THE 
 
 ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 DRAWING, 
 
 IN ITS VARIOUS BRANCHES, 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 USE OF STUDENTS; 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 BY FIFTY ENGRAVINGS, 
 PLAIN AND COLOURED, 
 
 CONTAINING SEVERAL HUNDRED EXAMPLES, FROM THE WORKS OP THE 
 GREATEST MASTERS. 
 
 BY GEORGE HAMILTON, 
 
 DRAWING MASTER. 
 
 A NEW EDITION. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 PRINTED FOR SIR RICHARD PHILLIPS AND CO. 
 
 AND TO BE HAD OF ALL BOOKSELLERS, WITH THE FULL 
 ALLOWANCE TO MASTERS AND SCHOOLS. 
 
 (Price Twenty-one Shillings Half-bound.) 
 1827. 
 
SFTACICFXL AND BAYLIS, JOHNSON'S-COURT. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 No Art is so instructive to the mind, so improving 
 to the taste, and so pleasing an employment, as 
 that of Drawing. Exercise and improvement in it 
 bring us into contact and intimate acquaintance 
 with every kind of object ; and an obligation to 
 pourtray with accuracy, calls for the exertion of the 
 most precise discrimination, and serves as a practi- 
 cal illustration of every species of knowledge. In 
 truth, Drawing is an art, the acquisition of which,, 
 accords with the general principles of the Inter- 
 rogative System in other branches of knowledge; 
 and the Interrogative System itself, as a system of 
 exercise and practice, is an exemplification of the 
 principle of Drawing. 
 
 How vague are our conceptions of things before 
 we have had occasion to draw their outline, shadow 
 them, and colour them! Drawing is, in fact, a 
 universal language, intelligible to all nations, and 
 in its exercise it teaches universal knowledge. No 
 study, therefore., is more beneficial to youth, none 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 more useful in middle age, and none more gratifying 
 in the listless period of decrepitude. 
 
 As a branch of liberal, and even of necessary and 
 useful education, this Art has long been generally 
 recognized in considerable schools; and if it has not 
 been introduced more generally, the omission may 
 perhaps be ascribed to the total want of an Ele- 
 mentary Book, serving as an Assistant to the Master, 
 and as a practical guide to the Student. Such a 
 Volume is here submitted to the Public ; its pur- 
 pose being that of a book of examples, and a com- 
 pendium of instruction for Drawing Masters — a 
 substitute for living Instructors in Schools, where 
 their assistance cannot be procured or afforded, — 
 and a means, in many necessary instances, of learn- 
 ing to draw without a Master. 
 
 It is the Author s presumption to believe, that the 
 Student will be a Master of the Art as soon as he 
 has produced perfect copies of the various examples 
 contained in this Work, and has read and studied 
 with attention the observations, instructions, and 
 principles contained in the letter-press. 
 
 Aware, as the Author has repeatedly declared in 
 the work, that none but superior examples should 
 be copied and studied, he scarcely need to observe, 
 that nearly the whole of his subjects are taken from 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 V 
 
 the Works of the greatest Masters, and may, there- 
 fore, be drawn with confidence, and relied on as 
 authorities, in their outline and treatment. In this 
 age of Art, when every well-educated person is 
 either an amateur or connoisseur, it would have 
 been trifling to have exhibited an Elementary Work 
 of the low character of the ordinary Drawing-Books ; 
 the Author has, therefore, attempted to attain a 
 character of novelty, and to soar above mediocrity : 
 —on that principle founding his claims to the pre- 
 ference and patronage of the Public. 
 
 He has purposely confined his instructions to 
 Drawing only, as practised in outline, in shadow, 
 and in water-colours ; and has not treated of other 
 branches of the Art, because the major part of Stu- 
 dents require nothing further, because what he has 
 done is the foundation of every other branch, and 
 because other branches, after what is contained 
 herein, are rather consequential and mechanical, 
 than novel or necessary, 
 
 With respect to the mode of teaching or studying 
 this Art, little can be added to the practical direc- 
 tions scattered through every part of the letter-press; 
 but if the Author may advise with additional em- 
 phasis in this place, he would recommend, that 
 freedom in each set of examples should be followed 
 
vi 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 by the practice of copying those objects after nature. 
 The effort may be difficult at first, but the difficulty 
 will speedily vanish ; while the advantages will be 
 solid, and the gratification excessive. Not only 
 will the facility of drawing be improved, and the 
 manner become decided ; but the ideas of light 
 and shade will be corrected, and the principles 
 of perspective, established by practice, will be duly 
 felt and ascertained. Let the Tutor and the Stu- 
 dent bear in mind, that the means of this study are 
 prints, and examples of Masters, but that its end is 
 accurately to pourtray Nature. 
 
 In taking leave of his readers, the Author may, 
 perhaps, without improper egotism, remark, that 
 his is the first arranged and comprehensive work on 
 this Art ever published in England ; he calculates, 
 therefore, on the cordial support of Masters in gene- 
 ral, and on the liberal sanction and recommendation 
 of his work among the intelligent part of the Public. 
 
 If further examples are deemed necessary, he 
 begs leave to recommend the Book of Simple Rural 
 Scenery, by Nattes, and the Book of Animals by 
 Chalons, the completest, most tasteful, and most 
 economical works within his knowledge. 
 
 London, Sept. 4<th, 1827. 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 vii 
 
 LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 Plate L. .Elementary Forms, 
 
 Plate II... The Nose. 
 
 Plate III... The Eyes. 
 
 Plate IV.. .The Nose, Mouth, and Chin. 
 
 Plate V... The Ear. 
 
 Plate VI.. .Proportions of the Head. 
 
 Plate VII.. .Head, from the Cartoons of Raffaelle. 
 
 Plate VIII.. .Head, from Ditto. 
 
 Plate IX.. .Head, from Le Brun. 
 
 Plate X.. .Admiration, from Ditto. 
 
 Plate XL. .Terror and Fright. 
 
 Plate XII. . . Hands and Arms, from the Cartoons of Raffaelle. 
 
 Plate XIII.. .Feet, from Ditto. 
 
 Plate XIV.. .Children, from Cipriani. 
 
 Plate XV.. .Boys, from Cipriani. 
 
 Plate XVI.. .From Morland. 
 
 Plate XVII... From Ditto. 
 
 Plate XVHI...The Bones. 
 
 Plate XIX... The Muscles. 
 
 Plate XX... Ditto. 
 
 Plate XXI... Ditto. 
 
 Plate XXII... Hercules. 
 
 Plate XXIII.. .Apollo Belvidere and Antinous. 
 
 Plate XXIV.. .The Laocoon. 
 
 Plate XXV.. c Heads of Animals. 
 
 Plate XXVI... The Goat. 
 
 Plate XXVII... The Ass. 
 
 Plate XXViII...The Horse. 
 
 Plate XXIX. . . The Wild Boar and Dog. 
 
 Plate XXX... Bull and Cow. 
 
 Plate XXXI.. .Outline Groups. 
 
 Plate XXXII.. .Outline Groups. 
 
 Plate XXXIII. . . Group of Horses, from Howett. 
 
 Plate XXXIV., .Military Macaw. 
 
Vlll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Plate XXXV.. .Progressive Lesson — Cottages. 
 Plate XXXVI.. .Cottage Landscape. 
 Plate XXXVII.. .Cottage Landscape. 
 Plate XXXVIII. . . Landscape, with Horses and Water. 
 Plate XXXIX. . . Landscape, preparatory for Colouring. 
 Plate XL. . . Coloured Landscapes, after Varley. 
 Plate XLL . . Sea Piece, from Vandervelde. 
 Plate XLII.. .Sea Piece, after Vandervelde, finished. 
 Plate XLIII.. .Group of Flowers, in Outline. 
 Plate XLIV . .Group of Flowers, in Outline, in First State. 
 Plate XL V.. .Group of Flowers, in Third State. 
 Plate XLVI. . . Group of Flowers, finished. 
 Plate XLVIL. .Butterflies. 
 Plate XLVIII... Peaches. 
 Plate XLIX.. .Fishes, from Elmer. 
 Plate L... Shells. 
 
ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 THE ART OF DRAWING/ 
 
 GENERAL DEFINITIONS. 
 
 1. The object of the Arts of Drawing is to represent Na- 
 ture, animated or unanimated, so as to revive the recollection, 
 or preserve the likeness, of any object or scene. This purpose 
 is effected by means of pencils, chalk, crayons, Indian ink, 
 or water colours, on paper, vellum, or ivory. 
 
 2. Drawing, in a more general sense, is the art of repre- 
 senting all objects of nature visibly, by lines and colours on a 
 plain surface. It has also the power of expressing, by the 
 same means, conceptions and images of the mind which do 
 not actually exist in nature, and is to be considered as an art 
 displaying, either conjointly or separately, the powers of ima- 
 gination and imitation : being divided into Invention, Com- 
 position, Design, and Colouring. 
 
 Observation. Amongst the artists of antiquity, Apelles was the 
 most eminent for the beauty of his drawing. Since the revival of 
 the art, Michael x\gnolo appears to have been the most learned 
 draughtsman, RafFaelle the most correct and graceful. The Roman 
 and Florentine Schools excelled all others in this fundamental part 
 of painting. Of the former, RafFa lie, Ron.an, Polydore, and their 
 
2 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWIXG, 
 
 scholars ; of the latter, Agnolo, Vinci, and Sarto, have been the most 
 excellent. In the Bolognese school, Annibal Caracci is particularly 
 distinguished. In the French school, Poussin, Le Sceur, andLeBrun. 
 In our own, Mortimer, Barry, and Sir Joshua Reynolds, have been 
 the most celebrated. 
 
 3. Invention consists generally in the choice of such sub- 
 jects as are best calculated to answer some great and interest- 
 ing end ; and particularly in discovering or selecting such 
 as are capable of being most appropriately expressed by 
 painting, and of producing a powerful effect by such means 
 as are within the compass of that art. 
 
 4. Composition regards the arrangement of the subject, 
 both as to forms, and to the general effects of light and shade, 
 and colour. It comprehends the general distribution and 
 grouping of the figures, their combinations or contrasts, the 
 choice of attitudes, the disposal of draperies, the situation of 
 the scene itself, as well as the distribution and connection of 
 the various parts of scenery and ornament. Composition in 
 architecture is the due arrangement of the parts of an order 
 or building. 
 
 Obs. 1. To make a good design or picture, the composition should 
 not be overcharged. A composition is said to be overcharged when 
 the component parts, either by their multiplicity, arrangement, or 
 distribution, destroy the effect of the whole, or do not contribute to 
 the object of the piece. It is not the quantity or number of subjects 
 introduced that renders a composition rich ; but, on the contrary, they 
 often destroy the simplicity and truth of the story intended to be 
 related. 
 
 Obs. 2. In composition those figures that particularly relate to 
 the story are called principals, and the less essential ones that complete 
 the groupe, accessories. In the language of the arts accessories are 
 those objects which are introduced into a design without being indis- 
 pensably necessary to the elucidation of the subject. In an historical 
 design the figures which act and explain the subject are the principals, 
 and the rest accessories. As for instance : in designing the story of 
 Telemachus relating his adventures to Calypso in the cave, after his 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 s 
 
 shipwreck on the island of the Goddess ; Calypso, Telemachus, and 
 Mentor, are principals ; but some Nymphs, introduced to perfect the 
 grouping, are accessories. Fruit, vases, &c. are also proper accesso- 
 ries, which, at the same time, considerably enrich the composition. 
 
 Obs. 3. The artist who aspires above mediocrity, should be care- 
 fid in the choice of accessories in his composition, as a superabundance, 
 or improper application of them, will infallibly ruin the best com- 
 position. He should use and dispose them in such a manner as not 
 to spoil the effect of the principal groupe, with which they should 
 always concur, and at the same time assist the general effect. The 
 most skilful painters and sculptors of antiquity have avoided acces- 
 sories in their compositions, which, however, often occasions too great 
 dryness and insipidity ; but omitting them altogether is much to be 
 preferred to introducing them improperly ; for nothing is more insup- 
 portable to the eye of a true judge of perfection in art, than to see 
 designs crowded with accessories which have no connection with the 
 principal object, or where they are only introduced to fill up or con- 
 ceal the vacuity of the principal object, or the want of genius in the 
 artist, To avoid a poverty of grouping in composition, is of as much 
 consequence as its opposite extreme, and should be as carefully 
 avoided. A just composition includes, of truth and propriety of group- 
 ing, correctness of costume, and appropriate action and expression. 
 
 Obs. 4. The principal figures, which decide what is the subject, 
 should have the principal place in the picture, and should be so placed 
 as to engage and strike the eye at the first glance. This is one of the 
 most important things to be remembered in composing a design, and 
 
 is one of the most prominent excellencies in the great masters. 
 
 Raffaelle particularly observed this; — St. Paul, in his cartoon of 
 that Apostle preaching at Athens, stands decidedly principal ; his situ- 
 ation, his attitude, his form, is most prominent. In Reubens' De- 
 scent from the Cross, the dead body of Christ is in the principal 
 place, catches the principal light, and is altogether the principal 
 figure. 
 
 " Paint not conspicuous on the foremost plain 
 Whate'er is false, impertinent, or vain ; 
 But, like the Tragic Muse, thy lustre throw 
 Where the chief action claims its warmest glow." 
 
 B 2 
 
4 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 Obs. 5. The principal figures should not be hidden by any of the 
 other figures or accessories, however grouped. ; on the contrary, the 
 judicious artist should make all the second rate figures and accessories 
 serve to elucidate the story, and render the principal figure more ob- 
 viously in sight. 
 
 Obs. 6. The principal groupe should receive the principal light, 
 and the principal figure of that groupe the principal light of that 
 groupe. By this means, the attention of the spectator is immediately 
 directed to the most important part of the picture, the subject sooner 
 developes itself to his mind, and the subordinate parts arise in suc- 
 cession, and prepossess him more forcibly in favour of the work. 
 
 Obs. 7. In grouping (or in the composition of groupes) let every 
 figure appear to hold a just situation, and without appearance of 
 restraint conform to an agreeable form in that groupe ; and if more 
 than one groupe is introduced, let them, as well as the single figures, be 
 different in general form and composition. A neglect of this precept 
 will occasion a tiresome and blameable monotony, that will be de- 
 structive to the best drawing, colouring, and expression, individually 
 painted. In the works of the great Raffaelle this beauty and fault are 
 both perceptible. In the cartoon of Paul preaching at Athens, there 
 is a wonderful contrast of the figures and grouping, 
 
 5. Design is the first idea of a large work, drawn roughly, 
 with an intention to be executed and finished. The essential 
 requisites of Design are correctness, taste, elegance, character, 
 expression, and perspective. 
 
 Correctness depends on the justness of the proportions, 
 and knowledge of anatomy. 
 
 Taste is a certain correctness of manner peculiar to the 
 artist, derived either from nature, masters, or studies, or all of 
 them united, producing elegance. 
 
 Character is what is peculiar to each thing, in which there 
 must be diversity, insomuch that every thing has ils peculiar 
 character to distinguish it. 
 
 Expression is the representation of an object, according to 
 the circumstances it is supposed to be in. 
 
 Perspective is the representation of the parts of a paint- 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 5 
 
 hig, or a figure, according to the situation they are in with 
 regard to the point of sight and to each other. 
 
 Obs. ]. Designs are sometimes drawn in crayons, or ink without 
 any shadows. Sometimes etched; that is, the shadows are expressed 
 by sensible outlines, usually drawn across each other with the pen or 
 crayon. Sometimes the shadows are done with the crayon rubbed so 
 as that there do not appear any line : at other times, the grains or 
 strokes of the crayon appear, as not being rubbed : sometimes the de- 
 sign is washed, that is, the shadows are done with a brush in Indian- 
 ink, or some other liquor: and sometimes the design is coloured, 
 that is, colours are laid on much like those intended for the ground 
 work. 
 
 Obs. 2. The art of designing is to be acquired chiefly by study and 
 observation, rules being of less avail than in any other branch of art. 
 The principal rules that regard design are, that novices should accus- 
 tom themselves to copy good originals at first sight; not to use 
 squares in reducing, lest they stint and confine their judgment ; to de- 
 sign well from life, before they practise perspective ; to learn to ad- 
 just the size of their figures to the visual angle, and the distance of 
 the eye from the model or object; to mark out all the parts of their 
 design before they begin to shade ; to make their contours in great 
 pieces, without taking notice of the little muscles, and other breaks ; 
 to make themselves masters of the rules of perspective ; to observe 
 the perpendicular, parallel, and distance, of every stroke ; to compare 
 and oppose the parts that meet and traverse the perpendicular, so as 
 to form a kind of square in the mind, which is the great, and almost 
 the only, rule of designing justly ; to have regard not only to the 
 model, but to the parts already designed, there being no such thing as 
 designing with exactness, but by comparing and proportioning every 
 part to the first object. 
 
 6. Designs are denominated Historical, -Architectural, 
 Landscape, Marine, Portrait, Animal, Still-life, Flower, ac- 
 cording to their respective subjects. 
 
 Historical Painting is that kind in which the figures 
 are made to concur in representing some action described in 
 history. 
 
6 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 Obs. Although this is the strict definition of the term, yet cus- 
 tom has given greater latitude to the phrase, as it now comprises, in 
 the language of the arts, subjects taken from mythology, allegory, 
 battles, and sometimes even portraits. Historical design is, in the 
 language of the elegant author of the Elements of Art, 
 
 " Big with the moral of each maddening age, 
 War's ruffian power, and revolution's rage; 
 Grave history presents her ample stores, 
 And man's fierce passions while she paints deplores.' * 
 
 Shee's Elements of Art, Canto 4. v. 195. 
 
 Architectural Drawings are representations of build- 
 ings, drawn either geometrically or perspectively, according 
 to the rules of architecture. 
 
 Obs. This is a very important study, and is followed as a profes- 
 sion, the professors of which are termed Architects. But to be a painter 
 or draughtsman of architectural views already executed, does not re- 
 quire so much study. An insight into the elements of the orders, their 
 arrangement, and a knowledge of perspective, are sufficient. Archi- 
 tecture is also an important accessory to the historical and portrait 
 painter, and should be attentively studied. The blunders in architec- 
 ture committed by modern artists is the less excusable, because it can 
 be so easily remedied, and is such a palpable deficiency in any artist. 
 Mr.Shee describes it as " the stately art," which 
 
 Supplies of ornament and use she brings, 
 
 Proud fanes for gods, aud palaces for kings, 
 
 To noblest acts a suited scene provides, 
 
 And o'er the back-ground's gorgeous store presides/' 
 
 Elements of Art, Canto 2. v. 91. 
 
 Landscape Drawing, or Landscapse, as it is generally 
 called, is that class of drawings, paintings, or engravings, 
 which represent some view of the country. 
 
 Obs. This is a branch of art the most delightful in its effects and 
 agreeable in its study. The great variety of beauties that it contains, 
 render it among the most attractive of the arts of design. It calls in 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OK DRAWING. 
 
 7 
 
 all the accidents of nature, and even of art, to its composition, from 
 the solitude and horror of the rocky desert, the sublimity of the 
 forest, the calm beauty of the flowery meadow, the stillness of the 
 limpid stream, to the destructive tempest. In short, every mild or 
 strong effect that nature is capable of producing. 
 
 " The landscape artist, gay and deftly moves 
 Through glade, glen, valley, woodland, green alcoves." 
 Tresham's Sea-sick Minstrel, Canto 6. v. 89. 
 
 Marine Drawings are those which take into their re- 
 presentation, not only views of the sea, but shipping, sea- 
 ports, naval battles, and similar subjects. 
 
 Obs. This is a branch of art connected with the last, as being 
 derived from the same source, an attentive study of nature ; but it 
 requires, in addition, a knowledge of the naval sciences, naval archi- 
 tecture, and perspective. Few men would, like Vernet, the most 
 distinguished marine painter of the French school, venture to sea in 
 the most tempestuous weather, when, made fast to the shrouds, he 
 observed attentively, and treasured up incidents for the magical pic- 
 tures which he has left. 
 
 ■* ( What daring artist in a storm 
 Grappled with terror, imitate Vernet, 
 Or Wilson like, secure, sublimely flies 
 Through troubled waters and ill-omen'd skies." 
 
 Sea-sick Minstrel, Canto 5. v. 47. 
 
 Portrait Painting is that department of art which 
 represents, in any manner, the figure and exact resemblance 
 of any particular person. 
 
 Obs. This department of the fine arts is, next to its critical design, 
 (which, to a degree, assimilates with it) one of the most useful and 
 most interesting. It maintains among the arts a most distinguished 
 rank, when performed with ability ; but is, when ill-done, or even 
 in mediocrity, unworthy of much estimation. The essential qualities 
 to form a good portrait are, correct drawing, an exact and perfect 
 
8 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 representation of the person represented, natural colouring, an easy 
 unaffected air, attitude, and character. 
 
 Animal Painting, unconnected with other divisions of 
 the arts, is the representation of the portraits of animals, 
 either in action or at rest. 
 
 Obs. To paint or design animals well, is a respectable provinc e 
 in art, and requires much study and perseverance. They should 
 always be represented naturally ; their action should be characteristic ; 
 and their anatomy well understood. 
 
 Still-life is the representation of inanimate substances, 
 when unconnected with living nature and historical facts. 
 
 Obs. This department of art, although it has its merits, is one of 
 *he lowest. It embraces the correct copying of furniture, glasses^ 
 musical instruments, fruit, vegetables, &c. when mixed together on a 
 table ; but if each kind is taken separately, they are then classed 
 under fruit, flowers, &c. The Dutch masters have long been cele- 
 brated as excelling in this tedious and laborious branch of art, which 
 requires but little invention, and less genius. Imitation of such dull 
 facsimiles should be avoided by students of real genius ; ct minutiae 
 mongers," 
 
 " Who spend on petty cares their puny powers, 
 And live to polish pores, and hairs, and flowers." 
 
 Elements of Art, Canto 5. v. 281. 
 
 or who, like 
 
 " Batavians paint with microscopic truth, 
 Foul linen, squalling brats, and feats uncouth; 
 Their native nature, native filth embrace, 
 And chastely shun that foreign harlot — Grace." 
 
 Sea-sick Minstrel, Canto 6. v. 75. 
 
 Flower Painting is the representation of flowers, ar- 
 ranged in some beautiful order, and composed only of flowers, 
 with, perhaps, the addition of a vase or basket to hold them. 
 
 Obs. Flower painting, when executed with botanical correctness, 
 is an enticing and beautiful line of art. When flowers are used as 
 accessories to history or portrait, a much less careful finishing an<4 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 9 
 
 arrangement are necessary than when they make a distinct picture of 
 themselves. In this case, they should be careful portraits of the 
 flowers, and a certain knowledge of botany is as indispensably neces- 
 sary to excel in flower painting as anatomy in portrait or history. 
 
 7. Colouring or Shadowing regards, first, the infinite 
 variety of hues, with which nature distinguishes her forms, 
 agreeably to the degree and mixture of the rays of light which 
 their surfaces reflect ; and, secondly, the distribution, apposi- 
 tion, and accompaniment, of various hues or tints, so as to 
 produce the effect most pleasing to the sight ; a circumstance 
 in which nature does not always delight. It embraces, also, 
 the light and shade of objects, as far as by the diminution or 
 increase of these the harmony of tints before-mentioned can be 
 effected; but that mixed effect of colour and of light and 
 shade, which is denominated chiaro-scuro, is more justly re- 
 garded as a branch of composition. 
 
 Obs. The perfection of an artist depends, therefore, on Invention, 
 Composition, Design, and Colouring, conjointly; yet it is by 
 the last of these only that he can establish a special idea of his art, 
 since it is by this that he gives effect to the former, whether he depend 
 on light and shade, or endeavour to imitate the tints of nature. This 
 subject will be resumed at length in the subsequent part of the work. 
 
 IMPLEMENTS USED IN DRAWING. 
 
 8. The Implements necessary for drawing are, a drawing 
 board, a ruler, compasses, charcoal, black-lead pencils, pen- 
 knife, porte-crayons, black, white, and red chalk, crayons, 
 Indian ink, crow-quill pens, camels'-hair pencils, boxes of 
 colours, paper of several sorts, and porte-f olios. 
 
 9. Drawing Boards are used to fix the paper so that it may 
 not shift, and also to strain it, to prevent the colours, when 
 laid wet on the paper, from causing it to swell, so as to become 
 uneven. The simplest sort is made of a deal-board, framed 
 
10 
 
 ELEMENTS 0E THE ART OF DRAWING . 
 
 square, with a strong piece across each end, to prevent warp- 
 ing. Upon this the paper may be fixed with pins, wafers, or 
 sealing-wax, or it may be strained with paste or glue. The 
 best kind of drawing boards, however, are made with a frame 
 and moveable pannel, upon which the paper is simply put wet, 
 and then forced into the frame, where it is confined by wedges 
 at the back. This strains without the trouble of pasting, so 
 that you may dry it at the fire; and it also looks much neater. 
 Such drawing boards may be bought at most colour shops. 
 
 10. Parallel Rulers are used for drawing parallel lines; 
 they are made of two pieces of ebony, fastened together by 
 brass bars, so as always to open parallel to each other. 
 
 11. Tee Squares are rulers made in the form of a T, 
 which are used with drawing boards ; the short end, called the 
 stock, being applied to the edge of the board, so as to slide 
 forwards and backwards, while the long part, called the blade, 
 is used for drawing lines by. These are more convenient than 
 parallel rulers, when a drawing board is used, as by them you 
 rule lines at right angles to each other at once, without using 
 the compasses. 
 
 12. Drawing Compasses are instruments of brass and steel, 
 for dividing lines, and laying down measures from scales, &c. 
 They are generally sold in cases, containing also a steel pen, 
 for drawing lines cleaner than can be done by a common pen, 
 and are very useful where neatness is required ; and points 
 with a black-lead pencil, for putting into the compass, when 
 circles are to be described. These cases also contain scales of 
 equal parts, and protracters for laying down angles. 
 
 13. Black-lead Pencils are made of a mineral substance, 
 called plumbago, or black-lead, sawed into slips, and fitted 
 into sticks of cedar. They are either hard or soft ; the best are 
 without any grit, not too soft, and cut easily without breaking. 
 The inferior kind is made by mixing the dust of black-lead 
 with gum or glue, and forming a composition ; these are gritty 
 and brittle, and do not answer so well. 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 11 
 
 Obs. Accustom yourself to hold your pencil farther from the point 
 than you do in writing, which will give you a better command of it, 
 and contribute to render your strokes more free and bold. The use 
 of your pencil is to draw the first sketches or outlines of your piece; 
 as any stroke or line that is amiss may be more easily rubbed out ; 
 and when you have made your sketch as correct as you can with the 
 pencil, you may then carefully mark the best outline you have got 
 with the crow-quill pen and Indian ink. 
 
 14. Indian Rubber has the useful property of erasing 
 lines drawn with black-lead, and is brought from South 
 America, in the form of small bottles, which, for use, should 
 be cut into slips. 
 
 Obs. This very curious substance is originally the juice of a tree 
 that grows abundantly in Surinam, and is like milk when exuded from 
 the tree, but soon becomes solid. The natives form balls of clay, 
 which they smear over with this milk, and when this coating is dry, 
 they apply another, and so on, till it is of the required thickness ; they 
 then moisten the clay and wash it out. These bottles are used by the 
 natives for carrying water, or other liquors. It is a production com- 
 mon to the East Indies also, whence it is imported in various forms, 
 more convenient for use than in the bottles above-mentioned. 
 
