar met with one in England, by which he discovered that the summer nights were shorter there than in Italy. 6. The use which Pompey made of his instrument, was to limit the length of speeches in the senate. Hence he is said, by a historian of those times, to have been the first Roman who put bridles upon elo¬ quence. A similar use was made of the clepsydra in the courts of justice, first in Greece, and afterwards in Rome. 7. A kind of water-clock, or clepsydra, adapted to the modern divisions of time, was invented near the middle of the seventeenth century; and these were extensively used, in various parts of Europe, for a considerable time ; but they are now entirely super¬ seded by our common clocks and watches, which are far more perfect in their operation, and, in all re- 220 THE CLOCK AND WATCH MAKER. spects, better adapted to the purposes to which they are applied. 8. The invention of the clock is concealed in the greatest obscurity. Some writers attribute it to the monks, as this instrument was used in the twelfth century in the monasteries, to regulate the inmates in their attendance on prayers both by night and by day. Others suppose that a knowledge of this valua¬ ble instrument was derived from the Saracens, through the intercourse arising from the crusades. Be this as it may, clocks were but little known in Europe, until the beginning of the fourteenth century. 9. Richard, abbot of St. Alban’s, England, made a clock in 1326, such as had never been heard of until then. It not only indicated the course of the sun and moon, but also the ebbing and flowing of the tide. Large clocks on steeples began to be used in this century. The first of this kind is supposed to have been made and put up in Padua by Jacobus Dondi. 10. A steeple clock was set up in Boulogne, in 1356 ; and, in 1364, Henry de Wyck, a German ar¬ tist, placed one in the palace of Charles V., king of France. In 1368, three Dutchmen introduced clock¬ work into England, under the patronage of Edward III. Clocks began to be common both in England and on the Continent, about the end of the fifteenth century. 11. The clock of Henry de Wyck is the most an¬ cient instrument of this kind of which we have a de¬ scription. The wheels were made of wrought iron, and the teeth were cut by hand. In other respects, also, it was a rude piece of mechanism, and not at all capable of keeping time with accuracy. But, rude as it was, it is not likely that it was the invention of a single individual; but that, after the first rude ma¬ chine was put in motion, it received several improve¬ ments from various persons. This has, at least, been I .WM ■H THE CLOCK AND WATCH MAKER. 221 the case with all the improvements made on the clock of Henry de Wyck, to the present day. 12. The application of the pendulum to clock-work appears to have been first made by Vincenzo Galileo, in 1649 ; but the improvement was rendered com¬ pletely successful, in 1656, by Christian Huygens, a Dutch philosopher. The laws of the oscillation of the pendulum were first investigated by Galileo, the great Italian philosopher, and father of the Galileo just mentioned. His attention was attracted to this subject by the swinging of a lamp suspended from the ceiling of the Cathedral, at Pisa, his native city. 13. The clocks first made were of a large size, and were placed only in public edifices. The works were, at length, reduced in their dimensions, and these use¬ ful machines were gradually introduced into private dwellings. They were finally made of a portable size, and Were carried about the person. These port¬ able clocks had, for their maintaining power, a main- spring of steel, instead of a weight, which was used in the larger time-keepers. 14. The original pocket-watches differed but little, if at all, in the general plan of their construction, from the portable clocks just mentioned. The transition from one kind of instrument to the other was, there¬ fore, obvious and easy; but the time of the change cannot be certainly determined. It is commonly ad¬ mitted, however, that Peter Hele constructed the first watch, in 1510. 15. Watches appear to have been extensively man¬ ufactured at Nuremburg, in Germany, soon after their invention, as one of the names bv which they were designated, was Nuremburg eggs. These instruments, as well as clocks, were in common use in France, in 1544, when the company of clock and watch makers of Paris was first incorporated. 16. In 165S, the spring balance was invented by 222 THE CLOCK AND WATCH MAKER. Doctor Nathaniel Hooke, an English philosopher. At least the invention is attributed to him by his countrymen. On the Continent it is claimed for Christian Huygens. Before this improvement was made, the performance of watches was so defective, that the best of them could not be relied upon for ac¬ curate time an hour together. Their owners were obliged to set them often to the proper time, and wind them up twice a day. ' 17. After the great improvements had been effect¬ ed in the clock and watch by Huygens and Hooke, several others of minor importance were successively made by different persons ; but our limits do not allow us to give them a particular notice ; we will only state that the repeating apparatus of both clocks and watch¬ es was invented, about the year 1676, by one Barlow, an Englishman; that the compensation or gridiron pendulum was invented by George Graham, of Lon¬ don, in 1715 ; and that jewels were applied to watch¬ es, to prevent friction, by one Facio, a German. 18. Clocks and watches are constructed on the same general principles. The mechanism of both is com¬ posed of wheel-work, with contrivances to put it in motion, and to regulate its movements. The moving or maintaining power in large clocks is a weight sus¬ pended by a cord to a cylinder. In watches, and sometimes in small clocks, this office is performed by a steel spring. In the clock, the regulation of the machinery is effected by the pendulum, and in the watch, by the balance-wheel, or spring balance. In either case, the maintaining power is prevented from expending itself, except in measured portions. 19. The time is indicated by hands, or pointers, which move on the dial plate. The minute hand is attached to the axle of the wheel which makes its rev¬ olution in sixty minutes, and the hour hand, to the one which makes the revolution in twelve hours. Great- THE CLOCK AND WATCH MAKER. 223 er and smaller divisions of time are kept and indica¬ ted on the same principle. The part of a clock which keeps the time, is called the going part; and that which strikes the hour, the striking part. 20. The division of labor is particularly conspicu¬ ous in the manufacture of watches, as the production of almost every part is the labor of a distinct artisan. The workman who polishes the several parts, and puts them together, is called, among this class of trades¬ men, the finisher or watch-maker . Those, therefore, who deal largely in watches in England, purchase the different parts from the several manufacturers, and cause them to be put together by the finisher. 21. Watches are extensively manufactured in vari¬ ous parts of Europe, but particularly in French Switz¬ erland, France, and England. The London watch¬ makers have been celebrated for good workmanship, for more than a century and a half. This manufac¬ ture has not yet been commenced in the United States, although the machinery, or inside work , is very often imported in tin boxes, and afterwards supplied with dial plates and cases. This is especially the case with the mpre valuable kinds of watches. 22. Brass clocks are maufactured in most of our cities, and in many of our villages, and wooden clocks, in great numbers, in the state of Connecticut. These last are carried by pedlers into the remotest parts of the country, so that almost every farmer in our land can divide the day by the oscillations of the pendulum. THE COPPERSMITH, THE BUTTON-MAKER, AND THE PIN-MAKER. COPPER. 1. Copper is a ductile and malleable metal, of a pale yellowish red color. It is sometimes found in a na¬ tive state, but not in great quantities. The copper of commerce is principally extracted from the ores called sulphurets. Copper mines are wrought in many coun¬ tries ; but those of Sweden are said to furnish the pu¬ rest copper of commerce, although those of the island of Anglesea are said to be the richest. 2. In working sulphureted ore, it is first broken into pieces, and roasted with a moderate heat in a kiln, to free it from sulphur. When the ore is also largely combined with arsenic, a greater degree of heat is ne¬ cessary. In such a case, it is spread upon a large COPPER. 225 floor of a reverberatory furnace, and exposed to a greater heat. By this treatment, the sulphur and.ar¬ senic are soon driven off. 3. The ore is then transferred to the fusing furnace, and smelted in contact with fuel. The specific grav¬ ity of the copper, causes it to sink beneath the scoria into a receptacle at the bottom of the furnace. To render the metal sufficiently pure, it requires repeated fusions, and, even after these, it usually contains a lit¬ tle lead, and a small portion of antimony. 4. Alloys of copper. —Copper is combined by fusion with a great number of metals, and, in such combina¬ tions, it is of great importance in the arts. When added in small quantities to gold and silver, it increas¬ es their hardness, without materially injuring their color, or diminishing their malleability. An alloy, called white copper, imported from China, and de¬ nominated, in that country, pakfong , is composed of copper, zinc, nickel, and iron. It is very tough and malleable, and is easily cast, hammered, and polished. When well manufactured, it is very white, and as lit¬ tle liable to oxydation as silver. 5. Copper, with about one-fourth of its weight of lead, forms pot-metal. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. The proportion of the latter metal varies from one-eighth to one-fourth. Mixtures, chiefly of these two metals, are also employed to form a variety of gold-colored alloys, among which are prince's met¬ al, pinchbeck, tombac, and bath-metal . 6. A series of alloys is formed by a combination of tin and copper. They are all more or less brittle, rigid, and sonorous, according to the relative propor¬ tions of the two metals ; these qualities increasing with the amount of tin. The principal of these al¬ loys are, bronze, employed in the casting of statues; gun-metal, of which pieces of artillery are made; bell-metal, of which bells are made ; and speculum - 226 THE COPPERSMITH. metal, which is used for the mirrors of reflecting tel¬ escopes. 7. The alloys of copper were very prevalent among the nations of antiquity, and were used, in many ca¬ ses where iron would have answered a much better purpose. The instruments of husbandry and of war, as well as those for domestic uses generally, were usually made of bronze, a composition which furnish¬ es the best substitute for iron and steel. The Co¬ rinthian brass, so celebrated in antiquity, was a mix¬ ture of copper, gold, and silver. 8. The earliest information of the use of this metal by mankind, is found in the fourth chapter of Genesis, in which it is stated, that “ Tubal-Cain was the in- structer of every artificer in brass and iron.” This individual was the seventh generation from Adam, and was born about the year of the world 500. THE COPPERSMITH. 1. Copper, being easily wrought, is applied to many useful purposes. It is formed into sheets by heating it in a furnace, and compressing it between steel rollers. The operation of rolling it constitutes a distinct business, and is performed in mills erected for the express purpose. 