/ , '> .>/^ ^frfsU^f^ c^-*^ ~^£~> / ^^- . ARTISTs ASSISTANT, / g>& 1 . on SCHOOL of SCIENCE; FOBMING A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION $oltte arts : Painting, Drawing, Defigning, Perfpedlive, Engraving, Colouring, cSfc. WITH AMPLE DIBECTIONS FOB JAPANNING, ENAMELLING, GILDING, SILVERING, LACQUERING, &c. AND A VALUABLE SELECTION OF MISCELLANEOUS SECRETS. J /£ . ILLUSTRATED WITH PLATES. LONDON: SOLD BY T. OSTELL, No. 3, AVEMARIA-LANE, PATERNOSTER-ROW. Printed by M, Swinney, Birmingham. 1803. *^JHA.*^tf *>i<*< < iW terra japonica, or japan earth .... .... ibid. umbre .... •••• •••• •••• ihuU afphaltum .... .... •••• .... ibid. Spanifh juice, or extract ofliquorice .... 64 WHITE. ClafsVII. . white lead .... .... •••• .... ibid. calcined, or burnt hartfhorn .... .... 65 ! pearl white .... .... <*.. .... 66 . Troy white, or Spanifh white .... .... Hid. . egg fhell white .... .... .... 64 BLACK. ClafsVIII. ~ — lamp black .... .... .... .... 67 ■ ivory black .... .... .... .... ibid. Indian ink .... .... .... .... ibid. COLOURING; the Venetian method of, by Timothy Sheldrake, Efq. .... .... .... .... 140 CUTTING or engraving on WOOD 103 CHALK DRAWINGS .... 286 DRAWING .... t 1 the materials neceffary .... .... .... ibid. ■ inftruclions to (ketch an outline .... .... o of the expreflion of the paffions .... .... g ■ defign .... ..... .... .... .... 98 — — the Apollo Belvidere .... .... .... .... 101 • the groupe of Laocoon .... .... .... 103 ETCHING .... . .... .... i 75 general obfervations .... .... .... .... 178 ground or varnifh, method of making .... .... 179 ENGRAVING .... 180 GILDING : the principal kinds .... ' .... .... 254. inftruments commonly ufed .... .... .... 255 - — i manner of oil gilding .... .... .... 257 [ xii ] PAG GILDING; method of making fize .... .... .... 261 to prepare wood .... .... .... .... 262 of japanners' gilding .... ...» .... 265 of gilding paper and vellum, or parchment .... 2C8 of the gilding on paper proper to be. ufed along with painting in water-colours, or frefco .... .... ibid. of the gilding proper for coloured paper for binding books, and other fuch purpofes .... .... 269 . proper for letters of gold on paper, and the embellifh- ments of manufcripts .... .... .... 271 glafs without annealing, or burning .... .... 272 GLASS, nature and compofition of .... .... .... 275 the materials •••• •••• •••• •••• »«& of materials ufed as fluxes .... .... .... 279 of the feveral kinds of white glafs, and their com- pofition in general .... •#.. .••• .... 285 feveral kinds of glafs .... .... .... 286 coloured, cryfolite, and fapphire green .... .... 287 INK; red, receipt to make it ... ... . ... 305 good black, method of making it ... ... 306 JAPANNING, introduction to .... ... .... 194 on metals, wood, and paper .... .... .... 195 Birmingham and other paper boxes compared .... ibid. laying on colours with varnifh intlead of gum-water recommended .... •«.. •.•• •••• 196 Japan grounds and priming .... .... .... 197 common grounds and varnifh .... ..•• •••• 198 white japan grounds .... ••«• •" , 199 blue japan grounds, .... .... •••• •-•• 201 red and yellow ditto .... .... .... •••• 202 — *- green, orange, purple and black .... .... 203 common black and fine tortoife-fhell .... .... 204 of painting japan work .... •••• •••• 205 of varnifhing ditto •• •••• ■••• 206 of gilding ditto .... .... •••• •«« 2'C [ xiii ] PAGE JEWELLERS' Secrets; to imitate fine oriental pearls ' 287 mercury water prepared .... .... " .... 288 to form large pearls of fmall ones .... .... 289 choice fecrets imitating precious ftones, or for making artificial gems .... .... .... .... 290 to make a fair emerald .... .... .... ibid. a parte for imitating an oriental topaz .... .... 291 to make an artificial chryfolite .... .... .... ibid. another proeefs for precious ftones .... .... ibid, Korndorfer's fecret to make a diamond of natural cryftal .... .*.. .... .... .... 292 to make a diamond out of a fapphire, according to Porta's deliription .... .... .... .... ibid. ■ direction concerning poliihing gems .... .... 293 method of counter-drawing on artificial flones, the ori- ginal camieaus, intalios, and other gems, which are preferred in the feveral muieums of Europe .... 294 LACQUERING 210 occafions on which lacquering is now in general ufe 211 compofttions for brafs work to referable gilding .... 212 manner of laying on the lacquer .... .... 214 MEZZOTINTO SCRAPING ; the tools ufed .... .... 18* directions for laying the ground .... .... ibid. directions for whetting- the grounding tool, and fcraping the pi&ure .... .... .... .... 189 — — the ufe of a burnifher .... .... .... ibid. another method ufed by mezzotinto fcrapers ...." igo MISCELLANEOUS SECRETS; to preferve things from corruption in fpirit of wine .... .... .... 295 a preparation whereby things may be kept from corrup- tion, and is a preferver of health .... .... ibid. tranfmutation of iron into the finelt German fteel .... 297 — ~ againft ruft, fpots, &c. in iron .... .... .... ibid. [ Xiv ] MISCELLANEOUS SECRETS; to preferve the briglitnefs of arms .... .... .... .... .... 297 to make tin .... .... .... .... ibid. to compofe a metal of a gold colour .... .... 298 to give fome perfection to imperfect metals .... ibid. to reftorc gold to its weight .... .... .... 300 tranfmutation of filvcr into gold .... .... ibid. permutation of lead into filver .... .... .... 301 tranfmutation of iron into copper .... .... 302 fpots very effectually taken out of filk, linen, or woollen .... .... .... .... ibid. an excellent water for taking out fpots in cloth, {tuff, &-.c. ibid. for preferving iron and fteel from rufl ... . ... ibid. againft moths, worms, &c. ... ... ... ibid. how to make ball foap .... .... .... 303 — — Chinefe method of mending China .... .... ibid. to join broken amber .... .... .... ibid. to whiten ivory, make hard red fealing-wax .... 304 to make black fealing-wax, and oil-cloth for hat-cafes and other ufes .... .... .... .... ibid. PAINTING on glafs, or back painting ... ... 159 CRAYON PAINTING ... ... 116 ENAMEL GROUNDS 160 ENCAUSTIC PAINTING ... ... ... 136 ENAMEL PAINTING ... ... ... ... 163 of the fubflances ufed for forming fluxes ... ... 167 — of the fubflances ufed for forming the body of enamel or fluxes ... ... ... ... ... 169 — - — of the fubflances ufed for producing a white colour in enamel for forming the grounds ... ... 170 PAPER; how to make it tranfparent ... ... 305 — 1 — another method ... ... ... .. ibid. TRANSFERRING PAINTINGS from, walls, method of, by Mr. Robert Salmon ... ... ... 151 [ xv ] TACI PAPIER-MACHE, method of preparing and moulding 247 the preparation and the moulds ... ... .... ibid, of the manner of moulding ... . ... 251 of the manner of preparing the matter, and moulding the light japan ware ... ... ... ... 252 PERSPECTIVE ; linear, serial and fpecular .... .... 17 geometrical, horizontal, and vertical plane .... i3 terreftrial, geometrical, front, vertical, and vifual line ibid*. — — objective, ftation, and diftance of line .... .... ibid. the point, or fight of the eye, accidental point, and vifual point .... .... .... .... ig explanation of the different forts of .... .... ibid. from a point in a given line A B, to raife a perpendi- cular .... .... «.. .... ' .... 20 another way .... .... .... .... ibid. to draw one line parallel to another given line .... ibid. to bifect or divide a given line into two equal parts 21 upon the end of a given line to raife a perpendicular ibid. to turn the circle through any three given points not in a right line .... .... ..... .... ibid, • — — to draw an oval «... .... .... .... ibid. another method for an oval .... ..» ... 2* practical examples in perfpective ... ... ibid. to draw a fquare pavement ... ... ... ibid. to find the height and proportion of any objects, as they appear above the horizon, on a fuppofed plane 23 the fame rule exemplified in objects below the horizon 24 to draw a direct view ... ... ... ... 25 to draw an oblique view ... ... ... 26 to draw a perfpective view wherein are accidental points ibid. to find the centre for the roof of a houfe in an oblique view ... ... ... ... ... 27 — '— ichnography, fcenography, projection, projection of the fphere in plane ... ... ... .... 28 laws of orthographic projeHIMHff>)^I^W THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. — ■aeeiQieecM. DRAWING. JL HE great advantages derived from a knowledge of the- Art of Drawing, are universally known and acknowledged, it being not only ufeful, but abfolutely necetfary to thofe Artifts concerned in Defigning. Drawing is the bafis of Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Engraving, Modelling, Chafing, Carving, &c. — It offers fo elegant and agreeable an amufement for the leifure hours of the man of bufinefs, or the gentleman, that every one who has neglected it has felt and confeffed its lofs. To enable thofe who may not have the affiftance of a fkilful inftrudtor to become mafters of this defirable accom- plifhment, we fhall give plain and concife directions, and point out fuch a mode of ftudy as we truft will render Ihe tafk of acquiring it pleafant, and remove many impedi- ments, which, without fuch affiftance, would retard their improvement. The materials neceffary for drawing are — black lead pencils, camel hair pencils; crow quill pens; red, white, and black chalk; cravons and Indian ink, B 2 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. The black lead pencil fhould not be held fo near the point as the pen in writing; the ufe of it being for the fketch or firft outline of the piece, which fhould be drawn with freedom, as any erroneous ftroke or line may be erafed by rubbing the work gently with Indian rubber, or crumb of ftale bread. As the fubjects firft propofed to the ftudent's attention will be found to influence his future practice more than may be eafily imagined, great care fhould be taken that none but the works of the moft eminent mafters be put into his hands, left the ill habits he may acquire by a contrary mode of conduct, fhould be found difficult to be removed by the ftrongeft exertions of mature judgment. Every figure, nay, every ftroke, given him as a pattern, fhould be excellent in its kind, that he may be early familiarized to beauty, tafte, and fymmetry. Fortunately for the ftudent, fuch examples are, at prefent, by no means difficult to be procured. The works of Bartolozzi afford us the moft compleat fpeciinens of correctnefs of drawing, and elegance of form. After having for a fhort time accuftomed himfelf to the ufe of the pencil, he would do well to ftudy, with the moft fcrupulous attention, the Rudiments of Drawing engraved by that accomplifhed artiit from the tlefigns of Cipriani. After having prepared himfelf by acquiring the habit of copying correctly the beft prints, he may proceed to fiudy from plaifter cafts, from which he will derive more real improvement than from copying drawings, fince he will, by this method, become acquainted with the principles of the chiarofcuio, or light and fhade, by the magic force of which, the paintings of Parrhafius were termed realities; and the fingers of Alexander, (in the character of Jupiter the Thunderer), painted by the famed Apclles, feemed to fhoot forward, while the lightning appeared to flafh from them. THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 3 In the formation of a painter, genius is the firft and mod indifpenfable requifite, for the abfence of which no human acquirements can compenfate. A picture, like a poem, would afford little pleafure, though formed according to the firicteft rules of art, and finifhed with the moft inde- fatigable attention, were genius wanting to compleat the defign — a defign which may be faid to be like the celebrated ftatue fafhioned by Prometheus, lovely, but lifelefs, unlefs genius, like the fire which he is fabled to have ftolen from heaven, darts its invigorating ray, and gives a foul to the finifhed piece. But though genius be abfolutely neceffary, fince nothing can be done without it, yet it will not alone fuffice. Like a rich but uncultivated foil, it will be fruitful only in weeds, were not its exuberances corrected by the rules of art, by reflection, and a ftrict attention to nature, which is the grand object of a painter's meditation, it ought never to be out of his fight ; it is the only fource of beauty, fince nothing can be pleafing that is not natural. An intimate knowledge of the beauties of the ancients will be of the greateft advantage ; they made nature their peculiar ftudy, and tranfmitted to us examples in fculpture, which have triumphed equally over the rage of time and Barbarians; examples which have ever been confidered as forming a perfect Rule of Beauty. A clofe and fervile imitation, however, is not what we would wifh to recommend ; a man may find his account in attending to the manner, and ftoring up the obfervations of a well-bred and intelligent acquaintance, without ridi- culoufly affecting his gait, or copying his phrafeology. In order to acquire a knowledge of the face, begin with drawing the features fcparate, placing the copy at fuch a diftance as the eye may meafure both it and the drawing without moving the head. Sketch in the fir.fl outline very R 2 4 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. light; and, in rubbing out, leave faint traces of the firft iketch. By proceeding in this manner, without the afliftance of rule or compaffes, the outline mould be brought to the greatcft exaclnefs ; and in placing the features, a perfect oval mould be formed, through which a perpendicular line is drawn in the middle ; and acrofs the centre of this, a diameter line from one fide of the oval to the other. On thefe all the features of the face are to be drawn, according to the following rules for drawing a head. ' The perpendicular mult be divided into four equal parts; one from the crown of the head to the top of the forehead; two from the top of the forehead to the eye-brows; three from the eye-brows to the bottom of the nofe; four from thence to the bottom of the chin. The diameter line divide into five parts; the breadth of the face being fuppofed the length of five eyes; this is to be underftood in a full front face only, and thefe proportions are rather inconftant in different men, as to length and ihape ; but in a well proportioned face are nearly right, and Ihould be ftrictly obferved. When the face turns to either fide, then the diftances are to be lcffened on that fide from you, more or lefs, in proportion to its turning. Moft artifts begin the drawing with the nofe, that being the centre; and then proceed to the other features, obferving that the top of the ear is to rife parallel to the eye-brows; the eye to be placed fo as to leave exactly the length of one eye betwixt them; the noftrils fhould not project farther than the corner of the eye; and the middle of the mouth fhould be on the per- pendicular line. In order to underftand better the different turnings of the face, it may be very advantageous to procure a piece of wood, made in the fhape and fize of an egg ; draw a line down the middle as before directed; divide this in two equal parts, and draw another acrofs the centre : let C //f ')/(e«sseesc Of the EXPRESSION of the PASSIONS. JL HAT language which, above all others, a painter fhould carefully endeavour to learn, and from nature herfelf, is the* language of the paffions. Without it the fineft work r appear lifelefs and inanimate. It is not i j. painter to be able to delineate the moft exqu • i, give them the moft graceful attitudes, and compofe them. well together: it is not enough to drefs them >>ut with propriety, and in the moft beautiful colours, it is not enough, in fine, by the powerful magic of light and Ihade to make the canvafs vanifh. No, he muft likewife know- how to cloath his figures with grief, with joy, with fear, with anger: he muft, in fome fort, write on their faces, what they think, and what they feel ; he muft give them life and fpeech. It is, indeed, in this branch, that painting truly foars, and, in a manner, rifes fuperior to herfelf ; it is in this branch fhe makes the fpeclator apprehend much more than what fhe expreffes. The means employed in imitating her by painting, are (he contours or outlines, chiarofcuro and colours; which appear folely calculated to ftrike the vilual faculty. Painting alfo contrives to reprefent hard and foft, rough and fmooth furfaces, which are objects of touch ; and this by means of certain tints, and a certain chiarofcuro which has a different look in marble, in the bark of trees, in downy 10 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. and delicate fubftances. Nay, (he contrives to exprefs found and motion by means of light and made, and certain particular configurations. In fome landfcapes of Diderich's, we almoft hear the water murmur, and fee it tremble along the fides of the river, and of the boats upon it. In the battle of Burgogne, we are really apt to fancy that the trumpet founds ; and we fee the horfe, who has thrown his rider, fcamper along the plain : but what is (till more wonderful, painting, in virtue of her various colours, and certain particular geftures, expreffes. even the fentiments and mod hidden affections of the foul, and renders her vifible, fo as to make the eye not only touch and hear, but even kindle into paffion and reafon. Many have written ; and, amongft the reft, the famous Lavater, on the various changes, that, according to various paffions, happen in the mufcles of the face, which is, as it were, the dumb tongue of the foul. They obferve, for example, that in fits of anger, the face reddens, the mufcles of the lips puff out, the eyes fparkle ; and that, on the contrary, in fits of melancholy, the eyes grow motionlefs and dead, the face pale, and the lips fink in. It is neceffary the painter who would be thoroughly acquainted with this principal part of his profefiion, fhould ftudy, with care, the learned and ingenious treatife of the Author above men- tioned ; but, for the young fhident, the fliort work of Le Brun,* written for the pupils of the French academy * Charles Le Brun, a celebrated French painter, born at Paris about the year 161S; he was the fon of a fculptor of fmall celebrity. At a very early age he had the good fortune to gain the patronage of the Chancellor Seguir, who, after placing him for fome time under the care of Vouet, who at that period was accounted the Raphael of France, fent him to Italy for three ycari, where he allowed him a large penfion. After his return, having by feveral confiderable works eflablifhcd his reputation, Louis XIV. ennobled him, honoured him with the order of St. Michael, and made him his principal painter. Through the efforts of Le * Admiration Contempt Jiacre o Ca/mnc/f J A - ' ZsOVC ^Katrecf m me J'ear THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. H of painting, will be more intelligible; but it will be of infinitely more fervice to ftudy them in nature itfelf, from which they have been borrowed, and which exhibits them in that lively manner which neither tongue nor pen can exprefs. But, if a painter is to have immediate recourfe to nature in any thing, it is particularly in treating thofe very minute and almoft imperceptible differences, by which, however, things very different from each other are often exprefled. This is particularly the cafe with regard to the paflions of laughing and crying, as in thefe, however contrary, the mufcles of the face operate nearly in the fame manner.* Bran, the revenues of the academy of painting were enlarged, and the institution placed upon a permanent foundation. He alfo drew up a project for an academy at Rome, to be founded by the King for the ufe of the French ftudents who travel there. When the King appointed Le Brun his principal painter he gave him alfo the direction of the manufacture of the Gobelins, which he attended with fuch afliduity, that he made the defigns for every thing that was done there. He died in the year 1690. The raoft confiderable of his woiks are his pictures, containing the hiftory of Alexander the Great, in the ceiling of the gallery of Verfaillcs, and the great ftair-cafe there. * As the famous Pietro de Cortona was one day finiming the face of 2 crying child, in a reprefentation of the Iron age, with which he was adorning the floor, called the Hot Bath, in the royal palace of Pitti, Ferdinand II. who happened to be looking over him for his amufement, could not forbear exprefling his approbation, by crying out, Oh, how well that child cries ! To whom the able artift faid, Has your Majefty a mind to fee how eafy it is to make children laugh ? Behold, I will prove it in an inftant; and taking up his pencil, by giving the contour of the mouth a concave turn upwards, inftead of the convex downwards, which it before had, and with little or no alteration in any other part of the face, he made the child, who, a little before, feemed ready to burft his heart with crying, appear in equal danger of burfting its fides with immoderate laughter; and then, by reftoring the altered features to their former pofition, he foon fet the child a crying again. Lctlures of Philip Baldinucd, in the academy of la Crafca, Illu/iiatc, See. 12 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. According to Lionardo du Vinci,* the beft matters that painters can have recourfe to in this branch, are thofe dumb men who have found out the method of exprefling their fentiments by the motion of their hands, eyes, eye-brows, and, in (hort, every other part of the body. This advice, no doubt, is very good, but then fuch geftures mud be imitated with great lbbriety and moderation, leaft they fhould appear too flrong and exaggerated, and the piece fhould (hew nothing but pantomimes, when fpeaking figures alone, are to be exhibited ; and fo become theatrical and fecond-hand ; or, at leaft, look like the copy of a theatri- cal and fecond-hand nature. We are told ftrange things of the antient painters of Greece in regard to exprcffion, efpecially of Ariftide6, who* in a picture of his reprefenting a woman wounded to death at a fiege, with a child crawling to her breaft, makes her appear afraid, leaft the child, when the was dead, fhould, for want of milk, fuck her blood. A Medea, murdering her children, by Timomachus, was likewife much praifed, * Lionardo du Vinci had perhaps one of the greateft minds the art of painting ever pofiefied : — he was a mathematician, an engineer, a poet, and a phiiofopher. He wrote on his art with the fame fpirit and talent with which he exercifed it. During his refidence at Milan he painted an exquiftte picture of the laft Supper, for the refectory of the Dominicans. Not being able to find a fuitable model, he left the head of Chrift unfinished for fome time, as was the head of Judas for the fame reafon, till the prior of the convent, impatient to fee the work compleatcd, preffed him in fo troublefome a manner, that he drew the head of the importunate friar, and placed it upon the fhoukicrs of Judas. He refided the latter part of his life in France, where he ably fuppoi ted tfce high reputation he had acquired by his former works. The King, Francis I. vifiting him during his laft illnefs, in the year 1520, he rcfe in his bed to (hew his fenfe of the honour conferred upon him, and his refpedt for his royal patron; the exertion caufed him to faint ; and, whilft the King was f jpporting him in his arms, he expired, in the 75th year of his age. the artist's assistant. 13 as the ingenious artift contrived to exprefs, at once, in her countenance, both the fury that hurried her on to the commiffion of fo great a crime, and the tendernefs of a mother that feemed to withhold her from it. Rubens attempted to exprefs fuch a double effect in the face of Mary of Medciis, (till in pain from her paft labour, and, at the fame time, full of joy at the birth of a Dauphin. And in the countenance of Sancta Polonia, painted by Tiepolo, for St. Anthony's church at Padua, one may, I think, clearly read a mixture of pain from the wound given her by the executioner, and of pleafure from the profpedt of Paradife opened to her by it. Few, to fay the truth, are the examples of ftrong expreffion afforded by the Venetian, Flemifh, or Lombard fchools. Deprived of that great happinefs, the happinefs of being able to contemplate at leifure the works of the antients, the purcft fources of perfection in point of defign, expreffion and character; and having nothing but nature conftantly before their eyes, they made ftrength of colour- ing, blooming complexions, and the grand effects of the chiarofcuro their principal fhidy ; they aimed more at charming the fenfes, than at captivating the under- Handing. The Venetians, in particular, feem to have placed their whole glory in fetting off their pieces with all that rich variety of perfonages and drefs, which their capital is continually receiving by means of its extenfive commerce, and which attracts fo much the eyes of all thofe who vifit it. I doubt much, if, in all the pictures of Paolo Veronefc,* * Paolo Cagliari Veronefe was born at Verona in 1537 — he refided chiefly at Venice. He'was not famous for compofition, nor were his de%ns correct, but his draperies have a peculiar richnefs, and are admirable imitations of the different fluffs of which they are compofed. He delighted to copy the rich habits of his countrymen, and of the Inliabitants of the Eaft, 14 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. there is to be found a bold and judicious expreflion, or one of thofe attitudes, which, as Petrarch exprefles it, fpeak without words ; unlefs, perhaps, it be that remarkable one in his Marriage-feaft at Cana of Galilee. At one end of the table, and diredtly oppofite to the bridegroom, whofc eyes are fixed upon her, there appears a woman in red, holding up to him the fkirt of her garment, as much as to fay, I fuppofe, that the wine miraculoufly produced was exactly of the colour with the fluff on her back: and, in fa6t, it is red wine we fee in the cup and pitchers. But all this while the faces and attitudes of mod of the company betray not the leaft lign of wonder at fo extraordinary a miracle. They all, in a manner, appear intent upon nothing but eating, drinking, and making merry. Such, in general, is the ftile of the Venetian fchool. The Florentine, over which Michael Angelo* prefided, above all things curious of defign, was moft minutely and fcrupu- loufly exa6t in point of anatomy. On this (he fet her heart, and took lingular pleafure in difplaying it. Not only elegance of form, and noblenefs of invention, but which he often introduced into his pictures, facrificing propriety and truth to brilliancy, He had many faults ; but his colouring, and whatever depends on it is fo charming, that it makes us forget thofe qualities in which he failed. He died of a fever in 158S: his tomb, and ftatue in brafs, are in the church of St. Sebaftian. « Michael Angelo, from his infancy, mewed a ftrong inclination for painting ; and made fo rapid a progrefs in it, that he is faid, at the age of 14, to have been able to correct the drawings of his mafter Dominico Grillandai. His quicknefs of eye was wonderful. He ufed to fay, that a fculptor mould carry his compafs in his eye. M The hands, indeed," faid he, M do the work, but the eye judges." He was extremely difinterefted; for his immortal defign of St. Peter's church, at Rome, he received only 25 Roman crowns. It was finifhed in a fortnight. THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 15 likewife ttrength of expreffion, triumph in the Roman fchool, nurfed, as it were, amongft the works of the Greeks, and in the bofom of a city which had once been the feminary of learning and politenefs. Here it was that Domenichino* and Pouflin,f both great matters of expreffion, refined themfelves, as appears more particularly by the St. Jerome of the one, and the death of Germanicus, or the Slaughter of the Innocents by the other. Here it was that Raphael $ arofe the fovereign matter of them all. One would imagine, that, pictures which are generally con- fidered as the books of the ignorant, and of the ignorant only, he had undertaken to make the inttruclors even of the learned. One would imagine that he intended, in fome meafure, to juftify Quintilian, who affirms, that painting has more power over us than all the arts of rhetorick. There is not, indeed, a fingle picture of Raphael's, from the ftudy of which, thofe who are curious in point of expreffion, may not reap great benefit, particularly his Martyrdom of St. Felicitas ; his Magdalen in the houfc of the Pharifee; his Transfiguration; his Jofeph explaining * This painter, when young, made but a very (low progrefs in his profeflion; he took fo much pains, and ftudied fo clofely, while in the fchool of the Carracchis, that his fellow-ftudents called him the Ox, fayins, he toiled as if at plow: but Annibal Carracchi, who knew him better, told them, that " This ox, by dint of labour, would make the ground fo fruitful, that painting itfelf would be fed by what it produced;" a prophecy which has been nccomplifhed, fince many things may be learned from his works. \ f Nicholas Poufiin, commonly called the French Raphael, Hands at the head of the French fchool of painters. He ftudied in Italy, and fpent the greateft part of his life there. His pictures poffefs more grandeur and claffic limplicity, than thofe of any other French painter. X Raphael Sanzio d'Urbino, born on Good Friday, 1483. He is the moil celebrated of the modern painters, and the founder of the Roman fchool. He died on Gocd-Friday, in the year 1520. A further account of this great man will be given in the article, Painting. 16 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. to Pharaoh his dream, a piece fo highly rated by PoufTin. His School of Athens, in the Vatican, is, to all intents and purpofes, a fchool of expreffion. Among the many miracles of art with which this piece abounds, I fhall fingle out that of the four boys attending on a Mathematician, who, ftooping to the ground, his compaffes in his hand, is giving them the demonftration of a theorem. One of the boys, recolle&ed within himfelf, keeps back, with all the appear- ance of profound attention to the reafoning of the matter; another, by the brifknefs of his attitude, difcovers a greater quicknefs of apprehenfion ; while the third, who has already feized the conclufion, is endeavouring to explain it to the fourth, who, ftanding motionlefs, with open arms, a flaring countenance, and an unfpcakable air of ftupidity in his looks, will never, perhaps, be able to make any thing of the matter. And it is probably, from this very groupe, that Albani,* who ftudied Raphael fo clofely, drew the following precept of his: ** That it behoves a painter to exprefs more circumftances than one by every attitude ; and fo to employ his figures, that, by barely feeing what they are actually about, one may be able to guefs, both what they have been already doing, and are next going to do." This is a difficult precept ; but it is only by a due obfervance of it, the eye and the mind can be made to hang in fufpenfe on a painted piece of canvas. It is expreffion, that a painter, ambitious to foar in his profeflion, muft, above all things, labour to perfect himfelf in. It is the laft goal of his art, as Socrates proves to Parrhafius. It is in expreffion that dumb poetry confifts, and what the prince of our poets calls a vifible language. * Albani's fuccefs in painting children and handfome females ftands unrivalled. He was remarkably placid ; and lived to a very great age. THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. IT PERSPECTIVE. PERSPECTIVE is the art of delineating vifible objecls on a plain furface, fuch as they appear at a given diftance or height, upon a tranfparent plane, placed perpendicularly to the horizon, between the eye and the object. There are three forts of perfpeclive, viz. linear, serial, and fpecular perfpective. Linear perfpective (to which moft properly belongs our definition, and which is a branch of the mathematics), regards the pofition, magnitude, form, &c. of the fevferal lines or contours of objects, and exprefles their diminution. JEriol perfpe&ive (which makes part of the art of painting), regards the colour, luftre, ftrength, boldnefs, &c. of diftant objects, confidered as feen through a column of air, and exprefles the diminutions thereof. Specular perfpe&ive reprefents the objects in conical, fpherical, or other mirrours, ere£t and clear; whereas, on a lawn, and other planes, they appear confufed and irregular. Thefe three forts of perfpe&ive have each its particular doctrine; but before we proceed in the explanation of the doctrine, we mud teach our pupils what are planes in perfpeclive ; of which there are five forts, viz. perfpective, geometrical, horizontal, vertical, and objective plane. Perfpe&ive plane is a plain pellucid furface, ordinarily perpendicular to the horizon, and placed between the fpe&ator's eye and the object he views ; through which the optick rays, emitted from the feveral points of the objects, are fuppofed to pafs to the eye, and in their palfage to leave marks that reprefent them on the faid plane. C 18 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. A geometrical plane, is a plane parallel to the horizon, whereon the object to be delineated is fuppofed to be placed : this plane is ufually at right angles with the perfpective plane. — A horizontal plane is a plane pafling through the fpectator's eye, parallel to the horizon, cutting the perspective plane, when that is perpendicular to the geometrical one, at right angles. — A vertical plane, is a plane pafling through the fpectator's eye, perpendicular to the geometrical one; and ufually parallel to the perfpective plane. — An objective plane, is any plane fituate in the horizontal plane, whole reprefentation is required in perfpective. There are likewife feveral different lines in perfpective, viz.' terreftrial line, geometrical line, line of the front, vertical line, vifual line, line of ftation, objective line, and line of diftance. — Geometrical line, in perfpective, is a right line drawn in any manner on the geometrical plane. — ■ A terreftrial line, or fundamental line, is a right line, wherein the geometrical plane, and that of the picture, or draught, interfect one another. Such is the line formed by the interfection of the geometrical plane, and the perfpective plane. — A line of the front, is any right line, parallel to the terreftrial line. — A vertical line, is the common fection of the vertical, and of the draught. — A vifual line, is the line, or ray, imagined to pafs from the object to the eye. — An objective line, is any line drawn on the geometrical plane, whofe reprefentation is fought for in draughts or pictures. — A line of ftation, according to fome writers, is the common fection of the geometrical and vertical planes. Others mean by it the perpendicular height of the eye above the geometrical plane, whofe reprefentation is fought for in draughts or pictures. — A line of diftance, is a right line drawn from the eye to the principal point: this, as it is perpendicular THE ARTIST'^ ASSISTANT. 19 to the perpendiculars of the plane, or table, can only be the diftance of the eye from the table. — The point of the diftance, in perfpective, is a point in the horizontal line, at fuch diftance from the principal point, as is that of the eye from the fame. There are other points befides this point of diftance in perfpeclive, viz. the point of fight, the third point, the objective point, the accidental point, and the vifual point ; which term, point, is ufed for various parts, or places, with regard to the perfpeaive plane. — The point of fight, or of the eye, is a point on the plane, marked out by a right line drawn from the eye, perpendicular to t])e plane: This is alfo called the principal point. This point is in the interfe&ion of the horizontal and vertical planes. Some authors call it the principal point; and give the name point of fight, or vifion, to the point wherein the eye is actually placed, and where all the rays terminate. The third point, is a point taken at difcretion in the line of diftance, wherein all the diagonals drawn from the divifions of the geometrical plane, whofe representation is required on the perfpective plane. — An accidental point, is a point in the horizontal lines, where lines parallel to one another, though not perpendicular to the picture or representation, meet. — A vifual point, is a point in the horizontal line, wherein all the ocular rays unite. Thus a perfon Handing in a ftrait long gallery, and looking forwards, the fide, the floor, and ceiling feem to meet, and touch one another in a point, or common centre. Thefe things being previously conftdered, we (hall next pais to the explanation of the different forts of perfpective. 20 the artist's assistant. t. From a point in a given line A B, to raife a perpendicular \ See jig. II. Draw with the ruler the given line A B; then fet one foot of your compafles in B, and extending them to rather more than half the lengtji of the jine A B, fweep the arch cd ; and with the fame extent of compares fet one point in c, and fweep the arch ef; then, withoQt altering the compafles, fet one foot in g, and defcribe the arch h i ; next rule through the points c g, to interfcct the arch h i in k, and draw the line from k to B, which is the perpendicular required, 2. Another way* See fig. III. From the point A, take the equal diftances A B and A C on each fide of it, then ftretch the compafles to any diftance greater than A B or A C, and with one foot of them in B fweep the arch d e ; then, with the fame extent of compafles, fet one point in C, fweep the arch f g; and thefe two arches will interfect each other in the point h, from which a line drawn to the point A is the perpendicular required. To draio one line parallel (or equi-dijlant) to another given line A B. See fig. IV. Extend your compafles to the diftance of the parallel you require ,• then with one foot in any point of the given line, as in c, defcribe the arch d e. Again, without altering the compafles, fix one fpot in any other point, as in f, and fweep 'the arch g h ; then rule the line I K, touching the outward parts of the two arches, and that will be the parallel to the given line. THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 21 4. To bifeft or divide a given line A B, into two equal parts. See Jig . V. Take with your compaffes any diftance greater than half the given line ; then with one foot of them in B, fweep the arch cc; and with the fame diftance, fetting one foot in A, fweep the arch d d; and thefe arches will interfecl each other in the points g h; which joined by a perpendi- cular, will interfect A B in the middle point i. 5. Upon the end A of a given line, A B, to raife a perpendicular. See fig. VI. Place one foot of the compares in A, and extend theni to any point c without the given line ; then fet one foot of them in c and turn the circle d e and A, and through d c draw the diameter d c e, meeting the circle in e; join A e» and that right line is the perpendicular required* 6. To turn the circle through any three given points not in a right line. See Jig. VII. Fix three points at any diftance you think proper, as at A B and C, and join them by the right lines A B and BC ; then by fig. V. bifect the line A B with the lined e; which done, bifect the line BC with the line f e; and from the center e, where thefe lines meet, extend your compafles to A, and defcribe the circle A B C G. 7. To draio an oval. See fg, VIII, Draw a given line A B, which divide into four equal parts; fet one foot of the compafles at C, and from that Co 22 the artist's ASSISTANT. center defcribe a circle c e; with the fame extent of com- panies place one foot in the center D, and turn the circle f f ; then with one foot ftill in D, extend your compafles, and turn the arch g g ; and with the fame extent, placing one foot in C, defcribe the arch h h; join the intersections with a perpendicular from i to k ; next, place one foot of the compafles in i, fweep the arch L L, and without altering them, fet one foot in k, and defcribe the arch M M. 8. Another method for an oval. See Jig. IX. Draw a given line A D, and with the compafles extended, placing one foot in B, with the other turn the circle ec; then, without altering your compafles, on the line A D in the fuppofed point C fweep the circle f f, and through the points g g, where the two circles interfect, draw the perpendicular h i; then fix your compafles with one foot in h, and extend them fo as to defcribe the arch k k to the lower extremities of the circles; then, with the fame extent, with one foot in i, fweep the arch 1 1, to join the upper extremities. By thefe examples it will appear, that an oval of any form or fize may be conftructed at pleafure, only taking care always to fix the compafles equi-diftant from the given line A D in the perpendicular h i. PRACTICAL EXAMPLES IN PERSPECTIVE. I. To draw a fquare pavement in -perf-peSlive, See fig. X. and XI. Suppofe ycur piece of pavement to confift of fixty-four pieces of marble, each a foot fquare. Your firfl: bufinefs is to draw an ichnographical plan or ground plot of it, which the artist's assistant. 23 is thus performed. Having made an exact fquare of the ifize you intend your plan, divide the bafe and horizon into eight equal parts, and from every divifion in the bafe to its oppofite point in the horizon, rule perpendicular lines; then divide the fides into the fame number, ruling parallel lines acrofs from point to point ; fo will your pavement be divided into fixty-four fquare feet ; becaufe the eight feet in length, multiplied by the fame in breadth, give the number of fquare feet, or pieces of marble contained in the whole; then rule diagonals from corner to corner; and thus will your ground plot appear as in fig. X. Now, to lay this in perfpective, draw another fquare to your intended fize, and divide the bafe line A B into eight equal parts, as before ; then fix your point of fight C in the middle of the horizon DE, and from the fame point rule lines to every divifion in the bafe A B ; after which, rule diagonal lines from D to B, and from E to A, anfwerable to thofe in the ground plot, and your fquare will be reduced to the triangle ABC; then from the point F, where the diagonal D B interfects the line A C, to the oppofite interfection G, where the diagonal E A crofles the line C B, rule a parallel line, which is the abridgment of the fquare. Then through the points where the diagonals crofs the reft of the lines, which go from the bafe to the point of fight, rule parallel lines, and your fquare pavement will be laid in perfpective, as in fig, XI, 2. To find the height and proportion of any objefis, as they appear above the horizon, on afuppofed plane. See fig. XII. Firft, rule your horizontal line NO, and fix your point of fight, as at M ; then mark the place of your neareft pillar, by making a dot for the bafe or bottom, as at A ; 24 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT, and another for the fummit or top, as at B : rule a line from A to the point of fight M, and another from B to M, and thefe two lines will give the height of any number of pillars. As for example ; fuppofe you would have a pillar at C, fix your dot for the bafe, and rule from thence a parallel line to meet the diagonal A M at D; then rule the perpendicular D E to the diagonal B M ; which perpendi- cular is the height of your figure required at C. Or, if you would place pillars at F and I, obferve the fame method, ruling the parallels FG and 1 K, and the perpen- diculars G H and K L will give their heights at the diftances required. To find the diameter or thicknefs of pillars at any parti- cular diftances, you are alfo to be guided by that neareft the bafe. For in fiance ; fuppofe your neareft pillar A B to be ten feet high and one foot in diameter : divide it from top to bottom into ten equal parts, and fet oft" one of them upon the bale of the pillar; then rule a line from the point of fight M to the diameter P, and you willl have the thicknefs of all your pillars on their refpeclive parallels or bafes, 3. The fame rule exemplified In objefts below the horizon. See ^g. XIII. If you would know the heights of a number of figures below the horizon, rule your horizontal line Q R, and fix your point of fight, as at P ; then place your neareft figure, or mark the dots for the head and feet, by the points A and B, which anfwers the fame purpofe ; and rule from thefe dots to the point of fight the lines A P and B P ; and if you would find the height of a figure to be drawn at c, rule from thence the parallel c d to the diagonal B P, and the perpendicular de will give the height required. The ^ L.c< % ;^- //prig** on <$ y h-. Figy Fi^K A S^z~ V? '.