 15. Indian Ink is a very useful substance, brought from 
 China, where it is used for ordinary writing, which the 
 Chinese perform with a brush instead of a pen. It is a solid 
 substance, of a brownish black colour, and is conjectured to 
 be made of the gall of a species of cuttle-fish. When ground 
 up with water upon a clean tile, shell, or earthenware plate, it 
 may be made either lighter or darker, as required, by adding 
 to it more or less water. The best is always stamped with 
 Chinese characters, breaks with a glossy fracture, and feels 
 smooth, and not gritty, when rubbed against the teeth. An 
 inferior kind, made in this country, may easily be known by 
 its grittiness. 
 
 Obs. Having completed the outlines, Indian ink is used for sha- 
 dowing, as it may be diluted with water, so as to be of any required 
 
12 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 darkness, and may be softened or fined off, where the objects require 
 it, with water only and a elean hair-pencil. 
 
 16. Hair Pencils are made of camels'-hair, put into a 
 goose or swan's quill. Moisten them a little, and if they come 
 to a point without splitting, they are good ; if not, they are not 
 fit for drawing. The brushes used by the Chinese, made of a 
 white hair fitted up in reeds, are very excellent for drawing, 
 as they are more elastic. They are not sold in common, but 
 may sometimes be met with. 
 
 17. Charcoal is used for slightly sketching the outlines 
 of figures, in order to get the proportions previous to making 
 a drawing in chalk. The best charcoal for this purpose is 
 that of the willow ; it is cut into slips, and the strokes made 
 with it may easily be rubbed out with a feather of goose's or 
 duck's wing. 
 
 18. Porte Crayons are tubes made of brass or steel, and 
 calculated to hold chalk?, pencils, crayons, charcoal, &c. 
 
 19. Black Chalk is a fossil substance, resembling slaty 
 coal, and is cut into slips for drawing. It is generally used 
 in a porte crayon. It is much employed for drawing figures, 
 and is the best substance for the purpose of making drawings 
 from plaister, or after the life. It is more gritcy than black- 
 lead, but is of a deeper black, and has not the glossiness of the 
 former. It is of two kinds, French and Italian ; the former is 
 soft, the latter hard. 
 
 Obs. For mellowing and softening the shadows into each other, 
 when black chalk is used, stumps are necessary. They are pieces of 
 soft shamoy leather, or blue paper, rolled up quite tight, and cut to a 
 point. 
 
 20. White Chalk is used, together with black, for laying 
 on the lights. This is different from common chalk, being 
 much harder, and tobacco-pipe clay will do very well instead 
 of it. 
 
 21. Red Chalk is a fossil substance of a red ochre co- 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 13 
 
 lour, sometimes used for drawing, but not so much as for- 
 merly, the black being preferred to it ; but the red, being 
 cheaper, does very well for some purposes. 
 
 Obs. Red lead, and red or black chalk, are used in the same 
 manner as black-lead. White chalk and tobacco-pipe clay are used 
 in heightening, or giving strong lights, and in drawing on coloured 
 paper. Pastils, or crayons, are any colours mixed with tobacco-pipe 
 clay, which, while soft and in the consistency of a paste, is rolled up 
 in pieces, about the thickness of a quill, and two or three inches in 
 length, and then dried : they are generally used on coloured paper ; 
 and the colours are rubbed and wrought one into another in such a 
 manner that no strokes appear, but the whole looks as if it was done 
 with a brush. 
 
 22. Drawing Paper, made without any wire-marks, called 
 wove-paper, is generally used. It is made of various sizes 
 and thickness, and may be had of every stationer. Mid- 
 dle-Tint Paper is paper of a brownish or of a grey colour, 
 which is used for drawing upon with black and white 
 chalk. 
 
 23. Crow Pens, or Reed Pens, are used for fixing the 
 outline with ink, after it has been determined by the pencil. 
 
 GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 
 
 24. Having provided yourself with the above-mentioned 
 necessary materials, begin by drawing upright lines, and simple 
 geometrical figures, both straight and curved, either with the 
 pencil or chalk, holding them a greater distance from the point 
 than the pen in writing, to give freedom and command to the 
 hand. After being able, from some practice, to draw upright 
 lines, squares, polygons, ovals, &c. without rule or compass, 
 proceed to the elementary parts of the human head ; a few 
 examples of which are given in the plates. 
 
 Obs. The circle is of use in the several orbicular forms, as the sue*, 
 moon, globes, &c. The oval, in giving a just proportion to the face 
 
14 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OK DRAWING. 
 
 or mouth ; and the square confines any picture you are to copy. The 
 triangle is of use in drawing a side or half-face ; angles, and arches, 
 in perspective ; and the polygon in ground-planes, fortifications, &c. 
 The cone, in spires, steeples, tops of towers, &c. 
 
 25. Having placed whatever you mean to copy before you, 
 proceed to draw it slightly with a pencil or chalk. Then look 
 closely into it, and proceed to mend those parts that are defi- 
 cient, correcting it by degrees till you have brought it to the 
 highest degree of perfection. 
 
 26. Before you begin, view the original with attention ; 
 divide it in your mind into its several parts ; observe its length, 
 its breadth, and the similitude of each part ; consider their 
 proportion to each other and to the whole ; the distances from 
 one part to the other, and the parts that lie opposite to each 
 other. 
 
 27. Whatever copies or examples you draw from, reduce 
 them to other proportions, either larger or smaller, till by re- 
 peated trials you acquire correctness of copying. 
 
 Obs. It is better to depend on the eye than on the mode of reducing 
 by corresponding squares, except when great accuracy is required. 
 
 28. Correctness of drawing should be attained before you 
 attempt either colouring or painting. If this is not acquired, 
 no perfection can be attained. The first grand requisite for 
 an artist is drawing ; the second, drawing ; and the thirds 
 drawing. Mr. Shee impresses this subject very forcibly : — 
 
 <c Ply then, the bright port-crayon till you find 
 Correctness with facility combirTd : 
 Till the firm outline flows at your command, 
 And forms become familiar to your hand. 
 
 Elements of Art, Canto I. v. 317. 
 
 29. Outlines must be drawn in a gliding manner, large 
 and smooth, which will give them the resemblance of life and 
 motion. Correctness of outline is the first point to be attained^ 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 IS 
 
 and can only be the result of patient diligence, long practice, 
 and varying the size of your copies. 
 
 Obs. Here it is proper to admonish the student never to be in a 
 hurry; but lo make himself perfectly master of one figure before he 
 proceeds to another, and the advantage of this will appear as he pro- 
 ceeds. Two other observations may also be added : — L That he ac- 
 custom himself to draw all his figures very large, which is the only 
 way of acquiring a free, bold manner of designing. 2. That he prac- 
 tise drawing till he has gained a tolerable command of his pencil, 
 before he attempts to shadow. 
 
 30. In drawing figures in Indian ink, the use of the pencil 
 is to draw the first sketches or outlines ; as any stroke or 
 line that is amiss, may in this be more easily rubbed out 
 than in any other material ; and when you have made your 
 sketch as correct as you can with the pencil, you may then 
 draw carefully the best outline you have got, with your crow- 
 quill pen and ink. After using the ink, you may rub out the 
 pencil lines. 
 
 31. The outlines next the light should be drawn more 
 faint ; and when you have drawn one feature, it should be a 
 direction for you, in some measure, to draw another, by ob- 
 serving with your eye the distance from that to the next fea- 
 ture, making a small mark at the place with your pencil ; theu 
 draw it, and so on to the next, till you have drawn the whole 
 subject. 
 
 32. Observe the middle of the picture you would copy, and 
 touch it upon the paper with your pencil ; afterwards observe 
 the more conspicuous and prominent figures, if there are more 
 than one, which touch lightly in their proper places. Observe 
 also the distance of one limb, joint, or muscle, from another, 
 and the same in all other accidents of a figure ; as the length, 
 breadth, turnings, &c. 
 
 33. Having drawn the outlines true with a pencil, you are 
 to proceed to trace the true lines again with a pen and Indian 
 ink, &c. drawing them with exactness,, and imitating all the 
 
16 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE Aft T OF DRAWING. 
 
 touchings and waivings, with their exact distances one from 
 another, and their crossings, turnings, and windings, with 
 boldness and freedom. 
 
 34. Having acquired some facility in handling the port- 
 crayon or pencil, in copying other drawings, you may proceed 
 to copy from aplaister cast, or other model, set before you, of 
 the size of nature or not, to use yourself to correctness of eye. 
 To do this the figure should be set in an advantageous light, 
 which should proceed from the left-hand side, the draughts- 
 man should sit opposite to it at some distance, at least more 
 than twice the height of the figure he copies, with the light to 
 his left hand. 
 
 35. Begin the draught on your own left side, as is cus- 
 tomary in writing, and, by so doing, you will always have the 
 part that is done before your eyes, and the rest will follow 
 with ease ; whereas, if you begin on the right side, your hand 
 and arm will cover what you do first. 
 
 OF LIGHT AND SHADE. 
 
 36. The best rule for the correct distribution of Lights and 
 Shades is, to consider from what point, and in what direction, 
 the light falls upon the objects, and to let all the lights and 
 shades be placed according to that direction throughout the 
 whole. It is the skilful management of light and shade that 
 gives the appearance of substance, roundness, and distance, 
 and which raises the subject from the paper. 
 
 Obs. Draw a circle on a piece of paper ; fill it up with any even 
 colour, and it will appear to be a surface with a round circumference ; 
 but by shadowing it stronger in the middle, and causing the colour 
 gradually to weaken towards the circumference, it will receive a con- 
 vex appearance like that of a ball or globe : wherever the vivacity of 
 colour is strongest, that part of the object catches the sight first, and 
 appears nearest to it ; whereas its weakness seems to fly farther from 
 
ELEMENTS Of THE ART OE D SAWING 
 
 17 
 
 the sight. In rounding the parts of any object, the extremities in 
 turning must lose themselves insensibly and confusedly, without pre- 
 cipitating the light on a sudden into the shadows, or shadows into the 
 light, but the passage of the one into the other must be imperceptible; 
 or, by degrees, of light into shadow, and shadow into light. 
 
 37. Objects that are drawn light, must have a sufficient 
 breadth of shadow to sustain them ; and dark bodies must 
 have a sudden light behind, to detach them from the ground, 
 or from those objects that are placed behind them ; otherwise 
 they will appear confusedly, as sticking upon each other ; 
 whereas the opposition of shade to a light object, and of light 
 to a dark one, gives a projection, and separates them from 
 other bodies. 
 
 38. There should be a balance preserved between the 
 lights and shadows : a broad light ought not to be introduced 
 into a draught without a large shadow. The nearer any ob- 
 ject is to the eye, it is seen so much the stronger and plainer: 
 the sight is weakened by distances, and the more remote any 
 object is, it is seen in a more imperfect manner. Therefore, 
 those objects which are placed foremost ought to be more 
 finished than those that are cast behind ; and objects should 
 have a dominion over each other, so that one object by its 
 high finish should seem to cause others to retire. Titian 
 used to say, that he knew no better rule for the distribution of 
 lights and shadows, than the observations to be drawn from a 
 bunch of grapes. 
 
 39. That part of the object, whether in naked figures, 
 drapery, or buildings, that stands farthest out, must be 
 made the lightest. Satins and silks, and all other shining 
 stuffs, have glaring reflections, exceedingly bright where the 
 light falls strongest. So in armour, brass pots, or any other 
 glittering metal, a sudden brightness in the middle or centre 
 of the light, distinguishes their shining nature. — See the 
 Plates. 
 
 40. It is not sufficient that remote subjects be coloured 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 more faintly ; but, according to their distance, the parts must 
 appear more or less distinct. Pure white, unless supported by 
 black, will seem to fly off to the remotest parts. Pure black 
 brings the objects nearer to the sight, and must be placed in 
 masses in the foreground. A strong light requires a strong 
 shade ; a fainter light a fainter shade \ and an equal balance 
 must be preserved throughout the piece, between the lights 
 and shades. Parts which are to appear round require but one 
 stroke in shading ; and parts which are to appear steep or 
 hollow, require two strokes across each other, or sometimes 
 three. Care should also be taken to make the outlines faint 
 and small in such parts as receive the light ; but where the 
 shadows fall, the outline should be strong and bold. 
 
 41. If the objects are in the fields, or open air, or obscured 
 by clouds, you must then introduce a universal light, and the 
 shades must be faint. When the sun is conspicuous, and 
 shines in full lustre, the light must be very strong and bold, 
 and the shadows very dark* 
 
 42. A small light occasions the shadows on the dark side 
 to be large, and their extremities to be very bold. On the 
 other hand, a broad light makes the shadows on the darker 
 side to be more distinct and more soft. 
 
 43. If the light falls sideways on the picture, the other 
 side, which is the farthest from the light, must be made the 
 darkest. That part of the body must be made lightest 
 which has the light most opposite to it ; if the light be placed 
 above the head, then the top of the head must be made lightest ; 
 the shoulders must receive the next degree of light ; &c. 
 
 44. Shadowing is performed with the hair-pencil, in which 
 great taste and judgment is required. The light comes in, if 
 natural, either from the right hand or left. Whenever the 
 light appears in the middle of a picture, and glares more than 
 ordinary, it is caused by a candle, or other luminous body, and 
 is called artificial light. Two equal lights must never be made 
 in the same picture ; and the strongest light should fall upon 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 19 
 
 the middle of the piece, where the principal figure ought to 
 stand, diminishing the effect gradually towards the extre- 
 mities. 
 
 OF THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 45. Drawing the Human Figure has always been con- 
 sidered as the most important branch of art. The study of 
 the human figure includes all the finest principles ; and when 
 the eye of the student has been accustomed to copy faithfully 
 all the minute circumstances which constitute the character of 
 man, and to attend to the innumerable beauties and graceful 
 forms which he presents, it will be better qualified to pursue 
 every other branch of the fine arts. 
 
 46. In drawing the human figure, it is necessary to begin 
 with each part separately, and, after sufficient practice in that, 
 to proceed to put them together. The head being the most 
 important part of the human body, it should be studied first. 
 For this purpose, the student should copy the best drawings 
 he can procure of the nose, eye, mouth, and ear, separately, 
 and on a large scale ; and of these a front view, profile or side 
 view, oblique view, &c.—See the Plates, 
 
 Obs. The readiest materials for drawing these, as well as all other 
 parts of the figure, are black-lead, or black chalk • the former to be 
 used upon white paper, and the latter upon middle-tint paper. The 
 false lines of the black-lead may be removed by the Indian rubber : 
 but the student must remember to be as sparing as possible of this, 
 as it is more improving to endeavour to draw every thing correct 
 and decided at once. The shadows may be laid on by drawing 
 parallel curve lines, according to the situation of the part, crossing 
 them occasionally, and softening them in with more delicate lines. 
 Sometimes the shadows are rubbed in, or their edges are softened, 
 with a stump, which is a very expeditious way, and produces a fine 
 effect ; but it should be used with discretion, as it is better to execute 
 
 c 2 
 
20 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 the shadows in a clear and regular manner by soft lines. Care should 
 be taken not to make the lines harsh and hard, like those of an en- 
 graving ; they should be softer and more mellow. 
 
 47. In drawing the human figure, whether from nature or 
 otherwise, observe the following order: — 
 
 a. Mark out the extent on the paper that you propose the 
 figure to occupy. 
 
 b. Sketch in the outline of the head, according to the 
 regular proportions. 
 
 c. Proceed with the shoulders, trunk, and arms. 
 
 d. Draw first the leg on which the body principally stands, 
 and then the other ; and finish as before directed. 
 
 48. In drawing after a naked body, all the muscles are not 
 to be expressed as in anatomical figures. In drawing young 
 persons, the muscles must not appear so hard as in elder and 
 full-grown persons ; the same thing is to be observed as to fat 
 and fleshy persons, and such as are very delicate and beauti- 
 ful ; and in women scarcely any muscles are to be expressed. 
 
 49. The motion of the body must be considered in draw- 
 ing the muscles ; as in the rising and falling of the arms, the 
 muscles of the breast appear either more or less ; the hips do 
 the like, as they are bent outward or inward ; and it is the 
 same in the shoulders, sides, and neck, according to the several 
 actions of the body. 
 
 50. All the parts of a human figure are composed of 
 curved surfaces; no straight lines are ever admissible, but 
 every line should have a graceful turn ; and it is this circum- 
 stance particularly that occasions the study of the figure to 
 give so much freedom in drawing. 
 
 51. Care should be taken that no lines cross each other at 
 right angles, which gives a disagreeable appearance ; neither 
 should the crossing be too oblique, as then they appear con- 
 fused ; a proper medium will be acquired by the study of good 
 drawings or prints ; in general, however, crossing should be 
 avoided as much as possible. 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 21 
 
 Obs. In learning to draw, it is of more importance than is gene- 
 rally supposed, to copy from the finest works only. The most pre- 
 judicial quality of a model is mediocrity. The bad strike and disgust; 
 but those that are not good, nor absolutely bad, deceive us, by offering 
 a dangerous facility. Having copied frequently the parts of a face, 
 proceed next to the entire head, drawing first a front view, then a 
 profile, a three-quarter figure, and so on, varying it in every possible 
 direction, till thoroughly acquainted with the appearance of all 
 the principal lines in every situation. The student should then ac- 
 company his lessons by making observations on good casts and living 
 models; but more particularly the former, as individual nature is 
 seldom fine, and there is danger in copying what is bad, and acquiring 
 false ideas of beauty. By these exercises he will have acquired some 
 facility in handling his pencil, and he will be thus prepared for the 
 study of the whole figure. But before he can proceed to this with 
 advantage, we would recommend to him the study of anatomy. But 
 it is to be remarked, that it is not necessary for the designer to study 
 anatomy as a surgeon, nor to make himself acquainted with all the 
 nerves, veins, &c. It is sufficient to study the bones, and the 
 muscles which cover them, and of these he should more particularly 
 make himself familiar with those muscles which most frequently 
 appear and come into action. For this purpose, he should procure 
 plaster casts of the anatomy of the human body, and consult treatises 
 written upon the subject; and if he has opportunity, it may be proper 
 afterwards to a'tend dissections and lectures on anatomy. Until the 
 student has imbibed a proper relish for beautiful proportions, and been 
 well-grounded in their principles, he should not proceed to draw from 
 living models. In drawing from plaster casts, a good deal depends 
 upon choosing a proper view, and placing the model properly with 
 regard to the light, which should come in obliquely from above, as it 
 generally does in the day-time. If a candle is used, it should be so 
 high as to cast the light downwards upon the model. The light 
 should only come from one part, as cross-lights distract and spoil the 
 shadows. 
 
 52. In measuring of the several parts of the human figure^ 
 the moderns ordinarily divide it into ten faces ; that is, from 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 the crown of the head to the sole of the foot, in the manner 
 following; all of which should be committed to memory : — 
 
 From the crown of the head to the forehead, is the third- 
 part of the face. 
 
 The face begins at the lowest hairs which are upon the 
 forehead, and ends at the bottom of the chin. 
 
 The face is divided into three proportional parts : the 
 first contains the forehead, the secorid the nose, and the 
 third the mouth and chin. 
 
 From the chin to the pit between the collar-bones are two 
 lengths of the nose. 
 
 From the pit betwixt the collar-bones to the bottom of the 
 breast, one face. 
 
 From the bottom of the breast to the navel, one face. 
 
 From the navel to the genitals, one face. 
 
 From the genitals to the upper part of the knee, two faces. 
 
 The knee contains half a face. 
 
 From the lower part of the knee to the ankle, two faces. 
 
 From the ankle to the sole of the foot, half a face. 
 
 A man, when his arms are stretched out, is, from the 
 longest finger of his right-hand to the longest of his left, 
 as broad as he is long. 
 
 From one side of his breast to the other, two faces. 
 
 The bone of the arm, called humerus, is the length of two 
 faces, from the shoulder to the elbow. 
 
 From the end of the elbow to the root of the Utile finger, 
 the bone called cubitus, with part of the hand, contain h&o 
 faces. 
 
 From the box of the shoulder-blade to the pit betwixt the 
 collar-bones, one face. 
 
 The sole of the foot is the sixth-part of the figure. 
 The thumb contains a ?iose. 
 
 The inside of the arm, from the place where the muscle 
 disappears, which makes the breast, called the pectoral 
 muscle, to the middle of the arm, four noses. 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 23 
 
 From the middle of the arm to the beginning of the hand, 
 five noses. 
 
 The utmost parts of the teats, and the pit betwixt the 
 collar-bones of a woman, make an equilateral triangle. 
 
 The hands are twice as long as they are broad, and, each 
 of their parts has its length, breadth, and thickness. 
 
 The length of the foot is a sixth-part of the height. 
 
 The length of the face and hands ought to be exactly 
 equal, and it makes just the tenth-part of the height. 
 
 53. The rules in drawing children are as follow: — 
 
 A child contains five measures of the head. 
 
 From the top of the head to the privities, three heads, 
 and in the thighs and legs, two more. 
 
 The breadth between the two shoulders, is the length of 
 a head and a half. 
 
 The breadth of the body above the navel, the length of 
 one heado 
 
 The small of the leg, and the brawn of the arm, are of 
 the thickness of the neck. 
 
 Obs. The following Table exhibits the proportions of the parts of 
 the famous Apollo Belvidere and Venus di Medici. Supposing the 
 figures to stand upright, and duly poised on both legs, the whole 
 heighth of the former is divided into thirty-one and a half parts, o r 
 fourths, being seven heads, three-fourths, and six-twelfths ; and that 
 of the latter, into thirty-one parts, being seven heads and three parts. 
 
 Length of the Head and Trunk of the Body. 
 
 From the top of the head to the bottom of the 
 chin, four-fourths, or .... 
 
 the bottom of the chin to the top of the 
 sternum, or breast-bone .... 
 
 the top of the sternum to the pit of the 
 stomach 
 
 the pit of the stomach to the navel . . 
 
 Length of the head trunk of the body . 
 
 Apollo. 
 
 Venus. 
 
 H. F. T. 
 
 h. f. t. 
 
 1 
 
 1. 
 
 1 7 
 
 1 8 
 
 3 10 
 
 3 6 
 
 2 10 
 
 2 7 
 
 3 6 
 
 3 9 
 
 3 3 9 
 
 3 3 6 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 Length of the Lower Extremities 
 
 H. F. T. 
 
 From the pubis to the small of the thigh, 
 
 above the patella, or knee pan ..126 
 the small of the thigh to the joint, or 
 
 middle of the knee . * ... 1 9 
 the joint of the knee to the small of the 
 
 leg above the ankle ] 19 
 
 the top to the bottom of the ankle ..010 
 the bottom of the ankle to the bottom 
 
 of the heel 9 
 
 Length of the lower extremities ... 3 5 9 
 Length of the head and trunk, as above .339 
 
 Total length of the figures ..736 
 
 H. 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 F. T. 
 
 2 3 
 
 1 6 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 3 6 
 3 6 
 
 7 3 
 
 Length of the Arm. 
 
 From the top of the shoulder to the elbow .12 3 
 
 the elbow to the hand 112 
 
 the joint of the hand to the root of the 
 
 middle finger 18 
 
 the root to the top of the middle finger 110 
 
 Length of the upper extremities 
 
 Side View. 
 
 Length from the top of the head to the 
 shoulder 
 
 the top of the shoulder to the 
 loins above the hip . . 
 
 the loins to the lower part of 
 the hip 
 
 the hip to the side of the knee, 
 opposite to the top of the 
 patella 
 
 the side of the knee to the 
 bottom of the heel . . 
 
 3 2 11 
 
 1 1 
 1 3 
 1 
 
 2 3 
 
 6 
 
 1 6 
 1 7 
 
 3 I 10 
 
 Length of the figure 7 3 6 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 7 
 
 2 1 
 
 11 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 Other antique statutes differ a little from these proportions, the 
 Laogoon measuring 7h. 2f. 3t. ; the Hercules, 7h. 3f. 7t. ; the Pyramus, 
 7h. 2f. ; the Antinous, 7K 2ft; and the Shepherdess, 7h. 3f. 6t. 
 But all their proportions are agreeable to the characters they 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 represent. The most remarkable differences of the symmetry of 
 a man and a woman to be observed from the table are : First, the 
 shoulders of a man are broader, measuring two heads ; and the 
 haunches narrower, measuring Ih. If. 5t. whereas the shoulders of a 
 woman measure only lh. 3f. 8t. and the haunches measure lh. 2f. 3t. 
 The sternum, or breast-bone, of a man is longer, measuring 3f. 8t. 
 and the sternum of the woman only 3f. 3t. On the contrary, the 
 pelvis of a man is less, measuring from the top to the bottom only 4f. 
 whereas the pelvis of a woman measures from the top to the 
 bottom 4f. 3t. 
 
 58. Mark the exact extent which you propose to give to the 
 figure, both in height and breadth ; next, divide agreeable to 
 the above general proportions ; and having thus ascertained 
 the place where each part is to be drawn, sketch the head, 
 then the shoulders, in their exact breadth ; then the trunk of 
 the body, beginning with the arm-pits (leaving the arms till 
 afterwards), and so down to the hips on both sides, being sure 
 to observe the exact breadth of the waist. When you have 
 done this, draw that leg upon which the body stands, and 
 afterwards the other ; then draw the arms, and last of all the 
 hands. 
 
 51 Endeavour to form all the parts of the figure with 
 truth, and in just proportion, not one arm or one leg bigger 
 than the other; not broad shoulders with a slender waist, 
 nor raw and bony arms with thick gouty legs ; but let there 
 be a regular harmony among the members, and an agreeable 
 symmetry throughout the whole figure. 
 
 55. As the essence of drawing consists in making at first 
 a good sketch, you must, in this particular, be very careful 
 and accurate ; finish no part, till you have seen whether the 
 whole draught be good ; and when you have altered that to 
 your taste, you may then finish one part after another as pre- 
 cisely as you can. In drawing the eyes, ears, legs, arms, hands, 
 feet, &c, great care, study, and accuracy are requisite. 
 
26 ELEMENTS OK THE AllT OF D It AWING. 
 
 56. In drawing a labouring man, you must represent him 
 with strong limbs and raised muscles, swelling and standing 
 out, especially in bearing burdens, drawing weights, leaping, 
 running, combating, or such violent exercises. 
 
 57. The actions and postures of the hand are so many and 
 various, that no rules can be given for drawing them that will 
 universally hold good ; and as the hands and feet are difficult 
 members to draw, it is necessary to bestow due time and 
 pains about them, carefully imitating their various postures 
 and actions, so as not only to avoid deformity and imperfec- 
 tion, but to give them life and spirit. 
 
 58. It is usual to divide the head into four equal parts. 
 
 1. From the crown of the head to the top of the forehead. 
 
 2. From the top of the forehead to the eye-brows. 3. From 
 the eye-brows to the bottom of the nose. 4. From thence to 
 the bottom of the chin. But this proportion is not constant; 
 those features in different men being often very different in 
 length and shape. In a well-proportioned face, however, 
 these proportions are nearly correct. 
 
 59. In forming a perfect face, the first business is to draw 
 an oval, or rather the form of an egg ; down the middle of 
 which, draw a perpendicular line, and through the centre, or 
 middle of this line, draw a diameter. — On these lines all the 
 features of the face are to be placed as follows: — 
 
 Divide the perpendicular line into four equal parts : the 
 first is appropriated to the hair ; the second extends from the 
 top of the forehead to the top of the nose ; the third extends 
 from thence to the bottom of the nose; and the fourth in- 
 cludes the lips and chin. 
 
 60. The diameter line, or the breadth of the face, is always 
 supposed to be the length of five eyes ; you must, therefore, 
 divide it into five equal parts, and place the eyes upon it, 
 so as to leave exactly the length of one eye betwixt them. 
 This is to be understood only of a full front face ; for if it 
 turn to either side, then the distances are to be lessened on that 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 27 
 
 side which turns off, more or less, in proportion to its incli- 
 nation. 
 
