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TEXTRINUM ANTIQUORUM: 
 
 AN ACCOUNT 
 
 OF 
 
 THE ART OF WEAVING 
 
 AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 ON THE RAW MATERIALS USED FOR WEAVING. 
 
 WITH AN APPENDIX, 
 
 ON THE PERIOD OF THE INVENTION OF LINEN PAPER, ON FELTING, 
 ON NETTING, ON PLINY'S NATURAL HISTORY, ON THE 
 ONOMASTICON OF JULIUS POLLUX. 
 
 By JAMES YATES, M.A., 
 
 FELLOW OF THE ROYAL, LINNiEAN, AND GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES, 
 
 — LONDON: 
 TAYLOR AND WALTON, UPPER GOWER STREET. 
 1843. 
 
[Only 250 copies printed.] 
 
 PklNTF.D BY RICHAKD AND JOHN E. TAYLOK, 
 RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. 
 
 THE GErrY RErrtARCH 
 INSTITUTE UB,-i/-.RY 
 
TO 
 
 ARTHUR AIKIN, Esquire, 
 
 FELLOW OF THE LINN^AN AND GEOLOGICAL SOCIETIES, 
 LATE SECRETARY TO THE SOCIETY FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT 
 OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE; 
 
 ONE OF THE MOST SUCCESSFUL HISTORIANS OF 
 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY, 
 BOTH IN RELATION TO MODERN IMPROVEMENTS, AND 
 IN CONNEXION WITH THE STUDY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE; 
 
 ONE OF THE MOST CANDID, TEMPERATE, 
 AND JUDICIOUS OF PHILOSOPHERS; 
 AND 
 
 ONE OF THE MOST BENEVOLENT AND AMIABLE OF MEN; 
 
 THIS VOLUME IS INSCRIBED 
 
 BY HIS SINCERE FRIEND 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
Digitized by tine Internet Archive 
 in 2015 
 
 https://archive.org/details/textrinumantiquo01yate 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 The Author's attention having been several years ago 
 directed to the subject of the following treatise, more 
 especially by the inquiries of the friend to whom this 
 Part is dedicated, it appeared that no complete exami- 
 nation of the matter had ever been instituted. Upon 
 single parts of the subject essays have been written, 
 which have acquired a high degree of celebrity, such as 
 that of Forster De Bysso Antiquorum, and those of seve- 
 ral Italian authors on the Murex, or purple dye of the 
 ancients. The dissertations De Re Vestiaria are well 
 known. The processes of dyeing, spinning, and wea- 
 ving have been much less amply discussed. Good notes 
 on certain passages of ancient authors, which relate 
 to these arts, are found in the comments of Casaubon 
 and Heyne ; and Schneider has inserted in the Index 
 to his edition of the Scriptores de Re Rustica, under 
 the word " Tela," an account of the ancient loom, 
 which was then the most complete explanation of the 
 
vi ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 terms used to denote its different parts. It seemed to 
 the Author of the following work, that the subject 
 deserved a much more complete and systematic in- 
 vestigation ; and, if the portion here offered by him 
 to the public should meet with the approbation of 
 candid judges, and his life and health be preserved, 
 he indulges the hope of pursuing his pleasant and 
 self-imposed labour so as to remedy what has hitherto 
 been an important defect in classical archaeology, and 
 to supply to his readers the means of understanding 
 more correctly the writings of the ancients, of appre- 
 ciating more fully the extent of their attainments in 
 the arts of domestic life, and of comprehending more 
 distinctly their social state, and their relations as 
 members of the civil communities to which they be- 
 longed. 
 
 J. Y. 
 
 June 184.3. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 THE FIRST VOLUME. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 § 1. Weaving defined and distinguished from other Arts. 
 
 From Paper-making : — Papyrus. Cotton paper. Inner bark 
 of certain trees. The Polynesians clothe themselves in 
 paper page 2 
 
 From Felting : — Felt mentioned in the Iliad. Plato. Hero- 
 dotus 3 
 
 From Platting : — Platting universal among mankind. Egyp- 
 tian tombs. Raiment of sedge mentioned by Herodo- 
 tus 4 
 
 From Netting : — Some great races of men who excelled in 
 netting ignorant of weaving. Captain Cook. Dr. John- 
 son's definition of network 5 
 
 From Knitting : — Knitting characteristic of civilisation. 
 Beckmann 6 
 
 From Sewing : — Sewing anciently little used in making gar- 
 ments. Plato. Cicero 7 
 
 § 2. Division of the Subject. 
 
 Natural division and arrangement of the subject : — First, The 
 raw materials. Secondly, Dyeing. Thirdly, Spinning. 
 Fourthly, Weaving. Fifthly, supposing the cloth to be 
 woven. Fulling, Sewing, Embroidery, Printing. Sixthly, 
 Review of the trade in cloth. Res Vestiaria. Its influence 
 on the state of society . . • 9 
 
viii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 RAW MATERIALS. 
 Animal. Vegetable. Mineral. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Shecps-wool. Goats-hair. Beavers-wool. Camels-wool and 
 Camels-hair. Fibres of the Pinna. Silk . . . j>age 1 1 
 
 Chapter I. 
 
 § 3. Sheeps-Wool. 
 
 Bones of quadrupeds in caves. Cuvier, Buckland, De la 
 Beche. Sheep not a native of Europe. Argali, or Ovis 
 Ammon of Linnaeus. § 4. Scythians, their hordes di- 
 stinguished by Herodotus and others, as Nomadic or 
 pastoral Scythians. Massagetae. Justin. Strabo. § 5. 
 Medes. Persians. Bas-reliefs of Persepolis. Herodotus. 
 Mesopotamia. § 6. Sheep of Syria, Aristotle. Pliny. 
 The Moabites. 2 Kings. The Arabs. -Ezekiel. Isaiah. 
 Diodorus Siculus. § 7- The Phoenicians and Hebrews. 
 § 8. Arabs and Egyptians. Sheep introduced into Egypt. 
 Clothing of the Egyptians. § 9. Strabo contrasts the 
 Ethiopians with the Egyptians. Sheep in Libya. Ari- 
 stotle. Odyssey. Pindar. Virgil. § 10. Progress of this 
 employment northwest. The Coraxi. Joannes Tzetzes. 
 Hipponax. Pliny. Miletus. Circassia. Dioscurias or Is- 
 kouriah. Sir John Chardin. Julius von Klaproth. Sheep 
 of Pontus. Melanchlasni, Herodotus. § 11. Asia Minor. 
 Homeric poems. Paris. Marsyas. Strabo. § 12. Mount 
 Taurus in Pisidia. TertuUian. Whiteness of fleeces of 
 Pamphylia. Lydians and Carians. Pliny mentions wool 
 ofLaodicea. Strabo. Aristophanes. Varro. § 13. Wool 
 of Miletus. Ctesias. Aristophanes. Fragment of Greek 
 Comedy. Sybarites. Palaephatus. Eustathius. Virgil. 
 The comment of Servius. Ancient Greek version of Eze- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 IX 
 
 kiel. Columella. Pliny. § 14. Samos. Atlienaeus. ^lian. 
 Eustathius illustrates a line of Theocritus. § 15. Thrace. 
 Nicander. Plato. Aristotle speaks of the sheep of Mag- 
 nesia. Iton, " the mother of flocks." Euboea famous for 
 sheep. Athenaeus. Callixenus Rhodius. Hermippus. 
 § 16. Boeotia rich in flocks. Sophocles. Seneca. Hesiod. 
 Inscription in British Museum. Bockh and Ottfried Miil- 
 ler. Effect of water of Melas and Cephisos on the fleeces 
 of sheep. § 17- Attic sheep. Varro. Demosthenes. Alci- 
 phron. Plutarch. Laberius. Theocritus. Megaris. Theo- 
 gnis. Sheep protected with skins. Diogenes. § 18. Ar- 
 cadia. Pindar. Homer. Theocritus. Peculiar divinity 
 of Arcadia Pan. Virgil and Propertius. Herodotus. 
 Callimachus. Philostratus. Pan used the bow. Panic. 
 Pan not the Egyptian Mendes. Pan and Faun the same. 
 Polybius. Character of Arcadians. Pastoral music. Mer- 
 cury. § 19. Ithaca. Macedonia. Epirus. Dogs of 
 Albania. § 20. Sicily. Theocritus. Pastoral poetry. 
 Polyphemus. Daphnis. § 21. Sheep of South Italy. 
 Wool of Tarentum and Canusium. Black and brown 
 wool. Varro. Columella. Virgil. Migrations of the 
 flocks. Honorable Keppel Craven. The Manso. Ancient 
 bronze bells at Naples. Nets used for making folds. 
 Inscription at Sepino. Proper names given to sheep. 
 Sybaris and Crathis. Sheep white and black. Gargarus. 
 Horace. Calpin-nius. Martial. § 22. White wool of Gallia 
 Cisalpina. Parma. Modena. Wool of Cisalpine Gaul di- 
 vided into three kinds. Mantua. Virgil's Eclogues. White 
 wool, indicated by the rivers Galesus, Baetis, and Timavus. 
 § 23. Whence came sheep-breeding into Italy? Romulus 
 and Remus. Faunus. Altars to Hope and Silvanus. 
 Roman shepherds. § 24. The ancient Germans had plenty 
 of cattle. No skill in sheep-breeding. Wool of Gallia 
 Transalpina. Juvenal. Sidonius ApoUinaris. Belg£e. 
 §25. Britain. §26. Spain. Red wool. Gray and brown 
 wool. Baetica. Salacia. Estremadura. § 27. Sheep bred 
 for the weaver. Plato's definition of weaving . paye 12 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chaptek II. 
 
 § 28. Goats-hair. 
 
 Inquiry into the origin of goats. Dr. Prichard. Goat the 
 ^gagrus. § 29. Daphnis. Epigram by Callimachus. 
 Theocritus. He-goat led the flock. § 30. Goats in modern 
 times. Scyros and Naxos. Cilicia. § 31. Use of goats- 
 hair. Dress of sailors. Military and naval purposes. 
 § 32. Shac, sac, sagum, shag, &c. Cilice. Hair cloth used 
 in mourning. Arabs weave goats-hair . . . page 127 
 
 Chapter III. 
 
 § 33. Beavers-wool. 
 
 Isidorus Hispalensis. Claudian. Beckmann. § 34. Dispersion 
 of beavers through Europe. Fossil bones of beavers . 145 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 § 35. Camels-wool and Camels-hair. 
 Ctesias. Arab tent of camels-hair. Fine cloth . . .149 
 
 Chapter V. 
 
 § 36. Fibres of the Pinna. 
 
 Pinna found in the Mediterranean. Manufacture. § 37- Ter- 
 tuUian. Procopius. § 38. Whence the ancients obtained 
 the Pinna 152 
 
 Chapter VI. 
 § 39. Silk. 
 
 Whether silk is mentioned in the Old Testament. § 40. Ari- 
 stotle's description of the silk-worm. Meaning of Bom- 
 bylius. China. §41. Lucretius and Varro. Cos. §42. 
 Mention of silk by Latin poets of the Augustan age. 
 § 43. Dionysius Periegetes. Strabo. Early Roman em- 
 perors. Authors in the first century. Seneca. Lucan. 
 Pliny. Josephus. Saint John. Silius Italicus. Statins. 
 Plutai'ch. Juvenal. Martial. § 44. Authors of the second 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XI 
 
 century. Pausanias. Galen. Clemens Alexandrinus. Ter- 
 tullian. Apuleius. Ulpian. Julius Pollux. Justin. §45. 
 Silk rarely mentioned in the third century, ^lius Lam- 
 pridius. Flavius Vopiscus. Trebellius Pollio. Cyprian. 
 Solinus. § 46. Ammianus Marcellinus. Water used to 
 loosen the cocoons. § 47. Edict of Diocletian. § 48. 
 Fourth and following centuries. Claudian. The Periplus 
 Maris Erythrsei. Rufus Festus Avienus. Inscription. 
 Servius. § 49. Bombyces compared to spiders. Silk- 
 worms of China. § 50. Christian authors of fourth and 
 following centuries. Arnobius. Gregorius Nazianzenus. 
 Basil. Illustration of the doctrine of the resurrection. 
 Ambrose. Georgius Pisida. § 51. Jerome. Chrysostom. 
 Heliodorus. Hesychius. § 52. Prudentius. § 53. Palla- 
 dius. The Theodosian code. § 54. ApoUinaris Sidonius. 
 Alcimus Avitus. Boethius. § 55. Isidorus Hispalensis. 
 § 56. Introduction of silk-worms into Europe. Procopius, 
 § 57. Menander Protector. Paul, the Silentiary. Doro- 
 theus. Archimandrite of Palestine. § 58. Theophylactus 
 Simocatta. § 59. Silk in England. Aldhelmus. Bede. 
 Gerbert. Theodorus Pi'odromus. § 60. Silkworms in 
 Europe. Palermo. § 61. Silk in France and England. 
 Etymology of silk. § 62. Relics. § 63. Obligations to 
 authors and to friends po-g^ 160 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 
 § 64. Substances chiefly used were bark 251 
 
 Chapter I. 
 Flax. 
 
 § 65. Earliest mention of flax. Egyptians. § 66. Painting 
 of flax-gathering. § 67- Mummy-cloth. § 68. Flax grown 
 in Egypt. § 69. Explanation of terms. § 70. Byssus. 
 § 71' Reply to J. R. Forster. Hebrew and Egyptian terms. 
 § 72. Flax in North Africa, Colchis, Babylonia, § 73. 
 
Xll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Palestine. § 74. Asia Minor. Elis. § 75. Etruria, Cis- 
 alpine Gaul, Campania, Spain. § 76. Germany. Atrebates. 
 The Franks. § 77« Use of linen among the Greeks and 
 Romans page 252 
 
 Chapter II. 
 Hemp. 
 
 § 78. Use of hemp limited. Thrace. Colchis. Caria. Ety- 
 mology of hemp 292 
 
 Chapter III. 
 Mallows. 
 
 § 7^^" Cultivation and use of mallows. Common mallow. 
 Marsh mallow. Hemp-leaved mallow. § 80. Common 
 mallow used for weaving. § 81. Mallow cloths of India. 
 Hibiscus. Molochina. § 82. Mallow cloths made of 
 Hibiscus. § 83. Latin dramatists. Nonius Marcellus. 
 § 84. Greek authors. Term Amorgos. Common mallow. 
 § 85. Attic writers. Amorgine garments .... 296 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 
 Spanish Broom. 
 
 § 86. Authority for Spanish broom. Stipa Tenacissima. § 87. 
 Cloth made from broom-bark. Albania. Italy. France. 
 Pliny's account of Spartum. § 88. Crotalaria Juncea. 
 § 89. Spartium monospermum and multiflorum . .318 
 
 Chapter V. 
 The Bolbos Eriophoros. 
 § 90. Theophrastus. Fibi'ous coats of bulbs. Scilla. Pan- 
 cratium. Agave vivipara 331 
 
 Chapter VI. 
 Cotton. 
 
 §91. Cotton characteristic of India. § 92. Account of cot- 
 ^. ton by Theophrastus. § 93. Aristobulus and Nearchus. 
 Pomponius Mela. § 94. Carbasus, Carbasum. Carpas. 
 
COMTENTS. 
 
 xiii 
 
 Cotton awnings used by the Romans. Carbasus applied 
 to linen. Vestal virgin. Linen sails, called Carbasa. Apu- 
 leius. § 95. Pliny and Julius Pollux. § 96. TertuUian. 
 Philostratus. § 97. Arabs used cotton. Cotton not com- 
 mon anciently in Europe. Names for cotton . page 334 
 
 BOOK III. 
 
 MINERAL SUBSTANCES. 
 § 98. Asbestos. Gold. Silver 355 
 
 Chapter I. 
 Asbestos. 
 
 § 99. Uses of asbestos. Carpasian flax. Still found in Cy- 
 prus. § 100. Used in funerals. Asbestos in India. How 
 manufactured. § 101. Asbestos used for fraud and super- 
 stition. Relic at Monte Casino 356 
 
 Chapter II. 
 Gold. 
 
 § 102. Gold cloth used by Asiatics. Persians. Alexander. 
 Egypt. Asia Minor. § 103. Italy. Roman emperors. 
 Shawls interwoven with gold. Seneca. Lucian. Ausonius. 
 Claudian. Maria, daughter of Stilicho. § 104. The fathers 
 of the Christian church condemned the use of gold. Alci- 
 mus Avitus 366 
 
 Chapter III. 
 Silver. 
 
 § 105. Account of Herod Agrippa by Josephus . . . 380 
 
 Appendix A. 
 
 On the Period and Manner of the Invention of Linen Paper. 
 
 Gotthelf Fischer. Schwandner. Wehrs gives the inven- 
 tion of linen paper to Germany, Schonemann to Italy. 
 AbdoUatiph. Abbot of Clugny. Codices chartacei . 383 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Appendix B. 
 On Felting. 
 
 Felting invented before weaving. Felt used in the East, in 
 Italy and Greece. Felt cap worn by cynics, fishermen, 
 mariners, artificers. Desultores. Vulcan. Ulysses. Phry- 
 gian bonnet. Cap worn by the Asiatics. Northern nations 
 of Europe. Cap of liberty. Petasus. Statue of Endy- 
 mion. Petasus in works of ancient art. Hats of Thessaly 
 and Macedonia. Laconian or Arcadian hats. Peltastae. 
 Mercury with the pileus and petasus. Various uses of 
 felt page 388 
 
 Appendix C. 
 On Netting. 
 
 Nets were made of flax, hemp, and broom. General terms 
 for nets. Hunting-nets. Supported by forked stakes. 
 Purse-net or tunnel-net. Road-net. Hallier. Dyed 
 feathers used to scare the prey. Fishing-nets. Casting- 
 net. Landing-net. The scan. Figurative application. 
 Bag-nets and small purse-nets 412 
 
 Appendix D. 
 
 On Pliny's Natural History. 
 
 Silk of Ceos. The Seres. Coraxi. Sheep and wool. Spar- 
 tum. Three accounts of bombyces. Cuvier's critique on 
 Pliny. Cotton trees of Tylos. Of Ethiopia. Uses of cork. 
 Flax of different countries. Passage interpolated. Asbestos. 
 Awnings of linen. Spartum. Silk used for head-dresses. 
 Fountains of Ceron and Neleus. Cloth of gold . . 440 
 
 Appendix E. 
 On the Onomasticon of Julius Pollux. 
 Julius Pollux. MSS. Cotton in India and Egyyt . . 46/ 
 
ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA. 
 
 Page 38, last lino, add, Respecting the black and wliite sheep of Hestiae- 
 otis, see Pliny, xxxi. 2 s. !>, quoted in Appendix D, p. 464. 
 
 Page 39, line 15, add as a note after "life." This transaction is repre- 
 sented in Plate XIII. fig. 2. See below, p. 402. 
 
 Page 72, note, add, But no one has described this pastoral migration more 
 minutely or more beautifully, than my excellent friend, Mr. Charles 
 Fellows, in his Discoveries in Lycia. 
 
 Page 81, note, add, Compare Varro, De L. Lai., as quoted below, p. 89. 
 
 Page 89, line 3, insert the following paragraph. 
 
 It appears from the following passage' of Varro, that the Apu- 
 lian was sold at a higher price than some other kinds of wool which 
 were equally beautiful, because it wore better. By lana Gallicana 
 in this passage we must understand the wool of Gallia Cisalpina, 
 of which we shall next treat. 
 
 Sic enim lana Gallicana et Appula videtur imperito similis propter 
 speciem, cum peritus Appulam emat pluris, quod in usu firmior sit. 
 
 De Lin. Lat., lib.ix. 28. p. 484. ed. Spengel. 
 
 Page 93, note, after the reference to Pliny, add, See Appendix D, p. 464. 
 for § 25 read § 26. 
 
 Page 104, line 14, for ^notrus read ffinotrus. 
 
 Page 125, line 14, add. See Appendix D, p. 444. 
 
 Page 135, note, omit now. 
 
 Page 144, note *, add, The use of goats-hair for making cloth among the 
 Moors is mentioned by RauwolfF, Travels, part ii. ch. 1, p. 123 
 of Ray's Translation. The herdsmen on the wide plains about 
 Smyrna live in tents of "black goats-hair." — C. Fellows's Z)i«- 
 coveries in Lycia, p. 8. 
 
 Page 221, after the citation from Jerome, add. Two more passages are quo- 
 ted below, § 104. ]). 378. 
 
 Page 223, after note *, add, 
 
 In the Ri>yal Museum of Natural History at Leyden are eight 
 or ten cocoons of the Phalisna Atlas from Java. They consist of 
 a strong silk, and are formed \\\wyi the leaves of a kind of Ficus. 
 The first layer of the cocoon covers the whole of a leaf, and receives 
 the exact impress of its form. Then two or three other layers are 
 distinctly perceptible. Two or three leaves are joined together to 
 form the cocoon. In regard to the looseness of the layers these 
 cocoons do not correspond to M. Breton's description of the co- 
 coons of the wild silk-worms of China, which are very strong and 
 compact, and therefore more resemble those of the Phalcjena Pa- 
 phia. 
 
 Pag'e 265, line 24, add. It appears also that in later times 696vrj was not 
 restricted to fine linen. It is used for a sail by Achilles Tatius in 
 describing a storm (1. iii.), and by the Scholiast on Homer, 11. a. 
 
xvi 
 
 ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA. 
 
 Kepata KaXelrai to eiravh) rod iorov SeSe/xevov TrXdywv ^v\ov, ov 
 e^dTrrerai r) oOovrj. 
 
 Page 2C6, last line, add, Serapion was called Sindonites, because he always 
 woie linen (Falladii IJist. Lausiuca, p. 172). He was an Egyp- 
 tian, and retained the custom of his native country. 
 
 Page 288, line 7, before "flax" insert, Strabo (iv. 2. 2. p. 41 ed. Sieb.) par- 
 ticularly mentions the linen manufacture of the Cadurci : and from 
 them the Romans obtained the best ticking for beds, which was on 
 this account called Cadurcum. See Pliny, xix. 1 s. 2, quoted in 
 Appendix D, |). 4.!)9. 
 
 Page 289, note f, add, The trowsers worn by the Franks were sometimes 
 linen, sometimes made of skins. ' Avai,vp'iSa^ oi fikv Xij/as, ol 5e 
 aicvTLva^ SiaZiuvvvfievoL rocs <T/ct\eiTt TrepiafnTiaxovTai. — Agathias, 
 ii. 5. 
 
 Page 291, line 8, add, See Pliny, xix. 1 s. G. in Appendix D, pp. 456, 462. 
 Page 314, note *, add. Many other examples may be seen in Steph. Bj'z. 
 
 V. 'Ayvovs ; Bisetus in Aristoph. Plut. 586 ; Wordsworth, Athens 
 
 and Attica, p. 43. 
 Page 320, note, for VIII. read VII. 
 
 Page 358, note *, for xxx.vi. c. 31. read xxxvi. 19 s. 31. See Appendix D. 
 Page 377, after the extract from PauUnus, add. 
 
 We find the following law in the Codex Justinianus: — 
 Nemo vir auratas in tunicis aut in lineis habeat paragaudas : nisi hi 
 tanturamodo, quibus hoc propter Imperiale ministerium concessum est. 
 
 Corpus Juris Civilis, torn. v. tit. viii. leg. 2. 
 The " aurata paragauda " was a border of gold lace or thread. It 
 appears that ladies might wear it on their tunics, but that men 
 were only permitted to use it in token of their official character as 
 being in the service of the emperor. In allusion to these or simi- 
 lar regulations, .^^lius Lampridius (34) says of the emperor Alex- 
 ander Severus, 
 
 Auratam vestem miaistrorum nuUus vel in publico convivio habuit. 
 Page 397, note f, add. The " Phrygian bonnet " is called Phnjgia tiara in 
 the following lines of an epitaph {ap. Gruter. p. 1123) : 
 Indueris teretes manicas Phrygiamque tiaram 
 Non unus Cybeles pectore vivet Atys. 
 Page 409, note I, add, The following is from a sepulchral urn found near 
 Padua {Gruter. p. 927) : 
 
 Abite hinc, pessimi fures, * * * vestro cum Mercurio petasato cadu- 
 ceatoque. 
 
 Page 413, line 20, add. It was used to make pens for sheep by night. See 
 
 above, pp. 81, 83, SC. 
 Page 450, line 3 from bottom, for three read four, and add the followivci 
 
 reference, xxxvii. 13 s. 77. 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 Page 
 
 I. Marble vase and picture of Pan dancing to face 49 
 
 II. Pan teaching a young shepherd, and sacrifice 65 
 
 III. Roman shejAerd and bales of wool 107 
 
 IV. Figures of (ionfivXioi and cocoon of the silk-worm 170 
 
 V, Map of the Ancient World, coloured according to the use 
 
 of raw materials for weaving , . . 250 
 
 VI. Egyptian flax-gathering. Magnified fibres of flax and 
 
 cotton 255 
 
 VII. Spartium Junceum of Europe ; Crotolaria Juncea of Hin- 
 
 dostan 320 
 
 VIII. Cotton and Black Mulberry 337 
 
 IX. Caps worn by Cynic Philosopher, Vulcan, Dajdalus, Ulys- 
 ses, and a Desultor 391 
 
 X. Caps worn by modern Greek boy. Fisherman, Buffoon. 
 
 Mysian cap or Phrygian bonnet 396 
 
 XI. Coins in the British Museum 399 
 
 XII. Statue of Endymion in ditto 401 
 
 XIII. Hats worn by shepherds and Athenian ejihebi 403 
 
 XIV. Mercury wearing a narrow-brimmed hat 409 
 
 XV. Mercury with a broad-brimmed hat 410 
 
 XVI. Hunting-scenes in bas-reliefs at Ince-Blundell. Egyp- 
 tians with the drag-net 421 
 
TEXTRINUM ANTIQUORUM: 
 AN INQUIRY 
 
 INTO THE 
 
 ART OF WEAVING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Weaving defined and distinguished from other Arts, 
 
 1 . TV^EAVING is an art, by which threads of any 
 substance are crossed and interlaced so as to be ar- 
 ranged into a permanently expanded form, and thus 
 to be adapted for covering other bodies. 
 
 Six other arts or processes may be enumerated, 
 which resemble weaving thus far, that by means of 
 them fibrous substances are made to assume a per- 
 manently expanded form and are consequently used 
 for covering other bodies. But they differ from weav- 
 ing in various essential circumstances, which I shall 
 now explain. The processes alluded to are Paper- 
 making, Felting, Platting, Netting, Knitting, and Sew- 
 ing. 
 
 B 
 
2 § 1, INTRODUCTION. WEAVING 
 
 a. In the 1st place, we may distinguish weaving 
 from paper-making . 
 
 Paper, as the name expresses, was originally made 
 by the Egyptians from the Papyrus, which grew abun- 
 dantly in their marshes. The stem of this plant was 
 cut into thin slices, which were laid upon one another 
 in strata alternating in such a manner that the fibres 
 crossed at right angles. But they were neither spun 
 into thread, nor interlaced, and were combined into 
 one sheet merely by pressure and by the adhesive pro- 
 perties of the more cellular portions of the stem, aided 
 perhaps by the addition of some glutinous substance. 
 
 To proper paper, made from the plant of that name, 
 succeeded cotton paper. This was originally made 
 from raw cotton by the mere compression and agglu- 
 tination of its fibres*. As the fibres crossed in all 
 directions, it was even more unlike cloth than the 
 Egyptian paper, in which they crossed at right angles. 
 The same remark applies to the paper now commonly 
 used in Europe, which is made from linen rags torn 
 into shreds and then converted into pulpf. 
 
 Another manufacture, which may be here men- 
 tioned, is that of the raiment worn by the islanders 
 of the Pacific Ocean. It is made of the inner bark of 
 certain trees, layers of which are placed upon one 
 another and made to adhere by compression and some- 
 times also by the use of gum or other adhesive sub- 
 stances. We may consider it as one of the great dis- 
 tinctive features of the Polynesians that they clothe 
 themselves in paper ; for so we may properly call any 
 vegetable fabric composed of fibres, crossing in all 
 
 * Wehrs vom Papier, p. 131 — 134. 
 
 t See Appendix A on the period of the invention of Paper made 
 from Linen Hags. 
 
DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER ARTS. 
 
 3 
 
 directions and rendered firm not by texture, but sim- 
 ply by cohesion. 
 
 b. Secondly, weaving is to be distinguished from 
 felting. 
 
 The process of felting is in some respects like that 
 which has been already mentioned as having been em- 
 ployed in making cotton-paper and the raiment used 
 in Polynesia. Felt no less than paper consists of fibres 
 crossing one another in all directions. But, in the 
 first place, the only fibres employed in felting are ani- 
 mal wool and hair. Vegetable fibres, of which paper 
 almost wholly consists, are altogether unfit for making 
 felt. In the second place, instead of being merely 
 pressed together, and rendered compact by aggluti- 
 nation, the fibres of wool are forcibly rubbed and 
 worked together so as to be crossed, looped, and in- 
 terlaced in every conceivable way, while the inequali- 
 ties on their surfaces prevent them from being de- 
 tached again, and cause them to lock into one another 
 as if by the apposition of serrated edges. In the third 
 place, felt, instead of being liable to destruction from 
 wet, as is the case with paper, is from its mode of ma- 
 nufacture particularly fitted to resist rain and moisture, 
 and is in other respects remarkably durable. 
 
 We find mention of felt in the Iliad, and it was 
 abundantly used by the Greeks and Romans in all 
 subsequent times. Plato speaks of the art of felting, 
 and distinguishes it both from sewing and from weav- 
 ing. According to Herodotus the Scythians had felted 
 coverings for their tents, a custom still found among 
 their successors, the Tartars. Felting appears to have 
 preceded weaving. It is certainly a much ruder and 
 simpler process: and, when we consider both the long 
 prevalence of the art among the pastoral inhabitants 
 
 B 2 
 
4 
 
 ^ 1. INTRODUCTION. WEAVING 
 
 of the ancient Scythia, and the extensive use of its pro- 
 ducts among them so as to be employed even for their 
 habitations, perhaps we shall be right in considering 
 felting as the appropriate invention of this people*. 
 
 c. In the third place, the process of platting ap- 
 proaches much nearer to weaving than those of paper- 
 making and felting, because in platting the fibres are 
 regularly interlaced: the only difference from weaving 
 is, that they are not previously drawn out or twisted 
 so as to be made into thread. 
 
 The art of platting seems to have been practised 
 almost universally among mankind. The most re- 
 mote nations, among which no other traces of affinity 
 can be discovered but such as are common to human 
 nature, and which differ by clothing themselves in 
 skins, in paper, or in cloth, know how to make basket- 
 work, mats, cloaks, sails, and many other articles by 
 crossing and interlacing long strips of leaves, stems, 
 and bark. Such articles acquire by platting far greater 
 strength than they could have had, if made on the 
 principle of paper. They are also much better adapted 
 to resist moisture. The tenacity of paper is destroyed 
 by being wet, because the gum or paste, to which it 
 owes its firmness, is softened or melted. But in plat- 
 ting texture supplies the place of cohesion in a manner, 
 which renders the separation of parts far more diffi- 
 cult. Hence the South-sea Islanders, although they 
 wear in dry weather the raiment already described, 
 always put on matting, when it rains f. 
 
 * I shall produce the passages of Homer, Plato, and Herodotus 
 referred to in this paragraph, together with various other allusions 
 to the art of Felting as practised by the ancients, in Appendix B. 
 
 t Hawksworth's Account of Cook's Voyage in the Endeavour, in 
 Kerr's Collection, vol. xiii. p. 10. 34. 
 
DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER ARTS. 
 
 5 
 
 The most ancient specimens of platted manufacture 
 now remaining are the sandals and baskets found in 
 Egyptian tombs. Examples of them may be seen in 
 many of the national Museums of Europe. 
 
 The raiment of sedge, eaOrjc (pXoivv, which accord- 
 ing to Herodotus (iii. 98.) was worn by some of the 
 Indians, was made by platting. He describes the 
 manufacture of it in these words, (pop^ov rpuwov Kara- 
 nXe^avTec, i. e. "by platting after the manner of a 
 basket." 
 
 d. In netting, a decided step is taken towards wea- 
 ving, because the fibres, of which nets are made, are 
 previously spun, or twisted into threads. It is, how- 
 ever, remarkable, that some great races of men, who 
 have excelled both in platting and in netting, have 
 remained ignorant of weaving. Nothing could sur- 
 pass the dexterity and neatness, with which the simple 
 inhabitants of Otaheite made mats and baskets ; and 
 Captain Cook* bestows equal commendation upon 
 their thread, their ropes and lines, their enormous 
 nets and the whole of their fishing-tackle. It seems 
 a very slight additional discovery to interlace thread 
 instead of untwisted fibres ; and yet this was seldom 
 or never attempted by the South-Sea Islanders, and 
 certainly not according to the process which we call 
 weaving. 
 
 Dr. Johnson's celebrated definition of Net-work is 
 very imperfect, notwithstanding the pains which he 
 seems to have bestowed upon it-, " Anything reticu- 
 lated, or decussated, at equal distances, with interstices 
 
 * Ibid. pp. 34.35. 
 
6 
 
 ^1. INTRODUCTION. WEAVING. 
 
 between the intersections." It is true, that every net 
 has interstices between the intersections of its threads. 
 But, in order that the interstices may retain their size 
 and form, it is necessary, not only that the threads be 
 decussated, i. e. made to cross one another in the form 
 of the Roman numeral X, but also that they be fastened 
 by knots at the points of decussation. This is the es- 
 sential circumstance, in which netting differs from all 
 the other arts which we are now comparing. A net 
 being always intended to hold and retain objects, and 
 principally living creatures, and at the same time to 
 be transparent and as far as possible invisible, it is 
 requisite that it be made with meshes, and these 
 meshes could not resist the force and violence, which 
 they are designed to overcome, unless they were se- 
 cured so as to preserve their number, form, and posi- 
 tion. This is effected by tying the threads or cords 
 in hard knots where they cross*. 
 
 e. In the fifth place, we have to compare weaving 
 with knitting. 
 
 Whilst the arts of platting and netting are found 
 to be practised very generally even among the rudest 
 and most uncultivated nations, that of knitting is 
 characteristic of the highest state of civilization. It 
 is indeed the invention of modern times, and there 
 are few processes among the arts of life, which are at 
 the same time so useful, and so ingenious and elegant. 
 Beckmann, in his History of Inventions f, gives a 
 very interesting representation both of the advantages 
 
 * In Appendix C, I propose to give an account of the net- work of 
 the ancients, and of all the terms employed in connection with it. 
 t Johnston's Translation, vol. iv. p. 286 — 324. Second edition. 
 
DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER ARTS. 
 
 7 
 
 of knitting in an economical and social point of view, 
 and of the evidence, which has been collected relative 
 to its origin. According to his account it was pro- 
 bably invented in Scotland, and not long before the 
 year 1500. 
 
 It appears to me, that we may regard it as a modi- 
 fication of weaving. Knitting is always employed 
 to make articles of dress much smaller than those 
 woven in an ordinary loom ; indeed so small that the 
 whole of the requisite apparatus may be conveniently 
 attached to the person, or held in the hands of the 
 weaver. But in these circumstances it would appear 
 to be of the greatest importance to contrive some 
 method of using a single thread in such a manner as 
 to serve for both warp and woof. Now this is the 
 essential distinction of knitting. The thread being 
 passed at each stitch first in the direction of the woof 
 and then in the direction of the warp, a succession of 
 loops is produced, which are added row after row as 
 the work proceeds. To the degree of free motion 
 through the loops, which is allowed to every part of 
 the thread so as to enable the fabric to yield a little 
 in every direction, it owes its elasticity ; and it is 
 this property, which adapts articles made b)^ knitting 
 for a variety of purposes, to which cloth is much less 
 applicable, and at the same time renders them far 
 more becoming as parts of our dress. 
 
 /. In the sixth and last place, weaving may be 
 distinguished from sewing. 
 
 But here the question will occur, what analogy is 
 there between the two ? How can it be necessary to 
 distinguish arts, which are so totally dissimilar ? It 
 may be observed in reply, that sewing is commonly 
 directed to the attainment of the same general object, 
 
8 
 
 § I. INTRODUCTION. 
 
 which has been remarked as common to all the other 
 processes under consideration. It is used for the pur- 
 pose of joining together pieces of cloth, felt, skin, or 
 leather, so as to adapt them for covering other bodies 
 by giving them a permanently expanded form. It is 
 also auxiliary to weaving, because it is used, and al- 
 ways has been used to repair clothes ; and there is 
 one process in mending garments, which is nothing 
 more nor less than an imitation of weaving upon a 
 small scale, viz. the process of darning. When a hole 
 has been worn in a piece of cloth, the best way of 
 tilling it up is to arrange the threads just as they are 
 in the cloth, i. e. at right angles and regularly inter- 
 laced. This the sempstress does with the needle and 
 thread, when she darns. 
 
 Sewing is no doubt as ancient, and has always been 
 as general as any of the arts, which we have been con- 
 sidering. Nations, which have employed undressed 
 skins and even the leaves and bark of trees for their 
 clothing, and also to some extent in their buildings 
 and their navigation, have contrived rude needles, 
 perhaps of bone or hard wood ; and, before they had 
 advanced so far as the invention of thread, they have 
 used in its place strong vegetable fibres and animal 
 hairs, or membranes divided into narrow strips. 
 
 In an advanced part of this inquiry I hope to give 
 an account of all that relates to the operation of sew- 
 ing as practised among the ancients. It will then ap- 
 pear, that it was very little used in making garments 
 of cloth, though it was resorted to in mending them ; 
 and that its chief use was in making articles of skin 
 and leather. Accordingly Plato in the passage already 
 referred to, where he distinguishes, as I have been 
 doing, the art of weaving from those of felting and 
 
§ 2. DIVISION OF THE SUBJECT. 
 
 9 
 
 sewing, observes, that sewing is used chiefly by the 
 leather-cutter ; and Cicero* divides all apparel into 
 two kinds by the phrase " tegumenta corporum, vel 
 texta, vel suta," i. e. " coverings of bodies, either 
 woven, or sewed," meaning by the former class gar- 
 ments of cloth, and by the latter garments of skin or 
 leather. 
 
 Division of the Subject. 
 
 2. The definition of Weaving above given, illus- 
 trated by contrasting it with the several allied pro- 
 cesses, will direct to a natural division and arrange- 
 ment of the subject. 
 
 First, in order that we may pursue the question to 
 its foundations and be able to treat it in the clearest 
 and most satisfactory manner, it will be necessary to 
 describe all those fibrous and ductile substances, 
 whether animal, vegetable, or mineral, which were 
 used by the ancients as the raw materials for making 
 cloth. 
 
 Secondly, we shall proceed to inquire by what pro- 
 cesses the raw materials were prepared for being spun, 
 and here the principal subject of investigation will be 
 the art of Dyeing as practised by the ancients. 
 
 Thirdly, we shall treat of Spinning. Having shown 
 how the raw materials were prepared by washing, 
 combing, hackling, dyeing, and so on, we shall inquire 
 how they were drawn and twisted into thread. 
 
 Fourthly, we shall describe the instruments and 
 operations employed for making thread into cloth. 
 This is properly the subject of Weaving. 
 
 Fifthly, supposing the cloth to be woven, we may 
 
 * De Natura Deorum, ii. 60. 
 
10 
 
 § 2. DIVISION OF THE SUBJECT. 
 
 consider all that was done further in preparing it for 
 use ; and under this head we shall investigate the arts 
 of fulliny , sewing , embroidery, and printing. 
 
 Sixthly, we shall take under review the trade in 
 cloth, and the uses to which every kind of cloth was 
 applied. This branch of our inquiry is what antiqua- 
 ries usually call the Res Vestiaria. 
 
 In conclusion, we shall endeavour to trace the pro- 
 gress of the art of weaving in relation to its influence 
 on the state of society, and as affected in its turn by 
 religion and politics. 
 
PART I. 
 
 RAW MATERIALS. 
 
 The Raw Materials, used by the ancients in making 
 cloth, may be arranged as Animal, Vegetable, and 
 Mineral. 
 
 Under each of these heads I propose to lay before 
 the reader all the information, which I have been able 
 to obtain, showing in what countries each substance 
 was produced, endeavouring to clear up every diffi- 
 culty respecting it, and explaining the terms applied 
 to it by different nations and under various circum- 
 stances. 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 
 
 The Animal Substances, which the ancients spun into 
 thread for weaving, were the following : 
 
 1. Sheeps-wool. 
 
 2. Goats-hair. 
 
 3. Beavers-wool. 
 
 4. Camels-wool and Camels-hair. 
 
 5. Fibres of the Pinna. 
 
 6. Silk. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 Sheeps-Wool. 
 
 3. Of the Raw Materials, employed by the ancients 
 for making cloth, by far the most important was the 
 wool of sheep. We are able to trace with great pro- 
 bability the process of sheep-breeding and of the use 
 of wool for weaving. Among the bones of quadrupeds, 
 found in ancient caves throughout Europe, I cannot 
 find on consulting the works of Cuvier, Buckland, 
 and De la Beche, that remains of sheep have ever 
 been discovered. This fact affords some reason for 
 presuming, that the sheep is not a native of Europe, 
 but has been introduced there by man. 
 
 It appears to have been a general opinion among 
 Zoologists, that the Argali, or Ovis Amnion of Linnaeus, 
 which inhabits in vast numbers the elevated regions 
 of Central Asia, is the primitive stock of the whole 
 race of domesticated sheep. Agreeably to this sup- 
 position we find, that from the earliest times the in- 
 habitants of Tartary, Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, 
 Palestine, and the North of Arabia, have been ad- 
 dicted to pastoral employments. The tribes of wan- 
 dering shepherds, which frequent those countries, are 
 descended from progenitors, who led the same life 
 thousands of years ago, and whose manners and ha- 
 bits are preserved to the present day with scarcely 
 the slightest change''*'. 
 
 4. As might be expected, we have little precise in- 
 
 * See Appendix B. 
 
§ 4, 5. SHEEP-BREEDING IN SCYTHIA AND PERSIA. 13 
 
 formation respecting the Scythians, who inhabited the 
 elevated plains of inner Asia. Some of their hordes 
 are distinguished by Herodotus, Strabo, and others, 
 under the name oi Nomadic or pastoral Scythians ; and 
 that this denomination was understood to imply, that 
 they tended sheep as well as larger cattle may be in- 
 ferred from what Herodotus says of their use of felt*. 
 Strabo, moreover, says of a particular tribe of the 
 Massagetse, that they had " few sheep," which im- 
 plies that the rest were rich in flocks ; and of another 
 tribe he says, " They do not till the ground, but de- 
 rive their sustenance from sheep and fish, after the 
 manner of the Nomadic Scythians^ J' But a much more 
 distinct account of the manners of this people is given 
 us by Justin, who says, that they were accustomed to 
 wander through uncultivated solitudes, always em- 
 ployed in tending herds and flocks {armenta et pe- 
 cora). He, however, adds, that they were strangers 
 to the use of woollen garments, being clothed in skins 
 and furs I . Hence it appears, that they were too rude 
 and ignorant to have acquired the arts of spinning 
 and weaving. 
 
 5. If we may trust to the authority of Strabo, the 
 Medes did not tend sheep ; for he says of them, 
 " They eat the flesh of wild animals ; they do not 
 bring up tame cattle§." Nevertheless, their southern 
 neighbours, the Persians, with whom they were united 
 under one government, had sheep in abundance. 
 These animals are strikingly represented in the bas- 
 reliefs of Persepolis. In one of them, which repre- 
 
 * See above, p. 3. 
 
 t Strabo, 1. xi. cap. 8. p. 486. ed. Slebenkees. 
 
 X Justin, 1. ii. cap. 2. § Strabo, 1. xi. cap. 8. p. 567. 
 
14 § 5, 6. SHEEP-BREEDING IN PERSIA, 
 
 sents a long procession sculptured on the wall of a 
 splendid staircase, two rams, attended by keepers, 
 are accompanied in the same train by horses, asses, 
 camels, and oxen*". Herodotus, in his account of 
 the manners and institutions of the Persians (L. I. 
 cap. 133.), mentions all these quadrupeds together in 
 the following passage : "Of all days they are accus- 
 tomed to observe most that on which each individual 
 was born. On this day they set before their guests a 
 more abundant feast than on any other. The wealthy 
 provide an ox, a horse, a camel, and an ass, roasted 
 whole in furnaces ; and the poor provide the smaller 
 cattle." By " the smaller cattle " (xa \eiTra tlHv irpo- 
 (5aTb)v) this author always means sheep and goats. 
 
 The superior excellence of the rich plains of Meso- 
 potamia for the pasture of sheep as well as oxen is 
 attested by Dionysius Periegetesf ; and his account 
 illustrates in an interesting manner the history of Ja- 
 cob as contained in the book of Genesis, the rapid 
 multiplication of the flocks and herds showing how 
 well the soil and climate were adapted to this pur- 
 suit, and how well the business of tending them was 
 there understood from the earliest times. Seldom do 
 we find in any ancient author so beautiful a picture as 
 is presented to us, when Jacob arrives at Padan-aram, 
 and sees the flocks of sheep and goats assembling from 
 the neighbouring pastures in the evening to be watered 
 
 * See Ancient Universal History, vol. iv. plates 6. 8. 
 t "Ocdn g' Ev<f,pliTuv, &c. 1. 992—996. 
 In English, 
 
 "As for the land, which lies between the Euphrates and the Ti- 
 " gris, called the land Between the Rivers, the herdsman would not 
 " contemn its pastures, nor he who tends flocks folded in the fields, 
 " and honours with his syrinx Pan who has horny hoofs." 
 
MESOPOTAMIA, AND SYRIA. 
 
 15 
 
 at the well. Rachel appears conducting the flock of 
 her father Laban, which she tended, and Jacob rolls 
 from the mouth of the well the stone, which was 
 placed to preserve the water cool and fresh, and as- 
 sists his relative and future bride in watering her 
 sheep. (Gen. xxix. 1 — 10.). Also on Jacob's de- 
 parture his remonstrance with Laban presents to us 
 an animated representation of the duties and difficulties 
 of the shepherd's life ; " These twenty years have I 
 been with thee ; thy ewes and thy she-goats have not 
 cast their young, and the rams of thy flock have I not 
 eaten. That which was torn of beasts I brought not 
 unto thee ; I bare the loss of it : of my hand didst 
 thou require it, whether stolen by day, or stolen by 
 night. Thus I was ; in the day the drought con- 
 sumed me, and the frost by night ; and my sleep de- 
 parted from mine eyes." (Gen. xxxi. 38 — 40.). 
 
 6. From Ezekiel xxvii. 18. we learn, that Damascus 
 supplied the Tyrians with wool, and Jerome, who well 
 knew the country, says in his comment on the pas- 
 sage, that this article was still produced there in hi& 
 time*. Aristotle, referring to the sheep of Syria, 
 mentions a variety with tails, which were a cubit 
 broadf ; and Pliny in addition to this circumstance 
 asserts generally the abundance of the Syrian woolj. 
 Probably the part of Syria, appropriated more espe- 
 cially to the breeding of sheep, was the eastern part, 
 which bordered on Arabia, and was distinguished by 
 the same natural features. 
 
 In no part of the ancient world does sheep-breeding 
 
 * "Et lana praecipua, quod usque hodie cernimus." 
 f Hist. Animalium, 1. viii. cap. 28. 
 
 t " Syrise cubitales ovium caudae, plurimumque in ea parte lanicii." 
 Plinii Hist. Nat. 1. viii. c. 75. ed. Bipont. See Appendix D. 
 
16 (J 6. SHEEP-BREEDING IN IDUM^A. 
 
 appear to have been more cultivated than in that 
 which we are now approaching. Here were the Mo- 
 abites, among whom it was a royal occupation and, 
 as it appears, the chief source of the revenues of the 
 sovereign: for it is said in 2 Kings iii. 4. " Mesha, 
 king of Moab, was a sheep-master, and rendered unto 
 the king of Israel an hundred thousand lambs and an 
 hundred thousand rams with the wool." Here on 
 occasion of a war, which the Reubenites, the Gadites, 
 and the half-tribe of Manasseh, whose territory was 
 to the East of Jordan, carried on against the Hagar- 
 ites, they obtained as part of their booty 250,000 
 sheep. (1 Chron. v. 21.) Here was Idumsea, in a part 
 of which Job is represented to have dwelt, being pos- 
 sessed of 7,000, and afterwards of 14,000 sheep (Job 
 i. 3. xlii. 12.) : and we have a beautiful allusion to the 
 pastoral habits of the same country in the language of 
 consolation employed by the prophet Micah (ii. 12.) ; 
 " I will surely assemble, O Jacob, all of thee ; I will 
 surely gather the remnant of Israel ; I will put them 
 together as the sheep of Bosrah, as the flock in the 
 midst of their fold : they shall make great noise by 
 reason of the multitude of men." Here also were 
 the Midianites, whose flocks were so vast, that the 
 sheep taken from them by Moses after his victory 
 amounted to 675,000. (Num. xxxi. 32.) Jethro, the 
 priest of Midian, was himself the owner of a numerous 
 flock, tended by his seven daughters, whom Moses 
 assisted in watering them, when the neighbouring 
 shepherds rudely attempted to drive them from the 
 well. He afterwards married one of them, and was 
 employed by the father as his shepherd ; and, having 
 occasion according to the practice of the country to 
 conduct the flock from the plains to pasture upon the 
 
AND NORTHERN ARABIA. 
 
 17 
 
 mountains of Horeb, he was thence called to under- 
 take his extraordinary mission for the deliverance of 
 his nation. (Exod. ii. 15 — iii. 1.) 
 
 The Arabs appear from the earliest times to the 
 present day to have bestowed no less attention upon 
 sheep than upon horses. Hence we read in Ezekiel 
 (xxvii. 21.) in the enumeration of the various articles 
 of merchandize sent to Tyre from all surrounding 
 countries ; " Arabia, and all the princes of Kedar, 
 they occupied with thee in lambs, and rams, and 
 goats; in these were they thy merchants." Isaiah 
 also records the excellence of the sheep of Arabia in 
 the following terms addressed by the Almighty to his 
 people (Ch. Ix. 7) : " All the flocks of Kedar shall be 
 gathered together unto thee, the rams of Nebaioth 
 shall minister unto thee : they shall come up with ac- 
 ceptance on mine altar, and I will glorify the house 
 of my glory." The habits of the Nabatsei, or Arabs 
 of Nabaioth, are depicted as follows by Diodorus Si- 
 culus : " They live in the open air, and call a land 
 their country, which is destitute of habitations, and 
 has neither rivers nor copious fountains, such as could 
 satisfy an army of invaders. Their law forbids them 
 on pain of death either to sow corn, to plant fruit- 
 trees, to use wine, or to build houses. They submit 
 to this law, because they think, that those who enjoy 
 such conveniences may for the sake of them be readily 
 compelled by the powerful to do what they command. 
 Some of them rear camels, and others sheep, which 
 they pasture in the wilderness*." 
 
 * Diod. Sic. 1. xix. 94. p. 722. ed. Steph. 
 
 Strabo (1. xvi. cap. 4. p. 460. ed. Siebenkees.), speaking apparently 
 of another division of the Nabatffii, says they have large oxen, 
 camels, and white sheep (rrpoftuTa Xeuicdrpixa). 
 
 C 
 
18 
 
 § 7. SHEEP-BREEDING 
 
 Various ancient authors mention that extraordinary 
 variety of sheep among the Arabs, the tail of which 
 grew to so great a size as to require to be supported on a 
 wooden carriage, which was dragged after the wearer*. 
 
 7. We have no reason to believe, that the Phoeni- 
 cians employed themselves in the breeding and pas- 
 ture of sheep. The narrow strip of territory, which 
 they occupied at the eastern extremity of the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea, was in general too densely peopled to be 
 adapted for this purpose. Their activity, intelligence, 
 
 * The passages of ancient authors relating to this variety, with 
 various confirmations from modern travellers, are quoted with his 
 usual accuracy by Bochart, Hieroz. 1. ii. cap. 45. p. 494 — 497. Ed. 
 Leusden. Lug. Bat. 1692. 
 
 Ctesias gives an account of these sheep as existing in India. 
 Hence it may be asked, whether on his authority we ought to ascribe 
 the practice of sheep-breeding to the Indians as well as to the other 
 ancient nations, which have been enumerated. I answer. No. His 
 account of the Indian sheep is manifestly mixed with fabls. Hero- 
 dotus (iii. 113.), and Diodorus Siculus (ii. 54.), who describe the 
 same curious practice, and are much more likely to have been correct, 
 refer it to the Arabians. Besides, the question must be previously 
 determined, in what extent did Ctesias employ the term " Indians." 
 It has been generally agreed by his commentators, and especially by 
 his late editor Biihr, that he included under the teTm"lvSiKri, or In- 
 dia, the modern Thibet and Cashmir, and probably referred to those 
 countries in his account of the sheep. See Ctesise Reliquiae, a Bahr, 
 p. 52, 53. 304. 
 
 I have found no proof of the use of wool among the ancient In- 
 dians. On the contrary, cotton and other vegetable fibres appear to 
 have served them as the raw materials for weaving from the earliest 
 times. 
 
 I will here observe, that in Strauss's " Helen's Pilgrimage to 
 Jerusalem," vol. ii. book iv. ch. i. p. 20G — 211, the reader will find 
 a picturesque and accurate representation of the manners of the 
 shepherd tribes of Syria and the neighbouring countries. The au- 
 thors referred to by the English translator, Mr. Kenrick, in his 
 note, may also be consulted. 
 
IN PALESTINE. 
 
 19 
 
 and enterprize were directed into other channels, and 
 they supplied themselves from foreign countries with 
 wool for their celebrated manufactures*. 
 
 On the other hand, the Hebrews, who were the im- 
 mediate neighbours of the Phoenicians, were altogether 
 an agricultural and pastoral people. The history of 
 the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, presents 
 to us beautiful images of the kind of life, which still 
 continues with little variation among the Bedouins, 
 or wandering Nomads of Arabia. Not only was David 
 a shepherd boy ; but, when he had ascended the 
 throne, he had numerous herds and flocks, superin- 
 tended by distinct officers (1 Chron. xxvii. 29 — 31.). 
 " Over the flocks was Jaziz, the Hagarite." Evidence 
 has already been produced of the skill and experience 
 of this people in tending sheepf. The reader cannot 
 fail to call to mind David's frequent allusions in the 
 Psalms to those employments, which were no less 
 familiar to his own mind than to the rest of his coun- , 
 try men, and which supplied to them the most touch- 
 ing comparisons for the expression of their deepest 
 religious convictions. " The Lord is my shepherd: 
 I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down in green 
 pastures : he leadeth me beside the still waters. Yea, 
 though I walk through the valley of the shadow of 
 death, I will fear no evil ; for thou art with me ; thy 
 
 * The expression of Theocritus, representing Adonis as engaged 
 in tending flocks upon the mountains, er nvpe(n fiuXa l ofievujv, (Idyll, 
 iii. 46.), appears no adequate testimony in opposition to the opinion, 
 which I have expressed. Theocritus may have derived this em- 
 bellishment of his poem, not from history or tradition, but from the 
 pastoral habits of his own island. The same may be said of Virgil 
 (Bucol.-x. 18.) ; 
 
 Et formosus oves ad flumina pavit Adonis. 
 
 t See above § G. p. 16. 
 
 c 2 
 
20 § 7, 8. SHEEP-BREEDING IN PALESTINE 
 
 rod (or crook) and thy staff, they comfort me" (Psalm 
 xxiii. 1, 2. 4.). " He shall feed {i.e. tend) his flock 
 like a shepherd ; he shall gather the lambs with his 
 arm, and carry them in his bosom, and shall gently 
 lead those that are with young" (Is. xl. 11.)- " The 
 pastures are clothed with flocks," an expression de- 
 noting the vast multitudes of sheep, which overspread 
 the mountains and the plains (Ps. Ixv. 13.). " Be 
 thou diligent," says Solomon, " to know the state of 
 thy flocks, and look well to thy herds. The lambs 
 are for thy clothing, and the goats are the price of thy 
 field ; and thou shalt have goat's milk enough for thy 
 food, for the food of thy household, and for the main- 
 tenance of thy maidens" (Prov. xxvii. 23. 26, 27.). 
 I would particularly refer the reader to the thirty- 
 fourth chapter of Ezekiel, where the prophet, repri- ( 
 manding the rulers of Israel under the character of 
 shepherds, makes some allusion to every circumstance 
 connected with the care of sheep and goats. Lan- 
 guage very similar is employed by our Saviour in John 
 x. where he speaks of himself as " the good shepherd." 
 The whole system and history of the sacrifices both 
 before and after the giving of the Mosaic law might 
 be produced to prove the pastoral habits of this people 
 from the earliest times. But, instead of entering on 
 this subject, I shall content myself with pointing out 
 two particular districts of Palestine, which seem to 
 have attained the highest reputation in respect to the 
 breeding of sheep. These were Bashan, which lay to 
 the east of the Jordan in the country adjoining that 
 of the Hagarites and Moabites, already mentioned, 
 and Carmel, the mountainous range near the Dead 
 Sea in the south of Judea. In the latter district Nabal 
 kept his flocks, and as he is said to have been " very 
 
AND EGYPT. 
 
 21 
 
 great," and we are at the same time informed that 
 " he had 3000 sheep and 1000 goats" (1 Sam. xxv. 2.), 
 these numbers afford us a precise idea of the wealth 
 of a considerable proprietor in this respect. That the 
 " rams of the breed of Bashan," were particularly 
 celebrated, we learn from Deut. xxxii. 14; and Ezekiel 
 mentions with distinction (ch. xxxix. 18.) a sacrifice 
 " of rams, of lambs, and of goats, of bullocks, all of 
 them fatlings of Bashan." 
 
 8. It is impossible to conceive a more striking 
 difference in manners and institutions than that which 
 must have presented itself to the traveller in very 
 ancient times, when on crossing the Isthmus of Suez 
 he passed from the deserts of Arabia and Idumaea to 
 the richly cultivated and populous plains of Egypt. 
 According to the statement above quoted (p. 17.) from 
 an ancient historian the wandering tribes of Nabaioth 
 were forbidden by a positive law to till the ground or 
 to construct settled habitations, and they lived on the 
 produce of their flocks, which they continually led 
 from place to place in pursuit of pasture adapted to the 
 season of the year. The Egyptians, on the contrary, 
 appear to have been originally under a prohibition of 
 exactly the opposite kind, since they cultivated the 
 ground with care, excelled most other nations in all 
 the arts of life, and produced the most splendid proofs 
 of their architectural skill, but were not allowed to 
 keep flocks of sheep and goats. That this was the 
 case at the time, when Jacob took his family to so- 
 journ in Egypt, is evident from their application to 
 Pharaoh on arriving in the land of Goshen, which was 
 on the eastern border of Egypt adjoining Palestine 
 and Arabia, to be permitted to remain there on the 
 ground, that from their youth they had been accus- 
 
22 § 8, 9. SHEEP-BREEDING IN EGYPT 
 
 tomed to tend flocks, whereas " every shepherd was 
 an abomination to the Egyptians*." 
 
 It appears that the Nabatsean law was far more ef- 
 fectual towards the attainment of its object than the 
 Egyptian. For, whereas the pastoral tribes of Arabia 
 have retained their independence and their national 
 peculiarities even to the present day, the Egyptians, 
 on the other hand, became a prey to foreign invasion, 
 and among other changes in their customs we have to 
 notice the introduction of the management of sheep. 
 Even as early as the time of Moses the practice had 
 commenced ; for in the account of the effects of the 
 murrain in Exodus ix. 3, we find mention of sheep, 
 and indeed it is remarkable, that the domestic ani- 
 mals there enumerated, viz. horses, asses, camels, 
 oxen, and sheep, are exactly the same, which, as we 
 have before shown (§ 5.), were bred by the ancient 
 Persiansf. Later historians afford distinct testimony 
 to the same fact. Thus Diodorus Siculus says (i. 36.), 
 that "upon the subsidence of the waters after the 
 inundation of the Nile the flocks were admitted to 
 pasture, and the produce of the soil was so abundant, 
 that the sheep were both shorn and brought forth 
 young twice in the year." Herodotus also plainly 
 supposes, that sheep and goats were bred in Egypt, 
 when he contrasts the inhabitants of the Theban 
 Nome, who worshiped Ammon, with the inhabitants 
 of the Mendesian Nome, who worshiped Mendes. 
 The former, he says, " all abstain from sheep, and 
 sacrifice goats;" the latter "abstain from goats, which 
 
 * Gen. xlvi. 28. — ^xlvii. 6. Compare Josephus, Ant. ii. 7. 5. 
 
 t It should be observed, that the Hebrew word translated sheep in 
 Ex. ix. 3. included goats. It thus answered exactly to the expres- 
 sion in Herodotus (see above, p. 1-4.), m XtTrra tiZv Trpo/Wrwi'. 
 
AND ETHIOPIA. 
 
 23 
 
 they hold in veneration, and sacrifice sheep." He, 
 however, mentions that the Thebans slew a ram once 
 a year on occasion of a particular ceremony, which he 
 describes (ii. 42. 46.). The testimony of Strabo and 
 Plutarch, though differing in some particulars from 
 that of Herodotus, is to the same general effect*. 
 Aristotle (Z. c.) mentions, that the sheep of Egypt 
 were larger than those of Greece. 
 
 But, although these passages show, that sheep were 
 bred in Egypt, I think it evident that their number 
 was very limited. Egyptian wool cannot have been 
 of the least importance as an article of commerce. 
 What was produced must also have been consumed 
 in the country. For, although the chief material for 
 the clothing of the Egyptians was linen, and they 
 were forbidden to be buried in woollen or to use it 
 in the temples, yet Herodotus (ii. 81.) states, that on 
 ordinary occasions they wore a garment of white wool 
 over their linen shirt. They also used wool for em- 
 broidering, as I hope to show in Part V. of the pre- 
 sent work. According to Plinyf the Egyptian wool 
 was coarse and of a short staple. TertuUian records 
 a saying of the Egyptians, that Mercury invented the 
 spinning of wool in their country |. 
 
 9. Strabo in an instructive manner contrasts the 
 Ethiopians with the Egyptians. Having observed, 
 that the boundary between the two nations was the 
 smaller cataract above Syene and Elephantine, he 
 
 * Oapct jjovois TovTois {i. e. among the inhabitants of the vofius 
 j/irpiwrrjs) dverai ev AtyuTrrw Trpo/Saroi'. Strabo, 1. xvii. C. 1. § 23. 
 p. 547. 'SidCrai irpoj^aroy (n/uwfft) kui Qr](3dfTai. § 40. p. 585. Morot 
 yap en vvv Alyvirriuv AvicoTroXiroi Trpoftarov laQiovaiv. Plutarch, 
 De Iside et Osiride. 
 
 |- Hist. Nat. 1. viii. 73. See the passage as quoted and translated 
 in Appendix D. J Dc Paliio, c. 3. 
 
24 § 9. SHEEP-BREEDING IN ETHIOPIA 
 
 says, that the Ethiopians led for the most part a pas- 
 toral life without resources, both on account of their 
 intemperate climate and the poverty of their soil, and 
 also because they were remote from the civilized 
 world ; whereas the Egyptians had always lived in a 
 refined manner and under a regular government, set- 
 tled in fixed habitations, and cultivating philosophy, 
 agriculture, and the arts*. Thus do we find the 
 nomad life recurring immediately to the south of 
 Egypt. Strabo further states, that the Ethiopian 
 sheep were small, and instead of being woolly were 
 hairy like goats, on which account the people wore 
 skins instead of woollen clothf. That these sheep 
 were held in some estimation by the Egyptians is, 
 however, manifest from the fact, that in the splendid 
 procession exhibited at Alexandria by Ptolemy Phila- 
 delphus, there were 130 sheep from Ethiopia, 300 
 from Arabia, and 20 from EuboeaJ. Also, that the 
 pastoral habits of the Ethiopians were known to the 
 Romans may be inferred from the allusion, which Vir- 
 gil makes to them in his Tenth Eclogue (1. 64 — 68.) : 
 
 No toils of ours can change the cruel god. 
 Though we should flee him through each new abode ; 
 Whether we drink, where chUling Hebrus flows. 
 And winter reigns amid Sithonian snows ; 
 Or, where the elms beneath hot Cancer bend, 
 Our Ethiopian sheep we fainting tend. 
 
 We find, that the people of Libya had attained 
 
 * Kat vvy o'l ye AldioTres to irXiov vofxaSiKuis ^wai Kai airopios, &C. 
 Strabo, 1. xvii. c. 1. § 3. p. 476, 477. ed. Siebenkees. 
 
 t Cap. 2. § 1. 3. p. 621. 626. Strabo's account is illustrated and 
 confirmed by the traveller, Dr. Shaw, who describes a variety of sheep 
 in the interior of Africa with " fleeces as coarse and hairy as those of 
 the goat." — Travels in Barbary, partiii. chap. 2. § 1. 
 
 I Callixenus Rhodius, apud Athenaeum, 1. v. p. 201. ed. Casaub. 
 
AND LIBYA. 
 
 25 
 
 to some distinction in the management of flocks. 
 What Diodorus says of the Egyptian sheep* is as- 
 serted by Aristotle of those of Libya, viz. that they 
 produced young twice in the yearf. That sheep- 
 breeding had extended hither in very early times ap- 
 pears from a passage in the Odyssey, which, however, 
 in consequence of the remoteness of the situation and 
 the imperfect knowledge of geography in the time of 
 the writer, is mixed with fable, inasmuch as it repre- 
 sents, that the ewes brought forth not only twice, but 
 even three times in the year, and that the lambs were 
 immediately provided with horns j. 
 
 That happy clime ! where each revolving year 
 The teeming ewes a triple offspring bear, 
 And two fair crescents of translucent horn 
 The brows of all their young increase adorn ; 
 Tlie shepherd swains, with sure abundance blest. 
 On the fat flock and rural dainties feast ; 
 Nor want of herbage makes the dairy fail, 
 But every season fills the foaming pail. 
 
 Pope's Translation, 
 
 Pindar {Pyth. ix. 11.) distinguishes Libya by the epi- 
 thet TToAujUT/Xoc " abounding in flocks." To the same 
 district of Africa Virgil alludes in the following passage 
 of the Georgics, which is surpassed by few as a happy 
 example of the art of the poet in describing the va- 
 rious modes of pastoral life : 
 
 Quid tibi pastores Libyse, quid pascua versa 
 Prosequar, et raris habitata mapalia tectis ? 
 Saepe diem noctemque, et totum ex ordine mensem, 
 Pascitur, itque pecus longa in deserta sine ullis 
 Hospitiis : tantum campi jacet. Omnia secum 
 Armentarius Afer agit, tectumque, Laremque, 
 Armaque, Amyclaeumque canem, Cressamque pharetram. 
 
 Georff. III. 339—345. 
 
 * See above, § 8. p. 22. 
 
 t Aristot. Problem, cap. x. sec. 46. J Odyss. iv. 85 — 89. 
 
26 § 10. SHEEP-BREEDING IN CAUCASUS. 
 
 Why should I sing of Libya's artless swains ; 
 Her scatter'd cottages, and tracldess plains ? 
 By day, by night, without a destin'd home. 
 For many a month their flocks all lonely roam ; 
 So vast th' unbounded solitude appears. 
 While, with his flock, his all the shepherd bears. 
 His arms, his household god, his homely shed. 
 His Cretan darts, and dogs of Sparta bred. 
 
 Warton's Translation. 
 
 It is to be observed, that, although the Libyan 
 shepherd according to Virgil's description led a mi- 
 gratory life, conducting his sheep from place to place 
 in search of pasture, yet the scale, upon which he 
 carried on his operations, was widely different from 
 that which has always characterized the nomadic 
 tribes of Asia. The poet represents the Libyan shep- 
 herd as a solitary wanderer, bearing with him all his 
 arms and implements, just as a Roman soldier (1. 346.) 
 carried his military accoutrements. On the other 
 hand, as we have seen 6.), the Syrian or Arabian 
 shepherd goes in a kind of state, with camels and horses 
 to carry his wife and children, his tents, and the rest of 
 his equipage ; and he is followed by thousands, instead 
 of hundreds or perhaps scores, of sheep and goats. 
 
 10. I have thus traced the progress of sheep-breed- 
 ing in a south-westerly direction from its origin in the 
 elevated central region of Asia through Syria and 
 Arabia into the conterminous angle of Africa. Of all 
 nations to the south of Ethiopia the ancients were 
 ignorant, and I have not observed, that they distinctly 
 mention sheep in any country to the west of Libya. 
 
 Let us now pursue the progress of this employ- 
 ment in another direction, viz. towards the north- 
 west, and across the Euxine Sea and the straits con- 
 nected with it into Europe. 
 
 Near the eastern extremity of the Euxine Sea we 
 
THE CORAXI. 
 
 27 
 
 meet with a very remarkable instance of the attention 
 to the produce and manufacture of wool in a tribe 
 called the Coraxi. Strabo alludes to the value of their 
 fleeces in a passage which I shall produce in speaking 
 of the wool of Spain, to which it more directly refers. 
 At present I shall only consider the follov»fing evidence 
 preserved by Joannes Tzetzes. 
 
 To TraXaiby Trept arpiofxyas r]y rrj MiXrjTO) 0>?/"J" 
 "Epta ra MtXjjfft'a icaXXtora yap rdiy Trayrioy, 
 K^y w(ri Tuy Knpa^iKwy (pepoyra Sevrepeia* 
 
 " Anciently Miletus was famed for carpets : for of 
 all fleeces the Milesian were the most beautiful, al- 
 though the Coraxic bore the second prize." 
 
 Ilept Tojy MiXT](nioy e(pav iroXXoi epiwy' 
 Hep] €plu)i' KopdL,My ky -TrpwTio 'Iayn/5w 
 'iTnrdjyai, ov-ws e'ipr]Ke, fierp<o •^wXwy 'Idnj^toy, 
 K-wpa^iKoy ^ey 7iiu<pie<T[ji€vr] XwTros.'f 
 
 " Of the Milesian fleeces many have spoken : and 
 to the Coraxic Hipponax has alluded in his Choliam- 
 bic measure, where he mentions ' a woman enveloped 
 in a Coraxic shawl.'" 
 
 Hipponax, who is here cited by Tzetzes, was a sa- 
 tirical poet of Ephesus, and flourished about 540 B.C. 
 In confirmation of his testimony it may be proved, 
 that his countrymen and contemporaries had con- 
 stant intercourse with a port in the vicinity of the 
 Coraxi. We learn from Pliny (1. vi. cap. 5.), that the 
 Coraxi were situated near Dioscurias, which, though 
 deserted in his time, had been formerly so illustrious 
 that 300 nations, speaking different languages, re- 
 sorted to it. As we learn from other authorities, Dios- 
 curias was a colony of Miletus and one of its chief 
 
 * Jo. Tzetzes, Chiliad, x. 348 — 3.30, hi Lectii Corp. Poetarum 
 Grsecorum, t lb. 378 — 381. 
 
28 § 10. SHEEP-BREEDING IN CAUCASUS. 
 
 settlements. Miletus also in the time of Hipponax 
 had risen to the summit of its prosperity, and was the 
 greatest commercial city in the world next to Tyre 
 and Carthage*. Its chief trade was towards the 
 north and as far as the extremity of the Euxine Sea. 
 Among the numerous Asiatic tribes, which were ac- 
 customed to bring their productions to Dioscurias and 
 to exchange them for Grecian merchandize, the Co- 
 raxi were, as we may conclude from the evidence now 
 produced, a nation of superior enterprize and intelli- 
 gence, who sent to the shores of the ^gean in the 
 vessels of Miletus both their fine wool, and the carpets 
 and shawls, which they made from it. 
 
 If we had no more exact information than that 
 which I have already cited, we might infer, that the 
 Coraxi occupied part of the modern Circassia, a moun- 
 tainous region admirably adapted to the breeding of 
 sheep. The Circassians of the present day have nu- 
 merous herds of cattle and vast flocks of sheep and 
 goats. Their vallies are distinguished by beauty and 
 fertility. A late traveller says, that from whatever 
 country you enter Circassia, " you are at once agree- 
 ably impressed with the decided improvement in the 
 appearance of the population, the agriculture, and the 
 beauty of their flocks and herds f." With respect to 
 Dioscurias, we are informed, that " the memory of 
 its ancient name is still preserved in the present ap- 
 
 * Heeren, Handbuch, iii. 2. 2. p. 185. Mannert, Geographic, 6. 3. 
 p. 253, &c. 
 
 t Travels in Circassia, &c. in 1836, by Edmund Spencer, Esq. 
 vol. ii. p. 355. Julius von Klaproth, in the work quoted below, 
 says, (p. 582.), that the wealth of the Circassians consists principally 
 in their sheep, from whose wool the women make coarse cloth and 
 felt. In the summer they drive their sheep into the mountains, but 
 feed them under cover in winter, and at other times in the plains. 
 
THE CORAXI. 
 
 29 
 
 pellation of Iskouriab^." Sir John Chardin, who 
 visited it and calls it Isgaour, commends its safety in 
 summer as a road for ships, but says that it is a com- 
 plete desert, where he could obtain no provisions, the 
 traders who anchor there being obliged to construct 
 temporary huts and booths of the boughs of trees for 
 their accommodation, whilst they await the arrival of 
 the natives of Mingrelia and Caucasus f. 
 
 But, besides the general inference that the Coraxi 
 occupied part of the modern Circassia, we are able, 
 as it appears to me, to determine their abode with 
 still greater precision, and even to obtain some in- 
 sight into their distinctive characters as a nation. 
 
 At the south-eastern extremity of Chirkess, or Cir- 
 cassia, on the northern declivity of Mount Elborus, 
 and about the sources of the Kuban, the ancient Hy- 
 panis, we find a mountain clan, consisting of rather 
 more than 250 families, which appears to retain not 
 only the manners and habits, but even the very name 
 of the Coraxi. Julius von Klaproth, to whom we are 
 principally indebted for our knowledge of them, calls 
 them the Caratshaif. From him we learn the follow- 
 
 * Dr. Goodenough, in Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 
 vol. i. p. 110. See also Major Rennell's Map of Western Asia. 
 
 t Chardin's Travels, vol. i. p. 77. 108. of the English Translation. 
 London, 1686. 
 
 I Reise in den Caucasus, cap. 24. The author thus spells the name 
 in German characters, Ckaratschai. Father Lamberti, a missionary 
 from the Society of the Propaganda at Naples, who remained twenty 
 years in that part of Asia in the seventeenth century, calls them 
 " i Caraccioli," in which name we observe the addition of an ItaUan 
 termination. See his Relatione della Colchide, hoggi detta Mengrelia, 
 Napoli, 1654. cap. 28. p. 196. The ancient Greeks, in like manner 
 accommodating the name, as was their usual practice, to the habits 
 and necessities of their language, in which the sound of the English 
 sh did not occur, called this people Kopd^oi. It appears to me highly 
 
30 
 
 § 10. THE CORAXI IDENTIFIED 
 
 ing particulars respecting their appearance, manners, 
 and employments. They are among the most beauti- 
 ful of the inhabitants of Caucasus, and more like the 
 Georgians than the wandering Tartars of the Steppe. 
 They are well formed, and have fine features, which 
 are set off by large black eyes and a white skin. Their 
 language resembles that of the Nogay-Tartars. They 
 live in very neat houses, built of pine. Their chil- 
 dren are strictly and well educated ; and in general it 
 may be said of them, that they are the most cultivated 
 nation in Caucasus surpassing all their neighbours in 
 refinement of manners. They are very industrious, 
 and subsist chiefly by agriculture. Their soil is pro- 
 ductive, and, besides various kinds of grain, yields 
 abundance of grass for pasture. The country around 
 them is covered with woods, which are full of wild 
 animals, such as bears, wolves, wild goats, hares, wild 
 cats, whose skins are much prized, and martins. 
 Their dress is chiefly made of woollen cloth, which they 
 weave themselves from the produce of their flocks, and 
 tvhich is admired throughout the lohole of Caucasus. 
 They sell their cloth, called by them Shal*, their felt 
 for carpeting, and their furs, partly to the Nogay- 
 Tartars and Circassians, from whom they purchase 
 articles of metal, and partly at Souchom-Kale', a Turkish 
 fort on the Black Sea, which contains shops and ware- 
 houses, and carries on a considerable trade with the 
 Western Caucasus. They receive here in return goods 
 of cotton and silk, tobacco and tobacco-pipes, needles, 
 thimbles, and otter-skins. While the men are em- 
 ployed out of doors, the women stay at home, make 
 
 probable, that the correct pronunciation of their name, that employed 
 among themselves, has always been Caratshai. 
 * The origin of the English shaivl. 
 
WITH THE MODERN CARATSHAI. 
 
 31 
 
 gold and silver thread, and sew the clothes of their 
 fathers and brothers. 
 
 Such is the account given by a recent and most 
 competent witness of the actual condition of this in- 
 teresting nation, who, though now perhaps reduced 
 in number, occupy probably after the lapse of 2500 
 years their original seat at the distance of from forty to 
 eighty miles to the N.E. of the same coast, to which 
 they have always resorted for commercial purposes*. 
 
 We cannot survey the now deserted Iscuria without 
 observing, what a mournful contrast the Euxine pre- 
 sents under the sway of Russia and of Turkey to the 
 useful energy, which more than 2000 years ago pro- 
 moted life and the arts of life, and brought into close 
 and peaceful contact the most refined and the most 
 uncultivated nations, under the direction of the loni- 
 ans of Miletus. The beauty, the bravery, the activity, 
 and the independence of a highland clan still repre- 
 sent the skill and enterprize of the ancient Coraxi ; 
 but the commerce, which rewarded their industry, and 
 extended their reputation through the civilized world, 
 has sunk into insignificance. 
 
 Besides the above notices of the Coraxi in Strabo 
 and Tzetzes we find little said concerning the breed- 
 ing of sheep in this part of Asia. Aristotle, however, 
 mentions the sheep of " Pontus near Scythia," and 
 says that they were without horns f. The Melan- 
 chlaeni also, who are mentioned by Herodotus in his 
 account of the Scythian tribes, and who lived to the 
 
 * Souchom-Kal6 is only twelve miles from Iscuria, a single pro- 
 montory intervening between the bay and river of the former har- 
 bour and those of the latter. See Spencer's Travels, vol. i. p. 295 — 
 297, and his map at p. 209. 
 
 t Hist. Anim. viii. 28. 
 
32 §11. SHEEP-BREEDING IN ASIA MINOR. 
 
 north of the Coraxi, were so called, because they 
 wore black palls (^XaTvai), and these must have been 
 woollen. 
 
 11. There can be no doubt, that the use and ma- 
 nagement of sheep were known from the earliest 
 times throughout nearly the whole of Asia Minor, and 
 that some nations in this region had attained to a su- 
 periority in the art before the settlement in it of the 
 Grecian colonists. 
 
 The imagery of the Homeric poems affords abun- 
 dant evidence of these facts. They continually men- 
 tion shepherds {TToijuevec) , who had the care of sheep, 
 as well as goatherds (aiTroXot), who managed goats. 
 They speak of the folds (arj/coJ), in which the flocks 
 were secured at night to preserve them from the at- 
 tacks of wild beasts. The dangers, to which the flocks 
 were exposed from both wolves and lions, are in ac- 
 cordance with similar expressions and incidents in the 
 Scriptures of the Old Testament, arising from the 
 existence of the same ravenous and destructive qua- 
 drupeds in Palestine. Also, the language both of the 
 Scriptures and of the Homeric poems is precisely the 
 same, in which the king ruling his people is compared 
 to the shepherd tending his flock, or to the strong and 
 large ram, which leads the sheep*. It is to be ob- 
 served, that the geographical knowledge expressed in 
 the Homeric poems extended as far as the promontory 
 of Carambis on the south coast of the Euxine Sea, 
 and included all Phrygia, Ionia, and the western half 
 of Asia Minor. 
 
 The Greek mythology affbrds similar evidence. The 
 well-known story of Paris, adjudging the golden apple, 
 is founded on the pastoral scenes of Ida. Marsyas also 
 * See Bochart's Hierozoicon, 1. ii. cap. 44. De Gregum Pastoribus. 
 
^ 12. PISIDIA, PAMPHYLIA, &C. 33 
 
 was a shepherd on mount Ida* : the river Marsyas, 
 famed for his contest with Apollo, was among the 
 Phrygian mountains f. 
 
 The historical evidence, to which I now proceed, 
 though referring to times much posterior to the my- 
 thological, is more exact as well as more entitled to 
 absolute credit. 
 
 12. According to Straho the branches of Mount 
 Taurus in Pisidia were rich in pastures ' ' for all kinds 
 of cattlej." The chief town of this region was Selge, 
 a very flourishing city, and hence Tertallian in a pas- 
 sage, which will be quoted in the next section, men- 
 tions " oves Selgicse," Selgic sheep, among those of the 
 greatest celebrity. The superior whiteness of the fleeces 
 of Pamphylia is mentioned by Philostratus in a passage, 
 which I shall hereafter cite in relation to cotton. 
 
 We have reason to believe, that the Lydians and 
 Carians bestowed the greatest attention on sheep- 
 breeding and on the woollen manufacture before the 
 arrival of the Greek colonists among them. The new 
 settlers adopted the employments of the ancient in- 
 habitants, and made those employments subservient 
 
 * Hyginus, Fab. 165. 
 
 t It appears not impossible, that, when Theocritus in Idyll. III. 46. 
 (quoted above, p. 19, note) represents Adonis as "tending flocks 
 upon the mountains," he may have referred to the mountains of 
 Phrygia or of Ionia. For in another Idyll (I. 105 — 110.) he seems 
 to connect the love of Venus for Adonis with her love for Anchises, 
 as if the scene of both were in the same region. Among the various 
 accounts of Adonis, one makes him the offspring of Smyrna ; and 
 Cinyras, the father of Adonis, is said to have founded the city of 
 Smyrna in Ionia, calling it by that name after his daughter. (Hygi- 
 nus, Fab. 58 and 275.) This supposition accounts most satisfacto- 
 rily for the production of the beautiful elegy on the death of Adonis 
 by Bion, who was a native of Smyrna. 
 
 + TlavToSavo'ts (iocrKf]iiaai. Lib. xii. c. 7. § 3. 
 
 n 
 
34 § 13. SHEEP-BREEDING IN CARIA AND IONIA. 
 
 to a very extensive and lucrative trade. Pliny (viii. 
 73. ed. Bip.) mentions the wool of Laodicea in Caria ; 
 and Strabo (xii. c.7. p. 578. Casaub.) observes, that the 
 country about this city and Colossse, which was not 
 far from it, produced sheep highly valued on account 
 of the fineness and the colour of their fleeces. 
 
 Aristophanes mentions a yXalva, or pall, made 
 "of Phrygian fleeces*:" and Varro asserts, that in 
 his time there were many flocks of wild sheep in 
 Phrygiaf. 
 
 13. The passages above quoted 10, 12.) from 
 Strabo and Joannes Tzetzes allude to the very great 
 celebrity of the wool of Miletus and of the articles 
 woven from it. In citing those passages I had oc- 
 casion to take notice of the active commercial inter- 
 course, which the Ionian Greeks of Miletus and of its 
 colonies on the Euxine Sea carried on with the Coraxi. 
 It cannot be doubted, that this people no less than 
 the Lydians and Carians, excelled in sheep-breeding 
 and in the woollen manufacture before the arrival of 
 the lonians among them. We have here therefore 
 a remarkable instance of the progress of the arts of 
 hfe from the east westwards. As the Greeks in after 
 ages brought civilization into Italy, so we find them 
 in the period of active Grecian colonization learning 
 the most important processes from those whom they 
 called barbarians. 
 
 The passages, which I shall now produce from both 
 Greek and Latin authors of various ages, conspire to 
 prove the distinguished excellence of the wool of Mi- 
 letus, although in many of them the epithet Milesian 
 may be employed only in a proverbial acceptation to 
 denote wool of the finest quality. The animals, which 
 
 * ^pvyibjp ipiiur. Aves, 492. t De Re Rustici, ii. 1. 
 
MILESIAN WOOL. 
 
 35 
 
 yielded this wool, must have been bred in the interior 
 of Ionia not far from Miletus. 
 
 Ctesias describes the softness of camels- hair by 
 comparing it. to Milesian fleeces*. A woman in Ari- 
 stophanes (Lysist. 732.) says, she must go home to 
 spread her Milesian fleeces on the couch, because the 
 worms were gnawing them. In a fragment of a Greek 
 comedy, called Procris, of a somewhat later age (ap. 
 Athen. 1. xii. p. 553.), a favourite lap-dog is described, 
 lying on Milesian fleeces ; 
 
 OuKovv virocTTopeTre fiaXaKios r<o kvvi' 
 Karw nev i)7ro/3aXeire tcjv M.iXr}aluiy 
 'Epttov. 
 
 Therefore make a soft bed for the dog : throw down for him 
 Milesian fleeces. 
 
 The Sybarites wore shawls of Milesian woolf . Pa- 
 Isephatus explains the fable of the Hesperides by say- 
 ing, that their father Hesperus was a Milesian, and 
 that they had beautiful sheep, such as those which 
 were still kept at Miletus |. Eustathius says, the 
 " Milesian carpets^" had become proverbial. Virgil 
 represents the nymphs of Gyrene spinning Milesian 
 fleeces, dyed of a deep sea-green colour : 
 
 Earn eircum Milesia vellera nymphse 
 
 Carpebant, hyah saturo fucata colore. — Georg. iv. 334. 
 
 The nymphs, around her placed, their spindles ply. 
 And draw Milesian wool, of glassy dye. 
 
 He also alludes to the high price of Milesian fleeces 
 in the following passage : 
 
 * Ctesiae fragmenta, a Bahr, p. 224. See below. Chapter iv. 
 "f 'E^opovv 01 livftaplrai koX ifxaTia MiX-qrrtujv epiwy Trerroirjpeva. 
 — Timseus apud Athenseum, xii. p. 519, B. 
 
 X O'tai Koi vvv a'l kv MiX)';r^J- De Incred. § 19. 
 § Ta MiX^iTia orpw/iara. In Dionysium, v. 823. 
 
 D 2 
 
36 
 
 § 13. SHEEP-BREEDING IN IONIA. 
 
 Quamvis Milesia magno 
 
 Vellera mutentur, Tyrios incocta rubores. — Georg. iii. 306. 
 
 Let rich Miletus vaunt her fleecy pride, 
 
 And weigh with gold her robes in purple dyed. — Sothehy. 
 
 The comment of Servius on the latter passage is as 
 follows : 
 
 Milesia vellera, Lanse pretiosissimse ; nam Miletus civitas est Asiae, 
 ubi tinguntur lanse optimae. 
 
 Milesian fleeces, most valuable wools ; for Miletus is a city of 
 Asia, where the best wools are dyed. 
 
 The ancient Greek version of Ezekiel (xxvii. 18.) 
 enumerates Milesian fleeces iepia e/c MiXTirou) among 
 the articles of Tyrian importation. 
 
 Columella (vii. 2.) and Phny (viii. 48.), quoted be- 
 low, assert the celebrity of the flocks of Miletus in 
 former times, although in their time they were sur- 
 passed by the sheep of some other countries. 
 
 The following passages also refer to the celebrity of 
 the Milesian wool : 
 
 'Ev eip/bj Mi\?j(7(fc> fiaXduK^ ws eveipordru. — Hippocrates wept 
 
 In soft Milesian wool, as fine as possible. — Vol. i. p. 689. ed. 
 Fasii. 
 
 Tpi'^es core rrpofidrioy, K^f M('\jjro$ avxj7> 'iraXla to^di^riTai, 
 K^v vTTo ^KpOfpais fvXdrTWfTai a'l rpi-)(€s. — Clemens Alexandrinus, 
 Psed. ii. 30. 
 
 Ye are hairs of sheep, although Miletus may boast of you, and 
 Italy be in high repute, and though the hairs be guarded under 
 skins. 
 
 *Ev aTpi)y.aai MCKriciois avareTpafifxeros . — Aristoph. Ranae, 1.548. 
 Lying on Milesian carpets. 
 
 'EpioiiTi Tovs Tolxovs kvkXo) MiXr)<Ttois. — Amphis ap. Athenaeum, xv. 
 p. 691. A. 
 
 Nam quidMilesiis lanae publicae abstulerit.'' — Cic. in Verrem, i. 34. 
 Nee Miletus erat vellere digna tuo. — Martial, viii. 27. 
 
^ 14. MILESIAN WOOL. SAMOS. 37 
 
 Nec de ovibus dico Milesiis et Selgicis et Altinis, aut quas Taren- 
 tum vel Baetica cluit, natura colorante. — Tertullian de Pallio, 3. 
 
 Nor do I speak of the sheep of Miletus and Selge and Altinum, 
 nor of those, for which Tarentum and Baetica are famous, and which 
 are coloured by nature. 
 
 Si ab initio rerum et Milesii oves tonderent, et Seres arbores ne- 
 rent, et Tyrii tinguerent, et Phryges insuerent, et Babylonii in- 
 texerent. — Tertullian de Habitu Muliebri. 
 
 If from the beginning the Milesians were occupied in shearing 
 sheep, the Seres in spinning the produce of trees, the Tyrlans in 
 dyeing, the Phrygians in embroidering, and the Babylonians in 
 weaving. 
 
 14. We may now notice Samos, as being near the 
 Ionic coast. 
 
 Athenseus (xii. p. 540. D.) cites two ancient au- 
 thors who assert that, when Polycrates was intro- 
 ducing into Samos the most excellent of the different 
 breeds of animals, he chose the dogs of Laconia and 
 Molossis, the goats of Scyros and Naxos, and the 
 sheep of Miletus and Attica. 
 
 Respecting the breeding of sheep in Samos it may 
 be proper to quote the remark of -^lian (Hist. Anim. 
 xii. 40.), that the Samians gave some religious honour 
 to this animal, because a consecrated utensil of gold, 
 which had been stolen from one of their temples, was 
 discovered by a sheep. Eustathius (1. c), having oc- 
 casion to illustrate a line of Theocritus, which refers 
 to the sheep of Samos, uses these words, wc t^c 2a/iou 
 
 Kai T7JC. MiXjjtou ayadwv outrwv eic ep'iwv (j)opai'. 
 
 15. Virgil in the passage above quoted 9. p. 24.) 
 from his Tenth Eclogue contrasts Ethiopia and Thrace, 
 that is, the most southerly with the most northern 
 country known to the Romans for the breeding of 
 sheep. 
 
 It appears probable, that the shepherd life was esta- 
 
38 §15,16. SHEEP-BREEDING IN THRACE, MAGNESIA, 
 
 blished in Thrace as early as in any part of Europe ; 
 for in the Homeric poems it is called " the mother of 
 flocks*." In a much later age the sheep of Thrace are 
 mentioned by Nicanderf. We learn from Plato (De 
 Legibus, 1. vii. p. 36. ed. Bekker) that in Thrace the 
 flocks were entrusted to the care of the women, 
 who were there compelled like slaves to work out of 
 doors. 
 
 Aristotle speaks of the sheep of Magnesia, and says 
 that they brought forth young twice a year j, 
 
 A little further south we find sheep from the earliest 
 times in Thessaly near the river Amphrysus. Here was 
 Iton, which Homer also calls " the mother of flocks 
 It was celebrated for a temple of Minerva, who was 
 called from it Itonis, or Itonia \\ , and whose worship 
 was transferred from hence to Bceotia. The epithet 
 "mother of flocks" occurs again in II. I. 475, and is 
 there applied to a district in the same vicinity with 
 Iton, viz. <l>6'ir), or Phthiotis. Its application to this 
 region and to Thrace may have been intended to de- 
 note, that sheep were distributed from them to other 
 parts of Greece. At the same time, as I shall endea- 
 vour to show hereafter^, we have some ground for 
 supposing, that sheep-breeding was originally intro- 
 duced from Asia Minor into those parts of Europe in 
 conjunction with the worship of Minerva, or Pallas, 
 
 * 'Ev Qpatcr) epifjwXaKt, firjrepi fii'iXwy. — II. A. 222. 
 -f To9i Qpifiices ufxopfioi 
 
 Kpeio^ayoi fn)\oiaiy uepyrfXoiaiy eVoiTai. — Nicand. Ther. 50. 
 
 I Problem, cap. x. sec. 46. See above, § 9. p. 25. 
 § M»/repa fiijXtov. — II. B. 696. 
 
 II Strabo, 1. ix. c. 2. § 29. p. 458 ; and c. 5. § 14. p. 614. ed. Sie- 
 benkees. ApoUonius Rhodius, Argon, i. 551 ; andSchol. ad locum. 
 Alcaei Reliquiae, a Matthiae, No. 54. 
 
 % In treating of Spinning and Weaving, Parts III. and IV. 
 
THESSALY, EUBCEA, AND BCEOTIA. 39 
 
 That Euboea was famous for sheep we know from 
 the testimony of two different authors cited by Athe- 
 nseus. That of CaUixenus Rhodius has been already 
 produced 9. p. 24.) ; and that of Hermippus occurs 
 in his metrical enumeration of the most excellent and 
 characteristic productions of different countries*. 
 
 16. Boeotia appears from very early times to have 
 been rich in flocks. 
 
 The tragic history of CEdipus supposes, that his 
 father Laius, the king of Thebes, had flocks on Mount 
 Cithseron. According to Sophocles (CEd. Tyr. 1026 — 
 1140.) CEdipus was delivered to one of the royal 
 shepherds to be there exposed, and this shepherd 
 through pity committed him to another, and thus 
 saved his life. Seneca in his free version of Sopho- 
 cles ((Ed. Act. iv. V. 815 — 850.) has added a circum- 
 stance, as it appears, from the practice established in 
 other cases. He says, that the shepherd of Laius, 
 whom he calls Phorbas, had many others under 
 him : 
 
 Regies pavit greges ; 
 Minor sub illo turba pastorum fuit. 
 
 But, although it may be doubted whether the flocks 
 of Laius were so numerous as to require a head shep- 
 herd placed over many others, we learn that his pos- 
 sessions of this description excited contest and warfare 
 among his descendants. Their countryman, Hesiod, 
 represents them fighting at the gates of Thebes " for 
 the flocks of CEdipusf ," an expression, which must at 
 least be understood to imply, that sheep constituted a 
 principal part of the wealth of the king. 
 
 * AitTcip citt' Ev/3otaj uttlovs, kui i0ta firjXa. — Athen. Deip. 1. i. 
 p. 27. D. 
 
 t MriXtov eveK OiSiTro^ao. — Op. et Dies, 163. 
 
40 ^ 16, 17. SHEEP-BREEDING IN BCEOTIA, PHOCIS, 
 
 Among the Elgin marbles in the British Museum 
 we have an interesting inscription relating to a con- 
 tract made between the city of Orchomenos in Bceotia 
 and Eubulus of Elatea in Phocis, according to which 
 Eubulus was to have for four years the right of pas- 
 turage for 4 cows, 200 mares, 20 sheep, and 1000 
 goats. In the opinion of Professors Bockh* and 
 Ottfried Miillert this inscription may be referred to 
 the time of the Peloponnesian war. The supposed 
 effect of the waters of the Melas and Cephisos on the 
 fleeces of sheep is a testimony of a much later date, 
 but proves that sheep, both black and white, were 
 bred in that country J. 
 
 17. A proof of the superiority of the Attic sheep at 
 a very early period has been already produced from 
 Athenseus 14. p. 37.). Varro (De Re Rust. ii. 2.) 
 mentions in the following terms the practice of cover- 
 ing sheep with skins in order to improve and preserve 
 their fleeces : " Oves pellitse ; quae propter lanse bo- 
 nitatem, ut sunt Tarentinae et Atticse, pellibus inte- 
 guntur, ne lana inquinetur quo minus vel infici rect^ 
 possit, vel lavari ac parari." The Attic sheep, thus 
 clothed with skins, are mentioned by Demosthenes 
 under the name of "soft sheep" (Trpo/Sara juaAa/ca§). 
 
 * Corpus Inscrip. Grsecar., vol. i. p. 740. f Orchomenos, p. 471. 
 
 X Vitruvius, viii. 3. p. 218. ed. Schneider. See also Dodwell's 
 Tour, vol. i. p. 242. It was imagined, that the water of the Melas 
 rendered the wool hlack, and that of the Cephisos white. 
 
 Dr. Sibthorp, in crossing the plain of Bceotia near Plataea in No- 
 vember A.D. 1794, says, " Flocks of sheep, whose fleeces were of 
 remarkable blackness, were feeding in the plain ; the breed was con- 
 siderably superior in beauty and size to that of Attica." — Walpole's 
 Memoirs on Eur. and As. Turkey, p. 65. 
 
 § Contra Everg. et Mnesid. p. 1155. ed. Reiske. The note of 
 Wolfius is. " Molles oves, utrum intonsas, an molli praeditas lana?" 
 
ATTICA, AND MEGARIS. 
 
 41 
 
 The hilly part of Attica was of course particularly- 
 adapted for sheep as well as goats ; and accordingly 
 a letter of Alciphron (iii. 41.) describes flocks of them 
 at Decelia near Mount Parnes about fifteen miles to 
 the north of Athens. The fame of the Attic wool is 
 also alluded to by Plutarch*, and by the Roman poet 
 Laberius, who died in the year 43 B.C. 
 
 Nihil refert molle ex lanitid Attica, 
 
 An pecore ex hircorum vestitium gerasf. 
 
 i. e. 
 
 No matter whether in soft Attic wool, 
 Or in rough goats-hair you be clothed. 
 
 We learn from Theocritus, that the shepherds of 
 Acharnse, one of the Attic demi, excelled in playing 
 on the pipe I . 
 
 In the adjoining country of Megaris was a temple 
 of great antiquity in honour of Arj/LiriTrtp Ma\o(p6poc. 
 It was said, that Ceres was worshiped under that 
 title, The bringer of flocks, by those who first 
 kept sheep in the country §. Theognis (v. 55.) men- 
 tions, that the people of Megaris used before his time 
 to wear goat-skins, which shows the late introduction 
 of the growth and manufacture of wool. Here, as in 
 Attica, it was usual to protect the sheep with skins 
 {^epfiaai) ; and, as the boys were sometimes seen naked 
 
 In answer to his inquiry, we know from Columella and others (see 
 below, § 21.), that the fine-wooUed sheep, usually covered with skins, 
 were called " molles." 
 
 * Mr;Ce tfiUTioy 7r€pij3aXeadai ■^^tijXiZi'os, el jui) 7rpo(iaTwy Wttikwi' 
 e'tj} TO epiov. — De audiendo, p. 73. ed. Steph. 
 
 t Apud Non. Marcellum. In the next section I shall speak again 
 of the progress of sheep-breeding in Attica in connection with the 
 introduction of the worship of Pan from Arcadia. 
 
 X Av\T](TevvTi ce fioi ^vo Troifiives' els fxey 'A^apcevs, 
 
 Eis AvKwiriras. — Idyll, vii. 71. § Paus. i. 44. 4. 
 
42 $ 18. SHEEP-BREEDING IN ARCADIA. 
 
 after the Doric fashion, Diogenes, the Cynic, said in 
 reference to these practices, he would rather be the 
 ram of a Megarensian than his son*. 
 
 18. In the Peloponnesus, Arcadia was always re- 
 markable for the attention paid to sheep. Hence 
 Ei//i7jXoio 'ApKad'iac, "Arcadia excelling in floclcs;" 
 Pindar, Olymp. vi. 169. 'Oft-^o/mevov TroXvjiinXov, " Or- 
 chomenos (a city of Arcadia) abounding in flocks;" 
 Homer, II. B. 605. 'ApKaB 
 
 \u>v, "Arcadia, abounding in fountains, the mother of 
 flocks ;" Homer, Hymn. xix. 30. 'Ap/caS/a t' eu/taXoc. 
 Theocritus, Idyll, xxii. 157. 
 
 Arcadia claims our especial consideration, because 
 in it the shepherd life assumed that peculiar form, 
 which has been the subject of so much admiration 
 both in ancient and modern times. Here the lively 
 genius and imaginative disposition common to the 
 Greek nation were directed to the daily contempla- 
 tion of the most beautiful and romantic varieties of 
 mountain and woodland scenery, and hence their 
 employments, their pleasures, and their religion, all 
 acquired a rustic character, highly picturesque and 
 tasteful, and, as it appears to me, generally favorable 
 to the development of the domestic and social virtues. 
 To attempt a full investigation of this subject, and to 
 show in what degree the want of higher attainments 
 in religious knowledge and moral cultivation was 
 supplied by the peculiar rites, ideas, and customs of 
 Arcadia, would lead me too far from my proper ob- 
 ject. I only wish to bring forward the principal facts 
 and authorities, and to give a succinct account of the 
 genuine Arcadian system of religion and manners 
 without attempting to refute at length the opposite 
 
 * Diog. Laert. vi. 41. ^liani Var. Hist. xii. 56. 
 
WORSHIP OF PAN. 
 
 43 
 
 views, which have been adopted by ancient and mo- 
 dern writers. 
 
 The pecuhar Divinity of Arcadia, whose worship 
 had a constant and manifest reference to the principal 
 employments of the inhabitants, was Pan. Hence he 
 is called by Virgil and Propertius " the God of Ar- 
 cadia*:" and a modern critic thinks it probable, that 
 every Greek hymn in honour of him contained the 
 words, Hav, 'ApKaSiac ^eSewi-, " Pan, who rulest over 
 Arcadiaf." According to Herodotus (ii. 145.) Pan, 
 the son of Mercury, (who was born at Cyllene in Ar- 
 cadia, where Mercury was previously worshiped,) first 
 saw the light after the Trojan war, and about 800 
 years before his own time. Thus we are able to refer 
 the supposed birth of Pan, and consequently the com- 
 mencement of his worship to about the year 1260 
 B.C. I But from the nature and design of the worship 
 of Pan we may also, as it appears to me, draw the 
 legitimate conclusion, that the superior care and skill 
 of the Arcadians in tending flocks must be dated from 
 the same sera. 
 
 The circumstances of the birth of this divinity and 
 his habits and employments are described as follows 
 in the most ancient document which we have relating 
 to him, viz. Homer's Hymn to Pan. Mercury tended 
 rough flocks at Cyllene in the service of a mortal 
 man, being enamoured of a beautiful nymph. In the 
 course of time she bore him a son, having the feet of 
 a goat, two horns upon his forehead, a long shaggy 
 beard, and a bewitching smile. This was Pan, who 
 became the god of the shepherds, and the companion 
 
 *. "Pan, Deus Arcadise." — Virg. Buc. x. 26. andGeorg. iii. 385. 
 "Arcadio pinus amata Deo." — Propert. i. 17. 
 
 + Brunck, Analecta, torn. iii. lect. et emend, p. 27. 
 I Hist. d'Herodotc, par Larcher, tome vii. p. 359. 582. 
 
44 
 
 ^ 18. PAN THE GOD 
 
 of the mountain nymphs, penetrating through the 
 densest thickets, and inhabiting the most wild, rough, 
 and lofty summits of the sylvan Arcadia. There it 
 is his business to destroy the wild beasts ; and when, 
 having returned from hunting, he drives his sheep 
 into a cave, he plays upon his reeds a tune sweet 
 as the song of any bird in spring. The nymphs, 
 delighting in melody, listen to him when they go to 
 the dark fountain, and the god sometimes appears 
 among them, wearing on his back the hide of a 
 lynx, which he has lately killed, and he joins with 
 them in the choral song and dance upon a meadow 
 variegated with the crocus and the hyacinth. He is 
 beloved by Bacchus, and is the delight of his father 
 Mercury, and he celebrates their worship beyond that 
 of all the other gods. 
 
 Callimachus represents Pan at his fold in Arcadia*, 
 feeding his dogs with the flesh of a lynx, which he 
 has caught on Msenalus. It is to be observed, that 
 the care of dogs to guard the flock was an indispen- 
 sable part of the pastoral office. Philostratus, in his 
 Second Book of Pictures f, supposes the nymphs to 
 have been reproving Pan for his want of grace in 
 dancing, telhng him that he leapt too high and like a 
 goat, and offering to teach him a more gentle method. 
 He pays no attention to them, but tries to catch hold 
 of them. Upon this they surprise him sleeping at 
 noon after the toils of the chace ; and he is repre- 
 sented in the picture with his arms tied behind him, 
 and enraged and struggling against them, while they 
 are cutting off his beard and trying to transform his 
 legs and to humanize him. 
 
 In the Bucolics and Georgics of Virgil we find fre- 
 
 * Avkiv 'ApKaoit)r. — Hymn, in Dianam, 88. 
 t Philostrati Senioris Imag. 1. ii. c. 11. 
 
OF THE ARCADIAN SHEPHERDS. 
 
 45 
 
 quent invocations to Pan as the god of shepherds, the 
 guardian of flocks, and the inventor of the syrinx, or 
 Pandean pipes. 
 
 Ipse, nemus linquens patrium, saltusque Lycsei, 
 Pan, ovium custos, tua si tibi Msenala curse, 
 Adsis, O Tegesee, favens. Georg. i. 16 — 18. 
 God of the fleece, whom grateful shepherds love, 
 Oh, leave Lycseus and thy father's grove ; 
 And, if thy Msenalus yet claim thy care. 
 Hear, Tegesean Pan, th' invoking prayer *. 
 
 Maenalus argutumque nemus pinosque loquentes 
 Semper habet ; semper pastorum ille audit amores, 
 Panaque, qui primum calamos non passus inertes. 
 
 Bucol. viii. 22—24. 
 
 Delightful Msenalus, 'mid echoing groves. 
 And vocal pines, still hears the shepherds' loves ; 
 The rural warblings hears of skilful Pan, 
 Who first to tune neglected reeds began. 
 
 Wart on' s Translation. 
 
 O tantum libeat mecum tibi sordida rura 
 Atque humiles habitare casas, et figere cervos, 
 Hsedorumque gregem viridi compellere hibisco, 
 
 * I have here adopted Sotheby's translation except in the second 
 line of the passage. 
 
 Oh, leave thy native haunt, Lycseus' grove, 
 where he supposes " nemus patrium" to mean the same place with 
 " saltusque Lycsei." In this I think he was mistaken. Pan was 
 recognised as the guardian god of the shepherds and their flocks 
 through all Arcadia ; but certain mountains and districts were sup- 
 posed to be more especially beloved and frequented by him. Of 
 these no less than four, as it appears to me, are ingeniously and 
 learnedly introduced by Virgil into this passage; 1st, Cyllene, 
 where was the ancient temple of Mercury, and where Pan was bom 
 to him, "nemus patrium;" 2ndly, Lycseus, a mountain, covered with 
 deep forests, on which was a temple to Pan, " saltusque Lyccei;" 
 3rdly, Msenalus, another mountain, frequented by Pan more than 
 all the rest, "tua si tibi Mcenala curee;" 4thly, Tegea, a city and 
 district not far from Msenalus, " adsis, 0 Tegetee." 
 
46 $ 18. PAN THE GOD OF THE ARCADIAN SHEPHERDS. 
 
 Mecum una in silvis imitabere Pana canendo. 
 Pan primus calamos cera conjungere plures 
 Instituit ; Pan curat oves oviumque magistxos : 
 Nec te pcEniteat calamo trivisse labellum. 
 
 Bucol. ii. 28—34. 
 O, that you lov'd the fields and shady grots. 
 To dwell with me in bowers and lowly cots. 
 To drive the kids to fold, the stags to pierce ; 
 Then shouldst thou emulate Pan's skilful verse, 
 WarbUng with me in woods : 'twas mighty Pan 
 To join with wax the various reeds began. 
 Pan, the great god of all our subject plains. 
 Protects and loves the cattle and the swains ; 
 Nor thou disdain thy tender rosy lip 
 Deep to indent with such a master's pipe. 
 
 Warton's Translation. 
 
 Besides the four places in Arcadia, which are referred 
 to in the above-cited passages of Virgil, Pausanias 
 informs us of several others, in which he saw temples 
 and altars erected to Pan. He says*, that Mount 
 Mffinalus was especially sacred to this deity, so that 
 those who dwelt in its vicinity asserted, that they 
 sometimes heard him playing on the syrinx. A con- 
 tinual tire burnt there near his temple. 
 
 Herodotus gives a very curious account of the in- 
 troduction of the worship of Pan into Atticaf . He 
 says, that before the battle of Marathon the Athe- 
 nian generals sent Philippides as a herald to Sparta. 
 " On his return Philippides asserted, that Pan had 
 appeared to him near Mount Parthenius above Tegea, 
 had addressed him by name and with a loud voice, 
 and commanded him to ask the Athenians why they 
 did not pay any regard to him, a god, who was kind 
 to them, who had been often useful to them and would 
 be so in future. The Athenians, believing the state- 
 
 * L. \'iii. c. 36. 5. and c. 37. 8. 
 
 t Lib. vi. c. 105. 
 
INTRODUCTION OF HIS WORSHIP INTO ATTICA. 47 
 
 ment of Philippides, when they found themselves 
 prosperous, erected a temple to Pan below the Acro- 
 polis, and continued to propitiate him by annual sa- 
 crifices and by carrying the torch." From various 
 authorities we know, that this temple was in the cave 
 on the northern side of the Acropolis below the Pro- 
 pylaea*. 
 
 In later times a cave near Marathon was dedicated 
 to Pan, the stalactitic incrustations within it being 
 compared to goats, and to their stalls and drinking- 
 troughsf. 
 
 Chandler and Dodwell in their Travels describe 
 another cave larger than that at Marathon and con- 
 taining more varied stalagmitic concretions. It is near 
 the summit of Mount Rapsana between Athens and 
 Sunium. ITANOC is inscribed on the rock near the en- 
 trance, proving that it was considered sacred to Pan. 
 It is no doubt the Panion mentioned by Straboj. 
 
 * Eurip. Ion 495—504. 937. Paus. i. 28. 4. Stuart's Ant. of 
 Athens. Hobhouse's Travels, p. 336. Dodwell's Tour, vol. i. p. 304. 
 
 In Sir R. Worsley's collection of antiques at Appledurcombe in 
 the Isle of Wight is a bas-relief, in which Pan is reclining as if after 
 the chace near the mouth of this cave. He holds the syrinx in the 
 left hand, a drinking-horn in the right. A train of worshipers are 
 conducting a ram to the altar within the cave. See Museum Wors- 
 leianum, Lon. 1794. plate 9. In the vestibule of the University 
 Library at Cambridge is a mutilated statue of Pan clothed in a goat- 
 skin and holding the syrinx in his left hand. This statue was dis- 
 covered near the same cave, and from its style, (the ^ginetic,) may 
 be supposed to have been carved soon after the battle of Marathon. 
 See Dr. E. D. Clarke's Greek Marbles, p. 9. No. xi. Wilkins's Magna 
 Graecia, p. 71. and Dodwell's Tour, vol. i. p. 304. 
 
 t Paus. 1. i. 32. 6. Dodwell's Tour, vol. ii. p. 162. Map at 
 p. 330 of Mem. on Eur. and As. Turkey, edited by Walpole. 
 
 I L. ix. cap. 1. § 21. It was consecrated to the Nymphs as well 
 as to Pan, this association of the Nymphs with that deity being uni- 
 versally practised. Dodwell's Tour, vol. i. p. 550 — 555. " The 
 
48 § 18. EXTENSION OF THE WORSHIP OF PAN. 
 
 The Corycian cave on Mount Parnassus was de- 
 dicated by the surrounding inhabitants to Pan and to 
 the Nymphs*. Theocritus also (Idyll, viii. v. 103.) 
 speaks of Homole, a mountainous tract in the south 
 of Thessaly, as belonging to Pan ; 
 
 Yltxy, 'OfioXas eparov ire^oy oare XeXoy^as. 
 
 Altars were dedicated to Pan on the race-course at 
 Olympia in Elisf, as we may presume, out of respect 
 to the Arcadians, who resorted to the Olympic games. 
 Pindar states}, that he had near his door a statue of 
 Pan. Here, as his able commentators Heyne and 
 Bockh observe, his daughters with other Theban vir- 
 gins sung hymns in honour of the god. 
 
 Time has spared the traces of hymns performed on 
 such occasions, of which the following Scholion is the 
 most entire specimen. 
 
 'il Ilai', 'ApKaStas fie^wv KXeeyras, 
 opyjiaTa ftpojjitais oiraSe yvfjKpais, 
 yeXat7€ias, w Hay, err' efials 
 €v<ppoavyais, aoicais /cexapr/yuevos §. 
 
 countryman and shepherd, as well as the sportsman, has often re- 
 paired, it is likely, to this cave, to render the deities propitious by 
 sacrificing a she-goat or lamb, by gifts of cakes or fruit, and by 
 libations of milk, oil, and honey ; simply believing, that this atten- 
 tion was pleasing to them, that they were present though unseen, 
 and partook without diminishing the offering ; their appetites as well 
 as passions, caprices, and employments resembling the human. At 
 noon-day the pipe was silent on the mountains, lest it might happen 
 to awake Pan, then reposing after the exercise of hunting, tired and 
 peevish." Chandler's Travels in Greece, c. 32. p. 155. 
 
 * Paus. 1.x. 32.5. Strabo, l.ix. cap. 3. § 1. p. 488. ed. Sieben- 
 kees. Raikes's Journal in Memoirs edited by Walpole, p. 31 1 — 315. 
 
 t Paus. 1. v. c. 15. §4. I Pyth. iii. 137—139. 
 
 § Athenseus, 1. xv. 50. p. 1547. ed. Dindorf. Pindari Op. a Bockh. 
 ii. 2. p. 592. Brunck, Analecta, vol. i. p. 156 ; and vol. iii. Lect. et 
 Emend, p. 27. 
 
Plate 1 
 
HIS DANCES WITH THE NYMPHS. 
 
 49 
 
 O Pan, Arcadia's sovereign lord, 
 Dancing and singing with the nymphs ; 
 Smile, Pan, responsive to my joys, 
 O shout, delighted with my songs. 
 
 On a vase of Greek marble in the Royal Museum 
 at Naples^, we see Pan dancing with the nymphs 
 exactly as he is represented in the preceding song. 
 The sculpture is in that very ancient style, which is 
 called Etruscan. Pan is here exhibited with goats' 
 feet and horns {alyoTro^rjv, SiKepojra, Horn. Hymn, in 
 Pana, 1. 2.). He wears the skin of an animal, and 
 employs his right hand in drawing it up towards his 
 left shoulder, which is also the attitude in a statue 
 before referred to {p. 47, note) and now preserved 
 at Cambridge. In his left hand he holds the crook 
 or pastoral staff, which is one of his usual emblems. 
 Pan and the three females, with whom he is dancing, 
 form a distinct group by themselves. They are moving 
 round a large stone, and the artist probably imagined 
 them to be moving first in one direction, and then in 
 the opposite, as if performing the Strophe and Anti- 
 strophe around an altar. We learn from Mr. Dodwell, 
 that the modern Greeks in their circular dances hold 
 each other with a handkerchief, and not by the handf. 
 In the group before us we may observe, that each oi 
 the females has her left hand at liberty, while with 
 her right she takes hold of a handkerchief or shawl 
 attached to the person, who moves next to her in the 
 dance. 
 
 * See the upper figure in Plate i. This vase was first described 
 in the following work, the author of which gives the naipe of a Satyr 
 to that figure which I suppose to be Pan ; Bayardi, Catalogo degli 
 antichi monumenti dissotterrati da Ercolano. Napoli, 1754, p. 290. 
 No. 914. 
 
 t Dodwell's Tour, vol. ii. p. 21, 22. 
 
 E 
 
50 §18. EXTENSION OF THE WORSHIP OF PAN 
 
 With this bas-relief let us compare a painting found 
 at Portici*. It appears to me to have been intended 
 to represent Pan dancing with a goat. Here he has 
 not only the feet, but the legs of a goat ; and so he 
 is commonly represented. The same subject is exe- 
 cuted in a very spirited manner in ancient gemsf. 
 The figure, which I suppose to be Pan, has been 
 called by Gori and others a Satyr, and they suppose 
 him to be fighting with the goat. But this figure fully 
 agrees with all the descriptions of the Arcadian god 
 in ancient writers, and especially with the humorous 
 account of his style of dancing in the extract above 
 given from Philostratus. If the goat and he are fight- 
 ing with their horns, it is certainly in sport. In order 
 to convey the idea that they have met in the woods, 
 the artist has introduced a tree overshadowing the 
 god, and probably it may have been intended for the 
 Ilex, so as to agree with the description in TibuUus, 
 " Suberat Pan ilicis umbrae |." 
 
 I do not find, that religious honours were paid to 
 Pan by the Greeks beyond the limits, which I have 
 above mentioned ; and with respect to the introduc- 
 tion of these rites into Attica, as we know its precise 
 date from the narrative of Herodotus, so, I think, we 
 can be at no loss respecting its intention. Pausanias, 
 Lucian, and the authors of certain epigrams probably 
 of late origin and designed for statues of Pan§, repre- 
 
 * See the lower figure in Plate i. from the Antichita d'Ercolano, 
 torn. ii. tav. 42. 
 
 t Museum Florentinum. Gemmse Antiquse a Gorio illustrata?, 
 tab. Ixxxix. 1, 2, 3. 
 
 X " Pan had gone under the shade of an Ilex." See below, 
 p. 52, note. 
 
 § Pausanias, i. 28. 4. Lucian, Dial. Merc, et Panis. Brunck, 
 Analecta, i. 131. xxviii.; ii. 515. iii.; iii. 205. cclxiv. 
 
RELATED TO IMPROVEMENTS IN SHEEP-BREEDING. 51 
 
 sent the reason to have been that Pan aided the 
 Athenians in obtaining their celebrated victory at 
 Marathon. But Herodotus assigns no such motive, 
 and we find in the attributes of Pan little or nothing 
 of a martial character. It is true that he was addicted 
 to the use of the bow, because he employed it in hunt- 
 ing ; and it is no less certain, that he was supposed 
 sometimes to produce in an army a sudden and other- 
 wise unaccountable flight, which was called after his 
 name <t>6(3Qc iraviKoc, a Panic. But we have no reason 
 to believe, that he aided the Athenians in either of 
 these ways ; their victory does not appear, as an 
 historical fact, to have been owing either to the use 
 of the bow by themselves, or to a panic in the ranks 
 of the enemy. If then we except these two suppose- 
 able methods of rendering aid. Pan was regarded only 
 as the god and guardian, the friend and benefactor of 
 the shepherds, and his habits and pleasures were like 
 theirs. According to Herodotus, his worship was to 
 be brought into Attica, because he had been kind and 
 useful to the Athenians and would be so in future. 
 But his benevolence could only be manifested in the 
 increase and healthy condition of their flocks. The 
 translation of his simple rites from Arcadia to Athens 
 must therefore have had a reference to these circum- 
 stances. It must have been simultaneous with that 
 improvement in the sheep of Attica, which afterwards 
 raised them to so great repute. 
 
 It appears to me no less evident, that Herodotus 
 (ii. 46.) has adopted a false theory in identifying Pan 
 with the Egyptian Mendes. In most respects the 
 Arcadian deity differed from the Egyptian ; and, al- 
 though both these divinities had a human body mixed 
 with that of a goat, this representation proceeded in 
 
 E 2 
 
52 § 18. PAN NOT THE EGYPTIAN MENDES, 
 
 the two instances from dissimilar views. Indeed 
 nothing can be more opposite than the life and habits 
 of the Arcadians, who were pastoral mountaineers, 
 and the ideas and customs of the Egyptians, who in- 
 habited spacious cities and fertile plains : and it seems 
 impossible, that without being transported into the 
 midst of a region resembling Arcadia the Egyptians 
 could have adopted the worship of a divinity at all 
 resembling Pan, whose attributes arose naturally in 
 the conceptions of his worshipers from the wild scenes, 
 the hardy life, and the simple rustic pastimes, which 
 occupied and excited their imagination. 
 
 On the other hand there seems no reason to doubt, 
 that the Romans were right in identifying Pan with 
 their own Faunus*. For in the first place, the two 
 
 * That the Romans considered Pan and Faun to be the same, 
 using the two names indiscriminately, the one as the Greek, the 
 other as the Latin form, is evident from such passages as the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 Lacte madens illic (i. e. Romae) suberat Pan ilicis umbrae. 
 
 Tibulli 1. ii. 5. 
 
 Pinigerum Fauni Maenalis ora caput. Ovidii Fasti, 1. iii. 
 
 Velox amcenum ssepe Lucretilem 
 Mutat Lycseo Faunus, et igneam 
 
 Defendit sestatem capellis 
 
 Usque meis, pluviosque ventos, &c. 
 
 Hor. Od. 1. i. c. 17. v. 1—12. 
 
 Pan from Arcadia's lulls descends 
 
 To visit oft my Sabine seat. 
 And here my tender goats defends 
 
 From rainy winds and summer's heat. 
 
 For when the vales, wide-spreading round. 
 The sloping hills, and polish'd rocks. 
 
 With his harmonious pipe resound. 
 In fearless safety graze my flocks ; 
 
BUT IDENTICAL WITH FAUNUS. 
 
 53 
 
 names, Pan and Faun, scarcely differ except in this, 
 that the one begins with P, the lenis, and the other 
 with F, which is its aspirate : in the second place, 
 both were conceived to have not only the same form 
 and appearance, but the same habits, dispositions, and 
 employments : thirdly, the goat was sacrificed to Pan 
 in Greece* and to Faunus in Italy f, because the 
 Arcadian and Roman deity was conceived to be the 
 guardian of goats as well as sheep, but this animal 
 was not sacrificed to the Egyptian Mendes, because 
 
 In safety through the woody brake 
 The latent shrubs and thyme explore. 
 
 Nor longer dread the speckled snake. 
 And tremble at the wolf no more. 
 
 Francis's Translation, abridged. 
 
 The last extract shows the conceptions of the ancients respecting the 
 connection of Pan with other countries besides Arcadia. Horace 
 here supposes him often to leave his native country in order to visit 
 the equally delightful mountains and forests in the poet's own vici- 
 nity, and on this ground he invites his friend to visit him also. In 
 like manner Pan, though residing habitually in Arcadia, was con- 
 ceived to pay occasional visits to his caves in Attica, Phocis, and 
 Thessaly. 
 
 * Tpayov (Harl) Qxiireiv eTrrjyyeWero. Longi Pastor. 1. ii. c. 17. 
 In an epigram by Leonidas of Tarentum (No. xxx. Brunckii Ana- 
 lecta, torn. i. p. 228.) Bito, an aged Arcadian, dedicates offerings to 
 Pan, to Bacchus, and to the Nymphs. To Pan he devotes a kid 
 
 f Comipedi Fauno caesa de more capella. Ovid. Fasti, ii. 
 
 Nunc et in umbrosis Fauno decet immolare lucis, 
 
 Seu poscat agna, sive malit hsedo. Hor. Od. 1. i. 4. v. 11. 
 
 Faune, Nympharum fugientum amator. 
 Per meos fines et aprica rura 
 Lenis incedas, abeasque parvis 
 
 .(Equus alumnis ; 
 Si tener pleno cadit hsedus anno, &c. 
 
 L. iii. 18. V. 1—5. 
 
54 § 18. THE PHILOSOPHICAL EXPLANATION 
 
 in Egypt the goat itself was supposed to be Mendes, 
 an incarnation of the god*; and lastly, it is recorded 
 as an historical fact, that the worship of Faunus was 
 brought to Rome from Arcadia, whereas the suppo- 
 sition of the introduction of the same worship into 
 Arcadia from Egypt, though found in the pages of an 
 historian, is not given by him as a matter of history, 
 but only as a matter of opinion. The account of the 
 origin of the worship of Faunus at Rome is as follows : 
 Evander, the Arcadian, introduced a colony of his 
 countrymen into Italy, and estabhshed there the rites 
 of Mercury and of the Lycean Pan on the hill, which 
 was afterwards called the Palatine Mount and became 
 part of the city of Rome. A cave at the base of the 
 hill was dedicated to Pan, as we have seen was the 
 case some centuries afterwards at Athensf. 
 
 Having rejected the supposition of Herodotus, that 
 the Arcadian Pan was the same with the Egyptian Men- 
 des, I reject also the indefinite extension, which has 
 been given to the same idea by numerous writers, 
 both ancient and modern, in conformity with a sy- 
 stem of symbolical interpretation, which, uftless con- 
 ducted with extreme care and upon an historical basis, 
 destroys all the sense as well as all the elegance of the 
 Greek mythology, and in professing to elucidate and 
 explain reduces it to a state of inextricable confusion. 
 According to the general testimony of antiquity, as 
 delivered by the poets of almost every class and age 
 
 * See Herodotus as quoted above, § 8. p. 22, 23. 
 
 t Dionys. Halicarn. Hist. Rom. 1. i. p. 20, 21, ed. R. Staph. Paris 
 1546. Strabon. 1. v. cap. iii. § 3. Aur. Victor, Origo Gentis Ro- 
 mansc. Livii 1. i. c. 5. Pausanias, viii. 43. 2. Virg. ^n. viii. 51 — 
 54. 342 — 344. Heyne's Excursus ad loc. Ovidii Fasti, ii. 268 — 
 452. V. 88, &c. 
 
OF PAN REJECTED. 
 
 55 
 
 and confirmed by various geographers and historians, 
 Pan was a local divinity, the guardian god of the 
 shepherds of Arcadia ; making indeed occasional ex- 
 cursions to mountains and forests resembling those 
 of his native land ; but still retaining the same pro- 
 pensities, the love of pastoral music, an amorous 
 sportiveness, extreme agility both in dancing and in 
 ascending precipices and penetrating through wild 
 woods and glens, both of which performances he ex- 
 ecuted much after the manner of the goat, in whose 
 outward form he participated, kindness and care for 
 these animals and their keepers, and a friendly com- 
 munion in sentiment and in worship with his father 
 Mercury and with Bacchus and the Nymphs. In this 
 there is nothing philosophical ; we see only the work- 
 ing of the imagination in a state of rustic simpli- 
 city and amidst very striking and impressive natural 
 scenery. But the authors, to whom I have referred, 
 make it out that the conception of Pan is a philoso- 
 phema, a profound and refined representation of the 
 economy of the universe ; alleging, for example, that, 
 as Pan in Greek signifies the universe, the god in 
 question is the same with Jupiter, the supreme deity, 
 lord of the universe, and that, as his syrinx contained 
 seven pipes, which is the number of the planets, their 
 music represented the harmony of the spheres*. 
 
 * Among authorities in support of this theory the following are 
 some of the principal. 
 
 Orphic Hymn to Pan. Macrobii Saturnalia, 1. i. c. 28. The 
 Scholiast on Theocritus, Idyll, i. 3. Servius on Virgil, Bucol. ii. 31. 
 Diod. Sic. l.i. 18. p. 11. Strabo, 1. xvii. c. 1. § 10. p. 509. ed. Sie- 
 benkees, and § 19. p. 540. Lord Bacon, De Sapientia Veterum, § vi. 
 Milton's Hymn on Christ's Nativity. Winckelmann, Pierres Gravees 
 du Baron de Stosch, No. 1232. Noel, Dictionnaire de laFable, tom. ii., 
 article Pan. Heyne, Antiquarische Aufsatze, vol. ii. p. 70. Creutzer's 
 
56 § 18. MORAL, SOCIAL, AND POLITICAL 
 
 In the preceding observations I have endeavoured 
 to give a correct representation of the real sentiments 
 and practices of the Arcadians in regard to the proper 
 divinity of their country ; and from this account we 
 are naturally led to inquire what influence this pecu- 
 liar belief and worship had upon their manners and 
 their social life. Whilst the elegant simplicity and 
 innocence of the Arcadian shepherds, their graceful 
 choruses, their dance and song, their love for their 
 fleecy charge, which they delighted and soothed with 
 the melody of the pipe, have been the theme and 
 ornament of poetry and romance from the earliest 
 times, the question is highly important and interest- 
 ing, whether these ideal visions are realized by histo- 
 rical testimony ? whether the shepherds of the ancient 
 Arcadia were so entirely and so favorably distin- 
 guished from men of the same class and employment 
 in almost all other times and countries ? One modern 
 writer denies this fact. He says, "The refined and 
 almost spiritualized state of innocence, which we call 
 the pastoral life of Arcadia, was entirely unknown to 
 the ancients :" and he quotes in support of this asser- 
 tion several expressions, used by Philostratus and 
 other writers, and denoting contempt for the Arca- 
 dians as a rude, ignorant, stupid race of people*. It 
 must, I conceive, be admitted that the habits of rustic 
 simplicity, the result of their separation not only from 
 
 Symbolik, vol. iii. Siebenkees, Handbuch der Archaologie, vol. ii. 
 p. 300. Hirt, Abhandlungen der Hist. Philol. Klasse der Preuss. 
 Acad. 1820, 1 821. p. 124. Grotefend, Ersch und Grubers Encyclo- 
 padie, article Arkadia, § 5. p. 322. and § 9. p. 324. 
 
 On the other hand the opinion, Avhich I have advanced, is main- 
 tained by K. O. Miiller, Archaologie der Kunst, p. 520. and Schaaf, 
 Alterthumskunde, vol. i. p. 317. 
 
 * J. H. Voss, Virgils Landliche Gedichte, torn. ii. p. 353. 
 
STATE OF THE ARCADIANS. 57 
 
 the rest of the world, but even from the rest of Greece, 
 and of their devotion to pastoral offices requiring their 
 constant presence in retired vallies and almost inac- 
 cessible mountains, caused them to be regarded as a 
 comparatively insignificant and ignorant people by 
 their Spartan neighbours, by the luxurious Corinth- 
 ians, and by the bustling and quick-witted Athenians. 
 That they were, nevertheless, a robust and hardy 
 race, not in the least deficient in brave and manly 
 qualities*, might be inferred from the very nature of 
 their employments, and is placed beyond a doubt by 
 the value attached to their services as foreign mer- 
 cenaries. Polybius, who was an Arcadian, confidently 
 asserts, that they had throughout Greece a high and 
 honourable reputation, not only on account of their 
 hospitality to strangers and their benevolence towards 
 all men, but especially on account of their piety to- 
 wards the divine being f. They make no figure in 
 Grecian history, because they were too wise to take 
 part in the irrational contests, which continually em- 
 broiled the surrounding states. Their division into 
 small independent communities, each preserving a 
 purely democratic constitution, rendered it impossible 
 for them to acquire celebrity in legislation ; and yet 
 we are informed of some of the citizens of Arcadia, 
 who were reputed excellent lawgivers for the sphere 
 in which they acted J. It appears to me no incon- 
 siderable evidence of their progress in the art of 
 government upon republican principles, that in the 
 choice of magistrates at Mantinea they proceeded 
 
 * 'ApKaStav evavopa, "Arcadia producing excellent men." Find. 
 Olymp. vi. 135. 
 
 t Polybii Hist. 1. iv. 20. p. 402. ed. Gronovii, Amstel. 1670. 
 
 I Wachsmuth, Hellen. Alterthumskunde, i. 1. p. 180; i. 2. p. 305. 
 
58 § 18. MORAL, SOCIAL, AND POLITICAL 
 
 upon the plan of a double election*. We have the 
 most decisive proofs of their public spirit in the splen- 
 did cities, which they erected, and which were adorned 
 with theatres, temples, and numerous other edifices. 
 We are informed by Pausaniasf, that of all the tem- 
 ples in Peloponnesus the most beautiful and admirable 
 were those of Minerva at Tegea and of Apollo at Phi- 
 galia ; and these were both cities of Arcadia. Now it 
 should be observed, that the taste and splendour of 
 their pubhc edifices are the more decisive proofs of 
 their national enthusiasm, when it is considered, that 
 among them property was exceedingly subdivided ; 
 that they had no overpowering aristocracy, no princes 
 or great landed gentry, who might seek for renown 
 or court popularity by bestowing their wealth upon 
 public institutions ; but that the noble temples, the 
 sculptures, and other works of art, which ornamented 
 their cities and were subservient to purposes of com- 
 mon interest, could have been produced only by the 
 united deliberations and contributions of the mass of 
 the inhabitants. They seem therefore to prove the 
 universal prevalence both of a liberal patriotic feel- 
 ing, and of a cultivated taste for the beautiful and 
 the sublime. 
 
 Virgil bears his testimony to their superior skill in 
 vocal and instrumental music. 
 
 Soli cantare periti 
 Arcades. Bucol. x. 32. 
 
 Arcadian swains, 
 Ye best artificers of soothing strains. 
 
 Warton's Translation. 
 
 This must of course be understood as referring only 
 
 * Aristot. Polit. 1. vi. 2. 2. 
 
 t L. viii. c. 41. 5. p. A2d, ed. Siebel. 
 
STATE OF THE ARCADIANS. 
 
