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A 
 
 JOURNEY 
 
 CARNIOLA, ITALY, AND FRANCE. 
 
Miratur, facilesque oculos fert omnia circum 
 
 — Capiturque locis ; et singula laetus 
 
 Exquiritque auditque virum monumenta prior um. 
 
 Virg. 
 
xvm 
 
 OXJ) CYPRESSES , aad Part or the CLOISTER of’tse CERTOSA , 
 in Diocletians B atks, at Rome . P.378 - 379. 
 
 JCdinhnyh Published lr A-Consiablt Jk Co J.82Q . 
 
JOURNEY 
 
 IN 
 
 CARNIOLA, ITALY, AND FRANCE, 
 
 IN 
 
 THE YEARS 1817, 1818, 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 REMARKS RELATING TO LANGUAGE, GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, 
 ANTIQUITIES, NATURAL HISTORY, SCIENCE, PA-INTIN G, 
 SCULPTURE, ARCHITECTURE, AGRICULTURE, THE MECHA- 
 NICAL ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. 
 
 By W. A. CADELL, Esg. F. R. S. Lond. & Ed. 
 WITH ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 IN TWO VOLUMES. 
 
 VOL. I. 
 
 EDINBURGH: 
 
 PRINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND CO. EDINBURGH 
 
 AND HURST, ROBINSON, AND CO. CHEAPSIDE, I.ONDON. 
 
 1S20, 
 

 
 
 
 
 Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2015 
 
 
 https://archive.org/details/journeyincarniol01cade 
 
TO 
 
 THE RIGHT HONOURABLE 
 
 SIR JOSEPH BANKS, Bart. G. C. B, 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, 
 
 fyc. 8$c» 8fc. 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED, 
 
 IN TESTIMONY OF 
 GREAT RESPECT AND ESTEEM, 
 BY HIS VERY HUMBLE SERVANT, 
 
 THE AUTHOR, 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 The First Chapter of the following Work 
 relates to Trieste and Carniola; the Chapters 
 that follow, which compose the greatest 
 part of the Book, are descriptive of the 
 North and Middle of Italy; in the last 
 twenty pages, Savoy, Geneva, and a part of 
 France, come under view. The Appendix 
 contains an account of the Antique Marbles 
 of Rome, a view of the Geology of Italy, 
 Tables of Heights and of Population, and 
 a List of Books and Maps. In the Alpha- 
 betical Table of Contents, several additions 
 and explanations are inserted. Through- 
 out the Work the Author has compar- 
 ed what he saw with the descriptions con- 
 tained in books, written at different pe- 
 riods, by inhabitants of the countries he vi- 
 
 
viii ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 sited, and has made extracts and references 
 to these works where they appeared correct. 
 Of the Engravings, some are from sketches 
 by the Author, the rest are selected from 
 the works of different artists, and were com- 
 pared by the Author with the objects they 
 represent, excepting only the two figures in 
 Plate XIII., the Pyramid and Santa Sophia. 
 Seven of the plates contain representations 
 of architectural monuments, drawn on one 
 scale, shewing the relative magnitude of the 
 buildings. The Map of the Middle and 
 North of Italy shews the principal roads, 
 the mountains, and other circumstances, tp- 
 gether with the nature of the rocks in seve- 
 ral places, indicated by Roman numerals, 
 which refer to the explanation at page 268, 
 Vol. II. 
 
 *** The Table of' Contents is in Volume II. in 281 . 
 
A 
 
 JOURNEY 
 
 IN 
 
 CARNIOLA AND ITALY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Trieste . — Approach. — Buildings. — History . — Trade and Ma- 
 nufactures. — Money . — Toleration. — Language . — Newspa- 
 pers. — Inns. — Natural Productions . — Mineral Strata . — 
 Face of the Country. — Basins in the Limestone. — Grotto of 
 Carnioli. — Grotto of Adelsberg. — Proteus Anguinus . — Ca- 
 verns in Limestone . — Idria. — Plants. — Indian Corn.— 
 Gourds. — Green hue of the Water. — Quicksilver Mine; 
 the Ore ; Washing , fyc . — Vermillion. — Health of the Work- 
 men. — Road to Trieste. — Mode of Travelling . — Trieste to 
 Venice by Sea. 
 
 The traveller who comes by the Vienna road, dis- 
 covers Trieste and the sea from the brow of the hill 
 which he has to descend in order to arrive at the 
 town. The productions of a warmer climate are 
 suddenly brought into view. Olive plantations, and. 
 the lofty tapering dark-green cypresses, planted 
 near the country houses, adorn the prospect. The 
 donax reed, the laurel, peach-trees, fig-trees, and 
 vines, are cultivated in the gardens ; and the roofs 
 
 A 
 
& TRIESTE* — BUILBINGSc 
 
 of houses are formed In the Italian manner, with 
 the tiles called eanali, suited to a climate where 
 snow seldom falls* 
 
 The modern part of the town of Trieste is built 
 on a piece of level ground, and consists of streets of 
 a good breadth, laid out in straight lines, and at 
 right angles to each other* An inlet, in form of a 
 canal, comes up from the sea into the town, with 
 quays on each side, for ships to load and unload. 
 The Lazaretto, a mile north of the town, is a consi- 
 derable piece of ground on the water’s edge, inclos- 
 ed with a high wall, to prevent communication, and 
 containing the requisite buildings to accommodate 
 the crews of ships whilst performing quarantine. 
 
