W. E. DUITS, LONDON AMSTERDAM v CEILING IN CATACOMB OF S CALISTO, ROME HANDBOOK OF PAINTING, THE ITALIAN SCHOOLS. BASED ON THE HANDBOOK OF KUGLEB. ORIGINALLY EDITED By SIB CHARLES L. EASTLAKE, P.BJL Jifth (Edition. THOROUGHLY REVISED AND B 1'ART REWRITTEN, By AU8TEN LIENRY LA YARD, G.C.IL. IM'.I,. CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE DHBtB DF FRANCE — AC A DEM IB DI> 1K9CBIPTION9 ET BKLLKS LKTTBM ; TRUSTEE OF THE NATIONAL GALLKRV, HO. ; Al TIIOB OF "NINEVEH AND ITS KKMAIN*." IN TWO PARTS. — Pa rt I. WITH NEARLY 250 ILL USTUA TIoXK LONDON • JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMABLE ST BEET. 1887. UNIFORM WITH THE PRESENT WORK. HANDBOOK OF PAINT J NG. — German, Dutch, and Flemish Schools. Based on the Handbook of Kugler. Revised by J. A. Crowe. Illustrations. 2 vols, post 8vo. 24s. LIVES OF THE ITALIAN PAINTEES ; and the Progress of Painting in Italy. Cimabue to Bassano. By Mrs. Jameson. Illustrations. Post 8vo. 12s. LIVES OF THE EARLY FLEMISH PAINTEES, with Notices of their Works. By Crowe and Cavalcaselle. Illustrations. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d. m 6EITY fifci EKEATA TO VOL. I. +*. 9G, line 25, for " Bruntteo" read u Brunetto." „ 135, line 21, for "Albrizzi " read " Albizzi." „ 185, line 24, for "History of Moses*' read "Journey of Moses," and add, line 20, after "bis work," "The History of Moses is, however, by Signorelli." „ 239, plate 1, substitute " Signorelli " for " Pinturiochio." „ 239, line 17, for " History of Moses n read " Journey of Moses." „ „ line 18, del. "(See Woodcut)." „ 247, line 23, for "Giovanni Battani Corporal i " read "Giovanni Battista Caporali." „ 247, line 2G, for " Ghiberti " read " Berto." „ 249, line 17, del. "with whom he was professionally associated." „ 306, note, for " 1507 " read " 1512." „ 332, line 3, for " S. Biagio " read " SS. Nazzaro e Gels..." „ 334, note, for " Joannes " read " [oanilis." CONTENTS. CHAP. PAGE List of Illustrations v Introduction to the Present Edition . xv I. — Early Christian Art. — The Later Roman Style 1 II. — The Byzantine Style .... 30 III. — Art of the Middle Ages. — The Romanesque Style 60 IV. — The Florentine School .... 72 V. — The Florentine School — (continued) . 133 VI. — The Sienese School 187 VII.— The Umbrian School .... 206 VIII. — The So-called Neapolitan School . . 249 IX. — The Veronese School . . . .253 X. — The Paduan School . . . .274 XL — The Venetian School . . . .292 XII. — The Ferrarese School .... 347 XIII. — The Bolognese School . . . .363 XIV. — The Lombard School .... 376 XV. — The Lombard School (continued). — Leonardo da Vinci and his Followers . . .391 XVI. — Michael Angelo Buonarroti and his Followers 429 XVII. — Other Florentine Masters . . . 444 XVIII.— Raphael . 463 CONTENTS. CHAP. PAGE XIX. — The Scholars and Followers of Raphael 533 XX. — The Later Masters of Siena . . . 543 XXI. — Later School of Venice . . . .550 XXII. — Later School of Venice— (continued) . 590 XXIII. — CORREGGIO AND HIS SCHOLARS . . . 626 XXIV. — The Decline of Art in Italy. — The XXVI. — The Naturalisti and Latest Italian Index to Places 728 Mannerists XXV. — Eclectic Schools. 640 650 Painters Index 674 689 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Ceiling in Catacomb of S. Calisto, Rome . 4 Painting on wall of a chamber, left of entrance, in the Catacomb of S. Calisto, representing Daniel, Job, and Moses .... 8 Paintings on wall of a chamber, right of entrance, in the Catacomb of S. Calisto, representing Elijah, a Figure in the attitude of Prayer, No ah in the Ark, and the Raising of Lazarus . . 8 Head of Christ ; from the Catacomb of S. Ponziano in Rome . . 8 Wall Painting in the Catacomb of S. Calisto, representing CHRIST AS A Teacher, surrounded by the Vine with Genii gathering the fruit 9 Mosaics of the 6th century, in S. Vitale, Ravenna, representing Jus- tinian and Theodore 23 Mosaics of the 9th century, in S. Prassede at Rome 49 Madonna Enthroned ; by Cimabue, in S. Maria Novella at Florence 79 Mosaics of the Tribune of St. John Lateran in Rome 83 Mosaics of the Tribune of S. Maria Maggiore in Rome .... 84 St. Francis Wedded to Poverty - ; a painting by Giotto, in the Lower Church of S. Francesco at Assisi 87 St. Francis in Glory ; by Giotto, on the Vault of the Lower Church at Assisi 88 The Navicella ; a mosaic from a design by Giotto, in the Vestibule of St. Peter's, Rome 89 Allegorical Figures of Fortitude, Temperance, and Infidelity ; by Giotto, in the Arena Chapel, Padua 90 Allegorical Figures of Justice and Prudence ; by Giotto, in the Arena Chapel, Padua 90 Marriage of Louis of Tarentum and Giovanna of Naples ; fresco attributed to Giotto at Naples 95 Portraits of Dante, Corso Donato, and Brunetto Latini, in the Chapel of the Podesta at Florence 96 The Triumph of Death ; a fresco in the Campo Santo, Pisa . . Ill The Last Judgment and Hell; a fresco in the Campo Santo, Pisa 112 The Misfortunes of Job; a fresco by Francesco da Volterra, in the Campo Santo at Pisa 115 vi LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. PAGE Scene from the History of Job ; a fresco in the Campo Santo at Pisa, by Francesco da Volterra 116 The Fall of Lucifer, by Spinello of Arezzo ; a fresco in the Church of S. Maria degli Angeli, Arezzo 122 The Flight into Egypt, by Angelico da Fiesole ; a panel compart- ment formerly in the SS. Annunziata, in the Florence Academy 128 Judas Receiving the Money 128 Christ's Entry into Jerusalem, by Angelico da Fiesole ; panel compartments formerly in the SS. Annunziata, in the Florence Academy 128 The Annunciation, by Angelico da Fiesole; a panel compartment formerly in the SS. Annunziata, in the Florence Academy . 128 Coronation of the Virgin and Miracles of St. Dominick ; a picture by Angelico da Fiesole, in the Louvre 130 St. Stephen Preaching ; a fresco by Angelico da Fiesole, in the Vatican Chapel of Nicolas V 132 St. Lawrence ; a fresco by Angelico da Fiesole, in the Vatican Chapel of Nicolas V 132 Noah's Sacrifice ; a fresco in S. Maria Novella at Florence, by Paolo Uccello 137 The Deluge ; a fresco in S. Maria Novella, at Florence, by Paolo Uccello 137 St. Catherine; a fresco by Masolino, in S. Clemente, Rome . . 141 The Fall, by Masolino ; fresco in the Church of S. M. del Carmine, Florence 141 The Expulsion of Adam and Eve, by Masaccio ; fresco in the Church of S. M. del Carmine, Florence 141 St. Peter Baptizing ; a fresco by Masaccio, in the Church of S. M. del Carmine, Florence 144 Resuscitation of the King's Son, by Masaccio and Filippino Lippi ; fresco in the Church of S. M. del Carmine, Florence .... 144 The Tribute Money ; a fresco by Masaccio, in the Church of S. M. del Carmine, Florence 144 Death of St. Stephen ; by Fra Filippo, in the Duomo, Prato . . 149 Calumny; an allegorical picture by S. Botticelli, in the Uffizi . . 154 The History of Moses ; a fresco by Sandro Botticelli, in the Sistine Chapel 155 Madonna and Child, with Angels ; by S. Botticelli, in the Gallery of the Uffizi at Florence 156 St. Paul Addressing St. Peter in Prison ; from a fresco by Filippino Lippi, in the Carmine, Florence 160 Martyrdom of St. Peter ; a fresco by Filippino Lippi, in the Church of S. M. del Carmine, Florence 160 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. vii PACK Madonna and Angels ; tondo by Raffaellino del Garbo, in the Museum at Berlin 162 Noah and His Family ; a fresco in the Campo Santo at Pisa, by Benozzo Gozzoli 166 Christ's Sermon on the Mount ; a fresco in the Sistine Chapel, by Cosimo Rosselli 167 The Calling of Peter and Andrew ; a fresco in the Sistine Chapel, by D. Ghirlandajo 171 St. Jerome; a fresco by D. Ghirlandajo, in the Ognissanti, Florence 17_' The Death of St. Francis ; a fresco in S. Trinita at Florence, by D. Ghirlandajo 173 The Birth of the Virgin ; a fresco by Ghirlandajo, in the choir of S. Maria Novella, at Florence 174 Martyrdom of St. Sebastian ; by Antonio and Pietro Pollajuolo, National Gallery 178 Baptism of Christ ; by Andrea del Verocchio, in the Academia, Florence 17.^ The Nativity ; an altar-piece by Lorenzo di Credi, in the Academy of Arts at Florence 18o Figures from Luca Signorelli's fresco of Hell, in the Duomo at Orvietto 184 The "Fulminati:" Destruction of the Wicked; part of a fresco -by Luca Signorelli, in the Duomo at Orviecto . . . 1S4 The Paradise ; a fresco by Luca Signorelli, in the Duomo at Orvietto ] 84 The School of Pan, by Luca Signorelli ; an oil painting in the Berlin Gallery 185 Altar-piece by Guido da Siena, in the Church of S. Domenico, Siena 187 Christ's Entry into Jerusalem ; compartment from a large altar- piece by Duccio of Siena ... 189 Compartment from a large altar-piece by Duccio of Siena . . 189 Christ Found in the Temple ; a picture by Simone Martini, in the Royal Institution, Liverpool 194 Madonna and Saints ; a fresco in the Town Hall of S. Gemignano, by Lippo Memmi 195 Allegory of Good Government ; a fresco in the Town Hall of Siena, by Ambrogio Lorenzetti 198 The Apostles' Visit to the Virgin ; a fresco in S. Francesco at Pisa, by Taddeo di Bartolo 199 St. Barbara, Saints and Angels; an altar-piece by Matteo da Siena, in the Church of S. Domenico at Siena 20:3 The Nativity - ; a fresco by Girolamo del Pacchia, in the Brother- hood of S. Bernardino at Siena 206 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Madonna and Saints ; a wall-painting by Ottaviano Nelli, in S. Maria Nuova at Gubbio 208 The Adoration of the Kings; an altar-piece by Gentile da Fabriano, in the Academy of Arts at Florence 211 Altar-piece by Pietro della Francesca, or Fra Carnevali, in the Brera, Milan i 218 Federigo da Urbino in Triumphal Car ; by Pietro della Fran- cesca, Uffizi Gallery, Florence 219 Angel ; by Melozzo da Forli, in the Sacristy of St. Peter's, Rome . 220 Angel; by Melozzo da Forli, in the Sacristy of St. Peter's, Rome . 220 Madonna with Saints ; an altar-piece by Giovanni Santi, at Montefiorentino 225 The Death of St. Louis ; a fresco by Benedetto Bonfigli, in the Palazzo Pubblico at Perugia 230 Christ delivering the keys to Peter; a fresco by Pietro Perugino, in the Sistine Chapel 232 The Marriage of the Virgin ; an alter-piece by Pietro Perugino, in the Museum of Caen 234 The Resurrection ; attributed to Pietro Perugino, in the gallery of the Vatican 236 The Adoration of the Magi ; a fresco by Pietro Perugino, at Citta della Pieve 236 The History of Moses ; a fresco in the Sistine Chapel, probably by Pinturicchio '. . 239 Virgin, Child, Angels, and Donor, by Pinturicchio, in the Sacristy of the Duomo of S. Severino 239 ^Eneas Piccolomini going to the Council of Basle ; a fresco by Pinturicchio, in the Library at Siena 242 The so-called 1 Ancajani Raphael,' attributed to Lo Spagna, in the Berlin Museum 245 The Last Supper ; a fresco in S. Onofrio at Florence .... 247 Holy Family ; by Domenico di Paris Alfani 248 The Landing of the Body of St. James ; fresco by Altichiero, in the Cappella S. Felice in S. Antonio, Padua 256 St. George baptising a Heathen King ; fresco by Altichiero, in St. George's Chapel, Padua 258 Martyrdom of St. George ; fresco by Altichiero, in St. George's Chapel, Padua 258 Madonna and Saints ; a fresco by Francesco Morone, formerly near the Ponte delle Navi at Verona 264 Christ taken down from the Cross ; an altar-piece in the Church of Malcesine, by Girolamo dai Libri 269 Christ taken down from the Cross ; by Cavazzola, in the Public Gallery of Verona . . 270 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ix PAGE Mutius Scjevola befoke Porsenna ; a fresco by Montagnana, once in the Town Hall at Belluno 282 S. Eufemia, by Mantegna, Brera 284 St. James blessing a Convert on his way to Martyrdom ; by Mantegna, in the Chapel of the Eremitani at Padua . . . 285 The Triumph of Julius Caesar ; from cartoon by Andrea Mantegna, at Hampton Court 287 The Triumph of Julius Caesar; from a cartoon by Andrea Mantegna, at Hampton Court 287 The Marquis of Gonzaga and his Family ; a fresco in the Castello of Mantua, by Andrea Mantegna 287 The Triumph of Scipio ; by Andrea Mantegna, in the National Gallery 288 Virgin, Child, and Saints; an altar-piece by Bartolommeo Montagna, in the Brera at Milan 290 Virgin and Child enthroned ; by Giovanni and Antonio da Murano, in the Venice Academy 297 St. Augustin ; by Bartolommeo Vivarini 299 An altar-piece by Bartolommeo Vivarini, in the Naples Gallery . . 299 The Crucifixion ; by Jacopo Bellini, once in the Cathedral of Verona 302 Portrait of Sultan Mehemet; by Gentile Bellini, in the possession of Sir A. H. Layard 304 A Miracle by the Relic of the True Cross ; by Gentile Bellini, in the Venice Academy 306 The 'PietA'; by Giovanni Bellini, in the Brera, Milan . . . . 309 Virgin, Child, and Saints ; an altar-piece, by Giovanni Bellini, in the Academy of Arts at Venice 311 Bacchanal ; by Giovanni Bellini and Titian, in the collection of the Duke of Northumberland 313 The Crucifixion; by Antonello da Messina, in the Antwerp Gallery 317 History of St. Ursula ; by Vittore Carpaccio, in the Venice Academy 320 The Presentation in the Temple ; an altar-piece by Vittore Carpaccio, in the Venice Academy 321 The Incredulity of St. Thomas ; an altar-piece by Cima da Conegliano, in the Venice Academy 326 Virgin, Child, and Saints ; an altar-piece by Luigi Vivarini, in the Venice Academy 327 Coronation of Catherine of Siena; altar-piece, by Pietro Francesco Bissolo, in the Venice Gallery 329 The Agony in the Garden; by Marco Basaiti,in the Venice Academy 330 X LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS. A Miracle by the Relic of the True Cross; by Giovanni Mansueti, in the Venice Academy 332 Marriage of St. Catherine ; by Andrea Previtali, in the Sacristy of the Church of San Giobbe at Venice 334 The Virgin, Child, and Saints ; an altar-piece by Carlo Crivelli, at Dudley House 344 Virgin, Child, and Saints; an altar-piece by Francesco Cossa, in the Gallery of Bologna 349 The Court of Isabella d'Este ; an allegory by Lorenzo Costa, in the Louvre 354 Circe ; a picture by Dosso Dossi, in the Borghese Gallery, Rome . 359 The Nativity ; an altar-piece by Francesco Francia, in the Gallery of Bologna 366 Virgin and Child, and Saints ; by Timoteo Viti, in the Brera, Milan 371 Plates, probably painted by Timoteo Viti, Correr Museum, Venice . 373 The Magdalen; a picture by Timoteo Viti, in the Bologna Gallery 373 The Martyrdom of St. Sebastian ; a picture by Vincenzo Foppa, in the Brera, Milan 379 The Adoration of the Magi ; a picture by Bramantino, in the possession of Sir Henry Layard 380 Alter-piece in the Brera, Milan, by Bernardino de Conti .... 385 The Marriage of St. Catherine ; a picture by Boccacino, in the Venice Academy 389 Group from Leonardo da Vinci's celebrated cartoon, The Battle OF the Standard 407 St. Anna and the Virgin and Infant Christ, by Leonardo da Vinci, in the Louvre 409 St. Catherine borne to the Tomb by Angels ; a fresco by Luini, in the Brera, Milan 423 Group of Women ; from a fresco by Gaudenzio Ferrari, in a Chapel of the Sacro Monte, Varallo 426 Group of Angels; by Gaudenzio Ferrari, in the Cupola of the Church of Saronno 427 The Holy Family ; by Michael Angelo, in the Tribune in the Uffizi, Florence .433 A portion of Michael Angelo's celebrated cartoon — Soldiers BATHING IN THE ARNO 433 Jeremiah ; by Michael Angelo, on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel 437 A Group by Michael Angelo, from the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. 438 The Last Judgment ; by Michael Angelo, in the Sistine Chapel . 440 The Conversion of St. Paul ; a fresco by Michael Angelo, in the Vatican .441 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xi PAGE The Descent from the Cross ; by Daniele da Volterra, Rome . . 444 The Last Judgment ; a fresco by Fra Bartolommeo and Alberti- nelli, in S. Maria Nuova at Florence 446 The Marriage of St. Catherine of Siena; an altar-piece by Fra Bartolommeo, in the Pitti at Florence 448 The Holy Family ; an oil painting by Fra Bartolommeo, in Earl Cowper's collection at Pansh anger 448 St. Mark ; by Fra Bartolommeo, in the Pitti 450 A Group from the Madonna della Misericordia, by Fra Bartolommeo, in the Public Gallery, Lucca 450 The Presentation in the Temple ; by Fra Bartolommeo, in the Vienna Gallery 450 The Visitation ; by Mariotto Albertinelli, in the Gallery of the Uffizi, Florence 451 The Crucifixion ; a fresco by Fra Paolino, in S. Spirito at Siena . 453 The Birth of the Virgin ; a fresco by Andrea del Sarto, in the SS. Annunziata at Florence 457 The Madonna del Sacco ; a fresco by A. del Sarto, in the SS. Annunziata at Florence 458 St. Zenobius restoring a Boy to Life ; by Ridolfo Ghirlandajo, in the Gallery of the Uffizi, Florence . 462 Vision of a Knight ; drawing by Raphael, in the National Gallery 468 The Marriage of the Virgin ; by Raphael, in the Brera . . . 475 Raphael's first fresco ; S. Severo, Perugia 479 The Madonna del Cardellino; by Raphael, Uffizi, Florence. . 481 The Entombment ; by Raphael, in the Borghese Gallery, Rome . 484 Poetry, or the Parnassus; a fresco by Raphael, in the Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican 489 La Disputa del Sacramento ; a fresco by Raphael, in the Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican 489 The School of Athens ; a fresco by Raphael, in the Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican 491 Heliodorus ; a fresco by Raphael, in the second Stanza of the Vatican 495 The Conversion of St. Paul ; a tapestry in the Vatican . . . 506 The Stoning of St. Stephen ; a tapestry in the Vatican . . . 506 Apostles; designed by Raphael and engraved by Marc' Antonio . 509 Apostles ; designed by Raphael and engraved by Marc' Antonio . 509 St. Michael ; by Raphael, in the Louvre 522 Lo Spasimo di Sicilia ; by Raphael, in the Madrid Gallery . . . 523 The Transfiguration ; by Raphael, Vatican Gallery .... 524 The Overthrow of the Giants ; by Giulio Romano, Palazzo del Te, Mantua 536 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE The Presentation in the Temple ; a fresco by Baldassare Peruzzi, in S. Maria della Pace at Rome 549 Picture by Giorgione, Giovanelli Collection, Venice 553 Sleeping Venus ; by Giorgione, Dresden Gallery 554 Altar-piece by Sebastian del Piombo, at Venice 559 Altar-piece by Palma Vecchio, Vicenza 565 Descent from the Cross ; by Rocco Marconi, Venice Academy . 568 S. Antonino Distributing Alms ; by L. Lotto, Venice .... 569 Dives and Lazarus ; by Bonifazio, Venice Academy .... 573 Feast of the Pharisee ; by Moretto, Venice 579 The Glorification of the Virgin ; by Savoldo, in the Brera, Milan 584 Altar-piece by Pordenone, in S. Giovanni Elimosinario, Venice . . 