- '" A*V \ B v / C / ^v 6 -.1 k / ./ ____ - ^^X' 1) Li />-.. ■,■■■'■ 4- 5 & 7 ^ Tk-.XIP \ B T ~-E J& ;-'- o ■S'K PA FiffXDI i%^wft*.BUte3fl| ( » / \< /l^w E / /-- ''''''/ A,--' 1 v ^ x A (^ si """~~-L 26 the artist's assistant. well as of all the doors, windows, and other objects that occur. For inilance ; having found the height and breadth of your neareft column G, draw from the top and bottom of the faid column to the point of fight the lines H F and K F ; after which, rule the line IF from the bafe of the column to the point of fight, and you have the height and breadth of all the reft of the columns, as has been already fhewn in fig. XII. By ruling lines from the points a, b, c, d, &c. to the point of fight, you will fee that all the fummits and bafes of your columns, doors, windows, &c. mult tend immediately to that point ; and by lines drawn from the points i, 2, 3, 4, &c. on each fide, to the correfpondent points on the oppofite fide, may be feen all the parts of your building lying upon the fame parallel. 5. To draw an oblique view. Seefg. XV, Firft, draw your horizontal line AB; then, if your favourite object be on the right hand, as at C, place your- afe of your principal building C; and will alfo, as before directed, ferve as a ftandard for all the reft. Obferve alfo, either in direct or oblique views, whether the profpect before you makes a curve ; for if it does, you muft be careful to make the fame curve in your drawing. 6. To draw a perfpective view, wherein are accidental points. See fig. XVI. Rule your horizotal line a h, and on one part of it fix your point of fight, as at c; from which rule the diagonals THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 21 c d and ce on the one fide, and c f and and c q on the other; which will fhew the roofs and bafes of all the houfes in the ftreet directly facing you, (fuppofing yourfelf placed at A in the center of the bafe line). Then fix your acci- dental points g and h upon the horizontal line, and rule from them to the angles i k and 1 m (where the ftreets on each fide take a different direction, towards the accidental points g and h), and the lines g i and g k give the roofs and bafes of all the buildings on one fide, as 1 h aod m h do on the other. Accidental points feldom intervene where the diftance is fmall, as in noblemen's feats, groves, canals, &c. which may be drawn by the Uriel; rules of perfpective; but where the profpect is extenfive and varied, including mountains, bridges, caflles, rivers, precipices, woods, cities, &c. it will require fuch an infinite number of accidental points, that it will be better to do them as nature (hall dictate, and your ripened judgement approve. 7. To find the centre for the roof of a houfe, in an oblique view. See plate IV. Suppofe from the point of fight A, the vifual lines B A and A C be drawn, B C being one perpendicular given, and D E the other, rule the diagonals from D to C, and from E to B, and the perpendicular F G, raifed through the point of their interfection, will fhew the true centre of the roof, as will appear by ruling the lines G E and G C. For want of being acquainted with this neceflary rule, many, who have been well verfed in other parts of per- fpective, have fpoiled the look of their picture, by drawing the roofs of their houfes out of their true perpendicular. Perfpedtive is either employed in representing the ichnographies, and ground-plots of objects as projective 28 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT; planes; or in fcenographies, and reprefentations of the bodies themfelves. Ichnography, in perfpective, is the view of any thing cut off by a plain parallel to the horizon, juft at the bafe or bottom of it ; fo that ichnography is the fame with what is otherwise called the plan, geometrical plan, or ground- plot of any thing. Scenography, in perfpective, . is a reprefentation of a body on a perfpective plane; or a defcription thereof in all its dimenfxons, fuch as it appears to the eye. The ichno- graphy of a building, &c. reprefents the plan, or ground- work of the building. The orthography the front, or one of the fides; and the fcenography the whole building, front, fides, height and all, raifed on the geometrical plan. Projection, in perfpective, denotes the appearance or re* prefentation of an object on the perfpective plane. The projection, e, g r, of a point, is a point through which the optick ray paffes from the objective point through the plane to the eye; or it is the point wherein the plane cuts the optick ray. And hence is eafily conceived what is meant by the projection of a line, a plane, or a folic!. The projection of the fphere in plane, is a reprefentation of feveral points or places of the furface of the fphere, and of the circles defcribed thereon, or of any afligned parts thereof, fuch as they appear to the eye fituate at any given diftance, upon "a tranfparent plane placed between the eye and the fphere. The principal ufe of the projection of the fphere is in the conftruction of planifpheres* and particu- larly maps and charts, which are faid to be of this or that projection, according to the feveral fituations of the eye, and the perfpective plane with regard to the meridians, parallels, and other points and places to be represented. The projection of the fphere is ufually divided into ortho- graphic and ftereographic. THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 29 Orthographic projection, is that wherein the fuperfices of the fphere is drawn on a plane, cutting it in the middle ; the eye being placed at an infinite diftance vertically to one of the hemifpheres. The laws of this fort of project tion are thefe: i. The rays by which the eye at an infinite diftance perceives any object, are paralled. 2. A right line perpendicular to the plane of the projection, is projected into a point, where that right line cuts the plane of the projection. 3. A right line not perpendicular, but either parallel or oblique to the plane of the projection, is projec- ted into a right line, and is always comprehended between the extreme perpendiculars. 4. The projection of the right line is the greateft, when that line is parallel to the plane of the projection. 5. Hence it is evident, that a line parallel to the plane of the projection, is projected into a right line equal to itfelf ; but if it be oblique to the plane of the projection, it is projected into one which is lefs. 6. A plane furface, at right angles to the plane of the projection, is projected into that right line, in which it cuts the plane of the projection. Hence it is evident, that a circle ftanding at right angles to the plane of the projec- tion which pafles through its centre, is projected into that . diameter, in which it cuts the plane of the projection. 7. A circle parallel to the plane of the projection, is pro- jected into a circle equal to itfelf; and a circle oblique to the plane of the projection, is projected into an ellipfis. Stereographic projection, is that wherein the furface and circles of the fphere are drawn upon the plane of a great circle, the eye being in the pole of that circle. As to the properties of this fort of projection: 1. In this projection a right circle is projected into a line of half tangents. 2. The reprenfentation of a right circle perpendicularly oppofed to the eye, will be a circle in the plane of the pro- jection. 3. The reprcfentatien of a circle placed obliquely 30 the artist's assistant. to the eye, will be a circle in the plane of projection. 4. If a great circle is to be projected on the plane of another great circle, its centre will lie in the line of meafures, diftant from the centre of the primitive by the tangent of its elevation above the plane of the primitive, c. If a teffer circle, whofe poles lie in the plane of the proje&ion, were to be projected, the center of its representation would lie in the line of meafures, diftant from the centre of the primitive, by the fecant of the lefler circle's diftance from its pole, and its femi-diameter or radius be equal to the tangent of that diftance. 6. If a lefler circle were to be projected, whofe poles lie not in the plane of the projection its diameter in the projection, if it falls on each iide of the pole of the primitive, will be equal to the fum of the half tangents of its greateft and neareft diftance from the pole of the primitive, fet each way from the centre of the pri^ mitive in the line of meafures. 7. If the leiFer circle to be projected, falls entirely on one fide of the pole of projection, and does not encompafs it, then will all its diameter be equal to the difference of the half tangents of its greateft and neareft diftance from the pole of the primitive, fet off from the centre of the primitive one, and the fame way in the line of meafures. 8. In the llereographic projection, the angles made by the circles of the furface of the fphere, are equal to the angles made by their reprefentation in the plane of their projection. seseseese Of COLOURS. The method of preparing the various kinds ujed in painting, IT will now be proper to explain in an eafy manner, the method of preparing the various bodies employed by painters, for producing the difference of light and fhade; THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 31 which may be termed either pigments or fluids, as they are folid or aqueous; and are diftinguifhed in their feveral kinds, according to the manner of working them ; as oil- colours, water-colours, enamel-colours, &c. but their variety are too numerous to be in general ufe: molt pain- ters therefore felect a fet out of them, and become very unjuftly prejudiced againft thofe they reject. It is n© little impediment to their improvement in the profeffion, that they are not more extenfively acquainted with all the ingredients fit for their purpoles. Thofe colours which become tranfparent in oil, fuch as lake, Pruflian blue, and brown pink, are frequently ufed without the admixture of white, or any other opake pig- ment; by which means the tint of the ground on which they are laid retains, in fome degree, its force; and the real colour, produced in painting, is the combined effeel: of both. This is called glazing; and the pigments endued with the property of becoming tranfparent in oil, are called glazing colours. As colours are obtained from various fubftances, the means of preparing them are eonfcquently various; fome being of a finiple nature, and requiring only to be purified and reduced to a proper confiftence or texture; and others being compounds of different bodies, to be formed only by complex procefle?. It is therefore very difficult to give fuch general directions, for the making every fort of colour as maybe intelligible to all; the utenfils to be employed, as well as the methods to be purfued, being fuch as belong to different arts and trades. Where, neverthelefs, fimple means, and the ufe of fucn utenfils as are generally known, may be fufficient to per- form what is wanting, it i3 beft to avoid all technical terms, and more complex methods of operation, adopting fuch a mode of inftruction as mav be univerfally intelligible:— 3$ TMfe artist's assistant. We now proceed to the nature and preparation of the dif- ferent colours, as they follow in their clafles. Class L* Of RED COLOURS. Vermillion, is one of the moft uleful colours in every kind of painting ; except enamel or on glafs ; as it is of a moderate price, fpends to great advantage in any kind of work, and ftands or holds its colour extremely well. It may be prepared in great perfection by the following pro- cefs: " Take of quickfilver eighteen pounds, of flowers of fulphur fix pounds: melt the fulphur in an earthen pot; and pour in the quickfilver gradually, being alfo gently warmed; and ftir them well together, with the fmall end of a tobacco-pipe. But if, from the effervefcence, on adding the latter quantities of the quickfilver, they take fire, extinguim it by throwing a wet cloth (which fhould be had ready) over the veffel. When the mafs is cold, powder it, fo that the feveral parts may be well mixed together. But it is not neceffary to reduce it, by nicer levigation, to an impalpable Mate. Having then prepared an oblong glafs body, or fublimer, by coating it well with fire-lute over the whole furface of the glafs, and working a proper' rim of the fame round it, by * Class I. RED. Scarlet t or finding is tie orange, Crimfon, or tending to the purple. "Vermillion. Carmine. Native cinnabar. Lake. Red lead. Rofe pink. Scarlet oker. Red oker. Common Indian red. Venetian red, Spanim brown. Terra dijienn* burnt. THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 33 " which it may be hung in the furnace in fuch a manner " that one half of it may be expofed to the fire, fix it in " a proper furnance, and let the powdered mafs be put " into it, fo as to nearly fill the part that is within the " furnace; a piece of broken tile being laid over the " mouth of the glafs. Sublime then the contents, with as •* ftrong a heat as may be ufed without blowing the fumes " of the vermillion out of the mouth of the fublimer. " When the fublimation is over, which may be perceived " by the abatement of the heat towards the top of the body, " difcontinue the fire; and, after the body is cold, take it " out of the furnace, and break it: collect then together " all the parts of the fublimed cake, feparating carefully " from them any drofs that may have been left at the •' bottom of the body, as alfo any lighter fubftance that " may have formed in the neck, and appears to be dif- " fimilar to the reft. Levigate the more perfect part ; and, " when reduced to fine powder, it will be vermillion proper " forufe: but on the perfectnefs of levigation, depends, " in a great degree, the brightnefs and goodnefs of the " vermillion. In order therefore to perform this, it is •• neceffary that two or three mills of different clofenefs «' fhould be employed, and the laft fhould be of fteel, and " fet as finely as poflible." It is common, perhaps general, for dealers to fophifticate vermillion with red lead. But to detect with certainty the fraud, both with rcfpect to the general fact, [and the pro- portion, ufethe following means: " Take a fmall, but known quantity of vermillion, " fufpected to be adulterated, and put it into a crucible; *' having firft mixed with it about the fame quantity, in " bulk, of charcoal duft: put the crucible into a common " fire, having firft covered it with a leifer crucible inverted D 34 the artist's assistant. " into it; and give a heat fufficient to fufe lead; when the " crucible, being taken'out of the fire, fhould be well " fhaken, by ftriking it againft the ground. If the fufpect- " ed adulteration has been practiced, the lead will be found " reduced to its metalline ftate, in the bottom of the crucible; " and, being weighed, and compared with the quantity of ff cinnabar that was put into the crucible, the proportion " of the adulteration may be thence certainly known. ** But, if no lead be found in the crucible, it may be fafely " inferred, that no red lead had been commixt with the " vermillion." NATIVE CINNABAR, Is found naturally formed in the earth, though feldom fo pure as to be fit for the ufes of painting, at leaft without being purified by fublimation. The miftaken notion that it would ftand better than vermillion, becaufe it was a na- tural production, has made it to be coveted by painters who are curious in colours. It is, however, not worth their while to be folicitous about it, as it never excelled the beft vermillion in brightnefs; and what is generally fold for it is a pigment compounded of quickfilver and fulphur. RED LEAD, or MINUM. The goodnefs of red lead may be feen by its brightnefs, and a mixture of any kind will make it of a dull appear- ance. It is on this account not fo liable to be fophifticated, as white lead or vermillion. It is lead calcined, till it ac- quires a proper degree of colour* by expofing it with a large furface to the fire. the artist's assistant. 35 SCARLET OKER, Is an ochrous, earthy, or rather irony fubftance, and is the bafis of green vitriol, feparated from the acid of the vitriol by calcination. It i6 a kind of orange fcarlet colour, and rivals any of the native okers, from its certainty of ftanding, and extreme ftrength and warmth, either as a ground, or in the* (hade of carnations. It is ufeful as a colour in any kind of painting; the manner of its prepara- tion is as follows; " Take of green vitriol or copperas, any quantity; and " being put into a crucible, of which it will fill two thirds, " fet it on a common fire to boil (taking care that it do '* not boil over) till the matter be nearly dry; when it '■* will be greatly diminished in quantity. Fill then the " crucible to the fame height again, and repeat the boiling " and replenifhing, till the crucible be filled with dry " matter. Take it then from this fire, and put it into a " wind-furnace; or, -if the quantity be fmall, it may be u continued in the fame fire, the coals being heaped up " round it. Let the contents be calcined there till they " become of a red colour when cold; which muft be exa- " mined by taking a little of the matter out of the middle, ** and fuffering it to cool ; for fo long as it remains hot, " the red colour will not appear, though it be fufficiently " calcined. When duly calcined, take the oker out of " the crucible while hot, and put it into water, in which " the parts of the broken crucible may be foaked likewife, " to obtain more eafily what (hall adhere to them ; and Air " the oker well about in the water, that all the remaining 11 vitriol may be melted out of it. Let it then fettle, and " when the water appears clear, pour it 6ff, and add a frefh " quantity; taking out all the broken pieces of the crucible; D a 36 THE ARTIST S ASSISTANT. •! and proceed as before ; repeating feveral times this treat- " ment with frefh quantities of water. Then purify the •« oker from any remaining foulnefs by warning over ; and " having brought it to a proper ftate of drynefs, by drain- " ing off the fluid by a filter, in which the paper muft be " covered with a linen cloth, lay it to dry on boards." COMMON INDIAN RED, Is fubftituted in place of the real kind brought from the Eaft-lndies : ferving equally well for common purpofes, giving a tint verging to fcarlet, (varying from the true Indian red, which is greatly inclined to the purple), and on account of its warm, though not bright colour, it is much ufed, as well in finer as coarfer paintings in oil. It is af- forded cheap and may be thus managed : " Take of the caput mortuum, or oker, left in the iron " pots after the diftillation of aquafortis from nitre and •' vitriol, two parts, and of the caput mortuum or colco- " thar, left in the long necks after the diftillation of oil of " vitriol, one part ; break the lumps found among them, " and put them into tubs with a good quantity of water ; •' and having let them ftand for a day or two, frequently " ftirring them well about, lade oft" as much water as can *.' be got clear from them ; and add a frefti quantity, repeat- " ing the fame treatment till all the falts be wafhed out, " and the water come oft' nearly infipid. The red powder " which remains muft then be wafhed over, and, being " freed from the water, laid out to dry. " When this is defigned for nicer purpofes, it fhould be M wafhed over again in bafons, the grofs manner of lading '« it out of one tub into another not fitting it always com- " pletely to fuch ends." the artist's assistant. 37 VENETIAN RED. Ufeful to houfe-painters, in imitating mahogany, and is a native red oker inclining to fcarlet, and eafily prepared by mixing it with the colcothar or caput mortuum, taken out of the aquafortis pots and warned over. It requires no other preparation for ufe than to be well ground with oil, unlefs when it is ufed in miniature painting— when it mould be warned over with the utmoft care. SPANISH BROWN, Refembles the Venetian red very much in colour, but is fouler : it is a native pigment, and is ufed much in the fame ftate nature produces it ; being dug up in feveral parts of England. No other preparation is needful than freeing it well from ftones and filth, and grinding it with oil to ren- der it fit for colourmen, in the preparation of cloths for pictures, and other coarfe work. Calcined or burnt TERRA di SIENNA, Is originally yellow ; but, when moderately calcined, be- comes an orange red, though not very bright. It is a na- tive oker, brought hither from Italy in the ftate in which it is naturally found. It is calcined by putting lumps of it either in a crucible, or naked in a common fire, and conti- nuing it there till the colour be changed from yellow to red. It is exceedingly ufeful in oil-painting, and admits of no adulteration : it may be rliftinguifhed from other ochrous earths by its femi-tranfparency. D Q 38 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. CARMINE, Is a bright crimfon colour, of great advantage in paint- ing, as well in water as varnith : the preparation of it ig kept a fecret by chofe who prepare it in perfection ; and the fuperiority of the French carmine thews that the pro- per method is wanting in England — though fome wrongly attribute the excellence to qualities in the air and water of France. There are feveral recipes for this colour, but rather than infert imperfect inftructions for an article of great confequence, we choofe to be Client. LAKE. The beft of what is commonly fold is made from the co- lour extracted from fcarlet rags, and depofited on the cuttle- bone, which may be done in the following manner: " Take a pound of the beft pearl-afb.es, and, having 11 diffolved them in two quarts of water, purify them by " filtering through paper. Add then to this folution two " more quarts of water, and having put in a pound of " fcarlet (hreds, procured of the taylors, (which muft be " entirely clean), boil them in a pewter boiler, till the " {hreds appear to have wholly loft their fcarlet colour. " Take them out of the folution and prefs them well ; dip- " ping them after in water and prefling them again, that " all the fluid they had imbibed may be got from them, in " order to be put back to the reft. Take thee another " pound of the fcarlet (hreds, and repeat the like treat- " ment of them in the fame folution ; as alfo a third and " fourth pound. While this is doiug diflolve a pound and the artist's assistant. 39 " half ofcuttle-fifh-bone in a pound of flrong aquafortis in " a glafs receiver ; adding more of the bone, if it appear " to produce any ebullition in the aquafortis : and, having ** drained off this folution through flannel, pour it into the " other by degrees ; obferving whether it produce any " eflervefcence on putting in the laft quantity : which if it M do in any great degree, more of the cuttle-fifh-bone mufl «.« be diffolved in aquafortis : and the folution very gradu- V. ally added till no ebullition appear to be raifed by it in «« the mixture. If this be properly managed, the fluid wilt " foon become clear and colourlefs, and the tinging parti- " cles extracted from the fhreds, together with the cuttle- " fifh-bone, will fubfide to the bottom and form a crimfon " fediment ; which is the lake. The water mufl: then be « poured off; and two gallons of hard fprrng water mufl " be put to the lake; and well flirred about to mix them, " This being Iikewife poured off, after the lake has again " fettled to the bottom, muft be replaced by another two U gallons ; and the fame method mufl be repeated four or «' five times. But if hard water cannot be procured, or the " lake appear too purple, half an ounce of alum fhould be " added to each quantity of water before it be ufed. When «« the lake is thus fufficiently freed from the falts, it mufl " have the water drained from it in a filter covered with a ** linen cloth, which has been fo worn as to have no nap " or down remaining on its furface. After the lake has " been drained to a proper drynefs, it mufl be dropped on " clean boards, by means of a proper funnel : through " which, the drops being fuffered to pafs, and refl on the " board at proper diflances, they will become fmall cones " or pyramids ; in which form the lake mufl be fuffered ta ** dry, and the preparation is then completed." 40 THE ARTIST S ASSIST ANT. ROSE PINK. The bafis of this pigment is principally chalk ; and the tinging fubftance extracted from Brafil, or Campeachy wood. It will not ftand with oil or water, and is feldom employed but for the coarfe work of houfe painters, or for paper hanging, unlefs fecured from flying with varnifh, when, if good, it may be fubftituted for lake. It is pre- pared as follows : W Take brafil wood fix pounds, or three pounds of brafil and three of peachy wood. Boil them an hour with three gallons of water, in which a quarter of a pound of alum is diffolved. Purify then the fluid by draining through flannel ; and put back the wood into the boiler with the fame quantity of alum, and proceed as before; repeating this a third time. Mix then the three quan- tities of tincture together; and evaporate them till only two quarts of fluid remain : which evaporation muft be performed firft in the pewter boiler, and afterwards in a balneo marise. Prepare in the mean time eight pounds of chalk by wafhing over; a pound of alum being put into the water ufed for that purpofe, which, after the chalk is wafhed, muft be poured off and fupplied by a frefh quantity, till the chalk be freed from the fait form- ed by the alum ; after which it muft be dried to the con- fiftence of ftiff clay. The chalk and tincture, as above prepared, muft be then well mixed together by grinding; and afterwards laid out to dry where neither the fun or cold air can reach it; though, if it can be conveniently done, a gentle heat may be ufed." RED OKER, Is a native earth, brought chiefly from Oxfordfhire, and burnt afterwards (by thofe who prepare it) in large ovens, the artist's assistant. 41 till by calcination it becomes red. It is very ufeful as well in the more delicate as coarfer paintings in oil, for it ftands infallibly. For nicer purpofes it fhould be wafhed over ; but for others it may be ufed in the ftate in which it is found in the (hops. Class II.* Of BLUE COLOURS. Ultramarine is a bright blue colour, of the higheft value in every kind of painting ; being equally ferviceable in all, even in enamel. It has a tranfparent effect in oil, and in fome degree in water, and will ftand without the leaft hazard of flying. By reafon of its high price, Pruffian blue has been much introduced, to the prejudice of paint- ing in general ; as the fkies of landfkapes and many other parts of modern pictures, fhew the Iofs of ultramarine, by their changing from a warm or clear blue, to a faint green or olive tint. The methods have been continually varied by thofe who have attempted to prepare this pigment. The following is the bed of the more modern : " Take the lapis lazuli, and break it into very fmall " pieces, or rather a grofs powder ; put it into a crucible, " and cover it fecurely, to prevent the coals from falling " amongft it. Calcine it then with a ftrong fire, for an " hour, if there be any large quantity, or lefs time in pro- " portion ; quench it, when taken out of the fire, in " vinegar, ftirring them well together, and fuffer it to re- * Class II. BLUE. Ultramarine. Indigo. Ultramarine afhes. Smalt. Pruflian blue. Bice. Verditer. Litmus, or latmus, Cendre blue, or Sanders blue. 42 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. ** main in that ftate for a day or two. Pour off then the " vinegar, except what may be neceflary for moiftening the « calcined lapis lazuli in grinding; which operation it mull *' then undergo, in a mortar of flint or glafs, till reduced " to the greateft degree of finenefs thofe means may effect. " But, if it appear yet too hard to be eafily ground, give M it another fhort calcination, and quench it a fecond time ** in vinegar. The vinegar mud then be warned off from V the powder, by the putting to it feveral fucceflive quanti- ** ties of clean water ; each of which muft be poured off " when the lapis lazuli has been well ftirred about in them, * c and is again fettled to the bottom. It muft then be M ground on a porphyry ftone, with a mullar, till it be ¥ perfectly impalpable, and then dried : in which ftate it is ,{ duly prepared to mix with the following cement. Take " of Burgundy pitch nine ounces — of white refin, and * f Venice turpentine, fix ounces— iof virgin wax one ounce •' and half— >-and of linfeed oil one ounce and a quarter ; " mix them together by melting in a pipkin over the fire ; " and fuffer them to boil till they acquire fo ftiff a con- •? fiftence, that being dropt into water while of this boiling ** heat, they will not fpread on the furface of it, but form a M roundiih mafs or lump. The cement being thus formed, " may be poured out of the pipkin in the water, and made " into cakes or rolls for ufe. Of this cement, take an " equal weight with that of the calcined lapis lazuli and " melt it in a glazed earthen pipkin ; but not fo as to ren- " der it too fluid. Then add to it the calcined matter by " very flow degrees ; ftirring them together with an ivory ° fpatula, till the whole appear perfectly mixed. • Being " thus mixed, heat the compofition to a fomething greater *' degree, and cafl it into a large bafon full of cold water. 11 When it has cooled to a confidence to bear fuch treat- the artist's assistant. 43 " ment, knead it well like the dough of bread, with the " hands rubbed over with linfeed oil, till all the parts be " thoroughly incorporated with each other. Then make < f the mafs into a cake, which may be either kept till fome u other convenient time in cold water, or immediately pro- " ceeded with in the following manner ; put the cake into " an earthen dim or bafon, the bottom of which fhould be " rubbed with linfeed oil ; and pour on it water of the if warmth of blood. Let it ftand a quarter of an hour ; " and, as the water foftens the cake, it will let loofc the u fineft part of the calcined matter, which, on gently ftir- '* ring the water, but without breaking the cake, or fepa- " rating it into leffer parts, will be fufpended in the water, " and muft be poured off with it into another veffel. The *' quantity of water muft be then renewed, and the fame ** operation repeated a fecond or third time : and, as the " mafs appears flack, in affording the colour, it muft be " moved and ftirred, in the manner of kneading, with the *' ivory fpatula, but not broken into fragments or fmall " parts ; and when fo much of the colour is extracted, as " to render it neceffary for the obtaining more, the heat of " the water muft be increafed to the greateft degree. Tlj6 M quantities of the calcined matter (which is now the ultra* 41 marine) that were firft wafhed off, and appear of trie " fame degree of deepnefs and brightnefs, may be put to* " gether ; and the fame of thofe of the fecond degree ; tU© " laft warnings making a third. The water being theft " poured off from each of thefe parcels, put on a lixivium " formed of two ounces of fait of tartar, or pearl-aines, " diffolved in a pint of water, and filtered through paper " after the folution is cold. This lixivium muft be put on " boiling hot, and the ultramarine flirred well about in it ; " and then the mixture fet to cool. The powder being " fubfided, the clear lixivium muft be poured off, and clean 44 the artist's assistant. " water put in its place ; which muit be repeated till the " whole of the i'alts of the lixivium are warned away. The *' ultramarine muft afterwards be dried; and will be then i( duly prepared for ufe." Ultramarine is fubjeft to be adulterated, on account of its great price. This is frequently done by a precipitation of copper, made by alkaline fait, and is very injurious ; be- caufe the magiftery of copper (if the ultramarine fophifticat- ed with it be ufed in painting, either with oil or water) will change its hue and turn black. And, in enamel paint- ing, as foon as fluxed, it will become a green, and confe- quently make the effe& of the ultramarine vary from what is intended. This fraud may be eafily dete&ed by pouring fome diluted fpirit of nitre on a fmall quantity; which, if there be any copper, will foon diffolve, and form a greenifh blue folution. ULTRAMARINE ASHES. After the ultramarine has been extraaed from the lapis lazuli, the refiduum or remains form this pigment. And when the operation of extrading the colour has not fucceed- edwell, a confiderable fhare of the ultramarine is left behind with the recrement, and greatly enhances the worth of the afhes; for of courfe the value of the latter is inferior to the former, but it is ftill fubjed toadujteration, which may be difcovered by putting fome of it into a fmall quantity of fpirit of nitre, and if there be any copper in it, it will be tinged green. It is prepared as follows: " Take the cement of the ultramarine, which remains 11 after the colour is extraded, and mix it with four times « its weight of linfeed oil. Let the mixture be fet in a ,( glazed pipkin over the fire, and when it is thus boiled a " ftort time, put it into a glafs veffel fufficiently large to the artist's assistant* 45 " contain it, of a cylindrical figure : of which veflel the " diameter muft be fmall in proportion to the length. But " care muft be taken, that the matter, when put into this " glafs, be cool enough not to endanger the breaking it. " This glafs muft then be put into a balneum marias> " which muft be made as hot as poflible without boiling, " and kept there till the colour appears to be all fubflded " to the bottom. The oil muft then be poured off, till " the colour appears to rife with it ; and the remainder, " with the colour in it, muft be put into another glafs of " the fame kind with as much frefh oil as will rife five or 1 " fix inches above the colour. This glafs muft be treated " in the fame manner as the firft: obferving when the " colour has fubflded, the oil muft be poured off, and a " frefh quantity put in its place. This having been like- " wife poured off, the colour muft then be well warned, " to free it from the remaining oil, firfl in boiling water, '* and afterwards in fome of the lixivium abovementioned, *' made boiling hot alfo. As much of the lixivium being '* poured off, when the colour has fubflded, as can be fe- " parated from it that way, the colour mufl be thoroughly " freed from the remainder by frequent ablutions with '* clean water: after which the water muft be taken off «■' by the means above directed for the ultramarine, till the " matter be of a proper degree of moifture for grinding. It " muft then be thoroughly well ground on a porphyry, and '* warned over; that all the harder and infufficiently cal- '* cined parts may be reduced to an impalpable powder; " in order to which, the remaining groffer parts, after the " finer have been feparated by the wafhing over, muft be *' again ground till the whole be perfectly fine. The " fame means muft be afterwards ufed to bring the allies to " a dry powder that were before directed for the ultra- " marine." 46 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT* PRUSSIAN BLUE, Is the earth of alum, combined with the fixed fulphur of animal or vegetable coal; and may be made from almoft any animal fubftance; but it is generally made of the coal of blood only. It is ufeful in all kinds of painting, fave enamel; and prepared to different degrees of brightnefs and ftrength. The common kind found in the Ihops, and fold at very low prices, can be little depended upon in paintings of confequence; therefore it fhould be prepared perfect, and in the true manner: and then, confidering the high price of ultramarine and the foulnefs of the indigo, it may be truly deemed a very valuable acquifition to the art of painting. " Take of blood any quantity; and evaporate it to per- ** feet drynefs. Of this dry blood, powdered, take fix " pounds, and of the beft peail-afhes two pounds: mix ** them well together in a glafs or ftone mortar; and then " put the mixt matter into large crucibles or earthern 41 pots; and calcine it in a furnace; the top of the crucible " or pot being covered with a tile, or other fuch con- H venient thing, but not luted. The calcination fhould '* be continued, fo long as any flame appears to iffue from " the matter; or rather till the flame become (lender and '* blue; for if the fire be very ftrong, a fmall flame would " arife for a very long time, and a great part of the tinging ** matter would be diffipated and loft. When the matter " has been fufficiently calcined, take the veflels which con- V tain it out of the fire; and, as quickly as poffible, throw *' it into two or three gallons of writer; and, as it foaks '• there, break it with a wooden fpatula, that no lumps " may remain. Put it then into a proper tin vefiel, and boil " it for the fpace of three quarters of an hour or more- THE ARTIST S ASSISTANT. 4T " Filter it while hot through paper in tin cullenders, and *' pafs fome water through the filter when it is run dry " to wath out the remainder of the lixivium of the blood •' and pearl- afhes; the earth remaining in the filter may " be then thrown away. In the mean time, diflblve " of clean alum four pounds, and of green vitriol or cop- " peras two pounds, in three gallons of water. Add this ** folution gradually to the filtered lixivium, fo long as any " eflfervefcence appears to arife on the mixture ; but, when " no ebullition or ferment follows the admixture, ceafe to " put in more. Let the mixture then ftand at reft, and " a green powder will be precipitated: from which, when 11 it has thoroughly fubfided, the clear part of the fluid " muft be poured off, and frefh water put in its place, and " ftirred well about with the green powder; and, after a 11 proper time of fettling, this water muft be poured off ** like the firft. Take then of fpirit of fait double the " weight of the green vitriol which was contained in the " quantity of folution of vitriol and alum, added to the " lixivium, which will foon turn the green matter to a blue 11 colour; and, after fome time, add a proper quantity of " water, and wafh the colour in the fame manner as has " been directed for lake, &c. and, when properly warned, 41 proceed in the fame manner to dry it in lumps of con- " venient fize." The brightnefs, deepnefs, and ccolnefs of Prufiian blue, are proofs of its goodnefs ; for with tnefe qualities it may be depended upon in Handing well. Sophiftication, or any thing amifs in the procefs, may be feen by its being more foul and purple. 48 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT/ VERDITER, Is formed by adding a due proportion of chalk to a folu- tion of copper, made by refiners in precipitating the filver from the aquafortis, in the operation called parting. Ver- diter is to be had at a cheap rate from the refiners, who are at no expence in making it, but that of the chalk and labour. The manner in which it may be beft done by them is as follows : " Take any quantity of chalk, and having rendered it " fufhciently fine by wafhing over carefully, add it gra- " dually to the folution of copper, fo long as any change " appears to be produced by it from the ebullition excited; " or the due proportion may be perceived by the fluid " lofing its green tinge and becoming colourlefs. Let it " then ftand at reft till the fediment be fubfided, and pour '* off the clear part of the fluid from the powder; adding M in it its place clean water, which muft be feveral times " renewed till the falts be entirely waftied out. The " fediment, which is the verditer, muft be afterwards freed *' from the fluid by filtering through paper covered with " a cloth, and laid out in lumps of a middling fize to dry." Thofe who defire to make verditer themfelves, may prepare,,the folution of copper, by adding copper filings gradually to aquafortis of any kind, or putting plates of copper in it; and then proceeding as is above directed for the refiner's folution. BLEU de CENDRES; or SANDERS BLUE. If enquiry is made at the colour (hops for this article, nothing is to 1>< found under the name but common ver- diter, or a fpecies of it where the precipitation of the copper THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 49 appears to be made in part upon ftarch as well as chalk. It may be prepared as follows : " Take of the refiners folution of copper made in the " precipitation of filver from the fpirit of nitre ; or diflblve " copper in fpirit of nitre or aquafortis, by throwing in " filings or putting in flips of copper gradually, till all *« effervefcence ceafe. Add to it of ftrach finely powdered, " the proportion of one fifth or fixth of the weight of the " copper diffolved. Make then a folution of pearl allies, " and filter it; and put gradually, to the folution of copper, " as much as will precipitate the whole of the copper; " which may be known by the fluid's becoming clear and " colourlefs, though before highly tinged with green. " Wafti the powder, which will be precipitated, in the " manner directed for lake, &c. and, when it is fo well " drained of water by means of a filter, as to be of a proper " confidence, grind the whole well together, and lay it out «' to dry." INDIGO. This was formerly almoft the only blue colour ufed in painting. It is made in the Spanifh Weft-Indies, by means of putrefaction from certain plants, and a coagulation by the air. It cannot (as far as is hitherto known) be prepared in thefe colder climate's, on account of the tender nature of the plants which produce it. The indigo brought from the French, or our own plantations, is foul, and greatly inferior in brightnefs to that formerly imported hither from the Spaniards, it being equal to the Pruflian blue for fome pur- pofes; and there is no other preparation neceffary to ufing it in painting, except a perfect levigation. 