2. The rolled sheets are purchased according to weight by the coppersmith, who employs them in sheathing the bottoms of ships, in covering the roofs of houses, and in constructing steam-boilers and stills. He also fabricates them into a variety of household utensils, although thfe use of this metal in preparing and preserving food, is attended with some danger, on account of the poisonous quality of the verdigris which is produced on the surface. 3. An attempt has been made to obviate this diffi¬ culty, by lining the vessels with a thin coating of tin. This answers the purpose fully, so long as the cover. THE BUTTO N-M AKER. 227 ing of tin remains entire. But, in cases of exposure to heat, it is liable to be melted off, unless it is kept covered with water. 4. This metal can be reduced by forging to any shape ; but, during the process, it will bear no heat greater than a red heat; and, as it does not admit of welding, like iron, different pieces are united with bolts, or rivets, of the same metal, as in the case of the larger kinds of vessels, or by means of solder made of brass and zinc, or zinc and lead, as in the case of those of smaller dimensions. 5. Brass is applied to a greater variety of purpo¬ ses in the arts than copper. This preference has arisen from its superior beauty, from the greater fa¬ cility with which it can be formed into any required shape, and from its being less influenced by exposure to the ordinary chemical agents. 6. Some of the articles manufactured of brass, are forged to the required form, and others are made of rolled sheets; but, in most cases, they pass through the hands of the brass-founder, who liquifies the metal, and pours it into moulds of sand. For the sake of lightness, and economy of material, many articles are made hollow; in such cases, they are cast in halves or pieces, and these are afterwards soldered together. 7. Pieces which have been cast are generally re¬ duced in size, and brought more exactly to the pro¬ posed form, either in a lathe, with tools adapted to turning, or in the vice, with files and other suitable instruments. The operators in brass form a class of mechanics distinct from those who work in copper. THE BUTTON-MAKER. 1. Trifling as the manufacture of buttons may appear, there are few which include a greater variety of operations. The number of substances of which they are made is very great, among which are gold, 228 THE BUTTO N-M AKER. silver, various alloys of copper, steel, tin, glass, mother- of-pearl, bone, horn, and tortoise-shell, besides those which consist of moulds of wood or bone, covered with silk, mohair, or similar materials. 2. In making gilt buttons, the blanks , or bodies, are cut from rolled plates of brass, with a circular punch driven by means of a fly wheel. The blanks thus produced, are planished with a plain die, if they are intended for plain buttons; or with one having on it an engraved figure, if they are to be of the ornament¬ al kind. In either case, the die is usually driven with a fly press. 3. The shanks are next placed on one side of the proposed button, and held there temporarily with a wire clasp. A small quantity of solder and rosin having been applied to each shank, the buttons are exposed to heat on an iron plate, until the solder shall have melted. The shanks having been thus firmly soldered on, the buttons are turned off* smoothly on their edges in a lathe. 4. The buttons are next freed from oxyde, by im¬ mersing them in diluted nitric acid, and by friction in a lathe. They are then put into a vessel contain¬ ing a quantity of nitric acid supersaturated with mer¬ cury. The superior attraction of the copper for the acid, causes a portion of it to be absorbed; and the mercury held in solution by it, is deposited on the buttons, which are next put into a vessel containing an amalgam of mercury and gold. 5. The amalgam is formed by melting the two metals together, and afterwards pouring them into cold water. The composition having been put into a bag of chamois leather, and a part of the mercury pressed through the pores, the remaining portion is left in a condition approaching the consistency of but¬ ter, and in a fit state for use. Before the buttons are THE PI N-M AKER. 229 put into the amalgam, a small quantity of nitric acid is added. 6. The buttons having been covered with the amal¬ gam, as before stated, the mercury is discharged, that the gold may adhere directly to the brass. This ob¬ ject is effected by heating the buttons in an iron pan, until the amalgam begins to melt, when they are thrown into a large felt cap, and stirred with a brush. This operation is repeated several times, until all the mercury has been volatilized. The whole process is finished by again burnishing them, and putting them on cards for sale. 7. White metal buttons are made of brass alloyed with different proportions of tin. They are cast, ten or twelve dozens at a time, in moulds formed in sand, by means of a pattern. The shanks are placed in the centre of the moulds, so that, when the metal is poured in, they become a part of the buttons. The buttons are next polished in a lathe, with grindstone dust and oil, rotten stone and crocus martis. They are then boiled with a quantity of grained tin, in a so¬ lution of crude red tartar or argol, and lastly, finish¬ ed with finely-pulverized crocus, applied with buff leather. 8. Glass buttons are made of various colors, in im¬ itation of the opal and other precious stones. While manufacturing them, the glass is kept in a state of fu¬ sion, and a portion of it for each button is nipped off out of the crucible with a metallic mould, somewhat similar to that used for running bullets, the workman having previously inserted into it the shank. THE PIN-MAKER. 1. There is scarcely any commodity cheaper than pins, and none which passes through the hands of a greater number of workmen in the manufacture, twen¬ ty-five persons being successively employed upon the II.—U 230 THE PI N-M AKER. material, before it appears in these useful articles, ready for sale. 2. The wire having been reduced to the required size, is cut into pieces long enough to make six pins. These pieces are brought to a point at each end by holding them, a handful at a time, on a grindstone. This part of the operation is performed with great ra¬ pidity, as a boy twelve years of age can sharpen 16,000 in an hour. When the wires have been thus pointed, the length of a pin is taken off at each end, by another hand. The grinding and cutting off are repeated, until the whole length has been used up. 3. The next operation is that of forming the heads, or, as the pin.makers term it, head-spinning. This is done with a spinning-wheel, by which one piece of wire is wound upon another, the former, by this means, being formed into a spiral coil similar to 4;hat of the springs formerly used in elastic suspenders. The coiled wire is cut into suitable portions with the shears, every two turns of it being designed for one head. These heads are fastened to the lengths by means of a hammer, which is put in motion with the foot, while the hands are employed in taking up, adjusting, and placing the parts upon the anvil. 4. The pins are now finished, as to their form ; but still they are merely brass. To give them the re¬ quisite whiteness, they are thrown into a copper ves¬ sel, containing a solution of tin and the lees of wine. After a while, the tin leaves the liquid, and fastens on the pins, which, when taken out, assume a white ap¬ pearance. They are next polished by agitating them with a quantity of bran in a vessel moved in a rotary manner. The bran is separated from them, as chaff is separated from wheat. 5. Pins are also made of iron wire, and colored black by a varnish composed of linseed oil and lamp¬ black. This kind is designed for persons in mourn- THE PIN-MAKER. 231 ing. Pins are likewise made with a head at each end, to be used by females in adjusting the hair for the night, without the danger of pricking. Several ma¬ chines have been invented for this manufacture, one of which makes a solid head from the body of the pin it¬ self ; but the method just described still continues to be the prevailing one. 6. Pins are made of various sizes. The smallest are called minikins, the next, short whites. The lar¬ ger kinds are numbered from three to twenty, each size increasing one half from three to five, one from five to fourteen, and two from fourteen to twenty. They are put up in papers, according to their num¬ bers, as we usually see them, or in papers containing all sizes. In the latter case, they are sold by weight. 7. It is difficult, or even impossible, to trace the origin of this useful little article. It is probable, how¬ ever, that it was invented in France, in the fifteenth century. One of the prohibitions of a statute, rela¬ ting to the pin-makers of Paris of the sixteenth cen¬ tury, forbid any manufacturer to open more than one shop for the sale of his wares, except on new-year’s day, and on the day previous. . 8. Hence we may infer, that' it was customary to give pins as new-year’s presents, or that it was the usual practice to make the chief purchases at this time. At length it became a practice, in many parts of Europe, for the husband to allow to his wife a sum of money for this purpose. We see here the origin of the phrase, pin-money , which is now applied to des¬ ignate the sum allowed to the wife for her personal expenses generally. 9. Prior to the year 1443, the art of making pins from brass wire was not known in England. Until that period, they were made of bone, ivory, or box¬ wood. Brass pins are first mentioned in the English statute book, in 1483, when those of foreign manufac¬ ture were prohibited 232 THE PI N-M AKER. 10. Although these useful implements are made in London, and in several other places in England, yet Gloucester is the principal seat of this manufacture in that kingdom. It was introduced into that place, in 1626, by John Silsby, and it now contains nine dis¬ tinct manufactories, in which are employed about 1500 persons, chiefly women and children. Pins are also manufactured extensively in the villages near Paris, and in several other places in France, as well as in Germany. 11. The business of making pins has been lately commenced in the city of New-York, and it is said that the experiment has been so successful, both in the perfection of the workmanship, and in the rapidity of the production, that pins of American manufacture bid fair to compete, at least, with those of foreign coun¬ tries. r J THE TINPLATE WORKER, &c. TIN. 1. Tin is a whitish metal, less elastic, and less sonorous than any other metal, except lead. It is found in the mountains which separate Gallicia from Portu¬ gal, and in the mountains between Saxony and Bohe¬ mia. It also occurs in the peninsula of Molucca, in India, Mexico, and Chili. But the mines of Cornwall and Devonshire, in England, are more productive than those of all other countries united. 2. There are two ores of tin, one of which is called tin stone , and the other tin pyrites; the former of these is the kind from which the metal is extracted. The ore is usually found in veins, which often penetrate the hardest rocks. When near the surface of the earth, or at their commencement, they are very small, U 2 234 T I N. but they increase in size, as they penetrate the earth. The direction of these veins, or, as the miners call them, lodes , is usually east and west. 3. The miners follow the lode, wheresoever it may lead ; and, when they extend to such a depth, that the waters become troublesome in the mine, as is fre¬ quently the case, they are pumped up with machinery worked by steam, or drawn off by means of a drain, called an adit . The latter method is generally adopt¬ ed, when practicable. 