587 Glory of St. Lorenzo Giustiniani ; by G. Antonio Pordenone, in the Academy at Venice 588 Virgin and Child with SS. Ulfo and Brigida ; by Titian, in the Madrid Gallery 595 St. Peter Martyr ; by Titian, formerly in SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice ' 599 Charles the Fifth on the Field of Muhlberg ; by Titian, in the Madrid Gallery 605 Fisherman Presenting St. Mark's Ring to the Doge ; by Paris Bordone, Venice Academy 610 The Entombment ; probably by Caprioli, in the Monte di Pieta at Treviso 611 The Miracle of St. Mark; by Tintoretto, Venice Academy . . 614 St. Sebastian Going to Martyrdom ; by Paul Veronese, Church of S. Sebastiano, Venice 619 Virgin and Child ; by Correggio, in the Uffizi, Florence . . . 627 Portion of Correggio's fresco, The Assumption of the Virgin, Parma 631 Madonna Adoring the Child; by Correggio, in the Uffizi, Florence 632 Moses Breaking the Tables of the Law; by Parmigianino, Parma 639 The Communion of St. Jerome ; by Domenichino, in the Vatican Gallery 657 Phosbus and Aurora ; a fresco by Guido Reni, in a pavilion of the Rospigliosi Palace, Rome 662 The Triumph of David ; by Matteo Rosselli, Pitti Gallery, Florence. . . 671 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii THE MADONNAS OF EAPHAEL. PAGE 1. Berlin Museum . . .472 2. St. Luke painting the Madonna, a spurious picture, Rome . . 472 3. Berlin Museum . . . 472 4. Hermitage, St. Peters- burg 472 5. Del Gran Duca, Florence 472 8. Colonna altar-piece, King of Naples .... 478 9. Ansidei Raphael, National Gallery . . . .478 10. The Cardellino, Tribune, ITffizi 478 11. Virgin in the Meadow, Vienna . . . .478 12. Holy Family and Palm tree Bridgewater House 478 13. Holy Family, St. Peters- burg 478 14. Virgin and Child, Due d'Aumale .... 478 15. Canigiani Raphael, Munich .... 478 16. Virgin with the Pink, a copy 478 17. Madonna of the Casa Tempi, Munich . . 478 18. Virgin and Sleeping Child 478 19. Virgin and Child, Pan- shanger . . . .478 20. Colonna Madonna, Berlin 478 PAGE 21. La Belle Jardiniere, Louvre .... 483 22. Del Baldacchino, Florence 483 23. Madrid Gallery ... 483 24. Wendelstadt .... 483 25. Loreto 483 26. Casa d'Alba, St. Peters- burg 483 27. Garvagh, Nat. Gallery 483 28. Diademe. Louvre . . 483 29. Madonna di Foligno, Rome 483 30. Bridgewater Gallery, London .... 483 31. Formerly Rogers, London 483 32. Divin' Amore, Naples . 483 33. Del Pesce, Madrid . . 483 34. Delia Sedia, Florence . 483 35. Delia Tenda, Munich . 483 36. Under the Oak, Madrid . 520 37. The Pearl, Madrid . . 520- 38. Holy Family, Louvre . 520 39. Small Holy Family, Louvre .... 520 40. Di San Sisto, Dresden . 520 41. Dell' Impannata, Florence 520 42. Riposo, Vienna ... 520 43. Madonna del Passeggio, London .... 520 44. Vierge aux Candelabres . 520 45. Madonna among Ruins . 520 46. "Ecce Agnus Dei," London 520 47. Delia Gatta, Naples . . 520 48. ? Raphael, UlBzi, Florence 520 1NTK0DUCTI0N TO THE PKESENT EDITION. Kugler's ' Handbook of Painting ' was first published, in German, in the year 1837.* In 1851 an English translation of that part of it which relates to the Italian schools was edited by an eminent critic, connoisseur, and scholar, the late Sir Charles Eastlake. The additions made to the knowledge of the lives and works of the early Italian painters by Messrs. Crowe and Cavalcaselle's * History of Painting in Italy from the Second to the Sixteenth Century,' rendered a new edition of the * Handbook ' necessary. It was undertaken by Lady Eastlake, an accomplished writer, who was specially qualified for the task by an exceptional acquaintance with Art, and who enjoyed the additional advantage of the use of the careful notes on pictures and galleries made by her husband during frequent visits to Italy, chiefly when Director of the National Gallery. The 1 Handbook,' revised and remodeled by her, was published in 1874, and has remained a standard work on the subject of which it treats. A book has, however, since appeared which may be con- sidered, in many respects, the most important contribution ever made to the study of Art, and may be said to have caused a revolution in the history of Italian painting, and to have been the first successful attempt to give a sound and scientific basis to investigations into the genuineness of pictures ascribed to the Italian Masters. The work referred to was published in German, with the title of ' Die Werke Italienischer Meister in den Galerien von Miinchen, Dresden und Berlin ; ein kritischer Versuch von Ivan Lermolieff ' — an anagram, with a Eussian termination, of the Author's name. He was not long able to maintain his disguise. The * 'Handbuch der Geschichte der Malerei von Constantin dem Grossen lis auf unsere Zeit,' von Franz Theodor Kugler. 2 vols. 8vo. Berlin, 1837. xvi INTRODUCTION TO THE PRESENT EDITION. Russian enquirer, who ventured to dispute, so boldly, the opinions and decisions of the most learned professors of Germany, and of others who claimed special knowledge on the subject, was soon identified with Signor Giovanni Morelli, a member of the Italian Senate who had taken a leading part, when a Deputy to the Italian Parliament, in legislative measures for the preservation to his country of works of art contained in churches and other public institu- tions, and who was already known as the most distinguished of Italian critics and connoisseurs by his articles on the Borghese Gallery at Rome.* Signor Morelli has since allowed his name to appear as its author in an English translation of his book.f Signor Morelli's work caused a profound sensation — especially in Germany, where the study of Art is pursued with greater ardour, and upon more scientific principles, than in any other country. The novelty of his opinions, his method of analysis, and the unsparing way in which he destroyed the reputation of many famous pictures, and exposed the falsity of many time-honoured traditions in the history of painting, raised, at first, a storm of protests. But his views have now, for the most part, been accepted, and have even led to extensive changes in the naming and classing of pictures in the principal German galleries; whilst in England and elsewhere his method of investigation has been approved and adopted by the ablest writers on Art. In his own country he has founded a school of criticism, and has many distinguished folio wers.J * Published in the 4 Zeitschrift far bildende Kunst.' t ' Italian Masters in German Galleries. A critical essay on the Italian pictures in the Galleries of Munich, Dresden, Berlin, by Giovanni Morelli, member of the Italian Senate. Translated from the German by Mrs. Louise M. Richter.' London: George Bell & Sons, 1883. An Italian translation, with some additional notes by the Author, still under the name of Lermolieff, has recently been published at Bologna. It is to be wished that Signor Morelli could be persuaded to publish a work con- taining so rich a mine of knowledge in a different and more methodical form, and to make such additions to it from his boundless stores of in- formation as would render it still more useful to the Art-student. X Among them may be mentioned Signor Marco Minghetti, the eminent statesman, and, at one time, Italian Prime Minister, the author of a Life of Raphael recently published ; the Marchese Visconti-Venosta, formerly Minister for Foreign Affairs, the author of ' Una nuova critica dell' antica INTRODUCTION TO THE PEESENT EDITION, xvii The appearance of a book of this importance alone would have rendered a revised edition of Kugler's work necessary. Moreover, many pictures mentioned in the 1 Handbook ' as existing in churches and public edifices in Italy have been removed to local galleries and museums, and these changes of place required to be recorded. Again, some of the numerous aud remarkable additions which have, of late years, been made to the National Gallery, now ranking among the first collections in Europe, especially as a chronological series illustrating the history of Italian painting and of its various schools, equally required notice.* In addition, recent researches in Italian Archives have brought to light facts and dates which disprove the statements of Vasari with respect to many artists whose biographies he wrote, and to the works he ascribes to them — statements which have been generally accepted as true by subsequent writers on Art.f The Editor has endeavoured, by making the necessary additions and corrections, to render the ' Handbook ' what it was originally intended to be — a help to the student of Art and a guide to the traveller. With this object he has visited most of the galleries and churches mentioned in it. He has had the advantage of having been accompanied, on many occasions, in these visits by Signor Morelli himself, and of learning from his own lips his views of pictures and their authors. To information thus obtained orally from him, to his writings, and to his help in revising Herr Pittura Italiana,' published in the 1 Nuova Antologia,' v. xlvi. ; Dr. Gustavo Frizzoni, the author of several able works and essays on the Fine Arts, &c. To the north of the Alps, among those who have accepted his views anil ably supported them, are Dr. Jean Paul Richter, and Dr. Francis Wickhoff, Professor of Fine Arts in the University of Vienna. * It is to be regretted that the want of space in the National Gallery, and the defective construction of the building itself, considering the purpose for which it is intended, render a complete systematic and chro- nological arrangement of the pictures, according to schools, impossible. The collection is thus deprived of much of its usefulness to the Art-student, and is, in some respects, misleading to the general public. f The discoveries of Signor Gaetano Milanesi, the learned Sub-Director of the Florentine Archives, may be specially mentioned. They are principally embodied in notes and commentaries to the biographies of Vasari in Sansoni's edition of the works of that writer, Florence, 1878-1883. Re- searches similar to those of Signor Milanesi, and attended with similar results, have been made in other Italian archives, as by Professor Rossi at Perugia, Signor Venturi at Modena, &c. h xviii INTRODUCTION TO THE PRESENT EDITION". Kugler's work, the Editor is largely indebted for any new matter of value which he has been able to add to the present edition of the ' Handbook.' The Editor has also to return thanks to Dr. Kichter for much valuable information. Whilst making such corrections with regard to the description, localities, and nomenclature of pictures as were required, the Editor has retained, in most instances, the judgment pronounced upon their merits and qualities by Herr Kugler, corroborated as it has been by Sir Charles and Lady Eastlake. It would, indeed, have been presump- tuous on his part to have made any changes in this respect. It will be observed that the division of the ' Handbook,' in previous editions, into " periods of development " has been abandoned, and, instead, separate and fuller descrip- tions have been given of the different schools of Italian painting with their branches — those painters which belong respectively to them being grouped together — from their earliest time to that in which they lost their distinctive characteristics, and were overwhelmed by that general flood of eclecticism which permeated Italy from the closing years of the sixteenth century. Each has its own history — its periods of rise, of development, and of decline, not always corresponding with those of contemporary schools —and each, consequently, should be treated separately. This the present Editor has attempted to do, especially as regards the schools of Northern Italy, the account of which he has re-written, partly from his own personal observations and inspection of pictures, and partly from new information concerning them recently published. He trusts that this edition of the * Handbook ' will consequently be more com- plete and more useful to the student than its predecessor. " Hard and fast lines " fixing periods of development are not to be drawn in the history of Art. They can, at best, be but arbitrary and unscientific. If any divisions are to be made, those suggested by Signor Morelli appear to be pre- ferable. The first, or, as he terms it, " heroic " period, ac- cording to him, is that in which the religious sentiment domi- nated the plastic faculty, and the painter ornamented the walls of churches with divine images, Biblical stories and the INTRODUCTION TO THE PRESENT EDITION, xix legends of saints, for the encouragement of piety; and those of public edifices with symbols and subjects conveying moral precepts, intended to teach citizens the advantages of justice, good government, peace and concord. In the second period, the artist, giving himself up to the study of anatomy and perspective, endeavoured to imitate nature faithfully by attempting to produce the effect of relief by chiaroscuro, and to portray the exact proportions of the human form. This period, which the Italians style that of the " quattro-centisti," Signor Morelli terms that of " character," because the primary object of the painter was to seize and represent the moral and material character of persons and things. It was succeeded by that of the " Renaissance," in which the techni- cal processes of painting — principally owing to the use of oil as a vehicle — reached their greatest perfection. The artist now sought to raise the forms, closely imitated from nature by the " quattro-centisti," to the highest order of ideal beauty, and to give to the representation of the sentiments and affections the utmost ideal grace and energy. This third period extends over the last ten years of the fifteenth century and the first thirty years of the sixteenth, and includes the greatest painters that Italy has produced. Then followed the era of mannerism, eclecticism and decline, and that of the Academies which proved fatal to Italian Art, and brought about its virtual extinction. All the Italian schools, like living organisms, have gone through, although not contemporaneously, these successive periods. Signor Morelli maintains that, in order to account for certain features and peculiarities which some schools and painters may have had in common, writers on Art have hitherto attached too much importance to the influence which one school is supposed to have had over another, or which foreigners — such as Van der Weyden and other Flemings — may have had upon Italian artists. He has shown that although, at times, a great master like Giotto or Mantegna, may by the force of his genius have given an impulse and direction to contemporary art, or a painter of one school may have learnt his technical methods from one of another, yet that each true school of painting in Italy, like the various XX INTRODUCTION TO THE PKESENT EDITION. dialects of the Italian language, was the spontaneous manifes- tation — the product, as it were — of the thoughts, feelings, traditions, and manners of the population of that part of the Peninsula in which it rose, and that it retained until it became extinct its general characteristics and types, which are to be traced in the works of all those who belonged to it, however much they may have been affected by influences from without. It is only by studying the history of each school, and the works of the painters it produced, that a full knowledge of the rise, development, and decline of Art in Italy can be acquired. This can be best done in local museums in which those works have been brought together — such, for instance, as the Brera for the Lombard School, the Verona Gallery for the Veronese, the Venice Academy for the Venetian, the Pinacoteca at Perugia for the Umbrian, that at Siena for the Sienese, &c* The races from which the diverse populations of Italy originally sprang have not all shown the same aptitude for the Fine Arts. Whilst the Etruscans, the Umbrians, the Venetians and the Lombards have been specially gifted in this respect, the Romans, Neapolitans, and Ligurians, or Piedmontese, have had no indigenous, distinctive schools of painting. The so-called Eoman and Neapolitan schools did not owe their origin or development to native artists, nor has either of them produced a painter of eminence who did not derive his art from a foreign source. Piedmont is altogether without a school of painting — those painters who came from Vercelli belonging to that of Lombardy. On the other hand, there is scarcely a town in the remaining parts of the Peninsula which has not produced artists of renown — painters, sculptors, or architects. The connection between race and art would form an interesting subject for study and investigation. The zones in which the Fine * The student of Italian art may consult with advantage the copies made for the Arundel Society of frescoes and pictures by Italian painters, exhibited at the Society's rooms (19 St. James's Street) and partly repro- duced in chromolithography. They illustrate the histories of the various schools of Italian painting from the thirteenth to the eighteenth centuries —from Cimabue to Tiepolo. INTRODUCTION TO THE PRESENT EDITION, xxi Arts have flourished, and those in which the populations have no natural disposition for them, might almost be marked out geographically on a map of Italy.