5.0 the artist's assistant. SMALT. Smalt is made from glafs ground to a powder, and colour- ed with zaffer; or prepared from fluxing to the proportion of glafs, one feventh part of zaffer, or more or lefs, accord- ing to the degree of deepnefs required. It will not work with either brum or pencil; but, by ftrewing it upon any- ground of oil-paint while wet, it makes a bright blue mining furface, proper for large fun-dials, and other fuch applica- tions. In enamel-painting, and in painting on glafs, it is of great ufe. BICE. At prefent feveral compofitions of indigo and verditer with chalk, and other cheap fubftances, are fold in this name; but the true kind is fmalt, reduced to a fine powder by levigation. From its unfuitable texture, it is now greatly difufed, or it makes a light warm blue colour, and was formerly ufed in oil, but more frequently in water- colours. LITMUS or LATMUS. Water painting is the only kind in which this can be ufed, and as it is brought from Holland at a very cheap rate, it were almoft necdlefs to give the preparation. But if any are defirous, for curiofity, to know the procefs, it is formed from archal, a fpecies of mofs, brought from the Canary and Cape de Vcrd Iflands, and prepared as follows: " Add quick line and putrified urine, or fpirit of urine *• diftilled from lime, to the archal, previoufly bruifed by " grinding. This mixture muft be fuffered to (land till it THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 51 * acquires a very blue colour. After which the fluid muft •' be fuffered to evaporate, and the remaining mafs, when " it is of the confidence of a pafte, muft be laid on boards r * to dry in fquare lumps." If it is ufed in miniature paintings, care muft be taken of the approach of acid, for that changes it inftantly from blue to red; though it will ftand if no fuch accident in- tervene. Class III.* Of YELLOW COLOURS. King's yellow, when prepared well (which muft be done by mixing fulphur and arfenic by fublimation) is an extremely bright colour, and a true yellow; but when mixed with white lead, and feveial other pigments, its colour flies or changes: this defeat, joined to its naufeous fmell, and the notion of its being a ftrong poifon, renders it unpleafing, and caufes it to be rejected by many. Never- thelefs, it may be ufed on many occafions, with great ad- vantage, not only as a yellow, but by mixing it with blue pigments, and forming a green. King's yellow is prepared as follows : " Take of arfenic powdered, and flowers of fulphur, 11 in the proportion of twenty of the firft to one of the * Ci-Ass III. YELLOW. King's yellow. Common orpiment. Naples yellow. Gall ftones. Yellow oker. Tura di Sienna unburnt. Dutch pink. Turpeth mieral. Englifh pink. Yellow berry Walh. Light pink. Turmeric warn. Gamboge. Zedoary walh. Mafticot. Tincture of faJFron, E 2 52 the artist's assistant. " fecond: and having put them into a fublimer, fublime *' them in a fand heat. The operation being over, the " king's yellow will be found in the upper part of the glafs, " which muft be carefully feparated from any caput " mortuum, or foul parts that may be found in the glafs " with it. It muft be afterwards reduced to an equal " powder by levigation." NAPLES YELLOW. The neighbourhood of Naples is faid to produce this pigment naturally: of the truth of this we are dubious, but certain that it is brought from abroad. It is a yellow lather inclining to the orange; feldom ufed but in oil painting, where it is generally found to ftand well. It is brighter than other yellows at prefent in ufe, except the king's yellow; but if it touch iron along with the leaft watry moifture, it will be changed by it, for which reafon care fhould be taken to employ an ivory fpatula, inftead of a pallet knife, during the grinding of it with oil, which is the only preparation praclifcd on it, as it does not well bear levigation with water. YELLOW OKER. The fubftance of this is a mineral earth, found in dif- ferent places, of various degrees of purity. There is no other preparation ncceffary but levigation, and freeing it properly from dirt and other matter. It is a valuable colour, being a true yellow that will not fly in the leaft, and its texture fuits it for all kinds of painting. Notwith- ftanding its utility it ought to be of low price. the artist's assistant," 55 DUTCH PINK. As this colour will not bear well to be worked in oil, nor can be depended upon with regard to its (landing, it is ufed principally for coarfer purpofes in water, and is fome- times prepared in the fame manner with (tarch and white lead; but the following preparation is very cheap and eafy» and makes it to perfection : " Take of French berries one pound, and of turmeric u root powdered four ounces; boil them in a gallon of " water two hours, and then (train off the tincture through " flannel, and boil it again with an ounce of alum till it be " evaporated to one quart. Prepare in the mean time four ** pounds of chalk, by wafhing it over, and afterwards " drying it, and mix the chalk with the tincture, by grind- " ing them together; and then lay out the Dutch pink •* thus made to dry on boards." As it mould be a full gold coloured yellow and very bright, any adulteration may be difcovered by the eye*. ENGLISH PINK. 1 Prepare this in the fame manner, and with the fame in- gredients as the Dutch, only increafing the quantity of chalk, to render it of an inferior quality; it being the fame, only lighter and coarfer. LIGHT PINK. The only kind fit for ufe in oil painting is prepared in the following manner: " Take of French berries one pound, boil them with a u gallon of water for an hour; and having {trained off * Acid of fugar poured on a diffblution of martial vitriol producesa yellow precipitate, fuperior to Dutch pink. E3 , 54 THE ARTIST S ASSISTANT. •' the fluid, add to it two pounds of pearl allies, difiolved *' and purified by filtering through paper. Precipitate *f with alum difiolved in water, by adding the folution " gradually, fo long as any ebullition mall appear to be " raifed in the mixture. When the fediment has thorough- " ly fubfided, pour off the water from it, and warn it with " feveral renewed quantities of water, proceeding as has " been before directed in the cafe of the lake, &c. drain off " the remaining fluid in a filter with a paper covered with *' a linen cloth ; and, laftly, dry it on boards in fmall *' fquare pieces." GAMBOGE, No yellow is of greater fervice in water colours; eafily difiblving to a milky confidence, from the ftate in which it arrives. It is a gum produced in the Eaft Indies, and nothing but the addition of water is wanting to prepare it for ufe. MASTICOT. As this is not a very bright colour it is little ufed; or it will ftand perfectly in oil or in water; it works with the pencil better than moft other pigments, and certainly might be made very ufeful by putting flake while, or white lead, on an earthen or ftone di(h before a ftrong fire; and con- tinuing it there till the colour be fufficiently yellow. The calcination being finifhed, the parts which are of the defired tint muft be picked out from the reft and put togelher # For with the greateft care, it is difficult to calcine the whole equally. Grinding with oil is the only preparation nc- cefiary to the ufing of it. the artist's assistant, 65 COMMON ORPIMENT. It is generally difagreeable to meddle with this, on account of its naufeous fmell and poifonous quality; being a foflil body compofed of arfenic and fulphur, with a mix- ture frequently of lead, and fometimes other metals. In its unrefined ftate it is only ufeful to colour the matted bot- toms of chairs, or other coarfe work; but if purified by fublimation it becomes king's yellow. GALL STONES. The real kind are found in the gall bladder or like dufts of beafts; and require nothing more than rubbing with water (as gamboge) to diflblve them to a dark warm yellow. But as thefe are not always to be procured, a fictitious kind) of equal fervice, may be made as follows: " Take a quart of the bile of oxen, as frefh as poffible. " Put it into a proper pewter veffel, and fet it to boil in a " balneo mariae; having added to it a quarter of an ounce " of clear gum arabic. Evaporate the whole to about an " eighth; and then remove it into a china cup or bafon of ** proper fize, and evaporate it to drynefs; collecting it " into a mafs as it becomes of a ftiff confiftence." TERRA d't SIENNA unburnt. Mention has been made of this pigment being a native ochrous earth, brought from Italy; that calcination changes it from yellow to red : therefore thofe that choofe to ufe it as a yellow, fhould take care to have it extremely Well 56 the artist's assistant. levigated, as it will ferve for a deeper fhade by many de- grees than any of the other okers, and of a fuperior bright- ness. TURPETH MINERAL. This for ufe is much fuch another colour in yellow as Vermillion in red, and will ftand equally well with that. It is a preparation of mercury, by calcining it together with oil of vitriol, and is much brighter than any other yellow ufed in oil, except king's yellow. The preparation : " Take of pure quickfilver, and oil of vitriol, each fix " pounds. Put them into a retort, to which, (being placed " in a fand bath), fit on a receiver, and diftil them with a M flrong fire, while any fumes appear to rife into the '* receiver; urging it at laft with as great a heat as the " furnace will bear. When the retort is again cold, re- ** move it out of the fand bath; and having broken it, take " the white mafs, which will be found at the bottom of it, " and break it to a grofs powder, and having put it in a " glafs mortar, pour water on it, which will immediately " convert it to a yellow colour. Let it next be thoroughly " ground in this mortar, with water, and afterwards warned with feveral fucceflive quantities. It muft then be thoroughly well levigated on a ftone, and dried." The YELLOW WASH, from the French berries. u Take a pound of the French berries, and put to them " a gallon of water, with half an outfce of alum: boil them " an hour in a pewter vefTel, and then filter oft' the fluid, V through paper, if it be defigned for nicer purpofes, or a THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT" 57 " flannel for more ordinary. Put them again into the " boiler, and evaporate the fluid till the colour appears of *' the ftrength defired ; or part may be taken out while lefs " ftrong, and the reft evaporated to a proper body." It may be ufed in water as a warning colour, and is ap- plicable to many material purpofes, as it may be made of al- raoft any degree of deepnefs. TURMERIC WASH. The gum made from the turmeric-root diflolved in water, ferves for the fame purpofes of the yellow-berry-wafh; but to procure a bright tincture, it muft be diflolved in fpirit of wine inftead of water, by the following method : " Take two ounces of proof fpirit, and add to it one " ounce of water. Being put into a proper phial, add two ** drams of turmeric root in powder. Shake them well to- " gether, and then let them ftand three or four days, re- " peating the ihaking as often as convenient; and a ftrong " tincture will be thus obtained." TINCTURE of SAFFRON. It makes a good (hade for gamboge or other light bright yellows: by pouring hot water on the beft Englifh faffron in a proper phial or other veffel ; which mould be placed for fome time in a heat next to that which would make water boil; and the tincture mould then be filtered from the dregs through a piece of linen cloth. ZEDOARY WASH. Take an ounce of zedoary-root, and boil it in a quart of water till the water appears fufficiently tinged to a yellow: £8 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. ftrain it through linen and it will be a ftronger colour than can be made of turmeric without fpirifcs of wine, and is va- luable for many purpofes in painting with water colours, as flowers, yellow draperies, &c. Class IV.* Of GREEN COLOURS. VERDIGRISE. Let the pulp of grapes or any fuch acid remain upon cop- per ; and the ruft formed by its corro five action is verdi- grife. It is brought from France and Italy hither, and makes a blue-green colour in paint ; but will not ftand in oil. It fhould have a fmall admixture of yellow to render it a true green. CHRYSTALS of VERDIGRISE ; called Distilled Verdigrise, «' Take of the bed verdigrife four Ounces, and of dif- " tilled vinegar two quarts. The verdigrife being well " pounded, let them be put into a circulating veflel, that ,f may be formed of a mattrafs (which is a round bodied U glafs with a long ftraight neck) and a Florence flafk ; " which muft have its neck inverted into the mattrafs, the " thick end being broken off. This circulating veflel muft " be placed in a gentle fand-heat, or other warm fituation, " where it muft continue, being frequently fhaken, till the ° vinegar has diflblved as much as it can of the verdigrife. " Remove the verdigrife and vinegar then into a proper * Class IV. GREEN. Verdigrife. Pruffian green, DLftilled verdigrife, or chryftals Terra verte. of verdigrife. Sap green. THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT, 59 i( glafs for decanting the fluid, when it fhall become clear " from the fediment ; and when it has ftood a due time to " fettle, let it be carefully poured off and evaporated to " about half a pint; which is beft done with a fand-heat, " in a glafs body or cucurbit, having its neck cut off to " form a wide mouth. It may be fet to (hoot in the fame '• veffel, or in a glafs receiver with a wide neck ; and " when the chryftals are formed, they muft be taken out " and carefully dried in the fhade. " A frefh proportion of vinegar may be added to the re- " mains of the verdigrife ; and at the fame time the flrft " quantity left undiffolved ; and the mothers, or fluid re- * maining after the chryftals were formed, may be put into " it ; by which means, the other parts of the procefs being M repeated, a fecond quantity of the chryftals may be ob- " tained." The chryftals made thus are of a bright green colour, and if ufed with varnifh fo as to ftand, have a fine effect ; but they will not hold their colour very well in oil, being apt to turn black. SAP GREEN, Is made of the juice of buckthorn berries, and is very ufeful in water painting as a warning colour, making a ftrong and pretty deep ftain. It is prepared as follows : " Take any quantity of buckthorn berries before they " be ripe,, and prefs out the juice in fuch a prefs as is ufed " for making cyder or verjuice ; or by any other method. " Strain this juice through flannel, then let it ftand to " fettle ; and when it has ftood a proper time, decant off " the clearer part of the fluid from the fediment. Put this " juice into a ftone or earthen veffel, and evaporate it till *' it begins to grow of a thick confiftencc ; then remove it 60~ THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT/ " into a pewter vefiel, and finifh the evaporation in a balneo " mariae, colle&ing the matter into one mafs as it acquires ° a proper confiftence." PRUSSIAN GREEN. This colour is much neglected, and feems almoft wholly laid afide, or it has nearly all the ufes'in its colour that the Pruffian blue has, only not fo bright ; nor will it fland fo well ; yet it might be of advantage in many kinds of paint- ing. To make it, ?' Proceed in all points as in the procefs given for the " Pruffian blue, till the folution of alum and vitriol be. " mixed with that of the pearl-afhes and fulphur of the " coal, and the green precipitation made. Then, inftead u of adding the fpirit of fait, omit any further mixture, and *' go on to wafh the fediment, which is the Pruffian green ; " and afterwards dry it, in the fame manner as is direft- « ed for the blue." TERRA VERTE. This is fuppofed to be a native earth, brought from abroad, of a coarfe texture, requires to be well levigated and warned over ; but no other preparation is neceflary pre- vious to its ufe. Class V.* Of PURPLE COLOURS. The true INDIAN RED. Perhaps it may be no eafy matter, to procure this co- lour true ; for it is a native ochrous earth, very ufeful in * Clais V. PURPLE. True Indian red. Archal, or orchal. THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 61 oil, in its compounded ftate, as well for force in its effect as certainty of ftanding. But the fictitious kind, now fallaci- oufly called by its name, has no good property as a purple : in fhort, it is varied into a broken orange, and rejected by moft colourmen and painters. The true kind needs no other preparation than grinding or warning over. ARCHAL, or ORCHAL. This may be made in a very eafy manner by thofe who cannot procure it of the manufacturers ; and is an extreme bright purple fluid, but apt to dry to a reddifli brown, and therefore much difufed at prefent. To prepare it, " Take an ounce of the archal weed ormofs, as it is fold ." at the dry-falters ; and, having bruifed it well, put it into " a glafs phial with half a pint of weak fpirit of fal ammo- " niacus diftilled with lime. Stop the phial clofe, and leave " the archal to infufe till a ftrong bluifh purple tincture be N formed." Class VI.* Of BROWN COLOURS. BROWN PINK. Among the variety of methods for preparing this pig- ment, the following is one of the beft : M Take of French berries one pound ; of fuftic wood in " chips half a pound, and of pearl aflies one pound. Boil " them in a tin boiler, with a gallon and a half of water, " for an hour ; and then ftrain off the tincture through * Class VI. BROWN. Brown pink. Terra japonic3, or japan earth. Biftre. Umbre. Brown oker. Afphaltum. Cologn, or Collin's earth. Spanish juice, or extract of liquorice. 62 the artist's assistant. «' flannel while the fluid is boiling hot. Having prepared, ** in the mean time, a folution of a pound and a half of ** alum, put it gradually to the tincture, fo long as an ebul- " lition ihall appear. Proceed then to wa(h the fediment " as in the manner directed for the lakes; and being " brought, by filtering through paper with a linen cloth, ** to a proper confidence, dry it on boards in fquare " pieces." Its goodnefs may be judged of by its tranfparency, in every quality but that of ftanding, which can only be known on trial. BISTRE. This colour is extremely ferviceable in water, if procur- ed good, which may be done dy the following recipe : " Take any quantity of foot of dry wood, but let it be " of beech wherever that can be procured. Put it into " water in the proportion of two pounds to a gallon ; and " boil them half an hour. Then, after the fluid has flood " fome little time to fettle, but while yet hot, pour off the ** clearer part from the earthy fediment at the bottom ; and " if, on ftanding longer, it form another earthy fediment, " repeat the fame method : but this fhould be done only " while the fluid remains hot. Evaporate then the fluid to " drynefs, and what remains will be good biftre, if the '* foot was of a proper kind." BROWN OKER. After procuring this fubftance of foffil earth from the co- lourmen, which may be done at a very low price, care fhould be taken to have it well levigated and wafhed over ; when it may be ufed for a foul orange colour, and may be ♦depended on for ftanding well. THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 63 COLGGN, or COLLIN's EARTH. Where the fore-ground of a water painting requires to be pretty ftrong, the Cologn earth may be ufed to advantage. It requires no preparation, fave grinding perfectly fine with water ; it being of a foffil fubftance, and a dark blackifh brown colour. TERRA JAPONICA, or JAPAN EARTH. A full brown colour is produced from this gummy fub- ftance, by diffolving it with water ; but it will not mix well with oil. It is extracted from fome kind of vegetable, and its goodnefs may be diftinguifhed by the clearnefs of its colour. UMBRE. I: has the quality of the other ochrous earthy fubftances, joined to that of drying better, which occafions it to be much ufed in making drying oils, japanner's gold fize, and the black oil lacker. In painting fome few ufe it with wa- ter ; but before it is fit for that purpofe it fhould be burnt, levigated and walhed over. ASPHALTUM. There is an additional advantage in this colour, when ufed in lieu of brown pink : It is fecure from flying, and retains in drying a tranfparent brown. If it can be procur- ed pure as it is found in the earth in Ana, it is certainly very ufeful ; but it is a bituminous matter, of a confiftence like tar, and liable to be adulterated with turpentine and other cheap balfamic fubftances ; which fraud is notify to 64< the artist's assistant. be detected, unlefs by the mixture taking off the native tranfparent, and deep brown colour, which the eye may difcover. SPANISH JUICE, or EXTRACT of LIQUORICE. The liquorice root is extracted by a decoction in water, and then evaporated to a well known confifience. In mi- niature painting it is at this time much ufed. It fupplies the place of biftre in a great meafure, though it is inferior ; but there is no trouble in procuring, nor procefs in prepar- ing the liquorice that is ever wanted in England. Class VII.* Of WHITE COLOURS. White Flake is brought here from Italy; it is ufed for oil or varnifh painting, where a very clean white is re- quired ; and is a kind of cerufs or lead corroded by acid. There is a great deal fold at the colour fhops ready pre- pared ; that is, the true kind levigated, mixed with ftarch or fome fuch fubftance. But i^is beft to. procure the white flake in a lump, and then levigate it, and if it is thought proper, add any quantity of ftarch in the grinding, that may render it fuitable to work with. WHITE LEAD, Is a corrofion by acid from plates of lead, prepared by thofe who are concerned in it at a low price. It is much * Class VII. WHITE. "White flake, Pearl white. White lead. Troy white. Calcined hartfliorn. Egg-fhell white. the artist's assistant. 65 employed in common purpofes of painting, and may be ufed in nicer ; but will require warning over, and then it is little inferior to flake white. Notwithiftanding its cheapnefs, it is frequently adulterated by the makers or wholefale dealers, by adding chalk or powdered talc, which may be feen by comparing a pure piece with a fufpedted one; as the fraud will appear by the difference of the weight. But to prove it more exactly ufe the following means : " Take an ounce of the white lead fufpected ; and mix " it well with about half an ounce of pearl afhes, or of any " fixed alkaline fait, and about a quarter of an ounce of «' charcoal duft: and having put them into a crucible, give ** them a ftrong heat. The lead will by this means be re- " duced to its metallic flute : and being weighed, will '* fhew, by what it may fall fliort of the weight of an '• ounce, the proportion of the adulteration ; about a tenth " part being allowed for the corroding acid which formed 11 part of the white lead." CALCINED or BURNT HARTSHORN. " Take horn, or bones, and burn them in any common " fire till they become a coal, or are calcined to fome de- " gree of whitenefs. Then, having freed them carefully 41 from any coal or filth, reduce them to a grofs powder; " and put them upon a veflel made in form of a common *' earthen diih, of ground crucibles and Stourbridge clay, " and well dried ; and procure this to be placed in a to- ** baccopipe-maker's or potter's furnace, during the time " they keep their pipes or pots in the lire. The earth of " the horn or bones being thus thoroughly calcined, it mufi " be very well levigated with water; and it will be yet " further improved by being carefully warned over." F 66 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. This is a pure white, nor will change by either air or time : for the niceft purpofes it is much ufed in water paint- ing, and will not turn black in the manner flake white and white lead fometimes will. It is therefore preferred by the more experienced painters. PEARL WHITE, Is prepared by drying or calcining oyfter (hells at a fire, and taking that part of the powder that is of a perfect white- nefs, levigating it well on a (lone, and wafhing it over. It is ferviceable in miniature painting. TROY WHITE, or SPANISH WHITE, May be ufed in water colours, from the following pre- paration : " Take a pound of chalk, and foak it well in water. " Then wafh over all the fine part ; and having poured off " the firft water, add another quantity, in which two " ounces of allum is diffolved. Let them ftand for a day or " two, ftirring the chalk once in fix or eight hours. Wafh " then the chalk again over, till it be rendered perfectly «♦ fine ; and pour off as much of the water as can be fepa- " rated from the chalk by that means, taking off the re- " mainder of the diffolved allum, by feveral renewed qpan- " tities of frefh water. After the laft water is poured off, put " the chalk into one of the cullender filters, with a linen " cloth over the paper ; and and when the moifture has " been fufficiently drained off from it, lay it out in lumps M to dry on a proper board." EGG SHELL WHITE, Is made of the clear fhell when the inner fkin is peeled off, levigated to powder of a proper finenefs, and wafhed over. It is ufed by fome in water colours, and preferred to flake white.. THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 61 Class VIII. Of BLACK COLOURS. LAMP BLACK. There is no other preparation than procuring it good, from burning oil in a confined place, and collecting the foot. It mixes well either with oil or water, and is eiteem- ed as the principal black in all nicer kinds of painting. IVORY BLACK. " Take plates, chips, or fhavings of ivory ; and foak " them in hot linfeed oil ; or, if filings are to be more eafily " procured, they may be ufed moiftened with the hot oil. 11 Put them into a veffel which will bear the fire; covering " them with a fort of lid made of clay and fan'd ; which " fhould be dried, and the cracks repaired before the veffel ** be put into the fire. Procure this veffel to be placed in a " tobacco-pipe-maker's or potter's furnace, or any other " fuch fire ; and let it remain there during one of their " heats. When it fhall be taken out, the ivory will be **. burnt properly; and muit be afterwards thoroughly well n levigated on the ftone with water; or it ihould, indeed, " to have it perfectly good, be alfo warned over." It is not fo much ufed as lamp black, owing perhaps, to its drying flowly in oil, or to the frequent adulterations with charcoal dull, which renders it of a blue cad; other- wife it is, if genuinely prepared from the ivory, a full clear •black, and extremely ferviceable. INDIAN INK. The true Indian ink is imported from China, and is of a confidence, when diflblved with water, extremely well adapted to the pencil. It is much ufed in miniature paint- F 2 6S the artist's assistant. ing, and drawings offmall kinds. There is a fort frequent- ly fold for it made as follows : " Take of ifinglafs fix ounces ; reduce it to a fize, by " dlflblving it over the fire in double its weight of water. ** Take then of Spaniih liquorice one ounce: and dilfolve *' it alio in double its weight of water; and grind up with " it an ounce of ivory black, prepared as above directed in " p. 67. Add this mixture to the fize while hot ; and ftir " the whole together till all the ingredients be thoroughly " incorporated. Then evaporate away the water in a bal- " neo mariae, and caft the remaining compofition into lead- " ed moulds greafed ; or make it up in any other form." The preceding are the chief of the fubftances there will be occafion to mention in drawing and painting ; but crayon and enamel colours will be treated of in their places. Those perfons who are accuftomed to paint in oils, generally purchafe their colours ready prepared in bladders; a compleat fet of which, with a pallette, and requifites for painting, may be procured at the colour-fhops. Compleat fets of water-colours are alfo fold in boxes, with pencils, &c. for miniature painting, drawing, &c. The price, from eight fhillings to three guineas. As the oil colours prepared in bladders, if they are kept long, become ufelefs ; and as thofe who are not profefied artiits feldom paint fo much as to ufe them withor.t great wafte, it became a defideratum that fome^ method fhould be found to render them more durable : — this Mr. Blackmita has accomplifhed ; and at the fame time has made them i% portable, that they can be ufed with equal eafe with the common water-colour cakes. We give the method of preparing them from Vol. XII. of the Tranfa&ions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. the artist's assistant. C9 Method of preparing BLACKMAN's OIL-COLOUR CAKES. Take of thecleareft gum maftick, reduced to fine powder, four ounces ; of fpirit of turpentine, one pint ; mix them together in a bottle, fUrring them frequently till the maftick is diflolved : if it is wanted in hafte, fome heat may- be applied, but the folution is beft when made cold. Let the colours to be made ufe of, be the beft that can be procured, taking care, that by warning, &c. they are brought to the greateft degree of finenefs poflible. When the colours are dry, grind them on a hard clofe (tone (porphyry is the beft) in fpirit of turpentine, adding a fmall quantity of the maftick varnifh; let the colours fo ground become again dry ; then prepare the compofition for forming them into cakes, in the following manner : Procure fome of the pureft and whiteft fpermaceti you can obtain; melt it over a gentle fire, in a clean earthen veflel; when fluid, add to it one third of its weight of pure poppy- oil, and ftir the whole well together ; thefe things being in readinefs, place the ftone on which your colours were ground on a frame or fupport; and, by means of a charcoal fire under it, make the ftone warm; next grind your colour fine with a muller; then, adding a fufricient quan- tity of the mixture of poppy oil and fpermaceti, work the whole together with the muller to a proper confidence ; take then a piece of a fit fize for the cake you intend to - make ; roll it into a ball, put it into a mould, prefs it, and it will be complete. When thefe cakes are to be ufed, they muft be rubbed down in poppy or other oil, or in a mixture of fpirit of turpentine and oil, as may beft fuit the convenience or intention of the artift. F3 'iO THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. — o«©(OI©»«— Of PAINTING. Jl AINTING is the art of reprefenting to the eyes, by means of figures and colours, every objeft in nature that is difeernable by the fight, and of expreffing the various emotions of the mind. By an admirable effort of human genius, it offers to our vifion every thing which is mod valuable in the univerfe ; its empire extends over every age and country : N it prefents to us the heroic deeds of ancient times, as well as thofe with which we are more converfant, and diftant objects equally with thofe we daily fee. In this refpedt it may be confidered as a fupplement to Nature, which gives us only a view of prefent objedts. The painter, who is diftinguiihed for noble and profound concentions ; who conveys to the fpeclators the fentiments with which he is himfelf infpired; who animates them with his genius, and makes a lafting impreffion on their minds ; this Artift is a poet, and worthy to (hare in the glories of Homer; but if he feek only to pleafe, or aftonifh by the illufion of colours, he muff reft contented with the fecondary merit of flattering the eye with a variety of tints, or making an induftrious affcmblage of a multiplicity of objects. The poet or the painter who excel in their profeffions, defer ve all the refpe£t due to genius ; they are of the number of thofe men whom nature, fparing of her beft gilts, grants but occafionally to the inhabitants of the earth. If they are iublime, they elevate the human race; if they are agreeable only, they excite thofe fweet fenfations neceffary to our happinefs. THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. "71 Of the SCHOOLS. A School in the fine arts denominates a clafs of artifts who have learned their art from a certain matter, either by receiving his inftru£tions, or ftudying his works. All the painters which Europe has produced fince the renovation of the arts, are clafled under the following fchools : — The fchool of Florence, of Rome, of Venice* the Lombard, French, German, Flemifh, Dutch, and Englifh fihools. The fchool of Florence is remarkable for greatnefs, for attitudes feemingly in motion ; for a certain dark feverity ; foJ* an expreflion of flrength, by which grace is perhaps excluded ; and for a character of dellgn approaching to the gigantic. It cannot be denied that the productions of this fchool, although overcharged, poffefs an ideal majefty which elevates human nature above mortality. The Tufcan artifts, fatisfied with commanding admiration, feem to have confidered the art of pleafing as beneath their notice. Cimabue, a noble Florentine, born in the year 1240, was the firft, who, after the deftrudtion of the Roman empire, practifed the art of painting, which he learned from fome Greek workmen who were employed by the Tufcan government. His pictures were, as may be ima- gined, in an ordinary ftile ; but they received the applaufe of his countrymen. So little pra&ifed was he in his art, that in his pictures, to prevent the poflibility of a mifiake in the judgment of the fpedator refpecting the fubje9 Should we doubt the juftice of the preference given to invented beauty, over the real, we need only contemplate the fine proportions, and the ftyle of drawing in the Laocoon and Gladiator, and mark the expreffivc energy of Apollo, and the elegant beauties of the Venus de Medicis. Thefe are the utmofi efforts of defign ; it can reach no farther than a full exertion of grace, beauty, and character. The defign of the ancients is diftinguifhed by an union of proportions, a fnnplicity of contour, and excellence of character. There is no one excellence of defign from which wc derive focfa immediate pleafure, as from graceful nefs of action : if wc obferve the attitudes and movements of the Greek ftatues, we (hall mark that carelefs decency, and unaffected grace, which ever attend the motions of men unconfeious of obfervation. Raphael has been wonderfully happy in imitating this firnple elegance of the antique; the moft courtly imagin- ation cannot reprefent to itlelf an image of more M'inning grace than is to be feen in his Sancta Caecilia. Indeed, an elegant fimplicity is the characterise of his defign ; we no where meet in him the affected contrails of Michael Angelo, or the fiudied attitudes of Guido. The defign of Raphael was, in its beginning, dry, but correct; he enlarged it much on feeing the drawings of Michael Angelo : of too juft an eye to give intirely into the exceffes of his model, he ft ruck out a middle ftyle, which, however, was not fo happily blended as quite to throw off the influence of the extremes : hence, in the great he is apt to fwell into the charged ; in the delicate to drop into the little : his defign, notwithstanding, is beautiful ; but never arrived to that perfection which we difcover in the Greek ftatues. H 2 100 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT, He is excellent in the characters of philofophers, apoftles, and the like ; but the figures of his women have not that elegance which is diftinguifned in the Venus di Medicis, of the daughter of Niobe ; in thcfe, his convex contours have a certain heavinefs, by which, in feeking to avoid, he falls into a drynefs ftill lefs pardonable. His proportions are efteemed excellent, yet not having formed his manner on the moft beautiful antique, we do not fee in him that elegant fymmetry, that freedom in the joints which lend all their motion to the Laocoon and Gladiator ! inftead of thefe, the figures of Michael Angelo were his models in the great ftyle ; whence, having quitted the lines of nature, and not having fubftitutcd ideal beauty, he became too like his original, as may be feen in his Incendio di Borgo. Would we therefore place Raphael in his true point of view, we muft obferve him in the middle age ; in old men, or in the nervous nature: in his Madonna's, he knew how to choofe, as likewife how to vary the moft beautiful parts of nature ; but he knew not how to exprefs a beauty fuperior to the natural. Thus in his Galatea, where lie has attempted a cha- racter of perfect; beauty, he has fallen fhort of the beauty of his Madonna's : the caufe of this feems to be, that he drew the former after his own ideas, which were im- perfect : in the latter he copied beautiful nature, which was almoft perfect : a fecond obfervation will confirm this opinion : of all the objects of painting, Angels call moft for ideal beauty ; and thofe of Raphael are by no meant diftinguifhed in this particular. One of the greateft excellences of defign is grace. Cor- regio in this is inimitable. His conftant aim was grace, and a happy effect of light and fhade. A waving and varied contour was neceffary to this end : hence he ftudi- THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. ' 101 oufly avoided right lines, and acute angles as too fimplc in their effects. 7 bus the habit and neceflity of continually varying his outline, threw him into little errors in draw- ing, which Ipring not from an ignorance of this branch of his art, but from a predilection for another; and there are few who would with thole inadvertences away, accom- panied with the charms which gave occafion to them. We may affirm of his defign where it is not facrificed to his more favorite aims, that it is often mafteily, and always pleating ; a quality rarely to be met with in thole fervile painters, who think they have attained every perfection, if they keep within the rules of drawing (fuch painters, fays Quintilian) while they think it fufficient to be free from faults, fall into that capital fault, the want of beauties. We (hall clofe this article with an account of the Apollo Belvidere, and the celebrated Groupe of Laocoon, fo long the pride of Rome, but removed to Paris during its ravages by the French republicans, as defcribed by the late Abbe Winckleman ; THE APOLLO BELVIDERE. " Of all the productions of art, which have efcaped the ravages of time, the Statue of Apollo Belvedere is unques- tionably the moft fublime. The artift founded this work upon imagination, and has only employed fubftance for the purpofe of realizing his ideas. As much as the defcriptions which Homer has given of Apollo are fuperior to thofe given of him by other Poets, in the fame degree is this flatue fuperior to any other ftatues of that deity. Its ftature is above that of man, and its attitude breathes majefty. An eternal fpring, fuch as reigns in the delightful fields of Elyfium, clothes with youth the manly charms of his body, H 3 ]Q2 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. and gives a brilliancy to the animated ftru&ure of his limbs. " Endeavour to penetrate into the regions of incorporeal beauty ; try to become the creator of a celeftial nature, in order to elevate your foul to the contemplation of fuper- natural beauties ; for here there is nothing mortal : neither the veins nor finews are too confpicuous ; a kind of celeftial fpirit animates the whole figure. The God has purfued Python, againft whom he has, for the firft time, bent his dreadful bow : in his rapid courfe he has overtaken him, and given him a mortal blow. In the height of his joy, his auguft features denote more than victory. Difdain is feated on his lips, and the indignation which he breathes diftends his noftrils, and affects his eye-brows ; but ftill his forehead expreffes ferenity, and he is all full of fweet- .nefs as if he were furrounded by the Mufes, eager to carefs him. Among all the figures of Jupiter which we poffefs, you will not fee one in which the Father of the Gods difplays fo much of that majefty defcribed by the poets, as does this ftatue of his fon. The peculiar beauties of all the other gods are united in this figure, in the fame manner as in the divine Pandora. The forehead is the forehead of Jupiter, impregnated with the Goddefs of Wifdom ; his eye-brows, by their movement, declare their wiihes ; his eyes in their celeftial orbits, are the eyes of the Queen of the GoddelTes ; and the mouth is that which infpired the beautiful Bacchus with voluptuoufnefs. Like the tender branches of the vine, his fine hairs play about as if they were {lightly ruffled by the breath of zephyrs; they feemed perfumed with celeftial cftence, and negligently tied by the hands of the Graces. " On feeing this prodogy of art, I forgot the. whole uni- verfe; I placed myfelf in a more noble attitude to contcm- the artist's assistant. 103 plate it with dignity. From admiration I pafled to extacy ; filled with refpect, I felt my breaft agitated like thofe who are infpired with the fpirit of prophecy. " I felt myfelf tranfported to Delas and the facred woods of Lycia, places which Apollo honoured with his prefence ; for the beauty which was before my eyes appeared to be animated, as was formerly the beautiful fhitue produced by the chizel of Pygmalion. How can I defcribe you, oh, inimitable chef d'oeuvrel Art itfelf mud infpire me and guide my pen. " The outlines which I have traced I lay at your feet; £o thofe who cannot reach to the head of the deity they adore, place at his feet the garlands with which they with to crown him." THE GROUPE OF LAOCOON. *' Laocoon prefents to us a picture of the deepeft diftrefs, under the representation of a man, contending with all his powers in his own defence, while his mufcles and finews are dilated and contracted by agony ; you may (till perceive the vigour of his mind expreffed on his wrinkled forehead. His breaft oppreffed with reftrained refpiration, feems to contend againfl the pain with which it is agitated. " The groans which he reftrains, and his breath which he holds in, feem to exhauft the lower part of his body, and the loins, by being drawn in, feem to difcover his very- entrails. Neverthelefs, his own fufferings feem to affect him lefs than thofe of his children, who look up to him as if imploring his fuccour. Compaffion, like a dark vapour, overfhadows his eyes. His phyfiognomy denotes complaint, his eyes aro directed towards heaven, imploring affiftance. His mouth befpeaks languor, and his lower lip if fallen. Agony, mixed with indignation at his unjuft punifhment# is difplayed in all his features. 104" the artist's assistant. '* The conteft between pain and refiftance is difplayed with the greateft fkill ; for while the former draws up the eye-brows, the latter comprefles the flefh over the eyes, and makes it defcend over the upper eye-lids. The fubject not allowing the artift to embellifh nature, he has exerted himfelf to difplay contention and vigour. In thofe places where there is the greateft agony, there is alfo great beauty. The left fide, on which the furious ferpent makes ir 9 attack, feems to be in the greateft pain from its proximity to the heart. This part of the body may be called a prodigy of art. Laocoon wifhes to raife his legs in order to efcape. No part of the figure is in repofe. The very flefh, by the fkill of the artift, has the appearance of being benumbed. Of COLOURING. COLOURING , though a fubjeft greatly inferior to many others which the painter muft ftudy, is yet of fufficient importance to employ a confiderable fhare of his attention ; and to excel in it, he muft be well acquainted with that part of optics which has the nature of light and colours for its object. Light, however fimpleand uncompounded it may appear, is neverthelefs made up, as it were, of feveral diftin6t fubftances; and the number, and even dofe, of thefe ingredients, has been happily difcovered by the moderns. Every undivided ray, let it be ever fo fine, is a little bundle of red, orange, yellow, green, azure, indigo, and violet rays, which, while combined, are not to be diftinguifhed one from another, and form that kind of the artist's assistant. 