 59 
 
 to music and poetry of the pastoral kind. To the 
 composition of the higher species of poetry, by which 
 the Greeks of other countries laid a foundation for 
 the instruction and delight of all succeeding ages, 
 the Arcadians never aspired. At the same time there 
 can be no doubt, that they bestowed great care upon 
 the exhibition of dramatic compositions, though they 
 did not attempt to write them : of this fact we have, 
 I presume, sufficient proof in the remains of the 
 theatres found upon the sites of their principal cities, 
 and especially of the theatre of Megalopolis, which 
 was the greatest in all Greece*. 
 
 But with respect to their cultivation of music and 
 its influence on their national character, we have upon 
 record the fall and explicit testimony of one of their 
 most distinguished citizens, the historian Polybius, 
 whose remarks will appear especially deserving of the 
 reader's attention, when it is considered, that he must 
 himself have gone through the whole course of dis- 
 cipline and instruction which he describes. Having 
 had occasion to mention the turbulent character and 
 the cruel and perfidious conduct of the Cynaetheans, 
 who occupied a city and district in the north of Ar- 
 cadia, he proposes to inquire why it was that, although 
 they were indeed Arcadians, they had acted in a man- 
 ner so entirely at variance with the usual habits and 
 manners of the Greeks, and he then proceeds with 
 earnestness and solemnity to explain upon the follow- 
 ing principles the cause of this extraordinary contrast. 
 It was, as he states, that the Cynsetheans were the 
 only inhabitants of Arcadia who had neglected to ex- 
 ercise themselves in music ; and he then gives the 
 
 * Pausanias, 1. 32. 1. Leake's Travels in the Morea, vol. ii. 
 p. 32. 39, 40. 
 
60 § 18. POLYBIUS ON THE CULTIVATION 
 
 following account of the established practice of the 
 rest of the Arcadians in devoting themselves to the 
 study of real music*, by which he means the united 
 arts of music, poetry, and dancing, of all those ele- 
 gant and graceful performances, over which the Muses 
 were supposed to preside. He informs us that the 
 Arcadians, whose general habits were very severe, 
 were required by law to go on improving themselves 
 in music, so understood, until their thirtieth year. 
 " In childhood," says he, "they are taught to sing 
 in tune hymns and paeans in honour of the domestic 
 heroes and divinities. They afterwards learn the music 
 of Philoxenus and Timotheus. They dance to the 
 pipe in the theatres at the annual festival of Bacchus ; 
 and they do this with great emulation, the boys per- 
 forming mock-fights adapted to their age, and the 
 young men the so-called manly fights. In like man- 
 ner throughout the whole of life their pleasure at feasts 
 and entertainments consists, not in listening to singers 
 hired for the purpose, but in singing themselves in 
 their turns when called upon. For, although a man 
 
 * Tt]y ye nXrjdws fiovaiajv. 
 
 Aristides Quinctilianus (De Musica, 1. i.) defines music Te\vri 
 ■Kpe-KovTos ey (j)ii)pa7s Kui Kivi'iai, " The art of the becoming in voice 
 and in motion." Plato (Alcib. i. p. 310. ed. Bekker) explains Mov- 
 aiKY} to be the art of playing on the lyre with song and marching or 
 gesture, to Kidapi^eiv xal to dceiv kui to efifiaifeiv, and to be so called 
 from the Muses. Cassiodorus understands Music in the same com- 
 prehensive sense, when he treats of it as one of the Liberal Arts. 
 See his book De Septem Disciplinis. In the following passage he 
 describes ballets, or pantomimic performances, as a part of music : 
 '• Hanc partem musicse disciplinae mutam nominavere majores, scili- 
 cet quse ore clauso manibus loquitur, et quibusdam gesticulationibus 
 facit intelligi, quod vix narrante lingua aut scripturse textu possit 
 agnosci." Ejiist. Var. 1. i. ep. 20. See also Seidel de Saltationibus 
 sacris vet. Romanorum, Berol. 1826, 8vo. p. 3. 
 
OF MUSIC BY THE ARCADIANS. 
 
 61 
 
 may decline any other performance on the ground of 
 inability and may thereby bring no imputation on 
 himself, no one can refuse to sing, because all have 
 been obliged to learn it, and to refuse to take a part, 
 when able, is deemed disgraceful. The young men 
 also unite together to perform in order all the military 
 steps and motions to the sound of the pipe, and at 
 the public expense they exhibit them every year before 
 their fellow-citizens. Besides these ballets, marches, 
 and mock-fights, the men and women unite in great 
 public assemblies and in numerous sacrifices, to which 
 are to be added the circular or choral dances by the 
 boys and virgins." Polybius adds, that these musical 
 exercises had been ordained as the means of commu- 
 nicating softness and refinement to the otherwise rough 
 and laborious life of the Arcadians, and he warns them 
 by the example of the half savages of Cynsethse never 
 to abandon such wholesome institutions*. With how 
 great benefit to our own social character might we 
 adopt this counsel ! How greatly might we contribute 
 both to the innocent enjoyment and to the more im- 
 proved and elevated tastes of our rustics and artisans, 
 if well-regulated plans were devised, by which graceful 
 recreations, providing at the same time exercise for 
 the body, amusement for the imagination, and em- 
 ployment for the finer and more amiable feelings, were 
 made to relieve the degrading and benumbing mono- 
 tony of their protracted labours, whether in the fac- 
 tory or in the field ! 
 
 It will be readily perceived, that the education here 
 described, and the tastes and habits which it produced, 
 were immediately associated with the popular religion, 
 and especially with the notions and rites entertained 
 
 * Polyb. 1. iv. c. 20.21. 
 
62 § 18. WORSHIP OF MERCURY IN CONNECTION 
 
 towards the peculiar god of the shepherds. Other 
 deities indeed, such as Apollo, Diana, and Minerva, 
 who were also worshiped in Arcadia, may have con- 
 tributed to the same effect ; and especially this may 
 have been the case with Mercury, perhaps the only 
 one of the higher Greek divinities, who was conceived 
 to have a benevolent character, who was the father of 
 Pan, and was himself reported to have been born in a 
 cave of the same mountain in Arcadia*, on which he 
 was worshiped. He was a lover of instrumental music, 
 having invented the lyre, and he was frequently re- 
 presented on coins and gems, riding upon a ram, or 
 with his emblems so connected with the figures of 
 sheep, and more rarely of goats and of dogs, as to 
 prove that in his character as the god of gain the 
 shepherds looked up to him together with his offspring 
 to bless the flocks and to increase their producef. 
 
 * Cyllene. See above, p. 43 and 45, note. 
 
 t Buonaroti (Osservazioni sopra alcuni Medaglioni Antichi, p. 41 .) 
 has exhibited brass coins, in one of v/hich Mercury is riding on a 
 sheep ; in a second the sheep is seen with Mercury's bag of money 
 on its back ; and in a third the caduceus is over the sheep, and two 
 spikes of corn, emblems of agricultural prosperity, spring out of the 
 ground before it. Among the gems of the Baron de Stosch, now 
 belonging to the Royal Cabinet at Berlin, No. 381. Class II. repre- 
 sents Mercury sitting upon a rock with a dog by his side : Winckel- 
 mann observes, that " the dog is the symbol of Mercury as the pro- 
 tector of shepherds." Nos. 392, 393, 396—402, in the same col- 
 lection represent hira with sheep, and one of them (399.) exhibits him 
 standing erect in a chariot drawn by four rams, and holding the 
 bag or purse in his right hand and the caduceus in his left. See a 
 representation of this gem, a little enlarged, in the Vignette at the 
 end of this Section. Mercury is clearly exhibited as the god of 
 commerce and of gain, and also as carried along in triumph. Hence 
 I infer, that this may have been the seal of some great wool-grower 
 or wool-merchant, the emblems denoting trade carried on success- 
 fully through the instrumentality of sheep. See Winckelmann, De- 
 
WITH SHEEP-BREEDING AND THE WOOL TRADE. G3 
 
 Hence Homer, in order to convey the idea that Phor- 
 bas was remarkably successful in the breeding of 
 sheep, says that he was beloved by Mercury above 
 
 scrip, des Pierres Gravees du Baron de Stosch, p. 89, 91, 92. Lip- 
 pert, Dactyliothek, p. 139—141 ; and Suppl. p. 8. No. 2-3. See 
 also Mus. Florent. Gemmoe Antiquae a Gorio illustratse, t. Ixx. Nos. 
 4. 9. (with a goat instead of a sheep), t. Ixxi. No. 7. (Mercury 
 riding on a sheep between Castor and Pollux), and No. 8. Mionnet, 
 Medailles, torn. ii. Nos. 246, 247 (coins of Corinth, time of Anton. 
 Pius) ; Nos. 345, 355, 362, 363 (coins of Patrse). Mus. Pio-Clemen- 
 tino, tomo iv. tavola iv. p. 7. In this beautiful bas-relief Mercury 
 places his left hand upon the head of a sheep, and has in his rig)it 
 hand a cup, probably intended to be considered as holding milk. 
 
 Some of the coins of Sicily appear to me to refer in like manner 
 to the character of Mercury as the promoter of the trade in wool. 
 Gabriel Castellus, Prince of Torremuza (Sicilise Veteris Nummi, 
 Tab. 35, Nos. 9, 10.), has published two coins of Himera, on each 
 of which Mercury is represented riding upon a ram and blowing a 
 conch. On the reverse is a figure of Victory. The learned author 
 supposes this figure to allude to a victory of the Himereans over the 
 Carthaginians, which is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, Book xi. 
 ch. 20 and 21 . But this victory had nothing to do either with sheep 
 or with Mercury. I conceive therefore, that the emblems on these 
 coins are to be explained in the same way with those on the coins of 
 Corinth and Patrse and on the gem represented in the vignette. In 
 the gem success is denoted by the quadriga, or triumphal chariot ; in 
 the coins by the figure of Victory. Himera was a port in the north- 
 em coast of Sicily, and it appears to me that the use of a shell for a 
 trumpet by Mercury could only denote the export of the wool over 
 the sea. 
 
 The Honourable Keppel Craven (Excursions in the Abruzzi, Lon- 
 don, 1838, vol. i. ch. 4. p. 109.) mentions a temple at Arpinum, a 
 city of Latium, which was dedicated, as appears from an inscription 
 found on its site, to MERCURIUS LANARIUS. ITiis title e^n- 
 dently represented Mercury as presiding over the growth of wool and 
 the trade in it. 
 
 Perhaps the very ancient idea of Mercury making the fleece of 
 Phryxus golden by his touch may have originated in the same view. 
 See ApoUonius Rhodius, Argonautica, 1. ii. 1144, and Scholion ad 
 locum. 
 
64 § 18. WORSHIP OF MERCURY, ETC. 
 
 all the other Trojans*. The inhabitants of one ter- 
 ritory even in Arcadia, viz. the city of Pheneos, 
 honoured Mercury more than all the other gods, and 
 expressed this sentiment by procuring a statue of him 
 made by a celebrated sculptor in ^gina, in which he 
 was represented carrying a ram under his arm, and 
 which they placed in the great temple of Jupiter at 
 Olympiaf. At Corinth there was a brazen statue of 
 Mercury in a sitting posture with a ram standing be- 
 side him. According to Pausanias (ii. 3, 4.) the reason 
 of this representation was, that of all the gods Mercury 
 was thought most to take care of flocks and to pro- 
 mote their increase. But, as the Corinthians had 
 little or nothing to do with the tending of sheep and 
 were devoted to commerce, we may ask what interest 
 had they in this attribute of Mercury ? It appears to 
 me, that it could only be an interest arising from the 
 part which Corinth took in the wool-trade. That the 
 Arcadians did not themselves consume their wool is 
 manifest. How could they have built cities, which 
 were so large, numerous, and handsome in proportion 
 to the extent of their country, and have lived even in 
 that degree of elegance and luxury, to which they at- 
 tained, unless they had been able to dispose of the 
 chief produce of their soil in a profitable manner ? I 
 conceive therefore, that the representation of Mercury 
 or of his emblems in conjunction with the figure of 
 the sheep on the coins of Corinth and Patrae may be 
 regarded as an intimation, that the Arcadians disposed 
 of their wool in those cities for exportation to foreign 
 countries. 
 
 But, notwithstanding the important share, which 
 
 * II. xiv. 490. See also Horn. Hymn to Mercury, 569. Hesiod, 
 Theog. 444. f Paus. 1. v. 27. 5. and 1. viii. 14. 7. 
 
Plate n 
 
GROUP OF PAN TEACHING A YOUNG SHEPHERD. 65 
 
 Mercury had in the rehgious sentiments and obser- 
 vances of the Arcadians, the proper god of the shep- 
 herds of Arcadia was Pan, and we have already had 
 abundant evidence to suggest the conviction, that 
 their songs and dances were performed principally in 
 honour of him, and were supposed to be taught, 
 guided, and animated by him. It was, I apprehend, 
 to embody this belief in a visible form, that the sculp- 
 tor in that beautiful group, which is sketched in the 
 upper figure of Plate II., has represented Pan teach- 
 ing a young shepherd to play on the syrinx. There 
 are three ancient copies of this group, viz. one in the 
 Villa Albani at Rome, another in the Ludovisi Gar- 
 dens, and a third in the Gallery at Florence. These 
 copies are probably derived from an original of even 
 superior merit : for the greatest artists of antiquity 
 sometimes employed themselves on representations of 
 Pan*. Maffei in his explanation of this group calls 
 it Pan teaching Apollo, and he has been followed by 
 Montfaucon and many othersf. Later authors call it 
 Pan teaching Olympus J. But neither of these sup- 
 positions rests on the slightest authority : antiquity 
 gives us no account of Pan teaching either Apollo or 
 Olympus to play on the syrinx, nor is it likely that 
 either Apollo or Olympus would have been repre- 
 sented as the pupil of Pan is represented in this 
 group : according to the mythology, they were both 
 of them, not younger than Pan, but much older. It 
 appears to me therefore, that the only interpretation, 
 
 * PliniiHist.Nat.l.xxxv.36. §2and§20. l.xxxvi.4. § 8 and § 10. 
 
 t MaiFei, in De Rossi's Raccolta di Statue, 1704. folio, pi. 64. 
 Montfaucon, Ant. expliquee, torn. i. p. 102. 
 
 t Winckelmann, Cat. des Pierres Gr. du B. de Stosch, p. 250. 
 No. 1546. H. Meyer in Bottigers Amalthea, vol. ii. p. 197. 
 
 F 
 
GG § 18. REPRESENTATIONS OF PAN 
 
 which is consistent with all the accounts given of Pan 
 by the ancients, is that which I have proposed. I 
 consider this tasteful representation as symbolical of 
 the benefits, which the Arcadian divinity was sup- 
 posed to have conferred, by leading rude mountaineers 
 to the love of those innocent and humane pastimes, 
 by which their manners were softened and refined, and 
 by which they afforded pleasure not only to one an- 
 other, but even, as they conceived, to their sheep and 
 goats*. 
 
 The lower figure of Plate II. is taken from a painted 
 bas-relief of stucco in the Baths of Titus at Rome f. 
 On the left hand of the picture is a terminal statue of 
 Mercury. A procession approaches it with a goat 
 and other preparations for sacrifice. A boy rides 
 upon the goat, and Pan leads it by the horn towards 
 the statue. 
 
 Et ductus corau stabit sacer hircus ad aram. 
 
 Virg. Georg. ii. 395. 
 
 Led by his horn the goat devoted stands. 
 
 The reader may compare this representation with 
 one in Millin's Vases Etrusques Antiques, {vol. i. pi. 
 51) where Mercury is seen leading a he-goat by the 
 horn to an altar, and in the other hand carrying a 
 patera or basket of vegetable productions to be sacri- 
 ficed. Pan appears in the back-ground ; and, as in 
 the picture just described Pan joins in a sacrifice to 
 
 * The prevalent use of the syrinx, or Pandean pipes, by shepherds, 
 is intimated in the passage of Dionysius Periegetes, quoted above, 
 §5. p. 14. Note ; also by Apollonius Rhodius as quoted below, § 21 ; 
 and Sidonius ApoUinaris, § 23. 
 
 t Peintures des Bains de Titus, Par. 1786. PI. VIII. p. 13. 
 
BY SCULPTURE, PAINTING, AND PANTOMIME. 67 
 
 Mercury, so here, on the other hand. Mercury ap- 
 pears to be doing homage to Pan *. 
 
 We have good reason for beheving, that, as the 
 dances of the Arcadians were often of the nature of 
 ballets and pantomimes, they introduced in them re- 
 presentations of Pan as well as of the Nymphs with 
 whom he danced f. An entertainment of this descrip- 
 tion is mentioned in the pastoral romance of Longus 
 (L. ii. cap. 24 — 26), where we are told, that after the 
 shepherd Lamon had related the fable of the nymph 
 Syrinx, who was pursued by Pan, and having taken 
 refuge among the reeds was changed into the instru- 
 ment of the same name, the story was acted by the 
 two lovers, Daphnis performing the part of Pan and 
 Chloe that of Syrinx. Although the author supposes 
 this to have been performed in the isle of Lesbos, we 
 have no reason to doubt that it was similar to the 
 pastoral entertainments of other parts of Greece J. 
 
 * In addition to the numerous evidences already produced of the 
 association of Pan and the nymphs in the same acts of worship witli 
 Mercury considered as the guardian and friend of shepherds, I will 
 quote the following passage of a chorus in Aristophanes (Thesmoph. 
 986 — 989.), which the reader may compare with the above-cited 
 scliolion or song to Pan. See p. 48. 
 
 F.pfxrjv re T^iofiiov ui-rofxai, 
 Kni rictj'a, Kul Ni/yLii/)as (piXns, 
 'EjTriyeXuauL Trpodvfiws 
 Tats rjjje-epais ^apevra j^opeiais, 
 
 t Plato de Legibus, 1. vii. p. 55. ed. Bekker. 
 X The following is the account of the performance : — 
 " Daphnis begs and tries to persuade : Chloe smiles, not caring 
 for his entreaties. He pursues her, running on tip-toe as a goat 
 on its hoofs : she escapes and appears wearied witli the chace. She 
 then conceals herself in the adjoining wood as if in the marsh, while 
 Daphnis, having taken a syrinx, plays a tune, which is by turns 
 plaintive, amatory, and as if calhng back her whom he had sought." 
 
 f2 
 
68 ^ 18. PRESENT STATE OF ARCADIA. 
 
 Arcadia has for many centuries exhibited a most 
 melancholy contrast to that condition of hardy and 
 yet peaceful independence, of rustic simplicity united 
 with tasteful elegance, of social kindness and domestic 
 enjoyment undisturbed by the projects of ambition, 
 which has supplied many of the most beautiful pic- 
 tures to the writers of poetry and romance. The 
 great natural features of the country are unalterable. 
 The pine-forests of Lycseus, its deep glens continually 
 refreshed with sparkling streams and cataracts, its 
 savage precipices where scarce even a goat can climb, 
 remain in their original beauty and grandeur. This 
 region also affords pasture to flocks of sheep more nu- 
 merous than those which feed in any other part of 
 Greece^. But whatever depends on the moral na- 
 ture of man is changed. The valleys, once richly cul- 
 tivated and tenanted by an overflowing population, 
 are scarcely kept in tillage. The noble cities are 
 traced only by their scattered ruins. The few descend- 
 ants of the ancient Arcades have crouched beneath a 
 degrading tyranny. The thick forests and awful ca- 
 verns but a few years ago served to shelter fierce ban- 
 ditti ; and the traveller startled at the sound of their 
 fire-arms instead of being charmed with the sweet 
 melody of the syrinx f. But a new dynasty has been 
 
 Amphis of Athens, a writer of the old comedy, composed a drama 
 called Pan, Athenaus 1. x. p. 421 A. 
 
 * Bartholdy, Bruchstiicke ziir Kenntniss des heut. Griechenlands, 
 p. 238. 
 
 t Dodwell's Tour, vol. ii. p. 388—393. Leake's Travels in the 
 Morea, vol. i. p. 486 — 490. The latter author gives the following 
 account of a visit which he paid to the family of a shepherd, consisting 
 of twelve or fifteen individuals, who lived together in a tent on mount 
 Lycaeus: — " Milk and misithra (a preparation made by boiling milk 
 and whey together) is their usual food. ' We have milk in plenty/ 
 
§ 19. SHEEP-BREEDING IN EPIRUS. 69 
 
 established under the sanction of the most powerful 
 and enlightened nations of Europe. It remains to be 
 seen whether this or any other part of Greece will 
 again become wise, virtuous, and renowned. The 
 philanthropist, who amidst the gloom and desolation of 
 the moral world depends with confidence upon an all- 
 wise and all-disposing Providence, may console him- 
 self with the hope, that that great Being who bestowed 
 such inestimable blessings upon Arcadian shepherds 
 in their ignorance, will not abandon those of their de- 
 scendants, who with superior means of knowledge aim 
 at corresponding attainments in the excellencies of 
 pohtical, social, and private life. 
 
 Supposed Seal of an eminent Wool-merchant, described in the 
 Note at p. 62. 
 
 19. According to the representation in the Odyssey 
 (xiv. 100.) Ulysses had twelve flocks of sheep and as 
 many of goats on the continent opposite to Ithaca. 
 At a much later period we find Neoptolemus, a king 
 of Molossis, in possession of flocks and herds, which 
 
 they tell me, ' but no bread.' Such is the life of a modern Arcadian 
 shepherd, who has almost reverted to the balanephagous state of his 
 primitive ancestors (Orac. Pyth. ap. Pausan. Arcad. c. 42.). The 
 children, however, all look healthy and are handsome, having large 
 black eyes and regular features with very dark complexions." 
 
70 § 19. SHEEP-BREEDING IN MACEDONIA 
 
 were superintended by a distinct officer appointed for 
 the purpose *. In Macedonia also the king, though 
 living in a state of so little refinement that his queen 
 baked the bread for the whole household, was pos- 
 sessed at an early period of flocks of sheep and goats 
 together with horses and herds of oxen, wliich were 
 entrusted to the care of separate officers. We are 
 informed that three Argive brothers, having taken 
 refuge in the upper part of Macedonia bordering 
 upon Illyria, became hired servants to the king, one 
 of them having the custody of the horses, another of 
 the oxen, and a third of the sheep and goats f. Here 
 then we find in Eui'ope a state of society analogous 
 to that which, as we have seen (§ 7. p. 19.), existed 
 in Palestine under David. Indeed we may observe, 
 that all the countries bordering on Macedonia were 
 contrasted with Attica and Arcadia in this respect, 
 that, while the Athenians and Arcadians were in ge- 
 neral small landed proprietors, each shepherd tending 
 his flock upon his own ground, PhrygiaJ, Thrace, 
 Macedonia, Epirus, and even Boeotia belonged pro- 
 bably to an aristocracy, the richest and most powerful 
 individuals of which became shepherd kings, their 
 landed possessions giving them a superiority over the 
 rest of their countrymen, and leading to the employ- 
 ment of numerous persons as their servants engaged 
 in tending their cattle and in other rural occupations. 
 Respecting the attention paid to sheep-breeding in 
 
 * Stijuwros Tov Tu TfuifjLViu nai rii ftuvKoXia t(3 NeoTrroXeyuw 2iot- 
 Kovyros. — Plutarclii Pyrrhus, p. 705. ed. Steph. 
 
 t Ttt XcTrra -tor Tr/wftdrutf. — Herod, viii. 137. See above, p. 22. 
 Note t- 
 
 I Theopompus, as quoted by Servlus on Virgil, Buc. VI. 13, 
 miike.s mention of the shepherds, who kept the flocks of Midas, king 
 of Phrygia. 
 
AND EPIRUS. 
 
 shepherds' dogs. 
 
 71 
 
 Epirus we have the testimonj'^ of Varro in his treatise 
 De Re Rustica. He informs us (ii. 2.) that it was 
 usual there to have one man to take care of 100 
 coarse-wooled sheep {oves hirtcB), and two men for the 
 same number of " oves pellitcs" , or sheep which wore 
 skins. 
 
 I have already produced passages from Virgil and 
 from Athenseus (§ 9. and 14.), which attest the cele- 
 brity of " the dogs of Laconia and Molossis." These 
 were used both to guard the flocks and for hunting. 
 Further notices respecting them may be found in 
 Virgil's Georgics, 1. iii. 404 — 413, and in the Notes of 
 his editors and translators, Heyne, Martyn, and J. H. 
 Voss. See also ^lian de Nat. An. iii. 2. and Plautus, 
 Capt. i. i. 18. The attention bestowed upon dogs is 
 an indirect evidence of the care which was devoted to 
 flocks. It is worthy of remark, that the dogs, used 
 to guard the flocks in the modern Albania, appear to 
 be the genuine descendants of the ancient " canes 
 Molossici," being distinguished by their size as well 
 as by their strength and ferocity*. 
 
 There is another important circumstance, in which 
 probably the habits of the modern shepherds of Albania 
 are similar to those of the ancient occupants of the 
 same region, viz. the annual practice of resorting to 
 the high grounds in summer and returning to the 
 plains in winter, which prevails both here and in most 
 mountainous countries devoted to sheep-breeding. 
 The following extract from Dr. Holland's Travels in 
 the Ionian Isles, Albania, &c. {p. 91 — 93.), gives a 
 lively representation of this proceeding. 
 
 " When advanced eight or nine miles on our journey 
 
 * Holland's Travels, p. 443. Hughes's Travels, vol. i. p. 483, 
 484. 496. 
 
72 § 19. ANNUAL MIGRATION OF ALBANIAN SHEPHERDS. 
 
 (from Cinque Pozzi to Joannina; October 3lst, 1813,) 
 and crossing another ridge of high and broken land, 
 we were highly interested in a spectacle, which by a 
 fortunate incident occurred to our notice. We met on 
 the road a community of migrating shepherds, a wan- 
 dering people of the mountains of Albania, who in the 
 summer feed their flocks in these hilly regions, and in 
 the winter spread them over the plains in the vicinity 
 of the Gulph of Arta and along other parts of the 
 coast. The many large flocks of sheep we had met 
 the day before belonged to these people, and were pre- 
 ceding them to the plains. The cavalcade we now 
 passed through was nearly two miles in length with 
 few interruptions. The number of horses with the 
 emigrants might exceed a thousand ; they were chiefly 
 employed in carrying the moveable habitations and 
 the various goods of the community, which were 
 packed with remarkable neatness and uniformity*. 
 The infants and smaller children were variously at- 
 tached to the luggage, while the men, women, and 
 elder children travelled for the most part on foot ; a 
 healthy and masculine race of people, but strongly 
 marked by the wild and uncouth exterior connected 
 with their manner of life. The greater part of the 
 men were clad in coarse white woollen garments ; the 
 females in the same material, but more curiously co- 
 loured, and generally with some ornamented lacing 
 about the breast." He then adds, " These migratory 
 tribes of shepherds generally come down from the 
 mountains about the latter end of October, and return 
 thither from the plains in April, after disposing of a 
 certain proportion of their sheep and horses. In tra- 
 
 * Compare Virgil's description of the wandering shepherds of 
 Libya, ^ 9, p. 26 ; also the extracts from Mr. Keppel Craven, § 21, 
 
^ 20. SHEEP-BREEDING IN SICILY. 73 
 
 veiling, they pass the night on the plains or open lands. 
 Arrived at the place of their destination, they con- 
 struct their little huis or tents of the materials they 
 carry with them, assisted by the stones, straw, or 
 earth, which they find on the spot." 
 
 According to Dr. Sibthorp (in Walpole's Memoirs, 
 p. 141.), "a wandering tribe of Nomads" on the other 
 side of Greece drive their flocks from the mountains 
 of Thessaly into the plains of Attica and Boeotia to 
 pass the winter. "They give some pecuniary consi- 
 deration to the Pasha of Negropont and Vaivode of 
 Athens*. These people are much famed for their 
 woollen manufactures, particularly the coats or cloaks 
 worn by the Greek sailors." 
 
 20. We now pass over to Sicilyf. 
 
 The pastoral life of the Sicilians was marked by 
 peculiar characters as well as that of the Arcadians. 
 The bucolic poems of Theocritus represent many of 
 its circumstances in the most lively colours ; and, 
 while their dramatic spirit and vivacity are unrivalled, 
 they seem to be most exact copies of nature, the dia- 
 logues which they contain being in the style, the lan- 
 guage, and the precise dialect of the Sicilian shep- 
 herds, and indeed only differing from their real con- 
 versation by being composed in hexameters. It is to 
 be observed, that the mountains and pastures of Sicily 
 were browzed by goats and oxen as well as by sheep. 
 
 * Might not the bargain recorded in the Orchomenian marble 
 (see above, § 16. p. 40.) be something similar to the agreements now 
 made between these wandering shepherds and the governments of 
 the low countries ? As Phocis was a mountainous country, the per- 
 mission to feed his flocks upon the city-land of Orchomenos would 
 be to Eubulus a privilege of great value. 
 
 t SiiceXia TroXvjuaXos. — Pindari 01. i. 12. 
 
74 § 20. SHEEP-BREEDING IN SICILY. 
 
 These animals were, however, under distinct keepers, 
 called respectively Shepherds, Goatherds, and Herds- 
 men {Tloifxevec, AiTroXot, BovkoXoi). But the tastes, the 
 manner of hfe, and the superstitions of these three 
 classes of rustics appear to have been undistinguish- 
 able. They were probably not always independent 
 proprietors of the soil, but in many cases the servants 
 of a landed aristocracy who lived in Syracuse and 
 other splendid cities*. They appear, however, to have 
 enjoyed far greater comforts and advantages than the 
 corresponding class of hired labourers in the countries 
 to the north of thePeloponnesus and of Attica. In com- 
 posing pastoral verses and in playing on the pipe and 
 the syrinx they probably equalled the Arcadians. 
 Whilst they were watching their flocks and herds, it 
 was a frequent amusement with them for two persons 
 to contend for a stipulated prize, such as a goat, a 
 carved wooden bowl, or a syrinx, which was to be 
 awarded by an appointed judge to him who most ex- 
 celled either in instrumental music, or in singing al- 
 ternate and extemporaneous versesf. 
 
 * Corydon, who is the speaker in Virgil's Second Eclogue, seems 
 to he exhibited as an independent proprietor and of considerable 
 wealth : for he says (in imitation of Theocr., Idyll. XI. 34.),' 
 Mille meae Siculis errant in montibus agnse. 
 
 t According to the learned German traveller, Baron Riedesel, the 
 custom was not extinct in his time ; for in his Travels through 
 Sicily, page 148 of Forster's English tr<inslation, he says, "The 
 shepherds still sing with emulation to gain the crook or the purse, 
 which is the prize of the best performer." Nevertheless, the modern 
 can be only a very faint imitation of the ancient practice ; for thus 
 the same author speaks in other passages. 
 
 " Here I had an opportunity of pitying the wretched situation of 
 modern Sicily in conqjarison with what it was in former ages. Many 
 towns and different nations are destroyed ; immense riches are dis- 
 sipated; the whole island can ut present scarce show 1,200,000 in- 
 
BUCOLIC POETRY. 
 
 75 
 
 That this elegant recreation Avas of Sicilian origin 
 we have clear and abundant evidence. Bion (Idyll 
 VII. 1.) calls pastoral poetry Si/ceXof /^eXoc, "a Sicilian 
 strain"; which certainly implies, that of all places 
 where the Greek language was used Sicily was the 
 most noted for it, and that in fact it properly belonged 
 to Sicily. So Moschus {Idyll III.) speaks of the ^ike- 
 XiKai Moio-ai, " the Sicilian Muses"; and throughout 
 this Idyll, which is the lament of Moschus on the 
 death of Bion, he repeatedly speaks of the pastoral 
 poetry, such as Bion cultivated, as proper to Sicily. 
 In Virgil's Bucolics we find frequent allusions to the 
 same acknowledged fact. Thus he says, 
 
 Carmina pastoris Siculi modulabor avenfi. — Buc. X. 51. 
 " I will set my verses to the tune of a Sicilian shepherd." 
 
 Longus in a passage, to which I have before referred, 
 (§ 18. p. 67.), says, " Lamon promised to recite the 
 fable concerning Syrinx, which a Sicilian had sung to 
 him for the price of a he-goat and a syrinx." The 
 historian Diodorus, himself a Sicilian, who lived about 
 the commencement of the Christian vera, supposes 
 bucolic poetry and music to be the peculiar invention 
 and exercise of his ow^n country, and says, that it con- 
 tinued in use at his time and was held in the same es- 
 
 habitants, the number ■which Sj^racuse alone formerly had. Many 
 beautiful spots, which used to produce corn and fruits, are now de- 
 serted for want of labourers ; many s^^acious ports are without any 
 ships for want of trade ; and many people want bread, whilst the 
 nobility and the monks are in possession of all the lands." p. 112, 
 113. 
 
 ,! " To conclude, the climate, the soil, and the fruits of the country 
 are as perfect as ever. But the precious Greek liberty, population, 
 power, magnificence, and good taste, are now not to be met with as 
 in former times, and the present inhabitants can only say, Fuimus 
 Troes." p. 151. 
 
76 § 20. SHEEP-BREEDING IN SICILY. 
 
 timation as formerly*. In less than 200 years from 
 this period the art lost much of its original simplicity. 
 Mdximus Tyrius {Diss. XXI.) says, that " the Dorians 
 of Sicily became, to use the mildest term, more weak 
 in understanding, but in reality more dissolute, when 
 instead of the simple Alpine music, which they used to 
 employ in the presence of their flocks and herds, they 
 began to love the tunes of the Sybarites, and a style of 
 dancing adapted to them, such as was required by the 
 Ionic pipe." 
 
 But, although the rustic Dorians of Sicily had the 
 full credit of this invention and were never surpassed 
 in the practice of it by any other people, yet the imi- 
 tation of it was attempted in various instances by the 
 pastoral inhabitants of other countries. More espe- 
 cially, it appears to have been adopted in the neigh- 
 bouring district of Magna Grsecia ; for it is near Sybaris 
 that Theocritus has placed the scene of his Fifth Idyll, 
 in which, a shepherd having staked a lamb and a goat- 
 herd a kid, they contend in alternate verses, whilst a 
 wood-cutter, whom they have called from his labour, 
 listens as judge, and awards the prize to the goatherd, 
 who hereupon joyfully sacrifices his newly acquired 
 lamb to the Nymphs. 
 
 In the Seventh Idyll {v. 12, 27, 40.) Theocritus men- 
 tions the goatherd, Lycidas of Crete, who was his con- 
 temporary, and also his predecessors and supposed in- 
 structors, Asclepiades of Samos, and Philetas of Cos, 
 as distinguished for skill in pastoral music. 
 
 The bucolic poems of Theocritus prove, that the 
 Arcadian belief in the attributes of Pan had extended 
 itself into Sicily and the South of Italy, so that the 
 
 * To ftovKoKiKVP Tronffia Kai fiiXos, o fieyjpi tov vvv Kara ri/y 
 liiKeXiav Tvyxurei, ?!iafxivov kv unodo\^. — L. iv. c. 84, p. 283. 
 
BUCOLIC POETRY. 
 
 77 
 
 rustics of those countries not only invoked him by 
 name, but even sometimes offered sacrifices to him. 
 Thus, in Idyll V. 58, the Lucanian goatherd already 
 referred to says, that he will set aside for Pan eight 
 dishes of milk and six of honey. 
 
 But besides importing the belief in Pan from Arca- 
 dia the Sicilians recognised two demigods of native 
 origin, who contributed, if not to excite feelings allied 
 to religion, at least to amuse their imagination and to 
 contribute greatly to the variety and liveliness of their 
 poetry. These were the shepherd Polyphemus, who 
 was horridly deformed, and the herdsman Daphnis, 
 who was endowed with the most surpassing beauty. 
 
 Polyphemus was the son of Neptune. Notwith- 
 standing his forbidding aspect he is represented as 
 susceptible of some tender emotions, and it is his 
 misfortune to be deeply enamoured of the beautiful 
 Nereid or Mermaid Galatea, whom he sees sporting in 
 the green waves, while he surveys the coast from the 
 summit of a mountain and plays upon the syrinx for 
 the amusement of himself and his flock *. 
 
 The Sicilian Daphnis, like the Arcadian Pan, was 
 the son of Mercury and of a mountain nymph, and 
 excelled in playing on the syrinx ; but his form was 
 entirely human and the most beautiful that could 
 be imagined. 
 
 Formosi pecoris custos, formosior ipse. — Virg. Buc. V. 44. 
 The guardian of fair kine, himself more fair. 
 
 He tended his cattle upon the picturesque Hersean 
 mountains to the north of -/Etna, and did not mix in 
 the society of men. At the time when the beard was 
 
 * Theocritus, Idyll VI. and XI. Lucian, Dial. Doridis et Galatese. 
 Ovid, Met. L. xiii. 739—870. 
 
78 § 20. SHEEP-BREEDING IN SICILY. 
 
 beginning to grow on his upper lip, the nymph Eche- 
 nais became enamoured of him, and enjoined him on 
 pain of losing his eye-sight not to approach any other 
 female^ He consented, and for some time persisted 
 in obeying her ; but at length a Sicilian princess, 
 having intoxicated him with wine, accomplished her 
 purpose. He shared the fate of Thamyras, the Thra- 
 cian, and was thus punished for his folly*. He then 
 pined away, and died of hopeless love for the nymph, 
 whom he had offended f. According to Virgil {Buc. V. 
 56 — 71.) he was raised to the stars, and sacrifices were 
 offered to him by the shepherds. 
 
 Daphnis was the frequent subject of pastoral poetry, 
 being regarded as an ideal representation of the per- 
 fection of the shepherd's culture and manner of life. 
 Of this we have a proof in the epigram of Callima- 
 chus on the death of Astacides, which I shall cite in 
 the next chapter, and which concludes thus : " We 
 (shepherds) will no longer sing of Daphnis, but of 
 Astacides." The poet's design was to extol Asta- 
 cides, by comparing him with Daphnis. According 
 to iElian (/. c.) the first bucolic poems related to the 
 blindness of Daphnis and its cause ; and the first poet, 
 who composed verses upon this subject, was Stesi- 
 cliorus of Himera in Sicily. In Theocritus the allu- 
 sions to the beautiful story of Daphnis are very fre- 
 quent j, and his sad fate is described at length by 
 contending shepherds or goatherds in the First and 
 
 * Timseus, author of the Hist, of Sicily, as quoted by Parthenius, 
 c. 29. ^Han, Var. Hist. L. x. c 18. Diod. Sic. L. iv. c. 84. p. 283. 
 
 t Theocritus, Idyll I. 66—141. and VII. 72—77. 
 
 X Td Aa</)i'ttios aXye dpoijxuv. Idyll V. 20. See also v. 80. lu 
 Idyll VI. Daphnis is one of the performers, and gives a description 
 of Galatea. 
 
BUCOLIC POETRY. 
 
 79 
 
 Seventh Id5'lls. 1 shall quote only his dying words, 
 where he calls on Pan to leave the great Msenalus 
 and the long ridges of Lycaeus, and to come to Sicily 
 in order to receive from his own hand the syrinx, on 
 which he had been accustomed to play. 
 
 "Eyd' wi'a^, Kal ravCe (pep' evircLKTOio fiekLirvovv 
 £/c KT]pu) (jvpiyya KuXiiv, irepi ytiXos eXiKrav' 
 H yap eyo)v xnr epcorus t's addy eX/co^ut i]dr]. 
 
 Come, mighty king, come. Pan, and take my pipe. 
 Well join'd with wax and fitted to my lip ; 
 For now 'tis useless grown, Love stops my breath, 
 I cannot pipe, but must be mute in death. 
 
 Creech's Translation. 
 
 § 21. 1 have quoted passages (§ 13, p. 36, 37. § 17. 
 p. 40.) from Varro, Tertullian, and Clemens Alexan- 
 drinus, which bear testimony to the superior excel- 
 lence of the sheep of South Italy and especially of 
 Tarentum, and also to the practice of covering them 
 with skins to preserve and improve the wool. 
 
 In proceeding to the other authorities on the same 
 subject I shall first produce that of Pliny*. From 
 him we learn, that in his time the wool of Apulia was 
 in the highest repute ; that throughout the South of 
 Italy the best sheep were bred in the vicinity of Ta- 
 rentum and Canusium ; and that the wool of Taren- 
 tum was admired for its tinge of black, and that of 
 Canusium for its fine brown or yellow colourf . 
 
 * See Appendix D. 
 
 t Although Pliny distinctly says, that the wool of Tarentum, at 
 least a portion of it, was black or dark brown, modern authors have 
 assumed, that it was all white. Hence the following observations of 
 the Baron Riedesel in the English translation of his Travels, p. 177. 
 
 " The famous white sheep, which were formerly washed in the 
 river Galesus, are now quite unusual here, and in their stead you see 
 black sheep, because they are not affected by eating of a certain plant, 
 
80 §21. SHEEP-BREEDING IN SOUTH ITALY. 
 
 The directions for the management of sheep given 
 by Varro, Columella, Virgil, and other writers on rural 
 affairs, all tend to show the pains taken by the Romans 
 to improve the breed of sheep, and especially to pro- 
 duce wool of the finest quality. 
 
 The first of these authors {De Re Rustica, L. ii. 
 PrcBf .) mentions his own flocks of sheep in Apulia. 
 It appears from his account, that every man was 
 obliged to report the number of his sheep to the pub- 
 lican and to have them inscribed in a register, the 
 earliest allusion, as I apprehend, to a code of laws, 
 which may probably have been in some respects si- 
 milar to that now called La Mesta in Spain. Varro 
 further speaks expressly of the summer and winter 
 migrations of the flocks ; and to show the great di- 
 stances, to which they were conducted on these oc- 
 casions, he states, that the sheep of Apulia were 
 taken every year to pass the summer in the moun- 
 
 which is in great plenty about Taranto, and which proves lethal to 
 the white ones." 
 
 Swinburne visited the same spot a few years after Riedesel, and 
 he confirms the fact, that the sheep in the vicinity of Tarentum are 
 generally " of a black or dark brown colour." According to him the 
 plant, which is supposed to embrown the wool, is the fumolo or 
 Hypericum Crispum. This author describes Le Citrezze, commonly 
 supposed to be the valley of the Galesus, as extremely beautiful, the 
 waters occasioning a perpetual verdure in the meadows. Tlie source 
 of this small river, as he remarks, is deep, clear, and perennial, and 
 he supposes Virgil (Georg. iv. 126.) to allude to these qualities in 
 the expression ISIiger Galesus, " the black, or dark Galesus." He 
 also states, that "the people of Taranto are said to understand the 
 business of a shepherd better than any of their neighbours ;" and he 
 gives a very interesting account of the vicissitudes and decline of the 
 art of breeding sheep in Apulia. See his Travels in the Two Sicilies, 
 vol. ii. p. 43 — 54. 
 
 Mr. Keppel Craven saw several flocks of black sheep near Canu- 
 sium. Excursions in the Abruzzi, vol. ii. p. 338. 
 
ANNUAL MIGRATION OF THE FLOCKS. 81 
 
 tains of Samnium, and sometimes even in those of 
 Reate*. 
 
 Of the nature and circumstances of these annual 
 migrations we are enabled to form some judgement, 
 not only from the animated description already quoted 
 from Dr. Holland in relation to Albania, but still 
 more distinctly from the following accounts by the 
 Honourable Keppel Craven, one of which relates to 
 the first group of mountains mentioned by Varro, the 
 other to the second. 
 
 In the year 1818 Mr. Craven visited a large farm 
 a few miles to the south of Foggia, and consequently 
 not far from the site of the ancient Arpi in Apulia. 
 He mentions the following particulars. 
 
 " Above 200 persons were employed, and resided on the spot. 
 The stock of sheep consisted of 8000, divided into several flocks ; to 
 which those of cows, goats, and buffaloes, together with a set of 
 brood mares and a suitable quantity of poultry, bore an equivalent 
 proportion. All the cattle are guarded by large milk-white dogs of 
 the Abruzzo breed. These animals are very handsome and resemble 
 the Newfoundland species, but have sharper noses ; they are very 
 intelligent and equally fierce. The flocks are tended by natives of 
 Abruzzo, who also undertake the care of milking them, as well as 
 making the cheese, &c.; they are assisted by their wives and chil- 
 dren, who accompany them in their yearly migrations to and from 
 the mountains. These shepherds are clothed in the skins of the ani- 
 
 * Neque eadem loca, sestiva et hiberna, idonea omnibus ad pas- 
 cendum. Itaque greges ovium longe abiguntur ex Apulia in Sam- 
 nium sestivatum, atque ad publicanum profitentur, ne, si inscriptum 
 pecus paverint, lege censoria committant. De Re Rustica, L. II. c. 1. 
 p. 161. ed. Bip. 
 
 lUse, in saltibus quae pascuntur, et a tectis absunt longe, portant 
 secum crates, aut retia, quibus cohortes in solitudine faciant, cetera- 
 que utensilia. Longe enim et late in diversis locis pasci solent, ut 
 multa millia absint ssepe hibernae pastiones ab aestivis. Ego vero 
 scio ; nam mihi greges in Apulia hibernabant, qui in Reatinis mon- 
 tibus aestivabant. c. 2. p. 167. 
 
 G 
 
82 § 21. SHEEP-BREEDING IN SOUTH ITALY. 
 
 mals which they watch, and are reckoned a quiet, attentive, frugal, 
 and trust-worthy race." Tovr through the southern Provinces of the 
 Kingdom of Naples, by the Honourable Keppel Craven, p. 80. 
 
 The scene of the following extract is the valley of 
 the Aternus, descending from the region of the highest 
 Apennines, the " montes Reatini" of Varro, not very 
 remote from the ruins of his farm and villa*, and 
 proceeding towards the sites of the modern Aquila and 
 of the ancient Amiternum. 
 
 " One of the broad tratturos, or cattle-paths, runs in the same 
 line with the high-road to Aquila ; and I was so fortunate as to see 
 it occupied by a very extended line of flocks, which slowly passed by 
 the carriage for the space of a mile or more. The word 'fortunate' 
 adapted to such a spectacle, may excite a smile in my readers ; but I 
 own that I never beheld one of these numerous animal congregations 
 plodding across the flats of Capitanata, or the valleys of Abruzzo, as 
 far as the eye could reach, without experiencing a sensation of a novel 
 and exciting kind, nearly allied to that of enjojrment, but which I shall 
 not attempt to account for. 
 
 " One shepherd heads each division of cattle, of which he has the 
 peculiar care and direction. Armed with his crook, he walks some 
 paces in advance of his flock, followed by an old ram termed il manso ; 
 which word, meaning tame or instructed, has undoubtedly a more 
 apposite signification than that of our bellwether, though he is, as 
 well as ours, furnished with a large deep-toned bell. 
 
 " The sheep march in files of about twelve in each ; and every 
 battalion, if I may so call it, is attended by six or eight dogs, ac- 
 cording to its number ; these accompanying the herd, walking at the 
 head, middle, and reaii of each flank. The beauty and docHity of 
 these animals, which are usually white, has often been described, 
 and their demeanour is gentle as long as the objects of their solici- 
 tude are unmolested ; but at night they are so savage, that it would 
 be dangerous to approach the fold they guard. 
 
 " The goats, which bear a very small proportion to the sheep, and 
 are in general black, wind up the array, and evince their superior 
 intelligence by lying down whenever a temporary halt takes place. 
 
 * These ruins are described at p. 45 of the volume, from which 
 this passage is extracted. 
 
ANNUAL MIGRATION OF THE FLOCKS. 
 
 83 
 
 The cows and mares travel in separate bodies. A certain number of 
 these flocks, commonly those belonging to the same proprietor, are 
 under the immediate management and inspection of an agent, en- 
 titled fattore, who accompanies them on horseback, armed with a 
 musket, and better clad than the shepherds, who, both in summer and 
 winter, wear the large sheep-skin jacket, and are in other respects 
 provided with substantial though homely attire, and good strong 
 shoes. 
 
 " These Fattores are all natives of Abruzzo, an Apulian never 
 having been known to undertake the profession : the former, through 
 particular habits and the repeated experience of years, are looked 
 upon as so peculiarly fitted for the care required by cattle, and in- 
 deed animals of all kinds, that all the helpers in the stables of the 
 capital are natives of these provinces, or of the adjoining county of 
 Molise. In addition to these qualifications, they are esteemed an 
 abstemious and honest race. 
 
 '* When following the calling of shepherds, and occupied, as I saw 
 them, in the duties of their charge in travelling, their countenances 
 are almost invariably marked by the same expression, which com- 
 bines mildness and sagacity with immovable gravity, and, it is pain- 
 ful to add, a look of deep-seated sadness ; the whole caravan, animal 
 as well as human, exhibiting, at least while engaged in one of those 
 tedious peregrinations, a general appearance of suffering and depres- 
 sion, distingiiishable in every individual that composes it. The shep- 
 herd that opens the march, the independent manso jingling his brazen 
 bell, the flocks that follow, the dogs that watch over their security, 
 and even the Fattore who directs the procession, all appear to be 
 plodding through a wearisome existence of monotony and toil. The 
 extreme slowness of their progress, the downcast expression of every 
 head and eye, and, above all, the indications of exhaustion and fatigue 
 which are but too perceptible after a journey of more than a month's 
 duration, may well account for this impression. 
 
 " The animals suffer greatly from heat until they reach their sum- 
 mer dwelling, and full as much from lameness, which, when it has 
 reached a certain pitch, becomes the signal for destruction. I saw a 
 mule bearing no other load than the skins of those that had perished 
 in this manner. 
 
 " Several other beasts of burden follow the rear of the herds, laden 
 with the various articles necessary for them and their guardians 
 during their protracted march : these consist in the nets and poles 
 requisite to pen the folds at night, the coarse cloth tents for the use 
 
 G 2 
 
84 ^21. THE RAM EMPLOYED TO AID 
 
 of the shepherds, and a limited stock of utensils for milking, and 
 boiling the produce of the flock. Among these are to be noticed 
 some portable jointed seats of very ingenious though simple con- 
 struction, composed of the stems of the giant fennel, a substance 
 remarkable for its light and compact texture. 
 
 " The cattle which I thus met near Aquila were within two days' 
 journey of their resting-place, which is generally in some of the val- 
 leys placed on the lower flanks of the mountain ridges, but sufliciently 
 elevated above the larger plains to aff'ord fresh and abundant herbage 
 and a cooler temperature. 
 
 " The duration of their abode in these regions is regulated by the 
 rapid or slow progression of the summer season ; in the course of 
 which they shift their quarters, as the heat increases, till they reach 
 the highest spots, which are the last divested of the deep snows, in 
 which they have been buried during three quarters of the year. 
 Here large tracts of the finest pasture, rills of the coldest and purest 
 water, and shady woods of considerable extension, are occupied by 
 them during the remainder of the fine weather, and afford the ne 
 plus ultra of enjoyment allotted to an existence of such restricted 
 variety." Excursions in the Abruzzi by the Honourable Keppel Craven. 
 London, 1838, vol. i. p. 259—264. 
 
 The account, given in the second paragraph of this 
 extract, of the shepherd marching at the head of his 
 battahon of sheep illustrates in a striking manner the 
 remark, which I have formerly made (§ 11. j9. 32.) 
 respecting the comparison of kings to shepherds and 
 to their leading rams in Homer and in the Scriptures. 
 I shall here introduce some further observations con- 
 nected with the subject. 
 
 The Greek word Kti'Aoc, originally an adjective, 
 corresponds exactly to the Italian manso. It appears 
 to have been applicable to all trained tame animals. 
 Hence it was used specially to denote the large and 
 powerful ram, which was instructed to assist the shep- 
 herd in disposing the sheep in proper order and in 
 leading them to and from their daily pasture as well 
 as during their long migrations. In the third book 
 
THE SHEPHERD IN CONDUCTING HIS FLOCK. 85 
 
 of the Iliad (/. 19G — 198), where Priam is described 
 surveying the Greek troops from the Scsean gate, after 
 the account of Agamemnon, who was considered as 
 their shepherd, we find Ulysses, who was inferior to 
 him both in rank and in stature, represented as his 
 manso, that is, as the ram, which immediately follows 
 the shepherd and aids him in conducting his flock. 
 The same image is repeated in the thirteenth book 
 (/. 492, 493), where Pope's translation, though very 
 paraphrastic, is an admirable representation of the 
 real circumstances. 
 
 In order follow all th' embodied train, 
 
 Like Ida's flocks proceeding o'er the plain : 
 
 Before his fleecy care, erect and bold. 
 
 Stalks the proud ram, the father of the fold ; 
 
 "With joy the swain surveys them, as he leads 
 
 To the cool fountains, through the well-known meads. 
 
 Propertius presents us with a similar picture in the 
 following lines ; 
 
 Comiger Idsei vacuam pastoris in aulam 
 
 Dux aries saturas ipse reduxit oves. Lib. III. El. 13. 
 
 The fold receives the sheep on Ida fed. 
 
 By the great ram, their homed chieftain, led. 
 
 The Homeric word Kt/Xoc, however appropriate, 
 seems to have gone into disuse. Aristotle calls these 
 rams " the leaders of the sheep" (ot hyefxovec, twv -irpo- 
 (iaTwv), a phrase corresponding to the Latin Duces 
 ovium; and he states, that the shepherds provided for 
 each flock such a leader, which, when called by name 
 by the shepherd, placed himself at the head of the 
 flock, and was trained to execute this oflice from an 
 early age*. The employment of the manso was pro- 
 * Hist. Animal. VIII, 19. 
 
86 § 21. THE RAM AN EMBLEM OF AUTHORITY. BELLS. 
 
 bably the ground, on which many of the Orientals 
 adopted the ram as the emblem of military authority*. 
 According to this supposition it would rather denote 
 secondary than supreme command ; and if so, the 
 representation of the King of Persia by the symbol of 
 a ram in the 8th chapter of Daniel is the more express- 
 ive, because it indicated that he was the agent of the 
 supreme Deity. Probably also the same sentiment 
 was intended to be conveyed by the enthusiastic Sapor, 
 or Shahpoor II., King of Persia in the fourth century, 
 when he rode to battle in front of his army wearing 
 instead of a diadem a ram's head wrought in gold and 
 studded with precious stonesf. 
 
 Any one, who has seen the collection of ancient 
 bronze bells in the Museum at Naples and compared 
 them with those now worn in Italy about the necks of 
 sheep and other cattle, will be struck with their simi- 
 larity. We know also from various ancient laws and 
 other evidence!, that the shepherds fastened bells upon 
 their sheep as they do at the present day. Although 
 therefore I have not found any distinct testimony to 
 the fact, I entertain no doubt, that the Kr/Aoq or 
 manso of ancient times was distinguished like the 
 modern one by a large bell suspended from his neck 
 and serving to direct the attention of the whole flock 
 to him as their leader. 
 
 There is a striking correspondence between the 
 words of Varro, " crates, retia, caeteraque utensilia," 
 and Craven's account of the provision of nets, &c. 
 
 * E. F. K. Rosenmiiller, Bibl. Alterthumskunde, iv. 2. p. 83. 
 t Ammianus Marcell. xix. 1 . 
 
 X Sidonius Apollinaris, as quoted below, §.23. See also the Note 
 of Sweertius on the treatise of Hieron. Magius de Tintinnabulis, 
 cap, viii. 
 
ANCIENT INSCRIPTION AT SEPINO. 87 
 
 for making folds, and of the other necessary uten- 
 sils. 
 
 At Sepino, the ancient Ssepiimm, situated in the 
 highest part of the mountains of Samnium near the 
 source of the Tamarus, Mr. Craven saw over the 
 Eastern gate the remains of a very remarkable in- 
 scription referring to the same practice*. This in- 
 scription has been accurately published byMuratorif. 
 It clearly distinguishes between the "fattores" {con- 
 ductores gregum oviaricoruni) and the shepherds who 
 were under them [pastor es quos conductores hahent). 
 These were molested by the magistrates of Ssepinum 
 and the neighbouring town of Bovianum, and by the 
 " stationarii" or soldiers, who, instead of being ready 
 to protect them in case of need, charged them with 
 being fugitives and with cattle-stealing, and under 
 this pretence drove back even those sheep which be- 
 longed to the emperor (pves quoque dominicas) and 
 thus greatly injured his revenue. These grievances 
 were consequently represented to an officer at Rome 
 who kept the emperor's accounts (Cosmus, Augusti 
 Ldbertus a Rationibus) ; and he writes in the terms of 
 the inscription to Basseus Rufus and Macrinus Vin- 
 dex, officers of rank in the army, in order that the 
 evil might be remedied. This inscription must have 
 been erected about the commencement of the Christian 
 
 4 
 
 aera. As Mr. Craven remarks, "It not only corro- 
 borates what was already known, that the periodical 
 migration of the herds from Apulia is of most ancient 
 origin, but it proves, that they observed the same 
 line of route which they follow to the present day ; 
 the road, that runs from the east to the western 
 
 * See Excursions in the Abruzzi, vol. ii. p. 135, 136. 
 t Novus Thesaurus Vet. Inscriptionum, p. dcvi. 
 
88 § 21. USE OF MUSIC BY ANCIENT SHEPHERDS. 
 
 gate of this inclosure, falling into the line of the trat- 
 turos, or sheep-paths, exclusively allotted to the use 
 of the flocks in their annual journeys." 
 
 Wliilst we discover these numerous points of re- 
 semblance between the ancient and the modern prac- 
 tice, I apprehend that in another respect there was a 
 greater diversity. I cannot help thinking, that, if the 
 author whose observations I have cited had witnessed 
 a similar procession in very ancient times, he would 
 have seen less reason to deplore its toilsome and me- 
 lancholy aspect. Music was then probably of no little 
 service in animating both the shepherds and their 
 flocks. The sonorous bagpipe may have contributed 
 to this eflfect^. At least Mr. Craven's account of a 
 modern pastoral march is strikingly contrasted with 
 the following description by Apollonius Rhodius, in 
 which he compares the ship Argo and the music 
 of Orpheus, followed by multitudes of fishes, to a 
 shepherd playing on the syrinx and followed by his 
 sheep. 
 
 'iis c' uTTOT aypavXolo kut' 'i\via (rrjfiai'rtjpos 
 fivpia firjX eipiirovTai ucriv KeKoprjjjLeya Troitjs 
 els avXiv, 6 ^e r e\ai Trdpos avpiyyi Xiyeiy 
 KaXu iJLeXii^ofievos vv^ior /xeXos' ws apa roi ye 
 wfidpTtvf' Tijv alef enatravTepos fipev ovpos. 
 
 Argon. L. I. 575 — 579. 
 
 • As sheep in flocks thick-pasturing on the plain 
 
 Attend the footsteps of the shepherd-swain, 
 His well-known call they hear, and fully fed, 
 Pace slowly on, their leader at their head ; 
 Who pipes melodious, as he moves along, 
 On sprightly reeds his modulated song : 
 
 * According to Montfaucon (Ant. ExpUquee, Suppl. Tom. iii. 
 p. 188.) the drTKuvXos, or Tibia Utricularis, was seen under the arm 
 of a shepherd in the collection of Cardinal Albani at Rome. 
 
TESTIMONY OF COLUMELLA. 
 
 89 
 
 Thus charm'd with tuneful sounds the scaly train 
 Pursued the flying vessel o'er the main. 
 
 Fawkes's Translation. 
 
 Having thus endeavoured to illustrate the testimony 
 afforded by Varro relative to the management of the 
 South-Italian sheep, I proceed to the other writers on 
 Rural Affairs, viz. Columella and Palladius.^ I quote 
 the passages in a note the more fully, as there will be 
 occasion to refer to them hereafter*. 
 
 * Generis eximii Milesias, Calabras, Apulasque nostri existima- 
 bant, earumque optimas Tarentinas. Nunc Gallicse pretiosiores ha- 
 bentur, earumque praecipue Altinates ; item quse circa Parmam et 
 Mutinam'macris stabulantur campls. Color albus cum sit optimus, 
 turn etiam est utilissimus, quod ex eo plurimi fiunt, neque hie ex alio. 
 Sunt etiam suapte natura pretio commendabiles pullus atque fuscus, 
 quos prsebent in Italia PoUentia, in Bsetica Corduba. Nec minus 
 Asia rutilos, quos vocant epvdpovs. Sed et alias varietates in hoc 
 pecoris genere docult usus exprimere. Nam cum in municipium Ga- 
 ditanum ex vicino Africse miri coloris silvestres ac feri arietes, sicut 
 alise bestia?, munerariis deportarentur, M. Columella patruus meus, 
 acris vir ingenii, atque illustris agricola, quosdam mercatus in agros 
 transtulit, et mansuefactos tectis ovibus admisit. Ese primum hirtos, 
 sed paterni coloris, agnos ediderunt, qui deinde et ipsi Tarentinis 
 ovibus impositi, tenuioris velleris arietes progeneraverunt. Ex his 
 rursus quidquid conceptum est, maternam mollitiem, paternum et 
 avitum retulit colorem. Hoc modo Columella dicebat, qualemcun- 
 que speciem, qu£E fuerit in bestiis, per nepotum gradus mitigata feri- 
 tate, rediisse. Ad propositura revertar. Ergo duo genera sunt ovilli 
 pecoris, molle et hirsutum. Columella, L. VII. 2. 
 
 In the next chapter Columella advises that the pastures should be 
 without thorns and briars, because they would tear off the wool from 
 the sheep, and even the skins from those which were covered. 
 
 Molle vero pecus etiam velamen, quo protegitur, amittit, atque id 
 non parvo sumtu reparatur. 
 
 Again in Chapter 4 ; 
 
 Grsecum pecus, quod plerique Tarentinum vocant, nisi cum domini 
 praesentia est, vix expedit haberi, siquidem et curam et cibum ma- 
 jorem desiderat. Nam cum sit universum genus lanigerum ceteris 
 pecudibus mollius, turn ex omnibus Tarentinum est moUissimum, 
 
90 
 
 §21. TESTIMONY OF COLUMELLA. 
 
 Columella attests the high estimation in which the 
 sheep of Calabria and Apulia were held by the Ro- 
 mans, especially before his own time, and he says that 
 among them the Tarentine sheep were the best of all. 
 In speaking of the practice so prevalent in this district 
 of covering them with skins, he shows, that these 
 " oves pellitse " were also called " soft " {molles), and 
 "covered" (tecta;). Indeed he makes the great dis- 
 tinction of sheep to be into the " genus molle," i. e. the 
 soft kind, and the " genus hirsutum," or '* hirtum," 
 i. e. the coarse kind*. We further learn that the 
 soft sheep were called by the Romans Greek sheep, 
 because they were bred in Graecia Magna, and Ta- 
 rentine, because the best of all were bred at Tarentum. 
 According to Palladius they were also sometimes called 
 Asiatic {AsiancB). It is to be observed that by Asia, 
 
 quod nullam domini aut magistrorum inertiam sustinet, multoque 
 minus avaritiam ; nec ajstus, nec frigoris jiatiens. Raro foris, ple- 
 rumque domi alitur, et est avidissimum cibi ; cui si detrahitur fraude 
 villici, clades sequitur gregem. 
 
 Plures autem in ejusmodi gregibus, quam in liirtis, masculos enu- 
 trire oportet. Nam priusquam feminas inire possint mares castrati, 
 cum bimatum expleverint, enecantur, et pelles eorum propter pul- 
 chritudinem lanse raajore pretio, quam alia vellera, mercantibus tra- 
 duntur. Liberis autem campis, et omni surculo ruboque vacantibus 
 ovem Grsecam pascere meminerimus, ne, ut supra dixi, et lana car- 
 patur, et tegumen. 
 
 Lastly Columella says, L. XI. 2. 
 
 Oves Tarentinse radice lanaria lavari debent, ut tonsurse praepa- 
 rentur. 
 
 The Radix Lanaria, which was used to cleanse and improve tlie 
 wool, was probably the root of Saponaria, or Soap-wort. 
 
 The observations of Palladius (xii. 13.), so far as they go, are to 
 the same effect with those of Columella. 
 
 * Varro, in the passage above-quoted respecting Epirus (§. 19. 
 p. 7L) adopts the same distinction into the "oves pellitse " and 
 " oves hirtse." 
 
DISTINCTION OF THE COARSE AND SOFT KINDS. 91 
 
 Palladius and his contemporaries would understand 
 the celebrated sheep- country, of which Miletus was 
 the centre*" ; and considering the frequent, long-esta- 
 blished, and very friendly intercourse between Miletus 
 and Tarentumf, we may, I think, infer that the Mi- 
 lesians imported into Tarentum their fine breed of 
 sheep, and at the same time introduced the art of 
 dyeing and preparing the wool. The same sheep, 
 which were called Greek by the Romans, were called 
 Italian by the Egyptians and others, to whom the 
 word Greek would not have been distinctive!. Colu- 
 mella (vii. 4.) insists particularly on the great pains 
 and care, which it was necessary to bestow upon this 
 description of sheep, the "covered" or " soft," in re- 
 gard to food, warmth, and cleanliness, and he says 
 that they were principally brought up in the house §, 
 As there was in general a great affinity between the 
 manners and ideas of Sicily and South Italy, we might 
 
 * Cellarii Ant. Orbis Notitia, iii. 1. 7, 8, 9. 
 t Herod, vi. 21. and Wesseling ad locum. 
 
 I Clemens Alex., as quoted above, §. 13. p. 36. Pliny in Ap- 
 pendix D. 
 
 § I have not found evidence, unless a presumption may be derived 
 from the preceding observations respecting Miletus, that artificial 
 clothing was put upon sheep eastvi^ard of Attica. Nevertheless, ac- 
 cording to Bochart (Hieroz. cap. 45. p. 486 ed. Leusden), the Tal- 
 mud and another rabbinical book refer to the practice, stating that 
 lambs soon after their birth were thus invested with garments fas- 
 tened upon them with thongs or buckles. 
 
 In the sheep-breeding countries of Europe the practice seems to 
 have been very general. Besides South Italy, Attica, Megaris, and 
 Epirus, in regard to which countries positive evidence has been pro- 
 duced, we find that soft sheep, or "oves pellitse" (rrpuflara fiaXaKu), 
 were kept by an inhabitant of Cyncthas in Arcadia (Polybius, L. ix. 
 c. 17.), by the Roman settlers in the North of Gaul (see Strabo as 
 quoted below, §. 23.), and in Spain (Columella, quoted p. 89.). 
 
92 
 
 ^21. NAMES GIVEN TO SHEEP. 
 
 infer that the pastoral habits of these two districts 
 were in many respects similar. Theocritus accord- 
 ingly lays the scene of some of his Idylls on the coast 
 opposite to Sicily. The fifth Idyll describes a contest 
 between a shepherd and a goatherd, who are supposed 
 to have been employed as hired servants in the vi- 
 cinity of Sybaris. The shepherd, observing some of 
 his sheep to be feeding on an oak, which could not 
 be very good for them, utters the following exclama- 
 tion, showing that it was customary to give proper 
 names to sheep, and thus confirming the fact, that in 
 ancient times they were regarded as the objects of 
 affection, and not of profitable speculation merely : 
 
 OvK OTTO rds Spvos OVTOS 6 Kwvapos, a re Kvvaida' 
 Tovrei ^Officrftjeitrde ttot avroXas, ws 6 ^aXapos. 
 
 Ho ! Sharphom, Browning, leave those hurtful weeds. 
 And come and graze this way, where Colly feeds. 
 
 Creech's Translation. 
 
 The passage has often been cited in illustration of 
 the following verses from the Gospel of St. John. Our 
 Saviour, describing himself as a shepherd, here alludes 
 to various indications of care and attachment, which 
 distinguish the owner of a flock from the hireUng, who, 
 being engaged to tend the sheep only for a season, 
 could not be so well known by them, nor so much in- 
 terested in their security and welfare. 
 
 " He calleth his own sheep by name, and leadeth them out. And 
 when he putteth forth (from the fold) his own sheep, he goeth be- 
 fore them, and the sheep follow him: for they know his voice. And 
 a stranger will they not follow, but will flee from him : for they know 
 not the voice of strangers." John, x. 3 — 5. 
 
 In reference to this passage of Scripture the follow- 
 ing remarks of a late traveller are instructive : 
 
SUPPOSED EFFECT OF THE WATER OF RIVERS. 93 
 
 "I asked my man if it was usual in Greece to give names to sheep. 
 He informed me that it was, and that the sheep obeyed the shep- 
 herd when he called them by their names. This morning {March 5, 
 1828) I had an opportunity of verifying the truth of this remark. 
 Passing by a flock of sheep, I asked the shepherd the same question 
 which I put to my servant, and he gave me the same answer. I 
 then bade him to call one of his sheep. He did so, and it instantly 
 left its pasturage and its companions, and ran up to the hand of the 
 shepherd, with signs of pleasure and with a prompt obedience which 
 I had never before observed in any other animal. It is also true of 
 the sheep in this country, that a stranger will they not follow, hut 
 will flee from him; for they know not the voice of the strangers. The 
 shepherd told me that many of his sheep are still wild ; that they 
 had not yet learned their names ; but that by teaching they would 
 all learn them. The others, which knew their names, he called 
 TAME." — Researches in Greece and the Levant, by the Rev. John Hart- 
 ley, p. 321. 
 
 The city of Sybaris stood between two rivers, the 
 Sybaris and the Crathis. The ancients asserted that 
 the sheep which drank of the Crathis, were white, and 
 those which drank of the Sybaris, black. They at- 
 tributed similar virtues to other streams in various 
 parts of the world*. 
 
 According to Strabo (L. vi, cap. 3. § 9. p. 303. ed. 
 Siebenkees) the hilly promontory of Garganus was par- 
 ticularly celebrated for its sheep. He says, that their 
 wool was softer than the Tarentine, but less shining 
 
 (fiaXaKUiTepa ^ev t^c TapavTifrjc earl, Xa/unrpa //ttov). 
 
 The Roman poets allude in various instances to the 
 excellence of the Apulian wool,, and especially to that 
 of Tarentum. Horace in the following stanza ex- 
 presses his predilection for this celebrated city, and 
 mentions its " soft " or " covered " sheep. He had 
 been asserting his wish to end his days at Tibur, the 
 modern Tivoli. 
 
 * See above, §. 16. p. 40, notel. jElian, Nat. Anim. xii. 36. 
 Plinii Hist. Nat. xxxi. 9. Kruse's Hellas, i. p. 369. Juvenal, 
 quoted below, §.25. 
 
94 §21. SHEEP-BREEDING IN SOUTH ITALY. 
 
 i» Unde, si Parcse prohibent iniquae, 
 
 Dulce pellitis ovibus Galesi 
 Flumen et regnata petara Laconi 
 
 Rura Phalanto. Od. I. ii. 6. 
 
 But, should the partial Fates refuse 
 That purer air to let me breathe, 
 Galesus, thy sweet stream I'll choose. 
 Where flocks of richest fleeces bathe : 
 Phalantus there his rural sceptre sway'd. 
 Uncertain offspring of a Spartan maid. 
 
 Francis's Translation. 
 
 Idas, the shepherd, in the second Eclogue of Cal- 
 purnius (1. 68, 69.), thus describes his flock ; 
 
 Mille sub uberibus balantes pascimus agnas : 
 Totque Tarentinas prsestant mihi vellera matres. 
 
 This shepherd had then 1000 Tarentine ewes, which 
 were shorn for their fleeces, and the same number of 
 young lambs, which were their offspring. 
 
 Martial alludes to the celebrity of the Tarentine 
 wool in no less than five of his epigrams. 
 
 Te Lacedsemonio velat toga lota Galeso, 
 Vel quam seposito de grege Parma dedit. 
 
 L. ii. ep. 43. /. 3, 4. 
 
 Spartan Galesus did your toga lave, 
 Or from a flock select fair Parma gave. 
 
 The poet intended here to describe a toga of the 
 most expensive and fashionable kind. 
 
 Donasti tenero, Chloe, Luperco 
 Hispanas, Tyriasque, coccinasque, 
 Et lotam tepido togam Galeso. 
 
 L. iv. ep. 28. I. 1—3. 
 
 You give, O Chloe, to Lupercus, 
 Your tender favourite, lacemas 
 Of Spanish, Tyrian, scarlet fleeces. 
 And togas wash'd in warm Galesus. 
 
SHEEP OF TARENTUM. 
 
 95 
 
 Puella, senibus dulcior mihi cygnis, 
 
 Agna Galesi mollior Phalantini. L. v. ep. 37. /. 1, 2. 
 
 Thou wast more sweet, O lovely child ! 
 
 Than song of aged dying swans : 
 Thy voice, thy mien were soft and mild 
 
 As Phalantine Galesus' lambs. 
 
 The last lines were written by Martial on the death 
 of Erotion in her sixth year. He describes her in- 
 teresting qualities by comparing her to a lamb of the 
 soft Tarentine breed, always clothed and usually kept 
 in the house and hence remarkably tender and delicate. 
 
 The following epigram (L. viii. ep. 28.) was written 
 on the receipt of a handsome toga from the wealthy 
 and munificent Parthenius, chamberlain to the empe- 
 ror Domitian. In expressing his admiration of it the 
 poet enumerates the places from which the Romans 
 of his time obtained the best and most fashionable 
 garments of this description. He next proceeds to 
 extol its whiteness ; and in conclusion he observes 
 how ridiculous he would appear wearing his old la- 
 cerna over this new and snowy garment, and he thus 
 conveys a hint to Parthenius how acceptable and suit- 
 able would be the present of a lacerna in addition to 
 the toga. 
 
 De Partheniana toga. 
 Die, toga, facundi gratum mihi munus amici. 
 
 Esse velis cujus fama, decusque gregis .'' 
 Appula Ledsei tibi floruit herba Phalanthi, 
 
 Qua saturat Calabris culta Galesus aquis ? 
 An Tartessiacus stabuli nutritor Iberi 
 
 Baetis in Hesperia te quoque lavit aqua ? 
 An tua multifidum numeravit lana Timavum, 
 
 Quem prius astrifero Cyllarus ore bibit ? 
 Te nec Amyclaeo decuit livere veneno ; 
 
 Nec Miletus erat vellere digna tuo. 
 Lilia tu vincis, nec adhuc dilapsa ligustra, 
 
 Et Tiburtino monte quod albet ebur. 
 
96 §21. SHEEP-BREEDING IN SOUTH ITALY. 
 
 Spartanus tibi cedet olor, Paphiaeque columbae : 
 
 Cedet Erythraeis eruta gemma vadis. 
 Sed licet hsec primis nlvibus sint semula dona, 
 
 Non sunt Parthenio candidiora suo. 
 Non ego prsetulerim Babylonica picta superb^ 
 
 Texta, Semiramia quae variantur acu. 
 Non Athamantseo potius me mirer in auro, 
 
 Solium dones si mihi, Phryxe, decus. 
 O quantos risus pariter spectata movebit 
 
 Trita Palatina nostra lacerna toga ! 
 
 Say, grateful gift of mine ingenious friend, 
 
 What happy flock shall to thy fleece pretend ? 
 
 For thee did herb of famed Phalantus blow, 
 
 Where clear Galesus bids his waters flow ? 
 
 Did thy wool count the streamlets, more than seven. 
 
 Of him, who slaked the warrior horse of heaven ? 
 
 Or did Tartessian Guadalquiver lave 
 
 Thy matchless woof in his Hesperian wave ? 
 
 Thou didst not need to taste Amyclse's bane. 
 
 And wouldst have tried Milesian art in vain. 
 
 With thee the lily and the privet pale 
 
 Compared, and Tibur's whitest ivory fail. 
 
 The Spartan swan, the Paphian doves deplore 
 
 Their hue, and pearls on Erythrean shore. 
 
 But, though the boon leave new-fall'n snows behind. 
 
 It is not purer than the donor's mind. 
 
 I would prefer no Babylonian vest. 
 
 Superbly broider'd at a queen's behest ; 
 
 Nor better pleased should I my limbs behold, 
 
 Phryxus, in webs of thine ^olian gold. 
 
 But O ! what laughter will the contrast crown. 
 
 My worn lacerna on th' imperial gown* ! 
 
 It may be observed, that in this ingenious epigram, 
 as well as in two of the preceding, which relate to 
 togas, Martial supposes the Tarentine wool to be 
 white : for the Roman toga was of that colour except 
 
 * In this translation I have been assisted by that of Mr. James 
 Elphinston, London, 1782. 
 
TARENTUM. APULIA. BROWN AND RED WOOL. 97 
 
 in mourning, and one object of the last-cited epigram 
 is to praise the whiteness of the particular toga, which 
 it describes. The Tarentines therefore must have 
 produced both dark-coloured and white fleeces*. 
 
 The fifth passage of Martial (xii. 64.), which men- 
 tions the sheep of the Galesus, more directly refers to 
 those of Spain, and will therefore be quoted under 
 that head. 
 
 Besides the epigrams, now cited, in which Martial 
 commends the wool of Tarentum in particular, we 
 find others, in which he celebrates that of Apulia in 
 general. In Book xiv. Ep. 155. he gives an account 
 of the principal countries, which yielded white wools, 
 and informs us that those of the first quality were 
 from Apulia. 
 
 Lanae Alhae. 
 Velleribus primis Apulia, Parma secundis 
 Nobilis : Altiniim tertia laudat ovis. 
 White Wools. 
 The first Apulia's ; next is Parma's boast ; 
 And the third fleece Altinum has engrost. 
 
 Elphinston s Translation . 
 
 Also in the following lines Martial alludes to the 
 large and numerous flocks of Apulia, and to the 
 whiteness of their wool. 
 
 Atque unam vestire tribum tua Candida possunt, 
 Apula non uno quae grege terra tulit. 
 
 L. ii. £p.46. 1.6, C. 
 Of white thou hast to clothe a tribe sufficient stock, 
 The produce fair of more than one Apulian flock. 
 
 On the other hand the wool from the vicinity of 
 Canusium was no less esteemed for its dark colours, 
 whether inclining to brown or to red. These saved 
 
 * See the reference to Phny and the Note at p. 79. 
 H 
 
98 § 22. SHEEP-BREEDING IN NORTH ITALY. 
 
 the expense of dyeing. The testimony of Pliny to 
 their value has been already produced. In the two 
 following Epigrams xiv. 127 and 129.) Martial 
 alludes to the peculiar recommendations and uses, 
 first of the brown, and secondly of the reddish va- 
 riety. 
 
 Canusinse Fuscae. 
 Haec tibi turbato Canusina simillima mulso* 
 
 Munus erit. Gaude : non cito fiet anus. 
 This Canusiue lacerna, it is true, 
 Looks muddy : but it will not change its hue. 
 
 Canusinse Rufae. 
 Roma magis fuscis vestltur, Gallia rufis ; 
 
 Et placet hie pueris militibusque color. 
 Rome in the brown delights, gay Gaul in red : 
 This pleases boys, and whose is blood to shed. 
 
 22. On referring to the passages produced in the 
 last section from Pliny, Columella, and Martial, it 
 will be seen that the Romans ascribed a very high 
 value to the white wool of Gallia Cisalpina, i. e. of 
 North Italy, or the region about the Po. Parma was 
 considered second only to Apulia for the whiteness of 
 its wool. Besides the two epigrams of Martial already 
 cited, he refers to Parma as a great place for sheep- 
 breeding in the following passage, addressed to the 
 wealthy Callistratus ; 
 
 Tondet et innumeros Gallica Parma greges. 
 
 L. V. ep. 13. 
 And Gallic Parma shears thy num'rous flocks. 
 
 * Mulsum was wine mixed with honey. It appears from this 
 epigram that, when shaken, it had the colour of the brown wool of 
 Canusium, a kind of drab. The lacerna was a mantle, which the 
 Romans wore out of doors over their white toga, with which it was 
 well contrasted, whether it was purple, scarlet, or brown; but the 
 last colour, though less showy at first, must have had the advantage 
 of durability. 
 
WOOL OF PARMA, MODENA, MANTUA, PADUA. 99 
 
 Columella speaks moreover (/. c.) of the superiority 
 of the wool of Mutina, now Modena ; and Martial 
 (Z. V. ep. 105.) mentions the circumstance of a fuller, 
 or clothier, in that city having exhibited a show to 
 the public, which is a presumptive evidence that he 
 had a great business in manufacturing the produce of 
 the surrounding country. 
 
 Strabo in his account of the productions of Cis- 
 alpine Gaul divides the wool into three kinds ; First, 
 the soft kind, of which the finest varieties were grown 
 about Mutina and the river Scutana, which is the 
 modern Scultenna, a tributary of the Po, rising in the 
 Apennines ; Secondly, the coarse kind, grown in Li- 
 guria and the country of the Insubres, which was very 
 much used for the common wearing apparel of the 
 Italians ; and Thirdly, the middle kind, grown about 
 Patavium (now Padua) and employed for making va- 
 luable carpets and various descriptions of blankets*. 
 By comparing the statements of this author with 
 those of Columella and Martial it will appear, that 
 the whole region watered by the parallel rivers Parma, 
 Gabellus, and Scultenna, and known by the name of 
 Macri Campi, or the Barren Plains, was esteemed 
 for the production of the fine white wool. 
 
 That the tending of both sheep and goats was a 
 principal occupation of the people of Mantua we learn 
 from Virgil, a native of that city, who places the 
 scene of most of his pastorals in its vicinity. His 
 
 * 'Epeai/ Triv (xev fiaXaKriv, ol nepi M.ovrirr]y tottoi kui tov 
 ^Kovrayay Trorafiou (pepovm nairwy ttoXv KaXXiffTTjy. rrfv he rpaj^eiay 
 tf AiyvaTiKrj Kal j; TtSy Su/u/3p(t»i', ?)s to irXeoy rfjs oiKias rwy 'IraXi- 
 WTWv afjLTr€\€Tai. rf/v he fiearjy o'l Trepl YIuTaovioy, o'l Tfnrrjres ol 
 
 iroXvTeXeis , Kal yavaanoi, cat to toiovtov elhos irdv, a/n^t'/iiaXXoj' re 
 Kal eTepofiaXKoi'. — L. v. c. 1. § 12. p. 119. ed. Siebenkees. 
 
 H 2 
 
100 § 22. SHEEP-BREEDING IN NORTH ITALY. 
 
 First and Ninth Eclogues more particularly relate to 
 the calamities, which the Mantuans were compelled 
 to sustain, when Augustus seized on their lands to 
 reward his veteran soldiers after the battle of Philippi. 
 These eclogues mention flocks both of sheep and 
 goats, and show that those who had the care of them 
 cultivated music and poetry after the manner of the 
 Sicilians. The commencement of the Seventh Eclogue 
 is especially instructive, because it gives us reason to 
 believe, that wliile many of the Arcadians left their 
 country in consequence of that excess of population, 
 to which mountainous regions are subject, in order to 
 become foreign mercenaries, others on the contrary 
 entered into foreign service as shepherds and goat- 
 herds, and in this condition not only made themselves 
 useful by their experience, their skill, and their fide- 
 lity, but also introduced at the same time their native 
 music together with that refinement of manners and 
 feelings which it promoted. The poet thus describes 
 two such individuals, who had been employed in 
 tending flocks upon the banks of the Mincius 12, 
 13), and who were either born in Arcadia, or were at 
 least of Arcadian origin. 
 
 Compulerantque greges Corydon et Thyrsis in unum, 
 Thyrsi.* oves, Corydon distentas lacte capellas ; 
 Ambo florentes setatibus, Arcades ambo, 
 Et cantare pares, et respondere parati. 
 
 Two blooming swains had join'd their flocks in one, 
 Thyrsis his sheep, and tuneful Corydon 
 His goats, which bore their treasur'd milk along; 
 Arcadians both, both skill'd in amoebean song.^ 
 
 At a considerable distance to the North-East of 
 Mantua lay Altinum, which is mentioned by Colu- 
 
SHEEP OF ALTINUM. 101 
 
 mella*, TertuUianf, and Martial, as one of the prin- 
 cipal places for the produce of white wool. Martial 
 says, that it ranked in this respect next to Parma|, 
 and we must understand him as referring to the same 
 region in Book viii. Epig. 28, recently quoted by 
 me entire, where he asks, " Did thy wool count the 
 many streams of the Timavus, which Cyllarus previ- 
 ously drank with his starry mouth ?" The Timavus 
 was indeed a considerable way still further towards 
 the North-East, and must have been very insignificant 
 in connection with the sheep-breeding of the Alti- 
 nates. The poet introduces it here only on account 
 of its picturesque and mythological interest, just as 
 Ave have seen that the Galesus, a small, though clear 
 and very beautiful stream, is repeatedly named in 
 order to designate the pastoral region about Taren- 
 tum. It may also be observed, that in this Epigram, 
 where Martial alludes to three of the principal places 
 for the growth of white wool, he indicates each of 
 them by its river, the three rivers being the Galesus, 
 the Bsetis, and the Timavus ; and he probably did so 
 on account of the supposed effect of the waters of 
 these rivers in improving the w^ool. 
 
 We can make no question, after what we have seen 
 of the universal practice of both ancient and modern 
 times, that the sheep, which in the winter were pas- 
 tured in the plains and lower grounds about Altinum, 
 were taken to pass the summer in the vallies of the 
 Carinthian Alps about the sources of the Brenta, the 
 Piave, and the Tagliamento. We may also trace the 
 wool, after it was manufactured, in its progress towards 
 Rome, where was the chief demand for garments of 
 
 * L. vii. cap. 2, quoted p. 89, Note. f Sec above, § I'.j. p. ."37. 
 i L. xiv. Ep. 155, quoted p. 97. 
 
102 ^22. SHEEP-BREEDING IN NORTH ITALY. 
 
 this description. For Strabo says, that Patavium 
 (Padua), which was situated at no great distance 
 from Altinum on the way to Rome, was a great and 
 flourishing mart for all kinds of merchandize intended 
 to be sent thither, and especially for every kind of 
 cloth*. It appears, therefore, that the wool-growers 
 and clothiers of the country to the Nortli-East of 
 Padua, the modern Trevisano, employed that city as 
 an entrepot where they disposed of their goods to the 
 Roman dealers. At the same time we learn, that 
 this place served as a market for carpets and blankets 
 made of a stronger and more substantial material, 
 which, according to the same authority!, was pro- 
 duced in its more immediate vicinity. 
 
 In the North-Western portion of Cisalpine Gaul 
 the wool was generally coarse, and according to Strabo 
 (/. c.) the garments made of it were used by the Ita- 
 lians for the ordinary clothing of their domestic esta- 
 blishments. Nevertheless black wool of superior va- 
 lue was grown at Polentia, now Polenza, on the Stura, 
 which is a tributary of the PoJ. The following two 
 Epigrams of Martial (/. xiv. 157 and 158.) allude to 
 the use of the dark wool of Polentia for mourning 
 and for the dress of inferior domestic servants. 
 
 Lanae Polentinse. 
 
 1 . Non tantum pullo lugentes vellere lanas, 
 
 Sed solet et calices hsec dare terra suos. 
 
 2. Lana quidem tristis, sed tonsis apta ministris, 
 
 Quales non primo de grege mensa vocat. 
 
 * L. V, cap. 1 . § 6, 7. Strabo alludes to the pastoral occupations of 
 the territory about Altinum and the Timavus, calling it ^rfKuiioTov. 
 t Strabo, as quoted above, p. 99. 
 
 X Pliny, L. viii., quoted in Appendix D. Columella, vii. 2, quoted 
 above, p. 89. To these testimonies may be added Silius Italicus de 
 Bello Punico, 1. viii. 597. Fuscique ferax Polentia villi. 
 
^ 23. ORIGIN OF SHEEP-BREEDING IN ITALY. 103 
 
 Polentine Wools. 
 
 1 . Not wools alone, that wear the face of woe ; 
 Her goblets once did proud Polentia show. 
 
 2. Our sable hue to croplings may belong. 
 That tend the table, not of primal throng. 
 
 Elphinston's Translation. 
 
 I have already observed that the adjective Fuscus, 
 applied to woollen cloth, may be translated drab. On 
 the other hand Pullus was gray. It answered to the 
 modern Italian term Bigeo, or its diminutive Bigello. 
 The country people about Modena and in other parts 
 of the Northern Apennines still wear undyed woollen 
 cloth of this colour. Muratori quotes from the sta- 
 tutes of the city of Modena, A.D. 1327, a law to 
 prevent the makers of such cloth from mixing with 
 their gray wool the hair of oxen, asses, or other ani- 
 mals*. 
 
 23. Before quitting Italy we may properly inquire, 
 whence and how came the practice of sheep-breeding 
 into this country ? We have already had occasion to 
 observe {^2] . p. 9\.), that the very improved state of 
 the art at Tarentum may be in part ascribed to the 
 intercourse of its inhabitants with the Milesians. We 
 have also noticed the fact 18. p. 54.), that the wor- 
 ship of Pan was introduced into Italy from Arcadia 
 by Evander, from which circumstance we might rea- 
 sonably infer, that improvements in the management 
 of sheep were also introduced at the same time. Ac- 
 cording to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Evander with 
 his companions was said by the Romans to have mi- 
 grated to Latium about sixty years before the Trojan 
 
 * Dissertazioni sopra le Antichita Italiane, Diss. 30. tomo ii. 48, 
 49, 4to edition. This author in his 21st Dissertation endeavours to 
 assign reasons for the decline of the modern Italians in the growth 
 and manufacture of wool. 
 
104 ^23. ORIGIN OF SHEEP-BREEDING IN ITALY. 
 
 war*. The same historian alleges, that this colony 
 taught in Italy the use of letters, of instrumental music 
 and other arts, established laws, and brought some 
 degree of refinement instead of the former savage 
 mode of life. The story of the birth of Romulus and 
 Remus supposes sheep-breeding to have been prac- 
 tised at the period of that event, and in a state of 
 society similar to that which we have found prevail- 
 ing further eastward ; for it is stated, that Faustulus, 
 who discovered them, kept the king's flocks. He was 
 " magister regii pecorisf." 
 
 According to Pausanias (/. viii. c. 3. ^ 2.) the first 
 Greek colony, which went into Italy, was from Ar- 
 cadia, being conducted thither by ^notrus, an Arca- 
 dian prince I . This was several centuries before the 
 expedition under Evander, and the part of Italy thus 
 colonized was the southern extremity, afterwards oc- 
 cupied by the Bruttii§. If with Niebuhr (p. 27.) we 
 regard this tradition only in the light of a genealogi- 
 cal table, designed to indicate the affinities of tribes 
 
 K£i]KOfTr)j) fjiciXiaru erei Trpdrepor ruiv 'Ypo)ii^uif , ws uvroi Pw/xaiot 
 Xeyov(7ty. Hist. Rom. 1. i. p. 20, 21. ed. R. Stephani, Par. 1546. 
 folio. 
 
 As it has been a frequent error with nations to push back their 
 annals into a higher antiquity than was consistent with fact, this 
 may have been the case in the ])resent instance. For it is to be ob- 
 served, that according- to Herodotus (see above, § 18, j). 43.) the wor- 
 ship of Pan did not arise in Arcadia until after the time when accord- 
 ing to this latter statement it was introduced from Arcadia into La- 
 tium. 
 
 t Livii 1. i. c. 4. 
 
 I As further evidence for this tradition see Pherccydis Fragmenta, 
 a Sturtz, p. 190. Virg. JEn. i. 532. and iii. 165. Compare Heyne, 
 Excursus vi. ad /En. 1. iii. 
 
 § Heyne, Excursus xxi. ad Ain. 1. i. Niebuhr, Rom. Geschichtc, i, 
 p. 57. 
 
FAUNUS THE SAME WITH PAN. 
 
 105 
 
 and nations, still the simple fact of the colonization 
 of South Italy by Arcadians certainly authorizes the 
 conjecture, that Arcadia was one of the stepping- 
 stones, by which the art of sheep-breeding was trans- 
 ported from Asia into Europe. 
 
 I have already made some observations on the wor- 
 ship of Faunus in Italy (§ 18. p. 52 — 54.), having 
 endeavoured to show, that the Roman Faunus was 
 the same with the Arcadian Pan. It seems no suf- 
 ficient objection to this hypothesis, that a few Roman 
 authors have supposed Faunus to be either the sou 
 of Mars*, or the son of Picus and the grandson of 
 Saturn, thus connecting him with their native my- 
 thology, or that his oracle was held by them in high 
 reputef. It is here sufhcient to remark, that we find 
 him extensively recognized in Italy as a pastoral di- 
 vinity. 
 
 Dicunt in tenero gi-amine pinguium 
 Custodes ovium carmiua fistula, 
 Delectantque Deum, cui pecus et nigri 
 
 Colles Arcadiae placent. Horat. Caria. iv. 12. 9 — 12. 
 
 Stretch'd on the springing grass, the shepherd swain 
 
 His reedy pipe with rural rnusic fills ; 
 The god, who guards his flock, approves the strain. 
 
 The god, who loves Arcadia's gloomy hills. 
 
 Francis's Translation. 
 
 The above stanza occurs in a description of the beau- 
 ties of spring, and the poet no doubt alludes to the 
 pastoral habits of his Sabine neighbours. 
 
 From ancient monuments as well as from the lan- 
 guage of the poets we find, that the worship of other 
 
 * Appian apud Photium. 
 
 t Virgil, ^"En. vii. 48. 81 — 10.5, and Heyno, Excursus v. ad loc. 
 
106 § 23. ANCIENT SCULPTURES EXHIBITING FAUNUS, 
 
 divinities was associated with that of Faunus in re- 
 ference to the success of all agricultural pursuits 
 including that of sheep-breeding. Boissard, in the 
 Fourth Part of his Antiquitates Romange, has pub- 
 lished somewhat rude engravings of the bas-reliefs 
 upon two altars, one of them {No. 130) dedicated to 
 Hope, the other (No. 134) to Silvanus. The altar to 
 Hope was erected, as the inscription expresses, in a 
 garden at Rome by M. Aur. Pacorus, keeper of the 
 temple of Venus. He says, that he had been admo- 
 nished to this deed of piety by a dream ; and, if the 
 representation in the bas-relief was the image thus 
 presented to his mind, his dream was certainly a very 
 pleasant one. Hope, wearing on her head a wreath 
 of flowers, places her right hand upon a pillar and 
 holds in her left poppy-heads and ears of corn. Beside 
 her is a bee-hive on the ground, and on it there is 
 also fixed a bunch of poppy-heads and ears of corn. 
 Above these emblems of the fruitfulness of the field 
 and of the garden is the figure, "which the reader will 
 see represented in Plate III. No. 1 , and which, I think, 
 is evidently a bale of wool. 
 
 The altar to Silvanus exhibits that divinity crowned 
 with the cones and foliage of the pine. A pine grows 
 moreover beside his terminal statue, bearing the large 
 cones, which were used for food at entertainments 
 and carried in bacchanalian processions. Faunus, or 
 Pan, sits at the foot of the pine, the syrinx and the 
 double pipe being placed at his feet. In his right 
 hand he holds an olive branch, while a young winged 
 genius advances towards him as if to receive it, and 
 another genius of the same kind appears to be caress- 
 ing him and whispering into his ear. On the other 
 side of tlie terminal statue of Silvanus we see the ca- 
 
1 
 
/"i^sUe ///. 
 
BALES OF WOOL, AND THE SHEPHERD's DRESS. 107 
 
 duceus of Mercury and the bale of wool, manifest 
 indications of success in the wool trade. In this 
 sculpture the bale is surrounded with cords, which 
 are twisted round one another where they cross. See 
 Plate III. Fig. 2. In the former instance the com- 
 pression of the wool appears to be effected by the use 
 of thongs instead of cords*. 
 
 In the same plate, in which I have exhibited these 
 representations of the Roman method of packing wool 
 for sale and transport, I have also introduced the 
 figure of a shepherd of the same country. This sta- 
 tue was found in the vicinity of Rome and is now 
 preserved in the Vatican f. The extremities are in 
 part restorations. The artist who made them is re- 
 sponsible for the lamb, which he has placed in the left 
 arm of the old man in order to supply an object for 
 the expression of care in his countenance. The cir- 
 cumstances, to which I would wish to direct the read- 
 er's attention, are the dress of this shepherd and his 
 general appearance and physiognomy. He wears a 
 sheep-skin as a shirt or tunic, which is fastened by a 
 girdle round his waist and terminates a little above 
 his knees. The sheep-skin is without sleeves. We 
 learn from Columella, that sleeves were added, when 
 it was desired to keep off the coldj. 
 
 The vignette at the end of this section is copied 
 
 * The bas-i-elief on the first altar is copied from Boissard by 
 Montfaucon, Ant. Expliquee, tome i. p. 332. and that on the second, 
 tome ii. p. 275. The latter is also represented by the Rev. Henry 
 Moses, Collection of Antique Vases, &c., Plate 52. 
 
 t Museo Pio-Clementino, tomo iii. tav. 34 and p. 44. 
 
 I Pelles manicatcE. Ed. Bip. tom. ii. p. 46. 
 
 Philo Judaeus (De Mundi Opificio, 1. i. p. 20, ed. Mangey) re- 
 presents the shepherd as ■wearing a skin, h<p6epa>/ S' av-o fiovov 
 eyovTOS (TK€TratTr>]ptoy. 
 
108 §23. COSTUME, APPEARANCE, AND MANNER OF LIFE 
 
 from a cameo in the Florentine Musemn*. It repre- 
 sents the shepherd Faustulus sitting upon a rock, and 
 contemplating the she-wolf, which is suckHng Romu- 
 lus and Remus. It is of the Augustan age, and no 
 doubt exhibits the costume and general appearance of 
 a Roman shepherd of that period. He wears a tunica 
 cucullata, i. e. a tunic of coarse woollen cloth with a 
 cowl, which was designed to be drawn occasionally 
 over the head and to protect it from the injuries of 
 the weather. This garment has also sleeves, which 
 Columella mentions {tunica manicata) as an additional 
 comfort. On his feet the shepherd wears high shoes, 
 or boots, which, as we may suppose, were made of 
 leather. 
 
 The appearance of the shepherds, who are repre- 
 sented in these ancient works of art, is, I think, 
 adapted to produce the impression, that their condi- 
 tion, even if it were that of slaves, was nevertheless 
 one of comfort and respectability. Neither their garb, 
 nor their attitude, suggests the idea of any thing base 
 or miserable. On the contrary, the countenance of 
 each indicates trust-worthiness, steadiness, and care. 
 That many of the agricultural labourers of ancient 
 Italy had this character may, I think, be inferred also 
 from written testimonies. 
 
 In reference to this subject, and with a view to illus- 
 trate at the same time the habits and employments of 
 the ancient farmer among the Sabine or Apulian 
 mountains, I will here quote some parts of Horace's 
 Second Epode, in which he describes the pleasures of 
 a country life. 
 
 * Museum Florentinum. Gemma- Aniiquae a (Jorio illustratsc, 
 tav. ii. No. 10. 
 
OF THE ANCIENT ITALIAN SHEPHERDS. 
 
 Like the first mortals blest is he, 
 From debts, and usury, and bus'ness free. 
 
 With his own team who ploughs the soil. 
 Which grateful once confess'd his father's toil. 
 
 The sounds of war nor break his sleep, 
 Nor the rough storm, that harrows up the deep ; 
 
 He shuns the courtier's haughty doors. 
 And the loud science of the bar abjures. 
 
 Either to poplars tall he joins 
 The marriageable olispring of his vines ; 
 
 Or lops the useless boughs away. 
 Inserting happier as the old decay : 
 
 Or in a lonely vale surveys 
 His lowing hei'ds, safe-wand'ring as they graze ; 
 
 Or stores in jars his liquid gold 
 Prest from the hive, or shears his tender fold. 
 
 =K * * 
 
 And, if a chaste and prudent wife 
 Perform her part in the sweet cares of life, 
 
 Of sun -burnt charms, but honest fame. 
 Such as the Sabine or Apulian dame ; 
 
 If, when fatigued he homeward turns. 
 The sacred fire, built up with faggots, burns ; 
 
 Or if in hurdles she inclose 
 The joyful flock, whence ample produce flows ; 
 
 Though unbought dainties she prepare. 
 And this year's wines attend the homely fare ; 
 
 No fish would I from foreign shore 
 Desire, nor relish Lucrine oysters more. 
 
 Olives, fresh gather'd from the tree ; 
 Mallows, the frame from heaviness to free ; 
 
 A kid snatch'd from the wolf, a lamb 
 To Terminus with due devotion slain; 
 
 Such is the meal, his labour o'er ; 
 No bird from distant climes I'd relish more. 
 
 Meanwhile how pleasant to behold 
 His sheep well fed, and hasting to their fold ; 
 
110 § 23. CONDITION AND TREATMENT OF SLAVES. 
 
 To see his wearied oxen bow 
 Their languid necks, and drag th' inverted plough ; 
 
 And then his num'rous slaves to view 
 Round his domestic gods their mirth pursue*. 
 
 The last expression employed by Horace shows 
 the kind sympathy, which the land-owner felt in the 
 evening amusements of his slaves. The directions 
 given by Columella respecting the treatment of this 
 class of labourers are to the same effect, showing how 
 a wise and good master ought to manifest his regard 
 to his slaves, not only by giving them without grudg- 
 ing substantial food and comfortable clothing, but also 
 by encouraging in them every good disposition, and 
 thus at the same time contributing to their happiness 
 and consulting his own interest. 
 
 Faustulus contemplating the wolf with Romulus and Remus ; 
 See above, p. 107, 108. 
 
 * In the above translation some lines are taken from Francis : but 
 neither his translation of this ode, nor those by Randolph and Cow- 
 ley are sufficiently accurate for my purpose. 
 
§24. SHEEP-BREEDING IN GERMANY AND GAUL. Ill 
 
 24. According to Tacitus*, the ancient Germans 
 had abundance of cattle, although we have no reason 
 to suppose that they had acquired any of that skill in 
 sheep-breeding, by which their successors in Silesia and 
 Saxony are now distinguished. On the contrary, we 
 are informed by the same author that the only woollen 
 garment, which they commonly wore, was the Sagum, 
 a term implying the coarseness of the materialf. 
 
 We find almost as little in any ancient author in 
 favour of the wool of Gallia Transalpina, the modern 
 France. Pliny mentions a coarse kind, more like 
 hair than wool, which was produced in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Pezenas in Provence j. Martial's account 
 of the Endromis Sequanica, coarse, but useful to keep 
 off the cold and wet, bears upon the same point ; 
 
 De Endromide. (iv. 12.) 
 Hanc tibi Sequanicse pinguem textricis alumnam. 
 
 Quae Lacedsemonium barbara nomen habet, 
 Sordida, sed gelldo non aspernanda Decembri, 
 
 Dona, peregrinam mittimus Endramida§ : 
 
 Ne madidos intret penetrabile frigus in artus, 
 
 Neve gravis subita te premat Iris aqua. 
 P.idebis ventos hoc munere tectus et imbres, 
 
 Nec sic in Tyria Sindone tutus eris. 
 
 The frousy foster of a female hand ; 
 Of name Laconian, from a barb'rous land ; 
 Though rude, yet welcome to December's snow. 
 To thee we bid the homely stranger go : 
 
 * * * * 
 
 * Terra pecorum fecunda, sed plerumque improcera. — Germania, 
 V. 2. 
 
 t Nudi, aut sagulo leves. — Germania, vi. 3. Tegumen omnibus 
 sagum. xvii. 1. + See Appendix D. 
 
 § The Lacedaemonians gave the name "EvSponis to this "thick" 
 garment, because it was used ev Spofiu, on the race-course, to put 
 upon those who had become warm with running. 
 
112 §24. SHEEP-BREEDING IN GAUL. 
 
 That into glowing limbs no cold may glide, 
 
 That baleful Iris never drench thy pride : 
 
 This fence shall bid thee scorn the winds and showers ; 
 
 The Tyrian lawn pretends no equal powers. 
 
 Elphinston s Translation. 
 
 In the following epigram of Martial (vi. 11.), ad- 
 dressed to his friend Marcus, we observe a similar 
 opposition between the fine and fashionable cloth of 
 Tyre, and the thick coarse "sagum" produced in 
 Gaul. 
 
 Te Cadmea Tyros, me pinguis Gallia vestit: 
 Vis te purpureum, Marce, sagatus amem ? 
 
 Proud Tyrian thine, gross Gaulish mine array : 
 In purple thee can e'er I love in gray ? 
 
 Juvenal gives exactly the same account of the 
 woollen manufactures of Gaul. In the following pas- 
 sage the needy dependant of a rich man is speaking 
 of the lacernas from that country, which were some- 
 times presented to him by his patron. 
 
 Pingues aliquando lacernas, 
 Munimenta togse, duri crassique coloris, 
 Et male percussas textoris pectine Galli 
 Accipimus. Satir. ix. v. 30. 
 
 Some coarse brown cloak perhaps I chance to get. 
 Of Gallic fabric, as a fence from wet. 
 
 Owen's Translation. 
 
 To the same effect are several passages in the 
 Epistles of Sidonius Apollinaris, who was Bishop of 
 Clermont in Auvergne in the fifth century. He men- 
 tions, for example, that the attendants on Prince 
 Sigismer at his marriage wore green Saga with red 
 borders, and he describes a friend of his own as wear- 
 ing the Endromis*. Also in an account of his own 
 
 * Viridantia saga limbis marginata puniceis. L. iv. Ep. 20. Tu 
 endromidatus exterius. L. iv. Ep. 2. 
 
§25. SHEEP-BREEDING IN BRITAIN. 113 
 
 villa he speaks of the pipe with seven holes, as the 
 instrument of the shepherds and herdsmen, who used 
 to entertain themselves during the night with musical 
 contests, while their cattle were grazing with bells 
 upon their necks*. 
 
 All these passages are confirmed and illustrated by 
 the testimony of Strabo. According to him Gaul 
 produced cattle of all kindsf. The Belgse, who oc- 
 cupied the most northern part, opposite to Britain, 
 excelled the rest of the Gauls in their manufactures. 
 Nevertheless their wool was coarse, and was spun and 
 woven by them into the thick Saga, which were both 
 worn by the natives of the country and exported in 
 great quantities to Rome and other parts of Italy. The 
 Roman settlers, indeed, in the most northern parts 
 had flocks of covered sheep {vTTo^KpQepac wntjui'ac), and 
 their wool was consequently very finej. 
 
 Here also I may produce the evidence of Eumenius, 
 who in his Oration, quoted more fully in the next 
 Section, intimates the abundance of the sheep on the 
 western banks of the Rhine by saying, that the flocks 
 of the Romans were washed in every part of the 
 stream §. 
 
 25. Caesar informs us, that the ancient inhabitants 
 of Britain had abundance of cattle {pecoris magnus 
 Humerus) ; under the word (pecus) " cattle," sheep 
 
 * Diluculo autem philomelam inter frutices sibilantem, prognem 
 inter asseres minurientem, cui concentui licebit adjungas fistulas sep- 
 tiforis armentalem camoenam, quam saepe nocturnis carminum certa- 
 minibus insomnes nostrorum montium Tityri exercent, inter greges 
 tintinnabulatos per depasta buceta reboantes. 
 
 t Bo(T(ci7/iara iravToia. L. iv. cap. i. § 2. p. 6. ed. Siebenkees. 
 
 % L. iv. cap. iv. § 3. pp. 56 — 59. ed. Siebenkees. 
 
 § Arat illam terribilem aliquando ripam inermis agricola, et toto 
 nostri greges flumine bicorni mersantur. p. 152. 
 
 I 
 
114 ^25. SHEEP-BREEDING IN BRITAIN, IMPROVED 
 
 must no doubt be understood to be included. It also 
 appears, that in his time the Celts, or proper Britons, 
 lived to the North of the Thames, the Belgians having 
 expelled them and taken possession of the part to the 
 South, called Cantium or Kent. These last were by 
 far the most civilized inhabitants of the island, not 
 much differing in their customs from the Gauls. 
 With respect to the others, Csesar says, that for the 
 most part they did not sow any kind of grain, but 
 lived upon milk and flesh, and clothed themselves 
 with skins*. 
 
 It appears therefore, that before our sera, sheep, and 
 probably goats, were bred extensively in this island, 
 their milk and flesh being used for food, and their 
 skins with the wool or hair upon them for clothing ; 
 and that the people of Kent, who were of Belgic ori- 
 gin, and more refined than the original Britons, had 
 attained to the arts of spinning and weaving, although 
 their productions were only of the coarsest descrip- 
 tion. 
 
 Eumenius, the Rhetorician, who was a native of 
 Augustodunum, now called Autun, delivered his Pa- 
 negyric in praise of the Emperors Constantius and 
 Constantine in the city of Treves about A.D. 310. In 
 the following passage he congratulates Britain on its 
 various productions, and also on the circumstance, 
 that Constantine had been recently declared Emperor 
 at York on the death of his father. 
 
 " O fortunate Britain, now the happiest country 
 
 * Ex his omnibus longe sunt humanissimi, qui Cantium incolunt : 
 quae regio est maritima omnis ; neque multum a Gallica difFerunt 
 consuetudine. Interiores plerique frumenta non serunt ; sed lacte 
 et carne vivunt, pellibusque sunt vestiti. De Bello Gallico, 1. v. 
 cap. 10. 
 
BY THE BELGIANS AND SAXONS. § 26. SPAIN. 115 
 
 upon earth ; for thou hast been the first to see Con- 
 stantine made Emperor. It was fit that on thee Na- 
 ture should bestow every blessing of climate and of 
 soil. Suffering neither from the excessive severity of 
 winter, nor the heat of summer, thy harvests are so 
 fruitful as to supply all the gifts both of Ceres and of 
 Bacchus ; thy woods contain no savage beasts, thy 
 land no noxious serpents, but an innumerable multi- 
 tude of tame cattle, distended with milk, and loaded 
 with fleeces." {Contra pecorum mitium innumerabilis 
 multitudo, lacte distenta, et onusta velleribus*.) 
 
 The improvements in sheep-breeding, which were 
 first introduced into England by the Belgians, appear 
 to have been advanced still further by the Saxons. 
 As I proceed in this inquiry I shall have occasion to 
 refer to the employment of the Anglo-Saxon females 
 of all ranks in spinning, and to the increased care 
 which the men were encouraged to bestow upon their 
 sheep. 
 
 26. The only country, which now remains to be 
 surveyed in relation to the production of sheeps-wool, 
 is Spain ; and, as this kingdom retains its pre-emi- 
 nence at the present dayf, so we find none, in which 
 sheep-breeding was carried to a greater extent in an- 
 cient times. 
 
 Pliny not only refers in general terms to the various 
 natural colours of the Spanish wool, but mentions 
 more particularly the red wool (rutilus, or erythraus 
 
 * Panegyrici Veteres, ed. Cellarii, Halae Magd. 1703. pp. 147,148. 
 
 t For accounts of the state of sheep-breeding in modem Spain, 
 including the annual migration of the flocks, which is conducted 
 there as in Italy, I refer to " Travels through Portugal and Spain in 
 1772, 1773, by R. Twiss," pp. 72—82 ; and to De la Borde's View 
 of Spain, vol. iv. pp. 45 — 61, English Translation. London, 1809. 
 
 I 2 
 
116 §26. SHEEP-BREEDING IN SPAIN. 
 
 color), produced in the district adjoining the river 
 Bsetis, or Guadalquiver*. 
 
 Among the natural colours of the Bsetic wool, Co- 
 lumella, a native of Cadiz, (vii. 2.) mentions piillus 
 and fuscus, i. e. as I have already stated, gi-ay and 
 hrown. The latter is what we call drab, and the Spa- 
 niards fusco. It is now commonly worn by the pea- 
 sants and shepherds of Spain, the wool being made 
 into clothes without dyeing. 
 
 Nonius Marcellus {cap. 16. n. 13), explaining the 
 word pullus, which was called a native colour, because 
 it was the natural colour of the fleece, also shows, that 
 this was a common quality of the Spanish wool ; "Pul- 
 lus color est, quem nunc Hispanum, vel nativum di- 
 cimus." Another testimony is that of Tertullian 
 formerly quoted (§ 14. p. 37.). 
 
 The sheep of Tarentum were imported into this 
 part of Spain, and there also their fleeces were pro- 
 tected by clothing. Columella gives a very interesting 
 account of the experiments made by his uncle, a great 
 agriculturist of Bsetica, in crossing his " clothed" 
 {tectcB eves), or Tarentine breed with some wild rams 
 of an extraordinary colour, which had been brought 
 from Africa to Cadiz f. 
 
 We have a further evidence of the pains taken to 
 improve the Spanish breed in the circumstance, that 
 Italian shepherds passed into Spain, just as we have 
 formerly seen, that they migrated into Italy from 
 Arcadia. In the following lines of Calpurnius (Eel. 
 iv. 37 — 49.), Corydon, a young shepherd, tells his 
 friend and patron, Melibceus, that he should have 
 been transported into Bsetica, had not the times im- 
 
 * See Appendix D. 
 
 t L. vii. 2, quoted above, p. 89, note. 
 
NATURAL DYES OF SPANISH WOOL. 117 
 
 proved, and his master's favour enabled him to remain 
 in Italy. 
 
 Per te secura saturi recu"bamus in umbra, 
 Et fruimur silvis Amaryllidos ; ultima nuper 
 Litora terrarum, nisi tu, Melibcee, fuisses. 
 Ultima visuri, trucibusque obnoxia Mauris 
 Pascua Geryonse, liquidis ubi cursibus ingens 
 Dicitur occiduas impellere Bsetis arenas : 
 Scilicet extreme nunc vilis in orbe jacerem. 
 Ah dolor ! et pecudes inter conductus Iberas, 
 Irrita septena modularer sibila canna : 
 Nec quisquam nostras inter dumeta Camenas - 
 Respiceret ; non ipse daret mihi forsitan aurem. 
 Ipse Deus, vacuam, longeque sonantia vota 
 Scilicet extremo nunc exaudiret in orbe. 
 
 Through thee I rest secure beneath the shade, 
 
 Such plenty hath thy generous bounty made. 
 
 But for thy favour, Meliboeus, sent 
 
 Where Bsetis' waves the western plains indent. 
 
 Plains at the earth's extremest verge, expos'd 
 
 To the fierce Moors, which Geryon once inclos'd. 
 
 There had I now been doom'd to tend for hire 
 
 Iberian flocks, or else of want expire : 
 
 In vain I might have tun'd my seven-fold reed : 
 
 Mid thickets vast no soul my strains would heed : 
 
 Not even Pan on that far-distant shore 
 
 Would lend his vacant ear, or be my solace more. 
 
 Juvenal in his Twelfth Satire (I. 37 — 42.) describes 
 a merchant overtaken by a dreadful storm, and to save 
 the ship throwing his most valuable goods into the sea. 
 It will be observed, that the poet attributes the excel- 
 lence and fine natural colour of the woollen cloth of 
 Bsetica to three causes, the rich herbage, the occult 
 properties of the water, and those of the air. 
 
 " Fundite quae mea sunt," dicebat, cuncta Catullus 
 Prsecipitare volens etiam pulcherrima, vestem 
 
118 ^26. GOLDEN HUE AND OTHER 
 
 Puqjuream, teneris quoque Msecenatibus aptam, 
 Atque alias, quarum generosi graminis ipsum 
 Infecit natura pecus ; sed et egregius fons 
 Viribus occultis, et Bseticus adjuvat aer. 
 
 " Over with mine," he cries ; " be nothing spar'd ; " 
 To part with all his richest goods prepar'd ; 
 His vests of TjTian purple, fit to please 
 The softest of the silken sons of ease, 
 And other robes, which took a native stain 
 From air and water on the Baetic plain. 
 
 Owen's Translation. 
 
 Strabo (iii. 144. p. 385. ed. Sieb.) gives the follow- 
 ing account of the wool of Turdetania. 
 
 IIoXX^ 2e Kui etrSj/s irpoTcpov r)p-)(eTO' vvv kui epia /xSXXov rwv 
 Kopa^tSy, Koi VTrepftoXi} ris kari rov koKXovs' raXavTiaiovs yovv uvovr- 
 rai TOVS Kpiovs els tUs 6\eias, vTrepfioXfj ?e koI ruiv XeTTTiov vcjjafffxarwv, 
 (iTrep oi SaXn^mt KaTaaKevai^ovirtv. 
 
 It seems to be agreed by the critics, that some 
 emendation of the text is necessary, and they have 
 proposed to correct the second clause in several dif- 
 ferent ways. I would propose the insertion of a single 
 letter, viz. rj, before twv Kopa^wv, and translate the 
 passage thus : 
 
 " Much cloth used formerly to come from this coun- 
 try. Now also fleeces come from it more than from 
 the Coraxi ; and they are exceedingly beautiful, so 
 that rams for breeding are sold for a talent each. 
 Also the fine webs are very famous, which are made 
 by the Saltiatse." 
 
 The reader will please to remark, that this is the 
 passage of Strabo, to which I formerly referred (§ 10. 
 p. 27.) as containing evidence respecting the Coraxi. 
 
 Martial, a Spaniard by birth, frequently alludes to 
 the sheep of B?etica and especially to the various na- 
 tural colours of their wool, which were so much ad- 
 
NATURAL DYES OF THE WOOL OF B^TICA. 119 
 
 mired, that it was manufactured without dyeing. Two 
 of his epigrams (iv. 28. and viii. 28.) have been already 
 quoted, as they refer also to the sheep of Tarentum : 
 to these the seven following may be added. 
 
 De Platano Cordubensi. (ix. 62.) 
 In Tartessiacis domus est notissima terris. 
 
 Qua dives placidum Corduba Baetin amat, 
 Vellera native pallent ubi flava metallo, 
 
 Et Unit Hesperium bractea viva pecus. 
 
 In the Tartessian lands a house appears, 
 Where Cordova o'er placid Bsetis rears 
 Her wealthy domes ; and where the fleeces show 
 Metallic tints, like living gold that glow. 
 
 Ad Cordubam. (xii. 63.) 
 Uncto Corduba laetior Venafro, 
 Histra nec minus absoluta testa, 
 Albi quae superas oves Galesi, 
 NuUo murice nec colore mendax, 
 Sed tinctis gregibus colore vivo. 
 
 Corduba, more joyous far 
 
 I'Tian Venafrum's unctuous boast ; 
 Nor inferior to the jar. 
 
 That renowns glad Istria's coast : 
 Who surmount'st the fleecy breed, 
 
 That the bright Galesus laves ; 
 Nor bidd'st lying purple bleed 
 
 O'er the hue, that nature craves. 
 
 Elphinston s Translation. 
 
 Ad Baetin. (xii. 99.) 
 Baetis olivifera crinem redimite corona, 
 
 Aurea qui nitidis vellera tingis aquis. 
 Quern Bromius, quern Pallas amat ; cui rector aquarum 
 
 Albula navigerum per freta pandit iter. 
 
 Baetis, with wreaths of unctuous olive crown'd. 
 For Bacchus' and for Pallas' gifts reno^vn'd ; 
 Whose waters clear a golden hue impart 
 To fleeces, that require no further art ; 
 
120 § 26. NATIVE COLOURS OF B^TIC WOOX. 
 
 Such wealth the Ruler of the waves conveys 
 In ships, that mark with foam thy liquid ways. 
 
 Lacernae Bseticse. (xiv. 133.) 
 Non est lana mihi mendax, nec muter aheno. 
 Si placeant Tyrise, me mea tinxit ovis. 
 
 Lacernas from Baetica. 
 My wool disdains a lye, or caldron hue. 
 Poor Tyre may take it : me my sheep imbue. 
 
 Elphinston s Translation. 
 
 I>e Erotic puella. (v. 37. See § 21.) 
 Quae crine vicit Bsetici gregis vellus. 
 
 Charming Ero's golden lock 
 Beat the fleece of Baetic flock. 
 
 Elphinston s Translation. 
 
 De Phyllide. (xii. 65. I. 5.) 
 An Baeticarum pondus acre lanarum. 
 Baetic fleeces, many a pound, 
 
 (i. 97.) 
 
 Amator ille tristium lacernarum, 
 Et Baeticatus, atque leucophaeatus. 
 Qui coccinatos non putat viros esse, 
 Amethystinasque mulierum vocat vestes, 
 Nativa laudet, &c. 
 
 Let him commend the sober native hues j 
 Of Baetic drab, or gray, lacernas choose, 
 "Who thinks no man in scarlet should appear. 
 And only women pink or purple wear. 
 
 The numerous passages, which have now been pro- 
 duced relative to the native colours of the Spanish 
 wool, explain the following line of Virgil (jEn. ix. 
 582.), in which he describes the clothing of a war- 
 rior ; 
 
 Pictus acu chlamydem, et ferrugine clarus Ibera. 
 With broider'd chlamys bright, and Spanish rust. 
 
SAGA AND CHEQUERED PLAIDS. 
 
 121 
 
 The poet probably intended to describe an outer gar- 
 ment, a chlamys, made of undyed Spanish wool of a 
 clear brown or yellowish colour, resembling that of 
 rust ; and afterwards enriched with embroidery. 
 
 Ramirez de Prado, the Spanish commentator on 
 Martial (4to. Paris, 1607.), says, that two native co- 
 lours were common in Spain in his time, the one a 
 golden yellow, the other more brown or ferruginous. 
 
 In the North of Spain the Celtiberi wore saga made 
 of a coarse wool like goats-hair {a'lyelaic Opi^l, Diod. 
 Sic. V. 33. torn. i. p. 356. Wesseling.), and woven 
 double according to Appian*. 
 
 At Salacia in Lusitania a chequered pattern was 
 employed in the manufacture of the coarse woolf. 
 This was in all probability the same as the shepherd's 
 plaid of the Scotch, the weaver taking advantage of 
 the natural difference of the white and black wool to 
 produce this variety of appearance. 
 
 Estremadura, a part of the ancient Bsetica, is still 
 famous for its wool. There the Spanish flocks hy- 
 bernate, and under the direction of a peculiar code of 
 laws, called La Mesta, are conducted every spring to 
 pasture in the mountains of Leon and Asturias. Other 
 flocks are led in the same season from great distances 
 to the heights of the Sierra Morena, lying to the east 
 of the ancient Boetica, where the vegetation is re- 
 markably favourable to the improvement of their 
 wool. 
 
 27. As bearing directly upon the present inquiry 
 it may be observed, that sheep have always been bred 
 
 * Xpwyrai CnrXo'ts ifiaTion ira-^emv, avTi yXafxvitav avru Trepi- 
 TTopTTWfjievoi, Kai TnvTo aayov ijyovvrai. Appiani Hist. Rom. 1. vi. de 
 Rebus Hispan., vol. i. p. 151. ed. Schweighauser. 
 
 t Pliny. See Appendix D. 
 
122 § 27. SHEEP ALWAYS BRED PRINCIPALLY 
 
 principally for the weaver, not for the butcher, and 
 that this has been more especially the case in ancient 
 times and in eastern countries. 
 
 In England mutton is a favourite food, and great 
 attention is paid to the improvement of the flesh, by 
 which the wool is deteriorated. But I know not of 
 any other country where this is the case*. 
 
 If we may judge from the following epigram of 
 Martial, the Romans regarded with feelings little 
 short of aversion the act of killing a sheep for food 
 except on solemn or extraordinary occasions. 
 
 Caput Arietinum. (xii. 211.) 
 MoUia Phryxei secuisti colla mariti. 
 
 Hoc meruit, tunicam qui tibi ssepe dedit ? 
 
 The Ram's head. 
 Hast pierc'd the neck of the Phryxean lord. 
 Who oft had shelter'd thine ? O deed abhorr'd ! 
 
 Elphinston s Translation. 
 
 The customs of the shepherd tribes in the East are 
 in this respect remarkably like those of the ancients. 
 
 " The Arabs rarely diminish their flocks by using 
 them for food, but live chiefly upon bread, dates, 
 milk, butter, or what they receive in exchange for 
 their wool. They however sell their sheep to the 
 people in the towns. A lamb or kid roasted whole is 
 a favourite dish at Aleppo, but seldom eaten except 
 by the richf." When the Arabs have a sheep-shear- 
 ing, they perhaps kill a lamb, and treat their relations 
 and friends with it together with new cheese and 
 milk, but nothing more. Among the Mohammedans 
 sheep are sacrificed on certain days as a festive and 
 
 * These observations will be found to coincide with those of Mr. 
 Youatt in the Library of Useful Knowledge, " Sheep," p. 10. 
 t Harmer's Observations, vol. i. p. 393. ed. Clarke. 
 
FOR THE WEAVER, NOT FOR THE BUTCHER. 123 
 
 at the same time a religious ceremony, and these 
 ceremonies are of great antiquity and derived from 
 Arab heathenism. On the pilgrimage to Mecca every 
 one is required to sacrifice a sheep at a certain place 
 near Mecca*. 
 
 By the Law of Moses the sheep was a clean animal, 
 and might consequently be eaten or sacrificed. A lamb 
 or kid, roasted whole, was the principal and charac- 
 teristic dish at the feast of the passover. The rich 
 man kills a lamb to entertain his guest in the beauti- 
 ful parable of Nathan. (2 Sam. xii. 4.) Sheep were 
 killed on the festive occasion of shearing the very 
 numerous flocks of Nabal. (1 Sam. xxv. 2. 11. 18.) 
 An ox and six choice sheep were sacrificed daily for 
 the numerous guests of Nehemiah, while he was build- 
 ing the wall of Jerusalem. {Neh. v. 17, 18.) Immense 
 numbers of sheep and oxen were sacrificed at the de- 
 dication of Solomon's temple. (1 Kings, viii. 5. 63.) 
 The prophet Ezekiel (xxxiv. 3.) describes the bad 
 shepherd as selfishly eating the flesh and clothing 
 himself with the wool of the sheep, without tending 
 them with due care and labour. 
 
 In the Suovetaurilia among the Romans a hog, a 
 sheep, and a bull, their principal domestic animals, 
 were sacrificed. A sheep was killed every day for 
 the guards, who watched the tomb of Cyrus. (Arrian, 
 
 * Harmer, p. 395. 
 
 Pallas (Spicilegia Zoologica, Fasc. xi. p. 79.) speaking of the beau 
 tiful lamb-skins from Bucharia, so much admired for their curled gray- 
 wool, makes the following observations. 
 
 " Propter has pelles, Buchari agnos masculos, quibus ad maritan- 
 dum gi-egem non est opus, gregatim coemunt atque tenellos credunt, 
 quando pulcherrima est pellium facies. Foemineos enim occidere non 
 Bucharis modo, sed omnibus Tataris nefas ceusetur. Summam enim 
 curam ponunt in multiplicando grege." 
 
124 § 27. SHEEP SUPPLIED MILK FOR FOOD, 
 
 vol. i. p. 438, Blancardi.) In the Odyssey (p. 180 — 
 182.) a sacrifice is made and a feast prepared of sheep, 
 goats, hogs, and a cow. Also in Od. v. 3. 250. sheep 
 are sacrificed and furnish part of a feast. In order to 
 ratify a treaty between the Greeks and Trojans, the 
 former sacrificed a lamb of the male sex to Jupiter ; 
 the latter one of the male sex and white to the Sun, 
 and another of the female sex and black to the Earth. 
 (//. y. 103, 104.) Sheep are sacrificed to Apollo at 
 Delphi in Euripides, Ion, /. 230. 380. The rare in- 
 stances of the use of sheep for food or sacrifice by 
 the Egyptians have been already noticed. 8. p. 22, 
 23.) 
 
 But, although sheep, both old and young, both male 
 and female, were sacrificed to the objects of religious 
 worship, and although on other festive occasions they 
 were eaten, especially by the rich and the great, yet 
 their chief use was to supply clothing, and the nou- 
 rishment they yielded consisted in their milk and the 
 cheese made from it, rather than in their flesh. 
 
 This fact is illustrated by the w^ords of Solomon, 
 which I have formerly quoted (§ 7. p. 20.), and in 
 w4iich he speaks of lambs for clothing and goat's milk 
 for food. In like manner St. Paul says (1 Cor. ix. 7.), 
 " Who planteth a vineyard, and eateth not of the 
 fruit thereof ? or who feedeth a flock, and eateth not 
 of the milk of the flock ?" 
 
 Varro thinks, that sheep were employed for the use 
 of man before any other animal on account of their 
 usefulness and their placidity, and he represents their 
 use to consist in supplying cheese and milk for food, 
 fleeces and skins for clothing*. In like manner Co- 
 
 * Ad cibum enim lac et caseum adhibitum, ad corpus vestitum et 
 pelles attulerunt. De Re Rustica, 1. ii. cap. 1. 
 
WOOL FOR CLOTHING. THE MOTH. 12.5 
 
 lumella in his account of the use of sheep (vii. 2.) 
 says, they afforded the chief materials for clothing. 
 In treating of their use for food, he mentions only 
 their milk and cheese. He says, the Nomades and 
 Getee were called yaXaKTOTrorai from drinking ewes- 
 milk. Pliny refers to the employment of sheep both 
 for sacrifices and for clothing ; " Magna et pecori 
 gratia, vel in placamentis Deorum, vel in usu velle- 
 rum." He further remarks, that as the ox is prin- 
 cipally useful in obtaining food, to wit, by ploughing 
 and other agricultural processes, the sheep, on the 
 other hand, supplies materials for clothing; " Ut 
 boves victum hominum excolunl, ita corporum tutela 
 pecori debetur." 
 
 The fact, that wool was among the ancients by 
 far the most common material for making clothes, 
 accounts for the various expressions in scripture re- 
 specting the destructiveness of the moth. 
 
 " Your garments are moth-eaten" (ffj/To/3pwTa). 
 James v. 2. " He, as a rotten thing, consumeth, 
 as a garment that is moth-eaten." {wcnrep If^iuTiov ai]- 
 To/3pwTOf, Sept.) Job xiii. 28. " They all shall wax 
 old as a garment, the moth shall eat them up." Is. 
 1. 9. " The moth shall eat them up like a garment, 
 and the worm shall eat them like wool." Is. li. 8. 
 " From garments cometh a moth." (oVo t^aTtwi' etcrro- 
 peverai cttjc) Eccles. xlii. 13. " Treasures, where moth 
 and rust corrupt." Matt. vi. 19. 
 
 But it is to be observed, that the sacred writers 
 mention not the moth, but the minute worm, {aric, 
 Hebr. DD) which changes into a moth, and which 
 alone gnaws the garments. In the passages which 
 have been quoted, the word " moth " must be under- 
 stood to signify the larva of the clothes-moth {Pha- 
 
126 §27. WOOL THE PRINCIPAL MATERIAL. 
 
 Icena Vestianella, Linn.) , or of some insect of the same 
 kind. In this sense the Greek word is distinctly ex- 
 plained by Aristotle, and so it ought to be under- 
 stood, as well as the corresponding Latin term, Tinea, 
 both in the passage formerly cited from Aristophanes 
 
 13. p. 35.), and in all the passages of the Greek 
 and Latin classics where it occurs*. 
 
 The fact, that wool was the commonest and most 
 important material, also accounts for many expres- 
 sions relating to the labours of those who were em- 
 ployed in making cloth. Women get their living 
 " lana ac tela." Terence, Andria, i. I. 48. 
 
 Plato {Politicus, vol. ii. 2. p. 296, Bekker) defines 
 weaving to be that art, which provides woollen gar- 
 ments as a defence against cold. ( AjuvvTiK-nv xet^uw- 
 
 vwv, epeov TryoojSXjj/iOTOC epyaoTiKriv, ovo/^ta Se u(^ai'T«/c7}i' 
 
 Xe-^Oeiaav.) In another passage of the same Dialogue 
 he says, " We call the art, which entwines warp and 
 woof {vcpavTiKiiv) the art of weaving, and that which 
 is so entwined we call a woollen garment." {eaOriTa 
 epeav.) 
 
 * See Bochart, Hieroz. vol. ii. pp. 616, 617. ed. Leusden. L. Bat. 
 1692. 
 
127 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 Goats-Hair. 
 
 28. The inquiry into the origin and propagation of 
 goats, no less than of sheep, may be justly regarded 
 as a branch of anthropology. For the management 
 and use of these quadrupeds has from the earliest 
 dawn of human history formed a striking feature in 
 the condition of man, and especially of those nations, 
 which belong to the Caucasian, or, as Dr. Prichard 
 more properly denominates it, the Iranian or Indo- 
 Atlantic variety of our race*. Their habits of sheep- 
 
 * See Prichard's Researches into the Physical History of Man- 
 kind, third edition, vol. i. pp. 247. 257—262. 303, 304. These 
 nations are characterized by the oval form of the scull. Their distri- 
 bution over the face of the earth may be seen in the Map at the end 
 of this Book. 
 
 The only remarkable exception, which I have noticed, to this limit- 
 ation of ancient sheep-breeding, is the case of the Chinese. 1 find 
 the foUovi^ing evidence, that they had both sheep and goats in ancient 
 times. 
 
 1. The Chinese character for a sacrifice is a compound of two 
 characters, one placed above the other ; the upper one, Yang, is the 
 character for a lamb, the lower is the character for fire ; so that a 
 lamb on the fire denotes a sacrifice. See Morison's Chinese Dic- 
 tionary, vol. iii. part i. 
 