4. The ore is raised to the surface through shafts, which have been sunk in a perpendicular direction upon the vein. At the top of the shaft, is placed a windlass, to draw up the kibbuts, or baskets, contain¬ ing the ore. Near St. Austle, in Cornwall, is a mine which has not less than fifty shafts, half of which are now in use. Some of the veins have been worked a full mile, and some of the shafts are nearly seven hundred feet deep. 5. At St. Austle Moor, there is a mine of stream tin, about three miles in length. The tin, together with other substances, has been deposited in a valley, by means of small streams from the hills. The de- posite is about twenty feet deep, and the several ma¬ terials of which it is composed, have settled in strata, according to their specific gravity. The ore, being the heaviest, is, of course, found at the bottom. 6. The ore, from whatever source it may be obtain¬ ed, is first pulverized in a stamping mill, and then washed, to free it from the stony matter with which it may be united. The ore, thus partially freed from foreign matter, is put into a reverberatory furnace, with fuel and limestone, and heated intensely. The contents of the furnace having been brought to a state of fusion, the lime unites with the earthy matters, and flows with them into a liquid glass, while the carbon of the coal unites with the tin. The metal sinks, by TIN. 235 its specific gravity, to the bottom of the furnace, and is let out, after having been exposed to the heat about ten hours. 7. The tin thus obtained, is very impure ; it there¬ fore requires a second fusion, to render it fit for use. After having been melted a second time, it is cast into blocks weighing about three hundred pounds. These blocks are taken to places designated by law, and there stamped, by inspectors appointed for the pur¬ pose by the Duke of Cornwall. In performing this operation, the inspector cuts off a corner, and stamps the block at that place, with the proper seal, and with the name of the smelter. These precautions give assurance, that the metal is pure, and that the duty has been paid. 8. The duty is four shillings sterling per hundred weight, which is paid to the Duke of Cornwall, who is also Prince of Wales. The revenue from this source amounts to about thirty thousand pounds a year. The owner of the soil also receives one sixth, or one eighth of the ore as his dish, as the miners call it. The mi¬ ners and the smelters receive certain proportions of the metal for their services. 9. Tin was procured from Britain at a very early period. The Phoenicians are said by Strabo to have passed the Pillars of Hercules, now the Straits of Gib¬ raltar, about 1200 years before Christ. But the time at which they discovered the tin islands, which they denominated Cassorides, cannot be ascertained from history, although it is evident from many circumstan¬ ces, that the Scilly Islands, and the western ports of Britain, were the places from which these early navi¬ gators procured the tin with which they supplied the parts of the world to which they traded. 10. For a long time, the Phoenicians and the Car¬ thaginians enjoyed the tin trade, to the exclusion of all other nations. After the destruction of Carthage by 236 T I N. the Romans, a colony of Phocean Greeks, established at Marseilles, carried on this trade ; but it came into the hands of the Romans, after the conquest of Britain by Julius Caesari 11. The Cornish mines furnish incontestable proofs of having been worked many hundred years ago. In digging to the depth of forty or fifty fathoms, the mi¬ ners frequently meet with large timbers imbedded in the ore. Tools for mining have also been found in the same, or similar situations. The mines, there¬ fore, which had been exhausted of the ore, have, in the course of time, been replenished by a process of nature. 12. To what purposes the ancients applied all the tin which they procured at so much labor and cost, is not precisely known. It is probable, that the Tyrians consumed a portion of it, in dyeing their purple and scarlet. It formed then, as it now does, many im¬ portant alloys with copper. The mirrors of antiqui¬ ty were made of a composition of these metals. 13. The method of extracting tin from its ores was probably very defective in ancient times. At least, it was so for several centuries before the time of Eliza¬ beth, when Sir Francis Godolphin introduced great improvements in the tin works. The use of the re¬ verberatory furnace was commenced, about the begin¬ ning of the eighteenth century, and soon after pit-coal was substituted for charcoal. 14. This metal, in its solid state, is called block-tin. It is applied, without any admixture with any other metal, to the formation of vessels, which are not to be exposed to a temperature much above that of hot water. A kind of ware, called biddery ware , is made of tin alloyed with a little copper. The vessels made of this composition, are rendered black by the appli¬ cation of nitre, common salt, and sal ammoniac. Foil is also made by pressing it between steel rollers, 4. tin. 237 or by hammering it, as in the case of gold by the gold¬ beaters. 15. But tin is most extensively applied as a coating to other metals, stronger than itself, and more subject to oxydation. The plates which lire usually denomi¬ nated tin, are thin sheets of iron coated with this met¬ al. The iron is reduced t£>. thin plates in a rolling- mill, and these are prepared for being tinned, by first steeping them in water acidulated with muriatic acid, and then freeing them from oxyde by heating, scaling, and rolling them. 16. The tin is melted in deep oblong vessels, and kept in a state of fusion by a charcoal fire. To pre¬ serve its surface from oxydation, a quantity of fat or oil is kept floating upon it. The plates are dipped perpendicularly into the tin, and held there for some time. When withdrawn, they are found to have ac¬ quired a bright coating of the melted metal. The dip¬ ping is performed three times for single tin plate, and six times for double tinplate . The tin penetrates the iron, and forms an alloy. 17. Various articles of iron, such as spoons, nails, bridle-bits, and small chains, are coated with tin, by immersing them in that metal, while in a state of fu¬ sion. The great affinity of tin and copper, renders it practicable to apply a thin layer of the former metal to the surface of the latter ; and this is often done, as stated in the article on the coppersmith. 18. Tin and quicksilver are applied to the polished surface of glass, for the purpose of forming mirrors. In silvering plain looking-glasses, a flat, horizontal slab is used as a table. This is first covered with pa¬ per, and then with a sheet of tin foil of the size of the glass. A quantity of quicksilver is next laid on the foil, and spread over it with a roll of cloth, or with a hare’s foot. 19. After as much quicksilver as the surface will 238 THE TIN-PLATE WORKER. hold, has been spread on, and while it is yet in a fluid state, the glass is shoved on the sheet of foil from the edge of the table, driving a part of the liquid metal before it. The glass is then placed in an inclined po¬ sition, that every ifhnecessary portion of the quicksil¬ ver may be drained off, after which it is again laid flat upon the slab, and pressed for a considerable time with heavy weights. The remaining quicksilver amalga¬ mates with the tin, and forms a permanent, reflecting surface. THE TIN-PLATE WORKER. 1. The materials on which the tinner, or tin-plate worker, operates, are the rolled sheets of iron, coated with tin, as just described. He procures the sheets by the box, and applies them to the roofs and other parts of houses, or works them up into various uten¬ sils, such as pails, pans, bake-ovens, measures, cups, and ducts for conveying water from the roofs of houses. 2. In making the different articles, the sheets are cut into pieces of proper size, with a huge pair of shears, and these are brought to the proposed form by different tools, adapted to the purpose. The several parts are united by means of a solder made of a com. position of tin and lead. The solder is melted, and made to run to any part, at the will of the workman, by means of a copper instrument, heated for the pur¬ pose in a small furnace with a charcoal fire. 3. On examining almost any vessel of tin ware, it will be perceived, that, where the parts are united, one of the edges, at least, and sometimes both, are turned, that the solder may be easily and advanta¬ geously applied. It will also be discovered that iron wire is applied to those parts requiring more strength than is possessed by the tin itself. The edges and handles are especially strengthened in this manner.. 4. The edges of the tin were formerly turned on a LEAD. 239 steel edge, or a kind of anvil called a stock , with a mallet; and, in some cases, this method is still pur¬ sued ; but this part of the work is now more expedi¬ tiously performed, by means of several machines in¬ vented by Seth Peck, of Hartford Co., Connecticut. These machines greatly expedite the manufacture of tin wares, and have contributed much towards redu¬ cing their price. 5. This manufacture is an extensive branch of our domestic industry ; and vast quantities of tin, in the shape of various utensils, are sold in* different parts of the United States, by a class of itinerant merchants, called tin-pedlers, who receive in payment for their goods, rags, old pewter, brass, and copper, together with feathers, hogs’ bristles, and sometimes ready money. LEAD. 1. Next to iron, lead is the most extensively dif¬ fused, and the most abundant metal. It is found in various combinations in nature ; but that mineralized by sulphur is the most abundant. This ore is denom¬ inated galena by the mineralogists, and is the kind from which nearly all the lead of commerce is ex¬ tracted. 2. The ore having been powdered, and freed, as far as possible, from stony matter, is fused either in a blast or reverberatory furnace. In the smelting, lime is used as a flux, and this combines with the sulphur and earthy matters, while the lead unites with the car¬ bon of the fuel, and sinks to the bottom of the fur¬ nace, whence it is occasionally let out into a reservoir. 3. Lead extracted from galena, often contains a sufficient proportion of silver to render it an object to extract it. This is done by oxydizing the lead by means of heat, and a current of air. At the end of this operation, the silver remains with a small quan- 240 LEAD. tity of lead, which is afterwards separated by the pro¬ cess of cupellation. The oxyde is applied to the pur¬ poses for which it is used, or it is reduced again to a metallic state. 4. The lead mines on the Mississippi are very pro¬ ductive, and very extensive. The principal mines are in the neighborhood of Galena, in the north-western part of Illinois, and these are the richest on the globe. The lead mines in the vicinity of Potosi, Missouri, are also very productive. About 3,000,000 pounds are annually smelted in the United States. 5. Lead, on account of its easy fusibility and soft¬ ness, can be readily applied to a variety of purposes. It is cast in moulds, to form weights, bullets, and other small articles. Cisterns are lined, and roofs, &c.. » are covered with sheet lead; and also in the con* struction of pumps and aqueducts, leaden pipes are considerably used. The mechanic who applies this metal to these purposes, is called a plumber. 