105 light, called white ; fo that white is not a colour perfe, as the learned De Vinci (fo far, it feems, the precurfor of Newton) exprefsly affirms, but an alTemblage of colours. Now, thefe colours, which com pole light, although immu- table in themfelves, and endued with various qualities, are continually, however, feparating from each other in their reflection from, and paffage through other fubftances, and thus become manifeft to the eye. Grafs, for example, reflects only green rays, or rather reflects green rays in greater number than it does thofe of any other colour ; one kind of wine tranfmits red rays, and another yellowilh rays ; and from this kind of feparation arifes that variety of colours with which nature has diverfified her various pro- ductions. • Man, too, has contrived to feparate the rays of light by making a portion of the fun's beams pafs through a glafs prifm ; for after palling through it, they appear divided into feven pure and primitive colours, placed in fuccelfion one by the other, like fo many colours on a painter's pallet. Now, though Titian, Corrcgio, and Vandyke, have been excellent colourifts, without knowing any thing of thefe phyfical fubtleties, that is no reafon why others fhould neglect them. For it cannot but be of great fervice to a painter to be well acquainted with the nature of what he is to imitate, and of thofe colours with which he is to give life and perfection to his defigns ; not to fpeak of the plea- fure there is in being able to account truly and folidly for the various effects and appearances of light. From a due tempering, for example, and graduating, of the tints in a picture ; from making colours partake of each other, ac- cording to the reflection of light from one object to ano- ther; there arifes, in fome meafure, that fublime harmony which may be confulered as the true mufic of the eye: and this harmony has its foundation in the genuine prin- 106 the artist's assistant. ciples of optics. Now this could not happen in the fyftem of thofe philosophers, who held, that colours did not ori- ginally exift in light, but were, on the contrary, nothing elfe than fo many modifications which it underwent in being reflected from other fubftances, or in palling through them ; thus fubjeft to alterations without end, and every moment liable to perifh. Were that the cafe, bodies could no more receive any hues one from another, nor this body partake of the colour of that, than fcarlet, for example; becaufe it has the power of changing into red all the rays of the fun or iky which immediately fall upon it, has the power of changing into red all the other rays reflected to it from a blue or any other colour in its neighbourhood ; whereas, allowing that colours are in their own nature immutable one into another, and that every body reflects, more or lefs, every fort of coloured rays, though thofe rays in the greateft number which are of the colour it exhibits, there muft neceffarily arife, in colours placed near one another, certain particular hues or temperaments of colour: nay, this influence of one colour upon another may be fo far traced, that three or four bodies of different colours, and likewife the intenfenefs of the light falling upon each, being affi^ned, we may eafily determine in what fituations, and how much they would tinge each other. We may thus, too, by the fame principle of optics, account for feveral other things pra£tifed by painters, info- much that a perfon, who has carefully obferved natural effects with an eye directed by folid learning, fhall be able to form general rules, where another can only diftinguifh particular cafes. But after all, the pictures of the belt colourifts are, it is tmiverfally allowed, the books in which a young painter muft chiefly look for the rules of colouring; that is, of that branch of painting which contributes fo much to exprefs the artist's assistant. 107 the beauty of objects, and is fo requisite to reprefent them as what they really are. Giorgio and Titian feem to have difcovered circumftances in nature which others have entirely overlooked ; and the laft in particular has been happy enough to exprefs them with a pencil as delicate as his eye was quick and piercing. , In his works we behold that fweetnefs of colouring which is produced by union ; that beauty which is confiftent with truth ; and all the in- fenfible tranfmutations, all the foft tranfitions, in a word, all the pleafing modulations of tints and colours. When a young painter has, by clofe application, acquired from Titian, whom he can never fufficiently dwell upon, that art which, of all painters, he has bell contrived to hide, he would do well to turn to Baffano and Paolo, on account of the beauty, boldnefs, and elegance of their touches. That richnefs, foftnefs, and frelhnefs of colouring, for which the Lombard fchool is fo juftly cried up, may like- wife be of great fervice to him ; nor will he reap lefs benefit by ftudying the principles and practice of the Fle- mifti fchool, which, chiefly by means of her varnifties, has contrived to give a moft enchanting luftre and tranfparency to her colours. But whatever pictures a young painter may choofe to fludy the art of colouring upon, he muft take great care that they are well preferved. There are very few pieces which have not fullered more or lefs by the length, not to fay the injuries, of time; and perhaps that precious patina, which years alone can impart to paintings, is in fome mea- fure akin to that other kind which ages alone impart to medals; inafmuch as, by giving teftimony to their anti- quity, it renders them proportionably beautiful in the fuper- ftitious eyes of the learned.' It muft, indeed, be allowed, that if on the one hand, this patina beftows, as it really docs, an extraordinary degree of harmony upon the colours 108 THE ARTIST S ASSISTANT. of a picture, and deftroys, or at leafi greatly leffens, their original rawnefs, it, on the other hand, equally impairs the frcfhnefs and life of them. A piece feen many years after it has been painted, appears much as it would do, imme- diately after painting, behind a dull glafs. It is no idle opinion, that Paolo Veroncfe, attentive above all things to the beauty of his colours, and what is called ftrepito, left entirely to time the care of harmonizing them perfectly, and, (as we may fay) mellowing them. But moft of the old matters took that tafk upon themfelves; and never expofed their works to the eyes of the public, until they had ripened and finifhed them with their own hands. And who can fay whether the Chriji of Moneta, or the Nativity of Baffano, have been more improved or injured (if we may fo fpeak) by the touchings and re-touchings of time, in the courfe of more than two centuries? It is indeed impoffible to be determined: but the ftudious pupil may make himfelf ample amends for any injuries which his originals may have received from the hands of time, by turning to truth, and to Nature which never grows old, but conftantly retains its primitive flower of youth, and was itfelf the model of the models before him. As foon, therefore, as a young painter has laid a proper foundation for good colouring, by ftudy- ing the beft matters, he mould turn all his thoughts to truth and nature. And it would perhaps be well worth while to have, in the academies of painting, models for colouring as well as defigning ; that as from the one the pupils learn to give their due proportion to the feveral members and muf- cles, they may learn from the other to make their carnations rich and warm, and faithfully copy the different local hues which appear quite diftinct in the different parts of a fine bodv. To illuftrate ftill farther the ufe of fuch a model, let us fuppofe it placed in different lights ; now in that of the fun, now in that of the fky, and now again in that of a the artist's ASSISTANT. 1()9 lamp or candle; one time placed in the fhade, and another in a reflected light: hence the pupil may learn all the different effects of the completion in different circumftances, whe- ther the livid, the lucid, or tranfparent ; and, above all, that variety of tints and half tints, occafioned in the colour of the (kin by the epidermis having the bones immediately under it in fome places, and in others a greater or lefs number of blood- veffels or quantity of fat. An artift who had long ftudied fuch a model, would run no rifk of de- grading the beauties of nature by any particularity of ftilc, or of giving into that prepofterous fulnefs and floridnefs of colour which is at prefent fo much the tafte. He would not feed his figures with rofes, as an ancient painter of Greece fhrcwdiy expreffed it, but with good beef; a differ- ence which the learned eye of a modern writer could per- ceive between the colouring of Barocci and that of Titian. To practife in that manner, is, according to a great mafler, no better than inuring one's felf to the commiffion of blunders. What fhitues are in defign, nature is in colour- ing ; the fountain head of that perfection to which every artift, ambitious to excel, fliould conftantly afpire : and, accordingly, the Flemifh painters, in confequence of their aiming folely to copy nature, are in colouring as excellent as they are wont to be aukward in defigning. The beft model for the tone of colours, arid the degradation of lhades, is furnifhed by means of the camera-obfeura. We may form a general idea of the various effects of reflections from the following examples: If a blue be reflected on a yellow, the latter becomes greeniih ; if on a red, the red becomes purple ; and fo on through a variety of combi- nations. And as the white is of a nature to receive all the colours, and to be tinged with that of each reflection, the painter mult be careful how his carnations may be affected by the feveral reflections. ]10 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. Of COMPOSITION. C IMPOSITION, which may be confidered as a branch of invention, confifts in the proper ftationing of what the inventive faculty has imagined, fo as to exprefs the fubject in the moil lively manner. The chief merit of compo- fition may be faid to confift in that diforder, which, wear- ing the appearance of mere chance, is, in fuel, the moft iludied effect of art. A painter, therefore, is equally to avoid the drynefs of thofe ancients who always planted their figures like fo many couples in a proceffion, and the affectation of thofe moderns who jumble them together as if they were met merely to fight and fquabble. In this branch Raphael was happy enough to choofe the juft medium, and attain perfection. The difpofition of his figures is always exactly ftich as the fubject requires. In the Battle of Con- ftantine, they are confufedly cluftered with as much art, as they are regularly marfhalled in Chrift's commitment of the keys to St. Peter, and conftituting him prince of the apoftles. Let the inferior figures of a piece be placed as they will, the principal figure fhould ftrike the eye moft, and ftand out, as it were, from among the reft : this may be effected various ways, as by placing it on the foremoft lines, or in fome ofher«confpicuous part of the piece; by exhibiting it, in a manner, by itfelf; by making the principal light fall upon it; by giving it the moft refplendent drapery, or, in- deed, by feveral of thefe methods ; nay, by all of them toge- ther: for v b"irsor the hero of the pidturefque fable, it is but juft that it mould draw the eye to itfelf, and lord it, as it were, over ali the other objects. THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. Ill According to Leon Batiila Alberti, painters fhould follow the example of comic writers, who compofe their fable of as few perfons as poffible : for, in fad*, a crowded pitture is apt to give as much pain to the fpeaator, as a crowded road to the traveller. Some fubjedts, it murt be granted, require a number ; nay, a nation, as it were, of figures. On thefe occafions, it depends entirely on the (kill of the painter to difpofe of them in fuch a manner, that the principal ones may always make the principal appearance, and contrive mat- ters fo, that the piece be not over-crowded, or want conve- nient refis and paufes : he nmft, in a word, take care that his piece be full, but not charged. In this refpeft, the Battles of Alexander, by Le Brun, are matter- pieces which can never be iufficiently ftudied ; whereas nothing, on the other hand, can be more unhappy than the famous Paradife of Tintoret, which covers one entire fide of the great councils chamber at Venice. It appears no Slitter than a confuted heap of figures, a fwarm, a cloud, a chaos, which pains and fatigues the eye. What a pity it is that he did not difpofe this fubjedl after a model of his own, now in the gallery of Bevilacqua at Verona ! In this laft, the feveral choirs of martyrs, virgins, bifhops, and other faints, are iudicioufly thrown into fo many clufters, parted here and there by a fine fleece of clouds, fo as to exhibit the innu- merable hoft of heaven, drawn up in a way that makes a moll; agreeable and glorious appearance. There goes a ftory, to our purpofe, of a celebrated matter, who, in a drawing of the Univcrfal Deluge, the better to exprefs the immenfity of the waters that covered the earth, left a corner of his paper without figures. Being afked, if he did not intend to* fill it up: No, faid he ; do not you fee that my leaving it empty is what prccifcly constitutes the picture ? 112 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. The reafon for breaking acompofition into feveral groups is, that the eye paffing freely from one object to another, may the better comprehend the whole. But the painter is not to flop here ; for thefe groups are, befides, to be fo artfully put together, as to form rich clufters, give the whole compofition a lingular air of grandeur, and afford the fpectator an opportunity of difcerning the piece at a diftance, and taking the whole in, as it were, at a fingle glance. Thefe effects are greatly promoted by a due regard to the nature of colours, fo as not to place together thofe which are apt to pain by their oppofition, or diftract by their variety. They fhould be fo judicioufly difpofed as to temper and qualify each other. A proper ufe of the chiaro-fcuro is likewife of great fer- vice on this occafion. The groups are eafily parted, and the whole picture acquires a grand effect, by introducing fome ftrong falls of made ; and, above all, one principal beam of light. Tms method has been followed with great fuccefs by Rembrandt in a famous picture of his, reprefent- ing the Virgin at the Foot of the Crofs on Mount Calvary; the principal light darting upon her through a break of the clouds, while the reft of the figures about her ftand more or lefs in the fhade. Tintoret, too, acquired great repu- tation, as well by that brifknefs with which he enlivened bis figures, as by his mafterly manner of fhading them; and Polidoro de Caravaggio, though he fcarce painted any thing but baffo-relievos, was particularly famous for intro- ducing with great (kill the effects of the chiaro-fcuro, a thing firft attempted by Mantegna in his Triumph of Julius Caefur. It is by this means that his compofitions appear fo flrikingly divided into different groups ; and, among their other perfections, afford fo much delight through the beau- tiful difpofition that reigns in them. the artist's assistant. 113 In like manner, a painter, by the help of perfpeclive, efpecially that called aerial, the oppofition of local colours, and other contrivances which he may expect to hit upon by ftudying nature, and thofe who have belt ftudied her before him, will be able not only to part his groups, but make them appear at different diftances, fo as to leave fufheient paffages between them. But the greateft caution is to be ufed in the purfuit of the methods here laid down; efpecially in the management of the chiaro-fcuro, that the effects attributed to light and made, and to their various concomitants, may not run counter to truth and experience. This is a capital point. For this purpofc, a painter would do well to make, in little figures, as Tintoret and Pouffin ufed to do, a model of the fiibjedt that he intends to reprcfent, and then illuminate it by lamp or candle-light. By this means he may come to know with certainty, if the chiaro-fcuro, which he has formed in his mind, does not clafh with the reafon of things. By varying the height and direction of his light, he may eafily difcover fuch accidental effects as are moll likely to recommend his performance, and fo eftablifh a proper fyftem for the illuminating it : nor will he after- wards find it a difficult matter to modify the quality of his {hades, by foftening or ftrengthening them, according to the fituation of his fcenc, and the quality of the light falling upon it. If it fhould happen to be a candle or lamp- light fcene, he would then have nothing to do but confider his model well, and faithfully copy it. In the next place, to turn a groupe elegantly, the heft pattern is that of a bunch of grapes, adopted by Titian ; as, of the many grains that compofe a bunch of grapes, fome are ftruck direclly by the light, and thofe oppofite to them are in the (hade, whilft the intermediate ones partake of both light and (hade in a greater or lefs degree ; fo, according te I 114 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT* Titian, the figures of a groupe fhould be lb difpofed, that, by the union of the chiaro-fcuro, ft* vera I things may appear as it were but one thing: and, in fact, it is only from his having purfued this method, that we can account for the very grand effect of his pieces this way, in which it is impoffible to ftudy him too much. The mannerifts, who do not follow nature in the track of the maftcrs juft mentioned, are apt to commit many faults. The reafon of their figures cafling their (hades in this or that manner, feldom appears in the picture, or at lead: does not appear fufficiently probable. They are, befules, wont to trefpafs all bounds in fplafhing their pieces with light, that is, enlivening fhoie parts which we ufually term the deafs of a picture. This method, no doubt, has fometimes a very fine effect ; but it is, however, to be ufed with no fmall difcretion, as otherwife the whole lofes that union, that paufe, that majeftic filence, as Caracci ufed to call it, which affords fo much pleafure. The eye is not lefs hurt by many lights fcattered here and there over a picture, than the ear is by the confuted noife of different perfons fpeaking all together in an affembly. Guido Reni, who has imparted to his paintings that gaiety and fplendour in which he lived, feems enamoured with a bright and open light; whereas Michael Angelo de Caravagio, who was of a fullen and favage difpofition, appears fondefi of a gloomy and clouded fky ; fo that neither of them were qualified to handle indifferently all objects. The chiaro-fcuro may likewiie prove of great fervice to a painter in giving his compofition a grand effect ; but, never-> theleis, the light he choofes muft be adapted to the fit nation of the fcene where the action is laid : nor would he be tefa faulty, who, in a grotto or cavern, where the light entered by a chink, fnould make his fhades foil and tender, than he who fhould reprefent them ftrong and bold in an open fky-light. the artist's assistant. 115 But this is by no means the only fault which mannerifls are apt to be guilty of in hiftorical pieces, and particularly in the difpofition of their figures. To fay nothing of their favourite groupe of a woman lying on the ground with one child at her breait, and another playing about her, and the like, which they generally place on the firft lines of their pieces ; nor of thofe half-figures in the back ground peep- ing out from the hollows contrived for them : they make u common practice of mixing naked with clothed figures ; old men with young ; placing one figure with its face towards you, and another with its back; they contraft violent motions with languid attitudes, and feem to aim at oppofition in every thing ; whereas oppofitions never pleafe ; but when they arifc naturally from the fubject, like Anti- thefes in a difcourfe. As to forefliorlened figures, too much affectation in ufing or avoiding them is equally blamable. The attitudes had better be compofed than otherwife. It very feldom happens that there is any occafion for making them i'o impetuous as to be in danger of lofing their equilibrium, a thing too much practifed by fome painters. In regard to drapery, equal care fhould be taken to avoid that poverty which ma]ces fome mafters look as if, through mere penury, they grudged clothes to their figures ; and that profufion which Albani imputed to Guido, faying, that he was rather a tailor than a painter. The ornaments of drefs fhould be ufed with great fobriety ; and it will not be amifs to remember what was once laid to an ancient painter; " I pity you greatly ; unable to make Helen handfome, you have taken care to make her fine." Let the whole, in a word, and all the different parts of the compofilion, poilefs probability, grace, coftume, and the particular character of what is to be rcprefented. Let nothing look like uniformity of manner which does not I 2 116 the artist's assistant. appear lefs in the compofition than it does in colouring, drapery, and defign; and is, as it were, that kind of accent, by which painters may be as readily diftinguiihed as foreigners are, by pronouncing in the fame manner all the different languages they happen to be acquainted with. — •e«(OI*»««— CRAYON PAINTING. HETHER the painter works with oil colours, water colours, or crayons, the grand object of his purfuit is full the fame : a juit imitation of nature. But each fpecies has its peculiar rules and methods. Painting with crayons re- quiies, in many refpe£ts,a treatment different from painting in oil colours ; becaufe all colours ufed dry are, in their nature, of a much warmer complexion than when wet with oils, or any other binding fluid. Let this be proved by matter of fact : — Mr. Cotes painted a portrait of Sir William Chambers, which is in Lord Befborough's collection. An ingenious foreigner had difcovered a method of fixing crayon pictures, fo that they would not rub or receive an injury if any accident happened to the glafs. The Society for the encouragement ol Arts had before offered a premium to any one who fhould difcover fo valuable a fecret, for which premium he made application. Mr. Cotes being eminent in his profeffion, was defired io lend a picture for the trial, and giy^e his judgment, which was made on this portrait of Sir Wil'iam Chambers, The crayons he indeed fo perfect- ly fixed as to reftft any rubor brufh without the leaft injury, which before would have entirely defaced or fpoiled it : but THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 117 the picture, which before had a particularly warm, brilliant, and agreeable effect, in companion became cold and purple ; and though in one fenfe the attempt Succeeded to the de- figned intention of fixing the colours, yet the binding quali- ty of whatever fluid was made ule of in the procefs, chang- ed the complexion of the colours, rendering the cold teints too predominant. For this reafon, in order to produce a rich picture, a much greater portion of what painters term cooling tints mud be applied in crayon painting, than would be judicious to ufe in oilt. Without any danger of a miftake, it is to be fuppofedj the not being acquainted with this observation is one great caufe why So many oil painters have no better fuccefs when they attempt crayon painting. On the contrary, crayon painters, being fo much ufed to thofe tints which are of a cold nature when ufed wet, are apt to introduce them too much when they paint with oils, which is feldom productive of a good effect. Another observation I would make, which requires par- ticular notice from the ftudent who has been converfant with oil painting, prior to his attempts with crayons ; oil painters begin their pictures much lighter and fainter than they intend to finifli them, which preSents the future co- louring clear and brilliant, the light underneath greatly aflifting the tranfparent glazing and Scumbling colours, which, if they were laid over any part already too dark, would but increafe its heavy effect. On the contrary, cray- ons being made of dry colours, are difficult to procure Suffi- ciently dark, the crayon painter therefore will find an ab- folute neceffity to begin his picture ;»3 dark and rich as pof- fible, except in the ftrongeft lights ; for if once the grey and light tints become predominant, it will be next to im- poffible for him (in the deep fliadows efpecially) to rcftore depth and brilliancy, having no opportunity of glazing or Scumbling to give the effect, as the grey tints being nwx- I 3 118 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. turcs with whiting underneath, will continually work up and render the attempt abortive. I {hall now endeavour to give the ftudent lb me directions towards the attainment of excellence in this art. The ftudent muft provide himfelf with fome ftrong blue paper, the thicker the better, if the grain is not too coarfc and knotty, though it is almoft impotlible to get any intire- ly free from knots. The knots mould be levelled with a penknife or razor, otherwife they will prove exceedingly troublefome. After this is done, the paper mult be palled very fmooth on a linen cloth,* previoufly ftrained on a deal frame, the fize according to the artifl's pleafure ; on this the pidture is to be executed ; but it is molt eligible not to paite the paper on till the whole fubject is firit dead-co- loured. The method of doing this is very eafy, by laying the paper with the dead-colour on its face, upon a fmooth hoard or table, when, by means of a bruin, the backfide of the paper muft be covered with paite ; the frame, with the firained cloth, muil then be laid on the palled fide of the paper; after which turn the painted fide uppermoil, and lay a piece of clean paper upon it, to prevent fmearing ; this being done, it may be ilroked gently over with the hand, by which means all the air between the cloth and the paper will be forced out. When the paile is perfectly dry, the ftudent may proceed with the painting. The advantages arifing from palling the paper f in the frame, according to this method, after * That fide of the paper mould be parted which has the ftrokes from the wires molt evident, that the painting may be on the fmootheft fide, otherwife the lines, which thefe wires have left in the paper will prove troublefome and look unplcafant. f Some crayon pictures are painted on vellum ; but the animal falts in the fkin very often caufe them to mildew. It muft be confeffed the veilum gives the picture a foft effect ; but its ufe cannot be recommended in our unfavour- able climate. Others make ufe of fmalt grounds; Le Tour, lately a painter THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 119 the picture is begun, are very great, as the crayons will adhere much better than any other way, which will enable the fhulent to finilh the picture with a firmer body of co- lour, and greater luftre. The late Mr. Cotes dilcovered this method by accident, and efteemed it a valuable acquifi- tion ; and, I remember, on a particular occafion, he re- moved a fine crayon picture of Rozalba's and placed it on another (trained cloth, without the leaft injury, by foaking the canvas with a wet fponge, till the parte between the cloth and paper was fufficiently wet to admit of feparation. When painters want to make a very correct copy of a picture they generally make ufe of a tiffany, or black, gauze, fl rained tight on a frame, which they lay flat on the fubject to be imitated, and with a piece of fketching chalk, trace all the outlines on the tiffany. They then lay the canvas to be painted on, flat upon the floor, placing the tiffany with the chalked lines upon it, and with an hand- kerchief brufh the whole over : this prefents the exact out- lines of the pictureon the canvas. The crayon painter may alfo make ufe of this method, when the fubject of his imi- tation is in oils, but in copying a crayon picture, he muft have recourfe to the following method, on account of the glafs : The picture being placed upon the efel, let the outlines be drawn on the glafs with a fmall camel's hair pencil dip- ped in lake, ground thin with oils, which muft be done with great exactnefs ; after this is accomplifhed, take a fheet of paper of the fame fize, and place it on the glafs, ftroking of note in Paris, often ufed them with great fuccefs. The method to prepare them is to brufh over the paper with gum water, which directly ftrew with fmalt moderately fine, the fupcrfluous part of which fhould be fwept off, with a painter's brufh, when the gum water is perfectly dry. On this the picture is to be painted ; but we have paper now in England to be procured of fo ex- cellent a texture, as to render this preparation perhaps unneceflary. ]20 the artist's assistant. over all the lines with the hand, by which means the co- lours will adhere to the paper, which muft be pierced with pin holes pretty clofe to each other. The paper intended to be ufed for the painting muft next be laid upon a table and the pierced paper placed upon it ; then with fome fine pounded charcoal, tied up in a piece of lawn, rub over the perforated ftrokes, which will give an exact outline. Great care muft be taken not to brufh this off till the whole is drawn over with fketching chalk, which is a compofition. made of whiting and tobacco-pipe clay, rolled like crayons, and pointed at each end. When the ftudent paints immediately from the life, it will be moll prudent to make a correct drawing of the out- lines on another paper, the fize of the picture he is going to paint, which he may trace by the preceding method, be- caufe erroneous ftrokes of the fketching chalk (which arc not to be avoided without great expertnefs) will prevent the crayons from adhering to the paper, owing to a certain greafy quality in the compofition. The ftudent will find the fitting pofture, with the box of crayons on his lap, the moil convenient method for him to paint. The part of the picture he is immediately painting fhould be rather below his face, for, if it is placed too high, the arm will be fatigued. Let the windows of the room where he paints be darkened at leaft to the height of fix feet from the ground, and the fubjeet to be painted fhould be fittiated in fuch a manner, that the light may fall with every advantage on the face ; avoiding too much fhadow, which feldom has a good effecl: in portrait painting, efpeci- ally if the face he paints has any degree of delicacy. Before he begins to paint, let him be attentive to his fubje£t, and appropriate the action or attitude proper to the age of the fubjec~f. : if a child, let it be childifh ; if a young lady, ex- prefb more vivacity than in the majeftic beauty of a middle THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 121 aged woman, who alfo (hould not be exprefled with the fame gravity as a perfon far advanced in years. Let the embel- lifhments of the picture, and introduction of birds, animals, &c. be regulated by the rules of propriety and confiftency. The features of the face being carefully drawn with chalk, let the ftudent take a crayon of pure carmine, and carefully draw the noftril and edge of the nofe, next the Ihadow ; then, with the fainted carmine tint, lay in the ftrongeft light upon the nofe and forehead, which muft be executed broad. He is then to proceed gradually with the fecond tint, and the fuc- ceeding ones, till he arrives at the ftiadows, which muft be covered brilliant, enriched with much lake, carmine, a little broken, with brilliant green. This method will, at firft, oifenfively ftrike the eye, from its crude appearance ; but, in finifhing, it will be a good foundation to produce a plea- ling effect, colours being much more eafily fullied when too bright, than when the firft colouring is dull, to raife the picture into a brilliant ftate. The feveral pearly tints, difcernable in fine complexions, muft be imitated with blue verditer and white, which anfwers to the ultramarine tints ufed in oils. But if the parts of the face where thefe tints appear are in fhadow, the crayons compofed of black and white muft be fubftituted in their place. Though all the face, when firft coloured, (hould be laid in as brilliant as pofRble, yet each part (hould be kept in its proper tone, by which means the rotundity of the face will be preferved. Let the ftudent be careful when he begins the eyes to draw them with a crayon inclined to the carmine tint, of whatever colour the iris are of; he muft lay them in brilliant, and, at firft, not loaded with colour, but executed lightly : no notice is to be taken of the pupil yet. The ftu- dent muft let the light of the eye incline very much to the blue caft, cautioufly avoiding a flaring, white appear- 122 the artist's assistant. ance, (which, when once introduced, is fcldom overcome) preferving a broad fhadow thrown on its upper part, by the eye-lam. A black and heavy tint is alfo to be avoid- ed in the eye-brows ; it is therefore, beft to execute them like a broad, glowing fhadow at firft, on which, in the finifhing, the hairs of the brow are to be painted, by which method of proceeding, the former tints will fhew themfelves through, and produce the mod pleafing effect. The ftudent fhould begin the lips with pure carmine and Jake, and in the fhadow ufe fome carmine and black; the ftrong vermillion tints fhould be laid on afterwards. He muft beware of executing them with ftiff, harfh lines, gently intermixing each with the neigbouring colours, making the fhadow beneath broad, and enriched with brilliant crayons. He muft form the corner of the mouth with carmine, brown oker, and greens, varioufly intermixed. If the hair is dark, he fhould preferve much of the lake and deep carmine tints therein; this may be eafily overpowered by the warmer hair tints, which, as obferved in painting the eye-brows, will produce a richer effect when the picture it finifhed } on the contrary, if this method is unknown or neglected, a poverty of colouring will be difcernable. After the ftudent has covered over, or as artifts term it, has dead-coloured the head, he is to fweeten the whole to- gether by rubbing it over with his finger, beginning at the ftrongeft light upon the forehead, paffing his fingervery light- ly, and uniting it with the next tint, which he muft continue till the whole is fweetened together, often wiping his finger on a towel to prevent the colours being fullied. He muft be cautious not to fmooth or fweeten his picture too often, becaufe it will give rife to a thin and fcanty effect, and have more the appearance of a drawing than a folid painting, as nothing but a body of rich colours can conftitute a rich effect. To avoid this, (as the ftudent finds it neceffary to the artist's assistant. 123 fweeten with the finger) he muft continually replenifh the picture with more crayon. When the head is brought to fome degree of forwardnefs, let the back ground be laid in, which muft be treated in a different, covering it as thin as poflible, and rubbing it into the paper with a leather (tump. Near the face the paper fhould be almoft free from colour, for this will do great fervice to the head, and, by its thinnefs, give both a foft and folid appearance. In the back ground alio, crayons which have whiting in their compofition fhould be uied, but ieldom or never without caution; but chiefly fuch as are the mod brilliant and the leaft adulterated. The ground being painted thin next the hair, will give the ftudent an opportunity of painting the edges of the hair over in a light and free manner, when he gives the finifhing touches. The ftudent having proceeded thus far, the face, hair, and back ground being entirely covered, he muft carefully view the whole at fome diftance, remarking in what refpect it is out of keeping, that is, what parts are too light, and what too dark, being particularly attentive to the white or chalky appearances, which muft be fubdued with lake and carmine. The above method being properly put into execution will produce the appearance of a painting prin- cipally compofed of three colours, viz. carmine, black, and white, which is the beft preparation a painter can make for producing a fine crayon picture. The next ftep is to compleat the back ground and the hair, as the duft, in painting thefe, will fall on the face, and would much injure it, if that was compleated firft. From thence proceed to the forehead, finilhing downward till the whole picture is compleated. Back grounds may be of various colours; but it requires great tafte and judgment to fuit them properly to different complexions: in general, a ftrong coloured head fhould 124 the artist's assistant. have a weak and tender tinted ground, and, on tlie contrary, a delicate complexion fhould be oppofed with ftrong and powerful tints; by wbich proper contraft between the figure and the back ground, the picture will receive great force, and ftrike the fpectator much more than it could poflibly do was this circumftance of contralt not attend- ed to. Young painters often treat the back grounds of pictures as a matter of very little or no confequence, when it is moft certain great part of the beauty and brilliancy of the picture, efpecially the face, depends upon the tints being well fuited, the darks kept in their proper places, and the whole being perfectly in fubordination to the face. Thus a fimple back ground requires attention, but the difficulty is (till greater when a variety of objects are introduced, fuch as hills, trees, buildings, &c. in thefe cafes one rule muft be ftrictly attended to, that each grand object be difpofed fo as to contraft each other; this is not meant merely refpecting their forms, but their colour, their light, fhade, &c. For inftance, we will fuppofe the figure receiving the ft rongeft light; behind the figure, and very near at hand, are the items of ibme large trees; thefe muft have fhade thrown over them, either from a driving cloud or fome other inter- pofing circumftance ; behind thefe Items of trees, and at a diftance, are feen trees on a rifing ground; thefe fhould re- ceive the light as a contraft to the former, &c. If an ar- chitectural back ground be chofen, the fame rule muft be applied; fuppofe a building at a moderate diftance is placed behind the figure receiving the light, a column, or fome other object in fhadow fhould intervene, to preferve proper decorum in the piece, or what will have the fame effect, a fhadow muft be thrown over the lower part of the building, which will give equal fatisfaction or repofe to the eye. It muft be remembered, the light muft be always placed againft the artist's assistant. 125 the dark, and the weak againfi the firong, in order to pro- dace force and effect, and viceverfa. In painting over the forehead the laft time, begin the higheft light with the moft faint vermillion tint, in the fame place where the faint carmine was firft laid, keeping it broad in the fame manner. In the next made fucceeding the lighteft, the ftudentmuft work in fome light blue tints, compofed of verditcr and white, intermixing with them fome of the deeper vermillion tints, fweetening them to- gether with great caution, * infenfibly melting them into one another, increafmg the proportion of each colour as his jugdment fhall direct. Some brilliant yellows may alio be ufed, but fparingly; and towards the roots of the hair, itrong verditer tints, intermixed with greens, will be of lingular fervice. Cooling crayons, compofed of black and white, fhould fucceed thefe, and melt into the hair. Be- neath the eyes, the pleafing pearly tints are to be preferved, compofed of verditer and white, and under the nofe, and on the temples, the fame may be ufed; beneath the lips tints of this kind alfo are proper, mixing them with the light greens and fome vermillion. The introduction of greens and blues into the face, in painting, has often given furprize to thofe who are unao quainted with the art, but there is reafon fufficient for their introduction (though it may appear fhange at firft) in order to break and correct the other colours. The carmine predominating in the dead colour, is, as has been obferved, the beft preparation for the fucceeding tints ; the crudenefs of this preparation muft be corrected by varioufiy intermixing greens, blues, and yellows; which of thefe are to be ufed is to be determined by the degree * This direction is for the fineft complexions, but the ftuJent rnuft vsr? rtis colouring according to fcis fubjswt. 126 the artist's assistant. of carmine in the dead colour, and the complexion intended. The blue and yellow are of a nature diametrically oppofite, and ferve to correct the reds, and oppofe one another; the greens being compounded of both thefe colours, is of pecu- liar ufe in many cafes were the tranfition is not to be fb violent. The ftudent, attentively confidering nature, will difcover a pleafing variety of colours on the furface, and difcerniblc through a clear and tranfparent fkin; this variety will be ftill increafed by the effect of light and (hade; he will per- ceive one part inclining to the vermillion red, another to the carmine or lake, one to the blue, this to the green, and that to the yellow, &c. In order to produce thefe different effects he will apply thofe colours to which the tints are moft inclined; yet in crayon painting it is often beft to compound the mixed colours upon the picture, fuch as blue and yellow inftead of green; blue and carmine inftead of purple; red and yellow inftead of orange; in other circum- fiances the compounds already mixed fhould be ufed : but in this cafe there can be no abfolute rule given, it rauft be left to the experience and difcretion of the painter, though the ftudent may be greatly affifted in the commencement of his ttudies, by an able mafter to direct and point out the beft method to treat circumftances of this nature, as they occur in practice, which may at firft appear obfeure and myfterious, but will foon, to a good capacity, become de- monftrably clear upon certain and fure principles; the cir- cumftances that require different treatment are fo various and fo many, as to render it impoflibie here to defcend to every particular. In finiihing the cheeks, let the pure lake clear them from any duft contracted from the other crayons; then, with the lake, may be intermixed the bright vermillion; and laft of all (if the fubject fhould rcqure it) a few touches of the the artist's assistant. 127 orange coloured crayon, but with extreme caution; after this fweeten that part with the finger as little as poflible, for fear of producing a heavy, diSagreeable effect on the cheeks: as the beauty of a crayon picture confifts in one colour ibewing itfelf through, or rather between another; this the Student cannot too often remark, it being the only method of imitating beautiful complexions. The eye is the moft difficult feature to execute in crayons, as every part muft be expreffed with the utmoft nicety, to appear finished; at the Same time that the painter muft pre- serve its breadth and folidity, while be is particularizing the parts. To accomplifh this, it will be a good general rule for the ftudent to ufe his crayon, in Sweetening, as much, and his finger as little as pofiible. When he wants a point to touch a fmall part with, he may break off a little of his crayon againft the box, which will produce a corner fit to work with in the minuteSt parts. If the eye-lafhes are dark, he muft ufe fome of the carmine and brown oker, and the crayon of carmine and black ; and with thefe he may alfo touch the iris of the eye (if brown or hazel) Snaking a broad fhadow, caufed by the eye-lafh. Red tints of vermillion, carmine and lake, will execute the corners of the eye properly; but if the eye-lids are too red, they will have a difagreeable fore appearance. The pupil of the eye muft be made of pure lamp-black ; between this and the lower part of the iris, the light will catch very Strong, but it mult not be made too Sadden, but be gently diffuSed round the pupil till it is loft in Shade. When the eye-balls are Sufficiently prepared, the Shining Speck muft be made with a pure white crayon, which mould be firft broken to a point, and then laid on firm; but as it is poflible they may be defective in neatnefs, they Should be corrected with a pin, taking off" the redundant parts, by which means they may be formed as neat as can be required. 