 2. According to the mythology of the Chinese, which as well as 
 their written characters is of high antiquity, one of the four rivers, 
 which rise in mount Kaen-lun and run towards the four quarters of 
 the globe, is called the Yang-Choui, i. e. the Lamb-River. Thomas 
 Stephens Davies, Esq. in Dr. Robert Thomson's British Annual for 
 1837, p. 271. 277. 
 
128 § 28. SHEEP-BREEDING AND GOATS IN CHINA. 
 
 breeding seem no less characteristic than the form of 
 their countenances, a no less essential part of their 
 manner of life than any other custom, by which they 
 are distinguished : and, as all the circumstances, 
 which throw any light upon the question, conspire to 
 render it probable, that the above-mentioned variety 
 of the human race first inhabited part of the high land 
 of central Asia, so it is remarkable, that our domestic 
 sheep and goats may with the greatest probability be 
 referred to the same stock with certain wild animals, 
 which now overspread those regions. The sheep, as 
 I have before observed (§3. p. 12.), is regarded as 
 specifically the same with the Argali ; and in the opi- 
 nion of Pallas, which has been very generally adopted 
 by zoologists, the goat is the same with the .^gagrus, 
 
 3. Yang-Ching, i. e. Sheep-city, was an ancient name of Canton. 
 Morison, p. 55. 
 
 4. There is a character for the Goat, which means the Yang of the 
 mountains, Yang being a general term like the Hebrew in- 
 cluding both sheep and goats. lb. p. 61, 62. 
 
 5. In the following passage of Rufus Festus Avienus, who flou - 
 rished about A.D. 400, we have a distinct testimony, that the an- 
 cient Seres, the probable ancestors of the Chinese, emj)loyed them- 
 selves in the care of sheep at the same time that they were devoted 
 to the production of silk. 
 
 Gregibus permixti oviumque boumque, 
 Vellera per silvas Seres nemoralia cai-punt. 
 
 Descriptio Orbis Terrse, 1. 935, 936. 
 
 But, although it is thus manifest, that the ancient Chinese were 
 acquainted with both sheep and goats, we have no reason to believe, 
 that the breeding and use of them were carried to any great extent, 
 at least after the invention or introduction of silk by the wife of the 
 emperor Whangti. On the contrary, there can be no question, that 
 silk was the principal material for clothing among the Chinese from 
 very early times. See below, Chapter vi. 
 
fROBABLE ORIGIN OF SHEEP AND GOATS. 129 
 
 a gregarious quadruped, which occupies the loftiest 
 parts of the mountains extending from the Caucasus 
 to the South of the Caspian Sea, and thence to the 
 North of India*. 
 
 Indeed it appears to me, that the history of these 
 animals is so interwoven with the history of man, 
 that those naturalists have not reasoned quite cor- 
 rectly, who have thought it necessary to refer the 
 first origin of either of them to any wild stock at all. 
 They assume, that these quadrupeds first existed ia 
 an undomesticated state, that is, entirely apart from 
 man and independent of him ; that, as he advanced 
 in civilization, as his wants multiplied, and he be- 
 came more ingenious and active in inventing me- 
 thods of supplying them, the thought struck him, 
 that he might obtain from these wild beasts the ma- 
 terials of his food and clothing ; and that he therefore 
 caught and confined some of them and in the course 
 of time rendered them by cultivation more and more 
 suitable to his purposes. This opinion does not ap- 
 pear to me to rest upon any sufficient basis. We have 
 no reason to assume, that man and the two lesser 
 kinds of horned cattle were originally independent of 
 one another. So far as geology supplies any evidence, 
 it is in favour of the supposition, that these quadru- 
 peds and man belong to the same epoch. No properly 
 fossil bones either of the sheep or goat have yet been 
 found, and we have no reason to believe, that these 
 animals were produced until the creation of manf. 
 
 * Pallas, Spicilegia Zoologica, Fasciculus xi. pp. 43, 44. See also 
 Bell's History of British Quadrupeds, London, 18.37, p. 433. 
 
 t The only case, which I have found at all tending to a different 
 conclusion is that of a tooth supposed to be the molar tooth of a goat, 
 which is mentioned by Jager as having been found in one of the bone- 
 
 K 
 
130 ^28. SHEEP AND GOATS PROBABLY COEVAL WITH 
 
 But, as we must suppose, that man was created per- 
 fect and full-grown and with those means of subsist- 
 ence around him, which his nature and constitution 
 require, I can see no reason why the sheep and the 
 goat may not have been created in such a state as to 
 be adapted to be immediately used by him both for 
 clothing and for food, or why it should be considered 
 more probable that they were at first entirely wild. 
 They may have been produced originally in the same 
 abode, which was occupied by that variety of the human 
 race, to whose habits and mode of life the use of them 
 has always been so essential ; and, if we assume, that 
 this abode was somewhere in the elevated land of cen- 
 tral Asia, in the region, for example, of Armenia, we 
 adopt an hypothesis, which explains in the most sim- 
 ple and satisfactory manner the apparent fact of the 
 propagation not only of men, but of these quadrupeds 
 with them, from that centre over immense regions of 
 the globe. 
 
 With regard to historical evidence, it is certainly 
 very defective. No express testimony assures us of 
 the facts included in the above-named hypothesis. 
 One thing, however, is certain, and it appears very 
 deserving of attention, viz. that the sheep and the 
 goat have always been propagated together. We find 
 great nations, which had no acquaintance with either 
 of these quadrupeds, but depended for their subsist- 
 ence upon oxen, for example, or upon horses. We 
 find others, on the contrary, to whose mode of life the 
 larger quadrupeds were of much less importance than 
 
 caverns of the Swabian Alps. But he himself by the expression, 
 " wie es scheint," expresses a doubt whether it is the tooth of a goat. 
 See Die Fossilien Siiugthiere Wiirtembergs, von Jiiger, Ite Abthei- 
 lung. Stuttgart 1835, folio, p. 18. 23. 
 
MAN, AND ALWAYS PROPAGATED TOGETHER. 131 
 
 the smaller ; but we find none, which was accustomed 
 to breed either sheep without goats, or goats without 
 sheep. 
 
 The reader will find numerous illustrations of this 
 fact on reviewing the evidence contained in the last 
 Chapter. General terms were employed in the an- 
 cient world to include both sheep and goats*. Where 
 more specific terms are used, we still find " rams 
 and goats," "ewes and she-goats" mentioned to- 
 gether {p. 15. 17.). Sheep and goats were oflfered 
 together in sacrifice (p. 21.), and the instances are 
 too numerous to mention, in which the same flock, 
 or the wealth of a single individual, included both 
 these animals. 
 
 In consequence of this prevailing association of 
 sheep and goats, they are often represented together 
 in ancient bas-reliefs and other works of art. Of this 
 we have a beautiful example in the Rev. Robert Wal- 
 pole's collection of " Travels in various countries of 
 the East." At the end of the volume is a plate taken 
 from a votive tablet of Pentelic marble dedicated to 
 Pan, and representing five goats, two sheep, and a 
 lamb. As the goats are in one group, and the sheep 
 and lamb in another, the artist probably designed to 
 represent a flock of each. For, though sometimes 
 mixed in the same flock, the two kinds of animals 
 were generally kept apart ; and to this circumstance 
 our Saviour alludes in his image of the shepherd di- 
 viding the sheep from the goats. (Matt. xxv. 32.) 
 
 A sheep and a goat are seen reposing together in a 
 Roman bas-relief in the Monumenta Matthaeiana, 
 vol. iii. tab. 37. fig. I. 
 
 Rosselini gives two paintings from Egyptian tombs, 
 
 * See § 8. p. 22, Notef ; and § 19. p. 70, Note f, 
 
 k2 
 
132 ^29. HABITS OF GRECIAN GOATHERDS. 
 
 which exhibit both sheep and goats*; and he men- 
 tions an inscription in the tomb of Ranni, according 
 to which that person had 120 goats, 300 rams, 1500 
 hogs, and 122 oxen. 
 
 29. In the account, which I have given in the last 
 Chapter (§ 20. p. 78.) of the Sicilian Daphnis, I have 
 partially quoted an epigram by Callimachus on Asta- 
 cides, who was a goatherd in Crete, probably remark- 
 able for his beauty and his immature death. I shall 
 now produce it entire with a translation. 
 
 'AaraKilriv rbv Kprjra, tov anroXov, ijpTcaae Nv/^^j; 
 
 opeos' Kat vvv lepbs 'AcrraiciSris 
 Olicei Aticrairimv vtto cpva'iv' ovKeri Aa<pi iv 
 Tloifxeyes, 'A(TTaiciSr]v 2' alkf aeiaofxeOa. 
 
 A nympli has snatch'd Astacides away ; 
 
 Beneath Dictsean oaks our goatherd lies : 
 Shepherds ! no more your songs to Daphnis pay ; 
 
 For now with him the sacred Cretan vies. 
 
 Theocritus (Idyll, vii. 12 — 20.) describes a goatherd 
 of Cydon in Crete, named Lycidas ; and from the ac- 
 count which he gives of his attire, we may judge of 
 that commonly used in ancient Greece by the same 
 description of persons. He wore on his shoulders the 
 dun-coloured hide of a shaggy goat, and an old shawl 
 was fastened about his breast with a broad girdle. In 
 his right hand he held a crook of wild olive. 
 
 The same author {Idyll, iii. 5.) mentions a fine strong 
 he-goat, which was brought from Libya to Sicily. The 
 design of its transportation was, no doubt, to improve 
 the breed. Probably Chromis, the Libyan (Idyll, i. 24.) , 
 who resided in Sicily, had migrated there to under- 
 
 * Monumenti dell' Egitto, parte ii. Mon. Civih, tomo i. cap. iii. 
 § 2. tavola xxviii. xxix. 
 
HE-GOAT EMPLOYED TO LEAD THE FLOCK. 133 
 
 take the management of goats and to improve their 
 quaUty. 
 
 Maximus Tyrius (Diss, xxxvii.) seems to suppose, 
 that a flock of goats could not even exist without the 
 music of the syrinx. " If you take away," says he, 
 " the goatherd and his syrinx, you dissolve the flock 
 of goats (aiTToXlov) ; in like manner, if you take away 
 reason from the society of men, thus depriving them 
 of their leader and guide, you destroy the flock, which 
 by nature is tame, but may be injured by a bad super- 
 intendence." 
 
 The he-goat was employed to lead the flock as the 
 ram was among sheep. The following passages of 
 scripture allude to this custom. " Remove out of the 
 midst of Babylon, and go forth out of the land of the 
 Chaldeans, and be as the he-goats before the flocks." 
 Jer. 1. 8. " Mine anger was kindled against the shep- 
 herds, and I punished the goats." Zech. x. 3. In 
 Proverbs xxx. 31,, according to the Septuagint ver- 
 sion, we read of " the goat, which leads the flock," 
 
 rpayoc ^-yov/tieroq anroXluv. So JuliuS Pollux SayS {Lib. i. 
 cap. 12. sect. 19.), O twu a'lywv 17-ye/iwv Tpdjoc, 
 
 " The he-goat leads the goats'"'." 
 
 I here insert a representation of an ancient goat- 
 herd, taken from a cameo in the Florentine Museumf . 
 The goatherd holds the syrinx in his left hand, and 
 a young kid in his right. A goat stands beside him, 
 and his dog appears partially concealed within a ken- 
 nel formed in the rock, upon which the goatherd is 
 seated. This man wears boots and a tunic resembling 
 
 * See also ^]ia.n. Hist. Anim. vi. 42. 'O Trjs ayeXr^s {jyefiwy 6 
 rpdyos. and Pausanias, ix. 13. 4. 
 
 t Mus. Florentinum. Gemmae antiquae a Gorio illustratse, tab. xc. 
 No. 7. 
 
134 ^ 29. CAMEO REPRESENTING A GOATHERD. 
 
 those of the shepherd in the cameo, which I have in- 
 troduced at the end of § 23. The tunic of the goat- 
 herd only differs from that of the shepherd in being 
 without sleeves, and in having a larger cowl. In each 
 of these cameos the herdsman is represented sitting 
 under an aged ilex. At least this supposition accords 
 with the language of Tibullus, which I have formerly 
 quoted (§ 18. p. 50. 52.), and with the following line of 
 Horace, occurring in the same description of a coun- 
 try life, a large part of which has also been cited 
 above (^23. p. 108—110.) ; 
 
 Libet jacere modo sub antiqua ilice. 
 
 I have already remarked {p. 50.), that the same tree 
 is probably exhibited in the painting from Hercula- 
 neum, which I have copied in Plate I. ; and I would 
 request the reader to compare that tree with those in 
 the two cameos. 
 
§30. GOATS CHIEFLY VALUED FOR THEIR MILK. 135 
 
 30. A modern authoress, who spent some of the 
 summer months in the year 1810 among the moun- 
 tains east of Rome, notices goats in the following 
 terms as part of the stock of the farmers in that 
 country. 
 
 " We frequently walked to one of these little farms, 
 to meet the goats coming in at night from the moun- 
 tain. As the flock crowded down the broken road 
 leading to the fold, followed by their grotesque-looking 
 shepherd and his rough dogs, the pet-kids crowding 
 round their master and answering to his call, we could 
 not help thinking of the antique manners described 
 by the poets, and represented in the pictures of Her- 
 culaneum and Pompeii. 
 
 " The goats are the most useful domestic animals. 
 Here no other cheese or milk is tasted. Besides, the 
 ricotta, a kind of curd, and junkets, are made of 
 goats-milk, and, with bread, serve many of the coun- 
 try people for food*." 
 
 Goats were no less highly prized by the ancient 
 inhabitants of Greece and Italy than by the modern. 
 We have seen 27.), that the great value of the 
 sheep always consisted in its fleece. The goat, on 
 the contrary, was more valued for the excellence and 
 abundance of its milk, and for its suitableness to 
 higher and more rugged and unproductive landf. 
 
 We observe a clear allusion to this distinction 
 between the principal uses of sheep and of goats in 
 the passage, which I have formerly quoted (§ 7. p. 20.) 
 
 * Three Months passed in the Mountains east of Rome, by Maria 
 Graham (now Lady Calcott), p. 36. 55, 56. 
 
 The same writer says, that "black sheep are rather encouraged 
 here for the wool," and that " the clothing of the friars is of this 
 undyed wool." p. 55. f Virgil, Georg. iii. 305 — 321. 
 
136 §30. ETYMOLOGY OF SCYROS, SCUIR, ETC. 
 
 from the twenty-seventh chapter of the Book of Pro- 
 verbs*. 
 
 From Athenseusf we learn the superior excellence 
 of the goats of Scyros and Naxos. Besides other 
 authorities he produces the following lines of Pindar, 
 which show, that the peculiar value of the goats of 
 Scyros was on account of their milk ; 
 
 alyes e^oxwrarai + . 
 
 * Bochart has quoted a great variety of ancient testimonies to 
 the value of goats-milk in his Hierozoicon, 1. ii. cap. 51. pp. 629, 
 630. ed. Leusden. f As quoted in § 14. p. 37. 
 
 X Pindari Opera, a Bockh, 2. 2. p. 599. Alcsei Reliquiae, a Mat- 
 thias, No. cxiii. 
 
 ^lian bears testimony to the same fact, observing, that the cows 
 of Epirus were said to yield the greatest quantity of milk, and the 
 goats of Scyros. Hist. Anim. 1. iii. cap. 33. 
 
 If we may judge from the etymology of ^Kvp-os, no place could 
 be naturally more fit for goats. I,Kvp is evidently the same with 
 Scuir, Scar, Scaur, which in the northern languages of Europe 
 signifies a rock, and more especially denotes those precipitous 
 rocks, like lofty walls, on the edges of which the goat so pe- 
 culiarly loves to climb. We have a fine example of one in the 
 Saiir of Egg. See M'Culloch's Description of the Western Islands 
 of Scotland, v. i. p. 507, 508. 519. v. iii. Plate v. and Map, p. 71. 
 Oeynhausen and V. Dechen, Die Insel Egg, Plate iv. Further il- 
 lustrations of the etymology of this word may be seen in Ihre, 
 Glossar. Suio-Goth. ii. p. 573, 574, Valpy's Steph. Thes. L. Or. 
 p. 8484 B. 
 
 From Tournefort, Sonnini, and other modem travellers we learn, 
 that both Scyros and Naxos are very rocky and mountainous, and 
 that they still produce goats. See also Daj^per, Description des 
 Isles de I'Archipel, p, 256. 350. Dionysius Periegetes (1. 521.) calls 
 Scyros, Sciipos t)vefi6eaaa. 
 
 We have some curious traces of this term for a rock in the names 
 of certain spots in Lycia, Galatia, Attica, and Arcadia, called SKapoi, 
 S/cijOa, Swpos, "SiKipov, Swpwv't^es irerpai, perhaps also in 1,f:(tp(j>r) and 
 2*.(p^ot. See Strabo, 1. ix., Paus. 1. i. Suidas. Steph. Hom. U. ft. 
 
USE OF GOATS-HAIR FOR COARSE CLOTHING. 137 
 
 Virgil {I. c), after mentioning the use of goats for 
 food, goes on to show their contributions to the 
 weaver. 
 
 Nec minus interea barbas incanaque menta 
 Cinyphii tondent hirci, setasque comantes, 
 Usum in castrorum, et miseris velamina nautis. 
 Cloth'd in their shaven beards and hoary hair. 
 Fence of the ocean spray and nightly air. 
 The miserable seaman breasts the main. 
 And camps uninjur'd press the marshy plain. 
 
 Sotheby's Translation. 
 
 The last line of this passage of Virgil is quoted by 
 Columella (L. vii. 6.) in speaking of the utility of the 
 he-goat ; 
 
 Nam et ipse tondetur 
 
 " Usum in castrorum et miseris velamina nautis." 
 
 For he himself is shorn " for the use of camps and to make cover- 
 ings for wretched sailors." 
 
 Virgil, moreover, has here followed Varro, who 
 writes thus ; 
 
 Ut fructum ovis e lana ad vestimentum, sic capra piles ministrat 
 ad usum nauticum, et ad bellica tormenta, et fabrilia vasa. ***** 
 Tondentur, quod magnis villis sunt, in magna parte Phrygiae ; unde 
 Cilicia, et caetera ejus generis ferri solent. Sed, quod primum ea 
 tonsura in Cilicia sit instituta, nomen id Cilicas adjecisse dicunt. 
 De Re Rustica, L. ii. c. 11. p. 201. ed. Bip. 
 
 As the sheep yields to man wool for clothing, so the goat furnishes 
 hair for the use of sailors, and to make ropes for military engines, 
 and vessels for artificers. ***** The goats are shorn in a great 
 part of Phrygia, because there they have long shaggy hair. Cilicia 
 (i. e. hair-cloths), and other things of the same kind, are commonly 
 imported from that country. The name Cilicia is said to be derived 
 from the circumstance, that in Cilicia goats were first shorn for this 
 purpose. 
 
 532. When our Derbyshire word Scar had gone out of use in Asia 
 Minor and Greece, mythology was brought in to explain the origin 
 of these names. 
 
138 ^30. SHEARING OF GOATS IN PHRYGIA, CILICIA.ETC, 
 
 The language of Varro in this passage indicates, that 
 the female goat (capra) was shorn as well as the male 
 {hircus) ; and that the excellence of goats-hair, which 
 was used only for coarse articles, consisted in its 
 length. Columella mentions the long bristly hair of 
 the Cilician goats 
 
 Aristotle says, Ei' AvKia al alyec Ke'ipovTai) (oaTrep ra 
 
 TTpofBara irapa rote aXXoic,. i. e. " In Lycia goats are 
 shorn, as sheep are in other countries." Hist. Anim. 
 viii. 28. This testimony of Aristotle agrees with that 
 of his nephew and pupil, Callisthenes, who says {ap. 
 x'Elian. de Nat. Anim. xvi. 30.), " that in Lycia goats 
 are shorn just as sheep are everywhere else ; for that 
 they they have a very thick coat of excellent hair, 
 hanging from them in locks or curls ; and that this 
 hair is twisted so as to make ropes, which are used in 
 navigation instead of cables." 
 
 Pliny, ;in his account of goats f, says, " In Cilicia 
 and about the Syrtes they are covered with hair, which 
 admits of being shorn." From this it may be inferred, 
 in conformity with the testimonies already cited from 
 Varro and Virgil, that the longest and best goats- 
 hair was obtained in Cilicia, and on the coast of Africa 
 opposite to Sicily and Malta, the modern Tripoly. It 
 is remarkable, that Virgil, in order to designate the 
 latter district, refers to the romantic river Cinyps, 
 which flowed through it, observing the same practice, 
 which we have seen to be so common with the poets 
 in regard to the countries noted for the produce of the 
 most excellent wool|. In the interior and more hilly 
 
 * Setosura, quale est In Cilicia. De Re Rustica, 1. i. Praef. p. 20. 
 ed. Bip. 
 
 t L. viii. c. 76. See Appendix D. 
 I See above, § 22, p. 101. 
 
§31. VESTIS CAPRINA, CLOTH OF GOATS-HAIR, 139 
 
 portion of this district of Africa both sheep and goats 
 are still reared*. 
 
 In the following verses the geographer Avienus as- 
 serts that goats-hair was obtained for the purpose of 
 being woven in the country of the Cynetse in Spain. 
 
 Hirtae hie capellse, et multus incolis caper, 
 Dumosa semper intererrant cespitum, 
 Castrorum in usum et nauticis velamina, 
 Productiores et graves setas alunt. 
 
 Rufi Festi Avieni Ora Maritima, 1. '218 — 221. 
 
 31. The line of Virgil, 
 
 Usum in castrorum et miseris velamina nautis, 
 
 indicates the two-fold use of goats-hair. 
 
 a. Its employment for the dress of sailors was com- 
 paratively unimportant. Nevertheless Isidore of Se- 
 ville, in his enumeration of the different kinds of cloth 
 {Orig. xix. 22.), uses the following expressions : " Fi- 
 brina (vestis est) tramam de fibri lana habens : ca- 
 prina." Thus the text now stands, evidently defect- 
 ive. As it seems to me, the writer alluded to a kind 
 of cloth called caprina, because goats-hair was used 
 in the manufacture of it. I suppose an hiatus after 
 " caprina.'' Beckmann {History of Inventions, Eng. 
 Trans, vol. iv. p. 224.) proposes to read, " tramam de 
 fibri lana habens, stamen de caprina," i. e. " having 
 the woof of beavers-wool, the warp of goats-wool." 
 But the ancients were unacquainted with the fine 
 wool of certain goats, and it is highly improbable, 
 that they used goats-AaiV in the case referred to, 
 
 * Proceedings of the Expedition to explore the Northern Coast of 
 Africafrom Tripoly Eastward, by Beechey, ch. iv. p. 73. In the same 
 chapter, p. 52. 62 — 68, is an account of the Wad'el Khahan, the 
 ancient Cinyps. 
 
140 §31. USE OF GOATS-HAIR FOR MILITARY AND 
 
 since the " Vestes Fibrinae" were of great value, as 
 will soon be shown, and not made in any part of 
 coarse materials. 
 
 The cloth of goats-hair would be suitable for sailors, 
 both on account of their hardy mode of life, and be- 
 cause it was better adapted than any other kind to 
 bear exposure to water. 
 
 Its use as clothing to express mourning and morti- 
 fication will be noticed presently. 
 
 b. The employment of goats-hair for military and 
 naval purposes was far more extensive, and is proved 
 by the following passage from the Geoponica (xviii. 9.) 
 in addition to the former testimonies. 
 
 TlpoTodovs di^waif ovk oXiyas, Tas ano yoKaKTOs Koi Tvpov Kal {crap- 
 KOi)' Trpos Tovrois rds uttc) Ttjs rpixos. >; dpi^ dvayKaia irpos re 
 a'f^oivovs KoX aaKKOvs, Kai tu tovtois TrapaTrXyaia , Kal els I'CtvTiKas vTrt)- 
 pefflas, ovT€ KOTTTOfieya p^Hws, o'vre arjTrofieya (pvffiicws, edy /xfj Xiay 
 KaroXiyii>pTj6^. 
 
 The goat yields no small profit from its milk, cheese, and (flesh). 
 It also yields a profit from its hair, which is necessary for making 
 ropes, sacks, and similar articles, and for nautical purposes, since it 
 is not easily cut, and does not rot from natural causes, unless it be 
 much neglected. 
 
 Cicero {in Verrem, Act. i.) mentions Cilicia together 
 with hides and sacks {coria, saccos), and Asconius 
 Pedianus in his Commentary on the passage (p. 95. 
 ed. Crenii) gives the following explanation: "Cilicia 
 texta de pilis in castrorum usum atque nautarum." 
 Servius on Virgil, Georg. iii. 313. says, that these 
 Cilicia, or cloths of goats-hair, were used to cover the 
 towers in sieges, because they could not be set on 
 fire. 
 
 I refer to the Poliorcetica of Lipsius, L. iii. Dial. 3. 
 p. 158. for evidence respecting the use of hair ropes 
 
NAVAL PURPOSES. CURTAINS TO COVER TENTS. 141 
 
 for military engines, and to L. v. Dial. ix. for passages 
 from Thucydides, Arrian, Ammianus, Suidas, Vege- 
 tius, Curtius, and others, proving, that the besieged 
 in cities hung Cilicia (Gr. Seppelc) over their towers 
 and walls to obviate the force of the various weapons 
 hurled against them, and especially of the arrows, 
 which carried fire. 
 
 From Exodas xxv. 4. xxxv. 6. 23. 26. we learn, 
 that the Israelites in the wilderness among their con- 
 tributions to the Tabernacle gave goats-hair (DU3^, 
 Tp'iyac, a'lyelac, Sept. pilos caprarum, Vulg.), and that 
 it was spun by women, (nto, eVrjaov, Sept. neverunt, 
 Vulg.) The spun goats-hair was probably used in 
 part to make cords for the tent ; but part of it at least 
 was woven into the large pieces, called in the Septua- 
 gint Seppe7c Tpiyjivac, or simply ^eppelc, in the Vulgate 
 Saga de pilis caprarum, and in the Hebrew DlVn* 
 D*TJ^, " curtains of goats-hair." {Ex. xxvi. 7 — 13. 
 xxxvi. 14, 15.). Such curtains, or Saga, of spun 
 goats-hair seem to have been commonly used for the 
 covering of tents. But the investigation of this sub- 
 ject belongs properly to the Sixth Part of this in- 
 quiry. 
 
 Cloths of the same kind were used for rubbing 
 horses; " Ciliciis diligenter absterges." Vegetii Ars 
 Veter. Z. i. c. 42. 
 
 32. The term for goats-hair cloth in Hebrew, 
 Chaldee, and Syriac, is pD or i- e. shac, or sac, 
 translated 2AKK0E in the Septuagint, and saccus 
 in the Vulgate version of the Scriptures. The Latin 
 SAGUM, the meaning of which has been already ex- 
 plained*, appears to have had the same origin. In 
 English we have sack and shag, scarcely differing 
 * See above, § 24. p. 113, and § 26. p. 121. 
 
142 §32. ETYMOLOGY OF SACK AND SHAG. 
 
 from the oriental and ancient terms either in sound 
 or sense. 
 
 In treating hereafter of Hemp (in Book II.), I shall 
 have occasion to observe, that that substance was 
 never used for making sack-cloth by the ancients. 
 Their " fabrilia vasa*," i. e. bags for carrying work- 
 men's tools and for all similar purposes, were of goats- 
 hair. 
 
 Cilice, the modern French term for a hair shirt, is 
 immediately derived from Cilicium, the origin of which 
 has been explained f. 
 
 This kind of cloth, which was black or dark brown, 
 the goats of Syria and Palestine being chiefly of that 
 colour even to the present day, is alluded to in Rev. 
 vi. 12. " The sun shall become black as sack-cloth of 
 hair" (wc (tukkoc Tpi^woc) ; and in Is. I. 3. " I clothe 
 the heavens with blackness and make sack- cloth 
 their covering." It was worn to express mourning 
 and mortification. In Jonah iii. 5 — 8 we have a very 
 remarkable case ; for on this occasion blankets of 
 goats-hair were put on the bodies both of men and 
 beasts, and one was worn even by the king of Nine- 
 veh himself. In v. 5. we should translate " put on 
 hair-cloths ;" for the word is plural in the Hebrew, 
 and in the Septuagint the expression is literally trans- 
 lated eveSvffavTO aaKKovQ. So in V. 8, irepiefBaXovro 
 aaKKovc. On the other hand, in v. 6. it is said of the 
 king, Trepie^aXero golkkov, i. e. " he threw around him- 
 self a goats-hair blanket, or a hair-cloth." When 
 Herod Agrippa was seized at Csesarea with the mor- 
 tal distemper mentioned in Acts xii., the common 
 people sat down on hair-cloth according to the cus- 
 
 * See ^'arro, as quoted § 30. p. 137. 
 I Menage, Diet. Etym. v. Cilice. 
 
SYMBOLICAL USES OF SACK-CLOTH. 
 
 143 
 
 torn of their country, beseeching God on his behalf. 
 
 (eTTt (xaKKov KaOecrOeiaa, Josephus, Ant. Jucl. I. xix. cap. 8. 
 
 p. 872. Hudson.). So according to Josephus [Ant. 
 Jud. I. vii. cap. 7. p. 299.), David fell down upon sack- 
 cloth of the same description and lay on the ground 
 (Trecrwi/ en\ aaKKov kutu yrjc e/cetro), praying for the re- 
 storation of his son. 
 
 Hence the use of the hair-shirt by devotees in more 
 recent times. St. Basil, Bishop of Csesarea in the 
 4th century, in answer to the question. Whether a 
 monk ought to have besides his night-shirt (post noc- 
 turnam tunicam) a Cilicium or any other, says, " Ci- 
 licii quidem usus habet proprium tempus. Non enim 
 propter usus corporis, sed propter afflictionem carnis 
 inventum est hujuscemodi indumentum, et propter 
 humilitatem anima;*." He then adds, that as the 
 word of God forbids us to have two shirts {duas tu- 
 nicas), we ought not to have a second except for the 
 purpose here mentioned. From this it is clear, that the 
 Cilicium was not commonly worn by the monks, but 
 only at particular times for the sake of humiliation. 
 
 Dr. Sibthorp {in Memoirs, edited by Walpole,) in- 
 forms us, that in the present day the shepherds of 
 Attica " shear the goats at the same time with the 
 sheep, about April or May," and that the hair is made 
 into sacks, bags, and carpets, of which a considerable 
 quantity is exported. In modern as in ancient times, 
 the inhabitants of Greece subsist in a great measure 
 upon goats-milk and the cheese made from itf . 
 
 The wives of the Arabian shepherds still weave 
 goats-hair for their tents. This hair-cloth is nearly 
 black, and resembles that of which the London coal- 
 
 * From the ancient version of Rufinus, p. 175. ed. 1513. 
 t Dodwell's Tour, vol. i. p. 144. 
 
1 44 § 32. MODERN USES OF GOATS-HAIR AND GOATS-WOOL, 
 
 sacks are made*. The Arabs also hang bags of the 
 same cloth, containing barley, about the heads of 
 their horses to supply them with foodf. This too is 
 agreeable to our own practice. 
 
 The goat, as is the case with some other quadru- 
 peds, if confined to a country, which is hot in sum- 
 mer and very cold in winter, is always protected in 
 the latter season by an additional covering of fine 
 wool beneath its long hair. A specimen of the Sy- 
 rian goat in the Hunterian Museum at Glasgow shows 
 both the hair and the wool. In Kerman and Cash- 
 mere this very fine wool is obtained by combing the 
 goats in the spring, when it becomes loose ; and, 
 having been spun into yarn, it is used to make the 
 beautiful shawls brought from those countries. I find 
 no trace of the use of this material in ancient times. 
 All the accounts I have discovered mention goats- 
 hair only, and assert that it was employed for the 
 coarsest fabrics. 
 
 ' * Harmer's Observations, ch. ii. Obs. 36. Dr. Shaw's Travels, 
 Part iii. ch. 3. § 6. E, F. K. RosenmuUer, Biblische Alterthums- 
 kunde, iv. 2. p. 89. 
 
 t D'Arvieux and Thevenot, ap. Harmer, ch. v. Obs. 9. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Beavers-wool. 
 
 33. The passage quoted (<J31. p. 139.) from Isidorus 
 Hispalensis shows, that the ancients made a cloth, 
 the woof of which was of Beavers-wool {de fibri land), 
 and which was therefore called Vestis Fibrina. By 
 lana he must have meant the very fine wool, which, 
 agreeahly to the observation in the last paragraph, 
 grows under the long hair of the beaver. Isidore in 
 the same Book, observes, " Fibrinum lana est ani- 
 malium, quae fibros vocant : ipsos et castores existi- 
 mant." 
 
 The following Epigram of Claudian seems intended, 
 as Beckmann (iv. p. 223.) supposes, to describe " a 
 worn-out beaver dress, which had nothing more left 
 of that valuable fur but the name." 
 
 De Birro Castoreo. 
 Nominis umbra manet veteris : nam dicere Birrum, 
 
 Si (Ni ?) castor niteat, Castoreum nequeo. 
 Sex emptus solidis. Quid sit, jam scire potestis ; 
 
 Si mihi nulla fides, credite vel pretio. ^ 
 
 On a Beaver Mantle. 
 The shadow of its ancient name remains : 
 But, if no nap of beaver it retains, 
 A Beaver Mantle it can scarce be nam'd. 
 The price, however, proves its claim : it cost 
 Six pounds. Hence, though all lustre it has lost, 
 Yet, bought so dear, as beaver let it still be fam'd. 
 L 
 
146 
 
 §33. BEAVERS-WOOL. 
 
 Sidonius Apollinaris calls those who used this costly 
 apparel castorinati. Lib.v. Epist. 7 . p. 313. Paris, 1599, 
 4to. 
 
 Gerbert, or Gilbert, surnamed the Philosopher, and 
 afterwards Pope Silvester IT., commenting on the qua- 
 hties of a good bishop according to 1 Timothy iii. 1., 
 says in reference to the word " ornatum," " Quod si 
 juxta sensum hterae tantum respiciamus, non aliud, 
 sacerdotes, quam amictum quseremus clariorem; verbi 
 gratia, castorinas quseremus et sericas vestes : et ille 
 se inter episcopos credet esse altiorem, qui vestem 
 induerit clariorem. Sed S. Apostolus taliter se intel- 
 ligi non vult, quia non carne, &c." — De Informatione 
 Episcoporum, seu De Dignitate Sacerdotali, in ed. Be- 
 nedict. 0pp. S. Ambrosii, torn. ii. p. 358. 
 
 " An upper garment of this cloth was worn by the 
 Emperor Nicephorus II. at his coronation in the year 
 963." — Beckmann, I.e. §31. 
 
 " This method of manufacturing beavers-hair," ob- 
 serves Beckmann, " seems not to have been known 
 in the time of Pliny ; for, though he speaks much of 
 the castor, and mentions pellis fibrina three times, he 
 says nothing in regard to manufacturing the hair, or 
 to beaver-fur." 
 
 It seems probable, that the Greeks and Romans 
 did not use cloth of beavers-wool until the 4th cen- 
 tury. At least I have found no mention of it older 
 than the above-cited Epigram of Claudian. They 
 then probably became acquainted with it by import- 
 ation from the Northern countries of Europe, and 
 from Spain. 
 
 34. In an earlier age the furs and drugs supplied 
 by beavers were obtained from the countries to the 
 North of the Euxine Sea. But in the period now 
 
§ 34. DISPERSION OF BEAVERS THROUGH EUROPE. 147 
 
 under consideration the intercourse of the Romans 
 with the West of Europe would open a much more 
 extended sphere for procuring the Vestes Fibrinse, 
 since we have traces of the existence of beavers in 
 almost all parts of Europe. Their appearance in 
 Wales, Scotland, Germany, and the North of Europe 
 generally, is attested by Giraldus Cambrensis*. 
 
 Dr. Patrick Neill, in a valuable paper on this sub- 
 ject!, has given an account of the bones of recent 
 beavers found in Perthshire and Berwickshire. They 
 have also been found in Cambridgeshire J. We learn 
 from the life of Wulstan§, that beaver-furs, as well as 
 those of sables, foxes, and other quadrupeds, were 
 used by the Anglo-Saxons in very early times for 
 lining their garments. Other modern authors speak 
 of their occurrence in Austria, Hungary, and the 
 North of Italy II . They are still found in Sweden •[[. 
 Strabo informs us, that in his time they frequented 
 the rivers of Spain**. 
 
 BufFon says {Hist. Nat. tome 2,6. p. 98.), "There 
 are beavers in Languedoc in the islands of the Rhone, 
 and great numbers of them in the North of Europe." 
 " But as human population extends," he observes, 
 " beavers, like other animals, are dispersed, become 
 
 * Topographia Hibernise, c. 21, and Itinerarium Cambrise, 1. ii. 
 c. 3. 
 
 t Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. i. p. 177 — 187. 
 
 I Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. i. 
 part i. p. 175. 
 
 § See Extracts in Henry's History of Britain, vol. iv. 
 
 II Muratori, Antichita Italiane, tomo ii. p. 110. Napoli, 1783. 
 The authors, cited by Muratori, are Gervase of Tilbury, and Ma- 
 
 thioli. 
 
 ^ Travels in Sweden, by Dr. Thomas Thomson, p. 411. 
 ** Lib. iii. 163. vol. i. ]). 737, ed. Siebenkees. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 §34. FOSSIL BONES OF BEAVERS. 
 
 solitary, fugitive, or conceal themselves in the ground: 
 they cease to unite in bands, to engage in building or 
 other undertakings." 
 
 " We have been unable to ascertain," says Cuvier*, 
 " after the most scrupulous comparisons, if the Cas- 
 tors or Beavers, which burrow along the Rhone, the 
 Danube, and the Weser, are different in species from 
 those of North America, or if they are prevented from 
 building by the vicinity of man." The same distin- 
 guished author in his work on Fossil Bones says, 
 " The greater part of our European rivers having for- 
 merly supported beavers, and some of them doing so 
 still, viz. the Gardon and the Rhone in France, the 
 Danube in Bavaria and Austria, and several small 
 rivers in Westphalia and Saxony, we cannot be sur- 
 prized to find their bones preserved in our mosses, or 
 turbaries." He then mentions instances of the heads 
 and teeth of beavers, in the valley of the Somme in 
 Picardy, in the valley of Tonnis-stein near Andernach, 
 and at Urdingen on the Rhine in Rhenish Prussiaf. 
 
 * R^gne Animal, vol. iii. p. 65. of Griffith's Translation. 
 
 t CuAder, Ossemens Fossiles, tome v. partie 1^''^, p. 55.; partie 
 2"^^, p. 518. See also Annales du Museum d'Hist. Naturelle, 
 tome xiv. p. 47. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Camels-wool and Camels-hair. 
 
 35. We are informed by Ctesias, in a fragment of 
 the 10th Book of his Persic History, that there were 
 camels in a part of Persia, whose hair, soft as Mile- 
 sian fleeces, was used to make garments for the priests 
 and the other potentates*. 
 
 John the Baptist wore a garment of camels-hair 
 (evSvfia aVo rpiywv Kafxi]Xov) ; but this must be Sup- 
 posed to have been coarse. {Matt. iii. 4., Mark i. 6.) 
 This passage of scripture is illustrated by Harmer in 
 the following observationf : 
 
 "This hair, Sir J. Chardin tells us (in his MS. 
 note on 1 Sam. xxv. 4.) is not shorn from the camels 
 like wool from sheep, but they pull off" this woolly 
 hair, which the camels are disposed in a sort to cast 
 off" ; as many other creatures, it is well known, change 
 their coats yearly. This hair is made into clotli now. 
 Chardin assures us the modern dervishes wear such 
 garments." 
 
 Campbell, the poet, mentions a tent of camels-hair 
 cloth, which he saw at an Arab encampment between 
 Oran and Mascara in tbe kingdom of Algiers. It was 
 25 feet in diameter and very lofty. {Letters from the 
 
 * Apollonii Mirabilia xx. .^Elian, Hist. An. xvii. 34. Ctesiac 
 Fragmenta, a Biihr, p. 224. 
 
 t Ch. xi. Obs. 83. vol. iv. p. 416. ed. Clarke. 
 
150 §35. CAMELS-WOOL AND CAMELS-HAIR. 
 
 South, 1837, vol. ii. p. 212.) He also mentions (vol. i. 
 p. 161.) that the Kabyles or Berbers, who live in the 
 vicinity of Algiers, and are descended from the ori- 
 ginal occupants of the country, dwell in " tents of 
 camels-hair." We are informed, that the Chinese 
 make carpets of the same material*. Coverlets of 
 goats- or camels-hair are used by the soldiers in 
 Turkey to sleep underf. "The Circassians, when 
 marching, or on a journey, always add to their other 
 garments a cloak made from camel or goats-hair, 
 with a hood, which completely envelopes the whole 
 person." It is impenetrable by rain ; and it forms 
 their bed at night, and protects them from the scorch- 
 ing sun by dayj. 
 
 Fortunatus, in his Life of St. Martin (1. iv.) , describes 
 in the following lines a garment of such cloth ; but it 
 may be doubted whether he took his description from 
 actual knowledge of the use of it, or only from the ac- 
 count in Matthew of the dress of John the Baptist. 
 
 Modo subit aspera tela 
 Hispida, cameli rigido quasi vellere texta. 
 
 Camels-hair of annual growth would vary in fine- 
 ness according to circumstances, and might be used 
 either for the coarse raiment of prophets and der- 
 vises, or for the costly shawls, to which Ctesias al- 
 ludes. Fine wool, adapted to the latter purpose, 
 might also grow, as in the goat and beaver, beneath 
 the long hair of the camel. It has been doubted, 
 whether cloth so fine and beautiful as Ctesias asserts, 
 
 * China, its Costume, Arts, Manufactures, &c., by Bertin : trans- 
 lated from the French. London, 1812, vol. iv. 
 
 t Travels in Circassia, by Edmund Spencer, vol. i. p. 202. 
 X Ibid. vol. ii. p. 219. 
 
FINE CLOTHS STILL MADE OF CAMELS-WOOL. 151 
 
 could possibly be obtained from camels. The follow- 
 ing accounts by modern travellers illustrate and jus- 
 tify the statement of the suspected ancient. 
 
 Marco Polo, who travelled in the 13th century, in 
 his account of the city of Kalaka, which was in the 
 province of Tangut and subject to the Great Khan, 
 says*, "In this city they manufacture beautiful ca- 
 melots, the finest known in the world, of the hair of 
 camels and likewise of fine wool." According to 
 Pallas, {Travels, vol. ii. § 8.,) " From the hair of the 
 camel the Tartar women in the plains of the Crimea 
 manufacture a narrow cloth, which is used in its na- 
 tural colour, and is extremely warm, soft, and light." 
 According to Prosper Alpinus, {Hist. Nat. jEgypti, 
 I. iv. c. 7. p. 225.) the Egyptians manufactured from 
 the hair of their camels not only coarse cloth for 
 their tents, but other kinds so fine as to be worn by 
 princes and even by the senators of Venice. 
 
 Elphinstone, in his account of Cabul {p. 295.), men- 
 tions, that " Oormuk, a fine cloth made of camels- 
 wool," is among the articles imported into Cabul from 
 the Bokhara country. This country lies North of the 
 Oxus, and East of the Southern extremity of the 
 Caspian Sea, and is probably the country, to which 
 Ctesias more especially referred. A still more recent 
 authority is that of Moorcroft, who informs us, that 
 ' ' Cloth is now made from the wool of the wdld camels 
 of Khoten in Chinese Tartary," and that " at Astra- 
 khan a fine cloth is manufactured from the wool of 
 the camel foal of the first yearf." 
 
 * Book i. ch. 52. p. 235. of Marsden's Translation. 
 
 t Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. i. p. 241, 242. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 Fibres of the Pinna. 
 
 36. The Pinna of the ancients (Gr. nlvm) is a bi- 
 valve shell-fish, which, when full grown, is 18 inches 
 long, and about 6 inches wide at its broad end. It is 
 found near the shores of South Italy, Sicily, Corsica, 
 and Sardinia ; and also in the Bay of Smyrna. It fixes 
 itself perpendicularly in the sand by its narrow jointed 
 extremity, and attaches itself on one side by a tuft of 
 fibres to the sand and stones. 
 
 It is fished up in the Gulf of Tarentum by the Per- 
 nonico, which consists of two semi-circular bars of 
 iron fastened together at the ends. At one end is a 
 
§36. MODERN METHODS OF OBTAINING THE PINNA. 153 
 
 wooden pole, at the other a ring and cord. The 
 fishermen bring their boat over the place, where the 
 Pinna is seen through the clear water, let down the 
 Pernonico, and, having loosened the Pinna by em- 
 bracing it with the iron bars and twisting it round, 
 draw it up to the boat. 
 
 Besides the method here described, the Pinna is 
 also obtained by diving. Poll, in his splendid work 
 on the Sicilian Testacea {Parma, 1795, folio), gives 
 beautiful representations of the several species and 
 especially of the Pinna Nobilis*. The following de- 
 scription of submarine scenery and operations is so 
 vivid and pleasing that I quote it entire. 
 
 Pinnis hujusmodi abundant prae caeteris litus Trinacrise, sinus 
 Tarentinus, oraque maritima Crateris Neapolitani, potissimum ultra 
 Promontorium Pausilypi. Equidem persurama adficimur animi ju- 
 cunditate, quoties illarum piscationis recordamur, quam vere jam 
 inchoato inibi facere iterum iterumque consuevimus. Est ad Insu- 
 1am Nisitae, qua iUa ad septentrionem vergit, respicitque contra 
 Pausilypi Promontorium, amoenissimi maris plaga, quoddam maris 
 ocium. Ibi inter ingentes, pulcherrimosque marinarum stirpium 
 saltus, quibus plaga ilia undique virescit, oculosque animumque re- 
 creat, Pinnarum greges sponte gignuntur ; quae mari tranquillo, 
 umbrisque ab insulae summitate cadentibus, ab iis qui cymbis insis- 
 tunt, ad triginta fermfe pedum altitudinem, subrectae, inque fundo 
 arenoso defixae perspicue cemi possunt. Urinatores igitur, sese 
 mari submergentes, illis arripiendis destinantur. Quoniam vero, 
 ne reiteratis quidem ictibus, ab arena, ubi consitae sunt, educi que- 
 unt ; arena etenim, et pondere suo et altissima aquarum mole sibi 
 incumbente fortiter stipata, urinatorum conatibus valid^ resistit ; hi 
 maris fundum nacti, ibique veluti in solo sedentes, arenam Pinnae 
 circumjectam manibus averrunt, Pinnamque deinceps ambabus ma- 
 nibus comprehensam divellere conantur. Et si diutius, quam par 
 est, spiritum cohibere nequeunt, ad summa aequorum ascendunt, su- 
 beribusque aquae innatantibus inibi de indu stria positis innituntur, 
 
 * The figure of the Pinna Nobilis in the Vignette prefixed to this 
 Chapter is reduced from Plate xxxiv. in vol. ii. 
 
154 §36. POLl's ACCOUNT OF THE PINNA FISHERY. 
 
 donee tandem aeris haustu recreati, maris fundum iterum petant, 
 operamque penitus absolvant. v. ii. p. 230, 231. 
 
 This species of Pinna is especially abundant on the shores of 
 Sicily, in the Gulf of Taranto, and in the Bay of Naples, particu- 
 larly beyond the Cape of Posilipo. It always fills my mind with 
 the greatest delight to recollect the manner of fishing for it, in which 
 I have often taken a part" at that spot in the commencement of 
 spring. On the northern shore of the Isle of Nisida opposite Posi- 
 lipo, is a most agreeable expanse of water, where the sea appears to 
 be ever at rest. Here, amidst those vast and most beauteous sub- 
 marine forests, with which the coast is decorated in every direction 
 so as at once to charm the mind and to refresh the eye, the Pinna 
 grows spontaneously in large groups, and in calm water, when the 
 shadows fall from the summit of the island, is clearly seen by per- 
 sons in boats growing nearly upright and fixed in the sandy bottom 
 at the depth of about thirty feet. There are divers, whose business 
 it is to bring it up. But, since it cannot be loosened even by 
 repeated blows, (for the sand firmly resists the attempts of the 
 diver, being supported by its own weight and by the superincum- 
 bent water,) in these circumstances he sits down at the bottom of 
 the sea, brushes away with his fingers the earth which encompasses 
 the shell, and then endeavours to pull it up by seizing it with both 
 hands. If he is thus detained at the bottom longer than he can 
 hold his breath, he ascends to the surface, supports himself upon 
 corks, which are in readiness for him, and, when he has sufficiently 
 recovered himself by breathing, he again dives to the bottom to com- 
 plete his task. 
 
 The Italians call the fibres Lana Pesce or Lana 
 Penna, i. e. Fish Wool, or Pinna Wool. It is not 
 equally good in all places. When the bottom of the 
 sea is sandy, the shell with its bunch of fibres may 
 be easily extracted, and they are silky and of a fine 
 colour. But in rushy and muddy bottoms they stick 
 so fast as to be generally broken in drawing up, and 
 are of a blackish colour without gloss. 
 
 The Lana Penna is twice washed in tepid water, 
 once in soap and water, and again in tepid water, 
 then spread on a table to dry : while yet moist, it 
 
MANUFACTURE OF THE FIBRES. 
 
 155 
 
 is nibbed and separated with the hand, and again 
 spread on the table. When quite dry, it is drawn 
 through a wide comb of bone, afterwards through 
 a narrow one. That which is destined for very 
 fine works is also drawn through iron combs, called 
 scarde (cards). It is then spun with a distaff and 
 spindle. 
 
 As it is impossible to procure much of this mate- 
 rial of a good quality, the manufacture is very limited, 
 and the articles manufactured, stockings and gloves, 
 are expensive. They are reckoned excellent preserva- 
 tives against cold and damp, are soft and very warm, 
 and the finest of a brown cinnamon, or glossy gold 
 colour. The manufacture is chiefly carried on at 
 Taranto, the ancient Tarentum* . 
 
 The Lana Penna, having been spun, is now almost 
 universally knit. But, as it does not appear that the 
 ancients were acquainted with this process f, whatever 
 garments they made of this material must have been 
 woven. 
 
 37. The first proof we possess of its use among 
 them is in TertuUian {De Pallio, iii. p. 115, Rigaltii). 
 Speaking of the materials for weaving, he says, 
 
 Nec fuit satis tunicam pangere et serere, ni etiam piscari vestitum 
 contigisset : nam et de mari vellera, quo mucosae lanusitatis plauti- 
 ores conchae comant. 
 
 Nor was it enough to comb and to sow the materials for a tunic. 
 It was necessary also to fish for one's dress. For fleeces are ob- 
 
 * Riedesel's Travels through Sicily and Grsecia Magna, translated 
 by J. R. Forster, London, 1773, p. 17S— 180. De Salis, Travels in 
 the Kingdom of Naples. Keppel Craven, Tour through the South- 
 ern Provinces of the Kingdom of Naples, p. 185. D'Argenville, 
 Lithol. et Conchologie, p. 183. and Plate 25. 
 
 t See above, § 1 . p. 6, 7. 
 
156 §37. USE OF THE FIBRES OF THE PINNA 
 
 tained from the sea, where shells of extraordinary size are furnished 
 with tufts of mossy hair*. 
 
 Procopius informs us (De Edif. lib. iii. c. 1.), that 
 Armenia was governed by five hereditary satraps, who 
 received their insignia from the Roman Emperor. 
 Among these was a Chlamys made of the fibres of the 
 
 Pinna. (XXojuuc v eplwv 7re7ro(»/^ecjj, ou^ oia TWf vpo- 
 ^ar'iwv eKirk^vKev, aXX ek QaXaaar\c, avveiXeyfxevwv' tt'iv- 
 vovc, TO. Z,wa KoXeiv vevofx'iKaai, ei> etc v tiSv ep'iwv e/c0i»<Tic 
 
 ylverai.) This chlamys was fastened with a fibula of 
 gold, in which a precious stone was set, and three 
 hyacinths were suspended from it by golden chains 
 
 {■^pvaaic re Kal -^aXapa ic aXvaeaiv) . The chlamyS WaS 
 
 accompanied by a silken tunic, adorned with sprigs 
 or "feathers" of gold. It is thus described : 
 
 Xiro))' €K fieTa^rjs, eynnWiOTrlafiaffi -)(pv(Jols Travraypdev (opaicrfieyos, 
 
 With the chlamys and tunic were worn boots of red 
 leather, such as only the emperors of Rome and Persia 
 were allowed to wear. 
 
 In one of the old Glossaries we find " Yl'ivvivov, Ma- 
 rinum," meaning Wiwivov epiov, Vellus marinum, and no 
 doubt referring to the substance under consideration!. 
 
 St. Basil mentions with admiration "the golden 
 fleece" of the Pinna, which no artificial dye could 
 
 imitate. Tl69ev to y^pvaovv epiov al nivvai TpeCpovaiv, OTrep 
 ov^eis Twv di>9o(5a(f)u)v efxijxhcTaTO ; Hexaem. vii. 
 
 * In this passage piscari is rather fancifully opposed to pangere 
 and serere. The former of these two terms (pangere) refers to tunics 
 of wool, which was pacta or pexa ; the latter to tunics of cotton and 
 flax, which were sata. The epithet plautiores, (etymologically allied 
 to latiores, and to TrXarvs,) well describes the large size and expanded 
 form of the Pinna. 
 
 t Salm. in Tertull. de Pallio, p. 218. Steph. Thes. L. Gr. ed. 
 Valpy, vol. viii. p. 139. 
 
FOR CLOTHING AMONG THE ANCIENTS. 157 
 
 38. Whether the tuft of the Pinna was used for 
 weaving before the time of the authors, who have now 
 been cited, seems doubtful. As the Pinna is fre- 
 quently mentioned by earlier writers, both Greek and 
 Latin*, but without any reference to the use of its 
 tuft, it may be regarded as probable, that this kind of 
 cloth was not invented before the time of Tertullian. 
 
 It is a no less curious question, Whence did the 
 ancients obtain the fibres of the Pinna, and where 
 was the manufacture of them carried on ? 
 
 It has been commonly said at Tarentum, but appa- 
 rently for no other reason than that the Pinna is ob- 
 tained and the manufacture principally carried on at 
 Taranto in modern times. By referring to the above 
 quoted ancient authorities, it will be seen that none of 
 them makes any allusion to Tarentum. Consequently 
 we have no direct evidence, that this was the seat of 
 the ancient manufacture. On the contrary we have 
 evidence, that fine cloths of this substance were made 
 in India, and thence imported into Greece and other 
 countries. 
 
 The author of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, a 
 document of an age at least as late as the time of Ter- 
 tullian, states that the business of diving for the wool 
 of the Pinna (KoXu|u/3»}<Ttc rov TriviKov) was carried on 
 near the city called Colchi in the south of India, and 
 he adds the following particulars : 
 
 'Ky evi tottu) repofelrai Trap' avT)}v rfjs 'llirioSb>pov (rvWeyonevov 
 iriviKov. ^epovrai yap tl avrrjs uiydoi'es 'EjSapyopem^es Xeyofierai. 
 
 It is evident that this passage requires emendation, 
 especially as there is no such word as repoi'elTai in the 
 Greek language. The correction and illustration of 
 
 * The passages are collected in Stephani Thesaurus L. Graecae, ed. 
 Valpy, p. 7579. 
 
158 §38. MANUFACTURE OF THE FIBRES OF THE 
 
 it was first attempted by Salmasius in his Exercita- 
 tiones Plinian(E in Solinum, p. 780, 79 1 , sub fin. cap. 53. 
 He there supposes ttivikov to mean Pearls, and conse- 
 quently T] /coXw/t/BTjcric Tou TTiviKov to mcau the Pearl- 
 fishery. He conjectures, that instead of repoveiTai we 
 should read Trepovelrai, and supposes the perforation of 
 the pearls to be meant (perforatur margaritum) : and 
 he further supposes aivdovec i^apyafte'iTiSec, i. 6. " tu- 
 nica mar garitides," to mean aiv^ovec Kara/napyapoi, 1. e. 
 " tunica margaritis conferta." In supposing the Pearl- 
 fiishery to be alluded to, Salmasius appears to have 
 followed Stuck, who published the Periplus with a 
 Latin translation in 1577 : and these authorities have 
 been implicitly followed by Blancard in his edition of 
 Arrian {Amstel. 1683), the Latin version of Stuck 
 being there adopted ; by Hudson in his Geographia 
 Scriptores Minores, Oxon. 1698 ; and by Dr. Vincent in 
 his Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, p. 485 — 493. These 
 learned men, especially Hudson and Vincent, ought 
 to have known, that Salmasius afterwards retracted 
 and decidedly condemned the above interpretation. 
 In his Commentary on Tertullian De Pallio, published 
 after his death L. Bat. 1656, he says he has no doubt, 
 that the reference is to the fishery for the wool of 
 the Pinna, to ttivivov, or ttivikov epiov. Instead of his 
 former emendation irepoveiTai, which indeed seems on 
 various accounts inadmissible, he proposes epioveirai, 
 i.e. netur, " is spun like tvool.'^ This latter conjecture 
 of Salmasius appears to me just*. It also agrees re- 
 markably with what follows. For onvSwi' e(3apyap€iTic 
 
 * TlepoveTrai seems quite inadmissible, the verb, derived from 
 Trepovtj, being nepoi'cuo, not Trepoviw. But even TreporaTai v ould be 
 too poetical a word to be found here. TpvTrdrai is the word for per- 
 foratur. 
 
PINNA CARRIED ON IN ANCIENT INDIA. 159 
 
 must here be supposed equivalent to aiv^tjv /mapyape'iTiG 
 or perhaps aiv^wv eKfiapyapelnc, that is, fine cloth 
 obtained from shells which yielded pearls, among 
 which the Pinna is included*. B is often put for Mf, 
 and it is very probable that all kinds of shells, which 
 were gathered in the Indian seas for manufacturing 
 purposes, or at least those which yielded pearl or 
 mother of pearl, were called Margarita. Different 
 species of Pinna with fine tufts of silk are now no less 
 abundant in the Indian than in the Mediterranean 
 Sea. Notwithstanding, therefore, the corrupted state 
 of the text, the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea presents 
 a sufficient proof, that this beautiful substance was 
 spun and woven by the Indians, whereas we can only 
 suppose from analogy that the manufacture was car- 
 ried on in ancient times by the Tarentines. 
 
 * Linn. Syst. Nat. The specimens of Pinna in the British Mu- 
 seum show not only the tuft, but also the pearls and the mother of 
 pearl. Poli found in one specimen of the Pinna Nobilis twenty pearls, 
 and has given figures of them in his splendid work. Pliny (l.ix. c.35.) 
 mentions the practice of diving for the Pinna in the Mediterranean 
 Sea in order to obtain pearls from it : and Athenaeus (1. iii. p. 93 
 Casaub.) has preserved extracts from two historical writers, one of 
 whom accompanied Alexander on his Indian expedition, and who in- 
 form us, that the Pinna was obtained in the Indian seas, by diving and 
 for the sake of the pearls. 
 
 t Salmasius in Tert. p. 123. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Silk. 
 
 39. Whether Silk is ever mentioned in the Old 
 Testament cannot perhaps be determined. 
 
 In Ezek. xvi. 10 and 13, "silk" is used in the 
 common English bible for ^W'D, which occurs no where 
 except here, but which, as appears from the context, 
 certainly meant some valuable article of female dress. 
 Le Clerc and Rosenmiiller translate it "smco;" Coc- 
 ceius, Schindler, Buxtorf, in their Lexicons, and Dr. 
 John Taylor in his Concordance, give the same in- 
 terpretation. Augusti and De Wette in their German 
 translation make it signify " a silken veil." Others 
 give different interpretations. The only ground, on 
 which silk of any kind is supposed to be meant, is 
 that in the Alexandrine or Septuagint version 'ti>X3 is 
 translated TplxaT^rov, and rpiyanrov is explained by 
 Hesychius to mean " the silken web fitted to be placed 
 over the hair of the head" (to (iofifivKivov vcparrjua 
 
 vrrep twv rpt-^MV Trjc, /ce(^aX»)C anropevov), and that 
 
 other ancient Greek lexicographers also suppose a 
 silken garment to be meant*. But the meaning of 
 rp'iyavTov is in reality as obscure as that of 'ti^Q. 
 Jerome could not discover it, and concluded that the 
 word was invented by the Greek translator. It is 
 now extant no where else except in a passage of the 
 
 * See Schleusner, Lexicon in LXX., v. Tpl-j^airTov. 
 
^39. SILK PROBABLY NOT MENTIONED IN O. T. 161 
 
 comic Pherecrates preserved in Athenaeus. Schneider, 
 followed by Passow, supposes it to mean some gar- 
 ment made of hair, and quotes to this effect the ex- 
 planation of Pollux (2. 24.), Al- 
 though, therefore, the term in question may possibly 
 have denoted some elegant and costly ornament for 
 the head, made at least partly of silk, yet this opinion 
 appears to rest altogether upon the assumption, first, 
 that tfie ancient lexicographers are accurate in their 
 use of the epithet j3ofi(BvKivoi', and secondly, that the 
 Alexandrine version is accurate in adopting the word 
 rpi-^aTTTOV. 
 
 In Isaiah xix. 9, according to King James's Transla- 
 tors and Bishop Lowth, mention is made of those "that 
 work in fine flax," in the original nipHJi' D'njy£3 H^y. 
 Rosenmiiller adopts nearly the same interpretation, 
 which is founded upon the use of the verb p"iti^ or 
 j51D in the Chaldee and Syriac dialects to denote the 
 operation of combing flax, wool, hair, and other sub- 
 stances. In this sense the word has been taken by 
 the author of the Alexandrine Version, towc IpyaKo- 
 iJtevovc TO \lvov TO a-^icTToi' ; by Symmachus, who in- 
 stead of a-^icrrw uses Kreviarop ; and by Jerome, " qui 
 operabantur linnm pectentes." 
 
 In the Targum of Jonathan and in the Syriac Version 
 the same root is taken to denote silk ; NJDD Tt^D 
 ]'pnD"T Targ. ^v^^r '-"^ ^j^iii. Syr. Both of these 
 seem to admit of the following literal translation, 
 " those who make silken tunics," or in Latin, " Fac- 
 tores tunicarum e sericis." 
 
 Kimchi supposes ^)^p'>'^\t^ to mean silk tvebs, ob- 
 serving that silk is called piti^ by the Arabs. The 
 same opinion has been adopted by Nicholas Fuller*, 
 * Miscellanea Sacra, 1. ii. c. 11. 
 M 
 
162 ^ 40. TESTIMONY OF ARISTOTLE 
 
 Buxtorf, and other modern critics. Kennicott, how- 
 ever, arranges the words in two lines as follows, 
 
 According to this arrangement, which seems most 
 suitable to the rules of grammatical construction, we 
 have three co-ordinate phrases in the plural number, 
 denoting three different classes of artificers.' The 
 second, mp'IJ!^, would by its termination denote fe- 
 male artificers, viz. women employed in combing wool, 
 flax, or other substances. On the whole I am inclined 
 to adopt this explanation of the word, as it appears to 
 be attended with the least difficulty, either grammati- 
 cal or etymological. 
 
 Silk is mentioned Prov. xxxi. 22. in King James's 
 Translation, i. e. the common English version, and in 
 the margin of Gen. xli. 42. But the use of the word 
 is quite unauthorized. 
 
 After a full examination of the whole question 
 Braunius* decides that there is no mention of silk in 
 the whole of the Old Testament and that it was un- 
 known to the Hebrews in ancient times. 
 
 40. The first ancient author, who affords any evi- 
 dence respecting the use of silk, is Aristotle. After 
 speaking of other worms and caterpillars he gives the 
 following account, which is the more deserving of at- 
 tention, because, as we shall see, it is adopted with 
 various modifications by later authorsf. 
 
 * De vestitu Heb. Sacerdotum. 1. 1. cap. viii. § 8. 
 
 t By Pliny, Clemens Alex., and Basil. See below, § 43. § 44. and 
 § 50. The first portion of this passage, relating to the changes of the 
 silk-worm, is partially quoted by Athenseus viii. 352. (p. 772, Din- 
 dorf.) 
 
RESPECTING THE WEAVING OF SILK IN COS. 163 
 
 'Ek Si rivos aico)\r)Kos fieydXov, os e^ei olov icepara kcu Siafepei -tSv 
 aXKiiiv, yiverai irpQrov /Lter fieruliaXorTos tov i7Kbi\7]K0i Kafjnn], eVeira 
 l3ofil3u\ius, tK Se TOVTOV reKvtaXos' ec el fitjal |uera/3a'XXet ravras 
 ray fxop(j)ds Tra'tras. tK Se tovtov tov i^uiov Kai ra fionftvKia dvaXvovtri 
 rijjv yvvaiKwv rtres dyaTrrji i^oj^iei'at, K^rreiTa v(buivov<nV Trpurr) S^ 
 Xeyerat i/^rjvai e>' K&J XlofiftXr) UXareio Ovydrrip — Hist. Anim. v. 
 c. 19.;?. 850, Duval. 
 
 Aristotle does not appear to have been accurately 
 acquainted with the changes of the silk-worm ; nor 
 does he say, that the animal was bred or the raw ma- 
 terial produced in Cos. He only says, " Pamphile, 
 daughter of Plates, is reported to have first woven it 
 in Cos." Long before the time of Aristotle a regular 
 trade had been established into the interior of Asia, 
 which brought its most valuable productions, and 
 especially those which were most easily transported, to 
 the shores opposite this flourishing island. Nothing 
 therefore is more likely than that the raw silk from 
 the interior of Asia was brought to Cos and there 
 manufactured. We shall see hereafter from the tes- 
 timony of Procopius, that it was in like manner 
 brought some centuries later to be woven in the Phoe- 
 nician cities, Tyre and Berytus. This passage of 
 Aristotle is so important, that it is worth our while 
 by an analysis of its meaning to inquire how far his 
 knowledge on the subject was consistent with fact, 
 and in what respects it was defective or erroneous. 
 
 It may be premised, that the text appears to be 
 correct. I do not find, that the manuscripts or edi- 
 tions vary except that Schneider omits r^u aXXwv 
 after ^lacfyipei. Also, on comparing the passage as 
 here exhibited with the quotation of it by Athenaeus, 
 we see that the former part, relating to the changes 
 of the silk-worm, was found by him in the state in 
 which we have it. 
 
 M 2 
 
1G4 
 
 §40. Aristotle's DESCRIPTION 
 
 The first part of the description also seems accu- 
 rate, E/c TU'OC ff/cwA>//coc /.leyuXov, oc 'e\ei o'lov Kepara. 
 I suppose this to refer to the common silk-worm, 
 which is the caterpillar of the Phalfsna Mori of Lin- 
 naeus. This caterpillar agrees with the description 
 hoth in regard to size, and in the circumstance of 
 having a kind of horn or spine at its tail*. I know 
 
 * On the other hand the native silk- worms of India, known by 
 the names of the Tusseh, Arrindi, Bhugi and Kolisurra worms, 
 (Phalaena Paphia, P. Cynthia, &c.,) which are bred in the Deccan, 
 in Bengal, Bootan, and Assam, have no horn. After much consi- 
 deration I have come to the conclusion, that there is no reference 
 to these worms or their productions in ancient authors ; but that 
 those of them (to wit, Clemens Alexandrinus, St. Basil and his 
 translators, the uncertain Greek author quoted in § 51, and Servius), 
 who mention " the Indian worm," mean the Chinese worm, the larva 
 of the Phalsena Mori. See below, § 44. § 48. § 50. and § 51. 
 
 A somewhat different opinion is advanced by M. Latreille in the 
 Regne Animal of Cuvier, tom. v. p. 400. He thinks that the Pha- 
 lsena Paphia (Bombyx Mylitta of Fabricius) and the Phalaena Cyn- 
 thia, which are the moths of the above-named Indian silk-worms, 
 were also natives of China, and that these were the wild silk- worms 
 mentioned by those, who have written upon the productions of that 
 country. His words are as follows : — 
 
 " Je me suis assure, d'apr^s la communication que m'a fait 
 M. Huzard, d'un manuscrit chinois sur cet objet, que les chenilles 
 de ces bombyx etaient les vers a soie sauvages de la Chine. Je con- 
 jecture qu'une partie des soieries que les anciens se procuraient par 
 leur commerce maritime avec les Indiens provenaient de la soie de 
 ces chenilles." 
 
 It is with the greatest diffidence, that I would oppose so high an 
 authority on entomological subjects as M. Latreille, and there may 
 be some difficulty in replying to him, because we do not know the 
 grounds of the opinion, which he avows. I conceive, however, that 
 the two following authorities are in opposition to his deductions from 
 the Chinese manuscript, to which he refers. 
 
 M. Breton, whose words I shall quote in § 49, and whose account 
 of the wild silk- worms of China is more minute than any other I 
 have seen, says, that " the domestic silk-worm is but a variety of 
 
OF THE SILK-WORM. 
 
 ITS HORN. 
 
 165 
 
 not, that any account of the silk-worm and its changes 
 has appeared, more full, exact, and accurate than that 
 of the learned and ingenious Andrew Libavius, who 
 bred them at Rothenburg on the Tauber. He pub- 
 lished his observations A.D. 1 599 in the first volume 
 of his Singularia, p. 426 — 451, and the narrative is 
 copied entire in the Historia Naturalis of Dr. John 
 Johnston, A.D. 1657*. Libavius, describing the ap- 
 pearance of the worm, thus speaks of its horn, " In 
 
 the wild species." It is impossible that any one, who had even the 
 slightest information upon the subject, could make such an assertion, 
 if the wild silk-worm were the Phalsena Paphia, or any thing like it. 
 So manifestly and even to the commonest eye is the Phalsena Paphia, 
 v/ith its transparent circular windows, its large flat wings, and its vivid 
 and variegated plumage, distinguished from the Phalaena Mori with 
 much smaller wings, which have no windows in them, and which are 
 of a pretty uniform and much fainter colour. 
 
 I find the following remarks in Barrow's Travels in China, 
 p. 437. 
 
 " The Emperor Kaung-Shee, in his Observations on Natural 
 History, takes notice that the Chinese are greatly mistaken, when 
 they say that silk was an exclusive product of China ; for that the 
 upper regions of India have a native worm of a larger growth, and 
 which spins a stronger silk than any in China." 
 
 I know not at what time the Emperor Kaung-Shee lived ; but it 
 is evident, that he had, as a naturalist, some knowledge of the native 
 silk-worms of India, and considered them quite distinct from those 
 of China. 
 
 Besides systematic works I refer to the Linn. Trans, vol. vii., to 
 the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. iii., and to Shaw's 
 Naturalist's Miscellany, vol. xvi. plates 659, G60. (copied from Linn. 
 Trans.), for accounts of the native silk- worms of India. 
 
 In proceeding with this subject I shall have occasion to refer more 
 particularly to the properties and productions of the wild silk-worms 
 of China, and possibly some further light may then be obtained for 
 the illustration of the present question. See § 46 and ^ 49. 
 
 * Alexander ab Alexandre, who lived at Naples at the time of 
 the revival of learning, also gives a brief, but distinct and clear ac- 
 count of the changes of tlie worm. Gen. Dicruin, iv. 9. 
 
1 66 ^40. Aristotle's description of the silk-worm. 
 
 fine dorsi, ubi est alvi exitus, pinna qusedam parva 
 prominet." He says, that, although they differed in 
 size, a full-grown worm was the length of a man's 
 middle finger, but the thickness of the little finger. 
 His words are, "Ex parva bestiola (fit) vermis, me- 
 dium digitum viri mediocris tribus articulis junctis 
 longus, crassus fer^ auricularem, quanqukm non om- 
 nium eadem sit magnitudo." The form and position 
 of the horn may be seen in the various engravings of 
 the silk-worm, which have been published by Moufet, 
 Aldrovandus, Johnston, Malpighi, Rosel, Lardner*, 
 and in that which is here inserted. 
 
 Aristotle's description would certainly have been 
 more satisfactory, if instead of Kepara he had written 
 Kepac, since the silk-worm has only one horn. But it 
 may be questioned, whether by using the plural he 
 meant that the silk-worm has more horns than one, 
 or whether he intended to speak of the class, respect- 
 ing which we should say, They have horns. Pliny 
 {See Appendix D.) evidently understood him accord- 
 
 * Account of the Silk Manufacture (in the Cabinet Cyclopedia), 
 p. 110. Another figure of the silk-worm, perhaps the best hitherto 
 published, may be seen in the Annalcs des Sciences Naturelles, 
 2nde Serie, Octobre, 1837. 
 
ITS HORN, ITS SIZE, ITS CHANGES. 167 
 
 ing to the former explanation, and has, probably by 
 following a suggestion of his own mind, translated 
 Kepara gemina cornua, and has thus decided, that the 
 animal has two horns. 
 
 Aristotle is also tolerably correct with respect to 
 the time, which the silk-worm takes to undergo its 
 transmutations. In fact they always take place in 
 less time than he supposes. 
 
 On the other hand he appears to have been ill in- 
 formed respecting the nature of these changes. He 
 indicates four successive states of the animal by the 
 terms o-KwXrj^, /ca^KTrrj, (iofxjBvXioc, and veKvBaXoc, for 
 which Pliny uses vermiculus, cruca, bombylius, and 
 necydalus, not translating the two latter terms at all. 
 In English we may translate a/cwAr/^ a worm, and 
 Ka/LiTTT) a caterpillar. It cannot be with truth asserted, 
 that the animal in question is first a large horned 
 
 worm (rjKivXr)^ i^eyac, oc e-^ei o'lov Kefjara), and then is 
 
 changed into a caterpillar (K-a/iT»j), so that Aristotle 
 was certainly in error in this part of his description. 
 He here supposes two successive states, when he 
 ought to have supposed only one. With regard to 
 the following part, in which he says, that the cater- 
 pillar became a Bo^jGuXioc and this a Ne/fu§aXoc, we 
 cannot with any certainty judge whether he and his 
 followers were in the right or in the wrong, because 
 we find no other example of the use of these terms in 
 connection with the present subject, and therefore 
 cannot say, except from conjecture or from analogical 
 reasoning, what ideas were annexed to them either 
 by Aristotle or by any other Greek. 
 
 Schneider concludes, that Bo/u/3uXioc meant the co- 
 coon, and Ne/cuSctXoc the moth, because this explana- 
 tion is agreeable to the real order of the changes in 
 
168 $40. INVESTIGATION OF THE MEANING 
 
 nature*. But it is manifestly improper to assume, 
 first, that Aristotle was accurately acquainted with 
 the subject, and then to assign to his words senses 
 founded solely on that assumption. I shall now offer 
 some considerations to show, that Schneider was pro- 
 bably right in his interpretation of the terms, although 
 he has not supported that interpretation by any satis- 
 factory arguments. 
 
 With a view to the elucidation of the word Bofxfiv- 
 Xioc, I will here anticipate a criticism upon a passage 
 which I shall hereafter (§ 55.) quote from Isidorus 
 Hispalensis, and I do so because Bo;u|3i;^ and its di- 
 minutive Bo^ijSvATiov, and also Bo^ifivXioc with the con- 
 nected forms Bo/»/3uX»?. Boft(iv\ic, &c. are all used in 
 reference to the silk-worm ; because it is evident that 
 they are etymologically related ; and because all the 
 lexicographers, both ancient and modern, have classed 
 them under the same root and considered them as 
 bearing analogous significations. The notion, ex- 
 pressed by Isidore, is that the silk-worm was called 
 Bombyx, because in spinning its thread it empties 
 itself of its own substance so as to become hollow. 
 We find, that all the above-mentioned terms are re- 
 ferred by the lexicographers, and with obvious pro- 
 priety, to the root Bomb in Bo;u/3oc, Bo^|3ew, &c. This 
 root was the imitation of a sound, and was employed 
 in forming names for any objects, whether dead or 
 alive, which produced that sound, or which from being 
 hollow were adapted to produce it. Hence a hum- 
 ming or buzzing insect was called Bo/^jSu^ or Bo/ii(5v- 
 Kiov, and another insect of similar properties was 
 called Bo^ujStiAtof., Bo/</3uXioi', or Bo/ij3i;Aoi'. But, besides 
 this signification, we are assured on the authority of 
 * Eclogae Physicse, vol, ii. ]>. 52. 
 
OF THE TERM BOMBYAI02. 
 
 169 
 
 numerous ancient authors, that the terms Bo^i)3uXtoc, 
 Bo;tt/3uXtov, BoiLi(3v\oi>, and BojujSuXrj, were also used to 
 denote those oval or roundish vessels, with narrow 
 mouths or necks, which were employed to hold wine, 
 but still more frequently to contain oil or ointments, 
 which were also called Ar'iKvOoi [Lacryniatories) , and 
 which were commonly deposited in the tombs, being 
 frequently altogether or very nearly empty*. If now 
 
 * 1. 'E/3o/j/3eo>'. "ll-)(ovi'. "Oder Kat (iofifiliXri, eT2os fxeXlrra-rjs. Kai 
 ■TTOTiiplov de eicos, w$ 'AprifTdevrjs ndpaSicwirir. "Eort tovto arei o- 
 rpa-xriXor. Schol. in Apollon. Rhod. ii. 569. 
 
 2. BOMBYAIOS" (norljpiot') OripiK-Xeiov'PoSiaKoi', ov Trepl rljs Ideas 
 2i(ijKpaTr]s (prja-lr, " Ot fiev Ik ^taXjjs Tvivovres oaiiv OiXuvai ra^tffr' 
 (iTraXXayiicroyrat , o'l de eK j3o^l3vXiov Kara ^iicpov arai^ovTes." eari de 
 Ka\ ^loou ri. Athenseus, 1. xi. § 29. p. 465. (1042 Dind.). 
 
 AEQASTH. * * * * 'Api,TTO(j>('iyr)s Eipi'irri. 
 
 Tt d^r, e-a-eiday eicTr/rjs divov kIiXiko Xeirairrtjy; 
 a(f ?)s euTi Xa\l/ai, TOVTeariv aOpoots Trieir, KarevuvTiov Xeyofieru 
 fionftvXiio. Ibid. § 70. p. 485. (1086 Dind.). 
 
 3. BofjjjuXrir, Xt'iicvdoi'. 
 
 BofijjoXioi, TTOTripiov yeros /caret fxiKpor irurov ara^ovTOS, 66ey dia 
 TOV J/X*"' fvTw Kei;Xr](Tdai, j; L,(jiuv rj'^^ov rivix ttoiovv, tov yevavs tiZv 
 acprjicwv' ij /xeXiircra peyuXri, j) fiv'in. (Anglice, the Bumble Bee.) 
 Hesychius. 
 
 4. \iofxftvXios de, to OTevov eKTrwfia, khi jjofxfiovv ev rp Trocrei, ws 
 'AvTiadei r]i ev UporpeTrriKu. Julius Pollux, 1. vi. § 98. 
 
 'Ej/ de 'A')(apvev(Tiv ' ApiiTT0(pavT]S, 'Et vaXii wv eKTTWfiartov (cat XP^' 
 iTidiov' TO de KaXovfJ.evov KvpiXXiov Trpos twv 'Acriav(jjv, ftofifiiiXiov fiev 
 'AvTiadevr]s e'ipT]Kev ev rw IlporjOeTrrt/cw. o< Ce /cat trutTTOfiov ovofiai^ovai. 
 To de avaTOfxov ovofxa (pMifiuTos tcrriv ev toIs Tz/XeicXetSoK 'Ai^ev^etri 
 ^er' (iXXoJv ttoXXwv €ipr]fievuv. Mi/ Tror' oiJi' (ieXriov OTevoaTO^ov 
 avTo icaXelv ; Julius Pollux, 1. x. § 68. 
 
 3. BunflvXrjv, XriKvdov, 
 
 Bofjil^vXiov, eKirfi)fjta, fxiKpov eyov OTO^a i) Trufxa, Traph r(L'lTriroi:pa.Tei, 
 Bo^ftvXov, (TKtvos (TTpoyyvXoeides. Phavorinus. 
 
 6. Tot TTUidia Trj Trapevderrei tiSv ■^(eiXeojv, eK re riJj' titOiov eX/cet ro 
 ydXa, ic^'ic twv /3o|u/3wX/wi' to Trepieyojievov ev uvtvis vypvv, Galenus 
 de Hippocratis Scitis, 1. viii. cap. 8. 
 
170 §40. Aristotle's use of the terms 
 
 we consider the form and circumstances of these Bo/t- 
 (5v\ioi, or small narrow-mouthed oval vessels, many of 
 which, as we know from the specimens of them found 
 in ancient sepulchres, were remarkably like cocoons, 
 we cannot wonder that the term Boiu(5vXioc should be 
 transferred from the vessels of earth or stone to the 
 cocoons. 
 
 To render this point as clear as possible I have in 
 the annexed Plate introduced the figure of a cocoon 
 beside various figures of Boju/3uAiot. Figures 1, 2, 3, 
 4, 5, represent vases selected from the extensive col- 
 lection in the British Museum, the first three being 
 of the size of the originals. Figure 6 is copied from 
 the elaborate work of Panofka, Recherches sur les 
 veritables noms des Vases Grecs, et sur leurs difl^e- 
 rens usages, Paris 1829, Plate V. No. 99. The figure 
 is selected by him as the best type of the vessel now 
 under consideration, the Bombylios. Figure 7 is from 
 No. 93 of the same Plate, and exhibits Panofka's 
 type of the Lecythos, which, as we learn from some 
 of the authorities above quoted (Hesychius and Pha- 
 vorinus) , was very similar to the Bombylios. Figure 8 
 is the cocoon of the silk-worm as represented in Mal- 
 pighi's Dissertatio Epistolica de Bombyce, published 
 by tiie Royal Society of London, A.D. 1669. 
 
 I think it will now appear that, supposing Aristotle 
 
 Boyu/3v/\io«', eWwyua rt, arevov ej^ov to irrofia r) ■KtHp.a, Trapd to joojji- 
 fj€iv biiofiaa^ei ov. Galeni Dictionum exoletarum Hippocratis Ex- 
 plicatio. 
 
 7. Bo/x/3ii\'oy. "EoTt ^iv TO jSofifttiXwr eiSos fjLeXlaarjs' arifxaivei 
 Kui Tov aiiXt'iTrjv, wafKi to toIs avXols jSo/Jl^eiv' €(tti mt fivKiov 
 
 eiSos iTTero(jT6pov. Erotiani Lexicon in Hippocratem. 
 
 8. BofjiftvXov, (TKevoi (XTpuyyvXoeuis. Suidas. 
 
 Suidas also records the proverb fto^ftiiXios afdpwnos for an empty 
 fellow. 
 
3 ijo. 
 
BOMBYAIOS AND NEKYAAAOS, 
 
 171 
 
 to have been describing the changes of the silk-worm 
 and in want of an expression to denote the cocoon, he 
 could not have found any other so well adapted to his 
 purpose as that which we find in the passage before 
 us, and in the very place where a term denoting a 
 cocoon accords with the order of changes as they ac- 
 tually take place in nature. On this ground it seems 
 to me not unreasonable to conclude, that Aristotle had 
 a correct notion of the passage of the caterpillar into 
 a cocoon. 
 
 With respect to Aristotle's fourth term, NeKvSaXoc, 
 some light appears to be thrown upon its signification 
 by the passage of St. Basil, to which I have already 
 referred {p. 162, Notef). Basil has evidently derived 
 his account either from Aristotle, or from a common 
 source with Aristotle. In describing the two first 
 states of the animal after it is hatched, viz. the state 
 of a worm or caterpillar, and the state of a cocoon, he 
 employs the same terms with Aristotle (fca/t7r>j and 
 (5on(3v\ioc) , but after this, instead of Aristotle's words 
 eK TovTov vcKvBaXoc,, he substitutes the following, kuI 
 
 ovSe eTTt TOUTrjc IcTTarai tjjc nop(piic, aXAo -^avvoic Kai 
 TrXuTefft nerdXoic VTroTrrepovTai, i. e. " It doeS not con- 
 tinue in this form, but assumes light and expanded 
 wings." It appears, therefore, that Ne/cuSaAoq in Ari- 
 stotle is equivalent to Basil's description of an insect 
 with wings, and denoted the moth, the last state of the 
 silk-worm*. 
 
 That Aristotle refers to the silk-worm of China, 
 or of the interior of Asia, and not to that of India, 
 is rendered probable from the fact, that this insect 
 has from the earliest ages recorded in history been 
 
 * Clemens Alexandrinus, as referred to above (p. 1 62, Note f). 
 makes NeKuSaXos synonymous with Bofjf3v\ios ; a manifest error. 
 
172 §40. ARISTOTLE DESCRIBES THE SILK-WORM 
 
 bred for its silk in China, and that the Chinese have 
 clothed themselves so generally in its manufactured 
 produce, that its management is clearly to be re- 
 garded as part of their national and established cha- 
 racter. 
 
 The two Mohammedan travellers, who visited China 
 in the ninth century, say, " The Chinese are dressed 
 in silk both winter and summer, and this kind of dress 
 is common to the prince, the soldier and to every other 
 person, though of the lowest degree*." 
 
 We find the following statements in Du Halde's 
 History of Chinaf. 
 
 " It would be difficult to find any memoirs of a time 
 so early as that wherein silk-worms were first disco- 
 vered in China, and yet the most ancient writers of 
 this empire attribute the discovery to one of the wives 
 of the emperor Hoang-Ti, called Si-Ling. 
 
 " Afterwards the empresses were agreeably em- 
 ployed in hatching and feeding silk- worms, unwind- 
 ing the silk and putting it to a proper use. There 
 was even an orchard in the palace set apart for mul- 
 berry-trees, where the empress, accompanied with the 
 queens and the court ladies, went to gather with her 
 own hand the leaves of three branches, which her 
 servants brought within her reach. The fine pieces 
 of silk, which she made herself, or were made by her 
 order, were designed for the ceremony of the great 
 sacrifice to Chang-Ti. 
 
 " China may be called the country of silk, for it 
 seems to be inexhaustible, supplying several nations 
 in Asia and Europe ; and the emperor, the princes, 
 
 * Ancient Accounts of India and China, translated by Renaudot, 
 London, 1/33. ^j. 13. 
 
 t Vol. ii. p. 355, 35G. 8vo. edition, London 1736. 
 
OF CHINA. §41. LUCRETIUS. 
 
 173 
 
 the domestics, the mandarins, men of letters, women, 
 and all in general whose circumstances are tolerable, 
 wear garments of silk and are clothed with satin and 
 damask ; there are none but the meaner people and 
 peasants, that wear blue calicoes." 
 
 By authorities of high repute in China we are in- 
 formed, that Si-Ling, wife of the Emperor Hoang-Ti, 
 began to breed silk-worms about 2600 years before 
 our sera, and that the mulberry-tree was cultivated 
 for this purpose 2200 years B.C.* 
 
 41. Having disposed of Aristotle, we have next to 
 consider a passage of Lucretius, which is come to us 
 in a corrupt state, but which probably must be con- 
 sidered as referring to the silk manufacture of Cos. 
 The poet is inveighing against the increasing luxury 
 of the Romans. He says, 
 
 Interdum in pallam atque allidens lachiaque vertunt. 
 
 L. iv. 1124. 
 
 So I find the passage in the edition of Jo. Baptista 
 Pius, Bononiae 1511. He mentions two other manu- 
 script readings, viz. 
 
 1 . Interdum in pallam in stlitas et iantina vertunt. 
 
 2. Interdum in pallam et qualos et iachia vertunt. 
 
 No attempt appears to have been made to restore 
 the text until Adrian Turnebus exhibited the line as 
 follows ; 
 
 Interdum in pallam, ac Melitensia, Ceaque vertunt. 
 
 Turnebus, or rather, as it appears, Pelisserius, 
 changed Chia into Cea without the authority of any 
 manuscript. This reading is altogether conjectural, 
 
 * Resume des principaux Traites Chinois sur la Culture des Mu- 
 riers et I'Education des Vers a Soie, traduit par Stanislas Julien, 
 Paris 1837, p. 67, 68. 
 
174 ^ 41. THE MANUFACTURE OF SILK IN COS 
 
 and the only ground for the conjecture is, that Pliny, 
 a most unsafe guide, says, that Varro had represented 
 the island of Ceos as supplying fine garments for the 
 Roman ladies*. Nevertheless all the editions, sub- 
 sequent to that of Turnebus, have adopted this con- 
 jectural reading with immaterial variations! until the 
 splendid and highly esteemed edition by Gilbert Wake- 
 field, London 1797. He bestowed great care upon the 
 emendation of the passage, and he says of the conjec- 
 tural reading, Ceaque, that it is " Contextu Lucretiano 
 vel furcillis ablegandum." He has exhibited the line 
 as follows, scarcely dei:)arting from the earlier editions 
 except in the division of the words ; 
 
 Interdum in pallam, atque Alidensia, Chiaque vertunt. 
 
 He supposes Chia to mean garments brought from 
 Chios, a city in Caria, mentioned by Stephanus By- 
 zantinus. Mr. John Mason Good has in his edition of 
 the text followed Wakefield : also Eichstadt, Lipsia 
 1801, and Frobiger, LipsicB 1828J. 
 
 But, although this reading has in its favour the 
 greater number of manuscripts, it appears to me a 
 very strong objection, that Chios in Caria was so in- 
 significant a place that we never find any mention of 
 it except this brief notice in Stephanus, and we have 
 no reason whatever to believe, that it was famous for 
 its manufactures. Instead of Chia at least two manu- 
 scripts, cited by Havercamp in his edition (L. Bat. 
 1725), have Choa, a reading which continually occurs 
 
 * Hist. Nat. 1. iv. 20, See below, p. 175. 
 t I find Ciaque in an edition by Gifanius, 
 
 X Frobiger, although he retains Chiaque, is not satisfied with it as 
 the true reading. He states the evidence as given in the MSS. and 
 by Wakefield, but, as he says, " nihil in re obscurissima pro certo 
 contend ens." 
 
PROBABLY MENTIONED BY LUCRETIUS AND VARRO. 175 
 
 both in manuscripts and in early editions of Latin 
 authors for Coa ; and this reading being supported 
 by the analogy of numerous passages, which I shall 
 presently cite from Roman poets immediately suc- 
 ceeding Lucretius, and by the almost undisputed fact*, 
 that the Roman ladies at that time obtained their most 
 splendid garments from Cos, it appears to me that we 
 are justified in regarding this as the most probable 
 reading of the text. 
 
 That Varro made mention of the silken garments 
 of Cos, appears probable from the quotations of him 
 by Pliny and Isidore of Seville, which will be hereafter 
 produced. {See §43 and § 5.5.) Pliny indeed states, 
 that the fine female garments were represented by 
 Varro as made in Ceos, a small island near the coast 
 of Attica : and Isidore manifestly confounds Cos and 
 Ceos. It may therefore be doubted whether Varro 
 did not commit the same mistake. I think it more 
 probable, however, that Varro was correct, and that 
 the error is imputable to his successors. This being 
 admitted, we have his testimony, that very fine cloths, 
 which may have been of other materials as well as of 
 silk, were woven in the island of Cos. 
 
 42. The next authors, who make mention of silk, 
 are the Latin poets of the Augustan age, Tibullus and 
 Propertius, Virgil, Horace, and Ovid. The Parthian 
 war, and the increased intercourse between the Ro- 
 man empire and the kingdoms of the East, had been 
 the means of recently introducing every kind of silken 
 
 * The only author, who disputes this fact, so far as I know, is the 
 paradoxical Harduin. He asserts, that Ceos {Zia) was also called 
 Cos, and on this ground he supposes all the Greek and Roman au- 
 thors, who mention the silk of Cos, to refer under that name to the 
 island, called Ceos, or Cea. See his Notes on Plin. 1. xi. 26. 
 
176 § 42. MENTION OF SILK BY LATIN POETS 
 
 goods into more general use, although these manu- 
 factures were still so rare as to be the objects of 
 curiosity and admiration, and were therefore well 
 adapted to be brought in among the embellishments 
 of poetical imagery. 
 
 The appearance of the silken flags attached to the 
 gilt standards of the Parthians {signa auro sericeisque 
 vexillis vibrantia, Florus in. II .) must have been a very 
 striking sight for the army of Crassus, contributing 
 both to inflame their cupidity and to alarm them with 
 a sense of the power of their opponents. The conflict 
 here referred to took place in the year 54 B.C. In 
 about 30 years after this date the Roman empire ob- 
 tained its greatest extension. In the language of Pe- 
 tronius Arbiter (c. 119.), 
 
 Orbem jam totum victor Romanus habebat. 
 Qua mare, qua terrae, qua sidus currit utrumque, 
 Nec satiatus erat. 
 
 Th' insatiate Roman spread his conquering arms 
 O'er land and sea, where'er heaven's light extends. 
 
 After these words he says, that among the richest 
 productions of distant climates the Seres sent their 
 "new fleeces" {nova vellera). The remotest coun- 
 tries thus contributed to increase the luxury of Rome, 
 and we shall now see how silk, one of the most costly 
 and the most admired of its recent acquisitions, was 
 used by its poets to represent the polish of elevated 
 life and to adorn their language with rich and beautiful 
 allusions. The webs, which they mention, are either 
 those still obtained from Cos, or those imported from 
 the country of the Seres*. 
 
 * Quod vero ad vestem Coam, non quidem ignorabant, id, unde 
 ilia fieret, neri a bombyce : sed fere doctissimis quibusque ita erat 
 
OF THE AUGUSTAN AGE. 177 
 TiBULLXJS. 
 
 Coa puellis — vestis. L. ii. 4. 
 A Coan vest for girls. 
 
 Ilia gerat vestes tenues, quas foemina Coa 
 Texuit, auratas disposuitque vias. L. ii. 6. 
 
 She may thin garments wear, which female Coan hands 
 Have woven, and in stripes dispos'd the golden bands. 
 
 The latter of these two passages is remarkable as 
 showing that the Coan women practised the elegant 
 art of interweaving gold thread in their silken webs. 
 The gold was no doubt displayed in transverse stripes. 
 
 Propertius. 
 
 Quid juvat ornato procedere, vita, capillo, 
 Et tenues Coa veste movere sinus ? L. i. 2. 
 
 Why thus, my life, display thy braided hair. 
 
 And heave beneath thin Coan webs thy bosom fair ? 
 
 In the next passage Propertius is speaking of his 
 own poetry, and alludes to his frequent mention of 
 Coan garments. 
 
 Sive togis illam fulgentera incedere Cois, 
 Hoc totum e Cok veste volumen erit. L. ii. 1. 
 
 If bright she walk in Coan vest array'd. 
 Through all this book will Coan be display 'd. 
 
 persuasum, disparem esse originem serici. Et hunc in errorem im- 
 pellebantur eo, quod longfe prsestantius esset sericum e Persia appor- 
 tatum qu^im bombycinum Coum. Credo, Indici bombycis tenuius ac 
 subtilius filum erat : crassius autem vermis Coi. — Vossius de Origine 
 et Progressu Idol. iv. 90. Here we perceive the common error, which 
 may be traced to Pliny, viz. that silk-worms were bred in Cos. 
 
 N 
 
178 ^2. MENTION OF SILK BY PROPERTIUS, 
 
 De Vertumno. 
 
 Opportuna mea est cunctis natura figuris : 
 In quamcunque voles verte, decorus ero. 
 
 Indue me Cois, fiam non dura puella, 
 
 Atque virum sumta quis neget esse tog^? L. iv. 2. 
 
 On a Statue of Vertumnus. 
 
 My nature suits each changing form : 
 Turn'd into what you please, I'm fair. 
 Clothe me in Coan, I'm a decent lass. 
 Put on a toga, for a man I pass. 
 
 Coae textura Minervae. L. iv. 5. 
 The texture of the Coan Minerva. 
 
 Qui versus, Cose dederit nec munera vestis, 
 Ipsius tibi sit surda sine arte lyra. Ibid. 
 Who gives no Coan robe, but verse instead. 
 Artless shall be his lyre, his verses dead. 
 
 The same poet (L. iv. 8. 23.) mentions " Serica car- 
 penta," chariots with silk curtains ; and the follow- 
 ing line (L. i. 14. 22.) shows, that couches with orna- 
 mented silk covers were then in use : 
 
 Quid revelant variis Serica textilibus 
 
 Propertius also mentions silk under the name of 
 the animal, which produced it : 
 
 Nec si qua Arabio lucet bombyce puella. L. ii. 3. 15. 
 Shines with the produce of th' Arabian worm. 
 
 In this line, as well as in some of those before 
 quoted, he alludes to the use of silk by females of 
 indifferent character. He probably uses the epithet 
 Arabian, because the Roman merchants obtained silk 
 from the Arabs, who received it from Persia. 
 
VIRGIL, AND HORACE. 
 
 179 
 
 Virgil. 
 
 Quid nemora iEthiopum molli canentia lani, 
 Velleraque ut foliis depectunt tenuia Seres ? 
 
 Georg. ii. 120, 121. 
 Soft wool from downy groves the ^thiop weaves, 
 And Seres comb their fleece from silken leaves. 
 
 Sotheby's Translation. 
 
 The poet is here enumerating the chief productions 
 of different countries, and therefore mentions cotton 
 and silk. The idea, that silk webs were manufactured 
 from thin fleeces obtained from trees, will be found 
 recurring in many of the subsequent citations. It 
 may have been founded on reports brought by the 
 soldiers of Crassus, or by others who visited the inte- 
 rior of Asia about the same period. 
 
 Horace. 
 
 Nec Coae referunt jam tibi purpuras, 
 Nec clari lapides tempora, quae semel 
 Notis coudita fastis 
 
 Inclusit volucris dies. Od. I. iv. 1.3. {ad Lycen) 13 — 16. 
 
 Nor Coan purples, nor the blaze 
 Of jewels can bring liack the days. 
 Which, fix'd by time, recorded stand. 
 By all, who read the Fasti, scann'd. 
 
 Cois tibi psene videre est, 
 Utnudam. Sa<. i. 2. 101. 
 
 As if uncloth'd, she stands confess'd 
 In a translucent Coan vest. 
 
 These passages allude to the fineness and trans- 
 parency of silken webs, which in the time of Horace 
 were worn at Rome only by prostitutes, or by those 
 women who aimed at being as attractive and luxurious 
 as possible in their attire. 
 
 The former passage shows, that the silks manufac- 
 
 n2 
 
180 ^42. MENTION OF SILK BY HORACE AND OVID, 
 
 tured in Cos were dyed with the murex, " Cose pur- 
 purse." 
 
 The expression " Sericos pulvillos" {Epod. 8. 15.) 
 has been supposed to denote small cushions covered 
 with silk. But the epithet "Sericos" implies nothing 
 more than that they were obtained from the Seres, 
 who supplied the Romans with skins as well as silk* ; 
 and leather seems to have been a more proper sub- 
 stance than silk for making cushions. In the same 
 manner I should explain the words of Martial (/. iii. 
 40.), where he describes a person reclining at his table, 
 " EfFultus ostro sericisque pulvinis," supported on pur- 
 ple and on Seric cushions. Also "Sericatum toreuma" 
 in Sidonius Apollinarisf. 
 
 Ovid 
 
 Sive erit in Tyriis, Tyrios laudabis amictus, 
 
 Sive erit in Cois, Coa decere puta. 
 Aurata est : ipso tibi sit pretlosior auro ; 
 
 Gausapa si sumsit, gausapa sumta proba. 
 
 Ars Amat. ii. 297 — 300. 
 Whatever clothing she displays, 
 From Tyre or Cos, that clothing praise : 
 If gold shows forth the artist's skill. 
 Call her than gold more precious still : 
 Or if she choose a coarse attire. 
 E'en coarseness, worn by her, admire. 
 
 In another passage {Amores i. 14. 5.) Ovid com- 
 pares the thin hairs of a lady to the silken veils of the 
 Seres, 
 
 Vela colorati qualia Seres habent. 
 Veils such as colour'd Seres wear. 
 
 * Plin. XXXIV. cap. 24. § 41. quoted below. The Periplus Maris 
 Erythraei mentions ^ripiKo. ^epfxara. Arriani 0pp. vol. ii. p. 164. 
 Blancardi. t See below, § 54. 
 
§43. DIONVSIUS PERIEGETES AND STRABO, 181 
 
 43. I now proceed to the testimonies of authors 
 who wrote either in Greek or Latin at the latter part 
 of the Augustan age, or immediately after it. 
 
 DioNYsius Periegetes. 
 
 Kai eOrea jSi'ipfiapa ^ripwi', 
 Oire fions /.tec avaivovrai Koi 'ifpia firjXa, 
 AioXa E,aivovT€S kpijfxris uvQea ynirjs, 
 E'l/iara Tev-)(OvfTLV noXvdaiSaXa, Tifii'iei ra, 
 EtSdjueca XP^'j/ Xeiixuvi^os avdem woijjs" 
 KetVots oiiTi Kev 'Ipyov apa-)(ya(iii' epiaetev. (l. 755.) 
 
 " And the barbarous nations of the Seres, who renounce the care of 
 sheep and oxen, but comb the variously coloured flowers of the desert 
 land to make precious figured garments, resembling in colour the flow- 
 ers of the meadow, and rivalling (in fineness) the work of spiders." 
 
 The corresponding passage in Rufus Festus Avienus 
 has been already produced*. It difiers remarkably 
 from the original in asserting, that the Seres employed 
 themselves in tending cattle at the same time that 
 they were devoted to the production of silk Pris- 
 cian's translation, on the other hand, (1. 728.) agrees 
 with the original. It is worthy of observation that 
 Dionysius speaks expressly not only of the fineness of 
 the thread, but of the flowered texture of the silk. 
 
 Strabo. 
 
 Toiavru Kai to. SrjpiKct, tivwv ipXoiwv E,atvofj.€vr)i (iutrrrov. 
 
 L. XV. 695. (v. vi. p. 40. Tzschucke.) 
 
 This is repeated by Eustathius on Dionysius Perie- 
 getes f. The account seems to have been taken by 
 Strabo, perhaps inaccurately, from Nearchus. It is 
 doubtful, whether Srj/xKa denoted silken webs in this 
 passage. But whatever Strabo meant, he supposed 
 
 * § 28. p. 128, Note. 
 
 t L. 1107. p. 308, Bernhardy. 
 
182 § 43. USE OF SILK BY EARLY ROMAN EMPERORS. 
 
 the raw material to be scraped from the bark of 
 trees*. 
 
 As contemporary with the authors last quoted, 
 Dionysius and Strabo, I may here mention the law 
 passed by the Roman Senate early in the reign of 
 Tiberius, " Ne vestis Serica viros foedaret." Taciti 
 
 Annales, ii. 33. EtrOnTt ^y^piK^ int}Seva avSpa -^prjaOai. 
 
 Dion Cass. I. 57. p. 860. Reim. Suidas in v. Tiftepiocf. 
 Silk was to be worn by women only. 
 
 The next emperor Caligula had silk curtains (ttu- 
 pa-iveTaanaTa Srjjoi/ca) to his tlirouc {Dion Cass. I. 59. 
 p. 915. Reim.), and he wore silk as part of his dress, 
 when he appeared in public. Dio Cassius particularly 
 mentions, that, when he was celebrating a kind of 
 triumph at Puteoli, he put on what he alleged to be 
 the thorax of Alexander, and over that a silken chla- 
 mys, dyed with the murex, and adorned with gold and 
 precious stones (x^Ao^uSa a^piK^v aXovpy?]). On the 
 following day he wore (x^irwca y^pvauiraoTov) , a tunic 
 interwoven with goldj. The use of shawls and tunics 
 of silk was, however, except in the case of the extra- 
 vagances of a Caligula, still confined to the female 
 sex. Under the earlier emperors it is probable, that 
 silk was obtained in considerable quantities for the 
 wardrobe of the Empress, where it was preserved from 
 one reign to another, until in the year 176 Marcus 
 
 * See below respecting mallows, Book II. ch. 3. p. 307. 
 
 t Dio Cassius (1. 43. p. 358. Reim.) mentions as a report, that 
 Julius Caesar employed silk curtains (TrnpaTrerao-^ara Sf;p£«<) to add 
 to the splendour of his triumph. 
 
 X In describing the effeminate dress of the emperor Caligula, Sue- 
 tonius tells us {cap. 52.), that he often went into public, wearing 
 bracelets and long sleeves, and sometimes in a garment of silk and a 
 cyclas {aliquando sericatus ct cycludalus) . Also sec below, § 103. 
 p. 372. 
 
AUTHORS IN THE FIRST CENTURY, 183 
 
 Aurelius Antoninus, the philosopher, in consequence 
 of the exhausted state of his treasury, sold by public 
 auction in the Forum of Trajan the imperial orna- 
 ments and jewels together with the golden and silken 
 robes of the Empress*. 
 
 Seneca, the Philosopher. 
 Posse nos vestitos esse sine commercio Serum. Epist. 91. 
 We may clothe ourselves without any commerce with the Seres. 
 
 Video Sericas vestes, si vestes vocandse sunt, in quibus nihil est, 
 quo defendi aut corpus aut denique pudor possit : quibus sumtis 
 mulier parum liquido nudam se non esse jurabit. Hsec ingenti 
 summa ab ignotis etiam ad commercium gentibus accersuntur, ut 
 matronse nostrse ne adulteris quidem plus sui in cubiculo quam in 
 publico ostendant. De Beneficiis, Z,. vii. c. 9. 
 
 I see silken (Seric) garments, if they can be called garments, 
 which cannot afford any protection either for the body or for shame : 
 on taking which a woman will scarce with a clear conscience deny, 
 that she is naked. These are sent for at an enormous price from 
 nations, to which our commerce has not yet extended, in order that 
 our matrons may display their persons to the public no less than to 
 adulterers in their chamber. 
 
 The Seres must be supposed to have dwelt some- 
 where in the centre of Asia, Perhaps those geogra- 
 phers who represent Little Bucharia as their countryf, 
 are nearest the truth, and thus far neither Greeks 
 nor Romans had penetrated. Silk was brought to 
 them "from nations, to which even their commerce 
 
 * Jul. Capitol, c. xvii. p. 65. Bip. 
 
 t The position of Serica is discussed by Latreille in his paper 
 hereafter cited. See also Mannert, iv. 6. 6, 7. Brotier, Mem. de 
 I'Acad, des Inscrip. tom. 46. John Reinhold Forster (De Bysso, 
 p. 20, 21.) thinks that Little Bucharia was certainly the ancient 
 Serica. Sir John Barrow (Travels in China, p. 435 — 4.38.) thinks 
 the Seres were not the Chinese. 
 
184 ^ 43. MENTION OF SILK BY AUTHORS 
 
 had not yet extended." Hence their inaccurate ideas 
 respecting its origin*. 
 
 Seneca, the Tragedian. 
 Nec Mseonia distinguit acu. 
 Quae Phoebeis subditus Euris 
 Legit Eois Ser arboribus. Here. (Eteeus, 664, 
 
 Nor with Maeonian needle marks the web, 
 Gather'd by Eastern Seres from the trees. 
 
 Seres vellere nobiles. Thyestes, 378. 
 Seres, illustrious for their fleece. 
 
 Removete, famulse, purpurd atque auro illitas 
 Vestes ; procul sit muricis Tyrii rubor, 
 Quae fila ramis ultimi Seres legunt. 
 
 Hippolytus, 386. (Pheedra loquitur.) 
 
 Remove, ye maids, the vests, whose tissue glares 
 With purple and with gold ; far be the red 
 Of Tyrian murex, and the shining thread. 
 Which furthest Seres gather from the boughs. 
 
 LUCAN. 
 
 Candida Sidonio perlucent pectora filo, 
 Quod Nilotis acus percussum pectine Serum 
 Solvit, et extenso laxavit stamina velo. L. x. 141. 
 
 Her snowy breast shines through Sidonian threads, 
 First by the comb of distant Seres struck, 
 Di%dded then by Egypt's skilful toil, 
 And with embroidery transparent made. 
 
 The poet is describing the dress of Cleopatra. He 
 supposes her to have worn over her breast a piece of 
 silk, woven by the Seres, imported through Sidon 
 
 * The first author, who speaks of the Seres as a distinct nation, 
 is Mela, iii. 7. He describes them as a very honest people, who 
 brought what they had to sell, laid it down and went away, and then 
 returned for the price of it. The same account is given by Eusta- 
 thiu», on Dionysius, 1. 752. p. 242, Bernhardy. 
 
IN THE FIRST CENTURY. 
 
 185 
 
 into Egypt, and then embroidered. By the last pro- 
 cess, in which the Egyptians greatly excelled, the 
 threads were in part separated, so as to exhibit the 
 appearance of lace, and to allow the white breast of the 
 queen to be visible through the texture. With this 
 description we may compare that of Seneca, just 
 quoted, which represents silk as embroidered in Asia 
 Minor, {Mceonid acu) " with the Mseonian needle." 
 
 Pliny 
 
 speaks copiously and repeatedly of the manufacture 
 of silk. Nevertheless we learn from him scarce any 
 thing, which we did not know from the earlier author- 
 ities. His accounts, (which I intend to produce and 
 to examine critically in Appendix D,) are taken from 
 Aristotle, from Varro, and probably also from persons, 
 who accompanied the Parthian expeditions, or who 
 engaged in the trade with inner Asia. But according 
 to his usual manner, when he speaks of what he has 
 not himself seen, he confounds accounts from different 
 witnesses, which are inconsistent with one another*. 
 
 JOSEPHUS 
 
 says, that the emperors Titus and Vespasian wore 
 silk dressesf, when they celebrated at Rome their 
 triumph over the Jews. 
 
 Saint John. 
 
 Silk (IriptKov) occurs but once in the New Testa- 
 ment, Rev. xviii. 12. It is here mentioned in a cu- 
 
 * Multa saepe turbat Plinius, et diversas opiniones de una eadem- 
 que re plerumqiie confundit et miscet. Salmasius in Tertullianum 
 de Pallio, p. 229. 
 
 t 'Eadritreai ^ripiKah. De Bello Jud. vii. 5. 4. 
 
186 ^43. MENTION OF SILK BY AUTHORS 
 
 rious enumeration of all the most valuable articles of 
 foreign traffic, and in particular with Bvaaoc, 
 and KoKKivov, which were also woven. 
 
 SiLius Italicus. 
 Seres lanigeris repetebant vellera lucis. Punica. vi. 4. 
 Seres took fleeces from the woolly groves. 
 
 Munera rubri 
 Prseterea Ponti, depexaque vellera ramis, 
 Femineus labor. lb. xiv. 664. 
 The produce of the Erythraean seas, 
 And fleeces comb'd by women from the trees. 
 
 Videre Eoi (monstrum admirabile !) Seres 
 Lanigeros cinere Ausonio canescere lucos. 
 
 lb. xvii. 595, 596. 
 The Seres' woolly groves, O wondrous sight ! 
 In the far East, were with Italian ashes white. 
 
 In the last passage Silius is describing the effects 
 of the recent eruption of Mount Vesuvius, A.D. 79. 
 That its ashes should reach the country of the Seres, 
 whether it was in Persia or China, would indeed have 
 been " Monstrum admirabile ! " 
 
 Statius. 
 Serica pallia. Sylva, iii. 4. 89. 
 Seric (i. e. silken) palls. 
 
 Plutarch 
 
 dissuades the virtuous and prudent wife from wearing 
 silk*. Also in the following passage he mentions, that 
 webs of silk and fine linen were at the same time thin 
 (KeTTTov) and compact or close {ttvkvov)^. 
 
 * Sr/fjim. Conjugialia Prsecepta, tom. vi. p. 550. ed. Reiske. 
 
 t Tt yap, eiTcev, w L,eve, KwXvei ravro eivai Kai XeTTTOv cat Trvict'or, 
 wffirep Tu trrjpiKci kcu to. ftiirraira Twr v<pu<T^uTuy ; De Pythiae Orac. 
 c. iv. p. 557. Reiske. 
 
IN THE FIRST CENTURY. 
 
 187 
 
 Juvenal 
 
 speaks of women, 
 
 Quarura 
 
 Delicias et panniculus bombycinus urit. Sat. vi. 259. 
 Whose beauty e'en a silken veil o'erheats. 
 
 Martial. 
 
 Nec vaga tam tenui discursat aranea tela, 
 
 Tam leve nec bombyx pendulus urget opus. L. viii. 33. 
 The spider traces not so thin a line. 
 Nor does the pendent silk-worm spin so fine. 
 
 FcEmineum lucet sic per bombycina corpus. 
 
 Calculus in nitida sic numeratur aqua. L. viii. 68. 
 Thus through her silk a lady's body looks, 
 Thus count we pebbles in the sparkling brooks. 
 
 De Pallatinis dominse quod Serica prelis. L. xi. 9. 
 
 Here Martial alludes to the employment of presses 
 (prela) for preserving the garments of silk and other 
 precious materials, belonging to the Empress, in the 
 same way, in which we now use presses to keep table- 
 linen. He says to a lady (L. ix. 38.), 
 
 Nec dentes aliter, quam Serica, nocte reponas. 
 Your teeth at night, like silks, you lay aside. 
 
 In another passage (L. xi. 27.) he speaks of silken 
 goods (Serica) as procurable in the Vicus Tuscus at 
 Rome : and lastly in L. xiv. Ep. 24, he mentions rib- 
 bons or fillets of silk as used for adorning the hair. 
 
 Tenuia ne madidi violent bombycina crines, 
 
 Figat acus tortas, sustineatque comas. 
 Lest your moist hair defile the ribbons thin. 
 Twist it in knots, and fix it with a pin. 
 
 44. Pausanias, 
 a native of Asia Minor, and an inquisitive traveller 
 in the second century, gives the following distinct 
 
188 04. PA USA MAS, HOUSES FOR BREEDING SILK-WORMS. 
 
 account of Sericum according to the ideas received 
 among the Greeks in his time. 
 
 The threads (oj /xtVot), from which the Seres make webs (eadij- 
 rns), are not the produce of bark (^Xoiov), but are obtained in the 
 following manner There is an animal in that country, which the 
 Greeks call Ser, but which they call by some other name. Its size 
 is twice that of the largest beetle. In other respects it resembles 
 the spiders, which weave under the trees. It has also the same 
 number of feet as the spider, namely eight*. In order to breed 
 these creatures, the Seres have houses adapted both for summer and 
 winter. The produce of the animal is a fine thread twisted about its 
 legs. The Seres feed it four years on eXvuov ("panicum"). In the 
 fifth year they give it green reed (k-a'\oyuos), of which it is so fond as 
 to eat of it until it bursts, and after this the greatest part of the 
 thread is found within its bodyf. 
 
 The most interesting circmnstance, mentioned by 
 Pausanias, is the breeding of the silk-worms within 
 doors in houses adapted both for summer and winter. 
 There seems no reason to doubt the truth of this fact ; 
 and, if admitted, it proves, that their country, the 
 Serica of the ancients, lay so far North, or was so 
 elevated, as to have a great difference of temperature 
 in summer and in winter. It is remarkable, that in 
 China the worms are now reared in small houses, and 
 this practice has long prevailed in that country |. 
 
 Galen 
 
 recommends silk thread for tying blood-vessels in 
 
 surgical operations, (jrapaaKevaaaaQu) ruiv vtiinaTOJV ti, 
 
 Twv atipiKLjv ovofiatopevov,) observing that the opulent 
 
 * This does not apply to the silk-worm, which has fourteen feet, 
 six proper feet before, and eight holders behind. See the Figure in 
 § 40. p. 166. t L- vi. 26. p. 125. ed. Siebel. 
 
 I Barrow's Travels in China, p. 437, &c. Resume des Trait^s 
 Chinois, &c. traduit par Julien, p. 70 — 72. 77 — 80. The practice is 
 here shown to have prevailed as early as the fifth century B.C. 
 
GALEN. 
 
 CLEMENS ALEXANDRINUS. 
 
 189 
 
 women in many parts of the Roman empire possessed 
 such thread, especially in the great cities*. He also 
 mentions cloths of silk and gold in his treatise Uepl 
 Siayvtjcyeojc kui OepaTreiar,, c. 9. {Hippocratis et Galeni 
 0pp. ed. Chartier, torn. vi. p. 533.) 
 
 TovTov TOV yevovs etrri rd \pv(rov(pi] rwv tj^nrio)!', *; v\t)s Seofjiedn 
 n6f>pti)Qev Ko/xii^ofiei r]s, djcnep tmv ^rjpiKdiy oyofiai^ojuevwi'. 
 
 Of this kind are the shawls interwoven with gold, the materials of 
 which are brought from afar, and which are called Seric, or silk. 
 
 Clemens Alexandrinus, 
 dissuading the Christian convert from luxury in dress, 
 thus speaks ; 
 
 Et fTVfiTrepKpipeadm XP^' <'^'yoy ki iorenv avrals fia\aKU)repois 
 ^(ptjadai rots XKparrnamv' ix6) ov rds fjefiwprjuevai XetrTovpyias, koi rets 
 ev rati ui^als irepiepyovs TrXti/cas eKiroruv i.ie(hffTdvrcis' rrjfia yj)V(jov, 
 Ka\ trrjpas 'lydiKovs, Kai rovs Trepiepynvs fiofxftvKas ^a/peiv ewvras, Ss 
 iTKwKrfi, <j>v€Tai ru irpwrof' eira t'| avrov Saaela dvacpah'erai kcihttt). 
 fieS' f/v e'ls Tpirr\i' iieraixopftoaiy yeo^fjiovraL foofifiuXwy' o'l le veKuSa- 
 Xoy avro kuXov'tli'' k'£, ov jxaKpos TiKrerai (rri]i.iojy, KaUdnep eK rrjs 
 upd-)(i'V^ o '■'7s apayvqs fiiros. Pcedag. ii. 10. 
 
 But, if it is necessary to accommodate ourselves to the women, 
 let us concede to them the use of cloths, which are a little softer, 
 only refusing that degree of fineness, which would imply folly, and 
 such webs as are excessively laboured and intricate ; bidding farewell 
 to gold thread, and to the Indian Seres, and that industrious bombyx, 
 which is first a worm, then puts on the appearance of a hairy caterpil- 
 lar, and hence passes, in the third place, into a Bombylius, or, as some 
 call it, a Necydalus ; and out of which is produced a long thread, in 
 the same manner as the thread of the spider. 
 
 The use of the epithet " Indian" in this passage 
 may be accounted for from the circumstance, that in 
 the time of the writer silken goods were brought to 
 Alexandria and other cities of Egypt from India. Cle- 
 mens has evidently borrowed this description from 
 
 * Methodus Medendi, 1. xiii. c. 22. 
 
190 $44. MENTION OF SILK BY AUTHORS IN 
 
 Aristotle. (See above, ^ 40.) I have already noticed 
 his mistake in making Bombylius and Necydalus syn- 
 onymous. (^.171, Note). 
 
 Tertullian, 
 
 after his account of the Pinna, which I have quoted 
 above, thus describes the Bombyx. 
 
 Vermiculi genus est, qui per aerem liquando aranearum horoscopis 
 idoneas sedes tendit, dehinc devorat, mox alvo reddere ; proinde si 
 necaveris, animata jam stamina volves. 
 
 It is a kind of worm, which extends abodes like the dials of spiders 
 by floating them through the air. It then devours them so as to 
 restore them to its stomach. Therefore, if you kill it, you will roll 
 living threads. 
 
 In the same treatise [De Pallio, c. 4.) we find the 
 following notice ; 
 
 Qualis ille Hercules in serico Omphales fuerit. 
 Such as Hercules was in the silk of Omphale. 
 
 Soon after, the same author, speaking of Alexander 
 the Great, says, 
 
 "\'icerat Medicam gentem, et victus est Medica veste : pectus 
 
 squamarum signaculis disculptum, textu pellucido tegendo, nudavit : 
 et anhelum adhuc ab opere belli, ut moUius, ventilante serico ex- 
 tinxit. Non erat satis animi tumens Macedo, ni ilium etiam vestis 
 inflatior delectasset. 
 
 He had conquered the Medes, and was conquered by a Median 
 garment. When his breast exhibited the sculptured resemblances of 
 scales, he covered it with a pellucid texture, which rather laid it 
 bare ; panting from the work of war, he cooled and mollified it by 
 the use of silk exposing it to the wind. It was not sufficient for the 
 Macedonian to have a tumid mind ; he required to be delighted also 
 with an inflated garment. 
 
 He afterwards says of a philosopher, 
 
 Et sericatus, et crepidam seratus incessit. 
 
 He went wearing a garment of silk, and sandals of brass. 
 
THE SECOND CENTURY. TERTULLIAN. APULEIUS. 191 
 
 Again he says of a low character, ' ' Latrinarum an- 
 tistes sericum ventilat." {She exposes her silk to the 
 wind) . 
 
 In his treatise on Female Attire he mentions silk 
 in a passage formerly quoted in relation to Milesian 
 wool (§ 14. /). 27 ) : and he concludes that treatise in 
 the following terms : — 
 
 Manus lanis occupate, pedes domi figite, et plus quam in auro 
 placebitis. \''estite vos serico probitatis, byssino sanctitatis, purpurd 
 pudicitiae. 
 
 Employ your hands with wool ; keep your feet at home. Thus 
 will you please more than if you were in gold. Clothe yourselves 
 with the silk of probity, with the fine linen of sanctity, and with the 
 purple of modesty. 
 
 Lastly, this author says {Adv. Marcionem, I. i. 
 p. 372.), 
 
 ' Imitare, si potes, apis sedificia, formicse stabula, aranei retia, bom- 
 bycis stamina. 
 
 Imitate, if thou canst, the constructions of the bee, the letreats 
 of the ant, the nets of the spider, the threads of the silk-worm. 
 
 Apuleius. 
 
 Prodeunt, mitellis, et crocotis, et carbasinis, et bombycinis injecti. 
 * * * Deamque, serico contectam amiculo, mihi gerendam imponunt. 
 Metamorphoseon I. viii. p. 579, 580. ed. Oudendorpii. 
 
 They came forward, wearing ribbons, and cloths of a saffron co- 
 lour, of cotton, and of silk, loosely thrown over them. * * * And 
 they place on me the Goddess covered with a small silken scarf, to 
 be carried by me. 
 
 Hie incinctus baltheo militem gerebat; ilium succinctum chlamyde, 
 copides et venabula venatorem fecerant ; alius soccis obauratis. in- 
 dutus serica veste, mundoque pretioso, et adtextis capite crinibus, 
 incessu perfluo feminam mentiebatur. Ibid. I. x\. p. 769. 
 
 One performed the part of a soldier, girt with a sword ; another 
 had his chlamys tucked up by a belt, and carried scimitars and 
 hunting-poles, as if engaged in the chace ; another, wearing gilt 
 slippers, a silken tunic, precious ornaments, and artificial hair, by 
 his flowing attire represented a woman. 
 
192 §44. mention of silk by authors in the second 
 
 Ulpian. 
 
 Vossius, in his Etymologicum Lingua Latinee, in the 
 learned and copious article Sericum, says, " Inter «en- 
 cum et bombycinum discrimen ponit Ulpianus, /. xxiii. 
 de aur. arg. leg. ' Vestimentorum sunt omnia lanea, 
 lineaque, vel serica, vel bombycina'." 
 
 Julius Pollux. 
 
 S/cwXijices etaij' o't ftdfifivKes, a^' (<;(.■ rci vrjixara aiverai* , wirirep 
 apcf^yrjs' fvini Se cat rovf S^pcis dird toiovtwv eripwv ^<Jw)' ddpol ^eiy 
 faffi -d ixpi'irTfjiaTa. L. vli. 76. p. 741 . Kiihn. 
 
 The Bombyces are worms, which emit from themselves threads, 
 like the spider. Some say, that the Seres collect their webs from 
 animals of this kind. 
 
 Justin 
 
 evidently refers to the use of silken garments in his 
 account of the customs of the Parthians, where he 
 says, 
 
 Vestis olim sui moris : posteaquam accessere opes, ut Medis per- 
 lucida ac fluida. L. xli. c. 2. 
 
 They formerly dressed after their own fashion. After thej^ became 
 rich, they adopted the pellucid and flowing garments of the Medes. 
 
 All doubt, whether the transparent garments, men- 
 tioned by Justin, were of silk, must be removed by 
 the authority of Procopius, from whom I shall here- 
 after cite ample and important testimony in reference 
 to the time when he lived, and who in the two follow- 
 ing passages expressly states, that the webs, called 
 by the Greeks in his time Seric, were more anciently 
 denominated Median. 
 
 AvTT) etrriy ij ^eTa^n, ki, ?)s eitoOaai rrjy endrjTa epyai^eaOai, rjy 
 irdXai fjLey "EXXtji es IVIjj^tci/v eKaXovi', Tavvvte ^rjpiKXjv ovopdH^ovai. 
 
 De Bell. Persico, I. i. c. 20. 
 
 *' Instead of d(f <Ly to yrjfxaTu di verm, it has been proposed to 
 read d(j> iavruiy rd rrjfiura dyieyTes. See Note in Kiihn's edition. 
 
CENTURY. SILK GARMENTS ALSO CALLED MEDIAN. 193 
 
 In the other passage {De Bell. Vandal. I. ii.) Pro- 
 copius says, the Vandals are the most luxurious of 
 
 men and wear Mij^t/crji' eaOiira, ?jv i>vv ^rtpiKnv KuXovaiv. 
 
 I would also refer the reader to the second passage 
 quoted above {p. 190.) from TertuUian de Pallio. 
 Heeren {Ideen, i. 1. p. 133. 3rd ed.) expresses a de- 
 cided opinion, that the Medica vestis was silk. 
 
 Among the valuable and curious effects of the em- 
 peror Commodus, which after his death (A.D. 192.) 
 were sold by his successor Pertinax, was a garment 
 with a woof of silk, no doubt of a bright yellow colour, 
 the appearance of which was more beautiful than if 
 the material had been interwoven with threads of 
 gold*. 
 
 45. The authorities now quoted supply evidence 
 respecting the use of silk among the Greeks and Ro- 
 mans down to the end of the 2nd century. It is 
 rarely mentioned by any writer belonging to the fol- 
 lowing century! ; so far as I have discovered, only 
 by the three historians now to be quoted, by Cyprian, 
 and by Solinus. But we have from these historians 
 some remarkable accounts of the regard paid to it by 
 the emperors Heliogabalus, Alexander Severus, Au- 
 relian, Claudius II., Tacitus, and Carinus, all of whom 
 reigned in the third century. 
 
 ^Lius Lampridius says (c. 2G.), that the emperor 
 Heliogabalus was the first Roman, who wore cloth 
 made wholly of silk {holoserica veste), the silk having 
 been formerly combined with other less valuable ma- 
 
 * Vestis subtegroine serico, aureis filis insignior. Jul. Capito- 
 lini Pertinax, c. 8. in Scrip. Hist. Augustse. 
 
 t Maunert (Geogr. iv. 6. 7. p. 517.) attributes the excessive dear- 
 nessof silk in the 3rd century to the %'ictories of the Persians, which 
 at that time cut off all direct communication between Serica and the 
 western world. 
 
 O 
 
19^ §45. SCARCITY OF SILK IN THE THIRD CENTURY. 
 
 terials (quum jam subserica in usu essent) . He men- 
 tions (c. 33.) among the innumerable extravagances 
 of this emperor, that he had prepared a rope to hang 
 himself with made of purple, silk, and scarlet ; — {Pa- 
 raverat funes, blatta et serico et cocco intortos, quibus, 
 si necesse esset, laqueo vitam finiret*) . 
 
 Of the emperor Alexander Severus he says (c. 40.), 
 that he himself had few garments of silk, that he never 
 wore a tunic made wholly of silk, and that he never 
 gave away cloth made of silk mixed with less valuable 
 materials {Vestes sericas ipse raras hahuit ; holosericas 
 nunquam, induit, subsericam nunquam donavit). 
 
 The following is the testimony of Flavius Vopiscus 
 in his life of the emperor Aurelian. 
 
 Vestem holosericam neque ipse in vestiario suo habuit neque alteri 
 utendam dedit. Et cum ab eo uxor sua peteret, ut unico pallio blatteo 
 serico uteretur, ille respondit, Absit, ut auro fila pensentur. Libra 
 enim auri tunc libra serici fuit. c. 45.. 
 
 Aurelian neither had himself in his wardrobe a garment whoUy of 
 silk, nor gave one to be worn by another. When his own wife 
 begged him to allow her to have a single shawl of purple silk, he 
 replied, Far be it from us to permit thread to be reckoned worth its 
 weight in gold. For a pound of gold was then the price of a pound 
 of silk. 
 
 Although the above-mentioned restrictions in the 
 use of silk may be partly accounted for from the usual 
 severity of Aurelian's character, yet the facts here 
 stated abundantly show the rarity and high value of 
 this material in that age. That manufactured silk 
 should be worth its weight in gold, though a very re- 
 markable fact, is by no nleans beyond belief f. 
 
 * The use of the term "blatta" to denote cloth dyed with the 
 Tyrian purple is illustrated by Bochart, Hierozoicon, 1. iv. cap. 25. 
 p. 616. ed. Leusden. 
 
 t 'OXoaiipiKu ofj-oia riS ^pvutol is an expression used in one of the 
 Khodian Laws according to Alemannus on Procopius, Hist. Arc. 
 
I'SE OF IT BV THE EMPERORS. CYPRIAX. 
 
 195 
 
 Flavins Vopiscus further states, that the emperor 
 Tacitus made it unlawful for men to wear silk un- 
 mixed with cheaper materials. {Holosericara vestem 
 viris omnibus interdixit.) Carinus, on the other hand, 
 made presents of silken garments, as well as of gold 
 and silver, to Greek artificers, and to wrestlers, play- 
 ers, and musicians. 
 
 Trebellius Pollio, in his life of Claudius II. 
 (c. 14 and 17.), twice mentions white garments of 
 silk mixed with cheaper materials, {albam subsericam,) 
 which were destined for that emperor. 
 
 Cyprian, 
 
 Bishop of Carthage in the third century, inveighs in 
 the following terms against the use of silk. 
 
 Tu licet indumenta peregrina et vestes sericas induas, nuda es. 
 Auro te licet et margaritis gemmisque condecores, sine Christi decora 
 deformis es. De Lapsis, p. 135. ed. Fell. 
 
 Although thou shouldest put on a tunic of foreign silk, thou art 
 naked; although thou shouldestbeautify thyself with gold, and pearls, 
 and gems, without the beauty of Christ thou art unadorned. 
 
 Also in his treatise on the Dress of Virgins he says, 
 
 Sericum etpurpuram indutag, Christum induere non possunt : auro 
 et margaritis et monilibus adornatse, ornamenta cordis et jjectoris per- 
 diderunt. 
 
 Those who put on silk and purple, cannot put on Christ : women, 
 adorned with gold and pearls and necklaces, have lost the ornaments 
 of the heart and of the breast. 
 
 In the same place he gives us a translation of the 
 well-known passage of Isaiah (iii. 18 — 23.) enumera- 
 ting the luxuries of female attire among the Jews, and 
 he concludes the enumeration with these words, " se- 
 
 p. 112. It appears that, when these webs, wholly of silk, were pre- 
 served free from wet in case of shipwreck, they paid a salvage of ten 
 per cent. 
 
 O 2 
 
19G '§45,46. TESTIMONY OF SOLINUS AND M ARCELLINUS. 
 
 RICA contexta cum aiiro et hyacintho," in which he 
 has partly followed the ancient Greek version, avv 
 
 y^pvaw Ka\ vuk'ivBio avyKaQv(^aaj.ieva. In Conformity witil 
 
 the observations, which I have formerly made {p. 162.) 
 on the question, whether the ancient Jews were ac- 
 quainted with the use of silk, I may here remark that 
 Cyprian's use of the word in this passage is quite un- 
 authorized. 
 
 SOLINUS. 
 
 Primes hominum Seres cognoscimus, qui, aquarum aspergine in- 
 vxndatis frondibus, vellera arborura adminiculo depectunt liquoris, et 
 laiiuginis teneram subtilitatem humore domant ad obsequium. Hoc 
 illud est sericum, in quo ostentare potius corpora quam vestire, primo 
 feminis, nunc etiam viris persuasit luxurise libido. Cap. 1. 
 
 The Seres first, having inundated the foliage with aspersions of 
 water, combed down fleeces from trees by the aid of a fluid, and sub- 
 dued to their purposes the tender and subtile down by the use of 
 moisture. The substance so prepared is silk ; that material in which 
 at first women, but now even men, have been persuaded by the eager- 
 ness of luxury rather to display their bodies, than to clothe them. 
 
 46. With this passage of Solinus I shall connect one 
 of Ammianus Marcellinus, who is supposed to have 
 been a little later. After describing the quiet peaceable 
 character of the Seres, he thus proceeds (xxiii. 6.): 
 
 Abunde silvse sublucida?, a quibus arborum fetus aquarum asper- 
 ginibus crebris, velut qusedam vellera molientes, ex lanugine et li- 
 quore mixtam subtilitatem tenerrimam pectunt, nentesque subteg- 
 mina conficiunt sericum, ad usus antehac nobilium, nunc etiam in- 
 fimorum sine ulla discretione proficiens. 
 