6. Lead is cast into sheets in sand, on large tables having a high ledge on each side. The melted lead is poured out upon the surface from a box, which is made to move on rollers across the table, and is equalized, by passing over it a straight piece of wood called a strike . The sheets thus formed, are after¬ wards reduced in thickness, and spread to greater di¬ mensions, by compressing them between steel rollers. 7. Leaden pipes may be made in various ways. They were at first formed of sheet lead, bent round a cylindrical bar, or mandrel, and then soldered ; but pipes formed in this manner, were liable to crack and break. The second method consists in casting suc¬ cessive portions of the tube in a cylindrical mould, having in it a core. As soon as the tube gets cold, it is drawn nearly out of the mould, and more lead is poured in, which unites with the tube previously form- LEAD. 241 ed. But pipes cast in this way are found to have im¬ perfections, arising from flaws and air bubbles. 8. In the third method, which is the one most com¬ monly practised, a thick tube of lead is cast upon one end of a long polished iron cylinder, or mandrel, of the size of the bore of the intended pipe. The lead is then reduced, and drawn out in length, either by drawing it on the mandrel through circular holes of different sizes, in a steel plate, or by rolling it between contiguous rollers, which have a semicircular groove cut round the circumference of each. 9. The fourth method consists in forcing melted lead, by means of a pump, into one end of a mould, while it is discharged in the form of a pipe, at the op¬ posite end. Care is taken so to regulate the temper¬ ature, that the lead is chilled just before it leaves the mould. 10. Shot is likewise made of lead. These instru¬ ments of death are usually cast in high towers con¬ structed for the purpose. The lead is previously al¬ loyed with a small portion of arsenic, to increase the cohesion of its particles, and to cause it to assume more readily the globular form. It is melted at the top of the tower, and poured into a vessel perforated at the bottom with a great number of holes. 11. The lead, after running through these perfo¬ rations, immediately separates into drops, which cool in falling through the height of the tower. They are received below in a reservoir of water, which breaks the fall. The shot are then proved by rolling them down a board placed in an inclined position. Those which are irregular in shape roll off at the sides, or stop, while the spherical ones continue on to the end. II.—X - THE IRON-FOUNDER, &c. IRON. 1. The properties which iron possesses in its va¬ rious forms, render it the most useful of all the met¬ als. The toughness of malleable iron renders it ap¬ plicable to purposes, where great strength is required, while its difficult fusibility, and property of softening by heat, so as to admit of forging and welding, cause it to be easily wrought. 2. Cast iron, from its cheapness, and from the fa¬ cility with which its form may be changed, is made the material of numerous structures. Steel, which is the most important compound of iron, exceeds all other metals in hardness and tenacity; and hence it is particularly adapted to the fabrication of cutting instruments. IRON. 243 3. Iron was discovered, and applied to the purpo¬ ses of the arts, at a very early period. Tubal-Cain, who was the seventh generation from Adam, “ was an instructer of every artificer in brass and iron.” Noah must have used much of this metal in the con¬ struction of the ark, and, of course, he must have transmitted a knowledge of it to his posterity. 4. Nevertheless, the mode of separating it from the various substances with which it is usually com¬ bined, was but imperfectly understood by the an¬ cients ; and their use of it was, most likely, confined chiefly to the limited quantity found in a state nearly pure. Gold, silver, copper, and tin, are more easily reduced to a state in which they are available in the arts. They were, therefore, often used in ancient times, for purposes to which iron would have been more applicable. This was the case especially with copper and tin. 5. Fifteen distinct kinds of iron ore, have been dis¬ covered by mineralogists ; but of these, not more than four have been employed in making iron. There are, however, several varieties of the latter kind, all of which are classed by the smelters of iron under the general denomination of log and mountain or hard ores. 6. The former has much of the appearance of red, brown, or yellowish earth, and is found in beds from one to six feet thick, and in size from one fourth of a rood to twenty acres. The mountain, or hard ore, to a superficial observer, differs but little in its appear¬ ance from common rocks or stones. It is found in regular strata in hills and mountains, or in detached masses of various sizes, and in hilly land from two to eight feet below the surface. 7. The bog-ore is supposed to be a deposite from water which has passed over the hard ore. This is evidently the case in hilly countries, where both kinds 244 IRON. occur. Some iron-masters use the bog; some, the hard ; and others, both kinds together. In this par¬ ticular, they are governed by the ore, or ores, which may exist in their vicinity. 8. The apparatus in which the ore is smelted, is called a blast-furnace , which is a large pyramidal stack, built of hewn stone or brick, from twenty to sixty feet in height, with a cavity of a proportionate size. In shape, this cavity is near that of an egg, with the largest end at the bottom. It is lined with fire-brick or stone, capable of resisting an intense heat. 9. Below this cavity is placed the hearth , which is composed of four or five large coarse sandstones, split out of a solid rock, and chiselled so as to suit each other exactly. These form a cavity for the re¬ ception of the iron and dross, when melted above. The hearth requires to be removed at the end of every blast , which is usually continued from six to ten months in succession, unless accidentally interrupted. 10. The preparation for a blast, consists principal¬ ly in providing charcoal and ore. The wood for the former is cut in the winter and spring, and charred and brought to the furnace during the spring, summer, and autumn. What is not used during the time of hauling, is stocked in coal-houses, provided for the purpose. 11. The wood is charred in the following manner. It is first piled in heaps of a spherical form, and cov¬ ered with leaves and dirt. The fire is applied to the wood, at the top, and when it has been sufficiently ignited, the pit is covered in; but, to support com¬ bustion, several air-holes are left near the ground. The colliers are obliged to watch the pit night and day, lest, by the caving in of the dirt, too much air be admitted, and the wood be thereby consumed to ashes. IRON. 245 12. When the wood has been reduced to charcoal, the fire is partially extinguished by closing the air¬ holes. The coals are drawn from the pit with an iron.toothed rake, and, while this is performed, the dust mingles with them, and smothers the fire which may yet remain. Wood is also charred in kilns made of brick. 13. The hard ore is dug by miners , or, as they are commonly denominated, ore-diggers . In the prosecu¬ tion of their labor, they sometimes follow a vein into a hill or mountain. When the ore is found in strata or lumps near the surface, they dig down to it. ^his kind of ore commonly contains sulphur and arsenic, and to free it from those substances, and to render it less compact, it is roasted in kilns, with refuse char¬ coal, which is too fine to be used for any other pur¬ pose. It is then broken to a suitable fineness with a hammer, or in a crushing mill. The bog-ore seldom needs any reduction. 14. Every preparation having been made, the fur¬ nace is gradually heated with charcoal, and by degrees filled to the top, when a small quantity of the ore is thrown on, and the blast is applied at the bottom near the hearth. The blast is supplied by means of one or two cylindrical bellows, the piston of which is moved by steam or water power. 15. The coal is measured in baskets, holding about one bushel and a half, and the ore, in boxes holding about one peck. Six baskets of coal, and as many boxes of ore as the furnace can carry, is called a half charge , which is renewed as it may be necessary to keep the furnace full. With every charge is also thrown in one box of limestone. 16. The limestone is used as a flux, to aid in the fusion of the ore, and to separate its earthy portions from the iron. The iron sinks by its specific gravity, to the bottom of the hearth, and the earthy portions, X 2 246 THE I R 0 N-F OUNDER. now converted into glass by the action of the lime¬ stone and heat, also sink, and float upon the liquid iron. This scum, or, as it is usually called, scoria, slag, or cinder, is occasionally removed by instru¬ ments made for the purpose. 17. JVhen the hearth has become full of iron, the metal is let out, at one corner of it, into a bed of sand, called a pig-bed, which is from twenty to thirty feet in length, and five or six in width. One concave channel, called the sow, extends the whole length of the bed, from which forty or fifty smaller ones, called pig-moulds, extend at right angles. The metal, when cast in these moulds, is called pig-iron, and the masses of iron, pigs. 18. Pig-iron, or, as it is sometimes called, crude iron , being saturated with carbon and oxygen, and containing also a portion of scoria, is too brittle for any other purpose than castings. Many of these, such as stoves, grates, mill.irons, plough-irons, and kitchen utensils, are commonly manufactured at blast furnaces, and in many cases nearly all the iron is used for these purposes. In such cases, the metal is taken in a liquid state, from the hearth, in ladles. 19. In Great Britain and Ireland, and perhaps in some other parts of Europe, iron-ore is smelted with coke, a fuel which bears the same relation to pit-coal, that charcoal does to wood. It is obtained by heating or baking the coal in a sort of oven or kiln, by which it becomes charred. During the process, a sort of bituminous tar is disengaged from it, which is care¬ fully preserved, and applied to many useful purposes. THE IRON-FOUNDER. 1. The appellation of founder is given to the super¬ intendent of. a blast-furnace, and likewise to those persons who make castings either of iron or any other metal. In every case, the term is qualified by THE I R 0 N-F 0 U N D E R. 247 a word prefixed, indicating the metal in which he oper¬ ates, or the kind of castings which he may make ; as Jrass-founder, iron- founder, or ie/Z-founder. But what soever may be the material in which he operates, or the kind of castings which he may produce, his work is performed on the same general principle. 2. The sand most generally employed by the found¬ er is loam, which possesses a sufficient proportion of argillaceous matter, to render it moderately cohesive, when damp. The moulds are formed by burying in the sand, wooden or metallic patterns, having the ex¬ act shape of the respective articles to be cast. To exemplify the general manner of forming moulds, we will explain the process of forming one for the spider, a very common kitchen utensil. 3. The pattern is laid upon a plain board, which in this application is called a follow board, and surround¬ ed with a frame called a fask, three or four inches deep. This is filled with sand, and consolidated with rammers, and by treading it with the feet. Three wooden patterns for the legs are next buried in the sand, and a hole is made for pouring in the metal. 