 61. The top of the ear is to rise level with the eye-brows, 
 at the end of the diameter line ; and the bottom of it must be 
 level with the bottom of the nose. The nostrils ought not to 
 come out farther than the corner of the eye in any face ; and 
 the middle of the mouth must always be placed upon the 
 perpendicular line. 
 
 62. If the face be fat, the cheeks will seem to swell ; if 
 lean, the jaw-bones will stick out, and the cheeks fall in ; but 
 if it be neither too fat nor too lean, it will be nearly round. 
 Touch the surface slightly, where the eyes, nose, mouth, and 
 chin should stand ; then begin to draw them exactly, and so 
 proceed till you have finished the face ; after which draw 
 the hair, its inflections and shadows. 
 
 63. To draw the whole of the human figure in length, 
 first sketch the head ; then draw a perpendicular line from the 
 bottom of the head seven times its length, the length of the 
 head being nearly one-eighth part of the length of the figure. 
 The best proportioned figures of the ancients are seven heads 
 and three-fourths in height. If, therefore, the figure stands 
 upright, draw a perpendicular line from the top of the head 
 to the heel, which must be divided into two equal parts, the 
 bottom of the abdomen being exactly the centre. Divide the 
 lower part into two equal parts again, the middle of which is 
 the middle of the knee. 
 
 64. For the upper part of a figure, take with your com- 
 passes the length of the face, which is three parts in four of 
 the length of the head ; from the throat-pit to the pit of the 
 stomach is one face, from thence to the navel is another, and 
 from thence to the lower rim of the belly is a third. The line 
 must then be divided into seven equal parts. At the end of 
 the first division place the breasts; at the second, the navel; 
 at the third, the privities; at the fourth, the middle of the 
 thigh ; at the fifth, the lower part of the knee ; at the sixth 
 
88 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 the lower part of the calf; and at the seventh, the bottom of 
 the heel, the hee) of the bearing leg being always exactly 
 under the pit of the throat. 
 
 Obs. Let the learner remember, in whatever he intends to draw, 
 first to sketch its several parts, measuring the distances and propor- 
 tions between each with his finger or pencil, without using the com- 
 passes, and then judge of them by the eye, a practice which, by 
 degrees, will teach him to judge of truth and proportion, and will 
 become his best and principal guide. 
 
 65. If one side of the body bend in, the other must stand 
 out; if the back bend in, the belly must stick out; if the knee 
 bend out, the ham must fall in ; and so of any other part of 
 the body, If a figure is standing, the foot must be placed in 
 a right line, or perpendicular to the trunk or bulk of the body, 
 where the centre of gravity is supposed to fall. The centre is 
 determined by the heel ; or, if the figure is on tiptoe, then the 
 ball of the great toe is the centre. The muscles of the leg 
 which supports the body ought to be swelled, and their tendons 
 drawn more to an extension than those of the other leg. 
 
 Obs, Suppose Hercules, with a club, striking at any thing before 
 him towards the left side : then let his right leg be placed so as to 
 receive the whole weight of the body, and the left loosely touch 
 the ground with its toes. Here the external muscles of the right 
 leg ought to be expressed very strong ; but those of the left scarcely 
 appearing. The foot being extended, the muscles which com- 
 pose the calf of the leg are in action, and appear very strong; though 
 it is not meant that all the muscles of the right leg, which supports the 
 weight of the body, should be expressed very strong. If either of the 
 mastoid muscles act, the head is turned to the contrary side, and the 
 muscle which performs that action appears very plain under the skin. 
 If the arms are lifted up, the deltoid muscles, placed on the shoulders, 
 which perform that action, swell, and make the extremities of the 
 spines of the shoulder-blades, called the tops of the shoulders, appear 
 indented or hollow. The shoulder-blades following the elevation of 
 the arms, their bases inclining at that time obliquely downward. If 
 the arms are drawn down, put forwards, or pulled backwards, the 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 29 
 
 shoulder-blades necessarily vary their positions accordingly. When 
 the cubit, or fore- arm, is bent, the biceps has its belly very much 
 raised. The same happens in the triceps, when the arm is extended. 
 If the thigh is extended, as when the whole weight of the body rests 
 on that side, the gluteus or buttock muscle makes a very different 
 appearance from what it offers at another time ; but if the thigh be 
 drawn backwards, that muscle appears still more and more swelled. 
 When the whole leg is drawn upwards and forwards, and at the same 
 time the foot is inclined inwards, the upper part of the sartorius 
 muscle appears to rise very strong ; in other positions of the thigh, that 
 muscle makes a furrowing appearance in its whole progress. If a man 
 is upon tiptoe, the extending muscles of the leg placed on the fore 
 part of the thigh, and those of the foot that compose the calf of the 
 leg, appear very strong, and the long peronceus makes a considerable 
 indentation or furrowing at that time, in its progress on the outside of 
 the leg. — See ike subsequent Pages* 
 
 66. In drawing after the life, the greatest perfection of 
 a Portrait is extreme likeness. The resemblance of men to 
 one another is seldom or ever so complete, but that some 
 particular turn or view of the face will indicate a difference ; 
 and it is the business of the artist accurately to discriminate, 
 and nicely appropriate, those peculiar features, lines, and turns 
 of the face, the representation of which will effectually convey 
 the distinct and special idea of the very person whose portrait 
 is to be drawn, and no other. 
 
 67. The resemblance, as well as every other excellence, of 
 a Portrait, depends on the Fe atures, Expression, and Air. 
 
 " Man's changeful race, the sport of chance and time, 
 Varies no less in aspect than in clime ; 
 Mark well the difference, and let each be seen, 
 Of various age, complexion, air, and mien." 
 
 Mason's Fresno y„ 
 
 68. The Features require to be carefully examined and 
 studied, by inspection in many different views, so that at the 
 
30 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING, 
 
 moment when the painter puts his pencil to the canvas, he may 
 be possessed, not only of the apparent form of each particular 
 feature in the view in which he represents it, but of its rela- 
 tive and characteristic form also, the full expression of which 
 is not discernible in every view. Each particular feature 
 should appear so distinctly shaped, that an exact model of 
 the real head may be formed from the picture, if requisite ; 
 and they must, at the same time, be so blended in the general 
 mass of the face, that no one shall obtrude itself on the eye 
 beyond the rest. The peculiar mode of touch, or execution^ 
 whereby each feature is best discriminated, can only be learnt 
 by practice, and by the attentive study of the best masters* 
 
 69. In Expression, the student should observe, that the 
 greatest care is to be used in drawing a portrait, that the fea* 
 tures may be uniform and consistent with each other. The 
 mouth is sometimes represented smiling, while the eyes are sad, 
 and vice versa. The painter must, therefore^ constantly bear 
 in mind the general idea he has formed of the countenance he 
 intends to express, and must be watchful of the corresponding 
 forms of the features in moments of similar expression. The 
 same remark may be extended to the larger portions of the 
 figure. The same expressions must be clearly depicted in the 
 motion or direction of the hands, arms, legs, and body, that 
 appears to prevail in the countenance and turn of the head* 
 It is this combination only which can give the exact resem- 
 blance of the expression of nature, under the impulse of 
 which no particular limb ever deviates from the general inten- 
 tion of the whole body. 
 
 70. The Air principally regards the lines of the face of 
 figure ; the attire of the head or person ; and the stature, or 
 make of the general form. The proper lines of the face or 
 figure depend on accuracy of drawing, and an entire agree- 
 ment of the parts of the same form with one another. No- 
 thing so entirely disguises or alters the appearance of an indi- 
 vidual person as a change of head-dress, whether it is the 
 
THE HUMAN FIGURE. 
 
 31 
 
 adjustment of hair or attire. The greatest attention, therefore, 
 is to be used in adapting the arrangement of this part of the 
 portrait to the general costume of the person represented. 
 The stature and make, in the same manner, contribute to the 
 force of resemblance, and never fail considerably to influence 
 the air of the person. It is, therefore, requisite to the truth 
 of a portrait, that this part of the picture should be as faith- 
 fully studied from the sitter as the face itself. 
 
 Obs. Vandyke's custom in painting portraits, was to appoint the 
 day and hour for the person's sitting, and he worked not above an hour 
 on any portrait, either in rubbing in, or finishing ; so that as soon as 
 the clock informed him that the hour was out, he rose, and dismissed 
 his sitter, appointing another hour on some other day. His servant 
 then came to clean his pencils, and brought a fresh pallet, while he 
 was receiving another sitter, whose day and hour he had appointed. 
 After having lightly dead-coloured the face, he put the sitter into some 
 attitude, which he had before contrived ; and, on grey paper, with 
 white and black crayons, he designed, in a quarter of an hour, his 
 shape and drapery, carrying it to the canvas at his leisure. 
 
 71. Though every part of the face contributes towards 
 expressing the sentiments of the heart, yet the eye-brow is 
 the principal seat of expression, and there the passions best 
 make themselves known. The pupil of the eye, by its fire 
 and motion, shows the agitations of the soul ; bat then it does 
 not express the kind or nature of such agitation ; whereas the 
 motion of the eye-brow differs as the passions change their 
 nature. 
 
 72. To express a simple passion, the motion is simple; 
 to express a mixed passion, the motion is compound : if the 
 passion be gentle, the motion is gentle ; and if it be violent, 
 the motion is so too. We may observe farther, that there are 
 two kinds of elevation in the eye-brows. One, in which the 
 eye- brows rise up in the middle ; this elevation, expressing 
 agreeable sensations, and it is to be observed, that then the 
 mouth rises at the corners r another, in which the eye-brows 
 
32 
 
 E L EME N TS F 1 HE ART OF DR AWING. 
 
 rise up at the ends, and fall in the middle ; and this motion 
 denotes bodily pain ; and then the mouth falls at the corners. 
 
 73. In Laughter all the parts agree ; for the eye-brows, 
 which fall toward the middle of the forehead, make the nose^ 
 the mouth, and the eyes, follow the same motion. In weep- 
 ing, the motions are compound and contrary; for the eye- 
 brows fall toward the nose and over the eyes, and the mouth 
 rises that way. 
 
 74. The mouth is a part of the face, which particularly 
 expresses the emotions of the heart : for when the heart com- 
 plains, the mouth falls at the corners; when it is at ease, the 
 corners of the mouth are elevated ; and when it expresses aver- 
 sion, the mouth shoots forward, and rises in the middle. 
 
 75. The head contributes more to the expression of the 
 passions than all the other parts of the body put together. As 
 humility, by hanging it down; arrogance, by lifting it up; 
 languishing, by reclining it on one side; and obstinacy, 
 when, with a stiff and resolute air, it stands upright, fixed, and 
 stiff between the two shoulders. The head also best shows 
 supplication, threat, pride, love, joy,, and grief. 
 
 76. The whole face, and every feature, contribute some- 
 thing; especially the eyes, which are the windows of the soul. 
 The passions they more particularly discover are, pleasure 5 
 languishing, scorn, severity, mildness, admiration, and anger ; 
 to which we may add joy and grief, if they did not proceed 
 more particularly from the eye-brows and mouth ; but when 
 those two passions concur with the language of the eyes, the 
 harmony is wonderful. 
 
 77. Though the passions of the soul are most visible in 
 the lines and features of the face, they often require the as- 
 sistance also of the other parts of the body. Without the 
 hands, for instance, all action is weak and imperfect; their 
 motions, which are almost infinite, create numberless expres- 
 sions; it is by them that we desire, hope, promise, call, send 
 back ; they are the instruments of threatening, prayer, horror, 
 
OF THE PASSIONS. 
 
 33 
 
 and praise ; by them we approve, condemn, refuse, admit, fear, 
 ask ; and express our joy and grief our doubts, regrets, pain, 
 and admiration. 
 
 78. The effects of Attention are to make the eye-brows sink 
 and approach the sides of the nose ; to turn the eye-balls to- 
 wards the object that causes it; to open the mouth, and espe- 
 cially the upper part ; to decline the head a little, and fix it 
 without any other remarkable alteration. 
 
 79. Admiration causes but little agitation in the mind, and 
 therefore alters but very little the parts of the face ; neverthe- 
 less the eye-brow rises ; the eye opens a little more than or- 
 dinary ; the eye-ball, placed equally between the eye-lids, 
 appears fixed on the object; the mouth half opens, and makes 
 no sensible alteration in the cheeks, 
 
 80. The motions that accompany Admiration with Astonish- 
 ment are little different from those of simple admiration, only 
 they are more lively and stronger marked ; the eye-brows more 
 elevated ; the eyes more open ; the eye-ball further from the 
 lower eye-lid, and more steadily fixed ; the mouth is more 
 open, and all the parts in a much stronger emotion. 
 
 81. Admiration begets esteem, and this produces Veneration, 
 which, when it has for its object something divine, or beyond 
 our comprehension, makes the face decline, and the eye-brows 
 bend down ; the eyes are almost shut and fixed ; the mouth is 
 shut. These motions are gentle, and produce but little alte- 
 rations in the other parts. 
 
 82. Although Rapture has the same object as veneration, 
 only considered in a different manner, its motions are not the 
 same; the head inclines to the left side, the eye-balls and eye- 
 brows rise directly up; the mouth half opens, and the two 
 corners are also a little turned up : the other parts remain in 
 their natural state. 
 
 83. The passion of Desire brings the eye-brows close toge- 
 ther and forwards towards the eyes, which are more open than 
 ordinary ; the eye-ball is inflamed, and places itself in the mid- 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING, 
 
 die of the eye ; the nostrils rise up, and are contracted towards 
 the eyes ; the mouth half opens, and the spirits being in mo- 
 tion give a lively glowing colour. 
 
 84. Very little alteration is remarked in the face of those 
 w ho feel within themselves the Sweetness of' Joy, or Joy with 
 Tranquillity. The forehead is serene ; the eye-brow without 
 motion, elevated in the middle ; the eye pretty open, and with 
 a laughing air; the eye- ball lively and shining; the corners 
 of the mouth turn up a little ; the complexion is lively, the 
 cheeks and lips are red. 
 
 85. Laughter ', which is produced by joy mixed with sur- 
 prise, makes the eye-brows rise towards the middle of the eye, 
 and bend towards the sides of the nose ; the eyes are almost 
 shut, and sometimes appear wet, or shed tears, which make no 
 alteration in the face; the mouth half open shews the teeth; 
 the corners of the mouth drawn back cause a wrinkle in the 
 cheeks, which appear so swelled, as to hide the eyes in some 
 measure ; the nostrils are open, and all the face is of a red 
 colour. 
 
 86. Acute pain makes the eye brows approach one another, 
 and rise towards the middle ; the eye-ball is hid under the eye- 
 brows ; the nostrils rise, and make a wrinkle in the cheeks ; 
 the mouth half opens and draws back : all the parts of the 
 face are agitated in proportion to the violence of the pain. 
 
 87. Simple bodily pain produces proportionately the same 
 motion as the last, but not so strong : the eye-brows do not ap- 
 proach and rise so much ; the eye-brow appears fixed on some 
 objeet; the nostrils rise, but the wrinkles on the cheeks are 
 less perceivable; the lips are further asunder towards the 
 middle, and the mouth is half open. 
 
 88. The dejection that is produced by Sadness makes the 
 eye-brows rise towards the middle of the forehead more than 
 towards the cheeks ; the eye-ball appears full of perturbation ; 
 the white of the eye is yellow ; the eye-lids are drawn down, 
 and a little swelled ; all about the eyes is livid ; the nostrils 
 
OF T H IS 1'ASSiOXS. 
 
 35 
 
 arc drawn downward ; the mouth is half open, and the corners 
 are drawn down ; the head carelessly leaning on one of the 
 shoulders ; the face is of a lead colour ; the lips pale. 
 
 89. The alterations that Weeping occasions are strongly 
 marked : the eye-brows sunk down towards the middle of the 
 forehead ; the eyes are almost closed, wet, and drawn down 
 towards the cheeks ; the nostrils swelled ; the muscles and 
 veins of the forehead appear ; the mouth is shut, and the 
 sides of it are drawn down, making wrinkles on the cheeks; 
 the under lip pushed out presses the upper one : all the face is 
 wrinkled and contracted ; its colour is red, especially about 
 the eye-brows, the eyes, the nose, and the cheeks. 
 
 90. The lively attention to the misfortunes of another, which 
 is called Compassion, causes the eye-brows to sink towards the 
 middle of the forehead; the eye-ball to be fixed upon the 
 object; the sides of the nostrils, next the nose, to be a little 
 elevated, making wrinkles in the. cheeks; the mouth to be 
 open, the upper lip to be lifted up and thrust forwards ; the 
 muscles, and all the parts of the face, sinking down and 
 turning towards the object which excites the passion. 
 
 91. The motions of Scorn are lively and strong: the fore- 
 head is wrinkled ; the eye-brow is knit ; the side of it, next the 
 nose, sinks down, and the other rises very much ; the eye is 
 very open, and the eye-ball is in the middle ; the nostrils rise 
 and draw towards the eyes, and make wrinkles in the cheeks ; 
 the mouth shuts its sides, sinking down, and the under lip is 
 pushed out beyond the upper one. 
 
 92. An object despised sometimes causes Horror, and then 
 the eye-brow knits and sinks a great deal more. The eye-ball, 
 placed at the bottom of the eye, is half covered by the lower 
 eye-lid ; the mouth is half open, but closer in the middle than 
 the sides, which being drawn back makes wrinkles in the 
 cheeks ; the face grows pale, and the eyes become livid ; the 
 muscles and the veins are marked. 
 
 93. The violence of Terror or Fright alters all the parts of 
 
 D % 
 
86 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 the face ; the eye-brow rises in the middle ; its muscles are 
 marked, swelled, pressed one against the other, and sunk to- 
 wards the nose, which draws up as well as the nostrils ; the 
 eyes are very open ; the upper eye-lid is hid under the eye- 
 brow ; the white of the eye is encompassed with red ; the eye- 
 ball fixes towards the lower part of the eye ; the lower part of 
 the eye-lid swells, and becomes livid; the muscles of the nose 
 and cheeks swell, and these last terminate in a point toward 
 the sides of the nostrils ; the mouth is very open, and its cor- 
 ners very apparent ; the muscles and veins of the neck 
 stretched ; the hair stands on end ; the colour of the face, that 
 is, the end of the nose, the lips, the ears, and round the eyes, 
 is pale and livid; and all ought to be strongly marked. 
 
 94. The effects of Anger shew its nature : the eyes become 
 red and inflamed ; the eye-ball is staring and sparkling ; the 
 eye-brows are sometimes elevated, and sometimes sunk down 
 equally ; the forehead is very much wrinkled, with wrinkles 
 between the eyes ; the nostrils are open and enlarged ; the lips 
 pressing against one another, the under one rising over the 
 upper one leaves the corners of the mouth a little open, 
 making a cruel and disdainful grin. 
 
 95. Hatred or Jealousy wrinkles the forehead ; the eye-brows 
 are sunk down and knit ; the eye-ball is half hid under the 
 eye-brows, which turn towards the object ; it should appear 
 full of fire, as well as the white of the eye and the eye-lid ; 
 the nostrils are pale, open, and more marked than ordinary, 
 and drawn backward so as to make wrinkles in the cheeks ; 
 the mouth is so shut as to shew the teeth are closed ; the cor- 
 ners of the mouth are drawn back, and very much sunk ; the 
 muscles of the jaw appear sunk ; the colour of the face is 
 partly inflamed, and partly yellowish ; the lips pale or livid. 
 
 96. As Despair is extreme, its motions are so likewise : the 
 forehead wrinkles from the top to the bottom ; the eye -brows 
 bend down over the eyes, and press one another on the sides of 
 the nose ; the eye seems to be on fire, and full of blood, the 
 
OF ANATOMY. 
 
 37 
 
 eye-ball is disturbed, hid under the eye-brow, sparkling, and 
 unfixed ; the eye-lid is swelled and livid ; the nostrils are large, 
 open, and lifted up ; the end of the nose sinks down ; the 
 muscles, tendons, and veins, are swelled and stretched ; the 
 upper part of the cheeks is large, marked, and narrow towards 
 the jaw ; the mouth drawn backwards, is more open at the 
 sides than in the middle ; the lower lip is large and turned 
 out, they gnash their teeth ; they foam ; they bite their lips, 
 which are pale, as is the rest of their face ; the hair is straight 
 and stands on end. 
 
 OF ANATOMY. 
 
 97. To ask if the study of Anatomy is useful to the per- 
 fect artist, is the same thing as to ask if, in order to learn any 
 science, a man must first make himself acquainted with the 
 principles of it. Nor is it merely to represent athletic and 
 vigorous bodies, in which the parts are most bold and deter- 
 mined, that anatomy is requisite : — it should be understood to 
 represent correctly persons of the most delicate frame and 
 condition, even women and children, whose members are 
 smoothest and roundest. But it is unnecessary for an artist 
 to study systems of nerves, blood-vessels, and viscera, which 
 are removed from the sight. It is enough to be acquainted 
 with the skeleton ; in other words with the figure and con- 
 nection of the bones, which are the props of the human body ; 
 with the origin, progress, and shape of the muscles, which 
 cover those bones ; and with the different degrees in which 
 nature has clothed the muscles with fat. Above all, he should 
 know in what manner the muscles affect the various motions 
 and gestures of the body. 
 
 98. Bones are the frame or prop-work of the body, and 
 give it firmness and shape ; but for their motions they are in- 
 debted to the muscles. A bone is generally distinguished by 
 
38 
 
 CLEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 anatomists, as having two parts, viz. its body and extremities. 
 The body is called the diaqhysis ; and the extremities are 
 divided into processes and epiphyses: the former is an eminence 
 continued from the body of the bones ; but the latter is a sort 
 of an appendage to the bone by means of a cartilage or gristle. 
 Processes generally obtain their names from their shape, size, 
 or use : thus a large process, of a spherical form, is called the 
 caput, or head ; if the head be flatted, it is termed a condyle, 
 &c. 
 
 99. Bones are adapted to each other with that nicety, 
 that the end of every bone is exactly received by, or admits, 
 the end of another. This connexion of the bones is called 
 their articulations, and is divided into moveable, immovable, 
 and mixed articulation. 
 
 100. Bones are united by means of cartilages, and by liga- 
 ments. Cartilages are white, solid, smooth, substances, of an 
 elastic nature, and of a fibrous texture ; between the hardness 
 of the bones and ligaments. Ligaments are white inelastic 
 bands, very compact in their substance, and serve to connect 
 the bones together. 
 
 101. The bones in the human frame are divided by ana- 
 omists into the head, trunk, and extremities. — The first divi- 
 sion includes the bones of the cranium and face. The bones 
 of the trunk are the spine, ribs, sternum, and bones of the 
 pelvis. The upper extremity, on each side, consists of the two 
 bones of the shoulder : namely, the scapula and clavicle; the 
 bone of the arm, or os humeri, extending from the shoulder to 
 the elbow ; and bones of the fore-arm, from the elbow to 
 the wrist, with those of the hand. The lower eternities, on 
 each side, consists of the bones of the thigh, leg, and foot. 
 
 L02. The Head is of a roundish figure, rather oval ; its 
 greatest diameter is from the forehead to the occiput. The 
 upper part of the head is called the vertex, or crown of the 
 head ; the anterior, or the fore part, is the face ; the upper of 
 
OF THE BONES. 
 
 39 
 
 this the sinciput, or forehead ; its sides the temples ; its poste- 
 rior, or hind part, the occiput ; and its interior part, the basis. 
 
 103. The bones of the head are divided into those of the 
 cranium and face. — The cranium consists of, — 1. The coronal 
 bone, or os frontis. % The two parietal bones, or ossa breg- 
 matis. 3. The os occipitis. 4. The two temporal bones. 
 5. The sphenoid bone. 6. The os ethmoicles, or cribriforme. 
 — All these, except the os occipitis and ossa bregmatis, are 
 common both to the cranium and face. 
 
 104. The face is divided into the upper and lower jaws. 
 The upper jaw consists of thirteen bones, exclusive of the 
 teeth ; six being placed on each side of the maxilla superior, 
 and one in the middle. Of those which are in pairs are the 
 ossa malarum, ossa maxillaria, ossa nasi, ossa unguis, ossa 
 palati and ossa spongiosa inferiora; the single bone is the 
 vomer. 
 
 105. The Tkunk consists of the spine, thorax, and the 
 pelvis. 
 
 106. The spine, or, vertebrae, consists of a great number 
 of bones, forming a long bony column, somewhat bent at each 
 end, and is generally described as like the letter s. It extends 
 from the head to the lower part of the body ; and is divided 
 principally into two parts, the upper of which is called the 
 true vertebrae, and the lower one, the false vertebrae, from the 
 joints being immoveable in the adult It is upon the bones of 
 the spine that the body turns, 
 
 107- The spine answers many great and important uses: 
 in its canal it secures the medulla spinalis from injury. It 
 serves as a defence to the abdominal and thoracic viscera. It 
 supports the head, and gives strength, grace, and motion, to 
 the whole trunk of the body. From the number of its articu- 
 lations it admits of a very free motion ; and from its numerous 
 processes, ligaments, cartilages, &c. it partakes of the strength 
 and firmness of one entire bone. At the top, in the neck, it 
 projects somewhat forward, in order to support the head. 
 
40 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 Lower down in the thorax it curves outwardly, and thereby 
 increases the cavity of the chest. In the loins it again pro- 
 jects forward, approaching the centre of gravity. Towards its 
 inferior extremity it again recedes backward, and affords 
 room for the cavity called the pelvis. 
 
 108. The Thorax, or chest, consists of the sternum, ribs, 
 and dorsal vertebras. The sternum is that long bone, which 
 extends from the upper to the lower part of the breast ante- 
 riorly. It is articulated with the clavicle on each side, and also 
 joined to the fourteen true ribs, viz. to seven on each side. 
 The ribs are those bones formed like a bow, composing the 
 sides of the chest. They are twenty-four in number, twelve 
 on each side, distinguished into true and false ribs : the former 
 are the seven upper ones articulated to the sternum ; the other 
 five, on each side, are called false ribs, and are not immediately 
 attached to the sternum. 
 
 109. The Pelvis is that cavity of the body which contains 
 the urinary bladder, intestinum rectum, and other viscera. It 
 is composed principally of the os sacrum, os coccygis, and ossa 
 innominata. 
 
 110. The Extremties are divided into the upper and 
 lower extremity. The upper exremities consist of the shoul- 
 ders, arms, and hands. The lower extremities contain the 
 thighs, legs, and feet. The shoulder consists of two bones, 
 the clavicula and the scapula. The clavicula, sometimes called 
 the jugulum, or collar-bone, is not thicker than the little 
 finger, but longer. The scapula, or shoulder-blade, is fixed 
 to the hinder part of the true ribs, somewhat in the manner of 
 a buckler. In shape it is nearly triangular ; convex externally, 
 and internally concave, to fit it to the form of the ribs* 
 
 111. The arm is divided into two parts, articulated together 
 at the elbow ; that part from the shoulder to the elbow is pro- 
 perly called the arm. The other part, from the elbow to the 
 wrist, is called the fore-arm. The bone of the arm, or os 
 humeri, is of a cylindrical shape, except at its extremities. The 
 
OF THE BONES. 
 
 41 
 
 fore-arm consists of two bones : the ulna, or elbow-bone, and 
 the radius. The former is less than the os humeri, and be- 
 comes gradually smaller as it approaches the wrist ; there are 
 two processes, and two cavities at the upper part of this bone. 
 The radius supports the two first bones of the wrist on the 
 sides of the thumb ; and the ulna is articulated with that bone 
 of the wrist which corresponds with the little finger. The 
 space between the ulna and radius is filled up by a ligament. 
 