128 the artist's assistant. The difficulty, with refpect to the nofe, is to prefervc the lines properly determined, and at the fame time fo artfully blended into the cheek as to exprefs its projection, and yet no real line to be perceptible upon a clofe examin- ation ; in fome circumftances it mould be quite blcndid with the cheek which appears behind it, and determined entirely with a flight touch of red chalk. The fhadow caufed by the nofe is generally the darkeft in the whole face, partaking of no reflection from its furrounding parts. Carmine and brown oker, carmine and black, and fuch brilliant crayons will compote it heft. The ftudent having before prepared the lips with the ftrongeft lake and carmine, &c. muft, with thefe colours, make them compleatly correct ; and, when finithing, intro- duce the ftrong vermillions, but with great caution, as they are extremely predominant. This, if properly touched, will give the lips an appearance equal, if not fuperior to thofe executed in oils, notwithftanding the feeming fupe- riority the latter has, by means of glazing,* of which the former is entirely deftitute. When the ftudent paints the neck, he fhould avoid ex- prefnng the mufcles too ftrong in the ftein, nor fhould the bones appear too evident on the cheft, as both have an un- pleafing effect, denoting a violent agitation of the body, a circutnftance feldom neceifary to exprefs in portrait painting. The moft neceffary part to be expreffed, and which fhould ever be obferved (even in the mod delicate fubjects) is a ftrong marking jufi above the place where the collar bones unite, and if the head is much thrown over the fhoulders, fome notice fhould be taken of the large mufcle that rifes • The method with which painters in oil exprefs tranfparency in the iip« is, by painting them firft with light Vermillion tints, and, when dry, touching them oyer with pure lake. the artist's assistant. 129 from behind the ear, and is inferted into the pit between the collar bones. All inferior mufcles fhould be, in general, quite avoided. The ftudent will find this caution necef- fary, as moft fubjects, efpecially thin perfons, have the mufcles of the neck much more evident than would be judicious to imitate. As few necks are too long, it may be neceffary to give fome addition to the ftem, a fault on the other fide being quite unpardonable, nothing being more ungraceful than a fhort neck. In colouring the neck, let the ftudent preferve the ftem of a pearly hue, and the light not fo ftrong as on the cheft. If any part of the breaft appears, its tranfparency muft alfo be expreffed by pearly tints, but the upper part oC the cheft fhould be coloured with beautiful vermillions, delicately blendid with fh 138 THE ARTIST S ASSISTANT. of the weight of the wax of marine alkali, or fel de fourde, very pure. Rub your picture with this foap ; and when it is dry, polim it as before-mentioned : if you do not choofe cither of thefe methods, give your painting its ufual var- niih of fandarac and fpirit of turpentine. This method has been found preferable to all thofe that have been tried, and fuperior to oil for the beauty of their colours. There are many fine colours which cannot be ufed in oil, which may be made ufe of with great fuccefs in this method. As the naptha entirely evaporates, one may be allured that this is the true method o: painting in wax. There is likewife much to hope for the duration of the pictures painted in this manner, as wax is much lefs liable to altera- tion than oil, and does not fo eafily part with its phlogifton." ■* — Bmw> The ANCIENT GRECIAN METHOD of PAINTING, By EMMA JANE GREENLAND. * JL AKE an ounce of white wax, and the fame weight of gum maftick in lachrymae, that is, as it comes from the tree, which mud be reduced to a coarfe powder. Put the wax in a glazed earthen verTd, over a very flow fire, and when it is quite diffolved, ftrew in the maftick, a little at a time, ftirring the wax continually, until the whole quantity * A Gold Pallet was, on this occafion, voted to Emma Jane Greenland, November 14, 17S6, by the Society at London for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. THE ARTIST S ASSISTANT. 139 of gum is perfectly melted and incorporated; then throw the pafte into cold water, and when it is hard, take it out of the water, wipe it dry, and beat it in one of Mr. Wedgwood's mortars, obferving to pound it at fa ft in a linen cloth to abforb fome drops of water that will remain in the pafte, and would prevent the poffibility of reducing it to a powder, which muft be fo fine as to pafs through a thick gauze. It fhould be pounded in a cold place, and a little while at a time, as, after long beating, the friction will in a degree foften the wax and gum ; and inftead of their becoming a powder, they will return to a pafte. Make fome ftrong gum arabick water, and when you paint, take a little of the powder, fome colour, and mix them together with the gum-water. Light colours require but a fmall quantity of the powder, but more of it muft be put in proportion to the body and darknefs of the colours ; and to black, there fhould be almoft as much of the powder as colour. Having mixed the colours, and no more than can be ufed before they grow dry, paint with fair water, as is practifed in painting with water colours, a ground on the wood being firft painted of fome proper colour prepared in the fame manner as is defcribed for the picture; walnut-tree and oak are the forts of wood commonly made life of in Italy for this purpofe. The painting fhould be very highly finifhed, otherwife, when varnifhed, the tints will not appear united. When the painting is quite dry, with rather a hard brufh, puffing it one way, varnifh it with white wax, which is put into an earthen veffel, and kept melted over a very flow lire till the picture is varnifhed, taking great care the wax does not boil. Afterwards hold the picture before a fire, near enough to melt the wax, but not make it run ; and when the varnifh is entirely cold and hard, rub it gently HO the artist's assistant. ■with a linen cloth. Should the varnifh bliftcr, warm the picture again very flowly, and the bubbles will fubfide. When the picture is dirty, it need only be wafhed with cold water. The VENETIAN METHOD of COLOURING : By TIMOTHY SHELDRAKE, Efq. * JL HE method of Painting practifed in the Venetian School : " The cloth was primed with colours in diftember, of a brownifh hue, fuch as would properly enter into the darkeft parts of the picture. The molt tranfparent colours are the propereft. I bdieve umber was mod generally ufed, broken with red, yellow, or blue, according to the tint intended to be produced, and diluted with chalk or whiting to the proper degree of flrength. Upon the ground fo prepared, the fubject was correctly drawn with umber, pure, or mixed with lake, blue, or black; and, with the fame colours, thofe (hadows that were darker than the ground were then painted in. The artift then painted the lights with pure white, in a folid body, where the light was brighteft, or where the full effect of colour was to be produced ; and, where the demi -tints were afterwards to be, fcumbling it thinner by degrees, till it united with the frmdows. In this manner the chiaro-ofcuro was finifhed as much as poffible, and the local colour of every object in the picture * The Greater Silver Pallet was voted to Mr. Sheldrake, for this Differ- tation on Painting in Oil, in 179S, by the Society inftituted at London, for th« Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce. the artist's assistant. 141 glazed over it. All the colours ufed in this part of the work were ground in oil, which was abforbed into the ground, the picture remaining flat, fomething like a picture in water-colours or crayons; it was then varnifhed, till faturated with varnifh, and the full of every colour brought out : the picture was then complete. Upon the mod fuperficial view of this procefs, it will be evident that a picture painted by it is, as to all vifible pro- perties, a varnifh picture; for the fmall quantity of oil that had been ufcd, funk into the ground, and never could rife again to be hurtful; while the varnifh, being laid on after the colours, gave them all the brilliancy and durability they could derive from that vehicle, without being liable to the objections that are made to painting in varnifh, fuppofing it to be ufed in the fame manner as oil is in painting with oil. It is true that this mode of painting is itfelf liable to fome objections ; thefe I have endeavoured to obviate, and (hall therefore mention hereafter. Here it may be obferved, that, as any varnifh may be ufcd, it is to this circumftance we muft attribute the different degrees of durability in pictures of the Venetian School. I have feen fome that would refift the moft powerful folvents, while others were deftroyed by the weakeft ; though all poffeffed the apparent properties that diftinguifh the Venetian pictures from all others. As I do not pretend to degrade painting to the rank of a mechanical art, that may be infallibly practifed by a receipt, 1 (hall be permitted to obferve, that this was the general fyftem of the Venetian fchool, which I have feen varioufly modified in the works of different artifts of that, as well as of the Flemifh, which is derived from it. It is fufceptible of an almoft infinite number of modifications, in proportion to the talents, the judgment of, and the objects to be painted by the artifts who may adopt it. This being the cafe, if it is 142 the artist's assistant. proved by experiment that effects fimilar to thofe of the Venetian pictures may be produced by this method ; and that the fyftem has a ftrong tendency to produce that bril- liancy and harmony of colouring as is fo much admired, with more certainty and facility than thofe qualities can be obtained by any other mode of painting. I once afked Sir Jofhua Reynolds, by what circumftanccs in the management of a picture he thought the harmony of colouring was to be produced? He replied, an unity of light and an unity of fhadow mould pervade the whole. He explained to me the difficulty of reducing the various colours of all the objects that may be included in a picture, and the various modifications of thofe colours to the fimple, harmo- nious ftate he defcribed, and illuftrated what he had faid by this fimile. " A picture, to poffefs harmony of colouring, fhould look as if it was painted with one colour (fuppofe umber and white), and, when the chiaro-ofcuro was com- plete, the colour of each object fhould be glazed over it." This obfervation, from fuch authority, was imprefTed with peculiar force on my mind ; and if I can retrace its operations on a fubject which has fo long engaged my atten- tion, I fhould fay Sir Jofhua's obfervation was the clue that guided me through all my experiments ; and, I hope, will enable me to prove, that the beautiful and fimple practice which he fuggefted as a fimile, was literally the practice of that fchool upon whofe works his ideas of colouring were founded. At the fame time I may obferve, that the fact; feem9 to have eluded his obfervation, or he would not have ufed it as a comparifon to ftmpllfy his defcription of a practice which he thought both difficult and complex. In the Newtonian doctrine of Light and Colours, it is believed that all colours are inherent in light, and are ren- dered vifible by the action of various bodies, which reflect THE ARTIST S ASSISTANT. 143 particular rays, and abforb the reft. Without difputing the truth of this doctrine, it is to be obferved, that a painter muft confider the objects he reprefents as being analogous to the materials he ufes to reprefent them ; and, in this view of the fubject, colour is to be confidered as a property inherent in bodies, which is rendered vifible by the contact of light, a colourlefs, or at leaft a mono- coloured fubftance, and fhadow the mere privation of light. A picture may rcpre r ent either a groupe of figures, or other objects, in a room, or any objects in the open air: whatever the fituation may be, it reprefents certain objects in a given fpace, poffeffing individually their peculiar colours, and generally cxpofed to the operations of light. The quantity of light each can receive, muft depend upon its form, and its pofition refpecting that part whence the light comes ; for, in proportion as other parts recede from the light, the fhadow becomes vifible : but fhadow is no- thing but privation of light, and privation of colour, in pro- portion as the light is diminifhed. Some attention to thefe circumftances will, perhaps, enable us to demonftrate the truth of Sir Jofhua's pofition. If a globe of one colour be expofed in a painter's room, properly darkened, that part which is neareft the light will partake of its colour; the next part will fhew the true colour of the object; that which htit recedes from the light will be a little obfeured, the next a little more, and fo on progreffively, till that part which is fartheit from the light will lofe its colour, and appear equally dark with the fhadieft part of the room. Now we know this globe is of one uniform colour ; the variations we fee in different, parts of it are only deceptions, occafioned by the acceffion of light in fome parts, and the privation of it in others. 144 the artist's assistant. What is true of this one object and its parts, would be equally true of any number of objects, whatever their colours or relative fituations might be : if they were placed together in the fame room, each would pofTefs its own indvidual colour, each would partake of the general light, in proportion to its fituation, and of the general darknefs in proportion as it, recedes from the light. All this maybe eafily conceived ; but the difficulty, and, in the ordinary modes of painting a ferious one it is, is to reprcfent fuch objects with the appearance of trul;), and preferve the har- mony necefTary to conftitute a whole. The Venetian painters, however, by whatever means they obtained their knowledge, difcovered a method fo fimple, that perhaps no other can produce fuch brilliant effects, and undoubtedly not with facility and certainty at all comparable with their's. The artift will remark that, in defcribing the whole of "the Venetian method of painting, I have faid nothing of the manner of producing thofe demi-tints which conduce fo much to the brilliancy of a picture, which are fo difficult to execute, and in which he moll frequently fails. Thofe tints are, in the ordinary modes of painting, produced by the mixture of black, grey, blue, or brown (according to the judgment of the artift), with the local colours of the objects. It is thefe tints which, from their being made with fuch colours, it is difficult to get clear, and which never are fo clear in any other as in the Venetian, and in fome of the Flemifti pictures, which are painted upon ana- logous principles. The fact is, that thofe painters jpro- duced all fuch tints without the admixture of any colour to reprcfent them, and by a method fo like that by which they are produced in nature, that this circumftance alone enfures a degree of brightnefs to their colours, and of the artist's assistant. 145 harmony to their (hadows, that it is perhaps impoflible to produce, in an equal degree, by any other mode of painting. It is a Angular facl, which I have not (kill in phyfics to be able to account for, though by numerous experiments I have ascertained, beyond contradiction, that if upon any degree of brown, between the deepen 1 and the lighteli brown yellow, we paint pure, white, in gradations, from the folid body to the lighted tint that can be laid on, all the tints between the folid white and the ground will appear to be grey, intenfe in proportion to the depth of the ground, and the thinnefs of the white laid upon it. But in every cafe all the tints laid upon one ground will harmonize with each other, and form one connected chain (if I may ufe the expreffion), which will perfectly unite the higheft light with the darken 1 lhade. If then we examine the component fubfhinces of a Venetian picture, we (hall find the lighter parts confift only of white, to reprefent the light; and of the local colours of the objects it reprefents, the demi-tints are imitated by an appearance almofi as deceptive as the fnnilar appearances in nature: but in every other method of painting, thefe demi-tints are produced by mixing fome dufky colour with the local colours and the light. The comparifon of thefe methods will afford a demonftrative reafon why the Vene- tian muft be brighter than any other mode of painting. Having Ihewn, as near to a demonftration as the nature of the fubject will perhaps admit, why thofe parts of a Venetian picture that are connected with light and colours are brighter than the correfponding parts of any other pictures, it remains to explain the caufe of funilar fuperi- ority in the darker parts of the fame pictures. L 146 the artist's assistant. It has been faid, with much confidence, that as white reprefents light, fo black is the representative of darknefs. But though this may be true in phyfics, it certainly is not fo in painting : for the painter's art is to reprefent objects as they appear, in point of colour, to be, not as they really are. Thus, if I know an object: is perfectly black, and am to reprefent it as it appears to be at the diftance of fifty feet, black from the pallet wjll n °t produce a good imitation of it, becaufe the interpolation of fifty feet of the atmofphere will caufe it to appear of a colour different from what it really is; and vice verfa, if we go into a cavern, a cellar, or a room, fo darkened that the colour of no object can be diflinctly feen, and if we there hold any folid black fub- itance near to the eye, the difference will be vifible at once; the black object will be immdiately diftinguifhed, by its i'olidity and colour, from the furrounding fpace, and fuch remote objects as may be obfeurely vifible through it. «Thefe objects actually pofl'efs their individual colours, and only appear rndiflinctly from the abfence of light. The black object may appear folid, and of that colour, from its proximity to the eye; but the circumjacent ones will appear of a colour perfectly diilinct from it, more or lefs tranfparent, in proportion to their diflance from the eye, and {hewing a portion of their individual colours, according to the quantity of ill-defined light that may be admitted. Thus we fee (if I may venture to mention fo notorious a truifm), that ihadows are nothing real; they only feem to exift in the abfence of light, and give to objects an ill-defined appearance, diftinct from, though in fome inftances mixed with, light and colours in different degrees : but as the painter mull reprefent this appearance by fomething real, he choofes the colours mo ft analogous, THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 147 viz. browns, and the moft transparent of their clafs, to reprefent this tranfparent, but imperfectly defined appear- ance in nature. It has been fuppofed that the Venetian painters had fome peculiarly rich and tranfparent brown colour, which is feen to pervade all the works of that fchool ; the effect of which no modern artift has been able to imitate, and which therefore is fuppofed to have been loft. la it not very probable that a colour fo common as to pervade the works of the worft as well as of the beft artifts of that fchool, mould be fo unaccountably loft ; and, as the effect attributed to it may be eafily produced by the mode of painting I have defcribed, it is not unreafonable to conclude that this rnuch-lamented colour has never exifted. It is well known that chalk, and other earths of the fame kind, lofe, when wetter, much of their whitenefs, and become femi-tranfparent ; it is equally certain, that if umber or other earths are mixed with chalk, and faturatetf with varnith after they are laid on the cloth, they, in like manner, become diaphanous, and are infinitely more bril- liant than the fame colours can be when mixed with white lead and oil. This feems, on good grounds, to have been the bafis of the Venetian method of painting, and all its peculiar effects; at leaft, if I may draw any conclufion from the numerous experiments I have made. But if artifts, whofe talents will enable them to repeat thofe experiments to the beft advantage, fhould be induced to do fo, the fact will be determined in the moft fatisfactory manner. I may now be permitted to. fay, it is difficult, if not impoflible, to conceive a theory more fimple, more beauti- ful, or more true, than that of Sir Jofliua Reynolds. It is certainly impoflible to form a practice more fimple, or more L 2 148 the artist's assistant. conformable to that theory, than the one I have defcribcd, as will be evident on recapitulating the particulars. The artift, having determined what hue ihould pervade his picture, formed his ground with that colour prepared in diftemper ; upon this the fubject was drawn, and the darker fhades painted in with tranfparent colours, which funk into the ground: with pure white he then painted in all the lights and demi-tints ; and, laftly, glazed in the colours, each in its place. Upon applying the varnifh, the darker (hades were, as to body, incorporated with the ground; and thus, though different in colour, appeared thinner and more tranfparent than any colours could be when laid upon any ground : the full effect of every colour was brought out, and the picture was complete. Whoever has been accuftomed to paint, or to mark the progrefs of painting in the common way, and will reflect on the practice of the method 1 have defcribed, by artifts who had been brought up to it, muft fee that fuch artifts would paint with a degree of facility, expedition, and certainty, as to effect, that could never be equalled in the ordinary way of painting in oil ; befides, it will be evident that an artift would not only paint a picture bimfelf with more facility ; but, if he had occafion, could employ a number of fubordinate artifts upon large works, and put thofe works out of hand with more uniformity, as to merit and effect, than if he were to employ fuch affiftants in fimilar works if they were to be painted in the common way. I am fenfible how little attention will, and perhaps ought to be paid to observations on painting, if made by thofe who are not profeflionally artifts : for practical men acquire a kind of knowledge that cun never be obtained in any THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 14^ other way ; but at the fame time they contract preju- dices that often prevent them from fully inveftigating any novelty in practice that may be offered to their notice. The fpeculative man, on the contrary, who inveftigates the properties of matter, unlhacklcd by practical preju- dices, and with ideas purely chemical or philofophical, will be mote likely to afcertain all the facts relative to any theory that may become the object of enquiry. In this way I hope I have proceeded in this inveftigation. I have endeavoured to confider pictures as mafles of matter, pof- feffing the properties, but differing from each other in degree of brilliancy, tranfparency, and duration. I ought, perhaps, here to take leave of the fubjetSl ; but it may be expected that I mould give an account of the manner in which the pictures were painted. I have already mentioned that there are fome difficulties in the method of painting I have defcribed, as being that of the old artifts, and which would form objections of confiderable force to the practice of it by artifts who are well acquainted with the ufual modes of painting: thefe difficulties are firft, the ground abforbs the oil from the colours fo faft, that they are not fo manageable as in oil- painting ; fecondly, the effect of the picture is not feen till the finifhing varnifh is laid on ; and thirdly, as the effect is not feen till the picture is finilhed, it will fome- times difappoint the artift, and in that cafe it will be dif- ficult, if at all practicable, to alter it. As 1 believe the procefs I have defcribed in the beginning of this paper is fimilar to that of Mifs Provis, the artifts who are acquainted with her recipe, can afcertain whether my conjectures on this fubjecl are right or not. I am certain at leaft that thefe difficulties occurred in my L3 150 the artist's assistant. attempts to paint, and to obviate them I adopted the fol- lowing procefs: I prepared the ground in diftemper, and painted the dark parts in the way I have defcribed ; I then varnifhed the ground with the copal oil-vamifh, till it was fully iaturated ; and by this means the full effect of that part of the picture was feen : upon this I painted the lighter parts with white, ufing much of the vehicle where the colour was thin, and little in the folid parts, leaving the white in them dead: by this means I underftood the effect of my chiaro ofcuro, as I faw the effect of the demi-tints nearly as well as when the picture was finifhed. Upon this I glazed the colours in the way I have defcribed in the beginning of this, and finifhed the picture. I often found (probably from want of practice) that the effect was different from what I intended, as the effect of the colours, added to that of the chiaro ofcuro, produced an effential alteration in the whole ; as I took care in general that the defect did not arife from too much white, I added more where it was deficient, and glazed frefh colours over it, which united perfectly with what had been done before, and did not give the appearance of a mended picture. If the defect was from too much white, I glazed on it a cokrar fimilar to that of the ground, painted with frefh white upon that, and glazed the proper colours over it. In this way I found I could alter the picture, but not fo well as in the former cafe. I found I could, when neceffary, increafe the effect of the picture, by painting on the principal mafs or maffes of light with the local colours, only mixed with white ; as this practice brought thofe parts more forward by making them appear folid, and thus contraftrng them with the THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. 151 t run f pare ncy of the reft of the picture. In this way I could ufe the colours tempered with copal varnifh without difficulty ; and, I believe, that if I had been accuftomed to paint large pictures, I could have painted one as large as life with the fame eafe. METHOD and PROCESS for TRANSFERRING PAINTINGS. By Mr. ROBERT SALMON.* JL HE firft thing to be attended to, either for paintings on plafter walls or ceilings, or from boards, is, that the place in which they are, be fecure from wet or damp. If the paintings are on old walls, in large buildings, and places where this cannot be attained by art, then the fummer feafon fhould be taken for the purpofe, as the picture would rarely efcape damage if the wet or damp gets at it, while under the procefs ; at the fame time caution ihould be taken that the room or place be not over-heated, which would alfo produce equally bad effects: thefe precautions taken, the next thing is to examine the face of the paint- ing. If there are any holes in the fame, they muft be carefully filled up with pafte, or putty of glue and whiting: this, if the holes are large, fhould be twice or thrice done, fo as to entirely fill up and leave the face even and fmooth ; but if there are any bruifed places, with paint ftill remaining * The Great Silver Pallet was voted to Mr. Robert Salmon for this Difcovery, by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, Dec. 5, 1796, 152 the artist's assistant. on the face of thebruifed parts, then this flopping muft not be applied, but the fecuring canvafs, hereafter defcribed, be preffed down into thefe places. In the places that are flopped, there will, of courfe, appear blemifhes, when the picture is transferred ; but the procefs is rendered much more certain and fure by being fo done. Attention muft nexl be paid, to lay down any blifters, or places where the paint is leaving the ground: this is done by introducing, between the paint and the ground, fome very ftrong pafte of flour and water ; and the face of the bliftered paint being damped with a wet fponge or pencil, it may then be preffed with the hand home to the ground, to which it will then adhere ; all the unfound places being thus fecured, care muft be taken to clear the face of any greafe or dirt; as alfo of any particles of the pafte that may happen to be left on the furface. The next thing is, to determine the fize of the painting meant to be taken off; and if on a plain furface, a board of the fize of the picture muft be procured, of not lefs than an inch in thicknefs, and framed together with well-feafoned wood, in fmall pannels, fmooth, and fiufh on one fide: this done, a piece of fine open canvafs muft be provided, fuch as the fineft fort ufed for hanging paper on : this canvafs to be made fomewhat larger than the picture, and fo fewed together, and the feam preffed, that it be perfectly fmooth and even. This is what I call the fecuring-canvafs, which, being fo prepared, is then ftuck on the face of the picture with a pafte made of ftrong beer, boiled till it is half reduced, and then mixed with a fufficient quantity of flour to give it a very ftrong confid- ence. To large pictures on walls or ceilings, the canvafs muft for fome time be preffed, and rubbed with the hand as fmooth as poffible, working it from the middle to the out- fide, fo as to make it tolerably tight; and obferving, as it the artist's assistant. 153 dries, to prefs it with the hand or cloth into any hollow or bruifed places, fo that it may adhere to every part of the painting : this done, it is left to dry, which it will moftly do in a day or two, when dry, a fecond canvafs, of a ftronger and clofer fort, and of the fame fize as the other, is hi like manner to be attached on the top of the firft. This laft will want very little attention, as it will readily adhere to the firft ; and, being dry, attention muft be paid to the face thereof, to take off any fmall knots, or uneven- nefs thereon ; which done, the whole fhould be again covered with a thin pafte of fize and whiting ; when dry, to be pumiced over, fo as to make the whole perfectly fmooth and even. The painting being thus fecured, the board, already prepared to the fize of the picture, is to be put with the fmooth fide againft the face thereof ,fo as exactly to cover as much as is intended to be transferred. The edges of the canvafs, which, as before directed, are left larger than the painting, are then to be pulled tight over, and clofely nailed to the edge of the board. If the painting be large, either on ceiling or walls, the board muft, by proper fupports, be firmly fixed againft the picture, fo that it can readily be lowered down when the plafter and painting is detached. The canvafs and board being fixed, the paintings from walls or ceilings are to be freed, together with a certain portion of the plaftering : this, with proper care and atten- tion, may be readily done. If on a ceiling, the firft thing is to make fome holes through the plaftering round the outfide of the board and painting; and, with a fmall faw, to faw the plaftering from one hole to another, till the whole is difuni ted- from the other parts of the ceiling : this done, the workman muft get at the upper fide of the ceiling, where he muft free the plaftering from the laths, by break- 15t THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. ing off the keys thereof: and, with a chiflel, cut out the laths, whereby the plaftering, together with the picture, will be left refting on the board and fupports: if there be apartments over the ceiling, the readieft way will be to take up a few of the floor boards above ; if next the roof, means may always be found to get into the fame; and, although at firft this operation may appear difficult, yet it ie prefumed no difficulty will be found by any ingenious workman. If the painting is on a brick or (tone wall, the fame mull be cut away at top, and down the fides of the painting ; and then, by means of chiffels or faws in wood handles, of different lengths, the wall mud be cut away quite behind the painting, leaving the fame, together with the plaf- tering, refting on the board ; this operation may fometimes be done with a faw ; or, if the wall be not thick, nor the other fide of much confequence, the bricks or ftones may be taken out from that fide, leaving the plaftering and painting as before : this laft method I have not practifed ; the other, of cutting away fome part of the wal!, I have, and fee no difficulty, or very great labour in the operation ; but that of courfe mull be various, according to the texture of the wall and mortar. If paintings are on curved furfaces, fuch as the coves of ceilings, then the only difference of operation is, that fome ribs of wood muft be cut out and boarded fmooth to the curve of the furface of the painting, and then fixed up thereto in place of the before defcribed bearing board ; the painting is then to be freed, and left with the plaftering, refting on the bearers. For paintings painted on wainfcot or boards, the fame fecuring and procefs is exactly followed, only that, as the wainfcot or board can always be cut to the fize wanted, THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 155 or laid horizontal, the fecuring canvafs is ftretched thereon, and turned over the edges of the fame, till it is dry ; after which the edges are again turned up, and nailed to the board, in the fame manner as thofe from walls. Having, as before defcribed in any of the aforementioned cafes, freed the paintings from their original places, you have then got them fecured to two thicknefTcs of canvafs, with their faces next and on to the board prepared for that purpofe; which being the cafe, they can readily be re- moved to any room or (hop, to be finifhtd as follows : having got the painting into the fhop or room, which fhould be moderately warm and dry, but by no means over- heated, laying the board on a bench or treiTeis, the back of the picture will be uppermoft, and the plaftering or wood, as may happen, is then to be cleared away, leaving nothing but the body of paint, which will be firmly attached to the fecuring canvafs ; to perform this, a large rafp, a narrow plane and chifiels will be requifite : this operation is dif- ficult to defcribe, but would foon be learnt by any one who makes the attempt ; nor is it very tedious; and, being per- formed, the picture is ready to be attached to its new can- vafs, as follows : The painting being cleared, and laying on the board, the back thereof is to be painted fucceflively, three or four times over, with any good ftrong-bodied paint, leaving each coat to dry before the other comes on ; a day or two between each will generally be found fuflficient ; each of thefe coats, and particularly the firft, mould be laid on with great care, taking but a fmall quantity in the brum at a time, and laying it very thin; this precaution is necefiary to prevent any of the oil or paint from fearching through any fmall cracks or holes that may happen to fee in the face of the picture, whkh would run into the pafte, and fo i;>f) THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. attach the fecuring canvafs to the picture as to prevent its being afterwards got off. If any of thcfe holes or cracks are obferved, they fhould be (topped up with the glue and whiting pafte, and the painting then repeated till a com- plete coat is formed on the back of the picture ; and it is then ready for attaching to its canvafs, which is done by fpreadingall over the picture a pafte made of copal varnifh, mixed with ftiff white lead, and a fmall quantity of any other old fat paint ; all which being fpread equally over with a pallet knife, fuch a canvafs as the firfl fecuring- canvafs is laid thereon, and (trained and nailed round the edges of the board, in which (late it is left till it becomes tolerably dry ; and then a fecond canvafs, of a ftronger fort, muft be in like manner attached on the firft, and left till it is perfectly dry and hard. This moftly takes about two months ; and the longer it is left, the more fecure the painting will be attached to its canvafs, and lefs liable to crack or fly therefrom. When fufficiently dry, all the four canvaffes are to be unnailed from the board, and the edges turned up the reverfe way, and nailed to a proper ftretching frame ; this is done by unnailing from the board a part on each fide at a time, and immediately nailing it to the ftretching frame, fo as never to leave the canvafs to rack or partially ft retch, which would damage the picture ; in this manner, by degrees, the cloths are entirely detached from the board, and firmly fixed on the ftretching frame ; the fuperfluous left larger than the frame, may then be cut off, and the wedges put in the frame, and moderately tightened up. There remains then only to clear the face of the painting from the fecuring canvafs, which is done by repeatedly warning the face with a fponge, and moderately warm water; in doing this, no force or violence muft be ufed; with frequent and gentle warnings the pafte will all the artist's assistant. 157 worked out with the fponge: the edges of the outer canvafa is then to be cut round, and ftripped off, and the other next the face of the picture is to be done in like manner; which done, there only remains to clear the pafte clean off, and repair any defects ; and the picture will be as ftrong a» if painted on thecanvafs. For taking pictures off walls, without taking the walls down, or cutting away more thereof than the plaftering, the following procefs is propofed : the face of the picture to be firft fecured, in every refpect, in the manner before defcribed : inftead of the plain board, a bearer fhould be prepared, with a convex furface, compofed of ribs, boarded over, fo as to form part of a cylinder, of not lefs than five feet radius, and as long as the height of the picture. This bearer being prepared, in order to apply it, a floor or platform fhould be erected, and placed horizontally, with its furface level, and its edge immediately in contact with the bottom of the picture meant to be transferred. The ufe of this platform is for the abovc-defcribed bearer to reft and move upon ; which bearer fhould be fet on its end, with one edge in contact .with the wall, at one fide of the picture ; confequently the other edge will be at fome diftanee from the wall, according to the fize of the picture and convexity of the bearer. Being thus placed, the fuper- tluous edge of the fecuring-canvafs fhould be turned over, and nailed to that edge of the bearer that is next the wall : this done, the operation of cutting away the plaftering fhould be begun, which may be done with the corner and end of a thort faw, by fawing between the brick-work and plaftering, leaving the thicknefs, or part of the thicknefs of the plaftering, on to the painting, fattened to the bearer ; and when this edge of the picture is freed, the whole height, for nine or ten inches under, the edsre of the bearer that is 158 the artist's assistant. furtheft from the wall muft then be gently forced nearer : consequently the other edge, together with the painting and plafter that is freed, will leave the wall, and give an opportunity of introducing the faw behind, and cutting away the fame to a certain diftance further under ; and, by repeating this, the whole of the picture will at laft be freed, and left on the bearer : each time the bearer is removed, and, as it is were, rolled on the vertical furface of the wall, care muft be taken to turn and nail the fecuring- canvafs on the top and bottom edges of the bearer, fo as to fecure the freed plaftering and picture from moving about ; and, laftly, before the bearer and painting be moved, to nail the other edge of the picture in the fame way, which will fecure the whole to the bearer : this done, the picture and bearer are at liberty to be mo.ved to a proper place, in order to be freed from the remaining plafter; the edges may then be unnailed, and the painting and canvafs flipped from this bearer on to a plain board, and the new canvafs then put on, and remain till dry, as in other cafes. It may appear that the bending of the canvafs and plafter- ing to the convex bearer will crack the plafter, and damage the painting ; but from experience I have obferved, that, to a curve of fuch, or even lefs radius, plaftering will bend, without any vifible crack, even on the exterior part thereof; and that part next the bearer, not having occafion in bend- ing to extend its parts, will consequently be much lefs liable to be difturbed by fuch bending. the artist's assistant. 159 iV.W,M,e, or wrought by other means, into fuch form, that its original ftatc, particularly with refpect to flexibility, is loft. One principal variation in the manner of japanning is, the ufing or omitting any priming or under coat on the work to be japanned. In the older practice, fuch priming was always ufed ; and is at prefent retained in the French manner of japanning coaches and fnuff-boxes of the papier mache ; but in the Birmingham manufacture, it has been always rejected. The advantage of ufing fuch priming, or under coat, is, that it makes a faving in the quantity of of varnifh ufed ; becaufe the matter of which the priming is compofed, fills up the inequalities of the body to be var- nifhed, and makes it eafy by means of rubbing and water- polifhing, to gain an even furface for the varnifh. This was therefore fuch a convenience in the cafe of wood, as the giving a hardnefs and firmnefs to the ground was alfo in the cafe of leather, that it became an eftablifhed method ; and is therefore retained, even in the inftance of the papier tnache, by the French, who applied the received method of japanning to that kind of work-on its introduction. There O 2 196 the artist's ASSISTANT. $s, neverthelefs, this inconvenience always attending the ufe of an under coat of fize, that the japan coats of varnifh and colour will be conftantly liable to be cracked and peeled off by any violence, and will not endure near fo long as the bodies japanned in the fame manner, but without any fuch priming. This may be eafily obferved in comparing the wear of the Paris and Birmingham fnuff-boxes ; which latter, when good of their kind, never peel or crack, or fuffer any damage, unlefs by great violence, and fuch a continued rubbing as wafles away the fubftance of the varnifh ; while the japan coat3 of the Parifian boxes crack and fly off in flakes whenever any knock or fall, particu- larly near the edges, expofes them to be injured. But the Birmingham manufacturers, who originally pracVtfed the japanning only on metals, to which the realon above given for the ufe of priming did not extend, and who took up this art of themfelves as an invention, of courfe, omitted at firft the ufe of any fuch under coat ; and not finding it more neceffary in the inftance of- papier macbe, than on metals, continue ftill to reject it ; on which account the boxes of their manufacture are, with regard to the wear, much better than the JP'rench. The laying on the colours with varnifh inftead of gum- water, is alfo another variation from the method of japan- ning formerly praclifed : but the much greater flrength of the work, where they are laid on in varnifh or oil, has occafioned this way to be exploded with the greatefl reafon by all regular manufacturers : however, they who may praclife japanning on cabinets, or fuch other pieces as are not cxpofed to much wear or violence, for their amufement only, and confequently may not find it worth their while to encumber themfelves with the preparations neceffary for the other methods, may paint with water-cojours on an the artist's assistant. 