4. One side of the mould having been thus formed, the flask, with its contents, is turned over, and, the follow board having been removed, another flask is applied to the first, and filled with sand in the same manner. The two flasks are then taken apart, and the main pattern, together with those for the legs, re¬ moved. The whole operation is finished by again closing the flasks. 5. The mode of proceeding in forming moulds for different articles, is varied, of course, to suit their conformation. The pattern is often composed of sev¬ eral pieces, and the number and form of the flasks are also varied accordingly. Cannon-balls are sometimes cast in moulds of iron; and to prevent the melted metal from adhering to them, the inside is covered with pulverized black lead. 248 THE I R O N-F 0 U N D E R. 6. Rollers for flattening iron are also cast in iron moulds. This method is called chill-casting, and has for its object the hardening of the surface of the met¬ al, by the sudden reduction of the temperature, which takes place in consequence of the great power of the mould, as a conductor of heat. These rollers are af¬ terwards turned in a powerful lathe. 7. Several moulders work together in one foundery ; and, when they have completed a sufficient number of moulds, they fill them with the liquid metal. The metal for small articles is dipped from the hearth or crucible of the furnace with iron ladles defended on every side with a thin coating of clay mortar, and poured thence into the moulds. But in casting arti¬ cles requiring a great amount of iron, such as cannon, and some parts of the machinery for steam engines, the iron is transferred to the moulds, in a continued stream, through a channel leading from the bottom of the crucible. In such cases, the moulds are con¬ structed in a pit dug in the earth near the furnace. Large ladles full of iron are, in some founderies, emp¬ tied into the moulds by the aid of huge cranes. 8. Although the moulders have their distinct work to perform, yet they often assist each other in lifting heavy flasks, and in all cases, in filling the moulds. The latter operation is very laborious ; but the exer¬ tion is continued but a short time, since the moulds, constructed during a whole day, can be filled in ten or fifteen minutes. 9. Iron-founderies are usually located in or near large cities or towns, and are supplied with crude iron, or pig metal, from the blast furnaces in the interior. The metal is fused either with charcoal or with pit coal. In the former case, an artificial blast is neces¬ sary to ignite the fuel; but in the latter, this object is often effected in air furnaces, which are so construct¬ ed that a sufficient current of air is obtained directly from the atmos here. THE BAR IRON MAKER. 249 10. The practice of making castings of iron is com- paratively modern; those of the ancients were made of brass, and other alloys of copper. Until the be¬ ginning of the last century, iron was but little applied in this way. This use of it, however, has extended so rapidly, that cast iron is now the material of almost every kind of machinery, as well as that of innumer¬ able implements of common application. Even bridg¬ es and rail-roads have been constructed of cast iron. THE BAR IRON MAKER. 1. Bar-iron is manufactured from pig-iron, from blooms , and directly from the ore ; the process is con¬ sequently varied in conformity with the state of the material on which it is commenced. 2. In producing bar-iron from pigs, the latter are melted in a furnace similar to a smith’s forge, with a sloping cavity ten or twelve inches below, where the blast-pipe is admitted. This hearth is filled with char¬ coal and dross, or scoria ; and upon these is laid the metal and more coal. After the coal has become well ignited, the blast is applied. The iron soon begins to melt, and as it liquefies, it runs into the cavity or hearth below. Here, being out of the reach of the blast, it soon becomes solid. 3. It is then taken out, and fused again in the same manner, and afterwards a third time. After the third heat, when the iron has become solid enough to bear beating, it is slightly hammered with a sledge, to free it from the adhering scoria. It is then returned to the furnace; but, being placed out of the reach of the blast, it soon becomes sufficiently compact to bear the tilt-hammer . 4. With this instrument, the iron is beaten, until the mass has been considerably extended, when it is cut into several pieces, which, by repeated beating and forging, are extended into bars, as we see them 250 THE BAR IRON MAKER. for sale. The tilt-hammer weighs from six to twelve hundred pounds, and is most commonly moved by wa¬ ter power. 5. For manufacturing bar-iron directly from the ore, the furnace is similar in its construction to the one just described, and the operations throughout are very similar. A fire is first made upon the hearth with charcoal; and, when the fuel has become well ignited, a quantity of ore is thrown upon it, and the ore and the fuel are renewed as occasion may require. As the iron melts, and separates from the earthy por¬ tions of the ore, it sinks to the bottom of the hearth. The scoria is let off occasionally, through holes made for the purpose. When iron enough has accumula¬ ted to make a loop, as the mass is called, it is taken out, and forged into bars under the tilt-hammer. 6. This way of making bar-iron is denominated the method of the Catalanforge , and is by far the cheap¬ est and most expeditious. It is in general use in all the southern countries of Europe, and it is beginning to be extensively practised in the United States. When a Catalan forge is employed in making blooms , it is called a bloomery. 7. The blooms are about eighteen inches long, and four in diameter. They are formed under the tilt- hammer, and differ in substance from bar-iron in no¬ thing, except that, having been imperfectly forged, the fibres of the metal are not fully extended, nor firmly united. The blooms are manufactured in the interior of the country, where wood is abundant, and sold by the ton, frequently, in the cities, to be converted into bar or sheet iron. 8. These blooms are converted into bar-iron, by first heating them in an air-furnace, by means of stone coal, and then passing them between chill cast iron rollers. The rollers are filled with grooves, which gradually decrease in size from one side to the other. THE WIRE DRAWER. 251 When the iron has passed through these, the bloom of eighteen inches in length, has become extended to nearly as many feet. The bar thus formed, having been cut into four pieces, the process is finished by welding them together laterally, and again passing them between another set of rollers, by which they are brought to the form in which they are to remain. 9. Blooms are also laminated into two sheets, on the same principle, between smooth rollers, which are screwed nearer to each other every time the bloom is passed between them. Very thin plates, like those which are tinned for the tin-plate workers, are repeat¬ edly doubled, and passed between the rollers, so that in the thinnest plates, sixteen thicknesses are rolled together, oil being interposed to prevent their cohe¬ sion. The last rollings are performed while the metal is cold. 10. Rolled plates of iron are frequently cut into rods and narrow strips. This operation is performed by means of elevated angular rings upon rollers, which are so situated that they act reciprocally upon each other, and cut like shears. These rings are sep¬ arately made, so that they can be removed for the purpose of sharpening them, when necessary. The mills in which the operations of rolling and slitting iron are performed, are called rolling and slitting mills. THE WIRE DRAWER. 1. Iron is reduced to the form of wire by drawing rods of it through conical holes in a steel plate. To prepare the metal for the operation of drawing, it is subjected to the action of the hammer, or to that of rollers, until it has been reduced to a rod sufficiently small to be forced through the largest hole. The best wire is produced from rods formed by the method first mentioned. 252 THE STEEL MANUFACTURER. 2. Various machines are employed to overcome the resistance of the plate to the passage of the wire. In general, the wire is held by pinchers, near the end, and as fast as it is drawn through the plate, it is wound upon a roller, by the action of a wheel and axle, or other power. Sometimes, a rack and pinion are employed for this purpose, and sometimes a lever, which acts at intervals, and which takes fresh hold of the wire every time the force is applied. 3. The finer kinds of wire are made from the larger by repeated drawings, each of which is performed through a smaller hole than the preceding. As the metal becomes stiff* and hard, by the repetition of this process, it is occasionally annealed, to restore its duc¬ tility. Wire is formed of other metals by the same general method. THE STEEL MANUFACTURER. 1. Steel is a compound of iron and carbon; and, as there are several methods by which the combination is produced, there are likewise several kinds of steel. The best steel is said to be made of Swedish or Rus¬ sian bari-ron. 2. The most common method of forming steel is by the process of cementation . The operation is per¬ formed in a conical furnace, in which are two large cases or troughs, made of fire-brick, or good fire stone; and beneath these is a long grate. On the bottom of the cases is placed a layer of charcoal dust, and over this a layer of bar-iron. Alternate strata of these materials are continued to a consider¬ able height, ten or twelve tons of iron being put in at once. 3. The whole is covered with clay or sand, to ex. elude the air, and flues are carried through the pile from the furnace below, so as to heat the contents equally and completely. The fire is kindled in the THE STEEL MANUFACTURER. 253 grate, and continued for eight or ten days, during which time, the troughs, with their contents, are kept red hot. The progress of the cementation is discov¬ ered by drawing a test bar from an aperture in the side. 4. When the conversion of the iron into steel ap¬ pears to be complete, the fire is extinguished; and, after having been suffered to cool for six or eight days, it is removed. Iron combined with charcoal in this manner, is denominated blistered steely from the blisters which appear on its surface, and in this state, it is much used for common purposes. 5. To render this kind of steel more perfect, the bars are heated to redness, and then drawn out into bars of much smaller dimensions, by means of a ham¬ mer moved by water or steam power. This instru¬ ment is called a tilting hammer, and the bars formed by it, are called tilted steel. When the bars have been exposed to heat, and afterwards doubled, drawn out, and welded, the product is called shear steel. 6. But steel of cementation, however carefully- made, is never quite equable in its texture. Steel possessing this latter quality is made, by fusing bars of blistered steel, in a crucible placed in a wind fur¬ nace. When the fusion has been completed, the liquid metal is cast into small bars or ingots, which are known in commerce by the name of cast steel. Cast steel is harder, more elastic, closer in texture, and capable of receiving a higher polish than common steel. 7. Steel is also made directly from cast iron, or at once from the ore. This kind is called natural or German steel, and is much inferior to that obtained by cementation. The best steel, produced directly from the ore, comes from Germany, and is made in Stiria. It is usually imported in barrels, or in chests about three feet long. II.—Y 254 THE STEEL MANUFACTURER. 