* In adding, in some instances, to the pictures described in former editions as examples of different masters, the Editor has selected only such as are specially deserving of notice, or as have become known since the last edition was published. For a complete list of their works, which the ' Handbook' does not pretend to give, the reader is referred to the ex- haustive volumes of Messrs. Crowe and Cavaleaselle. It must not be forgotten that there are but few pictures by the old Italian Masters, whether in public or private collections, which have not undergone the fatal process of "restoration." Not only have the greater number of them been covered, more or less, with " re-paints," but they have also been rubbed down almost to the panel or canvas, under the pretence of requiring preliminary cleaning, so that littlo of the original surface remains, and the work of the painter is alone seen in the composition. It is therefore, as Signor Morelli has pointed out, only by recognising peculiar and characteristic forms, such as those of the hand and fingers, of the foot, of the ear, &c, that a picture can be frequently ascribed to its true author. He consequently urges the study of original drawings and sketches by the old masters, which have not been tanrpered with, as affording the best materials for coming to a right judgment as to the genuineness of works attributed to them. This process of cleaning and restoration has everywhere prevailed, and every European collection unfortunately shows * See some interesting observations on this subject in Signor Morelli's introduction to ' Italian Masters in German Galleries.' He remarks, "Among the populations of old Italy that were mostly endowed with the sense of art, we count the Etruscans ; among those who were devoid of this feeling are the Latins. Hence the latter have produced great citizens, great legislators, statesmen, lawyers and warriors, but not a single national School of Art," p. 253, note. Messrs. Crowe and Caval- easelle (' Life of Raphael,' vol. i. pp. 4 and 5), give a list of the painters employed at the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the six- teenth century, in the decoration of the Vatican : it does not include a single artist of Roman origin, except Giulio Romano, who was the pupil and follower and imitator of Raphael, and who is far from taking a place in the first rank. xxii INTRODUCTION TO THE PEESENT EDITION. the results of it. But in no country has it been more system- atically practised, and in none has it proved more destructive to the most noble works of Art, than in Italy. An official " restorer " has been attached to most Italian public galleries — usually an ignorant dauber who has failed to become a painter, and has had sufficient influence to obtain the appoint- ment. As he is only paid, generaliy by the day, when em- ployed, he contrives that a picture should always be on his easel for cleaning and restoring, and when all those in the collection of which he has charge have gone through his hands, he commences anew with them. This state of things having existed for very many years — each freshly appointed " restorer " undoing and redoing the work of his predecessor — the little that may have remained of the original picture soon disappears altogether. Thus not only the pictures in the Academy and the Ducal Palace, but those in the churches at Venice and in the neighbourhood, have passed more than once into the repairing rooms of various suc- cessive official restorers, whose hands, rather than that of the master, may now be traced in almost every picture of any importance in the Venetian territory. The celebrated altar-piece by Titian in the Church of the Frari, with the portraits of the Pesaro family, has, it is believed, been " restored " seven times, and the important early work by the same great painter in the Church of the Salute — St. Mark enthroned — perhaps as many. They both underwent the operation so late as 1884. The once-splendid altar-piece by Giorgione in the church of his native town, Castelfranco, retains little but the composition. Now that it is too late, an attempt is being made by the Italian Government to put a stop to this work of destruction. The student and traveller should bear these facts in mind when contemplating, with feelings of disappointment, some renowned picture which may once have excited universal admiration by its brilliant colouring and for beauty and refinement of expression — two qualities which, the most precious in a work of painting, are the first to disappear under the brush of the "restorer." They should also be placed upon their guard against the fabrication of ' pictures by the old masters ' and the falsifica- INTRODUCTION TO THE PRESENT EDITION, xxiii tion of their signatures — practices which have been carried on in Italy with no little skill and success from even the time at which those masters lived up to the present day. Sir Charles Eastlake's valuable Preface to the first English translation of the ' Handbook,' treating of the character and end of Art, has been retained in the present edition, and his notes are still indicated by his initials, C.L.E. Numerous illustrations have been added to these volumes, mostly of the works of the principal Italian Masters of the sixteenth century, who were not adequately represented in the previous editions. In order not to increase inconveniently the size of the ' Handbook ' by the addition of fresh matter, the Editor has curtailed the descriptions of early Christian mosaics and catacomb wall-paintings, contributed by Dr. Jacob Burckhardt to the German edition of 1847, which, however valuable and interesting, belong rather to the domain of archaeology than to that of Art. The Editor himself has endeavoured to make the index to these volumes as full and complete as possible ; for without such an index a work of this nature loses much of its value. A. Henry Latabd. Venice, 188G. PKEFACE BY SIR CHARLES L. EASTLAKE TO FIRST ENGLISH EDITION. In tracing the history of Painting and the different character of its schools, we find that an equal measure of the world's approbation has been sometimes awarded to productions apparently opposite in their style and aim. This is not to be explained by the variety of tastes in connoisseurs ; for, allowing for all individual and peculiar predilections, the approbation in question may be admitted to be universal. This admission supposes the existence of some less mutable criterion; and it, is therefore important to inquire what are its grounds. Considered generally, the Arts are assumed to have a common character and end : this principle is, however, too vague and unde- fined to meet the question we have started. The opposite process — the discrimination of the different means by which a common end is arrived at — will be found to lead to more definite and in- telligible results. In all the Fine Arts some external attraction, some element of beauty, is the vehicle of mental pleasure or moral interest ; but in considering the special form, or means, of any one of the Arts, as distinguished from the rest, the excellence of each will be found not to arise from the qualities which it possesses in common with its rivals, but from those qualities which are peculiar to itself. We thus comprehend why various schools have attained great celebrity in spite of certain defects. It is because their defects are generally such as other modes of expression could easily and better supply : their excellences, on the contrary, are their own, and not to be attained except in the form of art proper to them. Such ex- cellences constitute what may be called Specific Style. Accordingly, it may always be assumed that pictures of acknow- ledged merit, of whatever school, owe their reputation to the display of qualities that belong to the art of Painting. In histories of painting these merits are often attempted to be conveyed c XXVI PREFACE TO FIRST ENGLISH EDITION. in words, and the mode in which language endeavours to give an equivalent for the impressions produced by a picture is at once an illustration of the above principles. The changes of time, of motion, the imagined interchange of speech, the comparison with things not present — all facts beyond the scope of a silent, stationary, and immutable Art — are resorted to without scruple in describing pictures ; and yet the description does not therefore strike us as untrue. It will immediately be seen that the same liberty is allowable and necessary when representation enters into rivalry with description. The eye has its own poetry ; and as the mute lan- guage of nature in its simultaneous effect (the indispensable con- dition of harmony) produces impressions which words restricted to mere succession can but imperfectly embody, so the finest qualities of the formative arts are those which language cannot adequately convey.* On the same grounds it must be apparent that a servile attention to the letter of description, such as accuracy of historic details, exactness of costume, &c M are not essential in them- selves, but are valuable only in proportion as they assist the purposes of the art, or produce an effect on the imagination. This may sufficiently explain why an inattention to these points, on the part of great painters (and poets, as compared with mere historians), has interfered so little with their reputation. In this instance, while the powers of Painting are opposed to those of language generally, they are, on the same principle, distinguished in many respects from those of Poetry ; and in like manner, if we suppose a comparison with Sculpture, or with any other imitative art, the strength of Painting will still be found to consist in the attributes proper to itself. Of those attributes, some may be more prominent in one school, some in another ; but they are all valued in proportion as they are characteristic — because, in short, the results are unattainable in the same perfection by any other means. The principle here dwelt on with regard to Painting is equally applicable to all the Fine Arts : each art, as such, is raised by raising- its characteristic qualities; each displays those means of expression in which its rivals are deficient, in order to compensate for those in which its rivals surpass it. The principle extends even to the rivalry of the formative Arts generally with nature. The absence of sound, and of progressive action, is supplied by a more significant, mute, and momen- tary appearance. The arrangement which, apparently artless, fixes the attention on important points, the emphasison essential as opposed to adventitious qualities, the power of selecting expressive forms, of * See Lessinsfs ' Laokoon.' Compare' Harris, ' Three Treatises,' London, 1 744. PREFACE TO FIRST ENGLISH EDITION. XXvii arresting evanescent beauties, are all prerogatives and resources by means of which a feeble imitation successfully contends even with its great archetype. As this selection and adaptation are the qualities in which imitation, as opposed to nature, is strong, so any approach to literal rivalry is, as usual, in danger of betraying comparative weak- ness. Could the imitation of living objects, for example, in Painting or in Sculpture, be carried to absolute deception as regards their mere surface, we should only be the more reminded that life and motion were wanting. On the other hand, relative completeness, or that consistency of convention which suggests no want — the test of style — is attainable in the minuter as well as in the larger view of nature, and may be found in some of the Dutch as well as in the Italian masters. Even the elements of beauty, incompatible as they might seem to be with the subjects commonly treated by the Dutch, are found to reside in charm of colour, tone, chiaroscuro, and in other qualities. The rivalry of the Arts with Nature thus suggests the definition of their general style. The rivalry of Art with Art points out their specific style. Both relate to the means. The end of the Arts is defined not only by their general nature, but by the consideration to whom they are addressed. The necessity of appealing, directly or indirectly, to human sympathies, as distinguished from those asso- ciations and impressions which are the result of partial or peouliai study, tends to correct an exaggerated and exclusive attention to specific style, inasmuch as the end in question is more or less common to all the Fine Arts. The Genius of Painting might award the palm to Titian, but human beings would be more interested with the productions of Raphael, The claims of the different schools are thus ultimately balanced by the degrees in which they satisfy the mind ; but as the enlightened observer is apt to form his con- clusions by this latter standard alone, it has been the object of these remarks to invite his attention more especially to the excellence of the Art itself, on which the celebrity of every school more or less depends, and which, whatever be its themes, recommends itself by the evidence of mental labour, and in the end increases the sum of mental pleasure. Next to the nature of the art itself, the influence of religion, of social and political relations, and of letters, the modifying circum- stances of climate and of place, the character of a nation, a school, and an individual, and even the particular object of a particular painter, are to be taken into account, and open fresh sources of interest. With the cultivated observer, indeed, these associations are again in danger at first of superseding the consideration of the art XXviii PREFACE TO FIRST ENGLISH EDITION. as such ; but by whatever means attention is invited, the judgment is gradually exercised, and the eye unconsciously educated. In avoiding too precise a definition of the end of Art, it may nevertheless be well to remember, that so great a difference in the highest moral interests as that which existed between the Pagan and Christian world must of necessity involve important modifica- tions, even in the physical elements of imitation. However im- posing were the ideas of beauty and of power which the Pagan arrived at, by looking around but not above him, by deriving his religion as well as his taste from the perfect attributes of life throughout nature, the Christian definition of the human being, at least, must be admitted to rest on more just and comprehensive re- lations. It is true the general character of the art itself is un- changeable, and that character was never more accurately defined than in the sculpture of the ancient Greeks ; but new human feel- ings demanded corresponding means of expression, and it was chiefly reserved for Painting to embody them. That art, as treated by the great modern masters, had not, like Sculpture, a complete model in classic examples, and was thus essentially a modern creation. The qualities in which it is distinguished from the remaining specimens of classic Painting are, in fact, nearly identified with those which constitute its specific style. Hence, when carried to a perfection probably unknown to the ancients, and purified by a spiritual aim, the result sometimes became the worthy auxiliary of a religion that hallows, but by no means interdicts, the admiration of nature. The consideration of the influence of Religion on the Arts forces itself on the attention in investigating the progress of Painting, since so large a proportion of its creations was devoted to the ser- vice of the Church — in many instances, we fear we must add, the service of superstition. Yet the difference or abuse of creeds may be said in most cases to affect works of art only in their extrinsic conditions ; the great painters were so generally penetrated with the spirit of the faith they illustrated, that the most unworthy sub- jects were often the vehicles of feelings to which all classes of Christians are more or less alive. The implicit recognition of apocryphal authorities is, however, not to be dissembled. Indeed some acquaintance with the legends and superstitions of the Middle Ages is as necessary to the intelligence of the contemporary works of art as the knowledge of the heathen mythology is to explain the subjects of Greek vases and marbles. Certain themes belong more especially to particular times and places ; such are the incidents from the lives of the Saints, the predilection for which varied with PKEFACE TO FIRST ENGLISH EDITION. XXIX the devotional spirit of the age, and the habits of different countries and districts, to say nothing of successive canonizations.* Even Scripture subjects had their epochs : at first the dread of idolatry- had the effect of introducing and consecrating a system of merely typical representation, and hence the characters and events of the Old' Testament were long preferred to those of the New. The cycle from the latter, though augmented, like the Bible series generally, from apocryphal sources, was from first to last comparatively re- stricted, many subjects remaining untouched even in the best ages of Art. This is again to be explained by remembering, that while the scenes and personages of the Old Testament were understood to be figurative, those of the New were regarded as objects of direct edification, or even of homage, and hence were selected with caution, f In general, the incidents that exemplified the leading dogmas of faith were chosen in preference to others, and thus the Arts became the index of the tenets that were prominent at different periods. The selection, or at least the treatment, of subjects from the Gospels, may have been regulated in some instances also by their assumed correspondence with certain prophecies ; indeed, the cir- cumstances alluded to iu the predictions of the Old Testament are not unl'requently blended in pictures with the facts of the New. The subjects called the Deposition from the Cross, and the Pieta (the dead Christ mourned by the Marys and Disciples, or by the Madonna alone), may be thus explained. J Hence, too, the never- failing accompaniments of the Nativity ;§ hence the " Wise Men " are represented as kings, [| and the Flight into Egypt is attended with the destruction of the idols.l" Subjects of this class were sometimes combined in regular cycles, which, in the form they assumed after the revival of Art, probably had their origin in the selection of meditations for the Rosary (instituted in the thirteenth * Iu altar-pieces it was common to represent Saints who lived in different ages, assembled round the enthroned Virgin and Child. This is not to be considered an anachronism, since it rather represented a heavenly than an earthly assembly. Many pictures of the kind in churches were the pro- perty or gift of private individuals, and in this case the selection of the Saints rested with the original proprietor. f " Picturae ecclesiarum sunt quasi libri laicorum," is the observation of a writer of the twelfth century. — Cornestor, Historia Scholastica (Hist. Evaiiij. c. 5). X Zechariah xii. 10. § Isaiah i. 3. || Psalm lxxii. 10, 11. Certain accessories in pictures of this subject are derived from Isaiah lx. 6. Isaiah xix. 1. (See Cornestor, Hist. Kvang. c. 10.) The incident may have been directly borrowed from au apocryphal source, the •Evangelium Infkntiee.' Circumstances adopted from similar authorities were sometimes interwoven with the subjects of the New Testament. XXX PREFACE TO FIRST ENGLISH EDITION. century): among these were the "Joys "* and " Sorrows"! of the Virgin, and the principal events of the Passion.J Other themes common at the same time had their appropriate application : the History of St. John the Baptist was the constant subject in Baptis- teries ; the chapels especially dedicated to the Virgin were adorned with scenes from her life ; § the hosts of heaven, " Thrones, Dominations, Princedoms, Virtues, Powers," || were sometimes in- troduced in cupolas : but the more customary subjects were the Ascension of Christ and the Assumption of the Virgin.^" The sub- jects of the Old Testament were universally considered as types : their assumed ulterior meaning is frequently explained in glosses of * 1. The Annunciation. 