197 tinder coat laid on the wood, or other fubflance, of which the piece to be japanned, is formed; and then finifh with the proper coats of varnifh, according to the methods below taught. If the colours are tempered with the ftrongefl ifinglafs, fize and honey, inftead of gum-water, and laid on very flat and even, the work will not be much inferior in appearance to that done by the other method ; and will laft as long as the common old japan work, except the beft kinds of the true japan. It is pra&ifed likewife in imitation of what is fome- times done in the Indian work, to paint with water-colours on grounds of gold ; in which cafe, the ifinglafs fize, with fugar-candy, or honey, as above directed, is the beft vehicle. Imitations are alfo made of japan-work, by colouring prints, gluing them to wood work, and then giving them a ihining appearance, by the ufe of tome white varnifh. Of japan grounds. — The proper japan grounds are either fuch as are formed by the varnifh and colour where the whole is to remain of one fimple colour; or by the varnifh, either coloured, or without colour, on which fome paint-r ing, or other decoration, is afterwards to be laid. It is neceffary, however, before I proceed, to fpeak of the particular ground^, to fhew the manner of laying on the priming or under coat, where any fuch is ufed. The priming is of the fame nature with that called clear coating (or vulgarly clear coaling) practifed erroneoufly by the houfe-painters ; and confifts only in laying on, and drying in the moft even manner, a compofition of fize and whiting. The common fize has been generally ufed for this purpofe, but where the work is of a nicer kind, it i» better to employ the glovers or the parchment fize ; and if a third of ifinglafs be added, it will be flill better; and if 3 198 the artist's assistant. not laid on too thick, much lefs liable to peel and crack. The work fhould be prepared for this priming by being well finoothcd with the fifh-fkin, or glafs fhaver; and being made thoroughly clean, fhould be brufhed over once or twice with hot fize, diluted with two thirds of water, if it be of the common ftrength. The priming mould then be laid on with a brufh as even as poffible ; and fhould be formed of a fize, whole confiftence is betwixt the common kind and glue, mixed with as much whiting as will give it a fufficient body of colour to hide the furface of whatever it is laid upon, but not more. If the furface be very even on which the priming is ufed, two coats of it, laid on in this manner, will be fuf- ficient ; but if on trial, with a fine wet rag, it will not receive a proper water polifh, on account of any inequa- lities not fufficiently filled up and covered, two or more coats muft be given it : and whether a greater or lefs number be ufed, the work fhould be fmoothed after the laft coat but one is dry, by rubbing it with Dutch rufhes. When the laft coat is dry, the water polifh fhould be given, by pafiing over every part of it with a fine rag, gently.moift- ened, till the whole appear perfectly plain and even. The priming will then be compleated, and the work ready to re- ceive the painting, or coloured varnifh: the reft of the pro- ceedings are the fame in this cafe as where no priming is ufed. Of common grounds of varnifh, which are to be painted upon. Where wood or leather is to be japanned, and no priming is ufed, the heft preparation is to lay two or three coats of coarfe varnifh compofed in the following manner : ** Take of rectified fpirit of wine, one pint ; and of " coarfe feed-lac and refin, each two ounces. Diffolve the " feed-lac and refin in the fpirit ; and then ftrain off the " varnifh." THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 3 99 This varnifh, as well as all others formed of fpirit of wine, mull be laid on in a warm place; and, if it can be conveniently managed, the piece of work to be varnifhed, fhould be made warm likewife, and for the fame reafon all dampnefs mould be avoided; for either cold or moiflure chill this kind of varnifh, and prevent its taking proper hold of the fubflance on which it is laid. When the work is fo prepared, or by the priming with the compofition of fize and whiting above «Jefcribed, the proper japan ground mull be laid on, which is much the befl formed of fhell-lac varnifh, and the colour defired; if white be not in queflion, which demands a peculiar treatment, as I fhall below explain ; or great brightnefs be not required, when all other means mull be purfued. The colours ufed with the fhell-lac varnifh may be any pigments whatever, which give the tint of the ground defired, and they may be mixed together to form browns or any compound colours ; but, with refpecl to fuch as require peculiar methods for the producing them of the firft degree of brightnefs, I fhall particularize them below. The colours for grounds may otherwife be mixed with the white varnifhes formed in oil of turpentine ; but thefe varnifhes have no advantages over the fhell-lac but in their whitenefs, which preferves the brightnefs of the colours, and they are at the fame time greatly inferior in hardnefs to it. As metals never require to be under coated with whiting, they may be treated in the fame manner as wood or leather, when the under coat is omitted, except in the inflances particularly fpoken of below. Of white japan grounds. — The forming a ground per- fectly white, and of the firfl degree of hardnefs, remains 200 the artist's assistant. hitherto a defideratum, or matter fought for in the art of japanning* As there are no fubftances which can be diffolved fo as to form a very hard varnifh, but what have too much colour not to deprive the whitenefs when laid on of a due thicknefs over the work, except fome very late difcoveries not hitherto brought into practice. The neareft approach, however, to a perfect white var- nifh, by means already known to the public, is made by the followiug compofition : " Take flake white, or white lead, warned over and " ground up with a fixth of its weight of ftarch, and then " dried, and temper it properly for fpreading with maftic M varnifh, or compound them with gum animi." Lay thefe on the body to be japanned, prepared either with or without the under coat of whiting in the manner as above ordered, and then varnifli over it with five or fix coats of the following varnifli : * " Provide any quantity of the beft feed-lac, and pick *' out of it all the cleareft and whiteft grains, referving the " more coloured and fouler parts for the coarfer varniflies, *' fuch as that above-mentioned for priming or preparing 14 wood or leather. Take of this picked feed-lac, two *' ounces; and of gum animi, three ounces; and diffolve ** them, being previoufly reduced to a grofs powder, in " about a quart of fpirit of wine, and ftrain off the clear " varnifli." The feed-lac will yet give a flight tinge to this com- pofition, but cannot be omitted, where the varnifh is wanted to be hard; though, where a fofter will anfwer the end, the proportion may be diminiftied ; and a little crude turpentine added to the gum animi, to take off the brittlenefs, A very good varnifh, free entirely from all brittlenefc, may be formed, by diffolving as much gum animi, as the the artist's assistant. 201 oil will take, in old nut or poppy oil, which muft be made to boil gently when the gum is put into it. The ground of white colour itfelf may be laid on in this varnifh, and then a coat or two of it may be put over the ground ; but it muft be well diluted with oil of turpentine when it is ufed : this, though free from brittlenefs, is, neverlhelefs, liable to fuffer, by being indented or bruifed by any flight ftrokes ; and it will not bear any polifli, but may be brought to a very fmooth furface without, if it be judicioufly managed in the laying it on. It is likewife fomewhat tedious in drying, and will require fome time where feveral coats are laid on, as the laft ought not to contain much oil of tur- pentine. It muft.be obferved, likewife, that the gum refin, fuch as the animi, copal, &c. can never be diffolved in fubftantial oils by the medium of heat, without a confider- able change jn the colour of the oils by the degree of heat neceffary to produce the folution. A method of diffolving gum copal in oil of turpentine is, however, now difcovered by a gentleman of great abilities in chemiftry : and he has alfo obtained a method of diffolving amber in the fame menftruum, fo that we may hope foon to fee the art of japanning carried to a confummate degree of perfection; when the public are put in poffeffion of thefe moft im- portant inventions, or the fruits of them. Of blue japan grounds. — Blue japan grounds may be formed of bright Pruflian blue, or of verditer glazed over by Pruflian blue, or of fmalt. The colour may be beft mixed with fhell-lac varnifh, and brought to a polifhing ftate by five or fix coats of varnifh of feed-lac : but the varnifh, neverthelefs, will fomewhat injure the colour, by giving to a true blue a caft of green, and fouling, in fom~ degree, a warm blue, by the yellow it contains : where, therefore, a bright blue is required, and a lefs degree of hardnefs can 202 the artist's assistant. be difpenfed with, the method before directed, in the cafe of white grounds, mull be purfued. Of red japan grounds. — For a fcarlet japan ground, Ver- million may be ufed : but the vermiilion. alone has a glaring effe£t that renders it much lei's beautiful than the crimfon produced by glazing it over with carmine or fine lake ; or even with rofe pink, which has a very good effccl: ufed for this purpofe ; for a very bright crimfon, neverthelefs, in- ftead of glazing with carmine, the Indian lake, known in fhops by the name of fafflower, fhould be ufed, diffolved in the fpirit of which the varnifh is compounded (which it readily admits of when good): but in this cafe, inftead of glazing with the fhell-lac varnifh, the upper or polifhing coats need only be ufed, as they will equally receive and convey the tinge of the Indian lake, which may be actually diffolved by fpirit of wine; and this will be found a much cheaper method than ufing carmine. If, notwithstanding, the higheft degree of brightnefs be required, the white varnifhes muft be ufed. It is at prefent, however, very difficult to obtain this kind of lake ; for it does not appear that more than one confiderable quantity was ever brought over, and put into the hands of colourmen ; and this being now expended, they have not the means of a frefh fupply : it, however, may be eafily had from the fame place whence the former quantity was procured, by any perfons who go thither in the Eaft India company's (hips. Of yellow japan grounds. — For bright yellow grounds, king's yellow, or turpeth mineral, fhould be employed, either alone, or mixed with fine Dutch pink. The effect may be ftill more heightened by diffolving powdered tur- meric root in the fpirit of wine, of which the upper, or polifhing coat is made ; which fpirit of wine muft be ftrained the artist's assistant. 203 from off the dregs before the feed-lac he added to it to form the varnifh. The feed-lac varnifh is not equally injurious here, and with greens, as in the cafe of other colours; becaufc, being only tinged with a reddilh yellow, it is little more than an addition to the force of the colours. Yellow grounds may be likewife formed of the Dutch pink only ; which, when good, will not be wanting in bright nefs, though extremely cheap. Of green japan grounds. — Green grounds may be pro- duced by mixing king's yellow and bright Pruffian blue; or rather, turpeth mineral and Pruffian blue. A cheap, but fouler kind, may be had from verdigrifc, with a little of the above-mentioned yellows, or Dutch pink : but where a very bright green is wanted, the chryftals of verdigrife (called diftilled verdigrife) fhould be employed ; and, to heighten the effect, they fhould be laid on a ground of leaf gold, wljich renders the colour extremely brilliant and pleafing. They may, any of them, be ufed fuccefsfully with good feed-lac varnifh, for the reafon before given ; but will be ftill brighter with the white varnifh. Of orange-coloured japan grounds. — Orange-colour japan grounds may be formed, by mixing vermillion, or red lead, with king's yellow, or Dutch pink ; or red orpiment will make a brighter orange ground than can be produced by any mixture. Of purple japan grounds. — Purple japan grounds may be produced by the mixture of lake and Pruffian blue; or a fouler kind, by vermillion and Pruffian blue. They may be treated as the reft, with rcfpeft to the varnifh. Of black japan grounds, to be produced without heat. — Black grounds may be formed by either ivory black, or 204 the artist's assistant. lamp black ; but the former is preferable, where it is per- fectly good. Thefe may be always laid on with the fhell-lac varnifh ; •and have their upper or polifhing coats of common feed-lac 'varnifh ; as the tinge or foulncfs of the varnifh can be here no injury. Of common black japan grounds on iron or copper, pro- duced by means of heat. — For forming the common black japan grounds by means of heat, the piece of work to be japanned muft be painted over with drying oil ; and, when it is of a moderate drynefs, muft be put into a ftove of fuch degree of heat, as will change the oil black, with- out burning it, fo as to deftroy or weaken its tenacity. The flove fhould not be too hot when the work is put into it, nor the heat increafed too faft ; either of which errors would make it blifter; but the flower the heat is augmented, and the longer it is continued, provided it be reftrained within the due degree, the harder will be the coat of japan. This kind of varnifh requires no polifh, having received, when properly managed, a fufficient one from the heat. Of the fine tortoife-fhell japan ground, produced by means of heat. — The beft kind of tortoife-lhell ground produced by heat is not lefs valuable for its great hardnefs, and enduring to be made hotter than boiling water without damage, than for its beautiful appearance, It is to be made by means of a varnifh prepared in the following manner: , f* Take of good linfeed oil one gallon, and of umbre " half a pound. Boil them together till the oil becomes •f very brown and thick ; ftrain it then through a coarfe " cloth, and fet it again to boil ; in which ftate it muft be " continued till it acquires a pitchy confidence, when it " will be fit for ufe." the artist's assistant. 203 Having prepared thus the varnifh, clean well the iron or copper-plate, or rather piece which is to be japanned ; and them lay vermillion, tempered with fhell-lac varnifh, or wiih drying oil, diluted with oil of turpentine, very thinly, on the places intended to imitate the more tranfpa- rent parts of the tortoife-fhell. When the vermillion is dry, brufh over the whole with the black, varnifh, tempered to a due confiftence with oil of turpentine ; and when it is fet and firm, put the work into a ftove, where it may- undergo a very ftrong heat, and it mint be continued a confulerable time ; if even three weeks, or a month, it will be the better. This was given, among other recipes, by Kunckcr, but appears to have been neglected till it was revived with great fuccefs in the Birmingham manufactures, where it was not only the ground of fnufT- boxes, dreffing-boxes, and other filch like leifer pieces, but of thofe beautiful tea- waiters which have been fo juftly efteemed and admired ia feveral parts of Europe where they have been fent. Thi* ground may be decorated with painting and gilding in the fame manner as any other varnifhed furface, which had beft be done after the ground has been duly hardened by the hot ftove ; but it is well to give a fecond annealing with a more gentle heat after it is finifhed. Of painting japan work. — Japan work ought properly to be painted with colours in varnifh : but in order for the greater difpatch, and in fome very nice works in fmall, fot the more free ufe of the pencil, the colours are now mod frequently tempered in oil, which fhould previoufly have a fourth part of its weight of gum animi diflblved in it; or, in default of that, of the gum fandarac or maftic, as I have Jjkewife before intimated, When the oil is thus ufed, it 206 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. fhould be well diluted with fpirit of turpentine, that the colours may be laid more evenly and thin; by which means, fewer of the polifhing, or upper coats of varnifh, become neceffary. In fome inftances, water-colours, as I before mentioned, are laid on grounds of gold, in the manner of other paint- ings ; and are beft, when fo ufed, in their proper appear- ance, without any varnifh over them ; they are alfo fome- times fo managed as to have the effect of emboffed work. The colours employed in this way, for painting, are (as I before intimated) beft prepared by means of ifinglafs fize, corrected with honey or fugar-candy. The body on which the emboffed work is raifed, need not, however, be tinged with the exterior colour, but may be beft formed of very ftrong gum-water, thickened to a proper confidence by bole armoniac and whiting in equal parts, which being laid on in the proper figure, and repaired when dry, may be then painted with the proper colours, tempered in the ifinglafs fize, or in the general manner with fhell-lac varnifh. Of varnifhing japan work. — The laft, and finifhing part of japanning lies in the laying on, and polifhing the outer coats of varnifh, which are neceffary, as well in the pieces that have only one fimple ground of colour, as with thofe that are painted. This is, in general, beft done with common, feed-lac varnifh, except in the inftances, and on thofe occafions where I have already fhewn other methods to be more expedient. The fame reafons, which decide as tothefcrnefs or impropriety of the varnifhes, with refpea to the ©clours of the ground, hold equally well with regard to tkofe of the painting; for, where brightnefs is the moft material point, and a tinge of yellow will injure it, feed- lac muft give way to the whiter gums : but where hardnefs the artist's assistant* 207 and a greater tenacity are mod cflential, it muft be adhered to ; and where both are fo neceffary, that it is proper one fbould give way to the other, in a certain degree, reci- procally, a mixed varnifli muft be adopted. This mixed varnifli, as I before obferved, mould be made of the picked feed-lac. The common, feed-lac varnifli, which is the moft ufeful preparation of the kind hitherto invented, may be thus made: " Take of feed-lac three ounces, and put it into water " to free it from the fticks and filth that frequently are " intermixed with it, and which muft be done by ftirring " it about, and then pouring off the water, and adding " from quantities in order to repeat the operations till it be 11 free from all impurities, as it very effectually may be by ** tli is means. Dry it then', and powder itgrofsly; put it, " with a pint of rectified feir.it of wine, into a bottle, of " which it will not fill above two thirds. Shake the mix- " ture well together, and place the bottle in a gentle heat " till the feed appears to be diffolved; the making being •' in the mean time repeated as often as maybe convenient; *' and then pour off all which can be obtained clear by that '* method, and ft rain the remainder through a coarfe cloth. " The varnifli thus prepared, muft be kept for ufe In a «* bottle well flopped." When the fpirrt of wine is very ftrong, it will diflblve a greater proportion of the feed-lac ; but this will faturate the common, which is feldom of a ftrength fufficient for making varnifhes in perfection. As the chilling, which is the mofl inconvenient accident attending thofe of this kind, is prevented, or produced more frequently, accord- ing to the ftrength of the fpirit, I will take this oppor- tunity of fhewing 3 method by which weaker rectified 208 the artist's assistant. fpirits may, with great eafe, at any time, be freed from the phlegm, and rendered of the firft degree of ftrcngth. ** Take a pint of the common rectified fpirit of wine ; " and put it into a bottle, of which it will not fill above " three parts. Add to it half an ounce of pearl-aihes, fait " of tartar, or any other alkaline fait, heated red hot, and " powdered, as well as it can be, without much lofs of its " heat. Shake the mixture frequently for the fpace of half '* an hour ; before which time, a great part of the phlegm " will be feparated from the fpirit; and will appear, toge- " ther with the undillblved part of the falts, in the bottom •' of the bottle. Let the fpirit then be poured off, or freed " from the phlegm and falts by means of a tritorium, or " feparating funnel, and let half an ounce of the pearl- " allies, heated and powdered as before, be added to it, ** and the fame treatment repeated. This may be done a " third time, if the quantity of phlegm feparated by the <* addition of the pearl-aihes appears confiderable. An ** ounce of alum reduced to powder, and made hot, but " not burnt, mud then be put into the fpirit, and fuffered *' to remain fome hours ; the bottle being frequently " fhaken : after which, the fpirit being poured off, it will «« be fit for ufe." The addition of the alum is neceffary to neutralize the remains of the alkaline falts, or pearl-aihes, which would otherwife greatly deprave the fpirit with refpett to var- nifhes and lacquers, where vegetable colours are con- cerned, and muft confcquently render another diftillation neceflary. The manner of ufing the fced-lac, or white varnifhes, i9 the fame, except with regard to the fubftance ufed In polifhing, which, where a pure white, or great cle^arnefs tfiiE artist's assistant. 209 df other colours, is in quefiion, fhould be itfelf white ; whereas, the browner forts of polifhing duft, as being cheaper, and doing their bufinefs with greater difpatch, may be ufed in other cafes. The pieces, or work to be varnifhed, fhould be placed near a fire, or in a room where there is a Move, and made perfectly dry ; and then the varnifh may be rubbed over them by the proper brumes made for that purpofe, beginning in the middle, and pafling the brufh to one end ; and then, with another ftroke from the middle, pafling it to the other : but no part fhould be croffed, or twice pafTed over, in forming one coat, where it can poflibly be avoided. When one coat is dry, another muft be laid over it ; and this muft be continued at leaft five or fix times, or more, if on trial, there be not a fufficient thicknefs of varnifh to bear the polifh, without laying bate the painting, or the ground colour underneath. When a fufficient number of coats is thus laid on, the work is fit to be polifhed, which muft be done, in common cafes, by rubbing it with a rag dipped in tripoli (commonly called rotten-ftone) finely powdered: but towards the end of the rubbing, a little oil of any kind fhould be ufed along with the powder ; and when the work appears fufficiently bright and glofly, it fhould be well rubbed with the oil alone, to clean it from the powder, and give it a ftill brighter luflre. In the cafe of white grounds, inftead of the tripoli, fine putty or whiting muft be ufed; both which fhould be warned over to prevent the danger of damaging the work from any fand or other gritty matter, that may happen to be com- mixed with them. It is a great improvement of all kinds of japan work, to • harden the varnifh by means of heat; which, in every degree that can be applied fhort of what would burn or P 210 the artist's assistant. calcine the matter, tends to give it a more firm and ftro-ng texture. Where metals form the body, therefore, a very hot ftove may be ufed, and the pieces of work may be con- tinued in it a confiderable time, efpecially if the heat be gradually increafed : but where wood is in queftion, heat muft be fparingly ufed, as it would otherwife warp or fhrink the body, fo as to injure the general figure. Of gilding japan work. — The various methods of gilding, which are applicable to the ornamenting japan work, being exceedingly prolix and uninterefting, it is needlefs to repeat them here : I fhall, therefore, only obferve, that in gilding with gold fize (which is almoft the only method now pracYiied in japan work) where it is defired to have the gold not thine, or approach in the leaft towards the bur- nifhing ftate, the fize thould be ufed either with oil of turpentine only, or with a very little fat oil : but where a greater luftre and appearance of poliih are war-ling, without the trouble of burnifhing, and the preparation neceflary for it, fat oil alone, or mixed with a little gold fize, thould be ufed ; and the fame proportionable effect will be produced from a mean proportion of them. ' Of LACQUERING. l-'ACQUERING is the laying either coloured or tranfpa rent varnifhes on metals, in order to produce the appear- ance of a different colour in the metal, or to preferve it from ruft and the injuries of the weather. Lacquering is therefore much of the fame nature with japanning, both with regard to the principles and practice; THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 211 except that no opake colours, but tranfparent tinges alone, are to be employed. The occafions on which lacquering is now in general ufed are three : Where brafs is to be made to have the ap- pearance of being gilt ; where tin is wanted to have the refemWance of yellow metals ; and where brafs or copper locks, nails, or other fuch matters, are to be defended from the corrofion of the air or moifture. There was, indeed, formerly another very frequent application of lacquering, which was colouring frames of pictures, &c. previoufly filvered, in order to give them the effect of gilding, but this is now moftly difufed. Thefe various intentions of lacquering require different compofitions for the effectuating each kind ; and, as there is a multiplicity of ingredients which may be conducive to each purpofe, a proportionable number of recipes have been devifed and introduced into practice, efpecialJy for the lacquering brafs work to imitate gilding, which is a confiderable object in this kind of art, and has been improved to the greateft degree of perfection. I (hall, however, only give one or two recipes for each, as they are all which are neceffary; the others being made too complex by ingredients not eflen- tial to the intention, or too coftly by the ufe of fuch as are expenfive ; or inferior in goodnefs from the improper choice •r proportion of the component fubftances. The principal body or matter of all good lacquers ufed at prefent is feed-lac ; but, for coarfer ufes, refin, or turpen- tine, is added, in order to make the lacquer cheaper than if the feed-lac, which is a much dearer article, be ufed alone. Spirit of wine is alfo confequently the fluid or menftruum of which lacquers are formed; as the ethereal oils will not diffolve the feed-lac, and it is proper that the fpirit fhould l»e highly rectified for this, purpofe. As it is feldom prac- P2 212 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. ticable, neverthelefs, to procure fuch fpirits from thelhopi* it will be found very advantageous to ufe the method above given for dephlegmating it by alkaline falts ; but the ufe of the alum, dire&rd in that procefs, muft not be forgotten on this occafion ; as the effect of the alkaline fait would other- wife be the turning the metal of a purplilb, inftead of a golden colour, by laying on the lacquer. The following are excellent compofitions for brafs work which is to refemble gilding : " Take of turmeric ground, as it may be had at the dry- " falters, one ounce, and of iaiFron and Spanilh annatto, '* each two drams. Put them into a proper bottle with a " pint of highly rectified fpirit of wine, and place them in " a moderate heat, if convenient, often fhaking them for " feveral days. A very ftrong yellow tincture will then be «* obtained, which muft be ft rained off from the dregs. u through a coarfe linen cloth; and then, being put back " into the bottle, three ounces of good feed-lac, powdered " grofsly, muft be added, and the mixture placed again in " a moderate heat, and fhaken, till the feed-lac be diftolved; " or at leaft fuch part of it a3 may. The lacquer muft u then be ftrained as before, and will be fit for ufe ; but " muft be kept jn a bottle carefully flopped." Where it is defired to have the lacquer warmer or redder than this compofition may prove, the proportion of the annatto muft be increafed ; and where it is wanted cooler, or nearer a true yellow, it muft be diminilhed. The above, properly managed, is an extremely good lacquer, and of moderate price; but the following, which is cheaper, and may be made where the Spaniih annatto cannot be procured good, is not greatly inferior to it ; " Take of turmeric root ground, one ounce ; of " the beft dragou's blood half a dram. Put them to the artist's assistant. 213 ** a pint of fpirit of wine, and proceed (as with the " above." By diminifhing the proportion of the dragon's blood, the varnith may be rendered of a redder, or truer yellow caft, Saffron is foraetime6 ufed to form the body of colour in this kind of lacquer, inftead of the tumeric; but though it makes a warmer yellow, yet the dearnefs of it, and the advantage which turmeric has in forming a much ftronger tinge in fpirit of wine, not only than the faffron, but than any other vegetable matter hitherto known, gives it the preference; though being a true yellow, and confequently not fufficiently warm to overcome the greenifh cafl of brafs, it requires the addition of fome orange-coloured tinge to make a perfe6t lacquer for this purpofe. Aloes and gamboge are alfo fometimes ufed in lacquers, for brafs ; but the aloes is not neceflary where turmeric or faffron are ufed ; and the gamboge, though a very ftrong milky yellow in water, affords only a very weak tinge in fpirit of wine. The varnifh for tin may be made as follows: " Take " of turmeric root, one ounce ; of dragon's blood, two '* drams ; and of fpirit of wine, one pint. Proceed as in " the former." This may, like the former, have the red or yellow ren- dered more prevalent, by the increafing or diminifhing the proportion of the dragon's blood. Where a coarfer, or cheaper kind is wanted, the quantiiy of feed-lac may be abated ; and the deficiency thence anting fupplied by the fame proportion of refin. The lacquer for locks, nails, &c. where little or no colour is defired, may either be feed-lac varnifh alone, as prepared above, or with a little dragon's blood ; or a com- Pa 214 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. pound varnifti of equal parts of feed-lac and refin, with or without the dragon's blood. The manner of laying on the lacquer is as follows : Firft, let the pieces of work to be lacquered be made thoroughly clean ; which, if they be new founded, muft be done by means of aquafortis. Being ready, they muft be heated by a fmall charcoal fire, in a proper veflel, or any way that may be moft convenient; the degree muft not be greater than will admit of their being taken hold of without burning the hand. The lacquer muft then be laid on by a proper brulh in the manner of other varnifhes ; and the pieces immediately fet again in the fame warm fituation. After the lacquer is thoroughly dry and firm, the fame operation muft be renewed again for four or five times, or till the work appear of the colour and brightnefs intended. For very fine work, fome ufe a lefs proportion of feed-lac, which occafions the lacquer to lie more even on the metal ; but, in this cafe, a greater number of coats are required, which multiplies the proportion of labour; though where the price of the work will allow for fuch additional trouble, it will be the more perfect for it. The lacquering tin may be performed in the fame manner as is here directed for brafs, but being for coarfer purpofes, lefs nicety is obferved ; and fewer coats (or perhaps one only) are made to fuffice, as the lacquer is compounded fo very red, that the tinge may have the ftronger effect. Locks, nails, &c. where lacquer is only ufed in a defen- fitive view to keep them from corroding, and not for the improvement of the colour, may be treated in the fame manner ; but one or two coats are generally thought fuf- ficient ; though, where any regard is had to the wear, the coats of lacquer or varnifh fhould always be of a due thick- the artist's assistant. £15 nefs, when they are to be expofed to the air ; otherwife, the firft moiil weather makes them chill, and look grey and mifty, in fuch a manner, that they are rather injurious than beneficial to the work they are laid upon. The lacquering picture-frames, &c. where the ground is leaf-filver, may be performed in the fame manner as here- after directed in the cafe of gilding leather: the circum- ftances being nearly the fame, except with relation to' the texture of the fubject ; to fuit which, the different manner of treatment may be eafily adapted : but the lacquer, as was before obferved, may be the fame. Of STAINING WOOD. To jlain yellow. Jl AKE any white wood, and brum it over feveral times with the tincture of turmeric root, made by putting an ounce of the turmeric ground to powder, to a pint of fpirit; and, after they have flood fome days, (training off the tincture. If the yellow colour be defired to have a redder caft, a little dragon's blood mud be added, in the proportion that will produce the tint required. A cheaper, but lead ftrong and bright yellow, may be given to wood, by rubbing it over feveral times with the tincture of the French berries, prepared as in p. 56, and made boiling hot. After the wood is again dry, it mould be brufhed over with a weak alum water, ufed cold. Leffer pieces of wood, inftead of being brufhed over with them, may be foaked in the decoctions or tinctures. 216 the artist's assistant. Wood may be alfp ftained yellow by means of aquafortis, which will fometimes produce a very beautiful yellow colour ; but at other times a browner. The wood fhould be warm when the aquafortis is not too ftrong, or that it be fparingly ufed ; otherwife a brown, fometimes even a blackifh colour may be the refult. In order to render any of thefe ftains more beautiful and durable, the wood mould be brufhed after it is coloured, and then varnithed by the feed-lac varnifh ; or, when de- flred to be very ftrong, and to take a high polifh, with three or four coats of (hell -lac varnifh. Of ftaining wood red.— -For a bright red ftain for wood, make a ftrong infufion of brafil in ftale urine, or water im- pregnated with pearl-afhes, in the proportion of an ounce to a gallon ; to a gallon of either of which, the proportion of Brafil wood mud be a pound, which being put to them, they muft ftand together two or three days, often ftirring the mixture. With this infufion ftrained, and made boiling hot, brufh over the wood to be ftained, till it appears itrongly coloured ; then, while yet wet, brufh it over with alum-water made in the proportion of two ounces of alum to a quart of water. For a lefs bright red, diffolve an ounce of dragqn's blood in a pint of fpirit of wine, apd brufh over the wood with the tinclure till the ftain appears to be as ftrong as is defired : 'but this is, in fadl, rather lacquering than ftaining. For a pink, or rofe red, add to a gallon of the above infufion of Brafil wood, two additional ounces of the pearl-afhes, and ufe it as it was before directed ; but it is neceffary, in this cafe, to brufh the wood over often with alum water. By increafing the proportion of pearl-afhes, the red may be rendered yet paler ; but it is proper, when the artist's assistant. 217 more than this quantity is added, to make the alum-water ftronger. Thefe reds, when it is neceffary, may be varnifhed as the yellows. Of ftaining wood blue. — Wood may be ftained blue, by means either of copper or indigo ; but the firft will afford a brighter colour, and is more generally practicable than the latter ; becaufe the indigo can be ufed only in that Rate to which it is brought by the manner of preparation ufed by the dyers, of whom indeed it muft be had, as it cannot be properly fo prepared but in large quantities, and with a particular apparatus. The method of ftaining blue with the copper is as follows : " Take a folution of copper, made according to the " directions in p. 49, and brufh it, while hot, feveral times «' over the wood. Then make a folution of pearl-afhes, in *' the proportion of two ounces to a pint of water, and 44 brum it hot over the wood ftained with the folution of M copper, till it be of a perfectly blue colour." Wood ftained green as above by verdigrife, may likewife be made blue, by ufing the folution of the pearl-afhes in the fame manner. When indigo is ufed for ftaining wood blue, it muftfe managed thus : " Take indigo prepared with foap-lees, as, when ufed " by the dyers, and brufh the wood with it boiling hot. *' Prepare then a folution of white tartar, or cream of " tartar, which is to be made by boiling three ounces of 11 the tartar, or cream, in a quart of water ; and with this " folution, ufed copioufly, brufh over the wood before " the moifture of the tincture of indigo be quite dried out " of it." 21£ the artist's assistant. Thefe blues may be bruflied and varnifhed a$ the reds where there is occafion. Of ftaining wood of mahogany colour. — Mahogany colour is the moft ufeful of any ftain for wood (efpecially fince veneering with different colours is out of fafhion) as it is much practiced at prefent for chairs and other furniture, made in imitation of mahogany ; which, when well managed, may be brought to have a very near re- femblance. This ftain may be of different hues, as the natural wood varies greatly, being of all the intermediate tints between the red, brown, and purple brown, according to the age, or fometimes the original nature of different pieces. For the light red brown, ufe a decoction of madder and fuftic wood, ground in water; the proportion may behalf a pound of madder, and a quarter of a pound of fuftic, to a gallon ; or, in default of fuftic, an ounce of the yellow berries may be ufed. This muft be bruflied over the wood* to be ftained, while boiling hot, till the due colour be obtained ; and, if the wood be kindly grained, it will have greatly the appearance of new mahogany. The fame effect nearly may be produced by the tincture of dragon's blood and turmeric root, in fpirit of wine, by increafing or diminiihing the proportion of etch, of which ingredients the brown ftain may be varied to a more red or yellow caft at pleafure. This fucceeds bette:* upon wood, which has already fome tinge of brown, than upon whiter. For the dark mahogany, take the infufion of madder made as above, except the exchanging the ftiftic for two ounces of logwood ; and when the wood to be ftained hag been feveral times brufhed over, and is again dry, it muft the artist's assistant. 219 be flightly brufhed over with water in which pearl-afhes have been diffolved, in the proportion of about a quarter of an ounce to a quart. Any ftains of the intermediate colours may be mnde by mixing thefe ingredients, or varying the proportion of them. Where thefe ftains are ufed for better kind of work, the wood mould be afterwards varnifhed with three or four coats of feed-lac varnifh; but for coarfe work, the varnifh of refin and feed-lac may be employed, or they may be only well rubbed over with drying oil. Of ftaining wood green. — Dili'olve verdigrife in vinegar, or chryftals of verdigrife in water ; and with the hot folution, brufh over the wood till it be duly ftained. This may be brufhed and varnifhed as above. Of ftaining wood purple. — Brum the wood to be ftained feveral times with a ftrong decoction of logwood and Brafil, made in the proportion of one pound of the logwood, and a quarter of a pound of the Brafil to a gallon of water, and boiled for an hour or more. When the wood has been brufhed over till there be a fufficient body of colour, let it dry, and then be flightly pafied over by a folution of one dram of pearl-afhes in a quart of water. This folution muft be carefully ufed, as it will gradually change the colour from a brown red, which it will be originally found to be, to a dark blue purple ; and therefore its effect muft be reftrained to the due point for producing the colour defired. This may be varnifhed as the reft. Of ftaining wood black. — Brufh the wood feveral times with the hot decoction of logwood made as above, but without the Brafil : then, having prepared an infufion of galls, by putting a quarter of a pound of powdered galls to two quarts of water, and fetting them in the fun-fhine, or 220 thb artist's assistant. any other gentle heat, for three or four days, brum the wood three or four times over with it, and then pafs over it it again, while yet wet, with a folution of green vitriol in water, in the proportion of two ounces to a quart. The above is the cheapeft method ; but a very fine black may be produced by brulhing the wood feveral times over with a folution of copper in aquafortis, and afterwards with the decoction of logwood, which muft. be repeated till the colour be of fufficient force ; and the greennefs produced by the folution of the copper, wholly overcome. Thefe blacks may be varnifhed as the other colours. Where the Mains are defired to be very flrong, as in the cafe of wood intended to be ufed for veneering, it is in general neceffary they mould be foaked, and not brufhed ; to render which the more practicable, the' wood may be previoufly flit, or fawed into pieces of a proper thicknefs for inlaying. It is to be underftood alfo, that when the wood is above ordered to be brufhed feveral times over with the tinging fubftances, it fhould be fuffered to dry after each brulhing. Of ftaining ivory, bone, or horn, yellow. — Boil them firft in a folution of alum, in the proportion of one pound to two quarts of water, and then prepare a tincture of the French berries, by boiling half a pound of the berries, pounded, in a gallon of water, with a quarter of a pound of pearl-afhes. After this tincture has boiled about an hour, put the ivory, &c. previoufly boiled in the alum water, into it, and let them remain there half an hour. If turmeric root be ufed, inftead of the French berries, a brighter yellow may be obtained ; but the ivory^ &c. muft, in that cafe, be again dipped in alum-water, after it is taken out of the tincture, otherwife an wange colour, the artist's assistant* 221 not a yellow, will be produced from the effect of the pearl- afhes on the turmeric* Of ftaining ivory, bone, and horn, green. — They mud be boiled in a folution of verdigrife in vinegar, or of copper in aquafortis, prepared as above directed (a veffel of glafs of earthen-ware being employed for this purpofe) till they are of the colour defired. Of ftaining ivory, bone, and horn, red.