 112. The hand comprises the wrist, and hand, properly so 
 called. The carpus, or wrist, consists of eight small irregular 
 shaped bones, placed in two unequal rows. Those of the 
 upper row are articulated with the ulna and radius ; and those 
 of the lower row with the metacarpus. The metacarpus, or 
 hand, consists of four bones, which serve to support the 
 fingers. The five fingers of each hand consist of fifteen 
 bones, disposed in three ranks, called phalanges : the bones of 
 the first phalanx are the longest, and united to those of the 
 metacarpus ; those of the next phalanx less in size ; and those 
 of the last phalanx the least. All the bones of the wrist, hand 
 and fingers, (amounting to twenty-seven in each hand) are 
 articulated to each other, and their articulations strengthened 
 by ligaments. 
 
 113. The lower extremities consist of the thighs, legs, and 
 feet. Each low^r extremity contains — 1. The os femoris, or 
 thigh-bone. % The rotula, or knee-pan. 8. The leg ; and 
 4. The foot. 
 
 114. The os femoris, or thigh-bone, is the largest and 
 strongest in the human frame; of a cylindrical shape, convex 
 before, and behind somewhat concave, where it receives several 
 muscles. 
 
 115c The rotula, patella, or knee-pan, is a flat bone about 
 four or five inches in circumference, placed at the fore part of 
 the joint of the knee. Its use is to defend the articulation of 
 the knee from external injury ; it also tends to increase the 
 power of the extensor muscles of the legs, by removing their 
 
42 
 
 ELEMENTS OK THE ART OE DRAWING. 
 
 direction farther from the centre of motion, in the manner of 
 a pulley. 
 
 lift. The leg is composed of two bones: the tibia, which 
 is the larger and inner one, and the fibula, which is less. The 
 tibia is of a prismatic form : the hinder part is the broadest; 
 anteriorly it has a prominent ridge called the shin. The 
 fibula is less than the tibia, and situated on the outside there- 
 of; it is of a triangular form, somewhat hollowed internally. 
 Its upper extremity does not reach quite so high as that of 
 the tibia ; but its lower extremity extends beyond the ex- 
 tremity of that bone. 
 
 117. The foot is distinguished as divided into three parts, 
 viz. the tarsus, metatarsus, and toes. The tarsus consists of 
 seven bones. The metatarsus consists of five bones, articu- 
 lated by one extremity with the cuneiform bones and the os 
 cuboides ; and by the other extremity with the toes. Each of 
 the toes consists of three bones, except the great toe, which 
 has only two. The bones of the four smaller toes, like those 
 of the fingers, are divided into three phalanges. The toes 
 serve to bring the centre of gravity of the body perpendicular 
 to the advanced foot : they also increase the concavity of the 
 foot, and thereby enable it to adapt itself to any inequalities 
 that may occur in walking, 
 
 118. The motions of the human body, are performed by 
 means of muscles. These are distinct portions of flesh, capa- 
 ble of contraction and extension, and are divided into volun- 
 tary and involuntary muscles. Some muscles act in opposition 
 to each other, from whence they are called antagonists: thus 
 every extensor muscle has a flexor one for its antagonist, and 
 vice versa. Those muscles which concur in the same action 
 are styled congeneres. That end of a muscle which adheres to 
 the more fixed part of the bone is usually called the origin ; 
 and that which adheres to the more moveable part the insertion . 
 
 119. Each muscle contains two kinds of fibres; viz. one 
 of a soft nature, red in colour, sensible, and irritable, called 
 
OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 43 
 
 Jleshy fibres; the other kind, called tendinous fibres, are of a 
 firmer texture, of a white glistening colour, insensible, and 
 without irritability, or the power of contracting. The former 
 generally prevail in the belly or middle part of the muscle, 
 and the latter at the extremities: sometimes they are inter- 
 mixed. If the tendinous fibres are formed into a round slender 
 shape, they form what is called the tendon of the muscle ; but 
 when they are spread into a broad flat surface, the extremity 
 of the muscle is called aponeurosis. 
 
 Obs. A muscle is composed of two tendinous and slender parts, 
 one called the head, the other the tail, both terminating at the 
 bones ; and of an intermediate part, called the belly. The action of a 
 muscle consists in an extraordinary swelling of this intermediate part, 
 while the head remains at rest, so as to bring the tail nearer the head, 
 and consequently the bone, to which the tail of the muscle is fixed, 
 nearer to that bone on which the head is inserted. There are many 
 motions, to effect which several muscles (called co-operating muscles) 
 must swell and operate together, while those calculated to effect a 
 contrary motion (called antagonist muscles) appear soft and flaccid. 
 For example, the biceps and the brachiaus internus labour when the 
 arm is to be bent, and become more prominent than usual ; while the 
 gemellus, the brachiceus externus, and the anconceus, whose office is to 
 extend the arm, continue, as it were, flat and idle. The same hap- 
 pens respectively in all the other motions of the body. When the 
 antagonist muscles of any part operate at one and the same time, such 
 part becomes rigid and motionless. Mr. Bell has lately published a 
 work on the Anatomy required by painters, and to that work we shall 
 refer the student who is anxious to perfect himself in this branch of 
 art. 
 
 120. A muscle when in a state of action, and, consequently, 
 contracted in its length, is increased in bidk, and thereby in- 
 creases the surrounding parts ; and when in a state of rest, 
 and extended to its full length, its bulk and the surrounding 
 parts are diminished. This is the unavoidable consequence 
 of the effect of muscular motion, which is performed by a di- 
 latation in the breadth, and consequent contraction in the 
 
44 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 length of the muscle, and vice versa. A member, therefore, 
 by this means, acquires an additional bulk : this appears con- 
 spicuously in the arm ; for when both parts of that member lie 
 in the same line, it is nearly an eighth part of its circum- 
 ference less, than when bent at the elbow ; for the os humeri, 
 withdrawing from the cavity of the cubitus, adds the circum- 
 mensuration of an angle, formed by that motion, to the length 
 of the arm ; and this addition is greater or less as the angle 
 made by bending is more acute or obtuse. 
 
 121. The arm, by its articulation at the shoulder, is capa- 
 ble of being moved in every direction ; the farthest extent of 
 the arm across the stomach, brings the elbow even with the pit 
 of the stomach, whereby the two shoulders and that elbow form 
 an equilateral triangle. When the two arms are extended be- 
 hind the back, the elbows are distant from each other just the 
 length of the fore-arm, from the elbow to the finger's end; so 
 that two arms form a square. This member, when farthest 
 removed from its natural posture, exerts the greatest force to 
 recover its original station. Thus, in throwing a dart or stone, 
 the arm is drawn back, to such a distance from the body, as to 
 acquire a rapid motion in returning to its natural posture : and 
 the force is greater or less, as the arm is drawn farther or less 
 backward. 
 
 122. The wrist experiences a change in its dimension from 
 the opening or shutting of the hand. When the hand is shut 
 it becomes less than when the hand is open ; the arm, on the 
 contrary, becomes larger when the hand is shut, and less when 
 it is open ; the reason is, that in opening the hand, the mus- 
 cles are extended ; and when the hand is shut, contracted in 
 length, and thereby dilates the arm. The fingers, as well as 
 the toes, partake of the customary changes, of enlarging them- 
 selves on all sides, when the joints are bent ; and suffering a 
 proportionable decrease when extended. 
 
 123. The legs are more circumscribed in their motions 
 than the arms. The chief use of these members, being either 
 
OF THE MUSCLES. 
 
 45 
 
 to support the body, or as a mean of walking, their muscles 
 and bones are much stronger than those of the arms, whereby 
 they are capable of bearing longer and greater exercise. Their 
 motions are more direct ; and to turn the foot or leg outwards 
 or inwards, requires a motion from the upper part of the os 
 femoris or thigh-bone. The knee is the only joint that is 
 diminished in bending, and augmented in its bulk by being 
 straightened. 
 
 124. Upon every change of motion or attitude of the 
 body a great variation is observable. For instance, in a figure 
 standing perfectly still, resting equally on both feet, each leg 
 sustains an equal weight, and the pit between the clavicles 
 hangs in the perpendicular line, which rises from between the 
 feet ; but if the figure extend one arm, that pit quits its station, 
 and recedes towards the other side; or if he move his leg, the 
 pit is also moved. By the extension of his arm, the weight of 
 his hand, together with that of his arm, act like a lever, and 
 thereby alter the centre of gravity in his body, and render it 
 necessary that he counterpoise it by some addition on the op- 
 posite side of the body, otherwise he would fall ; therefore he 
 inclines his shoulder to the contrary side : this inclination of 
 the shoulder is observable, chiefly by the hips. 
 
 125. When a person from a state of rest proceeds to walk, 
 he, in a similar manner, protrudes the centre of gravity for- 
 wards, and that in proportion to the briskness of his pace. In 
 walking leisurely this is scarcely perceivable ; but in one run- 
 ning swiftly it becomes very apparent ; his head and shoulders 
 advancing considerably before that foot which springs from the 
 ground : and if he run against a strong wind, in order to over- 
 come its resistance, he throws the centre of gravity still more 
 forwards ; and protrudes his head and shoulders so much, that, 
 were the wind suddenly to stop, he would inevitably fall 
 forwards. 
 
 126. In endeavouring to leap, a man bends his body to 
 acquire a spring, thus quickly extends the junctures of the 
 
46 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 thighs, knees, and feet: by this extension, the body describes 
 an oblique line inclining forwards, and rising upwards ; the 
 motion directed forwards carries the body in that direction ; 
 and the motion intended upwards elevating it : these conjoined 
 motions enable the body to describe a large arch, which is the 
 direction described in jumping. 
 
 OF DRAPERY. 
 
 127. The beauty of drapery depends in a great measure 
 on the form and disposition of the folds. Their construction 
 should therefore form a principal object of the student's atten- 
 tion. The general form of the clothing must also be particu- 
 larly regarded. 
 
 128. The drapery must be adapted to the quality of the 
 wearer : kings, magistrates, the clergy, &c. are to have large 
 ample draperies with flowing graceful folds ; ladies, nymphs, 
 &c, should have light soft draperies, with more numerous 
 folds, and softer shades; peasants, slaves, &c, must have 
 coarse short draperies, with fewer folds, agreeable to the 
 coarseness of their garments. 
 
 129. The drapery is not so much intended to conceal the 
 limbs or parts of the body which it covers, as to show us the 
 true shape thereof, as far as probability and experience will 
 iustify. Many artists were so sensible of the necessity of this 
 rule, that they first drew the naked figure, and afterwards 
 clothed it. 
 
 130. The drapery must however not appear to bind the 
 body; but should flow round it, and yet embrace it ; and in 
 such a manner that the body may seem to have a free motion, 
 perfectly unencumbered. 
 
 131. The greater folds should be drawn first, and then 
 divided into lesser ones; they should however be all as large 
 as possible ; that is, as far as the quality of the stuff, and quan- 
 
OF DRAPERY. 
 
 47 
 
 tity of the clothing, will make probable. They must not cros s 
 each other injudiciously ; nor run in a direction contrary to 
 the natural inclination of the motion of the drapery. 
 
 132. A repetition of folds of a circular form serves to indi- 
 cate a fore- shortened limb. In the order of drawing the dra- 
 pery, it must be observed, that those parts which adhere 
 closest to the body are to be described first, before the other 
 parts which fly loose ; otherwise the student may place his figure 
 in a wrong position, if he draw the looser parts first. 
 
 133. The clothing must partake of the attitude of the 
 figure. Where the figure inclines inward, the drapery must 
 also incline the same way, if it sit close to the body ; but, if 
 it be loose, it will hang pendant : where the body bends out- 
 wardly, the garments will also have the same appearance ; in 
 which place they will be nearly, and sometimes wholly, desti- 
 tute of folds. 
 
 134. Those parts where the drapery sits closer to the body 
 must have smaller and narrower folds. Folds not only give 
 grace and dignity, but, if judiciously constructed, impart much 
 spirit and vivacity, as they may be made to represent motion, 
 more or less violent, by the moving member which creates 
 them, drawing them with different degrees of force. 
 
 135. If the figure be in motion, the drapery should flow 
 gently the contrary way, as if gently blown by the wind ; and 
 if the motion be swift, the drapery should flow to a greater 
 extent, the wind acting upon it with more violence. 
 
 136. If the figure be at rest, the drapery should indicate no 
 motion, but fall in easy graceful folds. In shading the drapery, 
 it must be remembered, that each fold consists of two shades, 
 and no more ; the inner side being shaded the deepest. The 
 lighter parts of the figure are not to have very deep shades, 
 lest they appear too much indented ; and by these means the 
 members appear broken. 
 
 137. In silks and fine linen, the shades should be thick and 
 soft, consequently the shadows must be light, and the folds 
 
48 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 small. In a word, the learner must be very attentive to nature 
 in this, as in every other part of the art : he must avoid taking 
 his rules for drapery from observations of statues however 
 excellent, as in this particular they are very imperfect copies. 
 
 OF PERSPECTIVE AND OF LANDSCAPE. 
 
 138. In landscapes, the student must be particular with 
 regard to the relative sizes of objects: upon which the prin- 
 cipal beauty of this part of the art depends. He must habi- 
 tuate himself to judge of distances, and measure them by his 
 eye. It is needless, after the general directions, to deliver any 
 rules for drawing landscapes from copies, as by this timo the 
 student is supposed capable of imitating all the different ob- 
 jects of which a landscape consists, consequently, he will find 
 no more difficulty in drawing them in one piece than sepa- 
 rately : but when Nature herself becomes his copy, separate 
 rules are necessary. 
 
 139. The study of perspective, or of size and relation, 
 should go hand in hand with that of anatomy, as equally fun- 
 damental and necessary. The contour of an object drawn 
 upon paper or canvas, represents nothing more than such an 
 intersection as would arise on a glass put in the place of the 
 paper or canvas. The situation of an object on the other side 
 of a glass being given, the delineation of it on the glass itself 
 depends entirely on the situation of the eye on this side of the 
 glass. Perspective, according to Da Vinci, forms the reins and 
 rudder of painting. It teaches in what proportion the parts 
 fly off, and lessen to the eye; how protruding figures are 
 to be placed on a plain surface, and how fore-shortened. 
 
 140. Artists are apt to annex ideas of great intricacy to 
 the practice of perspective. Nothing, however, is more sim- 
 ple, and it is founded, and arises entirely out of the obvious 
 principle, that the apparent size of an object is in the contrary 
 
OF PERSPECTIVE AXD OF LANDSCAPE. 
 
 49 
 
 proportion of its distance from the eye. This simple principle 
 duly considered, and applied by the Artist in practice, consti- 
 tutes the whole science of Perspective. 
 
 141. The art of drawing in Perspective proposes, there- 
 fore, to represent every object in its proper place, and in its 
 relative size and figure, as seen from the spot where the view is 
 taken. The eye of the draughtsman is supposed to be fixed, 
 and he is to pourtray every object as though he saw it through 
 a pane of glass the size of his paper or canvas. The general 
 principles of practice are not difficult, provided two or three 
 technical terms and general principles are well understood. 
 
 Obs. In drawing after nature, it is useful in early practice to 
 adopt some mechanical means of fixing the point of view or sight. 
 This may be done by a hole through a staff fixed in the ground ; and 
 sometimes, still further to assist the eye, a frame with cross threads or 
 wires is affixed between that sight-hole and the objects to be drawn. 
 In that case the paper or canvass is divided into a like number of 
 squares, and the objects in the squares of the frame are exactly trans- 
 ferred to their corresponding squares on the paper. After some prac- 
 tice, however, such mechanical means will be found unnecessary. 
 
 142. When a draughtsman has formed a scene in his 
 mind, and supposed that the principal figures lie close to the 
 back of his canvas, he is next to fix upon some point on his 
 side of the canvas, from which his eye is supposed to view the 
 objects on the other side. In choosing this point, which is 
 called the point of sight, regard should be had to its situa- 
 tion to the right or left of the middle of the canvas : but, 
 above all things, to its distance and its height with respect to 
 the lower edge of the canvas ; which edge is called the base 
 or ground line, and is parallel to an horizontal line that 
 passes through the point of sight. 
 
 143. By assuming the point of sight, and consequently 
 the horizontal line, too low, the surfaces or planes upon which 
 the figures stand will appear a great deal too shallow ; and by- 
 assuming it too highj they will appear too steep, so as to render 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING, 
 
 the piece less light and airy than it ought to be. In like man- 
 ner, if the point of sight be taken at too great a distance from 
 the canvas, the figures will not admit of lowering enough to 
 be seen with sufficient distinctness ; and if taken too near it, 
 the lowering will be too quick and precipitate to have an agree- 
 able eiFect. 
 
 144. When a picture is to be hung high, the point of 
 sight should be assumed low, and vice verm ; in order that the 
 horizontal line of the picture may be, as near as possible, to 
 the horizontal plane of the spectator. When a picture is to be 
 placed very high, it will be proper to assume the point of sight 
 so low, that it may lie quite under the picture, no part of 
 whose ground is, in that case, to be visible. There is seldom 
 any necessity for such extraordinary exactness : and unless in 
 some particular cases, the point of sight had better be rather 
 high than low ; because we are more accustomed to behold 
 objects on the same plane with ourselves, than either higher or 
 lower. 
 
 145. The point of distance, or supposed distance of the 
 eye from the picture or glass, is next to be determined. In 
 doing this, a draughtsman should attend to three things: first, 
 that the spectator may be able to take in, at one glance, the 
 whole and every part of the composition ; secondly, that he may 
 see it distinctly : and thirdly, that the lowering of the figures 
 and other objects of the picture be sufficiently sensible. Prac- 
 tice in copying and in designing after good masters supersede 
 precise rules for doing this with happy effect. 
 
 Obs. The best landscapes include an angle of from 45 to 60 de- 
 grees, or the eighth or ?ixth of the whole Panorama of 360 degrees. 
 
 146. The ground plane, is the plane or level on which 
 stand both the spectator and the objects that are to be drawn. 
 The perspective plane, is a supposed plane standing perpen- 
 dicular upon the ground plane, as the pane of glass, on which 
 the images of objects are supposed to be intercepted ; so that 
 their perspective appearance, when drawn, is the appearance 
 
OF PERSPECTIVE AND OF LANDSCAPE. 
 
 51 
 
 they would have on this perspective plane. The ground 
 line, is the line on which the perspective plane or glass is 
 supposed to rest. 
 
 147. The point of sight is that point in the perspective 
 plane which is nearest to, or opposite, the eye, and is at the 
 same proportional distance from the ground line as the height 
 of the eye is above the ground plane. The horizontal line, 
 is the line upon the perspective plane, drawn through the point 
 of sight, parallel to the ground line; and the perpendicular is 
 a line on the perspective plane, drawn through the point of sight 
 perpendicular to the ground line and to the horizontal line. 
 
 Obs* The point A, where the perpendicular and horizontal lines 
 cross, is the point of sight, or vanishing point, of all lines running out 
 from the eye perpendicular to the perspective plane. 
 
 Horizon 
 
 ta.l Line, 
 
 Ground Line. 
 
 148. Points of distance are points on the~ perspective 
 plane set oft' from the point of sight, sometimes on the horizontal 
 line, sometimes on the perpendicular, at the same proportional 
 distance from the point of sight, as the eye itself is from the 
 objects. Measuring points are points from which any lines in 
 the perspective plane are measured, by laying a ruler from them 
 to divisions laid down upon the ground line. Vanishing 
 points are points on the perspective plane in which parallel 
 lines in nature seem to meet or vanish to the eye. 
 
 Obs. Vanishing points produce that effect of which painters of 
 scenery avail themselves, and is founded on the principle, that if the 
 earth were an extended plain, all objects would seem to vanish from 
 their progressive smallness. Of course, if any set of objects vanish in 
 
 E c 2 
 
52 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DllAWIX<j. 
 
 a right line from the eye, the diminution takes place more rapidly 
 than when it takes place obliquely ; and the vanishing point in objects 
 receding opposite the eye is in the point of sight, but if they recede 
 obliquely then the vanishing point is to the right or left of the point 
 of sight. 
 
 149. The rules for drawing are, that all lines that are 
 parallel to the perspective plain, must be drawn parallel to each 
 other ; and that all other parallel lines meet, or have vanishing 
 points in some part of the perspective plain. If the lines lie 
 upon the ground plane, they vanish somewhere in the horizon- 
 tal line ; which is, therefore, called the vanishing line of the 
 ground plane. If the parallel lines run perpendicular from 
 the ground line, they vanish in the point of sight; but if they 
 are oblique to it, or have a declination from such perpendicu- 
 lar, the angle of this obliquity or declination must be set off to 
 the right or left to find the vanishing point. 
 
 150. All the measures of lines upon the ground plane are 
 to be laid down upon the ground line, and the measuring point 
 of all lines parallel to the ground line, is either of the points of 
 distance on the horizontal line, or the point of sight. The 
 measuring point of any line, perpendicular to the ground line, 
 is in the point of distance on the horizontal line ; and the 
 measuring point of a line oblique to the ground line is found 
 by extending the compasses from the vanishing point of that 
 line to the point of distance on the perpendicular, and setting 
 it off on the horizontal line. 
 
 151. The pictures of all lines parallel to the perspective 
 plane are parallel to the lines themselves. The pictures of all 
 vertical lines are vertical, and the pictures of horizontal lines 
 are horizontal, because these lines are parallel to the perspec- 
 tive plane. The point of sight is the vanishing point of all 
 lines perpendicular to the perspective plane. Every line which 
 in the object is straight, perpendicular, or parallel to its base, 
 should be so in its delineations. Objects standing on the right 
 hand, should be placed on the right hand of the point of sight, 
 and those on the left hand on the left hand of the point. 
 
OF PERSPECTIVE AND LANDSCAPE PAINTING. 53 
 
 152. In setting off altitudes, measure the height from the 
 ground line, and a line from that point to the horizontal line, 
 wherever it happens to be placed. If in a landscape there are 
 any standing waters, place the horizontal line level with the 
 farthest appearance of it. If there be any houses, consider 
 their position, that you may find from what point in the hori- 
 zontal line to draw the front and sides. 
 
 Obs. It is in vain, by the rules of perspective, to describe all the 
 little hollows and prominences of objects; the different light and 
 shade of their parts; the windings and turnings of the boughs and 
 leaves of trees ; or the features and limbs of men, &c. Its peculiar 
 province is to exhibit a kind of ground- work, and to ascertain the 
 general proportions and places of the objects, leaving the rest to be 
 finished, beautified, and ornamented by experience. Yet the know- 
 ledge of the general laws of this science is of great and necessary use 
 to inform the judgment in what manner the images of any proposed 
 lines should run, which way they should tend, and where terminate ; 
 and when the ground or general plan of the principal parts of a picture 
 are laid down according to rule, every remarkable deviation from the 
 rules will be the more readily perceived, and be the easier avoided or 
 rectified. 
 
 153. In sketching after nature, you are to consider youi 
 paper as a piece of upright glass, through which you see the 
 objects in their natural sizes and productions. The first thing 
 is to determine on the boundaries of your picture ; the second 
 on the middle point ; and the third, on the parallel height of 
 the principal set of objects. 
 
 Obs. 1. All this is best done by holding the pencil at arm's length, 
 first perpendicularly, and then horizontally, and by repeating the same 
 guide or guage as often as is needful while the sketch proceeds. 
 
 Obs. 2. The student should take his station on a rising ground, 
 where he may have a large field of view, and an extended horizon. 
 
 Obs. 3. He should next divide his paper or tablet, upon which he 
 is at work, into three equal divisions, from the top to the bottom, and 
 (if he think necessary) into any number of equal divisions, from one 
 side to the other, and in his own mind divide the landscape or field of 
 view exactly in the same manner. 
 
54 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 Obs. 4. Then let him describe, upon the middle division, those 
 objects which are directly before his eyes ; next those towards his left 
 hand ; and, lastly, those on his right hand : observing that he change 
 not the situation of his body, nor move from his place, till he have 
 obtained a draft of the whole. 
 
 Obs. 5. The nearest objects should appear the highest ; and those 
 farther off decline in height according to their distance ; the most dis- 
 tant appearing almost level with the horizon. 
 
 Obs. 6. They are also to decrease in the strength of their shades, as 
 well as size, in proportion to their distance from the observer. 
 
 Obs. 7. In consequence of their being more faintly shaded, they 
 will appear less distinct, and more confused, the further they are re- 
 moved from the point of view. 
 
 Obs. 8. The lights and shades must all fall the same way. 
 
 Obs. 9. Every thing is to have its proper motion according t3 na- 
 ture : as trees shaken by the wind, the greater branches bending less 
 than the smaller ones ; and the tall slender trees more than the stout 
 ones : observing they all incline the same way. 
 
 Obs. 10. In drawing the sky, those clouds nearest the observer 
 must be placed towards the top of the piece, and more strongly shaded, 
 and distinctly marked, than the others more remote : and the farthe 
 they are removed from the observer, the lower must be their situation, 
 and more faint their shades, till they mingle with the horizon, where 
 they become lost to view. 
 
 Obs. 1 1 . Water has very different appearances : when it is calm 
 and still, it reflects the light strongly, and must therefore have little or 
 no shade : and if it be required to be represented as reflecting a strong 
 light, the adjacent parts must have some shade, in order to form the 
 contrast. When violently agitated, it is to have some very deep and 
 broken shades ; and other parts striking against rocks, ships, or other 
 objects, are to have a black and white contrasted shade, to represent 
 the foaming of the water. 
 
 154. It is necessary that the student be cautioned against 
 falling into an error too prevalent among artists, viz. that of 
 making their objects in the piece rise higher, the farther they 
 are removed from view (which makes the landscape appear as 
 if it was sit uated on the side of a hill), on the bottom of which 
 
OF PERSPECTIVE AND LANDSCAPE PAINTING. 
 
 55 
 
 the artist took bis station. These pieces always have an un- 
 graceful appearance, not to mention the absurdity of the idea, 
 and how seldom such a view occurs in nature. When this, 
 however, is the case, the artist must draw his piece in this 
 form ; for he can never err, while he follows that great mis- 
 tress of perfection, Nature. 
 
 155. At the same time, it is necessary to fix the point op" 
 posite to the eye, called the point of sight, and the horizontal 
 line passing through the point of sight, and to remember that 
 all objects are to be drawn of a size inversely proportioned to 
 their distance from the point of sight. As objects continually 
 diminish as they recede, even till they vanish, the horizontal 
 line contains, therefore, the vanishing points of all objects 
 standing on the level of the spectator. 
 
 156. Having fixed five or six main points of the picture, 
 proceed to sketch faintly the shapes of all the principal objects 
 — then join them together — then correct their figures and out- 
 lines, and then mark in, or indicate the shadows. 
 
 Obs. Prefer to redraw an incorrect line to the rubbing of it out, as 
 the false line will guide to the true one, and take care before you finish 
 that every object has its true figure, as seen from the fixed point of 
 sight. Of course, only the objects in the foreground require finishing, 
 and the distant objects are to be expressed in their general effect, 
 lightly and imperfectly. 
 
 157. Authors usually make a great parade about the intri- 
 cacy of perspective, and treat it as a science of mystery and 
 difficulty. It is, however, not so, and may be learnt as easily 
 as any of the rules of Arithmetic. Its purpose is to enable us 
 to draw objects as they appear in nature, and this will be easy 
 to persons having an accurate eye by a slight attention to 
 some plain principles. 
 
 158. The student should first understand that all objects of 
 the same real size appear diminished in proportion to their 
 distances from the eye, and in understanding this, ne under- 
 stands the whole arcana of perspective. Thus, a man six feet 
 high appears twice the height at ten feet distance, than he does 
 
56 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE AKT OE DRAWING. 
 
 at twenty feet, and ten times as large as he would at a hundred 
 feet distance. 
 