2. The Visitation. 3. The Nativity. 4. The Adoration of the Kings. 5. The Presentation in the Temple. 6. Christ found by his Mother in the Temple. 7. The Assumption and Coronation of the Virgin. f 1. The Prophecy of Simeon (Luke ii. 35). 2. The Flight into Egypt. 3. Christ, while disputing with the Doctors in the Temple, missed by his Mother. 4. Christ betrayed. 5. The Crucifixion (the Virgin and St. John only present). 6. The Deposition from the Cross. 7. The Ascension (the Virgin left on earth). X The 4 Seven Hours of the Passion ' were : — 1. The Last Supper. 2. The Agony in the Garden. 3. Christ before Caiaphas. 4. Christ before Herod. 5. Christ crowned with Thorns. 6. Pilate washing his Hands. 7. The Crucifixion (the centurion and others present). The more complete series contained, in addition to these and other subjects : — The Flagellation. The Ecce Homo. The procession to Calvary, or Christ bearing his Cross. The Entombment. The Descent into Limbus. The Resurrection. The Life of Christ contained, in addition to many of the above, the Baptism and Trans- figuration. The Life of the Virgin, though interwoven with that of Christ, formed, for the most part, a distinct series. The subjects of all these cycles varied in number, perhaps accordingly as they were separately or collectedly adapted to the divisions of the Rosary and Corona. The 4 Speculum Salva- tionis ' (Augsburg edition) assigns seven to each of the first three series in the above order. The more ordinary division was five for each. § See the ' Evangelium de Nativitate Maria?,' and the 4 Protevangelium Jacobi.' The subjects from the history of Joachim and Anna, the parents of the Virgin (painted by Taddeo Gaddi, Domenico Ghirlandajo, Gaudenzio Ferrari, and others), are chiefly in the latter. • || The orders of angels, as represented by the Italian painters, appear to have been derived from a treatise 4 De Hierarchia ccelesti ' (c. 7-11), which bears the name of Dionysius Areopagita, and may be traced to Jewish sources. St. Thomas Aquinas (after Dionysius) gives the nine orders of angels as follows : " Seraphim, Cherubim, Throni, Dominationes, Virtutes, Potestates, Principatus, Archangeli, Angeli." Vasari ventured to cover a ceiling in Florence with " Illustrations " of a still profounder lore — the Cabala. See his 4 Ragionamenti ' (Gior. 1). Compare Brucker, * Hist. Philosophise.' ^[ This last subject frequently adorned the high altar. The subject of the Death of the Virgin, which occurs in MSS. of the Middle Ages, as well as in pictures of later date, was gradually superseded by it. For the legend, see the 4 Flos Sanctorum ' (Aug. 25) and the ' Aurea Legenda ; ' both give the early authorities. PREFACE TO FIRST ENGLISH EDTTIOX. xxxi MS. Bibles, and in the ' Corapcndiums of Theology' which were in the hands of all ecclesiastics. These commentaries contained much that may be traced to the early Fathers ; but during and after the revival of Art they were more immediately derived from the scholastic theologians,* whose writings appear to have had consider- able influence on the sacred Painting of Italy and Europe. * The most renowned of these doctors were of the Dominican order (de' Predicatori) ; the same fraternity afterwards boasted some distinguished painters (Angelico da Fiesole, Fra Bartolominco, &c), and on many accounts may be considered the chief medium of communication between the Church and its handmaid, Art. Among the earlier commentaries cn Scripture evidently consulted by the painters, was the ' Historia Scholastica ' of Comestor, already referred to. In the Editor's Preface to the second edition of this Handbook (and more especially in the reprint of that Preface in his 1 Contributions to the Litera- ture of the Fine Arts'), some works were enumerated which treat, more or less fully, of the Iconography and Legends of the Saints. But all such works may, in relation to these subjects, be now considered superseded by Mrs. Jameson's 'Poetry of Sacred and Legendary Art.' The first two volumes contain the legends of the Saints, Martyrs, &c. ; the third (a separate work), the legends of the Monastic Orders ; the remaining portion of the work treats of the history and legends of the Madonna. ♦ HANDBOOK OF PAINTING IN ITALY. CHAPTER I. EARLY CHRISTIAN ART. THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. Greek art sprang from Greek religion. It was art which gave the Gods form, character, and reality. The statue of Jupiter Olympius brought the Father of the Gods him- self before the eyes of men. He was deemed unfortunate who died without beholding that statue. Art, among the Greeks, was an occupation of a priestly character : as it belonged to her to lift the veil of mystery which concealed the Gods, so was it also her office to exalt and consecrate the human forms under which they could alone be repre- sented. The image of the God was no mere copy from common and variable life ; it was stamped with a super- natural grandeur which raised the mind to a higher world. In subjugating the territories of Greece to their dominion, the Romans had also reduced Grecian civilization and Grecian art to their service. Wherever their legions ex- tended, these followed in their train. Wherever their splendid and colossal works, whether for public or private purposes, were carried on, Greek art, or such art as owed its invention originally to the Greeks, was called into re- quisition. Every object of daily use bore its own particular impress of art. That which had been the nataral product of the Grecian national mind, now, detached from its B 2 EAELY CHEISTIAN AET. [Chap. I. original home and purposes, assumed a more general character. The Grecian ideal of beauty became the ideal of all beauty. The types of Grecian art furnished the materials for a universal alphabet of art. And although that charm of beauty which is shed over the creations of the highest period of Greek art necessarily departed from her when she was led forth a wanderer among nations, yet the more general principles of form and proportion had been too firmly laid down to be easily alienated. Wherever she was seen, whether in the most barbaric luxury or in the vilest corruption of Eoman life, some portion of that religious feeling which had given her birth was found cleaving to her outward forms ; and wherever these appeared, a world, peopled with beings, divine and heroic, met the eyes of the beholder. True to her calling, Art remained the most powerful prop of the old faith. The light of Christianity now broke upon the world, proclaiming the truth of the one God, and of His Son our Saviour, and exposing the lie of Heathenism. A way had to be prepared for the spiritual renewal of mankind. Christianity addressed herself to the inner man alone. Unlike the religions of Heathendom, she needed no direct alliance with art. From art, such as it then was, asso- ciated and bound up with the very spirit of Heathenism, Christianity could only shrink with horror; and as it was well known what important service, nay, what essential support, Paganism had derived from it, so, in the struggle of the early Christians against the old idolatry, the art which had sustained it became equally the object of their aversion. The carvers of graven images were looked upon as the servants and emissaries of Satan. Whoever carried on this hateful calling was declared unworthy of the cleansing waters of baptism ; whoever, when baptized, returned to his old vocation, was expelled from the community. There is no doubt that the circumstances of the times favoured these interdicts. The Gentile converts were at first poor and obscure ; the Jewish converts, by law and long habit, were debarred most forms of art. As the Christian community advanced in power .and included more Chap. I.] THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. wealthy classes, the need for art, as well as its instincts, in the minds of a race surrounded with classic objects, gradually revived. And even before this happier period had arrived, in the times of oppression and neglect, the natural instinct had not been totally extinguished. The life and manners of Paganism had been too closely interwoven with artistic forms for the followers of the new faith entirely to dis- engage themselves from them. Almost every utensil oi common life had its established shape and its figurative ornament, bearing not only the charm of grace, but the impress of an allegorical meaning. Imperative, therefore, as it was to the early Christian to banish from his new life every object of his former idol worship, however ex- quisite in construction, it was not so absolutely necessary to renounce those which were innocent in purpose. But even in these instances all the allegorical designs with which they were enriched had been borrowed from the pagan mythology. The eagle and the thunderbolt, the symbols of power, were the attributes of Jove. The rod with the two serpents indicated commerce, because Mercury was the God of traffic. The club, the emblem of strength, was originally the attribute of Hercules. The griffin, which appears so often in the decoration of antique objects, was sacred to Apollo. The symbol of the sphinx was taken from the fable of (Edipus. Thus allegorical representa- tions could not be retained in the dwellings of Christians without reminding them of a mythology which they re- pudiated. It was possible, however, to substitute others which stood not only in no connection with the ancient idolatry, but, on the contrary, bespoke the owner's acquies- cence in the new doctrine The Oriental mode of teaching by means of parables with which the Bible abounds, supplied an abundance of subjects. Symbolical forms were taken directly from Scriptural illustrations : others were conceived in a similar spirit ; here and there some which bore no direct allusion to the old mythology, or admitted of a Christian interpretation, were retained in the antique form. Thus a numerous class of Christian symbols sprang up 4 EAKLY CHRISTIAN ART. [Chap. I. which gave at once a higher character to those objects of common life to which they were applied, and became also a sign of recognition among the members of the new faith. It was natural that early piety should seek some more direct representation of the j>erson of the Redeemer, though still under a symbolical iigure. The words of Christ Himself soon pointed out a proper choice of subject. He had said, " I am the Good Shepherd." He had told His disciples of the shepherd who went into the wilderness to seek the lost sheep, and when he had found it, carried it home rejoicing upon his shoulders. He it was whom the Prophets had announced under this figure. Christ was, therefore, por- trayed as the Good Shepherd, and innumerable are the speci- mens of the early Christian works of art, of every form, including even statues, in which we find Him thus repre- sented. Sometimes He appears in the midst of His flock, alone or with companions, caressing a sheep, or with a shepherd's pipe in His hand, sometimes sorrowing for the lost sheep, and again bearing the recovered one upon His shoulders (see woodcut, p. 8). This last mode of representation is the most frequent, and even so early as Tertullian's time (second century), was generally adopted for the glass chalices used in the sacrament and love-feasts. The Saviour is usually represented as a youth, occasionally as a bearded man, in simple succinct drapery ; often with the short mantle of the shepherd hanging over the shoulder. A graceful idyllic character pervades these designs which, under one aspect, were familiar to the Heathen. For Mercury, attired as a shepherd with a ram on his shoulders, was no unfrequent object in mythology, and in some instances has led to a confusion between the antique and Christian representa- tion. By the type of the Good Shepherd a further idea, that of pastoral life, was also suggested, as in a similar scene the introduction of naked boys, or genii, among the foliage and fruits of the vine, suggested the scenes of the vintage. The companion to the Good Shepherd, namely, Christ as the fisherman, sometimes occurs. The Saviour is also allegorically depicted as umpire in the popular games (Agonothnetes), but not often. Chap. I.] THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. 5 A rare and, at first sight, strange emblem, which can only be interpreted as an allusion to the Saviour, is that of Orpheus captivating the wild beasts of the forest by the sound of his lyre. This adoption of one of the personages of pagan mythology, as a fitting object for Christian con- templation, may also be accounted for by the high respect in which the purer Orphean precepts were held by the Fathers of the Christian Church, and by the analogy which was supposed to exist between the fable of Orpheus and the history of Christ, especially as seen in the taming influence of Christianity over the hearts of heathens and savages. In such examples Orpheus is represented in the Phrygian costume, in which later antique art always clothed him, seated with his lyre among trees, and surrounded with animals ; so far, therefore, a certain affinity may be traced between this emblem and that of the Good Shepherd. Mean- while, if, on the one hand, so daring a representation of the Saviour soon vanished before the further progress of the Christian Church, it may be observed, on the other, that many modes of expression of a more innocent kind belonging to ancient art, however closely associated with the ancient idolatry, long maintained their position. The most remarkable of this kind are those personifications of Nature under the human form which the materialism of the ancients had led them to adopt. Even to a late period of the middle ages a river is occasionally represented by a river-god, a mountain by a mountain-god, a city by a goddess with a mural crown, Night by a female figure with a torch and a star-bespangled robe, Heaven by a male figure throwing a veil in an arched form above his head. Many of these symbols may even be traced down as far as the thirteenth century. Other heathen forms, such, for example, as those of naked boys or genii, which had been employed by later pagan art only for purposes of deco- ration, continue at least to the fifth century, and even the fable of Cupid and Psyche occurs upon Christian sarcophagi. The first images of Christ of which we read were not in the abodes of believers, but in those of heretics and EAELY CHRISTIAN AET. [Chap. I. heathens — for example, in the chapel of the Emperor Alexander Severus (about a.d. 230), where a figure of the Saviour, though here rather to be considered as an ideal representation than as a portrait,* stood next those of Apollonius of Tyana, of the patriarch Abraham, and of Orpheus. Even Eusebius of Cesarea refused, on positive religious grounds, to procure for the sister of Constantine the Great a picture of Christ; and a century later, St. Augustin declared that as regards the personal appearance of the Saviour nothing was known. Neverthe- less, the temptation to counterfeit a likeness of the Saviour was so great, that, in defiance of all theological scruples, the so-called portraits of Christ became common. The origin of them was alternately ascribed to a picture by Jesus himself, or by Pontius Pilate, or by St. Luke, or (according to later views) by Nicodemus ; or, as founded upon some manifestly counterfeit, but still early manuscripts — such, for example, as the letter of Lentulus to the Roman Senate, not mentioned in any record earlier than the eleventh century,f though believed to have been fabricated in the third. In this letter by Lentulus, who (though contrary to history) has been called the predecessor to Pontius Pilate in the government of Palestine, Christ is described as "A man of lofty stature, of serious and im- posing countenance, inspiring love as well as fear in those who behold Him. His hair is the colour of wine (meaning probably of a dark colour), straight, and without lustre as low as the ears, but thence glossy and curly, flowing upon the shoulders, and divided down the centre of the head, after the manner of the Nazarenes. The forehead is smooth and serene, the face without blemish, of a pleasant, slightly ruddy colour. The expression noble and engaging. Ncse and mouth of perfect form; the beard abundant, and of the same colour as the hair, parted in the middle. The * A very ancient, but much restored mosaic, in the Museo Cristiano in the Vatican, belonging possibly to the third century, gives us some idea of the style of physiognomy which the heathens attributed to Christ. It is a bearded head in profile, agreeing pretty much with the type of coun- tenance given to the philosophers at that period. t In the writings of Anselmus, Archbishop of Canterbury. Chap. I.] THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. 7 eyes blue and brilliant. He is the most beautiful among the children of men." * Of similar character is the description given, about the middle of the eighth century, by John of Damascus, taken, as he avers, from ancient writers. " Jesus," he says, " was of stately height, with eyebrows that met together ; beautiful eyes, regular nose, the hair of His head somewhat curling, and of a beautiful colour, with black beard, and corn- yellow complexion like His mother (on which circumstance the greatest stress is laid), with long fingers," &c. Later descriptions are more embellished, and evidently follow, in some particulars, that type of the Saviour's countenance which painters had meanwhile adopted. Miraculous portraits, or as the expression was, " pictures of Christ, not made with hands," declared to have been imprinted upon His winding sheet, to have been impressed by Himself upon His robe, to have been left on the cloth with which He wiped His face, and which He gave to St. Thomas (all of which legends long preceded both the first and second story of St. Veronica), f so abounded, that in a general council held at Constantinople in the eighth century, it was found necessary to condemn them. What class of countenance may have been thus exhibited is unknown, but it is certain that a belief in a particular typo of our Lord s features transmitted from an early time, is not corroborated by early works of art. Christ is seen under a form of ideal youthfulness, performing miracles, or, as a bearded man en- throned upon a symbolical figure of heaven, or standing on an eminence from which flow the four rivers of Paradise ; but in either case the patriarchs or apostles who accompany Him have generally precisely the same type of feature as Himself. The only peculiar feature most commonly seen in representations of our Lord, and those by no means the earliest, is the hair divided down the centre and the forked beard, though numerous examples might be cited where both * See Didron, 1 Histoire de Dieu,' p. 229. t It was not till the middle ages that the legend of St. Veronica's hand- kerchief, on which the suffering Redeemer was supposed to have left the impression of His face, first arose. 