~— Take ftrong lime-water prepared as for other purpofes, and the rafpings of Brafil wood, in the proportion of half a pound to a gallon. Let them boil for an hour, and then put in the ivory, &c. prepared by boiling in alum-water in the manner above directed for the yellow, and continue it there till it be fufficiently coloured. If it be too crimfan, or verge toward the purple, it may be rendered more fcarlet by dipping again in the alum-water. Of ftaining ivory, bone, and horn, blue. — Stain the ivory, &c. firft green, according to the manner above di- rected; and then dip it in a folution of pearl-aihes made firong, and boiling hot ; but it mutt not be continued longer, nor dipped oftener, than is neceffary to convert the green to blue. The ivory, &c. may otherwife be boiled in the tin&urs- of indigo, prepared as by the dyers, and afterwards in the folution of tartar, made. as is directed for the ftaining wood. Of ftaining ivory, bone, and horn, purple.— -Treat them in the fame manner as was directed for red, except thai logwood mull be fubiKtuted in the place of Brafil wood, Hnd the ufe of the alum-water muft 'be omitted wholly. If a redder purple be wanted, a mixture of the logwood and Brafil muft be employed, inftead of the logwood alone. 222 the artist's assistant. The proportion may he equal parts ; or any Jefs proportion of the Brafil, according to the colour defired. Of ftaining horn to imitate tortoife-fhell. — The horn to he ftained mud be firft preffed into proper plates, or fcales, or other flat form. The following mixture muft then be prepared : " Take of quick-lime, two parts ; and of litharge one, " and temper them to the confidence of a foft pafte with " foap-lye." Put this pafte over all the parts of the horn, except fuch as are proper to be left tranfparent in order to the greater refemblance of the tortoife-fhell. The horn muft then remain thus covered with the pafte till it be thoroughly dry ; when the pafte being brufhed off, the horn will be found partly opake, and partly tranfparent, in the manner of tortoife-fhell ; and when put over a foil, of the kind of latten, called affidue, will be fcarccly diftinguifhable from it. It requires fome degree of fancy and judgment to difpofe of the pafte in fuch a manner as to form a variety of tranfparent parts of different magnitude and figure, to look like the effect of nature ; and it will be an improve- ment to add femi-tranfparent parts. This may be done by mixing whiting with fome of the pafte to weaken its operation in particular places, by which fpots of a reddifh brown will be produced ; that, if properly interfperfed, efpecially on the edges of the dark parts, will greatly in- crease as well the beauty of the work, as its fimilitude with the real tortoife-fhell. To ftain ivory, bone, and horn, black. — Proceed in the fame manner as is before directed for wood. Of ftaining paper, or parchment, yellow.— Paper may be ftained yellow by the tincture of French berries, prepared the artist's assistant. 223 as in p. 53, but a much more beautiful colour may be obtained by ufing the tincture of turmeric formed by infu- fing an ounce or more of the root, powdered, in a pint of fpirit of wine. This may be made to give any tint of yellow, from the lighteft ftraw to the full colour, called, French yellow ; and will be equal in brightnefs even to th^ beft dyed frlks. If yellow be wanted of a warmer or redder caft, annatto, or dragon's blood, muft be added to the tincture. The beft manner of ufing thefe, and the following tinctures, is to fpread them even on the paper or parch- ment, by means of a broad brulh, in the manner of var- niihing. Of ftaining paper, or parchment, red. — Paper or parch- ment may beftained red, by treating it in the fame manner as is directed for wood, p. 216, Or by red ink. It may alfo be ftained of a fcarlet hue by the tincture of dragon's blood in fpirit of wine; but this will not be bright. A very fine crimfon ftain may be given to paper, by a tincture of Indian lake, which may be, by infufmg the lake fome days in fpirit of wine ; and then pouring off the tincture from the dregs. Of ftaining paper, or parchment, green.— Paper, or parchment, may be ftained green by the folution of verdi- grife in vinegar ; or by the chryftals of verdigrife diffolvedj in water: as alfo by the folution of copper in aqua fort is made by adding filings of copper gradually to the aqua forth till no ebullition enfues; or fpirit of fait may be ufed in th« place of the aquafortis. Of ftaining paper, or parchment, blue. — A blue colour may be given to paper or parchment, by ftaining it green by any of the abovcmentioned methods ; and treating it afterwards as is directed for ftaining wood blue; hy the 224< the artist's assistant. fame means ; or by indigo, in the manner there explained likewife. Of ftaining paper> or parchment, orange. — Stain the paper, or parchment, firft of a full yellow, by means of the tincture of turmeric, as before directed. Then brufh it over with a folution of fixed alkaline fait, made by diflbl- ving half an ounce of pearl-afhes, or fait of tartar, in a quart of water, and filtering the folution. Of ftaining paper, or parchment, purple. — Paper, or parchment, may be ftained purple by archal; or by the tincture of logwood, according to the method above di- rected for ftaining wood. The juice of fipe privet berries expreffed, will likewife give a purple dye to paper or parchment. Of ftaining alabafter, marble and other ftones, of various* colours. — Alabafter, marble and other ftones, may be ftained of a yellow, red, green, blue, purple, black, or any of the compound colours, by the means given for ftaining wood : but it is better if a ftrong tinge is wanted, to pour the tincture, if made in water, boiling hot on the alabafter, &c. fpreading it equally on every part, than to brum it over only ; though that may be fufficient where a flight dye will fuflfice. When tinctures in fpirit of wine are ufed, they muft not be heated, as the fpirit would evaporate, and leave the> tinging gums in an undiflblved ftate. Where ftones are not perfectly white, but partake of brownnefs, or greynefs, the colour produced by the tinges will be proportionp.bly wanting in brightnefs : becaufe the natural colour of the ftone is not hid or covered by thefe tinges, but combines with them ; and, for the fame reafon, if the ftones be of any of the pure colours, the refult will be a compound of fuch colour, and that of the tinge. the artist's assistant. 225 «w»v Of CASTING. To prepare clay in fuch a manner as to be ft to make all manner of moulds to caft gold, fiver, and other metals in. JL AKE as much clay as you will, put it into an earthen pot that is glazed, and cover and lute it very clofe ; then put it into a potter's furnace, and let it ftand as long as other earthen-ware. After it is hurned and cold, grind the clay upon a colour-ftone, very fine, lift it through a fine hair fieve into clear water; and, after it is fettled, pour off the water, and grind the clay once more upon the ftone, as fine as poffible; then wafh it again in fair water as before, and let it in the fun, or in a warm place, to dry. After this burned and wafhed clay is thoroughly dry, take thereof three pounds, fal-armoniac two pounds, tartar two pounds, and vitriol one pound; mix them together, and put this mixture into one or two pots; pour upon it about /even quarts of clean water, and boil this compofition for fome time; then take this water, whilft it is warm, and mix your burned clay therewith, to fuch a confidence, that you may form it into balls: lay thefe in a warm place to dry; and, when dry, put them into an earthen pot as before, and give them another baking among the earthen- ware; and, when cold, grind them fine, and that powder will be fit for ufe. The clay being thus prepared, take fal-armoniac, put it into a glafs, with water, that holds about two quarts; put fo much of the fal-armoniac to the water as will diffoFve it Q 226 the artist's assistant. over a gentle warmth, and let it ftand one or two hours clofed up ; then take your powder of clay, temper it with this water to fuch a confiftence as to form it into balls, and make what moulds you pleafe thereof. When you caft your metal, you muft make your mould red hot, and be alfo very nimble in pouring out your melted metal. To make moulds of clay to caft brafs or other metals therein: — Take good clear clay, fuch as the pcwterers' ufe; take alfo cloth {having, or fine fhort plucked cotton, and fine clear fand; and if the fand is not line enough, grind it on a colour ftone; mix this with the clay to fuch a confift- ence as is fit to make or form your moulds thereof. Your clay muft not be made foft with water, but with ftrong beer; and, when you caft, let your mould be red hot. If you would have a fine and fharp caft, fift over your clay fome fine wafhed afb.es before you make the impreffion. To prepare moulds which need not to be heated for calling metal in them: — Take fine fand, fuch as the goldfmiths' ufe ; mix it with lamp-black, as much as you think proper; then temper it with rape or linfeed oil fit to make your moulds thereof; whatever you caft in them conies not only out neat and ftinrp, but you have no occafion to heat your mould, as is required in other cafes: this you muft obierve, that your fand be very dry, before you temper it with the oil. The preparation of Mantua earth for moulds : — Take Mantua earth one part, and one part of charcoal duft of burnt birch, and one part of fait; then mix with it an equal quantity of tartar ; boil up the mixture together in a copper pan, and let it feeth three times; with this water, whir}) keeps always good, moiften and temper your earth fo as to form it into bans between your hands, and when you would make your mould, roll your earth with a roller till the artist's assistant. 227 it is fmooth and pliable, then you may form it into what fafhion you pleafe. In this mould you may caft before it is dried ; and^when you have caft, take off the earth which is dried through the heat of the metal ; grind the fame again, and temper it as you did at firft to life it again. A particular fort of mould in which one may caft ex- ceedingly fine : — Take horfe mufclcs, or for want of fliem oyfter fhells ; let them be calcined in a potter's furnace ; then pulverize and temper them with urine ; of this make your moulds, and you will caft very fine and fharp. To imprefs bafs relievo or medals, in imitation of ivory : — Take of prepared clay one pound, fine plaifter of Paris eight ounces, white ftarch eight ounces ; mix thefe together, and beat up the mixture with the white of fix or eight eggs; put to it three ounces of clear gum arabac ; ftir it well together to a pafie, and put fo much of the dry mixture to it till you knead it like dough; then prefs it into a mould with the palm of your hand, and let it dry in the fun, obferving to lay the pafte fide on a fmooth board, and it will be clear and hard like ivory. You may imprefs all manner of medals and curiofities, and make them of what colour you pleafe. To imprefs medals and other things in brafs relievo, on paper: — Take the (havings of fuperfine white paper, and ileep them in fair writer for fix or eight days ; then put them into a clean earthen pot with water, and boil them for two or three hours ; this done, take them out of the pot with as little moifture as poflible, and (lamp them in a ftone mortar very imall and fine ; then put them into a clean liaen bag, and hang that in a veffel with clean water, changing the water once or twice a week : when you have occafion to ufe it, take as much as you want out of the bag, fqueczing the water from it, and put it on the mould, Q 2 2 28 the artist's assistant. preffing it down gently with a fponge, which will foak up the water, and make the impreffion more perfect : this being done, fet the mould to dry in the funj or in a warm room ; and, when dry, the impreffion will come off fair, and as (harp as if caft in fine plaifter of Paris. To caft vegetables in moulds peculiarly prepared for filver: — Take fine and clear clay, or fpalter, that is dry, and pound it fine in a mortar ; then take a copper or iron pan, put in your clay, and give it a brifk fire; and after you have heated it thoroughly, take it off, and let it cool; then take one part of this clay, one part alumen plumofum^ grind them together, and call the mixture in little tints, which put into a fire to anneal: beat it very fine; and, when you would form your plant, take one part of this powder, and one part of alumen plumofum, grind them toge- ther, and add as much of the clay powder as the mixed matter doth contain, and mix and grind them all together. Then take fome potter's clay to make a coffin round your plant ; fpread it in what manner you think proper, and after the coffin is dry, anoint the infide thereof, as alfo the plant, with good brandy ; duft the before-prepared clay, and the plant, gently, through a fine cambrick ; and when you have covered it all over as thick as it will bear, ftrike the railed coffin a little with your hand or hammer, and the duft will fettle clofer to the plant, and make the filver, caft in, come out the (harper • After the powder is well fettled, and your coffin clofed, cover it fine with dead charcoal, and then lay fome live ones over them : let the fire gradually defcend to the coffin, and heat it by degrees to a ftrong glue ; then let it cool of itfelf with the fire: take afterwards fine clay, fine fand, and fome wool (hearings ; mix this together, beat and knead it well into one another ; then temper it with glue, and the artist's assistant. 229 iill your coffin with it all over the plant, leaving an opening at the ftalk for the inlet ; then put it again into the fire, and make it red hot; and, with a pair of bellows, firft clofed, draw out the afhcs from the inlet, and it will be ready for cafting. Then take oil of tartar, which is made of pounded fait of tartar, and fcrape a little fal-armoniac into it, to give it the fubftance of a thin pafte, which is a good flux for filver : throw fome of this upon your filver when in fufion, and it will caft fine and fharp. After it is caft, anoint the filver plant with oil of tartar, lay it on live coals, anneal it, and then boil it in tartar, to which you add a little fait, and this will give it a fine bright pearl colour. A curious method to caft all forts of things in gold, filver, or other metals : — Firft, pound plaifter of Paris, or alabafter, to a fine powder; fift it through a cambrick, or very fine hair fieve, and put it into an iron pan over a clear coal fire ; ftir it about until it begins to boil and bubble up like water : keep it ftirring, recruit your fire, and continue this until you find it fo thick as not to be able to draw it along with your (tick ; then pour it into a bowl, and let it cool. Take alfo brick duft finely pow- dered and lifted. The miners find fometimes a matter in the iron mines, which they call liver ore: take this, wafh it from the coarfer fand ; and, when dry, put it into an earthen pot, cover it, fet it to neal thoroughly, and, when cold, pound and fift it : when it is rightly burnt it will be of a copper colour: put all thefe powders into feveral different boxes, and pre- ferve them from duft and foil for proper ufe. To caft vegetables and infedts : — Four parts of the above plaifter of Paris, two parts brick-duft, and two parts liver Q 3 230 the artist's assistant. ore ; mix them well together, and fift them through a fine hair fieve ; and, when you are ready to form your moulds, pour clean water to them ; ftir them well together to the thickncfs of a thin pafte ; but you mud be pretty nimble with this work, elle it will harden under your hands, and be of no ufe. The mould you prepare thus : — Take the plant you defign to caft, and fpread the leaves and ftalks fo as not to touch one another; then make a coffin, either of lead or clay, put your plant in it fo as not to touch the coffin ; at the bottom you may lay a piece of paper to keep the fluff from flicking to the board, but let your ftuffbe neither too thick nor too thin; for, if it is of a right confidence, it will force itfelf clofe to the plants, and come out (harp : let the ftalks be carefully kept up for the inlet ; and, when you pour this fluff upon your plants, do it gently, and feparate thofe leaves which might lie clofe to one another with a needle, pouring all the while to make the mould the ftronger. After this is hardened, put it in a dry place, and keep it until you have fome more ready to caft, but you muft fecure it from frofl. If you would caft infects, or any fmaTl animal, or reptile, put them in what pofition you will, upon a little board, brown paper, or pafteboard, which firft muft be anointed with oil, in order to make the plaifter fluff come off the eafier ; about your infect make a little coffin, and if you can raife the infect fo as to be freed from the board or paper, it will be the better, which you may do by tying it with two or three hairs, fattening them at the top of the coffin, and by this means it will hang in the middle thereof; when this is ready, pour, as before directed, your plaifter gently upon it; and after the mould is a little dry, it will be fit for ufe. THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 23\ If you lay your infect, or other creature, upon the paper, you muft make a wall about, and cart your plaifter upon it ; let it ftand a little,, and, when dry, take off your wall, and cut the plaifter round about the infect; and, taking the mould off the paper, there will be an opening at the bottom of the mould where the infect lies : turn this mould, and anoint it about the opening, and the part on the infect, with oil; then, cafting fome frefh plaifter upon that plate, your mould will take afunder, and be very convenient to draw out the afhes of the infect, after it has been burned as as is here directed. Put your mould upon fome warm wood afhes ; then cover it with final 1 coal; over the fmallcoal lay charcoal, and then throw fome lighted fmall coal over them to kindle the others, fo that the heat may be gently conveyed to the mould ; after it has glowed fome time, and you think the infect, or plant, is confumed to afhes, let it cool of itfelf with the fire about it to prevent the air coming to it. When your mould is cold, open the hole for the inlet, and either with your breath, or witli a little hand-fpout that is moifr, draw out the afhes, and your mould is ready. You may alfo burn thofe moulds in a muffle, if you clofe the muffle to prevent the air coming in, and lay the coals on and glow it as has been directed. After you have taken out the mould, put the fame in warm fand ; and, having your filver or other metal ready melted, pour it in quick ; but if you caft filver, throw into the flux a little fal- armoniac and borax, mixed together : after it is caft, let the mould cool a little ; then quench it in water, and the plaifter will fall off of itfelf; brufh the filver clean, and anneal and boil it as has been already directed. To caft vegetables or infects in another manner: — Tie your plant, fprig, or infect, with a fine thread to a little 232 the artist's assistant. ftick ; dip either of them into brandy, and let it dry a little ; then temper your plaifter of Paris, prepared as before directed, with water of fal-armoniac, pretty thin, and dip your plant or infect in it all over ; then put the little ftick in the hole againfl a wall, or any thing elfe ; let it hang free, and in the drying you may difplay the leaves of the plant, or legs of the infect, as you would have them : and Avhen you have done this, hang it in the coffin ; the little ftick may reft on each end of the coffin : then, pouring your plaifter over, you will have an exact mould ; then proceed as directed before. If you would have a fmall infect to ftand upon a leaf, then dip the ends of its legs in turpentine, and put it on the plant before you dip it : if it is a fpider or grafs- hopper, or any other infect which you think will be too ftrong for the turpentine, kill it firft in vinegar ; and after that put its legs in the turpentine, and fix it to the leaf of the plant. To caft figures or medals in brimftone: — Melt in a glazed pipkin half a pound of brimftone over a gentle fire; with this mix half a pound of fine Vermillion ; and when you have cleared tlie top take it off the fire; ftir it well together, and it will diffolve like oil : then eaft it into the mould, after being firft anointed with oil, let it cool, and take it out; but in cafe your figure fhould change to a yellowifh colour, you muft only wipe it over with aquafortis, and it will look like the fineft coral. How to form and caft all manner of fmall birds, frogs, fifh, &c. — Take an earthen, iron, or tin ring, which is high and wide enough to hold the animal you defign to caft, and fet the ring upon a clean board, or pafteboard ; then lay the animal upon it, and caft the fine mixture of plaifter pretty thick over it; the reft of the vacancy you the artist's assistant. 233 may fill up with a coarfer plaifler, even to the brim. When this is done, and pretty well dried, turn your ring, and putting a little fhort flick clofe to the body of the animal, call a cruft on that fide, to cover that part which lay clofe to the board; and, when dry, burn it, and go about the cafting as directed; after you have burned or glowed it thoroughly, you muft dry the afhes out of the hole which is made by the little flick, and this you may ufe for ,your inlet. How to call fmall fhot: — Melt your lead in a ladle; then pour it gently in a continual ftream into a pan or pail of water, on the furface whereof fwims oil of a finger thick, and you will have a good round fmall fhot. Of cafting in plaifler: — If you will make a mould to call an image or animal in, take clean potter's clay, make thereof a coffin round about the image, which you lay long ways on a board, and anoint it over with oil ; -then take fine plaifler of Paris, mix it with water, and pour it all over the image, fo that it may cover it every way; then give it a flronger coat with a coarfer fort; and when the plaifler is dry, take off the coffin, and cut that fide which is caft fomething flat, making fome notches or marks upon it; then turn it, and make a coffin about it again, and caft that fide of the image, after you have anointed it with fome oil all over, fo that the whole may be entirely inclofed. After the plaifler has been a day or two upon the image, it will be quite dry ; then, with a wooden mallet, beat cautioufly againfl the plaifler till a piece thereof loofens, which being taken off, the reft will come off* eafy : and after you have difmantled the whole, anoint the infidc thereof with linfeed oil with a fine hair pencil brufh, and let it dry in : this do twice ; and after they have lain two 234) the artist's assistant. or three days, cut in an inlet where you think it molt con- venient ; and when you will caft with plaifter of Paris, before you do it, anoint the infkle of the mould ; and after you have put all the pieces in their places, and tied them together, caft your plaifter, and let it ftand half a day ; take the pieces, one after another, carefully off, in order to keep the image intire ; but if you will caft wax in that mould, put only the mould, for half an hour before, in water, and the wax will not flick to it. If you will have the image hollow, then mind that the wax be not too hot ; pour it into the mould, and you will eafily fee how thick it fticks to it. When you think it is thick enough, then turn your mould about, and pour out the wax that is re- maining ; and after you have, for a little while, laid it in water, take off the pieces of moulding, and you will have the image done to perfection. You muff obferve, that before you break the mould from the image on which you formed it, you muft mark it all over with croffes, circles, or ftrokes, by which you may afterwards fix them right and exactly together, to caft again. If you will have the wax figures folid, then let the mould, with the images, lie for half an hour, or more, to cool, in fair water. To prepare the wax : — 'Take one pound of white rofin that is not greafy, and two pounds of wax : melt the wax, ft rain it through a cloth into a glazed pan, and ftir it about till it is cool. To caft medals and other things in bafs relievo: — Lay your medal on a clean piece of paper, or a clean board : inclofe it with a wall of clay or wax, then pour the plaifter of Paris half an inch thick upon it; when it is dry, take off the mould, and anoint it with clear fallad oil two or three times, both within and without. If you will caft plaifter of Paris, lay the mould firft for a quarter of an the artist's assistant. 235 hour, in clear water ; then caft your plaifter as thick as vou pleafe. You muft obferve, that whenever you make a mould of plaifter, let it be for bafs relievo or figures, you mull always anoint it with oil two or three times, which will not only preferve them from the damage they otherwife would fuftain from the water, but make the caft pieces come out clear. Medals and figures in bafs relievo, how to caft them like jafpis : — To do this you muft have a hand fpout, or a glyfter pipe ; at the end whereof fix a tin, or iron plate, full of round holes, fome larger than others : in this fpout put a pafte made of fine chalk of feveral colours ; then force them out in fmall fhreds of mixed colours, in one piece ; cut them with a fine edged knife in thin round flices, and put one into your mould, prefiing it down gently ; then pour the plaifter of Paris upon it, and, when dry, lay it firft over with fifh glue, and after that varnifh it, and it will be of iingular beauty. The colours you may firft dilute with gum-water, before you mix the chalk with them. Another : — Take the above-mentioned chalk pafte ; and after you have mixed therewith a variety of colours, as fmalt, white lead, vermillion, red lead, mafticot, verdigrife, brown red, &c. and formed each colour fcparate into little cakes ; then, with a rolling-pin, fpread them like pye- cruft, and when you have as many colours as you think proper, lay one leaf upon another, roll them together from one end to the other, and, with a knife, cut flices as thin as a wafer; take thefe and cover your mould with them, prefs it clofe down with your thumb, and pour the plaifter of Paris over it: when dry, do it over with fifh glue, and then varnifh it, or give it a polifh with a dog's tooth. 236 the artist's assistant'. To cart: filh, reptiles, fruit, or any kind of things, in a pewter plate, ordifh: — Take a pewter plate or difh, gar- nilh the lame with either fi(h, reptiles, fruits, plants, &c. difpofc them in proper order, as your fancy directs you: i'mail animals, or leaves of plants, faften to the difh with a Jittle turpentine ; and when every thing is in order, wall it round; then pour your plaifter of Paris over it; firike upon the table the difh ftands on, in order to make the caft i no- fix the clofer about the things', after the plaifter is dry, make the mould for the back part of the difh ; glow it in order to burn the things to athes; and having cleared your mould, fix them together for calling, then tie them round with wires, and make them red hot: cafl your pewter; and in order not to make the difh too heavy, convey fome little openings from the back part of the mould to the body, or hollow of the animals, flopping the outfide clofe up again till your carting is over; and when you think the pewter fufficiently fixed, then open thefe conveyances, and pour out the pewter which may remain in the ingot, melted. If you would caft it in filver, then model your leaves, animals, &c. each feparate and hollow, that they may be afterwards foldered on. To caft figures in imitation of ivory : — Take ifinglafs and ftrong brandy, make it into a parte with the powder of very fine grounded egg-fhells. You may give it what colour you pleafe, but caft it warm into your mould, having oiled it all over; leave the figure in the mould till cold ; then fet them in the air to dry, and you will have them refemble ivory. Another: — Take a fufficient quantity of egg-ftiells, put them into an earthen vefTel, lute it well, and let them be put into a potter's furnace, and they will burn to a white calx : if after the firft burning they are not white enough, the artist's assistant. 2.37 burn them a fecond time ; then, with parchment-glue, mix it into a mafs fit to be caft. in moulds, wherein let them dry; if you will have your figures of different colours, you muft colour your glue, for red, with Brafil ; for green, with verdigrife, &c. Another mixture to caft figures in bafs relievo: — Take flower of chalk, finely ground, mix it with clear glue well together; pour it into your mould, prefs it with the palm of your hand, and it will come out very fine : you may do this in what colour you pleafc. To caft with marble colours in plaifter : — Take fevcral colours, as vermillion, Dutch pink, yellow oker, fmalt, &c. temper them with water, and mix every one apart with plaifter; then take what colour you pleafe, and firft fprinkle your mould, which is beft of brimfione, with one or more of them, with a little pencil or feather : then pour a colour different from what you fprinkled into the mould ; and after it is hardened, give it a glofs with wax or varnifh, as pleafes you beft. A fund, in which one may caft things to the great < il nicety, whether flat, or in bafs relievo : — -Take Fuller's earth, put it in a reverberatory furnace, fo long till it is red hot ; then take fui-armoniac about one pound, difiblve it in two quarts of water ; with this water moiften the burnt earth ; and, when cool, put it into the furnace, in a red hot pan : after it has glown there, take it out again: when the heat is a little over, fprinkle it with the above water again till it is quenched : then give it another fire; and repeat this five or fix times, the more the better it will receive the metal : then grind it to a very fine powder, put it into the frame, which may be either of brafs, iron, or wood; but firft moiften it a little with the a fore fa id water; then make your impreftion near the ingot; and having 238 THE ARTIST S ASSISTANT. dried it before the fire while it is hot, caft your metal. The mould or impreffion will be better the fecond than the firft time of ufing it ,- but every time you ufe it make it firft red hot. To make horn foft : — Take one pound of wood allies, two pounds of quick lime, and one quart of water: let it boil together to one third ; then dip a feather into it ; and if, in drawing it out the plume comes off, it is boiled enough ; if not, let it boil longer : when it is fettled, filter it through a cloth : then put in (havings, or filings of horn ; let them foak therein three days, and anointing your hands firft with oil, work the horn (havings into a mafs, and print, mould, or form it into what (hape you pleafe. To caft horn into moulds: — Take horn (havings as many as you will, and lay them in a new earthen pot : take two parts of wood alhes, and the third part of lime ; pour clear lye upon it fo as to cover it all over ; boil it well, ftir it with an iron ladle till it has the confidence of pafte : if you will have it of a red colour, then take red lead or Ver- million, as much as you think proper, and temper it with the pafte; then caft it into a mould and let it dry; and you may fmooth it with a knife, and it will be of one folid piece : you may, in this manner, bring horn to what colour you will have it. To caft wood in moulds as fine as ivory, of a fragrant fmell, and in feveral colours: — Take fine faw-duft of lime-tree wood, put it into a clean pan, tie it clofe up with paper, and let it dry by a gentle heat; then beat it in a ftone mortar to a very fine powder, fift it through cam- brick, and lay it, if you do not ufe it prefently, in a dry place, to keep it from duft : then take one pound of fine parchment glue, the fineft gum-dragant and gum-arabick, of each fc>ur ounces ; let it boil in clean clear pump-water, the artist's assistant. 239 and filter it through a clean rag; then put into it of the fa id powder of wood, as much as will make it of the fubftance of a thick pafte, and fet it in a glazed pan in a not fand ; ftir it well together, and let the reft of the moiflure evaporate till it be lit for cafting: then pour or mix your colours with the pafte, and put in oil of cloves, of rofes, or the like, to give it a fcent : you may mix it, if .you will, with a little beaten amber : for a red colour, ufe Brafil ink. Your mould will be better of pewter, or brafs, than of plaifter of Paris : anoint it over with oil of almonds ; and put your pafte into it : let it ftand three or four days to dry and harden ; then take off your mould, and it will be as hard as ivory : you may cut, turn, carve, and plane it like other wood : it will be of a fweet fcent: you may, if your mould will allow it, ufe fcveral colours in one piece, leaving only in fome part the natural colour of the wood in order to convince the beholder what it is. It is a fine and curious experiment. Of the mixture for cafting mirrors and other things for optics : — We find the method for preparing thefe mixtures prefcribed by feveral authors, but after different ways ; wherefore I fhall fet down only a few, which, for the generality, are beft approved of; and firft, Take three pounds of the beft refined pewter, and one pound of refined copper: firft melt the copper, and then add the pewter to it : when both are in fuiion, pour it out; and, when cold, beat it to powder: then take twelve ounces of red tartar, a little calcined tartar, three ounces of falt-petre, one ounce and a half of alum, and four ounces of arfenie: mix and ftir this together; and, after it has done evaporating, pour out the metal into the mould; let it cool, and, when polifhed, you will have a fine mirror. This is the compofition which is commoly called, the Reel mixture. 240 the artist's assistant. Some artifis will have the arfenic omitted, becaufe it is apt to turn the mirror into a deadifh blue colour, and requires new polifhing every time it is wanted for ufe ; and they think that copper and pewter are fufficient to anfwer that purpofe. Another: — Take an earthen pan that is not glazed, and has ftood the fire; put into it two pounds of tartar; alfo the fame weight of chryftalline arfenic, and melt it on a coal fire. When this mixture begins to fmoak, add to it fifty pounds of old copper, and put it into fufion for fix or feven hours, fo that it may be well cleanfed : then add to it fifty pounds of pewter, and let them melt together: after this, take up fome of the mixture with an iron to fee whe- ther it is too hard and brittle ; if fo, then add a little more tin ; and when you have the right temper, throw four ounces of borax over it, and let it fhtnd in the furnace until it is diflblved ; then pour it into your mould, and let it cool ; when it is cold, rub it firft with brimftone, and then with emery ; and after the furface is made fmooth and even, polifh it with tripoli or tin afhes, and give it the finifhing ftroke with lamp-black ; or, take copper one part, pewter three parts, and a very little arfenic or tartar: when thefe are put into fufion, let them incorporate. Some take of copper three parts, of pewter one part, and a little filver, antimony, and white flint. Others do it with one part of lead, and two parts of filver. After the metal is formed and caft, it is requifite to have it fmooth and well polifhed ; the firft is done with emery, then with powder ol brimftone, tin afhes, or elfe with tripoli; the polifhing is done with pulverized chimney foot of wood fires, and the afhes of willow or cedar, which will give it a fine luftre. The emery is ground iu a fine duft, and moiftened with water ; or, fteel mixtures are alfo made out of one pound of pewter, and one third of copper : when THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. 241 thefe are melted, add two ounces of tartar, and one ounce of orpiment ; and, when evaporated, pour the mixture out into the mould. The calling of a flat mirror or looking- glafs, is done upon a flat board, which muff, be made dry and warm, and covered with rofin or pitch: by this means the mirror is fixed to the board : when cold, rub it with land and water ; then with emery, or flour of brimftone, and at laft poliih it with tin allies. Another fort of fteel mixture for mirrors :— Take good new copper, of that fort which is ufed for copper wire, eight parts ; fine Englifh pewter, one part; bifmuth, five parts ; put it together into a crucible, and melt it. Then greafe the mould all over with tallow in order to caft your metal into it : when i! is in fufion, dip a hot iron into it ; what flicks to it let cool. If the colour is inclining to white, it is right; but if to red, you muft add fome more pewter, until it has its right colour. Obferve, that whatever you put to the melted metal, muft firft be made hot. After this manner you may form and caft whatever you pleafe; or melt one pound of copper : throw into it eight ounces of fpelter, and when the fpelter is in flame, ftir it with a flick or iron rod, well together: then add five or fix ounces of fine pewter to it: pour it into your moulds, fmooth and polifli it as has been directed above, and you will have a fine and bright mirror. To caft iron : — Take clean filings of iron, wafh them in lye, and then water; mix them with as much powder of iulphur, put the mixture into a crucible, and give it a firong fire until it is in fufion : if you manage it right, it will caft clean and fmooth. To caft fteel : — Take of the beft and fineft fteel, about one pound; break it into bits, put it in a good ftrong crucible, and anneal it to a bright red colour. Then add R 242 THE ARTIST S ASSISTANT. fixteen or twenty-four ounces of good common fteel, and anneal it thoroughly ; add then eight or ten ounces of arfenic glafs ; give it a violent fire, and it will melt and flux. With this compofition you may caft what you pleafe. The arfenic glafs is prepared in the following manner:—- M Take one pound of white arfenic, two pounds of good " faltpetre; put it into a new pot that is not glazed, with " a cover that has a little round hole in the middle; lute *' it well all round, then let it dry, and, when dry, put ** the pot in a reverberatory fire for three hours, and there " will evaporate out of the hole of the cover a red poifon- " ous fume, which you muft take care of, and keep at " fome diftance from it. The fecond hour, move the fire * f nearer the pot; and, when the fumes ceafe, clofe the " hole with fome clay : at the third hour put the coals " clofe to the pot, and give it a thorough heat : then let " it cool of ilfelf ; and at the opening of the pot you will " find a white, foraetimes a greenifh white ftonc, which " put in a dry warm place, free from the air, to prevent f* its melting : of this you are to take five ounces, ar.d of " borax three ounces ; grind it well together, and let it 11 melt in a large crucible until it is fluid: pour this into " a refining cup, and you will have a fine tranfparent *' matter. What is not ufed you may preferve from the " air to keep it from diffolving." To caft iron as white as filver: — Take tartar, oil, and faltpetre, and mix it into a pafte ; then put iron or fteel filings into a crucible ; let it on a charcoal fire, throw the mixture upon it, and it will diffolve and come out like filver. To caft plaifler of Paris on copper-plates :— - -Firfi rub the colour, either red, brown, or black, into the graving, and the artist's assistant. 243 wipe the plate clean ; then mix as much plaifter as you think you (hall have occafion for with frefh water, to the confidence of a thin pafte ; and, having put a border round the plate, of four fquare pieces of reglet, pour the plaifter upon it, and move it, fo that it may run even all over the plate; let it ftand for an hour, or longer, according to the dimenfions of the plate; and, when you find it dry, and turned hard, take off the reglets, and then the plaifter, and you will have a fine impreffion of the copper graving. You rauft obferve, not to mix more at a time than you have occafion for, or elfe it will grow hard before you can ufe it. A mixture which may be ufed for making impreffions of any kind, and which will grow as hard as flone : — Take clean and fine fined allies, and fine plaifter of Paris, of each an equal quantity, and temper the mixture with gum water, or with fize of parchment : knead it well together, and prefs it down into your mould, but do not prepare more than what you ufe prefently, elfe it will harden under your hands. You may give it what colour you pleafe : in mix- ing it for black, take lamp-black ; for red, vermillion ; for white, flake white; for green, verdigrife ; for yejlow, Dutch pink, &c. You may, inftead of gum or fize, ufe the whites of eggs, which is more binding. To imprefs figures in imitation of porcelain: — Calcined and fine pulverized egg-fhells, worked with gum-arabic and the white of eggs into a dough ; then prefied into a mould, and dried in the fun, will come out (harp, and look fine. R 2 244 the artist's assistant. itW» Of BRONZING. jORONZING is colouring by metalline powders, plaifter, or other bufts and figures, in order to make them appear as- if caft of copper or other metals. This is ibmetimes done by means of cement, and fome- times without, in the inftance of plaifter figures ; but the bronzing is more durable and fecurc when a cement is ufed. Gold powders, and aurum mofaicum, are frequently em- ployed for this purpofe ; but the proper bronzing ought to be of a deeper and redder colour, more refembling copper, which effect may be produced by grinding a very fmall quantity of red lead with thefc powders ; or the proper powder of copper may be ufed, and may be prepared as follows : " Take filings of copper, or flips of copper-plates ; " which difiblve in any kind of aquafortis, and put into a " glafs receiver, or other proper formed veflel. When the 11 aqua forth is faturated with the copper, take out the " flips of the plates; or, if filings were ufed, pour off the " folution from what remains undiffolved ; and put into it '* fmall bars of iron, which will precipitate the copper " from the aqua fortis in a powder of the proper appear- " ance and colour of copper. Pour off the water then 41 from the powder, and wafh it clean from the falts by " feveral fucceflive quantities of frefh water." The true gold powder may be well and eafily made by the following method : " Take any quantity of leaf gold, and grind it with " virgin honey, ou a Hone, till the texture of the leaves the artist's assistant. 