 159- And a man six feet high, at ten feet distance, is as 
 large to the eye as a house sixty feet high, at a hundred feet 
 distance. All then that is requisite in drawing any objects from 
 nature is to draw the objects of a size diminished in proportion 
 to their actual distances, and according to their actual sizes. 
 Thus some object should be drawn in the foreground of a known 
 size, and then all other objects should be reduced according to 
 their distances and sizes, in their proportion to that object. 
 
 Obs. 1. Suppose a tree one hundred feet from the draughtsman, and 
 one hundred feet high, is made ten inches long in the drawing, it is 
 evident that a house fifty feet high, and one thousand feet distant, 
 should be half an inch long in the drawing. Measured accuracy is 
 unnecessary; it is simply necessary to guess with moderate precision 
 at the relative heights and distances, and after the purpose has been 
 effected in a few exercises, it will be easy to pursue it mechanically. 
 
 Obs. 2. All the rules of perspeciive proceed on the principle of ad- 
 measurement, so that nothing is lost by substituting a ready and brief 
 calculation for geometrical projections, by the scale and compasses, 
 but measurement is seldom necessary. 
 
 Obs. 3. The size of every object is to be drawn directly as the size, 
 and inversely as the distance ; if, therefore, you multiply the drawn 
 dimensions of one object by its distance, and by the real dimensions of 
 some other object, whose drawn size is required; and then divide 
 that product by the product of the real size of the drawn object with 
 the distance of the required object, the quotient is the the size which 
 that object is to be drawn. Thus, if a man six feet high, at four yards 
 from the perspective plane, be drawn two inches high, how large is a 
 pillar to be drawn which is sixty feet high and forty yards distant ? 
 Multiply the two by four and by sixty, and the product is 480 ; and 
 then six by forty is 240, which goes twice in 480, consequently the 
 pillar must be two inches, or exactly the height of the man. The va- 
 riations of the distance from the ground line will give the true effect in 
 the picture. Nothing, therefore, is more easy than to ascertain the 
 relative sizes to arithmetical exactness, at which objects should be 
 drawn, till the eye determines it more readily by experience. 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 57 
 
 ON COLOURING. 
 
 Who can paint 
 
 Like Nature ? Can Imagination boast, 
 Amid its gay creation, hues like her's ? 
 Or can it mix them with that matchless skill, 
 And lay them on so delicately fine, 
 And lose them in each other, as appears 
 In ev'ry bud that blows ? 
 
 Thomson. 
 
 160. Colouring is that important part of art in which 
 the artist imitates the colours of all natural objects, and gives 
 to artificial objects those hues which are most calculated to 
 please or to deceive the sight. It is the duty of the colourist 
 to consider, that as there are two sorts of objects, the natural 
 or real, and the artificial or painted, so there are also two sorts 
 of colours, viz. the natural, or that which makes all the objects 
 in nature visible to us, and the artificial, or that which, by a 
 judicious mixture of simple colours, imitates those natural 
 ones in all their various situations and circumstances. 
 
 161. An artist must first endeavour to acquire a perfect 
 knowledge of these two sorts of colours ; of the natural, in 
 order to distinguish with precision which of them he ought to 
 imitate ; and of the artificial, in order to compose the tint most 
 proper for representing the natural colour. The natural colour 
 is of three sorts: 1st, the true colour of the object; 2d, the 
 reflected colour ; 3d, the colour of the light incidental to the 
 object. In the artificial colours, their force and softness should 
 be distinguished separately and by comparison, in order that a 
 proper judgment may be exerted in heightening or attenuating 
 them, as the subject may require. 
 
 162. It should be considered, that a picture is, for the 
 most part, a flat superficies ; that, some time after the colours 
 are laid on, they necessarily lose their freshness ; and the dis- 
 tance at which a picture is viewed takes from it much of its 
 
58 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 brightness and vigour ; and it is, therefore, impossible to guard 
 against these drawbacks on the effects of his pencil, without a 
 complete mastery of that artifice which is the chief object of 
 the art of colouring. 
 
 163. Although imitation is the principal aim of colouring, 
 the artist must by no means be the slave of natural objects, but 
 the judge and judicious imitator of them : he must not imitate 
 all the colours which present themselves indifferently to his 
 eye; but he must chuse the most proper for his purpose, and 
 add or temper with others, to complete the beauty of effect in 
 his work. He must sometimes abate the vivacity of life, and 
 sometimes strive to heighten it by superior force and brightness 
 of colours, in order to convey to the eye, with precision and 
 truth, the spirit and real character of the object. There are 
 few, and those only among the greatest painters, who have 
 arrived at the perfect management of this difficult part of art. 
 
 164. On the apposition of colours, and on the knowledge 
 of chiaroscuro, depends all the harmony of colouring. In 
 what that happy arrangement of colours consists, which pro- 
 duces effects delightful to the eye, no rules can pretend to 
 ascertain. If the source of information in this point is not in 
 the mind of the painter, he will in vain seek for it elsewhere. 
 Improvement, however, may, and must, be superadded to na- 
 tural discrimination : to acquire the necessary improvement, 
 he will find the best school in the works of those great masters 
 who have possessed the power of colouring in an eminent 
 degree. 
 
 165. We must learn to view Nature to advantage, in order 
 to represent her well. There are two manners of colouring : 
 the one depending on habit, the other on the true knowledge 
 of colours. The first is confined, the second unlimited. The 
 harmony of Nature in her colours arises from objects partici- 
 pating of one another by reflection ; for there is no light which 
 does not strike some body ; nor is there any enlightened body 
 which does not reflect its light and colour at the same time, in 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 59 
 
 proportion to the force of the light, and according to the nature 
 of the colour. This participation of reflection in light and 
 colour, constitutes that union of colouring which it is the 
 business of the painter to imitate. 
 
 166. The desirable union of colour is sometimes consider- 
 ably aided in pictures by the process of glazing ; that is, by 
 the use of colours which, having little body, are diaphonous; 
 and are, by means of a light brush or pencil, passed over (or, 
 as painters express it, scumbled over) such parts of the work as 
 are unpleasantly staring, or otherwise discordant. Variety of 
 tints, very nearly of the same tone, employed in the same 
 figure, and often upon the same part, with moderation, con- 
 tribute much to harmony. 
 
 167. The turn of the parts, and the outlines which insen- 
 sibly melt into their grounds and artfully disappear, bind the 
 objects together, and preserve them in union ; as they seem to 
 conduct the eye beyond what it sees, and persuade it that it 
 sees what it really does not see, or at least that it conceives that 
 continuity which the extremities of the objects conceal. 
 
 168. Any loading or overcharging of colouring, for what- 
 ever purpose it is used, must be so discreetly managed, as not 
 to destroy the character of the object. The repetition of the 
 same colour in a picture is to be avoided, unless where it serves 
 to connect the various masses of a composition. The eye 
 becomes tired with viewing the same object : it loves variety 
 artfully presented to it. 
 
 169. Several colours which, placed unmixed by one 
 another, have a kind of aerial brightness, when mixed toge- 
 ther, produce a disagreeable earthy colour : for instance, ultra- 
 marine with fine yellow, or fine vermilion. Colours which by 
 mixture lose strength, and become harmonious, are called 
 broken colours, and contribute as greatly to the sweetness and 
 softness of tones in pictures as they substract from their bright- 
 ness. 
 
 170. The knowledge of lights and shades forms an im- 
 
CO ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 portant part of the art of colouring. But the incidence of 
 particular lights and shades on bodies placed on certain planes, 
 and exposed to certain lights, is a very small part of that 
 general knowledge of effect which is denominated chiaro-scuro, 
 by which is meant the art of skilfully distributing the lights 
 and shades which ought to appear in a picture as well for the 
 repose as satisfaction of the eye. 
 
 171. Chiaroscuro, as it is called, demands a perfect know- 
 ledge of the effects of light and shade, of aerial perspective, 
 of the proportional jforce of colours, or of those qualities by 
 which they appear to advance to, or recede from, the eye, and 
 of their various degrees of transparency or opaqueness. It 
 consists, 1st, in connecting and combining the figures or 
 objects of a composition in such masses of light and of shade, 
 as are both most pleasing to the eye, and the best calculated 
 for the just development and display of the subject, ^dly, 
 In assigning to each object the colour most corresponding (on 
 account of the force or qualities above-mentioned) to its re- 
 spective place in the general mass or group, and at the same 
 time best harmonizing with the other colours of the picture, 
 either by its natural and proper tone, or by the reflected hues 
 which it receives from adjoining or surrounding objects. The 
 beauty of these reflexes depends on the skilful adaptation of 
 transparent or opaque colours. 3dly, In the judicious intro- 
 duction of such accidents as contribute to strengthen the gene- 
 ral effect and character of the work. It is on chiaro-scuro, 
 that depends the expression of the character of a picture, 
 whether it is gay or gloomy, cheerful or solemn. 
 
 172. The distribution of objects forms the masses of 
 chiaro-scuro, by combining or connecting their lights and 
 shades in such a manner as to prevent the eye from wandering 
 confusedly over the work. Titian exemplified this precept in 
 the instance of a bunch of grapes, of which each grape, if 
 seen separately, would have its light and shade in a similar 
 degree, and thus distracting the sight, would produce a tire- 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 61 
 
 some confusion ; but when collected in one bunch, and becom- 
 ing but one mass of light and shade, the eye is capable of 
 embracing them altogether as a single object. 
 
 173. In shading with Indian ink, mix three gradations of 
 tints, a weak, a middle, and a deep tint. The weak tint is to 
 be laid over every part, except the whites. The middle tint is 
 then, when the former is dry, to be laid over all the parts re- 
 ceding from the light, leaving a part of the weak tint between 
 the white and the middle tint. The deep tint is then to be 
 employed to put in the masses and the parts requiring force. 
 
 06s. Sometimes the edges of the tints are fined off with water, 
 and the whole may be finished by repeated washings over the tint ; 
 but it will then have a woolly effect, and want spirit. Four succes- 
 sive tints are also frequently used for high finishing. Indian ink 
 drawings are often improved by a wash, or two washes, of yellow 
 ochre, sometimes followed by light red or lake. 
 
 174. Colours should be used with great caution and judg- 
 ment. Nothing is so disgusting as to see coloured drawings 
 where the reds, greens, and blues, are laid on in the most 
 violent manner, without any regard to harmony. Those who 
 execute such vile daubings, will say in their defence, that 
 nothing can be greener than grass, nor bluer than the sky ; 
 but they should consider, that nature employs such a multitude 
 of little shadows, and such a variety of different tints inter- 
 mixed with her colours, that the harshness of the original 
 colour is corrected, and the effect of the whole is very different 
 from a raw and distinct colour laid upon white paper. 
 
 175. A single distinct colour is always bad in a landscape; 
 and the tints should always be varied and broken in every part, 
 Though we should have recourse to the study of nature, in 
 preference to any master, for the study of colouring, yet it re- 
 quires some judgment to know what part of nature is to be 
 studied, and what is to be avoided; for in nature herself, 
 there are many parts which are bad, and to copy them would 
 do more harm than good. 
 
G2 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OE DRAWING. 
 
 Obs, 1 . The student in colouring must examine, with every pos- 
 sible attention, the colouring of old walls, broken and stained by time 
 and the weather, old thatch, old tiles, rotten wood ; in short, all ob- 
 jects which are covered with moss, stains, and tints of various kinds; 
 there he will find all that is most perfect and harmonious in colouring. 
 Let him copy these with every possible care, and avoid, as bad, all ob- 
 jects which are of a uniform decided colour. This has been the prac- 
 tice of all the great masters who have excelled in this captivating part 
 of the art. In short, after learning the first principles of drawing, he 
 cannot too soon have recourse to nature ; he will obtain from her the 
 materials for acquiring every species of excellence, in a greater degree 
 than from the works of the first masters. The study of these, how- 
 ever, will greatly abridge his labour, and it should go hand-in-hand 
 with drawing from nature. 
 
 Obs. 2. In landscapes, the scenes most generally to be met with, 
 and which are most generally interesting, are of the picturesque kind, 
 such as cottages and rustic scenery. In these straight lines should be 
 avoided, and every thing that is regular and formal. In general, every 
 thing that is old and broken is preferable to what is new, as affording 
 more variety. Old thatch, old tiles, old plaister, old fencing, are more 
 picturesque, and fitter for the pencil than the same species of objects 
 when new and entire. An old house, almost tumbling down, whose 
 parts are broken and ruinous, some bulging out, and the whole stained 
 and tinted with a variety of chaste and harmonious colours by the 
 pencil of nature, is infinitely preferable, as a subject for a picture, to 
 any new house or gentleman's seat, though the latter may be a more 
 comfortable habitation to live in. In the same way, an old worn-out 
 cart-horse is a much fitter animal to draw from, and a finer subject 
 for the pencil, than a sleek and clean poney ; and an ass with a rough 
 coat is more picturesque than the same animal kept in nice order. In 
 subjects of the grand kind, on the contrary, such as magnificent build- 
 ings, cities, streets, &c„ straight lines are often necessary and proper, 
 as these objects are rather of the sublime than the picturesque kind ; 
 and straight lines, and a degree of regularity, form part of the 
 sublime. The employment of straight lines, however, requires great 
 skill and knowledge of the art, to prevent them from appearing bad, 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 63 
 
 and they can only be employed with success by those who have 
 attained to considerable eminence. 
 
 176. The sun's rays are composed of seven primitive 
 colours; but late observations have reduced them to three; — 
 red, blue, and yellow ; so that all the vast variety of tints which 
 we see in nature, is formed by the mixture of these in various 
 proportions. If we had pigments of these colours perfectly 
 pure, we should have no occasion for more than these three ; 
 but this is not the case, and therefore we are obliged to have 
 recourse to materials of other broken tints. 
 
 Obs. The colours that are found to be the most useful in drawing 
 landscapes in water colours are, lake, indigo, Prussian blue, gamboge, 
 light red, yellow ochre, burnt terra Sienna, burnt umber, and Cologne 
 earth. Some of the other colours may be occasionally useful ; but 
 these are all that are necessary for general use. The best sort of 
 water-colours are those mixed with gum and made up into cakes, as 
 these may be used by rubbing upon a tile, in the same manner as 
 Indian ink. 
 
 177. The principal colours used by painters are red and 
 white lead ; yellow and red ochres ; several kinds of earth, 
 umbre, orpiment, lamp-black, burnt ivory, black lead, vermi- 
 lion, gamboge, lacca, blue and green ashes, verdigris, bistre, 
 bice, smalt, carmine, ultramarine : each of which, with their 
 uses, &c, are to be found under their proper articles. Of these 
 colours some are ground with gum-water, some used with oil, 
 and others only in fresco. 
 
 178. Artists reduce all the colours they use under the two 
 classes of dark and light colours. Black, and all that are 
 obscure and earthy, as umbre, bistre, &c. are of the first de- 
 scription. Under light colours are comprehended white, and 
 all that approach nearest to it. Colours are also distinguished 
 into simple and mineral. Under simple colours they rank all 
 those which are extracted from vegetables, and which will not 
 bear the fire ; as the yellow made of saffron, French berries, 
 acca, and other tinctures extracted from flowers, &c. 
 
ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 179. Colours may be considered as either single or com- 
 pound. Single colours are such as require nothing to be super- 
 added to them, in order to make a full strong colour, without 
 regarding whether they are formed of many or few ingredients ; 
 and in this view, white-lead, red-lead, vermilion, calces of 
 iron, &c. are simple colours. Compound colours are formed 
 by the union of two or more colouring substances ; as blue and 
 yellow united together to form a green, red and yellow to form 
 an orange, a white earth or calx, with the red colour of cochi- 
 neal or brazil, to form a lake, &c. ; and thus carmine, lake, 
 rose-pink, Dutch-pink, English-pink, &c. are compound co- 
 lours. 
 
 180. The general or simple colours are — white, black, 
 brown, red, yellow, blue, and green. 
 
 The Whites are — Ceruse, constant white, white lead, 
 Spanish white, flake white, and spodium. 
 
 Blacks. — Burnt cherry-stones, ivory black, Keating's black, 
 and lamp-black. 
 
 Browns. — Spanish brown, Spanish licorice, umber, bistre, 
 burnt terra di Sienna, unburnt ditto, and sessia. 
 
 Reds. — Native cinnabar, burnt ochre, Indian red, red- 
 lead, minium, lake, vermilion, carmine, red-ink, and Indian 
 lake. 
 
 Yellows. — English ochre, gall-stone, gamboge, masticot, 
 ochre de luce, orpiment, Roman ochre, Dutch pink, saffron- 
 water, king's yellow, gold yellow, and French berries. 
 
 Blues. — Saunder's blue, terre blue, blue verditer, indigo, 
 litmose, smalt, Prussian blue, light ditto, ultramarine, ultra- 
 marine ashes, and blue bice. 
 
 Greens. — Green bice, green verditer, grass green, sap 
 green, and verdigris distilled. 
 
 Obs. In using colours and preparing the various tints, saucers 
 and a delf-palette with a division, is required. The cake of colour is 
 dipped in water, rubbed on the saucer or palette, and then reduced 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 65 
 
 with water to its proper tint. Pencils of all widths and sizes should 
 also be at hand for washes of various sizes, 
 
 181. The Mixed Colours are as follow : — 
 
 Changeable Silk. — Vermilion or Indian red and masticot 
 water, shaded with sap-green and verdigrise: or, lake and. 
 yellow, shaded with lake and Prussian blue. 
 
 Cloud Colour. — Light masticot; or, constant white (Barytes) 
 and Indian ink, with vermilion ; or, a little lake and Antwerp 
 blue makes a very agreeable cloud colour, for that low part 
 next the horizon. 
 
 Crimson. — Lake, with a little vermilion, shaded with lake 
 and carmine. 
 
 Flame Colour. — Vermilion and orpiment; or, gamboge, 
 shaded with minium and red-lead. 
 
 Flesh Colour. — Vermilion or Indian red; for a swarthy 
 complexion, burnt sienna, shaded with Indian ink. 
 
 French Green. — Light pink and Dutch bice, shaded with 
 green pink. 
 
 Hair Colour. — Masticot, ochre, umber, or burnt terra di 
 Sienna. 
 
 Lead Colour. — Indigo and white. 
 
 Light Blue. — Blue bice ; or, blue verditer ; or, light wash 
 of Antwerp blue. 
 
 Light Green. — Antwerp blue and gamboge; or, gamboge 
 and verdigrise. The chief use of this green is to lay the 
 ground-colours for trees, fields, &c. 
 
 Lion Tawny. — Red lead and masticot, shaded with umber. 
 
 Orange. — Red lead and a little masticot, shaded with gall- 
 stone and lake. 
 
 Orange Tawny. — Lake, light pink, a little masticot, shaded 
 with gall-stone and lake- 
 
 Pearl Colour. — Faint wash of carmine, shaded with lake. 
 
 Popinjay Green. — Green and masticot ; or, gamboge and 
 a little indigo, shaded with indigo. 
 
 Purple. — Blue bice, or Prussian blue and lake; or, a solu- 
 tion of logwood. 
 
66 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 Russet. — Cherry-stone black and white. 
 
 Scarlet. — Red lead and lake, with or without vermilion. 
 
 Sea Green. — Prussian blue, gamboge, and a little Indian 
 ink, 
 
 Sky Colour. — Light masticot, for the lowest and lightest 
 parts ; second, vermilion very faint ; third, Antwerp blue 
 faint ; fourth, the same rather darker. These are all to be 
 softened into one another at the edges, so as not to appear 
 harsh. 
 
 Sky Colour for Drapery.-— Antwerp blue, shaded with 
 indigo. 
 
 Straw Colour. — Masticot and a very little lake, shaded 
 with Dutch pink. 
 
 Violet Colour. — Antwerp blue and lake, shaded with in- 
 digo ; or, fine Dutch bice and lake, shaded with indigo and 
 litmus, smalt, and bice, the latter most predominant. 
 
 Water. — Antwerp blue faint, shaded with indigo ; or, blue 
 verdigrise, shaded with indigo. 
 
 Alum and sal ammoniac considerably heighten the colour of 
 cochineal, brazil, turmeric, fustic, madder, logwood, &c. The same 
 thing is done, though in a less degree, by common salt, Glauber's 
 salt, salt-petre, and many other of the neutral salts. 
 
 Solutions of iron in all the acids strike a black with every one of 
 the above substances; and likewise with sumach, galls, and other 
 astringents. Solutions of lead universally debase red colours to a dull 
 purple. Solution of copper changes the purple colour of logwood to a 
 pretty good blue ; and, in general, solutions of this metal are friendly 
 to blue colours. The effects of solutions of gold, silver, and mer- 
 cury, are not so well known : they seem to produce dark colours of 
 no great beauty. 
 
 The most powerful solution, however, with regard to a great 
 number of colours, is that of tin, as it is made in aqua regia. Tin 
 has, in a state of solution, the most extraordinary effects. The colour 
 of cochineal is changed by it into the most beautiful scarlet ; a similar 
 change is made upon the colouring matter of gum lac. Brazil-wood 
 is made to yield a fine purplish crimson ; logwood, a beautiful dark 
 purple ; turmeric, fustic, weld, and all yellow-colouring woods and 
 
OX COLOURING. 
 
 67 
 
 flowers, are made to communicate colours far more beautiful than can 
 be got from them by any other method. The blue colour of the 
 flowers of violets, eye-bright, iris, &c., are heightened so as to equal, 
 if not excel, the blue produced by a solution of copper in volatile 
 alkali. In short, this solution seems to be of much more extensive 
 use in colour-making, when properly applied, than any thing hitherto 
 thought of. It is not, however, universally serviceable. The colour 
 of madder it totally destroys, and likewise that of saf-flower, chang- 
 ing them both to a dull orange. It likewise spoils the colour of 
 archil : and what is very remarkable, the fine red colour of tincture 
 of roses made with oil of vitriol, is by solution of tin changed to a 
 dirty green. 
 
 Those substances which are most remarkable for keeping their 
 first colour, contain a gummy matter, so combined with a resinous 
 one as to be soluble both in water and spirit of wine. 
 
 The most durable red colour is prepared from gum lac. This is 
 resinous, though at the same time so far glutinous, that the colouring 
 matter can be extracted from it by water. Next to gum lac are mad- 
 der roots and cochineal. The colouring-matter of the former is solu- 
 ble both in water and spirit of wine. Along with the pure red, how- 
 ever, there is in madder a kind of viscous astringent substance, of a 
 dark brown colour, which seems to give durability to the whole. The 
 colouring-matter of cochineal, though soluble both in water and spirit 
 of wine, is very tenacious and mucilaginous, in which it bears some 
 resemblance to the purpura of the ancients, which kept its colour 
 exceedingly well. 
 
 Black consists either of lamp-black, ivory-black, blue-black, 
 or Indian-ink. The first is the finest of what are called the soot- 
 blacks, and is more used than any other. The dregs and pieces of 
 bark left after straining the turpentine are burnt in a low oven, from 
 which the smoke is conveyed through a long passage into a square 
 chamber, having an opening on the top, on which is a large sack made 
 of thin woollen stuff : the soot, or lamp-black, concretes partly in the 
 chamber, from whence it is swept out once in two or three days. 
 Ivory-black is prepared from ivory or bones burnt in a close vessel. 
 An opaque deep black for water-colours, is made by grinding ivory- 
 black with gum water on a marble flab, or with size. Blue-black is 
 said to be prepared from the burnt stalks and tendrils of the vine. 
 
 f2 
 
68 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 Indian-ink is an excellent black for water colours. There is another 
 very agreeable and useful black called Keating's-black, which maybe 
 had at most colour shops ready prepared. 
 
 The flake-white and w/zzte-lead are, properly speaking, the same 
 colours. These are the only whites that can be used in oil, all the 
 rest being transparent unless they are laid on with water. Spanish 
 white is only a finely prepared chalk ; and Pearl-white is made from 
 oyster shells. The magistery of bismuth is apt to turn black, as are 
 also flake-white, and white-lead, when used as water colours. The 
 best white for painting in water colours is flake-white ; but some re- 
 commend a white made of pearl and oyster shells brought to an im- 
 palpable powder, called pearl white, which will mix well with any 
 colour. 
 
 The red colours used in painting and drawing are of two sorts ; 
 viz. those which incline to the purple, and such as are of a full scarlet, 
 and tend rather to the orange. The first are carmine, lake, rose-pink, 
 red-ochre, and Venetian-red. The second are vermilion, red-lead, 
 scarlet-ochre, common Indian red, Spanish brown, and terra di Sienna, 
 burnt. Carmine is the brightest and most beautiful red colour known 
 at present ; and the best comes from France. Lake differs from it in 
 being capable of mixture with oil ; which carmine is not, unless with 
 great difficulty. The former is also much more inclined to purple 
 than carmine. This last quality, however, is reckoned a defect ; and 
 accordingly, the more that lake approaches to the scarlet or true 
 crimson, the more it is valued. On dropping a solution of tin into an 
 aqueous tincture of brazil-wood, a beautiful precipitate falls, of a 
 purplish crimson colour. This may be very well substituted in place 
 of the dearer lakes on many occasions. Rose-pink inclines more to 
 purple than scarlet. It seems to be made of chalk, coloured with a 
 decoction of brazil-wood: but it is exceedingly perishable. Red 
 ochre and Venetian red differ in nothing from the calces of iron when 
 made to incline either to a purple or scarlet, by the manner in which 
 the calcination is performed. A liquid colour of a very good crimson 
 may be made as follows : In twelve ounces of pale stale beer, boil 
 one ounce of ground Brazil wood, till the colour is as strong as 
 you desire ; strain it through a linen cloth, and bottle it up for use. 
 
 The only true orange colours are red orpiment and orange 
 lake. The first is a sublimate formed of arsenic and sulphur ; the 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 69 
 
 other may be prepared from turmeric infused in spirit of wine, having 
 its colour struck upon calx of tin, and brightened by a solution of that 
 metal. All the shades of orange, however, may be extemporaneously 
 prepared by mixing red and yellow together, in due proportions. In 
 vermilion and gamboge, the latter most predominant, you are pre- 
 sented with a pleasant and serviceable colour, for painting lilies, 
 and all other orange colour flowers. 
 
 King's yellow is an arsenical preparation. Its colour is exceed- 
 ingly beautiful, but very apt to fade ; on which account, and its 
 great price, it is seldom used. Naples yellow has lead for its basis. It 
 is therefore apt to turn black and lose its colour, which makes it the 
 less valuable. It is nevertheless used instead of king's yellow, on 
 account of its cheapness. Dutch pink is said to be prepared by strik- 
 *ng the colour of yellow berries upon alumine : Masticot is prepared 
 by calcining white-lead till it assumes a yellowish colour. It is not 
 apt to change, but the colour is so dull that it is seldom used either in 
 oil painting or water drawings. Common orpiment is a pretty bright 
 greenish yellow, prepared by subliming arsenic with sulphur. It has a 
 nauseous smell ; and it does not keep its colour for any length of time. 
 Gamboge is, beyond doubt, one of the mellowest colours nature has 
 produced, and wants neither gumming nor grinding, for the most 
 agreeable and pleasant yellow tints. Gall stone is a very rich deep 
 yellow, tending towards a brown ; it is exceedingly useful in many 
 cases, needs but little gumming or grinding, and works free, but will 
 not shade itself. Yellow ochre makes a very good pale yellow ; and, 
 being ground with gum water, will prove extremely useful. Another 
 very useful yellow is made by infusing the plant celandine in clear 
 water, gently pressing it, adding to the liquor some alum water, letting 
 if boil. The virtues of the yellow extracted from French berries is 
 well known; and you may likewise make a yellow, by infusing saffron 
 in pure water, from the roots of ginger; which make a good green, 
 when mixed with transparent verdigrise. 
 