8 EARLY CHRISTIAN ART. [Chap. I. these signs are absent, or are common to the attendant figures. It has been usual to point to two heads in the Roman Catacombs, as the types of our Lord adopted by the early Christians ; but the one bears no sign of having been in- tended for Him, and the other (identified by the cruciform nimbus) is of the common and morose type which long prevailed in Byzantine works (see woodcut). The earliest examples of Christian art that have been preserved to us are the wall paintings in the Eoman Cata- combs. That the reader may have some idea of the sub- jects and mode of arrangement and treatment of these paintings, we give a woodcut of a ceiling in the Catacomb of S. Calisto. They represent events which illustrate the evangelical ideas of regeneration of life, and resurrection from the dead, and also the power of Christ to feed the hungry, heal the sick, and raise the dead, all centring in His figure as the Good Shepherd carrying His sheep. Fivo of the subjects are from the Old Testament, three from the New ; as follows : — Noah in the ark, with arms extended, welcoming the dove; the ark being a mere box floating in a boat. Moses striking the rock. Jonah ejected by the whale. Jonah swallowed by the whale. Daniel between the lions. Christ restoring Lazarus to life. The miracle of the loaves. The lame man made whole and taking up his bed. The birds and fruits in the inner circle have been inter- preted as the human soul feeding on fruits of Paradise ; but are too identical with antique ornamentation to be strictly taken in such a sense. Our next plate shows two walls in a cubiculum in S. Calisto. On one, is seen Job seated, Daniel between the lions, and Moses unbinding his sandals. On the other is a woman in attitude of prayer, next her Noah welcoming the dove, and Christ raising Lazarus. Beneath, in a lunette, we see Elijah taken up to heaven, dropping his mantle to Elisha ; the other figure is probably one of the youths. Painting on wall of a cl a-> ber, 1 -ft of entrance, in the Catacomb of S. Cal ; ato. representing PANIEL, JOB, and MOSES. Painting on wall of a chamber, right of entrance, in the CaUcomb of S. Calisto, represent ELIJAH, a Figure in the attitude of Prayer. NOAH IN THE ARK, and 'I HE RAISING OF LAZARUS. Chap. L] THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. 9 Another painting in the Catacombs of S. Calisto de- serves mention for its antique style of beauty. Within and above the arch of one of the recesses are seen eleven little genii, encircled with vine tendrils, eagerly occupied in the labours of the vintage. In the recess itself appears a figure, interpreted as Christ, with a scroll in his left hand, turn- ing with the air of a teacher towards a number of hearers. Thus it was, that the spirit of Christianity succeeded in infusing itself into the forms of ancient art. And it is highly important to observe how the system of early Christian symbolism, by the deeper meaning which it sug- gests to the mind of the spectator, unites itself to the spirit of the later Pagan art, in which the subjects of ancient fable, considered as emblems, were- merely vehicles for a general idea. Much, therefore, as the higher feeling for power, richness, and beauty of form, as such, had departed from art in the later period of the Empire — much as the outward expression of art at that time, like the forms of government and habits of life, appears for the most part only fit to bo likened to a broken vessel or a cast-off garment — yet, in the formal simplicity of the Catacomb paintings, in the peaceful earnestness of their forms, in their simple expression of a spiritual meaning, to the exclusion of any other aim, we recognise a spirit which contrasts refreshingly with the affectation of later pagan works. As regards the state of art uuder Constantine the Great, there are many works which give us a far higher idea of its technical processes and resources than the clumsy and ugly sculpture upon the probably hastily-erected Arch of Constantine. Great as was the deterioration of ancient art, there still remained too much vigour in its tradition of many centuries not to conceal here and there the reality of its decline. It is true the old laws which regulated the draw- ing of the human figure had already been much neglected. The heads and extremities upon the sculptured sarcophagi are too large. In painting, on tho other hand, the pro- portions are too long. The positions and motives * in both * [This word, familiar as it is in the technical phraseology of other lan- guages, is not yet generally adopted in our own, and hence some apology 10 EARLY CHRISTIAN ART. [Chap, t are too conventional. The marking of the joints is defective, and the drapery, though here and there finely felt, is weak in execution ; nevertheless we are sometimes agreeably sur- prised by a spiritedly conceived figure. In point of deco- ration, too, we observe for a length of time a certain grace, though no actual beauty ; while in neatness of execution, for example in the ivory Diptychs, nothing better is to be found in similar works even of the best period. Further, it must be borne in mind that, as compared with the gigantic works of Constantine's time, described by Eusebius and Anastasius, such relics as have descended to us can only be regarded as very inadequate specimens ; for we may take it as a rule that the Catacomb pictures of that time belong, without exception, to the more unimportant class of works. To form, as far as possible, a just conception of this epoch of art, we shall, in the course of the ensuing pages, especially call the attention of the reader to such works as, however late in their own date, may be with proba- bility considered as repetitions or imitations of the produc- tions of the fourth century. With the general recognition of Christianity as the re- ligion of the State, followed also the introduction of paint- ing into the vast Basilicas and other churches of the new faith, where walls, cupolas, and altars were soon decorated with the utmost splendour. Not content, also, with the rich treasury of Scriptural subjects, Christian art sought her may be necessary for employing it as above. It may often be rendered intention, but has a fuller meaning. In its ordinary application, and as generally used by the author, it means the principle of action, attitude, and composition in a single figure or group ; thus it has been observed, that in some antique gems which are defective in execution, the motives are frequently fine. Such qualities in this case may have been the result of the artist's feeling, but in servile copies like those of the Byzantine artists the motives could only belong to the original inventor. In its more extended signification the term comprehends invention generally, as dis- tinguished from execution. Another very different and less general sense in which this expression is also used, must not be confounded with the foregoing ; thus a motive is sometimes understood in the sense of a sugges- tion. It is said, for example, that Poussin found the motives of his land- scape compositions at Tivoli. In this case we have a suggestion improved and carried out ; in the copies of the Byzantine artists we have intentions not their own, blindly transmitted. — C. L. E.] Chap. I.] THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. 11 materials in the wide circle of saintly history, nor hesitated even to avail herself of the persons of distinguished living characters. Circumstantial inscriptions, ornamentally dis- posed, were now adopted to explain the meaning of the picture, and in smaller churches were eventually substituted for them. The technical processes in vogue at Byzantium, at the time when the city assumed its present name, and elsewhere, consisted at first in such as had hitherto been used for wall paintings — namely, in tempera * and encaustic. During the fourth century, however, mosaic, which had hitherto been restricted more particularly to pavements, began to be preferred for the walls of churches and even of palaces — a circumstance to which we are exclusively indebted for the preservation of a number of early Christian subjects of the first class. Mosaic-work, or the placing together of small cubes of stone, terra-cotta, and, later, of vitrified substances of various colours, for decorations and figures, on the principles of ordinary painting, was an invention of the sumptuous Alex- andrian age, during which a prodigality of form and material began to corrupt the simplicity of Grecian art. According to general tradition, the application of mosaic as an orna- ment for pavements commenced in the close imitation of inanimate objects, such as broken food and scattered articles, lying apparently upon the floor — thence proceeded in rapid progress to large historical compositions, and, under the first emperors, attained the highest technical development and refinement. It was subsequent to this that it first came into use as a decoration for walls. f Under the protection of * A more or less glutinous medium, soluble at first in water, with which the colours were applied. f We own that the middle links between the small cabinet pieces in mosaic, which the relics of Pompeii and imperial Home have preserved to us, and the suddenly commencing wall-mosaics of Christian origin, are as yet wanting. The temples, baths, and palaces of the later emperors con- tain innumerable wall-paintings, stuccos, and mosaic pavements, but, as far as we know, no mosaic-work on ceilings or walls. Pliny, it is true, distinctly tells us (xxxvi. 64) that mosaic-work, proceeding, as it were, upwards from the pavements, had recently taken possession of the arches above them, and had, since then, been made of vitrified substances ; also that mosaic-work had been made capable of expressing every colour, and 12 EARLY CHRISTIAN ART. [Chap. I. the Koman dominion this peculiar art spread itself over the ancient world, and was executed in the same manner upon the Euphrates, on Mount Atlas, and in Britain. The inherent defect of such pictures — the impossibility, from the almost mechanical manner in which they were wrought from the cartoon, of imparting to them any immediate expres- sion of feeling — appears, consistently with the Roman love of solidity, to have been fully counterbalanced by their durability. The essential conditions of this branch of art — its restriction, as far as possible, to large and simple forms, its renunciation of rich and crowded compositions, and its indispensable requisite of general distinctness — have exercised, since the time of Constantine, an important in- fluence over the whole province of art. It must be remembered, however, that the style to which the materials and practice of this art necessarily and gradu- ally tended, may by no means be considered to have at- tained its highest perfection at the period of its first application to the walls and arches of Christian churches, The earliest, and the only Christian mosaics of the fourth century with which we are acquainted — those on the waggon-roof of the ambulatory of S. Costanza, near Eome * — belong essentially to the decorative schools of ancient that these materials were as applicable for the purposes of painting as any other. But the few existing specimens, exceeding the limits of the pave- ment and the small wall-picture (namely, the four pillars and the mosaic fountains from Pompeii, and a monument of the Vigna Campana in Rome, &c.) are of a purely decorative style, without figures ; while it is very strange that, neither upon the arches of Diocletian's baths, nor upon those of any other edifices of this period, have any traces of a higher class of painting in a material thus durable been discovered. We are almost tempted to believe that historical mosaic painting of the grander style first started into lite in the course of the fourth century, and suddenly spread widely. It must be remembered that Anastasius, in his Life of St. Sylvester, where he describes the splendid ecclesiastical buildings erected by Constantine, and numbers their scarcely credible amount of objects of decoration, is entirely silent on the subject of mosaics. Certainly, he pays them, elsewhere, no great attention. There is reason to believe that the Komans used pictures in mosaic to decorate the walls of rooms, as paintings are now used. * Either built under Constantine as a baptistery for the neighbouring church of S. Agnese, or, soon after him, as a monumental chapel to his two daughters. The supposition of its being a temple of Bacchus, which the subjects of the mosaics had suggested, is now given up. Chap. I.] THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. 13 art, while their little genii, among vine-tendrils, on a white ground, stand on a parallel line of art with similar subjects in the Catacombs of S. Calisto of which we have given a specimen. In the fifth century historical mosaic painting attempted paths of development which it soon after and for ever renounced. Considered apart from those, at first frequent, early Christian symbols and Biblical allegories, which subsequently became less common, this style of art also essayed its powers in the line of animated historical composition. It was only by degrees that the range of its subjects became so narrowed as to comprehend only those where the arrangement was in the strictest symmetry, and the mode of conception, as regards single figures, of a tranquil statuesque character. But as our power of judgment here depends especially upon a knowledge of the transi- tions of style, we shall proceed chronologically, and point out the changes of subject as they occur. Fortunately for us, the dates of these changes are for the most part ac- curately defined. Here, however, as in the later times of heathen art, only very few artists' names appear — a circum- stance consistent with the moral condition of the world of art at that time. For it may be assumed that where, as in this case, the mind of the patron is chiefly intent upon a display of luxury and a prodigality of decoration, the fame of the workman is sure to be obscured by the splen- dour of material execution. At the same time that artist who, in a period like the fourth and fifth centuries, could establish such a type of Christ as wo shall have occasion to comment on in the church of SS. Cosmo and Damiano, well deserves to have had his name transmitted to posterity. The most numerous and valuable mosaics of the fifth and following centuries are found in the churches of Home and Eavenna. The Bishopric of Eome, enriched beyond all others by the munificence of its emperors and the piety of private individuals, raised itself, more and more, into the principal seat of the hierarchy, while Ravenna, on the other hand, became successively the residence of the last members of the imperial Theodosian house, of several of the Ostrogoth sovereigns, and finally of an orthodox 14 EAELY CHRISTIAN ART. [Chap. I. Archbishop, whose power and dignity for a long time hardly yielded to that of the Papacy. Here it was that painting again united itself closely with architecture, and submitted to be guided by the latter not only in external arrangement, but in great measure also in direction of thought. In the generally circular or polygonal Baptisteries, the decoration of which was chiefly confined to the cupola, it was natural that the centre subject should represent the Baptism of Christ, round which the figures of the Apostles formed an outward circle. In the few larger churches, with cupolas and circular galleries, scarcely any traces of mosaics have been preserved, though we have reason to conclude that in their original state the decorations in this line of art exhibited peculiar beauties of conception and arrange- ment. In this we are supported by the character of the mosaics in the existing, and in some measure still perfect, Basilicas. This form of church-building had generally obtained in the East. It consisted in a principal oblong space, of three or five aisles, divided by rows of columns — the centre aisle loftier than the others, and terminating in one or more semi-domed tribunes or apsides, before which, in some instances, a transept was introduced. A gradation of surfaces was thus offered to the decorative painter, which, according to their relation with, or local vicinity to, the altar (always in front of the centre apsis), afforded an appropriate field for the following frequently recurring order of decoration. The chief apsis behind the altar, as the most sacred portion of the building, was almost invariably reserved for the colossal figure of the standing or enthroned Saviour, with the Apostles or the patron saints and founders of the church on either hand — in later times the Virgin was in- troduced next to . Christ, or even alone in His stead. Above the chief figure appears generally a hand extended from the clouds, and holding a crown — an emblem of the Al- mighty power of the Father, whose representation in human form was then not tolerated. Underneath, in a narrow division, may be seen the Agnus Dei with twelve sheep, which are advancing on both sides from the gates of Jeru- Chap. L] THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. 