 There are an abundance of sombre forests, from which they comb 
 a very tender and subtile matter, which is a combination of down 
 and moisture, and which they obtain, like fleeces, from the trees by 
 frequently sprinkling them with water. By spinning this substance 
 they produce silk, which is employed for the woof of cloth ; and the 
 cloth, thus manufactured, having been hitherto worn only by the 
 nobility, is now used by the lowest of the people without any di- 
 stinction. 
 
USE OF WATER IN LOOSENING THE COCOONS. 197 
 
 The remarks of Solinus and Ammianus conspire to 
 show, how much more common silk had become about 
 the end of the third century, being then worn, at least 
 with a warp of cheaper materials, by men as well as 
 by women, and not being confined to the noble and 
 the wealthy. These authors likewise dilate upon the 
 use of showers of water to detach silk from the trees 
 on which it was found. We find a similar statement 
 in Pliny; — " perfusam aqua depectentes frondium ca- 
 nitiem ;" i. e. " combing off the hoary down from the 
 leaves by pouring water over it*." According to Pliny 
 and Solinus, water was also employed after the silk 
 was gathered from the trees f : and probably the fact 
 was so. Silk, as it comes from the worm, contains a 
 strong gum, which would be dissolved by the showers 
 of water dashed against the trees, and thus the co- 
 coons, being loosened from the leaves and twigs, 
 would be easily collected. In the subsequent pro- 
 cesses, water w^ould be further useful in enabling the 
 women to spin the silk or to wind it upon bobbins. 
 
 It may be observed that in this use of water art only 
 follows nature. When the moth is ready to leave its 
 cell, it always softens the extremity of it by emitting 
 a drop of fluid, and thus easily obtains for itself a pas- 
 sage. In the 3rd volume of the Transactions of the 
 Royal Asiatic Society {p.5A3.) Colonel Sykes gives the 
 following account of the process, by which the moth of 
 the Kolisurra silk-worm liberates itself from confine- 
 ment. " It discharges from its mouth a liquor, which 
 dissolves or loosens that part of the cocoon adjoining 
 
 * See Appendix D. 
 
 t This seems to be the sense of the following expressions : Quae 
 vero capta sint laniticia humore lentescere. — Pliny. Lanuginis tene- 
 ram subtiUtatem hum6re domant ad obsequium. — Solinus. 
 
198 §47. EDICT OF DIOCLETIAN, A.D.303. 
 
 to the cord which attaches it to the branch, causing 
 a hole, and admitting of the passage of the moth. 
 The solvent property of this liquid is very remark- 
 able ; for that part of the cocoon, against which it is di- 
 rected, although previously as hard as apiece of wood, 
 becomes soft and pervious as wetted brown paper." 
 
 In the 7th volume of the Linnean Transactions 
 {above quoted, p. 165 note.) is an account by Dr. Rox- 
 burgh of the Tusseh silk-worm (Phalana Paphia) and 
 the Arrindi silk -worm {Phala;na Cynthia). Both spe- 
 cies are natives of Bengal. The cods require to be 
 immersed in cold water before the silk can be obtained 
 from them. In the latter species it is too delicate to 
 be wound from the cocoons and is therefore spun like 
 cotton. Thus manufactured it is so durable, that the 
 life of one person is seldom sufficient to wear out a 
 garment made of it, and the same piece descends from 
 mother to daughter. 
 
 47. Some curious evidence respecting the use of 
 silk, both unmixed with linen {holosericum) and with 
 the warp of linen or some inferior material {suhseri- 
 ciim), is found in the Edict of Diocletian, which was 
 published A.D. 303 for the purpose of fixing a maxi- 
 mum of prices for all articles in common use through- 
 out the Roman Empire*. The passage pertaining to 
 our present subject, with Colonel Leake's translation 
 of it, is as follows : 
 
 Sarcinatori in veste soubtili replicat(u)rBe . . * sex 
 Eidem aperturse cum subsutura olosericae . . * quinquaginta 
 Eidem aperturse cum subsutura su(b)sericse . * triginta 
 (Sub)suturse in veste grossiori * quattuor. 
 
 * It was edited A.D. 1826 by Colonel Leake as a sequel to his 
 Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor, and is also published in Tr. of the 
 Royal Society of Literature, vol. i. p. 181. 
 
§48. AUTHORS IN THK FOURTH CENTURY. 199 
 
 To the Tailor for lining a fine vest 
 
 Denarii. 
 . 6 
 
 To the same for an opening and an edging with silk ... 50 
 To the same for an opening and an edging with stuff made 
 
 This document proves, in exact conformity with 
 the passages just quoted from SoHnus and Amraianus, 
 that silk had come into general use at the commence- 
 ment of the fourth century. It is also manifest from 
 this extract, that silk was employed in giving to gar- 
 ments a greater proportion of intricacy and of orna- 
 ment than had been in use before. It appears to me 
 indeed uncertain, wdiether the excellent editor is right 
 in his version of the terms Replicatura (lining) , and 
 Subsutura (edging). Subsutura might, I think, be 
 better translated a border, or a flounce^. 
 
 48. The authors, who make mention of silk in the 
 fourth and following centuries are very numerous. I 
 shall first take the heathen authors, and then the 
 Christian writers, whose observations often have some 
 moral application, which gives them an additional in- 
 terest. 
 
 The unknown author of the Panegyric on the em- 
 peror Constantine, pronounced A.D. 317, thus men- 
 tions silk as characterizing oriental refinement. 
 
 Facile est vincere timidos et imbelles, quales amoena Grascia et 
 deliciae Orientis educunt, vix leve pallium et sericos sinus vitando 
 sole tolerantes. 
 
 It is easy to vanquish the timid and those unused to war, the 
 offspring of pleasant Greece and the delightful East, who, whilst 
 they avoid the heat of the sun, can scarcely bear even a light shawl 
 and folds of silk. 
 
 of a mixed tissue of silk and flax 
 For an edging on a coarser vest . . 
 
 30 
 4 
 
 * See Horace, Sat. i. 2. 29. and Heindorf in locum. Also Boet- 
 tiger's Sabina, vol. ii. p. 96. 116. 
 
200 § 48. DISPLAY OF SILK AT ROME, A.D. 343. 
 
 I have already produced the testimony of the Ro- 
 man historian Flavius Vopiscus in reference to the 
 practice of the emperor Aurelian and the dearness of 
 silk during his reign. This author, in his Life of the 
 same emperor, makes the following remarks on a dis- 
 play of silk, which he had himself recently witnessed. 
 
 Vidimus proxime Consulatum Furii Placidi tanto ambitu in Circo 
 editum, ut non prsemia dari, sed patrimonia viderentur, quum daren- 
 tur tunicse subsericse, lineae paragaudse, darentur etiam equi, inge- 
 miscentibus frugi hominibus. 
 
 We have lately seen the Consulate of Furius Placidus celebrated 
 in the Circus with so great eagerness for popularity, that he seemed 
 to give not prizes, but patrimonies, presenting tunics of linen and 
 silk, borders of linen, and even horses, to the great scandal of all 
 good men. 
 
 The exact period here referred to is no doubt the 
 consulship of Placidus and Romulus, A.D. 343. 
 
 In the Epistles of Alciphron (i. 39.) Myrrhine, a 
 courtesan, loosens her girdle (Iwviov), which probably 
 fastened her upper garment or shawl. Her shift was 
 silk (Bo^i|3u^ 8' >}v TO yjLTMviov), and so transparent as 
 to show the colour of her skin. 
 
 AusoNius 
 
 satirizes a rich man of mean extraction, who never- 
 theless made lofty pretensions to nobility of birth, 
 professing to be descended from Mars, Romulus, and 
 Remus, and who therefore caused their images to be 
 embossed upon his plate and woven in a silken shawl*. 
 
 * Hos ille Serum veste contexi jubet. Epig. 26. 
 
 I shall have occasion to quote this Epigram entire in Part IV. 
 
 N.B. I introduce Ausonius here among the heathen authors, but 
 without reference to the question whether he was heathen or 
 Christian. 
 
ALCIPHRON. AUSONIUS. SYMMACHUS. CLAUDIAN. 201 
 
 In the following line, he alludes to the production 
 of silk in the usual terms : 
 
 Vellera depectit nemoralia vestifluus Ser. Idyll. 12. 
 The Ser remote, in flowing garments drest, 
 Combs down the fleeces, which the trees invest. 
 
 QuiNTUS AuR. Symmachus. 
 This distinguished officer, in a letter to the consul 
 Stilicho, apologises in the following terms for his de- 
 lay in sending a contribution of Holoseric pieces, that 
 is, webs wholly made of silk, to the public exhibitions. 
 
 Aquae vero theatralis, et holosericarum vestium impetratio, etiam 
 aliis ante me delata est : et ideo juvatur exemplis. Epist. I. iv. 8. 
 
 Others have deferred supplying the water for the theatre and the 
 Holoseric pieces, so that I have examples in my favour. 
 
 In a letter to Magnillus (/. v. 20.) he speaks of Sub- 
 seric pieces, webs made only in part of silk, as pre- 
 sents ; 
 
 Nam et vestes subsericas, quas homines mei post illationem pretii 
 retentabant, et instructum reliquum Muneralium prsemiorum tuus 
 coegit instinctus. 
 
 At your instigation the Subseric pieces have been supplied, which 
 my men kept back after the price had been settled ; and likewise 
 every thing else pertaining to the prizes which were to be given. 
 
 Claudian 
 
 mentions silk in numerous passages. The first of these 
 (In Prob. et Ohjbr. Cons. I. 177 — 192.) may be more 
 properly quoted at full length, when I treat of gold as 
 a Raw Material*. I shall here only observe, that the 
 poet, in describing the consular robes of the two 
 brothers Probinus and Olybrius (A.D. 395.), repre- 
 sents the Gabine Cincture, by which the toga was 
 girt over the breast, as made of silk. 
 
 * In Book III., chapter ii. 
 
L02 §48. MENTION OF SILK BY CLAUDIAN, 
 
 111 the following passage the same poet represents 
 the two brothers, Honorius and Arcadius, as dividing 
 the empire of the world between them and receiving 
 tributes of its productions from the most distant re- 
 gions : 
 
 Vestri juris erit, quicquid complectitur axis. 
 Vobis rubra dabunt pretiosas sequora conchas, 
 Indus ebur, ramos Panchaia, vellera Seres. 
 
 De III Cons. Honorii, I. 209—211. 
 
 To you the world its various wealth shall send : 
 Their precious shells the Erythrean seas ; 
 India its iv'ry, Araby its boughs, 
 The distant Seres fleeces from the trees. 
 
 In a poem, which immediately succeeds this in the 
 order of time, Claudian describes a magnificent toga, 
 worn by Honorius on being appointed a fourth time 
 consul, by saying, that it received its colour (the Ty- 
 rian purple) from the Phoenicians ; its woof {of silk 
 forming stripes or figures) from the Seres ; and its 
 weight {produced by Indian gems) from the river Hy- 
 daspes*. Again, in his poem on the approaching 
 marriage of Honorius and Maria, he mentions yellow 
 silk curtains {velamina lutea Serum, I. 211.) as a de- 
 coration of the nuptial chamber. 
 
 Again he says {in Eutrop. I. i. v. 225, 226. 304. /, ii. 
 V. 337.) : 
 
 Te grandibus India gemmis, 
 Te foliis Arabes ditent, te vellere Seres. 
 
 Let India with her gems thy wealth increase. 
 
 The Arabs with their leaves, the Seres with their fleece. 
 
 * Tribuere colorem 
 
 Phoenices, Seres subtemina, pondus Hydaspes. 
 
 De IV Cons. Honorii, 1. 600, 601. 
 
 I shall quote this passage more fully hereafter, as well as that next 
 referred to. 
 
ILLUSTRATED BY LAW'S IN THE COD. JUSTINIANUS. 203 
 
 He describes an ape ludicrously attired in a silk jacket 
 {pretioso stamine Serum) ; and, inveighing against the 
 progress of luxury, he speaks of some to whom even 
 silk garments were a burthen {onerique vel ipsa Serica). 
 In elaborate descriptions of the figured consular robes 
 (the Trabese) of Honorius and Stilicho, he mentions 
 the reins and other trappings of horses, as being 
 wrought in silk*. 
 
 The frequent allusions to silk in the complimentary 
 poems of Claudian receive illustration from various 
 imperial laws, which were promulgated in the same 
 century and in part by the very emperors to whom his 
 flattery is addressed, and which are preserved in the 
 Codex of Justinian. Their object was not to en- 
 courage the silk manufacture, but, on a principle very 
 opposite to that of modern times, to make it an im- 
 perial monopoly. The admiration excited by the 
 splendour and elegance of silk attire was the ground, 
 on which it was forbidden that any individual of the 
 male sex should wear even a silken border upon his 
 tunic or his pallium, with the exception of the em- 
 peror, and his officers and servants. To confine the 
 enjoyment of these luxuries more entirely to the 
 imperial family and court, all private persons were 
 strictly forbidden to engage in the manufacture, and 
 gold and silken borders {paragaudce) were to be made 
 only in the imperial Gyneeceaf . 
 
 * Rubra Serica. De VI Cons. Honor. 1. 577. Serica Frsena. In 
 I Cons. Stilichonis, 1. ii. v. 350. These passages also will be quoted 
 more fully hereafter. 
 
 t See the Corpus Juris Civihs, Lugduni 1627, folio, torn. v. Codex 
 Justiniani, 1. x. tit. vii. p. 131. 134. 
 
204 $ 48, SILK EXPORTED FROM INDIA. 
 
 The Periplus Maris ERYXHRiEi. 
 
 In this important document on ancient geography 
 and commerce, we find repeated mention of silk in its 
 raw state (epiov), in the state of thread {aripiKov vn/na), 
 and woven {odona aripiKa)*. These articles were 
 brought down the Indus to the coast of the Erythrean 
 Sea. They were also brought to the great mart of 
 Barygaza, which was on the Gulf of Cambay near the 
 modern Surat, and to the coast of Limyrica, which 
 was still more remote. The author of the Periplus 
 states, that they were brought by land through Bac- 
 tria to Barygaza from a great city, called Thina, lying 
 far towards the North in the interior of Asia. He of 
 course refers to some part of Serica. It is remark- 
 able, that he makes no mention of silk as the native 
 production of India. 
 
 Silk is mentioned in two passages of the laws of 
 Manu, viz. XI. v. 168. and XII. v. 64. It is, however, 
 observed by Heeren, who quotes passages of the Ra- 
 mayana that make mention of silk, that garments of 
 this material are there represented as worn only on 
 festive occasions, and that they were undoubtedly Seric 
 or Chinese productions!. Indeed it appears that the 
 cloth made from the thread of the native worms of 
 Hindostan, although highly valued for strength and 
 durability {See above, § 46. p. J 98.), is not remarkable 
 for fineness, beauty, or splendour. 
 
 RuFUS Festus Avienus. 
 
 I have formerly quoted a passage in which this au- 
 thor, adopting the common notion of his time, sup- 
 
 * Arriani 0pp., vol. ii. Blancardi, pp. 164. 170. 173. 177. 
 t Ideen iiber die Politik, &c. der alten Welt, i. 2. pp. G47, G4S. 
 665—668. 677. 3rd edition. Gottingen 1815. 
 
R. F. AVIENUS. MARTIANUS CAPELLA. SERVIUS. 205 
 
 poses the Seres to spin thread from fleeces which 
 were produced upon the trees*. He also mentions 
 silk shawls {Serica pallia, I. 1008.) as worn by the 
 female Bacchantes of Ionia in their processions in 
 honour of Bacchus ; and it is worthy of remark, that 
 they are not mentioned in the original passage of Di- 
 onysius, the author whom Avienus translates, so that 
 we may reasonably infer, that the use of them on these 
 occasions was introduced between the time of Diony- 
 sius (about 30 B.C.) and that of Avienus (about A.D. 
 400). 
 
 Martianus Capella. 
 
 Post quos Seres, qui undis aspergunt arbores suas, ut lanugo, qua" 
 Sericum creat, possit admitti. L. vi. p. 223. ed. Grotii 1599. 
 
 Beyond these {the Anthropophagi) are the Seres, who asperse their 
 trees with water to obtain the down, which produces silk. 
 
 I find the following Inscription in Gruter, Tom. III. 
 p. DCXLV. It was found at Tivoli, and expresses that 
 M. N. Proculus, silk-manufacturer, erected a monu- 
 ment to Valeria Chrysis, his excellent and deserving 
 wife. 
 
 D.M. 
 
 VALERIAE. CHRYSIDI. 
 M. NVMIVS. PROCVLVS. 
 SERICARIVS. 
 CONJVGI. SVAE. 
 OPTIMA, BENEM. 
 FECIT. 
 
 Before proceeding to the Christian writers of the 
 4tli and following centuries we may now introduce 
 the remarks of Servius on the passage formerly 
 
 ^ §28. p. 128, Note. 
 
206 §48. sERVius. §49. comparison of bombyces 
 
 quoted from Virgil. He is supposed to have written 
 about A.D. 400. 
 
 Apud Indos et Seras sunt quidam in arboribus vermes, et bomby- 
 ces appellantur ; qui in aranearum morem tenuissima fila deducunt, 
 unde est Sericum. 
 
 Among the Indians and Seres there are on the trees certain worms, 
 called Bombyces, which draw out very fine threads after the manner 
 of spiders ; and these threads constitute silk. 
 
 It appears to me that we may consider the expres- 
 sion Apud Indos et Seras, as equivalent to Apud Seras 
 Indicos ; and it will then exactly correspond to '2rjpac 
 'Iv^iKova in Clemens Alexandrinus {as quoted above, 
 §44. p. 189). I shall endeavour to prove hereafter, 
 that these "Indian Seres" were the inhabitants of 
 Khotan in Little Bucharia*. 
 
 49. The frequent comparison of Bombyces to spi- 
 ders by the ancients suggests the inquiry whether they 
 employed the thread of any kind of spider to make 
 cloth, as was attempted in France by M. Bon. The 
 failure of his attempt is sufficient, as it appears to me, 
 to show, that the extensive manufacture of garments 
 from this material must have been scarcely possible in 
 ancient times. It is also to be observed, that the an- 
 cients, when they compare the silk- worm to the spider, 
 refer to the spider's web, whereas M. Bon, not finding 
 the web strong enough, made his cloth from the thread 
 with which the spider envelopes its eggsf . 
 
 * See below, § 56. 
 
 t The most extraordinary account of a spider's web, which I have 
 ever seen, is that given by Lieutenant W. Smyth. He says, "We saw 
 here (vis. at Pachiza on the river Huayabamba in Peru) a gigantic 
 spider's web suspended to the trees : it was about 25 feet in height, 
 and near 50 in length ; the threads were very strong, and it had the 
 empty sloughs of thousands of insects hanging in it. It appeared 
 to be the habitation of a great number of spiders of a larger size 
 
TO SPIDERS. WILD SILK-WORMS OF CHINA. 207 
 
 But, although we have no reason to believe, that 
 the web of any spider was anciently employed to make 
 cloth, yet these accounts may have referred to worms, 
 possibly varieties of the silk-worm, which spun long 
 threads, floating in the air. The common silk-worm 
 spins and suspends itself by its thread, long before it 
 begins its cocoon. It appears probable, therefore, 
 that there may have been wild varieties of this crea- 
 ture, or perhaps other species of the same genus, which 
 
 than we ever saw in England." Narrative of a Journey from Lima 
 to Para, London 1836, p. 14L 
 
 For some interesting notices of the great spider of Brazil the reader 
 is referred to Caldcleugh's Travels in South America, London 1825, 
 vol. i. ch. 2. p. 41 ; and to the Rev. R. Walsh's Notices of Brazil, 
 London 1830, vol. ii. p. 300, 301. Mr. Caldcleugh "assisted in 
 liberating from a spider's net a bird of the size of a swallow, quite 
 exhausted with struggling, and ready to fall a prey to its indefati- 
 gable enemies." Mr. Walsh had his light straw hat removed from 
 his head by a similar web extending from tree to tree in an opening 
 through which he had occasion to pass. He wound upon a card se- 
 veral of the threads composing the web ; and he observes, that, as 
 these spiders are gregarious, the difficulties experienced by M. Bon 
 from the ferocity of the solitary European spiders in killing and de- 
 vouring one another would not exist if the attempt were made to ob- 
 tain clothing from the former. 
 
 In the forests of Java Sir George Staunton " found webs of spiders, 
 woven with threads of so strong a texture as not easily to be divided 
 without a cutting instrument." — Account of Lord Macartney's Em- 
 bassy to China, London 1797, vol. i. ch. 7. p. 302. 
 
 Supposing that the ancient Seres or Chinese had spiders of similar 
 habits to those of Peru, Brazil, and Java, it is not impossible, that 
 they may have spun and woven the threads of their webs. But we 
 do not know, that they had such spiders ; and, although I have 
 thought it right to place this evidence before the reader that he may 
 the better form his own judgment, I think it much more probable, 
 that the ancients, even when they compare Bombyces to spiders, in- 
 tend to speak of silk-worms, though probably of wild species or va- 
 rieties. 
 
208 
 
 § 49. WILD SILK-WORMS OF CHINA. 
 
 in the earlier stages of their existence spun threads 
 long enough for use. I ground this conjecture partly 
 on the following passage from Du Halde's History of 
 China {vol. li. 359, 360. 8vo edition. London, 1736). 
 
 The province of Chan-tong produces a particular sort of silk, 
 which is found in great quantities on the trees and In the fields. It 
 is spun and made into a stuff called Kien-tcheou. This silk is made 
 hy little insects that are much like caterpillars. They do not spin 
 an oval or round cod, like the silk-vrorms, but very long threads. 
 These threads, as they are driven about by the winds, hang upon 
 the trees and bushes, and are gathered to make a sort of silk, which 
 is coarser than that made of the silk spun in houses. But these 
 worms are wild, and- eat indifferently the leaves of mulberry and 
 other trees. Those who do not understand this silk would take it 
 for unbleached cloth, or a coarse sort of drugget. 
 
 The worms, which spin this silk, are of two kinds ; the first, which 
 are much larger and blacker than the common silk-worms, are called 
 Tsouen-kien ; the second, that are smaller, are named Tiao-kien. 
 The silk of the first is of a reddish gray, that of the other is darker. 
 The stuff made of these materials is between both colours, it is very 
 close, does not fret, is very lasting, washes like linen, and, when it 
 is good, receives no damage by spots, even though oil were to be 
 shed on it. 
 
 This stuff is very much valued by the Chinese, and is sometimes 
 as dear as satin or the finest silks. As the Chinese are very skilful 
 at counterfeiting, they make a false sort of Kien-tcheou with the 
 waste of the Tche-kiang silk, which without due inspection might 
 easily be taken for the right. 
 
 This account appears to me to afford a remarkable 
 illustration of many of the expressions of the ancient 
 writers, as already quoted, such as " Bombyx pendulus 
 urget opus," Martial; "Per aerem liquando aranearum 
 horoscopis idoneas sedes tendit," Tertullian ; " In ara- 
 nearum morem tenuissima fila deducunt," Servius. 
 
 In further illustration of the subject, and as tending 
 to show that the Kien-tcheou is manufactured from 
 the thread of a silk-worm, modified in its habits and 
 
COMMONNESS OF SILK IN CHINA. 
 
 209 
 
 perhaps in its organization by circumstances, I shall 
 now quote a few passages from a work having the fol- 
 lowing title : " China; its costume, arts, manufactures, 
 Sfc. edited from the originals in the cabinet of M. Ber- 
 tin, with observations by M. Breton. Translated from 
 the French. London 1812." Vol. iv. p. 55, &c. 
 
 The wild silk-worms are found in the hottest provinces of China, 
 especially near Canton. They live indifferently on all sorts of leaves, 
 particularly on those of the ash, the oak, and the fagara, and spin 
 a greyish and rarely white silk. The coarse cloth manufactured 
 from it is called Kien-tcheou, will bear washing, and on that ac- 
 count persons of quality do not disdain to wear clothes of it. With 
 this silk also the strings of musical instruments are made, because 
 it is stronger and more sonorous. 
 
 Entomologists treat but very superficially of the habits of the wild 
 silk- worms, while they dwell in minute detail on the method of rear- 
 ing them in Provence. 
 
 It is between the 1 9tli and 22nd day of their existence, that they 
 undertake the great work of spinning their cod. They curve a leaf 
 into a kind of cup, and then form a cocoon as large and nearly as 
 hard as a hen's-egg. This cod has one end open Uke a reversed 
 funnel ; it is a passage for the butterfly, which is to come out. 
 
 The oak-worms are slower in making their cocoon than those of 
 the fagara and ash, and they set about it diflPerently. Instead of 
 bending a single leaf, they roll themselves in two or three and spin 
 their cod. It is larger, but the silk is inferior in quality, and of 
 course not so valuable. 
 
 The wild cods are so strong and so compact, that the inssscts have 
 great difficulty in extricating themselves, and therefore remain in- 
 closed from the end of the summer to the spring of the following 
 year. These butterflies, unlike the domestic insect, fly very well. 
 
 The domestic silli-worm is but a variety of the wild species. It 
 
 is fed on the leaves of the mulberry-tree. 
 
 Silk is so common in China, and manual labour is so cheap, that 
 it there seems inexhaustible. Not only the mandarins, but men of 
 letters and all persons in easy circumstances, eis well male as female, 
 wear silk, satin, or damask clothes. Even the uniforms of the sol- 
 diers are made of this elsewhere considered so valuable material. 
 
210 §49. WILD SILK-WORMS OF CHINA. 
 
 The circumstance that the worms were sometimes 
 fed with oak-leaves is mentioned in Du Halde's His- 
 tory of China, vol. ii. p. 363. 
 
 Here then we have a justification of the ancients 
 in asserting, both that the silk-worms produced long 
 threads and webs floating in the air like those of spi- 
 ders, and that they fed upon the leaves of the oali, 
 the ash, and many other trees. It may be recollected, 
 that Pliny expressly mentions both the oak (quercus) 
 and the ash {fraxinus). 
 
 Until very lately the use of silk among the ancients 
 was investigated only by philologists. Within a few 
 years M. Latreille, an entomologist of the highest di- 
 stinction, has directed his attention to the subject and 
 has examined particularly the above-cited passages of 
 Aristotle, Pliny, and Pausanias. He never supposes 
 the ancient Sericum to have been the produce of any 
 thing except the silk-worm. But of this there are 
 several varieties, partly perhaps natural, and partly 
 the result of domestication. He endeavours to ex- 
 plain some parts of Pliny's description by showing 
 their seeming correspondence with some of the prac- 
 tices actually observed by the Orientals in the ma- 
 nagement of silk-worms. In this attempt he does 
 not appear to me to be very successful, although 
 I accede to his general conclusion, which he ex- 
 presses in the following terms : " De mes recherches 
 on doit tirer cette consequence, que les passages 
 d'Aristotle, de Pline, de Pausanias, et de plusieurs 
 autres auteurs anciens, concernant les vers a sole, 
 ne sont que des traditions indiennes, chinoises, ou 
 thibetaines, relatives a des vers a sole sauvages, plus 
 ou moins alterees et extremelees de quelques cir- 
 
TRANSPARENT MEMBRANES IN THE WINGS. 211 
 
 Constances propres h. la culture de I'espece domes- 
 tique*." 
 
 An account of the wild silk-worms of China is to 
 be found in the " Meinoires concernant I'Histoire, les 
 Sciences, les Arts, &c. des Chinois," compiled by the 
 missionaries of Pekingf. This account is principally 
 derived from the information of Father D'Incarville, 
 one of the missionaries. It coincides generally with 
 the accounts already quoted from Du Halde and Bre- 
 ton. I extract the following particulars as conveying 
 some further information. 
 
 The Chinese annals from the year 150 B.C. to A.D. 
 638 make frequent mention of the great quantity of 
 silk produced by the wild worms, and observe that 
 their cocoons were as large as eggs or apricots. 
 
 The following passage is also deserving of atten- 
 tion : " Le papillon de ces vers sauvages, dit le Pere 
 d'Incarville, est a ailes vitrees." This information, if 
 correct, would prove that there was at least one kind 
 of wild silk- worms in China, which was a different 
 species from the Phalrena Mori ; for that has no trans- 
 parent membranes in its wings, and would not be 
 likely to receive them in consequence of any change 
 in its mode of life. 
 
 I have formerly (§40. p. 164.) expressed my opi- 
 nion that the silk-worm of Aristotle and the other 
 Greek and Roman authors was the caterpillar of the 
 Phalsena Mori ; and, notwithstanding the curious cii- 
 
 * M. Latreille's paper is published in the Annales des Sciences 
 Naturelles, tome xxiii. pp. 58 — 84. 
 
 t Tome ii. pp. 579 — 601. Paris, 1777, 4to. This Memoir is re- 
 printed with abridgements as an Appendix to Stanislaus Julien's 
 Translation of the Chinese Treatise on the Breeding of Silk-worms, 
 Paris, 1837, 8vo. 
 
 p 2 
 
212 ^49. WILD SILK-WORMS OF CHINA. 
 
 cumstance here noticed, and the evidence now pre- 
 sented respecting the greater resemblance of the pro- 
 duce of wild silk-worms to spiders' webs, I still think 
 that the silk brought to Asia Minor and other Western 
 regions, (called ^t^piKov or /Bo/ijSiPKtvov, and in its raw 
 state i.ieTa^a), was produced by the Phalsena Mori 
 only. For all accounts agree in saying that the silk of 
 the wild worms of China was much coarser than that 
 of the domestic silk-worm which feeds on the mul- 
 berry ; and the cloth manufactured from the former 
 was a kind of drugget, which was never dyed, because 
 it would not retain the colour. Cloth, such as this, 
 would scarcely have been worth the expense of carriage 
 to the shores of I'le Mediterranean ; and we know that 
 the manufactures of Serica were chiefly valued, not 
 for their strength or durability, but for their exquisite 
 fineness, their beautiful gloss, and for receiving the 
 Tyrian purple and other dyes. 
 
 But, although the silk brought either in the raw or 
 manufactured state to the cities of India, Phcenice, 
 Asia Minor, and Europe, was the produce of the Pha- 
 la?na Mori, and probably in its domesticated state, 
 vet it appears very possible, that there may have 
 been in China and in the ancient Serica, not only 
 wild varieties of the Phalsena Mori, but other species 
 distinct from it and resembling the wild silk-worms of 
 India. Possibly the large and splendid Phaltena Atlas, 
 which is often brought to us in cases of Chinese in- 
 sects, may be one of the wild silk-worms of that coun- 
 try. It has windows, or transparent membranes, in 
 its wings. It would probably form a cocoon as large 
 as a hen's egg, and its thread is coarse and strong. 
 Nor can there be any doubt, that the webs of the 
 larvse of this and every other species of Phalaena 
 
§50. CHRISTIAN AUTHORS IN THE FOURTH CENTURY. 213 
 
 would more resemble those of spiders and be spread 
 more over the trees in the state of downy fleeces, 
 when they were entirely wild, and obliged, instead of 
 forming simple cods, to stretch their threads in innu- 
 merable directions from one point to another. 
 
 50. I now proceed to take the Christian authors of 
 the fourth and following centuries in the order of 
 time. 
 
 Arnobius {A.D. 305.) 
 thus speaks of the heathen gods : 
 
 Vestis indigent tegmine ; ut virgo Tritonia curiosius stamen neat, 
 et qualitate pro temporis aut trilices tunicas aut de serico imponat*. 
 
 They want the covering of a garment : the Tritonian virgin must 
 spin a thread of extraordinary fineness, and according to circum- 
 stances put on a tunic either of mai], or of silk. 
 
 Gregorius Nazianzenus, CI. A.D. 370. 
 The following passage contains, I believe, the ear- 
 liest allusion to the use of silk in the services of the 
 Christian Church. 
 
 "AXXoi fiev yjiviJOVTe Koi dpyvpov, o'l ra ^r/pdiy 
 
 Awpa (^epovai QeQ riifiara XeTrraXea. 
 Krii XpioTw Bvairiv rts ayvr]V avedrjicev envrov' 
 Kf(t (TTrei'Cet cap/ouwj' aXXos ayycis \iftucas. 
 Ad Hellenium pro Monachis Carmen, torn. ii. p. 106. ed. Par. 1630. 
 
 Silver and gold some bring to God 
 Or the fine threads by Seres spun : 
 Others to Christ themselves devote, 
 A chaste and holy sacrifice. 
 And malce libations of their tears. 
 
 * Adv. Gentes, 1. iii. p. 580, ed. Erasmi. In this passage we may 
 remark the use of "imponat" {put on) instead of the more appro- 
 priate verb " induat." The Tritonian virgin (Minerva) must be con- 
 sidered as wearing the tunic of mail {trilices tunicas) for war, the 
 silken tunic for peace, thus varying it " pro qualitate temporis." The 
 denomination here used for the coat of mail appears to be borrowed 
 from Virgil's .^neid. 
 
214 § 50. BASIL. HIS ILLUSTRATION OF THE 
 
 Basil, CI. A.D. 370. 
 
 Although this celebrated author was a native of 
 Asia Minor, and had studied in Syria and Palestine, 
 he appears to have known the silk-worm only from 
 books and by report. His description of it in the 
 following passage, in which we first find the beautiful 
 illustration of the doctrine of a resurrection from the 
 change of the chrysalis, is chiefly copied from Aristo- 
 tle's account as formerly quoted. {See above, § 40.) * 
 
 Ti ^are ot ctTrifTrovrTes Tbi Ilai/Xw irepi Trjs Kara avanraaiv aX- 
 Xoiojo'ews, (jpiSvres woXXti tuv aepicov rds fjLop(j)ds juera/3aXXoi'ra ; CTroTa 
 Kai trepi rov 'li'^iicov ff/coiXijcos laropeTrai rov Kepaa^ipov' os els Kc'ifnrriv 
 TO. irpdira fi€Ta(3aXwv, eira wpdiiov jSo/AfivXtos y/i erai, /cat ovce etri rav- 
 Ttfs 'larrarai rjjs fiopiprjs, dXXct ■^avvois Koi nXareffi TrernXois vTroTrrepov- 
 -ai. "Oral' oi}j' KaBei^rjirde rijv tovtu»' epyurrlar avuTrr)vt'C<i^evai at 
 yvviUKes, ra vr][xaTa Xiyw, a irefj-Trovfriv vfxiv ot 2/;pes Trpos tijv twv 
 fiaXaKuv evtvfiaTiav KaraaKevijv , fienvrj^dvcu rfjs Kurd to i^wov tovto 
 lieT(iftoXr\s, eyapyrj Xaju/Sarere rrjs draa-atrews evvoiai', Kat fj.fi UTn- 
 rTTelre uXXayij, tjv TlavXos uTraai KureiTuyyeXXeTai. — Hexahemeron, 
 p. 19. A. Ed. Benedict. 
 
 I add the Latin translation of the above passage 
 made by Eustathius about A.D. 440. 
 
 Quid dicitis, qui Paulo Apostolo de resuriectione non creditis, cum 
 videatis certa de aereis animantibus figuram propriam commutare, 
 sicut Indiacum vermem, qui est corniger, primo in verucse se speciem 
 transformantem, deinde fieri bombulionem, nec tamen in eo schemate 
 persistentem, sedmembranis naollioribus plumescentem aligerum red- 
 di ? Itaque vos matrons, quando sedetis eorum revolventes opera, 
 id est, stamina, quae Seres hue dirigunt ad confectionem vestium de- 
 
 * I do not mean, by what I have here asserted, to deny, that 
 Aristotle and Basil may have derived their accounts from some com- 
 mon source. Perhaps on this supposition we may best explain both 
 the correspondence and the variation in their language. Of the two 
 authors Basil appears to me to have been nearest the truth in his de- 
 scription ; and indeed his words seem to agree very nearly with the 
 actual facts. 
 
DOCTRINE OF THE RESURRECTION. 
 
 215 
 
 licatarum, reminiscimini hujus animalis refigurationem, ut evidens de 
 resurrectione capiatis exemplum, et nihil dubitetis de reformatione 
 corporis, quam Paulus exponit. 
 
 What have you to say, who disbelieve the assertion of the Apostle 
 Paul concerning the change at the resurrection, when you see many 
 of the inhabitants of the air changing their forms ? Consider, for ex- 
 ample, the account of the horned worm of India, which, having first 
 changed into a caterpillar {eruca, or verucd), then in process of time 
 becomes a cocoon {bomhylius, or bombulio), and does not continue 
 even in this form, but assumes light and expanded wings. Ye women, 
 who sit winding upon bobbins the produce of these animals, namely 
 the threads, which the Seres send to you for the manufacture of fine 
 garments, bear in mind the change of form in this creature ; derive 
 from it a clear conception of the resurrection ; and discredit not that 
 transformation which Paul announces to us all. 
 
 When St. Basil says of the new-born moth, that 
 " it assumes light and expanded wings," the beauty 
 of the comparison in illustrating the Christian doctrine 
 of the resurrection is enhanced, when we consider that 
 in its wild state the moth flies very well, although, 
 when domesticated, its flight is weak and its wings 
 small and shrivelled* : but still more beautiful does 
 the figure become, if we suppose a reference to those 
 larger and more splendid Phalaenae which produce the 
 coarser kinds of silk in India, and probably also in 
 China f. 
 
 Basil is the first writer, who distinctly mentions the 
 change of the silk- worm from a chrysalis to a moth. 
 In his application of that fact he addresses himself to 
 
 * See M. Breton, as quoted above, § 49. p. 209, 
 
 t See above, §40- p. 164, Note. § 49. p. ■212. In the Memoir 
 
 already quoted the Missionaries say, " Nos livres de piete out pris 
 
 le ver a sole pour symbole de la resurrection, soit de I'ame a la grace, 
 
 soit du corps a la vie ^ternelle." 
 
 The Phalrena Atlas, apparently a native of China, measures 8 
 
 inches across the wings from tip to tip. 
 
216 §50. METHOD OF PREPARING THE COCOONS FOR 
 
 his countrywomen in Asia Minor, and his language 
 represents them sitting and winding on bobbins the 
 raw silk obtained from the Seres and designed to be 
 afterwards woven into cloth. His evidence thus con- 
 firms the remark, which I formerly made in relation 
 to the passage of Aristotle (§40. p. 163.), that the 
 ancient Greeks did not breed silk- worms, but received 
 the raw silk from the interior of Asia. Between these 
 two authors we may however observe a difierence of 
 phraseology which appears deserving of notice. While 
 they both describe the women, not as spinning the 
 the silk {vl)dovTec), but as winding it on bobbins (ura- 
 TDivi^o^uei-ai) , they designate the material so wound by 
 two different names. Basil uses the term vn^ara, which 
 might be meant to imply that the silk came from the 
 Seres in skeins as it conies to us from China : Ari- 
 stotle, on the contrary, uses the term (dojx^xjKia, which 
 can only refer to the state of silk before it is wound 
 into skeins. As it might appear impossible to convey 
 it in this state to Cos, I shall here insert from the au- 
 thorities already quoted, the Chinese Missionaries, an 
 account of the process by which the cocoons are pre- 
 pared for winding, and it will then be seen, that the 
 cods or cocoons might have been transported to any 
 part of the world. 
 
 To prepare the cocoons of the wild silk-worms, the 
 Chinese cut the extremities of them with a pair of 
 scissars. They are then put into a canvass bag, and 
 immersed for an hour or more in a kettle of boiling 
 lie, which dissolves the gum. When this is effected, 
 they are taken from the kettle ; they are pressed to 
 expel the he, and are then left till the next morning 
 to dry. Whilst they are still moist, the chrysalis is 
 extracted from each cocoon, which is then turned 
 
TRANSPORTATION INTO FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 217 
 
 inside out so as to make a sort of cowl. They are 
 then easily wound into thread. It is only necessary 
 to put them again into lukewarm water, and then to 
 cap ten or twelve of them upon one another like so 
 many thimbles, to insert a small distaff through them, 
 and so to wind the silk from them upon the spindle or 
 the reel. 
 
 Ambrose, CI. A.D. 374. 
 
 Sericse vestes, et auro intexta velamina, quibus divitis corpus am- 
 bitur, damna viventium, non subsidia defunctorum sunt. — De Na- 
 hutho Jezraelitd, cap. i. torn. i. p. 566. Ed. Bened. 
 
 Silken garments, and veils interwoven with gold, with which the 
 body of the rich man is encompassed, are a loss to the living and no 
 gain to the dead. 
 
 Et quia de volatilibus dicimus, non putamus alienum ea complecti 
 quffi de verme Indico tradit historia, vel eorura relatio, qui videre 
 potuerunt. Fertur hie corniger vermis, converti primiim in speciem 
 caulis, atque in eam mutari naturam ; inde processu quodam fieri 
 bombylius ; nec eam tamen formam figuramque custodit, sed laxis 
 et latioribus foliis videtur pennas adsumere. Ex his foliis mollia ilia 
 Seres depectunt vellera, quae ad usus sibi proprios divites vindica- 
 runt. — Hexahemeron, lib. v. cap. 23. 
 
 The latter of these two passages is intended to be 
 a translation of the passage cited from Basil. We may 
 observe, that the sense of laTopfUTca is more fully ex- 
 pressed by the periphrasis, " tradit historia, vel eorum 
 relatio, qui videre potuerunt ;" which supports my re- 
 marks on Aristotle and Basil, by showing that the 
 natives of Greece and Italy in the 4th century knew 
 the silk-worm only from books or from report. 
 
 Basil was evidently aware of the change of the worm 
 into a fly. He expresses it by the words, aAAa yavvoic, 
 
 Kai TrXareui TreraAotc VTronTepovrai. Ambrose was, aS 
 
 it seems, ignorant of this wonderful fact, and trans- 
 lates the expression of Basil thus, " sed laxis et lati- 
 
218 §50. ILLUSTRATION OF THE RESURRECTION. 
 
 oribus foliis videtur pennas adsumere." He evidently 
 supposes the meaning of Basil to be, that thin and 
 spreading appendages, like the leaves of trees (folia), 
 were attached to the insect by its last transformation ; 
 and, recollecting the accounts, given by Virgil and 
 others, of combing the silk from leaves, he asserts, 
 that from the leaves thus produced, being constituent 
 parts of the insect, the Seres comb those fleeces, which 
 are manufactured into garments for the rich*. 
 
 Here I think it not out of place to introduce the 
 account of the silk-worm by Georgius Pisida, who 
 flourished about A.D. 640, and is likewise the author of 
 an Hexahemeron, derived in part from that of St. Basil, 
 but written in Greek Iambic versef . He is mach be- 
 hind Basil in regard to correct information on this 
 subject, although he lived at Constantinople after the 
 breeding of silk-worms had been introduced there. Ac- 
 cording to him the silk-worm (o /iera^oTrotoc ct/cw'Xjj^) 
 pines or moulders almost to nothing in its tomb, and 
 then returns to its former shape. The verses are how- 
 ever deserving of attention for their elegance, and for 
 the repetition of Basil's idea, which Ambrose has left 
 out, of the analogy between the restoration of the silk- 
 worm and the resurrection of man. 
 
 Tlolos ce Kui ffKtoXi'iica ^rjpiKoy yofios 
 Ueidei TCI XajuTrpofv-Xdjffra ri/yitara TrXeceij', 
 'a, Tfj (icKprj ■^waBe.vTa Ttjs aXovpyiSos, 
 Xavj'ot rov oyKoy rwv Kparnvi'Tur e jKppoyojs ; 
 Myi'ifir) yap avrovs ev'Xa/jws VTro-pe^ei, 
 "Ort s-po avruiy riji rrroXrjs ?/ XajUTrpdrrjy 
 
 * Instead of " Ex his foliis" the Edit. Rom. has " Ex hujus filis." 
 But the former is undoubtedly the true reading, being found in all 
 the MSS. and in all the editions except the Roman. 
 
 t Besides the editions of this poem, mentioned by Cave, it is pub- 
 lished in Appendix Corporis Hist. Byzantince, Roma 1777, folio. 
 
AMBROSE. 
 
 GEORGIUS PISIDA. 
 
 MACARIUS. 
 
 219 
 
 SicojXrjcos 7)v ei'cvud kuI (pOaprr) aKeirrj, 
 "Os, rfj Kaff j/juas fiapTvpuip dvacToaei, 
 QvrjffKei fJiey evdoy tQv eavrov yrj^aTuv, 
 "Tov avTOv oIkov koi racpr/y reCeyjjei'os, 
 Succor de Trai'TOs tov car' avToy trupKiov 
 2a7re)'ros rj pveyros i) rerr^yjieyov, 
 
 XpOJ'OH KaXoVVTOS EK (fidopcts V!TO(Trp€(pet, 
 
 Kat Tt)y TraXat fj.6p(pu)aiy (ippi'irws (pvei 
 'Ei' T(o TTepir-evaayri fXiKpai XeiTpavo), 
 Tlpos ri]y air' ap^rjs au)^arovj.ievos irXamy. 
 
 I. 12G5— 1282. 
 
 What law persuades the Seric worm to spin 
 
 Those shining threads, which, dyed with purple hue, 
 
 Inflate, yet check the pride of mighty men ? 
 
 For, whilst they blaze in grand attire, the thought 
 
 Steals on, — This splendid robe once cloth'd a worm : 
 
 Type of our resurrection from the grave, 
 
 It dies within the tomb itself lias spun. 
 
 That perishing abode, which is at once 
 
 Its house and tomb ; in which it rots away. 
 
 Till at the call of time it gladly leaves 
 
 Corruption, and its ancient shape resumes. 
 
 A little remnant of its mould'ring flesh, 
 
 By processes unspeakable and dark, 
 
 Restores the wonders of its earliest form. 
 
 Macarius, CI. A.D. 373. 
 
 "0(T/rep yyyrj e-^ovrra oXom'ipiKa, Kai fiapyapiras TrfpifteftXii^ieyr), els 
 ■Kopyeioy itpoearr}Ker, o'vtus Kai tTri nZy Toiovruiy >/ Kapcia avrdjy ~op- 
 ye'iov tariy aKudaprioy iryev^arwy. — Homil. 17. §9. 
 
 This passage is an additional proof that the use of 
 silken clothing was characteristic of dissolute women. 
 Compare the preceding extracts from Propertius, Ho- 
 race, and Alciphron. 
 
 Jerome, CI. A.D. 378. 
 .51. This great author mentions silk in numerous 
 passages. 
 
 In his translation of Ezekiel xxvii. he has supposed 
 
220 §51. CHRISTIAN AUTHORS IN THE FOURTH CENTURY. 
 
 silk (sericum) to be an article of Syrian and Phoenician 
 traffic as early as the time of that prophet ; but, as I 
 conceive, without sufficient grounds. He has in fact 
 accommodated his translation to the circumstances of 
 his own age*. 
 
 Syrus negotiator tuus propter multitudinem operum tuorum, gut- 
 tam, purpuram, et scutulata ; et byssum, et sericum, et chodchod 
 proposuerunt in mercatu tuo. 
 
 In his beautiful and interesting Epistle to Lseta on 
 the Education of her Daughter (0/jj3. Paris, 1546. torn. i. 
 p. 20. C), he says ; 
 
 Discat et lanam facere, tenere colum, ponere in gremio calathum, 
 rotare fusum, stamina poUice ducere. Sj)ernat bombycum telas, 
 Serum vellera, et aurum in fila lentescens. Talia vestimenta paret, 
 
 quibus pellatur frigus, non quibus vestita corpora nudentur 
 
 .... Pro gemmis et serico divinos codices amet, in quibus non auri 
 et pellis Babylonicae vermiculata pictura, sed ad fidem placeat emen- 
 data et erudita distinctio. 
 
 Let her learn also to spin wool, to hold the distaff, to place the 
 basket in her bosom, to twirl the spindle, to draw the threads with 
 her thumb. Let her despise the webs of silk-worms, the fleeces of 
 the Seres, and gold beaten into threads. Let her prepare such gar- 
 ments as may dispel cold, not expose the body naked, even when it is 
 clothed. Instead of gems and silk let her love the sacred books, &c. 
 
 Nos, quia serica veste non utimur, monachi judicamur : quia ebrii 
 non sumus, nec cachinno ora dissolvimus, continentes vocamur et 
 tristes : si tunica non canduerit, statim illud e trivio. Impostor et 
 Grfficus est. — Epist. ad Marcellum, De ^grotatione Blesillce, torn. i. 
 p. 156. ed. Erasmi 1526. 
 
 Because we do not use garments of silk, we are reckoned monks ; 
 because we are not drunken, and do not convulse ourselves with 
 lausrhter, we are called restrained and sad : if our tunic is not white, 
 we immediately hear the proverb, He is an impostor and a Greek. 
 
 * See below, extracts from Procopius as evidence of the establish- 
 ment of the silk trade in Tyre and Berytus as early as the fourth 
 century of our aera. 
 
JEROME. 
 
 CHRYSOSTOM. 
 
 HELIODORUS. 
 
 221 
 
 Ante nudo eras pede ; modo non solum calceato, sed et ornato. 
 Tunc pexa tunica et nigra subucula vestiebaris, sordidatus et palli- 
 dus, et callosam opera gestitans manura ; nunc lineis et sericis ves- 
 tibus, et Atrebatum et Laodicete indumentis ornatus incedis. — Adv. 
 Jovinianum, I. ii. 0pp. ed. Paris. 1546. torn. li. p. 29. 
 
 You formerly went with naked feet ; now you not only use shoes, 
 but even ornamented ones. You then wore a poor tunic and a black 
 shirt under it, dirty and pale, and having your hand callous with 
 labour ; now you go adorned with linen and silk, and with vestments 
 obtained from the Atrebates and from Laodicea. 
 
 Chrysostom, CI. A.D. 398. 
 
 'AXXft (rrjpiKa ru Ifiarin ; aXXct puKtwv yejUOUffa »/ \pv)(i). 
 
 Comment, in Psalm 48. torn. v. p. 51 7. ed. Ben. 
 
 Does the rich man wear silken shawls ? His soul however is full of 
 tatters. 
 
 KaXa ra crrjpiica. ijiaria, f'(XXa aK(i>Xr]i:(i)v effrlv iifaerpa. 
 
 (Quoted by Vossius, Elym. Lat. p. 46G.) 
 Silken shawls are beautiful, but the production of worms. 
 
 "Oroi' yap rci l iifxarn ra CTjpim, a fir)Se kv Ijidnots vfaiyeffdai kciXov, 
 Tdvra Iv VTr6c't]fia(Ti dtappuTrrr]Te, Ttoarjs fJ/jpews, irorrov yeXuros ravra 
 cl^ta ; Ham. 49 in Matt. torn. vii. p. 510. ed. Benedict. 
 
 In the last passage Chrysostom inveighs against the 
 practice of embroidering shoes with silk thread, ob- 
 serving that it was a shame even to wear it woven in 
 shawls. Such is the change of circumstances, that 
 now even the poorest persons of both sexes, if decently 
 attired, have silk in their shoes. 
 
 Heliodorus, CI. A.D. 390. 
 
 This author, describing the ceremonies at the nup- 
 tials of Theagenes and Chariclea, says, "The ambas- 
 sadors of the Seres came, bringing the thread and webs 
 of their spiders, one of the webs dyed purple, the other 
 
 white" {rriv fiev (poiviKofta(prj , ttji^ XevKorarriv eaOfira). 
 
 Mthiopica, lib. x. p. 494. Commelini. 
 
222 §51. hesychius and the lexicographers. 
 Hesychius. 
 
 ^rjpes, ^uSa in'iQot'-a neral^ar' j) ovofia edvovs, odev ep-yerai kch to 
 ukocTi'ipiKov. 
 
 lirjpu)}', cricwXiiKMy twv yerrdi/t'TuJv rd aripiKu. ^qpes yap oi aKw\r]Kes. 
 
 Hesychius is mistaken in supposing that 2j)/)ec pro- 
 perly meant silk- worms. Although the Emperor Julian 
 uses the term in this sense (oi HepaiKol anpec, Epist. 24.), 
 he too must be considered inaccurate, as well as Pau- 
 sanias {as quoted above, § 44. p. 188.). Ser was the 
 name of a nation, not of an insect*. 
 
 * Having quoted Hesychius, I will here introduce in a note the 
 passages of parallel import from the Lexicons of Photius, Zonaras, 
 Suidas, and Phavorinus. 
 
 Photius. 
 
 2r7pes, edi'os, eyOa y fiera^u yivtTcii, ov Koi ^rjpiKoi' ra fieru^ys 
 vfu(Tfj.eva Xeyerat. — Lexicon, ed. Hermanni, Lips. 1808. 
 
 Zonaras. 
 
 o aKwXrit,. Kdi KKiverai arjpos. Koi (rypiica tj^aTia, ra fieratoiTa. 
 — Lexicon, ed. Tittmann, Lips. 1808. 
 
 Suidas. 
 
 ^ijpes, edj'os, ei>9a i) jj-erat^a yii erui, e| ov Kai Hrjpiicd ra €K fj.erdt,ris 
 v(i>(i(TfJLeva Xiyerai. Kai S/jp, atjpos, y evdela. 
 
 ^ypiKy. "On y jxiraia ecrriy, it, I'jS eluideaay ryv iaQyra ipyai^eaOat, 
 yy TrdXai juev "EXAjjres M^ySiKyy eKaXovy, rd vvv "LypiKyy dyo^d'Cov- 
 my. 'Ettj de 'lovtrnyiai'ov Trpos AldioTras TrpeffjSevoyrai 'Pwjuaiot, oVws 
 Aidiorres, wi'ovfjieyoi ryv fxera^ay es '^I'ZiZy, dnoSofjieyoi de aiiryy es 
 'PtofjLaiovs, avToi ftey Kvpioi yevuvrui fxeyaXii)v ■^^pyfiarwy, Pufiaiovs de 
 TOVTO TToiyaioai KepZaiyeiy fioyoy, oti crj oviceTi dyayKaadyaoyTai Td 
 rrcpeTepa av-ioy yfiyjxara is rovs TroXefiiovs jxeTeyeyKeh'. Kai "ZypLKOV 
 Njjjua, Ka\ ^ripiKU 'Ifidna. 
 
 We may observe, that the former of these passages has been copied 
 from Photius by Suidas. The latter is an extract from a passage of 
 the writings of Procopius, which has been already in part quoted, 
 § 44. p. 192, and which will be further noticed hereafter in § 56. 
 
 Phavorinus. 
 
 Merata Trapa rois yewrepoLS Twy 'EXXyyior, to aijpiKoy, odev Ka\ to 
 
 fXeTuE,U}T()t'. 
 
RAW SILK CALLED METAXA. § 52. PRUDENTIUS. 223 
 
 Salraasius {in Tertullianum de Pallio, p. 242.) quotes 
 the following passage from an uncertain author. 
 
 'Ofioia kariv rj tov irapovTOS [3tov Tepirt'O-rfs 'IvoiKu (TKOjXrjKiS, oirep t<S 
 (pvW(v TOV ^eycpov ffi/JTi/Xt^Oe;/, kui rrj Tpo([»i dayuXrjQev, avveTrviyr) kv 
 uvTU TOV fxeTu^iov KOVKOvXlo). 
 
 The pleasure of the present life is like the Indian worm, which, 
 having involved itself in the leaf of the tree and having been satisfied 
 with food, chokes itself in the cocoon of its own thread. 
 
 This writer, whoever he was, appears to have had a 
 correct idea of the manner in which the silk-worm 
 wraps itself in a leaf of the tree, on which it feeds, 
 and spins its tomb within*. The term kovkovXiou, 
 cocoon, is remarkable, and the use of /j-era^wv for Raw 
 Silk. 
 
 52. Prudentius, CI. A.D. 405. 
 
 The following sentence occurs in a speech of St. 
 Laurence at his martyrdom : 
 
 Hunc, qui superbit serico. 
 Quern currus inflatum vehit ; 
 Hydrops aquosus lucido 
 Tendit veneno intrinsecus. 
 
 Peristeph. Hymn. ii. I. 237 — 240. 
 
 S»)p, (> aicwXr]^, ml tcXiverai ar)p6s. koX arfpiKa 'ifiaTia, rd fieTa^wrd. 
 The explanation of the word 2r}p is copied from Zonaras. 
 
 Mera^a (Metaxa), or Me-a4ts, is the common term for raw silk. It 
 is in all probability the original Asiatic name, imported into Greece 
 together with the article itself. Silk is still called Medax in Arme- 
 nian. The term appears to have come first into use among the Greeks 
 about the end of the fourth century. The reader may consult Du 
 Fresne, Glossarium Med. Grsecitatis, v. Mera^a, &c. ; Dahler in 
 Valpy's edition of Stephani Thes. L. Graecse, torn. i. p. ccccxxxiii. 
 Also the next extract ; Georgius Pisida as quoted above § 50. p. 218 ; 
 Palladius as quoted in § 53 ; Procopius as quoted in § 5G ; Theophy- 
 lactus Simocatta as quoted in § 58. 
 
 * See M. Breton, as quoted above, § 49. p. 209. 
 
224 § 52. CHRISTIAN AUTHORS IN THE FIFTH CENTURY. 
 
 See him, attir'd in silken pride, 
 Inflated in his chariot ride ; 
 The lucid poison works within. 
 Dropsy distends his swollen skin. 
 
 In another Hymn to the honour of St. Romanus we 
 find the following lines : 
 
 Aurum regestum nonne carnl adquiritur ? 
 Inlusa vestis, gemma, bombyx, purpura. 
 In carnis usum mille quseruntur dolis. 
 
 Peristeph. Hymn. x. 
 To please the flesh a thousand arts contend : 
 The miser's heaps of gold, the figur'd vest. 
 The gem, the silk-worm, and the purple dye, 
 By toil acquir'd, promote no other end. 
 
 In the same Hymn (/. 1015.) Prudentius describes 
 a heathen priest sacrificing a bull, and drest in a silken 
 toga which is held up by the Gabine cincture (Oinctu 
 Gahino Sericam fultus togam). Perhaps, however, we 
 ought here to understand that the cincture only, not 
 the whole toga, was of silk*. It was used to fasten 
 and support the toga by being drawn over the breast. 
 
 In two other passages this poet censures the progress 
 of luxury in dress, and especially when adopted by 
 men. 
 
 Sericaque in fractis fluitent ut pallia membris. 
 
 Psychomachia, I. 365. 
 The silken scarves float o'er their weaken'd limbs. 
 
 Sed pudet esse viros : quaerunt vanissima quaeque 
 Quis niteant : genuina leves ut robora solvant, 
 Vellere non ovium, sed Eoo ex orbe petitis 
 llamorum spoliis fluitantes sumere amictus, 
 Gaudent, et durum scutulis perfundere corpus. 
 Additur ars, ut fila herbis saturata recoctis 
 Inludant varias distincto stamine formas. 
 Ut quaeque est lanugo ferae moUissima tactu. 
 
 * Compare the extracts from Claudian, § 48. p. 201. 
 
PRUDENTIUS. § 53. PALLADIUS. 
 
 225 
 
 Pectitur. Hunc videas lascivas prsepete cursu 
 V enantem tunicas, avium quoque versicolorum 
 Indumenta novis texentem plumea telis : 
 Ilium pigmentis redolentibus, et peregrino 
 Pulvere femineas spargentem turpiter auras. 
 
 Hamartigenia, I. 286 — 298. 
 They blush to be call'd men : they seek to shine 
 In ev'ry vainest garb. Their native strength 
 To soften and impair, they gaily choose 
 A flowing scarf, not made of wool from sheep, 
 But of those fleeces from the Eastern world. 
 The spoil of trees. Their hardy frame they deck 
 All o'er with tesselated spots : and art 
 Is added, that the threads, twice dyed with herbs. 
 May sportively intwine their various hues 
 And mimic fornis, within the yielding warp. 
 Whatever creature wears the softest down. 
 They comb its fleece. This man with headlong course 
 Hunts motley tunics which inflame desire. 
 Invents new looms, and weaves a feather'd vest. 
 Which with the plumage of the birds compares : 
 That, scented with cosmetics, basely sheds 
 Eff"eminate foreign powder all around. 
 
 Palladius. 
 
 53. A work remains under the name of Palladius 
 on " the Nations of India and the Brachmans." 
 Whether it is by the same Palladius, who wrote the 
 Historia Lausiaca, is disputed. But, as 1 see no rea- 
 son to doubt, that it may have been written as early 
 as his time, I introduce here the passages, which I 
 have found in it, relating to the present subject. 
 The author represents the Bramins as saying to Alex- 
 ander the Great, ne/}tj3a'XXe(T0e (xaXaKa, e^o/jLoiovfievoi 
 Toic CTKwXij^t ToTc aripiKoSiaaraic, " You envelope your- 
 selves in soft clothing, like the silk- worms." (p. 17. 
 ed. Bissai.) It is also asserted, that Alexander did 
 not pass the Ganges, but went "as far as Serica, where 
 
 Q 
 
226 § 53, 54. christian authors in the 
 
 the silk-worms produce raw silk" (a'xpi "^nc '^vpucvc 
 
 daac, evOa t(>i> /.lera^ov oi (rrjpec, t'iktovoi, p. 2.). 
 
 In the London edition this tract is followed hy one 
 in Latin, bearing the name of St. Ambrose and en- 
 titled De moribus Brachmanorum. This tract con- 
 tains nearly the same matter with the preceding. The 
 writer professes to have obtained his information from 
 " Musaeus Dolenorum Episcopus," meaning, as it ap- 
 pears from the Greek tract, Moses, Bishop of Adule, 
 of whom he says, 
 
 Sericam fere universam regionem peragravit : in qua refert arbores 
 esse, quae non solum folia, sed lanam quoque proferunt tenuissimam, 
 ex qua vestimenta conficiuntur, quae Serica nuncupantur. p. 58. 
 
 He travelled through nearly all the country of the Seres, in which, 
 he says, that there are trees producing not only leaves, but the finest 
 wool, from which are made the garments called Serica. 
 
 These notices are not devoid of value as indicating 
 what were the first steps to intercourse with the 
 original silk country. It may however be doubted, 
 whether the last account here quoted is a modifica- 
 tion of the ideas previously current among the Greeks 
 and Romans, or whether it arose from the mistakes 
 of Moses himself, or of other Christian travellers into 
 the interior of Asia, who confounded the production 
 of silk with that of cotton. 
 
 The Theodosian Code, 
 published A.D. 438, mentions silk {sericam et metaxam) 
 in various passages, which we shall have occasion to 
 notice hereafter, relating to the Imperial establish- 
 ments for dyeing and weaving. 
 
 54. Apollinaris Sidonius, CI. A.D. 472. 
 
 Describing the products of different countries, this 
 learned author says {Carmen v. /. 42 — 50), 
 
FIFTH CENTURY. APOLLINARIS SIDONIUS. 227 
 
 Fert 
 
 Assyrius gemmas, Ser vellera, thura Sabscus. 
 
 Th' Assyrian brings his gems, the Ser 
 His fleeces, the Sabean frankincense. 
 
 [n a passage {Carmen xv.), which I shall quote 
 more fully hereafter, he mentions a pall, 
 
 Cujus bis coctus aheno 
 Serica Sidonius fucabat stamina murex. 
 
 The Tyrian murex, twice i' th' cauldron boil'd, 
 Had dyed its silken threads. 
 
 The expression, here used, indicates that the silk 
 thread was brought from the country of the Seres to 
 be dyed in Phcenice*. In Horace we have already 
 noticed the " Cose purpurse." 
 
 A passage from the Burgus Pontii Leontii {Car- 
 men xxii.), which also will be more fully quoted here- 
 after, shows that the same article {Serica jila) was 
 imported into Gaul. 
 
 In the same author {I. ii. Epist. ad Serranum) we 
 meet with " Sericatum toreuma." The latter word 
 probably denoted a carved sofa or couch. The epi- 
 thet "sericatum" may have referred to its silken 
 cover; or, if the foregoing remarks (§42. p. 180.) on 
 Horace and Martial be correct, it may have described 
 its pillows or cushions, covered with leather. 
 
 The same author describes Prince Sigismer, who 
 was about to be married, going in a splendid proces- 
 sion and thus clothed : 
 
 Ipse medius incessit, flammeus cocco, rutilus auro, lacteus serico. 
 L. iv. Epist. 20. p. 107. ed. Elmenhorstii. 
 
 He himself marched in the midst, his attire flaming with coccus, 
 glittering with gold, and of milky whiteness with silk. 
 
 * Compare Boethius in p. 228. 
 
 q2 
 
228 § 54, 55. christian authors in the 
 
 Describing the heat of the weather, he says : 
 
 In carbaso sudat unus, alter in bombyce. L. ii. Epist. 2. 
 One man perspires in cotton, another in silk. 
 
 Lastly, in the following lines he alludes to the prac- 
 tice of giving silk to the successful charioteers at the 
 Circensian games : 
 
 Hie mox prsecipit sequus Imperator 
 Palmis Serica, torquibus coronas 
 Conjungi, et meritum remunerari, 
 Victis ire jubens satis pudendis 
 
 Villis versicoloribus tapetas. Carmen xxiii. /. 423 — 427. 
 
 The Emp'ror, just as powerful, ordains 
 
 That silks with palms be given, crowns with chains : 
 
 Thus marks high merit, and inferior praise 
 
 In brilliant carpets to the rest conveys. 
 
 Alcimus Avitus, CI. A.D. 490. 
 Describing the Rich Man in the parable of Lazarus, 
 this author says : 
 
 Ipse cothurnatus gemmis et fulgidus auro 
 
 Serica bis coctis mutabat tegmina blattis. L. iii. 222. 
 
 In jewell'd buskins and a blaze of gold. 
 
 Silk shawls, or twice in scarlet dipt, he wore. 
 
 Avitus in a passage, more especially interesting in 
 relation to the use of gold by the weaver*, mentions 
 " the soft fleeces sent by the Seres." 
 
 BoETHius, CI. A.D. 510. 
 
 Non Bacchica munera norant 
 Liquido confundere melle, 
 Nec lucida vellera Serum 
 
 Tyrio miscere veneno. De Consol. PJiilos. ii. 
 Nor honey into wine they pour'd, nor mix'd 
 Bright Seric fleeces with the Tyrian dye. 
 
 * See below. Book iii. chapter 2. 
 
FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES. 
 
 229 
 
 55. IsiDORus HisPALENSis, CI. A.D. 575. 
 The etymological work of Isidore of Seville may be 
 regarded as a kind of encyclopedia, exhibiting to us 
 the general state of knowledge and art at the time 
 when he wrote. Hence the following descriptive ex- 
 tracts are well deserving of attention. 
 
 Bombyx frondium vermis, ex cujus textura Bombycinum conficitur. 
 Appellatur autem hoc nomine ab eo quod evacuetur dum fila generat, 
 et aer solus in eo remanet. Origin. I. xii. c. 5. 
 
 Bombyx, a worm which lives upon the leaves of trees, and from 
 whose web sillt is made. It is called Bombyx, because it empties 
 itself in producing threads, and nothing but air remains within it. 
 
 Respecting the etymology of the term Bombyx, and 
 the reason of its application to the silk- worm, I beg 
 to refer to the remarks which I have offered (§ 40. 
 p. 168.) in endeavouring to explain the use of the 
 connected term Bombylius by Aristotle. 
 
 Bombycina (vestis) est a bombyce vermiculo, qui longissima ex se 
 fila generat, quorum textura bombycinum dicitur, conficiturque in in- 
 sula Coo. 
 
 Serica a serico dicta, vel quod eam Seres primi miserunt. 
 
 Holoserica tota serica : bXor enim totum. 
 
 Tramoserica stamine lineo : trama ex serico. L. xix. c. 22. 
 
 The cloth called Bombycina, derives its name from the silk- worm 
 (Bombys), which emits very long threads ; the web woven from them 
 is called Bombycinum, and is made in the island of Cos. 
 
 That called Serica derives its name from silk (sericum), or from 
 the circumstance, that it was first obtained from the Seres. 
 
 Holoserica is all of silk : for Holon means all. 
 
 Tramoserica has a warp of linen ; and a woof {trama) of silk. 
 
 On these extracts I would remark, that the testi- 
 mony of Isidore must not be taken as proving, that 
 the silk-manufacture still existed in Cos. His state- 
 ment was no doubt merely copied from Varro or Plinv, 
 or founded upon the authority of other writers much 
 
230 § 55. ISIDORUS IIISPALENSIS. FLOSS-SILK. 
 
 anterior to his own age. It is indeed probable, that 
 silk-worms had by this time been brought into Greece, 
 but that he was ignorant of the fact. How little he 
 knew upon the subject except from books, is evident 
 from another passage where he confounds Cos with 
 Ceos*. 
 
 Sericum dictum, quia id Seres primi miserunt. Vermiculi eniin 
 ibi nasci perhibentur, a quibus hsec circum arbores fila ducuntur. 
 Vermes autem ipsi Grsece liofxjjvKes nominantur. Placium est stuppa 
 et quasi crassitudo Serici, et est Graecum nomen. L. xix. c. 27. 
 
 Sericum (silk) is so called, because it was first obtained from the 
 Seres. For there the worms, called in Greek BOMBYKES, are said 
 to be produced, which draw these threads about the trees. Placium 
 (floss) is the tow, or coarse part of the silk. It is a Greek name. 
 
 Charpentier quotes from a Latin and Italian glos- 
 sary, " Placium, — La stopa, e seda grossa." i. e. "Pla- 
 cium. — Tow, and coarse silk." Another form of the 
 word is Plocium, YIXokiov. Floss is evidently an al- 
 tered form of Plocium, and Floss-silk is what the 
 Greeks and Latins called by that name. It is the 
 loose silk which surrounds the outside of the cocoons, 
 together with the waste produced from' imperfect co- 
 coons. The French name for it is Filoselle, a word of 
 analogous origin with ITAo/ctov, which properly means 
 a lock of hair. I have formerly noticed the use of 
 epiov (wool) to distinguish raw from spun or woven 
 silkf : and from Hesychius j it appears, that the di- 
 minutive epiSia was also used to denote Raw Silk, 
 Mera^a. So we speak in the present day of cotton- 
 wool. 
 
 * Coos insula adjacens provincise Atticae, in qua Hippocrates me- 
 dicus natus est, quae, ut Varro testis est, arte lanificii prima in 
 omamento feminarum inclaruit. — Orig. 1. xiv. c. 6. 
 
 t Extracts from Periplus Maris Erythraei, §48. p. 204. 
 
 I As corrected b}' Toup nd Thcdcriti Syracusias, 1.18. 
 
§ 56. INTRODUCTION OF SILK-WORMS INTO EUROPE. 231 
 
 56. We now come to the very interesting account 
 of the first introduction of silk-worms into Europe, 
 A.D. 530, which is given by Procopius in the follow- 
 ing terms. (De Bello Gothico iv. 17.) 
 
 About this time some monks, having arrived from India, and having 
 learnt that the Roman Emperor Justinian was desirous, that his sub- 
 jects should no longer purchase raw silk (rr/j/ ixeru^av) from the Per- 
 sians, went to him and offered to contrive means, by which the Romans 
 would no longer be under the necessity of importing this article from 
 their enemies the Persians or from any other nation. They said, that 
 they had long resided in the country called Serinda, one of those in- 
 habited by the various Indian nations, and that they had there accu- 
 rately informed themselves how raw silk might be produced in the 
 country of the Romans. In reply to the repeated and minute inquiries 
 of the Emperor they stated, that the raw silk is made by worms, which 
 nature instructs and continually prompts to this labour ; but that to 
 bring the worms alive to Byzantium would be impossible ; that the 
 breeding of them is quite easy; that each parent animal produces num- 
 berless eggs, which long after their birth are covered with manure by 
 persons who have the care of them, and, having been thus warmed a 
 sufficient time, are hatched. The Emperor having promised the monks 
 a handsome reward, if they would put in execution what they had pro- 
 posed, they returned to India and brought the eggs to Byzantium, 
 where, having hatched them in the manner described, they fed them 
 with the leaves of the Black Mulberry {(rvKafxivov), and enabled the 
 Romans thenceforth to obtain raw silk in their own country. 
 
 The same narrative, abridged from Procopius, is 
 found in Manuel Glycas, {Annal. I. iv. p. 209 ) and 
 in Zonaras, {Annal. /. xiv. p. 69. ed. Du Cange). In 
 the abstract given by Photius {Bihlioth. p. 80. ed. 
 Rotham.) of the history of Theophanes Byzantinus, 
 who was a writer of nearly the same age with Proco- 
 pius, we find a narrative, in which the only variation 
 is, that a Persian brought the eggs to Byzantium in 
 the hollow stem of a plant (er vapQmi). The method 
 now practised in transporting the eggs from one coun- 
 try to another is to put them into a bottle, not more 
 
232 §56. THE SERINDA OF PROCOPIUS PROBABLY 
 
 than half full, so that by being tossed about, they may 
 be kept cool and fresh. If too close, they would pro- 
 bably be heated, and would hatch on the journey*. 
 
 The authors who have treated of the history of the 
 silk-worm, have hitherto supposed the Serinda of Pro- 
 copius to be the modern Sir-hind, a city and circar in 
 the North of Hindostanf. Notwithstanding the stri- 
 king similarity of the names, I think it more probable 
 that Serinda was used by Procopius as another name 
 for Khotan in Little Bucharia. The ancients included 
 Khotan among the Indian nations}: and that they 
 were right in doing so is proved from the facts, that 
 Sanscrit was the ancient language of the inhabitants 
 of Khotan ; that their alphabetical characters, their 
 laws, and their literature resembled those of the Hin- 
 doos ; and that they had a tradition of being Indian in 
 their origin Since, therefore, Khotan was also in- 
 cluded in the ancient Serica, a term probably of wide 
 and rather indefinite extent || , the name Serinda would 
 
 * Transactions of the Society for encouraging Arts, Manufac- 
 tures, &c. vol. xliii. p. 236. 
 
 t In this they have followed D'Anville, Antiquite Geographique 
 de rinde, Paris 1775. p. 63. 
 
 I In proof of this I refer to my observations respecting Ctesias in 
 the Note at p. 18 : also to Heeren, Ideen, i. 1. p. 358 — 387, on the 
 Indian tribes which constituted one of the Persian Satrapies, and in 
 which the inhabitants of Khotan appear to have been included ; and 
 to Cellarii Antiqui Orbis Notitia, 1. iii. c. 23. § 2. 
 
 § Remusat, Hist, de la Ville de Khotan, p. 33. Note 1 . and p. 37. 
 
 II De Guignes (Hist. Gen. des Huns, tome I. p. v.) expresses his 
 opinion, that Serica, besides the North of China, included the coun- 
 tries towards the West, which were conquered by the Chinese, viz. 
 Kami, Turfan, and other neighbouring territories. Rennell (Mem. 
 of a Map of HIndostan) agrees with D'Anville, that Serica was at the 
 N.W. angle of the present empire of China. Heeren decides in fa- 
 vour of the same opinion, supposing Serica to be identical with the 
 
THE SAME WITH THE MODERN KHOTAN. 
 
 233 
 
 exactly denote the origin and connexions of the race 
 which occupied Khotan. I have already expressed 
 my opinion, that the phrase 2^|oac 'IvSikovc, " the In- 
 dian Seres," used by Clemens Alexandrinus, is proba- 
 bly to be explained in the same manner*. 
 
 On the other hand, although Sir-hind is called " an 
 ancient city" by Major Rennellf, I cannot find any 
 evidence that the silk- worm was ever bred there. So 
 far is this from being the case, that it appears to be a 
 country very ill adapted for the production of silkj. 
 
 modern Tongut. Comment. Soc. Reg. Scient. Gottingensis, vol. xi. 
 p. 106. 111. Gottingae 1793. The reader may compare the author- 
 ities cited above, p. 183. Note; and Julius Klaproth, as quoted 
 below, § 61. 
 
 Pausanias, as above quoted (§ 44. p. 188.), observes that the Seres, 
 in order to breed the insects which produced silk, had houses adapted 
 both for summer and winter ; and I have said, that this statement 
 implies, that there was a great difference between the summer and 
 the winter temperature of their country. A late Oriental traveller 
 says of the climate of Khotan, " In the summer, when the melons 
 ripen, it is very hot in these countries ; but during winter, it is ex- 
 tremely cold." Wathen's Memoir on Chinese Tartary and Khotan, 
 in Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, December 1835, p. 659. 
 
 On referring to the map at the end of this chapter, the reader will 
 see the position of Serica indicated at its Eastern extremity. As 
 that map is limited to the Orbis Veterihus Cognitus, only a small space 
 on its border is marked as the country of silk by the yellow colour. 
 I believe, nevertheless, that silk may justly be placed next in order 
 to wool in regard to the quantity anciently employed as a raw ma- 
 terial for weaving, and the multitudes of the human race clothed in 
 it, although not known to those whom we commonly call " the An- 
 cients." 
 
 * See above, § 44. p. 189 ; and § 48. p. 206. 
 t Memoir of a Map of Hindostan. 
 
 X "The S.W. portion of the Circar Sir-hind is extremely barren, 
 being covered with low scrubby wood, and in many places destitute 
 of water. About A.D. 1 357 Feroze the 3rd cut several canals from the 
 Jumna and the Sutulege in order to fertilize this naturally arid coun- 
 try." Walter Hamilton's Description of Hindostan, vol. i. p. 465. 
 
234 § 56. PROcopius. first introduction of 
 
 It may indeed be true, as stated by Latreille {See 
 below, § 58. p. 239.), that Sir-hind was colonized from 
 Khotan, and it may be mentioned as a remarkable 
 circumstance in confirmation of this supposition, that 
 there is a town called Kotana a little way to the N.E. 
 of the city of Sir-hind. But, supposing this account 
 to be correct, it is highly probable, that the settlement 
 of Sir-hind as a colony of Khotan did not take place 
 till after the year 530, when the breeding of silk-worms i 
 was according to Procopius introduced into Europe 
 from " Serinda." Rather more than 120 years before 
 this time India was visited by the Chinese traveller. 
 Fa Hian, who on his way passed some months with 
 great delight and admiration in Khotan, and the spe- 
 cial object of whose journey was to see and describe 
 all the cities of India where the religion of Buddha was 
 professed. The inhabitants of Khotan being wholly 
 devoted to Buddhism, the same system must have 
 been established in its colony ; and, since this zealous 
 pilgrim crossed India at no great distance from the 
 spot where Sir-hind afterwards stood, we cannot doubt 
 that he would have mentioned it, if it had existed in 
 his age. He says not a word about it ; and the time 
 is comparatively so short between his visit to India 
 and the date of the introduction of silk-worms into 
 Europe, that we can scarcely suppose Sir-hind, the 
 colony of Khotan and consequently the seat of Bud- 
 dhism, to have been in existence either at the former 
 or the latter period*. I may also observe, that the 
 hypothesis which I have advanced, identifying Serinda 
 
 * Foe Koue Ki, ou Relation des Royaumes Bouddiques : Voyage 
 dans la Tartaric, dans 1' Afghanistan, et dans I'lnde ; traduit du 
 Cliinois et commente par Remusati Klaproth, et Landresse. Paris 
 1836, 4to. 
 
SILK-WORMS INTO EUROPE. 235 
 
 with Khotan or Little Bucharia, appears exceedingly- 
 suitable to all the circumstances of the case. 
 
 In another passage of his history {Bell. Pers. i. 20.) 
 Procopius throws some light upon our subject by 
 stating, that in consequence of the monopoly of the 
 trade in raw silk by the Persians, Justinian attempted 
 to obtain it through the Ethiopians of Arabia, but 
 found this to be impossible, because the Persian mer- 
 chants frequented the ports to which the Indians re- 
 sorted, and purchased from them all their cargoes. 
 
 Procopius further states {Hist. Arcana, c. 25.), that 
 silk shawls {IjnaTia TO e/c ^era^rjc) had loug been manu- 
 factured in the Phoenician cities Tyre and Berytus, to 
 which cities all who were concerned in the silk trade, 
 either as merchants or manufacturers, consequently 
 resorted, and from which these goods were carried to 
 every part of the earth ; but that in the reign of Jus- 
 tinian the manufacturers in Byzantium and the other 
 Greek cities raised the prices of their silken goods, 
 alleging that the Persians had also raised their prices, 
 while the imposts were increased among the Romans. 
 Justinian, pretending to be much concerned at the 
 high prices, forbade any one in his dominions to sell 
 silk for more than eight aurei (oktw -^pvawv) per pound 
 {rriv Xlrpav) , threatening confiscation of goods against 
 any one who transgressed the law. To comply was 
 impossible, since they were required to sell their goods 
 at a lower price than that for which they bought them. 
 They therefore quitted their trade, and secretly sold the 
 remnant of their goods for what they could get. The 
 Empress Theodora, having heard of this, immediately 
 seized their goods and fined them a hundred aurei 
 besides. It was then determined, that the silk manu- 
 facture should be carried on solely by the Imperial 
 
236 § 56. USE OF SILK BY ARMENIANS AND MEDES. 
 
 Treasurer. Peter Barsames held the office, and con- 
 ducted himself in relation to this business in the most 
 unjust and oppressive manner, so that the silk-trade 
 was ruined both in Byzantium and at Tyre and Bery- 
 tus, while the Emperor and Empress and their Trea- 
 surer amassed great wealth by the monopoly. 
 
 The account given by Procopius of the silken tunic 
 ()^tTw»' e/c /lera ?7?c), which was wom by the Armenian 
 satraps on their investment by the Roman emperor, 
 has been already quoted (§ 37. p. 156.). I have also 
 produced above (§ 44. p. 192, 1 93.) two passages from 
 Procopius to prove, that the webs, in his time called 
 Seric, were more anciently called Median. This evi- 
 dence may be considered in connexion with the re- 
 markable fact formerly stated on the authority of 
 Strabo, that the Medes did not tend sheep {see § 5. 
 p.\3.). It is probable that the art of weaving was 
 unknown among them, and that the poor were clothed 
 in furs, skins, and felt, while the rich in process of 
 time obtained from the East garments of silk, which 
 they wore so generally as to cause them to be known 
 by the above-mentioned appellation. 
 
 57. Menander Protector, A.D. 560 — 570. 
 
 In an account of an embassy sent to Constantinople 
 by the Avars of Sarmatia, this author states, that the 
 Emperor Justinian endeavoured to excite their admi- 
 ration by a display of splendid couches, gold chains, 
 and garments of silk. {eadriTac aiqpiKac. Corp. Hist. 
 Byzant. ed. 1729. torn. i. p. 67.) 
 
 The same author gives an interesting account of 
 the attempts of the Sogdiani, who dwelt in the northern 
 part of the modern Bucharia, to dispose of their raw 
 silk (/iera^a). When by a formal embassy they offered 
 
^57. MENANDER PROTECTOR. PAULUS SILENTIARIUS. 237 
 
 it to the King of Persia, he purchased all that they had 
 brought and then burnt it before them ; and when in 
 the fourth year of the Emperor Justin II. {i. e. A.D. 
 569.) they went on the same mission to Byzantium, 
 they found that here also there was no demand, since 
 silk-worms were bred there already. {Ibid. p. 71, 72.) 
 Soon after we find, that the Byzantines sent an em- 
 bassy to Disabul, King of the Sogdiani, who received 
 the ambassadors in tents made of variously-coloured 
 
 silks (e^ vCpaa^arwv artfUKtJV re, Kai StaTreTroiKiX/ierwi' toTc 
 
 Ibid. p. 103.) 
 
 Paul, the Silentiary, A.D. 562, 
 mentions vtjfiaTa Sr/pwi/, silk thread, used in adorning 
 the vestments in the church of St. Sophia at Constan- 
 tinople. (P. ii. I. 368.) The note of the editor, Du 
 Cange, on the description of the pall, or (papoc (577.), 
 contains various quotations from ecclesiastical writers, 
 which mention " vela rubea Serica ;" " vela alba ho- 
 loserica rosata ;" " vela serica de blattin." These 
 quotations show, that silk had been introduced into 
 general use for the churches. 
 
 Dorotheus, Archimandrite of Palestine, 
 A.D. 601. 
 
 ''Qcnrep yap ev^eSvfievoG oXoaripiKOv. Doctr. 2. as quoted 
 in Cod. Theodos. Gothofredi. L. Bat. 1665. 
 For as a man wearing a tunic entirely of silk. 
 
 58. Theophylactus Simocatta, A.D. 629. 
 This author, in his Universal History (/. vii. c. 9.), 
 gives an account, as Photius accurately states, Uepl 
 
 Twv aK(i)\riK(i)V Thiv TIKTOVTWV Tr}V e(j6r]Ta rriv ^YipiKrjv, Kai 
 TToXX^ e.(jTi Trepi rrju Xeyopevt^v XoujSSai' 17 rrjq juera^ewq 
 
238 <§58. INTRODUCTION OF SILK-WORMS AND OF THE 
 
 yeveaiQ koi to. irepi uvttiv vofxi^a. {See Photii Biblioth. 
 vol. i. ^. 3] . ed. Bekker.) Chubdan, where, according 
 to this account, the silk manufacture was carried on 
 with the greatest skill and activity, was probably the 
 same as Khotan, or, as it was called in the time of 
 our author, Ku-tan*. 
 
 I have already had occasion to quote 56.) the 
 highly-interesting and curious History of Khotan, 
 translated from the ancient Chinese annals, and pub- 
 lished by that learned cultivator of Chinese and Tar- 
 taric literature, M. Abel Remusat. From this account 
 we learn, that the growth of silk-worms and the ma- 
 nufacture of the produce was a most important branch 
 of industry among the inhabitants of Khotan and its 
 vicinity in the time of the Byzantine historian, whom 
 I have quoted. 
 
 We have, moreover, the following account of the 
 origin of the growth and manufacture of silk in that 
 country {p. 55, 56.). 
 
 The monastery of Lou-che (occupied by Buddhists) is to the south- 
 west of the royal citv. Formerly the inhabitants of the kingdom had 
 neither mulberries nor silk-worms. They heard of them in the East 
 country, and sent an embassy to ask for them. The King of the East 
 refused the request, and laid down the strictest injunctions to prevent 
 either mulberries or silk-worms' eggs from being conveyed across the 
 border. Then the King of Kiu-sa-tan-na {i. e. Koiistana, or Khotan) 
 asked of him a princess in marriage. The request having been granted, 
 the king charged the officer of his court who went to bring her, to 
 say, that in his country there were neither mulberry-trees nor cocoons, 
 and that she must introduce them, or be without silk dresses. The 
 princess, having received this information, obtained the seed both of 
 mulberries and of silk- worms and concealed them in her head-dress f. 
 
 * Itineraire de Hiuan Thsang, Appendice ii. a Foe Koue Ki, p. 399. 
 
 t It may be observed, that the folds of the turban are often used 
 in the East to convey articles of value. See Journal of a Tour in 
 Asia Minor, by Charles Fellows, London, 1839, p. 216. 
 
SILK-MANUFACTURE INTO CHUBDAN, OR KHOTAN. 239 
 
 On arriving at the frontier, the officers searched every where,hut durst 
 not touch the turban of the princess. Having arrived at the spot, 
 where the monastery of Lou-che was afterwards erected, she remained 
 there while the ceremonies were preparing for her reception, and de- 
 posited the seed both of the mulberries and of the worms. The trees 
 were planted in the spring, and she afterwards went herself to assist 
 in gathering the leaves. At first the worms were fed upon the leaves 
 of other plants, and a law was made not to destroy any worms, until 
 their quantity was sufficiently great. The monastery was founded 
 on the spot to commemorate so great a benefit, and some trunks of 
 the original mulberry-trees are still shown. 
 
 In the following passage {Regne Animal, par Cuvier, 
 torn. V. p. 402.) Latreille mentions Turfan as an im- 
 portant city in regard to the early silk-trade. In 
 other respects his account coincides with that which 
 I have given. 
 
 La ville de Turfan, dans la petite Bucharie, fut long-temps le 
 rendez-vous des caravanes venant de I'Ouest, et I'entrepot principal 
 des soieries de la Chine. Elle etait la metropole des Seres de I'Asie 
 superieure, ou de la Serique de Ptolemee. Expulses de leurs pays 
 par les Huns, les Seres s'etablirent dans la grande Bucharie et dans 
 rinde. C'est d'une de leurs colonies, du Ser-hend (Ser-indi), que 
 des missionaires Grecs transporterent, du temps de Justinien, les 
 oeufs du ver a sole a Constantinople. 
 
 59. A diploma of Ethelbert, King of Kent, men- 
 tions " Armilausia holoserica," proving that silk was 
 known in England at the end of the sixth century*. 
 The usual dress of the earliest French kings seems to 
 have been a linen shirt and linen drawers next to the 
 skin ; over these a tunic, probably of fine wool, which 
 had a border of silk, ornamented sometimes with gold 
 or precious stones ; and over this a sagum, which was 
 fastened with a fibula upon the right shoulder. Egin- 
 
 ■ * Dugdale's Monasticon, vol. i. p. 24. Adelung's Glossarium Ma- 
 nuale, v. Armilausia. 
 
240 § 59. USE OF SILK IN ENGLAND AND BY THE EARLY 
 
 hart informs us, that Charlemagne wore a tunic, or 
 vest, with a silken border {limbo serico)*. 
 
 Aldhelmus, CI. A.D, 680. 
 This author, who died Abbot of Sherburn, was 
 among the most learned men of his age. Among his 
 ^Enigmas, which are written in tetrastics, we find the 
 following description of the silk-worm. As it is scarcely 
 possible that he could have seen this creature, we have 
 cause to admire both the ingenuity and the general 
 accuracy of his lines. The ascending to the tops of 
 thorns or shrubs, such as " genistse," to which the ani- 
 mal may attach its cocoon {globulum), has not been 
 noticed by any earlier author. 
 
 De Bombycibus. 
 Annua dum redeunt texendi tempora telas, 
 Lurida setigeris replentur viscera filis ; 
 Moxque genistarum frondosa cacumina scando, 
 Ut globulos fabricans cum fati sorte quiescam. 
 
 Maxima Bibl. Vet. Patrum, torn. xiii. p. 25. 
 Soon as the year brings round the time to spin. 
 My entrails dark with hairy threads are fiU'd : 
 Then to the leafy tops of shrubs I cUmb, 
 Make my cocoon, and rest by fate's decree. 
 
 * Examples of it may be seen, I. in the two figures of Charle- 
 magne, executed in mosaic during his life-time, one of which is pre- 
 served in the Penitentiary of St. John Lateran at Rome, and both 
 of which are figured by Spon in his Miscellanea Eruditae Antiquita- 
 tis (p. 284.) ; II. in the figure of Charles the Bald, the grandson of 
 Charlemagne, which is in the splendid copy of the Latin Gospels made 
 for his use, now preserved in the library at Munich, and which may 
 be seen engraved in Sanftl's Dissertation on that MS. (p. 42.) ; III. in 
 the figure of an early French king engraved from a MS. byBaluzius 
 in his Capitularia Regum Francorum (tom. ii. p. 130S.) ; and IV. in 
 the first volume of Montfaucon's Monumens de la Monarchic Fran- 
 ^aise. 
 
 The passage of Eginhart's Life of Charlemagne, to which I refer, 
 will be quoted entire in § 76. 
 
FRENCH KINGS. BEDE. 
 
 241 
 
 Bede, Cl.A.D. 701. 
 
 Joseph autem mercatus est siudonem, et deponens eum involvit 
 sindone. (Marc. xv. 46.) — Et ex simplici sepultura domini ambitio 
 divitum condemnatur, qui ne in tumulis quidem possunt carere divi- 
 tiis. Possumus autem juxta intelligentiam spiritalem hoc sentire, 
 quod corpus domini non auro, non gemmis et serico, sed linteamine 
 puro obvolvendum sit, quanquam et hoc significet, quod ille in sin- 
 done munda involvat Jesum, qui pura eum mente susceperit. Hinc 
 ecclesiae mos obtinuit, ut sacrificium altaris non in serico, neque in 
 panno tincto, sed in lino terrene celebretur, sicut corpus est domini 
 in sindone munda sepultum, juxta quod in gestis pontificalibus a 
 beato Papa Silvestro legimus esse statutum. Expos, in Marcum, 
 torn. V. p. 207. Col. Agrip. 1688. 
 
 But Joseph bought a linen cloth, and, taking him down, wrapped 
 him in the linen cloth. (Mark xv. 46.) — The simple burial of our 
 Lord condemns the ambition of rich men, who cannot be without 
 wealth even in their tombs. That his body is to be wrapped not in 
 gold, not in silk and precious stones, but in pure linen, may be un- 
 derstood by us spiritually. It also intimates, that he incloses Jesus 
 in a clean linen cloth, who receives him with a pure mind. Hence 
 the custom of the church has obtained, to celebrate the sacrifice of 
 the altar, not in silk, nor in dyed cloth, but in earthy flax, as the body 
 of our Lord was buried in a clean linen cloth ; for so we read in the 
 pontifical acts, that it was decreed by the blessed Pope Silvester. 
 
 The latter portion of this extract, in which we are 
 informed of the origin of the practice, universally 
 adopted, of covering the eucharist with a white linen 
 cloth, must be a later addition. Pope Silvester lived 
 long after the time of Bede. 
 
 Bede, in his History of the Abbots of Wearmouth, 
 states that the first abbot and founder of the monastery, 
 Biscop, surnamed Benedict, went a fifth time to Rome 
 for ornaments and books to enrich it, and on this oc- 
 casion (A.D. 685) brought two scarves, or palls, of 
 incomparable workmanship and entirely of silk {pallia 
 duo oloserica incomparandi operis) , with which he after- 
 wards purchased the land of three families situated at 
 
 R 
 
242 ^ 59. USE OF SILK IN BRITAIN. GERBERT. 
 
 the mouth of the Wear^, This shows the high value 
 of silken articles at that time. 
 
 About the year 970 Kenneth, King of Scotland, paid 
 a visit in London to Edgar, King of the Enghsh. The 
 latter sovereign, to evince at once his friendship and 
 his munificence, bestowed upon his illustrious guest 
 silks, rings, and gems, together with one hundred 
 ounces of pure goldf. 
 
 Perhaps we may refer to the same date the compo- 
 sition of the " Lady of the Fountain," a Welsh tale, 
 lately translated by Lady Charlotte Guest j. At the 
 opening of this poem King Arthur is represented sit- 
 ting in his chamber at Caer-leon upon Usk. It is 
 said, 
 
 In the centre of the chamber. King Arthur sat upon a seat of green 
 rushes, over which was spread a covering of flame-coloured satin, and 
 a cushion of red satin was under his elbow. 
 
 The mention of silk and satin is frequent in this 
 tale. 
 
 Gerbert, CI. A.D. 970. 
 This author, who became Pope Silvester, mentions 
 
 * Bedae Hist. Eccles. &c. cura Jo. Smith. Cantab. 1722. p. 297. 
 Mr. Sharon Turner, speaking of Bede, says, "His own remains 
 were inclosed in silk. Mag. Bib. xvi. p. 88. It often adorned the 
 altars of the church ; and we read of a present to a West- Saxon 
 bishop of a casula, expressed to be not entirely of silk, but mixed 
 with goats' wool." Ibid. p. 50. He refers to p. 97. of the same 
 volume (which I have not been able to obtain), as mentioning "pal- 
 lia holoserica." History of the Anglo-Saxons, vol. iii. book vii. 
 ch. 4. p. 48, 49. 
 
 t Lingard's Hist, of England, vol. i. p. 241. London, 1819, 4to. 
 
 + The Mabinogion, from the Llyfr Coch o Hergest and other an- 
 cient Welsh manuscripts ; with an English translation and notes. By 
 Lady Charlotte Guest. Part I. The Lady of the Fountain. Llando- 
 very, 1838. 
 
§60. SILK-MANUFACTUREESTABLISHED AT PALERMO. 243 
 
 garments of silk (sericas vestes) in a passage which has 
 been already quoted {^33. p. 146.). 
 
 Theodorus Prodromus, 
 
 a romance-writer in the twelfth century, gives a very 
 remarkable account of the figured shawls (TreTrXo) ma- 
 nufactured by the Seres. But, as the passage is long, 
 and more particularly interesting in regard to the 
 history of ornamental weaving, I shall defer producing 
 it until the latter part of my work. For the same 
 reason I omit here the curious accounts of vestments 
 of silk, interwoven with eagles and flowers of gold, 
 which we find in the writings of Ingulphus. 
 
 60. The breeding of silk-worms in Europe appears 
 to have been confined to Greece from the time of the 
 Emperor Justinian until the middle of the twelfth cen- 
 tury. The manufacture of silk was also very rare in 
 other parts of Europe, being probably practised only 
 as a recreation and accomplishment for ladies. But 
 in the year 1 148 Roger, King of Sicily, having taken 
 the cities of Corinth, Thebes, and Athens, and having 
 thus got into his power a great number of silk-weavers 
 {opijices qui sericos pannos texere solent), took them 
 away with the implements and materials for the exer- 
 cise of their art and settled them at Palermo*. Ni- 
 cetas Choniatesf, referring to the same event, speaks 
 of these artisans as of both sexes, and says that in his 
 time those who went to Sicily might see the sons of 
 Thebans and Corinthians employed in weaving velvet 
 
 * Otto Frisingen, Hist. Imp. Freder. 1. i. c. 33. in Muratori, 
 Rerum Italicarum Scriptores, torn. vi. p. 668. 
 
 t In Manuel Comnenus, 1. ii. c. 8., torn, xii of the Scriptores 
 Hist. Byzantinse, p. 51. ed. Ven. 
 
 r2 
 
244 §60,61. EXTENSION OFTHE SILK-MANUFACTURE 
 
 stoles interwoven with gold, and serving like the Ere- 
 trians of old among the Persians*. 
 
 Hugo Falcandus, who visited this manufactory A.D. 
 1 169, represents it as being then in the most flourish- 
 ing condition, producing great quantities of silks, both 
 plain and figured, of many different colours, and en- 
 riched with gold. I shall hereafter [in Part IV.) at- 
 tempt some explanation of the various technical terms, 
 which he employs in this passage. 
 
 From Palermo the manufacture of silk extended 
 itself over all parts of Italy and into Spain. We learn 
 from Roger de Hoveden, that the manufacture flou- 
 rished at Almeria in Grenada about A.D. 1190f. 
 
 According to Nicholas Tegrinij, the silk manufac- 
 ture afterwards flourished in Lucca, and the weavers, 
 having been ejected from that city in the earlier part 
 of the 14th century, carried their art to Venice, Flo- 
 rence, Milan, Bologna, and even to Germany, France, 
 and Britain, 
 
 61. We have seen from different historical testi- 
 monies, that silk was known to the inhabitants of 
 France and England, even as early as the 6th cen- 
 tury. The fact of its introduction into all parts of 
 the N. of Europe is manifest from the use of words 
 for silk in several northern languages. These words 
 appear, according to the inquiries of the learned ori- 
 
 * Ka4 vvv (.L,eaTiv ile'iv rovs kv ^iKeXla KaraipovTas , Qrifiatwv Trai- 
 Zas (cat Kopu'fltojj' inru -rrpoaavej^ovras rwy e^afitrwv /ca! ypvaoTraaTiiiv 
 (jToXwv, (jSs ^^ptTpiels TToXai Trapd Uepuais SovXevoyras. 
 
 t " Deinde per nobilem civitatem, quae dicitur Almaria, ubi fit no- 
 bile sericum et delicatum, quod dicitur sericum de Almaria." Scrip- 
 tores post Bedam, p. 671. 
 
 I Vita Castruccii, in Muratori, Rer. Ital. Scriptores, t. xi. 
 p. 1320. 
 
THROUGH EUROPE, ILLUSTRATED BY ETYMOLOGY. 245 
 
 entalists Klaproth and Abel Remusat*, to have been 
 derived from those Asiatic countries, in which silk 
 was originally produced. In the language of Corea 
 silk is called Sir ; in Chinese Se, which may have 
 been produced by the usual omission of the final r. 
 In the Mongol language silk is called Sirkek, in the 
 Mandchou Sirghe. In the Armenian the silk-worm 
 is Cheram. In Arabic, Chaldee, and Syriac, silk was 
 called Sericf. From the same source we have in 
 Greek and Latin I.ripiKov, Sericum. 
 
 In the more modern European languages we find 
 two sets of terms for silk, the first evidently derived 
 from the oriental Seric, but with the common substi- 
 tution of I for r, the second of an uncertain origin. 
 To the first set belong, 
 
 Chelk, silk, in Slavonian. 
 
 Silke, in Suio- Gothic and Icelandic + . 
 
 Silcke, in Danish. 
 
 * Journal Asiatique, 1823, torn. ii. p. 246. Julius Klaproth (Ta- 
 bleau Historique de I'Asie, Paris, 1826, p. 57, 58.) says, that in 
 the year 165 B.C. the inhabitants of the country called by us Tan- 
 gut, who constituted a powerful kingdom, were attacked by the 
 Hioung Nou, and driven to the West, where they fixed themselves 
 in Transoxiana, and that these events led to an uninterrupted com- 
 munication with Persia and India, especially in regard to the trade 
 in silk. Klaproth considers that the Seres of the ancients were the 
 Chinese ; but he appears to include under that term all the nations 
 which were brought into subjection to the Chinese. 
 
 Professor Karl Ritter (Erdkunde, Asien, Band iv. 2te Auflage, 
 Berlin, 1835, p. 437.) observes, on the authority just quoted, that 
 all the names of the silk- worm and its products are to be accounted 
 for on the supposition (which he considers the true one), that they 
 were first known and cultivated in China, and were extended from 
 thence through central Asia into Europe. 
 
 t See above, § 39. p. 161. and Schindler's Pentaglott, p. 1951, D. 
 
 + Silki trojo ermalausa, a silk tunic without sleeves. Knitlynga 
 Saga, p. 114, as quoted by Ihre, Glossar. Suio-Goth. v. Armalausa. 
 
246 § 61. ETYMOLOGY OF TERjMS FOR SILK. 
 
 Siolc or Seolc, silk, in Anglo-Saxon. Also Siolcen or Seolcen, 
 silken ; Gal j-eolcen, Holosericus ; Seolc- 
 pypm, silk-worm*. 
 
 Silk, in English f. 
 
 Sirig, in Welsh J. 
 
 To the second set belong, 
 
 Seda, silk, in the Latin of the Middle Ages. 
 
 Seta, in Italian. 
 
 Seide, in German. 
 
 Side, in Anglo-Saxon. Also Sidene, silken, M\' 
 
 fric as quoted by Lye; Sidpyjim, silk- worm, 
 Junius, I.e. 
 
 Sidan, in Welsh. 
 
 Satin, in French and English §. 
 
 According to Abel Remusat {Journal Asiat. I. c.) the 
 merchandize of Eastern Asia passed through Slavonia 
 to the North of Europe in the middle ages even without 
 the mediation of Greece or Italy. This may account for 
 the use of the terms of the first class, while those of the 
 second may have been derived from the South of Eu- 
 rope, from whence we have seen that silken commodi- 
 ties were also occasionally transported to the North. 
 
 * ^Ifric's Glossary (made in the 10th century), p. 68. Appendix 
 to Somner's Dictionary. 
 
 Alfred, in the latter part of the 9th century, thus translates two 
 lines formerly quoted from the poem of Boethius, which describes the 
 simplicity of the golden age. (See above, § 54. p. 228.) 
 
 Seolcenpa hp[E;5la niih mij-clicum bleofura hi ne jimdon; literally. 
 Silken garments with various colours they did not regard. 
 
 f Nicholas Fuller (Miscellanea, p. 248.) justly observes, Vocabu- 
 lum Anglicanum Selk non nisi Sericum authorem generis sui agno- 
 scit. Selk enim nuncupatum est quasi Selik pro Serik, literse r in 
 / facili commutatione factsi. 
 
 Minshew and Skinner give the same etymology. 
 
 X Junius, Etymologicum, v. Silk. It appears doubtful, however, 
 whether Junius is here to be depended on. 
 
 § Menage, Diction. Etym. de la Langue Francaise, tom. ii. p. 457. 
 ed. Joult. 
 
i 62. RELICS AND OTHER ANCIENT ARTICLES OF SILK. 247 
 
 62. To the evidence now produced from authors and 
 printed documents respecting the history of silk from 
 the earHest times to the period of its universal exten- 
 sion throughout Europe, another species of evidence 
 may be added, viz. that afforded by Relics preserved in 
 churches, and by other remains of the antiquities of the 
 middle ages. As examples of this method of illustra- 
 ting the subject, I mention the following articles, which 
 I have had an opportunity of inspecting. 
 
 I. The relics of St. Regnobert, Bishop of Bayeux 
 in the seventh century. These consist of a Casula, or 
 Chasuble, a Stole, and a Maniple. They are still pre- 
 served in the cathedral of Bayeux, and are worn by 
 the Bishop on certain annual festivals. They are of 
 silk interwoven with gold, and adorned with pearls*. 
 
 II. Portions of garments of the same description 
 with those of St, Regnobert were discovered A.D. 
 1827 on opening the tomb of St. Cuthbert in the ca- 
 thedral of Durham. They are preserved in the Cathe- 
 dral Library at Durham, and are accurately described 
 by the Rev. James Raine, the librarian, in a quarto 
 volume compiled and published on occasion of their 
 discovery. 
 
 III. The scull-cap of St. Simon, said to have been 
 made in the tenth century, and now preserved in the ca- 
 thedral of Treves. Its border is interwoven with gold. 
 
 I shall here only remark respecting these interesting 
 relics, that they may with confidence be regarded as 
 specimens of the manufacture of silk from the seventh 
 to the twelfth century. Of their fabric and their form 
 and ornaments I intend to speak hereafter. 
 
 * See John Spencer Smythe's Description de la Chasuble de Saint 
 Regnobert, in the Proces Verbal de rAcademie Royale des Sciences, 
 Arts, et Belles Lettres, de la Ville de Caen, Seance d'Avril 14, 1820. 
 
248 §62. SILK FOUND IN ANCIENT BULLS, ARMOUR, ETC. 
 
 IV. In Hereford Cathedral is a charter of one of 
 the Popes with the bull, that is, the leaden seal, at- 
 tached to it by silken threads. Silk was early used 
 for this purpose in the South of Europe *. The Danish 
 kings began to use silk to attach the waxen seals to 
 their charters about the year lOOOf . 
 
 V. I have noticed silk, and particularly in the form 
 of velvet, on some of the ancient armour in the Tower 
 of London. 
 
 VI. The binding of ancient manuscripts affords spe- 
 cimens of silk. A French translation of Ludolphus 
 Saxo's Life of Christ in four folio volumes, among 
 Dr. William Hunter's MSS. at Glasgow, still has its 
 original binding covered with red velvet, which is 
 probably as old as the fourteenth century. A curious 
 source of information on the art of book-binding at that 
 period is the Inventory, or Catalogue of the library 
 collected by that ardent lover of books, Charles V. of 
 France. As this catalogue particularly describes the 
 bindings of about 1200 volumes, many of which were 
 very elaborate and splendid, it enables us to judge of 
 the use made of all the most valuable stuffs and mate- 
 rials which could be employed for this purpose, and 
 under the head of silk we find the following : " sole," 
 silk; "veluyau," velvet ; "satanin," satin ; "damas," 
 damask; "taffetas," taffety ; "camocas;" "cendal;" 
 and "drapdor," cloth of gold, having probably a basis 
 of silk. The further notice of these stuffs, as described 
 in the Inventaire, will belong to the Fourth Part of this 
 treatise I . 
 
 * Mabillon de Re Diplomatica, 1. ii. cap. 19. § 6. 
 t Diplomatarium Arna-Magnaeanum, aThorkelin, torn. i. p. xxxxiv. 
 + Sec Inventaire de I'Ancienne Biblioteque du Louvre, fait en I'an- 
 nce 1373. Paris, 1836, 8vo. 
 
§63. ACKNOWLEDGMENTSTO AUTHORS ANDFRIENDS. 249 
 
 A shred of gold cloth is preserved in the Museum 
 of Antiquities at Ley den, and is supposed to have 
 been discovered in one of the ancient tombs at Tar- 
 quinia in Etruria. In this tissue the gold forms a 
 compact covering over bright yellow silk. A more 
 minute account of the specimen will be given in 
 Book III., Chapter II. 
 
 63. I wish here to acknowledge my obligations to 
 those authors to whom I am chiefly indebted as 
 guides to the original sources of information on the 
 history of silk. These are, 
 
 1. Salmasius in his Commentary on Tertullian de 
 Pallio, his Exercitationes Plinian(B in Solinum, and his 
 notes on the Historic AugustcB Scriptores. 
 
 2. Joannes Colerus De Bombyce. Giessse 1665, 
 4to. 
 
 3. GoDOFREDiDANiELisHoFFMANNiObservationes 
 circa Bombyces, Sericum, et Moros, ex antiquitatum, 
 historiarum, juriumque penu depromptse. Tubingge, 
 1757, 4to. 
 
 4. E. H. Barker's Classical Recreations. London, 
 8vo. 
 
 No other author is so full on the modern history 
 of the silk manufacture up to his own time as Hoff- 
 mann. 
 
 In conclusion I must also express my obligations to 
 the Rev. W. F. Hope, President of the Entomological 
 Society, for the kind and valuable assistance which 
 he has given me in my researches on this subject ; 
 and to Mr. Birch of the British Museum, Mr. John 
 Curtis, author of British Entomology, and Mr. Root- 
 sey of Bristol, for their endeavours to assist me in 
 inquiring into the obscure subject of the wild silk- 
 worms of China. 
 
The annexed Map has been referred to above, § 28. p. 127, note, 
 and § 56. p. 233, note. 
 
 It is designed to indicate the divisions of the Ancient World as 
 determined by the Raw Materials principally produced and employed 
 in them for weaving. 
 
 The Red division produced Sheeps-Wool and Goats-Hair : also 
 Beavers-Wool in the portion of this division, which lies to the North 
 of the Mediterranean Sea, and of the rivers Padus and Ister : and 
 Camels-Wool and Camels-Hair in the portion lying South-East of a 
 line drawn through the coast of Syria. The nations to the North of 
 this division clothed themselves in skins, furs, and felt. 
 
 The Yellow at the Eastern corner indicates the commencement of 
 the vast region, unknown to the Ancients, the inhabitants of which 
 clothed themselves in Silk. 
 
 The Green indicates the countries, all low and bordering on rivers, 
 in which the cloth manufactured was chiefly Linen. 
 
 The Brown is designed to show the cultivation of Hemp in the 
 low country to the North of the Euxine Sea, and probably in other 
 places. North of the Red division, which were adapted for its growth. 
 
 Lastly, the Blue, which is the colour of the Baharein Isles and of 
 India, shows that the inhabitants of these countries have from time 
 immemorial clothed themselves in Cotton. 
 
BOOK 11. 
 
 VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 
 
 64. The Vegetable Substances, used to make thread 
 for weaving, were principally derived from the bark of 
 plants. This source is clearly indicated by Pausanias, 
 who, in a passage formerly quoted (§44. p. 188.), re- 
 marks, that silk is not obtained from any kind of bark, 
 but is the produce of an animal. In the language 
 adopted by Strabo and Eustathius* we have a trace 
 of the same idea. 
 
 The plants whose inner bark was thus used by the 
 ancients, were the following : 
 
 1. Flax. 
 
 2. Hemp. 
 
 3. Mallows. 
 
 4. Broom. 
 
 5. The BoXjSoc epio(p6poc. 
 On the other hand, 
 
 6. Cotton 
 
 is not obtained from the bark, but from the capsule, 
 being an appendage to the seed. 
 
 * See above, §43. p. 181. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 65. The earliest mention of flax by any author 
 occurs in the account of the plague of hail, which de- 
 vastated Lower Egypt, Ex. ix. 31. The Hebrew term 
 for flax in this and various other passages of the Old 
 Testament is riDti^S ; the corresponding word in the 
 Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic versions is N^DD- A/- 
 vov, LXX. Linum, Jerome. 
 
 The prophet Isaiah, in a passage before quoted 
 (§39. p. 161, 162.), alludes to the linen manufacture 
 as one of the chief employments of the Egyptians. 
 The phrase D'nti^£3 probably meant the makers 
 
 of linen shirts. According to Herodotus (ii. 37, 81.) 
 the Egyptians universally wore linen shirts {kiOiovuc 
 Xiveovc), which were fringed at the bottom, and were 
 called KaXaa'ipic. The fringe no doubt consisted of 
 the thrums, the use of which will be explained in 
 Part IV. They may be seen in the webs, which are 
 found in Egyptian mummies. 
 
 Besides the linen shirt the priests wore an upper 
 garment of linen, more especially when they officiated 
 in the temples. This garment was probably of the 
 exact form of a modern linen sheet, and is therefore 
 sometimes called 'l/.iaTiov Xwovv, and XXaTva XwovXkoc 
 by Ion in Athenseus (Z. x. p. 451. Casaub.). The di- 
 stinction between the shirt and the sheet worn over 
 it, as well as the reason why linen was used for all 
 
§ 65. LINEN WORN BY EGYPTIAN PRIESTS. 253 
 
 sacred purposes, is clearly expressed in the two fol- 
 lowing passages from Apuleius and Jerome. 
 
 Etiamne cuiquam mirum videri potest, cui sit uUa memoria reli- 
 gionis, hominem tot mysteriis Deiim conscium, quaedam sacrorum 
 crepundia domi adservare, atque ea lineo texto involvere, quod pu- 
 rissimum est rebus divinis velamentum ? Quippe lana, segnissimi 
 corporis excrementum, pecori detracta, jam inde Orphei et Pytha- 
 gorse scitis, profanus vestitus est. Sed enim mundissima lini seges, 
 inter optimas fruges terra exorta, non modo indutui et amictui sanc- 
 tissimis ^gyptiorum sacerdotibus, sed opertui quoque in rebus sacris 
 usurpatur. Apuleii Apolog. p. 64. ed. Priccei. 
 
 Can any one impressed with a sense of religion wonder, that a man 
 who has been made acquainted with so many mysteries of the gods, 
 should keep at home certain sacred emblems and wrap them in a linen 
 cloth, the purest covering for divine objects ? For wool, the excretion 
 of a sluggish body, taken from sheep, was deemed a profane attire 
 even according to the early tenets of Orpheus and Pythagoras. But 
 flax, that cleanest and best production of the field, is used, not only 
 for the inner and outer clothing of the most holy priests of the Egyp- 
 tians, but also for covering sacred objects. 
 
 Indutus was the putting on of the inner, amictus of 
 the outer garment. 
 
 Vestibus lineis utuntur ^Egyptii sacerdotes non solum extrinsecus, 
 sed et intrinsecus. Hieron. in Ezek. AA. folio 257. 
 
 The Egyptian priests use linen garments, not only without, but 
 also within. 
 
 Plutarch says*, that the priests of Isis wore linen 
 (Xii'ac kceQr\Tac) ou accouut of its purity, and he remarks 
 how absurd and inconsistent would have been their 
 conduct, if they had carefully plucked the hairs from 
 their own bodies, and yet clothed themselves in wool, 
 which is the hair of sheep. He also mentions the 
 opinion of some who thought that flax was used for 
 
 * De Iside et Osiride, prope init. 0pp. ed. H. Stephani, Par. 1572, 
 tom. i. p. 627, 628. 
 
254 ^ 65. FLAX GROWN EXTENSIVELY IN EGYPT. 
 
 clothing, because the colour of its blossom resembles 
 the etherial blue which surrounds the world ; and he 
 states, that the priests of Isis were also buried in their 
 sacred vestments. According to Strabo, Panopolis was 
 an ancient seat of the linen manufacture*. 
 
 Celsius in his Hierobotanicon {vol. ii. p. 287 — 291.) 
 and Forster in his treatise De Bysso Antiquorum 
 (p. 65 — 68.) have quoted other passages from ancient 
 authors, which concur to show the abundance and 
 excellence of the flax grown anciently in Lower Egypt, 
 and more particularly in the vicinity of Pelusium, the 
 general employment of it among the inhabitants for 
 clothing, and the exclusive use of linen cloth for the 
 garments of the priesthood and for other sacred pur- 
 poses, and especially for the worship of Isis and Osiris. 
 From the same authorities we learn, that the Egyptian 
 flax and the cloth woven from it were shipped in great 
 quantities to all parts of the Mediterranean f. 
 
 In connection with these statements I would refer 
 to what I have already advanced (§ 8. j9. 23.) on the 
 use of wool for clothing by the Egyptians ; and I 
 would also observe, that when we find it stated by 
 ancient authors, that the priests wore linen only, the 
 term ought not to be so strictly understood as to ex- 
 clude the use of cotton, which would probably be con- 
 sidered equally pure and equally adapted for sacred 
 purposes with linen, and which was brought in an- 
 cient times from India to Egypt ; and the term linum 
 was undoubtedly often employed in so general a sense 
 as to include cotton. 
 
 * Unviof TToXis, Xivovpywy Kai Xidovpyuiv KaroiKia TraXaia. L. xvii. 
 §41. p. 586. ed. Siebenkees. 
 
 t " Solomon had horses brought out of Egypt, and linen yarn " 
 (mpD) : 1 Kings X. 28. 2Chron.i. 16. 
 
$66. EGYPTIAN PAINTING OF THE FLAX-GATHERING. 255 
 
 66. These testimonies of ancient authors are con- 
 firmed in a very remarkable manner by existing mo- 
 numents. The paintings in the Grotto of El Kab 
 represent among other scenes a field of corn and a 
 crop of flax, the latter distinguished by its inferior 
 height, by its round capsules, and by being pulled up 
 by the roots instead of being reaped. The mode of 
 binding the flax in bundles is also exhibited, and the 
 separation of the "bolls," or capsules, containing the 
 lin-seed, from the stalk, by the use of a comb, or 
 "ripple." {See Description de VEgypte: Antiquite's ; 
 Planches, tome i. pi. 68. and the Plates to Hamilton's 
 jEgi/ptiaca, xxiii.) 
 
 I have inserted in Plate VI. so much of the painting 
 as relates to our present subject. Five persons are 
 employed in plucking up the flax by the roots, viz. 
 four men and one woman. The woman wears a shift 
 reaching to her ancles, but transparent*. The four 
 men wear shirts which reach to their knees, and are 
 not transparent. Another man binds the flax into 
 sheaves : a sixth carries it to a distance : and a se- 
 venth separates the seed from the stem by means of 
 a four-toothed ripple. The back of the ripple rests 
 on the ground ; its teeth are raised by a prop. The 
 man sets his foot upon the back to keep the instru- 
 ment firm, and, taking hold of a bunch of flax near 
 the root, draws it through the comb. This method 
 is now employed in Europe. At the left-hand corner 
 of the Plate lies a bundle of flax stript of its capsules, 
 and underneath the ripple is the heap of seed which 
 has been separated from the stem. 
 
 67. Evidence equally decisive is presented in the 
 
 * This circumstance is adapted to illustrate the mention of " trans- 
 parent garments" in Isaiah iii. 23. Lowth's Translation. 
 
256 §67. ENVELOPES OF LINEN FOUND 
 
 innumerable mummies, the fabrication of successive 
 ages through a period of more than two thousand 
 years, which are found in the catacombs of Egypt. It 
 is indeed disputed, whether the cloth in which they 
 are enveloped is linen or cotton. I shall give an ac- 
 count of the state of the question, and mention the 
 reasons which convince me that the mummy-cloth is 
 generally, if not universally, linen. 
 
 It was, as far as I have been able to ascertain, believed 
 to be linen by all writers previous to Rouelle. More 
 especially, this opinion was advanced by the learned 
 traveller and antiquary. Professor John Greaves, in his 
 Pyramidographia, published A.D. 1646. He speaks 
 of the "linen shrowd" of a mummy, which he opened, 
 and he says, "The ribbands" {or fillets, reXa/iwi^cq), 
 "by what I observed, were of linen, which was the 
 habit also of the Egyptian priests." He adds, " of 
 these ribbands I have seen some so strong and perfect 
 as if they had been made but yesterday." 
 
 Rouelle's dissertation on Mummies is published in 
 the Memoires de VAcademie R. des Sciences for the 
 year 1750. He there asserts {p. 150.), that the cloth 
 of every mummy which he had had an opportunity of 
 examining, even that of embalmed birds, was cotton. 
 
 Dr. Hadley, however, who wrote a few years after 
 Rouelle {Phil. Transactions for 1764, vol. 54.), seems 
 to adhere to the old opinion. He calls the cloth of 
 the mummy, which he examined, " linen." He says, 
 it was in fillets of different breadths, but the greater 
 part inches broad. " They were torn longitudi- 
 nally ; those few that had a selvage, having it on one 
 side only." 
 
 But the opinion of Rouelle received a strong sup- 
 port from Dr. John Reinhold Forster, to whom it 
 
ON EGYPTIAN MUMMIES. 
 
 257 
 
 appeared at first almost incredible, although he after- 
 wards supported it in the most decided manner. He 
 determined to take the first opportunity of settling the 
 question by the inspection of mummies, and examined 
 those in the British Museum, accompanied by Dr. So- 
 lander. Both of these learned and acute inquirers 
 were convinced, that the cloth was cotton, deriving 
 this opinion from the inspection of all those speci- 
 mens, which were sufficiently free from gum, paint, 
 and resins, to enable them to judge*. Larcher in- 
 forms us, that he remarked the same thing in these 
 mummies in 1752, when he was accompanied by 
 Dr. Matyf. It is to be observed, however, that 
 neither Larcher, Rouelle, nor Forster mentions the 
 criterion which he employed to distinguish linen from 
 cotton. They probably formed their opinion only 
 from its apparent softness, its want of lustre, or some 
 other quality, which might belong to linen no less 
 than to cotton, and which therefore could be no cer- 
 tain mark of distinction. 
 
 The opinion of Larcher, Rouelle, and Forster ap- 
 pears to have been generally adopted. In particular 
 we find it embraced by Blumenbach, who in the Phi- 
 losophical Transactions for 1794 speaks of the " cot- 
 ton bandages" of two of the small mummies, which 
 he opened in London j. In his Beitrdge {i. e. Contri- 
 butions to Natural History, 2nd part, p. 73. Gottin- 
 gen, 1811) he says, he is more firmly convinced than 
 ever, that the cloth is universally cotton. He assigns 
 also his reasons in the following terms. " I ground 
 
 * Forster De Bysso Antiquorum, London 1776, p. 70, 71. 
 t Herodote, par Larcher. Ed. 2nde, Par. 1802, livre ii. p. 357. 
 + On the authority of this paper the mummy-cloth is supposed to 
 be cotton by Heeren, Ideen, i. 1. p. 128. 
 
 S 
 
258 § 67. EXAMINATION OF THE CLOTH 
 
 this my conviction far less on my own views than on 
 the assurance of such persons as I have questioned 
 on the subject, and whose judgment in this matter I 
 deem incomparably superior to my own or to that of 
 any other scholar, namely, of ladies, dealers in cotton 
 and linen cloth, weavers and the like." He also refers 
 to the cultivation of cotton in Egypt, which he assumes 
 probably on the authority of Forster ; and to the fable 
 of Isis enveloping in "cotton" cloth the collected 
 limbs of her husband Osiris, who had been torn in 
 pieces by Typhon*. The latter arguments are founded 
 on the supposition, that the ancient term Byssus meant 
 cotton, and not linen. But the question as to its 
 meaning must in part be decided, as we shall see 
 hereafter, by previously settling the present question 
 as to the materials of the mummy cloth. The opinion 
 of ladies, tradesmen, and manufacturers, though it 
 may be better than that of the most learned man, if 
 derived from mere touch and inspection, is quite in- 
 sufficient to decide the question. If those whom 
 Blumenbach consulted thought that the cloth was 
 always cotton, many others of equal experience and 
 discernment have given, as I shall hereafter mention 
 more particularly, an opposite judgment ; and the 
 fact is, that linen cloth, which has been long worn 
 and often washed, as is the case with a great propor- 
 tion of the mummy cloth, and which is either ragged 
 or loose in its texture, cannot be distinguished from 
 cotton by the unassisted use of the external senses. 
 
 Relying, however, on the same evidence of ocular 
 inspection, another distinguished author, who travelled 
 in Egypt and published his remarks about the same 
 time, says, "As to the circumstance of cotton cloths 
 * See below. § 70. p. 269. 
 
OF EGYPTIAN MUMMIES. 
 
 259 
 
 having been exclusively used in the above process, 
 an inspection of the mummies is sufficient evidence 
 of the fact*." 
 
 M. Jomard, one of the authors of the great French 
 work on Egypt, published about 1811, paid great 
 attention to this subject. He concluded, that both 
 linen and cotton were employed in the bandages of 
 mummies, grounding his opinion partly on their ap- 
 pearance and touch, and partly on the testimony of 
 Herodotus, whom he misinterpreted in the manner, 
 which I shall hereafter mention f. Another of these 
 authors, M. Costaz, who contributed the memoir on 
 the grotto of El Kab, asserts that the mummy cloth 
 is found on examination to be cotton J. 
 
 An important paper on the same subject appeared 
 in the Philosophical Transactions for 1825. In this 
 Dr. A. B. Granville describes a mummy, which he 
 opened. He dwells more particularly on the circum- 
 stances, which have reference to anatomical and sur- 
 gical considerations, and expresses very strongly his 
 admiration of the skill and neatness employed in fold- 
 ing the cloth, so as to present an example of every 
 kind of bandage used by modern surgeons, and to 
 exhibit it in the most perfect manner. 
 
 I shall quote at length the passages, which are con- 
 nected with the present inquiry. Dr. Granville ob- 
 serves {p. 272.), 
 
 The principal rollers appear to be made of a very compact, yet 
 elastic linen, some of them from 4 to 5 yards in length, without any 
 stitch or seam in any part of them. There were also some large 
 
 * iEgyptiaca, by William Hamilton, Esq. F.R.S. London, 1809. 
 p. 320. 
 
 t Description de I'Egypte. Memoires. — Sur les Hypogees, p. 3.5. 
 X Ibid. torn. i. p. 60. 
 
 s 2 
 
260 §67. EXAMINATION OF THE CLOTH 
 
 square pieces thrown around the head, thorax, and abdomen, of a 
 less elastic texture. Tliese pieces were found to alternate with the 
 complete swathing of the whole body. They occurred four distinct 
 times ; while the bandaging, with rollers and other fasciae, was re- 
 peated, at least, twenty times. The numerous bandages, by which 
 the mummy was thus enveloped, were themselves wholly covered 
 by a roller 3| inches wide and 1 1 yards long, which after making a 
 few turns around both feet, ascended in graceful spirals to the head, 
 whence descending again as far as the breast, it was fixed there. 
 The termination of this outer roller is remarkable for the loose 
 threads hanging from it in the shape of a fringe and for certain 
 traces of characters imprinted on it similar to those described and 
 delineated by Jomard in the Description de VEgypte. One or two 
 of these characters have corroded the linen, leaving the perforated 
 traces of their form. 
 
 Dr. Granville gives a fac-simile of these characters, 
 and in the same Plate he represents the exact appear- 
 ance of the external rolls of cloth on the mummy. He 
 then says (p. 274.), 
 
 I have satisfied myself, that both cotton and linen have been em- 
 ployed in the preparation of our mummy, although Herodotus men- 
 tions only cotton {hyssus) as the material used for the puri)ose. 
 Most mummies have been described as wholly enveloped in linen 
 cloth, and some persons are disposed to doubt the existence of cotton 
 cloth in any, not excepting in the one now under consideration. 
 
 But with respect to the last point, a simple experiment has, I 
 think, set the question at rest. If the surface of old linen, and of 
 old cotton cloth be rubbed briskly and for some minutes with a 
 rounded piece of glass or ivory, after being washed and freed from 
 aU extraneous matter, the former will be found to have acquired 
 considerable lustre ; while the latter will present no other difference 
 than that of having the threads flattened by the operation. By means 
 of this test I selected several pieces of cotton cloth from among the 
 many bandages of our mummy, which I submitted to the inspection 
 of an experienced manufacturer, who declared them to be of that 
 material. 
 
 Besides the appeal to the senses of " an experienced 
 manufacturer," Dr. Granville here proposes a new 
 
OF EGYPTIAN MUMMIES. 
 
 261 
 
 test, that of rubbing in the manner described. But, 
 although cotton cloth in all circumstances has less 
 lustre than linen, I do not think this a satisfactory 
 criterion. I have found, that I could easily give a 
 lustre by rubbing to cotton as well as to linen. 
 
 The ingenious John Howell of Edinburgh* paid 
 some attention to this question, having a few years 
 since obtained and opened a valuable mummy. He 
 and the friends, whom he consulted, and who were 
 weavers and other persons of practical experience, 
 most of them thought that the cloth was altogether 
 linen : some however thought that certain specimens 
 of it were cotton. 
 
 This curious and important question was at length 
 decisively settled by means of microscopic observations 
 instituted by James Thomson, Esq., F.R.S. of Clithe- 
 roe, one of the most observant and experienced cotton- 
 manufacturers in the world. He obtained about 400 
 specimens of mummy cloth, and employed the cele- 
 brated Mr. Bauer of Kew to examine them with his 
 powerful microscopes. By the same method the struc- 
 ture and appearance of the ultimate fibres of recent 
 cotton and recent flax were ascertained ; and these were 
 found to be so distinct that there was no difficulty in 
 deciding upon the ancient specimens, and it was found 
 that they were universally linen. About twelve years 
 after Mr. Thomson had commenced his researches he 
 published the results of them in the Philosophical Ma- 
 gazinef, and he has accompanied them with a Plate 
 exhibiting the obvious difference between the two 
 classes of objects. The ultimate fibre of cotton is a 
 
 * Author of an Essay on the War Galleys of the Ancients, Edin- 
 burgh 1826, 8vo. 
 
 t Third Series, vol. v. No. 29, November 1834. 
 
262 ^ 67. CLOTH OF EGYPTIAN MUMMIES 
 
 transparent tube without joints, flattened so that its 
 inward surfaces are in contact along its axis, and also 
 twisted spirally round its axis : that of flax is a trans- 
 parent tube jointed like a cane, and not flattened nor 
 spirally twisted. To show the difference I have se- 
 lected from Mr. Thomson's Plate two specimens of 
 fibres of cotton (a, Plate vi. p. 255.), and two of fibres 
 of mummy cloth (6) , all of the specimens being one 
 hundredth of an inch long, and magnified 400 times in 
 each dimension. Any person, even with microscopes 
 of moderate power, may discern the difference between 
 the two kinds of fibres, though not so minutely and 
 exactly as in the figures of Mr, Bauer. 
 
 The difference, here pointed out, will explain why 
 linen has greater lustre than cotton : it is no doubt 
 because in linen the lucid surfaces are much larger. 
 The same circumstance may also explain the different 
 eflfect of linen and cotton upon the health and feelings 
 of those who wear them. Every linen thread presents 
 only the sides of cylinders : that of cotton, on the 
 other hand, is surrounded by an innumerable multi- 
 tude of exceedingly minute edges. 
 
 Mr. Pettigrew, in his valuable " History of Egyp- 
 tian Mummies" {London 1834, p. 95.), expresses the 
 opinion that the bandages are principally of cotton, 
 though occasionally of linen. He has since arrived at 
 the conclusion, that they are all of linen : and his 
 opinion appears to be established on the following 
 evidence, which he gives in a note to the above- 
 mentioned work {p. 91.), 
 
 Dr. Ure has been so good as to make known to me that which I 
 conceive to be the most satisfactory test of the absolute nature of 
 flax and cotton, and in the course of his microscopic researches on 
 the structure of textile fibres he has succeeded in determining their 
 
PROVED TO BE LINEN. 
 
 263 
 
 distinctive characters. From a most precise and accurate examina.- 
 tion of these substances he has been able to draw tlie following 
 statement : — The filaments of flax have a glassy lustre when viewed 
 by daylight in a good microscope, and a cylindrical form, which is 
 very rarely flattened. Their diameter is about the two-thousandth 
 part of an inch. They break transversely with a smooth surface, 
 like a tube of glass cut with a file. A line of light distinguishes 
 their axis, with a deep shading on one side only, or on both sides, 
 according to the direction in which the incident rays fall on the fila- 
 ments. 
 
 'ITie filaments of cotton are almost never true cylinders, but are 
 more or less flattened and tortuous ; so that when viewed under the 
 microscope they appear in one part like a riband from the one- 
 thousandth to the twelve-hundredth part of an inch broad, and in 
 another like a sharp edge or narrow line. They have a pearly 
 translucency in the middle space, with a dark narrow border at each 
 side, like a hem. When broken across, the fracture is fibrous or 
 pointed. Mummy cloth, tried by these criteria in the microscope, 
 appears to be composed both in its warp and woof-yarns of flax, and 
 not of cotton. A great variety of the swathing fillets have been 
 examined with an excellent achromatic microscope, and they have 
 all evinced the absence of cotton filaments. 
 