8. Steel is sometimes alloyed with other metals. A celebrated Indian steel, called wootz, is supposed to be carbonated iron, combined with small quantities of silicium and aluminum. Steel alloyed with a very small proportion of silver, is superior to wootz, or to the best cast steel. Some other metals are also used with advantage in the same application. 9. Steel was discovered at a very early period of the world, for aught we know, long before the flood. Pliny informs us, that, in his time, the best steel came from China, and that the next best came from Parthia. A manufactory of steel existed in Sweden as early as 1340 of the Christian era : but it is generally thought, that the process of converting iron into steel by cementation originated in England, at a later period. The method of making cast steel was invented at Sheffield, in the latter country, in 1750, and, for a long time, it was kept secret. 10. It has been but a few years, since this manu¬ facture was commenced in the United Sates. In 1836, we had fourteen steel furnaces, viz.; at Boston, one; New-York, three; Troy, one; New-Jersey, two ; Philadelphia, three ; York Co., Pa., one ; Balti¬ more, one; and Pittsburg, two. These furnaces to¬ gether are said to be capable of yielding more than 1600 tons of steel in a year. The American steel is employed in the fabrication of agricultural utensils, and it has entirely excluded the common English blistered steel. THE BLACKSMITH, AND THE NAILER. THE BLACKSMITH. 1. The blacksmith operates in wrought iron and steel, and, from these materials, he fabricates a great variety of articles, essential to domestic convenience, and to the arts generally. 2. This business is one of those trades essential in the rudest state of society. Even the American In¬ dians are so sensible of its importance, that they cause to be inserted in the treaties which they make with the United States, an article stipulating for a blacksmith to be settled among them, and for a supply of iron. 3. The utility of this trade will be further manifest by the consideration, that almost every other business is carried on by its aid. The agriculturist is depend¬ ent on it for farming utensils, and mechanics and art- 256 THE BLACKSMITH. ists of every description, for the tools with which they operate; in short, we can scarcely fix upon a single utensil, vehicle, or instrument, which does not owe its origin, either directly or indirectly, to the blacksmith. 4. This business being thus extensive in its appli¬ cation, it cannot be presumed that any one person can be capable of executing every species of work. This, however, is not necessary, since the demand for par¬ ticular articles is frequently so great, that the whole attention may be directed to the multiplication of in¬ dividuals of the same kind. Some smiths make only anchors, axes, scythes, hoes, or shovels. 5. In such cases, the workmen acquire great skill and expedition in the manufacture. A tilt hammer is often used in forging large masses of iron, and even in making utensils as small as the hoe, the axe, and the sword ; but the hammer which may be employed bears a due proportion in its weight to the mass of iron to be wrought. In all cases in which a tilt ham¬ mer is used, the bellows from which the blast proceeds is moved by water or steam power. 6. In the shop represented at the head of this article, sledges and hammers are used as forging instruments, and these are wielded by the workmen themselves. The head workman has hold of a piece of iron with a pair of tongs, and he, with a hammer, and two others, with each a sledge, are forging it upon an anvil. The two men are guided in their disposition of the strokes chiefly by the hammer of the master-workman. 7. In ordinary blacksmith shops, two persons com¬ monly work at one forge, one of whom takes the lead in the operations, and the other works the bellows, and uses the sledge. From the part which the latter takes in the labor, he is called the blower and striker. A man or youth, who understands but little of the business, can, in many cases, act in this capacity tol¬ erably well. THE BLACKSMITH. 257 8. The iron is rendered malleable by heating it with charcoal or with stone coal, which is ignited in¬ tensely by means of a blast from a bellows. The iron is heated more or less, according to the particular ob¬ ject of the workman. When he wishes to reduce it into form, he raises it to a white heat. The welding heat is less intense, and is used when two pieces are to be united by welding. At a red heat, and at lower temperatures, the iron is rendered more compact in its internal texture, and more smooth upon its surface. 9. The joint action of the heat and air, while the temperature is rising, tends to produce a rapid oxyda- tion of the surface. This result is measurably pre¬ vented by immersing the iron in sand and common salt, which, uniting, from a vitreous coating for its protection. This coating is no inconvenience in the forging, as its fluidity causes it to escape immediately under the action of the hammer. 10. Steel is combined with iron in the manufacture of cutting instruments, and other implements, as well as articles requiring, at certain parts, a great degree of hardness. This substance possesses the remarka¬ ble property of changing its degree of hardness by the influence of certain degrees of temperature. No other substance is known to possess this property ; but it is the peculiar treatment which- it receives from the workman that renders it available. 11. If steel is heated to redness, and suddenly plunged into cold water, it is rendered extremely hard, but, at the same time, too brittle for use. On the other hand, if it is suffered to cool gradually, it becomes too soft and ductile. The great object of the operator is to give to the steel a quality equally distant from brittleness and ductility. The treatment by which this is effected is called tempering , which will be more particularly treated in the article on the cutler, whose employment is a refined branch of this business. Y 2 258 THE NAILER. THE NAILER. 1. Nail-making constitutes an extensive branch of the iron business, as vast quantities of nails are annu¬ ally reuqired by all civilized communities. They are divided into two classes, the names of which indicate the particular manner in which they are manufactu¬ red ; viz., wrought nails and cut nails, 2. The former are usually forged on the anvil, and when a finished head is required, as is commonly the case, it is hammered on the larger end, after it has been inserted into a hole of an instrument formed for the purpose. Workmen by practice acquire surpri¬ sing dispatch in this business; and this circumstance has prevented the general introduction of the machines which have been invented for making nails of this de¬ scription. Wrought nails can be easily distinguished from cut nails, by the indentations of the hammer which have been left upon them. 3. In making cut nails, the iron is first brought into bars between grooved rollers. The size of the bars is varied in conformity with that of the proposed nails. These bars are again heated, and passed between smooth rollers, which soon spread them into thin strips of suitable width and thickness. These strips, having been cut into pieces two or three feet in length, are heated to a red heat in a furnace, to be immedi¬ ately converted into nails, when designed for those of a large size. For small nails, the iron does not re¬ quire heating. 4. The end of the plate is presented to the ma¬ chine by the workman, who turns the material over, first one way and then the other; and at each turn a nail is produced. The machine has a rapid recipro¬ cating motion, and cuts off, at every stroke, a wedge¬ like piece of iron, constituting a nail without a head. This is immediately caught near the head, and com- THE NAILER. 259 pressed between gripes; and, at the same time, a force is applied to a die at the end, which spreads the iron sufficiently to form the head. From one to two hundred can be thus formed in a minute. This fact accounts for the low rate at which cut nails are now sold, which, on an average, is not more than two cents per pound above that of bar iron. 5. On account of the greater expense of manufac¬ turing wrought nails, they are sold much higher. It is said that nine-tenths of all the nails of this kind, used in the United States, are imported from Europe. We thus depend upon foreign countries for these and many other articles, because they can be imported cheaper than we can make them ; and this circum¬ stance arises chiefly from the difference in the price of labor. 6. The first machine for making cut nails was in¬ vented in Massachusetts about the year 1816, by a Mr. Odion, and soon afterwards another was contri¬ ved, by a Mr. Reed, of the same -state. Other ma¬ chines, for the same purpose, have likewise been con¬ structed by different persons, but those by Odion and Reed are most commonly used. Before these ma¬ chines were introduced, the strips of iron just de¬ scribed, were cut into wedgelike pieces by an instru¬ ment which acted on the principle of the shears ; and these were afterwards headed, one by one, with a hammer in a vice. The fact, that the manufacture of this kind of nails originated in our country, is wor¬ thy of recollection. 7. In 1841, Walter Hunt, of New-York, invented a double reciprocating nail engine, which is owned by the New-York Patent Nail Company. This ma¬ chine works with surprising rapidity, it being capable of cutting five or six hundred ten-penny nails in a minute. One hand can tend three engines, as he has nothing more to do than to place the heated plate in a perpendicular position in the machine. 260 THE NAILER. 8. This manufacture includes, also, that of tacks and spikes; but since, in-the production of these, the same general methods are pursued, they need no par. ticular notice. The different sizes of tacks are dis¬ tinguished by a method which indicates the number per ounce ; as two, three, or four hundred per ounce. Spikes are designated by their length in inches, and nails by the terms, two-penny, three-penny, four- penny, ten-penny, and so on up to sixty-penny. THE CUTLER. • 1. Under the head of cutlery, is comprehended a great variety of instruments designed for cutting and penetration, and the business of fabricating them is divided into a great number of branches. Some man¬ ufacture nothing but axes ; others make plane-irons and chisels, augers, saws, or carvers’ tools. Others, again, make smaller instruments, such as table-knives, forks, pen-knives, scissors, and razors. There are also cutlers who manufacture nothing but surgical instruments. 2. The coarser kinds of cutlery are made of blis¬ tered steel welded to iron. Tools of a better quality are. made of shear steel, while the sharpest and most delicate instruments are formed of cast steel. The several processes constituting this business may be comprised in forging tempering, and polishing ; and 262 THE CUTLER. these are performed in. the order in which they are here mentioned. 3. The general method of forging iron and steel, in every branch of this business, is the same with that used in the common blacksmith’s shop, for more or¬ dinary purposes. The process, however, is some¬ what varied, to suit the particular form of the object to be fashioned ; for example, the blades and some other parts of the scissors are formed by hammering the steel upon indented surfaces called bosses. The bows, which receive the finger and thumb, are made by first punching a hole in the metal, and then en¬ larging it by the aid of a tool called a beak-iron. 4. The steel, after having been forged, is soft, like iron, and to give it the requisite degree of strength under the uses to which the tools or instruments are to be exposed, it is hardened. The process by which this is effected is called tempering , and the degree of hardness or strength to which the steel is brought is called its temper , which is required to be higher or lower , according to the use which is to be made of the particular instrument. 