15 salem and Bethlehem — a symbol of the twelve disciples, or of the Faithful generally. Above, and on each side of the arch which terminates the apsis, usually appear various subjects from the Apocalypse, referring to the Advent of our Lord. In the centre generally the Lamb, or the book with the seven seals upon the throne ; next to it the symbols of the Evangelists, the seven Candlesticks, and the four- and-twenty Elders, their arms outstretched in adoration towards the Lamb. In the larger Basilicas where there is a transept before the apsis it is divided from the nave by a large arch, called the Arch of Triumph, upon which subjects from the Apocalypse were usually repre- sented. In addition to this, the clerestory of the centre aisle and the spandrils of the arches over the columns were seldom left, in the larger and more splendid Basilicas, without decoration. So few specimens, however, have been preserved, that it is not easy to arrive at any general con- clusion, though we have reason to believe that the decora- tions consisted of a series of Biblical scenes, or of a double procession of saints and martyrs, and in later ages of a set of portrait-heads of the popes. In the spandrils were introduced a variety of early Christian symbols. Of those representations of the Passion of our Lord, which, in the middle ages, occupied the high altar, no trace has yet been found; the idea of the Godhead of Christ having for ages taken precedence of that of His earthly career. For it lay in the very nature of an art derived from Pagan sources not to dwell on His human sufferings, but rather upon His almighty power. To which may be ascribed the fact that no representation of the Passion or crucifixion is traceable before the eighth century. The earliest mosaics of the fifth century with which wo are acquainted, namely, the internal decorations of the baptistery of the cathedral at Eavenna, are, in respect of figures as well as ornament, among the most remarkable of their kind. Between splendid gold leaves and scrolls on a blue ground, are seen the figures of the eight prophets, which, in general conception, especially in the motives of the draperies, are in no way distinguishable from the later 16 EARLY CHRISTIAN ART. [Chap. I. antique works. Though the execution is light and bold, the chiaroscuro is throughout tolerably complete. At the base of the cupola is a rich circle of mosaics representing four altars, with the four open books of the Gospel, four thrones with crosses, eight Episcopal Sedilia beneath conch-niches, and eight elegant sculptured balustrades — between columns, behind which are trees and shrubs. All these subjects are divided symmetrically, and set in a frame- work of architecture of beautiful and almost Pompeian cha- racter. Within this circle appear the chief representations — the twelve Apostles, bearing crowns; and in the centre, as a circular picture, the Baptism of Christ, which has been much and badly restored. The heads, like most of those in the Catacomb pictures, are somewhat small, and, at the same time, by no means youthfully ideal or abstract, but rather livingly individual, and even of that late Eoman character of ugliness so observable in the portraits of the time. In default of a definite type for the Apostles — the first traces of which can at most be discerned in the figure of St. Peter, who appears with grey hair, though not as yet with a bald head — they are distinguished by inscriptions. Especially fine in conception and execution are the draperies, which, in their gentle flow and grandeur of massing, recall the best Eoman works. In the centre picture, the Baptism of Christ, the character of the nude is still easy and unconstrained, the lower part of the Saviour's figure being seen through the water — a mode of treating this subject which continued late into the middle ages. The head of Christ, with the long divided hair, corresponds in great measure with the description ascribed to Lentulus. The river Jordan, under the form of a river God, rises out of the water on the left in the act of pre- senting a cloth. The combined ornamental effect, the ar- rangement of the figures, and the delicate feeling for colour pervading the whole, enable us to form an idea of the genuine splendour and beauty which have been lost to the world in the destruction of the later decorated buildings of Imperial Eome. Of a totally different description are those now much Chap. I.] THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. 17 restored mosaics, dating from a.d. 432 to 440, which occupy the centre aisle and arch of triumph in S. Maria Maggiore at Rome. On the upper walls of the centre aisle, in thirty-one pictures (those which are lost not included), are represented, on a small scale, incidents from the Old Testa - ment, with the histories of Moses and Joshua ; while, on the arch of triumph, on each side of the apocalyptic throne, appear in several rows, one above the other, scenes from the life of Christ. In the freedom of historical composi- tion which characterises these mosaics they differ in no essential principle from the antique ; however evident, in point of deficiency of keeping and drawing, in awkward- ness of action, and in the laborious crowding together of the figures, the increasing inability of execution may appear. The costumes, especially of the warriors, are still of the ancient cast, and in single figures (particularly on the arch of triumph) excellent in style, though, at the same time, not seen to advantage in this material on so small a scale. Outlines and shadows are strongly and boldly defined. Contemporary with these last examples, or, at all events before a.d. 450, we may consider the rich decorations of the monumental chapel of the Empress Galla Placidia at Ravenna,* generally known as the church of SS. Nazzaro e Celso, preserved entire with all its mosaics, and, therefore, fitted to give us an idea of the general decorations of the ornamented buildings of that period. In the lunette over the entrance of the nave we observe the Good Shepherd, of very youthful character, seated among His flock ; while, in the chief lunette over the altar, Christ appears full length, with the flag of victory, burning the writings of the heretics or of the philosophers. Upon the whole, the combination of symbols and historical characters in these mosaics evinces no definite principle or consistently carried out thought ; and, with the exception of the Good Shepherd, which approaches a classic model, the figures are of in- ferior character. At the same time, in point of decorative harmony, the effect of the whole is incomparable. Another * See the admirable coloured illustrations by Von Quast 0 18 EAELY CHRISTIAN ART. [Chai\ I. probably contemporary work, namely, the single apsis of the vestibule in the baptistery of the Lateran in Eome (of the time of Sixtus III., a.d. 432 to 440 ?), gives us a high idea of the fine feeling for decoration which was peculiar to * this otherwise degenerate age. The semicircle of the apsis is filled with the most beautiful green-gold tendrils upon a dark-blue ground, above which the Agnus Dei appears with four doves. The age of Pope Leo the Great (a.d. 440 to 462) is distinguished by an imposing work, the conception of which is attributable probably to the Pope himself, and which became a favourite example for subsequent times, — we mean the mosaics on the arch of triumph in S. Paolo fuori le mura, in Eome, which partially survived the unfortunate fire in 1823, and have since undergone repair. Within a cruciform nimbus, and surrounded with rays, shines forth in the centre the colossal figure cf the Saviour — the right hand raised, the left holding the sceptre. A delicately folded mantle of thin material covers the shoulder; the form is stern, but grand in conception ; the eyebrows in finely arched half- circles above the widely opened eyes ; the nose in a straight Grecian line ; the mouth, which is left clear of all beard, closed with an expression of mild serenity, and the hair and beard divided in the centre. Above, in the clouds, on a smaller scale, are seen the four winged animals bearing the books of the Gospels ; lower down two angels (perhaps one of the earliest specimens of angel representation) are lowering their waDds before the Redeemer, on each side of whom the four-and-twenty elders are humbly casting their crowns. Finally, below, appear, on the left, St. Paul and St. Peter. These mosaics may be considered to indicate in more than one respect a by no means unimportant transition period. The feeling for ancient art here only sounds, as it were, from a distance. The little naked genii, by a total change of intention, give way now to the figures of angels, represented as tall and youthful forms, with wings, entirely draped, and occasionally indicated by their wands as messengers of God. The earlier Christian symbolism, with the idyllic scenery of the Good Shepherd, and the gay decorative forms Chap. I.] THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. 19 of the genii of the vintage, have now passed away, and that fantastic mystifying element which has always accompanied all religious art, and has sought to express itself in characters, partly symbolical, partly real, here takes possession of that portion of the New Testament which, from the earliest Christian era, had been enthusiastically read and promulgated, namely, the Book of Eevelation. But, as in the history of the Saviour, only the aspect of His glory and not of His suffering was to be given, so in these Apocalyptic pictures it is not the forms of death and destruction which appear, but only those which indicato the glorification of Christ and His people. For we are still in presence of a youthful Church, which required that the glory of her Lord should first be depicted ; and also in that of an art which, sunk and decrepit as it was, still retained enough of the strength and dignity of its better days to keep itself free from all that was monstrous and vague. During the worst times of the decline of the Western Empire, up to the period of Theodoric the Great, art appears to have remained in a stationary condition. The chief mosaics of the sixth century are, in point of conception, scarcely perceptibly inferior to those of the fifth, and in splendour of material by no means so. The distinctive difference between them can at most be traced in an in- .creasing want of spirit, with the still gorgeous style of ornament, and in a somewhat altered treatment of colouring, drawing, and mode of shading. We commence this new class with the finest mosaics of ancient Christian Rome, those of the Church of SS. Cosmo e Damiano (a.d. 526 to 530). Above the arch of the apsis appear, on each side of the Lamb, four angels of excellent but somewhat severe style. Then follow various Apocalyptic emblems: a modern walling-up having left but few traces of the figures of the ifour-and-twenty elders. A gold surface, with little purple clouds, forms the background ; which, in Rome, at least, at both an earlier and later date, was usually blue. In the apsis itself, upon a dark-blue ground, with golden-edged clouds, is seen the colossal figure of Christ, and above the hand extended from the clouds — c 2 20 EARLY CHRISTIAN ART. [Chap. I. the emblem of the First Person of the Trinity. Below, on each side, the apostles Peter and Paul are leading towards the Saviour, SS. Cosmo and Damiano, both with crowns in their hands and attired in the late Roman dress, followed by St. Theodore on the right, and by Pope Felix IV., the founder of the church, on the left.* Two palm-trees, sparkling with gold, above one of which appears the emblem of eternity — the phcenix — close the composition on each side. Further below, indicated by water plants, sparkling also with gold, is the river Jordan. The figure of Christ may be regarded as one of the most marvellous specimens of the art of the middle ages. Countenance, attitude, and drapery combine to give Him an expression of quiet majesty, which, for many centuries after, is not found again in equal beauty and freedom. The drapery of this and other figures is disposed in noble folds, and only in its somewhat too ornate details is a farther departure from the antique observable. The high lights are brought out by gold and other sparkling materials, producing a gorgeous play of colour which re- lieves the figures vigorously from the dark blue ground. Altogether a feeling for colour is here displayed of which no later mosaics with gold grounds give any idea. The heads, with the exception of that of the principal figure, are animated and individual, though without any particular depth of ex- pression ; somewhat elderly also in physiognomy, but still far removed from any Byzantine stiffness. Under the chief composition, on a gold ground, is seen the Lamb upon a hill, with the four rivers of Paradise and the twelve sheep on either hand. The whole is executed with the utmost care ; this is observable chiefly in the five or six gradations of tints which, in order to obtain the greatest possible soft- ness of shading, the artist has adopted. But, in spite of the high excellence of this work, it is precisely here that we can clearly discern in what respects the degeneracy and impoverishment of art first showed itself. Both here and in succeeding works but little action is exhibited. Real, animated, historical composition also, * This figure has been entirely renewed. Chap. I.] THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. 21 in the higher sense, left its last, and, it is true, very- imperfect memorial in the mosaics of the church of S. Maria Maggiore. With the exception of a few and constantly repeated Biblical scenes, we have henceforth only to do with the glory-subjects of the apsis, and with repre- sentations of ceremonials almost as lifeless. The slightly animated action also, which imparted to the figures some appearance of life, ceases with the seventh century, at which period an absolutely statuesque immobility of form commences ; while the artist soon ceased to comprehend both the principles and the effects of natural movement. Not less characteristic of the rapid wane of art is the in- creasing age of the holy personages (with the exception of the Saviour, who nevertheless appears in the ripeness of man's estate), SS. Cosmo and Damiano being represented as men of fifty years of age. In Kavenna no mosaics of the Ostrogothic period have been preserved. Even the picture of Theodoric the Great, on the front of his palace, which represented him on horse- back, with breastplate, shield, and lance, between the alle- gorical figures of Eome and Ravenna, has, like the mural paintings in his palace at Pavia, entirely disappeared. It was not till towards the middle of the sixth century that mosaic painting recommenced in Ravenna ; consequently, after the occupation of the city by the Byzantians in 539 — an event, however, which does not warrant the application of the term " Byzantine " to works of that period. The style of art is still of that late Roman class which we have already described, and we have no reason to conclude that the artists belonged to a more Eastern school. Of doubtful age are the mosaics in S. Maria in Cosmedin, the Baptistery of the Arians, though the decoration of that building belongs almost indisputably to the time of the veritable Byzantine dominion ; probably, therefore, to the middle of the sixth century. We here observe a free imita- tion of the cupola mosaics of the orthodox church. Sur- rounding the centre picture of the Baptism of Christ are arranged the figures of the Twelve Apostles, their line interrupted on the cast side by a golden throne with a cross. 22 EAELY CHKISTIAN AET. [Chap. I. The heads are somewhat more uniformly drawn, but the draperies already display stiffness of line, with unmeaning breaks and folds, and a certain crudeness of light and shade. The decline of the feeling for decoration shows itself not only in the unpleasant interruption of the figures caused by the throne, but also in the introduction of heavy palm-trees between the single figures, instead of the grace- ful acanthus-plant. In the centre picture the nude form of the Christ is somewhat stiffer, though that of St. John is precisely the same as in the Baptisteries of the orthodox church. The river Jordan is introduced as a third person, with the upper part of the figure bare, and a green lower garment, his hair and beard long and white, two red crescent-shaped horns on his head, a reed in his hand, and an urn beside him. In the drawing and shading of the flesh no great alteration is observable, but the general execution has become somewhat ruder, and the motives here and there less free. In the year 545 the church of S. Michele in Affricisco was consecrated, the beautiful mosaics of which, in the apsis and upon the arch of triumph, representing the Saviour triumphant among angels and archangels, were taken down and sold to the Prussian government. Two years later, a.d. 547, followed the consecration of the celebrated church of S. Vitale, the mosaics of which may have been completed some short time before. Unfortunately, the decorations of the principal tribune, and those of the quadrangular arched space before it, are all that have been preserved. They refer in subject to the foundation and consecration of the church, with the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. Gold grounds and blue grounds alternate here, the former being confined to the apsis and to two of the four divisions of the arched space. In the semidome of the apsis appears a still very youthful Christ, seated upon the globe of the world between two angels, and St. Vitalis as patron of the church, and Bishop Ecclesius as founder ; the latter carrying a model of the building. Below are the four rivers of Paradise, flowing through green meadows, while the golden ground is striped with Mosaics of the 6th century in S. Vicaie, Ravenna, representing JUSTINIAN AND THEODORA. Chap. I.] THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. 