 Still more recently Dr. Ure has himself published 
 the result of his observations in his Philosophy of 
 Manufactures. In some particulars he dissents from 
 Mr. Bauer {p. 83—89, London 1835.). Mr. Wilkinson 
 considers the observations of these authors as decisive 
 of the question*. 
 
 Whilst I am satisfied, for the reasons which have 
 now been assigned, that the cloth used to envelope the 
 mummies is almost universally linen, I nevertheless 
 think it possible, that cotton cloth may have been 
 used also. For, although we have no proof that such 
 cloth was anciently manufactured in Egypt, we know 
 that it was imported into that country from Indiaf ; 
 
 * Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, London 1837, 
 vol. iii. p. 115. t See below, Chapter VI. 
 
264 §68. FLAX STILL GROWN IN EGYPT. 
 
 and, as I have already admitted that it might be used 
 for the garments of the priesthood (see above, § 65.), 
 I see no reason why it might not be introduced occa- 
 sionally in the stuffings and bandages of the mum- 
 mies. 
 
 With regard to the evidence from mummies I shall 
 only remark further, that, as they are partly wrapped 
 in old linen (shirts, napkins, and other articles of 
 clothing and domestic furniture being found with 
 the long fillets and the entire webs), they prove the 
 general application of linen in Egypt to all the pur- 
 poses of ordinary life. 
 
 68. Even to the present day flax continues to be 
 a most important article of cultivation and trade in 
 Egypt*. The climate and soil are so favourable, that 
 it there grows to a height, which it never reaches in 
 Europe. I presume, that it must become coarser in 
 proportion to its size, and that this circumstance may 
 account for the use of it in ancient times for all those 
 purposes, for which we employ hemp, as for making 
 nets, ropes, and sail-cloth. The fine linen of the ancient 
 Egyptians must have been made from flax of lower 
 growth and with thinner stems ; and the mummies 
 testify, that they made cloth of the finest as well as of 
 the coarsest texture. 
 
 The following remark of Hasselquist respecting the 
 soft and loose texture of the linen made in Egypt in 
 his time agrees remarkably with the appearance of 
 that found in mummies. " The Egyptian linen is not 
 so thick," says he, " as the European, being softer and 
 of a looser texture ; for which reason it lasts longer 
 and does not wear out so soon as ours, which fre- 
 quently wears out the faster on account of its stiff"- 
 
 * Browne's Travels in Africa, p. 83. 
 
§69. EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS *Q2QN, OGONH. 2G5 
 
 ness." He also observes, "The common people in 
 Egypt are clothed in linen only, dyed blue with indigo ; 
 but those of better fortune have a black cloak over 
 their linen shirt." 
 
 G9. The coarse linen of the ancient Egyptians was 
 called (^ojawv. It was made of thick flax (e/c Tra^y^eoc 
 Au'ou), and was used for towels {aov^apia, Julius Pol- 
 lux, VII. c. IG.), and for sails (^wwffwi'ac, Lycophron, 
 V. 26.)*. <^u)awv may be translated canvass, or sail- 
 cloth. 
 
 Fine linen, on the other hand, was called 'OSooj. 
 This terra, as well as the preceding, was in all pro- 
 babihty an Egyptian word, adopted by the Greeks to 
 denote the coramodity, to which the Egyptians them- 
 selves applied it. It seems to correspond, as Salma- 
 siusf, Celsius!, Forster§, and JablonskiH have ob- 
 served, to the DnVD iVON, " Fine Knen of Egypt," 
 in Proverbs vii. IG. For put into Greek letters 
 and with Greek terminations, becomes o96vti and odo- 
 viov. Hesychius states, no doubt correctly, that oOovrt 
 was applied by the Greeks to any fine and thin cloth, 
 though not of linen ^. But this was in later times 
 and by a general and secondary application of the 
 term. 
 
 Agreeably to the preceding remarks, the oOovai men- 
 tioned in two passages of the Iliad may be supposed 
 
 Jablonski Glossarium Vocum ^gyptiarum, in Valpy's edition 
 of Steph. Thesaur. torn. i. p. ccxcv. 
 
 t Salmasius in Achill. Tat. 1. viii. c. 13, 6d6vt]s j^trtJr. 
 I Celsii Hierobotanicon, t. ii. p. 90. 
 
 § Forster De Bysso, p. 74. || Ubi supra, p. ccxvii. 
 
 ^ The ancient Scholia (published by Mai and Buttmann) on Od. rj. 
 107. state that udoi'ui were made both of flax and of wool. The silks 
 of India are called 'Ofloi'ut ur/pua, see above, § 48. p. 204. 
 
266 §69,70. EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS 
 
 to have been procured from Egypt. Helen, when she 
 goes to meet the senators of Ilium at the Scsean Gate, 
 wraps herself in a white sheet of fine linen {apjewalc 
 odovriai, II. y. 141 .). The womeu, dancing on the shield 
 of Achilles (II. a. 595.), wear AeTrrac oOuvac. These 
 thin sheets must be supposed to have been worn as 
 shawls, or girt about the bodies of the dancers. Helen 
 would wear hers so as to veil her whole person agree- 
 ably to the representation of the lady, whom Paulus 
 Silentiarius addresses in the following line, written 
 evidently with Homer's Helen before his mind : 
 
 'Apyeyrais odot'riat Kanjopa (ioarpv^a Kevdeis. 
 
 You conceal your flowing locks with a snow-white sheet. — Brunck, 
 Analecta, vol. iii. p. 81. 
 
 Perhaps even the sheets, spread for Phoenix to lie 
 upon in the tent of Achilles, and for Ulysses on his 
 return to Ithaca from the country of the Phaeacians, 
 (Xivoio XeitTov awTov*) though not called by the Egyp- 
 tian name, should be supposed to have been made in 
 Egypt. In the time of Homer the use of linen cloth 
 was certainly rare among the Greeks ; the manufac- 
 ture of it was perhaps as yet unknown to them. 
 
 The term ^iv'^wv, Sindon, was used, to denote linen 
 cloth still more extensively than oOovti, in as much as 
 it occurs both in Greek and Latin authors f. Accord- 
 ing to Julius Pollux this also was a word of Egyptian 
 origin, and Coptic scholars inform us that it is found 
 in the modern Shento, which has the same significa- 
 tion!. 
 
 * II. t. 657. Od. y. 73. 118. 
 
 t E.g. Martial, quoted above, § 24. p. 111. Herodotus, quoted 
 below, § 70. p. 268. I Jablonski, ubi supra, p. cclxxiv. 
 
OeONH, 2INAQN, BY220S. 
 
 267 
 
 Although '2ivStov originally denoted linen, we find 
 it applied, like '096v7], to cotton cloth likewise; and 
 although both of these terms probably denoted at first 
 those linen cloths only, and especially the finer kinds 
 of them, which were made in Egypt, yet as the ma- 
 nufacture of linen extended itself into other countries, 
 and the exports of India were added to those of Egypt, 
 all varieties either of linen or cotton cloth, wherever 
 woven, were designated by the Egyptian names 'Odovrj 
 and '2iv^u)v. 
 
 I am not able to find, that any difference was re- 
 cognized by Greek and Latin authors between these 
 words. On the acceptation of them I think it suf- 
 ficient to refer to Casaubon, Exercit. in Baronium, 
 p. 524. ; Celsii Hierobot. t. ii. p. 89—93. ; Forster de 
 Bysso, p. 74 — 92, ; Schleusner, Lexicon, vv. 'OOovrj, 
 'OOoviov, 1,ivSu)v ; Le Moyne, Varia Sacra, torn. i. 
 p. 300—304. 
 
 70. Another term, which is probably of Egyptian 
 origin, and therefore requires explanation here, is the 
 term Bvaaoc or Byssus. Vossius {EtymoL L. Lat. v. 
 Byssus) thinks it was, as Pollux and Isidore assert, a 
 fine, white, soft flax, and that the cloth made from it was 
 like the modern cambric : " Similis fuisse videtur lino 
 isti, quod vulgo Cameracense appellamus." Celsius, 
 in his Hierobotanicon {vol. ii. p. 173.), gives the same 
 explanation. This was indeed the general opinion of 
 learned men, until J. R. Forster advanced the posi- 
 tion, that Byssus was cotton. A careful examination 
 of the question has convinced me of the correct- 
 ness of the old opinion, and I shall now state my 
 reasons. 
 
 I. The earliest author, who uses the term, is -^schy- 
 lus. He represents Antigone wearing a shawl or sheet 
 
268 
 
 § 70. ARGUMENTS TO PROVE 
 
 of fine flax, (ivaaivov rreTrAwjua*. In the Bacchse of Euri- 
 pides (/. 776.) the same garment, which was distinctive 
 of the female sex, is introduced under the same deno- 
 mination. We cannot suppose, that dramatic writers 
 would mention in plays addressed to a general audi- 
 ence clothing of any material with which they were 
 not familiarly acquainted. But the Greeks in the time 
 of ^schylus and Euripides knew little or nothing of 
 cotton. They had, however, been long supplied with 
 fine linen from Egypt and Phoenice ; and the (^vaaivov 
 Treir\u)na of Antigone is the same article of female attire 
 with the apyevvai oOovai of Helen, described by Homer. 
 {See above, § 69. p. 266.) Indeed ^Eschylus himself 
 in two other passages calls the same garment linen. In 
 the Coephorse 25, 26.) the expressions, AtvocfyOopoi 
 
 S v(paaf.iaTii)V Xa/c/Sec and TipoaTcpvoi aToXpoi Trt'TrXwi', 
 
 describe the rents, expressive of sorrow, which were 
 made in the linen veil or shawl (TreTrXoc) of an Oriental 
 woman. In the Supplices (/. 120.) the leader of the 
 chorus says, she often tears her linen, or her Sidonian 
 
 veil (k 'lvoiaiv j) StSocm KuXvirTpa) . 
 
 II. The next author in point of time, and one of 
 the first in point of importance, is Herodotus. In his 
 account of the mode of making mummies, he says the 
 embalmed body was enveloped 2ti'Sovoc /Sytrer/vrjc reXa- 
 /tw(Ti KaTaTeT/Liripevoiai (/. ii. c. 86.) But the fiUets or 
 bandages of the mummies are proved by microscopic 
 observations to be universally linen ; at least all the 
 specimens have been found to be linen, which have 
 been submitted to this, the only decisive test. 
 
 III. Herodotus also states (vii. 181.), that a man, 
 wounded in an engagement, had his torn limbs bound 
 
 * Septem contra Thebas, 1. 1041. See also Persae, 1. 129. jiua- 
 
THAT BY220S MEANT FLAX. 
 
 269 
 
 mv^ovoc /3uff(TiVtjc TeXajttwffi. Now, supposing that the 
 persons concerned had their choice between Hnen and 
 cotton, there can be no doubt that they would choose 
 hnen as most suitable for such a purpose. Cotton, 
 when applied to wounds, irritates them. Julius Pol- 
 lux mentions the bandages used in surgery under the 
 name TeXa/twi-ec livSoiarat (1. iv. c. 20. 181.; /. vii. 
 c. 16. and 25. 72.). The same fillets, which were used 
 to swathe dead bodies, were also adapted for surgical 
 purposes. Hence a Greek Epigram {Brunch, An. iii. 
 1G9.) represents a surgeon ('IrjTpoc) and an undertaker 
 ('EvTa(|)ta(TT7)c) as leaguing to assist each other in bu- 
 siness. The undertaker supplies the surgeon with 
 bandages (reXa/twvec) stolen from the dead bodies, and 
 the surgeon in return sends his patients to the under- 
 taker. 
 
 IV. Diodorus Siculus {I. i. § 85. torn. i. p. 96.) re- 
 cords a tradition, that Isis put the limbs of Osiris 
 into a> wooden cow, covered with Byssina {^'vaaiva 
 ■!r€pi^e^\r]ixkvr]v). No reason can be imagined, why 
 cotton should have been used for such a purpose ; 
 whereas the use of fine linen to cover the hallowed 
 remains was in perfect accordance with all the ideas 
 and practices of the Egyptians. 
 
 V, Plutarch, in his Treatise De Iside et Osiride 
 {0pp. ed. Stephani, 1572, vol. iv. p. 653.) says, that 
 the priests enveloped the gilded bull, which repre- 
 sented Osiris, in a black sheet of Byssus, t^ariw /.leXavi 
 jSudfft'i'w TrepifiaWovTec. Now nothing Can appear more 
 probable, than that the Egyptians would employ for 
 this purpose the same kind of cloth, which they always 
 applied to sacred uses ; and in addition to all the other 
 evidence before referred to, we find Plutarch in this 
 same treatise {as quoted above, § 65. p. 253.) expressly 
 
270 
 
 ^ 70. ARGUMENTS TO PROVE 
 
 mentioning the linen garments (XivoaToXlai, \ivac eaOii- 
 rac) of the priesthood, and stating, that the priests 
 were entombed in them after death, a fact verified at 
 the present day by the examination of the bodies of 
 priests found in the catacombs. 
 
 VI. The magnificent ship, constructed for Ptolemy 
 Philopator, which is described at length in Athenseus, 
 had a sail of the fine linen of Egypt*. It is not pro- 
 bable, that in a vessel, every part of which was made 
 of the best and most suitable materials, the sail would 
 be of cotton. Moreover Hermippus describes Egypt 
 as affording the chief supply of sails for all parts of 
 the world f : and Ezekiel represents the Tyrians as 
 obtaining cloth from Egypt for the sails and pendants 
 of their ships |. 
 
 VII. It is recorded in the Rosetta Inscription {I. 17, 
 18.), that Ptolemy Epiphanes remitted two parts of 
 the fine linen cloths {oOovkov (^vrraiixDv) , which were 
 manufactured in the temples {eu role lepoic) for the 
 king's palace ; and (/. 29.) that he also remitted a tax 
 on those, which were not made for the king's palace. 
 Thus in an original and contemporary monument we 
 read, that '096via (Bvaaiva were at a particular time 
 manufactured in Egypt. But we have no reason to 
 believe, that cotton was then manufactured in Egypt 
 at all, whereas linen cloth was made in immense 
 quantities. 
 
 VIII. Philo, who lived at Alexandria, and could not 
 be ignorant upon the subject, plainly uses BCaavc to 
 
 * BvaiTivoy e'x*^'' ''"''o''- Deipnos. 1. v. p. 206 C. ed. Casaubon. 
 f 'Ek S' AlyvTrrov rd Kpefxaard 
 
 'IfTTia Kui (jvftXois. — Apud Athenaeum, Deipnos. 1. i. p. 27 F. 
 
 : Ez. xxvii. 7. un)!Di2 nDpnn u^ti^. sept. bvcoos ^lerd 
 
 ■KoiKikias kl Aiyxlwrov. Vulg. Byssus varia de .^gypto. 
 
THAT BY2S0S MEANT FLAX. 
 
 271 
 
 mean flax. He says, the Jewish High-Priest wore a 
 linen garment, made of the purest Byssus {Xii>rjv — (iva- 
 
 aov T»}C KaOapiDTurrjC TreTroirifxevriv) , which WaS a Symbol 
 
 of firmness, incorruption, and of the clearest splen- 
 dour, since fine linen is most difficult to tear (appaye- 
 (TTarov yap t) o0oVr/), is made of nothing mortal, and 
 becomes brighter and more resembling light, the more 
 it is cleansed by washing*. 
 
 Here we may notice the tenacity of the cloth found 
 in Egyptian mummies. A great part of it is quite 
 rotten ; and its tender and fragile state is to be ac- 
 counted for, not only from its great antiquity and its 
 exposure to moisture, but from the circumstance, that 
 much of it was old and worn, when first applied to 
 the purpose of swathing dead bodies. Nevertheless 
 pieces are found of great strength and durability. 
 
 Hans Jac. Amman, who visited the catacombs of 
 Sakara in 1613, found the bandages so strong, that 
 he was obliged to cut them with scissarsf. Professor 
 G reaves J and Lord Sandwich found them as firm as 
 if they were just taken from the loom. Abdollatiph, 
 who visited Egypt A.D. 1200, mentions that the 
 Arabs employed the mummy cloth to make garments §. 
 Much more recently the same practice has been at- 
 tested as coming under his observation by Seetzen||. 
 Caillaud discovered in the mummy, which he opened, 
 several napkins in such a state of preservation, that 
 he took a fancy to use one. He had it washed eight 
 
 * De Somniis, vol. i. p. 653. Mangey. 
 t Blumenbachs Beitriige, Th. 2. p. 74. 
 X Pyramidographia, as quoted above, § 67. p. 256. 
 § P. 221 of the German translation ; p. 198 of Silvestre de Sacy's. 
 II See his letter to Von Hammer in the Fundgruben des Orients, 
 I St. p. 72. as quoted by Blumenbach, 1. c. 
 
272 § 70. ARGUMENTS TO PROVE 
 
 times without any perceptible injury. " With a sort 
 of veneration," says he, " I unfolded every day this 
 venerable linen, which had been woven more than 
 1700 years." (Voyage a Meroe et au Fleuve Blanc.) 
 
 IX. According to Josephus the Jewish priests wore 
 drawers of spun flax (e/c (ivaaov /cAwtrriyc), and over the 
 drawers a shirt, which he describes as Xlveov ev^v/^ia 
 StTrXrjc aii'Sovoc j3v<Ta'ivric. Here he calls a garment 
 made of Budaoq a linen garment. It had flowers woven 
 into it, which were of three different substances, 
 ■7rofj(f)vf)a, (jio'ivi^, waK(V0oc*. He soou after mentions 
 the same materials as used for making the curtains of 
 of the tabernacle, viz. Buo-o-oc, Tropcpvpa, (polvi^, vukIvOoc. 
 In all these instances the ornaments were of splendid 
 colours upon a ground of white linen. We have no 
 reason to believe, that either the Egyptians or the 
 Israelites in the time of Moses knew any thing of 
 cotton : so that, if Josephus gives a true account, 
 Buffffoc must have denoted a kind of flax. 
 
 X. Jerome on Ezekiel xxvii. says, " Byssus grows 
 principally in Egypt" {Byssus in jEgypto quam maxime 
 nascitur). Of the celebrity of the Egyptian flax we 
 have the most abundant proofs ; but, if by Byssus 
 Jerome meant cotton, he here committed a strange 
 mistake ; for, supposing cotton to have grown at all 
 in Egypt, it certainly grew far more abundantly in 
 other countries, and of this fact he could scarcely be 
 ignorant. 
 
 XL Martianus Capella in a passage, which I shall 
 
 * Ant. Jud. iii. 7. 1, 2. p. 112. ed. Hudson. I shall have occasion 
 to quote this passage more at length in Part V. 
 
 The shirt of the High Priest of the Jews was probably like that 
 worn in the worship of Isis, which was of Byssus, but adorned with 
 flowers, " Byssina, sed floride depicta." Apuleius, Met. 1. xi. 
 
THAT BY2S02; MEANT FLAX. 
 
 273 
 
 quote in treating of cotton, plainly distinguishes be- 
 tween that substance and Byssus. He seems to have 
 considered cotton as an Indian, Byssus as an Egyptian 
 product. He certainly supposed, that they were not 
 the same thing. 
 
 Xn. Isidorus Hispalensis expressly states, that 
 Byssus was a kind of flax, very white and soft. 
 
 Byssus genus est quoddam lini nimium candidi et moUissimi, quod 
 Grseci papatem vocant. — Orig. I. xix. 27. 
 
 Byssina (vestis) Candida, confecta ex quodam genere lini grossioris. 
 Sunt et qui genus quoddam lini byssum esse existiment. — Ibid. c. 22. 
 
 Forster conjectures (p. 4.) that for genus quoddam 
 lini we should read genus quoddam lance, and conceives 
 ^ree-wool, {epiov avro ^vXov, as Pollux and some others 
 call it,) i. e. cotton, to be intended. His conjecture 
 seems probable. The remark of Isidore intimates, 
 that in his time it had already been a matter of dis- 
 pute whether Byssus was a kind of flax or something 
 else. 
 
 XIII. Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, testifies the great 
 strength of the threads of Byssus. 
 
 Contexta bysso vestis irruptam fidem 
 
 Signat valenti stamine : 
 Nam fila byssi fortiora et sparteis 
 
 Feruntur esse funibus. 
 
 Ad Cytherium in Max. Bihlioth. Patrum. vol. vi. p. 264. 
 
 Cloth made of Byssus indicates firm faith : 
 
 For threads of Byssus, it is said, surpass 
 
 E'en ropes of broom in firmness and in strength. 
 
 Vossius also quotes the authority of Jerome and 
 Eucherius to prove the great tenacity of Byssus*. 
 
 * Etym. L. Lat. v. Byssus. Compare the preceding remarks on 
 Philo, No. viii. in this section. 
 
274 § 71. MEANING OF BY2S0S. REPLY 
 
 But, if Byssus were cotton, it certainly would not have 
 been celebrated on that account. 
 
 71. I proceed to consider the arguments of Dr. 
 J. R. Forster on the other side of the question. See 
 his Liber Singularis de Bysso Antiquorum-, Lon. \ 776, 
 p. 11. 50. 
 
 I. His first argument is as follows. Julius Pollux 
 says (Z. vii. c. 17.), that Bvacjoc, was "a kind of flax 
 among the Indians," AiVov n cISoq wap 'IcSoTc. The 
 Jewish rabbis indeed all explain the Hebrew ti^li^ 
 (Shesh) , which in the Septuagint is always translated 
 Bwffo-oc, as signifying ^aa:. But they use the term for 
 flax in so loose and general a way, that they may very 
 properly be supposed to have included cotton under 
 it. In the same general sense we must suppose \ivov 
 to be used by Julius Pollux ; and it is clear, that he 
 must have meant cotton in this passage, because cot- 
 ton grows abundantly in India, whereas flax was never 
 known to grow in India at all. 
 
 In proof of this last assertion Forster refers to Os- 
 beck's Journal, vol. i. p. 383. He also appeals to a 
 passage of Philostratus {Vita Apollonii, I. ii. c. 20. 
 p. 70, 71.), which I shall quote hereafter in treating 
 of cotton, where that author certainly applies the term 
 in question to the cotton of India. 
 
 An answer to this argument, so far as it depends 
 on the testimony of Julius Pollux, was furnished by 
 Olaus Celsius in his Hierobotanicon, published in 
 1747, a work which Forster had better have con- 
 sulted, when he was writing a treatise expressly in- 
 tended to ascertain the meaning of one of the botanical 
 terms employed in the Scriptures. The learned and 
 accurate Swede gives on good authority an emendation 
 of the text of Pollux, which entirely destroys the ar- 
 
TO THE ARGUMENTS OF J. R, FORSTER. 275 
 
 gument founded upon it by Forster and those who 
 agree with him. According to this reading Pollux 
 only asserts that Bvaaoc is a kind of flax, without 
 adding that it grew among the Indians*. In a sepa- 
 rate Appendix (E.) I propose, as in the case of Pliny, 
 to examine distinctly and fully the critical evidence 
 for the correct state of the passages of Pollux, which 
 I have occasion to cite. Pollux, in asserting that 
 Byssus was a kind of flax, coincides with all the 
 other witnesses who have been produced. 
 
 Forster is also exceedingly incorrect in his mode of 
 reasoning upon the passage of Pollux, supposing it 
 to be accurate and genuine. He argues, that Pollux 
 must have meant cotton by "a kind of flax among the 
 Indians," because real flax does not grow in India at 
 all : " In India vero linum non erat, nec quidem 
 nostra setate linum reperitur in India, quod jam Os- 
 beckius in Itinerario ostendit, p. 383. vol. i. edit. 
 Anglicae," The " English edition" of Osbeck's Voy- 
 age is a translation from the German by Forster him- 
 self. In the page referred to we find the following 
 passage relative to flax, and no other: — " Flax is so 
 rare a commodity in the East, that many have judged 
 with great probability that the fine linen of the rich 
 man, Luke xvi. 19, was no more than our common 
 linen." This sentence implies, that flax grew in the 
 East, though rarely. Whether it grew in India, Os- 
 beck does not inform us. I have however made in- 
 quiry on this point from my friend Dr. Wallich, than 
 whom no one was ever better qualified to give the in- 
 formation, and who assured me, that flax grows in 
 India, and that he remembered having seen in India 
 * Celsii Hierobot. vol. ii. p. 171. 
 T 2 
 
276 § 71. MEANING OF BY2S0S. REPLY 
 
 a whole field blue with its flowers. I beheve, it is 
 there cultivated for its seed, from which oil is ex- 
 pressed, the stalks being thrown aside as useless. 
 
 With respect to the passage from Philostratus, I 
 admit, that he uses Bvaaoc to denote cotton. Besides 
 its proper and original sense this word was occasion- 
 ally used, as Xlvov, oOovri, Sindon, Carbasus, and many 
 others were, in a looser and more general application. 
 But the use of the term in this manner by a single 
 writer, or even, if they could be produced, by several 
 writers of so late an age as Philostratus, would be of 
 little weight in opposition to the evidence, which I 
 have brought to prove, that Bvacroc properly meant 
 flax only. 
 
 II. Forster produces the following passage from the 
 Eliaca of Pausanias : H 'HXem X<l>pa to. re aXXa 
 €<TTiu ec KaftTTOvc Kai rrjv (5v(jaov ou^ riKiara eKrpk(^eiv 
 ayadr). Ttjv /.lev ^r] KavvajiiSa, Kai X'lvov, Kai tt/v ^vaaov 
 
 aTrelpovcjiv. He argues, that Bvanoc was not flax, be- 
 cause Pausanias here distinguishes it from flax as 
 well as from hemp*. 
 
 But we know, that all plants undergo great changes 
 by cultivation and in consequence of the varieties of 
 soil and climate. What can be more striking than 
 the innumerable tulips derived from the original yel- 
 low tulip of Turkey, or all the varieties of pinks and 
 carnations from a single species ? To make all the 
 descriptions of cloth from the coarsest canvass or 
 sail-cloth to the most beautiful lawn or cambric, there 
 must have been, as there now are, great differences in 
 the living plant. The best explanation therefore of 
 the language of Pausanias seems to be, that he used 
 
 * Paus. 1. vi. cap. 26. § 4, 
 
TO THE ARGUMENTS OF J. R. FORSTER. 
 
 277 
 
 X'lvov to denote the common kind of flax, and /3u(ro-oc 
 to signify a finer variety*. That it was superior in 
 quahty to the common flax is manifest from the use 
 of it by the women of Patrse, the greater part of whom 
 
 got their living, as he says, otto rrjc (ivacrov Ttjc ev ry 
 ''HXtSt (^vofievr)c' KeKpv(^a\ovc, re yap air auT^c Kai eaQ^ra 
 
 v(f)a'ivov(Ti Trjv aXXrjv. {Acha'ica, Cap. 21. 7.) The Ke- 
 Kjou^aXoc was an ornamental cap of net- work, for which 
 the finest materials would no doubt be employed. And 
 in a third passage, where he speaks of the Elean Bys- 
 sus, his language shows, that its peculiar excellence 
 consisted both in its fineness and in its beautiful yel- 
 low colour ; for after expressing the admiration, to 
 which this substance was entitled, as growing no 
 where else in Greece, he says, that " in fineness it 
 was not inferior to that of the Hebrews, but was not 
 equally yellowf." 
 
 It may further be remarked in opposition to the 
 idea, that Bv<t<tog meant cotton in these passages, that 
 there is not the slightest ground for supposing, that 
 cotton was cultivated either in Elis or in any other 
 
 * Pausanias also distinguishes between \ivov and (ivr^aos in his 
 account of the clothing of a reputed statue of Neptune, 1. vi. c. 25. 
 § 5. When flax is raised to be manufactured into cambric and fine 
 lawn, twice as much seed is sown in the same space of ground. The 
 plants then grow closer together ; the stalks are more delicate and 
 slender ; and the fibres of each plant are finer in proportion. 
 
 i" 'H jivaaos f) ev rrj 'HXe/g Xexrorrjros fiev eyeKa, ovk ciTroSet 
 rrjs '^fipatojy, ecTi Se ovK ojuotws ^avdt]. — L. V. 5. § 2. 
 
 Others commend Byssus on account of its whiteness. See above, 
 p. 271. Philo. Apoc. xix. 14. Themistius (Orat. iv. p. 57. ed. Paris, 
 1684. p. 68. ed. Dindorfii, Lips. 1832.) saw at Antioch "ancient 
 letters wrapt in white Byssus {ypdixfiaTa dpj(aia /3u(7<7w \evidj kvei- 
 Xiyfiifa)." These, he says, were brought from Susa and Ecba- 
 tana. 
 
278 § 71. MEANING OF BYSSOS. REPLY 
 
 part of Europe so early as the time of Pausanias, nor 
 indeed until a comparatively recent age. 
 
 III. Forster {p. 69 — 71.) considers the testimony 
 of Herodotus, that the embalmed bodies of the dead 
 were wrapt in fillets of Byssus, as decisive in favour 
 of his opinion, because those fillets are found on ex- 
 amination to be all cotton. In answer I refer to the 
 preceding observations {see above, §67. p. 261-263.) 
 proving, that so far as they have been examined in the 
 only way, which can settle the dispute, they are found 
 universally to be linen. 
 
 Of Forster's celebrated work I would observe in 
 general, that he rather from the very beginning as- 
 sumes his point, than endeavours to prove it. He 
 continually speaks of it as demonstrated. Neverthe- 
 less the only arguments, which I can find in his book, 
 are those already stated. Little as these arguments 
 amount to in opposition to the evidence, which I have 
 brought on the other side of the question, we find 
 that the most learned authors since Forster's time, 
 and especially since the same opinion was embraced 
 by Blumenbach, have generally been content to adopt 
 it. But, although I find such eminent names as those 
 of Porson^, Dr. Thomas Youngf, Mr. Hamilton J, 
 Dr. T. M. Harris^, Mr. Wellbeloved||, E. H. Barker!, 
 Dr. A. Granville**, Jomardff, Wehrsjj, J.H.Voss§§, 
 
 * In his translation of the Rosetta Inscription, Clarke's Greek 
 Marbles, p. 63. 
 
 t Account of Discoveries in Hieroglyphic Literature, p. 101 . 1 14. 
 X -^gyptiaca, p. 321. 
 
 § Natural History of the Bible, 2nd edition, p. 447. 
 II Translation of the Bible, Gen. xli. 42. 
 
 ! Classical Recreations. As quoted above, § 67. p. 260. 
 
 ft Description des Hypog^es, p. 35. XX Vom Papier, p. 201. 
 §§ Virgils Liindliche Gedichte, iii. p. 313. 
 
TO THE ARGUMENTS OF J. R. FORSTER. 279 
 
 Heeren*, Sprengelf, BillerbeckJ, Gesenius§, E. F. K. 
 Rosenmullerll, and Roselinit, arrayed against me, in- 
 stead of being overwhelmed by a host of authorities, 
 I consider them as going all for nothing, because they 
 express not their own opinion formed by independent 
 inquiry and investigation, but merely the opinion which 
 they have adopted from Forster and Blumenbach**. 
 
 I see however no reason to doubt, that Forster is 
 right in considering Bvaaoc, or Byssus, as an Egyp- 
 tian word with a Greek or Latin termination. In the 
 Septuagint version it is always used as equivalent to 
 the Hebrew Ji^jy {Shesh or Ses), which according to 
 the Hebrew Rabbis was a kind of flax, that grew in 
 
 * Ideen iiber die Politlk, &c. 
 
 t Historia Rei Herbarise, torn, i, c. i. p. 15. 
 
 t Flora Classica, p. 177. 
 
 § Thesaurus Philologico-Criticus, v. VIH. 
 
 II Biblische Alterthumskunde, 4. 1. p. 175. 
 
 % Monumenti dell' Egitto. Mon. Civili, tomo i. Pisa, 1834, 
 capo iv. § 6. 
 
 ** I have not inserted the name of Larcher in the list, because, 
 although he supposed Byssus to be cotton, although the arguments 
 by which he defends this opinion are exactly the same with those of 
 Forster, and although he published them ten years after Forster, he 
 says, that he had written them several years before the publication 
 of Forster's treatise. See his Histoire d'Herodote, 1. ii. § 85. torn. ii. 
 p. 359. 
 
 Goguet, considerably before either Larcher or Forster, advanced 
 the same opinion, supporting it, as they did, by the above-cited pas- 
 sages of Pollux and Philostratus. Origine des Lois, &c. vol. i. 
 livre ii. 16. 2. On the other hand, an Italian writer, Adamo Fa- 
 broni, who pubhshed in 1782 a small treatise Del Bombice e del 
 Bysso degli Antichi, after bestowing high commendation on Forster's 
 ingenuity and learning, nevertheless dissents from his conclusion, 
 and endeavours to show, that the Byssus of the ancients was a kind 
 of silk. Mr. David Macpherson (Annals of Commerce, vol. i. p. 1 76.) 
 adheres to the old opinion, that Byssus was " a very fine kind of 
 flax." 
 
280 ^ 71. HEBREW AND EGYPTIAN TERMS. 
 
 Egypt only, and was of the finest quality*. Another 
 term, used in the Pentateuch for linen cloth is 11 {bad) , 
 which seems to be nearly the same as 'd^ti^. The Egyp- 
 tian term VI or Vll (buts) is very seldom found in the 
 Hebrew scriptures, and not until the intercourse be- 
 came frequent between the Jews and other oriental 
 nations. But it is continually employed by the Arabic, 
 Persic, and Chaldee translators, as equivalent to the 
 Hebrew j:^£i> and in. 
 
 The distinction between Bvaaoc and the Egyptian 
 terms formerly explained is very obvious. <1><1)(tu)v, 
 'OOovti, and liv^djv denoted linen cloth ; Bva(Toc the 
 plant, from which it was made. Hence we so com- 
 monly find the adjective form Boffcriroc or Byssinus, i. e. 
 
 made of BySSUS, as in Sti/^wi^ (ivaaivri, 'OOovrj (ivaaivri, 
 
 'Odovia ftvaaiva, SroArj jSufffftv/?, &c.t, and this is agree- 
 able to the remark of the Patriarch Photius in his 
 192nd Epistle, ^vrov 2e v jSvaaoc, " Byssus is a 
 plant." 
 
 72. Herodotus (ii. 105.), pointing out resemblances 
 between the Egyptians and the Colchians, says, they 
 prepare their flax in the same manner, and in a man- 
 ner which is practised by no other nation. Xenophon 
 directs, that nets should be made of flax from the Pha- 
 sis, or from Carthage J. Pollux (/. v. cap. 4. § 26.) 
 says, that the flax for the same purpose should be 
 either from those countries, or from Egypt or Sardes. 
 
 * Forster De Bysso, p. 5. 
 
 t Examples may be seen in the passages above-quoted from Ter- 
 tuUian, § 44. p. 191. and from Herodotus and other authors in § 70. 
 
 + De Venat. ii. 4. Gratius Faliscus, in his directions on the 
 same subject, recommends the flax from the rich moist plains about 
 the river Cinyps, not very far from Carthage. 
 
 Optima Cinyphise, ne quid contere, paludes 
 Lina dabunt. — Cynegeticon, 34, 35. 
 
§72. FLAX IN NORTH AFRICA , COLCHIS, BABYLONIA. 281 
 
 Callimachus (Frag. 265.) mentions the flax of Colchis 
 under the name K6\^^lG KaXa/nr], " the Colchian halm." 
 Strabo (/. xi. § 17. vol. iv. p. 402. Tschuz.) testifies the 
 celebrity of Colchis for the growth and manufacture 
 of flax, and says, that the linen of this country was 
 exported to distant places. 
 
 It seems still to maintain its ancient pre-eminence : 
 Larcher refers to Chardin {torn. i. p. 115.), as saying, 
 that the Prince of Mingrelia, a part of the ancient 
 Colchis, paid in his time an annual tribute of linen to 
 the Turks. 
 
 That flax was extensively cultivated in Babylonia 
 appears from the testimony of Herodotus, who says 
 (i. 195.), that the Babylonians wore a linen shirt reach- 
 ing to the feet (/ci0wvi no^nveKel \iveio) ; over that a 
 woollen shirt {e'lp'iveov kiOmvo) ; and over that a white 
 shawl {yXav'iiioi^ . The last was no doubt woollen. 
 Strabo, where he gives the same account (/. xvi. cap. 1 . 
 § 20. p. 746. ed. Casaub.), designates the three articles 
 
 of dress as follows, Xitmv \ivorc iro^npnc, 'ETrevSurrjc 
 
 epeovQ, 'IfxuTiov XevKov ; and in the same Book (p. 739.) 
 he shows where these linen shirts were chiefly made ; 
 for he informs us that Borsippa, a city of Babylonia, 
 sacred to Apollo and Diana, was a great place for the 
 manufacture of linen {\ivovpye7ov neya). 
 
 The cultivation of flax in the region of the Euphrates 
 may also be inferred from the use of the linen thorax, 
 as attested by Xenophon (Cyropedia, vi. 4. 2.). 
 
 73. From Joshua ii. 6. we have evidence, that flax 
 was cultivated in Palestine near the Jordan. Rahab 
 concealed the two Hebrew spies (according to the 
 common English version) "with the stalks of flax, 
 which she had laid in order upon the roof." Ac- 
 cording to the Septuagint translation, "the stalks of 
 
282 § 73. FLAX CULTIVATED IN PALESTINE. 
 
 flax" (XivoKaXa/jivi) were not merely "laid in order," 
 
 but stacked {eaToi^aa^evn}). Josephus says, ayKoKiZac 
 exfjvj^e, she was drying the bundles. The Chaldee Para- 
 phrast Onkelos also uses the expression Nin3 'JIVD, 
 bundles of flax. Agreeably to these explanations, the 
 history must be understood as implying, that the stalks 
 of flax, tied into bundles, as represented in the paint- 
 ing at El Kab^, vvere stacked, probably cross-ways, 
 upon the flat roof of Rahab's house, so as to allow the 
 wind to blow through and dry them. 
 
 Other passages, referring to the use of flax for wea- 
 ving in Palestine, are Levit. xiii. 47, 48. 52. 59., where 
 linen garments are four times mentioned in opposition 
 to woollen. In the Septuagint ev t^an'w epew r) tV 
 ifiaTiix) aTviTTTv'ivu} (al. GrncTTvivu)) means "in a blanket 
 or in a sheet." Here, as usual, the word for flax in 
 the Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic, is {^jnD- 
 
 Proverbs xxxi. 13. The virtuous woman, so ad- 
 mirably described in this chapter, " seeketh wool and 
 flax, and worketh willingly with her hands." This 
 proves, that flax was still an important article of cul- 
 tivation in Palestine. 
 
 In 1 Chron. iv. 21. there is an allusion to a great 
 establishment for dressing the fine flax, called Butz, 
 or Byssus. It was conducted by certain families of 
 the tribe of Judahf. 
 
 Jeremiah (xiii. 1.) mentions DTlti'D "IITK, "« linen 
 girdle ;" Lumbare lineum, Vulgate ; irep'itioi.ia Xivovv 
 LXX. inDl lit Jonathan ; KJriD"! N"mD (sudarium) 
 8yriac. 
 
 * See Plate VI. p. 255. 
 
 t Hebr. miynO nnSJi^O, I. e. " the fammes, or 
 
 perhaps the partnerships, of the manufactory of Byssus;" Vulg. 
 " Cognationes domus operantium byssum." 
 
TERMS FOR FLAX AND TOW. 
 
 283 
 
 Hosea (ii. 5. 9.) mentions wool and flax as the two 
 chief articles of clothing for the Jews in his time. 
 
 Ezekiel (xliv. 17, 18.), in his description of the 
 temple which he saw in vision, says, the priests on 
 entering the inner court would put on linen garments, 
 including a turban and drawers of linen*. The use 
 of wool is here prohibited and linen prescribed for 
 those who were to be engaged in sacred services, on 
 account of its superior cleanliness and purity. They 
 were not to ' ' gird themselves with any thing that 
 causeth sweat." On returning to the outer court, so 
 as to be in contact with the people, they were to put 
 on the common dress, which was at least in part 
 woollen. 
 
 In the Old Testament we also find flax used for 
 making cords. Judges xv. xvi. ; for the wicks of 
 lamps. Is. xlii. 3. xliii. 17.; and for a measuring- 
 hne, Ezek. xl. S.f 
 
 According to Herodotus vii. 25, 34, 36, the Phce- 
 nicians furnished Xerxes with ropes of flax for con- 
 structing his bridge, while the Egyptians supplied 
 ropes of Papyrus, which were inferior to the others 
 in strength. 
 
 Whilst nti^Q, derived probably from Dt!^t3, to strip 
 or peel, is used for flax in every state, we find another 
 term, DIV^, used for tow. This term therefore cor- 
 responds to Stuppa in Latin | ; Etoupe in French; 
 
 * It is remarkable that the Chaldee Paraphrast Jonathan here 
 uses (byssus) for the Hebrew D*nti^£3. 
 
 t Tlie use of the cord of flax (Unea) for measuring, &c. is the ori- 
 gin of the word line. " Linea genere suo appellata, quia ex lino fit." 
 Isidori Hisp. Etymol. 1. xix. c. 18. De instrumentis sedificiorum. 
 
 I The origin of stuppa, the Latin term, was from its use in stop- 
 ping chinks (stopfer, German). It was either of hemp or flax. 
 
 " Stuppa cannabi est sive lini. Hjec secundum antiquam ortho- 
 
284 § 73, 74. cultivation of flax 
 
 Stuttjj, (TTWTTTTr;, arvinrlov or (TTiTTTrlov in Greek; ^?^p^D, 
 
 from piD, to comb, in Syriac ; Werg in modern Ger- 
 man. 
 
 Eccles. xl. 4. represents poor persons as clothed in 
 coarse linen, wfioX'ivov (Lino crudo, Jerome), meaning 
 probably flax dressed and spun without having been 
 steeped*. 
 
 In Rev. XV. 6. the seven angels come out of the 
 temple clothed "in pure and white linen," AtVoi- ku- 
 Oapnv Kai Xa/uirpov. This is to be explained by what has 
 been already said of the use of linen for the temple 
 service among the Egyptians and the Jews. On three 
 other occasions mentioned in the New Testament, 
 viz. the case of the young man, who had " a linen 
 cloth cast about his naked body" (Markxiv. 51, 52.) ; 
 the entombment of Christ {Matt, xxvii. 59. Mark xv. 
 46. Jjuke xxiii. 53. xxiv. 12. John xix. 40. xx. 5, 
 6, 7.) ; and the case of the " sheet" let down in vi- 
 sion from heaven {Acts x. 11. xi. 5.) , the sacred writers 
 employ the equivalent Egyptian terms, 'Eivdwv, and 
 '0001'?) or 'OQoviov. 
 
 The " Byssus of the Hebrews," mentioned by Pau- 
 sanias {see above, § 71. p. 277.), may have been so 
 called, because it was imported into Greece by the 
 Hebrews, not because it grew in Palestine, as many 
 critics have concluded. 
 
 74. Herodotus (l. c.) observes, that the Greeks 
 called the Colchian flax ^updoviKof. The epithet must 
 be understood as referring to Sardes, from the vicinity 
 
 graphlam stuppa {stipa}) dicitur, quod ex ea rima?, navium stipentur : 
 unde et stipatores dicuntur, qui ia vallibus earn componunt." Isid. 
 Hisp. Orig. xix. 27. 
 
 * See Bodseus a Stapel on Theophras.ti Hist. Plant. 1. viii. 
 p. 944. 
 
IN PALESTINE AND ASIA MINOR. 
 
 285 
 
 of which city flax was obtained according to the 
 testimony of Julius Pollux {I. c). In another pas- 
 sage Herodotus remarks (v. 87.), that the linen shift 
 (AiVeoc kiOmv) worn by the Athenian women, was ori- 
 ginally Carian. The Milesian Sindones, mentioned 
 by Jonathan, the Chaldee Paraphrast, on Lam. ii. 20, 
 ^^^b^"2■T D'jn^D, were, I apprehend, made of the flax . 
 of this country, although Forster {De Bysso, p. 92.), 
 on account of the celebrity of the Milesian wool, sup- 
 poses them to have been w^oollen. It is probable, that 
 the Milesian net caps {KeKpvcpaXoi), worn by ladies, 
 were made of linen thread*. 
 
 Jerome, describing the change from an austere to a 
 luxurious mode of life, mentions shirts (indumenta) 
 from Laodiceaf. Some commentators have supposed 
 linen shirts to be meant. 
 
 According to Julius Pollux (vii. c. 16.) the Athe- 
 nians and lonians wore a linen shirt reaching to the 
 feet (Xivovc \iTU)v TTo^nptic) . But the use of it among 
 the Athenians must have come in much later than 
 among the lonians, who would adopt the practice in 
 consequence of the cultivation of flax in their own 
 country as well as in their colonies on the Euxine Sea, 
 and also in consequence of the general elegance and 
 refinement of their manners. Indeed it appears pro- 
 bable, that the linen used by the Athenians was im- 
 ported. 
 
 * See Pausanias, as above quoted, § 71. p. 277. 
 
 t See the passage above- quoted, § 51. p. 221. The wool of Lao- 
 dicea was also famous (see above, § 13. p. 34.) ; nevertheless the 
 terms lineis and indumenta, taken in connection with the proofs here 
 cited of the celebrity of the Carian flax, and with the nature of the 
 argument, make it not improbable that Jerome intended to speak of 
 linen. I must soon refer to this passage once more in reference to 
 the Atrebates. 
 
28G $ 74, 75. cultivation of flax in elis, 
 
 The only part of Greece, where flax is recorded to 
 have been grown, was Elis. That it was produced in 
 that country is affirmed by Pliny (/. xix. c. 4,), and 
 by Pausanias in three passages already quoted ( § 71. 
 p. 276, 277.). 
 
 When Colonel Leake was at Gastuni near the mouth 
 of the Peneus in Elis, he made the following observa- 
 tions. 
 
 For flax (one of the chief things produced there) the land is once 
 ploughed in the spring, and two or three times in the ensuing au- 
 tumn, with a pair of oxen, when the seed is thrown in and covered 
 with the plough. The plant does not require and hardly admits of 
 weeding, as it grows very thick. When ripe, it is pulled up by the 
 roots, and laid in bundles in the sun. It is then thrashed to separate 
 the seed. The bundles are laid in the river for five days, then dried 
 in the sun, and pressed in a wooden machine. Contrary to its an- 
 cient reputation, the flax of Gastuni is not very fine. It is chiefly 
 used in the neighbouring islands by the peasants, who weave it into 
 cloths for their own use*. 
 
 75. In one of the Pseudo-Platonic Epistles {No. xiii. 
 p. 363.) mention occurs of linen shifts for ladies, made 
 
 in Sicily, yjn^via eTTTaviiyr) tmv ^iKeXiKtHv twv At- 
 
 vwv. I shall quote the passage in treating of the 
 -^iTwv afxopyLvoc, {Book ii. Chapter 3. § 85.). But the 
 expression here used certainly implies nothing more 
 than that linen was woven in Sicily. The material for 
 making it may have been imported. In like manner 
 the linen of Malta was exceedingly admired for its 
 fineness and softness f; but the raw material was in 
 all probability imported. 
 
 "Flax," observes Professor Mtiller, "was grown 
 and manufactured in Southern Etruria from ancient 
 times, and thus the Tarquinii were enabled to furnish 
 
 * Journal of a Tour in the Morea, vol. i. p. 12. 
 t Diod. Sic. I. v. 12. torn. i. p. 339. ed. Wesseling. 
 
ETRURIA, CISALPINE GAUL, CAMPANIA, SPAIN. 287 
 
 sail-cloth for the fleet of Scipio : yarn for making nets 
 was produced on tlie banks of the Tiber, and fine 
 linen for clothing in Falerii*." I may add, that this 
 account agrees remarkably with the views of Micali, 
 and those historians who maintain the Egyptian ori- 
 gin of the Etrurians. 
 
 Pliny (xix. 1,2.) mentions various kinds of flax of 
 superior excellence, which were produced in the plains 
 of the Po and Ticino ; in the country of the Peligni (in 
 Picenum) ; and about Cumte in Campaniaf. No flax, 
 he says, was whiter or more like wool than that of 
 the Peligni. 
 
 In the next chapter Pliny gives an account of the 
 mode of preparing flax ; plucking it up by the roots, 
 tying it into bundles, drying it in the sun, steeping, 
 drying again, beating it with a mallet on a stone, and 
 lastly hackling it, or, as he says, " combing it with 
 iron hooks." This may be compared with the pre- 
 ceding extract from Colonel Leake's Journal, and with 
 chapter 97 of Bartholomseus Anghcus, De Proprieta- 
 tibus Rerum, which is perhaps partly copied from 
 Pliny and treats of the manufacture of flax, steeping 
 it in water, &c., and of its use for clothes, nets, sails, 
 thread, and curtains. 
 
 In Spain there was a manufacture of linen at Em- 
 porium, which lay on the Mediterranean not far from 
 the Pyrenees J. According to Pliny (/. c), remarkably 
 beautiful flax was produced in Hispania Citerior near 
 Tarraco. He ascribes its splendour to the virtues of 
 the river-water flowing near Tarraco, in which the 
 
 * Etrusker. vol. i. p. 235, 236. 
 
 t Probably Cumae is intended by Gratius Faliscus in the expres- 
 sion " ^oliae de valle Sibyllae." — Cyneg. 35. 
 
 X Strabo, 1. iii. cap. 4. vol. i. p. 428. ed. Siebenkees. 
 
288 § 76. FLAX OF GAUL, GERMANY, OF THE ATREBATES, 
 
 flax was steeped and prepared. Still further south- 
 ward on the same coast we find Setabis, the modern 
 Xativa, which is celebrated by various authors for the 
 beauty of its linen, and especially for linen sudaria, or 
 handkerchiefs*. Pliny also mentions a kind of flax, 
 called Zoelicum, from a place in Gallicia. 
 
 76. Flax, as we are told by Pliny (xix. 1.), was 
 woven into sail-cloth in all parts of Gaul ; and, in 
 some of the countries beyond the Rhine, the most 
 beautiful apparel of the ladies was linen. Tacitus 
 states that the women of Germany wore linen sheets 
 over their other clothing f. 
 
 Jerome mentions the shirts (indumenta) of the Atre- 
 bates as one of the luxuries of his day, and his notice 
 of them seems to show, that they were conveyed as an 
 article of merchandize even into A'siaj. 
 
 Whether the manufactures of the Atrebates were 
 equal to the modern Cambric we cannot say ; but, 
 supposing the garments in question to have been linen, 
 
 * Setabis et telas Arabum sprevisse superba 
 
 Et Pelusiaco filum componere lino. 
 
 Silius Ital. iii. 373. 
 Nam sudaria Setaba ex Hiberis 
 Miserunt milii muneri Fabullus 
 • Et Veranius. — Catullus, xx. 14. 
 
 Hispanseque alio spectantur Setabis usu. 
 
 Gratius Faliscus, 1. 41. 
 
 Also Pliny, 1. c. 
 
 f Foeminse saepius lineis amictibus velantur. — Germania, xvii. 5. 
 
 The use of the same term for Flax in so many European lan- 
 guages, and especially in those of the North of Europe, is an evidence 
 of the extensive use of this substance in very early times ; e.g. Greek, 
 A.ivov Latin, Linum ; Slavonian, Len ; Lithuanian, Linnai ; Let- 
 tish, Linni; German, Lein; French, Suio-Gothic, and Anglo-Saxon, 
 Lin ; Welch, Llin. 
 
 + See above, § 51. p. 221. and § 74. p. 285. 
 
AND OF THE FRANKS, 
 
 289 
 
 it is remarkable that this manufacture should have 
 flourished in Artois for 1800 years*. 
 
 The following passage from Eginhart's Life of Char- 
 lemagne (c. 23.) shows, that during several succeeding 
 centuries the Franks wore linen for their under gar- 
 ments. 
 
 Vestitu patrio, hoc est Francisco utebatur : ad corpus camiseam 
 lineam, et feminalibus lineis induebatur : deinde tunicam, quae limbo 
 
 serico ambiebatur, et tibialia Sago Veneto amic- 
 
 tus. In festivitatibus veste auro texta, et calceamentis gemmatis, et 
 fibula aurea sagum astringente, diademate quoque ex auro et gem- 
 mis ornatus incedebat. Aliis autem diebus habitus ejus parum a 
 communi et plebeio abhorrebat. 
 
 Charles drest after the manner of his countrymen, the Franks. 
 Next to the skin he wore a shirt and drawers of linen : over these 
 a tunic bordered with silk, and breeches. His outer garment was 
 the sagum, manufactured by the Veneti. On occasion of festivals he 
 wore a garment interwoven with gold, shoes adorned with gems, a 
 golden fibula to fasten his sagum, and a diadem of gold and gems. 
 On other days his dress differed little from that of the common 
 people f. 
 
 The Veneti here mentioned were, I presume, the 
 people who lived in the country near Vannes in Bri- 
 tany. We have formerly seen (§ 24.), that the Sagum 
 was the principal article of dress manufactured in the 
 north of Gaul. 
 
 According to Paulus Diaconus, as quoted in the 
 
 * Erasmus makes the following remarks on the words " Atreba- 
 tum et Laodicese" : 
 
 " Apparet ex his regionibus candidissima ac subtilissima hnea mitti 
 solere. Nunc hujus laudis principatus, si tamen ea laus, jjenes meos 
 HoUandos est. Quanquam et Atrebates in Belgis hand ita procul a 
 nobis absunt." 
 
 See also Mannert, Geogr. 2. 1. p. 196. 
 
 t See above, p. 239, 240. 
 
 U 
 
290 § 77. PROGRESSIVE USE OF LINEN 
 
 notes on this passage of Eginhart'"', the Lombards 
 and the Anglo-Saxons used principally linen gar- 
 ments. 
 
 77. Linen, which appears to have been originally 
 characteristic of the Egyptian and Germanic nations, 
 came by degrees into more and more general use 
 among the Greeks and Romans, and was employed 
 not only for articles of dress, especially those worn 
 by women, and for sheets to lie upon, but also for 
 table-covers and for napkins to wipe the hands, an 
 application of them which was the more necessary on 
 account of the want of knives, forks, and spoons. 
 Also those, who waited at table, were girt with towels 
 {linteis). At the baths persons used towels {lintea) to 
 dry themselves. A man wore a similar piece of cloth 
 under the hands of the tonsor. Plutarch (On Garrulity) 
 tells the following anecdote of Archelaus. When a 
 loquacious hair-dresser was throwing the wixoXivov 
 about him in order to shear him, he asked as usual, 
 "How shall I cut your Majesty's hair?" "In si- 
 lence," repUed the king. Alciphron tells of the bar- 
 ber putting on him a linen cloth (dti'Swi') in order to 
 shave him (/. iii. Ep. 66.) ; and Phaneas, in an Epi- 
 gram, calls the cloth used in shaving by the same 
 name, ^wliov. Diogenes Laertius also (vi. 90.) tells a 
 story respecting the philosopher Crates, which shows 
 that at Athens it was not deemed proper for a man to 
 wear linen as an outer garment, but that persons were 
 enveloped in it under the hands of the hair-dresser. 
 " The Athenian police-officers (ot aGTvvofxoi) having 
 charged him with wearing a linen sheet for his outer 
 garment (on aiv^ova r)n(pieaTo), he said, ' I will show 
 
 * Ed. Schmincke, Trajecti 1711, p. 110. 
 
AMONG THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. 
 
 291 
 
 you Theophrastus himself habited in that manner' 
 i^e^Xrinkvov) ; and, when they doubted the 
 fact, he took them to see Theophrastus at the hair- 
 dresser's." 
 
 Coarser linen was used in great quantity both for 
 sails, and for awnings to keep off the heat of the sun 
 from the Roman theatres, the Forum, and other places 
 of public resort. 
 
 The Emperor Alexander Severus, as we learn from 
 the following passage of his Life written by ^lius 
 Lampridius, was a great admirer of good linen, and 
 preferred that which was plain to such as had flowers 
 or feathers interwoven as practised in Egypt and the 
 neighbouring countries. 
 
 Boni linteaminis appetitor fuit, et quidem puri, dicens, ' Si lintei 
 idcirco sunt, ut nihil asperum habeant, quid opus est purpura ? ' In 
 linea autem aurum mitti, etiam dementiam judicabat, quum asperi- 
 tati adderetur rigor. 
 
 He took great delight in good linen, and preferred it plain. " If," 
 said he, " linen cloths are made of that material in order that they 
 may not be at all rough, why mix purple with them But to in- 
 terweave gold in linen, he considered madness, because this made it 
 rigid in addition to its roughness. 
 
 The following passage of the Life of the Emperor 
 Carinus by Flavins Vopiscus is remarkable as proving 
 the value attached by the Romans of that age to the 
 linen imported from Egypt and Phoenice, especially 
 to the transparent and flowered varieties. 
 
 Jam quid lineas petitas ^gypto loquar? Quid Tyro et Sidone 
 tenuitate perlucidas, micantes purpura, plumandi difficultate pemo- 
 bQes .'' 
 
 Why should I mention the linen cloths brought from Egjrpt, or 
 those imported from Tyre and Sidon, which are so thin as to be trans- 
 parent, which glow with purple, or are prized on account of their 
 laboured embroidery 
 
 u 2 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 78. The use of Hemp among the ancients was very 
 limited. It is never mentioned in the Scriptures, 
 and not often by the heathen writers of antiquity. It 
 is remarkable, that no notice is taken of it by Theo- 
 phrastus. It was however used among the Greeks 
 and Romans for making ropes and nets, but not for 
 sacks, these being made of goats-hair*. 
 
 The only reason for introducing hemp in this enu- 
 meration is, that, according to Herodotus (iv. 74.) 
 garments were made of it by the Thracians. " They 
 were so like linen," says he, " that none but a very 
 experienced person could tell whether they were of 
 hemp or flax ; one, who had never seen hemp, would 
 certainly suppose them to be linen." The coarser 
 kinds of linen would, it is certain, be scarcely, if at 
 all distinguishable from the finer kinds of hempen 
 cloth. 
 
 Hesychius {v. Kai/m/Btc) quotes the preceding re- 
 mark of Herodotus, only saying that the Thracian 
 women (Qprl'iaaai) made sheets of hemp (t^taTta). In 
 substituting these expressions he puts upon the words 
 of Herodotus an explanation derived from his familiar 
 knowledge of Grecian customs. To the present day 
 hemp is produced abundantly in the vicinity of the 
 countries which were occupied by the ancient Thra- 
 €ians. A traveller, who has lately visited them, in- 
 
 * See above. Book I. Chapter II. § 32. 
 
§ 78. CULTIVATION AND USES OF HEMP, 293 
 
 forms us, that " the men who drive the horses, which 
 drag the boats upon the Danube between Pest and 
 Vienna, now wear coarse tunics of hemp*." 
 
 Ammianus MarceUinus (xxxi. 2. p. 474.), speaking 
 of the Huns, who lived beyond the Palus Mseotis, 
 says, 
 
 Indumentis operiuntur linteis, vel ex pellibus silvestrium murium 
 consarcinatis. 
 
 They cover themselves with tunics made of linen, or of the skins 
 of wild mice sewed together. 
 
 These " indumenta," or tunics, though called " lin- 
 tea," may have been the hempen garments, which, 
 according to Herodotus, were scarce to be distin- 
 guished from linen. 
 
 The next writer, who mentions hemp after Hero- 
 dotus, is Moschion, rather more than 200 years B.C. 
 He statesf, that the magnificent ship Syracusia, built 
 by the command of Hiero H., was provided with hemp 
 from the Rhone for making ropes. The common ma- 
 terials for such purposes were the Egyptian Papyrus, 
 the bark of the Lime-tree, of the Hemp-leaved Mallow, 
 and of the Spanish and Portugal Broom, and probably 
 also the Stipa Tenacissima of Linnseus. 
 
 Hemp, as well as flax, was grown abundantly in 
 Colchis J. It was brought to the ports of the ^gean 
 Sea by the Ionian merchants, who were intimately 
 connected with the northern and eastern coasts of the 
 Euxine through the medium of the Milesian colonies. 
 
 * Travels in Circassia, &c., by Edmund Spencer, 1837, vol. i. 
 p. 13. 
 
 t Apud Athenaeum, l.v. p. 206. Casaub. This passage will be 
 quoted in Chapter IV. of this Book, § 89. 
 
 X Strabo, 1. xi. § 17. vol. iv. p. 402. ed. Siebenkees. 
 
294 
 
 § 78. CULTIVATION, USES, 
 
 This fact may account for the cultivation of hemp in 
 Caria. The best was obtained in the time of Pliny 
 (Z. xix. c. 9.) from Alabanda and Mylasa in that coun- 
 try. Pliny also mentions a kind, which grew in the 
 country of the Sabines, and which was remarkable for 
 its height. 
 
 Automedon, who lived a little before Pliny, com- 
 plains in an Epigram of a bad dinner given him by 
 one of his acquaintances, and compares the tall stringy 
 cabbages to hemp*. As this author was a native of 
 Cyzicus, he would probably have abundant opportu- 
 nities of becoming familiar with the plant. 
 
 In the time of Pausanias hemp was grown in EHs. 
 See his Eliaca, c. 26. § 4. 
 
 Dioscorides (Z. iii. c. 141.) gives an account of hemp, 
 in which he distinguishes between the cultivated and 
 the wild. By Wild Hemp he means the Alth<ea Can- 
 nabina, Linn.f He observes respecting the Culti- 
 vated Hemp, by which he meant proper hemp, the 
 Cannabis Sativa, Lhin., that it was " of great use for 
 twisting the strongest ropes." 
 
 On the whole we may conclude, that hemp was not 
 the natural growth either of Italy, Greece, or Asia 
 Minor, but was confined, as it still is in a great de- 
 gree, to countries lying further north and having a 
 more rigid climate. The intimate connexion of the 
 Romans with the Greek colony of Marseilles may 
 have brought it among the Sabines, as the active 
 trade between the Euxine and Miletus may have in- 
 troduced it into Caria. With the material its name 
 was also imported, and this is substantially the same 
 
 * KavrafDh'T] t:pdp.ftr]. Brunck's Analecta, ii. 209. 
 t See the next Chapter, p. 300, 301. 
 
AND ETYMOLOGY OF HEMP, 
 
 295 
 
 in all the languages of Europe, as well as in many 
 Asiatic tongues*". 
 
 * Sanscrit, Goni, Sana, or Shanapu ; Persic, Canna ; Arabic, 
 Kanneh, or KiNNUB ; Greek, Kannabis ; Latin, Cannabis ; Ita- 
 lian, Canapa ; French, Chanvre, or Chanbhe ; Danish and Fla- 
 mand, Kamp, or Kennep ; Lettish and Lithuanian, Kannapes ; Sla- 
 vonian, KoNOPi ; Erse, Canaib ; Scandinavian, Hampr ; Swedish, 
 Hampa; German, Hanf ; Anglo-Saxon, Haenep ; English, Hemp. 
 Our English word Canvass (French, Canevas,) has the same origin, 
 meaning cloth made of hemp (Canav). 
 
 Hemp is comparatively rare in India, as well as flax : and, as flax 
 is there only used for obtaining oil (see above, § 71. p. 276.). so 
 hemp is never used for making cordage or for weaving, but only for 
 smoking on account of the narcotic qualities of its leaves. (VVissett 
 on Hemp, p. 20, 25.) Its name Sana, Sunu, or Gonu, is given also 
 to the Crotalaria Juncea, which is principally applied by the Indians 
 to the same uses as hemp in Europe. See Chapter IV. of this 
 Book, § 88. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Mallows. 
 
 79. We find in ancient authors distinct mention of 
 three species of malvaceous plants, which are still 
 common in the South of Europe. These are, the 
 Common Mallow, Malva Silvestris, Linn. ; the Marsh 
 Mallow, Altlma Officinalis, Linn. ; and the Hemp- 
 leaved Mallow, Althaa Cannahina, Linn. 
 
 a. The Common Mallow is called by the Latin 
 writers Ma/t;a, by the Greek MaXa^r/, or MoXo^v. It 
 is of some importance to observe, that the latter of 
 these two forms, MoXo'^^^j/, is quite as common as the 
 former, MaXa')(»)*. 
 
 This plant was used for food from the earliest times. 
 Hesiod represents living on mallows and asphodel as 
 the sign of moderation, contentment, and simplicity of 
 manners. 
 
 N//7rtO£, oho "laaaiv otrw -KXeov i'jixiav "kuvtos, 
 OuS' ocfov kv yLukayji re koX aa^oSe\<^ fxey' oveiap. 
 
 Op. et Dies, 41. 
 
 Fools ! not to know how much more the half is than the whole, 
 and how much benefit there is in mallows and asphodel. 
 
 A dish of these vegetables was probably the cheapest 
 of all kinds of food ; they grew wild in the meadow 
 and by the way-side, and were gathered and dressed 
 without any labour or trouble. 
 
 * See Athenaeus, 1. ii. p. 58. Casaub. Hesychius, ed. Alberti, 
 V. MnXa'x»?. H. Stephani Thesaurus, L. Gr. ed. Valpy, p. 245, note. 
 Moeris, Lect. Att. v. MuXaxn- Eustathius in Od. a. p. 1406. Du 
 Fresne, Glossar. Inf, Greecitatis. 
 
§79. CULTIVATION AND USE OF THE MALLOW. 297 
 
 Various authors however mention the cultivation of 
 Ihe Common Mallow in gardens. See Virgil, More- 
 turn, 73. Pliny, Hist. Nat. 1. xix. c. 22 and 31. Isi- 
 dori Orig. 1. xvii. c. 10. Papise Vocabular. v. Malva. 
 Geoponica, xii. 1. Palladius, iii. 24. xi. 11. 
 
 Dioscorides (/. ii. c. 111.) calls it MaXo)(j? KtinevTri, 
 the Garden Mallow, and he says the Romans called it 
 
 MaA/3a opT€V(yic. 
 
 Aristophanes (Plutus 544.) mentions eating the 
 shoots of mallows instead of bread, intending by this 
 to represent a vile and destitute kind of living. Plu- 
 tarch {Septem Sapientum Convivium) says, 'AyaOr) /mev 
 y\ fiaXa-^tf fipwOtjvai, y\vKvc o avdepiKoc, " The mal- 
 
 low is good for food, and the Anthericus is sweet." 
 According to Le Clerc o avdepiKoc {Anthericus) means 
 the scapus of the asphodel : if he is right, this plant 
 was eaten as we now eat asparagus. It is also re- 
 markable that on this supposition Plutarch mentions 
 the same two plants, which are also mentioned together 
 by Hesiod. 
 
 According to Theophrastus {Hist. Plant, vii. 7. 2.) 
 the mallow was not eaten raw, as in a salad, but re- 
 quired to be cooked. Cicero {Epist. ad Fam. vii. 26.) 
 mentions the highly-seasoned vegetables at a dinner 
 given by his friend Lentulus. Having been made ill 
 by them, he says, that he, " who easily abstained from 
 oysters and lampreys, had been deceived by beet and 
 mallows" {a beta et a malva). Probably the leaves of 
 the mallow were on this occasion boiled, chopped, 
 and seasoned, much in the same way as spinach is 
 now prepared on the continent. 
 
 Moschus in the following well-known lines refers to 
 the common mallow together with other culinary ve- 
 getables : 
 
298 
 
 § 79. CULTIVATION AND USE 
 
 Ai, at, rai fj.aXd^ai fxev, eTrdv tcard Kaicov oXwyrai, 
 'aSe rd ^(Xojpd aeXiva, ro r evdaXes ovXov dvrfdov, 
 "Yarepov av C^ovri, koX els eros dXXo (pvovri. 
 
 Mallows, alas ! die down, and parsley, and flourishing fennel ; 
 Then they spring up afresh, and hve next year in the garden. 
 
 This is accurately true of the common mallow, the 
 root of which is perennial, so that the stems grow up 
 and die down again every year. Accordingly Theo- 
 phrastus brings it as an example of a plant with annual 
 stems* ; for this appears to be the genuine reading, 
 eTTtyeto/cawAoc being Substituted by several critics on no 
 other ground than that of conjecture. If this were 
 the genuine reading, it wojild countenance Sprengel's 
 opinion, that MaXa')(^r} was sometimes used to denote 
 the Malva Rotundifolia, the stems of which trail upon 
 the ground. But I have not been able to discover, 
 that this species of mallow is ever mentioned by the 
 ancients. 
 
 Horace in two passages signifies his partiality to 
 mallows, calling them "leves," light to digest. 
 
 Me pascant olivse, 
 
 Me cichorea, levesque malvse. Od. /. i. 31. t;. 16. 
 Let olives be my food, endive, and mallows light. 
 Gravi 
 
 Malvse salubres corpori. Epod. 2. 57. 
 Mallows, salubrious to a frame o'er-fiU'd. 
 
 Martial recommends this vegetable on account of 
 its laxative effect : 
 
 Utere lactucis, et mollibus utere malvis. (iii. 47.) 
 
 Exoneraturas ventrem mihi villica malvas 
 
 Attulit, et varias, quas habet hortus, opes. (x. 48.) 
 
 * "E-rrereioKavXos, Hist. Plant. 1. vii. c. 8. p. 142, Heinsii. 240. 
 Schneider. 
 
OF THE COMMON AND MARSH MALLOW. 299 
 
 Diphilus of Siphnos {as quoted by Atliencsus, I. ii. 
 p. 58. E. Casaub.), after enumerating the medical vir- 
 tues of the Common Mallow, says, that "the wild 
 was better than the cultivated kind*." 
 
 Without quoting other classical authorities, I shall 
 now illustrate the ancient practice by the observations 
 of modern travellers, who mention that the Common 
 Mallow is still an article of consumption in the same 
 parts of the world. 
 
 Biddulph, who visited Syria about the year 1600, 
 says, he " saw near Aleppo many poor people gather- 
 ing mallows and three-leaved grass, and asked them 
 what they did with it, and they answered, that it was 
 all their food, and that they boiled it, and did eat it." 
 (Collection of Voyages and Travels from the Library of 
 the E. of Oxford, p. 807.) 
 
 Dr. Sib thorp states, that the Malva Silvestris grows 
 wild in Cyprus, and is called MoXw-^a. He also says, 
 "The wild mallow is very common about Athens: 
 the leaves are boiled and eaten as a pot-herb, and an 
 ingredient in the Dolma." {Memoirs relating to Eu- 
 ropean and Asiatic Turkey, edited by Walpole, p. 245.) 
 Dr. Holland mentions both Malva Silvestris and Al- 
 thaea Officinalis among the officinal plants, which he 
 found in Cephalonia. {Travels in Greece, p. 543, 4^o.) 
 
 b. The Althfsa Officinalis, or Marsh Mallow, is called 
 by the Greek authors 'AXdala, by the Latin, Hibiscus. 
 Theophrastus says, that it went also under the name 
 of wild mallow f. Whilst the Common Mallow, though 
 highly esteemed for its medical virtues, was principally 
 
 * Kpeirro) ri'iv dypLav rrjs KrjTrevofievris. Perhaps by the "wild" 
 mallow we ought here to understand the Marsh Mallow, Althaea 
 Officinalis. 
 
 t MaXa^j/ dypi'a. Hist. Hant. 1. ix. cap. 15. p. 188. Heinsii. 
 
300 § 79. USES OF MARSH AND HEMP-LEAVED MALLOW. 
 
 regarded as a substantial article of food, the Marsh Mal- 
 low, on the contrary, seems to have been rarely used 
 except as an article of the Materia Medica* ; and, as 
 its peculiar properties were likely to be more matured 
 in the wild than in the cultivated state, it does not 
 appear to have been grown in gardens f. Theophras- 
 tus describes it by comparing it with the Common 
 Mallow, and mentions its application, both internally 
 and externally, as a medicine j. Dioscorides (I. iii. 
 c. 139.) gives similar details. Besides mentioning 
 the proper name of the plant in Greek and in Latin, 
 'AXOa'ia and 'IjSiWoc, he calls it " a kind of wild mal- 
 low," EtSoc MaAa)(»?c djp'iac. Palladius (/. xi. p. 184. 
 Bip.) explains "Hibiscus" to be the same as " Althaa." 
 See also Pliny, /. xx. c. 14. ed. Bip. Virgil alludes to 
 the use of it as fodder for goats and as a material for 
 weaving baskets §. I apprehend, that no plant could 
 be more agreeable to those animals ; and, as the bas- 
 kets were designed for making cheese, it was a suit- 
 able material for this purpose, not only on account of 
 the strength and tenacity of its slender stems, but also 
 on account of its pleasant and wholesome fragrance. 
 
 c. The Hemp-leaved Mallow, Althtxa Cannabina, is 
 once mentioned by Dioscorides {lib.m. c. 141.). Giving 
 an account of hemp, he distinguishes between the cul- 
 tivated and the wild. He says of the wild hemp, that 
 
 * Calpurnius (Eclog. iv. 32,) mentions the " Hibiscus" as used for 
 food, but only by persons in a state of great destitution. 
 
 t At a later period, however, we find the Althaea Officinalis under 
 the name of " Ibischa Mis-malva" in a catalogue of the plants, which 
 Charlemagne selected for cultivation in the gardens attached to his 
 villas. See Sprengel, Hist. Rei Herb. i. 220. 
 
 X Hist. Plant, l.ix. cap. 19, p. 192. ed. Heinsii. 
 
 § Eclog. ii. 30. and x. 71. See Servius, Heyne, and J. H. Voss 
 ad loc. 
 
§80. FITNESS OF THE MALLOW FOR MAKING CLOTH. 301 
 
 the Romans called it Cannabis Terminalis* , and the 
 Greeks Kavva(itc dypla ; that it bore stems like those 
 of the 'AXOa'ia, but blacker, rougher, and smaller ; that 
 its seed and root were like those of the 'AXOaia ; and 
 its leaves like those of the cultivated hemp, but rougher 
 and blacker. Sir James Smith, Sprengel, and Biller- 
 beck, suppose him to mean the Althfsa Cannabina, and 
 I agree with them in this opinion. After mentioning 
 the medical properties of the plant, Dioscorides says, 
 that its bark was useful for making ropes {kui o otto 
 
 Tavrric ^Xoioc euSeroc eic 7rAoKJ7i' a^oiftwi'). The truth 
 of this observation will be apparent to every botanist. 
 The plants belonging to the naturaV order Malvaceas 
 are all remarkable for the abundance of strong and 
 beautiful fibres in their barkf. 
 
 80. But of the European species there is none supe- 
 rior in the fineness, the strength, the whiteness, and 
 lustre of its fibres to the Common Mallow, the Malva 
 Silvestris. We have seen that the ancients were fami- 
 liarly acquainted with this plant ; that it was com- 
 monly cultivated in. their gardens ; and that they 
 gathered it, when growing wild, to be taken as food 
 or as medicine. In these circumstances they could 
 scarcely fail to observe the aptitude of its bark for 
 being spun into thread. More especially in places, 
 where they had no other native supply of fibrous ma- 
 terials ; in Attica, for example, which probably pro- 
 duced neither hemp nor flax, it seems in the highest 
 
 * Meaning literally. Hedge-hemp ? 
 
 t We have the following testimony respecting the actual fabrica- 
 tion of mallow-cloth in modern times : 
 
 " Nous avons vu a Madrid, chez le savant pharmacien D. Casimir 
 Ortega, de ces tissus, qui nous ont semble fort remarquables. lis 
 etaient faits avec I'ecorce des AltMas officinalis et cannabina, et avec 
 celle du Malva sylvestris." Fee, Flore de Virgile, Paris 1822, p. 66. 
 
302 §80. MALLOWS ANCIENTLY USED FOR WEAVING. 
 
 degree probable, that the fitness of the mallow to 
 supply materials for weaving would not be over- 
 looked. 
 
 In producing the evidence, which establishes this as 
 a positive fact, I shall begin with the latest testimo- 
 nies and proceed in a reverse order upward to the 
 most ancient. According to this plan, the first author- 
 ity I have to bring is that of Papias, who wrote his 
 Vocabulary about the year 1050. He gives the fol- 
 lowing explanations : 
 
 Malbella vestis quae ex malvarum stamine conficitur, quam alii 
 molocinam vocant. 
 
 Molocina vestis qua; albo stamine sit : quam alii malbellam vo- 
 cant. 
 
 These passages clearly describe a kind of cloth made 
 of the white fibres of the common mallow. Malbella, 
 the same with Malvella, is a Latin adjective, in the 
 form of a diminutive, from Malva : Molocina, the 
 same with Mo\6\^ivri, is a Greek adjective from Mo- 
 Xo)(»/, and signifies made of mallow. 
 
 Papias, who seems in compiling his dictionary to 
 have made great use of Isidore, perhaps derived these 
 explanations in part from the following passage of the 
 latter author : 
 
 Melocinia (vestis est), quae malvarum stamine conficitur, quam alii 
 molocinam, alii malvellam vocant. Isid. Hisp. Orig. xix. 22. 
 
 The cloth called Melocinea is made of the thread of mallows, and 
 is called by some Molocina, by others Malvella. 
 
 The passages of Papias cannot be taken as a proof, 
 that mallow-cloth was woven in his day. But that it 
 was in fashion as late as the age of Charlemagne ap- 
 pears from the following line, which is quoted by Du 
 Cange {Glossar. Med. et Inf. Lat. v. Melocineus) from 
 
§81. MALLOW CLOTHS OF INDIA. 
 
 303 
 
 a poem in praise of that monarch, attributed to Al- 
 cuin : 
 
 Tecta melocineo fulgescit femina amictu. 
 Wrapt in a mallow shawl the lady shines. 
 
 The word "fulgescit" aptly describes the lustre of 
 the material under consideration. 
 
 81. From the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea* we 
 learn, that Mo\6y^iva, or "Ziv^ovec |t^o\6^(^lval, i. e. cloths 
 made of mallow, were among the articles of export 
 from India, being brought from Ozene (Ugain) and 
 Tagara in the interior of the country to the sea-port 
 of Barygaza (Baroch). 
 
 Dr. Vincent, in his translation of the Periplus 
 {p. 742.), explains Mo\6y^iva to signify "coarse cot- 
 tons of the colour of the mallowf." JablonskiJ ex- 
 presses a doubt {nil affirmare ausim) what the 'OQovia 
 fioXoyjLva, or ^ivh')vec fxo\oyj.vai, were ; but he conjec- 
 tures that they were either cloths of a green colour, 
 resembling the mallow, or that they were adorned with 
 a fringe, or with figures, made of the stone Molochites. 
 Dr. Forster (De Bysso, p. 84. 90.) says, he is quite at 
 
 * P. 146. 169, 170, 171. Arriani Op. ed. Blancardi, torn. ii. 
 
 f The idea, that Molochinus signified having the colour of the mal- 
 low, seems to have originated with Nonius Marcellus, who in the di- 
 vision of his Dictionary relating to names of colours says " Molo- 
 chinum, a Graco, color flori similis malvce." In this he is followed 
 by Muratori (quoted below, § 82.), Facciolati, and various others. 
 Not only is this explanation unsupported by any etymological prin- 
 ciple, but it is inconsistent with the remark above quoted from Papias, 
 that Molochinum was white ; and to describe a colour by comparing 
 it to the flower of the mallow would be useless, because the flower of 
 the mallow is of an ordinary red colour, not differing in its hue from 
 thousands of plants and other objects, 
 
 X Glossar. Vocum .(Egyptiarum, in H. Steph. Thes. ed. Valpy. 
 
 p. CCLXXV. 
 
304 
 
 §81. THE INDIAN MOLOCHINA 
 
 a loss how to explain these expressions. He advances 
 however the conjecture, that the 'OOovla iJ.oX6-)(^iva or 
 "EivBovec iJ.o\d^ivai were so called, because their colour 
 approached that of the stone called Molochites, which 
 according to Pliny (/. xxxvii. c. 8.) was of the colour 
 of the mallow. But as the adjective MoXo)(^ii'oc pro- 
 perly and literally signifies 7)iade of mallow, we ought 
 to take it here in this sense rather than in those pro- 
 posed by Vincent, Jablonski, and Forster, especially 
 if it be shown, that there are in India plants answer- 
 ing to what is required by the description. 
 
 I am not aware that the Malva Silvestris grows in 
 India. But the genus Hibiscus, Linn, which belongs 
 to the same natural order, is very abundant. The 
 bark of certain species of this genus, especially of 
 H. Tiliaceus and H. Cannahinus, is now very exten- 
 sively employed for making cordage, and might un- 
 questionably have been used for making cloth *. Also, 
 there can be no doubt, that if the Greeks wished to 
 speak of these trees, no term in their language was so 
 applicable to them as MoXoy^r}, the name of the com- 
 mon European mallow. For, besides the botanical 
 
 * Cavanilles, Tab. 52. fig. 1., represents H. Cannabinus, the leaf 
 of which is Hke that of hemp. Tab. 55. fig. 1. represents H. TiHa- 
 ceus, in the description of which we read " cortice in Junes ductili ;" 
 and Cavanilles says, the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands (Austra- 
 Uuni insularum) use in their ships and boats ropes made from the 
 bark. 
 
 H. Tiliaceus is also represented in Rheede's Hort. Malabaricus, 
 vol. i. fig. 30. It grows about 15 feet high. 
 
 Dr. Wallich mentions two other species as used for making cord- 
 age from the bark. Cat. of Indian Woods, p. 18. 
 
 The late Mr. John Hare, who lived in India a long time, informed 
 me, that a coarse kind of cloth, used for making sacks, &c., is now 
 woven from Hibiscus bark. 
 
PROBABLY MADE OF HIBISCUS BARK. 305 
 
 characters, which cause them to be placed together 
 in all modern systems, their resemblance is manifest 
 to every eye. 
 
 As a further evidence, that the (MoAox^ii'a) Molo- 
 china, mentioned in the Periplus were made from the 
 bark of the Hibiscus, I may refer to that admirable 
 specimen of Eastern taste and ingenuity, the Sacon- 
 tala of the great Indian dramatist Calidasa. Several 
 passages of this poem make mention of the Valcdla, 
 which the Sanscrit Lexicons, themselves of great an- 
 tiquity, explain as meaning either bark, or a vesture 
 made of bark. On this interpretation Chezy says, he 
 suspects that Valcdla C^rcfir^) denoted, not bark 
 in general, but the bark of a particular tree, perhaps 
 a birch*. This very accomplished orientalist may be 
 right in supposing a particular kind of bark to be in- 
 tended ; but it could not be birch-bark, since that is 
 very ill adapted for spinning and weaving, and more- 
 over I cannot find, that the birch grows in India. The 
 most likely tree to be meant is certainly the Hibiscus. 
 When I asked Dr. Wallich, that prince of Indian bo- 
 tanists, whether any of the native trees of India were 
 adapted to supply fibrous materials for making cloth, 
 he answered, that many kinds of Hibiscus had this 
 quality in an eminent degree, and, as their bark was 
 in common use for making all kinds of cordage, it 
 might undoubtedly be employed for weaving. 
 
 The Sacontala is of a date as ancient as the Peri- 
 plus. Professor Von Bohlen {Das alte Indien, vol. ii. 
 p. 477.) asserts, that the author Calidasa certainly 
 
 * " Je soupconne qu'il doit plutot servir a designer le liber fibreux 
 d'une espece d'arbre particuli^re, un bouleau peut-etre, susceptible, 
 comme le murier ou le tilleul, d'ofFrir une matiere propre a former 
 des tissus grossiers." 
 
 X 
 
306 § 81,82. THE MOLOCHINAjOR MALLOW CLOTHS 
 
 flourished as early as the first century B.C. Sir Wil- 
 liam Jones makes him older by several centuries. 
 {Works, vol. vi. p. 206.) The place also agrees as 
 well as the time. The Hibiscus Tiliaceus, according 
 to Sir J. E. Smith, is " one of the most common trees 
 in every part of the East Indies, thriving in all sorts 
 of situations and soils, and cultivated for the sake of 
 its shade even more than the beauty of its flowers, in 
 towns and villages and by road-sides, A coarse cord- 
 age," he adds, "is made of the bark; the wood is 
 light and white, useful for small cabinet-work ; the 
 mucilage of the whole plant is applied to some medi- 
 cal purposes." The Molochina, mentioned in the 
 Periplus, were brought from Ozene and Tagara, and 
 may have come from still further North. The her- 
 mitage, described in the drama, was at the foot of the 
 Himalaya Mountains and near the river Malina, and, 
 according to the representations given by the poet, 
 the Valcalas (translated by SirW. Jones "mantles of 
 woven bark," and by Chezy, " v Siemens d'e'corce"), 
 were worn both by the hermits and by the beautiful 
 Sacontala, while she was their inmate*. 
 
 "Valcalas" are mentioned in precisely the same 
 manner in the Ramayana, one of the most noted of 
 the heroic poems of ancient India. They are repre- 
 sented as coarse garments worn by ascetics. 
 
 82. If the explanation now given be admitted as 
 applicable to the Molochina of the Periplus, it may 
 throw light on some other passages of ancient au- 
 thors. 
 
 * Translation of the Sacontala, Sir ^N. Jones's Works, vol. vi. 
 pp. 217.225.289. Original, ed. Chezy, Paris 1830, p. 7, 1. 10. ; p. 9, 
 1. 10.; p. 24, 1. 7.; p. 131, 1. 14. Chezy's translation, pp. 10. 27. 
 142. 143. See also Heeren, Ideen, i. 2. p. 648. 
 
OF INDIA, PROBABLY MADE OF HIBISCUS. 307 
 
 Ctesias, in his Indica*, mentions the ^vXiva I'/iarm 
 of the Indians. We may translate the phrase " sheets 
 made from trees." Bahr supposes cotton to be meant ; 
 but it seems to me more probable, that these ^vXiva 
 iliiaTia of Ctesias were the same as the /xoXo-^^iva of the 
 Periplus, and the Valcalas of Calidasa. 
 
 Strabo's account of the webs, which he calls Serica, 
 an account derived from the writings of Nearchus, 
 admiral of Alexander the Great, represents those webs 
 as made from fibres (jSuacroc) , which were scraped from 
 the bark of trees f. This would apply exactly to the 
 supposed use of the Hibiscus for making cloth. The 
 bark {(pXoioc) must have been first stript from the tree, 
 and the fibres then scraped from the inside of the bark. 
 
 To the same source we may, I think, trace the idea of 
 Arethas (in Apoc. c. 57.), that the Byssus, Rev, xix, 8., 
 was ' ' the bark of an Indian tree made into flax." {Toiov- 
 Tov yap 7) ^vaaoc, <|)Xoioc SevBpov IvSikov, e'lc Xlvov Ka- 
 
 reipyaafievri). His usc of the term ^vaaoQ is incorrect. 
 {See above, § 70, 71.) But, as he here explains 
 (ivaaivov to mean Xanwpov, and as he had probably 
 heard of the lustre of the webs made from the bark of 
 trees in India, we may suppose that the manufacture 
 of the bark of some species of Hibiscus gave occasion 
 to his remark. 
 
 Although the date of the following inscription, 
 found at Rome, is uncertain, it may be conveniently 
 brought in here. It is published by Muratori, Novus 
 Thesaurus Vet. Inscriptionum, torn. ii. p. 939. 
 
 p. AVCTIVS P.L. LYSANDER 
 VESTIARIVS. TENVIARIVS. 
 MOLOCHINARIVS. VOT. SOL. 
 
 * Cap. 22. Fragmenta, ed. Bahr, p. 253. .326. 
 t See above, § 4.3. p. 181. 
 
 X 2 
 
308 
 
 § 83. MENTION OF MOLOCHINA 
 
 Muratori in his Note says, the " Vestiarius Tenuia- 
 rius" was the man who made thin garments, " qui 
 vestes tenuiores conficiebat," and " Molochinarius" the 
 man who made such garments of a mallow colour, 
 " qui ejusmodi vestes molochini coloris parabat." For 
 the proof of the latter interpretation he refers to the 
 passage of Nonius Marcellus, quoted above (§81. 
 p. 303, Note), and he thinks Isidore is wrong in 
 stating, that the Vestis molochina was made of the 
 fibres of the mallow. I have already stated my rea- 
 sons for preferring the authority of Isidore to that of 
 Nonius, and the reader must also make his choice 
 between them. 
 
 83. The authors, next in regard to antiquity, who 
 make mention of Molochina, are the writers of the 
 Latin Comedy, Statins Csecilius, who died 169 B.C., 
 and Plautus, who died 184 B.C. 
 
 Nonius Marcellus (/. xvi.) quotes the following line 
 from the Pausimachus of the former dramatist : 
 
 Carbasina, molochina, ampelina*. 
 
 The passage of Plautus is in the Aulularia {Act iii. 
 Scene v. /. 40.), where we have a ludicrous enumera- 
 tion, extending through more than ten lines, of all the 
 persons concerned in the manufacture or sale of gar- 
 ments : 
 
 Solearii astant, astant molochinarii. 
 
 All the lexicographers and commentators explain Mo- 
 lochinarius to be one who dyes cloth of the colour of 
 the mallow. But this appears to have no foundation 
 
 * See C. C. Statii Fragmenta, a Leonhardo Spengel, Monachii 
 1829, p. 35. 
 
 Statius chiefly copied Menander {Gellius, ii. c. 16.) ; but I cannot 
 find, that Menander wrote any play called Pausimachus. See below, 
 § 94., where this verse is again quoted. 
 
BY WRITERS OF LATIN COMEDY. 309 
 
 in fact. Lanarius was a woollen-draper ; Coactilia- 
 rius, a dealer in felts, a hatter ; Lintearius a linen- 
 draper ; Sericarius a silk-mercer. " Spartarius, S^oi- 
 I'OTTwXrjc." GlossariaVet. " Carbonarius,aV(?|oaK:o7rwX>/c," 
 Gloss., a charcoal-merchant. According to the same 
 analogy, Molochinarius would mean a dealer in Molo- 
 china, i.e. in all kinds of cloth made from mallows. 
 
 To the two Latin dramatists, now cited, we may, I 
 think, add Nsevius, who wrote a little earlier than 
 Plautus. I ground this conjecture on the following 
 passage of Nonius Marcellus, which occurs in the di- 
 vision of his book De Proprietate Sermonum, relating 
 to the names of garments. 
 
 MoUicina vestis a mollitie dicta. Naevius in Epidico. Mollicinam, 
 crocotam, chirodotam, ricam. 
 
 This derivation of MoUicina a mollitie, though a mere 
 conjecture, which rests on no principle or analogy, is 
 servilely adopted by Robert Stephens, Facciolati, and 
 by all the lexicographers who follow them ; and thus 
 a new word is added to the Latin tongue. But to me 
 it seems pretty evident, that MoUicina is only a variety 
 of the Greek Molochina, which is also written Molo- 
 cina and Melocinea {see above, p. 302), and may 
 have been subject to other variations of form. There 
 seems no reason to doubt, that the Epidicus of 'Nse- 
 vius was translated from a Greek comedy, in all pro- 
 babihty the same, which was afterwards translated by 
 Plautus, and which is still extant under that name. 
 In the Epidicus of Plautus we find the following pas- 
 sage {Act ii. Scene 2.) : 
 
 Quid istse, quae vesti quotannis nomina inveniunt nova : 
 Tunicam rallam, tunicam spissam, linteolum cscsicium, 
 Intusiatam, patagiatam, caltulam, aut crocotulam, 
 Subparum aut subnimium, ricam, &c. 
 
310 ^ 84. THE AMOPrOS OF THE ATTIC AUTHORS. 
 
 The two passages, now produced from Nsevius and 
 Plautus, seem to be translated from the same passage 
 of the original Greek, and as many of the terms are 
 of Greek extraction, it seems no great assumption to 
 infer, that MOLLICINA in Ngevius was intended to 
 represent the Greek MOAOXINA. 
 
 84. The class of writers, whom I shall last produce 
 as affording testimony respecting the use of the mallow 
 for weaving, are Greek authors, who wrote a century 
 or more before Nsevius in the Attic Dialect, and who 
 instead of the common Greek terms, which have been 
 explained, employ the Attic term 'A/mopyoc and its 
 derivatives. 
 
 'A/xopyoc has been explained by some of the lexi- 
 cographers to be a kind of flax*. Perhaps by this 
 
 * Ta ()e ajxcpyiva, yiyveadai fxkv to. upiara ev rrj 'Afjopyui, Xtpov 
 S' ovv Koi Tavras tirai Xeyovmv . !> afiopyivos ■^irwv koX a/iopyis 
 eKuXelro. Julius Pollux, L. VII. § 74. 
 
 It may be convenient to produce here the entire passages of the 
 ancient Lexicographers, which are designed to explain the word 
 'Afwpyos and its derivatives. 
 
 1, Fi"om Pausanias, as quoted by Eustatliius in Dionys. 1. 525. 
 Tlavaavias, ov to 'Attikov Xe^ttKov, aXXo ri €fx(ftaivei, Xeyiav, 'Afiop- 
 
 yvs ofj-oiov j3vffffu' Kai on ajiopyts Kvptojs y XivoicaXafJir), ys 
 evovfiara 'AjjopytSia Xeyofxeva, ws 6 KwfiiKos kv AvaiarpaTtf cijXoi. 
 
 2. From the Etymologicum Magnum. Lips. 1816. 4to. 
 'Afiopyiyos ^iruvtcrKos, Trapd Tr)y u^opy{]v, o eariv eihos "^wfiaros, 
 
 ofjtoiov fivaato* , Kuda Kal Qripaior, tov utto Qripas rrjs vrjaov. ai-jjiaiveL 
 KoX Tfiv ■KoXvTeXrj lirdrjTa. ovrio Medocios. i^rirei els to 'Atto/ko/)- 
 ^tiro, Kal els to ' AfioXyiZGUTo. 
 
 'Ajiopyts Se KaXd/xr) tis, ijs ev^vfjiaTa afxopyiva' oi Se Xiya 
 vfj>atTfj.aTa' oi ce, dno ' Afiopyov Trjs vfjTov' oi ck, afiopyivovs, tovs 
 kpvdpovs TO ")(phifxa. 
 
 'ATTOjjLopiiUTo) dTrojxopyit) tOTiv eveariLs, Ik tov cifiepyo), to eKTciei^w, 
 fierddeaei tov p els X ctjueXyw' Kal ufj,6Xyos 6 eKKiei^tov ra TrpoftuTU. 
 
 * The Etymol. Mag. exjilains jivaaos to be a plant used in dying. 
 
PROBABLY THE COMMON MALLOW. 311 
 
 explanation nothing more was intended than that it 
 was a plant, the fibres of which were used to spin 
 and weave into cloth. It appears to me highly pro- 
 bable, that it was the Malva Silvestris or Common Mal- 
 low, and that it was called 'Ainopjoc according to an 
 etymology, which I shall soon propound. 
 
 Tournefort (Voyage, Vol. i. p. 182. Eng. translation) 
 
 interprets the terms a/uopyoc,, ap.6pyr\, a^iopylc,, dfiopyi- 
 
 Siov, aixopyivoQ, on the supposition, that the materials 
 or garments expressed by them were produced in the 
 isle Amorgos, one of the Sporades^ and that they took 
 their name from this island. The same opinion has 
 been copied from one to another by numerous lexi- 
 
 — TO yap nfiopyrj e/c tov afxepyto yiveraC arj^aivei Ze Svo, Tiiv viro- 
 arddfxriv tov eXaiov, teal Tt)v rpvya tov olvov' koTi te KaX eicos (ioTO.- 
 
 vr)s TTopfvpds, ei, ov dfxopyiva ijxdTia \eyovTai to TTop(j>vpa. 'Afiop- 
 
 yts Be, TOV KaXanov Ttjs dydl)XT)s to XeTTTOTUTov fiepos' oQev afiopyri. 
 
 3. From Suidas. 
 
 'Afiopyeia, )(pa»/zaroj eiEos, utto vrjaov 'Ajxopyovyros, ws Orjpeia 
 UTTO Qrjpas vrjaov. 
 
 Wfiopyt], T) Tpvyia. (Amurca, fsex olei.) 
 
 'Afiopyh Kvpiws tJ XivoKaXdjii], >;s ylverai evZvfiaTa ujiopyiva 
 Xeyojxiva,* il ?/ tov eXaiov iiiroiXTddixr] Kai >/ rpiic, tov oh'ov. 
 'Ajxopyoi noXews bXeOpos. KpaTtvos 2epc<j)iois. 
 
 4. From Harpocration. 
 
 'Afxopyos ecrri TrapairXijcnov ti (ivaatf. Ai(rj(ti'jjs ev tS tcaTci Tt- 
 fiap-)(ov. Mvrjjjiovevovfft Se ol KWfitKoi ttoXXukis Twy ufiopyivwv, ws Kai 
 ^ ApioToipdvqs AvairTTpdrrj, Koi EiIttoXis IloXefftj'. p. 29. ed. Blan- 
 cardi. 1683. 4to. 
 
 5. From Moeris. 
 
 'Afiopyivo}', 'ArrtK'tos' XeTrroi/ v<j)afffia, 'EXXt/vj/cws. 
 
 6. From Hesychius. 
 'Afiopyiva' Xenrou^jj ifidria. 
 
 Afiopyis' KaXdfiri tis, tJs ^vdvfia yiverai, fi v<pafffia, rj ^(iTwy. 
 
 * Suidas seems here to have followed Pausanias, as quoted above. 
 Indeed it appears probable, that the other lexicographers all followed 
 Pausanias in this particular. 
 
312 § 84. AMOpros probably the common mallow. 
 
 cographers and commentators both in ancient and 
 modern times*. Tlie analogy of language however 
 leaves it beyond a doubt, that Xt-wi/ afiopyivoc would 
 mean, not a shirt made in Amorgos, but a shirt made 
 of amorgos, and I shall produce evidence to show, 
 that instead of the substance or the garment being 
 called from Amorgos, because it was produced there, 
 the island was on the contrary called Amorgus, be- 
 cause it produced the substance. 
 
 'Ajuopyoc is properly referred by the lexicographers 
 to the verb ufxep-yM, which signified to press out a fluid 
 from grapes, olives, or any other matter, whether vege- 
 table or animal. The author of the Etymologicum 
 Magnum justly considers a/^eXyw as another form of 
 the same root, A and p being interchanged. Though 
 both of these forms were no doubt originally the same 
 in signification, the latter, aineXyw, was afterwards 
 used as meaning to press the fluid from the teats of 
 quadrupeds, the fluid so expressed being denominated, 
 from the same root, in English milk, and in German 
 milch, allied to the Latin mulgeo, to milk, whence 
 mulctra, milk-pails, or, as the Scotch call them, mulk- 
 pails. The form a^iepya) seems, on the other hand, 
 to have been restricted to the act of expressing fluid 
 out of vegetable matters. 
 
 From 'A/^iepyu) came by regular analogy the noun 
 substantive 'Afiopyoc, 'Ajuopyri, denoting the vegetable 
 product submitted to pressure. It was used to de- 
 note either grapes or olives, out of which juice or oil 
 had been expressedf . 
 
 * See the Note p. 310, 311, and the Scholia on Aristoph. as 
 quoted below. 
 
 + 'Afxupyri, ojs liriTrav Ij virorjTuQ^i} too eXaiov. Erotiani Lex. in 
 Hippocratem. Dioscoiidcs, L. I. c. 13G., explains aiAopyi] to be 
 
§ 85. MENTIONED BY ATTIC WRITERS. 313 
 
 But of the vegetable substances, employed by the 
 Greeks for making cloth, the only one requiring such 
 pressure was the mallow, the fibres of which could 
 not be prepared for spinning except by squeezing out 
 its adhesive mucilage in a moist state. 
 
 85. According to the Attic lexicons of Pausanias 
 {apud Eustath. I. c.) and of Moeris, 'A/mopyuc, was an 
 Attic term. We now find traces of it in seven Attic 
 writers, four or five of whom wrote comedy. These 
 are Aristophanes, Cratinus, Antiphanes, Eupolis, 
 Clearchus, ^Eschines, and Plato. 
 
 I. I shall lake first Aristophanes, whose comedy 
 called Lysistrata is referred to in the passages above 
 cited from Pausanias and Harpocration, and being 
 still extant throws considerable light upon the sub- 
 ject. It was represented in the year 412 B.C. Ly- 
 sistrata says (/. 150), 
 
 K^y ToTs ^irwi'trntrt tois d^opyivois 
 Tvj.ivaL irapwlnei', 
 
 " And if we should present ourselves naked in shifts 
 of amorgos ; " showing that these shifts were trans- 
 parent. Accordingly Mceris says, that the aij.6pyii>ov 
 was XeTTToi; vcpaafia, " a thin web," and Hesychius ex- 
 plains a/xopyiva tO mean \e7rrov(pri tfiaria. BisetUS, in 
 
 his Greek commentary on this play, after quoting the 
 explanations of Stephanus Byzantinus, Suidas, Eu- 
 stathius, and the Etymologicum Magnum, judiciously 
 concludes as follows : " From all these it is manifest, 
 that a^opywoi yj.TU)vec, whether they took their name 
 from a place, from their colour, or from the raw ma- 
 terial, were a kind of valuable robe, worn by rich, 
 fashionable, and luxurious women." 
 
 v-iroaraOiiri eXaias r^s tK0\ij(3o/xevr;s. Also Eustathius in Dionys. 
 1. 525. Suidas and Etymol. Magnum, ubi supra. 
 
314 §85. AMORGINE WEBS MENTIONED BY 
 
 The old scholiast says, 01 /nev y^p^^aroc elSoc rnv 
 ajui6pyT}v' 01 Se ano vrjaov ' A-iuopyovvroc, touc afiopjivovc 
 j^iTWvac' wc ra Qrjpia airo Qrjpac vrjaov. ThuS WC See 
 
 that the island was properly called 'A^opyowc, con- 
 tracted from 'Anopyoeic, which would denote, that it 
 abounded with the plant 'A/nopyoc. Suidas (I. c.) uses 
 the same form of the genitive case, ' A/nopyovvToc* . 
 
 A subsequent passage of the Lysistrata (v. 736-741) 
 still further illustrates this subject. A woman la- 
 ments, that she has left at home her aiJ.opyic without 
 being peeled {aXoirov), and she goes to peel it {cnro^el- 
 peiv). The mallow, no less than flax and hemp, would 
 require the bark to be stript off, and my own expe- 
 rience leads me to believe, that the best time for 
 stripping it is as soon as the plant is gathered, 
 
 11. Cratinus died about 420 B. C. The following 
 line, from his comedy called M.a\QaKo\, represents a 
 person spinning 'Afxopyoc. 
 
 'Afiopydy evdov ftpvTlrrjv vrjOeiv rtra. 
 
 Cratini Fragmenta, a Runkel, p. 29. 
 
 The epithet (^pvrlvriv seems to admit of an ex- 
 planation in exact accordance with that which I have 
 given of 'Apopyuc. Bpvrov, or forms not materially 
 differing from it, meant the remains of grapes or 
 olives, left after pressing, otherwise called Tpv^.f 
 
 * According to the same analogy we have Phcenicus; Pyxus 
 (IIv^ovs), in Sicily; Alimus (AXipovs) and Rhamnus, in Attica; 
 Acanthus in Thrace, Crete, Egypt; so called from plants growing 
 in those places; viz. the Palm, $o(Vt| ; the Box, Uv^os; the "AXipos ; 
 the 'Papvos ; the" AkuvBos or "AKavda. 
 
 f Upvna, a (cat (ipvrea, ra rrjs aTa<pvKris Trt'etr/xara a rives arip- 
 (j)v\a Xeyovaiv' o'l Se 'AttikoI to. twv eXaiiSv aXeapara. Etym. 
 Magnum. See also Phrynichi Eel. a Lobeck, p. 406. Note, and 
 
THE COMIC WRITERS OF ATHENS. 
 
 315 
 
 The attempt of Hesychius to explain ^pvTivov by 
 ^ofx^vKivov is evidently written quite at random. 
 
 III. Julius Pollux, speaking of garments made of 
 'Afiopyoc (L. VII. c. ] 3.) quotes the Medea of Anti- 
 phanes thus ; '^Hv yjir^v ajuopyivoc. This author was 
 contemporary with Aristophanes. 
 
 IV. Eupolis wrote about the same time, and his 
 authority may be added to the rest as proving that 
 garments of Amorgos were admired by luxurious per- 
 sons at Athens*. 
 
 V. Clearchus of Soli f mentions the use of a cover 
 of Amorgos for inclosing a splendid purple blanket. 
 This application of it is agreeable to the foregoing 
 evidence, showing that the amorgine webs were trans- 
 parent. The silky translucence of the lace-like web 
 of mallow would have a very beautiful effect over the 
 fine purple of the downy blanket. 
 
 VI. The reader may have observed (p. 311, Note) 
 the reference by Harpocration to the Oration of 
 ./Eschines against Timarchus. That Oration fortu- 
 nately remains entire. The object of the orator is to 
 hold up to contempt the extravagancies of this 
 Athenian spendthrift. In his enumeration of them 
 he mentions, that Timarchus took to his house " a 
 woman skilled in making cloths of Amorgos." {yv- 
 
 va7Ka afiopyiva eniaTafievriv epyaCeaQai, p. 118, ed. 
 Reiskii.) 
 
 Passow's Lexicon, v. Bpurea. The word in question probably comes 
 from fiptdeiv, to press. 
 
 * See Harpocration as quoted above, p. 311. Note. Also Pher. 
 et Eupolidis Fragmenta, a Runkel, p. 150. 
 
 t Ap. Athenaeum, L. VI. p. 255, Casaub. Clearchus probably 
 wrote about 100 years later than the before-mentioned authors, but 
 the circumstance related by him may have occurred about the time 
 when those authors flourished, and even at Athens. 
 
316 § 85. SHIFTS MADE OF AMORGOS. 
 
 VII. Plato in the 13th Epistle, addressed to Dio- 
 nysius, tyrant of Syracuse, which, if not genuine, is 
 at least ancient, proposes to give to the three 
 daughters of Cebes three long shifts, not the valuable 
 shifts made of Amorgos, but the linen shifts of Sicily 
 
 (^iTwi'ta Tpla eTTTaTrZ/^jj, jm7 t(jjv TroAwTeAwf twv a/nofjy'ivivv, 
 aXXa Twv ^tKeXiKtov rQv Xiviov). The opposition of Ttuv 
 
 afiopylvfov to twv Xivtjv secms here to imply, that dfiop- 
 yoc was a different material from flax. 
 
 The mention of amorgine garments by the writers, 
 who have now been cited, seems to prove, that the 
 fashion of making and wearing them first came in 
 among the Greeks at Athens in the time of Aristo- 
 phanes. From them the fashion may have extended 
 itself into Sicily and Italy, which will account, if 
 Amorgina were the same with Molochina, for the 
 striking agreement in this respect between the writers 
 of Greek and of Latin Comedy. In subsequent ages 
 the manufacture seems to have declined, probably in 
 consequence of the abundance of silk and other rich 
 and beautiful goods imported from Asia. But the 
 mention of these stuffs in the writings of Isidore and 
 Alcuin renders it probable, that they were brought 
 again into use in the fifth and following centuries of 
 the Christian era. 
 
 The ancient Lexicographers agree in representing 
 'Afiopyoc as an herbaceous plant. (Boravij, Aivoko- 
 Xa/xT], or KaXafurj Tie See ttbove p. 310, S\l . Note.) The 
 Etymologicum Magnum also states, that 'Afxopyri 
 was the name of a purple plant (elSoc /Sorafijc Trop- 
 <j)vpac). This suits the description of Malva Sil- 
 vestris, which is very conspicuous from the abun- 
 dance of its fine purple flowers. The same circum- 
 stance may have given rise to the remark of Suidas, 
 
AMORGINA THE SAME WITH MOLOCHINA. 317 
 
 the Etymologicum Magnum, and the SchoHast on 
 Aristophanes, that according to some 'Afiopyoa was a 
 dye, or colouring matter. The same interpreters ap- 
 pear to have thought that the colour was red*. It 
 is remarkable, that Molochinus is explained by the 
 Latin Lexicographers on the same principle as 'Ajuop- 
 yivoa by the Greek, each being supposed to denote 
 the red colour of the cloth. I regard this as affording 
 some evidence, that the terms were identical in sig- 
 nification, although I suppose them to denote, not 
 the colour of the cloth, but the substance of which 
 it consisted. 
 
 * See above, p. 310. Note. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Spanish Broom. 
 
 86. My authority for admitting Spanish Broom into 
 the catalogue of plants, which supplied materials for 
 weaving, is that of Pliny*'. He says, that " in the 
 part of Hispania Citerior about New Carthage whole 
 mountains were covered with Spartum ; that the na- 
 tives made mattresses, shoes, and coarse garments of 
 it, also fires and torches ; and that its tender tops 
 were eaten by animals." He also says, that it grows 
 of its own accord where nothing else will grow, and 
 that it is " the rush of a dry soil " (j uncus proprie 
 aridi soli). Other observations, which he makes, 
 will be noticed hereafter. 
 
 The question now arises, what plant Pliny intended 
 to describe. Clusius, who travelled in Spain chiefly 
 w^th a view to botany, supposed Pliny's " Spartum " 
 to be the tough grass, used in every part of Spain for 
 making mats, baskets, &c., which Linnaeus afterwards 
 called Stipa Tenacissimaf. It is not surprising, that 
 the opinion of so eminent a botanist as Clusius has 
 been generally adopted. To me, however, it appears 
 far more probable, that the plant, which Pliny in- 
 tended to speak of, was the Spartium Junceum, Linn., 
 so familiar to us under the name of Spanish Broom. 
 
 In the first place, the name Spartum should be 
 
 * L. XIX. c. 2. See Appendix D. 
 
 t Clusii Plant. Rar. Historia, L. VI. p. 219, 220. 
 
§86. PLINy's SPARTUM probably SPANISH BROOM. 319 
 
 considered as decisive of the question, unless some 
 sufficient reason can be shown for ascribing to it in 
 this passage a sense different from that which it com- 
 monly bore. ^Traproc, ^iraprov, ^Traprlov, SpartuS OT 
 Spartum, is admitted to be used by all authors, Greek 
 and Latin, and even by Pliny himself in another 
 passage*, to denote the Spanish Broom. We learn 
 from Sibthorp, that the Spanish Broom is still called 
 Sparto by the Greeks, and that it grows on dry 
 sandy hills throughout the islands of the Archipelago 
 and the continent of Greece. Sparto was indeed 
 properly the Greek name of this shrub, the Latin 
 name being Genista, and the use of the Greek name 
 in Hispania Citerior may have been owing to the 
 Grecian settlements on that coast, colonized from 
 Marseilles. 
 
 Besides the passages of Latin authors, which are 
 referred to by Schneider and Billerbeck, and which 
 I think it unnecessary to repeat, the following from 
 Isidore of Seville appears decisive respecting the ac- 
 ceptation of the term. 
 
 " Spartus frutex virgosus sine foliis, ab asperitate 
 
 * See L. XI. c. 8. where Pliny says, that bees obtain honey and 
 wax from " Spartum," and compare this with Aristotle, Hist. Anim. 
 L. X. 40., where he mentions STraprov among the plants which 
 yield honey. See Schneider on Theophrastus, Hist. Plant. L. I. 8. 
 Not. Vol. III. p. 21-24. BQlerbeck, Flora Classica. p. 180. 
 Sprengel, in his Hist. Rei Herbariae, Vol. I. p. 79, 200, supposes 
 the Stipa Tenacissima to be intended by both Theophrastus and 
 Pliny in the passages referred to. But, in the Notes to his Trans- 
 lation of Theophrastus, Vol. II. p. 28., he acknowledges the force 
 of Schneider's observations, and admits that the AivoairapTov of 
 Theophrastus and the Spartum of Pliny was the Spartium Scopa- 
 rium of Linnseus, meaning evidently by " S. Scoparium " to indi- 
 cate Spartium Junceum. Billerbeck, 1. 1., seems to follow Sprengel 
 in his later opinion. 
 
320 § 86. pliny's spartum probably Spanish broom. 
 
 vocatus ; volumina enim funium, quse ex eo fiunt, 
 aspera sunt." Originum L. XVII. c. 9. 
 
 This is the definition of a learned and observant 
 writer, who lived in Spain, and who must have been 
 familiar with the facts. " Frutex virgosus sinefoliis" 
 is a clear and striking description of the Spanish 
 Broom, the leaves of which are so small as easily to 
 escape observation.* The Stipa Tenacissima, on the 
 other hand, is not a shrub with twigs, but a grass, 
 which grows in tufts, the long leaves being as abun- 
 dant and as useful as the stems or straws. Clusius 
 himself (/. /.) in laying down the distinction between 
 the Spartum of the Greeks, which he supposed to be 
 the Spanish Broom, and the Spartum of Pliny, which 
 he supposed to be the Stipa Tenacissima, asserts that 
 the former is a shrub {frutex), the latter a herb with 
 grassy leaves {herba graminacea folia prof er ens). It 
 is clear therefore, that the inhabitants of Spain in 
 the time of Isidore still used the term Spartus in its 
 original acceptation, viz. to denote the Spartium 
 Junceum of Linnaeus. 
 
 When the Stipa Tenacissima was brought into use 
 for making ropes and for other purposes, for which 
 the Spanish Broom was employed, the name of the 
 latter would naturally be extended to the former, and 
 we may thus account for the fact, that the Stipa 
 Tenacissima is now universally known in Spain by 
 the name Esparto. Indeed it is possible, that the 
 employment of the Stipa Tenacissima for these pur- 
 poses may have been as ancient as the time of Pliny ; 
 and his use of the word " herba " in describing it, as 
 
 * See Plate VIII. Dioscorides also describes the Spanish Broom 
 to be " a shrub bearing long twigs without leaves." Isidore's ety- 
 mology, deducing spartus from aspeh, is manifestly absurd. 
 
SPARTIUM AND STIPA CONFOUNDED. 
 
 321 
 
 well as the locality which he assigns to it, the hilly 
 country about Carthage, favours the common inter- 
 pretation, and perhaps even authorizes the conclu- 
 sion, that his account is the result of confounding 
 the two plants together, so that he says of one sup- 
 posed plant things, which were partly true of both, 
 and partly applicable either to the Spanish Broom 
 only, or to the Stipa Tenacissima only*. But, even 
 if this be admitted, it is still possible that the plant, 
 
 * Pliny may be pardoned for confounding the two plants, when 
 we observe that the same mistake is committed by a modern travel- 
 ler of some note, who visited the country and professes to describe 
 it. Mr. Twiss (Travels in. Spain, 4to. p. 79.), describing the toils 
 which the shepherds use as hurdles for their sheep, says, " These 
 toils are made of Esparto, Gramen Sparterum, or Genista Hispanica 
 in Latin. Mr. Ray calls it mat-weed. It is a soft rushy shrub, 
 which grows to the height of about a yard chiefly about Murcia 
 and Carthagena. Sandals, mats, baskets, and ropes, are made of 
 it. It floats, whereas hemp sinks. It is called Boss by the English 
 sailors. The meshes are a foot wide and of the thickness of a 
 finger, so that they serve instead of hurdles." 
 
 " Genista Hispanica" is certainly the same with Spartium Jun- 
 ceum, which is a " rushy shrub ; " but Mr. Ray's " mat-weed " 
 must have been Stipa Tenacissima. 
 
 As I am disposed to admit, that the Stipa Tenacissima was no 
 less common in Valencia anciently than it is at present, that it was 
 called STTopros or Spartus, and used for the same purposes to which 
 it is now applied, I am also inclined to think, that it is the Stipa 
 Tenacissima, and not any species of the Linnean genus Spartium, 
 which Strabo calls rriv o-^on'OTrXociict))' a-ndprov, (L. III. Vol. I. 
 p. 429. ed. Siebenkees) and which, as he states, gave the name of 
 Carthago Spartaria to the modern Carthagena, and was exported 
 firom that city to all parts of the Mediterranean, and especially to 
 Italy. I only contend, and I contend for this only as proved by a 
 preponderance of circumstances, that Pliny's testimony respecting 
 the " Pastormn vestis " was derived from the fact, that the bark of 
 the Spanish Broom, the proper Spartus, was anciently used for 
 making cloth. 
 
 Y 
 
322 § 87. CLOTH MANUFACTURED FROM BROOM-BARK 
 
 from whose fibres the " pastorum vestis" was manu- 
 factured, was not the grassy Stipa, but the shrub, 
 the Spanish Broom. 
 
 87. In order to estabUsh this point I now proceed 
 to mention the evidence respecting the apphcation of 
 it to such uses. It has been employed for making 
 cloth in Turkey, in Italy, and in the South of France, 
 but in circumstances, which were either especially 
 favourable to the manufacture, or where flax could 
 not be cultivated. It is manufactured into shirts in 
 Albania according to Dr. Sibthorp*. Nearly a cen- 
 tury ago Pope Benedict XIV. brought a colony of 
 Albanians to inhabit a barren and desolate portion of 
 his territory on the sea-coast. Here they obtained a 
 very fine, strong, durable thread from the Broom 
 and the Nettle, and used it, when woven, in place of 
 linenf. Trombelli, who relates this fact, also gives 
 an account of the manufacture of broom-bark in the 
 vicinity of Lucca, where the hiils, called Monte 
 
 * Flora Grseca, No. 671. 
 
 t Trombelli, Bononiensis Scient. atque Artium Instituti Com- 
 mentaril, tom. vi. p. 118. 
 
 It appears probable, that some attempts had been made in this 
 manufacture long before that of Benedict XIV. Cardan, who lived 
 in Italy, makes the following remarks in his work De Subtilitate, 
 published in 1553 : — 
 
 " Texi vero qusecunque nentur quis dubitat ? unde etiam non 
 solum ex lino et canabe, sed ex sparto quoque seu genista mappae 
 conficiuntur. Nunc genista utimur solum ad verrendum : sed si 
 artifex non desit, utilis est etiam ad conficienda lintea : quicquid 
 enim ductile est, nere licet : quod nere licet, licet et texere." Lib. 
 V.p. 160. 
 
 These expressions show, that although broom was commonly 
 used only to make besoms, yet Cardan knew, that wherever there 
 was the requisite skill (si artifejc non desit), it might be spun and 
 woven. 
 
IN ALBANIA, ITALY, AND FRANCE. 323 
 
 Cascia, are covered with this plant*. " Formerly," 
 he says, " the people derived no other advantage from 
 the shrub than to feed sheep and goats with it, and to 
 heat their stoves and furnaces. But their ingenuity 
 and industry have now made it far more profitable. 
 They steep the twigs for some days in the thermal 
 waters of Bagno a Acqua near Lucca. After this 
 process the bark is easily stript otF, and it is then 
 combed and otherwise treated like flax. It becomes 
 finer than hemp could be made ; it is easily dyed of 
 any colour, and may be used for garments of any 
 kind.f" In the vicinity of Pisa we find that the 
 twigs of the Spanish Broom were in like manner 
 soaked in the thermal waters, and that a coarse cloth 
 was manufactured from the bark, j 
 
 But the manufacture has been carried to a far 
 greater extent in the South of France. In the Jour- 
 nal de Physique, Tom. 30. 4^o. An 1787. p. 294., is 
 a paper by Broussonet Sur la culture et les usages 
 economiques du GenSt d'Espayne. A minute and highly 
 curious account is here given of the mode of prepa- 
 ring the fibres, which is practised by the inhabitants 
 of all the villages in the vicinity of Lodeve in Bas 
 Languedoc. The shrub abounds on the barren hills 
 
 * Trombelli calls the plant Genista, and says it is the kind called 
 by botanists " Genista juncea flore luteo." This is the Spartium 
 Junceum of Linnaeus. See Ray, Catal. Stirp. Europ. and Scopoli, 
 Flora Carniolica, 1772. Tom. i. No. 870. 
 
 t Bononiensis Scientiarum atque Artium Instituti Commentarii, 
 torn. iv. Bonon. 1757. p. 349-351. A similar account of the 
 manufacture of the " Tela di Ginestra " at Bagno a Acqua is given 
 by Mr. John Strange, who says he had sent an account of it to the 
 Society for encouraging Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. Let- 
 tera sopra 1' Origine della carta naturale di Cortona, Pisa 1764. 
 p. 79. 
 
 I Mem. de I'Academie des Sciences, Paris 1763. 
 
324 § 87. THE MANUFACTURE OF BROOM-BARK 
 
 of that region, and all that the people do to favour its 
 growth is to sow the seed in the driest places, where 
 scarce any other plant can vegetate. After being cut, 
 the twigs are dried in the sun, then beaten, macerated 
 in water, and treated in the same way as flax or hemp. 
 The coarser thread is used to make bags for holding 
 the legumes, corn, &c, ; the finer for making sheets, 
 napkins, and shirts. The peasants in this district use 
 no other kind of linen, not being acquainted with the 
 culture either of flax or hemp. The ground is too 
 dry and unproductive to suit these plants. The linen 
 made of the Spanish Broom is as supple as that made 
 from hemp ; it might be even as beautiful as real 
 linen, if more pains were taken with it. It becomes 
 whiter, the oftener it is washed. It is rarely sold, 
 each family making it for its own use. The stalks, 
 after the rind has been separated from them, are tied 
 in small bundles, and sold for lighting fires. They 
 are also used as matches {allumettes) , but are not so 
 good for this purpose as hemp-stalks, although the 
 latter do not make so good a fire. 
 
 Let us now see how far Pliny's account of the 
 Spartum agrees with these representations of the 
 mode of manufacturing Broom-bark. The Spartum, 
 of which he speaks, is " the rush of a dry soil," a 
 description far more applicable to the young twigs of 
 the Spanish Broom than to the grassy stems of the 
 Stipa Tenacissima, or indeed to any other plant. His 
 Spartum was used for making fires and for giving 
 light {hinc ignes facesque), purposes, for which the 
 Stipa Tenacissima is not at all adapted, but to both of 
 which the stems and twdgs of the Spanish Broom are 
 applied. The tender tops of Pliny's Spartum served 
 as food for animals. According to Trombelli sheep 
 
ILLUSTRATES PLINy's ACCOUNT OF SPARTIUM. 325 
 
 and goats feed upon the Spanish Broom in Italy ; but 
 I cannot find that this is the case with the Stipa 
 Tenacissima. Pliny's Spartum, after being steeped 
 in water, was beaten in order to be made useful {Hoc 
 autem tunditur, ut fiat utile) ; and this process was 
 quite necessary in preparing the twigs of Spanish 
 Broom, whereas the Stipa Tenacissima is most com- 
 monly manufactured without going through any such 
 process. Clusius indeed states (/. c), that by mace- 
 rating it in water like flax, and then drying and beating 
 it, the Spaniards of Valencia make a kind of shoes, 
 which they cdXlAlpergates, also cords, and other finer 
 articles ; but, at the same time, he says, that it is 
 made into mats, baskets, ropes, and cables, merely 
 by being dried, platted, and twisted, without any 
 other operation. The same account is given by 
 Townsend, who visited the country as late as 1787, 
 and who further states, that " the esparto rush " had 
 latterly "been spun into fine thread for the purpose 
 of making cloth."*" It seems however, that this had 
 only been done as an experiment, whereas the ac- 
 counts which have been quoted show, that the manu- 
 facture of cloth from broom-bark had been long esta- 
 blished in Albania, Italy, and the South of France. 
 In the latter district more especially, the entire de- 
 pendence of the people on this material as a substitute 
 for flax and hemp, and the primitive mode in which 
 this domestic manufacture was carried on in a retired 
 and mountainous region, seem to indicate the high 
 antiquity of the practice. All the other authors, who 
 mention the use of the Stipa Tenacissima, certainly 
 give little countenance to the idea of its fitness to 
 supply a thread for making cloth. Mr. Carter, adopt- 
 
 * Journey through Spain, vol. iii, p. 129, 130. 
 
32fi § 87. SPARTIUM OF PLINY. 
 
 ing the common opinion that the Spartum of PUny 
 is the Stipa Tenacissima, observes, that " at present 
 the meanest Spaniard would think clothing made 
 from this grass very rough and uncomfortable*/' 
 I shall only quote one other authority, that of Lofling, 
 the favorite pupil of Linnaeus, who became botanist 
 to the King of Spain, and whose Iter Hispanicura 
 {Stockholm, 1758.) relates particularly to the plants 
 of that country. He follows Clusius in supposing 
 the Spartum of Pliny to be the Stipa Tenacissima of 
 Linnaeus. He mentions, that its stem is two or three 
 feet high, and its leaves so long, thin, tough, and 
 convoluted, that they are admirably adapted for the 
 purposes to which they are applied. He adds, " His- 
 panis nominatur Esparto. Usus hujus frequentissi- 
 mus per universam Hispaniam ad storeas ob pavi- 
 menta lateritia per hyemem : ad funes crassiores pro 
 navibus atque corbes et alia utensilia pro transpor- 
 tandis fructibus." (p. 119.) 
 
 Pliny's remark, that the Spartum, of which he 
 speaks, could not be sown {qua non queat seri), is not 
 true of the Spanish Broom ; but it appears to me of 
 little importance in the present inquiry, because it is 
 coupled with the remark, that nothing else could be 
 sown in the same situation {nec aliud ibi seri aut nasci 
 potest) ; a remark, which is totally unfounded in fact. 
 The Spanish Broom would unquestionably be propa- 
 gated by its seed, which is very abundant. 
 
 I have now brought together the facts, on which, I 
 conceive, the reader may form his decision. Notwith- 
 standing the respect due to the authority of Clusius, 
 into which that of all the subsequent writers seems to 
 
 * Carter's Journey, vol. ii. p. 414, 415. 
 
§88.SPART1UM JUNCEUM AND CROTALARIA JUNCEA. 327 
 
 resolve itself, it appears to me that the evidence pre- 
 ponderates against the use of Stipa Tenacissima for 
 making cloth in ancient times, and points to the con- 
 clusion, that the coarse garments, to which Pliny al- 
 ludes, were fahricated from the fibrous rind of Spar- 
 tium Junceum. 
 
 88. I shall not, I trust, be deviating too far from 
 the subject discussed in this Chapter, if I notice the 
 use in another part of the world of a plant, similar to 
 Spartium Junceum, for the same purposes. One of 
 the most interesting facts in the Geography of Plants 
 is the frequent substitution in one country of a plant 
 of a certain natural order for another of the same na- 
 tural order in another country. The Indians have a 
 plant, bearing a very close and striking resemblance 
 to the Spartium Junceum, which they employ just as 
 the natives of Bas Languedoc employ that plant. 1 
 refer to the Crotalaria Juncea, called by the natives 
 Goni, Danapu, or Shanapu, and by the English the 
 Sun-plant, or Indian Hemp*. From the bark are 
 made all kinds of ropes, packing-cloths, sacks, nets, 
 &c. In order to improve the fibre, the plants are 
 sown as close as possible and thus drawn up to the 
 height of about ten feet. According to Dr. Francis 
 Buchanan, the plant thrives best on a poor sandy 
 soil, and requires to be abundantly watered. After 
 being cut down it is spread out to the sun and dried. 
 The seed is beaten out by striking the pods with a 
 stick. After this the stems are tied up in large bun- 
 dles, about 12 feet in circumference, and are pre- 
 served in stacks or under sheds. When wanted, the 
 
 * In Plate VII. a sprig of Crotalaria Juncea is placed by the siJe 
 of a sprig of Spartium Junceum, in order to show their affinit)^ The 
 figure of the former is taken from Curtis's But. Mag. pi. 490. 
 
328 
 
 § 89. ROPES MADE FROM 
 
 stems are macerated during six or eight days. They 
 are known to be ready, when the bark separates easily 
 from the pith. " The plant is then taken out of the 
 water, and a man, taking it up by handfuls, beats 
 them on the ground, and occasionally washes them 
 until they be clean ; and at the same time picks out 
 with his hand the remainder of the pith, until nothing 
 except the bark be left. This is then dried, and being 
 taken up by handfuls, is beaten with a stick to sepa- 
 rate and clean the fibres. The hemp is then com- 
 pletely ready, and is spun into thread on a spindle, 
 both by the men and women. The men alone Aveave 
 it, and perform this labour in the open air with a very 
 rude loom." The fabric made from it is a coarse, but 
 very strong sack-cloth. 
 
 " The fibres, when prepared," says Ironside, " are 
 so similar to hemp, that Europeans generally suppose 
 them to be the produce of the same plant*." 
 
 89. I now return to the genus Spartium for the 
 purpose of noticing some other species, which may 
 perhaps have been used in the same way as the Spar- 
 tium Junceum. 
 
 In the account formerly given of the use of Hempf 
 I have referred to a passage of Moschion, which I 
 
 * Account of the culture and uses of the Son- or Sun-plant of 
 Hindostan by Ironside, in the Phil. Trans., vol. Ixiv. : Dr. F. Bu- 
 chanan's Journey, vol. i. 226, 227. 291. ; vol. ii. 227. 235.: Wissett 
 on Hemp, passim. : Roxburgh's Flora Indica, vol. iii. p. 259 — 263. 
 
 The genus Lupinus {the Lupin), belonging to the same natural 
 order as Spartium and Crotalaria, might probably afford materials 
 of the same kind. I have, observed in one large species, that the 
 fibres of the bark are long, tough, and fine. Mr. Strange {Lettera, 
 &c. p. 70.) mentions the filamentous substance of the Lupin as 
 adapted for making paper. 
 
 t See above, § 78. p. 29-3. 
 
SPARTIUM MONOSPERMUM AND MULTIFLORUM. 329 
 
 shall now quote entire. " Eic (ry^oiv'ia XevKeav (Xev- 
 Kalav al.) iLiev 'I|3r;piac, Kavi'a[5iv 8e /cat TTiTrav e/c tou 
 PoSai'ou TTOTo/tou, Kai raXXn iravTn tu ^pciwS*) TroAAaT^o- 
 
 Oei^ (Tui'/jyaye." Eustatliius quotes this passage in com- . 
 menting on the Odyssey (B. 426. p. 14.53.), and con- 
 jectures, that AevKtia denotes the bark of the White 
 Poplar, resembling that of the Lime ; Ei>j av 'Igmc, 
 Aeu/cea ^epjxa Aeu/crjc, Trapo/nniov tw e/c vpac. 
 
 A chapter in the Onirocritica of Artemidorus (iii. 
 
 60.) is entitled Tlepl XevKeac, /cat Ati'ou, /cat Kavdj3e(oc. 
 
 These three substances are said to forebode the same 
 calamities, viz. imprisonment, torture, &c. having a 
 reference to the nature and uses of the articles them- 
 selves. The title and contents of the chapter show, 
 that Aev/cea was a plant used, as flax and hemp were, 
 for making cordage. The writer speaks first of the 
 AevKea. He refers to the persons employed in manu- 
 facturing it {twv ey^ovTwv aur^C >/ ^t' avryjc Trjv epya- 
 
 a'lav) ; he says, somewhat fancifully, it was beaten, 
 
 put to the torture, and twisted (/cat yap /coTrrerat, Kai 
 (iaaavlterai, /cat /caTaTrAe/cerat) ; and he mentions, that 
 
 it was exported {uvrri yap SunrovTioc Ko/iuterai) . From 
 the nature of his work we may consider this as evi- 
 dence of the use of the term Aeu/cea long before the 
 age of the compiler. The question now is, what 
 plant did it denote ? 
 
 The remark above quoted from Eustathius is evi- 
 dently a mere conjecture. 
 
 Hesychius explains Aeu/cea by the word "E-^olvoc, a 
 term which might be apphed to any rushy or fibrous 
 plant adapted for making ropes. Under the word 
 Moff^aAai' he mentions AeuKii'a a-^owla, which should 
 perhaps be Aeu/ceiVa a'^oivla, " Ropes made of Aeu/cea," 
 
 and in another part of his Lexicon he informs us, that 
 
330 § 89. THE WHITE BROOM CALLED AEYKEA. 
 
 a rope of this kind was called "ElWov. — 'S.lXXov, Aev- 
 Ka'iac a^oiv'iov. In the Glossary of Philoxenus AevKula 
 is interpreted by " Spartum," i. e. Broom*. 
 
 The following observation of Bochart relates to the 
 evidence, which has now been produced : — 
 
 " Candidum fuisse (Spartum) docet Graecum no- 
 men XevKala in Glossis, vel XevKea in Artemidoro et 
 Hesjxhio, ut observavit vir magnus ad Spartianumf." 
 
 Schneider, after quoting the various passages above 
 cited from the ancients J, supposes AevKala or Aeu/cea 
 to have meant the Spanish Broom. But the observa- 
 tion of Bochart, taken by him from Saumaise, seems 
 more correct, that the plant must have been white, 
 and was therefore called AevKala. I see therefore no 
 reason to hesitate in concluding, that the name re- 
 ferred to one or both of the Linnean species, Spartium 
 Monospermum, i. e. The White Single-seeded Broom, 
 and Spartium Multitiorum, i. e. The Portugal White 
 Broom, which are natives of Spain and Portugal, and, 
 having been naturalized in our gardens, are conspi- 
 cuous both in those countries and among us from 
 their great elegance and the profusion of their snow- 
 white blossoms. The Greeks probably included both 
 species under the term AevKula, since the difference 
 between them would not attract their observation, or 
 at least would not be sufficient to obtain for them a 
 distinction of names. These two species grow in the 
 Spanish Peninsula in exactly the same situation with 
 the Spartium Junceum, namely, upon dry barren 
 hills. 
 