 The only simple green colour that has a tolerable degree of 
 brightness is verdigrise, or at least certain preparations of it. It is 
 improved in colour, though not in durability, by dissolution and crys- 
 tallization in distilled vinegar : in which state it is called distilled ver- 
 digrise. A more durable water colour is made by dissolving the verdi- 
 grise in crystals of tartar: but in oil this is found to be ecpally fugitive 
 
70 
 
 ELEMENTS OE THE ART OE DRAWING. 
 
 witli the vcrdigrise itself. Compound greens are either made of Prus- 
 sian or some other blue, mixed with yellow. Sap green is a simple 
 colour ; it is a colour extremely serviceable, and the best green for 
 water colours, being of a gummy substance, and easily diluting in 
 water. It produces an endless variety of tints, and has the advantage 
 of shading itself. Another green sometimes used is called terre verte, 
 which is a native earth, probably impregnated witb copper. It is of 
 a blueish green colour. Much of that tint called sea-green is made by 
 mixing indigo and sap-green, wbich may be made darker or lighter, 
 by adding more or less indigo : it is a very serviceable colour, easily 
 worked, and productive of many tints. Another green is made with 
 indigo and gamboge, well ground together, extremely useful in painting 
 of trees, grass, vegetables, &c. With the addition of sap-green, it 
 is very serviceable in flowers, and in the shading of garments. A 
 transparent green is made by mixing verdigrise and yellow to various 
 tints, by leaving either predominant. 
 
 Of blue colours the ultramarine is the finest, but its great price 
 prevents it from being much used. It is a preparation from lapis lazuli, 
 and is an exceeding bright colour, and never fades with whatever 
 substance it is mixed. Prussian blue, is excellent when it is of the best 
 quality and is deep, bright, and not inclined to purple. It ought 
 to be tried by a mixture of white lead, as the brightness of the 
 colour will appear much more when diluted than when concentrated 
 in the lumps of the blue itself. Blue bice is a colour of a very good 
 body, and flows very agreeably in the pencil. Blue verditer is a very 
 bright pleasant blue, of a good body, and works well when ground 
 with gum-water, and is mostly used for skies or garments. Saun- 
 ders' blue is extremely serviceable in the shading of ultramarine, 
 where no very dark shades appear. Litmose is also a very agreeable 
 blue. Indigo is the darkest blue, is a soft free colour, and runs very 
 freely in the pencil : it requires to be well washed and ground ; and 
 may be made darker or lighter, by the addition of more or less gum- 
 water. Antwerp blue is a very serviceable transparent colour. It 
 works well, and may be made lighter or darker at pleasure ; with the 
 exception of Prussian blue and indigo, it might supercede all other 
 blue colours named above. 
 
 Purple colour is made of the substance usually called colcothar of 
 vitriol. Beautiful purple lake may be prepared from logwood. Take 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 71 
 
 eight ounces of logwood, a pint of rain-water, and an ounce of alum ; 
 infuse it well over a slow fire, in a well-glazed pan or pipkin, for about 
 twenty-four hours ; add a quarter of an ounce of gum-arabic ; let it 
 stand for a week ; strain it through a piece of fine cloth. Or make a 
 redder purple, by adding to one ounce of the above, four ounces of 
 Brazil-wood, and a pint of stale beer, boiling it till the liquor is as 
 strong as you desire. It may be made darker, by adding more logwood. 
 The richest purple is made by blending carmine and Prussian-blue, 
 or indigo, to what shade you please. 
 
 Burnt and unburnt terra de Sienna are the warmest browns 
 for front grounds, for dead leaves, foe. Bistre is a good and ser- 
 viceable colour, and the best sort is very bright and close. It is a 
 colour difficult to work of itself ; mix, therefore, a little Spanish lico- 
 rice with it, which will mellow and take off its harshness. The higher 
 it is gummed, the better it is for use. Spanish licorice is productive 
 of a variety of brown tints, of very agreeable colour. A brown mix- 
 ture is made by incorporating sap-green and carmine, which is of an 
 extraordinary soft nature ; and is a colour extremely serviceable. By 
 blending vermilion and bistre thoroughly, you produce a brown of 
 excellent quality. 
 
 182. Lay your colours on but thinly at first, deepening 
 and mellowing them by degrees, as you see occasion. The 
 quicker you lay them on, the evener and cleaner your drawing 
 will appear. Take care to preserve all your colours from dust; 
 and before you use them, wipe your shells and palette every 
 time they are used. 
 
 183. For face-painting, mix up a little light carnation, or 
 flesh-colour, with gum-water, in a shell by itself. If it be for 
 a fair complexion, mix vermilion and flake-white together ; 
 and for a swarthy one, add to the former a little masticot or 
 English ochre, or both. Let your flesh-colour be always lighter 
 than the complexion you would paint, for by working on it 
 you may bring it to its true colour. In a large shell, or upon 
 your palette, lay your different shades of flesh-colour, at a 
 convenient distance from each other, and always have ready 
 a sufficient quantity of white to lighten your shadows. But 
 
72 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 for water colouring use first a faint wash of vermilion or 
 Indian red all over the part which is to be flesh colour, touch- 
 ing' the cheeks with a mixture of vermilion and lake, and the 
 lips with vermilion only. For a dark complexion, add a little 
 burnt sienna. 
 
 184. For cheeks and lips, in painting, use a mixture of lake 
 and carmine, as occasion requires ; and for blue tints (as 
 the eyes and veins) indigo, or ultramarine, and white. 
 
 185. For grey faint shadows, use white, English ochre, 
 sometimes masticot ; for deep shadows^ white, English ochre, 
 and umber ; for darker shadows, lake and pink, which make a 
 good fleshy shadow. 
 
 186. In colouring landscapes, at first only lay dead co- 
 lours, agreeably to the subject, smooth all over the piece, leav- 
 ing no part uncovered, using a masterly freedom. 
 
 187. In some places lay on strong touches, and in those 
 places bring your work up together to an equal roundness 
 and strength ; tempering and sweetening your colours with a 
 sharper pencil than the first, that no harsh edges be left, 
 but that all your shadows may be dispersed, soft, and smooth, 
 gliding gently, as it were, one in another. 
 
 Obs. To produce a great or striking light on a mass of colours, or 
 restore a light destroyed, pass a pencil with clean water over the part ; 
 when the water is soaked into the colour, it may be dried with a cloth, 
 and the colour removed with a piece of bread. 
 
 188. Having laid your dead colours, begin first with the 
 lightest parts, as the sky, sun-beams, &c. then the yellowish 
 beams (which may be done with masticot) ; next the blueness 
 of the sky, with ultramarine, Antwerp blue, or smalt. For 
 purple clouds a little lake over the blue. Make your colours 
 deeper as they go upwards from the horizon, except in tem- 
 pestuous skies. The tops of distant mountains must be worked 
 so faint, that they may seem to lose themselves in air. 
 
 189. Bring your colours forward as your distance de- 
 creases; painting your first ground next the horizon downwards 
 
ON COLOURING. 
 
 73 
 
 of a blueish sea-green, and as you advance forwards, of a red- 
 dish or darker green, till you come to the fore-ground itself, 
 which, as it is to be the darkest part of all, do with dark green, 
 shaded with a dark brown or yellow ; which rule of shadow 
 will also serve for the trees on each respective ground. 
 
 190. In colouring trees, boughs, and branches, touch in 
 all the dark shades first, raising the lighter leaves above the 
 darker, by adding more yellow to your dark green, which 
 may be made with gamboge and Prussian blue or indigo ; 
 for the uppermost of all, which are to be done last, touch 
 the extremities of the leaves with a little light green, and set 
 off the darkest shadows with sap-green and indigo. 
 
 191. The most useful colours for landscapes are, lake, 
 
 VERMILION, BURNT OCHRE, GAMBOGE, INDIGO, ANTWERP 
 BLUE, LIGHT RED, SEPPIA, PRUSSIAN BLUE, and TERRA DE 
 
 sienna, burnt and unburnt. 
 
 192. Skies are tinted with indigo, or Antwerp blue, and 
 the distant hills may also receive a finish wash of the same 
 colour. Buildings, ground, and roads should be tinted with 
 ochre. The bushes and grass may be forwarded with a tint 
 of gamboge. The distances may be heightened with a tint 
 of lake, and the dark shadows of the buildings may be tinted 
 with seppia. 
 
 Obs. A simple tint is produced by one cake reduced with water 
 to the tint required. A compound tint is a mixture of colours, 
 as lake and indigo for purple ; and blue and yellow for green. The 
 simple are more clear than the compound ; and they are unfavoured 
 in effect by being contrasted with contrary compounds. 
 
 193. In retiring hills tint the whole with weak blue ; then 
 the nearer ones with indigo and lake, then add a little gamboge 
 to the next, keeping one subordinate to the other, the most 
 distant being lost in the aerial tints. Clouds should be tinted 
 with seppia. Opposing masses of trees should be tinted with 
 seppia and indigo, and distant trees with grey, the lights 
 
74 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 warmed with gamboge and ochre, and their shades deepened 
 with indigo. Force is acquired by adding seppia with indigo to 
 the cold parts, and seppia with lake to the glowing parts. 
 Breadth of light is obtained by destroying the scattered lights 
 with greys. 
 
 J 94?. Tint with ochre to give warmth to the whole, and 
 shadow the ground with tints of ochre and sepia. Mark the 
 breaks of buildings, the shades and dark trees with ochre, 
 indigo, and lake. Wash the masses in the distances with in- 
 digo and lake. Finish the trees with indigo, ochre, and 
 gamboge, forming green ; and give a glow to the lights with 
 a red formed of ochre and gamboge or burnt terra de sienna. 
 Tints of indigo always reduce too abrupt glows, and those of 
 ochre confer warmth when required. 
 
 Obs. 1. To make Gum Water. — Dissolve one ounce of pure white 
 gum-arabic, and half an ounce of double-refined sugar, in a quart of 
 spring water ; strain it through a fine sieve, or a piece of muslin, and 
 bottle it off for use, keeping it free from dust. With this water you v 
 may temper most of your colours ; using such a quantity that, being 
 touched when dry, the colour will not come off. If the colour shine, 
 there is too much gum in it. 
 
 Obs. 2. To make Liquid Gold. — Grind the finest leaf-gold with 
 strong gum- water, very fine, adding, as you grind it, more gum- water, 
 as you see necessary. When you have ground it as fine as you can, 
 wash it in a large shell ; then temper it with a little mercury-sublimate, 
 bind it in the shell with a little dissolved gum, shake and spread it 
 equally all over the shell, and use it with fair water only ; and to 
 make liquid silver follow the same process with that for liquid gold, 
 observing, in the using it, to temper it with glare of eggs instead of 
 water. 
 
 Obs. 3. To keep the colours from sinking. — Boil four ounces of 
 roch-alum in a pint of spring water, till it is thoroughly dissolved ; then 
 filter it through brown paper, and keep it for use ; and before you lay 
 on your colours, take a sponge, and wet the back of your paper with 
 this water while it is hot. 
 
OF FRUITS, FLOWERS, AND TREES. 
 
 75 
 
 Obs. 4. To cause your colours to flow smooth. — Dip your pencil 
 in ox gall and mix it with any colour you have prepared. Be careful, 
 however, not to put too much into the finer colours, such as carmine, 
 &c. as it will deaden them. 
 
 OF FRUITS, FLOWERS, AND TREES. 
 
 195. Fruits are the most simple in their form of any na- 
 tural bodies. They generally depart a little in their outlines 
 from the regular circle and oval. Some partake of the form 
 of an oblate spheroid, as an orange ; others resemble a prolate 
 spheroid, as the lemon, melon, &c. ; and others are nearly a 
 regular spheroid, as cherries, grapes, &c. Some partake of a 
 double form, being protruded at one end, as the pear. Con- 
 sequently all these are easily imitated, by first drawing the 
 outline, and shading them with two or three shades of Indian 
 ink ; three shades being in general sufficient, at the most. 
 
 196. Flowers are the next which should engage the at- 
 tention of the student : these form a very pleasing part of his 
 practice ; and afford sufficient exercise for his pencil, in deli- 
 neating their various and complicated forms. It need hardly 
 be observed, that in drawing these, the outline is first to be 
 described, next the principal divisions, and afterwards the less 
 divisions, and inner parts. Flowers in general require more 
 care and attention in shading than fruits, being composed of 
 several different parts. They are so various in the form of 
 their general outlines as to admit of no rule. The learner must 
 acquire a knowledge of their forms from imitating good copies 
 thereof, or drawing them from nature ; the former method 
 must however be pursued at first, as the different shades are 
 more accurately described, or at least more apparent to his 
 eye on a plain surface, than in the objects themselves. 
 
 197. Trees form a useful, and, in landscape, an essential 
 
76 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 part of drawing : these, though at first view to a learner they 
 may appear somewhat difficult, are nevertheless very simple, 
 and easily imitated ; the foliage, which appears so difficult 
 to describe, is no more than a number of small irregular 
 angles, drawn with little or no order, and filled with two or 
 three different shades of ink, though in general two are suffi 
 cient. But birds, quadrupeds, fishes, reptiles, insects, &c. 
 it may be observed, once for all, that the outline is to be de- 
 scribed first ; beginning with the forehead, and drawing the 
 nose, upper and under jaw, and part of the throat; then pro- 
 ceed to describe the ears, neck, back, and rump; after 
 which finish the throat, and draw the breast, legs, belly, 
 and all the other parts. Having attained the outline, 
 draw the smaller parts, which do not fall on the outline, 
 as the eyes, nostrils, appearances of the muscles, &c. Lastly, 
 give the figure its proper shades, according to the copy or 
 original. In drawing a bird or quadruped, it is generally 
 expected, and always increases the effect, to have a small 
 piece of landscape with the figure, by way of ornament, 
 which must always be suitable to the nature of the animal, 
 and natural to the country : thus an eagle may be described 
 upon a rock ; a squirrel in or near a tree ; a horse in a pasture, 
 &c. 
 
 OF COLOURING FRUIT, &c. 
 
 198. Apples. — Thin masticot mixed with verdigrise, shaded 
 with brown-ochre ; give them a bloom with lake, heightened 
 with masticot. 
 
 Pears. — Masticot, deepened and mellowed with brown-ochre ; 
 the bloom the same as the apple. 
 
 Cherries. — Vermilion and lake, shaded with carmine, height- 
 ened with vermilion. 
 
OF FLOWERS. 
 
 77 
 
 Strawberries White ; draw it over with vermilion and 
 
 lake, shaded with fine lake, heightened with red-lead and mas- 
 ticot mixed, and after with white; stipple them with white 
 and thin lake only. 
 
 Blue Grapes. — Dark purple, shaded with blue ; the bloom 
 bice. 
 
 White Grapes. — A mixture of verdigrise and masticot, 
 shaded with thin verdigrise. 
 
 Peaches. — Thin masticot, shaded with brown-ochre; the 
 bloom, lake laid on thin and transparent. 
 
 OF FLOWERS. 
 
 199. Auriculas. — A tender wash of gamboge, shaded with 
 sap-green and carmine blended together. Round the centre 
 leave a broad white space, which shade with Indian ink and 
 sap-green mixed. Stipple the gamboge with a purple 
 extracted from logwood ; the cup in the inside strong yellow, 
 shaded with Dutch pink or gall-stone ; stipple it with white, 
 darkening the white gradually with Indian-ink as the shade 
 increases. 
 
 Anemones. — A thin wash of gamboge, shaded with bistre, 
 or carmine and sap-green blended together ; the stripes car- 
 mine, shaded with the same ; indigo in the darkest parts, or 
 stipple with it ; the leaves sap-green, shaded with indigo and 
 French berries ; the stalk brown. 
 
 Yellow Crown Imperials. — A thin wash of gamboge ; upon 
 that, another of washed red- lead, shaded with carmine ; the 
 leaves sap-green, shaded with indigo and French berries. 
 
 Orange Crown Imperials. — A thin wash of red-lead ; the 
 light shades carmine ; the dark, vermilion and bistre mixed ; 
 the seed the same as the flower. The leaves and stalks as the 
 preceding. 
 
78 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 Double Hollyhocks. — A slight wash of carmine, preserving 
 the white paper for heightening ; hatch with carmine ; the 
 darker shades sap-green ; the bloom pale liquid purple ; but 
 in the buds make no use of purple. The stalks and leaves 
 begin and finish with sap-green. 
 
 Honey-Suckles. — The inside of the petals white, shaded 
 with sap-green, or masticot, shaded with sap-green, or gam- 
 boge and bistre ; which insides are to be shewn by curling the 
 leaves back at the ends, or splitting them : the outsides, a 
 thin wash of carmine and lake mixed, shaded with carmine ; 
 indigo for the darkest shades. It is to be observed, that 
 some of the flowers, growing on the same stalk, are inclinable 
 to purple, others to carmine: the style and buttons seen at 
 the ends of the flower are of a faint green. The stalks sap- 
 green and carmine ; the leaves sap-green, shaded with indigo 
 and French berries. 
 
 Blue Bell Hyacinths. — Ultramarine, or verditer ; be care- 
 ful to put in your first hatches very free and soft ; shaded with 
 Prussian blue in the same manner; for the darkest, indigo. 
 The leaves and stalks as orange-lilies. 
 
 Double Hyacinths. — White, shaded with indigo, Indian- 
 ink, and a very little sap-green ; for those with a crimson 
 blush, wash a faint tinge of carmine, leaving in the white to- 
 wards the top, strengthening it towards the bottom. The 
 leaves and stalks Prussian blue and sap-green, shaded with 
 sap-green and indigo. 
 
 Jessamines. — White, shaded with Indian-ink and sap-green 
 blended together, and worked extremely soft ; for the darkest 
 shades add more Indian-ink ; may also, in a few places, add 
 some soft tints of French berries, at the backs of some of the 
 flowers, and others entirely yellow. The leaves and stalks 
 mix sap-green, verdigrise, and a little indigo, adding more 
 indigo for the darkest shades. 
 
 Polyanthuses. — The edges and cup pure gamboge, shaded 
 
OF FLOWERS. 
 
 79 
 
 with gall-stone; marble the leaves with Prussian blue and car- 
 mine mixed ; wash the flowers at the back with carmine and a 
 little lake, shaded with carmine and sap-green. 
 
 Passion Flowers. — The petals white, shaded with sap- 
 green and Indian-ink, mixed ; the treads are ragged in such 
 order as to form three circles, each of a differe^ colour : the 
 first, or outer one, is blue verditer, shaded with Prussian blue ; 
 the second, white, to be expressed by carrying on the stroke 
 with flake white ; the space between the strokes, indigo and 
 Indian-ink ; the third circle, reddish purple, by blending car- 
 mine and Prussian blue together. The inside of the five but- 
 tons yellow, as the centre of the flower ; the other parts, which 
 project from the centre, are light green, those three from the 
 top excepted, which are blueish purple. The leaves French 
 berries and indigo ; for the shades add a little Indian-ink ; the 
 tendrils and stalks, sap-green and carmine. 
 
 Sweet- scented Peas. — The blossoms are composed of red 
 and purple leaves ; the red begun and finished as the nlundi 
 rose ; for purple ones, a thin wash of liquid purple : for the 
 darker shades, a mixture of carmine and Prussian blue finished 
 with indigo. The leaves and stalks, a mixture of gamboge 
 and sap-green, shaded with sap-green alone. 
 
 Ranunculuses. — A fine wash of red-lead, striped with car- 
 mine, finished with carmine and sap-green mixed ; the seeds 
 indigo or Indian-ink, stippled with white. The leaves and 
 stalks as fritillaries. 
 
 Roses. — A light tint of pure carmine, over which another 
 equally light of Prussian blue, which will give the flowers a 
 tint of that bloom which appears in nature ; proceed with 
 darker shades of carmine of the best sort ; in the darkest parts 
 of the flower add a little indigo, which will give a roundness 
 and body to your work; if the seeds are seen, lay on some 
 gamboge, shaded with gall-stone ; the upper side of the leaves 
 sap-green, shaded with indigo and French berries mixed ; the 
 
80 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE AllT OF DRAWING. 
 
 under part indigo, and sap-green mixed, shaded with the 
 same. The stalks brown, made of sap-green and carmine, 
 shaded with indigo. 
 
 Rose Buds.— We shall not here undertake to describe the 
 different colours and various tints with which nature has fur- 
 nished us. A pale wash of carmine, shaded with a stronger 
 wash of the same ; let the hatchings be extremely tender, pre- 
 serving that transparency and sweetness the flower has by 
 nature. The stalks and leaves begin and finish with sap-green, 
 after which a slight wash of carmine. 
 
 Guelder Roses. — White, shaded with Indian ink and sap 
 green mixed, keeping a proper gradation of shades. The 
 leaves as crown imperials ; the stalk bistre, shaded with Indian- 
 ink, so as to express wood. 
 
 Sun Flowers. — There are only two sorts, the common sun- 
 flower, and the same improved : for the first, a slight wash of 
 carmine, deepen that with another ; shaded with vermillion, 
 carmine, and bistre, mixed, finish the deepest shades with 
 the same, being careful to relieve the flower, making it look 
 round ; the seeds shade the same as the flower, the darkest 
 much deeper; the seeds on the light side heighten, stippling 
 them with flake-white, washed over with gamboge very lightly ; 
 the lights in the same manner. The leaves and stalks sap- 
 green and gamboge mixed, finished with sap-green alone. 
 
 Single Stocks. — A thin wash of carmine ; proceed with a 
 stronger layer of the same ; finish with sap-green and carmine 
 mixed ; shade round the seeds sap-green. The leaves and 
 stalks gamboge, white, and sap-green ; shaded with a tint of 
 indigo, finished with a darker of the same. 
 
 Double Stocks. — There are of these flowers different co- 
 lours ; some are a purplish crimson only, others mottled with 
 crimson and white, and some are all white. For the crimson 
 a little Prussian blue and carmine mixed : for the mottled ones 
 use the same colour, stipple them with flake white : the white 
 
 t 
 
OF FLOWERS. 
 
 81 
 
 'sort shade with Indian ink and sap-green mixed. The leaves 
 and stalks pleasant green, inclining to a white. 
 
 Tulips. — Begin with striping with white, well blended with 
 carmine ; add some very tender stripes with gamboge, height- 
 ened with carmine ; for the darkest shades a little sap-green 
 mixed with it : shade the yellow stripes with the same mixture ; 
 the darkest shade vermilion and bistre ; or, begin by striping, 
 with gamboge; proceed with purple stripes; in doing of which 
 be careful to preserve the white ones, which will give an agree- 
 able effect ; the darker shades liquid purple, to which (if re- 
 quisite) add a little Prussian blue. The leaves and stalks sap- 
 green, shaded with the same. 
 
 Wall Flowers. — For the common sort, gamboge, shaded 
 with gall-stone. But that sort most esteemed by the florist, 
 is called the bloody-wall. The outer petals gamboge, tinged 
 with a little of the purple of logwood : the inner petals red- 
 lead, finished with carmine ; the cup purplish brown. The 
 leaves and stalks blueish green ; to be worked as those of the 
 flowers of the same colour. 
 
 Double White Narcissus. — Flake-white; the first shade 
 sap-green, and a little Indian-ink, adding more Indian-ink in 
 the darker shades ; tinge the bottom of each petal green ; the 
 narrow edge that surrounds a tuft of small petals in the centre, 
 carmine. The stalks and leaves the same as Irises. The 
 sheath at the bottom pale brown. 
 
 Obs. Particular colours seem to be appropriated to particular 
 parts of plants. Thus, white is most common in roots, sweet berries, 
 and the petals of sprirg flowers. Water colour, in the filaments and 
 styles. Black, in the roots and seeds ; rarely in the seed vessel, and 
 scarce ever to be found in the petals. Yellow is frequently in the 
 antherse or tops of the stamina ; as likewise in the petals of autumnal 
 flowers, and the compound legulated flowers of Linnseus. Red is 
 common in the petals of rummer flowers, and the acid fruits. Blue 
 and wo/ef-colour, in the petals. Green, in the leaves and calyx, but 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 rarely in the petals. In the interchanging of colours, which in plants 
 is found to depend upon differences in heat, climate, soil, and cul- 
 ture, a sort of elective attraction is observed to take place. Thus, 
 red is more easily changed into white and blue : blue into white and 
 yellow ; yellow into white ; and white into purple. A red colour is 
 often changed into a white, in the flowers of heath, mother of thyme, 
 betony, pink, viscous campion, cucubalus, trefoil, orchis, foxglove, 
 thistle, cudweed, saw-wort, rose, poppy, fumitory, and geranium. 
 Red passes into blue in pimpernel. Blue is changed into white in bell- 
 flower, greek- valerian, bindweed, columbine, violet, vetch, milk- 
 wort, goat's rue, viper's buglos, comfrey, borage, hyssop, dragon's 
 head, scabious, blue-bottle, and succory. Blue is changed into yel- 
 low in crocus. Yellow passes easily into white in melilot, agrimony, 
 mullein, tulip, blattaria, or moth-mullein, and corn marigold. White 
 is changed into purple in wood-sorrel, thorn-apple, peas, and daisy. 
 As flowers gradually open and are exposed to the air, they throw off 
 their old colour, and acquire a new one. In fact, no flower has its 
 proper colour till it has fully expanded. Many flowers change their 
 colours thrice successively ; thus, the very young buds of lady's look- 
 ing-glass, buglos, and the like, are all white ; the larger buds purple, 
 or murrey ; and the open flowers blue. A yellow colour generally 
 indicates a bitter taste ; as in gentian, aloe, celandine, turmeric, and 
 other yellow flowers. Red indicates an acid or sour taste ; as in 
 cranberries, barberries, currants, raspberries, mulberries, cherries ; 
 the fruit of the rose, sea-buckthorn, and service-tree. Herbs that 
 are turned towards autumn, have likewise a sour taste; as sorrel, 
 wood-sorrel, and bloody dock. Green indicates a crude alkaline taste, 
 as in leaves and unripe fruits. A pale colour denotes an insipid taste, 
 as in endive, asparagus, and lettuce. White promises a sweet luscious 
 taste ; as in white currants and plums, sweet apples, &c. Lastly, 
 black indicates a harsh, nauseous, disagreeable taste ; as in the ber- 
 ries of deadly night-shade, myrtle-leaved sumach, herb-christopher, 
 and others ; many of which are not only unpleasant to the taste, but 
 pernicious and deadly in their effects. 
 
( 83 ) 
 
 OF HORSES AND OTHER ANIMALS. 
 
 200. Chesnut-Brown. — Red-ochre and black mixed toge- 
 ther, shaded with black, heightened with red-ochre and white. 
 
 Grey. — Black and white mixed, shaded with black, height- 
 ened with white. 
 
 White. — Black and white mixed, shaded with black, white, 
 and bistre ; heightened with pure water. 
 
 Black.— Black, lightly laid on, shaded with Keating's 
 black. 
 
 Sheep. — White, shaded with Spanish licorice. 
 
 Hogs. — Brown-ochre, shaded with Keating's black and 
 bistre, heightened with masticot. 
 
 Lions. — Colour much the same as hogs, adding lake in 
 the ground colour. 
 
 Bears. — Brown-ochre, red-ochre, and black, mixed, shaded 
 with bistre and ivory black. 
 
 Wolves. — Spanish licorice and black, shaded with black. 
 
 Asses. — Black and white, mixed ; or add a little brown- 
 ochre, shaded with black. 
 
 Elephants. — Black and white, and Spanish licorice, mixed ; 
 shaded with black and bistre ; the inner part of the nose, ver- 
 milion and white, shaded with black. 
 
 Morikies, fyc. — Dutch pink and black, heightened with 
 masticot and white : the face black and bistre mixed, as also 
 their feet and below their bellies, shaded with black and pink, 
 mixed with a little brown-ochre. 
 