5. In giving to the different kinds of instruments the requisite temper, they are first heated to redness, and then plunged into cold water. This, however, raises the temper too high, and, if left in this condi¬ tion, they would be too brittle for use. To bring them to a proper state, they are heated to a less de¬ gree of temperature, and again plunged into cold wa¬ ter. The degree to which they are heated, the second time, is varied according to the hardness required. That this particular point may be perfectly under¬ stood, a few examples will be given. 6. Lancets are raised to 430 degrees Fahrenheit. The temperature is indicated by a pale color, slightly inclined to yellow. At 450 degrees, a pale straw-col¬ or appears, which is found suitable for the best razors and surgical instruments. At 470 degrees, a full yel- THE CUTLER. 263 or is produced, which is suitable for pen-knives, com¬ mon razors, &c. At 490, a brown color appears, which is the indication of a temper proper for shears, scissors, garden hoes, and chisels intended for cutting cold iron. 7. At 510 degrees, the brown becomes dappled with purple spots, which shows the proper heat for temper¬ ing axes, common chisels, plane-irons, &c. At 530 degrees, a purple color is established, and this temper¬ ature is proper for table-knives and large shears. At 550 degrees, a bright blue appears, which is prop¬ er for swords and watch springs. At 560 degrees, the color is full blue, and this is used for fine saws, augers, &c. At 600 degrees, a dark blue approach¬ ing to black settles upon the metal, and this produces the softest of all the grades of temper, which is used only for the larger kinds of saws. 8. Other methods of determining the degree of temperature at which the different kinds of cutlery are to be immersed, a second time, in cold water, are also practised. By one method, the pieces of steel are covered with tallow or oil, or put into a vessel con¬ taining one of these substances, and heated over a moderate fire. The appearance of the smoke indi¬ cates the degree of heat to which it may have been raised. A more accurate method is found in the em¬ ployment of a fluid medium, the temperature of which can be regulated by a thermometer. Thus oil, which boils at 600 degrees, may be employed for this pur¬ pose, at any degree of heat which is below that number. 9. The grinding of cutlery is effected on cylindri¬ cal stones of various kinds, among which freestone is the most common. These are made to revolve with prodigious velocity, by means of machinery. The operation is therefore quickly performed. The polish - ing is commonly effected by using, first, a wheel of wood ; then, one of pewter and, lastly, one covered with buff leather sprinkled with an impure oxyde of 264 THE CUTLER. iron, called colcothar o t crocus . The edges are set either with hones or whetstones, or with both, accord¬ ing to the degree of keenness required. 10. Almost every description of cutlery requires a handle of some sort; but the nature of the materials, as well as the form and mode of application, will be readily understood by a little attention to the various articles of this kind which daily fall in our way. 11. A process has been invented, by which edge tools, nails, &c., made of cast iron, may be convert¬ ed into good steel. It consists in stratifying the arti¬ cles with the oxyde of iron, in a metallic cylinder, and then submitting the whole to a regular heat, in a fur¬ nace built for the purpose. This kind of cutlery, however, will not bear a very fine edge. 12. The sword and the knife were probably the first instruments fabricated from iron, and they still con¬ tinue to be leading subjects of demand, in all parts of the world. The most celebrated swords of antiquity were made at Damascus, in Syria. These weapons never broke in the hardest conflicts, and were capable of cutting through steel armor without sustaining in¬ jury. 13. The fork, as applied in eating, is an invention comparatively modern. It appears to have had its origin in Italy, probably in the fourteenth century; but it was not introduced into England, until the reign of James the First, in the first quarter of the seven¬ teenth. Its use was, at first, the subject of much rid¬ icule and opposition. 14. Before the introduction of the fork, a piece of paper, or something in place of it, was commonly wrapped round some convenient projection of the piece to be carved ; and, at this place, the operator placed one hand, while he used the knife with the other. The carver cut the mass of meat into slices or suitable portions, and laid them upon the large slices of bread which had been piled up near the platter, or THE CUTLER. 265 carving dish, and which, after having been thus served, were handed about the table, as we now distribute the plates. 15. The knives used at table were pointed, that the food might be taken upon them, as upon a fork ; and knives of the same shape are still common on the con¬ tinent of JEurope. Round-topped knives were not adopted in Paris, until after the banishment of Napo¬ leon Bonaparte to Elba, in 1815, when every thing English became fashionable in that city. 16. In France, before the revolution of 1789, it was customary for every gentleman, when invited to dinner, to send his knife and fork before him by a ser¬ vant ; or, if he had no servant, he carried them him¬ self in his breeches pocket. A few of the ancient regime still continue the old custom. The peasant¬ ry of the Tyrol, and of some parts of Germany and Switzerland, generally carry about them a case, con¬ taining a knife and fork, and a spoon. 17. The use of the fork, for a long time, was con¬ sidered so great a luxury, that the members of many of the monastic orders were forbidden to indulge in it. The Turks and Asiatics use no forks, even to this day. The Chinese employ, instead of this instrument, two small sticks, which they hold in the same hand, be¬ tween different fingers. 18. The manufacture of cutlery is carried on most extensively in England, at Birmingham, Sheffield, Walsall, Wolverhampton, and London. London cut¬ lery has the reputation of being the best, and this cir¬ cumstance induces the dealers in that city, to affix the London mark to articles made at other places. In the United States, there are many establishments for the fabrication of the coarser kinds of cutlery, such as axes, plane-irons, saws, hoes, scythes, &c., but for the finer descriptions of cutting instruments, we are chiefly dependent on Europe. II.—Z THE GUN-SMITH. 1. It is the business of the gun-smith to manufac¬ ture fire-arms of the smaller sorts; such as muskets, fowling-pieces, rifles, and pistols. 2. The principal parts of the instruments fabricated by this artificer, are the barrel, the stock, and the lock. In performing the operations connected with this business, great attention is paid to the division of labor, especially in large establishments, such as those belonging to the United States, at Springfield and Harper’s Ferry; for example, one set of workmen forge the barrels, ramrods, or some part of the lock; others reduce some part of the forged material to the exact form required, by means of files; and again another class of operators perform some part of the work relating to the stock. THE G U N-S M I T II. 267 3. The barrel is formed by forging a bar of iron into a flat piece of proper length and thickness, and by turning the plate round a cylindrical rod of tempered steel, called a mandril, the diameter of which is con¬ siderably less than the intended bore of the barrel. The edges of the plate are made to overlap each other about half an inch, and are welded together by heating the tube in lengths of two or three inches at a time, and by hammering them with very brisk, but moderate strokes, upon an anvil which has a number of semicircular furrows upon it. 4. In constructing barrels of better workmanship, the iron is forged in smaller pieces, eight or nine inches long, and welded together laterally, as well as lengthwise. The barrel is now finished in the usual way ; or it is first made to undergo the additional operation of twisting , a process employed upon those intended to be of superior quality. The operation is performed by heating small portions of it at a time, and twisting them successively, while one end is held fast. 5. The barrel is next bored with several bits, each a little larger than the preceding one. The last bit is precisely the size of the intended calibre. After the barrel has been polished, and the breech closed with a screw, its strength and soundness are tested by means of a ball of the proper size, and a charge of powder equal in weight to the ball. Pistol-barrels, which are to go in pairs, are forged in one piece, which is cut asunder, after it has been bored. 6. Barrels for rifles are much thicker than those for other small-arms ; and, in addition to the boring in common barrels, they are furrowed with a number of grooves or rifles, which extend from one end of the cavity to the other, either in a straight or spiral direc¬ tion. These rifles are supposed to prevent the rolling 268 THE GUN-SMITH. of the ball in its passage out, and to direct it more unerringly to the object of aim. 7. The stocks are commonly manufactured from the wood of the walnut-tree. These are first dressed in a rough manner, usually in the country. After the wood has been properly seasoned, they are finished by workmen, who commonly confine their attention to this particular branch of the business. In each of the United States’ armories, is employed a machine with which the stocks are turned, and also one, with which the place for the lock is made, 8. The several pieces composing the lock are forged on anvils, some of which have indented surfaces, the more readily to give the proposed form. They are reduced somewhat with the file, and polished with substances usually employed for such purposes. The several pieces of the lock having been put together, it is fastened to the stock with screws. Other particu¬ lars in regard to the manufacture of small-arms will be readily suggested by a careful inspection of the different kinds, which are frequently- met with. 9. The period at which, and the country where, gunpowder and fire-arms were first invented, cannot be certainly determined. Some attribute their inven¬ tion to the Chinese ; and, in confirmation of this opin¬ ion, assert that there are now cannon in China, which were made in the eightieth year of the Christian era. On this supposition, their use was gradually extended to the West, until they were finally adopted in Europe, in the fourteenth century. 10. Others, however, attribute the invention of gun¬ powder to Berthold Schwartz, a monk, who lived at Mentz, between the years 1290 and 1320. It is said, that in some of his alchemistic experiments, he put some saUpetre, sulphur, and charcoal, into a mortar, and having accidentally dropped into it a spark of fire, the contents exploded, and threw the pestle into THE GUN-SMITH. 269 the air. This circumstance suggested to his mind the employment of the mixture for throwing projec¬ tiles. Some traditions, however, attribute the inven¬ tion to Constantine Antlitz, of Cologne. 