 * H. Steph. Thes. ed. Valpy, vol. viii. p. 111. 324. 378. Sal- 
 masii Exercit. Plinianse, p. 644 E. 
 t Geog. Sacra, p. 687. 
 
 X Theophrasti Opp. Lipsise 1818, torn. iii. p. 24. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 The BoXjSoc epto(|)OjOoc. 
 
 90. Theophrastus* gives the following account of 
 a bulbous plant, called by him BoXjSoc epio^opoc,, the 
 root of which supplied materials for weaving: — "It 
 grows in bays (ei/ aiyiaXoTc) , and has the wool under 
 the first coats of the bulb so as to be between the 
 inner eatable part and the outer. Socks and other 
 garments are woven from it. Hence this kind is 
 woolly, and not hairy, like that in India." 
 
 It is difficult to determine what plant is meant, 
 though the description seems accurate and scientific. 
 Billerbeck absurdly supposes it to be Cotton-grassf . 
 By former botanists, men of great eminence, it was 
 supposed to be Scilla Hyacinthoides. Sprengel ob- 
 jects, that this species does not grow in Greece |. Sir 
 James Smith however {article Scilla in Rees's Cyclop.) 
 represents it as growing in Madeira, Portugal, and the 
 Levant. If this account be true, Theophrastus may 
 have been acquainted with it. In another article, 
 Eriophorus, Sir J. Smith doubts whether either Scilla 
 Hyacinthoides or any other bulb produces wool of such 
 quality and in such quantity as to answer the descrip- 
 tion of Theophrastus. But, as I learn from other 
 well-informed botanists, various bulbs have under the 
 
 * Hist. PI. viii. 13. For Pliny's translation of the passage, see 
 Appendix D. t Flora Classica, p. 20. 
 
 I German translation of Theophrastus, Notes, vol. ii. p. 283. 
 
332 § 90. FIBROUS COATS OF BULBS. 
 
 outermost coats a copious tissue of tough fibres, fully 
 sufficient to be employed in weaving. This is parti- 
 cularly the case with the genera Amaryllis, Crinum, 
 and Pancratium, as well as S cilia. The fibrous coats 
 serve as a protection to the interior and more vital 
 parts of the bulb. 
 
 HofFmansegg and Link, who travelled in Portugal, 
 in the description of Scilla Hyacinthoides, say, " Bul- 
 bus tomento viscoso tectus"^." 
 
 Sonnini says of the Scilla Maritima, " The Greeks 
 of the Archipelago call it Kourvara-skilla, kourvara 
 signifying properly ' a tuft of thread ' {peloton de 
 filj)." Does this refer to the fibres mentioned by 
 Theophrastus ? The size of this bulb, which is the 
 common squill, used in pharmacy, seems to favour 
 this supposition. It is often as large as a man's 
 head I . Hofi'mansegg and Link§ say it grows abun- 
 dantly on barren hills in Spain and Portugal ; but 
 add, "The name maritima is not quite proper: for 
 the plant is seldom met with near the sea-shore, and 
 sometimes very remote from it." On the other hand, 
 it must have been so called, because it was reported 
 by others to grow on the sea-shore ; and Sir James 
 Smith (m Rees's Cyclopedia) expressly states, that it 
 grows on " sandy shores." Redoute says the same. 
 
 From the account of Pancratium by Sir James Ed- 
 ward Smith {inRees's Cyclop.), we learn that two spe- 
 cies grow in Greece, viz. P. Maritimum and Illyricum. 
 
 * Annals of Botany, by Konig and Sims, Lond. 1805, vol. i. 
 p. 101. 
 
 t Voyage en Grece, torn. i. ch. 14. p. 295. 
 
 X " Bulbus ovatus, tunicatus, crassitie fere capitis humani." Des- 
 fontaines' Flora Atlantica, torn. i. p. 297. 
 § An. of Bot. vol. i. p. 101. 
 
THE B0AB02 EPIO*OPOS. 
 
 333 
 
 The remarks now offered appear to prove, that there 
 certainly may have been a bulb, such as Theophrastus 
 describes, though we have not sufficient information 
 to decide its genus and species. I think, it may have 
 been the Scilla Maritima. 
 
 It is to be observed, that he refers also to an Indian 
 bulb, having similar properties. Perhaps he alluded 
 to some plant of a kind similar to Agave Vivipara, 
 the leaves of which are extensively used in India for 
 making cordage*. 
 
 * Dr. F. Buchanan's Journey in Mysore, &c. i. p. 36. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 91. Certain raw materials were in ancient times 
 characteristic of particular nations. Wool was prin- 
 cipally used for weaving in Palestine and Syria, in 
 Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and Spain ; hemp in the 
 Northern countries of Europe ; flax in Egypt ; silk in 
 the central regions of Asia*. In like manner cotton 
 has always been characteristic of India. We find this 
 circumstance distinctly noticed by Herodotus. (L. iii. 
 c. 106.) Among the valuable products, for which 
 India (rj 'Iv^ikii) was remarkable, he states, that "the 
 wild trees in that country bear fleeces as their fruit, 
 surpassing those of sheep in beauty and excellence ; 
 and the Indians use cloth made from these trees." In 
 the same book (c. 47.) Herodotus mentions, that the 
 thorax or cuirass sent by Amasis, king of Egypt, to 
 Sparta, was " adorned with gold and with fleeces from 
 
 trees" {KeKoajuLV/J.ei'OV^pvaw Kai eipioiai airo ^uXov). TheSC 
 
 substances were perhaps used in the woof to form the 
 figures {toia) , which were woven into the thorax ; but 
 it appears equally probable, that the gold only was 
 thus employed, the cotton being used as an inside 
 lining or stufling : and in this case it is possible, that 
 the down of the Bombax Ceiba, a tree allied to the 
 Cotton-plant {Gossypium) , may have been used, since, 
 
 * See the Map at p. 250. 
 
§91. COTTON MENTIONED BY HERODOTUS, ETC. 335 
 
 though not fitted for spinning or weaving, it has long 
 been used in India for the stuffing of pillows and similar 
 purposes, and would be included under the phrase em- 
 ployed by Herodotus, " ivooV or " fleeces from trees." 
 The thorax may have been made in Egypt ; but the 
 materials, used to enrich it, were probably imported : 
 for we have no proof, that either gold or cotton of 
 anjr kind was found in that country as a native pro- 
 duct in the time of Amasis. 
 
 Ctesias, the contemporary of Herodotus, seems also 
 to have known the fact of the use of a kind of wool, 
 the produce of trees, for spinning and weaving among 
 the Indians. He mentions their ^vXiva iixaria*. This 
 expression might denote not merely cotton cloths, but 
 those made from the bark of Malvaceous trees, such 
 as the Hibiscus. (See above, § 81. p. 304.) But that 
 ^vXiva i/jiaria was meant by Ctesias to include cotton 
 cloths, if not to refer exclusively to them, may be in- 
 ferred from the testimony of Varro, as we find it in 
 Servius {Comm. in Virgilii JE71. i. 649.) " Ctesias ait 
 in India esse arbores, quae lanam ferant." 
 
 92. The expedition of Alexander the Great into In- 
 dia contributed to make the Greeks better acquainted 
 than before with cotton. Hence it is distinctly men- 
 tioned by Theophrastus, the disciple of Aristotle. He 
 says {Hist. PI. iv. c. 4. p. 132. ed. Schneider), "The 
 trees, from which the Indians make cloths (ra i/uana), 
 have a leaf like that of the Black Mulberry (rp rrvKa- 
 n'lvio) ; but the whole plant resembles the dog-rose 
 {Kvvnpo^ov). They set them in the plains arranged in 
 rows, so as to look hke vines at a distance," In a 
 succeeding part of the same book (c. 7. p. 143, 144. ed. 
 
 * Indica, as quoted by Photius, § 22. Ctesiae Fragmenta, p. 253. 
 ed. Bahr. 
 
336 § 91. ACCOUNT OF COTTON BY THEOPHRASTUS, 
 
 Schneider) he notices the growth of cotton, not only 
 in India, but in Arabia, and in the island called Ty- 
 los, which he places in the Arabian Gulf, although it 
 was probably in the Persian Gulf, near the Arabian 
 coast*. According to his account in the latter pas- 
 sage, " The wool-bearing trees (ra ^evSpa tu epio<p6pa), 
 which grew abundantly in this island, had a leaf like 
 that of the vine, but smaller ; they bore no fruit, but the 
 capsule, containing the wool, was, when closed, about 
 the size of a quince du^Xof eapivov), when ripe, it ex- 
 panded so as to emit the wool, which was woven into 
 cloths {(TivSoi^ac) , either cheap, or of great value." 
 
 Sprengel in his German translation (p. 150. vol. ii.) 
 supposes the Broussonetia Papyrifera to be meant in 
 the former passage. But he gives no good reason for 
 this supposition, and he admits, that the Broussonetia 
 Papyrifera grows in China, not in India. The expres- 
 sion of Theophrastus, ujanep eXey^Ori, which he employs 
 in the latter passage (c. 9. p. 144. ed. Schneider) , clearly 
 proves, that he is speaking of the same plant in both 
 passages, and Sprengel himself {p. 164.) supposes the 
 Gossypium Arboreum of Linnaeus, the Cotton Tree, 
 to be meant in the latter, though not in the former. 
 The description of Theophrastus is remarkably exact, 
 if we consider it as applying, not to the Cotton Tree 
 {Gossypium Arhoreum) , but to the Cotton Plant (G. Her- 
 baceum), from which the chief supply of cotton for 
 spinning and weaving into cloth has always been ob- 
 tained. In its mode of growth this plant may well be 
 likened to the Dog-rose. To show the resemblance of 
 its leaf to that of the Black Mulberry, the forms of both 
 are here shown in juxta-position, together with the 
 
 * See the Map, p. 250. Bochart, Geogr. Sacra, p. 76G. Cadomi, 
 16.51. Heeren, Ideen, i. 2. p. 214—219. 
 
I 
 
93. ACCOUNTS BY ARISTOBULUS AND NEARCHUS. 337 
 
 capsule or pericarp, containing the cotton. (See Plate 
 VIII.) It will be observed, that the leaf of the Black 
 Mulberry differs little, if at all, from some varieties of 
 the Vine, and in the second passage Theophrastus 
 compares the leaf of the plant which he is describing, 
 with the leaf of the Vine. His remark relative to the 
 mode of cultivation is also exactly applicable to the 
 Cotton Plant, which is set in rows, so that a field of it 
 resembles a vineyard, when seen from a distance. 
 
 93. Aristobulus, one of Alexander's generals, made 
 mention of this plant under the name of the Wool- 
 bearing Tree, and stated that its capsule contained 
 seeds, which were taken out, and that what remained 
 was combed like wool*. 
 
 The testimony of Nearchus, who was the admiral of 
 Alexander, is also preserved to the following effect ; 
 " that there were in India trees bearing, as it were, 
 flocks or bunches of wool {olairep ToXynac) ; that the 
 natives made linen garments of it, wearing a shirt, 
 which reached to the middle of the leg, a sheet folded 
 about the shoulders, and a turban rolled round the 
 head ; and that the linen made by them from this 
 substance was fine and whiter than any otherf . It is 
 to be observed, that Nearchus, or rather the two later 
 authors who quote him, viz. Arrian and Strabo, use 
 the terms for linen in a general sense, as including all 
 fine light cloths made of vegetable substances J. In 
 Strabo we find the cloths under consideration called 
 
 Tac evriTp'iovQ ffifSocac. 
 
 We read in the account of India by Pomponius 
 
 * Strabo, L. XV. c. 1. Vol. VI. p. 43. ed. Siebenkees. 
 t See above, § 65. p. 254. Also the following remarks on Mela, 
 I ArrianiRer. Indie, p. 522. 539. ed. Blancardi. Strabo, L. XV. 
 c. 1. Vol. VI. p. 40. ed. Sieb. 
 
 Z 
 
338 § 93. FURTHER TESTIMONIES RESPECTING 
 
 Mela (L. III. c. 7.), that the woods produced wool, 
 used by the natives for clothing. He distinctly men- 
 tions the use of flax likewise ; " Lino alii vestiuntur, 
 aut lanis, quas diximus ; alii avium ferarumque pel- 
 libus." It has been conjectured, that he may have 
 taken this account from Nearchus, or some other 
 Greek, who employed AtVw in its wide sense, and 
 that he may have intended to speak only of the use 
 of cotton. But in reply to this it is to be observed, 
 that Pomponius Mela here mentions flax in opposition 
 to cotton, and that his assertion, so understood, was 
 probably true, since we have other evidence to show 
 that flax grows in India as well as cotton.* Neverthe- 
 less it seems necessary to understand other authors 
 of the same period as meaning cotton by the term 
 \lvov, or linum. Thus Dionysius Periegetes (/. 1116), 
 speaking of the employments of the Indians, says, 
 01 Se larovc iKpowai Xivepyeac, which probably meant 
 " some weave mushns." In the same manner we 
 must interpret the assertion of Quintus Curtius, 
 " Terra lini ferax, unde plerisque sunt vestes ; " i. e. 
 The land produces flax, from which the greater part 
 obtain garments. Soon after this Curtius says in 
 terms more strictly proper, 
 
 Corpora usque pedes carbaso velant, soleis pedes, capita linteis 
 vinciunt. 
 
 They cover their bodies from head to foot with carhasus ; they 
 bind shoes about their feet, linen cloths about their heads. 
 
 Again, speaking of the dress of the King, he says, 
 
 Distincta sunt auro et purpura carbasa, quae indutus est. 
 L. VIII. 9. 
 
 The carbasa which he wore, were spotted with purple and gold. 
 
 * See above, § 71. p. 275, 276. 
 
THE USE OF COTTON IN INDIA. 
 
 339 
 
 In like manner, Lucan, describing the Indian nations, 
 says, 
 
 Quique bibunt tenera dulces ab arundine succos, 
 Et qui, tingentes croceo medicamine crinem, 
 Fluxa coloratis adstringunt carbasa gemmis. 
 
 L. III. V. 239. 
 
 Who drink sweet juices from the tender cane, 
 With dyes of crocus stain their hair, and fix 
 With colour'd gems the flowing carbasus. 
 
 Strabo says, (L. XV. c. 1. vol. VI. p. 153. ed. Sieb.) 
 
 'Iv^ovs effdrjri XevKrj ^ijadai, Kai aivloffi XevKais Kai KapTraffois. 
 
 That the Indians use white raiment, and fine white cloths and 
 carpasa. 
 
 Also the Peri plus of the Erythrean Sea states, that 
 the region about the Gulf of Barygaza in India was 
 productive " of Carpasus and of the fine Indian cloths 
 made of it." * These were what we now call India 
 
 muslins. The ^ivSovec SiaCpopwraTai at TayyaTiKai Ae- 
 
 yofievai, mentioned at the end of the Periplus (p. 177.), 
 "can be nothing," observes Dr. Vincent, "but the 
 finest Bengal muslins." These muslins, as we learn 
 from the same authority, were imported into Egypt, 
 and accordingly Pacatus f represents Antony's army 
 as wearing cotton in that country, " Vix leve car- 
 basum vitando sole tolerantes," i. e. " Contriving to 
 bear a light carbasum, or muslin, by avoiding the 
 sun." 
 
 94. The term carbasus, carbasum, or Kapirnarov, 
 is evidently used by the five last-cited authors to sig- 
 nify cotton ; for they employ it in describing the 
 common dress of the Indians. As the Greeks and 
 
 * KapTrdffov, cat tuSv e| avTrjs 'IvhiKuv odoviwv. Arriani 0pp. 
 Y. II. p. 165. ed. Blancard. 
 t Paneg. Theodosii, c. 33. 
 
 z 2 
 
340 § 94. COTTON KNOWN BEFORE SILK, AND 
 
 Romans became acquainted with cotton mucii earlier 
 than with silk, we find that carpas, the proper 
 Oriental name for cotton, was also in use among 
 them at a comparatively early period ; and we shall 
 now endeavour to trace the progress of this term 
 from India Westward, With little variation it is 
 found in the same sense in the Sanscrit, Arabic, and 
 Persic languages*. 
 
 Tliis word occurs once in the Hebrew Scriptures, 
 viz. Esther, i. 6., and there evidently as a foreign 
 term. The hangings, used to decorate the court of 
 the royal palace at Susa on occasion of the great 
 feast given by Ahasuerus, are thus described in the 
 common version of the Scriptures: — "Where were 
 w^hite, green, and blue hangings, fastened with cords 
 of fine linen and purple to silver rings and pillars of 
 marble : the beds were of gold and silver upon a 
 pavement of red and blue and white and black mar- 
 ble." The word, corresponding to ''green" in the 
 original is Carpas (DD"lD). It has been translated 
 " green " by the authors of the common version on 
 the authority of the Chaldee Paraphrase. But the 
 true sense appears to be given by the Septuagint and 
 Vulgate translations, which are as follows ; KeKoajuv- 
 
 fievrj (5vaaivoic kui Kapnaalvoic TeTaiJ.evoic iiri (J-^o'ivioic 
 
 l^vaa'ivotc Kai irop^vpoic, &c. " Pendebaut ex omni 
 parte tentoria aerii coloris, et carhasini ac hyacin- 
 thini, sustentata funibus byssinis atque purpureis." 
 This account may be compared with that of the feast 
 given by Alexander to celebrate his nuptials. (Chares 
 
 * Celsii Hierobot. vol. II. p. 159. Sir W. Jones, in As. Re- 
 searches, vol. IV. p. 226. London Edition. Schlegel, Indische 
 Bibliotek, II. p. 393. E. F. K. Rosenmiiller, Biblische Alterthums- 
 kunde, 4. 1. p. 173. 
 
CALLED CARPASUS, CARPASUM, CARBASUM, ETC. 341 
 
 ap. Athen. L. XII. 9. p. 538. D.) On this occa- 
 sion the place of entertainment was sumptuously 
 adorned with woollen cloths and with sheets (i'/uot/oig 
 Kai odovioiQ TroAuTeAeCTtr). Under these were expanded 
 purple and scarlet cloths interwoven with gold. The 
 tent was supported by pillars twenty cubits high, 
 which were enriched with gold, silver, and precious 
 stones. 
 
 The earliest instance of the use of the oriental name 
 in any classical author is the line, which I formerly 
 quoted (§ 83. ^. 308.) from Statins : 
 
 " Carbasina, molochina, ampelina." 
 
 As these words are all three Greek, and the play, in 
 which the verse occurred, was also called by a Greek 
 name, we cannot doubt, that Statius translated it ac- 
 cording to his usual custom from one of the writers of 
 the New Comedy. We may therefore infer with some 
 confidence from this expression, that the Greeks made 
 use of muslins or calicos, or at least of cotton cloths 
 of some kind, which were brought from India as early 
 as 200 years B.C. 
 
 After some time the oriental custom of using cotton 
 as a protectiori from the sun's rays was adopted also 
 by the Romans. Cotton was not only a cheaper and 
 commoner article than silk, but it was particularly 
 adapted for this purpose on account of its lightness, 
 as well as its beauty and fineness ; and, besides the 
 instance already cited from the book of Esther, we 
 may observe also, that where the Latin authors men- 
 tion the use of " Carbasa," it is sometimes for pur- 
 poses of this kind, " Tabernacula carbaseis intenta 
 
342 § 94. COTTON AWNINGS USED BY THE ROMANS. 
 
 velis," i. e. " Tents with coverings of cotton," were 
 among the expensive novelties which contributed to 
 the luxury of Verres, when Pr8etor in Sicily*. The 
 same species of ornament was first displayed at Rome 
 in the magnificent sedileship of P. Lentulus Spinther, 
 at the Apollinarian games and in the year 63 B.C.f ; 
 and to this circumstance Lucretius apparently refers 
 (vi. 108.), when he is theorizing on the cause of thun- 
 der, and compares the clouds spread over the sky to 
 the awnings of calico, which veiled the theatres and 
 sheltered the spectators from the sun : 
 
 Carbasus ut quondam magnis intenta theatris 
 Dat crepitum, malos inter jactata trabeisque. 
 
 As flaps the cotton, spread above our heads 
 In the vast theatres from mast to beam. 
 
 We now find frequent mention of cotton by the 
 poets of the Augustan age and by many subsequent 
 writers. As in the case of silk, these authors intro- 
 duce cotton, not only historically, but for the purpose 
 of embellishment ; and, considering Carbasus as a 
 poetical term, they often by a catachresis employ it 
 where they mean to speak of linen. Also, as was 
 before observed in regard to silk (§ 42.), it may like- 
 wise be noticed here, that the wars against Mithri- 
 dates and the Parthians may have contributed to make 
 
 * This vi^as about the year 70 B.C. Cic. in Verrem, Act. ii. I. v. 
 c. 12. 
 
 t Pliny, xix. 1 s. 6. Pliny here says, that he used them to cover 
 the theatre. See Appendix D, p. 462. 
 
CARBASUS APPLIED TO LINEN. 
 
 343 
 
 the Romans familiar with the use of cotton, although 
 their chief supply of it was more probably through 
 Egypt, than through Persia and Babylonia. 
 
 Catullus (64.), speaking of the black sail which 
 ^geus furnished for the ship of his son Theseus, calls 
 it "Carbasus Ibera," " an Iberian sail." As, on the 
 one hand, he here uses the proper term for cotton 
 without intending to describe the sail as cotton, so on 
 the other hand he calls the sail Iberian merely because 
 Iberia was a country adjoining Colchis, and from Col- 
 chis the Greeks and Romans obtained a great supply 
 of flax and sail-cloth. {See above, § 72.) 
 
 TiBULLUs, or Lygdamus, entreats (iii. 2. 17.), in 
 the contemplation of his death and funeral, that after 
 his bones have been washed, first with wine, and then 
 with milk, they may be dried " carbaseis velis," with 
 linen napkins. Although he uses the proper term for 
 cotton, he probably did not intend to denote any pre- 
 ference for cotton rather than linen. His bones, after 
 being wiped, were to be deposited in a marble urn. 
 
 Propertius seems to have aimed at a display of 
 knowledge on these subjects {see above, § 42.) ; and in 
 the following passage (iv. 3.) he probably used Car- 
 basa in its proper sense, as he is referring to Eastern 
 habits : 
 
 Raptave odorato carbasa Una duci. 
 
 Muslins taken among the spoils from a scented general. 
 
 In the last Elegy of the same Book he refers to the 
 story of the young Vestal virgin, who, when the flame 
 was extinguished upon the altar committed to her 
 care, and when the scourge appeared to await her for 
 her neglect, threw upon the ashes a fillet of muslin 
 from her head, and saved her life by its ignition, which 
 
344 § 94. MUSLIN FILLET OF THE VESTAL VIRGIN. 
 
 ■was supposed to be effected by the favour of the god- 
 dess : 
 
 Vel cui, commissos cum Vesta reposceret ignes, 
 
 Exhibuit vivos carbasus alba focos. 
 The fire had died, and Vesta urged her claim, 
 When the white cotton show'd a living flame. 
 
 The story is related by Valerius Maximus (i. 7.). 
 Although we are not informed of the date of the 
 event, it appears from his language that the fillet was 
 of fine muslin : " Cum carbasum, quam optimum habe- 
 hat, foculo imposuisset, subito ignis emicuit." This 
 description is well suited to the nature of cotton, than 
 which nothing was more easily ignited. 
 
 The passage in Virgil's Georgics, which mentions 
 cotton, has been already quoted (§42. p. 179.). By 
 the Ethiopians, whose groves were " white with soft 
 wool," he probably intended those of Arabia ; and we 
 may suppose him to have referred to accounts, not so 
 much of the Gossypium Herbaceum, to which the 
 word "groves" (nemora) would not apply, as to 
 groves of Gossypium Arboreum and Bombyx Ceiba. 
 In the following passages of the iEneid he mentions 
 cotton under its proper name, though probably not 
 intending to distinguish accurately between cotton 
 and linen, and only using the term for the sake of 
 ornament : — 
 
 Jamque dies, alterque dies processit, et aurse 
 
 Vela vocant, tumidoque inflatur carbasus austro. iii. 356. 
 
 Two days were past, and now the southern gales 
 Call us aboard, and stretch the swelling sails. 
 
 Pitt's Translation, 
 
 Vocat jam carbasus auras ; 
 Puppibus et laeti nautae imposuere coronas, iv. 417. 
 The flapping sail invites the gales ; the poops 
 By the glad seamen are already crown'd. 
 
LINEN SAILS, ETC. CALLED CARBASA. 345 
 
 Eum {fluvium Tiberim) tenuis glauco velabat amictu 
 Carbasus, et crines umbrosa tegebat arundo. viii. 33. 
 
 Thin muslin veils him with its sea-green folds ; 
 His head a copious shade of reeds sustains. 
 
 Tum croceam chlamydem, sinusque crepantes 
 Carbaseos fulvo in nodum collegerat auro. xi. 775. 
 
 His saffron chlamys, and each rustling fold 
 Of muslin was confined with glittering gold. 
 
 This last passage is part of the description of the at- 
 tire of Chloreus, the Phrygian, whose mushn chlamys 
 may have rustled in consequence of being interwoven 
 with gold. 
 
 Ovid. 
 
 Totaque malo 
 
 Carbasa deducit, venientesque excipit auras. Met. xi. 477. 
 
 The active seamen now unfurl the sails, 
 
 And spread them wide to catch the coming gales. 
 
 Carbasa mota sonant, jubet uti navita ventis. xiii. 420. 
 The flapping sails resound ; the captain bids advance. 
 
 Cum dabit auraviam, prsebebis carbasa ventis. Epist.Vn. 171. 
 When the gale favours, give the wind your sails. 
 
 Sed uon, quo dederas a litore carbasa, vento 
 
 Utendum, medio cum potiare freto. Art. Am. ii. 357. 
 
 The wind to which you give your sails on shore, 
 In the mid ocean will assist no more. 
 
 Dumque parant torto subducere carbasa lino. Fast. iii. 587. 
 They now with twisted ropes let down the sails. 
 
 In all these passages Ovid uses carbasa in the impro- 
 per sense : it was an easy transition from the idea of 
 a cotton awning, with which the Romans had become 
 familiar, to apply the same term to the sail of a ship. 
 
346 § 94. CARBASUS, CARPASUS, ETC. 
 
 To these examples we may add the following : 
 
 Et sequitur curvus fugientia carbasa delphin. 
 
 Seneca, (Ed. ii. prope fin. 
 The dolphin curved pursues the flying sails. 
 
 Strictaque pendentes deducunt carbasa nautae. Lucan, ii. 697. 
 
 The mariners confine the sails with cords. 
 
 And, clinging to the mast, they take them down. 
 
 Recto deprendit carbasa malo. ix. 324. 
 
 The mast stands upright ; he takes down the sails. 
 
 Jamque adeo egressi steterant in littore primo, 
 Et promota, ratis pendentibus arbore nautis, 
 Aptabant sensim pulsanti carbasa vento. 
 
 SiLius Italicus. Pun. iii. 128. 
 They leave the port and reach the shore : aloft 
 They hang upon the mast, and by degrees 
 They fit the sails to catch the beating wind. 
 
 Festinant trepidi substringere carbasa nautse. 
 
 Martial, xii. ep. 29. 
 The trembling seamen haste to reef their sails. 
 
 Primae, carbasa ventUantis, aurse. Statius, Sylv. iv. 3. 106. 
 Of the first gale, which breathes upon the sails. 
 
 Statius also mentions " Carbasei sinus," the folds of 
 cotton in the chlamys of a Bacchanal (TAe5. vii.658.). 
 
 .^stives penetrent oneraria carbasa fluctus. Rutilius, i. 221. 
 
 Postquam tua carbasa vexit — Oceanus. Val. Flaccus, i. 
 
 Necdum alias viderunt carbasa terrae. Ibid. 
 
 Valerius Flaccus also introduces muslin among 
 the elegances in the dress of a Phrygian from the river 
 Rhyndacus. His description accords remarkably with 
 that of Virgil, which has been already in part quoted 
 {p. 345.), and which relates to another individual from 
 the same country. 
 
APPLIED TO THE SAILS OF SHIPS. 
 
 347 
 
 Tenuia non ilium candentis carbasa lini, 
 
 Non auro depicta chlamys, non flava galeri 
 
 Caesaries, pictoque juvant subtemine braccae. vi. 228. 
 
 No aid to him his chlamys white as snow, 
 Muslin with gold eniich'd, his yellow curls 
 Of artificial hair, and figured pantaloons. 
 
 Also Prudentius, the Christian poet, in an elaborate 
 account of Pride, depicts her in a garment of the same 
 kind : 
 
 Carbasea ex humeris summo collecta coibat 
 
 Palla sinu, teretem nectens a pectore nodum. Psychom. 186. 
 
 A muslin kerchief by a knot compress'd, 
 
 Pass'd o'er her shoulders, and adorn'd her breast. 
 
 Tanta tamque multiplici fertilitate abundat rerum omnium Cy- 
 prus, ut nullius externi indigens adminiculi, indigenis viribus, a 
 fundamento ipso carinse ad supremos usque carbasos aedificet one- 
 rariam navem, omnibusque armamentis instructam mari committat. 
 — Amm. Marcellinus, xiv. 8. 
 
 Apuleius, in a passage formerly quoted 44. 
 p. 191.), mentions carbasina in conjunction with bom- 
 bycina and other kinds of cloth. He may conse- 
 quently be presumed to use the word in its proper 
 sense, to wit, as denoting calico or muslin. In the 
 same manner cotton is distinguished from silk by Si- 
 DONius Apollinaris, as above quoted (§ 54. p. 228.). 
 Also we may presume that cotton and not linen sails 
 are to be understood in the following line of Avienus : 
 
 Si tamen in Boream flectantur carbasa cymbse. 
 
 Descr. Orbis, 799. 
 
 Here the writer not only professes to give geogra- 
 phical information, but he is describing the Indian 
 seas and islands ; and as in the present day, so also 
 in ancient times, the sails used in the navigation of 
 those seas were probably made of cotton. 
 
348 § 95. TESTIMONY OF PLINY AND 
 
 Strabo uses the word Kapiraalvai in describing the 
 official dress of a certain class of priestesses among 
 the Cimbri^. Although it is possible, that muslin 
 may have been conveyed to them to be used on so- 
 lemn occasions, it appears more probable that fine 
 linen or cambric, which was manufactured at no great 
 distance among the Atrebates {see above, ^ 76.), ought 
 here to be understood. 
 
 95. Pliny mentions cotton in four different pas- 
 sages of his Natural History, supposing those passages 
 to be genuine. I intend to produce and examine them 
 critically in Appendix D. Two of them are translated 
 with some inaccuracies from the passages of Theo- 
 phrastus, to which I have already referred. To his 
 translation of one of these passages Pliny annexes the 
 remark, derived perhaps from some other source, that 
 the inhabitants of Tylos called their Cotton Trees 
 gossympins, and that an island which was called the 
 smaller Tylos, distant ten miles, was still more fertile 
 in cotton than the larger island of the same name. 
 
 The third passage introduces cotton under its pro- 
 per name, Carbasa (ibi primiim carbasis repertis). It 
 would imply that cotton was first grown or manu- 
 factured at Tarraco in Spain, than which assertion 
 nothing can be more inaccurate and groundless. 
 
 The fourth passage is also contrary to all previous 
 evidence, inasmuch as it represents cotton to be the 
 native growth of Egypt. It calls the Cotton Plant 
 
 * Kapwaaiyas €<paTrriSas eTrnreTropTrrjuevat L. vii. cap. 2. § 3. p. 336. 
 ed. Siebenkees. 
 
 In treating of Asbestos, Book III. Chapter I., I shall mention some 
 cases of the appUcation of the epithet Carpasinus to that substance. 
 Solinus {Polyhistor. c. 17.) applies the term " Carbasa" to the As- 
 bestine cloth of Carystus in EubcEa. Pliny's assertion respecting the 
 invention of Carbasa in Spain will be noticed in the next section. 
 
JULIUS POLLUX CONSIDERED. 
 
 349 
 
 gossypion, and hence the name has been given to it by 
 modern botanists. Supposing this last passage to be 
 genuine, still we know not on what authority Pliny 
 depended, or from what source he derived his in- 
 formation, nor can we tell to what extent he allowed 
 himself to be inaccurate in transcribing or translating. 
 Taken by itself therefore, it appears to me that this 
 passage is no better proof of the growth of cotton an- 
 ciently in Egypt than the third passage is of its first 
 discovery in Spain. 
 
 The passage in question seems however deserving 
 of more consideration, when taken in conjunction 
 with the following from the Onomasticon of Julius 
 Pollux, who wrote 100 years later than Pliny: — 
 
 Kat fir]^ Ka\ ra j3vaatya' ical ^ jjvfforos Xh'ov Ti eiSos Trap"lvcols' i'jdri 
 Kal Trap AlyvTrriois airo ^iiXov ri epiov yiyi'erai, e| ov Trjv eadrjra 
 \ivov {Xiv(p conj.) av Tis fidWov (pair] TrpoaeoiKevai, TrXrjv rov trd'^ovs, 
 en yap ■Ka-^vrepa. Tw cevhpif Kapiros eTTKpverai, Kapva> fidXurra irpod- 
 eoiKtos, rpnrXu rrji' ciafvaiu. jjs Siaaraarjs, eireiSdv avavOrj ro ojawep 
 Kapvov, evcoQev eEmpe'irai to wairep epiov, a(f ov KpoKr] yiyrerai, rov 
 Se oTrifxova vipidTaaiv avT<5 Xirovv. L. vii. cap. 17. § 75. 
 
 I have already had occasion to observe, that the first 
 part of this passage ought to be corrected by placing 
 a period after elSoc, and by reading irapd 'IrSoTc in- 
 stead of Trap' 'Ivlolc (§ 71 p. 274. and Appendix E.). I 
 now add, that, if we omit the clause, n^x] Kal Trap' 
 Ai-yuTTTi'otc, the passage will be in accordance with all 
 the evidence, (except that of the extraordinary passage 
 of Pliny,) which we possess upon the subject. I shall 
 however, as above stated, defer the critical examination 
 of this question, and consider it in a separate Appen- 
 dix devoted to Julius Pollux. Retaining the clause 
 for the present, and only adopting the correction 
 which has been already sanctioned by Vossius and 
 
350 § 95. SUMMARY OF KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANCIENTS. 
 
 Celsius, I offer the following translation with a few 
 remarks : 
 
 There are also Byssina; and Byssus, a kind of flax. But among 
 the Indians, and now also among the Egyptians, a sort of wool is 
 obtained from a tree. The cloth made from this wool may be com- 
 pared to linen, except that it is thicker. The tree produces a fruit 
 most nearly resembling a walnut, but three-cleft. After the outer 
 covering, which is like a walnut, has divided and become dry, the 
 substance resembling wool is extracted and is used in the manufac- 
 ture of cloth for the woof, the warp being linen. 
 
 The description here given of the Cotton Tree or 
 Cotton Plant, whichever was meant, is remarkably 
 correct ; indeed more correct than any account ob- 
 tained since the time of the expedition of Alexander. 
 The circumstance of the pericarp being three-cleft is 
 agreeable to the fact, and is not noticed by any earlier 
 writer. The comparison of it to a walnut in regard 
 to size and form is also accurate. See the figure of 
 the capsule, when burst, in Plate VIII. From this 
 account, and from those of Theophrastus, Aristobulus, 
 and Nearchus, we gather the following particulars, 
 which are agreeable to the fact : that the cotton-plants 
 are set in the plains, and in rows like vines ; that the 
 plant is three or four feet high, and is branched, spread- 
 ing, and flexible, like a dog-rose ; that the leaf is 
 palmated like that of the vine ; that the capsule is 
 three-valved, about the size of a walnut, and, when it 
 bursts, emits the cotton, resembling flocks of wool, 
 in which the seeds are imbedded. 
 
 On the other hand, we have had no previous evi- 
 dence respecting the use of cotton in the manufacture 
 of cloth for the woof only, and I much doubt whether 
 this piece of information is correct, because we have 
 no reason to suppose that cotton was used for wea- 
 ving in any country in which flax was also spun and 
 
§96. TERTULLIAN. PHILOSTRATUS. 351 
 
 woven. I shall in the Appendix (D and E) produce 
 reasons for believing, that cotton was not cultivated 
 at all in Egypt in ancient times. 
 
 96. I have had frequent occasion to cite the third 
 Chapter of Tertullian's treatise De Pallio, inasmuch 
 as he there enumerates nearly all the raw materials 
 which were spun for weaving. He mentions the class 
 of vegetable substances (cotton and flax) in the fol- 
 lowing terms : 
 
 Et arbusta vestiunt, et lini herbida post virorem lavacro ni- 
 vescunt. 
 
 Both thickets supply clothing ; and crops of flax, after being green, 
 are rendered by washing white as snow. 
 
 Philostratus, who wrote in the third century, 
 makes distinct mention of cotton in two passages, 
 which I shall now produce. 
 
 SroXjjr ce eiyai ro7s fierd rdi' 'Iv^oi' \ivov (jyamv ey^wplov, Kai viro- 
 Srifiara flvfoXov, /cat Kvi'ijv oirore voi' Ka't f3vaa<S tovs (paveptoTepovs 
 avTuy (pairiv ecr-aXdai. Ti)y Ce fovaaov (bvetrOai ^ev^pov (j>atTiy, o^olov fxev 
 
 XevK^ r^v jGa'ffiv, TrapanXrimov Se rrj Irea to. ireraXa. Kal riaOrjyai 
 ^vaata ^ria'iv 6 ' k-KoXXtovios, e-n-eiCrj eoiKe (paM Tpifitovi, Kai es AiyvTr- 
 Tov 8e el 'Ivouii' es ttoXXo. Tuiy lepwv (poiTo. jj (jvtraos. Vita Apollonii, 
 I. ii. cap. 20. 
 
 It seems to me impossible to make a consistent sense 
 from the description of the cotton-tree here given. 
 Perhaps the genuine reading may have been, o^otou 
 
 fiev Xeu/cp TO. TreraAa, TrajoaTrArjcrtoi; irea rr\v (^a- 
 
 a\v, i.e. " with leaves like the white poplar, but re- 
 sembling the withy in its general appearance." Un- 
 less this was what Philostratus wrote, we must sup- 
 pose hira to have been ignorant of the nature of the 
 plant which he wished to describe. 
 
 The other passage contains no additional informa- 
 tion. The author is giving an account of the Brach- 
 
352 § 97. USE OF COTTON BY THE ARABIANS. 
 
 mans, and says, that their feet are naked, that they 
 wear a white turban {n'lTpav XevKnv), and that their 
 dress resembles the 'E^wjuJc and is made of cotton, 
 which he thus describes : 
 
 'H re vXt) Tr~]S ladqTos epwy avTofves (o) »/ yrj <pv€i, XevKoy fiey 
 wairep roSv U-afxfvXwy, fiaXaKOjrepoy Se' riKrei )'; TrtfieXri ola eXaiov 
 rtTr' a'vTov XeljieadaL' tovto tepdy eadrjTU ■KOiovyTai. Vita Apollonii, 
 I. iii. cap. 15. 
 
 In the fifth century we find a distinct reference to 
 cotton as an Indian product by Martianus Capella 
 (/. ii. ^ 4. p. 99. ed. Goetz.). Phronesis clothes her 
 daughter with a tunic and shawl white as milk, and 
 made either of cotton or fine linen. With a very 
 slight emendation the passage is as follows : 
 
 Itaque vestem peplumque lactis instar fulgidum dedit, quod vel ex 
 ilia herbarum felicium lana, qua indusiari perhibent Indicae pruden- 
 tise vates accolasque montis Umbrati, vel, quantum oisus* ejus tel- 
 luris apportat, ex candentis b3'^ssi netibus videbatur. 
 
 Theophilus Presbyter, who wrote probably about 
 A.D. 800, describes the use of cotton-paper for making 
 gold-leaf. He calls it " Greek parchment, made of 
 tree- wool, Pergamena, or Parcamena Grceca, qua Jit ex 
 land ligni f." 
 
 97. From the travels of the two Arabians who vi- 
 sited China in the ninth century, we learn that at that 
 time the ordinary dress of their countrymen was cot- 
 ton : for they remark, that " the Chinese dressed, not 
 in cotton, as the Arabians did, but in silk J." Proba- 
 
 * Martianus himself explains oisus to be the same as usus, 
 1. iii. 
 
 t De Omni Scientia Picturse Artis, c.21. quoted in Lessing's Schrif- 
 ten, vol. iv. p. 63. ed. 1825, 12mo., and in Wehrs vom Papier, p. 132. 
 See above, § 1. p. 2. 
 
 I See the Travels as published by Renaudot, and translated from 
 his French into English. 
 
COTTON NOT COMMON ANCIENTLY IN EUROPE. 353 
 
 bly the use of imported cotton might by this time have 
 become not uncommon in Egypt, Syria, and other 
 oriental countries ; but I apprehend, that it was never 
 generally employed in Europe either for clothing, or 
 for any other purpose, until very lately. 
 
 The following observations of Dr. Robertson in his 
 " Historical Disquisition concerning the knowledge 
 which the Ancients had of Lndia*," appear very just 
 and important. 
 
 If the use of the cotton manufactures of India had been common 
 among the Romans, the various kinds of them would have been enu- 
 merated in the Law De Publicanis et Vectigalibus, in the same man- 
 ner as the different kinds of spices and precious stones. Such a 
 specification would have been equally necessary for the direction both 
 of the merchant and of the tax-gatherer. 
 
 In confirmation of these remarks it may be observed, 
 that the passages collected in this Chapter represent 
 cotton cloth as an expensive and curious production 
 rather than as an article of common use among the 
 Greeks and Romans ; and from what we know of the 
 properties of cotton no reason appears why they should 
 have used it in preference to linen. The latter is more 
 cool, more cleanly, more durable, and much less liable 
 to take fire. Among the ancients it must have been 
 far cheaper, whereas the improvements in navigation, 
 the discovery of the passage to India by the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and still more the discovery of America, 
 have now made cotton the cheaper article among us, 
 and have thus brought it into general use. 
 
 In concluding the ancient history of cotton as a raw 
 material I observe, that after the fourth century it 
 was known by various names which had not been be- 
 fore in use. Probably Gossypium was one of these. 
 
 * Note XXV. p. 370. Second ed. 1794. 
 2 A 
 
354 
 
 § 97. VARIOUS NAMES FOR COTTON. 
 
 Another was Lana Xylina, meaning literally Tree- 
 wool, the plants which produced it being called, epio- 
 ^vXov, or Wool-Trees. Another set of names proba- 
 bly arose from a misapplication of the name of the 
 silkworm. These were Bo^/3aKtov, Ba^/3a^, Ba^(3aKiov, 
 Tla/.ij3a^, whence came Bambacinus, made of cotton, 
 Bambacinum, cotton cloth ; Bambacarius, a dealer in 
 cotton cloth ; and in Italian Bambagio, Bambagino, 
 and Bambasino*. With some of these terms we 
 are chiefly familiar, as applied, not to cloth, but to 
 paper. According to Montfauconf the manufacture 
 of " Charta Bomhjcina,'^ which he supposes to mean 
 cotton paper, was begun at the latest in the 10th cen- 
 tury. He adds, " King Roger, in a Diploma, cited 
 by Rocchus Pyrrhus, calls this paper ' Charta Cut- 
 tunea"\ The passage quoted {p. 352.) from Theophi- 
 lus Presbyter shows a still higher antiquity. 
 
 * See Du Cange and Charpentier; Adelung, Glossar. Manuale, 
 torn. i. p. 548. Vossii Etymologicon Lin. Lat, v. Bombyx ; H. Ste- 
 phani Thes. L. Grsecse, ed. Valpy, torn. vii. p. 11061 c. 
 
 t Antiquity Explained, translated by Humphreys, vol. iii. p. 223. 
 and Palseogr. Graeca. 
 
BOOK III. 
 
 MINERAL SUBSTANCES. 
 
 98. Three Mineral Substances were converted by 
 the ancients into thread for the purpose of being 
 woven. These were : 
 
 1. Asbestos. 
 
 2. Gold. 
 
 3. Silver. 
 
 2 A 2 
 
CHAPTER 1. 
 
 Asbestos. 
 
 99. Varro mentions the name Asbestos as a proof, 
 that the cloth so called was a Greek invention'**'. His 
 argument is obviously correct. The term {aa(3eaToc) 
 means inextinguishable, and was most properly ap- 
 plied to the wicks of lamps, which were made of this 
 substance and were never consumed. 
 
 The fullest account of the properties and uses of 
 Asbestos is contained in the following passage from 
 Sotacus, a Greek author who wrote on Stones f. The 
 passage occurs in the Historise Commentitiae, attri- 
 buted to Apollonius Dyscolus {cap. 36). 
 
 The Carystian stone (6 Kapvanos Xeyojxiros Xtdos) has woolly and 
 coloured appendages (eTrifvaea), which are spun and woven into nap- 
 kins ()(etpe(Cjuayeta). This substance is also twisted into wicks, which, 
 when burnt, are bright, but do not consume. The napkins, when 
 dirty, (rwi' eKfxaye'iwv twv pvitawo^ki'wv,) are not washed with water, 
 but a fire is made of sticks, (dXXa Kkr^fiaTis Kaerai,) and then the 
 napkin (ro eKfiayeloi') is put into it. The dirt (pviros) disappears, 
 and the napkin is rendered white and pure by the fire, and is appli- 
 cable to the same purposes as before. The wicks remain burning 
 with oil continually without being consumed. This stone is pro- 
 duced in Carystus, from which it has its name, and in great abun- 
 dance in Cyprus under rocks to the left of Elmaeum, as you go from 
 Gerandros to Soli. (noXOs ev KvTrpS, Karuftan'oi'-ujv awo rov Te- 
 pdv^pov ois eTTi SoXous TTopevofievois, ev apiarep^ rov 'Ekfxaiov viroKaTW 
 ireTpwv.) 
 
 * De Lingua Lat. L. v. p. 134. ed. Spengel. 
 
 t Sotacus is several times quoted by Pliny (L. xxxvi., xxxvii.) 
 as a foreign writer on Stones. The reading Sw-acou in Apollonius 
 is conjectural instead of TaKov. But the necessity and correctness 
 of the emendation cannot be disputed. 
 
$ 99. USES OF ASBESTOS. 
 
 357 
 
 " At Carystus," says Strabo, " under Mount Ocha 
 in Euboea is produced the stone, which is combed 
 and woven so as to make napkins {yeiponaKxpa) or 
 handkerchiefs. When these have become dirty, in- 
 stead of being washed, they are thrown into a flame 
 and thus purified*." 
 
 Plutarch speaks in similar terms of napkins, nets, 
 
 and head-dresses {yeipofiaKT pa, Ka\ ^Iktvu, Kai KeKpvCpd- 
 
 XovQ,) made of the Carystian stone, but says, that it 
 was no longer found in his time, only thin veins of it, 
 like hairs, being discoverable in the rockf. I have 
 already had occasion (§ 95. p. 348, Note.) to refer 
 to the brief notice by Solinus of the cloth of Ca- 
 rystus. 
 
 Mr. Hawkins ascertained, that the rock, which was 
 quarried in Mount Ocha, now called St. Elias, above 
 Carystus, is the Cipolino of the Roman antiquariesj. 
 Further North in the same island Dr. Sibthorp ob- 
 served " rocks of Serpentine in beds of saline marble, 
 forming the Verd-antique of the ancients^": and he 
 states, that on the shore to the North of Negropont 
 " the rocks are composed of serpentine stone with 
 veins of asbestos and soapstone intermixed ||." Tourne- 
 fort speaks of Amiantus as brought from Carysto in 
 his time, but of inferior quality^. 
 
 Pausanias (i. 26. 7.) says, the wick of the golden 
 lamp, which was kept burning night and day in the 
 
 * Lib. X. p. 19. ed. Sieb. This passage is quoted by Stephanas 
 of Byzantium, v. Kdpv^ros. 
 
 t De Oraculorum Defectu, p. 770. ed. H. Stephani, Par. J 572. 
 
 I Travels in various Countries of the East, edited by Walpole, 
 p. 288. § Ibid. p. 37. 
 
 II Ibid. p. 38. — N.B. Asbestos is always found in rocks of Ser- 
 pentine. 
 
 % Voyage, English Translation, vol. i. p. 129. 
 
358 § 99. ASBESTOS STILL FOUND IN CYPRUS. 
 
 temple of Minerva Polias at Athens, was " of Carpa- 
 sian flax (X'tvov Kapiraalov) , the only kind of flax {\lvwv), 
 which is indestructible by fire." This " Carpasian 
 flax" was asbestos from the vicinity of Carpasus, a 
 town near the north-east corner of Cyprus, which 
 retains its ancient name, Carpas. 
 
 Dioscorides gives a similar account of the qualities 
 and uses of Amiantus, and says it was produced in 
 Cyprus*. 
 
 Majolus saysf, that in the year 1566 he saw at 
 Venice Podocattarus, a knight of Cyprus, and a writer 
 on the history of that island, who exhibited at Venice 
 cloth made of the asbestos of his country, which he 
 threw into the fire, and took it out uninjured and 
 made quite clean. 
 
 Referring to Cyprus, Sonnini {Voyage en Grece, i. 
 p. 66.) says, 
 
 L'amiante, asbestos, ou lin incombustible des anciens, est encore 
 aussi abondant qu'il le fut autrefois ; la carriere qui le fournit est 
 dans la montagne d'Akamantide, pres du cap Chromachiti. 
 
 Le talc est commun, surtout pres de Larnaca, ou on I'emploie a 
 blanchir les maisons ; et le platre a de nombreuses carrieres. 
 
 The " talc" may be the same with the "Lapis spe- 
 cularis," which was found in Cyprus according to 
 
 * Hepi (ijiiavTOv Xidov. 
 
 Aidos ajiiavTos yevvarui fxev ev Kinrpo), arvirrrnna a-yiarrj loitcws' 
 ov epyal^ofievoi vipnafxara Troiovaiv avrov ovtos ifxavTiliBovs irpos 
 beav' a. [iXr)devTa els irvp (j)XoyovvTai /xev, Xafnrpvrepa Se ei,tp-^ovTui 
 fii) KaraKaioi-ieva. — L. v. c. 93. 
 
 Compare this with Pliny : " Amiantus, alumini similis, nihil igni 
 deperdit." H. N., L. xxx. vi. c. 31. 
 
 The epithet ifiavrwdovs may have referred to that variety of as- 
 bestos, which is now called mountain leather, and which is com- 
 monly found with the fibrous asbestos. 
 
 t Dier. Canicular. Part. I. Colloq. xx. p. 453. 
 
§ 100. USE OF IT IN FUNERALS. 359 
 
 Pliny (xxxvi. 45.). The testimony of Sonnini so far 
 agrees with those of the ancients, that all the places 
 mentioned were on the northern side of the island, so 
 that the asbestos seems to have been found between 
 Solce towards the West and Carpas towards the East. 
 
 Pietro della Valle, when he was at Larnaca, was 
 presented with a piece of the amiantus of the coun- 
 try, but says that it was no longer spun and woven. 
 
 100. Pliny, if we can rely upon his testimony as 
 given in the existing editions of his works, states, 
 that Asbestos was obtained in Arcadia {H. N. xxxvii, 
 54.) and in India (xix. 4.*). Besides the manu- 
 facture of napkins (mappa), his description of which 
 exactly agrees with the accounts of Strabo, Sotacus, 
 Dioscorides, and Plutarch, he says, that it was used 
 to make the funeral shirt of kings, being adapted to 
 keep together the ashes of the body, which would 
 otherwise have been confounded with those of the 
 funeral pile. His account of the use of it in funerals 
 has been remarkably confirmed by the occasional dis- 
 covery of pieces of asbestine cloth in the tombs of 
 Italy. One was found in 1633 at Puzzuolo, and was 
 preserved in the Barberini galleryf. Another was 
 found in 1702 a mile without the gate called Porta 
 Major in Rome. We have an account of the disco- 
 very in a letter written from Rome at the time, and 
 appended to Montfaucon's Travels through Italy. A 
 marble sarcophagus having been discovered in a vine- 
 yard was found to contain the cloth, which was about 
 5 feet wide, and 6^ long. It contained a scull and 
 the other burnt bones of a human body. The sculp- 
 
 * See Appendix D. 
 
 t Keysler's Travels, vol. ii. p. 292. London 1760. 
 
360 § 100. USE OF ASBESTOS IN INDIA. 
 
 tured marble indicates, that the deceased was a man 
 of rank. He is supposed to have lived not earlier 
 than the time of Constantine. This curious relic of 
 antiquity has been preserved in the Vatican Library 
 since the period of its discovery, and Sir J. E. Smith, 
 who saw it there, gives the following description of 
 its appearance :— 
 
 It is coarsely spun, but as soft and pliant as silk. Our guide set 
 fire to one corner of it, and the very same part burnt repeatedly with 
 great rapidity and brightness without being at all injured*. 
 
 Also in the Museo Borbonico at Naples there is a 
 considerable piece of asbestine cloth, found at Vasto 
 in the Abruzzi, the ancient Histonium. 
 
 Hierocles, the historian, as quoted by Stephanus 
 Byzantinus, v. Bpa-^f^navec, gives the following account 
 of the Asbestos of India : — 
 
 The Brachmans use cloth made of a kind of flax, which is obtained 
 from rocks. Webs are produced from it, which are neither subject 
 to be consumed by fire nor cleansed by water, but which, after they 
 have become full of dirt and stains, are rendered clear and white by 
 being thrown into the fire. 
 
 The following testimonies illustrate the fact, re- 
 corded by both Hierocles and Pliny, that Asbestos 
 was obtained from India. 
 
 Marco Polof mentions, that incombustible cloth 
 was woven from a librous stone found at Chenchen 
 in the territory of the Great Khan. It w^as pounded 
 in a brass mortar ; then washed to separate the earthy 
 particles ; spun and woven into cloth ; and cleansed, 
 when dirty, by being thrown into the fire. 
 
 Bugnon, in his Relation Exacte concernant les Cara- 
 vanes {Nancy, 1707. p.S7 — 39.) mentions, that Ami- 
 
 * Tour on the Continent, vol. ii. p. 201. 
 t Marsdcu's Translation, p. 176. 
 
METHOD OF MANUFACTURING IT. 361 
 
 antus was found in Cyprus and on the confines of 
 Arabia. He says, they spun it and made stockings, 
 socks, and drawers, which fitted closely ; that over 
 these they wore their other gai'ments ; and that they 
 were thus protected from the heat in travelling with 
 the caravans through Asia. 
 
 Basil, Bishop of Caesarea, shows that he was ac- 
 quainted with the properties of this substance, by 
 comparing the three children cast into the fiery fur- 
 nace without being hurt (Dan. iii.) to Amiantus, 
 " which, when put into the fire seems to burn and to 
 be turned to ashes, but, when taken out, becomes 
 purer and brighter than it was before"*." 
 
 Damasus {in Silvestro Papa) mentions, that the 
 Emperor Constantine directed asbestos to be used for 
 the wicks of the lamps in his baptistery at Rome. 
 
 For further particulars respecting the places where 
 amiantus is procured, and the mode of preparing it 
 for the manufacture of cloth, I refer to the treatises of 
 mineralogists and to the Essays of Ciampini, Tilin- 
 gius, Mahudel, and Bruckmann on this particular sub- 
 ject. We are informed, that it is softened and ren- 
 dered supple by being steeped in oil, and that fibres 
 of flax are then mixed with it in order that it may be 
 spun. When the cloth is woven, it is put into the 
 fire, by which the flax and oil are dissipated, and the 
 asbestos alone remains f. 
 
 * Homllia de Jejunio, p. 111. 
 
 t Tournefort's Travels, vol. i. p. 129. Bruckmann, Hist. Nat. 
 Lapidls -ov" AaPearov. Brunswic. 1727. p. 31, 32. This author says 
 the asbestos was put into warm water, and there rubbed and turned 
 about. An earth separates from it, which makes the water as white 
 as milk. This is repeated live or six times. The fibres, thus pu- 
 rified, are spread out to dry. 
 
362 § 101. USE OF ASBESTOS FOR PURPOSES 
 
 101. Ignorance of the true nature of Asbestos 
 caused it to be employed in the dark ages for pur- 
 poses of superstition and religious fraud. Of this we 
 have, I conceive, a proof in the following account 
 which we find in the Chronicon Casinense of Leo Os- 
 tiensis, L. ii. c. 33. 
 
 His diebus Monachi quidam ab Jerusolymis venientes particulam 
 lintei, cum quo pedes discipulorura Salvator extersit, secum detule- 
 runt, et ob reverentiam sancti hujus loci devotissime hie obtulerunt, 
 sexto scilicet Idus Decembris ; sed, cum a plurimis super hoc nulla 
 fides adhiberetur, illi fide fidentes protinus prsedictam particulam 
 in accensi turibuli igne desuper posuerunt, qus3 mox quidem in 
 ignis colorem conversa, post paululiim vero, amotis carbonibus, ad 
 pristinam speciem mirabiliter est reversa. Cumque excogitarent 
 qualiter, vel quanam in parte pignora tanta locarent, contigit, dispo- 
 sitione divina, ut eodem ipso die, transmissus sit in hunc locum lo- 
 culus ille mirificus, ubi nunc recondita est ipsa lintei sancti particula, 
 argento et auro gemmisque Anglico opere subtiliter ac pulcherrime 
 decoratus. Ibi ergo christallo superposito venerabiliter satis est col- 
 locata : morisque est singulis annis, ipso die Coense Dominicae ad man- 
 datum Fratrum eam a Mansionariis deferri et in medium poni, duo- 
 que candelabra ante illam accendi et indesinenter per totum mandati 
 spatium ab Acolito incensari. Demum vero juxta finem mandati a 
 singulis per ordinem fratribus flexis genibus devotissime adorari et 
 reverent^r exosculari. 
 
 I see no reason to doubt the truth of this narrative 
 so far as respects the veracity and credit of the histo- 
 rian. Leo Ostiensis became an inmate of the Abbey 
 of Monte Casino a few years after the event is said to 
 have happened, and could scarcely be misinformed 
 respecting the circumstances, more especially as he 
 held during the latter part of his abode there the office 
 of Librarian. Also we see nothing improbable in the 
 story. Asbestine cloth, as we have learnt from Marco 
 Polo (§ 100. p. 360), was manufactured in Asia during 
 the middle ages, and the reputed relic was obtained at 
 
OF FRAUD AND SUPERSTITION. 
 
 363 
 
 Jerusalem. That the pilgrims, who visited Jerusa- 
 lem, should be imposed upon in this manner, is in 
 the highest degree probable, since we are informed, 
 that the very same substance in its natural state was 
 often sold to devotees as the wood of the true cross, 
 and its incombustibility was exhibited as the proof of 
 its genuineness. This we learn in the following pas- 
 sage from Tilingius, who wrote " De lino vivo aut as- 
 hestino et incomhustibili." 
 
 Antonius Musa Brassavolus Ferrariensis tradit, impostores lapi- 
 dem Amiantum simplicibus mulierculis ostendere vendereque ssepe- 
 numero pro ligno crucis Servatoris nostri. Id quod facile credunt, 
 cum igne non comburatur, quodque ligni modo plurimis constet lineis 
 intercursantibus. — Miscellanea Curiosa Naturce Cur'iosorum, Decu- 
 rice II. Ann. ii. p. 111. Noremhergcs, 1684. 
 
 The monks on their arrival at Monte Casino would 
 naturally display the same evidence, by which they 
 themselves had been convinced ; and the appearance 
 of the cloth, when put into the fire and taken out of 
 it, is described exactly as it w^ould be in fact, sup- 
 posing it to have been made of amiantus. 
 
 Montfaucon, in his Travels in Italy {p. 381 . English 
 ed. 8vo), describes a splendid service-book, which 
 was written A.D. 1072 by Leo at the expense of 
 brother John of Marsicana, and presented by John 
 to the monastery of Monte Casino, where it was ex- 
 hibited to Montfaucon as one of the most valuable 
 and curious monuments. An illumination in this 
 book represents a monk kneeling before St. Bene- 
 dict, the patron and founder of the institution, and 
 holding in his hands a cloth, on which St. Benedict 
 is placing his left foot. Montfaucon gives an en- 
 graving from this picture : he supposes the cloth to 
 be a monk's cowl, and conjectures that it was thus 
 
364 ^ 101. RELIC AT MONTE CASINO 
 
 used in admitting novices. This explanation is evi- 
 dently a most unsatisfactory one, nothing being pro- 
 duced to render it even probable. I believe the cloth 
 to be that the history of which I have just given, and 
 that the design of the artist was to represent a monk 
 wiping the feet of St. Benedict with the same cloth 
 with which Je^s wiped the feet of his disciples. 
 
 This supposition will appear the more probable, if 
 we attend to the date of the MS. (A.D. 1072) and the 
 persons, by whom and at whose expense it was written. 
 " Brother John of Marsicana" appears to have been 
 at this time advanced in years, wealthy, and highly 
 respected, since we are informed, that in the year 
 1055, when Peter was chosen Abbot of the Mona- 
 stery, some of the brotherhood wished to choose John, 
 although he, foreseeing that the choice would be likely 
 to fall on him, had obstinately sworn on the altar, 
 that he would never undertake the office. John was 
 at this time Provost of Capua*. Seventeen years 
 afterwards he went to the expense of providing the 
 service-book seen by Montfaucon. He employed as 
 his scribe one of the fraternity, who was his junior 
 and from the same city with himself. For I appre- 
 hend, that Leo, who wrote the MS., was the same 
 who was the author of the Chronicon. The author of 
 the Chronicon, at the commencement of his history, 
 calls himself " Frater Leo, cognomine Marsicanusf." 
 He was made Bishop of Ostia A.D. 1101, so that we 
 may suppose him to have been between twenty and 
 
 * Dominum Johannern, cognomine Marsicaniim, qui tunc Capuae 
 erat prsepositus, &c. Leonis Ostiensis Chronicon Casinense, L. ii. 
 c. 92. 
 
 t Marsicana (civitas) was in Maisica, the territory of the ancient 
 Marsi. 
 
PROBABLY ASBESTINE CLOTH, NOW LOST. 365 
 
 thirty years of age, when the MS. was made. Of his 
 aptitude for such an employment we cannot doubt, 
 when we consider his future labours as Librarian and 
 author of the Chronicle. But, if these facts be evident, 
 it is equally manifest, that these twp accomplished 
 Benedictines could not have expressed their venera- 
 tion towards their founder in any way better suited 
 to their ideas and belief than by exhibiting in the 
 manner described that relic, which was solemnly dis- 
 played once a year with burning candles and attend- 
 ing acolythes to the admiring and adoring crowd of 
 devotees. 
 
 I have learnt on inquiry that this relic exists no 
 longer at Monte Casino, although the original copy 
 of the Chronicon of Leo Ostiensis is still preserved in 
 the Librarj^*. It appears that the relic has long been 
 lost, since there is no mention either of it, or of the 
 casket which contained it in the " Descrizione Isto- 
 rica del Monastero di Monte Casino, Napoli 1775." 
 
 In modern times cloth of asbestos is scarcely made 
 except as a curiosity. 
 
 A large glove of this substance is in the Hunterian 
 Museum at Glasgow. A friend informs me, that he 
 has seen at Parma a table-cloth, made of Amiantus 
 from Corsica, for the use of the ex-Empress Maria 
 Louisa, who resided there after the fall of Napoleon. 
 
 * Excursions in the Abruzzi, by the Hon. R. Keppel Craven, 
 vol. i. p. 54. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 102. The use of gold in weaving may be traced to 
 the earliest times, but seems to be particularly cha- 
 racteristic of oriental manners. 
 
 It was employed together with woollen and linen 
 thread of the finest colours to enrich the ephod, the 
 girdle, and the breast-plate of Aaron. (Ex. xxviii. 
 5 — 8. 15.; xxxix. 2 — 8.) The sacred historian goes 
 so far as to describe the mode of preparing the gold 
 to be used in weaving : " And they did beat the gold 
 into thin plates, and cut it into wires, to work it in 
 the blue, and in the purple, and in the scarlet, and in 
 the fine linen, with cunning work," The historian 
 certainly does not intend to describe the process of 
 wire-drawing, nor probably the art of making gold 
 thread. It seems likely, that neither of these inge- 
 nious manufactures was invented in his time. His 
 account is, that the Hebrews first beat the gold into 
 thin plates or leaves, and then cut it into long narrow 
 slips, called " wires," which were inserted into the 
 cloth together with the woollen and linen threads. 
 The ornamented silks of the Chinese are thus manu- 
 factured to the present day. 
 
 The queen, described in Ps. xlv., wears " clothing 
 
 of wrought gold." (See v. 13. 'E»' Kpoaa<t)Tolc y^pvaoic, 
 
 Ixx. In fimbriis aureis, Vulgate.) Clemens Alex- 
 andrinus quotes the passage, and says, "The gold 
 
§102. GOLD CLOTH MUCH USED BY ASIATICS. 367 
 
 means Jesus shining like gold, and the Kpoaaoi the 
 elect*." 
 
 Homer mentions " a golden girdle," l<I)vr) y^pvaelx} 
 {Od. €. 232. K. 543.). He also describes an upper gar- 
 ment (T^Xoicav), which Penelope made for Ulysses be- 
 fore going to Ilium. On the front part of it a beautiful 
 hunting-piece was wrought in gold. It is thus de- 
 scribed. "A dog holds a fawn with its fore feet, 
 looking at it as it pants with fear and strives to make 
 its escape." This, he says, was the subject of univer- 
 sal admiration f. 
 
 Pisander, who probably belonged to the same period 
 with Homer, speaks of the Lydians as wearing tunics 
 adorned with gold, AvSol ■^pvtro^lrwec. Lydus, who 
 has preserved this expression of the ancient cyclic 
 poet, observes that the Lydians were supplied with 
 gold from the sands of the Pactolus and the HermusJ. 
 
 Virgil also represents the use of gold in weaving, 
 as if it had existed in Trojan times. One of the gar- 
 ments so adorned was made by Dido, the Sidonian, 
 another by Andromache, and another was in the pos- 
 session of Anchises§. In all these instances the re- 
 ference is to the habits of Phoenice, Lycia, or other 
 parts of Asia. 
 
 Among all the Asiatics none were more remarkable 
 than the Persians for the display of textures of gold 
 as well as of every other kind of luxury in dress. A 
 tiara interwoven with gold (Ttr?/o»? X)°"<^"'^"'^'^°c) was 
 among the presents which Xerxes gave as an expres- 
 sion of his gratitude to the citizens of Abdera {Herod. 
 viii. 120.). The Indians also employed the same kind 
 
 * Paedagog. ii. f Od. r. 225—235. 
 
 X De Magistratibus Rom. L. iii. § 64. 
 
 § ^n. iii. 483. ; iv. 264. ; viii. 167. ; xi. 75. 
 
368 § 102. USE OF GOLD CLOTH BY THE PERSIANS. 
 
 of ornament (eaOric ttoikIXt) •^pvaoiracfToc, Strabo, L. xv. 
 c. 1. § 69.) ; and the Periegesis of Priscian attributes 
 the use of it to the Arabians*. 
 
 The history of Alexander the Great affords frequent 
 traces of the use of cloth interwoven with gold in 
 Persia. Garments of such cloth were among the most 
 splendid of the spoils of Persepolis. (TToXXaJ kuI ttoXv- 
 
 TeXeic, ea9r]Tec., ai fiev daXaaaiaic iropCpvpaic, al de "^pvaolc 
 €vv(puajxaai ireTTOiKiXnerai. Diod. Sic. L. Xvii. 70. p. 214. 
 
 Wessel.) 
 
 Justin (L. xii.) says, that Alexander to avoid giving 
 offence to the Persians ordered his principal attend- 
 ants to assume as their dress "longam vestem auream 
 purpureamque." The dress prescribed was therefore 
 of fine woollen cloth, or rather perhaps of silk, dyed 
 purple, and interwoven with gold. Such was the 
 dress referred to by those authors, quoted by Brisson 
 De Regno Persarum, who mention MjjSik:?)^ crro'Xriv, 
 " Medicam vestem," UepcriKrji' aroXiiv, "vestem Per- 
 sicamf ." 
 
 Quintus Curtius thus describes the outer garment 
 worn by Darius, when he advanced to oppose Alex- 
 ander, " Pallam auro distinctam aurei acci})itres, ve- 
 lut rostris inter se corruerent, adornabant." Probably 
 these " golden hawks" were imaginary or symbolical 
 figures, like griffins. The account may be explainec? 
 from a passage, which I shall hereafter quote from 
 Philostratus {Imag. L. ii.), mentioning OripiMv reparu)- 
 
 * Vestibus auratis quare gens utitur ilia, /. 881. 
 
 In Europe the nearest approach to oriental habits in regard to 
 dress was made by the Gauls. Their principal men wore collars, 
 armlets, and bracelets of gold, and clothes enriched with the same 
 metal (tadtiTas jiairras koX ■^(pvaoTrdaTovs. Strabo, L.iv. cap. 4. § 5.). 
 
 t See above, §44. pp. 192, 193. 
 
AND IN EGYPT. 
 
 Seic fiopcpac, " portentous forms of animals," as used 
 in weaving by the barbarians ; and by the descrip- 
 tion of the shawl with the four lions in Theodoras 
 Prodromus, to which I have already briefly alluded*. 
 Among the vast multitudes which preceded the king 
 of Persia on this occasion, was the band of ten thou- 
 sand, called the Immortals, whose dress was car- 
 ried to the very height of barbaric splendour, some 
 wearing golden collars, others " cloth variegated with 
 goldf." 
 
 At the nuptials of Alexander purple and scarlet 
 cloths, interwoven with gold, were expanded over the 
 guests { : and a pall of the same description was placed 
 over the golden sarcophagus made to contain his 
 body. Diodorus Siculus (L. xviii. c. 26. vol. ii. p. 278.) 
 calls it ^oii-i/cic StuTTjoeTDjc ^jouffOTToi/ctXToc. Amottg the 
 splendid ornaments of the tent erected not long after 
 at Alexandria by Ptolemy Philadelphus, there were 
 tunics interwoven with gold {■)^iTtJvec ^vaov^elc) : and 
 in the procession which was exhibited on the same 
 occasion, the colossal statues of Bacchus and his 
 nurse Nysa were attired, the former in a shawl, and 
 the latter in a tunic, variegated with gold {inanov and 
 -)(^LTwva ^pvaoTTo'iKiXov^). Probably we may refer to the 
 same country and to the same age the " golden tunic" 
 
 * See above, § 59. p. 243. As some additional evidence on the 
 present subject I would also refer to the account of the dress of the 
 king of Persia quoted from Q. Curtius in § 93. p. 338. At a much 
 later period a silken tunic adorned with sprigs or feathers of gold 
 was worn by the Armenian satraps. See above, § 37. p. 156. 
 
 t Proximi ibant, quos Persae Immortales vocant, ad decem millia : 
 cultus opulentiae barbarse non alios magis honestabat : illi aureos 
 torques, iUi vestem auro distinctam habebant. Q. Curtius, iii. 3. 
 
 i Hoi)(j)vpols Kai (j)oiyii^vls y^pvanixjieai. See above, § 94. p. 341. 
 
 § Callixeuus Rhodius, ap. Athen. L. v. pp. 196, 198. Casaub. 
 
 2 B 
 
370 ^ 102. USE OF GOLD CLOTH IN EGYPT, 
 
 (^tTwm -^pvaovv) mentioned on one of the Arundel 
 marbles (No. XXII. 2.). Also the tent pitched by 
 Arsace with hangings of gold and purple tissues (wtto 
 
 aXovpyoia Kat y^pvaov(p'eai TrapaTreraajxaaiv) , and the robe 
 
 of the same materials worn by Arsace herself (aXowp-yw 
 Koi ■y^pvaoiraaTU) eadrjri), as described by Heliodo- 
 rus {JEthiop. vii.), refer to the customs of the same 
 country. 
 
 Another of the successors of Alexander, viz. De- 
 metrius Poliorcetes, wore purple garments with bor- 
 ders of gold*. 
 
 Themistius describes a portrait of one of the kings 
 of Persia, who wore, together with the tiara and the 
 collar or necklace, a purple shawl interwoven with 
 
 gold {-^Xaivav aXovpyri re Kai ■^pvaoTraarov. Oral. 24. 
 
 p. 369. ed. Dindorf.). 
 
 During the periods to which the preceding evidence 
 relates, it is not probable that cloth of gold was in 
 use among the Greeks and Romans except to a very 
 limited extent. Nevertheless it appears not to have 
 escaped the avidity for every species of elegance, 
 which in early times distinguished the inhabitants of 
 Magna Grsecia. For, when Pythagoras became a 
 teacher of wisdom and philosophy at Crotona, among 
 other lessons of frugality he persuaded the matrons 
 to put off their "golden garments" {auratas vestes) 
 and other fashionable ornaments, and to deposit them 
 in the temple of Juno as offerings to the goddess f. 
 We meet with the mention of a " golden or purple 
 chlamys" {y^pvaac, yXapv^oc rjToi 7rop(pvpa(;) as a Suit- 
 able offering to the gods in a passage attributed to 
 
 * Xpv<T07rapv(poLs akovpyiaiv. Plutarch, Demet. 41. 
 t Justin, L. XX. c. 4. 
 
PERSIA, ASIA MINOR, AND ITALY. 371 
 
 Menander'*''. Hedylus of Samos, a writer of the same 
 age, describes a woman of loose morals, by name 
 Niconoe, as wearing a tunic striped with gold (X^puiv 
 5(/Duff€oe ot icaXa/noi. Brunck's Analecta, i. 483.). " Le- 
 ria," i.e. Aripta, the diminutive of Aripol, is explained by 
 Festus to signify " the gold ornaments of tunicsf." 
 
 103. We may next examine what Pliny says of the 
 use of gold in weaving. 
 
 In the following sentence he ascribes the inven- 
 tion to Attalus, king of Pergamus : " Aurum intexere 
 in eadem Asia invenit Attalus Rex ; unde nomen 
 Attalicis." (L. viii. cap. 48.) Nevertheless we have 
 seen, that gold was thus used long before the time of 
 Attalus. But there can be no doubt, that he esta- 
 blished and maintained a great manufacture of these 
 stuffs at Pergamus, and thus contributed greatly to 
 improve the art, and to bring these cloths into more 
 general use. 
 
 The next passage is from Dr. Bostock's translation 
 of the 33rd Book, ch. xix. " Gold may be spun or 
 woven like wool, without any wool being mixed with 
 it. We are informed by Verrius, that Tarquinius 
 Priscus rode in triumph in a tunic of gold ; and we 
 have seen Agrippina, the wife of the Emperor Clau- 
 dius, when he exhibited the spectacle of a naval com- 
 bat, sitting by him covered with a robe made entirely 
 of woven gold without any other material. In what 
 are called the Attalic stuffs, the gold is woven with 
 some other substance. This art was the invention of 
 one of the kings of Asia." 
 
 * Menandri Reliquiae, a Meineke, p. 306. Bockh, Gr. Trag. 
 Principes, p. 157. 
 
 t Leria omamenta tunicarum aurea. See also Taubmannus in 
 Plaut. Aulul. iii. 5. 31. p. 175. 
 
 2 B 2 
 
372 
 
 § 103. USE OF GOLD CLOTH 
 
 In Book XXXV. c. 36. Pliny says, that Zeuxis, to 
 display his wealth at Olympia, had his name woven 
 in gold in the compartments of his outer garment. 
 
 Further remarks on the testimony of this author 
 may be seen in Appendix D. 
 
 In connection with Pliny's remark respecting the 
 " paludamentum" of woven gold, which was worn by 
 Agrippina, I shall now produce some other testimo- 
 nies of the Roman historians in regard to the use of 
 gold by the Emperors, and I shall then notice the 
 passages of contemporaneous poets and rhetoricians 
 which illustrate the same facts, showing the gradual 
 extension of the use of these stuffs among the opulent 
 Romans after the times of the Republic, and also pro- 
 ving the continued use of them to a great extent in 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 Caligula once wore a tunic interwoven with gold*. 
 Heliogabalus was much more profuse in regard to this 
 kind of splendour, -^lius Lampridius says of him 
 (c. 23.) " Usus est aurea omni tunica^ usus et purpu- 
 rea." White sheets, interwoven with gold {stragulcB 
 alba, auro textcs), were used at the funeral obsequies 
 of Nerof . We may observe, that the use of gold 
 accompanied the use of silk. The same Emperors 
 who took delight in the one, indulged themselves 
 with the other also. On the contrary, Alexander 
 Severus, as we have already seen (§ 77. p. 291.), 
 was abstemious in both these respects. 
 
 I have formerly quoted passages which make men- 
 tion of cloth of gold from Tibullus (§ 42. p. 177.), 
 Ovid {p. 180.), and Virgil (§ 102. p. 367.). We also 
 find mention of " Inlusas auro vestes," i. e. The play 
 
 * See above, § 43. p. 182. 
 
 t Suetonius, Nero, 50. 
 
UNDER THE ROMAN EMPERORS. 
 
 373 
 
 of gold in cloth, in an elaborate and beautiful passage 
 of the last-named author, enumerating the most ex- 
 pensive and elegant luxuries of his day (Geor. ii. 464.), 
 and Ovid {Met. iii. 556.) mentions purple garments, 
 variously coloured and interwoven with gold, as be- 
 longing to Bacchus : 
 
 Purpuraque, et pictis intextum vestibus aurum. 
 
 Publius Syrus was a writer of the same period. In 
 the following fragment preserved by Petronius Arbiter, 
 he compares the train of the peacock to Babylonian 
 stuffs enriched with gold and various colours : 
 
 Tuo palato oculosus pavo nascitur, 
 Plumato amictus aureo Babylonico. 
 
 Thy food the peacock, which displays his spotted train. 
 As shines a Babylonian shawl with feather'd gold. 
 
 Shawls, interwoven with gold, are mentioned by 
 Galen*, and by Valerius Flaccusf ; also by Lucan in 
 the following passage, where he is describing the fur- 
 niture of Cleopatra's palace (x. 125, 126.) : 
 
 Pars auro plumata nitet ; pars ignea cocco, 
 
 Ut mos est Phariis miscendi licia telis. 
 
 Part shines with feather'd gold, part sheds a blaze 
 
 Of scarlet, intermix'd by Pharian looms. 
 
 The following passages also contain evidence on 
 the same subject. 
 
 Seneca, the Philosopher, 
 
 Nondum vestis illis erat picta ; nondum texebatur aurum, adhuc 
 non eruebatur. Epist. 91. 
 
 As yet figured cloths did not exist ; gold was not woven, it was 
 not even extracted from the ground. 
 
 * See above, § 44. p. 189. 
 
 t Auro depicta chlamys. See above, § 94. p. 34. 
 
374 
 
 § 103. MENTION OF GOLD CLOTH BY 
 
 LUCIAN 
 
 describes the tragic actors, when they performed the 
 part of kings, as wearing a chlamys interwoven with 
 gold*. 
 
 Apuleius. 
 
 Sed et stragula veste, auro ac murice Tyrio depicta, probe con- 
 sternunt. Met. 
 
 They carefully spread over the couches cloths figured with gold 
 and Tyrian purple. 
 
 Philostratus 
 depicts Midas wearing a golden robef. 
 
 Nemesianus. 
 
 Sit chlamys aurato multum subtemine lusa. Cyneg. 91. 
 In thy scarf's woof much sportive gold display. 
 
 The poet is addressing Diana and describing her at- 
 tire. 
 
 AUSONIUS. 
 MoUe aurum pallis, Graecia, texe tuisj. 
 Weave flexile gold within thy shawls, O Greece. 
 
 This is the first passage since the time of Homer, 
 which mentions Greece by name as concerned in wea- 
 ving with gold. But Ausonius probably alluded to the 
 Greeks of Asia Minor, as, besides the evidence just 
 produced from Basil, we have seen that Pergamus was 
 one of the most noted places for these productions, 
 which were on that account called " Attalicse ves- 
 tes§." 
 
 * X\a/i{iSa 'xpvffoirafrrov. Somnium, vol. ii. p. 742. ed. Hemster- 
 husii. 
 
 t St-oXjjv eyj^vffoy. Imag. i. 22. 
 
 \ Epigram 37. which I shall quote entire in Part IV. 
 
 § Plin. H. N. viii. 64. See Appendix D. 
 
THE LATER ROMAN POETS. 
 
 375 
 
 When Ausonius was appointed Consul at Rome 
 A.D. 379, his friend and former pupil, the Emperor 
 Gratian, sent him as a present a toga in which was 
 inserted a figure of the Emperor Constantius II., 
 wrought in gold*. 
 
 Claudian 
 
 mentions with delight the use of gold in dress, as well 
 as of silk. (Compare § 48. p. 201.) The following 
 passage has been already referred to. It represents 
 the manner in which Proba, a Roman matron, near 
 the end of the fourth century, expressed her affec- 
 tionate congratulations on the elevation of her two 
 sons to the Consulship, by preparing robes inter- 
 woven with gold for the ceremony of their installa- 
 tion. 
 
 Lsetatur veneranda parens, et poUice docto 
 Jam parat auratas trabeas, cinctusque micantes 
 Stamine, quod moUi tondent de stipite Seres, 
 Frondea lanigerse carpentes vellera silvse ; 
 Et longum tenues tractus producit in aurum, 
 Filaque concrete cogit squalere metallo. 
 
 In Probini et Olybrii Consulatum, I. 177 — 182. 
 
 With joy elated at this proud success, 
 
 Their venerable mother now prepares 
 
 The golden trabeas, and the cinctures bright 
 
 With Seric fibres shorn from woolly trees : 
 
 Her weU-train'd thumb protracts the length'ning gold. 
 
 And makes the metal to the threads adhere. 
 
 From these verses we learn that Proba had herself 
 acquired the art of covering the thread with gold, 
 and that she then used her gold thread in the woof 
 to form the stripes or other ornaments of the consu- 
 lar trabese. These are afterwards called " stiff togas" 
 
 * Ausonii Gratiarum Actio, § 53. 
 
376 § 103. GOLD CLOTHS DESCRIBED BY CLAUDIAN, 
 
 {toga rigentes, I. 205.), on account of the rigidity im- 
 parted to them by the gold thread. 
 
 The same poet gives an elaborate description, (which 
 I hope to produce entire in the Sixth Part of this trea- 
 tise,) of a Trabea which he supposes to have been 
 woven by the Goddess Rome with the aid of Minerva 
 for the use of the Consul Stilicho. Five different 
 scenes are said to have been woven in this admirable 
 robe {rigentia dona, graves auro trabeas), and certain 
 parts of them were wrought in gold*. 
 
 Again, Claudian supposes Thetis to have woven 
 scarfs of gold and purple for her son Achilles : 
 
 Ipsa manu chlamydes ostro texebat et auro. (Ep. 35.) 
 
 The epigram in which this line occurs, seems to im- 
 ply that Serena, mother-in-law of the Emperor Ho- 
 norius, wove garments of the same kind for him. 
 
 Maria, the daughter of the above-mentioned Stili- 
 cho, was bestowed by him upon Honorius, but died 
 shortly after, about A.D. 400. In February 1 544 the 
 marble coflBn, containing her remains, was discovered 
 at Rome. In it were preserved a garment and a pall, 
 which on being burnt yielded 36 pounds of gold. 
 There were also found a great number of glass ves- 
 sels, jewels, and ornaments of all kinds, which Stili- 
 cho had given as a dowry to his daughterf. We may 
 conclude, that the garments discovered in the tomb of 
 Maria were woven by the hands of her mother Serena, 
 since the epigram of Claudian proves that she wove 
 robes of a similar description for Honorius and pro- 
 bably on the same occasion. Anastasius Bibliotheca- 
 rius says, that when Pope Paschal was intent on finding 
 
 * In I. Cons. Stilichonis, L. ii. 330—359. 
 
 t Surii Comment. Rerum Gest. ab anno 1500, &c. 
 
AND DISCOVERED IN TOMBS. 
 
 377 
 
 the body of St. Csecilia, having performed mass with a 
 view to obtain the favour of a revelation on the sub- 
 ject, he was directed A.D. 821 to a cemetery on the 
 Appian Way near Rome, and there found the body 
 enveloped in cloth of gold*. Although there is no 
 reason to believe, that the body found by Paschal was 
 the body of the saint pretended, yet it may have been 
 the body of a Roman lady who had lived some centu- 
 ries before, and probably about the time of Honorius 
 and Maria. 
 
 SiDONius Apollinaris 
 mentions the gold in the dress of Prince Sigismerf . 
 
 CORIPPUS, 
 
 describing the accession of Justin II. to the Empire 
 A.D. 565, mentions his tunic enriched with gold as 
 part of his imperial costume : 
 
 Egreditur, tunicaque pios inducitur artus, 
 Aurata se veste tegens. L. ii. 
 
 Paulinus. 
 
 Misceturque ostro mollitum in fila metallum. 
 
 De Vita Martini, L. iii. 
 
 104. In the Third Part it will be proper to inves- 
 tigate the method of manufacturing gold thread, or of 
 preparing gold for being woven into cloth. I shall 
 now conclude this Chapter by noticing a few extracts 
 from the Fathers of the Christian Church, in which 
 they express disapprobation of the use of gold tis- 
 sues. 
 
 * "Aureis vestitum indumentis." De Vitis Rom. Pontificum, 
 Mogunt. 1602, p. 222. 
 t See above, § 54. p. 227. 
 
378 § 104. CONDEMNATION OF GOLD CLOTH 
 
 I have already quoted one passage to this effect 
 from St. Ambrose (§ 50. p. 217.), and two from St. 
 Jerome (§ 51. p. 220.). In the following Jerome 
 further condemns the practice of wrapping the bodies 
 of the dead in cloth of gold : 
 
 Cur mortuos vestros auratis obvolvitis vestibus ? Cur ambltio inter 
 luctus lacrimasque non cessat ? An cadavera divitum nisi in serico pu- 
 trescere nesciunt ? Epist. L. ii. 
 
 Why do you wrap your dead in garments of gold ? Why does not 
 ambition cease amidst wailings and tears Cannot the bodies of the 
 rich go to corruption except in silk ? 
 
 Non absque scandalo tuo in aliis sericas vestes auratasque mira- 
 beris. Epist. L. ii. No. 9. p. 138. ed. Par. 1613, l2mo. 
 
 You cannot but be offended yourself, when you admire garments 
 of silk and gold in others. 
 
 Basil 
 
 in one of his Homilies {0pp. torn. ii. p. 53, 55. ed. 
 Benedict.) inveighs against the ladies of Caesarea, who 
 employed themselves in weaving gold {■^^pvaov e^u<^ai'- 
 vovaa) ; and he is no less indignant at their husbands 
 who adorned even their horses with cloths of gold and 
 scarlet as if they were bridegrooms {vavTa apyvpa, 
 
 Travra ■y^pvaoiraaTa' Ta:r»jTec aXovpyoi, Koa/xovvTec tovc 
 iTnTOvc, wairep vvp<p'iovc.) 
 
 The author of a treatise ' ' De disciplina et bono 
 pudicitise," which is usually published with Cyprian, 
 and which may be referred to the 4th or 5th century, 
 thus speaks {Cypriani Opera, ed. Erasmi, p. 499.) : 
 
 Vestibus aurum intexere, quasi pretio est vestes corrumpere. Quid 
 inter fila staminum deUcata rigida faciunt metalla ? 
 
 To weave gold in cloth is as it were to adopt an expensive method 
 of spoiling it. Why do they between the delicate threads of the 
 warp interpose stiff metals ? 
 
 The same censure is implied in the following ad- 
 dress of Alcimus Avitus to his sister. I quote it at 
 
BY THE FATHERS. 
 
 379 
 
 length as I shall have occasion to refer to it here- 
 after. 
 
 Non tibi gemmato posuere monilia collo, 
 Nec te contexit, neto qu3e fulgurat auro 
 Vestis, ductilibus concludens fila talentis : 
 Nec te Sidonium bis cocti muricis ostrum 
 Induit, aut rutilo perlucens purpura succo, 
 Mollia vel tactu quae mittunt vellera Seres : 
 Nec tibi transfossis fixerunt auribus aurum. 
 
 No threaded gems have prest thy sparkling neck : 
 No cloth, with lines incased in ductile gold. 
 Or twice with the Sidonian murex dyed. 
 Has glitter'd on thee : thou hast never worn 
 The fleeces soft which distant Seres send : 
 Nor are thy ears transfix'd for pendent gold. 
 
 The effect of such exhortations as the preceding was 
 to induce piously disposed persons to apply pieces of 
 gold cloth to public and sacred instead of private pur- 
 poses. After this period we find continual instances 
 of their use in the decoration of churches and in the 
 robes of the priesthood. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 105. The Evangelist Luke, in Acts xii. 21. speaks of 
 the " royal apparel," in which Herod Agrippa, king 
 
 of Judaea, was arrayed (evSvaa/ievoc eaBrjra l^aaiXiKriv) , 
 
 when he received the ambassadors of Tyre and Sidon, 
 sitting in great state upon his throne at Ceesarea. 
 Josephus {Ant. Jud. L. xix. cap. 8. § 2. p. 871. Hud- 
 son) describes the same garment, which was a tunic*, 
 as " all made of silver, and wonderful in its texture" 
 
 ((ttoXtju evSvaa^evoc apyvpov TrcTroDj^ei'rji' Tra(Tai>, wc 9av- 
 
 fxatjiov v(prtv elvai). He adds, that the king appeared in 
 this dress at break of day in the theatre, and that the 
 silver, illuminated by the first rays of the sun, glit- 
 tered in such a manner as to terrify the beholders, 
 so that his flatterers began to call out aloud, saluting 
 him as a god. He was then seized with the painful 
 and loathsome distemper, of which he soon after 
 died. 
 
 * This is implied in the term evdvadfxevos, used by both au- 
 thors. 
 
i 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 (Referred to §1. p. 2.) 
 On the Period and Manner of the Invention of Linen Paper. 
 
 No part of the Res Diplomatica has been more frequently 
 discussed than the question respecting the origin of paper 
 made from Unen rags. The inquiry is interesting on account 
 of the unspeakable importance of this material in connection 
 with the progress of knowledge and all the means of ci\aliza- 
 tion, and it also claims attention from the philologist as an 
 aid in determining the age of manuscripts. 
 
 Wehrs refers to a document written A.D. 1308 as the oldest 
 known specimen of Unen paper ; and, as the invention must 
 have been at least a Uttle previous to the preparation of this 
 document, he fixes upon 1300 as its probable date*. Various 
 writers on the subject, as Von Murr, Breitkopf, Schonemann, 
 &c., concur in this opinion. 
 
 Gotthelf Fischer, in his Essay on Paper-marks f, cites an 
 extract firom an account written in 1301 on linen paper. In 
 this specimen the mark is a circle surmounted by a sprig, at 
 the end of which is a star. The paper is thick, firm, and well 
 grained ; and its water-hnes and water-marks {vergures etpon- 
 tuseaux) may readily be distinguished. 
 
 The date was carried considerably higher by Schwandner, 
 Principal Keeper of the Imperial Library at Vienna, who found 
 among the charters of the Monastery of Giiss in Upper Stiria 
 one in a state of decay, only seven inches long and three 
 wide. So highly did he estimate the value of this curious 
 relic as to pubUsh in 1788 a full account of his discovery in a 
 thin quarto volume, which bears the following title, " Char- 
 
 * Vom Papier, p. 309, 343. 
 
 + This Essay, translated into French, is published by Jansen, in his Essai sur 
 I'origine de la gravure en bois et en taille-douce, Paris 1808, tomei. p. 357 — 385. 
 
384 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 tam linteam antiqnissimam, omnia had enus product a specimina 
 eetate sua superantem, ex cimeliis Bibliothecce Augustce Vindo- 
 bonensis exponit Jo. Ge. Sehwandner," ^c. The document is 
 a mandate of Frederick II. Emperor of the Romans, entrust- 
 ing to the Archbishop of Saltzburg and the Duke of Austria 
 the determination of a dispute between the Duke of Carinthia 
 and the Monastery of Goss respecting the property of the 
 latter in Carinthia. Schwandner proves the date of it to be 
 1243. He does not say whether it has any lines or water- 
 mark, but is quite satisfied from its flexibility and other qua- 
 lities, that it is linen. Although on the first discovery of this 
 document some doubt was expressed as to its genuineness, it 
 appears to have risen in estimation with succeeding writers ; 
 and I apprehend it is rather from inadvertence than from any 
 deficiency in the evidence, that it is not noticed at aU by 
 Schonemann, Ebert, Delandine, or by our countryman Horne. 
 Due attention is however bestowed upon it by August Fried- 
 rich Pfeiffer, Uber Biicher-Handschriften, Erlangen 1810, 
 p. 39, 40. 
 
 With regard to the circumstances which led to the inven- 
 tion of the paper now in common use, or the country in which 
 it took place, we find in the writers on the subject from Poly- 
 dore Virgil to the present day nothing but conjectures or con- 
 fessions of ignorance. Wehrs supposes, and others follow 
 him, that in making paper linen rags were either by accident 
 or through design at first mixt with cotton rags, so as to pro- 
 duce a paper, which was partly linen and partly cotton, and 
 that this led by degrees to the manufacture of paper from 
 linen only*. Wehrs also endeavours to claim the honour of 
 the invention for Germany, his own country; but Schone- 
 mann gives that distinction to Italy, because there, in the di- 
 strict of Ancona, a considerable manufacture of cotton paper 
 was carried on before the fourteenth century f. All however 
 admit, that they have no satisfactory evidence on the sub- 
 ject. 
 
 A clear fight is thrown upon these questions by a remark 
 of the Arabian physician, AbdoUatiph, who visited Egypt A.D. 
 * Vom Papier, p. 183. f Diplomatik, vol. i. p. 494. 
 
INVENTION OF LINEN PAPER. 
 
 385 
 
 1200. He informs us*, '■^ that the cloth found in the catn- 
 combs, and used to envelope the mummies, loas made into yar- 
 ments, or sold to the scribes to make paper for shop-keepers.''' 
 Having shoun that this cloth was linen (see above, § 67- 
 p. 256 — 263), I consider the passage of AbdoUatiph as a de- 
 cisive proof, which however has never been produced as such, 
 of the manufacture of linen paper as early as the year 1200, 
 
 This account coincides remarkably with what we know from 
 various other sources. Professor Tychsen, in his learned and 
 curious dissertation on the use of paper from Papyrus (pub- 
 lished in the Commentationes Rey. Soc. Gottinyensis Recen- 
 tiores, vol. iv. A.D. 1820), has brought abundant testimonies 
 to prove that Egypt supplied all Europe with this kind of 
 paper until towards the end of the eleventh century. The use 
 of it was then abandoned, cotton paper being employed in- 
 stead. The Arabs in consequence of their conquests in Bu- 
 charia had learnt the art of making cotton paper about the 
 year 704, and through them or the Saracens it was introduced 
 into Europe in the eleventh century f. We may therefore con- 
 sider it as in the highest degree probable, that the mode of 
 making cotton paper was known to the paper-makers of Egypt. 
 At the same time endless quantities of linen cloth, the best of 
 all materials for the manufacture of paper, were to be obtained 
 from the catacombs. 
 
 If we put together these circumstances, we cannot but per- 
 ceive how they conspire to illustrate and justify the statement 
 of AbdoUatiph. We perceive the interest which the great 
 Egyptian paper-manufacturers had in the improvement of 
 their article, and the unrivalled facilities which they pos- 
 
 * Chapter iv. p. 188 of Silvestre de Sacy's French translation, p. 221 of Wahl's 
 German translation. This interesting passage was translated as follows by Ed- 
 ward Pococke, the younger: — 
 
 " Et qui ex Arahibus, incolisve Rifae, aliisve, has areas indagant, ha3C integu- 
 menta diripiunt, quodque in iis rapiendum invenitur; et conficiunt sibi vestes, aut 
 ea chai-tariis vendunt ad conficiendam chartam emporeaticam." 
 
 Silvestre de Sacy (Notice, &c.), animadverting on White's version which is en- 
 tirely different, expresses his approbation of Pococke's, from which Wahl's does 
 not materially differ. 
 
 t Wehrs vom Papier, p. 131, 144, Note. Breitkopf, p. 81. 
 
 2 c 
 
386 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 PERIOD OF THE 
 
 sessed for this purpose ; and thus, I apprehend, the direct tes- 
 timony of an eye-witness of the highest reputation for vera- 
 city and intelligence, supported as it is by collateral probabi- 
 lities, clears up in a great measure the long-agitated question 
 respecting the origin of paper such as we now commonly use 
 for writing. 
 
 The evidence being carried thus far, we may now take in 
 connection with it the following passage from Petrus Clu- 
 niacensis : — 
 
 Sed cujusmodi libriim ? Si talem quales quotidie in usu legendi habemus, utique 
 ex pellibus arietum, liircorum, vel vitulorutn, sive ex biblis, vel juncis orientaliiim 
 paludiim, aut ex rasuris vetei um paniioriim, seu ex qualibet alia forte viliore ma- 
 teria coinj)actos, et pennis a\iura vel calamis palustriura locorum, qualibet tinc- 
 tura infectis descriptos. Tractatus adv. Judceos, c. v. in Max-. Bibl. vet. Patrum, 
 torn. xxii. p. 1014. 
 
 All the writers upon this subject with whom I am ac- 
 quainted, except Trombelli, suppose the Abbot of Clugny to 
 allude in the phrase "ex rasuris veterum pannorum" to the 
 use of woollen and cotton cloth only, and not of linen. But, 
 as we are now authorized to carry up the invention of linen 
 paper higher than before, and as the mention of it by Abdol- 
 latiph justifies the conclusion that it was manufactured in 
 Egypt some time before his visit to that country in 1200, we 
 may reasonably conjecture that Petrus Cluniacensis alluded 
 to the same fact. The treatise above quoted is supposed to 
 have been written A.D. 1120. The account of the materials 
 used for making books appears to be full and accurate. The 
 expression " scrapings of old cloths " agrees exactly with the 
 mode of making paper from linen rags, but is not in accord- 
 ance with any facts known to us respecting the use of woollen 
 or cotton cloth. The only objection I can suppose to arise to 
 this view of the subject is, that, as Peter of Clugny had not 
 when he wrote this passage travelled eastward of France, we 
 can scarcely suppose him to have been sufficiently acquainted 
 with the manners and productions of Egyjit to introduce any 
 allusion to their newly invented mode of making paper. But 
 we know that the Abbey of Clugny had more than 300 
 churches, colleges, and monasteries dependent on it, and that 
 at least two of these were in Palestine and one at Constanti- 
 
INVENTION OF LINEN PAPER. 
 
 387 
 
 nople. The intercourse Avhich must have svibsisted in this 
 way between the Abbey of Clugny and the Levant, may ac- 
 count for the Abbot Peter's acquaintance with the fact, and 
 I therefore think it probable that he alludes to the manu- 
 facture of paper in Egypt from the cloth of mummies, which 
 on this supposition had been invented early in the twelfth 
 century *. 
 
 Another fact, which not only coincides with all the evidence 
 now produced, but carries the date of the invention still a little 
 higher, is the description of the manuscript No. 787, contain- 
 ing an Arabic version of the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, in 
 Casiri's Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis, torn. i. 
 p. 235. This MS. was probably brought from Egypt, or the 
 East. It has a date corresponding to A.D. 1 1 00, and is of linen 
 paper according to Casiri, who calls it " Chartaceus." 
 
 " Codices chartacei," i. e. MSS. on linen paper, as old as 
 the thirteenth century, are mentioned not unfrequently in the 
 Catalogues of the Escurial, the Nani, and other libraries. My 
 brother, Joseph Brooks Yates, Esq., F.S.A., of West Dingle 
 near Liverpool, is in possession of a fine 
 MS. of some of the Homilies of Chryso- 
 stom, written in all probability not later 
 than the thirteenth century. It is on 
 linen paper, with the water-lines per- 
 fectly distinct in both directions. The 
 water-mark is a tower, the size and form 
 of which are shown in the annexed wood- 
 cut. From the appearance of this pa- 
 per I should conclude that the form or 
 mould may perhaps have been made of 
 thin rods of cane or some other vege- 
 table. These rods, however, may have 
 been metallic. They were placed so 
 close, that of the water-hnes produced 
 by them 1 7 may be counted in the space 
 
 * Gibbon says (vol. v. p. 295, 4to edition), " The inestimable art of transforming 
 linen into paper has been diffused from the manufacture of Samarcand over the 
 Western world." This assertion seems to me entirely destitute of foundation. 
 
 2 c 2 
 
388 APPENDIX B. ON FELTING. 
 
 of an inch, the water-Hnes at right angles to these being one 
 inch and a quarter apart. 
 
 The preceding facts coincide with the opinion long ago ex- 
 pressed by Prideaux, who concluded that linen paper was an 
 Eastern invention, because "most of the old MSS. in Arabic 
 and other oriental languages are written on this sort of paper," 
 and that it was first introduced into Europe by the Saracens 
 of Spain*. 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 (Referred to § 1 . p. 4.) 
 
 On Felting. 
 
 There seems no reason to question the correctness of Pro- 
 fessor Beckmann's observation f, that the making of felt was 
 invented before weaving. The middle and northern regions 
 of Asia are occupied by Tartars and other populous nations, 
 whose manners and customs appear to have continued un- 
 changed from the most remote antiquity %, and to whose simple 
 and uniform mode of existence this article seems to be as ne- 
 cessary as food. Felt is the principal substance both of their 
 clothing and of their habitations. Carpini, who in the year 
 1246 went as ambassador to the great Khan of the Moguls, 
 Mongals, or Tartars, says, " Their houses are round, and ar- 
 tificially made like tents, of rods and twigs interwoven, having 
 a round hole in the middle of the roof for the admission of 
 light and the passage of smoke, the whole being covered with 
 
 * Old and New Testament connected, Part I. chapter 7. p. 393, 3rJ edition, 
 folio. 
 
 f Anleituny zur Technologie, p. 117, Note. 
 
 % Malcolm's Hist, of Persia, ch. vi. vol. i. pp. 123, 124. 
 
FELTING MORE ANCIENT THAN WEAVING. 389 
 
 felt, of which likewise the doors are made*." Ve'ry recently 
 the same account of these "portable tents of felt" has been 
 given by Julius von Klaprothf. Kupffer says of the Ca- 
 ratchai, " Leurs larges manteaux de feutre leur servent en 
 meme terns de matelas et de couverture J." The large man- 
 tle of felt, here mentioned, is used for the same purpose in 
 the neighbouring country of Circassia§. One which I saw in 
 the possession of Mr. Urquhart was made of black goats'-hair, 
 and had on the outside a long shaggy villus. The Circassians 
 sleep under this mantle by night, and wear it, when required, 
 over their other dress by day. A similar article is thus described 
 by Colonel Leake || : the postiUions in Phrygia " wear a cloak 
 of white camels'-hair felt, half an inch thick, and so stiff that 
 the cloak stands without support, when set upright on the 
 gi'ound. Thei'e are neither sleeves nor hood ; but only holes 
 to pass the hands through, and projections like wings upon 
 the shoulders for the purpose of turning otf the rain. It is 
 the manufacture of the country." The Chinese traveller, Chy 
 Fa Hian, who visited India at the end of the fourth century, 
 says, that the people of Chen Chen, a kingdom in a moun- 
 tainous district situated about the Lake of Lob, wore dresses 
 like those of the Chinese, except that they made use of felt and 
 stuffs {clu feutre et des etoffes^). 
 
 In conformity with the prevailing use of this manufacture 
 in the colder regions of Asia, scarlet or purple felt, such as 
 
 * Ken-'s Collection of Voyages and Travels, vol. i. p. 128. See also p. 167, where 
 the same facts are related by William de R\ibruquis. 
 
 The account which Herodotus gives (iv. 23) of the habitations of the Argippsei 
 evidently alludes to customs similar to tliose of the modern Tartars. He savs, 
 " They live under trees, coveriug the tree in winter witli strong and thick luidyed 
 felt (7ri\(fj orreyri/j \evK(Tj), and removing the felt in summer." Among the cere- 
 monies observed by the Scythians in burying tlie dead, Herodotus also mentions 
 the erection of three stakes of wood, which were surrounded with a close covering 
 of woollen felt (iv. 73). Also, in the ne.xt section but one (iv. 75) there is an evi- 
 dent allusion to the practice of living under tents made of felt {iirodvvovm inu 
 raits TTtXovs). 
 
 t Reise in dew, Kaucasus und nach Georgien, ch. vi. p. 161. 
 
 % Voyage dans les Environs du Mont Elbrouz. St. Petersburg, 1829, 4to, p. 20. 
 
 § Travels in Circassia, by Edmund Spencer. 
 
 II Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor, p. 38. 
 
 If Ch. ii. p. 7, of Rerausat's Translation, Par. 1836, 4to. 
 
390 
 
 APPENDIX B. ON FELTING. 
 
 that lately re-invented at Leeds, was used by the Babylonish 
 decorators for the drapery of the funeral pile, when Alexander 
 f^elebrated the splendid obsequies of Hephaestion : for so we 
 must understand the expression (f)oiviKlBe<; irCX,7]Tai (Diod. Sic. 
 xvii. 115. p. 251, Wess.). Xenophon {Cyrop. v. 5. § 7-) men- 
 tions the use of felt manufactured in Media, as a covering for 
 chairs and couches. The Medes also used bags and sacks of 
 felt (Atheneeus, 1. xii. p. 540 c. Casaub,). 
 
 The process, by which wool is converted into felt, was called 
 by the Greeks 7rtX??o-t? (Plato de Leg. 1. viii. p. 115. ed. Bek- 
 ker), literally a compression, from irCKkw, to compress*. The 
 ancient Greek scholion on the passage of Plato here referred 
 to thus explains the term : J\Cs.r](jeu)<i' t^? hia ri;? twv epiwv 
 TTn/cvftjcreft)? 'yivofievr]'; ia6r]To^, i. e. " cloth made by the thick- 
 ening of wool." With this definition of felt agrees the follow- 
 ing description of a TreVao-o? in a Greek epigram, which re- 
 cords the dedication of it to Mercury : — 
 
 Sot TOV TnXrjOevTa di' ev'idvTov rpixos d/ivov, 
 'Epfia, KaWiTeXijS eKpS/iaae weTaaov. 
 
 Brunck, Anal. ii. 41. 
 
 The art of felting was called r/ 7rL\r)TtK7] (Plato, Polit. ii. 2. 
 p. 296, ed. Bekker). According to the ancient Greek and 
 Latin glossaries, and to Julius Pollux (vii. 30), a felt-maker, 
 or hatter, was TrtXoTroto? or TrtXojTOTroio?, in Latin coactiliarius. 
 From TTiXof {dim. ttlKlov, second dim. ttiXlBiov), the proper term 
 for /"eli in general, derived from the root of irCKeo), came the 
 verb -TTiXoco, signifying to feU, or to make felt, and from this 
 latter verb was formed the ancient participle ivChjij>To<i, felted, 
 which again gave origin to ttCKwto-koio'^. 
 
 It may be observed, that our English word felt is evidently 
 a participle or a derivative, and that its verb or root fel, ap- 
 pears to be the same with the root of iriXico. 
 
 The Latin cogo, which was used, like the Greek TrtXeo), to 
 denote the act of compressing, or forcing the separate hairs 
 together, gave origin to the participle coactus, and its deriva- 
 
 * Xenophanes thought that the moon was a compressed cloud {vi(po9 ireTriKt}- 
 ftevov, Stobaci Eclog. i. 27. p. 550, ed. Heeren) ; and that the air was emitted from 
 the earth by its compression (ttiXijo-is, i. 23. p. 484). 
 
! 
 
PLaU JX. 
 
USE OF FELT IN ITALY AND GREECE. 
 
 391 
 
 tive coactilis. Pliny [H. N. viii. 48. s. T'-^-)-> after speaking of 
 woven stuffs, mentions in the following terms the use of wool 
 for making felt : " Lanae et per se coactae {al. coactam) vestem 
 faciunt," i. e. " Parcels of wool, driven together by themselves, 
 make cloth.^' This is a very exact, though brief description 
 of the process of felting. The following monumental inscrip- 
 tion (Gruter, p. 648. n. 4.) contains the title Lanarius coacH- 
 liarius, meaning a manufacturer of woollen felt : — 
 
 M. Ballortus M. L. LahiseuSj lanarius coactili- 
 
 ARIUS, CONJUGI CARISSIM^ B. M. FEC. 
 
 Helvius Successus, the son of a freedman, and the father 
 of the Roman emperor Pertinax, was a hatter in Liguria {ta- 
 bernam coactiliariam in Liguria exercverat, Jul. Cap. Per- 
 tinax, c. 3.). Pertinax himself, being fond of money, having 
 the perseverance expressed by his agnomen, and having 
 doubtless, in the course of his expeditions into the East, made 
 valuable observations respecting the manufacture which he 
 had known from his boyhood, continued and extended the 
 same business, carrying it on and conveying his goods to a 
 distance by the agency of slaves. The Romans originally re- 
 ceived the use of felt together with its name* from the Greeks 
 (Plutarch, Niima, p. 117, ed. Steph.). The Greeks were ac- 
 quainted with it as early as the age of Homer {II. x. 265) and 
 Hesiod {Op. et Dies, 542,546). 
 
 The principal use of felt among the Greeks and Romans 
 Avas to make coverings of the head for the male sex, and the 
 most common cover made of this manufacture was a simple 
 skull-cap, i. e. a cap exactly fitted to the shape of the head, as 
 is shown in Plate IX. fig. 1, taken from a sepulchral bas- 
 relief which was found by Mr. Dodwell in Boeotiaf. The 
 original is as large as life. The person represented appears 
 to me to have been a Cynic philosopher. He leans upon the 
 staff {baculus, ^aKrpov, a-Kijirrpov) ; he is clothed in the blan- 
 ket {pallium, -^^alva, TpLjBcov) with one end, which is covered, 
 over his left breast, and another hanging behind over his left 
 shoulder ; he wears the beard {barba, iroijav) ; his head is 
 
 * Pileus or Pileum (Non. Marc, iii., pilea virorum sunt, Servius in Virg. ^^n. ix. 
 616), dim. Pileoliis or Pi/eolum (Coluni. de Arbor. 25). 
 t Tour through Greece, vol. i. pp. 242, 243. 
 
392 
 
 APPENDIX B. ON FELTING. 
 
 protected by the simple skull-cap {pileus, ttZXo?). All these 
 were distinct characteristics of the philosopher, and more 
 especially of the Cynic*. The dog also probably marked his 
 sect. Leonidas of Tarentum, in his enumeration of the goods 
 belonging to the Cynic Posocharesf, including a dog-collar 
 {kvvov')(^ov) , mentions, Kal ttIXov Ke<^aXa<; ov')(^ oaia'^ aKCTvavov, 
 i. e. " The cap of felt, which covered his unholy head." This 
 passage may be regarded as a proof, that among the Gi'eeks, 
 though not among the Romans, the cap of felt was worn by 
 very poor men. It also proves that this cap, which was the 
 /ess of the modern Greeks, was worn by philosophers, and 
 therefore throws light on a passage of Antiphanes {ap. Athen. 
 xii. 63. p. 545 a) describing a philosopher of a different cha- 
 racter, who was very elegantly dressed, having a small cap of 
 fine felt {iTiKLhiov cnraXov), also a small white blanket, a beau- 
 tiful tunic, and a neat stick. When Cleanthes advanced the 
 doctrine, that the moon had the shape of a skull-cap {TnXoecBrj 
 ru) (T')(riiiaTL, Stobaei Eel. Pfiys. i. 27- p. 554, ed. Heeren), he 
 probably intended to account for its phases from its supposed 
 hemispherical form. A cap of a similar form and appearance, 
 though perhaps larger and not so closely fitted to the crown 
 of the head, was worn by fishermen %. In an epigram of Phi- 
 lijjpus^, describing the apparatus of a fisherman, the author 
 mentions ttIXov dfj,(j>LKpr)vov vBaaio-reyrj, " the cap encompass- 
 ing his head and protecting it from wet." Figure 1. in Plate X. 
 represents a small statue of a fisherman belonging to the 
 Townley Collection in the British Museum. His cap is slightly 
 pointed and in a degree, which was probably favourable to the 
 discharge of water from its surface. Hesiod recommends, that 
 agricultural labourers should wear the same defence from cold 
 and showers {Op. ei Dies, 545 — 547). The use of this cap by 
 seamen was no doubt the ground, on which the painter Nico- 
 machus represented Ulysses wearing one. " Hie primus," 
 says Pliny [H. N. xxxv. 36. s. 22.), "Ulyssi addidit pileum ||." 
 
 * See the articles Baculus, Barba, Pallium, p. 703, in Smith's Diet, of Greek 
 and Roman Antirjuities. 
 
 t Brunck, Anal. i. p. 223. Nos. x, xi. J Theocrit. xxi. 13. 
 
 § Brunck, Anal. ii. p. 212. No. v. 
 
 II Compare Eustathius in Horn. II. x. 2Cj, as quoted below. 
 
CAP WORN BY CYNICS, FISHERMEN, MARINERS, ETC. 393 
 
 For the same reason the cap is an attribute of the Dioscuri ; 
 and hence two caps with stars above them are often shown on 
 the coins of maritime cities and of others where Castor and 
 Pollux were worshipped. Figure 1. of Plate XI. is taken 
 from a brass coin of Dioscurias in Colchis, preserved in the 
 British Museum. On the reverse is the name AI02K0T- 
 PIAAOS. Figure 2. represents both sides of a silver coin in 
 the same collection, with the legend BPETTIflN. It belongs 
 to Bruttium in South Italy. On the one side Castor and 
 Pollux are mounted on horseback. They wear the chlamys 
 and carry palm branches in their hands. Their caps have 
 a narrow brim. The I'everse shows their heads only, and 
 their caps, without brims, are surrounded by wreaths of 
 myrtle. The cornucopia is added as an emblem of prosperity. 
 Figure 3. is from a brass coin of Amasia (AMA5!2EIA2) in 
 Pontus. It shows the cornucopia between the two skull-caps. 
 Charon also was represented with the mariner's or fisherman's 
 cap, as, for example, in the bas-relief in the Museo Pio-Cle- 
 menfino, torn. iv. tav. 35, and the painted vase in Stackelberg's 
 Graber der Hellenen, t. 47, 48, which is copied in Becker's 
 CharicJes, vol. ii. taf. i. fig. 1, and in Smith's Dictio)iary of 
 Greek and Roman Antiquities, p. 404. 
 
 A pileus of the same general form was worn by artificers ; 
 and on this account it is attributed to Vulcan and to Daedalus, 
 who, as well as Ulysses and Charon, are commonly found 
 wearing it in works of ancient art. Arnobius says, that Vul- 
 can was represented "cum pileo et malleo" — "fabrili expe- 
 ditione succinctus ;" and that on the other hand Mercury was 
 represented with the petasus, or "petasunculus," on his head*. 
 This observation is confirmed by numerous figures of these 
 two divinities, if we suppose the term petusns, which will be 
 more fully illustrated hereafter, to have meant a hat with a 
 brim, and pileus to have denoted properly a fess or cap with- 
 out a brim. 
 
 * Adv. Gentes, lib. vi. p. 674, ed. Erasmi. When Lucian ludicrously represents 
 Jupiter wearing a skull-cap, which we may suppose to have been like that of the 
 philosopher in the preceding figure, he must have intended to describe the " Fa- 
 ther of gods and men" as a weak old man; AielXe ri)v Ke(pa\))v KareveyKMV 
 Rai ei ye fit) 6 ttiXos avraaxf, nai to ttoXv rijs TrX/jyT/s aTrece'iaro, &c. Dial. 
 Dear., vol. ii. p. .314. ed. Hemster. 
 
394 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 ON FELTING. 
 
 The annexed wood-cut is taken from 
 a small bronze statue of Vulcan in the 
 Royal Collection at Berlin. He wears 
 the exomis, and holds his hammer in 
 the right hand and his tongs in the left. 
 For other specimens of the head-dress 
 of Vulcan the reader is referred to the 
 Museo Plo-Clementino, t. iv. tav. xi., 
 and to Smith's Dictionary of Greek and 
 Roman Antiquities, p. 589. 
 
 Plate IX. is intended still further to 
 illustrate some of the most common va- 
 rieties in the form of the ancient skull- 
 cap. Figure 2. is a head of Vulcan from 
 a medal of the Aurelian family*. Fi- 
 gure 3. is the head of Daedalus from a 
 bas-relief, formerly belonging to the 
 Villa Borghese, and representing the 
 story of the wooden cow, which he made for Pasiphaef. I 
 have placed figures 4. and 5. in apposition in order to show 
 the contrast in the expression of sentiment in the countenances 
 of Vulcan and Ulysses ; Vulcan with a mild expression and 
 intent on the labour of his hands, Ulysses tried by adversity 
 and looking forward with eager hope to futurity. The latter 
 (Fig. 5.) is from a cameo in the Florentine collection. Fig. 4. 
 is the head of a small bronze statue, wearing boots and the 
 exomis, which belonged to Mr. R. P. Knight, and is now in 
 the British Museum. It is engraved in the " Specimens of 
 Ancient Sculpture published by the Society of Dilettanti," 
 vol. i. pi. 47. The editors express a doubt whether this statue 
 was meant for Vulcan or Ulysses, merely because the god and 
 the hero were commonly represented wearing the same kind 
 of cap. Not only does the expression of countenance in my 
 opinion decide the question ; but also the small bronze of Mr. 
 
 * Montfaucon, Ant. Expl. t. i. pi. 46. No. 4. 
 
 t Winckelmann, Mon. Ined. ii. 93. The skull-cap, here represented as worn by 
 Diedalus, is remarkably like that which is still worn by shepherd boys in Asia 
 Minor. Mr. George Stharf, who accompanied Mr. Fellows on his second tour into 
 that country, has favoured me with an original drawing of such a Grecian youth, 
 which is copied in Plate X. fig. 4. 
 
CAP WORN BY D^DALUS, VULCAN, ULYSSES, ETC. 395 
 
 Knight's collection agrees in attitude and costume with many 
 small statues of Vulcan, who is represented in all of them 
 wearing the exomis, holding the hammer and tongs, and 
 having the felt cap on his head*. Fig. 6. is another repre- 
 sentation of Ulysses from an ancient lampf. It exhibits him 
 tied to the masfc, while he listens to the song of the Sirens. 
 The cap in this figure is much more elongated than in the 
 others. Fig. 7- shows a cap of nearly the same form worn by 
 a Roman desultor. This is also taken from an ancient lamp 
 (Bartoli, i. 24), which is copied entire in Smith's Dictionary 
 of Greek and Roman Antiquities, p. 327- 
 
 The felt cap was worn not only by desultores, but by others 
 of the Romans upon a journey, in sickness, or in cases of un- 
 usual exposure. Hence Martial says in Epig. xiv. 132, en- 
 titled " Pileus," 
 
 Si possem, totas cuperem misisse lacernas : 
 Nunc tantuiii capiti munera mitto tuo. 
 
 t. e. 
 
 O that a whole laceraa I could send ! 
 
 Let this (I can no more) your head defend. 
 
 The wig {galerus) answered the same purpose for the wealthy 
 classes {arrepto pileo vet galero, Sueton. Nero, 26), and the 
 cucidlus and cudo for both rich and poor. On returning home 
 from a party, a person sometimes carried his cap and slippers 
 under his arm (Hor. Epist. I. xiii. 15), 
 
 The hats worn by the Salii J are said by Dionysius of Ha- 
 licarnassus to have been ttIXous u-yjrTjXov^ ft? a'^^fl/xa avvayo- 
 /zevof? KcovoeiSe';, "tall hats of a conical form§." Plutarch 
 distinctly represents them as made of felt. He says {I. c), 
 that the flamines were so called quasi pilamines, because they 
 wore felt hats [anro twv trepLKpaviwv iriKoyv), and because in 
 the early periods of Roman history it was more common to 
 invent names derived from the Greek. On coins, however, 
 
 * See the preceding wood-cut; Montfaucon, Ant. Expl. vol. i. pi. 46. figs. 1, 2, 3; 
 Mus. Florent. Gemmm Ant. a Gorio illustratce, torn. ii. tab. 40. fig. 3. 
 
 t ^axioM, Lucerne Antiche, P.IIL tab. IL There is a beautiful figure of Ulysses 
 in Pictures Antiques Virgiliani cod. Bibl. Vat. a Bartoli, tab. 103, taken from a 
 gem. In Winckelraann, Mon. Ined. ii. No. 154, he is represented giving wine to 
 the Cyclops : this figure is copied in Smith's Diet. p. 762. 
 
 X Smith's Diet. ofGr. and R. Antiqtdtics, art. Apex. § Ant. Rom. L. ii. 
 
396 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 ON FELTING. 
 
 this official cap of the SaUi and Flamines is commonly oval 
 like that attributed to the Dioscuri*. We observe indeed 
 continual variations in the form of the pileus from hemisphe- 
 rical to oval, and from oval to conical. A conical cap is seen 
 on the head of the reaper in the woodcut to the article Falx 
 in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, which 
 wood-cut is taken from a coin of one of the Lagidae, kings of 
 Egypt. Caps, regularly conical and still more elongated, are 
 worn by the buffoons or comic dancers, who are introduced in 
 an ancient mosaic preserved in the Villa Corsini at Romef. 
 Fig. 3. in Plate X. is copied from one of these. Telephus, 
 king of Mysia, is represented as wearing 
 
 To TtiXiCiiov irepl rr/v KecpaXtjv to Miktiov. 
 
 Aristopli. Acham. 429. 
 
 This " Mysian cap" must have been the same which is known 
 by the moderns under the name of the Phrygian bonnet, and 
 with which we are familiar from the constant repetition of it 
 in statues and paintings of Priam, Paris, Ganymede J, Atys, 
 Perseus, and Mithras, and in short in all the representations 
 not only of Trojans and Phrygians, but of Amazons and of all 
 the inhabitants of Asia Minor, and even of nations dwelling 
 still further to the East. Also, when we examine the works 
 of ancient art which contain representations of this Mysian 
 cap, we perceive that it was a cone bent into the form in 
 which it is exhibited, and so bent, perhaps by use, but more 
 probably by design. This circumstance is well illustrated in 
 a bust of Parian marble, supposed to be intended for Paris, 
 which is preserved in the Glyptotek at Munich. I have in- 
 troduced a drawing of it in Plate X. fig. 2. The flaps of the 
 bonnet are turned up and fastened over the top of the head. 
 The stiffiiess of the material is clearly indicated by the sharp 
 angular appearance of that portion of it which is turned for- 
 wards. Mr. Dodwell, in his Tour in Greece (vol. i. p. 134), 
 makes the following observations on the modern costume, 
 
 * See above, p. 393. t Bai toli, Luc. Ant. P. I. tab. 35. 
 
 X Stuart, in his Antiquities of Athens, vol. iii. eh. 9. plates 8, 9, has engraved two 
 beautiful statues of Telephus and Ganymede from a ruined colonnade at Thessalo- 
 nica. In these the cap is vei y little pointed. 
 
Phi.f<' X 
 
CAP WORN BY THE ASIATICS. 
 
 397 
 
 which seems to resemble the ancient, except that the ancient 
 TTtXo? and irCkLhiov were probably of undyed wool : — " The 
 Greeks of the maritime parts, and particulai-ly of the islands, 
 wear a red or blue cap of a conical form, like the pilidion. 
 When it is new it stands upright, but it soon bends, and then 
 serves as a pocket for the handkerchief, and sometimes for the 
 purse. Others wear the red skull-cap, or fess." The Lycians, 
 as we are informed by Herodotus (viii. 92), wore caps of felt, 
 which were surrounded with feathers (ttiXou? irTepolat irepL- 
 eo-re^avw/^evoi;?) . Some of the Lycian coins and bas-reliefs, 
 however, show the " Phrygian bonnet," as it is called, in the 
 usual form*. 
 
 The cap worn by the Persians is called by Greek authors 
 Kvp^aaia or ridpai, and seems to have had the form now 
 imder consideration. Herodotus, when he describes the cos- 
 tume of the Persian soldiers in the army of Xerxes, says, that 
 they wore light and flexible caps of felt {ttlXov; d7rayea<;), 
 which were called tiaras. He adds, that the Medes and Bac- 
 trians wore the same kind of cap with the Persians, but that 
 the Cissiiwore a mitra instead (vii. 61, 62, 64). On the other 
 hand he says, that the Sacae wore cyrbasice, which were sharp- 
 pointed, straight, and compact {Kvp^aaca<; e? 6^v d7riyfj,eva<; 
 6p6d<; Treirrjyvla';). The Armenians were also called "wearers 
 of felt" {iTLXocpopoL 'Ap/xevcoi, Brunck, Anal. ii. p. 146. No. 22.). 
 The form of their caps is clearly shown in the coins of the 
 Emperor Verus, one of which, preserved in the British Mu- 
 seum, is engraved in Plate XT. fig. 4. The legend, surround- 
 ing his head, l. vervs. avg. armeniacvs, refers to the war 
 in Ai-menia. The reverse shows a female figure representing 
 Armenia, mourning and seated on the ground, and surrounded 
 by the emblems of Roman warfare and victory. The caps re- 
 presented on this and other coins agree remarkably with the 
 
 * Fello^s's Discoveries in Lycia, Plate 35. Nos. 3, 7. The " Phrygian bonnet" 
 is seen in the bas-rehefs brought from Xanthus by this intelligent traveller, and now 
 deposited in the British Museum. 
 
 t Ilerod. V. 49. According to Moeris, v. KvpjSatria, this was the Attic term, 
 Tiapa meaning the same thing iu the common Greek. Plutarch appUes the latter 
 term to the cap worn by the younger Cyrus : 'ATroTri'Trrei de Trjs K6<j>aXrjs i) ridpa 
 Tov Kvpov. — Artaxerxes, p. 1858. ed. Stepb. 
 
398 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 ON FELTING. 
 
 forms still used in the same part of Asia. Figures 5 and 6 in 
 Plate XI. are taken from Sir John Malcolm's History of Per- 
 sia (vol. ii. p. 596), and exhibit the costume of a wandering 
 tribe near the mountains of Kurdistan. Strabo (L. xi. p. 563, 
 ed. Sieb.) says, that these caps were necessary in Media on 
 account of the cold. He calls the Persian cap iriX'qfia irvp- 
 7&)Tov, "felt in the shape of a tower" (L. xv. p. 231). The 
 king of Persia was distinguished by wearing a stiff cyrbasia, 
 which stood erect, whereas his subjects wore their tiaras folded 
 and bent forwards*. Hence in the Aves of Aristophanes the 
 cock is ludicrously compai'ed to the Great King, his erect comb 
 being called his " cyrbasia." The Athenians no doubt con- 
 sidered this form of the tiara as an expression of pride and 
 assumption. It is recorded as one of the marks of arrogance 
 in ApoUodorus, the Athenian painter, that he wore an " erect 
 capt." 
 
 The coin represented in the annexed 
 wood-cut (taken from Patin, Imp. Rom. 
 Numismata, Par. 1697, p. 213)°is of the 
 reign of the Emperor Commodus, and 
 belonged according to the legend either 
 to Trapezus in Cappadocia or to Tra- 
 pezopolis in Caria. It represents the 
 god Lunus or Mensis, who was the 
 moon considered as of the male sex 
 agreeably to the ideas of many northern and Asiatic nations 
 (Patin, p. 173). This male moon or month was, as it seems, 
 always represented w^th the cyrbasia J. In another coin pub- 
 lished by Patin (/, c.) a cock stands at the feet of this divinity, 
 proving that this was the sacred bird of Lunus, and probably 
 because the rayed form of the cock's comb was regarded as a 
 natural type of the cyrbasia, which distinguished the kings of 
 Persia and was attributed also to this Oriental divinity. A 
 lamp found on the Celian Mount at Rome§ represents in the 
 
 * Xenoph. ^nai. ii. 5, 23; Cyrq/;. \-iii. 3, 13. CVitarchus, njj. Schol. i.t Jrisfop/t. 
 Aves, 487. 
 
 t TUXov bpQov. Hesj'chius, s.v. llKiaypacpia. 
 t Hirt's Bilderbuch, p. 88. tab. xi. figs. 8, 9. 
 § Bai toli, Luc. Ant., P. II. tav. 11. 
 
THE NORTHERN NATIONS. 
 
 CAP OF LIBERTY. 
 
 399 
 
 centre Lunus with 12 rays, probably designed to denote the 
 12 months of the year, and on the handle two cocks pecking 
 at their food. head of the same divinity, published by Hirt 
 (/. c.) from an antique gem at Naples, has 7 stars upon the cap, 
 perhaps referring to the 7 planets. 
 
 Instead of the conical cap of the Asiatics many of the North- 
 ern nations of Eurojie appear to have worn a felt cap, the form 
 of which was that of a truncated cone. Of this a good example 
 is shown in the group of Sarmatians, represented in the wood- 
 cut in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities 
 (p. 160), which is taken from the Column of Trajan. The 
 same thing appears in various coins beloaging to the reign of 
 this Emperor, two of which, preserved in the British Museum, 
 are engraved in Plate XI. Figure 7 represents Dacia sitting as 
 a captive with her hands tied behind her back, wearing trow- 
 sers (braccce) and a conical or oval cap with the edge turned 
 up. Figure 8 represents Dacia mourning. In each we see 
 a Dacian target together with Roman armour. Each has 
 the same legend, dac. cap. cos. v. p.p. s.p.q.r. optimo. 
 PBiNC. On the reverse is the head of the Emperor with the 
 inscription imp. trajano. aug. ger, dac. p.m. tr.p. 
 
 According to the I'epresentation of Lucian [de Gymnas.), the 
 Scythians were in the constant habit of weai'ing caps or hats : 
 for in the conversation between Anacharsis and Solon de- 
 scribed by that author, Anacharsis requests to go into the 
 shade, saying that he could scarce endure the sun, and that 
 he had brought his cap (ttZXov) from home, but did not like 
 being seen alone in a strange habit. In later times we read 
 of the ''pileati Gothi" and "pileati sacerdotes Gothorum*." 
 
 In considering the use of the skull-cap, or of the conical cap 
 of felt, it remains to notice the use of it among the Romans 
 as the emblem of liberty \. When a slave obtained his free- 
 dom he had his head shaven, and wore instead of his hair the 
 pileus, or cap of undyed felt (Trt'Xeov \evKov, Diod. Sic. Exc. 
 Leg. 22. p. 625, ed. Wess.). Plutarch, in allusion to the same 
 custom, calls the cap ttlXlov, which is the diminutive of tti- 
 
 * Joniaudes, &c. ap. Div. Gentium Hist. Ant., Hamb. 1611, pp. 86, 93. 
 t Hsec mea libertas ; hoc nobis pilea donant. — Persius, v. 82. 
 
400 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 ON FELTING. 
 
 Xo?*. It is evident, that the Latin jnlcKS or pi/emn is derived 
 from the Greek mXo? and its diminutive, and this circumstance 
 in conjunction with other evidence tends to sljow, that the 
 Latins adopted this use of felt from the Greeks t- Sosia says 
 in Plautus {Amphit. i. 1, 306), as a description of the mode 
 of receiving his liberty, " Ut ego hodle, raso capite calvus, 
 capiam pileum." Servius {in Virg. jEn. viii. 564) says, the 
 act of manumitting slaves in this form was done in the tem- 
 ple of Feronia, who was the goddess of freedmen. In her 
 temple at Terracina was a stone seat, on which was engraved 
 the following verse : " Benemeriti servi sedeant, surgent li- 
 beri." In allusion to this practice it appears that the Romans, 
 though they did not commonly wear hats, put them on at the 
 SaturnaliaJ. At the death of Nero, the common people to 
 express their joy went about the city in felt caps§. In allu- 
 sion to this custom the figure of Liberty on the coins of Anto- 
 ninus Pius holds the cap in her right hand. Figures 9 and 
 10 in Plate XI. are examples selected from the collection in the 
 British Museum, and, as we learn from the legend, were struck 
 when he was made consul the fourth time, i. e. A.D. 145. 
 