245 " be perfe&ly broken, and their parts divided to the mi - " nuteft degree. Then take the mixture of gold and " honey from off the ftone, and put it into a china, or " other fuch bafon, with water: then ftir it well about ** that the honey may be melted, and the gold by that " means freed from it. Let the bafon afterwards ftand at " reft till the gold be fubfided ; and when it is fo, pour off " the water from it, adding frefti quantities till the honey 11 be entirely warned away ; after which, the gold may be " put on paper, and dried for ufe." The aurum mofaicum, which is tin coloured, and rendered of a flaky or pulverine texture by a chemical procefs, fo as greatly to refemble gold powder, is prepared in the follow- ing manner : " Take of tin one pound, of flour of fulphur {even *' ounces, and of fal-ammoniacus and purified quickfilver, " each half a pound. Melt the tin, and add the quick- " filver to it in that ftate ; and when the mixture is become " cold, powder it, and grind it with the fal-ammoniacus " and fulphur till the whole be thoroughly commixed: " calcine them then in a maltrafs, and the other ingredients " fubliming, the tin will be converted into the aurum ** mofaicum, and will be found in the bottom of the glafs " like a mafs of bright flaky gold powder; but if any " black or difcoloured parts appear in it, they muft be *•' carefully picked or cut out." Where the appearance of brafs is defigncd, the gold powders, or the aurum mofaicum, may be mixed with a little of the powder, called, argent urn mufivwn ; the pre- paration of which is treated of under the article Silvering. Where the appearance of filver is wanted, the argentum mufroum is the beft and cheapeft method, particularly as it will hold its colour much longer than the true filver ufed in either leaf or powder. R3 246 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. Where no cement is ufcd in bronzing, the powder mutt be rubbed on the fubject intended to be bronzed, by means of a piece of foft leather, or fine linen rag, till the whole furface be coloured. The former method of ufing cement in bronzing, was, to mix the powders with Urong gum-water, or ifinglafsfize; and then, with a brufli, or pencil, to lay them on the fub- ject.: but at prefent, fome ufe the japanners' gold fize ; and proceed in all refpects in the fame manner as in gilding with the powders in other cafes ; for which ample di- rections will be given. This is the bed method hitherto practifed ; for the japanners' gold fize binds the powders to the ground, with- out the leaft hazard of peeling or falling off, which is liable to happen when the gum-water, glovers, or ifinglafs fizes are ufed ; though, notwithstanding the authority of the old practice for the contrary, even thefe cements will much better fecure them when they are laid on the ground, and the effect, particularly of the aurun\ mofaicum, will be much better in this way than the other. The gold fize fhould be differed, in this cafe, to approach much nearer to diynefs than is proper in the cafe of gilding with leaf gold, as the powders would otherwife be rubbed againft it in the laying them on. The fictitious filver powder, called, the argentwn mufroum, may, as abovementioned, be applied in the manner of bronze, by thofe whofe caprice difpofes them to filver figures or bails; but it is the only fort of filver powder that ihould be ufcd in this way, for the reafon above given ; and all fuch kind of fiivering is much better omitted ; for the whitenefs itfelf of plaifier in figures or bufts, and much more a (hining whitenefs is injurious to their righj; effect, by its eluding the judgment of the eye, with refpecl: to the proper form and proportion the artist's assistant. 247 of the parts from the falfe and pointed reflections os the lights, and the too faint force of the fhades. To remove which inconvenience, it is probable, was the firfl induce- ment to bronzing. www the METHOD of PREPARING and MOULDING PAPIER MACHE. JL HE papier mache is paper reduced to the confidence of a pulp by boiling and beating, till it be of fuch confidence, that, being cad in a moifl ftate, in proper moulds, it will receive the form or impreflion of the figure of the mould ; and, being previoufly commixed with fome gummous, or other adhefive body, will acquire a confiderable tenacity and hardnefs i'o as to retain the figure, and anfwer the end of wood turned, or carved, or plaifler call into the fame form. The paper ufed for making papier mache may be of any kind, according to the nicety required in the work to which it is applied. For very coarfe purpofes, common brown may be employed ; and, for the mod nice, writing paper is bed. It is not very material whether the paper be clean or foul, or whether it be written or printed upon, or blank, except where it might be intended to be only moulded, and not coloured ; or varnifhcd afterwards, which is feldom the cafe. The gum, or adhefive body, ufed for giving due texture to the papier mache, may be gum-arabic, glue, or ifinglafs; but, for ordinary purpofes, gum-arabic, or glue, are ufed 24 8 THE ARTIST S ASSISTANT. jfinglafs being too dear; and, indeed, gum-arabic lias an advantage over either of the others, of not ihrinking near fo much in drying. The preparation of the papier mache may be as follows: — *' Take any quantity of paper, and boil it in water, dining " it about with a wooden fpatula, till it become of a pally *' fubftance, and appears to have loft its cohefion : pour " off then the water from it, and beat it in a mortar, or " fuch kind of machine as will have the fame effect, till it " be perfectly foft and yielding pulp. Prepare, in the " mean time, a ftrong gum-water, by diffolving gum- " arabic in water ; and, having preffed the greated part of " the water out of the pulp, add the gum- water to it in 41 fuch proportion, that they produce together the confidence ** of a thick fluid. Put them then into a proper veffel, f* and boil them flowly, till they form a pade of the right " confidence for cafting." The papier mache will then be ready prepared for working with the proper moulds ; but the diffnefs of the pafte may be varied according to the nature of the work. That intended for pieces where the figure is fimple, and has no fharp or emboffed work, re- quiring to be differ, while embodied work, or other, fuch as has relieved parts, mould be thinner. The ufing glue or fize, indead of gum-arabic, makes a faving, and will anfwer extremely well in the cafe of boxes, or any other pieces of a fimple or flat form, becaufe the fhrinking may be allowed for in the figure of the moulds; but for em- boffed work, or dedgns, where feveral parts mud be joined together, the ufe of gum-arabic will be found mote ex- pedient, as the relative proportions will be much better prcferved. The moulds, in which the papier mache is cad, may be either of plaider of Pari?, or wood. For emboffed work, THE ARTIST S ASSISTANT. 249 or defigns of a more complex kind, plaifter is preferable ; but for boxes, cups, or fimpler forms, the moulds may be bed of wood, as fuch will laft for a long time, and not require renewing fo often, from the unavoidable wear, or the injury of a flight accidental violence, as tbofe made of plaifter: but in the choice of moulds, and fubjects to which they are applied, regard (hould be had to the figure with refpect to its roundnefs, or projecting parts ; for, emboffed work, or frames of any kind, where there are a variety of angles on one fide, and a flat plainnefs on the other, are moft expediently managed in plaifter ; and, where there are nice joints, as in the cafe of boxes, or where the figure muft be prefer ved on both fides, wood is much more proper. The plaifter moulds for cafting the papier mache, muft be made in the fame manner as thofe for cafting in plaifter, fee p. 233, but it is peculiarly neceflary in cafting the papier mache, to greafe the moulds extremely well, otherwife there will be a cohefion betwixt the matter caft, and the moulds, that will be deftructive to both. Where any fubject rs of confiderable extenfion, and one fide of it a blank reverfe, as in the cafe of bafs-reliefs, and olher ornaments of that nature, it is ufual to lay flips of whole ftrong paper over the papier mache; fuch paper being firft well moiftened with gum-water, or ftrong fize, which is rather better in this cafe : this not only makes a faving, but is really an advantage to the work, as it adds greatly to the ftrength and tenacity, and more efpecially preferves it during the time of its drying, from the injuries of a ilighter violence. To anfwer this end more effectually, the paper iifelf applied to this purpofe fliould, however, be very ftrong ; and, where the nature of the fubject admits of it, laid on feveral time*. 250 the artist's assistant. The wooden moulds, which are the mod proper fort for forming boxes, cups, or flat pieces or' any kind, where there is no emboffed work, mult be made in two parts ; or, more explicitly, there mull be a convex part, and a concave part ; betwixt which a fpace mud be allowed for the figure of the fubje6r that is to be caft. Thefe may be bell; made of box", or other hard wood turned into the proper figure ; and it is expedient to have two or three final I perforations, or holes, through the fubftance of the wood of the concave part, near the middle, to let out the fluid when the papier mache is compreffed to give it the due form. The hollow, betwixt the convex and concave parts of the mould, may be about the feventh or eighth part of an inch thick, in the cafe of fnuff or dreffing boxes, or other pieces of the like mag- nitude: but it maybe enlarged when greater pieces come in queftion. The moulds, when firft ufed, fhould be well greafed, and placed before a fire, that they may im- bibe, as much as poffible, of the greafe, which will render the oiling them afterwards, each time they are employed, more effectual. When the moulds are prepared, the furface of the con- pave or hollow part muft be fpread over with the palte, as evenly as poffible, ^afnd, as nearly as can be judged, of the thicknefs of the hdllow betwixt the two parts; and then the cover or folid part of the mould muft be put over the parte, and compreffed till it be in its proper place. The cafting being thus made, it muft be fuffered to remain in the mould, till it gains a fufficient ftrength and tenacity of parts, by drying, to be able to maintain its form when taken out; and then, being freed from both parts of the mould, it muft be dried and afterwards varnifhed or painted, accord- ing to the purpofe for which it is defigned. the artist's assistant. 251 Of the manner of moulding, &c. the whole paper for the forming fnuff-boxes, cups, &c. — The manner is much the lame as that of the papier mache ; but it can be only applied advantageoufly to the forming a piece, where the furface is flat, and without emboffed or raifed work, and therefore moulds of wood are proper. The paper employed for this purpofe mould be of the ftrongeft brown kind ; the texture fhould be equal; and, if any lumps, or groffer inequalities are found, they mould be taken off the paper. Being cut in pieces, of fuch a figure and fize as may beft fuit the form of the mould, it mould be then moiftened with gum water, till it be pliable and foft ; but not fo foaked or macerated, as to render it too weak and tender to bear adapting to the form of the mould. The flips or pieces fhould be then laid on the convex or folid part of the mould, which fhould be firft well oiled ; each fhould then be brufhed over, after it is laid on, with a pafte of a thin conflftence, made by boiling flour and water for a long time, and adding after- wards about two ounces of common fize to a pound ot pafte. Other flips muft be afterwards laid on the firft, in the fame manner, for three or four layers, according to the thicknefs and ftrength required in the work. When there is a due thicknefs of the flips laid on, the hollow mould fhould be put over them, and preffed down to its proper place, and there continued for fome time; after which it may be taken off, but the paper muft not be feparated from the convex or folid mould, till it has a fufficient hardnefs to fupport itfelf in the form given to it by the mould. Snuff- boxes, and fuch other pieces as have lids, or are to be made in two parts with joints, muft have feparate moulds for the forming the two parts, in the manner above directed for the papier mache ; but cups, faucers, or other fuch pieces, may be formed on folid or convex moulds only, the exterior 252 the artist's assistant. furface being rendered even and fmooth by drefling it with an ivory knife, or other inftrument of the like kind ; and a china or other cup already formed may, on occafion, ferve for the mould. The boxes, cups, &c. formed of whole paper in this manner, ought always to be afterwards coated with a good varnifh, if they be intended to bear any wear, or to contain any fluid ; but, if they be intended only for the ornaments of chimney-pieces, or other fuch purpofes, they may be painted with fat oil, tempered with oil of turpentine, and mixed with any pigment of the colour that is defired to be given them. Of the manner of preparing the matter and moulding the light japan ware : — " Take faw-duft of fir wood, and fift " off, by the ufe of two fieves of different finenefs, all the " moft grofs part and the fmalleft ; melt then equal parts " of rofin and turpentine, with a half part of bees-wax ; " and put into the melted mixture as much of the faw-duft " as can be added without rendering the mafs of a thicker *' confidence than can bear to be poured. Stir the faw-duft 41 and melted matter together till they be thoroughly " mixed, and then caft them after in proper moulds. If " it be defired to render the matter harder, a little " fhell-lac or gum-farcocolla may be added in powder to " the mixture ; but this mould not be done before the *' faw-duft be well united with the other ingredients, " and the matter mould be kept no longer on the fire " afterwards than may be necefiary for melting and mixing " the thell-lac, or gum-farcocolla with the reft. The " whole of this mixture mould be ufed at one time, " for it cannot be brought to a proper ftate for cafting " by being re-heated, without damaging it by burn- " ing." the artist's assistant. 253 The cups, boxes, or other veffels, formed of this matter, ought to be caft in double moulds, like the papier mache, which may be made of wood turned ; or of lead, pewter, or other metals; but care mould be always taken to greafe the moulds very carefully ; or otherwife, this matter being very adhcfivc, will glue the parts together, fo that they cannot be feparated without difficulty. The cups formed of this matter may be made thin, as it is very tenacious, and they will be extremely light. This compofition is not fuperior to the papier mache, or the whole paper, for making fnuff-boxes, or other fuch pieces as are not to contain fluids; but for cups, faucers, and fuch veflels as are required to bear moifture, it is far preferable; and, when varnifhed in a proper manner, is more elegant than China, with the advantage from its lightnefs, of not heating fo as to burn the lips, as veffels of a heavier matter are fubjecl to do. The manner of painting, gilding, and varnifhing the fnuff-boxes, or other fuch pieces formed of the papier mache, the whole paper, or faw-duft, may be the fame as in other japanned work ; for which directions have been given under the Trcatife of Japanning. When the painting, var- nifhing, gilding, &c. is performed, it is proper, in alt cafes, where great firmnefs and hardnefs of the varnifh i9 required, to bake :the pieces in a proper ftove, beginning with a gentle heat, and increafiag the degree to the greateft that can be given, without changing the colour of the varnifh or the painting, by burning them ; but this is more particularly requifite in the cafe of cups and faucers made of the whole paper, or favv-dufi, which are to bear hot water; for there baking them a confiderable time, in a ftrong heat, renders the varnifh proof againft any injury that could be done to it, even by boiling water. 254 the artist's assistant. The true japan black lacquer, (which is now frequently- brought from China) has been, fometimes ufed for the varnithing fnuff-boxes, cups, and all fuch pieces made of the paper, or faw-duft ; but this lacquer being the concreted juice of the toxicodendron tree, its poifonous qualities are almoft conftantlv fatal to thole who work with it for a length of time ; and fometimes, even on very flight intermeddling •with it : fuch a momentous inconvenience, together with the tedioufnefs of difpatching the work on account of its great tardinefs in drying, being extremely good reafons agajnft its ufe, it is more advifeable to employ the common kinds of varnifh, which, when managed judicioufly, may be rendered nearly both as beautiful and durable, without either the danger or the difficulty attending the other. When the [true japan varnifh is, however, ufed, all heat muft be avoided ; for, contrary to the nature of mod other fubftances o£ the fame kind, this dries befl when mofl expofed to moiflure ; and can, indeed, only be brought to a proper ftate of hardnefs, by keeping it in fome place which is either naturally damp, or made fo artificially, kWU^t Of GILDING. JL HE principal kinds of gilding are thofe called oil gilding, burnifh gilding, and japanners' gilding, or gilding with gold fize ; thefe may be promifcuoufly ufed on grounds either of wood, metal, or any other firm and rigid body ; but paper and leather require a treatment, in forne cafes, peculiar to themlelves. the artist's assistant. 255 The firft. attention, in moft kinds of gilding, is the choice of leaf gold, which (hould be pure, and of the colour accommodated to the purpofe or tafte of the work. Purity- is requifite in all cafes, for if the gold be allayed with filver, it will be of too pale and green a hue for any appli- cation ; and, if it contain much copper, it will, in time, turn to a ftronger green : the beft method, however, of judging of the colour of leaf gold, with nicety, is by keep- ing a ipecimen of fuch as is perfect, with which any frefh parcel may be compared. There is, bcfides the true leaf gold, another kind in ufe, called Dutch gold, which is copper gilt, and beaten into leaves like the genuine ; it is much cheaper, and has, when good, greatly the effect of the true, at the time of its being laid on the ground ; but, with any acccfs of moifture, it lofes its colour, and turns green in fpots ; and, indeed, in all cafes, its beauty is ibon impaired, unlefs well fecured with lacquer or varnifh. Of the infhuments that are commonly ufed in gilding:-— The firft neceffiry infirument is a cuftiion for receiving the leaves of gold from the paper, in order to its being cut into, proper fize and figures for covering the places to be gilt. This cufhion (hould be made of leather, and fattened to a Kjuare board, which Ihould have a handle; it may be of any fize from fourteen to ten inches fquare, and ihould be IhiiYed between the leather and board with fine tow or wool, but in inch a manner that the furface may be perfectly flat and ew* ( A proper knife is the next, and an equally requifite in- (Irument, as it is necellary, in all cafes, to cut or divide the gold into parts, correfpondent to thsfe which are to be covered: this knilv may be the fame, in all refpects, as thole uied in painting, called pallet-knives; the blade 25G the artist's assistant. of which may be five or fix inches long, and fomewhat more than half an inch in breadth, with an handle pro- portionable. A fquirrel's tail is likewife generally provided for taking up whole leaves, and for compreffing the gold to the furface where it is laid, and giving it the pofition required: it is ufed alfo, by fome, for taking up the parts of leaves, but this is better done by means of a ball of cotton wool, which will both anfwer this end, and that of compreffing the gold, in a more eafy and effectual manner. This fquir- rel's tail is cut fhort ; and, fometimes, fpread in the fan falhion by means cf a piece of wood, formed like a pencil- ftick, but broad at one end, and fplit to receive the tail ; but it will equally ferve the purpofe in its own form, when the hair is to a proper length. This inftrument is, by fome, called, a [pallet, but improperly, as the board for holding the colours in painting, and which is frequently in ufe with this, being called by the fame name, would neceffarily produce a confufion in fpeaking of either. A brufh, of very foft hog's hair, or of the fitch kind, made large, is likewife commonly ufed for paffing over the work, when it is become dry, in order to take off the loofe gold. Some fine cotton wool is alfo neccffary for taking up the fmaller parts of the leaves, and laying them on the work ; as alfo for compreffing and adjufting them when laid on : the cotton fhould be formed into a ball, by tying it up in a piece of very fine linen rag; for if it be ufed without the rag, the fibres adhere to the gold fize, and embarrafs the work. A fmall ftone and mullar, with a proportionable pallet- knife, are required to grind the mixtures made of the fat oil, or gold fize, with each other; and the colours that the artist's assistant. 257 may be added to them ; proper brumes are alfo wanted for laying on and fp reading the fat oil, or fize, on the work ; and tome of thefe mould be fitches of different fizes, in order to convey and fettle the gold where the relief of carved work forms deep hollows. Thefe are all the inftruments that are common to all the three principal kinds of gilding. Of the manner of oil gilding, and the preparation of fat oil : — The gilding with oil is the moft eafy and cheap, as well as the moft durable kind; and, therefore, is moftly applied to common purpofes : it is performed by cementing the gold to the ground by means of fat oil; the preparation of which is therefore previously neceffary to be known, and may be much better managed in the following manner, than by any method hitherto taught, or commonly prac- tifed : " Take any quantity of linfeed oil, and put it into an " earthen, or any otheY veffel of a broad form, fo that the *' oil may lie in it with a very large furface ; but the pro- " portion fhould be fo limited that the oil may be about an ** inch thick in the veffel : the earthen pans ufed for milk " in the forming cream for butter, are very well adapted *' for this purpofe. Along with the oil, as much water " fhould alfo be put in the veffel as will rife fix inches, " or more, above the bottom ; place the veffel then, with " oil fwimming in the water, in an open place, where fun " and rain may have accefs to it, but where it may be as " dee from receiving duft and filth as pofhble : let it ftand " in this condition, ftirring the contents on every oppor~ " tunity for five or fix weeks, or till it appear of the con- " fiftence of treacle : take the oil then from off the water " into a phial, or bottle of a long form, or, what is better, " into a feparating funnel, fuch as is ufed by the chemifts, S L lbS the artist's Assistant. " and there draw off the remainder of the water: place it " afterwards, being in the long bottle, or phial, in fucli m heat as will render it perfectly fluid, and the foulneffes it " may contain, will foon fubfide to the bottom, when the " clear part muft be poured off, and the remainder (trained N through sf flannel, v/hile yet warm, and the whole will " then be ht for ufe." It is to be obferved, that this method is only practicable in iummer, the fun not having fufficient power in winter to produce a due change in the oil. This method differs from that commonly pra&ifed, in the addition of water, which fuffers the foulnefs to feparate from the oil, and fink, to the bottom, where it remains, without being again mixed with the oil every time it is ftirred, as is unavoidable where no water is ufed ; the water iikewife greatly contributes to bleach the oil, and improve it in other refpects. The bed previous preparation of the piece to be gilded, if it have not already any coat of oil paint, is, to prime it with drying oil, mixed with a little yellow oker, to which alfo may be added a fmall proportion of vermillion : but where greater nicety and perfection is required in the work, the wood mould be firft rubbed with fifh-fkin, and then with Dutch rulhes. This priming being dry, the next part of the operation is the fizing the work, which may be done either with the fat oil alone, (but diluted with drying oil, if too thick to b~e worked without), or with fat oil, and the japanners' gold fize, either in equal quantities, or in any lefs propor- tion with refpect to the gold fize. The difference between the ufe and omiflion of the gold fize, in this way of gilding, lies in two particulars: the one is, that the fizing 'dries falter according to the proportion of the quantity of the artist's assistant. 259 the gold fize to the fat oil, and is confequently fo much the fooner fit to be gilded ; the other is, that the gilding is alfo rendered in the fame proportion, lefs mining or gloffy, which is efleemed a perfection in this kind of gilding; though, taking away the prejudice of fafhion, I mould think the moll: mining, the moil beautiful, and of the flrongefl effect. The fat oil, or the compound of that and the gold fize, mufl be ground with fome yellow oker; and then, by means of a brufh, laid thinly over the work to be gilt; but iu doing this, care mufl be taken to pafs the brufh into all the cavities, if the fubject be carved, or have any way pro- jecting parts ; for where the fize fails to be laid, the gold will. never take till the work be again repaired by going over the defective places with frefh fize, which fhould be avoided as much as poffible. Where great perfection is required, the gold fhould not be laid on the firfl fixing, but that being fuffered to dry, the work fhould be again fized a fecond time ; and fome, who are very nice, even proceed to a third. The work being thus fized, mufl he kept till it appear in a condition to receive the gold, which mufl be diflinguifhed by touching with the finger; if it appear then a little adhefive, or clammy, but not fo as to be brought off by the finger, it is in a fit condition to be gilt ; but, if it be fo clammy as to daub, or come off on being touched, it is not fufficiently dry, and mufl be kept longer ; or, if there be no clamminefs, or flicky quality remaining, it is too dry, and mufl be fued over again before it can be gilt. When the work is thus ready to receive the gold, the leaves of gold, where the furface is fufficiently large and plain to contain them, may be laid on entire, either by S 2 2B0 TriE artist's assistant. means of the fquirrel's tail, or immediately from the paper in which they were originally put : being laid on the proper parts of the work, the leaves muft then be fettled to the ground, by comprefling thofe which appear to want it, o-ently, with the fquirrel's tail, or cotton ball ; and if any part of the gold has flown off, or been difplaced, fo as to leave a naked or uncovered fpot, a piece of another leaf, of fize and figure correfpondent to fuch fpot, muft be ]aid upon it : where the parts are too fmall to admit of the laying on whole leaves, or where vacancies are left after laying on whole leaves which are lefs, then require others to cover them : the leaves which are to be ufed muft be firft turned from the paper upon the cufhion ; they muft then be cut into fuch divifions, or flips, as may be commodioufly laid out on the parts of the work to be covered ; after which, being Separated, and taken up as they are wanted, by means of the cotton wool, to which, being breathed upon, they will adhere, they muft be laid in the places they are defigned to cover, and gently prefled with the cotton, till they touch every where, and lie even on the ground. Where the work is very hollow, and fmall pieces are wanted to cover parts that lie deep and out of the reach of the fquirrel's tail, or the cotton, they may be taken up by the point of a fitch pencil, (being firft breathed upon) and by that means conveyed to, and fettled in their proper place. Thofe who are accuftomed to it, ufe the pencil scommodioufly for a great part of the work, where large parts of the leaves cannot be ufed, The whole of the work being thus covered, fhould be fullered to remain till it be dry ; and it may then be brufhed over by a camel's hair pencil, or foft nog's hair brufh, to take oft' from it all loofe parts of the gold. the artist's assistant. 261 If, after the brufhing, any defective parts or vacancies appear in the gilding, fuch parts mud be again fized, and treated in the fame manner as the whole was before ; but the japanners' gold fize alone is much belter for this pur- pofe than either the fat oil alone, or any mixture. Of burnifh gilding, with the preparation of the proper fizes, &c. — The gilding with burnilhcd gold is feldom practifed but upon wood; and, at prefent, moftly in the cafe of carved work, or where carved work is mixed with plain : the chief difference in the manner between this and oil gilding lies in the preparing the work to receive the gold, and in the fubdiluting a fize madp of parchment, or the cuttings of glovers' leather in the place of fat oil, as a cement: the preparation of this qil mould therefore be pre- vioufly known, and may be as follows : " Take a pound of cuttings of parchment, or of the 11 leather ufed by glovers, and, having added to them fix " quarts of water, boil them till the quantity of fluid be *' reduced, to two quarts ; or till, on the taking out a little, it " will appear like a jelly on growing cold ; drain it through '* flannel while hot, and it will be then fit for ufe." This fize is employed in burnifh gilding, not only in forming the gold fize, or cement for binding the gold to the ground, but alfo in priming, or previously pre- paring the work. But before we proceed to fhew the manner of ufing it fo, it is neceflary to give the compofi- tions for the proper cement, or gilding fize employed in this kind of gilding. There are a multiplicity of recipes for this composition, which are approved of by different per- fons; but, as in general they vary not eiTenlially from each other, I will only give two, which I believe to be each the bed in their kinds. S3 262 the artist's assistant. 1 " Take any quantity of hole armoniac, and add fome *• water to it, that it may foak till it grow foft; levigate •» it then on the ftone, but not with more water than will *' prevent its being of a ftifF confidence, and add to it a " little purified fuet, or tallow fcraped, and grind them "together. When this is wanted for ufe, dilute it to the " confiftence of cream, by parchment, or glovers' fize, *• mixed with double its quantity of water, and made warm. ** Some melt the fuet or tallow, and mix it previoufly with *' five, or fix times its weight of chalk before it is put to " the bole, to facilitate their commixture; to which, in this *' wet ftate, they are otherwife fomewhat repugnant: it is " alfo fometimes practifed to put foap-fuds to the bole, ** which will contribute to its uniting with the tallow." To prepare the wood for bumifh gilding, it fhould firft be well rubbed with fifh fkin, and then with Dutch ruihes; but this can only be practifed in the larger and plainer parts of the work, otherwife it may damage the carving, oprender it lefs fharp by wearing off the points; it muft then be primed with the glovers' fize, mixed with as much whiting as will give it a tolerable body of colour ; which mixture muft be made by melting the fize, andftrewing the whiting, in a powdered ftate, gradually into it, ftirring them well together, that they may be thoroughly incorporated. Of this priming feven or eight coats fhould be given, time being allowed for the drying of each before the other be put on; and care fhould be taken, in doing this, to work the priming well, with the brufh into all the cavities, or hol- lows there may be in the carved work: after the laft coat is laid on, and before it be quite dry, a brum pencil, dipt in water fhould be patted over the whole, to fmooth it, and take away any lumps or inequalities that may have the artist's assistant. 263 been formed; and when it is dry, the parts which admit of it fhouldbe again brufhed over, till they be perfectly even: the work mould then be repaired, by freeing all the cavities and hollow parts from the priming, which may clioak them or hinder the relief of the carving ; after which a water polifh fhould be given to the parts defigned to be burnifhed, by rubbing them gently with a fine linen rag, moiftened with water. The work being thus prepared, when it is to be gilt, dilute the compofition of bole, &c. with warm fize, mixed with two-thirds of water; and, with a brum, fpread it over the whole of the work, and then fuffer it to dry, and go over it again with the mixture, in the fame manner, at leaft once more. After the laft coat, rub it, in the parts to be burnifhed, with a foft cloth, till it be perfectly even. Some add a little Vermillion to the gilding fize, and others colour the work ; if carved before it be laid on, with yellow and the glovers' fize, to which a little vermillion or red lead mould be added. This laft method is to give the appear- ance of gilding to the deeper and obfeure parts of the carving where the gold cannot, or is not thought neceiTary to be laid on : but this practice is at prefent much difufed ; and, inftead of it, fuch parts of the work are coloured after the gilding, which treatment is called, Matting. The work being thus properly prepared, fet it in a pofition almoft perpendicular, but reclining a little from: you ; and, having the gilding fize, place all the neceffary inftruments above defcribed, ready, as alfo a bafon of clean water ready at hand : wet then the uppermoft part of the work by means of a large camel's hair pencil, dipped in water ; and then lay on the gold upon the part fo wet, in the manner above directed for gilding in oil, till it be completely covered, or become too dry to take the gold. 264 THE ARTIST'S ASSISTANT. Proceed afterwards to wet the next part of the work, or the fame over again, if neceffary, and gild jt as the firft, repeating the fame method till the whole be finifhed. Some wet the work with brandy, or fpirit of wine, inftead of water ; but I do not conceive any advantage can arife from it that may not be equally obtained by a judicious ufe of water. The manner is, moreover, much more troublefome and difficult, as well as expenfive, for only a fmall part muft be wet at one time, and the gold laid inftantly upon it, or the brandy or fpirit9 will fly off, and leave the ground too dry to take the gold. The work being thus gone over with the gilding, may be then examined; and fuch parts as require it repaired by wetting them with the camel's hair pencil, and covering them with the gold ,• but as little as poffible of the perfect part of the gilding ftiould be wet, as the gold is very apt to turn black in this ftate. When the repaired part alfo is dry, the work muft be matted, if it require it; that is, the hollow parts muft be covered with a colour the neareft in appear- ance to gold : for this purpofe fome recommend red lead, with a little vermillion ground up with the white of an egg : but I think yellow oker, or Dutch pink, with red lead, would better anfwer the end ; or the terra difienna, very flightly burnt, or mixed with a little red lead, would have a much better effect, and be more durable than any other mixture fo near the colour of gold in fhade. Ifinglafs fize will likewife equally well fupply the place of the whites of eggs in the compofition of matting. The work being thus gilt, it muft remain about twenty- four hours, and then the parts of it that are defigned to be burnifhed, muft be polithed with a dog's tooth, or with the burnifhers of agate or flint, made for this purpofe; but it fhould be previoufly tried whether it be of the proper the artist's assistant. 265 temper as to the drynefs ; for, though twenty-four hour be the rnoft general fpace of time in which it becomes fit, yet the difference of feafon, or the degree of* wet given to the work, makes the drying irregular with regard to any fixed period. The way of diftinguifhing the fitnefs of the work to take the burnifh, is, to try two or three particular parts at a distance from each other ; which, if they take the polifh in a kind manner, the whole may be concluded fit ; but, if the gold peel off, or be dil'ordered by the rubbing, the work muft: be deemed not yet dry enough ; and, if the gold abide well the rubbing, and yet receives the polifh flowly, it is a proof of its being too dry, which mould be always prevented by watching the proper time; for the work, when too dry, both requires much more labour to burnifh it, and fails at lafl of taking fo fine a polifh. Of japanners' gilding : — The japanners' gilding is per- formed by means of gold powder, or imitations of it, ce- mented to the ground by a kind of gold fize much of the nature of drying oil, for the making of which there are various recipes followed by different perfons : we fhall, however, only give one, which is much approved : %{ Take of linfeed oil one pound, and of gum animi four " ounces ; fet the oil to boil in a proper veflel, and then ** add the gum animi gradually in powder, ftirring each " quantity about in the oil, till it appears to be diffolved ; " and then, putting in another till the whole be commixed *' with the oil, let the mixture continue to boil, till, on M taking a large quantity out, it appear of a thicker con- " fiftence than tar; and then ftrain the whole through a *? coarfe cloth, and keep it for ufe : but when it is wanted, " it muft be ground with as much vermillion as will give it " an opake body ; and, at the fame time, diluted with oil 266 the artist's assistant. " of turpentine fo as to render it of a confidence proper " for working freely with the pencil." This gold fize may be ufed on metals, wood, or any other ground whatever; but, before I enter on the par- ticular manner of gilding with it, the preparation of the true and counterfeit gold powders are neceffary to be ihewn. For the method of making the true gold powder, fee p> 244. A gold powder of a more intenfe yellow colour, brighter than this, may be made by a precipitation from gold dii- folved in aqua regia, by mean9 of either green or Roman vitriol. The German gold powder, which is the kind moll gene- rally ufed, and, where it is well feeured with varnifh, will equally anfwer the end in this kind of gilding with the genuine, may be prepared from the fort of leaf gold, called, the Dutch gold, exactly in the fame manner as the true. The aurum mofaicum, the preparation of which is given in p. 245, may likewife be ufed in this kind of gilding. The fal ammoniacus employed in the preparation of the aurum mofaicum, ought to be perfectly white, and very clean ; and care fhould be taken that the quickfilver be not fuch as is adulterated with lead, which may be known by putting a fmall quantity in a crucible into the fire; and obferving, when it is taken out, whether it be wholly fublimed away, or have left any lead behind it. The cal- cination may be beft performed in a coated glafs body, hung in the naked fire ; and the body mould be of a long figure, that the other ingredients may rife fo as to leave the coloured tin clear of them; the quickfilver, though it be formed into cinnabar along with the fulphur, need not be wafted, but may be revived by diftilling it with the addition pf quick-lime. the artist's ASSISTANT. 267 There are fome other coarfer powders in imitation of gold which are formed of precipitations of copper, but they are feldom ufed now for gilding. Befides thefe powders, the genuine leaf, or Dutch gold, may be ufed with the japanners' gold fize, where a more mining and gloffy effect is defired in the gilding; but in that kind of gilding which is intended to be vamifhed over, or to be mixed with other japan work, or paintings in var- nifh, the powders are moft frequently employed. The gilding with japanners' gold fize may be pracYifed. on almoft any fubftance whatever, whether wood, metal, leather, or paper; and there is no further preparation of the work neceffary to its being gilt, than the having the furface even and perfectly clean. The manner of ufing the japanners' fize is this : Put then a proper quantity of it, prepared as above directed, and mixed with a due proportion of oil of turpentine and Vermillion, into a fma.ll gallipot ; then either ipread it with a brufh over the work where the whole furface is to be gilt, or draw with it, by means of a pencil, the proper figure defired: avoid, carefully, not to let it touch any other parts; fulTer it afterwards to reft till it be fit to receive the gold, which muft be diftinguifhed by the linger in the fame manner as with the fat oil ;'the having a proper clamminefs, or flicking quality, without being fo fluid as to take to the finger, being alike the criterion in both cafes; being found of a proper drynefs when the gold powders are to be ufed, a piece of the foft leather, called waft-leather, v.- rapped round the fore-finer, muft be dipped in the powder, and then rubbed very lightly over the fized work ; or, what is much better, the powder may be fpread by a foft camel's hair brufh : the whole being covered, it mull be left to dry, and the loofe powder may then be cleared away from Of the NATURE and COMPOSITION 0/ GLASS. JL HE materials employed to give a body to glafs are, fand, flints, talc, fpar, and fome other ftony and terrene foflils. Sand is, at prefent, almoft the only kind of fubflance which is ufed in this intention in the Britifh manufactories of glafs, and with great reafon, as it extremely well anfwers the purpofe, and doe3 not demand the previous preparation of calcination that is neceffary with rcfpecl; to flints and other ftones ; and as it can be with certainty procured in any quantity demanded. The kind of fand mo ft fit for making the white transparent kinds of glafs, is, that brought from Lynn, in Norfolk, by the name of which place it is diftinguifhed ; and there is alfo another kind of this, but inferior, brought from Maidltone, in Kent : it is white and (hining ; and, examined by means of a microfcope, appears to be fmall fragments of rock chryftal, from which it does not fcem, by any experiments, to differ ip its qualities ; and the glafs formed of it, may, therefore, pro- perly be confidered as made of chryftal. The introduction of it into the manufactories of glafs in this country, has T2 276 THE ARTISTS ASSISTANT. almoft wholly fuperfeded that of flints, from which it no way differs in this application, but in the being fomewhat flower in vitrifying, which makes it require, in proportion, a greater ftrength of- flux and fire ; but to compenfate for this disadvantage, it is clearer in its own colour, and much freer from heterogeneous tinging bodies which injure the colour of the glafs, and frequently give embarraffments where flints are ufed : the* fand requires no previous preparation for common and groffer purpofes, efpecially where nitre is ufed, which burns out the fulphureous matter from any filth of the nature of animal and vegetable fubftances, and confequently calcines them to an earth no way injurious to the glafs ; but for nicer purpofes, and where no nitre is ufed, it is proper to purify, or cleanfe the land by waihing, whkh may be thus done : Pour water upon it, and having flitted them well about, incline the veffel immediately Hi fuch a manner that the water may run off, and carry with it the filth that will float in it; by repeating which a few times, the fand will be freed from all the heterogeneous matter that is lighter than itfelf. For coarfe glafs, other kinds of land, of a fofter texture, are ufed; as, befides the advantage of being cheaper, they are more eafily vitriable than flints, and confequently make a faving in the fluxing bodies which are to be added to them. Flints are the moll important article in the fubftances which are ufed for forming the body of glafs ; and were, indeed, the only kind employed in larger works where any better forts of glafs were manufactured, before the ufe of the white fand excluded them in all places where it is to be conveniently obtained : fince, for the reafons above given, it is a more eligible material, unlefs for experiments, or where very final 1 qu/mtities are required; in which cafe, the calcined flints being more eafily reduced to an impalpable the artist's assistant. 277 powder, may poffibly be more commodioufly employed than the fand. Flints, yet, however, continue to be ufed wherever the proper fand cannot be procured at a reafon- able charge, as the fole ingredient for forrrfing the body of the better kinds of glafs ; fmce they are, in mod places where they are naturally found, to be had in extreme great quantities ; and the expence of calcining them does not enhance their whole coft to a degree beyond what the current price of glafs bears. The goodnefs of flints, with refpe