11. The fire-arms first used in Europe were can¬ non, and these were originally made of wood, wrapped in numerous folds of linen, and well secured with iron hoops. They were conical in shape, being widest at the muzzle; but this form was soon changed for the cylindrical. At length they were made of bars of iron, firmly bound together with hoops of the same metal. In the second half of the fourteenth century, a composition of copper and tin, which was brought to form by casting in sand, came into use. 12. Cannon were formerly dignified with great names. Charles V. of Spain had twelve, which he called after the twelve apostles. One at Bois-le-Duc is called the devil; a sixty-pounder, at Dover Castle, is called Queen Elizabeth’s pocket-pistol; an eighty- pounder, at Berlin, is called the thunderer ; two sixty- pounders, at Bremen, the messengers of bad news. But cannon are, at present, denominated from the weight of the balls which they carry; as six-pound¬ ers, eight-pounders, &c. 13. Fire-arms of a portable size were invented, about the beginning of the sixteenth century. The musket was the first of this class of instruments that appeared, and the Spanish nation, the first that adopt¬ ed its use as a military weapon. It was originally very heavy, and could not be well supported in a horizontal position without a rest. The soldiers, on their march, carried only the rest and ammunition, while each was followed by a youth who bore the musket. 14. The powder was not ignited with a spark from a flint, but with a match. Afterwards, a lighter match-lock musket was introduced, which was car. Z 2 270 THE GUN-SMITH. ried by the soldiers themselves. The rest, however, maintained its ground, until about the middle of the seventeenth century. The troops throughout Europe were furnished with fire-locks, such as are now used, a little before the beginning of the eighteenth cen¬ tury. 15. The bayonet was invented, about the year 1640, at Bayonne ; but it was not generally introdu¬ ced, until the pike was entirely discontinued, about sixty years afterwards. It was first carried by the side, and was used as a dagger in close fight; but, in 1690, the custom of fastening it to the muzzle of the fire-lock was commenced in France, and the example was soon followed throughout Europe. 16. Gunpowder, on which the use of fire-arms de¬ pends, is a composition of salt-petre, sulphur, and charcoal. The proportion of the ingredients is va¬ ried considerably in different countries, and by differ¬ ent manufacturers in the same country. But good gunpowder may be made of seventy-six parts of salt¬ petre, fifteen of charcoal, and nine of sulphur. These materials are first reduced to a fine powder separate¬ ly, and then formed into a homogeneous mass by moistening the mixture with water, and pounding it for a considerable time in wooden mortars. 17. After the paste has been suffered to dry a little, it is forced through a kind of sieve. By this process it is divided into grains, the size of which depends upon that of the holes through which they have been passed. The powder is then dried in ovens, and af¬ terwards put into barrels, which are made to revolve on their axis. The friction produced by this motion destroys the asperities of the grains, and renders their surfaces smooth and capable of easy ignition. THE VETERINARY SURGEON. 1. The horse, as well as the other domestic ani¬ mals, is subject to a great variety of diseases, which, like those affecting the human system, are frequently under the control of medicinal remedies; and the same general means which are efficacious in healing the disorders of our race, are equally so in controlling those of the inferior part of the animal creation. 2. The great value of the domestic animals has ren¬ dered them, from the earliest periods, the objects of study and attention, not only while in health, but also when laboring under disease. For the latter state, a peculiar system was early formed, including a materia medica, and a general mode of treatment considerably different from those for human patients. 3. Of the authors of this system, whether Greek or 272 THE VETERINARY SURGEON. Roman, nothing worthy of notice has been transmit¬ ted to us, beyond an oceasional citation of names, in the works of Columella, a Roman writer, who flour¬ ished in the reign of Tiberius Csesar, and in Vegetius Renatus, who lived two centuries afterwards. The former treated at large on the general management of domestic animals, and the latter more professedly on the diseases to which they are liable. 4. Both of these writers treated their subject in el¬ egant classical Latin ; but neither they nor any other ancient author whose works have reached us, had any professional acquaintance with medicine or surgery. Celsus is the only physician of those times who is said to have written on animal medicine ; but this part of his works is not. extant. 5. Xenophon is the oldest veterinary writer whose work remains ; but his treatise is confined to the train¬ ing and management of the horse for war and the chase. The chief merit of the ancient writers on this subject consists in the dietetic rules and domestic management which they propose. Their medical prescriptions are said to be an inconsistent and often discordant jumble of many articles, devoid of rational aim or probable efficacy. 6. On the revival of learning in Europe, when the anatomy and physiology of-the human body had be¬ come grand objects of research in the Italian schools, veterinary anatomy attracted the attention of Ruini and others, whose descriptive labors on the body of the horse have since served for the ground-work and model to all the schools in Europe. 7. The works of the veterinary writers of antiquity were eagerly sought and translated in Italy and France, and the art was extensively cultivated, sometimes un¬ der regular medical professors. Every branch of the equine economy was pursued with assiduity and suc¬ cess, whether it related to harness and trappings, equi- THE VETERINARY SURGEON. 273 tation and military menage, or the methodical treat¬ ment of the hoof, and the invention of various kinds of iron shoes. Evangelista of Milan distinguished him¬ self in the education or breaking of the horse ; and to him is attributed the invention of the martingale. 8. The new science having been extended over a great proportion of the continent of Europe, could scarcely fail of occasional communication with Eng¬ land ; nevertheless, the medical treatment of horses and other domestic animals continued exclusively in the hands of farriers and cow-doctors, until some time in the first quarter of the eighteenth century. 9. At this period, that branch of this art which re¬ lates to the medical and surgical treatment of the horse, attracted the attention of William Gibson, who had acted in the capacity of army surgeon in the wars of Queen Anne. He was the first author of the reg¬ ular medical profession, in England, who attempted to improve veterinary science ; and the publication of his work forms an era in its annals, since his work became, and has continued to the present day, the basis of the superior practice of the English. 10. The eighteenth century was abundantly fruitful in veterinary pursuits and publications. France took the lead; but a zeal for this branch of science perva¬ ded Germany and the states north of that part of Eu¬ rope, and colleges were established in various coun¬ tries, with the express view of cultivating this branch of the medical art. It is said that the French have improved the anatomical and surgical branches of the art, and the English, those which relate to the applica¬ tion of medicines. 11 . The first veterinary school was instituted at Lyons, in 1762. Another was established at Alfort, in 1766. A similar institution was opened at Berlin, in 1792, and in the same year, one at St. Pancras, near London. In these colleges, lectures are given, 274 THE VETERINARY SURGEON. and degrees conferred. In the diplomas, the graduate is denominated veterinary surgeon. A great number of these surgeons have been dispersed in the armies of Europe, as well as through the different countries, where they have been employed in the medical and surgical treatment of diseased animals, to the great advantage of their owners. 12. From the preceding account, it is evident, that the light of science has shone conspicuously, in Eu¬ rope, on the domestic animals, in relation to their treatment, both while in health, and when laboring under disease. In the United States, we have no in¬ stitution for the cultivation of this branch of knowl¬ edge. The press, however, has been prolific in the production of works treating on the various branches of the veterinary art; and many persons, by their aid, have rendered themselves competent to adminis¬ ter to animals in cases of disease, in a rational man¬ ner. 13. Nevertheless, the practice of animal medicine is confined chiefly to illiterate men, who, from their laborious habits, or from other causes, have not attain¬ ed to that degree of information on animal diseases, and the general effects of medicine, that might enable them to prescribe their remedies on scientific princi¬ ples. But this state of things is not peculiar to our country; for, notwithstanding the laudable efforts of enlightened men in Europe, the blacksmiths form a vast majority of the horse-surgeons’ and physicians in every part of it; and the medical treatment of the other domestic animals is commonly intrusted to per¬ sons who are still more incompetent. 14. The attention of blacksmiths was very early turned to the diseases of the horse, from the practice of supplying him with shoes. The morbid affections of the foot were probably the first which attracted their notice ; and descanting upon these induced the general THE VETERINARY SURGEON. 275 belief, that they understood every other disease which might affect the animal. 15. These men, as artificers in iron, were orginally termed ferrers or ferriers, from the Latin word ferrum, iron ; and their craft, ferriery. These terms, by a usual corruption or improvement in language, have been changed to farrier and farriery, both of which still remain in general use, the former as applied to persons who shoe horses and administer to them med¬ icines and surgical remedies, and the latter to the art itself, by which they are, or ought to be, guided. 16. The appellation of veterinary surgeon is appli¬ cable to persons who have received a diploma from some veterinary college, or who have, at least, studied animal medicine scientifically. There are a few such individuals in the United States; and the great value of the domestic animals, and the general increase of knowledge, certainly justify the expectation, that their number will increase. THE END. CATALOGUE OF BOOKS. 1 Harper & Brothers, 82 Cliff-street, New-York, have just issued a new and complete catalogue of their publications, which will be forwarded, without charge, to any part of the United States, upon appli¬ cation to them personally or by mail post paid. In this catalogue may be found over one thousand vol¬ umes, embracing every branch of literature, standard and imaginative. The attention of persons forming libraries, either private or public, is particularly di¬ rected to the great number of valuable standard his¬ torical and miscellaneous works comprised in the list, among which are the following: The Family Library (each work is sold separately) contains.153 vols. The Classical Library.. . 36 vols. The School District Library. 200 vols.. Boys’ and Girls’ Library.32 vols. Mrs. Sherwood’s Works.15 vols. Miss Edgeworth’s Works ...... 15 vols. Sparks’s American Biography .... 10 vols. Hannah More’s Works.6 vols. Shakspeare’s Works ....... 6 vols. V u % 'v ; GETTY CENTER LIBRARY 3 3125 00140 9164