 In contradistinction to the various forms of the felt cap now 
 described and represented, all of which were more or less ele- 
 vated, and many of which were pointed upwards, we have now 
 to consider those, which, though made of felt, and therefore 
 classed by the ancients under the general terms pileus, irTko'i, 
 &c. II, corresponded more nearly to the hat as worn by Euro- 
 peans in modern times. The Greek word irkraao^, dim. Trerd- 
 <TLov, derived from TreravvufML, extendo, dilato, and adopted by 
 the Latins in the form petasus, dim. petasrincidus, well express- 
 ed the distinctive form of these hats. They were more or less 
 
 * "EOos eari roTs oiKerais, orav e\ev9epM9Co<ji, ivpetrOai re rds Ke(pa\as Kai 
 TTiXia (jiopeiv. Flamin. p. 689, ed. Steph. 'O NiK-o/xt;(?);s, t>)v KecpaXi/v ^vpa- 
 fievos Kal TTiXtov e7ri9ejuevos, aireXevQepov kavTov 'P(oiiaiiov avijyopevaev. 
 Or. ii. de Fort. Alex. p. 600. 
 
 f Compare the remark of Plutarch in his Life of Numa as iiuoted above, pp. 
 391, 395. 
 
 X Pileata Roma. Martial, xi. 7; xiv. 1. § Plebs pileata. Sueton. Nero, 57. 
 
 II Phitarch {Solon, 179) says that Solon, pretending to be mad and acting the 
 part of a herald from Salamis, e^eirr^driuev 6is t>)v ayopav difivia iriXiov Trcpi- 
 Oeiievos. Here iriXiov seems to mean the ireraffof. 
 
Pi ate XII. 
 
THE PETASUS. 
 
 STATUE OF ENDYMIOX. 
 
 401 
 
 broad and expanded. What was taken from their height m as 
 added to their width. Those ah eady mentioned had no brim ; 
 the petasus of every variety had a brim, which was either ex- 
 actly or nearly circular, and which varied greatly in its width. 
 In some cases it seems to be a mere circular disc without any 
 crown at all. Of this we have an example in a beautiful sta- 
 tue, which I suppose to have been meant for Eudymion, in the 
 Townley collection of the British Museum. See Plate XII. His 
 right hand encircles his head, and his scarf is spread over a rock 
 as described by Lucian *. He sleeps upon it, holding the fibula 
 in his left hand. His feet are adorned with boots {cothurni) 
 and his simple petasus is tied under his chin. In this form 
 the petasus illustrates the remark of Theophrastus, who, in de- 
 scribing the Egyptian Bean, says, that the leaf was of the size of 
 the Thessalian petasus f. For the purpose of comparing these 
 two objects I have introduced into the same plate with the 
 recumbent statue of Endymion a representation of the leaves 
 of the plant referred to, taken from the ' Botanical Magazine,' 
 Plates 903, 39 IG, and Sir J. E. Smith's ' Exotic Botany,' 
 Tab. 31, 32. The petasus here shown on the head of Endy- 
 mion, the original statue being as large as life, certainly re- 
 sembles very closely both in size and in form the leaf of the 
 
 * In the Dialogues of the Gods (xi.), the Moon says in answer to Venus, that 
 Endymion is particularly beautiful " when he sleeps, having thrown his scarf under 
 him upon the rock, holding in his left hand the darts just falling from it, whilst his 
 right hand hent upwards lies gracefully round his face, and, dissolved in sleep, he 
 exhales his ambrosial breath." 
 
 The recumbent statue, here represented, is of white marble, and is placed in 
 Room XI. of the Townlcy Gallery. It was found in 1774 at Roma Vecchia (Cal- 
 laway's Anecdotes of the Arts, p. 303). It has been called Mercury or Adonis. 
 Hut I know of no examples or authorities in support of either of these suppositions. 
 It is not sufficient to say that every beautiful youth may have been meant eitiier 
 for Mercury, who, I apprehend, was never represented asleep, or for Adonis. We 
 know that the fable of Endymion and the Moon was a favourite subject with the 
 ancient artists. In the Antichita d'Ercolano, tom. iii. tav. 3, we find a picture, 
 which was discovered at Portici, and which represents this subject. It is still more 
 frequent in ancient bas-reliefs. See Mus. Pio-Clem. tom. iv. tav. 16; Call. Giusti- 
 niana, tom. ii. tav. 110; Ilirt, Bildcrbucli, tab. v. 8, pp. 38, 41 ; Sandrart, Sctdp. 
 Vet. Adm. p. 52 ; Gronovii Thesaur. tom. i. folio 0 ; Proceedings of the Philological 
 Society, vol. i. pp. 8, 9. 
 
 t XltTaat^i QcTToKiKij. Hist. Plant, iv. 10. p. 147, ed. Schneider. 
 
 2 D 
 
402 
 
 APPENDIX B. ON FELTING. 
 
 Egyptian Bean (o Kvajxof; Aljv7rTLo<;), which is the Cyamvis 
 Nelumbo, or Nelumbium Speciosum of modern botanists. 
 
 The flowers of umbeUiferous plants are aptly called by Pha- 
 nias* 7r€Taa(o8r], i. e. like apetasus. The petasus, as worn by 
 the two shepherds, who discover Romulus and Remus, in a 
 bas-relief of the Vatican is certainly not unlike the umbel of 
 a plant. See Plate XIII. Fig. 1. 
 
 Callimachus ascribes the same head-dress to shepherds in 
 the following lines : — 
 
 'ETTpfTTf roi Trf)oexovaa Kapi]s evpe'ia KoXi'iirrpi;, 
 lloifxepiKov TriXrjiia. — Fruff. cxxv. 
 
 i. e. " The wide covering projecting from your head, the pastoral hat, became 
 you." 
 
 This " pastoral hat," if we may judge from the representa- 
 tion of the two shepherds in the bas-relief just referred to, was 
 in its shape vei'y like the "bonny blue bonnet" of the Scotch. 
 Figure 2. in Plate XIII. is taken from a painted Greek vase, 
 and represents the story of the delivery of Oedipus to be ex- 
 posed. His name OIAIIIOAAS is written beside him. The 
 shepherd ET<I)0PB02, who holds the naked child in his arms, 
 M ears a flat and very broad petasus hanging behind his neck. 
 It is of an irregular shape, as if from long usage J. The shep- 
 herd Zethus wears a petasus hanging behind his back in a 
 bas-relief belonging to the Borghese collection, published by 
 Winckelmann [Mon. laediti, ii. 85). See Plate XIII. Fig. 3. 
 
 The Athenian ephebi wore the broad-brimmed hat, together 
 with the scarf or chlamys§. Meleager, in an epigram on a 
 beautiful boy, named Antiochus, says, that he would be un- 
 distinguishable from Cupid, if Cupid wore a scarf and petasus 
 instead of his bow and arrows and his wings ||. 
 
 When a young Greek conquered in the games, his friends 
 sometimes bestowed a hat [petasus) upon him as a present^. 
 
 * Apud Athen. ix. 12. p. 371 D. ed. Casaub. 
 
 t Museo Pio-Clementino, torn. v. tav. 24. This bas-rehef formerly belonged to 
 the Mattei collection. See Monimienta Matthceiana, tom. iii. tab. 37. 
 
 I See Monumenti Inediii pubblicati daW Instituto di Correspondenza Archeolo- 
 ffiea, vol. ii. tav. 14. 
 
 § Pollux, Onom. x. 164 ; Philemon, p. 367, ed. Meineke ; Brunck, Anal. vol. ii. 
 p. 41 ; Jacobs in Anthol. Greec. i. 1. p. 24. 
 
 II Brunck, Ana!, vol. i. p. 5. ^ Eratosthen. a Ecrnhardy, p. 249, 230. 
 
Plate xm 
 
PETASUS IN WOUKS OF ANCIENT ART. 
 
 403 
 
 In consequence of the use of the petasus as a part of the 
 ordinary costume of the Athenian youth, we find it in a great 
 variety of works of ancient art illustrative of the religion and 
 mythology of Greece. For example : — 
 
 1. In the inner frieze of the Parthenon, the remains of 
 which are now in the British Museum, it is worn by many of 
 the riders on horseback. Figure 4. in Plate XIII. shows one 
 of these horsemen (from the slab No. 54.) with his petasus 
 tied under his chin. 
 
 2. It is worn by Theseus, as represented on a vase in the 
 Vatican collection. See Winckelmann, Mon. Inediti, vol. ii. 
 98, and Fig. 5. Plate XIII. 
 
 3. Also by CEdipus, as represented on one of Sir Wiiliam 
 Hamilton's vases (vol. ii. Plate 21.), standing before the 
 Sphinx. See Figure 6, in Plate XIII. 
 
 4. The coins of ^tolia exhibit Meleager wearing the pe- 
 tasus. I have selected five froin the collection in the British 
 Museum, which are engraved according to the size of the ori- 
 ginals in Plate XI. Figures 11, 12, and 13 are of silver. lu 
 each of them the petasus has the form of a circular disc with 
 a boss at the top like that on a Scotch bonnet : on the re- 
 verse is the Calydonian boar with a spear-head beneath it, 
 and the word AITflAnN. Figure 14, M hich is of gold*, and 
 Figui'e 15, which is of silver, have the head of Hercules on 
 the reverse. The hero, supposed to be Meleager, wears a pe- 
 tasus, a scarf, and boots, as we have seen to be the case with 
 Endymionf, this being the attire of hunters. In these two 
 coins he also holds a spear in his right hand, and is seated upon 
 a shield and other pieces of armour. AITflAflN is written 
 by the side. The gold coin represents him with a Victory in 
 his left hand, and with a small figure of Diana Lucifera in 
 front. 
 
 The broad- brimmed hat, or petasus, was more especially 
 worn by the Greeks when they were travelling J. Its appearance 
 is well shov» n in the annexed wood-cut, taken from a fictile vase 
 
 * This is engraved by Taylor Combe, Vet. Populorum Nummi, tab. v. No. 23. 
 
 t See above, p. 401. 
 
 % Brunck, Anal. ii. 170, No. 5. 
 
 2 D 2 
 
404 
 
 APPENDIX C. ON FELTING. 
 
 belonging to the late Mr. Hope*. It 
 represents a Greek soldier on a journey, 
 wearing his large blanket (rptyScov, pal- 
 lium,) and holding two spears in his right 
 hand. This figure also shows one of the 
 methods of fastening on the hat, viz. by 
 passing the string round the occiput. 
 
 The comedies of Plautus, being trans- 
 lated from the Greek, contain allusions 
 to the same practice. In the Pseudolus 
 (ii. 4. 55, and iv. 7- 90j) the petasus and 
 the scarf are supposed to be worn by a 
 person to indicate that he was coming 
 from a journey. In the prologue to the 
 Amphitryo, Mercury says, 
 
 Ego has habebo hie usque in petaso pinnulas, 
 Turn meo patii autern torulus inerit aureus 
 Sub petaso: id signum Amphitruoni non erit. 
 
 Mercury and his father Jiii^iter are here supposed to be attired 
 like Sosia and Amphitryo iiis mastei', both of whom had been 
 travelling and were returning home. At the same time there 
 is an allusion to the winged hat of Mercury, of which more 
 hereafter. Again, in act i. scene i. 1. 287, the petasus is attri- 
 buted to Sosia, because he is supposed to be coming from a 
 journey ; and to Mercury, both because it was commonly at- 
 tributed to him, and because on this occasion he was per- 
 sonating Sosia. 
 
 The Romans were less addicted to the use of the petasus 
 than the Greeks : they often wore it when they were from 
 home ; but that they did not consider it at all necessary to 
 wear hats in the open air is manifest from the remark of Sue- 
 tonius about the Emperor Augustus, that he could not even 
 bear the winter's sun, and hence " domi quoque non nisi pe- 
 tasatus sub divo spatiabatur." {August. 82.) Caligula per- 
 mitted the senators to wear them at the theatres as a protec- 
 tion from the sun [iriXov^ tov ©erTaXiKov rpoirov eJ? ra diaTpa 
 <}>opelv, Dio Cass. lix. 7- P- 909, cd. Reimari). What was 
 
 * Hope, Costume of the Jnciints, vol. i. pi. "1. 
 
THE CAUSIA. 
 
 HATS OK THESSALY AND MACEDONIA. 
 
 405 
 
 meant by wearing hats " according to the Thessahan fashion" 
 is by no means clear. Perhaps the Thcssalians may have 
 w orn hats resembUng those of their neiglibours, the Macedo- 
 nians, and of tlie shape of these we may form some conception 
 from the coins of the Macedonian kings. Two of these coins 
 from the collection in the British Museum are copied in the 
 annexed wood-cut. They are coins of the reign of Alexan- 
 
 der I. Each of them exhibits a Macedonian warrior standing 
 by the side of his horse, holding two spears in his left hand? 
 and wearing a hat with a broad brim turned upwards. One 
 of these warriors has his scarf fastened with a fibula over the 
 right shoulder. This Macedonian petasus is called the Causia 
 [Kavala)*, and was adopted by the Romansf, and more espe- 
 cially by the Emperor Caracalla, who, as Herodian states, 
 aimed to imitate Alexander the Great in his costume. It 
 appears probable, nevertheless, that the turning up of the 
 brim was not peculiar to the Macedonians, and it may have 
 depended altogether on accident or fancy ; for we find in- 
 stances of it on painted fictile vases, where there is no reason 
 to suppose that any reference was intended either to Mace- 
 donia or Thessaly. The 
 right-hand figure in the 
 annexed wood-cut, for 
 example, is taken from 
 the head of Bellerophon, 
 on one of Sir William 
 Hamilton's vases J; and 
 the left-hand figure from 
 
 * Val. Max. v. 1. Extern. 4. Pausan., ap. Eustath. in II. ii. 121. It is to be 
 observed, that tlie causia aad petasus are opposed to one another by a writer in 
 AtheuiEus (L. xii. 537, e), as if the causia was not a petasus. 
 
 t riautus, .l/iV. iv.4.42. Pert.l'i. 'ih. Antip. Thess. m iBrMw*, //»a/. ii, 1 11. 
 
 i Vol. i. pi. 1. 
 
406 
 
 ArPENDn: c. on felting. 
 
 a fictile vase at Vienna, engraved by Ginzrot*. Tliis hat is 
 remarkable for the boss at the top, which we observe also on 
 the ^Etolian coins, and in various other examples. 
 
 In connection with the above-quoted expression of Dio 
 Cassius it may be observed further, that besides the caiisia 
 tw o varieties of the petasus seem to be alluded to by several 
 ancient avithors, viz. the Thessalian, and the Arcadian or La- 
 conian. How they were distinguished I cannot ascertain, but 
 I shall produce the passages which mention them, that the 
 reader may judge for himself. The Thessalian variety is men- 
 tioned by Dio Cassius, by Theophrastus, as above quoted 
 (p. 401), and by Callimachus in the following fragment, which 
 is preserved in the Scholia on Sophocles, O^d. Col. 316. 
 
 *A/[i0i ok 01 K60aX;7 vtov Aif.iovh)Qev 
 Mf/x/3Xwicos TriXr]fia ti utTov d\Kap eKeiro. 
 
 Frag. 124. ed. Ernesti. 
 i. fi. " And about his bead lay a felt, newly come from Tbessaly, as a protection 
 from wet." 
 
 I have here adopted the conjectural emendation of Bentley, 
 substituting verov for irerpov. In Brunck's edition of Sopho- 
 cles we find an entirely diiTerent reading of the latter part of 
 the fragment. The Scholiast here records the excellence of 
 Thessalian hats, in which he was no doubt correct; but I see 
 no reason to believe with him, that these hats were denoted 
 by the words Kvvrj Seaaa\l<; in Sophocles. Kuv/) probably 
 did not mean a hat of felt, but originally a cap of dog-skin, 
 and subsequently a cap or helmet of leather generally. 
 
 The frenzied Cynic philosopher Menedemus, among other 
 peculiarities, wore an Arcadian hat (mXo? 'Ap/taSi/co?), having 
 the twelve signs of the zodiac woven into itf. The following 
 epigram of Ammianur> J represents an orator dedicating " an 
 
 * Uber die IVdgen und Fuhrwerkf dcr Alten, vol. i. p. 342. 
 
 I'erbaps the occurrence of the boss or pad at the top of the petasus, as shown 
 in this wood-cut and in tlie coins engraved in Plate XI. Figs. 11, 12, 13, 15, may 
 serve to explain the word torulus in the Ampliitryo of Plautus (Prol. 144. See 
 above, p. 404.). Torulus, being the diminutive of torus, would certainly denote 
 such a small round pr.d as is exhibited in these instances. See the article Toru.s 
 in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquilics. But I do not understand 
 why the " golden pad " (Jorulus aureus) worn by Jupiter, to distinguish liini from 
 Ani'iihitryo, should be said to be " under bis pcta^ris " {sub pelaso). 
 
 ■\ Diog;. Lacrt. vi. 102. % UruncU, -liinL ii. 384. 
 
LACOXIAX OR ARCADIAX HATS. 
 
 407 
 
 Arcadian hat" to Alercuiy, who was the patron of his art, 
 and also a native of Arcadia: — 
 
 'ApKaliKov TTiXov car' eviirviov 'ApKaSi SCopop 
 'Epi^ety pi'irnjp 6i]Kev 'Adijvaynpas. 
 
 Herodes Atticus wore " the Arcadian hat " at Athens, as a 
 protection from the sun ; and the language of Philostratus, in 
 recording: the fact, shows that the Athenians of his time com- 
 inonly wore it, more especially in travelling*. Arrian, who 
 wrote about the middle of the second century, says, that 
 
 Laconian or Arcadian hats" [ttiXol AaKcoviKol i) \KpKa8iKol) 
 were worn in the army by the peltastae instead of helmets f. 
 This circumstance shows a remarkable change of customs ; 
 for in the early Greek history we find the Persian soldiers 
 held up as the objects of ridicule and contempt, because they 
 wore hats and trowsersj. The ttiAo? WpKaSiKb<; rj AaKoi)viK6<i 
 is also mentioned by Dio Chrysostomus §. On the whole I 
 am inclined to think that " the Arcadian or Laconian hat " 
 was one and the same variety, and that this variety of head- 
 dress was simply the petasus, or hat with a brim, so called to 
 distinguish it from the proper TrtXo?, which was the skull- 
 cap, or hat without a brim. 
 
 This supposition suits the representations of the only ima- 
 ginary beings who are exhibited in works of ancient art weai'- 
 ing the petasus, viz. the Dioscuri and Mercury. 
 
 It has been already observed, that the Dioscuri are com- 
 monly represented with the skull-cap, because they were wor- 
 shiped as the guardians of the mariner 1|; but on ancient 
 vases we find them sometimes painted with the petasus ; and 
 if this was the same with the 7ri\o9 i\.aK(ovLK6<;, it would coin- 
 cide with their origin as natives of Sparta. The annexed 
 wood-cut shows an example, on one of Sir William Hamilton's 
 vases, in which their attire resembles that of the Athenian 
 ephebi. They wear boots and a tunic, over which one of 
 
 * 'E^TfOT); 6 'Hpo)C>]S, 'Apicadi 7r('X(;j r))v Ke<pa\>)v CKia^iov, ws ev lipci Be- 
 poi'S fiwOei ' A9tii'ijtTn>' I'Tuis £e ttoc Ktii ei'teiKvrpei'os abrip to eK rTjs uCuij 
 i'/k-eiv. Vit. Sophist, ii. 5. 3. 
 
 t Tactica, p. 12. eJ. Blancardi. J Herod, v. 49. 
 
 § Kai TToTos av yepoiTO ttiXos 'ApKaciKus ij XciKiijvtKu?, paWov apiiuTTun' 
 T)is ai'Tot' Kn//i;s ef.-(((rr</> ; Ora/i'o 35. p. 433. 
 
 II See p. 393, ami Plate XI. I'igs. 1,2, 3. 
 
408 APPENDIX B. ON FELTING. 
 
 them also wears the scarf or chlamys. They are conducted 
 by the goddess Night. 
 
 In like manner Mercury, as a native of Arcadia, might be 
 expected to wear "the Arcadian hat*." In the representa- 
 tions of this deity on works of ancient art, the hat, w hich is 
 often decorated with wings to indicate his office of messenger, 
 as his talaria also didf, has a great variety of forms, and some- 
 times the brim is so narrow, that it does not diflfer from the 
 cap of the artificer already described, or the ttiXo? in its ordi- 
 nary form. These hats, with a brim of but small dimensions, 
 agree most exactly in appearance with the cheapest hats of 
 undyed felt now made in England J. On the heads of the 
 rustics and artificers in our streets and lanes we often see 
 forms the exact counterpart of those which we most admire 
 ill tlie works of ancient art. The petasus is also still com- 
 monly worn by agricultural labourers in Greece and Asia 
 hiinor. My object in Plates XIV. and XV. is to exhibit some 
 of the most remarkable varieties of the petasus, as worn by 
 Mercury, in antique productions. 
 
 Figures 1 and 2 in Phite XIV. are from a bas-relief in the 
 
 * 'ApKahicup ttTKov. See Ainniiaiius, as quoted in the last page. 
 
 •|- Servius (on Virg. yEn. viii. 138) says, that Mercury was supposed to have 
 Aviiigs on his petasus and on his feet, in order to denote the swiftness of speech, 
 l.p hcing the god of eloquence. 
 
 + These hats are sold in the shops for sixpence, ninepcncc, or a shilling each. 
 
Plate XIV 
 
MERCURY WITH THE PILEUS AND PETASUS. 409 
 
 A'^atican collection*, representing the birth of Hercules, and 
 containing two figures of Mercury. In one he carries the 
 infant Hercules, in the other the caduceus. In both he -wears 
 a large scarf, and a skull-cap, like that of Daedalus f, without 
 a brim. This example therefore proves that, although the 
 petasus, as distinguished from the pileus, was certainly the 
 appropriate attribute of Mercury J, yet the artists of antiquity 
 sometimes took the liberty of placing on his head the skull- 
 cap instead of the hat, just as we have seen (p. 408) that they 
 sometimes made the reverse substitution in the case of the 
 Dioscuri. 
 
 Figure 3 in Plate XIV. is from a bust, in w hich the hat has 
 a narrow brim. 
 
 Figure 1 in Plate XV. is from a bas-relief in the Vatican §, 
 representing the story of the birth of Bacchus from Jupiter's 
 thigh. Thus the subject of it is very similar to that shown 
 in the last Plate, which relates to the birth of Hercules, the 
 infant being in each instance consigned to the care of Mer- 
 cury. But the covering of Mercury's head in these two cases 
 is remarkably different, though from no other reason than the 
 fancy of the artist. In the bas-relief before us Mercury holds 
 the skin of a lynx or panther to receive the child. He wears 
 the scarf or chlamys and cothurni. This was a very favourite 
 subject with the ancients. It occurs on a superb marble vase 
 
 * Museo Pio-Clementino, torn. iv. tav. 37. 
 t See Plate IX. Fig. 3. 
 
 J See Brunck, Anal. ii. 41, and Arnobius, Adv. Gentes, lib. vi, as quoted above, 
 pp. 390, 393, to which authorities the following may be added : — 
 
 'AXeSav^pos Kai rds Ifpds eei9riTa^ e<p6ppi ev roTs deiTcvois' * * * eviore £e 
 Kai rfjv Tov 'Ep/iou' * * * rd re TreotXa xai tov Treratjov hiri ry Ke<pa\ij Kai 
 TO KiipvKdor h' Ty xeipi. — Ephippus, ap. Athen. xii. 53. p. 537 F. Casaub. 
 
 Sed cum petaso vertex atque os pulcherrimum videbatur. — Mart. Capella, ii. 1 76. 
 
 It is remarkable that the person who acted the part of a Silenus in the Diony- 
 siac procession instituted by Ptolemy Philadelpbus at Alexandria, wore a hat and 
 a golden caduceus {Treraaov Kai Ki]pvKeiov x^p'^^ofi', Athen. v. 27. p. 198 A.). 
 In this case the imagination appears to have been indulged in decorating a mere 
 festive character with the peculiar attributes of Mercury. It is added, that various 
 kinds of chariots were driven by " boys wearing the tunics of charioteers and pe- 
 tasi " {-RaiCapia x"'wi'as ex^vra r'/vtoxiicovs Kai Trerdcrovs, Athen. v. p. 200 F.). 
 This would be in character, being agreeable to the custom of the Grecian youth. 
 
 ^ Muaeo Pio-Vlemfnlino, torn. iv. tav. 19. 
 
410 
 
 APPENDIX B. ON FELTING. 
 
 Mith the inscription SAAHinN EnOIH2E* and on one of 
 Sir W. Hamilton's fictile vases f. 
 
 Figure 2 in Plate XV. is from a fictile vase, published by 
 the Instituto di Correspondenza Archeologica at RomeJ . The 
 petasus which hangs from the neck of Mercury, immediately 
 behind his shoulder, is of a circular form, and either has a 
 very low crown or none at all. 
 
 Figure 3 in Plate XV. is from Hope's Costume of the An- 
 cients, vol. ii. pi. 175. The money-bag is in Mercury's right 
 hand. 
 
 Figure 4, from a painting found at Pompeii §. The repre- 
 sentation of Mercury with wings [pinmilce] on his petasus, 
 though not very ancient, is also recognized in the Amphitryo 
 of Plautus, as quoted above (p. 404.). 
 
 Figure 5, from a fictile vase in the collection at Naples. 
 
 Figure G, from the Marquis of Lansdowne's marble bust, 
 })ublished by the Dilettanti Society ||. In this beautiful bust 
 tlie brim of the hat is unfortunately damaged. 
 
 Figures 7 and 8, from coins engraved in Care'li's Nummi 
 Veier'is Itcdice (plates 58 and 65). Figure 8 is a coin of 
 Suessa in Campania. 
 
 To these illustrations 1 might have added others from an- 
 cient gems, good examples of which may be found in the 
 second volume of Mariette's Traite des Plerres Gravies, folio, 
 Paris, 1750. 
 
 Besides the application of felt as a covering of the head for 
 the male sex in the manner now explained, it was also used 
 as a lining for helmets. When in the description of the hel- 
 met worn by Ulysses we read 
 
 we may suppose 7r2\o<; to be used in its most ordinary sense, 
 
 * Spoil., Mixe. Enid. /Inf. § xi. art. 1. f Vol. i. No. 8. 
 
 + Mnnumenti Inediti, torn. ii. tav. 13. 
 
 § Cell's Pompeiana, London 1819, pi. 76. 
 
 II Specimens of Ancient Sculpture, London 1809, pi. 51. 
 
 ^ Homer, x. 26.5. Eustathius, in liis commentary on this passage, says, tliat 
 the most ancient Greeks always wore felt in tlieir hehiipts, hut that those of more 
 recent times, retrai ding this n^e of felt as i)eculiar to Ulysses, pcrs\iaded the paint- 
 ers to exhibit him iu a ^kuU-cap, and that thiv was fir^t done, according to the 
 
J" B a,siT e li f h 
 
« 
 
MISCELLANKOUS USES OF FELT. 
 
 411 
 
 and consequently that the interioi* of the helmet was a com- 
 mon skull-cap. 
 
 Being generally thicker than common cloth, felt presented 
 a more effectual obstacle to missile weapons. Hence, when 
 the soldiers under Julius Caesar were much annoyed by Pom- 
 pey's archers, they made shirts or other coverings of felt, and 
 put them on for their defence*. Thucydides refers to the use 
 of similar means to protect the body from arrows t; and even 
 in besieging and defending cities felt was used, together with 
 hides and sackcloth, to cover the wooden towers and military 
 engines J. 
 
 Felt was also sometimes used to cover the bodies of qua- 
 drvipeds. According to Aristotle §, the Greeks clothed their 
 moUes oves (see above, pp. 40, 41. 90 — 93) either with skins 
 or w ith pieces of felt (TriAot?), and the wool became gray in 
 consequence. The Persians used the same material for the 
 trappings of their horses ||. 
 
 The loose rude coverings for the feet called Udones were 
 sometimes made of felt, being worn within the shoes or 
 brogues of the rustic labourers T[. 
 
 In concluding this investigation it may be proper to ob- 
 serve, that, although irl\o<i originally meant felt, and more 
 especially a skull-cap made of that manufacture, it was some- 
 times used, at least by the later Greek authors, by an exten- 
 sion of its meaning, to denote a cap of any other material. 
 Thus Athenfeus (lib. vi. p. 274. Casaub.), speaking of the 
 Romans, says, that they wore about their heads tt/Xoi;? Trpo- 
 ySaret'cov Bepfidrcov Sacret?, i. e. " thick caps made of sheep 
 skins." 
 
 tradition, by the painter Apollodorus. The account of Pliny, who, together with 
 Servius {in /En. ii. 44), represents Nicomachus, and not Apollodorus, as having 
 first adopted this idea, has been already quoted. See p. 392. 
 * Jul. CEesar, Bell. Civ. iii. 44. 
 
 t Thucyd. iv. 34. SchoL ad loc. X -Eneas Tacticus, 33. 
 
 § De Gen. Animalium, v. 5. p. lo7. ed. Beliker. 
 
 II Ibv efiTT-etov TriXor aTropfioevra X«/i/3ai'ei. Plutarch, Artax. 11. p. 1858. 
 cd. Stephani. 
 
 ^ Ilesiod, Op. et Dies, 542; Graevius, ad loc; Cratini Fragmenta, p. 29. ed. 
 Runkel. 
 
412 
 
 APPENDIX C. ON NETTING. 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 (Referred to § 1. p. 5, G.) 
 On Netting. 
 
 Tiiii raw materials, of which the ancients made nets, were 
 tlax, hemp*, and broom f. Flax was most commonly used ; so 
 that Jerome, when he is prescribing employment for monks, 
 says, "Texanturet Una capiendis piscibusj." The operation 
 of netting, as well as that of platting, was expressed by the 
 Aorb TrXtKeiv^. The meshes were called in Latin viactil(e\\, 
 in Greek Pp6)(0L, dim. /3po;i^i8e<?^. 
 
 I shall now endeavour to explain the use of all the Latin 
 and Greek terms for nets, and in connection with this expla- 
 nation of terms, to produce all the facts which can be ascer- 
 tained upon the subject. 
 
 L 
 
 Retis and Rete ; dim. Reticulum. 
 
 AlKTVON**. 
 
 Retis or Bete in Latin, and hUrvov in Greek, were used to 
 denote nets in general. Thus in an epigram of Leonidas Ta- 
 rentinusftj three brothers, one of whom was a hunter, another 
 
 * Rete eannabina. Varro, De lie Runt. iii. 5. p. 216, ed. Bipont. 
 
 t Pliny, H. N. xix. 1 . s. 2 ; xxiv. 9. s. 40. See Appendix D. 
 
 t Ilieron. Epist. 1. ii. p. 1 73, ed. Par. 1613, 12mo. Hunting-nets are called " lina 
 nodosa" by Ovid, il/e/. iii 153, and vii. 807. Compare Virg. Ceor^. i. 142 ; Homer, 
 //. V. 487 ; Brunck, Anal. ii. 94,494, 495 ; Artemidorus, ii. 14, quoted below ; and 
 Pliny, H. N. xix. 1. s. 2, quoted in Appendix D. 
 
 § riXe?«ju6)'os apKvs, Aristoph. Lysist. 790. TCjv TreTrXeyfievuv SiKTVioi', Bek- 
 keri Anecdofa, vol. i. p. 354, v. kiyii. 'EbirXeKTiov viri-p apKvtov, Euripides, as 
 (jnoted below, ]>. 416. "Oaa ck Xhkov TrXcKerai, Artemid. /. c. Plaga m Latin 
 seems to be of the same origin. It denoted a hunting-net, as will be explained 
 hereafter. 
 
 II Varro, De Re Rust. iii. 11 ; Ovid, fjiisl. v. 19 ; Nemesiani Cyneg. 302. 
 ^ Ileliodor. 1. v. p. 231, ed. Commeliui. 
 ** From ciKe'iv, (o throw. See Eurip. liacc. 600, and the Lexicons of Schneider 
 and Passow. 
 
 tt Brunck, Ana', i. 225. 
 
GENERAL TERMS FOR NETS. 
 
 413 
 
 a fowler, and the third a fisherman, dedicate their nets [ra 
 BUrva) to Pan. Several imitations of this epigram remain 
 by Alexander ^tolus*, Antipater Sidoniusfj ArchiasJ, and 
 others §. In one of these epigrams (JovXidvov Aljvttti'ou) 
 we find Xlvu adopted as a general term for nets instead of 
 hiKTva, no doubt for the reason above stated. In another 
 epigram || a hare is said to have been caught in a net [hUrvov). 
 Aristophanes in the following passaged mentions nets by the 
 same denomination among the contrivances employed by t!ic 
 fowler : — 
 
 ~as ris i:(j>' vfxiv opviOevri)? 
 'iuTi]<Ti l3p6xovs, TTciyiPas, pd/icov?, 
 i'pKi], ve(pt\af, liiKTva, TTfjKras. 
 
 Fishing-nets are called BUrva in the following passages oftlie 
 New Testament: Matt. iv. 20, 21 ; Mark i. 18, 19; Luke v. 
 2, 4 — 6; John xxi. G, 8, 11 : also by Theocritus, ap. Atlten. 
 vii. 20. p. 284, Cas. ; and by Plato, Sophista, 220, b. p. 134, 
 ed. Bekker. 
 
 Netting was apphed in various ways in the construction of 
 hen-coops and aviaries; and such net-work is called /"e/e**. 
 At the amphitheatres it was sometimes placed over the po- 
 dium. At a gladiatorial show given by Nero, the net, thus 
 used as a fence against the wild beasts, was knotted with am- 
 ber ft- The way in which the net was used by the Retiarii is 
 well known. The head-di'ess, called KeKpvcf^aXo'i, was a small 
 net of fine flax, silk, or gold thread, and was also called re(i- 
 culumXX- But by far the most important application of net- 
 work was to the kindred arts of hunting and fishing : and 
 besides the general terms used alike in reference to both these 
 employments, there are special terms to be explained under 
 each head. 
 
 The use of nets for catching birds was very limited, on 
 
 * Biuiick, Anal. i. 418. Alexandri MtoYi Fragmenla, a Capelraann, p. 50. 
 
 t Ibid. ii. 9, Nos. 15, 16. + Ibid. ii. 94, No. 9. 
 
 § Ibid. ii. 494, 495. Jacobs, Anf/iol. vol. i. p. 188, 189. 
 
 II Brunck, Anal. iii. 2.'59, No. 417. ^ Aves, 52G— 528. 
 
 ** Varro, De Re Runt. iii. 5. ft Plin. //. .V. xxxvii. 3. s. 11. 
 
 %X Nonius Marcellus, p. 542, eil. Merceri. See above, p. 277 ; also the article 
 CAt.AXTiCA, in Smith's Diet, nf Greek and Roman Antiquilicit. 
 
414 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 ON NETTING. 
 
 wliich account M e find no appropriate name for fowlers' nets*. 
 Nevertheless thrushes were caught in themfj and doves or 
 pigeons, with their limbs tied up, or fastened to the ground, 
 or w'nh their eyes covered or put out. were confined in a net 
 in order that their cries might allure others into the snare J* 
 An account of the nets used by the Egyptians to catch birds 
 is given by Sir Gardner Wilkinson §, being derived from the 
 paintings found in the catacombs. The net commonly em- 
 ployed for the purpose was the clap-net. Bird-traps were also 
 made by stretching a net over two semicircular frames, which, 
 being joined and laid open, approached to the form of a circle. 
 The trap was baited, and when a bird flew to it and seized the 
 bait, it was instantly caught by the sudden rising of the two 
 sides or flaps. 
 
 II. 
 
 Cassis; Plaga. 
 enoaion', apkvs. 
 
 In hunting it was usual to extend nets in a curved line of 
 
 considerable length ||, so as in part to surround a space, into 
 
 which the beasts of chase, such as the boar, the wild goat, the 
 
 deer, the hare, the lion, and the bear might be driven through 
 
 the opening left on one side. TibuUus (iv. 3. 12) speaks of 
 
 inclosing woody hills for this purpose : — 
 
 densos indagine colics 
 
 Claiideutem. 
 
 The following lines of Virgil show, that the animals were 
 driven into the toils from a distance by the barking of dogs 
 and the shouts of men : 
 
 Saepe volutabi is piilsos silvestribus apros 
 Latratu turbabis ageiis, moiitesque per altos 
 Ingeiiteiu claiiiore premes ad retia cervum. 
 
 Gcurg. iii. 411 — 413. 
 
 * See Aristophanes, I. c. t Hoi". Epoch ii. 33, 34. 
 
 X Aristoph. Aves, 1083. § Man. and Ciis/oms, vol. iii. p. 35 — 38, 45. 
 
 II Td SiKTva TrepiftaWovut. JEVian, //. J. xii. 46. Uno portante multitudinem, 
 qua saltus cingerentur. Plin. //. M xix. 1. s. 2. See Appendix D. Oppmn {Cyncff. 
 iv. 120 — 123) says, that in an Asiatic lion-hiint the nets (apKi'es) were jilaccd in 
 the form of the new moon. 
 
HUNTING-NETS. 
 
 METHOD OF HUNTING. 
 
 41.5 
 
 Thy hound the wikl-ass in the sylvan chase, 
 Or hare, or hart, \Yith faithful speed will trace ; 
 Assail the muddy cave with eager cries, 
 Where the rough hoar in secret ambush lies ; 
 Press the tall stag with clamours echoing shrill 
 To secret toils, along the aerial hill. 
 
 If'arion's Translation. 
 
 In another splendid passage the boar is described as coming 
 into the midst of the nets after he has been driven to them 
 from a mountain or a marsh at a great distance : 
 
 Ac velut ille canum morsu do montihus altis 
 
 Actus aper, multos Vesulus quern pinifer annos 
 
 Defendit, multosq'.ie palus Laurentia, sylva 
 
 Pastus arundinea, postquara inter retia ventum est, 
 
 Substitit, infremuitque ferox, et inhorruit arnios, 
 
 Nec cuiquam irasci propiusve accedere virtus, 
 
 Sed jaculis tutisque procul clamoribus instant : 
 
 Ille autem impavidus partes cunctatur in omnes, 
 
 Dentihus infrendens, et tergo decutit liastas. 
 
 yEn. X. 707 — 715. 
 
 And as a savage boar on mountains bred, 
 
 With forest mast and fattening marshes fed ; 
 
 When once he sees himself in toils inclosed, 
 
 By huntsmen and their eager hounds opposed ; 
 
 lie whets his tusks, and turns and dares the war : 
 
 The invaders dart their javelins from afar : 
 
 All keep aloof and safely shout around. 
 
 But none presumes to give a nearer wound. 
 
 He frets and froths, erects his bristled hide, 
 
 And shakes a grove of lances from his side. 
 
 Dryden's Translation. 
 
 Even in a case where the same poet introduces an equivalent 
 expression to that of Tibullus, already quoted, viz. "saltus 
 indagine cingunt" [yEn. iv. 121), he represents the hunting- 
 party as going over a large extent of country to collect the 
 animals out of it : 
 
 Postquam altos ventum in montes atque invia lustra, 
 Ecce fera; saxi dejectaj vertice caprse 
 Decurrere jugis; alia de parte patentes 
 Transmittunt cursu campos, atque agmina cervi 
 Pulverulenta fuga glomerant, montesque relinquunt. 
 At puer Ascanius raediis in vallibus acri 
 Gaudet equo, jamque hos cursu, jam prseterit illos, 
 Spumantemque dari pecora inter inertia votis 
 Optat aprum, aut fulvura descendere monte leonem. 
 
41 G APPENDIX C. OX XETTING. 
 
 So Ovid [Epist. iv. 41, 42) : 
 
 In nemus ire libet, pressisqiie iu retia ceriis, 
 Hortari celeies per juga summa canes ; 
 
 and [Epist. v. 19, 20) : 
 
 Retia saepe comes maculis distincta tetendi, 
 Saepe citos egi per juga longa canes. 
 
 The younger Pliny describes himself on one occasion sitting 
 beside the nets {ad retia), while the hunters were pvu'suing 
 the boars and driving them into the snare {Epist. i. 6j. In 
 Euripides {Bacc. 821 — 832) we find the following beautiful 
 description of a fawn, which has been driven into the space 
 inclosed b\- the nets, but has leaped over them and escaped : — 
 
 ifiTraiZovaa Xei/iaicos »'/- 
 lora'ts, iiv'iK av <pof}fpur (pi'yy 
 6t)pafi' tKoj (pvXaKus 
 ei'irXixTuip ii—cp apxvMV, &C. 
 
 Here a Bacchanal, tossing her head into the air with gambols 
 and dancing, is said to be "like a fawn sporting in the green 
 delights of a meadow, when she has escaped the fearful chase 
 by leaping over the well-platted nets so as to be out of the 
 inclosure, whilst the shouting hunter has been urging his dogs 
 to run still more swiftly : by great efforts and with the rapidity 
 of the w inds she bounds over a plain beside a river, pleased 
 with solitudes remote from man, and hides herself in the 
 thickets of an umbrageous forest." 
 
 If hollows or valleys were inclosed*, the nets were no doubt 
 extended only in those openings, through which it was pos- 
 sible for the animals to escape. Also a river was of itself a 
 sufficient boundary : 
 
 Inclusum flumine cer\-iira. — Virg. Mn. xii. 749. 
 
 The proper Latin term for the hunting-net, but more espe- 
 
 * Nec, velit insidiis altas si claudere valles, 
 
 Dirni placeas, humeri retia fcrre negent. — Tibullus, i. 4. 49, 50. 
 
 It was the duty of the attendants {ciKTvayixiyoi, J. Pollux, v. 4. 27 — 31) in most 
 cases to carry the nets on their shoulders, agreeably to the representation in the 
 next plate. Pliny, I. c. 
 
 C'assibus impositis venor. — Propert. iv. 2. 32. 
 
 alius raras 
 
 Cervice gravi portare plagas. — Sen. Hijipol. i. 1. 44. 
 
HUNTING-NETS. 
 
 CASSIS, PLAGA, APKVS. 
 
 417 
 
 cially for the purse-net, \vhich will be hereafter described, as 
 Cassis. " Cassis, genus venatorii retis." Isidori Hispalen- 
 sis Orig. xix. 5. " Arctos rodei'e casses" is applied by Persius 
 (v. 170) to a quadruped with incisor teeth caught in such a 
 net and striving to escape. See also Propertius as just quoted, 
 and the Agamemnon of Seneca and Virgil's Georgics as quoted 
 below. Cassis seems to be derived from the root of capere 
 and catch. But plaga was also applied to hunting-nets, so 
 that Horace describes the hunting of the boar in the following 
 terms : 
 
 Aut trudit acres hinc et liinc multa cane 
 
 Apros in obstantes plagas. — Epod. ii. 31, 32. 
 
 Lucretius (lib. v. 1251, 1252) aptly compares the setting up 
 of the plages to the planting of a hedge around the forest : 
 
 Nam fovea atque igni prius est venarier ortum, 
 Quam seepire plagis saltum, canibusque ciere. 
 
 In the same manner plaga is used in the Hippolytus of 
 Seneca, as above quoted, and in Pliny *. 
 
 To dispose the nets in the manner which has been de- 
 scribed, was called " retia ponei'e" (Virg. Georg. i. 307) or 
 "retia tendere" (Ovid, Art. Amat. i. 45), 
 
 In Homer a hunting-net is called \lvov irava^pov, literally, 
 ''the flax that catches everythingf." But the proper Greek 
 term for the hunting-net, corresponding to the Latin cassis, 
 was apKVi, which is accordingly employed in the passages of 
 Oppian and Euripides cited above. Also the epigram of An- 
 tipater Sidonius, to which a reference has already been made, 
 specifies the hunting-net by the same appellation : 
 
 A«/x(s fiev 9j]pu>v apKVV bpeiovofiiov. 
 
 The word is used in the same sense by Cratinus % ; also by 
 Arrian, where he remarks that the Celts dispensed with the 
 use of nets in hunting, because they trusted to the swiftness 
 of their greyhounds §. In Euripides ]| it is used metapho- 
 
 * H. N. nix. 1. s. 2. See Appendix D. 
 
 t V. 487. + Cratini Fraginenta, a Runkel, p. 28. 
 
 § Kai elaiv a'l Kvves avrai, o ri Trep a'l cipKvs Sevo^oim eKetvif), i. e. "And 
 here greyhounds answer the same purpose as Xenopbon's hunting-nets." De Ve- 
 naf. ii. 21. See Dansey's translation, pp. 72, 121. 
 
 II A/erfea, 1268. 
 
 2 E 
 
418 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 ON NETTING. 
 
 rically : the children cry out, when their mother is pursuing 
 them, 
 
 'Qs eyyvs ifirj y' ea/xiv dpKvuiv ^i<povs, 
 i. e. " Now how aear we are being caught \vith the swoid." 
 
 Also in the Agamemnon of ^schylus (1. 1085): 
 
 c 'lKTVov Ti y' A'i^ov ; 
 dX\' apKvs I'l ^vvevvos, i) ^vvaiTia 
 <p6vov. 
 
 In this passage reference is made to the large shawl in which 
 Clytemnestra wrapt the body of Agamemnon, as in a net, in 
 order to destroy him. On account of the use made of it, the 
 same fatal garment is afterwards (1. 1353) compared to a cast- 
 ing-net (a/z(/)/ySA.7;o-Tpov), which in its form bore a considerable 
 resemblance to the cassis. In 1. 1346, dp/cvarara* denotes 
 this net as set up for hunting. The same form occurs again 
 in the Eiwienides (1. 112); and in the Persce (102-104) escape 
 from danger is in nearly the same terms expressed by the 
 notion of overleaping the net. In Euripides f this contri- 
 vance is called dpKvaTaTo^ fZTj-^avt] ; and in the Agamemnon 
 of Seneca J the same allusion is introduced: 
 
 At ille, ut altis liispidus silvis aper, 
 Cum, casse vinctus, teutat egressus tamen, 
 Arctatque motu vincla, et incassiim furit, 
 Cupit, fluentes undique et cascos sinus 
 Disjicere, et hostein qua;rit iniphcitus suum. 
 
 Part of the apparatus of a huntsman consisted in the stakes 
 which he drove into the ground to support his nets, and which 
 Antipater Sidonius thus describes : 
 
 Kai TTvpi 9i]ya\eovs 6^VTraye7s ardXiKas ; 
 i. e. " The sharp stakes hardened in the fire §." 
 
 The term which Xenophon uses for the stakes is, according 
 to some manuscripts of his work, cr^aXtSe?. He says, they 
 should be fixed so as to lean backwards, and thus more effec- 
 
 * Or apKvaraTov, ed. Schiitz. 1. 1376. 
 
 t Orestes 1405. s. 1421. t L. 886-890. 
 
 § Brunck, Anal. ii. 10. We find ordXices iu Oppian, Cyneg. iv. 67, 71, 121, 
 380 ; Pollux, Onom. v. 31. 
 
HUNTING-NETS SUPPORTED BY FORKED STAKES. 419 
 
 tually to resist the impulse of the animals rushing against 
 them*. The Latin term answering to crraXt/ce? was vari. 
 We find it thus used by Lucan : 
 
 Aut, cum dispositis adtoUat retia varis 
 
 Venator, tenet ora levis clamosa Molossi. 
 
 Pharsalia, iv. 439, 440. 
 i. e. " The hunter hohls the noisy mouth of the light Molossian dog, when he 
 lifts up the nets to the stakes arranged in order." 
 
 Gratius Faliscus, adopting a Greek term, calls them anconcs, 
 on account of the " elbow " or fork at the top : 
 
 Hie magis in cervos valuit metus : ast ubi lentae 
 
 Interdum Libyco fucantur sandyce pinnae, 
 
 Lineaque extructis lucent anconibus anna, 
 
 Rarum, si qua metus eludat bellua falsos. — Cyneg. 85-88. 
 
 It was the business of one of the attendants to watch the nets: 
 Ego retia servo. — Virg. Buc. iii. 75. 
 
 Sometimes there was a watchman at each extremity and one 
 in the middle, as in the Persian lion-huntf. The prevalence 
 of this method of hunting in Persia might be inferred from 
 the circumstance, that one of the chief emploj^ments of the 
 inhabitants consisted in making these nets {dpKv<;, Strabo, 
 XV. 3. § 18). To watch the nets was called apKvwpelv (/Elian, 
 H. A. i. 2), and the man who discharged this office apKvu>p6<; 
 (Xen., De Ven. ii. 3 ; vi. 1). 
 
 The paintings discovered in the catacombs of Egypt show, 
 that the ancient inhabitants of that country used nets for hunt- 
 ing in the same manner which has now been sliown to have 
 been the practice of the Persians, Greeks and Romans J. 
 
 Hunting-nets had much larger meshes than fishing- or 
 fowlers'-nets, because in general a fish or a fowl could escape 
 through a much smaller opening than a quadruped. In hunt- 
 ing the important circumstance was to make the nets so strong 
 that the beasts could not break through them. The large 
 size of the meshes is denoted by the phrases "i-etia rara§" 
 and " raras plagas || and it is exhibited in a bas-relief in 
 
 * De I'enat. vi. 7. t Oppian, Cyneg. iv. 124, &c. 
 
 X Wilkinson's Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii. p. 3-5. 
 § Virg. ^n. iv. 131 ; Hor. Epod. ii. 33. || Seneca, Hippol. 1. e. 
 
 2 E 2 
 
420 
 
 APPENDIX C. ON NETTING. 
 
 the collection of ancient marbles at Ince-Blundell in Lan- 
 cashire. See Plate XVI. fig. 1. This sculpture presents 
 the following circumstances, which are worthy of notice as 
 illustrative of the passages above collected from ancient 
 authors. Three servants with staves carry a large net on 
 their shoulders*. The foremost of them holds by a leash a 
 dog, which is eager to engage in the chase t- Then follows 
 another scene in the hunt. A net with very large meshes 
 and five feet high is set up, being supported by three stakes. 
 Two boars and two deer are caught. A watchman, hold- 
 ing a staff, stands at each end of the net. Fig. 2. is taken 
 from a bas-relief in the same collection, representing a 
 party returning from the chase with the quadrupeds which 
 they have caught. Two men carry the net, holding in their 
 hands the stakes, with forks at the top. These bas-reliefs 
 have been taken from sarcophagi erected in commemoration 
 of hunters, and they are engraved in the Ancient statues, ifc. 
 at Ince-Blundell, vol. ii. pi. 89 and 126. An excellent repre- 
 sentation of these forked staves is given in a sepulchral bas- 
 relief in Bartoli, Admiranda, tab. 70, which Mr. Dansey has 
 copied at p. 307 of his translation of Arrian 07i Coursing, 
 and which represents a party of hunters returning from the 
 chase. Another example of the varus, or forked staff, is seen 
 in a sepulchral stone lately found at York, and engraved in 
 Mr. Wellbeloved's Eburacum, pi. 14. fig. 2. The man, who 
 holds the varus in his right hand, and who appears to be a 
 huntsman and a native of the north of England, though 
 partly clothed after the Roman fashion, wears an inner and 
 outer tunic, and over them a fringed sagum. In the Sepolcri 
 de' Nasoni, published by Bartoli, there is a representation of a 
 lion-hunt, and of another in which deer are caught by means 
 of nets set up so as to inclose a large space. In Montfaucon's 
 Supplement, tome iii., is an engraving from a bas-relief, in 
 which a net is represented : but none of these are so instruct- 
 ive as the two bas-reliefs at Ince-Blundell. 
 
 Gratius Faliscus recommends that a net should be forty 
 paces long, and full ten knots high : 
 
 * Sec above, p. 416, note. f Sec Lucaii, as quoted in the last page. 
 
Plate. XVI, 
 
 J!Ba.sire. 4ei et 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE APKVS, OR PURSE-NET. 421 
 
 Et bis viceiios spatium pratendere passiis 
 
 Rete velim, plenisque decern coDSurgere nodis. — Cyneg. 31, 32. 
 
 The necessity of making the nets so high that the animals 
 could not leap over them, is alluded to in the expression, 
 "T->/fo? Kpeia-aov eKir-qZi^ixaTo^, i. e. " a height too great for the 
 animals to leap out*." 
 
 Xenophon, in his treatise on Hunting, gives various direc- 
 tions respecting the making and setting of nets ; and Schnei- 
 der has added to that treatise a dissertation concerning the 
 apKv;. It is evident that this kind of net was made with a 
 bag {KeKpv(pa\o<;, vi. 7)> being the same which is now called 
 the purse-net, or the tunnel-net, and that the aim of the hunt- 
 ers was to drive the animal into the bag ; that the watchman 
 {apKV(op6<;, see above, p. 419) waited to see it caught there; 
 that branches of trees were placed in the bag to keep it ex- 
 panded, to render it invisible, and thus to decoy quadrupeds 
 into it ; that a rope ran round the mouth of the bag [irepL- 
 hpofjbo<i, vi. 9), and was drawn tight by the impulse of the 
 animal rushing in so as to prevent its escape f. To this rope 
 was attached another, called eVtS/ao/io?, which was used as 
 follows. In fig. 1. of Plate XVI. we observe, that the upper 
 border of the net consists of a very strong rope. Xenophon 
 calls this aapScov (vi. 9). In the purse-net it was furnished 
 with rings. The apKvcopo^;, or watchman, lay in ambush, hold- 
 ing one end of the iirihpop.o';, which ran through the rings, 
 and was fastened at the other end to the 7repLSpo/j,o<;, so that 
 by pulling it he drew the mouth of the bag still more firm 
 
 * iEschyli Agamemnon, 1347. 
 
 t This effect of the irepiSponoi is well expressed by Seneca in the passage 
 above quoted, "Arctatque motu vincla -." also the circumstance of the branches 
 used to distend the bag and to make it invisible : " Fluentes undique et caecos 
 sinus." 
 
 Homer (//. v. 487) seems to allude to the same contiivance, and to apply the 
 term «4'7c6s to the rope which encircled the entrance of the bag, with the others 
 attached to it. 
 
 We find iu Brunck's Analecta (ii. 10. No. xx.) the phrase ayicvXa Siktvu ap- 
 plied to hunting-nets. It was probably meant to designate the apKvs, which might 
 be called ayKvXa, i. e. " angular," because they were made like bags ending in a 
 point. The terra ve<pe\r}, which occurs in Aristophanes {Aves, 195), and denoted 
 some contrivance for catching birds, is said by the Scholiast on the passage to 
 have meant a kind of hunting-net. But this explanation is eWdently good for 
 nothing. 
 
422 
 
 APPENDIX C. ON NETTING. 
 
 and close. He then went to the bag and despatched the 
 quadruped w hich it inclosed, or carried it off alive, informing 
 his companions of the capture by shouting*. 
 
 In this treatise Xenophon distinguishes the nets used in 
 hunting by three different appellations ; apKVi, ivoStov, and 
 Blktvov. Oppian also distinguishes the SIktvov used in hunt- 
 ing from the apKv<;\. The apKv<; or cassis, i. e. "the purse- 
 or tunnel-net," was by much the most complicated in its 
 formation. The eVoStov, or "road-net," was comparatively 
 small : it was placed across any road, or path, to prevent the 
 animals from pursuing that path : it must have been used to 
 stop the narrow openings between bushes. The Blktvov was 
 a large net, simply intended to inclose the ground: it there- 
 fore resembled in some measure the scan used in fishing. 
 The term, thus specially applied, may be translated a hay, or 
 a hallier %. These three kinds of nets appear to be men- 
 tioned together by Nemesianus under the names of retia (i. e. 
 BiKTva), casses (i. e. apKvs), and plar/ce (i. e. evoBia) : 
 
 Necuon et casses idem venatilnis aptos, 
 
 Atque plagas, longoque iiieantia retia tractu 
 
 Addiscunt raris semper contexere nodis, 
 
 Et servare modum maculis, linoque tenaci. — Cyneg. 299 — 302. 
 
 Xenophon, in his treatise on Hunting, further informs us, 
 that the cord used for making the dpKv<i, or purse-net, con- 
 sisted of three strands, and that three lines twisted together 
 commonly made a strand (ii. 4) ; but that, when the net was 
 intended to catch the wild boar, nine lines went to a strand 
 instead of three (x. 2). 
 
 It remains to be noticed, that, when the long range of nets, 
 set up in the manner which has been now represented, was 
 designed to catch the stag [cervus], it was flanked by cords, 
 to which, as well as to the nets themselves, feathers dyed 
 scarlet, and of other bright colours intermixed with their na- 
 tive white, and sometimes probably birds' wings, were tied so 
 as to flare and flutter in the wind §. This appendage to the 
 
 * Oppian, Cyneg. iv. 409. Pliny mentions these epidromi, or running ropes: 
 H. N. xix. 1. s. 2. See AppencUx D. f Ibid. iv. 381. 
 
 + See Anian on Coursing : the Cynegetieus of the younger Xenophon, tratis- 
 lated from the Greek, &c. &c. by a Graduate of Medicine (William C. Dansey, 
 M.B.). London, 1831, pp. 68, 188. 
 
 § Dum trepidant alae. — Virg. A^n. iv. 121. 
 
DYED FEATHERS USED TO SCARE THE PREY. 423 
 
 nets was called the metus or formido (Virg. j^n. xii. 750), 
 because it frightened these timid quadrupeds so as to urge 
 them onwards into the toils. Hence Virgil, speaking of the 
 method of taking stags in Scythia, says, 
 
 Hos non iramissis canibus, nou cassibus ullis, 
 Puniceaeve agitaat pavidos formidine pinnae. 
 
 Georg. iii. 371,372. 
 Nor toils their flight impede, nor hounds o'ertake, 
 Nor phimes of purple dye their fears awake. 
 
 Sotheby's Translation. 
 
 The following passages likewise allude to the use of this 
 
 contrivance in the stag-hunt: 
 
 Nec formidatis cervos includite pennis. — Ovid, Met. xv. 475. 
 
 Vagos dumeta per avia cervos 
 Circumdat maculis et multa indagine pinna;. 
 
 Auson. Epist. iv. 27. 
 
 Nemesianus, in the following passage, asserts that the cord 
 {linea) carrying feathers of this description had the effect of 
 terrifying not the stag only, but the bear, the boar, the fox 
 and the wolf : 
 
 Linea quinetiam, magnos circumdare saltus 
 Quae possit, volucresque metu concludere praedas, 
 Digerat innexas non una ex alite pinnas. 
 Namque ursos, magnosque sues, cervosque fugaces 
 Et vulpes, acresque lupos, ceu fulgura coeli 
 Terrificant, Unique vetant transcendere septum. 
 Has igitur vario semper fucare veneno 
 Cura tibi, niveisque alios miscere colores, 
 Alternosque metus subtemine tendere longo. 
 
 Cyneg. 303—311. 
 
 The same fact is asserted in a striking passage, which has 
 been above quoted from Gratius Faliscus. To the same effect 
 are the following passages : 
 
 Nec est mirum, cum maximos ferarum greges linea pennis distincta conterreat, 
 et ad insidias agat, ah ipso effectu dicta formido. — Seneca, de Ira, ii. 11. 
 
 Feras lineis et pinna conclusas contine : easdem a tergo eques telis incessat : 
 tentabunt fugam per ips'a quae fugerant, proculcabuntque formidinem. — Seneca, 
 de dementia, i. 12. 
 
 Picta rubenti lineo pinna 
 Vano claudat terrore feras. 
 
 Seneca Trag. Hippol. i. 1. 
 
424 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 ON NETTING. 
 
 III. 
 
 FuNDA, Jaculum, Rete jaculum, Retiaculum. 
 
 AMa>IBAH2TPON, AM^IBOAON. 
 
 Fishing-nets* were of six different kinds, which are enu- 
 merated by Oppian as follows : 
 
 T(5)' TO. fiev afKpifiXijcrrpa, ra Se ypi<poi KaXeov-ai, 
 Tuyyafia t , I'/S' viroxc'i 7rept»jyees, ))oe (raynvav 
 " AWa ce KiK\i'](rKov<ji KaXvu/xara. — Hal. iii. 80 — 82. 
 
 Of these by far the most common were the dfji(\)l^\r]aTpov, or 
 casting-net, and the crayt'jvr}, i. e. the drag, or sean. Conse- 
 quently these two are the only kinds mentioned by Virgil and 
 Ovid in the following passages : 
 
 Atque alius latum fuiida jam verberat ainnem, 
 Alta petens ; pelagoque alius trahit hiimida lina. 
 
 Virg. Georff. i. 141, 112. 
 Hi jaculo pisces, illi capiuntur ab hamis ; 
 Hos cava contento retia fune traliunt. 
 
 Ovid, Jrt. Amat. i. 763, 761. 
 
 By Virgil the casting-net is called y?/rtf/a, which is the com- 
 mon term for a sling. In illustration of this it is to be ob- 
 served, that the casting-net is thrown over the fisherman's 
 shoulder, and then whirled in the air much like a sling. By 
 this action he causes it to fly open at the bottom so as to form 
 a circle, which is loaded at intervals with stones or pieces of 
 lead, and this circle " strikes the broad river t " : for the cast- 
 ing net is used either in pools of moderate depth, or in rivers 
 which have, like pools, a broad smooth surface ; whereas the 
 sean is employed for fishing in the deep (pelaffo) J. 
 
 Isidore of Seville, in his account of the different kinds of 
 nets {Oriff. xix. 5), thus speaks: " Funda genus est piscatorii 
 
 * 'AXievTiKu SiKTva. Diod. Sic. xvii. 43. p. 193, Wessel. 
 
 t The Arabs now employ the casting-net on the shores of the Arabian Gulf. 
 " Its form is round, and loaded at the lovs er part with small pieces of lead ; and, 
 when the fisherman approaches a shoal of fish, his art consists in throwing the net 
 so that it may expand itself in a circular form before it reaches the surface of the 
 water." — Wellsted's Travels in Arabia, vol. ii. p. 148. 
 
 J For a technical account of nets, including the casting-net as now made, I refer 
 to the Hon. and Uev. Charles Bathurst's Notes on Nets; or the Quincunx pracli- 
 c.ally considered, London, 1837, 12mo. Duhamel wrote on the same subject in 
 Frendi. 
 
FISHING-NETS. 
 
 THE CASTING-NET. 
 
 425 
 
 retis, dicta ab eo, quod in fundum mittatur. Eadem etiam 
 a jactando jaculum dicitur. Plautus : 
 
 Probus quidem antea jaculator eras*." 
 Besides the passage of Plautus, here quoted by Isidore, there 
 are two othei's, in which the casting-net is mentioned under 
 the name of rete jaculum, viz. Asinar. I. i. 87, and True. I. i. 14. 
 Pareus, as we find from his Lexicon Plautinum, clearly under- 
 stood the meaning of the term, and the distinction between 
 the casting-net and the sean. Of the Rete jaculum he says, 
 '•' Sic dicitur ad ditferentiam verriculi, quod non jacitur, sed 
 trahitur et verritur." He adds, that Herodotus calls it d/j.(j>(- 
 ^ijarpov, and the Germans Wurffyarn. 
 
 The word occurs twice in Herodotus, and both places throw 
 light upon its meaning. In Book i. c. 141. he says: "The 
 Lydians had no sooner been brought into subjection by the 
 Persians than the lonians and Cohans sent ambassadors to 
 Cyrus at Sardis, entreating him to receive them under his do- 
 minion on the same conditions on which they had been under 
 Croesus. To this proposal he replied in the following fable. 
 A piper, having seen some fishes in the sea, played for a while 
 on his pipe, thinking that this would make them come to him 
 on the land. Perceiving the fallacy of this expectation, he 
 took a casting-net, and, having thrown it around a great num- 
 ber of the fishes, he drew them out of the water. He then 
 said to the fishes, as they were jumping about, As you did not 
 choose to dance out of the water, when I played to yovi on 
 my pipe, you may put a stop to your dancing now." The 
 other passage (ii. 95) has been illustrated in a very successful 
 manner by William Spence, Esq., F.R.S., in a paper in the 
 Transactions of the Entomological Society for the year 1834. 
 In connection with the curious fact, that the common house- 
 
 * Jaculator corresponds to tlie Greek afi(pij3o\ev?, as I shall show in p. 428. 
 Ausonius, iu the following lines, which refer to the methods of fishing in the vi- 
 cinity of the Garonne, appears to distinguish between the jaculurn and the funda. 
 
 Piscandi traheris studio ? nam tota supellex 
 Dumnotoni tales solita est ostendere gazas : 
 Nodosas vestes animantum Nerinoruni, 
 Et jacula, et fundas, et nomina villica lini, 
 Colaque, et indutos terrenis yerniibus hamos. 
 
 Ejii.^t. iv. 51 — 55. 
 
426 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 ON NETTING. 
 
 fly will not in general pass through the meshes of a net, 
 Mr. Spence produces this passage, in which Herodotus states, 
 that the fishermen who lived about the marshes of Egypt, 
 being each in possession of a casting-net, and using it in the 
 day-time to catch fishes, emploj-ed these nets in the night to 
 keep off the gnats, by which that country is infested. The 
 casting-net was fixed so as to encircle the bed, on which the 
 fisherman slept ; and, as this kind of net is always pear- 
 shaped, or of a conical form, it is evident tliat nothing could 
 be better adapted to the purpose, as it would be suspended 
 like a tent over the body of its owner. In this passage Hero- 
 dotus twice uses the term dfji,(f)i/3X7jarpov, and once he calls 
 the same thing Biktvov, because, as we have seen, this was a 
 common term applicable to nets of every description*. 
 
 The antiquity of the casting-net among the Greeks ap- 
 pears from a passage in the Shield of Hercules, attributed to 
 Hesiod (1. 213 — 215). The poet says, that the shield repre- 
 sented the sea with fishes seen in the watei', " and on the rocks 
 Silt a fisherman watching, and he held in his hands a casting-net 
 {(i/^cfyi'^TjaTpov) for fishes, and seemed to be throwing it from 
 him." I think the position of sitting not so suitable to the 
 use of the casting- net as standing, because it requires the free 
 use of the arras, which a man cannot w ell have when he sits. 
 In other respects this description exactly agrees with the use 
 of the casting-net : for it is thrown by a single person, who 
 remains on land at the edge of the water, observes the fishes 
 in it, and throws the net from him into the water so as sud- 
 denly to inclose them. 
 
 In two of the tragedies of ^Eschylus we find the term dfi- 
 (^IjSKriaTpov applied figuratively by Clytemnestra to the shawl, 
 in which she enveloped her husband in order to murder him. 
 
 ''A;rapoi' dfi(pif3\)](TTpoi', axnrep IxOvmv, 
 
 irepiijTtxiC'^, 7i\ovTov eV/uaros kukov. — Agamem. 1353, 1354. 
 Mt/()/;j(ro S', aj.i(piii\i)nTpop ws eKaiviaav. — Cho'iph. 485. 
 
 Lycophron (1. 1101) calls this garment by the same name, 
 
 * None of the commentators appear to have understood these passages. In 
 particular we find that Schweighiiuser in bis Lexicon Herodoteum explains 'A/(- 
 ^i(i\t](rTpov thus : " Verriculum, Rete quod circumjicitur." Hefe, however, cor- 
 responds to ciKTvni; which meant a net of any kind ; and Verriculum is the Latin 
 for "^.ayiivri, which, as 1 shall show hereafter, was a scan, or drag-net. 
 
FISHING-NETS. 
 
 THE CASTING-NET. 
 
 427 
 
 when he refers to the same event in the fabulous history of 
 Greece. We have seen, that in other passages the shawl so 
 used is with equal aptitude called a purse-net (apKv<;) *. 
 
 One of the comedies of Menander was entitled 'AX(«9, 
 " the Fishermen." The expression, ' AfKpifiX/jaTpw irept/SaX- 
 Xerai, is quoted from it by Julius Pollux (x. 132) f. 
 
 Athenaeus (lib. x. 72. p. 450 c. Casavib.) quotes from Anti- 
 phanes the following line, which describes a man " throwing 
 a casting-net on many fishes 
 
 'IxOixTiv aix<pi(3\r](TTpov avi]p ttoXXoTs CTrifiaWwv. 
 
 In an epigram of Leonidas Tarentinus we find the casting- 
 net called a/j,(f)i/3oXov instead of d/jucfyi^XTjarpovX- 
 
 The d/LL<pL^\7]aTpov is mentioned together with two other 
 kinds of nets by Artemidorus in a passage, which I shall quote 
 below. 
 
 The following curious passage of Meletius de Natura Ho- 
 minis, in which that author, probably following Galen, de- 
 scribes the expansion of the optic nerves, mentions the casting- 
 net as " an instrument used by fishermen :" 
 
 Aiaax'i^ovrai tit ra vevpa els tovs QaXdfiovs, ioairep ijv Tis Xaftwv iraTrvpov, 
 TavTr]v e'lsXeTrrd diarefiuiv Kai SiarrxiC^v avairXeKrirai TtaXiv, Kai noiy j^cruJi'a 
 Xeyofiei'ov (i/i0(/3X»;oTpoei<''Jj, o/ioiov aficpijiXi^arpti). opyavov ce rofiro OijpevraTs 
 Ix^vwv xpi'l'^^l'oj'- — Salmasius in Tertull. de Pallio, p. 213. 
 
 The '^(^iTcbv a/i^i/S/VT^uTpoetSi)?, or tunica retina, was so called 
 on account of its resemblance in form to the casting-net. 
 
 As we learn from Herodotus that the casting-net was uni- 
 versally employed by the fishermen of Egypt, we shall not be 
 surprised to find it mentioned in the Alexandrine, or, as it is 
 commonly called, the Septuagint version of the Psalms and 
 Prophets : — 
 
 HerrouVTai ev a/!t0(/3X?;(7rp(;j avTod afiapTuiXoi, 
 
 i. e. 
 
 " Sinners shall fall in his casting-net." — Psalm cxli. 10. 
 
 Catlent in retiacnlo ejus peccatores. — Vulgate Version. 
 
 " Let the wicked fall into their own nets." — Common English Version. 
 
 The word in the original Hebrew is "ll,^^/^? which Gesenius 
 translates " Rete," a net. This word must have been more 
 general in its meaning than the Greek afX(f)i^\r]aTpov, and 
 
 * See above, p. 418. t Menandri et Phil. Reliquice, a Meineke, p. 16. 
 
 X Brunck, Anal. i. 223. No. xii. Jacobs, Anthol. i. 2. p. 74. 
 
428 
 
 APPENDIX C. ON NETTING. 
 
 included the purse-net, or apKv^. The Chaldee and Syriac 
 versions use in this passage a word, which denotes snares in 
 general. See Fsaiah li. 20, where the same word is used in the 
 Hebrew, but applied to the catching of a quadruped, and 
 where consequently the purse-net must have been intended. 
 
 Kai 01 fidWovres aayi'ivas, Kai oi a/*0i/3o\e£s -KevQIiaovai. 
 
 i. e. " And they who throw seans, and they who fish with the casting-net, shall 
 raouru." — Isa. xix. 8. 
 
 Et expandentes rete super faciem aquarum emarcescent. — Vulgate Version. 
 
 "And they that spread nets upon the waters shalllanguish." — Common English 
 Version. 
 
 It is to be observed, that this prophecy relates to Egypt. 
 The Hebrew verb tyi£3, here translated ^^expandentes" "they 
 that spread," is exactly appUcable to the remarkable expan- 
 sion of the casting-net just as it reaches the surface of the 
 water. In the Alexandrine version we may also observe the 
 clear distinction between the two principal kinds of nets, the 
 sean and the casting-net, and that the man who fishes with 
 the latter is called d/j,<f)t^o\€v<;, as in Latin he was designated 
 by the single term Jaculator*. 
 
 Ti'tXKVcev avTov ev aii<pij3\i)aTpii>, Kai avvi^yayev avTov ev Tali aayrjvais 
 avTov' eveKev tovtov elxppavOlirjeTat Kai x'^p't'^^^ai 7) KapSla avTov. "EveK€v 
 ToiiTov Qvaei Ty rrayi'ivy avrov, Kai Ov/ndcei T<i) dfi^ij3\i]<7Tp(i> ahrov, on ev 
 oyrois eXiTrai'e /icpida avrov Kai rd fipwfiara avTov eKXe/crn. Aid tovto dfi- 
 ^tjSaXet TO afxipil3\r]<rTpov avrov, Kai diaTravros drroKreveiv HOvt) oi (peiaerai. 
 
 i. e. " He (the Chaldean) hath drawn him in a casting-net and gathered him in 
 his seans : therefore his heart shall rejoice and be glad. Therefore he shall sacri- 
 fice to his sean and burn incense to his casting-net, because by them he hath fat- 
 tened his portion and his chosen dainties. Therefore he shall throw his casting- 
 net, and not spare utterly to slay nations. — Hahakkak, i. 15 — 17. 
 
 " They catch them in their net and gather them in their drag; therefore they 
 rejoice and are glad. Therefore they sacrifice unto their net and bwn incense unto 
 their drag: because by them their portion is fat and their meat plenteous. Shall 
 they therefore empty tlieir net, and not spare continually to slay the nations ? " — 
 Common English Version. 
 
 The Latin Vulgate in this passage uses without discrimina- 
 tion the terms rete and sagena, which latter is the Greek word 
 in a Latin form. 
 
 'Ayu,0//3X'?;a-T/3ov occurs twice in the New Testament. Mat- 
 thew iv. 18 : " Jesus, walking by the sea of Galilee, saw two 
 
 * See riiiuliis, as al)ovc quoted, p. 125. 
 
CASTING-NET USED BY THE APOSTLES. 
 
 429 
 
 brethren, Simon and Andrew, casting a net into the sea ; for 
 they were fishers :" in the original, l3a\Xovra<; afJb^ijSXrjaTpov 
 eh TTjv ddXaaaav ; in the Vulgate version, " mittentes rete." 
 It appears no sufficient objection to the sense which I have 
 assigned to aiJb(^i(S\.7]cnpov, that here two persons are men- 
 tioned as using it at the same time. Being partners and en- 
 gaged in the same employment, one perhaps collecting the 
 fishes which the other caught, they might be described to- 
 gether as " throwing the casting-net," although only one at a 
 time held it in his hands. In other respects this explanation 
 is particularly suitable to the circumstances. Jesus was walk- 
 ing on the shore and accosted the two brothers. This suits 
 the supposition that they were on the shore likewise, and not 
 fishing out of a boat, as they did with the sean at other times. 
 In verse 20 the Evangelist uses the term Blktvu (nets), saying 
 " they left their nets," and meaning both their casting-net and 
 those of other kinds. In verse 21 he mentions that James 
 and John were in their boat, mending their nets {Biktvo). 
 
 The same things are to be observed in Mark i. 16, which is 
 the parallel passage. 
 
 IV. 
 
 rpi<i)OS, or rpinos. 
 
 Pursuing the order adopted by Oppian in his list of fishing- 
 nets above quoted, we come to the Fpt^o?, What kind of net 
 this was I have been unable to discover. I can only infer, 
 that it was one of the most useful and important kinds, be- 
 cause Plutarch mentions 'ypL<poL koX aayqvat as the common 
 implements of the fisherman*, and Artelnidorus speaks of 
 this together with the casting-net and the sean in similar 
 terms f. 
 
 It may be observed, that TpiTrev'; is used for a fisherman J, 
 apparently equivalent to aA,(eu9 §. We also find the expression 
 TpiirrjiSi rejQ'r], meaning " By the fisherman's art||." 
 
 * Ilepi evOvix'ias, vol. v. p. 838, ed. Steph. 
 
 t 'S.aySpii], /cat yptTros, Kai aixfi/iXr/ffTpov, Kai oaa liWa ek XivtSv TrXe/cerat 
 eiTiTr}Seia tt^os aXieiaii. L. ii. c. 14. 
 
 X Jacobs, Anthol. vol. i. p. 186, Nos. 4 and 5. 
 
 § Theocrit. i. 39; iii. 26. || Bruiick, Aiial. ii. !), \o. 14. 
 
430 
 
 APPENDIX C. ON NETTING. 
 
 V. 
 
 TArrAMON. 
 
 The third fishing-net in Oppian's enumeration is Tayyafjbov. 
 We find it once mentioned metaphorically, viz. by ^Eschylus, 
 who calls an inextricable calamity, TayyafMov ar?;?*. In 
 Schneider's edition of Oppian we find this note, " Rete os- 
 treis capiendis esse annotavit Hesychius." Passow also in 
 his Lexicon explains it as " a small round net for catching 
 oysters." The reference to Hesychius is incorrect. If it was 
 a net for catching oysters, which appears very doubtful, it may 
 have been the net used by the Jndians in the pearl-fishery 
 
 YI. 
 
 'xnoxH. 
 
 The vTro-^^r], which is the fourth in Oppian's enumeration, 
 was the landing-net, used merely to take fishes out of the 
 water when they rose to the surface, or in similar circum- 
 stances to which it was adapted. It was made with a hoop 
 {kuk\o<;) fastened to a pole, and was perhaps also provided 
 with the means of closing the round aperture at the top j. 
 
 Of the Kakvix/xa we find nowhere any further mention. 
 
 VII. 
 
 Tragum, Tragula, Verriculum. 
 
 SAPHNH. 
 
 These were the Greek and Latin names for the Sean. 
 Before producing the passages in which they occur, I will 
 present to the reader an account of this kind of net as now 
 used by our own fishermen on the coast of Cornwall for catch- 
 mg pilchards, and as described by Dr. Paris in his elegant 
 and pleasant Guide to Mounfs Bay and Land's End^. 
 
 * Agam. 352. 
 
 •f Aeyft fileyaaOevris BtjpeveaOai rijv Koyx')" avTOv SiKTuoKfi. — Anian, hi- 
 dica, vol. i. p. 525, ed. Blaucardi. 
 
 X See Oppian, Hal.iy. 251. § Penzance, 1816, p. 91. 
 
MODERN USE OF THE SEAN. 
 
 431 
 
 " At the proper season men are stationed on the chffs to 
 observe by the colour of the water where the shoals of pil- 
 chards are to be found. The sean is carried out in a boat, 
 and thrown into the sea by two men with such dexterity, that 
 in less than four minutes the fish are inclosed. It is then 
 either moored, or, where the shore is sandy and shelving, 
 it is drawn into more shallow water. After this the fish are 
 bailed into boats and carried to shore. A sean is frequently 
 three hundred fathoms long, and seventeen deep. The bot- 
 tom of the net is kept to the ground by leaden weights, 
 whilst the corks keep the top of it floating on the surface. 
 A sean has been known to inclose at one time as many as 
 twelve hundi-ed hogsheads, amounting to about three mil- 
 lions offish." 
 
 Let this passage be compared with the following, which 
 gives an account of the use of the same kind of net among 
 the Arabs. It will then appear how extensively it is em- 
 ployed, since we find it used in exactly the same way both by 
 our own countrymen and by tribes which we consider as 
 ranking very low in the scale of civilization ; and on making 
 this comparison, the inference will seem not unreasonable, 
 that the ancient Greeks and Romans, who in several of their 
 colonies in the Euxine Sea, on the coasts of Ionia, and of 
 Spain, and in other places, carried on the catching and curing 
 of fish with the greatest possible activity and to a wonderful 
 extent, used nets of as great a compass as those which are 
 here described. 
 
 " The fishery is here {i. e. at Burka, on the eastern coast 
 of Arabia) conducted on a grand scale, by means of nets 
 many hundred fathoms in length, which are carried out by 
 boats. The upper part is supported by small blocks of vv ood, 
 formed from the light and buoyant branches of the date-palm, 
 while the lower part is loaded with lead. To either extremity 
 of this a rope is attached, by which, when the whole of the net 
 is laid out, about thirty or forty men drag it towards the 
 shore. The quantity thus secured is enormous ; and what 
 they do not require for their own consumption is salted and 
 carried into the interior. When, as is very generally the case^ 
 
432 
 
 APPENDIX C. ON NETTING. 
 
 the nets are the common property of the whole village, they 
 divide the produce into equal shares*." 
 
 During my residence in Glasgow I had sometimes, an op- 
 portunity of watching the salmon-fishery in the Clyde. The 
 boat was taken out by two men, who let down the net into 
 the water as they rowed along, so as to inclose a considerable 
 semicircle on one side of the river : they then drew the two 
 ends of the net so as to pull in the whole to the shore ; the 
 bottom of the net dragging or brushing over the ground, as is 
 expi'essed by its Latin names, and the top of it supported by 
 corks on the surface of the water. 
 
 That this method of fishing was practised by the Egyptians 
 from a remote antiquity appears from the remaining monu- 
 ments. The paintings on the tombs show persons engaged 
 in drawing the scan, which has floats along its upper margin 
 and leads along the lower borderf. An ancient Egyptian 
 net, obtained by M. Passalacqua, is preserved in the Museum 
 at Berlin. Some of its leads and floats remain, as well as a 
 gourd, which assisted the floats J. 
 
 Besides the verses of Oppian, which are above quoted, we 
 find another passage of the same poem {Hal. iii. 82, 83), which 
 mentions the following appendages to the aayrivr], viz. the 
 Trefai, the a(f)aipcove<;, and the cr/coXio? TTavaypo'i. As the TroSe?, 
 or J'cet of a sail were the ropes fastened to its lower corners, 
 we may conclude that the Tre^at were the ropes attached to 
 the corners of the sean, and used in a similar manner to fasten 
 it to the shore and to draw it in to the land, as is described 
 by Ovid in the line already quoted, — 
 
 IIos cava coiitento rtX\a.fune trahunt. 
 
 The o-^atpdyve'i, as the name implies, were spherical, and 
 
 * Lieutenant Wellsted's Travels in Arabia, vol. i. (Oman), pp. 186, 187. 
 
 t See Wilkinson's Manners and Customs of Ancient Egypt, vol. ii. p. 20, 21 ; see 
 also vol. iii. p. 37. One of these paintings, copied from Wilkinson, is introduced 
 in Plate XVI. fig. 3. of this work. The fishermen are seen on the shore drawing 
 the net to land full of fishes. There are eight floats along the top, and four leads 
 at the bottom on each side. The water is drawn as is usual in Egyptian paintings. 
 
 + Un filet de peche a petitcs mailles, et fait avec du fil de Un. Cet objet, qui est 
 garni de ses plombs, conserve encore les morccaux de bois qui garnissaient sa partie 
 supc'rieure, ainsi que un courge qui I'aidait a surnager. — Thebes. Passalacqua, Cata- 
 logue des Antiquity's diconvertes en Egypte, No. 44.5. p. 22. 
 
CORKS AND LEADS. 
 
 433 
 
 must therefore have been either the floats of wood or cork at 
 the top, or the weights, consisting either of round stones or 
 pieces of lead, at the bottom. The cr/toXto? 7rava7po? must 
 have been a kind of bag formed in the sean to receive the 
 fishes, and thus corresponding to the purse or conical bag in 
 the dpKv<;. The terra is illustrated by the application of the 
 equivalent epithet dyKv\a or " angular," to hunting-nets in a 
 passage from Brunck's Analecta, which I formerly explained, 
 and by the epithet "cava" in the line just quoted from 
 Ovid *. 
 
 In the following passage Ovid mentions the use both of 
 the corks and of the leads f. This passage also shows that 
 several nets were fastened together in order to form a long 
 sean : 
 
 Aspicis, ut summa cortex levis innatat unda, 
 Cum grave nexa simul retia mergat onus ? 
 
 Trist. iii. 4. 1, 12. 
 
 This use of cork and lead in fishing is also mentioned by 
 ^lian. Hist. Anim. xii. 43 ; and that of cork by Pausanias, 
 viii. 12. § 1 ; and by Pliny, H. N. xvi. 8. s. 13, where, in re- 
 citing the various uses of cork, he says it was employed " pis- 
 cantium tragulis J." Sidonius Apollinaris, describing his own 
 villa, says : — 
 
 Hinc jam spectabis, ut promoveat aluum piscator in pelagus, ut stataria retia 
 suberinis corticibus extendat. — Epist. ii. 2. 
 
 " Hence you will see how the fisherman moves forward his boat into the deep 
 water, that he may extend his stationary nets by means of corks." 
 
 Alciphron, in his account of a fishing excursion near the 
 Promontory of Phalerum, says, " The draught of fishes was so 
 great as almost to submerge the corks ||." The earnest desire 
 of a posterity, founded on the wish for posthumous remem- 
 brance, which was a very strong and prevailing sentiment 
 among the ancients, is illustrated by the language of Electra 
 in the Choephoroe of ^schylus, where she entreats her father 
 
 * Observe also the use of the word /xuxos in the passage of Lucian's Timon, 
 quoted below. 
 
 t MoXvfiSaivai, J. Pollux, x. 30. § 132. + See Appendix D. 
 
 II MiKpov Kal rovs ipeWovs iSerjae Karaavpai v<pa\ov to dixrvov eSoy/cow/ie- 
 vnv. — Epist. i. 1. 
 
 2 F 
 
434 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 ON NETTING. 
 
 upon this consideration to attend to her prayer, and likens his 
 memory to a net, which his children, like corks, would save 
 from disappearing : — " Do not extinguish the race of the Pe- 
 lopidae. For thus you Avill live after you are dead. For a man's 
 children are the preservers of his fame when dead, and, like 
 corks in dragging the net, they save the flaxen string from the 
 abyss." The use of the corks is mentioned in several of the 
 epigrams of the Greek Anthology, already referred to, and in 
 the following passage of Plutarch : — 
 
 "Quirep Tui's rd c 'lKTva SiarriJixaivovTas ev ry QaXdaayj (peWovs bp^jxev em- 
 tpepo/ievovs. — De Genio Socratis, p. 1050, ed. Steph. 
 
 Passages have been already produced from Plutarch, Arte- 
 midorus, and the Alexandrine version of Isaiah and Habak- 
 kuk, in which the scan is mentioned by its Greek name aa- 
 ytjvr), in contradistinction to other kinds of nets. Also the 
 passage above cited from Virgil's Georgics (" pelagoque alius 
 trahit humida lina"), indicates the use of the scan in deep 
 water, and the practice of dragging it out of the water by 
 means of ropes, which gave origin both to its English name, 
 the Draff-net, and to its Latin appellations, truffuJa, used by 
 Pliny (/. c), and tragum, which is found in the ancient Glos- 
 saries and in Isidore of Seville*. 
 
 We find mention of the scan more especially for the cap- 
 ture of the tunny and of the pelamys, which were the two 
 principal kinds of fish caught in the Mediterranean. Lucian 
 speaks of the tunny-sean t? which was probably the largest 
 
 * Tragum genus retis, ab eo quod traliatur nuncupatum : ipsum est et verricu- 
 lum. Verrere enim trahere est. — Orig. xix. 5. 
 
 The Latin name verriculum occurs in a passage of Valerius Maximus, which is 
 also remarkable for a reference to the Ionian fisheries, and for the use of the word 
 jactiix, litei-ally, a throw, corresponding to that which our Cornish men denomi- 
 n.itc, a hnwl offish. 
 
 A piscatoribus in Milesia regione verriculum trahentibus quidam jactum eme- 
 lat. — Memor. lib. iv. cap. 1. 
 
 I introduce here an expression of Philo, in which we may remark that /3dXos 
 ixdvioi' corresponds exactly to jactus in Latin, and that the drawing of the net 
 into a circle is clearly indicated: fthXov i\dvij>v TrdvTas ei' ki'/kXw aayrjveixjai. — 
 Vita Moniss, torn. ii. p. 95, ed. .Vlangey. 
 
 t "Zayrtvij 6vv)'evTtK>']. — Epist. Saturn, torn. iii. p. 406, ed. Reitz. 
 
USE OF THE SEAN. 
 
 435 
 
 net of the kind, and he rehites the circumstance of a tunny 
 escaping from its bag or bosom *. The scan is thrice men- 
 tioned in the Epistles of Alciphron (/. c. and hb. i. epp. 17, 
 18.), and in the two latter passages, as used for catching tun- 
 nies and pelamides. We read also of a dolphin (SeXc^t?) ap- 
 proaching the seanf ; but this might be by accident. It was 
 not, I apprehend, employed to catch dolphins. 
 
 In the following passage of the Odyssey (xxii. 384 — 387) 
 we have a description of the use of a sean in a small bay, 
 having a sandy shore at its extremity, and consequently most 
 suitable for the employment of this kind of net : — 
 
 "Qffr' ixOiias, ovaQ' aXiTjes 
 KoTXoj' es aiyiaXbv nvXiris eKToaGe QaXaffffjjs 
 ^iKTViJ) i£,epv(Tav -irokywirt^' oi Se re Travre? 
 YiiifxaQ' fiXos iroQeovTei kni ^ajxaOoiai fct'xui^roi. 
 
 The poet here compares Penelope's suitors, who lie slain upon 
 the ground, to fishes, " which the fishermen by means of a 
 net full of holes have drawn out of the hoary sea to a hollow 
 bay, and all of which, deprived of the waves of the sea, are 
 poured upon the sands." Although the general term Slktvov 
 is here used, it is evident that the net intended was the sean, 
 or drag-net. 
 
 In one of the passages of Alciphron to which I have already 
 referred, mention is made of the use of the sean in a similar 
 situation. Some persons, who are fishing in a bay for tun- 
 nies and pelamides, inclose nearly the whole bay with their 
 sean, expecting to catch a very large quantity J. This cir- 
 
 * 'O Ovvvos e/c fivxov rijs aayijvr^s Sie(pvy6v. — Timon, § 22. torn. i. p. 136. 
 
 t OwK en 7rXjj(Tia?et cayljvy. — iElian, H. A. xi. c. 12. In this chapter the 
 same net is twice called by the common name, (i 'iktvov. 
 
 X Tj rsayi]vif jiovovovxi rbv koXttov okov TrepieXajSoixev. — Epist. i. 1 7. 
 
 A few miscellaneous passages, which refer to the use of the sean, may be con- 
 veniently introduced here : — 
 
 Diogenes, seeing a great number of fishes in the deep, says there is need of a 
 sean to catch them ; aayi^vri^ ct/jcrts. — Lucian, Piscator, § 51. torn. i. p. 618, ed. 
 Reitz. 
 
 The sean is called, from its material, cjayrivaiov Xivov, in an epigram of Ar- 
 chias. — Brunck, Anal. ii. 94. No. 10. 
 
 Plutarch, describing the spider's web, says, that its weaving is like the labour 
 
 2 f2 
 
436 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 ON NETTING. 
 
 cumstance proves, that the sean was used with the ancient 
 Greeks, as it is with us, to encompass a great extent of 
 water. 
 
 We find that the sean supplied figures of speech no less 
 than the purse- net (ap/cu?, see above, p. 418.) and the casting- 
 net {dfM<j)Ll3Xr]aTpov, see above, p. 426.). It is applied thus in 
 the case of persons who are ensnared by the wicked*, who 
 are captivated by the charms of love t or of eloquence t, or 
 who are held in bondage by superstition §. But by far the 
 most distinct, expressive and important of its metaphorical 
 applications, was to the mode of besieging a city by encircling 
 it with one uninterrupted line of soldiers, or sweeping away 
 the entire population of a certain district by marching in 
 
 of women at the loom, its hunting like that of fishermen with the sean. — De So- 
 lertia Animalium, torn. x. p. 29, ed. Reiske. He here uses the term aayrivevTr)^: 
 for a fisher tvith the sean. This verbal noun is regularly formed from nayi}vev- 
 eiv, which means to inclose or catch with the sean : e. g. tf fiiKruois aerrayrjvev- 
 fievoi. — Herodian, iv. 9, 12. 
 
 Lucian uses the same verb in reference to the story of Vulcan inclosing Mars 
 and Venus in a net ; aaytjvf.vei ro'i's ^etrjuoT?. — Dialor/i Deor. torn. i. p. 243. Som- 
 nium, torn. ii. p. 707, ed. Reitz. 
 
 Leonidas of Tareutum, in an epigram enumerating the ornaments of a lady's 
 toilet (Bruiick, Anal. i. p. 221), mentions o TrXnrvs rpixibv aayrjvevrtip. Jacobs 
 {Annot. in Anthol. i. 2. p. 63) supposes this to mean the lady's comb ; but, judging 
 from the known meaning of (raylp't] and its derivatives, we may conclude that it 
 was the KeKpvcpaXo?, or net, which inclosed and encircled the hair, like a sean. 
 
 The following verse of Manilius (lib. v. ver. 078.) is remarkable as a rare in- 
 stance of the adoption of the Greek word sagena by a Latin poet : — 
 Excipitur vasta circumvallata sagena. 
 
 * '2ayr]vei'ci^iai Trpus avTMv. — Lucian, Timnn, § 25. tom. i. p. 138, ed. Reitz. 
 
 f Brunck, Anal. iii. 157. No. 32. Here the sean is called by the general term 
 ciKTvoi', but the particular kind of net is indicated by the participle anyrivevOek. 
 
 X Twi'de ixn9t]T))-i', 
 
 O'l KOTfiov yXvKfpyat Qeov Sr]aai'TO aayip'ai^, 
 i. e. "a disciple of those who bound the world in the sweet seans of God." — 
 Greg. Nazianz. ad Nemesium, tom. ii. p. 141, ed. Paris 1630. 
 
 § Plutarch, evidently referring to the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, says, " The 
 Jews on the Sabbath, sitting down in coarse blankets (ev ayvapnTois, literally, in 
 infiTta, or blankets, which had not been fulled, or cleansed by the yi'aipevs), even 
 when the enemy were setting the ladders to scale the walls, did not rise up, but 
 remained as if inclosed in one sean, namely, superstition (wcrTrfp ev trayfiv/j fii^, 
 r^j Sei(ncainoi'i<f, avvCeiffievoi)." — 0pp. tom. vi. De Superstit. p. 647, ed. Reiske. 
 
SEAN APPLIED FIGURATIVELY. 
 
 437 
 
 similar order across it. Of this the first example occurs in 
 Herodotus iii. 145 : — 
 
 • Tfiv Be Sa/iov aayifvevaai'Tes o't Iltpcrai irape^oaav "ZoXvaixivTi, ip^ifiov eov- 
 
 aav avSpSiv. 
 
 "The Persians, having dragged Samos, delivered it, being now destitute of men, 
 to Solyson." 
 
 As we speak of dragging a pit, so the Greeks would have 
 spoken, in this metaphorical sense, o( dragging an island. In 
 the sixth book (ch. xxxi.) Herodotus particularly describes 
 this method of capturing the enemy. According to this 
 account the Persians landed on the northern side of the 
 island. They then took hold of one another's hands so as to 
 form a long line, and thus linked together they walked across 
 the island to the south side, so as to hunt out all the inha- 
 bitants. The historian here particularly mentions, that Chios, 
 Lesbos, and Tenedos were reduced to captivity in this man- 
 ner. It is recorded by Plato *, that Datis, in order to alarm 
 the Athenians, against whom he was advancing at the head 
 of the Persian army, spread a report that his soldiers, join- 
 ing hand to hand, had taken all the Eretrians captive as in a 
 scan. I refer to the Notes of Wesseling and Valckenaer on 
 Herod, iii. 149 for some passages, in which subsequent Greek 
 authors have quoted Herodotus and Plato. We find aayr}- 
 vevOrjvai,, "to be dragged," used in the same manner by Helio- 
 dorus t- 
 
 In addition to the passages of Isaiah and Ilabakkuk which 
 mention the drag in opposition to the casting-net (see above, 
 p. 428.), we find three references to the use of it in the pro- 
 phecies of Ezekiel, viz. in Ezek. xxvi. 5. 14; xlvii. 10. The 
 prophet, foretelling the destruction of Tyre, says it would be- 
 come a place to dry seans upon, yjrvyfj,o^ aayrjvcov ; " siccatio 
 sagenaram," Vulgate Version ; " a place for the spreading of 
 nets," Common English Version. The Hebrew term for a 
 drag, or sean, is here Din. 
 
 The only passage of the New Testament which makes ex- 
 px-ess mention of the sean, is Matt. xiii. 47, 48: "The king- 
 
 * De Leyibus, Ub. iii. proi)e finem. 
 
 t Lib. vii. p. 304, ed. Commelini. 
 
438 
 
 APPENDIX C. ON NETTING. 
 
 dom of heaven is like unto a net {aayi]vr)) that was cast into 
 the sea, and gathered of every kind ; which, when it was full, 
 they drew to shore, and sat down, and gathered the good into 
 vessels, but cast the bad away." The casting-net, which can 
 only inclose part of a very small shoal, would not have been 
 adapted to the object of this parable. But we perceive the 
 allusion intended by it to the great quantity and variety of 
 fishes of every kind which are brought to the shore of the bay 
 {alycaXov) by the use of the drag. The Vulgate here retains 
 the Greek word, translating sagena as in the above-cited 
 passages of Habakkuk and Ezekiel. In John xxi. 6. 8. 11, 
 the use of the scan is evidently intended to be described, 
 although it is called four times by the common term hUrvov, 
 which denoted either a scan, or a net of any other kind. It 
 is in this passage translated rete in the Latin Vulgate. 
 
 The Greek <Tayr]vr) having been adopted under the form 
 sayena in the Latin Vulgate, this was changed into j ejne 
 by the Anglo-Saxons*, and we, their descendants, have still 
 further abridged it into sean. In the south of England this 
 word is also pronounced and spelt seine, as it is in French. 
 We find in Bede's Ecclesiastical History f a curious passage 
 on the introduction of this kind of net into England. He 
 says, " the people had as yet only learnt to catch eels with 
 nets. Wilfrid caused them to collect together all their eel- 
 nets, and to use them as a sean for catching fishes of all 
 kinds." 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Reticulus or Reticulum. 
 iTPrAeos. 
 
 In the ancient Glossaries we find Vvpyado'i translated Re- 
 ticulus and Reticulum : it meant, therefore, a small net. It 
 was not a name for nets in general, nor did it denote any kind 
 of hunting-net or fishing-net, although the net indicated by 
 this term might be used occasionally for catching animals as 
 
 * See Caedmoii, p. /T), ed. Junii. 
 
 t Page 294, ed. Wilkiiis. 
 
BAG NETS AND SMALL PURSE NETS. 
 
 439 
 
 well as for other purposes. It was used, for example, in an 
 island on the coast of India to catch tortoises, being set at 
 the mouths of the caverns, which were the resort of those 
 creatures *. But the same term is applied to the nets which 
 were used to carry pebbles and stones intended to be thrown 
 from military engines f ; and a similar contrivance was in 
 common use for carrying loaves of bread J. Hence it is mani- 
 fest that the yvpyado^ was often much like the nets in which 
 the Jewish boys in our streets carry lemons, being inclosed at 
 the mouth by a running string or noose. We may therefore 
 translate 'yvpyado<;, " a bag-net," as it was made in the form 
 of a bag. " To blow into a bag-net,^' et? jvpyaOov (jyvaav, 
 became a proverb, meaning to labour in vain. But this bag 
 was often of much smaller dimensions, and of much finer 
 materials, than in the instances already mentioned. From a 
 passage of ^neas Tactions (p. 54. ed. Orell.) we may infer 
 that it was sometimes not larger than a purse for the pocket. 
 Hence Aristotle § properly applies the term yvpyadoi; to the 
 small spherical or oval bag in which spiders deposit their 
 eggs. Among the luxurious habits of the Sicilian praetor 
 Verres, it is recorded, that he had a small and very fine 
 linen net, filled with rose leaves, "which ever and anon he 
 gave his nose ||." This net was, no doubt, called yvpya6o<; 
 in Greek. 
 
 * 'Ev Se ravTij ry vt]<yii> Koi yvpyaQoii aliras iSiuis Xivei'Toixru', (ivTi SiktIimv 
 KaQ'ievTes alirovs nepl rd aTofiaTa tu>v trpopax^dv. — Avrian, Per. Maris Eryth. 
 p. 151, ed. Blancaidi. 
 
 t Athenaeus, lib. v. § 43. p. 208, ed. Casanl). 
 
 X VvpyaOoV (JKevos tt^ektov, ei' <ij fidWovai rbv ciprov o'l apTOKo-rroi. 
 
 Ilciych. 
 
 Reticulum paiiis. — Hor. Sat. i. 1. 47. 
 § Anim. Hist. v. 27. Compare Apollodorus, Frag. xi. p. 454, ed. lleyne. 
 II Reticulum ad uares sibi admoveliat, tenuissimo lino, minutis maculis, plenum 
 rossc. — Cic. in Verr. ii. 5. 11. 
 
440 APPENDIX D. ON PLINY. 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 On Pliny's Natural History. 
 
 In this Appendix I shall produce all the passages of Pliny's 
 Natural History to which I have had occasion to refer in the 
 first part of this work, accompanying them with an English 
 translation, and with such observations as may appear neces- 
 sary to rectify or to illustrate the text. The edition which I 
 follow is that of Sillig, Lipsiae, 1831 — 6, 5 vols. 12mo. 
 
 Lib. IV. c. 12 seu 20. 
 
 (Referred to pp. 174, 175, 185.) 
 
 In his account of Ceos, a small island near the southern 
 
 extremity of Euboea, Pliny says : 
 
 Ex hac profectam delicatiorem feminis vestem, auctor est Varro. 
 
 " That an uncommonly delicate kind of cloth was obtained from this island for 
 women, is asserted by Varro." 
 
 This passage has been cited by many authors to prove that 
 silk was anciently manufactured in Ceos. I have stated it as 
 my opinion, that this representation probably arose from con- 
 founding Ceos with Cos. Whether this mistake was committed 
 originally by Varro, or by Pliny in copying him, I cannot de- 
 cide ; but in the absence of all other evidence, I cannot admit, 
 on this secondary authority alone, that silk, or any other of the 
 finer kinds of cloth, was made in Ceos. On the contrary, I 
 rather consider this passage as affording a presumption that 
 Varro's testimony related to Cos, from which we know that 
 silken garments for women were brought to Rome in his 
 time. See above, pp. 162—180, 229, 230. 
 
LIB. IV. c. 12 s. 20. VI. c. .3.; c. 17 s. 20. 441 
 
 Lib. VI. C.5. 
 (Referred to p. 27.) 
 
 Reliqua litora fene natioues tenent, Melauchlaeni, Coraxi, urbe Colchorum Dio- 
 scuriade juxta fluviuni Anthemimta, nunc deserta, quondam adeo clara, ut Timo- 
 sthenes in earn ccc nationes dissiniilibus linguis descendere prodiderit ; et postea 
 a nostris cxxx interpretibus uegotia ibi gesta. 
 
 " The remaining shores are occupied by savage nations, as the Melanchlaeni and 
 Coraxi, Dioscurias, a city of the Colchians, near the river Anthemus, being now de- 
 serted, although formerly so illustrious, that Timosthenes has recorded that three 
 hundred nations used to resort to it speaking different languages ; and that business 
 was afterwards transacted on our part through the medium of one bundled and 
 tliirty interpreters." 
 
 Lib. VL c. 1 7 s. 20. 
 
 (Referred to p. 185.) 
 
 Primi sunt hominum qui noscantur Seres, lanicio sylvarum nobiles, perfusam 
 aqua depectentes frondium canitiem : unde geminus feminis nostris labor redordi- 
 endi tila, rursumque texendi. Tam multipMci opere, tam longinquo orbe, petitur 
 ut in publico matrona transluceat. 
 
 " The Seres are the first known of human beings, celebrated for the production 
 of wool from their woods by pouring water upon the leaves and combing down 
 their hoariness : whence is transferred to our women the double labour of unravel- 
 ling the threads, and of weaving them again. With such multiplied labour, and from 
 so remote a region of the globe, do we seek the means of enabling our matrons to 
 appear in public in a transparent dress." 
 
 The expression, " geminus feminis nostris labor redordiendi 
 fila, rursmnque texendi," has often been represented as a proof 
 that the manufactured silks of the East were again separated 
 into threads and rewoven by the women of Greece. This in- 
 terpretation seems to have originated with Vossius*, and has 
 been adopted by MacpViersonf, by Dr. Vincent J, and by the 
 writer of the treatise on the Silk Manufacture, in Lardner's 
 Cabinet Cyclopedia. Macpherson and Dr. Vincent take re- 
 dordiri as meaning to untwist. But as ordiri fila, or ordiri 
 telam, was not to twist the threads but to arrange them in 
 
 * Etymologimm Litigtue Latinte, v. Byssus. 
 
 t Annals of Commerce, vol. i. pp. 1/5, 177 note. 
 
 X Commerce and Xaviya/ion of the Ancxents in India, vol. ii. 
 
442 
 
 APPENDIX D. ON PLINY. 
 
 the loom for weaving, so redordiri denoted the reverse pro- 
 cess, that of undoing the arrangement already made, and 
 bringing the warp back to the state of simple thread. La- 
 treiUe, also, attributes to Pliny the notion of untwisting the 
 threads {retordre les fils) ; but he changes redordiendi into 
 retortiendi, a word of his own coining *. Mannert infers 
 from the language of Pliny, that the Grecian women undid 
 the webs of Serica, and wove them again into a thinner and 
 flowered texture t- But this supposition is quite at variance 
 with the history of the art. Flowers were woven in Asia 
 long before the Grecian women were capable of such per- 
 formances. 
 
 The real meaning of the passage becomes manifest, if we 
 compare it with the extract from the eleventh book of the 
 same work, where the fact is again stated in nearly the same 
 terms, — " eas (telas) redordiri rursusque texere," — but with 
 the addition, that the insects called " bombyces," which were 
 supposed to produce silk, made webs after the manner of 
 spiders, "telas araneorum modo texunt." (See below, p. 448.) 
 This idea recurs in the works of authors subsequent to Pliny J. 
 The meaning of Pliny, therefore, was, that the webs woven 
 by the bombyces in the country of the Seres, and bearing a 
 resemblance to spiders' webs, were in that state brought to 
 Europe, unwoven or reduced to the state of simple thread, 
 and then woven into cloth. In conformity with this expla- 
 nation, Pliny describes the construction of the spider's web 
 by the words, " orditur telas." (Lib. xi. 24. s. 28.) Even in 
 this false and fanciful representation, therefore, we may per- 
 ceive a trace of truth ; for there is reason to believe, that 
 the cocoons were brought to Greece from the interior of Asia, 
 and were unwound by the Coan women, who afterwards wove 
 them into cloth. See above, pp. 163, 216. It appears that 
 Pliny formed his own conception of the manner of preparing 
 the silk to be woven into cloth, by a misinterpretation of the 
 before cited passage of Aristotle. The simple fact of the 
 
 * Annates des Sciences Naturelkx, vol. xxiii. p. 77. 
 
 t Geoyraphie der Griechen u. Rome/; iv. 6, 7. p. 513. 
 
 t See Pausanias, as quoted above, p. 188, and Tertullian, p. 190. 
 
LIB. VIII. c. 47 s. 72. — 50 s. 76. 
 
 443 
 
 winding of the thread from the cocoons upon bobbins is ex- 
 pressed by Aristotle in the words, ra ^ofj,^VKia uvaXvovai 
 roiv yvvatKcbv t(v€<; dvaTrrjvt^o/xevai,. PHny, supposing these 
 words to describe the method of vinloosing webs, whicli he 
 conceived to resemble spiders' webs, has denoted that opera- 
 tion by the phrase, redordiri fila, or redordiri telas. His 
 account, therefore, is founded upon the fact of the importa- 
 tion of the cocoons, and the unwinding of them by the women 
 of Cos ; but he has been led into a false hypothesis, by con- 
 ceiving that the IBofx^vKLa, or productions of the silkworms, 
 were webs like those of spiders. 
 
 Lib. VIII. c. 47 s. 72.— 50 s. 76. 
 
 (Referred to pp. 15, 23,34, 79,98, 111, 115, 116, 125, 138, 
 371, 374, 391.) 
 
 Magna et pecori gratia, vel in jilacamentis Deorum vel in usu velleruni. Ut boves 
 
 victum hominum excolunt, ita coiporura tiitela pecori debetur Ovium 
 
 summa genera duo, tectum et colonicum ; illud mollius, hoc in pascuo delicatius, 
 quippe cum tectum rubis vescatur. Operimenta ei ex Arabicis prsecipua. 
 
 Lana autem laudatissima Apula, et quae in ItaUa Gra;ci pecoris appellatur, alibi 
 Italica. Tertium locum Milesiae oves obtineut. Apulae breves villo, nee nisi pae- 
 nulis celebres. Circa Tarentum Canusiumque summam nobilitatem habent. In 
 Asia vero eodem genere Laodiceae. Alba Circurapadanis nulla praefertur, nec libra 
 centenos nummos ad hoc aevi excessit uUa. Oves non ubique tondentur : durat 
 quibusdam in locis velleudi mos : colorum plui-a genera : quippe cum desint etiam 
 nomina eis. Quas nativas appellant, aliquot modis Hispania : nigri velleris praeci- 
 puas habet Pollentia juxta Alpes ; jam Asia rutiU, quas Erythra^as vocant : item 
 Baetica: Canusium fulvi : Tarentum et suae pulliginis. Succidis omnibus medicata 
 vis. Istriae Liburniacque pilo propior, quam lanae, pexis aliena vestibus, et quam 
 Salacia scutulato textu commendat in Lusitania. Similis circa Piscenas provinciae 
 Narbonensis : similis et in iEgypto, ex qua vestis detrita usu pingitur, rursusque 
 tevo dui-at. Est et hiitae pilo crasso in tapetis antiquissima gratia : jam certe 
 priscos iis usos, Homerus auctor est. Aliter hac Galli pingunt, aliter Parthorum 
 gentes. Lanae et per se coactara vestem faciunt : et si addatur acetum, etiam 
 ferro resistunt : immo vero etiam ignibus novissimo sui purgamento ; quippe ahe- 
 nis polientium extractae, in tomenti usnm veniunt, Galliarum, ut arbitror, invento : 
 certe GaUicis hodie nominibus discernitur : nec facile dixerim, qua id aetate coepe- 
 rit. Antiquis enim torus e straraento erat, qualiter etiam nunc in castris. Gausapa 
 patris mei memoria coepere : amphimalla, nostra : sicut villosa etiam ventralia. 
 Nam tunica lati clavi, in modum gausapae texi nunc priraum iucipit. Lanarum 
 nigrae nullum colorem bibunt. De reliquarum infectu suis locis dicemus, in con- 
 chyliis marinis, aut herbarum natura. 
 
 Lanam in coin et fuso Tanaquilis, quae eadem Caia Caecilia vocata est, in tern- 
 
444 
 
 APPENDIX D. ON PLINY. 
 
 l)lo Sangi durasse, prodente se, auctor est M. Varro : factamque ab ea togarn re- 
 giam undulatam in sede Fortunae, qua Ser. TuUius fuerat iisus. Inde factum, ut 
 uubentes virgines comitaretur colus comta, et fusus cum stamine. Ea prima texuit 
 rectam tunicam, quales cum toga pura tirones induuntur, novaeque nuptfe. Undu- 
 lata vestis prima e laudatissimis fiut : inde sororiculata defiuxit. Togas rasas Pliryxi- 
 anasque, Divi Augusti novissimis temporibus coepisse, scribit Fenestella. Crebrae 
 papaveratae antiquiorem habent originem, jam sub Lucilio poeta in Torquato no- 
 tatae. Praetextae apud Etruscos originem invenere. Trabeis usos accipio reges : 
 pictas vestes jam apud Homerum fuisse, unde triumphales natae. Acu facere id 
 Phryges invenerunt, ideoque Phrygioniae appellatae sunt. Aurum intexere in eadem 
 Asia invenit Attalus rex : unde nomen Attalicis. Colores diversos picturae intexere 
 Babylon maxime celebravit, et nomen imposuit. Plurimis vero liciis texere, quae 
 polymita appellant, Alexandria instituit : scutulis dividere, Gallia. Metellus Scipio 
 tricliniaria Babylonica sestertium octingentis millibus venisse jam tunc, posuit in 
 Catonis criminibus, quae Neroniprincipi quadragies sestertio nuper stetere. Servii 
 Tullii praetextae, quibus signum Fortunae ab eo dicatae coopertum erat, duravere ad 
 Sejani exitum. Mirumqne fuit nec defluxisse eas, nec teredinum injurias sensisse 
 annis dlx. Vidimus jam et viventium vellera, purpura, cocco, conchylio, sesqui- 
 pedalibus libris infecta, velut ilia sic nasci cogente luxuria. 
 
 In ipsa ove satis generositatis ostenditur brevitate crurura, ventris vestitu : qui- 
 bus nudus esset, apicas vocabant, damnabantque. Syriae cubitales ovium caudae, 
 plurimumque in ea parte lanicii. Castrari agnos, nisi quinquemestres, praematurnm 
 existimatur. Est et in Hispania, sed maxime Corsica, non maxime absimile pecori, 
 genus musmonum, caprino villo, quam pecoris velleri, propius. Quorum e genere 
 et ovibus natos prisci Urabros vocarunt. Infirmissimum pecori caput, quamobrera 
 aversura a Sole pasci cogendum. Quam stultissima animalium lanata. Qua tiniuere 
 ingredi, unum cornu raptum sequuntur. Vita longissima anni x, in yEtliiopia xm. 
 
 Capris eodem loco xi, in reliquo orbe pliu-imum octoni In Cilicia circa- 
 
 que Syrtes villo tonsili vestiuntur. 
 
 " We are also much indebted to sheep both in sacrifices to propitiate the gods, 
 and in the use of their fleeces. As oxen produce by cultivation the food of 
 
 men, so we owe to sheep the protection of our bodies There are two 
 
 principal kinds of sheep, the covered and the common. The former is softer, the 
 latter more deUcate in feeding, inasmuch as the covered feeds on brambles. Its 
 coverings are chiefly of Arabic materials. 
 
 " The most approved wool is the Apulian, and that which is called the wool of 
 Greek sheep in Italy, and the Italic wool in other places. The third kind in value 
 is that obtained from Milesian sheep. The Apuhan wools have a short staple, and 
 are only celebrated for making paenulas. They attain the highest degree of ex- 
 cellence about Tarentum and Canusium. In Asia wools of the same kind are ob- 
 tained at Laodicea *. No white wool is preferred to those which are produced 
 about the Po, nor has a pound ever yet exceeded a hundred sesterces f. Sheep 
 are not shorn every where : in certain places the practice of pulling off the wool 
 
 * It appears probable that the "Apulian wools," to which Pliny ascribes so high 
 a value, were remarkable for their tine dark colours. See above, pp. 34, 79. 
 t About 15 shillings. 
 
LIB. viii. c. 47 s. 72. — 50 s. 76. 
 
 445 
 
 continues. There are various colours of wool, so that we want terms to denote 
 all. Spain produces some of those varieties which are caWed native ; Pollentia, 
 near the Alps, furnishes the chief kinds of black wool ; Asia and Bsetica those 
 ruddy varieties called Erythrean ; Canusium a sandy-coloured * wool ; and Taren- 
 tum one of a dark shade peculiar to that locality. New-shorn greasy wools have 
 all a medicinal virtue. The wool of Istria and Liburnia being more like hair than 
 wool, is unsuitable for making the cloths which have a long nap. This is also the 
 case with the wool of Salacia in Lusitania ; but the cloth made from it is recom- 
 mended by its plaided pattern. A similar kind is produced about Piscena; (i. e. 
 Pezenas), in the province of Narbonne, and likewise in Egypt, the woollen cloth 
 of which country, having been worn by use, is embroidered and lasts sometime 
 longer. The coarse wool with a thick staple was used in verj' ancient times for 
 carpets : at least Homer speaks of the use of it. The Gauls have one method of 
 embroidering these carpets, and the Parthians another. Portions of wool also 
 make cloth by being forced together by themselves f. With the addition of vine- 
 gar these also resist iron, nay even fires, which are the last expedient for purging 
 them ; for, having been taken out of the caldrons of the polishers %, they are sold 
 for the stuffing of beds, an invention made, I believe, in Gaul, certainly in the 
 present day distinguished by Gallic names : for in what age it commenced I could 
 not easily say, since the ancients used beds of straw, such as are now employed 
 in camps. The cloths called gausajm began to be used within the memory of my 
 father ; those called amphimalla within my owti, as well as the shaggy coverings 
 for the stomach, called ventralia^. For the tunic with the laticlave is now first 
 beginning to be woven after the manner of the gansapa. The black wools are 
 never dyed. Concerning the dyeing of the others we shall speak in their proper 
 places, in treating of sea-shells or the nature of herbs. 
 
 "M. Varro says, that the wool continued to his time upon the distaff and spindle 
 of Tanaquil, also called Caia Cjecilia, in the temple of Sangus ; and that there re- 
 mained in the temple of Fortune a royal undulate toga made by her, which Ser- 
 vius TuUius had worn. Hence arose the practice of carrying a distaff with wool 
 upon it, and a spindle with its thread, after virgins who were going to be married. 
 She first wove the straight tunic, such as is worn by tiros together with the toga 
 pura, and by newly-married women. The undulate or waved cloth was originally 
 
 * I adopt this term as the best translation of the l^aX'm fulvvs, which, as well as 
 the corresponding Greek adjective ^avQbs, denoted a light yellowish-brown. Hence 
 it was so commonly applied to the light hair, which accompanies a light complexion 
 and often indicates mental vivacity, and which has consequently been always con- 
 sidered beautiful. Hence also it was used to denote the appearance of the Tiber 
 and other rivers, when they were rendered turbid by the quantity of sand suspended 
 in their waters. — See Fellows's Discoveries in Lycia. 
 
 t I have already (see p. 391) explained this sentence as descriptive of the pro- 
 cess of felting. Sillig adopts here the reading coflc/ffOT. I think the sense requires 
 that which I have followed, coactcB. 
 
 % Poliiniium. Another reading is coquentium, " of the boilers." 
 
 § The three kinds of woollen cloth here mentioned, viz. gausapa, amphimalla, 
 and ventralia, had a long nap, adapting them for bed-covers and other purposes, in 
 which great warmth was required. 
 
440 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 ON PLINY. 
 
 one of the most adiuired ; from it was derived the soriculate*. Fenestrella writes, 
 that scraped and Phryxian togas came into favour about the end of the reign of 
 the Div ine Augustus. The thick poppied togas are of remoter origin, being no- 
 ticed even so far back as by tlie poet Lucilius in his Torquatus. The toga prte- 
 texta was invented among the Etruscans. I find evidence that liings wore the 
 striped toga f ; that figured cloths were in use even in the days of Homer ; and that 
 these gave rise to the triumphal. To produce this effect with the needle was the 
 invention of tlie Plirygians, on which account cloths so embroidered have been 
 called Phri/gionic. In the same part of Asia liing Attains discovered the art of in- 
 serting a woof of gold: from which circumstance the At folic cloths receiveil their 
 name. Babylon first obtained celebrity by its method of diversifying the picture 
 with different colours, and gave its name to textures of this description. But to 
 weave with a great number of leashes, so as to produce the cloths called polymifa, 
 was first taught in Alexandria ; to divide by squares in Gaul %. Metellus Scipio 
 brought it as an accusation against Cato, that even in his time Babylonian cover- 
 lets for tricUnia were sold for 800,000 sesterces, although the emperor Nero lately 
 gave for them no less than 4,000,000 sesterces ||. The prcetexta; of Servius Tul- 
 lius, covering the statue of Fortune which he dedicated, remained until the death 
 of Sejanus, and it is wonderful that they had neither decayed of themselves nor 
 been injured by the worms of moths through the space of 5G0 years. We have, 
 moreover, seen the fleeces of living sheep dyed with purple, with the coccus, or 
 the murex, in pieces of bark a foot and a half long, luxuiy appearing to force this 
 upon them as if it were their nature. 
 
 " In the sheep itself the excellence of the breed is sufficiently shown by the 
 shortness of the legs and the clothing of the belly. Those which have naked bel- 
 lies used to be called apico", and were condemned. The tails of the Syrian sheep 
 are a cubit broad, and in that part they l)ear a great quantity of wool. It is thought 
 premature to castrate lambs before they are five months old. In Spain, but espe- 
 cially in Corsica, there is a race of animals called niusmons, resembling sheep, ex- 
 cept that their covering is more like goats'-hair. The ancients called the mixed 
 breed of sheep and musmons Umbri. Sheep have a very weak head, on which 
 account they are obliged to turn from the sun in feeding. They are most foolish 
 animals. Where they have been afraid to enter, they follow one dragged along by 
 the horn. They live ten years at the longest, but in /Ethiopia thirteen years. 
 
 Goats live there eleven years, and in other countries eight at the most 
 
 In Cilicia and about the Syrtes goats have a shaggy coat, which admits of being 
 shorn." 
 
 * I think it probable that soriculate cloth was a kind of velvet, or plush, so called 
 from its resemblance to tlic coat of the field-mouse, sorex, dim. soricula. I sup- 
 pose sorieulata to have been changed into sororiculata by repeating or at the be- 
 giiming of the word. 
 
 t The toga worn by the kings and other supreme magistrates among the Romans 
 was called trahea from the stripes, which were compared to the joists or rafters of 
 a building {trabes). 
 
 X The polymita were damask cloths ; those divided by squares were plaids. The 
 explanation of all these diversities and of the modes of producing them will belong 
 to the Fourth Part of this work. 
 
 II These two sums would be respectively about 6000/. and 30,000A 
 
LIB. XI. c. 8. ; c. 22 s. 25.-23 s. 27. 
 
 447 
 
 Lib. XI. c. 8. 
 
 (Referred to p. 319.) 
 
 Speaking of the plants from -which bees obtain wax, Pliny 
 says : 
 
 Falso excipitur et spartuin, qiiippe cum in Hispania multa in spartariis mella 
 herbatn earn sapiant. 
 
 " The Sparlum also is falsely made an exception, since in Spain the honey pro- 
 duced in tracts covered with it often tastes of that plant." 
 
 Lib. XL c. 22 s. 25. — 2.3 s. 27. 
 
 (Referred to pp. 166, 175, 185, 197, 210.) 
 
 Having in the preceding sections of this book given an 
 account of three kinds of hymenopterous insects, which con- 
 struct nests with hexangular cells, viz. bees, wasj)s, and hor- 
 nets, Pliny proceeds to describe under the name of bombyces 
 the flies which he supposed to produce silk, and of these bom- 
 byces he gives three different accounts, probably taken from 
 three different authors. First he mentions that which he calls 
 the Assyrian bombyx, supposing it to resemble bees, wasps, 
 and hornets, and therefore introducing these "Assyrian bom- 
 byces" as a fourth class of insects to be ranked with the three 
 preceding. 
 
 Quartum inter haec genus est bombycum, in Assyria proveniens, majus quam 
 supra dicta. Nidos Into fingunt, salis specie, applicatos lapidi, tanta duritie, ut 
 spiculis perforari \tx possiut. In iis et ceras lai'gius, quam apes, faciunt : deinde 
 niajorem vermiculum. 
 
 Et alia honim origo : e grandiore vermiculo, gemina protendente sui generis cor- 
 nua, primum eruca fit : deinde, quod vocatur bombylius : ex eo necydalus : ex hoc 
 in sex meusibus bombyx. Telas araneorum modo texunt ad vestem luxumque fe- 
 miuaruui, quaj bombycina appellatur. Prima eas redordiri, rursusque texere in- 
 venit in Ceo mulier Pampbila, Latoi fiUa, non fraudanda gloria excogitatse rationis, 
 ut denudet feminas vestis. 
 
 Bombycas et in Co insula nasci tradunt, cupressi, terebiuthi, fraxini, quercus 
 florem imbribus decussum teiTse halitu animante. Fieri autem primo papiliones par- 
 vos, nudosque : mox ft-igorum impatientia %"illis inhorrescere, et adversum hiemem 
 tunicas sibi instaurare densas, pedum asperitate radentes foliorum lanuginem vel- 
 lere. Hauc ab his cogi unguium carminalione, mox trahi inter ramos, tenuari ceu 
 pectine. Postea apprehensam corpori involvi nido volubili. Tum ab horaine tolli. 
 
448 
 
 APPENDIX D. ON PLINY. 
 
 fietilil)usque vasis tepore et furfiirum esca nutriri : atque ita sul)nasci sui generis plu- 
 mas, quibus vestitos ad alia pensa dimitti. Quse vero coepta sint lanificia, humore 
 lentescere, mox in fila tenuari junceo fuso. Nec puduit has vestes usurpare etiam 
 viros, levitatem propter sestivam. In tantum a lorica gerenda discessere mores, ut 
 oneri sit etiam vestis. Assyria tamen bombyce adhuc feminis cedimus. 
 
 " A fourth kind among these insects is that of bombyces, produced in Assyria, 
 and larger than those already described. They make nests of clay, which have 
 the appearance of salt. They are fixed upon stone, and are so hard that they can 
 scarcely be pierced even by iron points. In them they (i. e. the bombyces) make 
 wax more abundantly than bees do, and afterwards produce a larger worm. 
 
 "These insects have also another origin*: from an uncommonly large worm, 
 which stretches out two horns peculiar to itself, is produced first a caterpillar : 
 then what is called a bombyliiis (?. <?. a cocoon) : then out of it a necydalus : and 
 out of this in six months a bombyx. These bombyces weave webs after the man- 
 ner of spiders, so as to conduce to the luxurious clothing of women, the cloth 
 being called bombycinaf. The method of unravelling these webs and weaving 
 them again was invented in Cos J by Pamphila, the daughter of Latoiis, who must 
 
 * By this second kind of "bombyces" Pliny seems to intend those which he 
 supposed to be produced among the Seres. Compare the expression " Prima eas re- 
 dordiri rursusque texere" in this passage, with " labor redordiendi fila, rursumque 
 texendi," in the passage above produced from lib. vi. 17, s. 20, where he gives an 
 account of the Seres. In commenting on this passage, I have shown that the webs 
 which Pliny mentions, were conceived by him to resemble spiders' webs, and that 
 he supposed these to be brought to Greece, to be there separated and unravelled 
 so as to make thread, and in this state to be woven into cloth. He has taken his 
 account in this passage in part from Aristotle, as quoted and explained above, 
 p. 163 — 171. He deviates from Aristotle in saying that the worm has two horns. 
 He translates Aristotle's terms ctkiuX/;? and /ca'jUTr?} by vermiculus and eruca, and 
 he retains the terms jio^jivXio^ and veKucaXos without translating them. In ex- 
 plaining Aristotle, I have endeavoured to prove that hombylins meant a cocoon. 
 
 t Respecting the application of the terms bombyx and its derivatives to silk 
 and to the animal that produced it, see Aristotle as already referred to ; Proper- 
 tins, quoted p. 1 78 ; Juvenal and Martial, p. 187 ; TertuUian and Apuleius, p. 191 ; 
 J.Pollux, p. 192; Alciphron, p. 200 ; Servius, p. 206 ; Prudentius, p. 224 ; Apol- 
 linaris Sidonius, p. 228 ; Isidore, p. 229, 230 ; and Aldhelm, p. 240. These authors 
 for the most part represent the bombyx as a worm, although PUny supposes it to 
 be an insect like a large bee, wasp, or hornet. 
 
 + Sillig, following Harduin and other previous editors, adopts the reading in 
 Ceo, although that of nearly all the MSS. is in Coo. Gibbon, relying on the printed 
 editions, supposes the worms to have been bred and the silk manufactured in Ceos. 
 {Decline and Fall, eh. xl.) This opinion is likewise adopted by the late accom- 
 plished Mr. Brdndsted of Copenhagen in his learned Voyages et Recherchts en 
 Grece, tom. i. p. 84. But the only authority which he adduces besides that of 
 Pliny is the line of Lucretius, in regard to which I have observed (pp. 173, 174), 
 that the reading Cea is nothing but a modern conjecture, and that we ought, pro- 
 bably, in accordance with some of the MSS., to substitute Coa. In the instance 
 now before us the editors have gone in opposition to the MSS. in order to make 
 
LIB. XI. c. 22 s. 25.-23 s. 27. 
 
 449 
 
 not be deprived of the glory of having contrived how to exhibit women in a stjite 
 of nudity even by means of their clothing. 
 
 " It is also said, that bouibyces are born in the island of Cos *, the flowers of 
 the cypress, terebinth, ash, and oak being animated by the exhalation of the ground, 
 after they have been beaten off by the showers. It is related, that these flowers 
 become first of all small naked butterflies ; that by degrees, through their im- 
 patience of the cold, they are bristled over with hairs and form for themselves 
 thick coats against winter, pulling the down from the leaves of trees by scrai)ing 
 them with their rough feet. That this down is carded and rendered compact by 
 their claws, is by and by drawn among the branches, and attenuated as if by the 
 use of a comb. That it is afterwards seized by them and rolled round their bodies 
 like a nest. That persons then take them and put them into earthen vessels, in 
 which they are kept warm and fed upon bran, in the course of which treatment 
 they acquire a fresh plumage peculiar to themselves, after which they are sent 
 forth to engage in fresh tasks. It is stated, that the woolly productions thus 
 commenced become pliant by moisture, and are gradually drawn out into fine 
 threads by the use of a spindle of rush. Even men have not been ashamed to 
 use these cloths, on account of their lightness, which adapts them for summer 
 wear. So far are we now from wearing a cuirass, that even cloth has become 
 a burden. Nevertheless, the use of the Assyrian bombyx is still conceded to 
 women." 
 
 Pliny's account of the Coan bombyx is evidently a cloud of 
 fable and absurdity, in which, however, we may discern a few 
 lines of truth, probably derived from the accounts of the silk- 
 worm of the Seres. The nidus volubilis of which he speaks 
 seems to be meant for the cocoon. I have already observed 
 that the account of the use of moisture for softening the co- 
 coon is in accordance with facts. Probably, also, the state- 
 
 this passage of Pliny accord more exactly with that already produced from the 
 4th book. But such an accordance was not to be expected, since PUny not un- 
 frequently contradicts himself. By adhering to the MSS. his account agrees with 
 that of Aristotle, whom he here undoubtedly follows, though he does not follow him 
 accurately and minutely. It is to be observed, that the MSS. exhibit indifferently 
 either Co, Coo, or Choo. In my opinion the true reading here is Co. 
 
 It may be remarked, although it is a circumstance of no importance, that ac- 
 cording to some MSS. Pamphila was the daughter of Plates, not of Latoiis, and that 
 the same variety of reading is found in the corresponding passage of Aristotle. 
 
 * Pliny here gives a third account of the origin of silk, viz. that besides the 
 Assyrian bombyces, which made cells like bees, and the bombycesof Serica, which 
 spun webs like spiders, another kind of bombyces were produced in Cos. His ac- 
 count of these Coan bombyces appears, by his use of the word tradunt, to have 
 been taken only from report. It agrees with no preceding authority. It appears 
 to have been followed by Solinus, as quoted above, pp. 196, 197, in regard to the 
 use of moisture in softening the cocoons. 
 
 2 G 
 
450 APPENDIX D. ON PLINY. 
 
 ment here made that the nests or cocoons of the bombyces 
 were drawn out into fine threads by the use of a spindle, had 
 reference to the Oriental method of performing this operation, 
 as described above, pp. 216, 217. The remark immediately 
 following, that some kinds of silk were worn by men in sum- 
 mer on account of their lightness, coincides with the account 
 given pp. 1 81, 182, of the law of the Emperor Tiberius, which 
 would not have been enacted unless the practice had already 
 commenced. By the "Assyrian silk" {Assyria bombyce), which 
 was of a superior quality and worn by women, we are probably 
 to understand silk, not originally produced in Assyria, but 
 obtained through the merchants of that country. On the 
 same principle I have explained " Arabic bombyce" in Pro- 
 pertius. See above, p. 178. 
 
 I think there can be no doubt that the manufacture of silk 
 in Cos was discontinued after Pliny wrote, and perhaps even 
 before. The Coan webs were beautiful and agreeable, but no 
 doubt greatly inferior to those brought from Asia, where wea- 
 ving had long been practised in its highest perfection. Hence 
 the Serica was substituted for the Coa vestis, as soon as a free 
 intercourse was established with the central parts of Asia. It 
 is true that Isidorus Hispalensis, somewhat late in the sixth 
 century, notices the manfacture of silk in Cos. But his ex- 
 pression, " Conficitur in insula Co," must be taken as a mere 
 repetition of what he found in Varro whom he expressly 
 names, in Pliny, or in some other writer equally early. See 
 above, p. 229. 
 
 In the Proem to the 12th Book, Phny mentions the ob- 
 taining of garments from the Seres, " vestes ad Seras peti," 
 as one of the most extraordinary instances of the luxury of 
 the Romans in his time. In the same book (4. s. 8), where he 
 is speaking of trees, he says, " Lanigeras Serum in mentione 
 gentis ejus narravimus ;" i. e. " We have given an account of 
 the wool-bearing trees of the Seres in the mention of that na- 
 tion." He here refers to the passage above quoted from his 
 6th book. An allusion to the same fact will be found in three 
 other passages, viz. lib. xii. 10. s. 21 ; xxi. 3. s. 8 ; and xxxiv. 
 14. s. 41, which I shall produce in their proper places. 
 
L[B. XI. c. 22 s 25.-23 s. 27. 
 