 Stags. — Brown-ochre, shaded with bistre towards the back ; 
 the neck and belly white, the mouth and ears inclining to 
 red, the hoofs black, and legs shaded with black. 
 
84 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE ART OF DRAWING. 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 201. Eagles. — Black and brown, shaded with indigo ; the 
 feathers heightened with brown-ochre and white ; the beak 
 and claws saffron, shaded with bistre ; the eyes with vermilion, 
 heightened with masticot, or saffron shaded with vermilion. 
 
 Turkeys. — Both male and female, the back black and 
 white mixed, gradually shaded off to a white under the belly, 
 sprinkled and shaded with black. 
 
 Swans. — White, shaded with black ; the legs and bi ]^ 
 black ; the eyes yellow, a ball in the midst. 
 
 Geese. — Ceruse, shaded with black ; the legs black, the 
 bill red. 
 
 Pheasants. — White and black mixed ; the eyes like those 
 of the falcon ; the legs Dutch pink, shaded with black. 
 
 Owls. — Ochre mixed with white in different shades; the legs 
 yellow-ochre. 
 
 OF ENLARGING AND CONTRACTING 
 DRAWINGS. 
 
 202. There are several methods of varying the size of a 
 drawing from the original. 
 
 1. By the pentograph, an instrument which properly be- 
 longs to the mathematical and mechanical parts of drawing, 
 and a very unwieldly and improper instrument for an artist of 
 genius. 
 
 2. The second method of reducing a figure or drawing is 
 by the help of a camera obscura. A piece of landscape, with 
 all the objects therein, as men, trees, houses, cattle, &c, is 
 very clearly and accurately represented from nature itself, on 
 
ON CHOICE OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 85 
 
 the glass of this instrument or on a sheet of white paper, 
 placed in a proper situation, according to the form of the in- 
 strument, and method of using it. 
 
 3. The most general method of enlarging and contracting, 
 is to divide the original piece and copy into a certain number 
 of squares, or parallelograms, by perpendicular and trans- 
 verse lines, making as many of each in the original as in the 
 space designed for the copy, and numbering the corresponding 
 lines alike. Then observe through what parts of each square 
 the different lines run in the original, and draw similar lines 
 through the same parts of the corresponding squares in the 
 copy. 
 
 Obs. After all, the most useful exercise which the student can pur- 
 sue is, to vary the size by his eye, and never to resort to mechanical 
 means except where mechanical precision is required. 
 
 " Some lofty theme let judgment first supply, 
 Supremely fraught with grace and majesty; 
 
 o 8 J For fancy copious, free to every 
 M 11 That lines can circumscribe, or colours warm ; 
 
 charm 
 
 o VI 
 
 Still happier, if that artful theme dispense 
 .A poignant moral and instructive sense. 
 
 bio C Then let the virgin canvas smooth expand, 
 
 o cs < 
 
 £ To claim the sketch and tempt the artist's hand : 
 ^ . , Then, bold Inven/tion, all thy powers diffuse, 
 ^.2 \ Of all thy sisters thou the noblest Muse : 
 g § iThee, every art, thee, every grace inspires, 
 w £ \ Thee, Phoebus fills with all his brightest fires. 
 
 Choose such judicious force of shade and light 
 As suits the theme, and satisfies the sight ; 
 Weigh part with part, and, with prophetic eye, 
 The future power of all thy tints descry ; 
 And those, those only on the canvas place, 
 „ Whose lines are social, whose effect is grace. 
 m c Vivid and faithful to the historic page, 
 S I Express the customs, manners, forms, and age ; 
 
 .2 
 
 Oh 
 
OK CHOICE OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 ^ >► Nor paint conspicuous on the foremost plain 
 g jWhate'er is false, impertinent, or vain ; 
 t! yBut, like the Tragic Muse, thy lustre throw 
 P-4 v. Where the chief action claims its warmest glow. 
 
 5 This rare, this arduous task no rules can teach, 
 No skill'd preceptor point, no practice reach ; 
 £ VTis taste, 'tis genius, 'tis the heav'nly ray 
 y Prometheus ravish' d from the car of day. 
 
 Mason's Fresnoy. 
 
( 87 ) 
 
 OF TERMS USED IN DRAWING AND PAINTING. 
 
 Aerial Perspective is a gradation of the tones of colours, 
 which throws off the distances of grounds and objects ; and which 
 judicious artists practice, by diffusing a kind of thin vapour over 
 them, that deceives the eye agreeably. It shews the diminution of 
 the colours of objects, in proportion as they recede from the eye, by 
 the interposition of the air between the eye and the object, as if the 
 object was seen through a column of air. 
 
 Antique. By this term are implied and understood, such paint- 
 ings and sculptures as were made at that period of time, when those 
 arts- were in their greatest perfection among the ancient Greeks and 
 Romans, from the age of Pericles to that of Caracalla. The term 
 Antique is more particularly applied to the sculptures of the period 
 before mentioned; such as statues, basso-relievos, medals, intaglios, 
 or engraved stones. However, all those remains of antiquity are not 
 equally excellent or good : but even in those that are indifferent, there 
 is a certain degree of beauty which distinguishes them from the works 
 of the moderns. But it is the most perfect of the works of the ancient 
 great masters which are to be the objects of our taste and imitation, as 
 they continue still to be the objects of our wonder and astonishment. 
 
 Attitude, in painting, is the posture or disposition of the limbs 
 and members of a figure, by which we discover the action in which 
 it is engaged, and the very sentiment supposed to be in the mind of 
 the person represented. It comprehends all the motions of the body, 
 and requires a perfect knowledge of ponderation, and whatever refers 
 to the centre of gravity ; but whatsoever attitude be given to any 
 figure, that attitude must shew the beautiful parts, as much as the 
 subject will permit, let the subject be what it will. It must, besides, 
 have such a turn, as, without departing from probability, or from the 
 character of the figure, may diffuse a beauty over the action. It is 
 allowed, that the choice of fine attitudes constitutes the greatest part of 
 the beauties of grouping. 
 
88 
 
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 
 
 Casting of Draperies. By this term is implied the distribu- 
 tion of the folds ; and draperies are said to be well cast, when the 
 folds are distributed in such a manner as to appear rather the result of 
 mere chance, than of art, study, or labour. In that manner or style 
 of painting, which is called the Grand, the folds of the draperies should 
 be great, and as few as possible, because their rich simplicity is more 
 susceptible of great lights. But it is an error to design draperies that 
 are too heavy and cumbersome; for they ought to be suitable to the 
 figures, with a combination of ease and grandeur, Order, contrast, 
 and a variety of stuffs and folds, constitute the elegance of draperies ; 
 and diversity of colours in those stuffs contributes extremely to the 
 harmony of the whole in historic compositions. 
 
 Charge, or Charged, is a term, used by artists to signify any 
 thing that exceeds ; such as exaggerating the outlines, in order to show 
 a superior degree of skill, and by that means exceeding the bounds of 
 a regular simplicity. Yet (De Piles observes) there are charged out- 
 lines that please, because they are above the lowliness of ordinary 
 nature, and carry with them an air of freedom, with an idea of a great 
 taste, which deceives most painters, who call such excesses the grand 
 manner. And although, to such persons who have a true idea of 
 correctness, simplicity, and elegance of nature, these excesses may 
 seem superfluous, as they only adulterate the truth, yet one cannot 
 forbear to commend some things that arc over-charged, in great works, 
 when the distance from whence they are to be viewed softens them to 
 the eye ; or when they are used with such discretion as makes the 
 character of truth more apparent. It is worthy of being remarked, 
 that in the antique statues, which are allowed to be the rule of beauty, 
 nothing appeared charged, nothing affected ; nor is there any thing of 
 that kind in the works of those who have always imitated them ; as 
 Raphael, Domenichino, Nicolo Poussin, and some others. 
 
 Chiaro-Scuro is the art of advantageously distributing the 
 lights and shadows which ought to appear in a picture, as well for the 
 repose and satisfaction of the eye, as for the effect of the whole together. 
 As to the meaning of the word Chiaro (translated clear or transpa- 
 rent), it implies not only any thing exposed to a direct light, but also 
 all such colours as are in their nature luminous. Scuro (translated 
 dark or darkness), not only implies all the shadows directly caused by 
 
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 
 
 89 
 
 the privation of light, but likewise all the colours which are naturally 
 brown ; such as, even when they are exposed to the light, maintain an 
 obscurity, and are capable of grouping with the shades of other objects. 
 Of which kind, for instance, are deep velvets, brown stuffs, polished 
 armour, and the like, which preserve their natural or apparent ob- 
 scurity in any light whatever. By the chiaro-scuro, objects receive 
 more relief, truth, and roundness ; and it particularly signifies the 
 great lights, and great shades, which are collected with such industry 
 and judgment as conceals the artifice. The distribution of the objects 
 forms the masses of the chiaro-scuro, when, by an artful management, 
 they are so disposed, that all their lights are together on one side, and 
 their darkness on the other. 
 
 Contour, or Outline, is that which terminates and defines a 
 figure ; and the great part of the skill of a painter consists in manag- 
 ing the contours judiciously. 
 
 ' Contrast is an opposition or difference in the position of two or 
 more figures, contrived to make a variety in painting. Thus, in a 
 group of three figures, when one appears in front, another shews his 
 back, and a third is placed sideways, there is said to be a contrast. A 
 well-conducted contrast is one of the greatest beauties of a painting. 
 It is not only to be observed in the position of the several figures, but 
 also in that of the several members of the same figure. If nature re- 
 quires painters and sculptors to proportion the parts of their figures, 
 it requires also that they contrast their limbs and their different 
 attitudes. One foot placed like another, or one member extended or 
 depressed like another, excites our disgust ; because symmetry de- 
 prives ns of the pleasures arising from variety, and makes the attitudes 
 appear too frequently the same; as we may observe in Gothic 
 figures, which, by want of that judicious contrast, always resemble 
 each other. 
 
 Correctness is a term which implies a design that is without a 
 defect in its measures and proportions. 
 
 Costume is an Italian word, which signifies custom or usage ; 
 and the term implies, that a painter, in representing some historical 
 passages, action, or event, must not only be exact in describing the 
 particular fact, but he must also represent the scene of action ; the 
 country where the action has passed ; whether it was at Rome or 
 
90 
 
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 
 
 Athens; whether at a river or on the sea-shore ; in a palace or afield; 
 in a fruitful or a desert country ; observing to distinguish, by the 
 dresses, customs, and manners, peculiar to each people, whether 
 they are of one country or the other; whether Greeks, Romans, 
 Jews, or Barbarians. 
 
 Design implies the representation of one or more human figures 
 or animals; or some parts or members of either; or a scene taken 
 from nature ; a plant, fruit, flower, insect, or piece of drapery, all 
 taken from the life, in order to be inserted in some part of a picture ; 
 and in this sense it is called a study. It is also taken for the outline 
 of objects ; for the measures and proportions of exterior forms. De- 
 sign consists of several parts, of which the principal are, correctness, 
 style, character, variety, and perspective. 
 
 Distemper is a preparation of colours without oil, only mixed 
 with size, whites of eggs, or any such proper, glutinous, or unctuous 
 substance ; with which kind of colour all the ancient pictures, before 
 the year 1410, were painted, as also are the celebrated cartoons of 
 Raphael. 
 
 Dryness is a term by which artists express the common defect of 
 the early painters in oil, who had but little knowledge of the flowing 
 contours, which so elegantly shew the delicate forms of the limbs, 
 and the insertion of the muscles ; the flesh in their colouring appear- 
 ing hard and stiff, instead of expressing softness and pliancy. The 
 draperies of those early painters, and particularly of the Germans, 
 concealed the limbs of the figures, without truth or elegance of choice ; 
 and even in their best masters, the draperies very frequently either 
 demeaned or encumbered the figures. 
 
 Elegance in a design, is a manner which embellishes and heightens 
 objects, either as to their form or colour, or both, without destroying 
 or perverting truth. It appears most eminently in the antiques, and 
 next in those painters who have imitated them best, the principal of 
 which is Raphael. De Piles observes, that elegance is not always 
 founded on correctness, as maybe evident from the works of Raphael 
 and Correggio ; in the latter of whom, notwithstanding his incorrect- 
 ness of design, his elegance in the taste of it, and in the turn which 
 he has given to his actions, must needs be admired, for he rarely de- 
 parts from elegance. 
 
GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 
 
 91 
 
 Expression principally consists in representing the human body 
 and all its parts, in the action suitable to it ; in exhibiting in the face 
 the several passions proper to the figures, and marking the motions 
 they impress on the other external parts. Frequently, the term Ex- 
 pression is confounded with that of Passion ; but the former implies a 
 representation of an object agreeably to its nature and character, and 
 the use or office it is intended to have in the work ; and passion, in 
 painting, denotes a motion of the body, accompanied with certain airs 
 of the face, which mark an agitation of soul. So that every passion 
 is an expression, but not every expression a passion. 
 
 Fresco is a kind of painting performed on fresh plaster, or on a 
 wall covered with mortar not quite dry, and with water-colours. The 
 plaster is only to be laid on as the painting proceeds ; no more being 
 done at once than the painter can dispatch in a day. The colours, 
 being prepared with water, and applied over plaster quite fresh, be- 
 come incorporated with the plaster, and retain their beauty for a 
 great length of time. 
 
 Grace principally consists in the turn that a painter gives to his 
 objects, to render them agreeable, even those that are inanimate. It 
 is more seldom found in the face than in the manner ; for our manner 
 is produced every moment, and can create surprise. In a word, the 
 woman can be beautiful but one way, yet she can be graceful a 
 thousand. Grace is neither found in constrained, nor in affected 
 manners, but in a certain freedom and ease between the two extremes. 
 
 Grotesque. This term, which is now familiar among all the 
 lovers of the art of painting, was, by the Italians, appropriated to that 
 peculiar manner of composition and invention, observed among the 
 antique monumental paintings which were discovered in the subter- 
 raneous chambers, that had been decorated in the times of the ancient 
 Romans. And as the Italians apply the word Grotto to express every 
 kind of cave or grot, all paintings, which were in imitation of the an- 
 tique designs, discovered in those subterraneous chambers, which for 
 ages had been covered with ruins, are now called grottesca or grotesque ; 
 implying a style, in which the imagination and the wildness of inventive 
 fancy, are principally exerted, without any strict adherence to nature, 
 truth, or probability. 
 
 Group is the combination or joining of objects in a picture, for 
 
92 
 
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 
 
 the satisfaction of the eye, and also for its repose. And although a 
 picture may consist of different groups, yet those groups of objects, 
 managed by the chiaroscuro, should all tend to unity, and one only 
 ought to predominate. That subordination of groups creates that 
 union and harmony which is called the tout-ensemble, or the whole 
 together. By a predominant group the eye is agreeably fixed ; and, 
 by means of the reposes caused by breadth of lights and shades, nei- 
 ther the effect of the other groups, nor of the subordinate objects, is 
 hindered. 
 
 Local Colours are such as faithfully imitate those of a particular 
 object, or such as are natural and proper for each particular object in 
 a picture. And colour is distinguished by the term Local, because the 
 place it fills requires that particular colour, in order to give a greater 
 character of truth to the several colours around it. 
 
 Linear Perspective is that which describes, or represents, 
 the position, magnitude, form, &c. of the several lines or contours of 
 objects, and expresses their diminution, in proportion to their distance 
 from the eye. 
 
 Manner is that habitude which painters have acquired, not only 
 in the management of the pencil, but also in the principal parts of 
 painting, invention, design, and colouring. It is by the manner in 
 painting that a picture is judged to be by the hand of Titian, Tintoret, 
 Guido, the Caracci, and others. Some masters have had a variety in 
 their manners at different periods of life ; and others have so con- 
 stantly adhered to one manner, that those who have seen even a few 
 of them will immediately know them, and judge of them without any 
 risk of a mistake. The variety observable among artists, in their 
 manner and taste, arises from the manners of the different schools in 
 which they have received their instruction, or of the artists under 
 whom they have studied. Yet there are many instances of great 
 artists, who have divested themselves of that early partiality to a par- 
 ticular manner, and have altered it so effectually, as to fix on one abun- 
 dantly more refined, and better adapted to their particular genius, by 
 which means they have arrived at excellence. Thus, for instance, 
 Raphael proceeded, and acquired a much more elevated manner, after 
 he had quilted the school of Perugino. 
 
 Ordon nance is the arrangement of the figures, in respect of the 
 
GLOSSARY OF TERMS. 
 
 93 
 
 whole composition ; or particular disposition of figures as to the dif- 
 ferent groups, masses, contrasts, decorum, and situation. 
 
 Outline is that which traces the circumferences of objects in a 
 picture. The outline is to be drawn as thin and fine as possible, so 
 as scarcely to be discerned by the eye ; and it ought to be observed, 
 that a correct outline may excite pleasure, even without any colouring, 
 but no colouring can afford equal satisfaction to a judicious eye, if the 
 outline be incorrect ; for, no composition, no colouring, can merit 
 praise, where the outline is defective. 
 
 Passion, in painting, implies an emotion of the body, attended 
 with certain expressive lines in the face, denoting an agitation of 
 soul. 
 
 Pastici is a term by which the Italians distinguish those pictures 
 which cannot be called either originals or copies ; being the works of 
 some artists, who have had the skill to imitate the manner of design 
 and colouring of other eminent masters ; sometimes borrowing part 
 of their pictures, sometimes imitating their touch, their style of inven- 
 tion, their colouring, or expression. Several painters, of considerable 
 reputation for their own original performances, have made themselves 
 remarkable in this way ; but none of them more than David Teniers. 
 
 Site, in landscape, signifies the view, prospect, or opening of a 
 country, derived from the Italian word Sito, situation ; and it is in 
 use among painters, as being more expressive. 
 
 The preceding Elements and Principles of Art are, after 
 all, subordinate to practice, and will chiefly be useful as con- 
 nected with the diligent copying of the following examples ; 
 first, of the given size ; then, of a size somewhat enlarged ; and 
 then, of a reduced size ; so that no difficulty shall afterwards 
 arise in copying Nature itself of any required size. 
 
PLATE I. 
 
 The annexed Plate will be found very useful to the Student. 
 
 Figure I. represents the way to form an oval. 
 
 Figure II. describes the names of lines. 
 
 Figure III. the way to raise a perpendicular from an 
 horizontal, or any other line. 
 
 Figure IV. the way of shading a round substance, gradu- 
 ally decreasing to a point. 
 
 Figure V. represents a flat surface. 
 
 Figure VI. represents a round substance. 
 
 Figure VII. represents a concavity. 
 
 Figure I. draw the line A,B, C, fix the compasses at B, and 
 dot it at a A, C ; then from B to D, E, then from C to F, then 
 divide F, B, into four equal par and dot the fifth G, extend 
 the compasses from G to C, and strike from C, H, H, then 
 fix it at G, and strike H, H ; then the same on the other side of 
 the oval, extend the compasses from H to H, and strike J ; 
 then fix the compasses at J, and strike H, H ; the same on 
 the other side. 
 
 Figure II. represents a square ; A, A, are perpendicular 
 lines, B, B, horizontal lines, and C> C, diagonal. 
 
 Figure III. to raise a perpendicular from a given hori- 
 zontal, divide the line A, B, C ; fix the compasses at A, and 
 strike D ; then at C, and likewise strike D ; then draw a line 
 from B to D. 
 
T.J..Ru,xby scalp 
 
PLATE II. 
 
 THE NOSE. 
 
 This is the centre feature of the face, and if well propor- 
 tioned, is exactly the size of the ear. 
 
 Profiles. Sketch with black lead pencil, or chalk the 
 outline, of the external form, being particular to place the 
 nostril in its proper situation. When you have obtained a 
 correct outline, touch in with firmness the nostril and under 
 the nose ; then the most conspicuous lines ; after which, hatch 
 up to the colour of the original, remembering that the most 
 trifling touches are essential to the general effect. 
 
 Front. As this is a front view, you will of course draw a 
 line down the centre, as in Plate VI. ; then proceed as above 
 
 described. 
 
PLATE III. 
 
 THE EYES. 
 
 In delineating the human face, this feature should be the 
 first consideration. We present the student with nearly a front 
 view and profile, both in different states. The centre Eye is 
 looking up, and is selected from one of Le Bruits Passions. 
 
 Front. Sketch in the Eyelid ; then the Iris and Pupil ; 
 after that the Eyebrow, being particular to place the Ball in 
 its proper place. In making the outline correct, you may 
 find it necessary to rub it down several times with bread, free 
 from grease ; then proceed carefully to finish it to its proper 
 effect. 
 
 Profile. This Eye is seen in profile, the outline of which 
 is finished rather more than the front. Great care must be 
 taken with the Eye-lashes and Ball. 
 
 Looking up. Outline, as before described, being particular 
 to hide part of the Iris and Pupil under the Eyelid. 
 
PLATE IV. 
 
 THE NOSE, MOUTH, AND CHIN. 
 
 To the left is the Mouth and Chin ; next follow the under 
 part of the Nose representing the Nostrils ; under that is the 
 bottom part of the Nose, and Mouth with the commencement 
 of the Chin. The lesson to the right is the Mouth and Chin 
 seen in front. 
 
 These selections are well adapted to improve the student, 
 and repeated trials should be made of them, till he is com- 
 pletely perfect. 
 
 Proceed as described in the last Plate, being particular not 
 to sketch the light parts too strongly ; and as the subject to 
 the right is a front view of the Mouth and Chin, the line of 
 course must be drawn in the centre, as described in Plate VI. 
 
PLATE V. 
 
 THE EAR. 
 
 The Ear is the most difficult feature to draw in the human 
 Head. The annexed Plate was drawn and engraved from 
 two excellent plaster models of Turnerrelli. This feature is 
 generally much neglected, even by men of talent. 
 
 Top Ear. Sketch in the external form of the Ear, remember- 
 ing that the correct proportion is to be half as broad as long. 
 When the outline is correct, touch in the dark parts with firm- 
 ness, such as the cavities, and behind the Ears ; then proceed 
 to finish to the effect of the original. 
 
 Bottom Ear. This Ear is seen sideways and fore-shortened, 
 which makes it of course seem narrower, and above twice as 
 long as it is broad. 
 
PLATE VI. 
 
 PROPORTIONS OF THE HEAD. 
 
 Figure I, is a front view of the Head. It is divided 
 lengthways into four equal parts ; first, the root of the Hair ; 
 second, the Eyes ; third, the Nose ; and fourth, the Mouth 
 and Chin. The Ear is exactly the length of the Nose, the 
 Nose, seen in front, is in the centre of the Head, the distance 
 between the Eyes is the length of the Eye, and the ball is 
 one-third of the Eye. 
 
 Figure II. is a three-quarter face. 
 
 Figure III. is between a front and three-quarter. 
 
 Figure IV. is a profile. 
 
 Figure V. is a Head looking up, and as it is fore-shortened, 
 the Eye must be the guide. 
 
 Figure VI. is a female Head looking down. 
 
 Figure VII. is a boy's head. Infantine proportion will be 
 found different from maturity. The lines that cross the face, 
 in this and the others, will sufficiently elucidate it. 
 
 Figure VIII. is a Female Profile. 
 
 Figure IX. a Boy looking down. 
 
 Figure X. is a three-quarter aged Head. 
 
 H % 
 
PLATE VII. 
 
 We have here a Head selected from one of the Cartoons of 
 RaffaelU) and a sedulous study of it will be of infinite service 
 to the student* 
 
 It is looking down, and its thoughtful, pleasing benignity of 
 countenance, is of itself sufficient to convince us of the extra- 
 ordinary talent of that great artist. The drawing is well pre- 
 served, the light and shade admirably managed, and the 
 drapery round it peculiarly fine. 
 
 Commence as usually with the lines to guide the disposition 
 of the features of the Face, as in the preceding Flate, being 
 particularly careful they are very light. Then sketch the 
 Eyes, Nose, and Mouth, on the lines, as directed in the same 
 Plate. The Beard, the Forehead, and the Cheek bones will 
 be the next consideration. Then follows the Drapery. 
 
 When the outline is correct, proceed to finish with chalk 
 or pencil, to the effect of the original. 
 
Eu.irave.l ly TL.Bnshy. ft-omJlarraeIU. 
 
PLATE VIII. 
 
 This is another Head selected from the Cartoons, and is 
 an additional proof of the abilities of that superior artist. The 
 countenance of this Head is widely different from the last. 
 The light and shade have a wonderful effect. 
 
 Commence, as you invariably must, by placing the foun- 
 dation lines as a guide for the features, and then proceed as 
 described in the last Plate. 
 
 This lesson will be found very useful as an example of light 
 and shade, and therefore is particularly recommended as a 
 study. As there is a great quantity of colour, you must, of 
 course, execute all the lines boldly and decidedly ; and always 
 the greater the colour of the subject, so much the stronger 
 must it be commenced. 
 
PLATE IX. 
 
 In this Head, the passion Rapture is admirably described. 
 It is copied from the famous Le Brun, whose abilities in 
 pourtraying the passions are well known. How easy it 
 is to discover the soul-like gratification of this countenance ! 
 
 In commencing, begin by faintly sketching the fundamental 
 lines, that the features may take their right situation. As 
 this head is looking up, the curves must bend upwards, as de- 
 scribed in Plate VI. 
 
 Sketch lightly the features of the face, being particularly 
 careful to place the ear in its right situation. When a correct 
 outline is obtained, put in the dark shadows ; as those under 
 the eye-brows, the pupil of the Eye, under the Nose, inside 
 of the Mouth, and under the Chin ; then proceed to finish it 
 by touching with the pencil or chalk, until the effect of the 
 Plate is obtained. 
 
Engraved lyILBvLsly .ii-oinLeBii.in. 
 
PLATE X. 
 
 Here the student is presented with another of the Passions 
 from Le Brun, and it is scarcely necessary to say, it repre- 
 sents the feeling of Admiration. It fills us, indeed, with 
 admiration to see such correct features put together, and ex- 
 pressing so happily the sentiment. We never know which to 
 admire most in this artist, his extraordinary execution, or his 
 sublime conception. 
 
 Proceed, as described in Plate VI. being careful in dis- 
 posing the features, as that is the foundation ; and as all the 
 attention afterwards paid to the finishing will be lost if 
 the features are not properly placed, 
 
PLATE XL 
 
 TERROR OR FRIGHT. 
 
 The violence of Terror acts powerfully on every feature of 
 the Face. The Muscles are in extreme action ; the Eyes are 
 open, and the Balls are seen in full ; the upper Eyelids are 
 hid under the Brow ; the Nose is drawn up; the Mouth is 
 extended, with its corners very conspicuous ; and the Muscles 
 of the Neck are also protruded. 
 
 In delineating this subject, attention must be given to the 
 preceding remarks, as it is essentially requisite to study the 
 character of every subject before its delineations are began. 
 The same fundamental principle must be adopted, as in the 
 last four Plates, being particular in leaving the lights on the 
 Forehead, Nose, Cheek-bone, &c. 
 
/, 
 
 -F.1RI GflTo 
 
PLATE XIL 
 
 THE HAND. 
 
 This Plate represents Hands and Arms, selected from the 
 works of Raffaelle, and others. The attention of the student 
 is particularly required to these extremities of the Figure, as 
 it is often painful to see a well-executed performance ruined 
 through neglect in delineating these parts. 
 
 Strict attention must be paid to the joints of the Fingers, 
 to the Nails, and to the uniting of the Hand to the Wrist. 
 When the outline is correct, proceed to shade with care and 
 attention, recollecting that the object of shadowing is to pro- 
 duce the effect either of a convexity, concavity, or flat surface. 
 
PLATE XIII. 
 
 THE FEET. 
 