23 purple clouds. The figures are all noble and dignified, especially the Christ, whose ideal youthfulness scarcely recurs after that time. They have, however, lost much of their original character by modern restorations. In the drapery there is much that is conventional, especially in the mode of shading, though a certain truthfulness still prevails. Upon the perpendicular wall of the apsis appear two large ceremonial representations upon a gold ground, which, as the almost sole surviving specimens of the higher style of secular subjects, are of great interest, and, as ex- amples of costume, quite invaluable. The picture on the left represents the relation in which the Emperor Justinian stood to the church — the figures as large as life. In splendid attire, laden with the diadem and with a purple and gold- embroidered mantle, fastened with an enormous fibula, is seen the Emperor, advancing, bearing a golden bowl. To his left are Archbishop Maximian and two priests, and he is attended by three courtiers and the Imperial Guard (see woodcut). The opposite picture, represents the Empress Theodora, surrounded by gorgeously attired women and attendants, in the act of entering the church. The Empress is also clad in the dark violet (purple) imperial mantle, on the edge of which, embroidered in gold, are seen the three Kings with their gifts, and from her diadem hangs a whole cascade of beads and jewels. A chamberlain before her is drawing back a richly embroidered curtain, so as to exhibit the entrance-court of a church, indicated as such by its cleansing fountain. Justinian and Theodora are distin- guished by bright glories — a homage which the artist of that time could scarcely withhold, since he evidently knew no other form of flattery. Of somewhat inferior execution are the mosaics of the lofty quadrangular space before the apsis, representing the Old Testament symbols of the sacrifice of the mass and the cities of Jerusalem and Bethlehem, with vine tendrils and birds on a blue ground above them. The execution is partially rude and superficial, and the drawing is inferior to the works in the apsis, although, in this respect, it still excels that of the following century. In the delineation 24 EAELY CHE1STIAN AET. [Chap. I. of animals — for example in the lion of St. Mark — a sound feeling for nature is still evinced. In many parts the land- scape background is elevated in a very remarkable manner, consisting of steep steps of rocks covered with verdure ; an evident attempt to imitate nature. Unfortunately nothing more is preserved of the mosaics of the cupola and the rest of the church. The next specimens to be considered are the mosaics in S. Apollinare Nuovo, formerly the Basilica of Theodoric the Great, which, in all probability, were executed chiefly be- tween the years 553 and 566, and are also perfectly unique in their way, though the principal portions, the apsis and arch of triumph, have been restored. But the upper walls of the centre aisle still sparkle, from the arches up to the roof, with their original and very rich mosaic decorations. Two friezes, next above the arch, contain long proces- sions upon a gold ground, which, belonging as they do, to the very last days of ancient art, remind us curiously of the Panathenaic procession upon the Parthenon at Athens. On the right are the martyrs and the confessors, advancing solemnly from the city of Ravenna, which is here signified by a representation of the magnificent palace of the Ostro- gothic kings, with its upper and lower arcade and corner towers and domes. Palm-trees divide the single figures. All are clad in light-coloured garments, with crowns in their hands. Their countenances are reduced to a few spirited lines, though still tolerably true to nature. The execution is careful, as is also the gradation of the tints. At the end of the procession, and as the goal of it, appears Christ upon a throne, the four archangels around Him — noble, solemn figures, in no respect inferior either in style or execution to those in the apsis of S. Vitale. On the left side of the church (that which was occupied by the women) is a similarly arranged procession of female martyrs and confessors ad- vancing from the suburb of Classis, recognised by its harbours and fortifications. At the head of the procession are the Three Kings adoring the Virgin and Infant Christ. Upon a throne, surmounted by four angels, appears the Madonna, who takes her place at this early period only in an Chap. I.] THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. 25 historical sense. She is depicted as a matron of middle age ; a veil upon her head is encircled by a nimbus, which is of later introduction. Upon her lap is seated the child fully clothed. Of the subject of the Three Kings the greater portion has been restored, but a spiritedly expressed and active action is still discernible, as well as the splendid barbaric costume, with its richly bordered doublet, short silken mantle, and nether garments of tiger-skin. Here, as in the opposite frieze, the last portion of the subject is best treated. Further up, between the windows, are single figures of the apostles and saints standing in niches, with birds and vases between them. Quite above, and over the windows, on a very small scale, are the Miracles of our Lord. All these mosaics have been so much restored that little of their original character remains. We may next mention the mosaics in the chapel of the archiepiscopal palace at Eavenna, which, although possibly belonging to an earlier age, yet in style remind us more of the latter end of the sixth century. Upon a blue ground are sets of seven medallions, with the representations of the youthful Christ, of the apostles, and of several saints. The centre of the gold-grounded dome is occupied by a larger medallion with the monogram of Christ, upheld by four simple and graceful angel figures. In the four inter- mediate spaces are the winged emblems of the Evangelists, bearing the richly decorated books of the Gospel. The mosaics in this chapel have also greatly suffered from restorations — the tesserse or vitrified cubes being in many parts replaced by painted plaster. Next in order to these come the mosaics of the time of Justinian preserved in Constantinople, in the church of St. Sophia, some portions of which appear to belong to the middle of the sixth century, and others to a later date. The whitewash, with which these mosaics had been covered since the transformation of the church into a mosque, having been some years ago temporarily removed, the opportunity was seized to copy their chief remains.* * See Salzenberg, 1 Altchristliche Baudenkraale in Konstantiiiopel.' 26 EAKLY CHRISTIAN ART. [Chap. I. We have hitherto only considered the more important of the still existing works of the fifth and sixth centuries,* but, according both to tradition and analogy, those which are lost must have been incomparably more splendid, more extensive, and grander in plan. All that remains for us now is to mention a few specimens, the date of which is uncertain, but which may be probably assigned to this period. In the Church of S. Pudentiana at Kome, for instance, there is a large apsis mosaic, too much restored at different times for the date to be now determinable. It belonged originally, per- haps, even to the fourth century, at all events not to the time of Pope Hadrian I. (a.d. 772-785), or of Hadrian III. (a.d. 884-885), as is the common opinion ; for even if the building itself be proved to be of more recent date, still this work at least must have been copied from one much older. The centre represents Christ enthroned, between SS. Peter and Paul, and the two female saints, Praxedis and Pudentiana. Below is seen a row of eight male half-length figures in antique drapery (portraits, per- haps, of the founders), which are not placed singly side by side, but overlap each other like double profiles on a coin. Behind these figures is an arcade with a roof and glittering buildings over it. Above in the heavens, which are represented by purple gold-edged clouds, are the four signs of the Evangelists, and, in the centre, a richly decorated gold cross. The architectural background, the perspective arrangement of the figures, their very broad and free treatment (so far as they are not the work of the modern restorer), indicate, if we are not mistaken, the Constantinian period of art, though we are judging from what is perhaps only a copy, and at all events from a more than usually disfigured work. In the circular church of S. Teodoro, also in Eome, a figure of Christ with saints, upon a gold ground, has been preserved in the end tribune. This work is probably not earlier than * It must be borne in mind that every existing ancient mosaic has been necessarily subjected to repairs and restorations — the latter always in the character of the restorer's own time ; so that no entire reliance can be placed on the evidence of their details. Chap. I.] THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. 27 the seventh century, and is chiefly interesting to us here as one of the earliest specimens of the copying of the old mosaics. Christ is represented in a violet robe, with long light hair and short beard, with an expression of great benignity. He is seated in the act of benediction upon a blue starred globe, with a long sceptre in His left hand. St. Peter, on the right, is leading St. Theodore, and St. Paul, on the left, another youthful saint — both presenting their crowns upon their richly embroidered mantles as an offering to Christ. The figures of SS. Peter and Theodore are here exact copies of those in the corresponding subject in SS. Cosmo e Damiano, while the younger saint, with his eyes humbly cast down, is probably a new creation. From what older, and perhaps demolished picture the representation of the Christ is taken we know not. The execution is good, the shading careful, and even the nude portions are here depicted with tolerable spirit ; only in the unmeaning character of the drapery is the deep decline of art apparent. The mosaics upon the arch of triumph in S. Lorenzo fuori le niura, near Rome (towards the inner church), bear the positive dates of a.d. 578, 590, but have been so restored and disfigured that, to all appearance, they belong to a later period. They represent Christ upon the globe of the world, surrounded by five saints, and Pope Pelagius II., the founder of the building. Finally, we may here notice the mosaics in the octagon side-chapel of S. Lorenzo in Milan, where Christ, with the apostles in white garments, and a pastoral scene in a very ancient pre-Byzantine style of art (if we are not mistaken), decorate the semidomes of two large niches. Next in importance to the art of mosaics must be con- sidered that of miniature-painting, by means of which the books employed both in the service of tho church and for purposes of private devotion, as also many of a worldly im- port, were adorned with more or less of pictorial splendour. With the reverential feeling of the times, it was usual to decorate the contents as well as the exterior of the Scrip- tures in the most gorgeous manner — a fashion which com- menced, doubtless, with the copies of the classic authors 28 EAELY CHRISTIAN ART. [Chap. I. which needed the assistance of pictorial illustration to explain those usages and costumes that had passed away with the glory of the ancient world. In this class of art the range of subjects is far more extensive than in that of the catacomb or mosaic pictures ; and some of the earliest specimens of miniature-painting present to us once more the antique mode of composition in such grandeur and variety that we can only the more regret the treasures of this kind which have perished. To those still preserved belongs the Book of Joshua in the Library of the Vatican. This is a parchment roll of more than thirty feet long, entirely covered with historical scenes ; according to an inscription upon it, not of earlier date than the seventh or eighth century, but doubtless copied from some work of the best early Christian time. This interesting specimen has the appear- ance of a carefully but boldly and freely drawn sketch, executed in few colours, and differing greatly from the highly finished splendour of later Byzantine miniatures. There is a spirit in the composition, a beauty in some of the motives, and a richness of invention in the whole, which assign to this work the highest place among the properly historical representations of early Christian times. Costume and weapons are here still perfectly antique. Joshua is always distinguished by the nimbus, as are also the fine symbolical female forms, with sceptres and mural crowns, which represent the besieged and conquered cities; for the whole landscape is expressed by symbols, such as mountain and river deities, &c. In the battle scenes the wildest action is often most happily portrayed, though the artist, of course, shows little knowledge either of perspective or of the relative proportion of the figures. The copyist of the later period is discernible, almost solely, by his obvious ignorance of the drawing of joints and extremities. In this respect the cele- brated Virgil of the Vatican, No. 3225, as an original work of the fourth or fifth century, appears to greater advantage, though, in composition, it does not equal the Book of Joshua. The colours, where they are not so rubbed away as to exhibit the drawing beneath, are light in tint, and have considerable body. The shading is slight, and, as yet, not too minute. Chap. I.] THE LATER ROMAN STYLE. 29 The drawing displays a superabundance of motives from the antique, though, in the action of the figures, it is already very inanimate. Of the same early period, but much more defective in drawing, is the Book of Genesis in the Imperial Library at Vienna. In the Ambrosian Library at Milan fifty-eight miniatures have been preserved — frag- ments of a manuscript Homer. These also date from the fourth or fifth century, and in the broad, solid manner in which the colours are applied, as well as in the treatment of the drapery, have quite the antique look. At the same time the details are still more weak and unskilful in execution, and the composition not only scattered as in the Vatican Virgil, but either confused or monotonous.* A Vatican Terence of the ninth century is, perhaps, the very rude copy of an excellent work of classic times. Besides these we find beautiful single figures and compositions of early Christian and antique feeling scattered in various separate manuscripts even in the later middle ages, showing that, in the gradual decline of the powers of invention, it became a matter of convenience to copy what already existed. As early as after the conquest of Italy by the Longo- bards, but principally after the seventh century, there occurs a division in the schools of painting. Those artists who persevere exclusively in the old track may be observed to sink into barbaric ignorance of form, while, on the other hand, for mosaics and all higher kinds of decorative work, the style and materials of Byzantine art, which we shall consider in the next chapter, come more and more into vogue. Thus the more important Italian works of the seventh and succeeding centuries are found to follow the Byzantine style, while the lesser class of works, such as miniatures and a few surviving sculp- tures, seem (occasionally at least) to run wild in a total licence of style which may be designated as Longobardian. The miniatures consist of rudely daubed outlines filled up * * Iliadis fragments cum Picturis, &c, edente Aug. Majo, &c.,' Milan, 1819.— Fifty-eight outline drawings, much restored by some feeble modern hand. ^ 30 EARLY CHRISTIAN ART. [Chap. II. with patches of colour.* As specimens of the sculptural school we may cite the relief on a door of the church of S. Fidele at Como, with the subject of Habakkuk carried by angels by the hair of his head. In these short, thick-set figures, with their coarse, heavy countenances and extre- mities, it would be difficult to recognise even the faintest trace of ancient art. Nevertheless we are fully conscious that in these apparently formless productions of conven- tionality, as opposed to the more legitimate Byzantine rigidity, there lay a germ of freedom from which, later, a new school of development was to spring. CHAPTEE II. THE BYZANTINE STYLE.j" The commencement of the Byzantine school is generally placed at an earlier period than that of the fifth century which we here assign to it. The reasons which lead us to differ in this respect have been already alluded to. Up to the beginning of the seventh century art appears to us, as far as Eoman civilization still existed, to be essentially one and the same in the east and the west, and therefore entitled to no other name than that of late Eoman or early Christian. If, as early as the fifth and sixth cen- turies, the foundations of that school which, later, developed itself more especially into the art of the Eastern Empire, are discernible, we must not, on that account, assume for it, at that time, the appellation of Byzantine, but rather designate it only as that late Eoman style which, wherever * For information on the Longobardian style, see Von Rumohr's ' Ital. Forschungen,' vol. i., p. 186, where a catalogue of the few adducible speci- mens is given, consisting of the remains of the Frescoes in the Crypt of the Cathedral at Assisi, and in the subterranean chapel of SS. Nazzaro e Celso at Verona (where a glory and Biblical scenes are rudely painted upon a white ground), several manuscripts, &c. f Byzantine or Greek (Christian) art— for the terms are identical — is the offspring of the Eastern Church, influenced originally by aDcient. Greek art. ^ ClIAP. II.] THE BYZANTINE STYLE. 31 the Roman element was not too thoroughly amalgamated with the Gothic, was common to the whole ancient world. It was not until after the middle of the seventh century that this state of things broke up. Under the Emperor- Justinian the Eastern Empire acquired that form which it retained in the following centuries ; while, in an intellectual sense, it is from that period also that the Byzantine element may be said to have attained its full development. In Italy, on the other hand, this was precisely the period of the deepest decline of art. After having surrendered up her mildest rulers, the Ostrogoths, to the armies of Justinian, and submitted herself to the Eastern dominion, she was next invaded by the Longobards, who brought about the most singular division of the country. For while the great mass of the centre of the land fell to the invaders, the important coast regions, including the largest cities, and all the islands, remained in possession of the Byzantines. This, therefore, was the time for this portion of the territory, perpetually threatened ap it was by the Longobards, to attach itself more closely to the protecting power of Byzantium. Now also the period had arrived when the decline both of art and civilization may bo considered to have so increased that an influence from without had become indispensable. Therefore it is that for that universal style of art which, in the seventh century, prevailed alike in Rome and in Naples, in Apulia and Cala- bria and in Sicily, in Ravenna and the Pentapolis and in the rising city of Venice, and even partially in Genoa — differ- ing as it does from the previous late Roman school — we righty assume the title of Byzantine. The victories of Charlemagne had, later, no power to destroy or interrupt the deeply founded connection between the schools of Italy and Constantinople, while Lower Italy and that city w r hich was hereafter to play such a conspicuous part in the history of art, namely Venice, remained inaccessible to his attacks. The diffusion of the Byzantine style may be conjectu- rally accounted for in various ways. There is no doubt that from the great school of Constantinople many a Greek artist emigrated into Italy. At that time the 32 EAELY CHRISTIAN AET. [Chap. II. Eastern capital abounded unquestionably in workshops, whence the provinces were supplied with innumerable works of every kind, from a statue or painting, to the capital of a pillar. The monasteries of Constantinople and Thessalonica, and those of Mount Athos, may be regarded as the great central ateliers of painting; while, on the other hand, it is certain that many an artist from the West pursued his studies in the chief places of artistic activity in the East. In this way there ensued in Italy every grade of relationship with Byzantine art, from the directest school connexion, to the merest superficial in- fluence. Finally, we shall endeavour to show that the Byzantine style, in connexion with the state of civilization at that time, was precisely the most easily communicable in outward forms which the history of art, in the higher civilized nations, has ever known. So much so, that works executed at third hand, for instance, by the Western scholars of a Western master — who had been perhaps but for a short time the pupil of some emigrated Greek artist — differ in no great degree from the original models in Constantinople itself. The indisputable advantages which Byzantium possessed over the Western countries, in point of art, consisted in its freedom from all barbarian invasion, in its traditions of ancient art, and in that tendency to neatness and elegance of execution, such as the luxury of a great capital de- manded, which went hand in hand with these advantages. It matters not how widely the modes of composition differed from those of antiquity — how little there was in common between the heavy monotonous varnished colours of this school, and the light, graceful colouring of the old Eoman works — it was still of the greatest importance that there should have been one spot in the world where artistic ac- tivity on a large scale never faltered ; just as it was im- portant, in a political sense, for the earlier middle ages of the West to have always possessed, in the Byzantine government, an undisturbed normal form for their authority in times of emergency. But we must remember that no art is nourished by tradition and colossal undertakings alone. Chap. II.] THE BYZANTINE STYLE. 