 451 
 
 In confirmation of the comment of Salmasius upon the au- 
 thority of Pliny (see p. 185, note), I will here subjoin a pas- 
 sage, in which the late distinguished naturalist Cuvier, who 
 bestowed great attention upon this author, and published part 
 of his Natural History with notes, expresses his opinion on the 
 same subject*: — 
 
 "Iletait impossible, qu'en parcourant, meme rapidement, ce nombre prodigieiix 
 d'objets, I'auteur ue fit connaitre une multitude de faits remarquables, et devenus 
 pour nous d'autaut plus precieux, qu'il est aujourd'hiii le seul ecrivain qui les rap- 
 porte. Malheureusement la maniere dont il les a recueillcs et exposes, leur fait 
 perdre beaucoup de leur prix par le melange du vrai et du faux qui s'y trouve eu 
 quantite presque egale, mais surtout par la difficulte, et meme, daus la plupart des 
 cas, I'impossibilite de reconnaitre de quels etres il a precisement voulu parler. 
 Pline n'a point ete un observateur tel qu'Aristote ; encore moins un homme de 
 genie, capable, comme ce grand philosophe, de saiser les lois et les rapports d'apres 
 lesquels la nature a coordoune ses productions. II n'est en general qu'uu conipi- 
 lateur, et meme le plus souvent un compilateur qui, n'ayant point par lui-mcuie 
 d'idee des choses sur lesquelles il rassemble les temoignages des autres, n'a pu 
 apprecier la verite de ces temoignages, ni meme toujours comprendre ce qu'ils 
 avaient voulu dire. C'est en un mot un auteur sans critique, qui apres avoir p.isse 
 beaucoup de temps a faire des extraits, les a ranges sous certains chapitres en y 
 joignantdes reflexions qui ne se rapportent point a la science proprement dite, mais 
 ofFrent alternativement les croyances les plus superstitieuses ou les declamations 
 d'une pliilosophie chagrine qui accuse sans cesse I'homme, la nature, et les diciLx 
 eux-memes. 
 
 " Si Pline a pour nous aujourd'hui peu de merite comme critique et comme na- 
 turaliste, il n'en est pas de meme de son talent comme ecrivain, ni du tresor im- 
 mense de termes et de locutions Latines dont I'abondance des matieres I'a oblige de 
 se servir, et qui out fait de son ouvrage I'un des plus riches depots de la langue des 
 
 Romains II est certain aussi que partout oii il lui est possible de se livrer 
 
 a des idees generales ou a des vues philosophiques, son langage prend de I'energie 
 et de la vivacite, et ses pensees quelque chose de hardi et d'inattendu qui dedom. 
 mage de la secheresse de ses enumerations, et peut lui faire trouver grace pres du 
 grand nombre des lecteurs pour I'insuffisance de ses indications scientifiques. Peut- 
 etre cherche-t-il trop les pointes et les oppositions, et n'evite-t-il pas toujours I'em- 
 phase : ou lui trouve quelquefois de la durete, et dans plusieurs endroits une ob- 
 scurite qui tient moins au sujet qu'au desir de paraitre pressant et serre : mais il 
 est toujours noble et grave, et partout plein d' amour pour la justice et de respect 
 pour la vertu, d'horreur pour la cruaute et pour la bassesse dont il avait sous les 
 yeux de si terribles exemples, enfin de mepris pour le luxe effrene qui, de son 
 temps, avait si profondement corrompu le peuple Romain. On ne peut trop louer 
 Pline sous ces divers rapports, et, malgre les defauts que uous sommes obliges de 
 lui reconnaitre quand nous le considerons comme naturaliste, nous ne le regardons 
 pas moins comme I'un des auteurs les plus recommandables et les plus dignes d'etre 
 places au nombre des classiques parmi ceux qui ont ecrit apres le regne d'Auguste. 
 
 * Biographie Universelle, tome xxxv., art. Pline. 
 
 2 g2 
 
452 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 ON PLINY. 
 
 Lib. XII. 6 s. 13, and 10 s. 21—11 s. 22. 
 
 (Referred to p. 348.) 
 
 These two passages are chiefly translated from Theophras- 
 tus, as quoted above, pp. 335 — 337. 
 
 Sed (arbor) unde vestes lineas (Indi) faciimt, foliis moro similis, calyce pomi, 
 cynorrhodo. Serunt earn in campis, nec est gratior villarum prospectus. 
 
 " The tree from which the Indians make linen garments resembles the mulberry 
 in its leaves, and the dog-rose in its calyx. It is planted in the plains, nor is the 
 prospect of small vineyards* more agreeable." 
 
 The only material difference between the original of this pas- 
 sage and Pliny's translation of it is, that Theophrastus com, 
 pares the whole cotton-plant to the dog-rose, which it certainly 
 much resembles in its mode of growth and general form^ 
 whereas Pliny says that its calyx was like that of the dog- 
 rose. This is not agreeable to the fact. 
 
 In the second of these two passages Pliny is describing the 
 trees which grew in Tylos : 
 
 Ejusdem insulae excelsiore suggestu lanigerae arbores, alio modo quam Serum. 
 His folia infoecunda, qua;, ni minora essent, vitiura poterant videri. Ferunt cotonei 
 mali amplitudine cuciirbitas, quae maturitate rupta; osteudunt lanuginis pOas, ex 
 quibus vestes pretioso linteo faciunt. Arbores vocant gossympinos, fertiliore etiam 
 Tylo miiiore, qua; distat x m. pass. 
 
 Juba circa fruticem lanugines esse tradit, linteaque ea Indicis praestantiora. 
 Arabia; autem arbores, ex quibus vestes faciant, cynas vocari, folio palmse simili. 
 Sic Indos suae arbores vestiunt. 
 
 " In the higher grounds of the same island are found trees that bear vrool, but 
 in a different way from those of the Seres f- The leaves of these trees do not pro- 
 duce woolj, and except that they are smaller, might seem to be vine-leaves. They 
 
 * Vossius {Obs. ad Melam, Hagae Com. 1658, p. 266), regards villarum as the 
 diminutive of vinearum. I have adopted his interpretation. 
 
 t Our author evidently alludes to his previous account of the production of silk 
 among the Seres. See above, p. 441. Ilis language in this passage, compared 
 with that in the 6th book, and in ch. 4. s. 8. of this same book, makes it clear and 
 certain that he conceived the cotton-plant of Tylos to be quite different from 
 the " wool-bearing trees of the Seres." This circumstance among others proves 
 how completely mistaken Sir John Bairow (as quoted above, p. 183), and other 
 writers have been, who supposed that the ancient Serica was cotton, and that the 
 ancients meant the cotton-plant or cotton-tree, whenever they spoke of trees pro- 
 ducing wool. 
 
 X It must be recollected, that the " wool-bearing trees of the Seres" were sup- 
 
LIB. XIII. c. 14 s. 28 ; XVI. c. 8 s. 13. 
 
 453 
 
 bear gourds of the size of a quince, which burst when they are ripe, and display 
 balls of down, out of which the inhabitants make cloths like valuable linen. They 
 call these trees gossympines*. The lesser Tylos, which is ten miles distant, pro- 
 duces them in still greater quantity. 
 
 Juba relates that a tree produces down, and that the linen cloths made of it are 
 superior to those of India ; but that the Arabian trees, used to make cloths, are 
 called cynas, having a leaf like that of the palm. Thus also the Indians obtain 
 clothing from their trees. 
 
 With these two passages we may compare the following, 
 which evidently refers to them. 
 
 Lib. XIII. c. 14 s. 28. 
 
 In his account of the trees of Ethiopia, Pliny says : 
 
 Ethiopia ./Egypto contermina insignes arbores nou fere habet praeter laniferas, 
 quarum natura in descriptioue Indoruni atque Arabia; dicta est. Propior tamen 
 huic natvu-a lanse majorque folliculus granati mode mali, similesque et inter se ar- 
 bores ipsae. 
 
 " The part of Ethiopia bordering upon Egypt has few trees that are remark- 
 able except the wool-bearing trees, whose nature has been mentioned in the de- 
 scription of the Indians and of Arabia. Nevertheless this tree has properties more 
 like wool, and a larger capsule, resembling that of a pomegranate, and these trees 
 (the wool-bearing tree and the pomegranate) are also themselves similar." 
 
 This notice of " the wool-bearing trees of ^Ethiopia" may 
 illustrate Virgil, as above quoted, pp. 179, 344. I think it 
 probable, that the tree intended was the Gossypium arboreum 
 of modern botanists. 
 
 Lib. XVI. c. 8 s. 13. 
 (Referred to p. 433.) 
 Pliny gives the following account of the use of cork : 
 
 Usus ejus ancoralibus maxime navium, piscantiumque tragulis, et cadorum ob- 
 turamentis, pra;terea in hiberno feminarum calceatu. 
 
 " It is chiefly used for the tackle of anchors, for fishermen's seans, bungs for 
 stopping casks, and ladies' winter shoes." 
 
 posed by Pliny and many other authors, whose words I have produced at length, 
 to bear the wool upon their leaves. 
 
 * This sentence, and those which follow, are not translated from Theophrastus, 
 but are derived from other sources. The account quoted from Juba, no doubt re- 
 fers in part to the vegetable productions of Africa. An important passage relating 
 to cotton viill be found in the extract which follows from the 19th book. 
 
454 
 
 APPENDIX D. ON PLINY. 
 
 Lib XTX. Proem, s. 1—2 s. 10. 
 
 (Referred to pp. 182, 287, 288, 318, 331, 341, 348, 359, 412, 
 414, 416, 421, 422.) 
 
 I. Ut a coiifessis ordiaraiir utilitatibus, quaeque non solum terras omnes, veruni 
 etiam maria replevere : seritur, ac dici neque inter fruges, neque inter hortensia 
 potest, linum. Sed in qua non occurret vitae parte? quodve niiraculum njajiis, 
 herbam esse quae admoveat ^Eg>-])tura Italiae : in tantum, ut Galerius a freto Si- 
 ciliae Alexandriam septima die pervenerit, BabUius sexta, ambo praefecti : aestate 
 vero proxiina Valerius Marianus ex Praitoriis Senatoribus, a Puteolis nono die le- 
 nissimo flatu ? Herbam esse, quae Gades ad Herculis columnas septimo die Ostiani 
 afFerat, et citeriorem Hispaniam quarto, provinciam Narbonensem tertio, Africani 
 altero ; quod etiam mollissimo flatu contigit C. Flavio legato Vibii Crispi Procon- 
 sulis ? Audax vita, seelerum plena : aliquid seri, ut ventos procellasque recipiat : 
 et parum esse fluctibus solis vehi. Jam vero nee vela satis esse majora navigiis. 
 Sed quamvis amplitudini antennarum singulae arbores sufRciant, super eas tameu 
 addi velorum alia vela, pra-terque alia in proris, et alia in puppibus pandi, ac tot 
 modis provocari mortem. Uenique tarn parvo semine nasci, quod orbem terrarum 
 ultro citroque portet, tam gracili avena, tam non alte atellure tolli : neque id viri- 
 bus suis necti, sed fractum tusnmque et in moUitiem lana; coactum, injuria ac 
 sumnia audacia, eo pervenire. Nulla exsecratio suflScit contra inventorem dictum 
 sue loco a nobis : cui satis non fuit bominem in terra mori, nisi periret et inse- 
 pultus. At nos priore libro imbres et flatus cavendos, frugum causa victusque, 
 praemonebamus. Ecce seritur hominis manu, metitur ejusdem bominis ingenio, 
 quod ventos in mari optet. Pneterea ut sciamus favisse poenas, nihil gignitur fa- 
 cilius : ut seutiamus nolente id fieri natura, urit agrum, deterioremque etiam ter- 
 ram facit. 
 
 II. Seritur sabulosis maxime, unoque sulco : nec magis festinat aliud. Vere 1 
 satum aestate velbtur : et banc quoque terrae injuriam facit. Ignoscat tamen ali- 
 (juis ^Egypto serenti, ut Arabiac Indiaeque merces iniportet : itane et Galliae cen- 
 sentur hoc reditu .' montesque mari oppositos esse non est satis, et a latere oceani 
 obstare ipsum quod vocant inane ? Cadurci, Caleti, Ruteni, Bitnriges, ultimique 
 hominum existiraati Morini, inimo vero Gallia; universae vela texunt. Jam qui- 
 dem et Traiisrbenani hostes : nec pulcbriorem abam vestem eorum feminae no- 
 vere. Qua admonitione succurrit, quod M. Varro tradit, in Seranorum familia 
 geiitilitium esse, feminas linea veste non uti. In Germania autem defossi atque 
 sub terra id opus agunt. Similiter et in Italia regione AUiana inter Padura Tici- 
 numque amnes, ubi a Setabi tertia in Europa lino palma: secundam enim in vi- 
 cino Allianis capessunt Retovina, et in /Emilia Via Faventina. Candore Allianis 
 semper crudis Faventina praeferuntur : Retovinis tenuitas summa densitasque, can- 
 dor aeque ut Faventinis, sed lanugo nulla, quod apud alios gratiam, apud alios 
 offensionem habet. Nervositas filo aqualior paene quam araneis, tinnitusque, cum 
 dente libeat experiri : ideo duplex, quam ceteris, pretium. Et Hispania citerior 
 habet splendorem lini praccipuum, torrentis in quo politur natura, qui alluit Tar- 
 raconera. Et tenuitas mira, ibi primum carbasis repertis. Non dudum ex eadem 
 Hispania Zoelicum venit in Italiani, plagis utilissimum. Civitas ea Gallaecise et 
 oceano propinqua. Est sua gloria et Cumano in Campania, ad piscium et alitum 
 
LIB. XIX. PROEM. S. 1—2 S. 10. 
 
 455 
 
 capturara. Eaclem et plagis materia. Neque enim minores cunctis aniiualibus in- 
 sidias, quam nobismetipsis lino tendimus. Sed Ciimanae plagae concidunt apros, 
 et hi casses vel ferri aciem viucunt. Vidimusque jam tantae teimitatis, ut anulum 
 hominis cmn epidromis transirent, uno portante multitudinem qua saltus cinge- 
 rentur : (nec id maxime minim, sed singula earum stamina centeno quinquageno 
 filo constare:) sicut paulo ante Julio Lupo, qui in Prsefectura ^Egypti obiit. Mi- 
 rentur hoc ignorantes in ^gyptii quondam regis, quern Amasim vocant, thorace, 
 in Rhodiorum insula ostendi in templo Minervae, ccclxv filis singula fila constare : 
 quod se expertura nuper Romse prodidit Mucianus ter Consul, parvasque jam reli- 
 quias ejus superesse hac experientium injuria. Italia et Pelignis etiamuum hnis 
 honorem habet, sed fullonum tantum in usu. Nullum est candidius, lanaeve simi- 
 lius : sicut in culcitis prsecipuam gloriam Cadurci obtinent. Galliarum hoc, et to- 
 menta pariter, inventum. Italiae quidem mos etiam nunc durat in appellatione stra- 
 meuti. .lEgyptio lino minimum firmitatis, plurimum lucri. Quatuor ibi genera : 
 Taniticum, ac Pelusiacum, Buticum, Tentyriticum, cum regionum nominibus, in qui- 
 bus nascuntur. Superior pars iEgypti in Arabiam vergens gignit fruticem, quern 
 aliqui gossipion vocant, plures xylon, et ideo Una inde facta xylina. Parvus est, 
 similemque barbatas nucis defert fructum, cujus ex interiore bombyce lanugo ne- 
 tur. Nec uUa sunt eis candore moUitiave praeferenda. Vestes inde sacerdotibus 
 jEgypti gratissimae. Quartum genus Orchomenium appellant. Fit e palustri ve- 
 lut arundine, dumtaxat panicula ejus. Asia e genista facit Una ad retia praecipua, 
 in piscando durantia, frutice madefacto denis diebus. /Ethiopes Indique e malis, 
 Arabes cucurbitis, in arboribus, ut diximus, genitis. 
 
 III. Apud nos maturitas ejus duobus argumentis inteUigitur, intumescente se- 
 mine, aut colore flavescente. Turn evulsum, et in fascicules manuales colligatum, 
 siccatur in Sole, pendens conversis superne radicibus uno die, mox quinque aUis, 
 in contrarium inter se versis fasciura cacuminibus, ut semen in medium cadat. 
 Inter medicamina huic vis, et in quodam rustico ac praedulci ItaUaB Transpadan£e 
 cibo, sed jam pridem sacrorum tantum gratia. Deinde post messem triticeam 
 virgae ipsae merguntur in aquam SoUbus tepefactam, pondere aUquo depressae : 
 nulU enim levitas major. Maceratas indicio est membrana laxatior. Iterumque 
 inversae, ut prius. Sole siccantur : mox arefactae in saxo tunduntur stupario mal- 
 leo. Quod proximum cortici fuit, stupa appellatur, deterioris Uni, lucernarum fere 
 luminibus aptior. Et ipsa tamen pectitur ferreis hamis, donee omnis membrana 
 decorticetur. Medullae numerosior distinctio, candore, mollitia. Linumque nere 
 et viris decorum est. Cortices quoque decussi clibanis et furnis pracbent usum. 
 Ars depectendi digerendique : justum e quinquagenis fascium Ubris quinas denas 
 carminari. Iterum deinde in fllo politiu', UUsum crebro in silice ex aqua : textum- 
 que rursus tunditur clavis, semper injuria melius. 
 
 IV. Inventum jam est etiam, quod ignibus non absumeretur. Vivum id vocant, 
 ardentesque in focis conviviorum ex eo vidimus mappas, sordibus exustis splen- 
 descentes igni magis, quam possent aquis. Regum inde funebres tunicae, corporis 
 favillam ab reliquo separant cinere. Nascitur in desertis adustisque Sole Indiae, 
 ubi non cadunt imbres, inter diras serpentes ; assuescitque vivere ardendo, rarum 
 inventu, difficile textu propter brevitatem. Rufus de cetero colos, splendescit 
 igni. Cum inventum est, aequat pretia exceUentium margaritarum. Vocatur autem 
 a Graecis asbestinum ex argumento naturae. Anaxilaus auctor est, linteo eo cir- 
 cumdatam arborem, surdis ictibus, et qui non exaudiantur, caedi. Ergo huic Uno 
 principatus in toto orbe. Proximus byssino, mulierum maxime deliciis circa EUm 
 
456 APPENDIX D. ON PLINY. 
 
 in Achaia genito : quaternis denariis scripula ejus permutata quondam, ut auri, 
 reperio. Linteorum lanugo, e velis navium maritimarurn maxime, in magno usu 
 medicinae est : et cinis spodii vim habet. Est et inter papavera genus quoddam, 
 quo candorem lintea pra-cipuum trahunt. 
 
 V. Tentatum est tingi linum quoque, et vestium insaniam accipere, in Alexandri 
 Magiii primum classibus, Indo anine navigantis, cum duces ejus ac praefecti in cer- 
 taraine quodam variassent insignia navium : stupueruntque litora, flatu versicoloria 
 implente. Velo purpureo ad Actium cum M. Antonio Cleopatra venit, eodemque 
 effugit. Hoc fuit imperatoriae navis iusigne. 
 
 VI. Postea in theatris tantum umbram fecere : quod primus omnium invenit 
 Q. Catulus, cum Capitolium dedicaret. Carbasina delude vela primus in theatro 
 duxisse traditur Lentulus Spinther Apollinaribus ludis. Mox Caesar Dictator totum 
 forum Romanum intexit, viamqiie sacram ab domo sua ad clivum usque Capitoli- 
 num, quod munere ipso gladiatorio mirabilius visum tradunt. Delude et sine ludis 
 Mavcellus Octavia sorore Augusti genitus, in jEdilitate sua, avunculo xi Consule, 
 a. d. Kalendas Augusti, velis forum inumbravit, ut salubrius Utigantes cousisterent: 
 quantum mutatis moribus Catonis Censorii, qui sternendum quoque forum murici- 
 bus censuerat. Vela uuper colore caeli, stellata, per rudentes, iere etiam in amphi- 
 theatro principis Neronis. Rubent in cavis aedium, et museum a Sole defendunt. 
 Cetero mansit candori pertinax gratia. Honor etiam et Trojano bello. Cur enim 
 non et proeliis iutersit, ut naufragiis ? Thoracibus lineis paucos tamen pugnasse, 
 testis est Homerus. Hinc fuisse et navium ai-mamenta apud eundem interpretan- 
 tur eruditiores : quoniam cum sparta dixit, significaverit sata. 
 
 VII. Sparti quidem usus multa post secula coeptus est : uec ante Poenorum 2 
 arma, qu<e primum Hispauis intulerunt. Herba et ha?c sponte nascens, et quae 
 non queat sen, juncusque proprie aridi soli, uni terras dato vitio. Namque id ma- 
 lum telluris est : nec aliud ibi seri aut nasci potest. In Africa exiguum et inutile 
 gignitur. Carthaginieiisis Hispaniae citerioris portio, nec baec tota, sed quatenus 
 parit, montes quoque sparto operit. Ilinc strata rusticis eorum, bine ignes faces- 
 que, hinc calceamina, et pastorum vestis : animalibus noxium, praeterquam cacu- 
 minum teneritate. Ad reliquos usus laboriose evellitur, ocreatis cruribus, manu, 
 textisque manicis, convolutum osseis iligneisve conamentis. Nunc jam in hiemem 
 juxta. FaciUime tamen ab Idibus Mails in Junias : hoc matiuitatis tempus. 
 
 VIII. Vulsum fascibus in acervo animatum biduo, tertio resolutum, spargitur 
 in Sole siccaturque, et rursus in fascibus redit sub tecta. Postea maceratur aqua 
 marina optime, sed et dulci, si marina desit : siccatumque Sole, iterum rigatur. 
 Si repente urgeat desiderium, perfusum calida in solio, ac siccatum stans, com- 
 pendium operae fatetur. Hoc autem tunditur, ut fiat utile, praecipue in aquis ma- 
 rique invictum. In sicco praeferunt e canuabi funes. At spartura aUtur etiam 
 demersum, veluti natalium sitim pensans. Est quidem ejus natura interpolis : 
 rursusque quam libeat vetustum novo miscetur. Verumtamen complectatur ani- 
 mo, qui volet miraculum aestimare, quanto sit in usu, omnibus terris, navium ar- 
 uiamentis, machinis a;dificationum, aliisque desideriis vitae. Ad hos omnes usus 
 qua; sufficiant, minus triginta millia passuum in latitudinem a litore Carthaginis 
 novae, niinusque c in longitudinem esse reperientur. Longius vehi impendia pro- 
 hibeut. 
 
 IX. Junco Graecos ad funes usos nomini credamus, quo herbam earn appellant : 
 postea palmarum foliis, philuraque, manifestum est : et inde translatum a I'oenis 
 sparti usum, perq\iam simile veri est. 
 
LIB. XIX. PROEM. S. 1 2 S. 10. 
 
 457 
 
 X. Theophrastus auctor est, esse bulbi genus circa ripas amnium nascens, cujus 
 inter summum corticem, eamque partem qua vescuntur, esse laiieam naturam, ex 
 qua impilia vestesque qusedam conflciant. Sed neque regiouem, in qua fiat, neque 
 quidquam diligentius, praeterquam erioplioron id appellari, in exemplaribus, quae 
 quidein invenerim, tradit : neque omnino ullani mentionem habet sparti, cuucta 
 cura magna persecutus cccxc annis ante nos, ut jam et alio loco diximus : quo 
 apparet, post id temporis spatium in usum venisse spartum. 
 
 " Ch. I. To begin with those productions of the earth, which are confessedly 
 useful, and which have filled not only all lands, but also the seas : flax is sown, 
 and yet can neither be reckoned grain, nor garden-stuff. But in what department 
 of life will it not meet us ? and, what is a still greater miracle, it is a plant, which 
 brings Egypt to Italy, and so rapidly, that two prsefects, Galerius and Babilius, went 
 from the Straits of Messina to Alexandria, the one in six days, the other in seven, 
 and last summer Valerius Marianus, one of the Praitorian Senators, went there 
 from Puteoli in nine days with a very gentle gale : it is a plant, which brings 
 Gades near the pillars of Hercules to Ostia in seven days, this side of Spain in four, 
 Narbonne in three, and Africa in two, which very thing happened with a very soft 
 wind to C. Fliivius, the legate of Vibius Crispus the Proconsul. Ilow daring and 
 full of wickedness is human life ! that a plant should be sown for the purpose of 
 receiving winds and storms : that it should be a little thing to be carried by the 
 waves alone, and that now even the mainsails are not sufficient for our ships, but, 
 although single trees are long enough for the yards, other sails are added above 
 them : that, moreover, a sail is expanded at the prow, and another at the stern, 
 and that death is challenged in so many ways : finally, that anything should spring 
 from so small a seed, which can carry the whole globe to this side and to that, ap- 
 pearing with so slender a stem, and rising to so small a height above the gi-ound : 
 and that it should not attempt this by its own strength, but by being bruised and 
 beaten and reduced to the softness of wool, so as to accomplish the whole as the 
 result of injury and extreme audacity. No execration can be too great to be ut- 
 tered against that inventor, of whom we spoke in the proper place, who was not 
 satisfied that man should die upon the land, but contrived that he should perish 
 even unburied*. In the last book we gave various admonitions how to avoid 
 showers and winds for the sake of corn and other kinds of food. But, lo ! the 
 hand of man sows, and his ingetmity gathers a plant, which courts the winds upon 
 the sea. Moreover, to prove to us how readily it can make us pay for oiu" teme- 
 rity, nothing springs up more easily : and to make us feel that nature does not 
 consent to what we are doing, it burns the soil and makes the earth worse than it 
 was before. 
 
 " Ch. II. It is sown principally in sandy soils, and after one ploughing. No- 
 thing grows more quickly. Having been sown in spring it is pulled up in sum- 
 mer: and this also injures the ground. One might, nevertheless, pardon Egypt 
 for sowing flax, in order to import the merchandise of Arabia and Intliaf : but 
 are the Gallic nations to be treated according to the same measure .' and is it not 
 
 * In Book vii. ch. 56. s. 57, Pliny mentions the supposed inventors of all kinds 
 of shipping. 
 
 t One of the chief uses of the Egyptian flax was to make sails. See above, 
 p. 270. 
 
458 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 ON PLINV. 
 
 enough that mountains are opposed between them and the Mediterranean sea, 
 and that on the side of the ocean they are met by vacuity itself? The Cadurci, 
 the Caleti, the Ruteni, the Bituriges, and the Morini, who are considered to be 
 the most remote of human beings, nay, all the Gallic nations weave sails : even 
 our enemies beyond the Rhine do the same, nor do their women know any other 
 more beautiful kind of clothing. The mention of which circumstance suggests 
 what M. Varro relates, that it is a custom peculiar to the family of the Serani, 
 that linen is not worn by the women. The Germans weave Mnen in dwellings 
 under ground. In Italy a similar practice prevails in the Regio AUiana between 
 the rivers Po and Ticino. In this region the third best of all European flax after 
 that of Setabis is grown ; for the second best is that of Retovium near the Alliani 
 and of Faventia on the iEmilian Way. The linens of Faventia are prefeiTcd on ac- 
 count of their whiteness to those of the Alliani, which are always unbleached : 
 those of Retovium are equally white, and have also the greatest degree of fineness 
 and density, but have no down, which recommends them to some persons, and is 
 regarded as an objection by others. In the equality of its strength this thread 
 even exceeds that of spiders, and it sounds when you try it with the teeth. On 
 account of these qualities it is worth twice as much as any other kind. This side 
 of Spain produces splendid flax, which derives its excellence from the torrent 
 flowing near Tarraco, in which it is prepared. This flax is also remarkable for its 
 fineness, carbasa having been first invented there*. It is not long since the 
 Zoelic flax first came from the same part of Spain into Italy. It is of the greatest 
 use in making hunting-nets ; the city, from which it is called, is in Gallicia near 
 the ocean. The flax of Cuma; in Campania is also highly prized, more especially 
 for catching fishes and birds, and for hunting-nets. For we use flax no less to form 
 snares for the destruction of all other animals than for the destruction of ourselves. 
 The hunting-netst of Curaae are strong enough to take boars; the purse-netsf of 
 the same material even turn the edge of iron ; and we have seen them so fine as 
 to pass through a man's ring with their running cords J, one man carrying a suf- 
 ficient number of them to surround a forest §. A still more extraordinary circmn- 
 stance is, that each thread of these nets consists of 150 fibres, as really happened 
 not long ago to Julius Lupus, who died Prsefect of Egypt ; and this need not sur- 
 prise those who know that in the cuirass of the Egyptian king Amasis, which is 
 preserved in the temple of Minerva in Rhodes, each thread is shown to consist of 
 365 fibres, which fact Mucianus, being a third time consul, lately asserted at Rome 
 that he had ascertained, observing, that only small relics of the cuirass are still in 
 existence in consequence of the injury done to it by those who make the experi- 
 ment ||. The Italians also still value the flax grown among the Peligni, but only 
 
 * This is one of the four passages, to which I referred in p. 348. It cannot be 
 supposed that any kind of cotton cloth was made in Spain ; and it is most pro- 
 bable that this was not the meaning of Pliny, but that he used the term carbasa 
 in that secondary and poetical sense, of which I have produced numerous exam- 
 ples in pp. 342-347. 
 
 + The terms plaga and cassis are explained above, p. 417. 
 
 X The use of the epidromi, or running cords, is explained above, pp. 421, 422. 
 
 § On the practice of carrying the nets on the shoulders, see above, pp. 416, 420 ; 
 and on the mode of extending them, pp. 414-416. 
 
 II Mucianus was consul the third time A.D. 75. The relic seen by Mucianus 
 
LIB. XIX. PROEM. S. 1 2 S. 10. 
 
 459 
 
 for the use of fullers, since none is whiter or more like wool ; as, on the other hand, 
 that of the Cadurci is the most celebrated for the tickings of beds and mattresses *. 
 This application of it, as well as the use of woollen flocks for stuffing the beds and 
 mattresses, is the invention of the Gallic nations, the term stramentum, as used in 
 Italy, being a remnant of the more ancient custom of stuffing them with straw. 
 Tlie Egyptian flax has very little firmness, but produces abundant gain. It is of 
 four kinds, the Tanitic and Pelusiac, the Butic, tlie Tentyritic, bearing the names 
 of those regions in which they are grown. [The upper part of Egypt, verging 
 towards Arabia, produces a shrub, which some persons call gossipion, but the 
 greater number of persons call it xylon, and the specimens of flax obtained from it 
 Una xylina. It is small, and bears a fruit like a bearded nut, out of the inner 
 bombyx of which down is spunf]. Nor are any preferable to them for whiteness 
 
 was no doubt pretended to be the same cuirass which is mentioned by Herodotus 
 (ii. 183), and which Amasis dedicated to Minerva in her temple in Lindus. 
 
 * The white and beautiful ticking, which the Romans obtained from the Ca- 
 durci, was ou that account called cadurcum. See Juvenal, vi. 535 ; vii. 221. The 
 account, which Pliny here gives of the origin of flock mattresses, is also given by 
 him in speaking of wool. See Ub. viii. 48. s. 73, as quoted above, p. 444. Strabo 
 (iv. 2. 2) mentions the Unens of the Cadurci. 
 
 t This is the last of the four passages, to which I have referred in p. 348. I have 
 there observed, tliat, even if it were genuine, it would afford no sulficient proof of 
 the growth of cotton in Egypt in opposition to all other evidence except that of the 
 passage of Jul. Pollux, which will be considered in the next Appendix. I think it, 
 however, extremely proliable that the passage, which I have enclosed in my English 
 translation in brackets (beginning in the original with Superior pars JEgypti, and 
 ending with lanugo netur), is not genuine. Possibly it may have been inserted by 
 Pliny himself after he had written the rest of his account ; but more probably by a 
 much later hand. The nature of the work itself renders it exceedingly likely that the 
 possessors of copies of Pliny's Natural History would endeavour, as they thought, 
 to enrich and improve it by the insertion of additional matter; and any sentence 
 placed for this purpose in tlie margin, would in the course of transcription make 
 its way into the text. Until the collation of MSS., now proceeding under the di- 
 rection of Jahn and other eminent German philologers, is completed, we have 
 no means of judging with any certainty as to the genuineness of a single disputed 
 passage. I have looked into four MSS. of Phny, which are preserved at Leyden, 
 three of which belonged to Isaac Vossius, and all of which contain the 1 9th book ; 
 I have also examined the MS. Phny at Munich. In these five MSS. I found the 
 passage without any varieties of reading which would afl-'ect the present question 
 respecting the growth of cotton in Egypt. But the Munich MS. has the date 
 1459, and the other foiu- inspected by me are not much older. To the Codex 
 Riccardianus at Florence, and to one or two others, critics have ascribed as high 
 an antiquity as that of the ninth century ; but very few MSS. of this work are 
 older than the fourteenth or fifteenth century. I should not consider that even the 
 authority of MSS. would prove that this passage existed in the text at a much earlier 
 age than that of the oldest MS. in which it is found. A considerable part of the 
 passage, viz. the words similemque barhatce nucis defert fructum, is also wanting 
 in most of those MSS. which contain the rest of the passage. 
 
 If from the evidence of MSS. we turn to that of the passage itself, it will appear 
 
460 
 
 APPENDIX D. ON PLINY. 
 
 or softness. From them are obtained the most favourite garments of the Egyp- 
 tian priests. They call the fourth kind Orchomenian. It is made from a kind of 
 reed which grows in the marshes, being only the downy tuft of its seed. Asia 
 makes flax of broom, serving for fishing-nets, which are particularly durable, the 
 shrub being steeped ten days*; the ^Ethiopians and Indians obtain it from apples, 
 and the Arabs from gourds, which, as we have saidf, grow upon trees. 
 
 " Ch. III. Among us its maturity is ascertained by two indications, which are 
 the swelling of the capsule, and its yellow colour. It is then pulled out of the 
 ground, tied into bundles large enough to be held in the hand, and dried in the 
 sun, hanging one day with the roots turned upwards, and afterwards five days more 
 
 almost conclusive in favour of the opinion which I have advanced. For this pas- 
 sage manifestly interrupts the sense, and the text is far more complete, intelligible, 
 and consistent without it. Pliny states, that there are four kinds of Egyptian flax ; 
 and he then proceeds to enumerate and describe them. He calls the first Taniticum 
 ac Pelusiacum. I apprehend that this kind was called either Tanitic or Pelusiac, 
 because Tanis and Pelusium were both cities in the district in which it grew, and 
 gave their names to two contiguous mouths of the Nile. The second kind of flax 
 mentioned by Pliny is the Butic, called from the city of Butos ; and the third the 
 Tentyritic, called from Tentyra. He observes, that these three kinds were called 
 from the regions in which they grew. He then adds, that no kinds of flax were 
 superior to these three in whiteness or softness, and that the priests of Egypt pre- 
 ferred them for their clothing to any other. This account agrees with what we 
 know from many other most clear and decisive testimonies ; whereas the asser- 
 tion that the priests wore cotton in preference to anything else, is at variance with 
 all that we know with certainty upon the subject. See above, pp. 252-254. Pliny 
 then proceeds to the last of the four kinds of Egyptian flax, Quartum genus Orcho- 
 menium appellant. This " linum Orchomenium " was neither called, as the three 
 former kinds were, from the place in which it was produced, nor was it adapted 
 for making cloth. It was the down or pappus, attached to the seeds of a kind of 
 reed or cane, which grew in the marshes ; and it appears to be called Orchome- 
 nian, because it resembled a substance procured from a similar plant at Orchome- 
 nos in Boeotia. This " Orchomenian flax" was no doubt used for stuffing cushions, 
 beds, and pillows. Compare Ub. xvi. 36. s. 64-66. I have seen in the British Museum 
 an ancient EgyjJtian cushion, the stuffing of which seemed to be the down of a kind 
 of reed or cotton-grass, and which may be a specimen of this very substance. 
 
 With respect to the passage itself, which I suppose to be interpolated, I may 
 observe, that it contains some veiy singular expressions. What can be meant by 
 "the upper part of Egypt verging towards Arabia"? The only part of Egypt 
 bordering on Arabia was, as Pliny himself shows in his account of those countries 
 (lib. V. c. 11. s. 12), the part of Lower Egypt which lay beyond Pelusium and the 
 Pelusiac mouth of the Nile. The term gossipion is found in no previous author ; 
 and bombyx, which in all other cases means some kind of insect, is here applied 
 to a nut. 
 
 * Pliny again notices the use of broom for the same purpose, lib. xxiv. 9. s. 40. 
 
 t Pliny here refers to what he has said about the cotton of Tylos, lib. xii. 10. 
 s. 21. His idea of flax obtained from apples, or rather pomegranates, in i4)thiopia 
 and India, was no doubt derived also from accounts of the production of cotton 
 in those countries. See Hb. xiii. 14. s. 28, as quoted above, p. 453. 
 
LIB. XIX. PROEM. S. 1 2 S. 10. 
 
 461 
 
 ■with the tops of the bundles turned up and down alternately, so that tlie seed may 
 fall in the middle. This is an effective medicine, and in the part of Italy beyond 
 the Po it makes a rustic dish, which is very sweet, but has long been used only 
 in sacred rites. In the next place, after the wheat harvest the stems are plunged 
 into water which has been exposed to the sun, and on account of their uncommon 
 lightness they are pressed down by a weight. The sufficient degree of maceration 
 is indicated by the looseness of the membrane. They are then turned and dried 
 in the sun as before ; and, when perfectly dry, they are beaten on a stone with a 
 mallet adapted for the purpose. The portion of fibres nearest to the cuticle is 
 called tow, being flax of an inferior kind, and in general more fit for burning in 
 lamps. Nevertheless, even the tow is combed with iron hackles until the cuticle 
 is entirely removed. The inner portion of the fibres has various degrees of excel- 
 lence, depending on their whiteness and softness. Even men may with propriety 
 spin flax*. The bark shaken from the stems is used for stoves and furnaces. Then 
 comes the art of combing and dressing. Fifteen pounds of dressed flax ought to be 
 obtained from fifty pounds of the bundles. After it has been made into thread, it 
 is again polished, being repeatedly immersed in water and struck upon a smooth 
 hard stone ; and afterward, having been woven, it is beaten with wooden pestles, 
 being always improved by being injured. 
 
 " Ch. IV. A kind of flax has been discovered which is incombustible by fire. It 
 is called live flax ; and we have seen napkins of it burning upon the hearth at en- 
 tertainments, and, when thus deprived of their dirt, more resplendent through the 
 agency of fire than they could have been by the use of water. The funeral shirts 
 made of it for kings preser^'e the ashes of the body separate from those of the rest 
 of the pile. It is produced in deserts and in tracts scorched by the Indian sun, 
 where there are no showers, and among dire serpents, and thus it is inured to live 
 even when it is burnt. It is rare, and woven with difficulty on account of the 
 shortness of its fibres. That variety which is of a red colour becomes resplendent 
 in the fire. When it has been found it equals the prices of excellent peails. It is 
 called by the Greeks Asbestine Flax on account of its nature. Anaxilaus relates, 
 that if a tree surrounded with cloth made of it be beaten, the strokes are not heard. 
 On account of these properties this flax is the first in the world. The next in value 
 is that made of byssus, which is produced about Elis in Achaia, and used princi- 
 pally for fine female ornaments. I find that a scruple of this flax, as also of gold, 
 was formerly sold for four denariif. The nap of linen cloths, obtained chiefly from 
 the sails of ships, is of great use in surgery, and then- ashes have the same effect 
 as spodium. There is a certain kind of poppy the use of which imparts the highest 
 degree of whiteness to linen cloths. 
 
 * I apprehend the reason of this was, that the fisherman spun flax for his nets, 
 and the same was done by the hunter and the fowler. See above, p. 412. Flax was 
 also spun into string {linea) and all kinds of cordage, and these operations were 
 proper for men ; whereas, the spinning of w ool to make cloth was among the Greeks 
 and Romans entirely the task of females. 
 
 t i. e. Eighteen grains of this flax were worth 2s. lOd., being equal in value to 
 its weight in gold. A further account of the byssus of Elis is given from Pausanias 
 above, pp. 276, 277, 286. The articles made from it were no doubt a beautiful kind 
 of lace. 
 
462 APPENDIX D. ON PLINY 
 
 "Ch. V. Attempts have also been made to dye tlax, and thus to infect it with the 
 same insanity as woollen cloths. This was first done in the fleets of Alexander 
 the Great, when he navigated the river Indus, when his generals and prtefects had 
 in a certain engagement varied the flags of their ships, and when the shores were 
 amazed at the diversity of colom's which they displayed on being filled with the 
 gale. Cleopatra was both conveyed to Actiura with Marc Antony and made her 
 escape from thence with a purple sail, which was the signal of the admiral's ship. 
 
 " Ch. VI. At a later period awnings of linen were used to keep out the sun, but 
 originally in the theatres only, which contiivance was first adopted by Q. Catidus, 
 v\ hen he dedicated the capitol. After this Lentuliis Spinther is said to have first 
 introduced cotton awnings in the theatre at the Apollinarian games. By and by 
 Caesar the Dictator covered with awnings the whole Roman forum, and the sa- 
 cred way, from his own house even to the ascent of the CapitoUne hill, which is 
 said to have appeared more wonderful than the gladiatorial exhibition itself. 
 Afterwards, without exhibiting games, Marcellus the son of Octavia, sister of 
 Augustus, when he was ^dile and his uncle consul the eleventh time *, on the 
 day before the Kalends of August, protected the forum from the rays of the sun, 
 that the persons engaged in lawsuits might stand with less injury to their health. 
 What a change from the manners which prevailed under Cato the Censor, who 
 thought that the forum should even be strewed with caltrops ! Of late sky-blue 
 awnings, spotted with stars, have been extended by means of strong ropes, even 
 in the amphitheatre of the emperor Nero. Red awnings are used to cover the 
 atria of houses, and they defend the moss from the sun. As for the rest, white 
 linen has always remained in favour. This plant was honoured in the Trojan war. 
 For why should it not perform its part in battles as well as in shipwrecks .' Homer 
 testifies, that a few of his warriors fought in linen cuirasses. The tackle of his 
 ships was also of flax, according to some of his more learned interpreters, who 
 argue that by the term sparta he meant sata, or things that are sown. 
 
 " Ch.VII. The use of spartum commenced many ages afterwards, indeed not until 
 the first invasion of Spain by the Carthaginians. This is a plant that grows of its 
 own accord, and which cannot be sown, and is a rush that properly belongs to a 
 dry soil, the sterility of the ground itself, which prevents anything else from being 
 sown or springing up in it, being the sole cause of its production. In Africa it is 
 a small and useless plant. There is a portion of this side of Spain in the vicinity 
 of New Carthage, where mountains are covered with spartum, though not through 
 the whole portion, but only in such districts as are adapted to its growth. It sup- 
 plies materials to make couches for the country people ; it serves for fires and for 
 torches, and to make shoes and clothing for the shepherds. It is injurious to ani- 
 mals, except that its tender tops may be eaten. The natives pull it out of the 
 
 * The following are the dates of the display of awnings on the several occa- 
 sions referred to : — 
 
 Linen awnings first used in the theatre at the dedication of the temple of 
 
 Jupiter by Catulus G9 b.c. 
 
 Cotton awnings first used in the theatre by Lentidus Spinther, Jtdy 6th . 63 b.c. 
 
 Linen used to cover the forum and Via Sacra at the gladiatorial show by 
 
 Julius Caesar 46 B.C. 
 
 Linen awnings extended over the forum by MarceUus, July 31st 23 b.c. 
 
LIB. XXI. c. 3 s. 8. 
 
 463 
 
 ground with soiue labour, having their legs protected with leggings and their 
 hands with woven mittens, and by the aid of instruments made of bone or ilex. 
 This may be done near winter, but with the greatest ease between the Ides of 
 May and of June, at which time it is ripe. 
 
 "Ch. VIII. Having been pulled up in bundles, it lies alive in a heap two days ; 
 on the third it is separated, spread in the sun and dried, and then again tied up 
 in bundles and taken under cover. Afterwards it is steeped in water, sea-water 
 being best adapted to the purpose, although fresh answers when sea-water cannot 
 be obtained. After being steeped it is dried in the sun, and becomes stiff again. 
 In urgent cases hot water may be poured over it in a bath, and by standing to 
 dry it will soim be ready for use. Having been thus treated, it is beaten in order 
 to make ropes, which are chiefly used in water and are not liable to be injured by 
 the sea. For ropes, which are to be used dry, hemp is preferred. But spartum 
 receives nourishment even after it has been plunged in water, as if bearing in 
 mind the thirst of its original situation. Its nature is such, that the ropes made 
 of it may be renewed as often as you please by mixing the old with new materials. 
 It is used to a wonderful extent, as may be understood by any one who will re- 
 flect how in all countries it is applied in the tackle of ships, in machines for build- 
 ing, and in the other necessities of human life. The materials sufficient for all 
 these purposes will be found in a space extending not thirty miles in breadth from 
 the shore of New Carthage, and not one hundred in length. The expense prevents 
 it being carried further. 
 
 " Ch. IX. That the Greeks used rushes to make ropes may be inferred from the 
 name by which they call rushes. It is well known, that they afterwards used 
 palm-leaves and the inner bark of the linden tree. In this way it is very pro- 
 bable that they afterwards derived from the Carthaginians the use of spartum. 
 
 " Ch. X. Theophrastus relates, that there is a kind of bulb growing about the 
 banks of rivers, and that between its outer rind and the part of it which is eaten 
 there is a woolly substance, out of which they make certain kinds of socks and 
 cloths. But in the co])ies which I have found, he neither mentions in what 
 country this is done, nor anything else with greater exactness, except that the 
 bulb is called eriophoros; nor does he make any mention at all of spartum*, 
 although he examined the whole subject with great care 390 years before my 
 time, as I have observed in another place f, from which circumstance it appears, 
 that spartum came into use since that time." 
 
 Lib. XXI. c. 3 s. 8. 
 
 (Referred to p. 185.) 
 
 Pliny, in this part of his work, describes the different kinds 
 of wreaths {coronee) used for head dresses ; and the following 
 extract shows, that in his time none were more admired than 
 
 * I have here supposed s])arti to be supplied after habet. The sense evidently 
 requires it, and it is found in many of the older editions, 
 t Viz., lib. XV. 1. 
 
464 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 ON PLINY. 
 
 those made of silk, and imported among the luxuries of In- 
 dia. They were moistened with sweet-scented ointments. 
 We find an allusion to the same custom in Martial, as quoted 
 above, p. 187. 
 
 Lautissimum quippe habetur, e nardi folio eas dari aut veste Serica versicolores 
 unguentis madidas. Hunc liabet novissime exituni luxuria feminarum. 
 
 " For the handsomest and most elegant donation consists in wreaths made of 
 the leaves of spikenard * or of variously coloured pieces of silk, and moistened 
 with unguents. Tliis is the latest invention of female luxury." 
 
 Lib. XXXI. c. 2 s. 9. 
 
 (Referred to p. 93, note.) 
 
 Eudicus in Hestiaeotide fontes duos tradit esse, Ceronem, ex quo bibentes oves 
 nigras fieri, Nelea, ex quo albas, ex utroque autem varias ; Theophrastus in Thu- 
 riis Crathim candorem facere, Sybarim nigritiam bobus ac pecori. 
 
 " Eudicus relates, that in Hestiaeotis there are two fountains, Ceron and Neleus, 
 and that sheej) become black by drinking of the former, white by drinking of the 
 latter, and mottled by drinking of both. Theophrastus says, that in Thurii the 
 Cratbis communicates a white colour, and the Sybaris a black, to kine and sheep." 
 
 Lib. XXXIII. c. 3 s. 19. 
 
 (Referred to p. 371.) 
 
 Describing the properties of gold our author says : 
 
 Superque omnia netur ac texitur lana; modo et sine lana. Tunica aurea trium- 
 phasse Tarquinium PriscumVerrius docet. Nos vidimus Agrippinam Claudii prin- 
 cipis, edente eo navalis proelii spectaculura, assidentem ei, indutam paludamento 
 auro textiU sine alia materie. Attalicis vero jampridem intexitur, invento regum 
 Asiae. 
 
 In addition to the translation and remarks which I have 
 introduced above (p. 371), I need here only observe, that Dio, 
 in his account of the naval combat exhibited by Claudius (lib. 
 Ix. 33.), calls the paludamentum, or scarf, worn by Agrippina, 
 
 * The spikenard of the ancients was a kind of Valerian, the Valeriana Jata- 
 mansi of many botanists and the Nardostachys Jatamansi of Decandolle. See 
 Dr. Royle's Botany of the Himalaya Mountains, and Lady Calcott's Scripture 
 Herbal, p. 446 — 461. The leaves of this plant are of a form by which they are 
 no less adapted for making wreaths than those of olive, myrtle, or any other 
 plant. 
 
LIB. XXXIV. 14s. 41 ; XXXV.9 S.3G; XXXVI. 19s. 31. 465 
 
 %Xa/ii)? Siaxpvao<;, and that Tacitus [Ann. xii. 56.) calls it 
 chluinys aurata^\ 
 
 Lib. XXXIV, 14 s. 41. 
 
 (Referred to p. 185.) 
 
 Describing the different kinds and qualities of iron, Pliny 
 says, that by far the best was that of Serica, and adds 
 
 Seres hoc cum vestibus suis pelliljusqiie mittunt. 
 "The Seres send this with their cloths and skins." 
 
 Lib. XXXV. 9 s. .S6. 
 (Referred to pp. 65, 372.) 
 
 Opes quoque tantas acquisivit, ut in ostentatione earum Olympi.-c aureis Uteris 
 in palliorum lessens insertuni nomen sumn ostentaret. Postea donare opera sua 
 instituit, quod nuUo pretio satis digno permutare posse diceret, sicuti Alcmenam 
 Acragantinis, Pana Archelao. 
 
 " He also acquired so great wealth, that at Olympia he ostentatiously displayed 
 his own name inserted in golden letters in the squares of his shawls f. Afterwards 
 he determined to give his works away, because he said it was impossible to ex- 
 change them for any adequate price ; he thus gave his Alcmena to the people of 
 Agrigentum, and his Pan to ArchelausJ." 
 
 Lib. XXXVI. 19 s. 31. 
 
 (Referred to p. 358.) 
 Amiantus alumini siniilis nihil igni deperdit. 
 
 " Amiantus, which is like alum, loses no part of its substance by being put into 
 the fire." 
 
 * Compare the articles Chlamys (p. 223) and Paludamentum (p. 704) in Smith's 
 Diet, of Greek and Roman Antiquities. 
 
 t The shawls, or whittles {pallia), worn by Zeuxis, were woven in a plaid pat- 
 tern, as appears from the use of the word tessera, i. e. squares. In the older editions 
 we find intextum instead of insertum. But the latter appears to be the true read- 
 ing, and it imphes only that the possessor had his name in some way marked within 
 the squares in gold letters, perhaps by the use of the needle, and not by that of the 
 shuttle. 
 
 J In a subsequent part of this section Pliny mentions a Pan painted by Proto- 
 genes, and in lib. xxxvi. 5 s. 4. two diflferent groups of sculpture representing 
 Olympus and Pan ; but they appear to have been different from the group repre- 
 sented above in Plate II. 
 
 2 H 
 
4G6 APPENDIX D. ON PLINY. 
 
 Lib. XXXVII. 3 s. 11. 
 
 (Referred to p. 413.) 
 
 Tanta copia invecta, ut retia arcendis fens podium protegeiitia succino noda- 
 rentur. 
 
 " Sucli a quantity was brouglit, that tlie nets placed above the podium for keep- 
 ing off the wild beasts, were knotted with amber." 
 
 Lib. XXXVII. 10 s. 54. 
 
 (Referred to p. 359.) 
 Asbestos in Arcadiae inoiitibus nascitur coloris ferrei. 
 " Asbestos of the colour of iron is produced in tlie mountains of Arcadia." 
 
 Lib. XXXVII. 13 s. 77. 
 
 (Referred to pp. 185, 450.) 
 
 In the edition from which I have quoted the preceding ex- 
 tracts, we find, for the first time, the conclusion of Pliny's 
 immortal work as he wrote it. The fine MS. of it in the li- 
 brary of the Earl of Leicester at Holkham concludes, as various 
 other MSS. do, with the words "Experimenta pluribus modis 
 constant primum pondere" (lib. xxxvii. 13 s. 76.); after which 
 is written, " Imperfectum videtur opus hoc suum reliquisse 
 Plinius Secundus, aut morte praeventus, aut aliis longc ab 
 urbe negotiis p~peditus, ut in principio libri ex Pracfatione 
 Suetonii Tranquilli facile deprehenditur." Many other MSS. 
 go on a little further than the Holkham MS., viz. the above- 
 mentioned Munich MS. and others, to " desinens nitor," in 
 the same section, and many to " ambitur mari," in the next 
 section. With these last words all the editions preceding 
 that of Sillig conclude, and none of the editors take any no- 
 tice of the deficiency. The conclusion to the whole work was 
 discovered a few years ago in the Bamberg MS., which con- 
 tains the last six Books, and which in the opinion of Jahn, 
 who discovered and collated it, was written in the tenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
ON THE ONOMASTICON OF JULIUS POLLUX. 467 
 
 In this passage, so happily recovered and restored, Pliny- 
 states what were the most valuable things that are obtained 
 from several different sources ; 'and among the rest he says, 
 that of things obtained from leaves the most valuable are 
 spikenard and silk cloths : " In fronde (maximum est pre- 
 tium) nardo, Sericis vestibus." This statement is evidently 
 founded on the same supposition which we have met with 
 before in Pliny, and which is repeated by many other authors, 
 that silk is the down of certain leaves scraped together and 
 afterwards spun. 
 
 APPENDIX E. 
 
 On the Oxomasticon of Julius Pollux. 
 
 I REGRET that unexpected circumstances have prevented me 
 from pursuing as I intended, the investigation of the question 
 respecting the critical value of the text both of Pliny and of 
 J. Pollux, as now published. Also I have in vain endeavoured 
 to obtain a sight of C. F. Ranke's dissertation on the latter 
 author, which, as I infer from a perusal of his discourse, De 
 Lexici Hesychiani Origine, would have afforded me valuable 
 aid and information. The following observations must for 
 the present suffice, being the best that I can offer in relation 
 to one of the most valuable works of classical antiquity, which 
 in my opinion w"ell deserves to be edited from new sources 
 and with far greater care and industry than have yet been be- 
 stowed upon it. 
 
 At page 315 I have referred to the following passage: — 
 
 "V,(jTi Se Kai x"''^'' anopyiKos' 'Avn^dvi/s <pr]<nv tv Mijdeiqi, 'Hi' xiT'^v 
 Afiopyivos. — Lib. vii. c. 13. p. 269, etl. Aldi. 
 
 It is evident that a/j,opjiKb'{ ought to be afj^opyivo^. 
 
 2 H 2 
 
468 
 
 APPENDIX E. 
 
 At pp. 192, 274, 310, 349, I have referred to the following 
 passage, which is found in the same book with the last, and 
 very soon after it : — 
 
 To St a/iSpyiva, yiyveaOai ^ev rd dpiara iv Ty anopyqj, Xivov 5' ovv Kai 
 TcivTai eivai \eyovaiv 6 de anopyivos ■x^irthv, Kai fiopyis eKoXeiTO. 
 
 KE<I>AAAI0N EnTAKAIAEKATON. 
 Uepi fivricriroiv. 
 
 Kai ii))v Kai rd fHiamva, Kai t) /SiVctos, XiVoi; ri eltios Trap' 'Ivdols' ijSii 5e 
 Kai Trap' Aiyvirrioi^, inro S,uXov ri epiov ylyverai, t'£ ov rr/v eadijra Xivov dv 
 rts ftdXXov (pail} TrpoueoiKevat, TrXijV tov ttcixovs' en yap 7ra\vTepos Tt^ BevSptjj 
 KnpTTos eTrKpverai, Kapvii> fidXioTa TrponeoiKto^, TpnrXii> T))v Sid(pv(JiV t/? Sia- 
 aTt}(Ta?, eTreiSdv el/avOy to Hxsirep Kapiiov, evooOe.v e'^aipelTai, to ojcnrep ipiov 
 d(p' ov KpoK)} yiyveTaC tov Be arlijiova, iiipKTTumv a'vTip Xivovv ra Be e/c jSoju- 
 ^VKwv, (TKtiXjjKt'S elaiv o'l ^oji^vKes, dip' S)V Td vfifiara dvuevTai, ixxnrep 6 
 dpdxvrjs' livioi Be Kai rovs arjpas OTro towutiijv erepiov Ztoi^v a9poiZeiv ipaai Td 
 vipdafiaTa. — Lib. vii. cc. 16, 17. p. 272, ed. Aldi. 
 
 The whole of this passage, together with the remainder of 
 the seventeenth, and the whole of the eighteenth and nine- 
 teenth chapters, is wanting in a large proportion of the MSS., 
 although the editors do not notice the omission, and the MSS. 
 themselves j^rescnt no indication that they are here defective. 
 It appears probable, that the leaf containing this portion of 
 the book was lost from some very ancient copy, and the tran- 
 scribers of this copy, having neglected to supply the defect, 
 have thus continued it through a great number of copies. 
 
 By the kind permission of the Rev. Dr. Bridges, the Presi- 
 dent of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, I have had an oppor- 
 tunity of examining a very fine MS. of the 'Onomasticon' in 
 the library of that college, which belonged to John Claymond, 
 its first President. It is in quarto, on linen paper, and is 
 numbered 1542. From an inscription at the end w e learn 
 that the name of the scribe was -iEmilius. It appeared to me 
 that this MS. was as old as the thirteenth century, and per- 
 haps older. I have also examined the Codex Augustanus at 
 Munich, which Seber used in preparing his edition published 
 A.D. 1608. It is an octavo volume, on cotton paper, and 
 has been supposed to be as old as the fourteenth century ; it 
 appeared to me very inferior both in age and in value to the 
 preceding. Another MS., of still less authority, is also pre- 
 served in the Royal Library at Munich. It is numbered 202, 
 
ON THE ONOMASTICjOly OF' JULllJS-POiLtr'^ 4^9 
 
 is on linen paper, and was written by Georgius Byzantinus 
 in Crete. My learned friend, the Rev. John Kenrick of York, 
 has at my request examined three MSS. in the Medicean Li- 
 brary at Florence, viz. Plut. .28. Cod. 32; Plut. 58. Cod. 1 ; 
 and Plut. 5 8. Cod. 26. These three were written in the fifteenth 
 century. The Codex Antwerpianus belonged to Demetrius 
 Chalcondylas. It was collated, and its various readings used 
 to some extent in preparing the splendid edition which is en- 
 riched with the notes of Kiihn, Lederlln, and Hemsterhusius 
 (Arastel. 17O6). The collation is in the Hunterian Library 
 at Glasgow, being marked Q. L 16, and I have had an oppor- 
 tunity of examining it. I am thus enabled to state, that the 
 whole of the passage above indicated, including the seven- 
 teenth, eighteenth and nineteenth chapters, with the end of 
 the sixteenth, is wanting in seven of the most important MSS. 
 viz. one at Oxford, two at Munich, three at Florence, and one 
 which belonged formerly to the Jesuits' College at Antwerp. 
 
 I now proceed to take notice of two MSS. which contain 
 this passage. One of these is in the Medicean Library, and 
 was examined for me by Mr. Kenrick. It is of the fifteenth 
 century. The other is the Codex Vossianus, which I was en- 
 abled to examine through the kindness of M. Geel, the princi- 
 pal Curator of the Royal Library at Leyden. This MS. is in 
 folio, on linen paper, very clearly written, but not older than 
 the fifteenth century. It belonged to Zacharias Caimus, an 
 eminent physician at Milan, and afterwards to Isaac Vossius, 
 who quotes it in various parts of his writings, calling it " op- 
 timus noster Codex." It is also highly extolled by Kiihn and 
 Hemsterhusius. Nevertheless, its value appears to me to con- 
 sist in its fulness and completeness, the majority of the MSS. 
 being remarkable for their large and frequent omissions, rather 
 than in its age and authority. We ought undoubtedly to fol- 
 low it (see above, pp. 274, 349, 350) in the reading Trapa he 
 'IvSot9 instead of irap 'IvSot?. Moreover I found in it the 
 reading afjiopyU, which is evidently the correct reading, in- 
 stead of fiopyli;. 
 
 It remains to be inquired whether the above passage, as 
 now edited, receives further support from the authority of the 
 
ArrcKDix E. 
 
 Editio Princeps, from which I have quoted it. This beautiful 
 edition was published by Aldus Manutius, at V enice, in the 
 year 1502. It was prepared for the press by Scipio Cartero- 
 machus (or Forteguerra), who was the secretary of the New 
 Academy established at Venice, under the auspices of Aldus, 
 for the publication of the Greek Classics*. We cannot doubt 
 that in preparing it this learned editor used the MSS. of Pol- 
 lux belonging to the library of St. Mark, as Marcus Musurus, 
 another member of the same academy, published Hesychius 
 some years afterwards from a MS. in the same library; and, 
 as Marcus Musurus has been proved to have taken great liber- 
 ties in making additions to the MS. which he employed, it is 
 not impossible that Scipio Carteromachus may have done the 
 same. I have not had an opportunity of inspecting the MSS. 
 of Pollux at Venice, but I learn from the printed catalogue 
 that the only three MSS. in that library, which contain the 
 seventh book, viz. Codd. 493, 5 13, 529, are not older than the 
 fourteenth or fifteenth century f. 
 
 Such a work as the ' Onomasticon' was quite as liable as 
 Pliny's 'Natural History' to be interpolated by the insertion 
 of passages, first placed in the margin and introduced in the 
 course of transcription into the text. In the collation of the 
 Codex Antwerpianus I found a notice of such additions under 
 the title, "Supplementa et Diversae Lectiones in margine MS." 
 But no passage could have more of the appearance of such an 
 origin than the phrase r/8r; Se koX Trap A.l'yvTTTloL<; in the pre- 
 ceding passage. The original reading probably was as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 Kai fifiv Kai Ta fivaaiva, Kai i) ^vaaos \ivov ti fIJos. Xiapa Se 'ivdoTs drro 
 Kv\ov Ti eptov ylyverai, &c. 
 
 "And, moreover, there are cloths of byssus, and byssus is a kind of flax. But 
 among the Indians a sort of wool is produced from trees," &c. 
 
 The owner of a MS. copy having been informed of the 
 growth of cotton in Egypt, added in the margin rjEr] Be koL 
 Trap Kl<yv7rrLoi<i, and thus the clause crept into the text. If 
 
 * Memurie di S. Carteromaco da Ciampi, pp. 9-18. 
 
 t Gr(Bca D. Marci Bibliotkoca Codd. ISIanuscriptorum, Vcnet. 17-10, pp. 25", 
 277, 28G. 
 
ON THE ONOMASTICON OF JULIUS POLLUX. 471 
 
 this supposition be correct, the clause, though proceeding 
 from an unknown author, affords evidence of the growth of 
 cotton in Egypt as early as the fourteenth century, this being 
 the earliest date of any MS. in which we have reason to sup- 
 pose that the clause exists. 
 
 That cotton was not grown at an earlier date in Egypt 
 appears probable from the fact, that Abdollatiph, the Arabian 
 physician, who visited Egypt A.D. 1200, and whose account 
 of the plants of that country w^e possess, does not mention 
 cotton. If it had grown there in his time, it is strange, if not 
 impossible, that this industrious and intelligent observer 
 should have omitted to notice so important and remarkable a 
 plant. Some centuries later Prosper Alpinus directed his 
 attention in like manner to the natural history of Egypt ; and 
 in his work De Plantis ^gypti (c. 18.), he says that "the 
 Egyptians import cotton for their own use ; that the Gossy- 
 piuin herbaceum, from which cotton is obtained in Syria and 
 Cyprus, does not grow in Egypt; and that the Gossypium 
 arhoremn is only cultivated in the gardens, and in very small 
 quantity, its down not being used for spinning.^' He says, 
 however, that the Arabians make webs of it, which they call 
 Sessa. From the silence of Abdollatiph, considered in con- 
 nexion with the testimony of Prosper Alpinus, we have reason 
 to believe that the cotton-tree, Gossypium arboremn, was intro- 
 duced into Egypt some time after the commencement of the 
 thirteenth century ; and we may suppose the writer of the inter- 
 polated passage of Julius Pollux, rj^t} Be koi, k.t.\., and perhaps 
 also the writer of the corresponding interpolation in Pliny, to 
 have lived after that time and to allude to this event. 
 
 Some light may also, perhaps, be derived from the testimony 
 of Belon, who visited Egypt in the middle of the sixteenth 
 century, thirty years before Alpinus. He makes no mention 
 of the growth of any kind of cotton in Egypt ; but he found 
 the cotton-tree {Goss. arboremn) in Arabia, at the north of the 
 Arabian Gulf, near Mount Sinai [Ohs. I. ii. c. 60.), and he says 
 the Arabs made cloth of the cotton. These observations, 
 while they support the testimony of Alpinus, may explain the 
 passage of Pliny, which I have supposed to be interpolated ; 
 
472 
 
 APPENDIX E. 
 
 for the writer of that passage, whoever he was, may have al- 
 luded to growth of the cotton-ti'ee in this pax't of Arabia bor- 
 dering upon Egypt. 
 
 I have only to add, that those who have asserted the fact of 
 the cultivation of cotton by the ancient Egyptians on th° au- 
 thority of Pliny and Pollux, observe in confirmation of this 
 opinion, that Roselhni "found the seeds of the cotton-plant 
 in a vessel*." Dr. Bowring has also told me, that he found 
 mummy children wrapped in cotton-wool at Abydos. It is 
 probable that both the cotton-wool and the seeds had been 
 imported. 
 
 * Kenrick on Herodotus, ii. 86, p. 113. 
 
 [From the Antichita d' Ercolano, tomo ii. p. 273.] 
 
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 knowledge of the syntax, and information on points con- 
 nected with the Greek writers." — Frtfiue. 
 
 ALLEN'S (DR a.) CONSTRUCTIVE 
 
 GREEK EXERCISES, for teaching Greek 
 from the beginning by writing. 12mo, cloth, 
 4*. Gd. 
 
 " The pupil, on beginning Greek, needs no book be- 
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 son, and proceed at once to translate the sentences into 
 Greek. One piece of information is communicated after 
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 been learnt is constantly called into practice by frequent 
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 them ; information is given as it is required." — Preface. 
 
 ^SCHYLUS, PROMETHEUS&PERS^. 
 
 Accurately reprinted from the text of Wellauer. 
 Edited by George Long, Esq., A.M., Professor 
 of Latin in University College, London. Fcap. 
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 FOUR GOSPELS, IN GREEK, FOR THE 
 
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28, UPPER GOWER STREET, LONDON. 3 
 
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 "It has been justly considered by many scholars, that 
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 Co.vtknts of the Work : — An Introduction to the 
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4 WORKS PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND WALTON, 
 
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 HODGKIN (J.) EXCERPTA EX BASTII 
 
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28, UPPER GOWER STREET, LONDON, 
 
 CLASSICAL AND SCHOOL BOOKS— Continued. 
 
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 *' My Grammar differs materially from those of my pre- 
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6 
 
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 Original Text. 12mo, 2s. 6c!. 
 
 YEHRING'S FRENCH LESSONS:— 
 
 1. LA ROSE, in French, wth a free and literal 
 
 Interlinear Translation from the French into 
 English. 16mo, 2s. 
 
 2. THE ROSE, in English, with a fiee and 
 
 literal Interlinear Translation from lOnglish into 
 French. 16mo, 2j. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 PANIZZrS (DR.) EXTRACTS FROM 
 
 ITALIAN PROSE WRITERS. 1 thick vol. 
 l2mo, 10s. Sd. boards. 
 
 LIST OF Atn'BORS. 
 
 Alfieri — A Igarotti — Baldi — Baretti — Bembo — Benti- 
 voglio — Boccaccio — Caro — Castelvetro — Castiglione — 
 Cellini — Colombo — Costanzo — Davila — Filangieri — Fi- 
 zenzuola — Foscolo — Galilei — Gozzi — Guicciardini — 
 Machiavelli — Magalotti — Manzoni — Metastasio — Pin- 
 demon te — Porto — Tasso — Testi — Tiraboschi — Varchi — 
 Vasari. With three stories from Novelle Antiche. 
 
 " This is a most useful little volume, the compilation 
 of Signor Panizzi, containing choice extracts from the 
 best writers in the Italian language. We can safely re- 
 commend it as a text-book for all who apply themselves 
 
 to the Italian language, as well suited to the object it pro- 
 fesses to have in view." — New MonthUj Magazine. 
 
 PANIZZrS (DR.) ELEMENTARY ITA- 
 LIAN GRAMMAR. 12mo, 3j. bound. 
 STORIES FROM ITALIAN PROSE 
 
 WRITERS, in Italian and English, Interlinear, 
 on Locke's plan, with the pronunciation marked. 
 Grammatical Notes, and the Original Text. 12mo, 
 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 A Visit to England and Holland ; a Visit to England 
 to buy Horses ; by Alfieri.— A very learned Dream ; a 
 Physician in the Seraglio at Constantinople ; by Ba- 
 retti. — A Gambler justly Punished ; the Cimntryman 
 Outwitted ; by Castigli6ne. — Labour and Idleness, by 
 Filangieri. 
 
28, UPPER GOWER STREET, LONDON. 
 
 7 
 
 - CLASSICAL AND SCHOOL BOOKS— Continued. 
 
 HURWITZ'S (PROFESSOR) GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE, lliird Edi- 
 tion, revised and enlarged. Hvo, 17*. cloth. 
 
 ' ' Mr. Hurwitz's Grammar is greatly recommended by 
 his coming down to beginners, as they really are, whilst 
 most grammatical works seem to be written only for stu- 
 dents, as they should be, according to the theories of 
 grammarians, who forget the difficulties with which they 
 themselves were once entangled. The tables of Hurwitz 
 are more complete than those of other Hebrew Gram- 
 mars." 
 
 " Mr. Hurwitz's Grammar is the best elementary work 
 of its kind extant in the English language." — Journal of 
 Edumtion. No. 9. 
 
 * ' There is a philosophical tone throughout the work. Its 
 obser\'ations are addressed to the understanding, and the 
 memory is considered only as an accessory faculty." — 
 Atkis, June 12, 1831. 
 
 " Mr. Hurwitz has given to the world a Grammar 
 which, for lucid arrangement, has been rarely equalled. 
 It is a work which may be understood by a child, and yet 
 the most advanced proficient may consult it with advan- 
 tage." — Athenaum, June 18, 1831. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY & SYNTAX 
 
 OF THE HEBREW LANGUAGE. Third Edi 
 tion, considerably enlarged. 8vo, 12*., cloth. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF THE HE- 
 BREW LANGUAGE. Third Edition, 8vo, 5». Gd. 
 cloth. 
 
 '* It is the best Hebrew Spelling Book now extant in 
 the English language."— ./oHniai of Education. 
 
 HEBREW TALES ; selected 
 
 and translated from the Writings of the ancient 
 Hebrew Sages ; with an Essay on the uninspired 
 Literature of the Hebrew. 12mo, 7». Gd. cloth. 
 
 VINDICIiE HEBRAIC^; 
 
 a Pefence of the Hebrew Scriptures as a vehicle 
 of Revealed Religion ; occasioned by the recent 
 Strictures and Innovations of Mr. J. Bellamy : and 
 in Confutation of his Attacks on all preceding 
 Translations, and on the established Version in 
 particular. 8vo, boards, Ts. 
 
 *' To come to their own times and country, he could 
 not help admiring, a few years ago, a work written by a 
 Hebrew gentleman, resident in England, which abounded 
 in Biblical lore and sound criticism of no common order ; 
 and he had still later read a pamphlet * by the same gen- 
 tleman, vindicating his persuasion from the calumnies 
 that had been thrown out against it, written in that tone 
 of calm dignity which wd:s so expressive of conscious in- 
 nocence." — Speech of the Archbishop of Canterbury on 
 the Jewish Civil Disabilities' Bill. (From the Times, 
 Aug. 2, 1833.1 
 
 * Letter to J. L. Goldsmid, Esq., against Cobbett's 
 calumnies. 
 
 GENESIS (BOOK OF), in English He- 
 
 brew, accompanied by an Interlinear Translation, 
 substantially the same as the authorised English 
 Version, Philological Notes, and a Grammatical 
 Introduction. By William Greenfield, M.R.A.S. 
 Third Edition. 8vo, St., cloth. 
 
 The same, with the Original 
 
 Text in Hebrew characters. 8vo, Ws.fid. cloth. 
 
 " I take this opportunity of acknowledging my obliga- 
 tions to an elementary work, which should be in the hands 
 of all self-taught students — ' The Book of Genesis in 
 English Hebrew, by William Greenfield." The great ob- 
 stacle to the solitary beginner is the reading and pronun ■ 
 ciation. In learning a strange written language. Nature 
 teaches us to employ three instruments — the eye, the ear, 
 and the mouth ; the eye for the appearance of the word, 
 the ear for its sound, and the mouth for the mechanical 
 formation of the syllables. Each of these operations con- 
 tributes to support the memory. If either of them be 
 absent, one channel of memory is closed. In my first 
 attempts at Hebrew, the ear and the tongue were idle, 
 because I had no test of pronunciation. I was guided by 
 the look of the word alone ; and it frequently happened 
 that I consulted the Lexicon for the same word of which 
 I had ascertained the meaning in the preceding verse. 
 Could I have pronounced the word, I should have been 
 certain as to its identity. Mr. Greenfield has invented 
 a simple method of appro.ximation in English letters to 
 the received method of pronouncing the original." 
 
 From " Suggestions respecting the Neglect of the He- 
 brew Language as a qualification for Holy Orders. By 
 Richard William Jelf, B.D., Preceptor to his Royal 
 Highness Prince George of Cumberland, and Canon of 
 Christchurch, late Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College." 
 
 INTERLINEAR TRANSLATIONS. 
 
 FOR SCHOOLS, PRIVATE STUDENTS, AND PERSONS WISHING TO RECOVER 
 THEIR KNOWLEDGE OF LATIN AND GREEK. 
 
 LOCKE'S SYSTEM OF CLASSICAL INSTRUCTION, restoring the Method of 
 
 Teaching formerly practised in all Public Schools. The Series consists of the following Interlinear Trans- 
 lations ; with the Original Text, in which the quantity of the doubtful Vowels is denoted ; critical and 
 explanatory Notes, &c 
 
 " We do amiss to spend seven or eight years in scraping together so much miserable Latin and Greek, as may 
 be learned otherwise, easily and delightfully, in one year." — Milton. 
 
 *if* By means of these Works, that excellent System of Tuition is effectually restored which was 
 established by Dean Colet, Erasmus, and Lily, at the foundation of St. Paul's School, and was then 
 enjoined by authority of the State, to be adopted in all other Public Seminaries of learning throughout 
 the kingdom. Each volume, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 1. Ph.cdrus's Fables of ^sop. 
 
 2. Ovid's Metamorphoses. Book I. 
 
 3. Vibgil's Mnkw. Book I. 
 
 4. Parsing Lessons to Vikril. 
 
 5. C«8AR'S InVASIO.V OF BRITAIN. 
 
 6. Tacitus's Life of Agricola. Part I. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 1. Lucian's Dialogues. Selections. 
 
 2. The Odes of Anacreon. 
 
 3. Homer's Iliad. Book I. 
 
 4. Parsing Lessons to Homeh. 
 
 5. Xenophon's MEMORABrLiA. Book I. 
 
 6. Herodotus's Histories. Selections. 
 
WORKS PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND WALTON, 
 
 INTERLINEAR TRANSLATIONS— Continued. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Stobies from Italian Writers : — Alfikri, 
 Babetti, Castiglionb, &c. 
 
 French. 
 
 SiswoNDi ; the Battles of Ciiessv and 
 
 POICTIERS. 
 
 German. 
 
 Stories from German Writers. 
 
 The Connexion of the several Parts, as well as the general Principle and Authority of the whole Series, 
 
 is exhibited at large in 
 
 An Essay, explanatory of the System. 12mo . . . 2». Gd. 
 
 Also, to uccompan;/ the Latin and Greek Series, 
 
 The London Latin Grammar. 12ino ... . 
 
 The London Greek Grammar. 12ino ^ . . . . 
 
 2s. 6d. 
 3j. 6d. 
 
 iWettioIi of StuliB. 
 
 This course of Study to be pursued in the use of these 
 Boobs is fully developed in the Preface to each vo- 
 lume : but the principal directions there detailed may 
 be thus briefly presented at one view. 
 
 1. Let the student of the Latin language commence 
 with the Fables of Ph^drus, and by the aid of the 
 Interlinear Translation and Notes, make himself tho- 
 roughly master of the sense of each Fable in the single 
 Latin Text ; so tliorouRhly, as to be able, not only to 
 render the original, word for word, into Kngtish sen- 
 tences, but also, when examined without tlie book, to 
 give the English for each Latin word, and, again, the 
 Latin for eacli English, unassisted by the connexion of 
 the story. 
 
 2. Having acquired from Phiedrus a considerable 
 number of common Latin words, without attempting 
 their grammatical analysis, let him proceed, in exactly 
 the same manner, with the First Book of Ovid's 51 e- 
 TAMORPHOsEs, wbich will make a large addition to his 
 vocabulary in words of less common use. The reading 
 of this book should be accompanied with the study of 
 the Accidence, as given in the London Latin Grammar. 
 Taking small portions at a time, as, for instance, the 
 first declension of Nouns with tlie first lesson of Ovid, 
 the student should remark wliat words in the lesson ap- 
 pear to correspond in form to any of those cases, — and 
 so on, till the distinction of the Parts of Speech is 
 clearly understood, and the Tables of Declension are 
 learned by lieart. 
 
 3. The regular inflections of the language being thus 
 acquired from the examples in the Grammar, let him 
 take up the First Book of Virgil's jEneid, and after 
 construing the Latin text, as in Phaedrus and Ovid, 
 according to the Interlinear Translation, let him learn 
 to analyse each sentence from the supplementary vo- 
 lume of Parsing Lessons ; which will enable him. not 
 only to assign every word in each lesson to its proper 
 part of speech, but to give a full description of its pe- 
 culiar modification, if inflected from its simple form. 
 In this stage of his course he will derive great benefit 
 from frequently altering the signs and forms of nouns 
 and verbs in the single English Version, so as to require 
 the use of diff'ereut cases, tenses, (kc of tlie same Latin 
 word — an exercise which will give him complete power 
 over the Injlections of the language. 
 
 4. Let him now proceed with Cesar's Invasion of 
 Britain ; and accompany each reading with a small por- 
 tion of the Latin Syntax, in the same manner as he ac- 
 companied Ovid with the Accidence of the Grammar. 
 This will gradually render liim familiar with the Con- 
 struction of the language. The style of the Commen- 
 taries is remarkably easy of Construction, and there- 
 fore peculiarly adapted for this exercise ; which is 
 further facilitated by the Rules of Syntax, in the Lon- 
 don Latin Grammar, being principally exemplified 
 
 from this part of Caesar, and the Book of Virgil's 
 jEneid already analysed. After finishing C«sar, he 
 should recur to the Virgil, which he before used only 
 as a praxis of infection, and make himself master of 
 the construction by the rules of Syntax, and also of 
 the scanning of each line by the rules of Prosody. 
 
 5. In reading the Life of Aohicola by Tacitus, he 
 should endeavour to combine in each lesson the exer- 
 cises of inflection and construction which hitherto he 
 has taken separately ; describing single words accord- 
 ing to their several declensions, and compound pln-ases 
 according to their several dependencies. 
 
 In learning the Greek language, precisely the same 
 method may be followed in the correspondent Parts of 
 the Series. 
 
 1. Lucian's Dialogues furnish a copious VocaLnlary 
 as the elementary volume. 
 
 2. Anacreon's Odes present a variety of simple sen- 
 tences, from which to distinguish the Parts e/ Speech, 
 as given in tiie London Greek Grammar, 
 
 3. Homer's Iliad, accompanied by the supplemen- 
 tary volume of Parsing Lessons, involves a complete 
 Praxis in the Inflections of the language. 
 
 4. Xenophon's Memorabilia give an introduction 
 to Syntax, wliich will be further familiarised by recur- 
 ring to the Iliad. 
 
 5. Herodotus's Histories supply an interesting sub- 
 ject-matter, on which to practise in comtAnalion the 
 various exercises separately performed in the previous 
 volumes. 
 
 After thus going through the Latin or Greek series, 
 the student is strongly recommended to recur to the 
 earlier volumes, in the same order as before, and to 
 exercise the whole of liis grammatical knowledge in 
 each of those parts, as well as in the last, using the 
 Interlinear Translation as little as possible, and giving 
 more attention to the Notes than in his first reading. 
 
 By the completion of this Elementary Course, he 
 will not only be perfectly competent to enter on the 
 reading of other Classic Authors, without the aid of 
 a translation, but will be prepared with a valuable 
 store of words and phrases for Greek and Latin Com- 
 position. The practice of writing in each language 
 according to these models will ensure a critical ac- 
 quaintance with their peculiar delicacies : and al- 
 though, in commencing a new author, the young 
 learner must require some assistance from judicious 
 commentators, yet, as far as the language is concerned, 
 he may rest assured he is already in possession of its 
 leading properties and powers. 
 
28, UPPER GOWER STREET, LONDON. 
 
 9 
 
 MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 MATHEMATICS. 
 
 DE MORGAN'S (AUGUSTUS) ELEMENTS OF ARITHMETIC. Fourth Edition. 
 
 Royal 12mo, 4^. clotli. 
 
 " Instead of merely learning a number of rules by rote, 
 the pupil learns to refer everjlhing to i"eason, and he is 
 taught how to do so ; and thus he will often be able to 
 ascertain the meaning of an ambiguous passage, or sup- 
 ply the defect of an imperfect proof. It is only thus that 
 any knowledge of the principles of Arithmetic can be 
 acquired ; and although it is not necessarj' to resort to 
 those considerations to attain practical facility in perform- 
 ing arithmetical operations, we have little doubt that this 
 will be gained quite as rapidly under insti-uction, such 
 as Professor De Morgan's treatise affords, as it is from 
 the old course of mere rules and examples, and it will cer- 
 tainly *>e gained better." — Journal of Education^ No. I. 
 
 *' Since the publication of the first edition of this 
 work, though its sale has sufficiently convinced me 
 that there exists a disposition to introduce the prin- 
 ciples of arithmetic into schools, as well as the prac- 
 tice. I have often heard it remarked that it was a 
 hard book for children. I never dared to suppose 
 it would be otherwise. All who have been engaged 
 in the education of youth are aware that it is a hard 
 thing to make them think ; so hard, indeed, that masters 
 had. within the last few years, almost universally aban- 
 doned the attempt, and taught them rules instead of 
 principles ; by authority, instead of demonstration. This 
 system is now passing away ; and many preceptors may 
 be found who are of opinion that, whatever may be the 
 additional trouble to themselves, their pupils should 
 always be induced to reflect upon, and know the reason 
 
 of, what they are doing. Such I would advise not to be 
 discouraged by the failure of a fli'st attempt to make the 
 learner understand the principle of a rule. It is no ex- 
 aggeration to say, that, under the present system, live 
 years of a boy's life are partially spent in merely learning 
 the rules contained in this treatise, and those, for the 
 most part, in so imperfect a way, that he is not fit to 
 encounter any question unless he sees the head of the 
 book under which it falls. On a very moderate compu- 
 tation of the time thus bestowed, the pupil would be in 
 no respect worse off, though he spent five hours on evei"y 
 page of this work. The method of proceeding which I 
 should recommend would be as follows :■ — Let the pupils 
 be taught in classes, the master explaining the article as 
 it stands in the work. Let the former, then, try the 
 demonstration on some other numbers proposed by the 
 master, which should be as simple as possible. The very 
 words of the book may be used, the figures being changed ; 
 and it will rarely be found that a learner is capable of 
 making the proper alterations, without undei-standing 
 the reason. The experience of the master will suggest 
 to him various methods of trying this point. When the 
 principle has been thus discussed, let the rule be distinctly 
 stated by the master, or some of the more intelligent of 
 the pupils ; and let some very simple example be worked 
 at length. The pupils may then he dismissed, to try the 
 more complicated exercises with which the work will 
 furnish them, or any others which may be proposed." — 
 Preface. 
 
 . ELEMENTS OF ALGEBRA, preliminaiy to the Dififerential Calculus, 
 
 and fit for the higher classes of Schools in which the Principles of Arithmetic are taught. Second 
 ICdition. Royal 12mo, 'Js., ch'th 
 
 " What a benefite that onely thyng is, to have the witte whetted and sharpened, I neade not travell to declare, sith 
 all men confesse it to be as greate as maie be. Excepte any witlesse persone thinke he male bee to wise. Hut he that 
 moste feareth that, is leaste in daunger of it. NMierefore to conclude, I see moare menne to acknowledge the benefite 
 of nombre, than I can espie wiUyng to studie. to attaine the benefites of it. Many praise it, but fewe dooe greatly 
 practise it. AMierein the desire and hope of gain, maketh many willyng to sustaine some travell. For aide of whom, 
 I did sette forth the firste parte of Arithmetike. But if thei knewe how farre this seconde parte dooeth excell the 
 firste parte, thei would not accoumpte any tyme loste that were emploied in it. Yea thei would not thinke any tyme 
 well bestowed, till thei had gotten soche habilitie by it, that it might be their aide in al other studies." — Robert Recorde. 
 
 —ELEMENTS OF TRIGONOMETRY & TRIGONOMETRICAL 
 
 AN.\LYSIS, preliminary to the Differential Calculus ; fit for those who have studied the I'riuciples of 
 Arithmetic and Algebra, and Six Books of Euclid. Royal 12mo, 9s., cloth. 
 
 " Tantquel'.ilgfebre et la Geometrie ont ete s^parees, leurs progris ont ett lents et leurs usages homes; mais lorsque 
 ces deuj sciences se sont reunles, elles se sont prettes des forces mutuelles, et ont marche ensemble d'un pas rapide 
 vera la perfection." — Lagrange. 
 
 CONNEXION OF NUMBER AND MAGNITUDE ; an Attempt 
 
 to Explain the Fifth Book of Euclid. Royal 12mo, is., cloth. 
 
 *** This Work is included in the Elements of Trigonometry. 
 
 FIRST NOTIONS OF LOGIC, preparatory to the Study of Geome- 
 
 try. Second Edition. Royal 12mo, 1^. 6rf. .sewed. 
 
 " The Author drew up the ' First Notions of Logic,' from having observed that most students who begin Geome- 
 try are extremely deficient in the sort of knowledge which it contains, to their great hindrance in all branches of 
 science, even in learning the principles of Arithmetic demonstratively. He recommends that youths who are trained 
 in Aritlimetic from his work should learn the elements of Logic at the same time, as a help io the precise conception 
 of the connexion of words with each other, and as a preparation for the study of Geometry." 
 
 BARLOW'S TABLES OF SQUARES, CUBES, SQUARE ROOTS, CUBE ROOTS, 
 
 and RECIPR0C.4LS, up to 10,liO(i. Stereotype edition, examined and corrected. Under lite Super- 
 intendence of the Society fur the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Royal 12mo, price 8*. 
 
 " They will be found useful to the more scientific class of Engineers and Suneyors, for immediately obtaining 
 results which are now usually got by logarithmic calculation, or the sliding rule ; to actuaries (in the table of recipro- 
 cals) ; to schoolmasters, for obtaining examples of the ordinary rules of Arithmetic ; to all, in fact, who are calculators 
 by choice or necessity, though of course to some more than to others." — Pr^'ace. 
 
10 WORKS PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND WALTON, 
 
 MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL PHILOSOPHY— Continued. 
 TABLES OF LOGARITHMS, COMMON AND TRIGONOMETRICAL, TO FIVE 
 
 PLACES. Under the Superintendence of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Fcap. 8vo, 
 3*.. sewed. 
 
 The present work has been undertaken in imitation of the Tables of Lalande, so well known both in 
 England and on the Continent. It differs from most modern English works in the use of old numerals, 
 which are formed with heads and tails, as in common handwriting. It is believed that such figures 
 are much more legible, for their size, than those in common use, and very much less likely to be mistaken 
 one for the other ; so that the present work may compete with others which employ a larger type, but 
 in which distinctness of form in the figure is sacrificed to uniformity of size. 
 
 At the end of the Trigonometrical Table will be found— 1. A Table of the Logarithms of Sines for 
 every second of the first 9 minutes, and also for eveiy tenth of a minute in the first degree. 2. A Table 
 of Constants, mostly taken from that at the end of Mr. Babbage's well-known tables. 3. A small 
 Table of the Logarithms of 1. 2. 3 x, for facilitating complicated questions of permutation. 
 
 FOUR FIGURE LOGARITHMS AND ANTI-LOGARITHMS, on a Card. Price Is. 
 
 " Much of the trouble of using Logarithms arises — 1. From the necessity of turning leaf after leaf of the book to 
 arrive at the proper page ; and 2, in a minor degree, from the process of finding the number to a logarithm being 
 somewhat more difficult than that of finding the logarithm to a number. In the four figure logarithms they are both 
 avoided, since the whole table of logarithms to numbers is on one side of a card, and the smallness of the table enables, 
 another table as extensive, of numbers to logarithms to be entered on the other side of the card." — Companion 
 to the British Almanack, 1841. 
 
 LOGARITHMIC SINES, COSINES, &c., TO FIVE PLACES OF DECIMALS. 
 
 Printed on Card, Is. 
 
 REINER'S LESSONS ON FORM ; or, an Introduction to Geometry, as given in a 
 
 Pestalozzian School, Cheam, Surrey. 12mo, with numerous Diagrams, ds. cloth. 
 
 " It has been foxmd in the actual use of these lessons for a considerable period, that a larger average number of pupils 
 are brought to study the Mathematics with decided success, and that all pursue them in a superior manner. There is 
 much less of mere mechanical committing to memory, of mere otiose admission and comprehension of demonstrations 
 ready made, and proportionably more of independent judgment and original reasoning. They not only learn Mathe- 
 matics, but they become mathematicians." — Rev. Dr. Mayo. 
 
 LESSONS ON NUMBER, as given at a Pestalozzian School, at Cheam, 
 
 Surrey. Second Edition. Consisting of 
 
 THE MASTER'S MANUAL. 12mo, 4s. Crf., cloth. 
 THE SCHOLAR S PRAXIS. 12mo, 2i., bound. 
 Sold separately. 
 
 " The parent will be much assisted in his task, if he has by him the excellent ' Lessons on Number as given at a 
 Pestalozzian School, Cheam, Surrey.' This work should be in the hands of every one who teaches the first rudiments 
 of Arithmetic." 
 
 " Another important merit of the work consists in the manner in which, in its earliest pages, the idea of Number is 
 extracted from the consideration of the objects by which it must, in the first instance, be exemplified. It is done with- 
 out any parade of abstraction, but successfully and completely." — Journal of Education. 
 
 LARDNER'S (DR.) ELEMENTS OF EUCLID, with a Commentary and Geometrical 
 
 Exercises ; to which are annexed a Treatise on Solid Geometry, and Short Essays on the Ancient 
 Geometrical Analysis and the Theory of Transversals. Eighth Edition.. 8vo, 7«., boards. 
 
 RITCHIE'S (DR.) PRINCIPLES OF GEOMETRY, familiarly illustrated, and applied 
 
 to a variety of useful purposes. Designed for the Instruction of Young Persons. Second Edition, 
 revised and enlarged. 12mo, with 150 Woodcuts. 3s. Gd. cloth. 
 
 " Dr. Ritchie's little elementary work is excellently well adapted to its object. It is brief, plain, and full of all that 
 is necessary ; curious and useful in its application, and beyond any other of the kind now existent in its famihar and 
 distinct explanation of some of the instruments required in the practical application of the principles laid down and 
 demonstrated."— ;S;jtc(i(;or, Sept. 7, 18li3. 
 
 " This is the best introduction to Geometry that exists in our language ; it is just the work by which a parent may 
 be enabled to instruct his children in the elementary principles of the scieiuu, though his own knowledge of it be 
 neither deep nor extensive. The practical appUcations which are added must render the study very delightful to 
 the young, since the exercises on the principles will be found as amusing as the ordinary sports of childhood."— 
 Atlu-ntjeum.. 
 
 " La Geometric est peut-etre de toutes les p.arties des Mathdmatiques, celle que I'on doit apprendre la premiere ; 
 elle me paroit tres-propre a interesser les enfans, pourvu qu'on la leur presente principalement par rapport a ses 
 applications, soit sur le papier, soit sur le terrain. Les operations de trace et de misiirage ne manqueront pas de les 
 occuper agreablement, et les conduiront ensuite, comme par la main, au raisonneraent." — From the preliminary 
 discourse prefixed to "La Croix's Ellens de Geometric." 
 
28, UPPER GOWER STREET, LONDON. 
 
 11 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 LARDNER (Dii.) THE STEAM-ENGINE EXPLAINED AND ILLUSTRATED : 
 
 with an Account of its Invention and progressive Improvement, and itn application to Navigation and 
 Railways ; including also a Memoir of Watt. Seventh Edition. Illustrated by numerous Engravings 
 nn wood, and a portrait of Watt. 8vo, cloth, 12*. 
 
 CONTKNTS : — 
 
 ChaftkrI. Preliminary Matter.— Chat II. Engines 
 of Savery and Newcomen — Chap. III. Early Career 
 and Discoveries of James Watt.— Chap. IV. Exposition 
 of Physical Principles.— Chap. V. Further Discoveries 
 of Watt — Chap. VI. Watt's Engines. — Chap. VII. 
 Double-acting Engine — Chap. VIII. Double-acting En- 
 gine.— Chap. IX. Boilers and Furnaces.— Chap. X. 
 Life of Watt. 
 
 CllAl'XEll XII. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES ON TURNPIKE ROADS. 
 
 Railways and Stone Roads compared.— Gurney's 
 Steam Carriage. — Two methods of applying Locomotive 
 Engines upon common Roads. — Hancock's Steam 
 Carriage. 
 
 CHAPTER XIU. 
 
 STEAM NAVIGATION 
 
 Form and Arrangementof Marine Engines.— Common 
 
 Paddle-wheel Improved EfBciency of Marine Engines. 
 
 Iron Steam Vessels. — Steam Navigation to India. 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 AiMERICAN STEAM NAVIGATION. 
 
 Steam Navigation first established in America.— The 
 Hudson navigated by Steam.— Extension and Improve- 
 ment of River Navigation. — American Steamers. — 
 Dilference between them and European Steamers. — 
 Steam Tugs. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR BEGINNERS ; being familiar Illustrations of the 
 
 Laws of Motion and Mechanics, intended as a Text Book for Schools and Self- instruction, as a Companion 
 to the Lecture Room, or for Model Schools. Ulustrated with 143 Engravings on Wood. Fcap. 8vo, 3*. 6d. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 LOCO.MOTIVE ENOINKS ON fiAlMVAVS. 
 
 High-pressure Engines.— Effects of Railway Trans- 
 port—History of the Locomotive Engine. — Liverpool 
 
 and Manchester Railway.— Experimental Trial Pro- 
 
 gressivelmprovement of Locomotive Engines Detailed 
 
 Description of the most improved Locomotive Engines. 
 —Dr. Lardner's Experiments on the Great Western 
 Railway. — Methods of surmounting steep inclina- 
 tions. 
 
 \ 
 
 " The treatise before us Is a verj- good class-hook for teaching the Elements of Mechanics, so far as they are inde- 
 pendent of Mathematics. Now ' to know a matter,' and ' to know about a matter,' are two very different things : the 
 present treatise is well adapted to those who are ambitious of the former ; there are countless ' Conversations,' ' Re- 
 creations,' ' Dialogues," &c., for those who will be satisfied with the latter." — Athenaum, July 10, 1841. 
 
12 WORKS PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND WALTON, 
 
 MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL PHILOSOPHY— Continued. 
 PHILOSOPPIICAL DIAGRAMS. By Frederick I. Minasi, Lecturer on Natural Philo- 
 
 sopliy, 6tc. For the use of Lecturers, Philosophical Cliisses, aud Schools. Ist Series— Mechanics. 
 Com-ilete in Five Numbers, each containing Three Sheets of Diagrams, price 3*. each Number. 
 
 The Diagrams are printed upon large sheets of paper, measuring 2 feet 11 inches by 2 feet. This 
 size will be found suited for large lecture-rooms. Wliere necessary, the Diagrams have been coloured. 
 
 TWELVE PLANISPHERES, forming a Guide to the Stars for every Night in the Year, 
 
 with an Introduction. 8vo, cloth, 6s. 6d. 
 
 YOUNG'S LECTURES ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. A New Edition, with 
 
 Copioi's References, Notes, and a Supplement, completing the different Subjects to their present 
 state. By the Rev. P. Kelland, .M.A., P. R. S. Lond. and Edinb.,l ate Fellow of Queen's College, Cam- 
 bridge, Professor (if Mathematics, &c. in the University of Edinburgh, and Thomas Webster, M.A., of 
 Triniiy College, Cambridge, Secretary of the Institute of Civil Engineers. Under the Superintendence 
 of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. 1 vol. 8vo. (Preparing.) 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 EDUCATION (THE) OF THE FEELINGS. Fcap. 8vo, 4s. cloth. 
 
 "To urge the gieat importance of moral education — to show the bearing of a few great truths upon it — to point out 
 the natural laws which the Creator has established, by which the feelings are to be trained and cultivated, is the object 
 of this work." — Preface. 
 
 HICKSON'S (W. E.) DUTCH AND GERMAN SCHOOLS; an Account of the present 
 
 state of Education in Holland, Belgium, and the German States, with a view to tlie practical steps 
 which should be taken for improving and extending the means of Popular Instruction in Great Britain 
 and Ireland. 8vo, '2s. 6d. cloth. With Architectural Plans. 
 " The work before us has the merit of giving a really comprehensive view of the whole question in a cheap and 
 readable form. The author is one of the Commissioners of Inquiry into the state of the Hand-loom Weavers ; and 
 few persons have had better opportunities of observing how closely the interests of the working classes are dependent 
 upon the progress of a sound system of national education. The work is rendered complete by the addition of a tasteful 
 elevation and ground plans of a design of a building, suitable for the combined purposes of a Day-school and Lyceum. 
 We hope the time is not distant when institutions, upon the plan described, will be found in every part of the United 
 Kingdom." — IVestminster Jievieiv, Dec. 1840. 
 
 BROWN PAP ER LENDI NG LIBRARY. 
 
 TUCKFIELD'S (Mrs. HIPPISLEY) EVENING READINGS FOR DAY SCHOLARS. 
 
 Part I. — Selections fro.m the Bible and Apocrvpha. 
 Part II. — Pbovebb.s, Maxims, and Anecdotes. 
 1 vol. 12mo, 3s. fkt. cloth. 
 Part III. — Natural History— Mammalia. 
 
 The Work may also be had as follows : — 
 I. Scripture Readings. 12mo, sewed, Is. (id. 
 In sheets for mounting, 2s. 
 
 As Little Horn Books. In Paper Packets, 4s. Cd. 
 11. Proverbs, Maxims, and Anecdotes. 12mo, sewed, 
 U 6d. In sheets for mounting, 2s. 
 As Little Horn Books- In Paper Packets, is. 6d. 
 
 III. Natural IIistorv. Mammalla. 12rao, sd. Is. 6d. 
 In sheets for mounting, 2s. 
 
 As Little Horn Books. In Paper Packets, is. 6d. 
 
 In the Little Horn Books the matter is broken up 
 into Short Lessons, and each Lesson is pasted on thick 
 brown paper. These are intended to serve as Night 
 Readings for Day Scholars. The difficult words in 
 each Lesson are carefully defined. 
 
 Part HI. will be found useful as a Companion to the 
 Prints of Animals published by Ihe^Sociely for Pro- 
 moling Christian Knowledge. 
 
 " Mrs. Hippisley Tuckfield's Evening Readings are puhUshed with the \ievi of providing something which children 
 in day schools may take home with them, and learn in the evening. They are printed on separate cards, and are 
 divided into three series. We have no hesitation in saying that the idea is a very valuable one. It is impossible, in five 
 hours' schooUng, to convey much information ; but hitherto the e.xpense of books has prevented any attempt to carry 
 on instruction out of school hours." 
 
 " The technical terms in ihe ' Natural History of the Mammalia ' are explained with great clearness, and every page 
 of description so interspersed with anecdote, that it would be impossible to put into the hands of children a more useful 
 or fascinating work connected with any branch of natural history." — Westminster Review, December 1842. 
 
 TUCKFIELD'S (Mrs. HIPPISLEY) LETTERS TO A CLERGYMAN, on the Best 
 
 Means of Employing Funds for the Education op the Lower Orders. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6d. 
 
 " We are unable to do more than direct attention to Mrs. Tuckfield's ' Letters to a Clergyman,' although they con- 
 tain, in a small compass, matter of the deepest import. She lays greatest stress on what is really of greatest importance, 
 namely, training establishments for teachers, male and female. For those who are about to establish schools for the 
 poor, we earnestly recommend the second and fifth letters, as putting in the clearest light the necessity and the means 
 of training teachers. The fifth letter, we believe, describes no ideal plan, but an establishment actually at work. It 
 cannot be too often repeated, that on this one point everything depends." — Westminster Review, 67. 
 
 TUCKFIELD'S (Mrs. HIPPISLEY) EDUCATION FOR THE PEOPLE. 
 
 I. Pastoral Teaching. IV. Instruction OF THE Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 II. Village Teaching. — — 
 III The Teacher's Text-Book. Fcap. 8vo, 5s. 
 
28, UPPER GOWER STREET, LONDON. 
 
 13 
 
 HINTS TO MECHANICS ON SELF-EDUCATION AND MUTUAL INSTRUCTION. 
 
 By Timothy Claxtov. Fcap. 8vo, 4». cloth. 
 
 ' ' the amusing book before us, which has all the ease fnd simplicity of De Foe, and the exemplar}' utility of 
 
 Franklin. To the mechanic it offers at once an example .and a p'.oasant companion in thepuranii rf knowledge, and to 
 thegenenal reader it affords a deep insight in'o those labouring classes which are the sinews of the nation." — Civil 
 Engineer and Architects Journal^ Feb. 1839. 
 
 "We repeat, we have seldom read a work which has delighted us more ; .and we feel convinced that no better gift 
 could be bestowed upon a worliing man than a copy of it." — Educciional l.Tag., Feb. 1839. 
 
 " This is a most meritorious work ; a work full of good sense and useful informatio n After introducing the aiithor 
 himself, far better than a portrait, it treats of the desirableness of a sourd education, or the habits, fauKs. and vices 
 incident to mechiinics, and their reform and improvement ; of the evil efiects of ignorance, and the beneficial effects 
 of knowledge ; of the application to business ; of the erapIo\Tuent of time , ana. i.i short, of every subject of interest 
 to the mechanical orders, and value to the community to which they belong, ard in which they form so important a 
 part. There is a degree of solidity and applicability in the whole that deserves our highest praise." — Literary Gazette. 
 
 SI NGIN G. 
 
 THE SINGING MASTER. Fourth Edition. Revised and Corrected. 8vo, 10s. Qd. 
 No. I.— FIRST LESSONS TN SINGING AND THE NOTATION OF MUSIC. 
 Containing Nineteen Lessons in the Notation and Art of Reading Jfusic, as adapted for the Instruction 
 of Children, and especially for Class Teaching, wit.i Si.xteen Vocal Exercises, arranged as simple two- 
 part Harmonics. Medium ftvo. Price 2.t. 
 
 No. II.— RUDIMENTS OF THE SCIENCE OF HARMONY, OR THOROUGH-B A.SS. 
 
 A General View of the Principles of Musical Composition, the Nature of Chords and Discords, Mode of 
 applying them, and aii Explanation of IMusical Terms connected with this branch of the Science. U. 6d. 
 
 No. III.— THE i^IRST CLASS TUNE-BOOK. 
 Thirty Simple and Pleasing Airs, arranged, with Suitable Words, for Young Children. Price U. fiif. 
 
 No. IV.— THE SECOND CLASS TUNE-BOOK. 
 A Selection of Vocal Music, adapted for Youth of Different Ages, and arranged, with Suitable Words, 
 as Two and Three-part Harmonies. Medium Bvo. Price 2j. firf. 
 
 No. v.— THE HYMN TUNE-BOOK. 
 A Selection of Seventy Popular Hymn and Psalm Tunes, arranged with a View of Facilitating the 
 Progress of Children learning to Sing in Parts. Medium 8vo. Price is. (id. 
 
 *^* Any part may be purchased separately. 
 The Vocal Exercises, Moral Songs and Hymns, with the Music, may also be had, printed on Cards. Price 
 2d. each Card, or Twenty-five for 3s., as follows ; — 
 
 1 Introductory (Not.ation of Music). 
 
 2 Vocal Exercises. 
 
 3 Ditto. 
 
 4 Ditto (Canons). 
 
 5 Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star. 
 
 6 Welcome to School. 
 
 7 Come and See how Happily. 
 
 8 Perseverance— or, Try Again. 
 
 9 Improve the Passing Hours. 
 
 10 Multiplication Table— First Part. 
 
 1 1 The Pence Table ; and Procrastination. 
 
 12 The Peace Maker. 
 
 13 We all Love one another— and We'll go to our Places. 
 
 14 How the Wind is Blowing— and Early to Bed and 
 
 Early to Rise. 
 
 15 Over the Water from England to France. 
 IS The Nursery Jest — and the Alphabet. 
 
 17 Tit for Tat ; and Hot Cross Buns. 
 
 18 Play-Hours. 
 
 19 The Kind Heart. 
 
 20 Come let us Sing— and the Chatter-box. 
 
 21 The Linnet. 
 
 22 The Harmonious Blackbird. 
 
 23 The Praise of Spring. 
 
 24 The Sluggard. 
 
 25 Neatness and Cleanliness— and Work away. 
 
 26 Time for Rest ; and Good Night. 
 
 27 Sunrise. 
 
 28 Bells Ringing. 
 
 29 The Love of Truth— and For Age and Want. 
 
 30 In the Cottage. 
 
 31 The Cricket Song. 
 
 32 Absent Friends — and When we go out together. 
 
 33 Ere Around the Huge Oak— and lljirvest Home. 
 
 34 March and lift up your Voices — and Idleness and 
 
 Knavery. 
 
 35 Lullaby— and The Hour is Come of Twilight Grey. 
 
 36 The Stormy Winds. 
 
 37 Our Native Land. 
 
 38 The Labourers' Song. 
 
 39 Home, home — and Rejoice, Rejoice. 
 
 40 If you Get into Debt. 
 
 41 Britons, Arise — and the Golden Rule. 
 
 42 Rule Britannia. 
 
 43 The National Anthem— and Now Let Notes of Joy 
 
 Ascending. 
 
 44 Farewell. 
 
 Hymn and Psalm Tunes, toith Words suitable/or 
 Sundap Schools. 
 
 45 Sicilian Mariners— and Warwick. 
 
 46 Devizes — and Stonefield, or Doversdale. 
 
 47 Evening Hymn — and Hanover. 
 
 48 Stephens— and the German Hymn. 
 
 49 Grove — and Cranbrook. 
 
 50 Falcon Street — and Deritend. 
 .51 Martin's Lane — and Staughton. 
 
 52 Hart's — and Job. 
 
 53 Melboum Port— and Matthias. 
 
 54 Rousseau's Dream — and Irish. 
 
 55 Sandgate — and Contemplation. 
 
 56 Haweis, or Mount Calvary— and Auburn. 
 
 57 Eaton — and Carey's. 
 
 58 Adoration. 
 
 59 Gabriel New — and Prospect. 
 
 60 Lowell — and Fairseat. 
 
 61 Lonsdale — and Calvary. 
 
 6-2 Lydia— and Sutton Coldfield. 
 
 63 Arabia — and Old Hundredth. 
 
 64 Peru — and Condescension. 
 
 65 Horsley — .ind Compassion. 
 
 66 Suffolk— and Hepbzib<ah. 
 
 67 Uradley Church — and Portugal New, 
 
 68 Piety ; and Knaresborough. 
 
14 
 
 WORKS PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND WALTON, 
 
 SINGING MASTER— Continued. 
 
 78 Calcutta — and Shirland. 
 
 79 Portsmouth, New — and Joyful. 
 
 80 Tucker's, or Leigh — and Repose. 
 
 81-82 Welcome— and a Man's a Man for all that. 
 83-84 When the Rosy Morn Appearing — and the Might 
 
 with the Right. 
 85 God Speed the Right. 
 
 69 Wigan — and The Passing BelL 
 
 70 Newport — and Easter Hymn. 
 
 71 Vesper — and Admiration. 
 
 72 Jude's Doxology — and Miles's Lane. 
 
 73 Helmsley — and Evans. 
 
 74 Nativity — and Monmouth. 
 
 75 Westbury Leigh — and New Victory or Wimpole. 
 
 76 Hallelujah, Amen — and Triumph. 
 
 77 Refuge. 
 
 The Words without the Music may be had in Three Small Books, as follows : — 
 Moral Songs from the First Class Tune-Book, Id. 
 
 Second Class Tune-Book, Id, 
 
 Hyinns from the Hymn Tune-Book, hi. 
 
 *** The Cards and Tune-Books maybe used with Mr. Hullah's or any other System of Teaching. 
 
 What chiefly delights us in the Singing Master is the intermixture of many little moral songs with the ordinary 
 glees. These are chiefly composed by Mr. Hickson himself, and we could scarcely imagine any thing of the kind 
 better executed. They relate to exactly the class of subjects which all who wish well to the industrious orders would 
 wish to see imprinted on their inmost nature — contentment with their lowly, but honourable lot, the blessings that 
 flow from industry, the fostering of the domestic affections, and aspirations for the improvement of society." — 
 Chambers' Journal, Oct. 20, 1838. 
 
 FIRESIDE HARMONY; or, Domestic Recreation in Part Singing. A Selection of 
 
 favorite old Glees, Rounds, and Canons ; arranged to words suitable for Families and Schools. 
 By Helen S. Herschell. Second Edition. Demy 8vo (oblong), 2*. 60!. 
 
 CONTENTS ; — 
 
 1. The Queen's Birth-day. — 2. Now we are met. — 3. Come follow me merrily. — 4. Come all ye who music love. 
 
 —5. How great is the Pleasure.— 6. Come follow, follow me 7. The Emigrant's Song. — 8. Breathes there the 
 
 Man.— 9. Our Queen 10. The Young Ladies' Debate. — 11. Wilberforce's Grave — 12. The Grasshopper — 13. When 
 
 from my Native Land. — 14. Tranquility. — 15. Would you sing a Round with pleasure. — 16. Whate'er you others 
 find — 17. Flowers for your Gardens.— 18. Whittington. — 19. Far beyond all studied Grace. — 20. Come now to the 
 Greenwood.— 21. Tune your Voices — 22. A Boat Song. — 23. Come gay Mirth.— 24. Hope — 25. Now genial Spring. 
 — 26. Come, leave the Scenes.— 27. How sweet to meet a kindred Mind.— 28. Truly 'tis said — 29. Farewell, Friend. 
 
 —30. O be just.— 31. Sweet chime the Evening Bells. — 32. Hark, the little Birds are singing 33. Now you shall 
 
 hear a wondrous Song. — 34. Procrastination. 
 
 PART SINGING ; or, Vocal Harmony for Choral Societies and Home Circles. Edited 
 
 by the Author of tlie " Singing Master." 
 
 Price of the Work complete, bound in cloth :— Soprano. 4*. ; Alto, 3<. ; Tenor, 3j. ; Base and Piano- 
 forte Score, 5f . 6d. Any Part or Volume may be had separately. 
 
 The Work may also be had in Six Numbers. Price of each Number : — Soprano, 9d. ; Alto and Tenor 
 (without the C clef), of Nos. 1 and 6, 9d. each, of Nos. 2 to 5, (id. each ; Base with Pianoforte Score, Ix. ; 
 Case, 6d. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 to the Notation 
 
 of 
 
 Introduction 
 
 Music. 
 Exercises on Intervals. 
 
 1 Evening. 
 
 2 That Peace on Earth. 
 
 3 All Nature is but Art. 
 
 4 Once More, Dear Friends, Once 
 
 More. 
 
 5 Forgive, Blest Shade. 
 
 6 Then Round About the Starry 
 
 Throne. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 7 Breathe Soft, Ye Winds. 
 « Night. 
 
 9 The Village Chorus. 
 
 10 The Pledge. 
 
 11 Health to My Dear. 
 
 12 Ye Spotted Snakes. 
 
 J3 Thy Voice, O Harmony. 
 14 Every Bush New Springing. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 15 You Gave Me your Heart. 
 
 16 Hail, Smiling Morn. 
 
 17 Ciioral Honours. 
 
 18 Here in Cool Grot. 
 
 19 Hark, tlie Lark. 
 
 20 Farewell, Dearest, Joy and 
 
 Sorrow. 
 
 21 Prayer in Masaniello. 
 
 22 Thyrsis, Sleepest Thou. 
 
 23 The Waits. 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 33 When Winds Breathe Soft. 
 
 34 Lightly Tread. 
 
 35 A Generous Friendship. 
 
 36 Amid the Myrtle. 
 
 37 The Storm. 
 
 38 Their Sound is Gone Out. 
 
 39 Awake, .^Eolian Lyre. 
 
 40 Time Wing'd by Gladfless. 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 41 Hope's Dream. 
 
 42 Hear, Father, Hear our Pray'r. 
 
 43 Bright VVater. 
 
 44 Come, Come Away. 
 
 45 The Invocation. 
 
 46 Away, Away. 
 
 47 The Student's Song. 
 
 48 Pull All Together. 
 
 49 Come Joy with Merry Roundelay. 
 
 50 The Spring. 
 
 51 Sleep. 
 
 52 Musical Cheers. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 24 Victoria. 
 
 25 Choral Salutation. 
 
 26 God Speed the Right. 
 
 27 Swiftly from the Mountain's 
 Brow. 
 
 28 Five Times by the Taper's Light. 
 
 29 One and All. 
 
 30 Hark, th' Echo. 
 
 31 Come Again. 
 
 32 Thus Rolling Surges. 
 
 The design of this publication is to facilitate the object proposed to be effected by the Society for the 
 Encouragement of Vocal Music ; a Society formed for the purpose of endeavouring to naturalize a taste for Music 
 in this country, both with a view of promoting, among the Working Classes, innocent and rational means of 
 enjoyment, and of thereby softening the manners, refining the taste, and raising the character of the great body 
 of the people. 
 
 The pieces selected for this work are those which have been found the most popular among the members of 
 several Choral and Madrigal Societies, now established in London, and most of them are equally effective when 
 sung in public by a hundred voices, or in a friendly evening, or family circle, with but one voice to each part. 
 
 THE USE OF SINGING AS A PART OF THE MORAL DISCIPLINE OF 
 
 SCHOOLS. A Lecture, by W. E. Hickson. 8vo, price lid. 
 
28, UPPER GOWER STREET, LONDON. 15 
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 LINEAL DRAWING COPIES FOR THE EARLIEST INSTRUCTION. Comprising 
 
 200 Subjects on 24 Sheets, mounted on 12 pieces of thick pasteboard. By the Author of " Dhawtno for 
 
 You.vo Children." In a Portfolio, 5*. 6d. 
 *^* These copies consist of Geometrical Figures and Forms of simple objects, with the Roman and AVriting 
 Alphabets in Capital and Small Letters. They are printed white on a black ground. They may also 
 be used in teaching the Letters, in teaching Writing, and in giving Lessons on the Elements of Form 
 and Geometry. 
 
 DRAWING COPIES FOR ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. By the Author of 
 
 " Drawing for Young Children." 
 
 Set I. 12 Subjects mounted on thick pasteboard. Price 3s. 6d. in a Portfolio. 
 — IL Ditto Ditto Ditto. 
 
 *;it* The copies are sufficiently large and bold to be drawn from by forty or fifty children at the same time, 
 
 DRAWING MATERIALS. 
 
 A Quarto Copybook of 24 leaves, common paper, 6d. I Pencils, with very thick lead, BB. 2s. per half-dozen. 
 Ditto . . . Ditto . . paper of superior Ditto . . . Ditto • . . F. at 1*. bd. ditto, 
 quality. Is. 3d. | Drawing Chalk, 9d. per dozen sticks, in a Box. 
 
 Port-crayons for holding the Chalk, id. each . 
 
 DEACON'S (AUGUSTUS) ELEMENTS OF PERSPECTIVE DRAWING ; or, the 
 
 Science of Delineating Real Objects. Being a Manual of Directions for Using a Set of Models, com- 
 posing a variety of Picturesque Forms. Suitable for the Practice of Beginners. Illustrated with 8 
 Plates. 8vo, 4s. 
 
 " The use of solid forms in drawing, instead of sketches or prints, has been for some time prevalent in the Govern 
 ment schools of France and Germany. In the well-reasoned and clearly-written pamphlet before us, an attempt is 
 made to increase the chances of success for that method in England. The whole pamphlet deser^'es attentive pen"s.il. 
 It is excellently written, and in argument quite conclusive." — Examiner, Sept. 1841. 
 
 *jf* The particulars of the Models will be found at page 20. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 ON THE ORIGIN OF UNIVERSITIES AND ACADEMICAL DEGREES. By 
 
 Henry Malden, M.A., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Professor of Greek in Univer- 
 sity College, London. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 " Although calculated for a temporary purpose, this volume, small and unpretending as it is, will probably find a 
 permanent place in libraries, as containing in a narrow compass much historical matter not very generally known, 
 even within the walls of the Universities themselves." — Atheticemn, July 18, 1835. 
 
 NIEBUHR'S HISTORY OF ROME. Translated by Bishop Thirlw all and Archdeacon 
 
 Hare. Vol, L Third Edition, revised, with a Map. 8vo, 16s. 
 
 — Vol. II. Third Edition. 8vo, 16s. 
 
 Vol. III. Translated by William Smith, Ph. D., 
 
 and Leonard Schmitz, Ph. D. ; containing a copious Index (97 pagesjto the three volumes. 8vo, 18*. 6rf. 
 
 *if* In the course of next year will be pobished Niebuhr's History of Rojie, Vol. IV. ; being a 
 Course of Lectures on the History of Rome from the first Punic War to the time of Constantine. Edited 
 by Leonhard Schmitz, Ph. D. 
 
 These Lectures, which have never yet been published, were delivered by Niebiihr in the years 1828 
 and 1829, in the University of Bonn, where the Editor, then a pupil of the historian, took them down 
 in short hand notes for his ovm private use. These notes have been carefully revised and compared 
 with the manuscript notes made by others at the same time, and their translation and publication 
 have been undertaken by Dr. Schmitz, at the express request, and with the sanction of, the most 
 distinguished friends of Niebuhr, both in this country and Germany. 
 
 " Niebuhr undertook to write the History of Rome 
 from the earliest ages of the city to i!ie establishment of 
 the empire of Augustus. Of this great work he accom- 
 plished only a portion ; and his history will remain to 
 succeeding ages as a fragment ; but it is a fragment 
 which may be compared to the unfinished colossal sta- 
 tues that are found lying in the granite quarries of Syene, 
 conceived with all the vastness and precision of Egyptian 
 art, which, had they been tinished, might have over- 
 topped the gigantic .Meinnon, but which, when they 
 were relinquished by the hand that first fashioned them, 
 were destined to remain for ever imperfect. We should 
 as soon expect an artist to arise, who should elaborate 
 
 and erect amid the Theban temples, a half hewn 
 Kameses, as a scholar who should complete the Roman 
 History of Niebulir." — 
 
 *' Here we close our remarks upon this memorable 
 work , a work which, of all that have appeared in our 
 age, is the best fitted to excite men of learning to intel- 
 lectual activity . from which the most accomplished 
 scholar may g.ither fresh stores of knowledge, to which 
 the most experienced politician may resort for theoreti- 
 cal and practical instruction, and which no person can 
 read .is it ought to be read, without feeling the better 
 and more generous sentiments of his common human 
 nature enlivened and strengthened." — Edinburgh Review. 
 
 A VINDICATION OF NIEBUHR'S HISTORY OF ROME, from the Charges of 
 
 the " Quarterly Review." By JuLii's Charles Hare, M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. 
 8vo, 2s. %d. 
 
16 
 
 WORKS PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND WALTON, 
 
 NUMISMATICS. 
 
 AKERMAN'S (J. Y.) NUMISMATIC MANUAL • or, Guide to the Collection and Study 
 
 of Greek, Roman, and English Coins. Illustrated by Engravings of many hundred Types, by means of 
 which even imperfect and obliterated pieces may be easily deciphered. 1 vol. 8vo, 2U. 
 
 '■ We have long loolted for a work on Numismatic^! which might give so much information as every well educated 
 man ouri/it to possess, be free from vulg?r errors, and at the same time ".je within the reach of the general reader. Just 
 such a work has Mr. Akerman given us."— Church of England Quarlerli/ Itcview, Oct. 1840. 
 
 NUMISMATIC CHRONICLE, and Journal of the Numismatic 
 
 SociKTV. Nos. 1 to IS, each 3*. Gi/. (Published Quarterly.) 
 
 NUMISMATIC JOURNAL. Nos. 1 to 8, complete. Each 3s. 6c?. 
 
 CURRENCY. 
 
 CATECHISMS OF THE CURRENCY AND EXCHANGES. A New Edition, enlarged. 
 
 To which is prefixed. The Case of the Industrious Classes briefly stated. By John Tavlor, Author of 
 " Junius Ic'entified." Fcap. 8vo, 4j. cloth. 
 
 " Catechism of the Cubrevcv." 
 " Wlioever studies or merely reads this Catechism once will rise from its perus,il with clearer notions on the subject, 
 of currency than when he sat ("own to it, whatever may have been his previous .ncquaintance with the matter ; whilst 
 every one who finds himself to be in the dark on its various bearings, cannot hut he so enlightened by the shore inspec- 
 tion spoken of, th?,t few in the community will equal him for knowledge on the subject, so clear, comprehensive, and 
 con\incing are its questions and answers." — Monthly Review, March 18.35. 
 
 A VIEW OF THE MONEY SYSTEM OF ENGLAND, from the Conquest. With 
 
 Proposals for establishing a secure and equable Credit Currency. By James Taylor (of Bakewell). 
 8vo, 6*. 
 
 " The instruction to be obtained from the account which is here given of the various arts, subtleties and frauds, to 
 which monarchs, statesmen, and financiers, have had recourse, in order to meet the difficulties to which they were 
 constantly exposed, renders the book of Mr. Taylor one of extraordinary interest and \»Vae."— Manchester Courier, 
 April 3, 1830. 
 
 AN ESSAY ON MONEY, ITS ORIGIN AND USE. By John Taylor, Author of 
 
 *• Jurius Identified." Second Edition. 8vo, 35. Gd. sewed. 
 " We are not ashamed to acknowledge that we are late converts to the importance of the currency question ; but 
 the evidence of successive years has demonstrated to us, that here lies the root of all the sufferings and all the dangers 
 by which tlie n.ition is afflicted. In the pamphlet before us, we see all that experience has proved, demonstrated as 
 inevitable, by a complete process of a priori reasoning ; and we could scarcely conceive a greater benefit to the 
 coimtrv than that the Essay should be thoroughly read, considered, and understood by all public men." — Standard, 
 .Ian. 1831. 
 
 AN ESSAY ON THE STANDARD AND MEASURE OF VALUE. By John Taylor, 
 
 Cvo, 2s. ed. 
 
 WHAT IS MONEY ? Price 6^^. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 BRIEF OUTLINES OF DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY ; to which is subjoined a Table 
 
 of Latitudes and Longitudes. By Henry H. Davis. Fcap. livo, with Maps, 2s. 6d. cloth. 
 " The outlines here presented to the public, are the results of actual extemporaneous lessons." — Pre/ace. 
 
 OUTLINE MAPS : — Mercator— Europk — British Isles. Three Maps, folio, stitched 
 
 in cover, Is. Single Maps, id. each. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL PROJECTIONS :— Mercator— Europk— British Isles. Three Maps, 
 
 folio, stitched in cover, \s. Single Maps, 4rf. each. 
 
 TEACHING MAPS : — England, Wales, and Part of Scotland. I. Rivers, Mountains, &c. 
 
 I'ricefi'i. IL Towns. Price 6(i. 
 
 i 
 
28, UPPER GOWER STREET, LONDON. 17 
 
 COMMON-PLACE BOOKS. 
 
 THE LITERARY DIARY ; or Complete Common-Place Book, with an Explanation, 
 
 and an Alphabet of Two Letters on a leaf. Post 4to, ruled throughout and half-bound, price 12*. 
 
 A POCKET COMMON-PLACE BOOK. With Locke's Index. Post 8vo, half-bound, 8.s. 6d. 
 THE STUDENT'S JOURNAL. Arranged, Printed, and Ruled for receiving an Account 
 
 of every Day's Employment for the space of One Year. With an Index and Appendix. Post 8vo, 
 half bound, 4* 6ii. 
 
 " I propose from this day to keep an exact Journal of my Actions and Studies, both to assist my Memory, and 
 accustom me to set a due value on my Time."— Introduction to Gibbon's Journal. 
 
 THE PRIVATE DIARY, formed on the Plan of " The Student's Journal," for general 
 
 Use. PostSvo, half bound, is.6d. 
 " This exact account of my time will make me more sensible of its value : it will dissipate by its detail the illusion 
 which makes us consider only years and months, and disregard hours and days." — Gibbon's Journal. 
 
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 medicine : indeed, we have no hesitation in saying that 
 from its appearance, physiologj' will date a new era in her 
 advancement."— JV/fd. Chir, Hcvicw, October 1842. 
 
 LIEBIG'S AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Second Edition, with very numerous Additions, 9s- 6d. 
 
 CHEMISTRY IN ITS APPLICATIONS 
 
 TO AGRICULTURE and PIIYSIOLOGV. By 
 JtrsTiJs Liebig, M D., Ph. D., F.R S., Professor of 
 Chemistry in the University of Giessen. Edited, 
 from the Manuscript of the Author, by Lyon 
 Playfair, Ph. D. 
 
 ** Our readers, we trust, are by this time con\inced, 
 that the principles of rational agriculture are within the 
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 Dr. Liebig has pointed out the path to be pursued, and 
 has amply vindicated the claim of science to be considered 
 the best guide, by correcting the erroneous ^^ews hitherto 
 prevailing of the sources whence plants derive their nou- 
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 doctrine of manures." — Quarterly Review, March 1842. 
 
 '* Our limits confine us to a few brief notices of a work, 
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 and we do not hesitate to say, that it is a book which 
 ought to be in the possession of every landed proprietor 
 and every liberal-minded and inquiring farmer : the 
 former would be instructed by it, how he might avail him- 
 self of the means which nature presents to him for the 
 improvement of his estates ; and the latter to understand 
 the true nature of his soil, the causes of fertility, and the 
 skilful application of manures for his own and the public 
 benefit."— Grea? Northern Advertiser. 
 
 LABOR.\TORY AT GIESSEN. 
 
 Just Impvrtetly Price I2s. 
 
 EIGHT FOLIO PLATES, Eepiesenting 
 
 the Chemical Laboratory of the University of 
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22 
 
 WORKS PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND WALTON, 
 
 WORKS ON ANATOMY, SURGERY, MEDICINE, &c. 
 
 MR. QUAIN'S WORK ON THE ARTERIES. 
 
 Now ready, Parts I. to XIV., each \2s., 
 
 THE ANATOMY OF THE ARTERIES, 
 
 WITH ITS 
 
 APPLICATIONS TO PATHOLOGY AND OPERATIVE SURGERY. 
 Sn Eit'^ograpfiic iiratoinge, 
 
 THE SIZE OF AND DRAWN FROM NATURE, WITH PRACTICAL COMMENTARIES. 
 
 BY RICHARD QUAIN, 
 
 PROFKSSOR OF ANATOMY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, AND SURGEON TO UNIVERSITY 
 COLLEGE BOSPITAL. 
 
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 Each Part contains Five Plates, accompanied by a Part of Letter-press. 
 The Work will be completed in about seventeen Parts. 
 
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 The object of this Publication is to lay before the Student and Practitioner, by means of accurate 
 delineations and a record of the peculiarities observed in numerous cases, a correct History of the Blood- 
 vessels, arranged especially with a view to its bearing on Practical Surgery. 
 
 PLAN OF THE WORK. 
 
 1st. In the Drawings the Arteries aTc,"in the first place, represented according to their most frequent 
 arrangement, without the accompanying veins and nerves. 
 
 2ndly. They are shown in connection with the larger veins and nerves. 
 
 3rdly. The deviations from that which has been taken as the standard condition of the arteries are 
 illustrated in a series of sketches. 
 
 4thly. Such peculiarities of the veins, and occasionally of the nerves and muscles, as appeared likely 
 to be of importance in surgical operations, are represented on a reduced scale. 
 
 5thly. Illustrations of the State of the Arteries after the Operation* for Aneurism, are given at the 
 end of the publication. 
 
 The Letterpress, besides an explanation of, and remarks on the Drawings, contains — 
 A Series of Tables showing, in a short space, the condition of each of the larger arteries in about 290 
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 And some Practical Commentaries, which consist for the most part of inferences from the facts pre- 
 viously set forth, and their application in the performance of the operations of Surgery. 
 
 In conclusion, we venture to predict, that the accuracy, the originality, the sterling practical usefulness, 
 and, comparatively speaking, the moderate price of this beautiful work, wiii soon place it not only in every public 
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 I)rogress of anatomical science, or in the efficiency and perfection of operative surgery." — Medical Gazette, 
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 *' This is a work excellent both in its conception and execution, and meriting the warmest patronage of the 
 profession. Judging from the specimens before us, we believe that it will not only give us a much more accurate 
 and more complete anatomy of the whole arterial system than we already possessed, but that it will give all the 
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 tion to their beauty and accuracy, they have the great advantage of representing the objects of their natural 
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 " Considering these circumstances, it is surprising that the work can be offered to purchasers at so low a 
 rate as twelve shillings per Part, each containing live Plates." — BritishandFureign Medical Aeuieui, Jan. 1841. 
 . . _ — _j 
 
28, UPPER GOWER STREET, LONDON. 
 
 23 
 
 AN APPLICATION OF PROFESSOR LIEBIG'S PHYSIOLOGY to thk PREVEN- 
 TION AND CURE OF GRAVEL, CALCULUS, and GOUT. By H. Bence Jones, M.A., Cantab. ; 
 Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians, London ; and Fellow of the Chemical Society. 8vo, 6s. 
 
 " In thus expressing our opinion of the practical value of this publication, it is satisfactory to find ourselves 
 supported by Professor Liebig himself, under whose immediate superintendence and sanction, a translation mto 
 German is now pTeparmg."— Pharmaceutical Journal. 
 
 PHYSICAL DIAGNOSIS OF DISEASES OF THE LUNGS. By W. H. Walshe, 
 
 M D., Professor of Pathological Anatomj in University College, Physician to the Hospital for Consump- 
 tion and Diseases of the Chest, iic. Fcap. 8va. 6s. 6d. I Just published.) 
 
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 work on the physical diagnosis of diseases of the lungs, suited for students, so clear and precise, and, at the same 
 time, 60 comprehensive and practical as this."— British and Foreign Medical Review. 
 
 COMPLETION OF MULLERS PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 In Two Volumes 8i'0. each Volume 20s., 
 
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 BY J. MULLER, M.D., 
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 DR. QUAIN'S 
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 A GUIDE TO THE DISSECTION OF THE 
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 BY GEORGE VINER ELLIS, 
 
 One of the Demonstrators of Anatomy in University College. 
 
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 British and Foreign Medical Review, January 1841. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED AND CHEAP EDITION OF 
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 ELEMENTS OF OBSTETRIC 
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 DESCRIPTION AND TREATMENT OF SOME OF 
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 BY DAVID D. DAVIS, M.D., 
 Late Professor of Obstetric Medicine In Uni. College. 
 Second Edition. Accompanied by all the Plates 
 
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 *' Havin?, during a long series of years, accumulated 
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 thanks of established practitioners, and to the grati- 
 tude of all the junior members of the Profession, for 
 thus presenting to them, in an agreeable form, the re- 
 sults of an experience which it can be the lot of few, even 
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 MORTONS SURGICAL ANATOMY- 
 
 With Lithographic Plates and Wood Engravings, 
 
 THE SURGICAL ANATOMY 
 
 " ^ or THK 
 
 PRINCIPAL REGIONS OP THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 BY THOMAS MORTON, 
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 I. THE PERINjEUM ; Four Plates and Three 
 
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 ** The present work is a worthy successor to those 
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 THE SURGEON'S PRACTICAL 
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24 WORKS PUBLISHED BY TAYLOR AND WALTON. 
 
 JUST COMPLETED, 
 
 In two vols, royal folio, half-bound morocco, gilt tops, price \2l. plain, 20/. coloured, 
 
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 ANATOMICAL PLATES, 
 
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 ILLUSTRATING 
 
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 EDITED BY JONES QUAIN, M.D., 
 
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 This Publication consists of a Series of the most approved Anatomical Drawings, some original, 
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 The entire Work consists of 104 Numbers, and 2 Supplements, containing 201 Plates, 
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