 The extremities here selected are likewise from the same 
 artists, and they afford examples of Feet in various positions, 
 in front, profile, and fore-shortened. 
 
 Great attention must be paid to the Joints and Nails of the 
 Toes. It will be likewise necessary to remember that the 
 toe next the great toe is the longest, and more separated from 
 each other than the smaller toes. When you have a complete 
 outline of each, put in the shadows of the Feet, and the dark 
 touches under and between the Toes, which will be a guide 
 to the finishing. 
 
Pin 
 
PLATE XIV. 
 
 The subjoined Engraving, is from Cipriani, whose deline- 
 ations of Children have rendered his works eminently cele- 
 brated. The actions of the Figures are excellent as emblems 
 of Cowardice, Courage y and Unconcern. 
 
 Sketch in lightly the disposition of the Figures, recollect- 
 ing that all the Limbs must have a greater roundness than 
 in Adults. When the Figures have been correctly disposed, 
 with careful decision touch in the Eyes, Nose, Mouth, and 
 exterior of the Limbs, being particular not to make them too 
 dark, that they may be corrected in case they should be in- 
 correct. 
 
PLATE XV. 
 This Plate is likewise engraved from Cipriani. 
 
 The upper subject represents a Child sleeping; the bottom 
 a Boy reading. 
 
 Boy Sleeping. The Head of this Child is fore-shortened, 
 and rests on the right shoulder. In drawing this subject, the 
 chief difficulty to the student will be to delineate the Head, 
 and he must be careful in the disposition of the fundamental 
 lines for the features. When he has thus properly begun, he 
 may proceed to mark in the features of the Face, and proceed 
 as before. 
 
 Boy Reading. The fixed attention of this boy proves 
 that Cipriani well understood the infantine character. In 
 copying it, take care to sink the Head on the Shoulder, to 
 bend the Belly inwards, and to fix the left Hand well on the 
 Thigh. 
 
Ill 
 
PLATE XVI. 
 
 This Plate has been engraved from an original sketch of 
 MorlancTs. Nature was never more bountiful to any man, 
 than to this eccentric genius ; the facility of his touch and the 
 rapidity of his pencil were wonderfully great. 
 
 This subject is engraved so as to represent a chalk drawing, 
 and may be copied either in black or red. The execution 
 must be bold, firm, and decisive. 
 
PLATE XVII. 
 
 The annexed Plate is likewise from Morland. What 
 beautiful rustic simplicity is evident in the countenance of 
 the Female ! 
 
 In copying this subject, the Face must be the first and 
 principal consideration. The Cap, Shoulders, and Arms, 
 must be the next. The Male Hand that grasps the Hand of 
 the Female must also be particularly attended to. The execu- 
 tion of the whole cannot be too free and bold. Freedom is 
 requisite in all drawings ; but it is particularly so in this style. 
 
t 
 
 1 
 
PLATE XVIII. 
 
 THE BONES. 
 
 The Bones are the frame work and supports of the 
 Human Body, and the Muscles are the mechanism which 
 move the Bones. The Bones are joined to each other, in the 
 manner of a ball and socket, in some cases, or like a hinge in 
 others, and the Muscles when they act, contract, or become 
 shorter, and by that means draw the Bones different ways. 
 
 The names of the several Bones are indicated by the 
 figures as beneath. 
 
 1. Os Frontis, or Bone of the Forehead. 
 
 2. Os Parietalia. 
 
 3. OsMalae. 
 
 4. The Upper Jaw. 
 
 5. The Lower Jaw. 
 
 6. The Clavicula, or Collar Bone. 
 
 7. 7th, or last true Rib. 
 
 8. 12th, or last of the five false Ribs. 
 
 9 The five Lumber Vertebrae, with their interme- 
 diate Cartilages. 
 
 10. Os Sacrum. 
 
 11. Os Ilium. 
 
 12. Os Ischium. 
 
 13. Os Pubis. 
 
 14. The Humerus, or Bone of the Arm. 
 
 15. The Radius. > 
 
 16. The Ulna. > 
 
 17. The Bones of the Carpus, or Wrist. 
 
 18. The Bones of the Mitacarpus, or Hand. 
 
 19. The Bones of the Fingers. 
 
 20. The Femur, or thigh Bone. 
 
 21. The Patella, or Knee Pan. 
 
 22. The Tibia, or the larger Bone of the Leg. 
 
 23. The Fibula. 
 
 24. The os Calcis, or Heel Bone. 
 
 25. The Tarsus or Instep, composed of six Bones, 
 besides the os Calcis. 
 
 26. Bones of the Metatarsus or Foot. 
 
 27. Bones of the Toes. 
 
PLATE XIX 
 
 THE MUSCLES. 
 
 1 . Sterno hyoidseus. 
 
 2. Mastoidaeus, Plate XX. 
 
 3. Trapezius, Plate XXI. 
 
 4. Pectoralis. 
 
 5. Deltoides, Plate XX. 
 
 6. Biceps. 
 
 7. Brachiaeus intern us. This is partly covered by the 
 Biceps, and is marked with two Figures, to prevent its being 
 taken for two Muscles. 
 
 8. Gemellus, Plate XXI. 
 
 9. Pronator rotundus. 
 
 10. Supinator Radii longus. 
 
 11. Flexor Carpi radialis. 
 
 12. Flexor Carpi ulnaris. 
 
 13. Palmaris. 
 
 14. The mass of Flesh that appears under the Flexor 
 Carpi radialis, and the Palmaris is composed of the Perforatus 
 and Perforans. 
 
 15. Extensor Carpi radialis, Plate XX. 
 17. Extensor Pollicis, Plate XX. 
 
 20. Serratus major anticus, Plate XX. 
 
 21. Obliquus descendens, Plate XX. 
 
 22. Rectus. 
 
 31. Triceps. 
 
 32. Membranosus, Plate XX. 
 
 33. ' Sartorius. 
 
 34. Gracilis, Plate XXI. 
 
 38. Rectus Femoris. 
 
 39. Vastus externus. 
 
 40. Vastus internus. 
 
 41. Tibialis anticus. 
 
 42. Gasterocnemius, Plate XXI. 
 
 43. Soleus, Plate XXI. 
 
 44. Peronaeus, Plate XX. 
 
 45. Extensor Digitorum Pedis. 
 
PLATE XX. 
 
 THE MUSCLES. 
 
 2. Mastoiditis. 
 
 3. Trapezius, Plate XXL 
 
 5. Deltoides. 
 
 6. Biceps, Plate XIX. 
 
 7. Brachiseus interims, Plate XIX. 
 
 8. Gemellus, Plate XXI. 
 
 9. Pronator rotundus, Plate XIX. 
 
 10. Supinator Radii longus, Plate XIX. 
 
 11. Flexor Carpi radialis, Plate XIX. 
 
 12. Flexor Carpi ulnaris, Plate XIX. 
 
 13. Palmaris, Plate XIX. 
 
 15. Extensor Carpi radialis. 
 
 16. Extensor Carpi ulnaris. 
 
 17. Extensor Pollicis. 
 
 18. Extensor Digitorum. 
 
 19. Extensor minimi Digiti. 
 
 20. Serratus major anticus. 
 
 21 . Obliquus descendens. 
 
 23. Latissimus Dorsi. 
 
 24. Teres major. 
 
 25. Infraspinatus. 
 
 29. Glutaeus major, Plate XIX. 
 
 30. Glutaeus medius, Plate XIX. 
 
 32. Membranosus. 
 
 33. Sartorius, Plate XIX. 
 
 34. Gracilis, Plate XIX. 
 
 35. Biceps Femoris, Plate XIX. 
 
 36. Seminervosus, Plate XIX. 
 
 37. Semimembranosus, Plate XIX, 
 
 39. Vastus externus, Plate XIX. 
 
 40. Vastus internus, Plate XIX. 
 
 42. Gasterocnemius, Plate XIX 
 
 43. Soteus, Plate XIX. 
 
 44. Peronaeus. 
 
PLATE XXL 
 
 THE MUSCLES. 
 
 2. Mastoiditis, Plate XX. 
 
 3. Trapezius, or Cucullaris. 
 5. Deltoides, Plate XX. 
 
 7. Brachaeus interims, Plate XIX. 
 
 8. Gemellus. 
 
 9. Anconaeus. 
 
 10. Supinator Radii longus, Plate XIX. 
 12. Flexor Carpi ulnaris, Plate XIX. 
 
 15. Extensor Carpi radialis, Plate XX. 
 
 16. Extensor Carpi ulnaris, Plate XX. 
 
 17. Extensor Pollicis, Plate XX. 
 
 18. Extensor Digitorum, Plate XX. 
 19^ Extensor minimi Digiti, Plate XX. 
 
 23. Datissimus Dorsi, Plate XX. 
 
 24. Teres major, Plate XX. 
 
 25. Infraspinatus, Plate XX. 
 
 26. Splenius. 
 
 27. Sacrolumbaris. 
 
 28. Longissimus Dorsi. 
 
 29. Glutseus major. 
 
 30. Glutseus medius. 
 
 31. Triceps, Plate XIX. 
 
 32. Membranosus, Plate XX. 
 
 33. Sartorius, Plate XIX. 
 
 34. Gracilis. 
 
 85. Biceps Femoris. 
 
 36. Seminervosus. 
 
 37. Semimembranosus. 
 
 42. Gasterocnemius. 
 
 43. Solaeus. 
 
.Plate 2Z 
 
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PLATE XXTL 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 This Colossal Figure is an admirable production of art, 
 and represents great muscular strength. It is in an easy po- 
 sition, the muscles being strongly marked, but all at rest. 
 
 Lightly sketch in the inclination of the Figure ; then con- 
 sider the proportion of each part, bearing in mind the divisions 
 of the body ; and do not fail to draw the lines for the propor- 
 tion of the features of the Face. When the Figure is rightly 
 placed, correct, with attention, the features of the Face, the 
 muscles of the Body, &c, ; and proceed by shadowing to the 
 effect of the original. 
 
 i 2 
 
PLATE XXIII. 
 
 APOLLO AND ANTINOUS. 
 
 The Student is here presented with a side view of the 
 Apollo Belvidere, and of the Antinous, two antique figures. 
 
 These may be drawn in chalk or pencil, taking care to 
 fix the Figures well on their feet, so that they appear to stand 
 firm and solid. It is too common an error in drawing to be 
 neglectful in this respect. How ridiculous it is to see a 
 Figure that should stand firm on its feet, tottering as though 
 it had received a sudden blow. 
 
 Fail not to consider the exact proportions of the several parts 
 as you proceed in their delineation. 
 
I 
 
PLATE XXIV. 
 
 THE LAOCOON. 
 
 This is the centre Figure of the celebrated Laocoon (a 
 groupe of three Figures in marble) which was discovered at 
 Rome in the year 1508, in a recess of the ruins of the baths 
 of Titus, where Pliny described it as standing in the reign of 
 that Emperor. 
 
 The attentive study and repeated copying of this chef- 
 d'oeuvre, is recommended to all Students. 
 
 It may be drawn in chalk or pencil. The convulsed cha- 
 racter of the Head should be preserved, and the Clavicula, or 
 Collar Bone, should be well fixed. The Muscles of this 
 Figure are in extreme action owing to the contest with the 
 Snake, and this study forms, therefore, a contrast to that of 
 the Hercules, Plate XXII. 
 
PLATE XXV, 
 
 ANIMALS' HEADS. 
 
 The annexed Plate represents the Head of a Sheep, of a 
 Greyhound, and a Bull Dog, and they are engraved in imitation 
 of chalk sketches. 
 
 In delineating the Heads of Animals, a similar principle 
 to that adopted in the Human Head, in regard to the dis- 
 position of the features varying according to their several cha- 
 racters, ought to be attended to. For example, the distance 
 of the bottom of the Nose from the Eyes in the Sheep and 
 Greyhound are widely different from the Bull Dog : yet we 
 find the same feature invariably fixed in the centre of the 
 Head between the Eyes. The Eyes of all Animals are fea- 
 tures that should be particularly studied, 
 
j 
 
PLATE XX VI. 
 
 THE GOAT. 
 
 This hardy Animal is likewise engraved to represent the 
 chalk style. In delineating this subject the sharp-pointed 
 character of the Head, the flowing Beard, the hairy Body, 
 and the square formed character of the Legs and Hoofs 
 should be preserved. The appearance of this Animal is very 
 picturesque, owing to the contrast of form. Be particular in 
 attaching the Ears well to the Head, the Head to the Neck, 
 and the Feet to the Body. 
 
PLATE XXVII. 
 
 THE ASS. 
 
 The Head of this Animal is shewn in front, it will there- 
 fore be advisable to draw the lines for the disposition of the 
 features, as in the human Head, taking care to place the 
 Ears exactly over the Eyes, and to unite the Limbs well to 
 the Body. It is unnecessary to describe the progress, as that 
 has been amply done in the preceding Plates. 
 
PLATE XXVIII. 
 
 THE HORSE. 
 
 This Animal is etched as an example to be drawn with pen 
 and ink, or pencil, and will give an idea of the useful art of 
 etching. 
 
 When the Student has attained a correct outline with the 
 pencil, he must prepare two Crow quill pens, to mark differ- 
 ent strengths of colour. He should likewise prepare two or 
 three different degrees of colour of Indian-ink ; he will then 
 get a complete outline of the whole, with the ink according to 
 the colour of the original. He may then proceed to finish it 
 to the effect of the Etching. 
 
PLATE XXIX. 
 A WILD BOAR AND DOG. 
 
 This subject is a Wild Boar badgered by a Dog; the boar 
 is worked up to a pitch of madness, which is indicated by the 
 fire of his Eyes, the erection of his Ears, and his half-opened 
 Mouth. The position of the Dog is teasing, but cautious. 
 In delineating this subject, take care to fix the Boar well 
 within the weeds, give the natural turn to the Head, and 
 fore-shorten the Side. 
 
PLATE XXX. 
 
 BULL AND COW. 
 
 This lesson represents a side view of a Bull, and a perspec- 
 tive one of a Cow ; the contrast between the colour and posi- 
 tions of the two Animals produces a pleasing effect. In deli- 
 neating this subject, great attention must be bestowed on the 
 position of the Animals, particularly the Cow, which will be 
 found an excellent example of fore-shortening. When you 
 have a complete outline, proceed as previously described, pay- 
 ing particular attention to the anatomy, which is correctly 
 preserved. 
 
PLATE XXXI. 
 
 OUTLINE GROUPES. 
 
 The Student is here presented with Groupes in outline, 
 containing varieties to be copied with the Crow-pen and ink, 
 or pencil. 
 
 The upper subject is a Groupe of Travellers selected from 
 Bewick. 
 
 The centre is from the famous picture of Hogarth's Can- 
 vassing for Votes. 
 
 The bottom is a group of Sheep and Cows, from Howett. 
 
 The Student, in drawing in this style, need not be told that 
 he must be very exact, as there is nothing to recommend it, 
 but a correct and spirited outline, for it has not the assist- 
 ance either of shade or colours. 
 
GatQTnPH'S IK C) T'T.L I ^ e . 
 
PLATE XXXII. 
 
 OUTLINE GROUPES, 
 
 The annexed Plate consists of outlines for exercise. The 
 upper subjects are the Arabian Horse and domestic Cat. But 
 students who desire to extend their practice on animals, should 
 procure Chalon's folio, which at 12s. furnishes every variety 
 of animals and positions. 
 
 The centre is a blind Man passing a bridge. 
 
 The bottom is a group of Turks, &c. 
 
 In delineating the Horse, be particular to preserve its 
 grace. In the blind Man passing the bridge, as the wind has 
 blown his hat off, take care to bend the trees with the wind, 
 in a uniform manner. 
 
PLATE XXXIIL 
 GROUPE OF HORSES. 
 
 This groupe of Horses, Dogs, &c. from Howett, may be 
 drawn either with pen and ink, pencil, or chalk. 
 
 Every Animal in this subject affords a useful exercise in 
 the practice of fore-shortening. The last Horse in front is very 
 effective. The fore- shortening of the Horse behind him is 
 well managed. The perspective of the Cart, in the second 
 distance, is happy. 
 
1 
 
PLATE XXXTV. 
 
 THE MILITARY MACAW. 
 
 As but one Plate is given in this department of drawing, 
 it is in Colours. 
 
 Having sketched the outline correctly, put in the shadows 
 with Indian-ink, so as to produce the rotundities, leaving 
 breadths of light for the pure Colours. When the drawing 
 of the subject is correct, proceed with the Colours as follow : 
 
 The Bill in Vandyke Brown, with a little Yellow. 
 
 The Red Tuft on the Head with pure Carmine and 
 Gamboge, shaded with Lake. 
 
 The Circle of the Eyes with Gamboge and Carmine. 
 
 The Neck and Body with Gamboge and Prussian Blue, 
 shaded with Lake and Blue, carefully mixed to form a neutral 
 Tint. 
 
 The Wijngs with Indigo, and shaded with Lake and Indigo, 
 
 The Red Feathers on the Tail with Carmine, and 
 shaded with Lake and Blue. 
 
PLATE XXXV. 
 
 PROGRESSIVE LESSONS— COTTAGES. 
 
 This lesson represents two Cottages in three progressive 
 States ; the first in outline ; the second in outline and half 
 finish ; and the third finished. 
 
 After the outline is completed, mix in saucers, three or 
 four different degrees of Tint of Indian-ink, as nearly as pos- 
 sible of the Colours of the original. Take the lightest Tint, 
 and wash it carefully, as in the half Tint subject, being parti- 
 cularly careful to leave the high lights. When it is perfectly 
 dry, take the second Tint, and proceed as in the finished sub- 
 ject ; then the third. Then should follow the spirited finish- 
 ing and effective touches. 
 
I 
 
PLATE XXXVI. 
 
 COTTAGE LANDSCAPE. 
 
 The Student is here presented with an example of Cottage 
 Scenery, which is followed by another ; this style of Drawing 
 being pleasing and expeditious. 
 
 Be careful to obtain a correct outline with a lead Pencil, and 
 to be spirited in the parts that require spirit. Then mix a 
 Tint of Colour no stronger than the lightest Tint in the origi- 
 nal, washing that over the whole drawing, but leaving the 
 high lights. When that is done, take the second Tint, and 
 work that over the drawing, omitting the light parts ; then 
 let the third and fourth Tint, and then the finishing and 
 spirited touches follow. 
 
PLATE XXXVII. 
 
 COTTAGE LANDSCAPE. 
 
 This subject represents the Perspective View of a Cottage, 
 situated at the bottom of a Hill ; and a piece of Water is intro- 
 duced in shade. The Hill behind the House is in a deep 
 Tint, and the principal light is thrown on the Cottage, and 
 the edges of the Clouds. The Student will, of course, com- 
 mence with the Sky and Clouds ; then touch the Hills ; and 
 lastly, the fore-ground, being very particular in having the 
 different degrees of tints carefully mixed before he begins. 
 
PLATE XXXVIII. 
 
 LANDSCAPE, WITH HORSES AND WATER. 
 
 This subject is from Howitt. The principal light is thrown 
 on the White Horse, to effect which a dark Horse is intro- 
 duced. The water is still and transparent, and this must be 
 carefully attended to in the drawing. The same process of 
 tinting is required in the execution of this subject as described 
 in the last four Plates ; that is, proceed from the greatest dis- 
 tance to the fore-ground. This subject may be drawn in 
 Indian-ink, or sepia. 
 
 K % 
 
PLATE XXXIX, 
 
 PLAIN LANDSCAPE. 
 
 From Varley. 
 
 PREPARATORY FOR COLOURING. 
 
 The Student is first to sketch the outlines faintly with a 
 Black Lead Pencil, and then proceed with the Hair Pencil to 
 tint and shadow without the intervention of the Crow Pen, or 
 without any other fixed outline than what the tints and 
 shadows produce. 
 
 The mixture of the grey Colour is made of burnt Umber, 
 Indigo, and Lake, each to be rubbed in a Saucer separately, 
 and then mixed in due proportion in a fourth Saucer, so as to 
 produce the exact Colour, which may be called a warm Grey. 
 
 The Colour is then to be thinned with Water, for the light 
 tints, as the sky, distances, &c. Deeper tints are to be used 
 for the darker shadows, and near parts, fining off, and soften- 
 ing with water, till the exact effect is produced. 
 
 He may then proceed to colour as described in the next 
 Plate. 
 
PLATE XL. 
 
 COLOURED LANDSCAPE. 
 
 This beautiful subject is from a drawing of that truly in- 
 genious Artist Mr. Varley, who has obligingly favoured us 
 with a list of the colours used by him in drawing ; together 
 with the mixtures prepared under his direction, and which 
 render mixtures unnecessary on the part of the Pupil. 
 
 COLOURS USED FOR COLOURING DRAWINGS. 
 
 Coal Brown, 
 Rosy Madder. 
 Prussian Blue. 
 Indigo. 
 
 Brown Sienna. 
 Roman Ochre, 
 Yellow Ochre. 
 Venetian Red. 
 Gamboge. 
 Burnt Sienna. 
 Lamp Black. 
 Vandyke Brown. 
 Purple Lake. 
 
 From the above, mixtures have been made, which are sold 
 by all dealers in Drawing Materials. 
 
COLOURS USED IN THIS LANDSCAPE. 
 
 The Chads are produced by a thin mixture of Indigo and 
 Lake. 
 
 The Azure Sky, towards the horizon, is of Lake and Gam- 
 boge, and should be done with a clear brush. 
 
 The lower or horizontal Clouds are tinged with Ultramarine. 
 
 The distant Lands are of Ultramarine and Lake. 
 
 The distant Trees are also of Ultramarine, with a wash of 
 Indigo, Gamboge, and burnt Sienna. 
 
 The middle distance Trees behind the House, are produced 
 by a thin wash of burnt Sienna and Gamboge. 
 
 The near Trees are tinted with a wash of burnt Sienna, 
 Indigo, and Gamboge. Towards the shadows more Indigo 
 is incorporated. 
 
 The Grass is washed with a mixture of burnt Sienna, 
 Indigo, and Gamboge. That in shadow on the right hand 
 has rather more Indigo. 
 
 The road and paths are produced by a mixture of Lake, 
 burnt Umber, and burnt Sienna. 
 
 The House is tinted with a mixture of Lake and Gamboge. 
 The tiling and shadows have an excess of Lake. 
 
 The Windows are of Indigo and burnt Umber. 
 
 The Smoke is Lake and Indigo. 
 
 The Sheep are of burnt Umber and Gamboge. 
 
 The Figures are touched with Lake and Indigo. 
 
 m 
 
PLATE XLI. 
 
 SEA PIECE FROM VANDERVELDE. 
 
 In this department of Art, the Student is presented with a 
 coloured Plate, in two States, the subject from Vandervelde, 
 who in Sea Pieces stands unequalled. We do not know 
 which to admire most, the transparency of the Water, the 
 composition and aereal effect of the sky, or the rigging and 
 setting of the Vessels in the Water. These beauties are con- 
 spicuous in this lesson, and care must be taken to produce the 
 same transparent effect. 
 
 After the outline has been finished, with a compound of 
 Burnt Umber, Indigo, and Lake, mixed to the colour of the 
 first state, gradually produce the effect of the parts ; and when 
 careful observation evinces that you have succeeded, proceed 
 to finish the entire subject, 
 
PLATE XLII. 
 
 SEA PIECE FROM VANDERVELDE. 
 
 IN COLOURS. 
 
 Sky. — Indigo and Ultramarine, and towards the Vessel in 
 the fore part of the Picture, to be blended with a compound 
 of Lake and Yellow. 
 
 Water. — Thin washes of Lake, Yellow, and Ultramarine, 
 separately used, guided by the judgment of the Student. 
 
 Distant Vessels. — Thin washes of Lake and Yellow. 
 
 Vessel in the fore Part of the Picture. — Sails, burnt Terra 
 Sienna, Gamboge, and burnt Umber. Body of Vessel, burnt 
 Umber. 
 
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PLATES XLI1I. and XLIV. 
 
 GROUP OF FLOWERS. 
 
 Outline with a compound of Lake, Blue, and Yellow, and 
 with the same cautiously produce the effect of Plate XLIV. 
 
 Remarks. — Care must be taken in the outlining of this Sub- 
 ject that it is not too heavy, particularly in the middle of 
 the Group, so that the breadth of light may not appear 
 frittered or broken. 
 
PLATE XLV. 
 
 GROUP OF FLOWERS. 
 
 White Rose. — Ultramarine, Burnt Umber, and Lake 
 mixed together. 
 
 Hedge Rose. — Carmine and Gamboge. 
 
 Convolvolus. — Ultramarine. 
 
 Rose over Convolvolus. — Flower, Carmine ; Stalk, Prussian 
 Blue and Yellow. 
 
 Flower. — Top of Group, Centre, Gamboge ; Ultramarine 
 and Carmine mixed for tne other parts. 
 
 Leaves. — Prussian Blue and Gamboge. 
 
i 
 
PLATE XLVI. 
 
 GROUP OF FLOWERS. 
 
 White Rose. — Finest rich light tints of Ultramarine, 
 Carmine, and Gamboge, used separately. 
 
 Hedge Rose. — To be finished with Carmine, principally, 
 and followed with light tints of Ultramarine and Gamboge. 
 
 Convolvolus. — Ultramarine principally, followed with light 
 tints of Yellow and Carmine. 
 
 Rose over Convolvolus. — Principally finished with Carmine, 
 thin light washes of Ultramarine and Yellow. 
 
 Flower top of Group. — Lake, Ultramarine, and Gamboge. 
 
 Leaves. — Prussian Blue, Lake, burnt Sienna, and Gamboge. 
 
PLATE XLVIL 
 
 BUTTERFLIES. 
 
 These subjects require the same progressive treatment as 
 the Group of Flowers : Lake, Gamboge, Ultramarine, Indigo, 
 Vandyke Brown, burnt Umber, Black, and the Grey Tint, 
 are the necessary colours. 
 
X 
 
PLATE XLVIII. 
 
 PEACHES. 
 
 Peaches. — Produce with the Grey Tint the rotundity of the 
 Peaches, then finish with Carmine, Gamboge, and Ultrama- 
 rine, used separately. 
 
 Plums. — With a strong Grey Tint, produce the roundness, 
 and finish with Carmine and Ultramarine. 
 
 Leaves. — Prussian Blue, Gamboge, and burnt Terra Sienna. 
 
 Fly.— Ultramarine, Gamboge, Carmine, and Black. 
 
PLATE XLIX. 
 
 FISH. 
 
 This Lesson is engraved from Elmer, who stands conspi- 
 cuously in this department of art. With a Tint (composed 
 of burnt Umber, Lake, and Indigo), work in the outline, 
 shadowing so as to produce the rotundities of the Fish. Then 
 with pure colour tint the different parts, as near the lesson as 
 possible. From that state work up to the effect of the original. 
 
 Carmine, Lake, Indigo, Ultramarine, burnt Umber, burnt 
 Sienna, Gamboge, and Black, are the necessary colours. 
 
Mar* Jo. 
 
PLATE L. 
 
 SHELLS. 
 
 Brilliancy is as necessary in Shells as in Flowers or Fruits, 
 and the principles of colouring must be followedas was recom- 
 mended in them. 
 
 Lake, Gamboge, Ultramarine, Indigo, Vandyke Brown, 
 burnt Umber, burnt Sienna, and the Grey Tint, are the 
 colours necessary to be used in this department of drawing. 
 
 The Student must be careful that the bright light of 
 the Shells is of pure colour, and he should use a little of 
 the Grey Tint in the shadows, so as to give an additional 
 lustre to the lights. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 SHACKELL AND BAYLIS, JOHNSON'S-COURT, 
 
P GETTY RESEARCH INSTITUTE L 
 
 3 3125 01360 7045