33 Her proper existence can only be supplied from those thou- sand moral sources which we comprehend in the widest sense by the term " national life ; " and in Byzantium these sources were either greatly troubled or entirely scaled. The worn-out forms of the old world are here found, to use a hackneyed but most suitable illustration, embalmed like mummies for the wonder of posterity. The monarchs who sat upon the throne, surrounded with oriental pomp and splendour, were, for the most part, either cruel despots or cowards. The courtiers around them concealed beneath the disguise of the most abject servility a disposition to per- petual intrigue and sanguinary conspiracy. With this state of things among the higher classes, the condition of the enslaved people, at least in the capital, stood in consistent relation. It is significant that the public games were their highest object of interest, and that the same people in whom every political idea was extinguished, could yet bring about a great general insurrection by their party zeal for this or that division of the racers in the Hippodrome. In other respects, oriental luxury and sensuality, and Roman thirst of gain, usurped, between them, all the interests of life. Science had degenerated to a system of dry compila- tion — all literary activity was dead, and all national life unknown. Even Christianity, which, precisely at that time, was laying the foundations for the future unity of Europe among the Teutonic races, was to be traced in the Empire of the East only by its perversions. Dogmatical disputes upon the absolutely Incomprehensible nut only extended from the clergy, to the court and government, which it involved in the fiercest contests, but served also for an object of pastime and dispute to the common people, with whom, even in better times, the passion for argument had become second nature ; while, wherever real piety showed itself, it was obstructed by monkish austerity, or cruel intolerance. The most important political event of Byzan- tine times (next to the wars with the Persians, Saracens, and Hungarians), namely, the controversy about images, is connected with the fanaticism which four centuries of dis- putes had nourished into full growth. The origin and D EARLY CHRISTIAN ART. [Chap. II. history of this controversy are well known. The reproach of idol worship, which Jew and Mahometan had alike cast upon the richly decorated Christian service, and the hope of converting both the Israelite and the infidel, had suggested to the Emperor Leo the Isaurian the idea of doing away with pictures altogether. His coercive measures for this purpose began in the year 730, and a struggle ensued which lasted for above a century — the whole State and all the interests belonging to it, foreign though most of them were to the question, being involved in the dispute. The triumph of the image partisans was first decided by the tumultuous Synod of 842, though even this was only ephemeral, inas- much as the practice of painting and that of flat relief were ultimately alone retained, while the long-languishing art of pure sculpture was entirely condemned. No visible disadvantage to the cause of art is traceable, however, to this period of struggle, during which not only profane painting, but religious painting also, thanks to many an obstinate monk, continued to be practised. Still, it may be here and there remarked that the last relics of freedom and nature disappeared from Byzantine works at this time, and that they now first assume that hieratical stiffness of type which seems to bid defiance equally to the heresy which opposed them, and to the image-proscribing tenets of Islamism. With this is further connected the fact that at this time (the eighth and ninth centuries) the represen- tation of the Passion of our Lord, and of the Martyrdoms of the Saints, first obtained in the Byzantine Schools.* It must be borne in mind that artists themselves had fallen martyrs to the cause in the fury of the struggle ; and that the Church also now stood firm enough to be able to exhibit the image of the suffering as well as of the triumphant Saviour. An ecclesiastical decision, ten years prior to the question of images, shows that in respect of the Passion a particular change in religious sentiment had arisen. The * Though, as early as the fourth century, Bishop Asterius of Amasia mentions a picture of the martyrdom of St. Euphemia, yet this must be considered as an accidental exception, which in a time, as it were, of artistic fermentation, will not be considered strange. Ecclesiastical art had doubt- less, nothing to do with it. Chap. II.] THE BYZANTINE STYLE. 35 Council of Constantinople in the year 692 (generally de- nominated the Quinisext Council) had decided that the direct human representation of the Saviour was to be preferred to the symbolical, namely, to that of the Lamb, hitherto adopted ; a decision to which the whole world of art was expected to conform. This was a formal declaration of tho extinction of that allegorical taste which had been proper to the earliest Christian age, and of the transition from the symbolical to the historical. The speedy introduction of Crucifixion pictures was a necessary consequence, for the redeeming office of the Saviour could now be hardly otherwise expressed. Besides, the Council expressly speaks of " Him who bore the sins of the world," by which the representation of His Passion, if not positively of His Crucifixion, was indicated. Soon after this, in the year 730, Pope Gregory II., in his letter to Leo the Isaurian, makes mention of the various scenes of tho Passion, 7ra0?7/xaTa, as feasible and praiseworthy subjects for the walls of churches. What still remained wanting to direct the new school was supplied by the already mentioned modes of thought which the image-question had developed. In order more rightly to estimate the Byzantino style within the limits wo have prescribed to ourselves, we must once more give a glance at the events we have been recording. Ancient art, already in the third century deep in decline and stripped of its old subjects and animated with the new spirit which a new religion supplied, had still so much vitality left, from the fourth to the sixth century, as to create new types of art, in which the element of the sublime can be as little denied as in tho older Greek forms — utterly inferior as they are in other respects. It was not only during tho most wretched period of despotism, but in the midst also of that misery occasioned by the irruption of tho northern races, that this new tendency had been de- veloped, and had found in the material of mosaic a brilliant and suitable mode of representation. Replete with quiet dignity, appropriate in action, with a solemn flow of drapery, and gigantic in size, the figures thus expressed look down upon us from their altar tribunes with a fascination, both of an d 2 30 EAELY CHRISTIAN ART. [Chap. II. historic and aesthetic nature, which the unprejudiced spec- tator can hardly resist. Nevertheless, at the same period, the art of dramatic historical painting, even the very power of depicting the movements of life, had sunk into utter oblivion, showing that the study of nature had ceased, as in every epoch of decline, to be regarded either as the source or auxiliary of artistic inspiration. It is curious to remark how one portion of the figure after the other now becomes rigid — the joints, the extremities, and at last even the countenance, which assumes a morose stricken expression. The step is, as it were, arrested, the garments are loaded with inexpressive folds, the art of decoration degenerates even in the midst of apparently the greatest wealth of ornament, and the gold ground, which we have seen in the Eavenna mosaics of the sixth century sup- planting the blue, now extinguishes all the finer sense of colour, and substitutes for it a false gaudiness. It was the Byzantine school which first brought art to this state of prostration, and then, accompanied as it was by a highly developed but merely technical skill, kept her stationary there for many a long century.* From the totally superficial and defective representation of the human form observable in these works, it is evident that the Byzantine artist now rested satisfied with a mere conventional type, from which all semblance of reality was banished. The figures are long and meagre, the action stiff and angular, hands and feet attenuated and powerless. At the same time a singular pretension to correctness of an- atomy forms a more odious contrast to the departure from nature in all other respects. Figures, in which no one limb is rightly disposed, have still, as far as the form is seen, the full complement of ribs in the body, and a most un- necessary display of muscle in the arms. How utterly all power had departed from this school is shown by the most abject restriction to quietness of attitude ; and where the slightest action is attempted, be it only a single step, the * We allude here, and in the following pages, only to the original works of the Byzantine school, not to the copies of older and better works which are occasionally mistaken for them. CHAP. II.] THE BYZANTINE STYLE. 37 figure appears to be stumbling on level ground. Sometimes the earth beneath their feet is entirely omitted, so that the figures are relieved upon their gold ground as if in the air, unless the painter may have added a little footstool or pedestal. In many cases, instead of living forms we seem to have half-animated corpses before us — an impression which the sight of the head only increases. Here we see at the first glance that a new relation has arisen between the painter and his picture. In the late Eoman works which we have hitherto been considering, however closely the conventional typo of the Church might confine the painter, still his efforts to express the elevated, and even the beautiful bespeak a certain freedom of action ; here, the very object of art was changed in character. The Byzantine artist was generally a monk, and as such opposed to the usual enjoyments of life. His art partakes of the same feeling, inasmuch as he substitutes that which had become his individual ideal for that which is universal in human nature. Hence the dryness and meagreness of his figures, and, still more so, the gloomy moroseness of his counte- nances. The large, ill-shaped eyes staro straight forward ; a deep, unhappy line, in which ill-humour seems to have taken up its permanent abode, extends from brow to brow, beneath the bald and heavily wrinkled forehead. The nose has the broad ridge of the antique still left above, but is narrow and thin below, the nostrils corresponding with the deep lines on each side of them. The mouth is small and neatly formed, but the somewhat protruded lower lip is in character with the melancholy of the whole picture. As long as such representations refer only to grey-headed saints and ecclesiastics, they may be tolerated — that is, when the countenance does not become absolutely heartless and malicious ; but when the introduction of a kind of smirk is intended to convey the idea of a youthful countenance, the only difference being a somewhat less elongated face with the omission of a few wrinkles, and the shortening of beard and moustache, this type becomes intolerable. Even the Virgin, to whose countenance the meagreness of asce- ticism was hardly applicable, here assumes a thoroughly 38 EAKLY CHKISTIAN AKT. [Chap. II. peevish expression, and was certainly never represented under so unattractive an aspect. Altogether these heads leave us totally unmoved : not only because, with all their deeply wrinkled gravity, they appear utterly incapable of any exer- tion of moral will, or energy of love or hatred, but equally of any depth of thought. Draperies and figures agree per- fectly together; nevertheless, in the form of the person and in the chief lines of the dress, a spark of antique feeling is still discernible. The artistic arrangement of drapery which was common towards the end of the sixth century seems from that time to have been arrested. But though the Byzantine artist never bestowed a thought in the execu- tion of these portions, or rather was incapable of approaching the slightest reality of form, yet, as, according to the fashion of the time, the masses had to be filled up with an accu- mulation of detail, there arose the absurdest complication of breaks, and bends, and parallel folds, all executed with the greatest neatness, and brought out with the utmost heighten- ing of gold. Where the subject, however, admitted of no traditional arrangement of drapery, as for instance in the richly embroidered and jewel-studded costume of Byzantine fashion, all attempt at any artistic form ceases, and the garment, with all its gorgeous ornament, lies flat and without a fold, as if glued upon a wooden figure.* It is unnecessary to remind the reader that these defects did not suddenly arise, but crept gradually in. In the eleventh century they were at their height, and, in the stiff conventionalities of later works, we are often reminded of Chinese art. Under such a complication of adverse circumstances we have no right to look for any independence of composition. Whenever we are surprised, as, for instance, in the mosaics, with ingenious and symmetrical arrangements, and as in miniatures, with fine and animated composition, and with the antique personification of scenery and abstract objects, we may safely give all the praise to a foregoing * See D'Agincourt's very instructive miniature of the twelfth century, plate 58, where the Emperor Alexius Comnenus I., attired in just such a formless and smoothly spread dress, is standing before the representation of the triumphant Saviour, whose drapery is treated after the antique, and is doubtless imitated from some older work. Chap. II.] THE BYZANTINE STYLE. 39 period. An art which no longer created a single animated figure, but was content to borrow a wretchedly disfigured antique motive at tenth hand — that had so accustomed it- self to a deathlike stillness of form that it dared not even attempt the variety of a profile — was ill adapted to venture on new ground. Where this was indispensable, as, for instance, in the martyr subjects, which arc not found in any older works, its thorough powerlessness is shown. The ceremonial and procession subjects, consisting of mere stationary figures, proved an easy task : as, for example, the representation of eight persons, all with a repetition of the same attitude, lying in the dust before an emperor; or a Synod, showing the patriarchs seated with the emperor in a circle, surrounded by numerous ecclesiastics, while a vanquished heretic lies prostrate on the floor. But this is not the realisation of historical painting, and even in the newly introduced subjects of martyrdom and the crucifixion a regular decline of art is obvious, which, in the person of the Saviour, may be said to bo symbolically expressed. The first known Byzantine representation of the crucifixion ( ninth century) depicts Him in an upright position, and with outstretched arms, triumphant even in death. The later pictures show Him with closed eyes and sunken form, as if the relaxed limbs had no longer the power to sustain the body, which is hanging swayed towards the right side. But in this degenerate art older as well as newer subjects were condemned to endless repetition. In a closer exami- nation of Byzantine works in the mass, we arrive at the strange fact that the old types were not only, as in antique art and in the art of the middle ages in western Europe:, reproduced in fresh forms, but that one painter abso- lutely copied from another in the most slavish manner. Exactly the same forms, position, action, and expression, in precisely the same arrangement, recur, for instance, in the mosaics of St. Mark at Venice, in the Constantinopolitaii miniatures, and in the frescoes of Greek monasteries ; thus showing, beyond all question, the worn-out state of tho ground we are treading. Not that the blame rests solely with tho artists; the Church, inasmuch as she openly as- 40 EAKLY CHRISTIAN ART. [Chap. II. sumed the direction and control of art, rendered such a state of things necessary. In one of the arguments adduced by an advocate for images in the second Nicene Council,* a.d. 787, it is clearly said, " it is not the invention (c<£et?peo-is) of the painter which creates the picture;, but an inviolable law, a tradition ^Oea-fioOea-la kcli 7rapdSoaL