 The theatre is large and handsome. During the 
 carnival, musical operas in Italian are performed, 
 and, at other seasons, the theatre is occupied by 
 some of the companies of comedians who go about 
 playing in Venice, Padua, Milan, and other towns 
 of the north of Italy. 
 
 The cathedral is an ancient edifice, adorned, at 
 the high altar, with two large semicircular vault- 
 ed niches called tribune . The concave surface 
 
 of these tribune is covered with figures of saints 
 in mosaic, on a ground of gilt mosaic. Much 
 of this kind of mosaic is seen in the church of 
 Saint Mark at Venice. It also occurs in the 
 church of Saint John the Baptist at Florence, in 
 the church of Saint Paul without the city at Rome, 
 
CATHEDRAL. ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 s 
 
 and in other churches in Italy. The art of mosaic 
 painting was employed by the ancient Romans for 
 pavements of rooms, many of which pavements still 
 exist in Italy, France, Spain, and England. * At 
 Constantinople, in a less flourishing state of the arts, 
 mosaic was employed to decorate the internal walls 
 of Santa Sophia, and other churches, and from 
 thence it was again brought into Italy in the middle 
 ages. Beyond the Alps mosaic of the middle ages 
 is not met w r ith in churches, dampings work, entit- 
 led Vetera Monument a, published in 1690, contains 
 a historical account of the art of forming pictures 
 in mosaic, as practised by the ancients, and in the 
 middle ages. 
 
 The columns and two has reliefs that belonged to 
 an arch in honour of Trajan, are built into the tower 
 of the cathedral. 
 
 Some ancient Roman inscriptions and sculptured 
 stones are built into the front of the cathedral, and 
 an ancient marble, with eight busts in high relief, 
 the portraits of a Roman family, having the name 
 inscribed under each bust, has been sawn in two 
 pieces, which form the door-posts of the church. 
 Some other ancient Roman inscriptions are seen in 
 different parts of the town. That concerning Fa- 
 bius Severus is published by Gruter. 
 
 * See the engravings, published by Laborde, of the mosaic 
 at Italica in Spain, and those of different mosaics in England, 
 by Lysons. 
 
TRIESTE. — ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 4f 
 
 In the Piazzetta di Ricardo, situated in the old 
 part of the town, is a stone arch with Corinthian 
 pilasters, said to have been built in honour of Charle- 
 magne on his return from Istria. The Piazzetta di 
 Ricardo is so called, from a tradition of its having 
 been the site of the prison of Richard I. Coeur de 
 Lion, after he was taken at Aquileia. 
 
 There are some remains of a Roman aqueduct, 
 partly subterraneous, which brought water to Trieste 
 from a distance of six miles. These remains are 
 not conspicuous. 
 
 Trieste was anciently the Roman colony Ter- 
 geste, mentioned by Caesar and Pliny. * In the 
 sixth century it was subject to the Exarchate of 
 Ravenna. In the middle ages it was successively 
 subject to the Patriarch of Aquileia, to the Count 
 of Goritz, to the Doge of Venice. In 1382, it 
 came under the protection of Leopold Duke of 
 Austria, and has remained ever since in the posses- 
 sion of the house of Austria. 
 
 In the fifteenth century, the trade of Austria 
 and the south of Germany was carried on through 
 the Venetian port of Capo d’ Istria, and Trieste was 
 a small place without trade. 
 
 In 1719, Trieste was made a free port by the 
 Emperor Charles VI., and after that, during the 
 
 * Italy was divided into eleven regions by Augustus, and 
 the colonia Tergeste was situated in the tenth region. Plin. 
 Hist. Nat. III. 22. 
 
TRADE. 
 
 reign of his daughter Maria Theresa, the popula- 
 tion was greatly increased, by Greeks and other new 
 settlers. The new town was built on a flat piece of 
 ground, formerly used for making salt by the eva- 
 poration of sea water. In 17^3, the harbour was 
 enlarged, a mole was formed to shelter it from 
 the south, and an increase of trade was the conse- 
 quence of these improvements. The population is 
 now estimated at 40,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The trade of Trieste is flourishing, and the Au- 
 strian government is inclined to favour it, and to 
 check the admission, into their dominions, of goods 
 brought up the Elbe. 
 
 Amongst the exports of Trieste are glass from 
 Bohemia, the produce of mines from Hungary and 
 Idria, linen, tobacco, woollen cloth, potash, wool, 
 from the Austrian dominions and other parts of 
 Germany, manufactured and printed cotton goods 
 from Switzerland. 
 
 The imports are cotton wool, dried raisins, &c. 
 from Smyrna ; wax, hides, silk, gall-nuts, rice, oil, 
 wool, from the Levant ; wheat from the Levant and 
 from Odessa ; Indian corn, oats, coffee, sugar, &c. 
 The importation of foreign manufactured goods into 
 the Austrian dominions is prohibited. 
 
 In 1790, the number of vessels entered was 67^0, 
 and of vessels cleared out 7280. Since that time 
 the number has increased. Many barks of twenty 
 to thirty tons are employed in bringing to Trieste 
 
6 
 
 TRIESTE. — TRADE. 
 
 the produce of the countries bordering on the Ad- 
 riatic, and in carrying to different ports in the Ad- 
 riatic the foreign goods that have been imported in- 
 to Trieste. The communication with Naples is 
 carried on without going out of the Adriatic ; goods 
 from Trieste being sent by sea to Manfredonia, and 
 from thence overland to Naples. 
 
 The quantity of goods conveyed to and from 
 Trieste by land-carriage is very considerable. They 
 are carried, by way of Laybach and Gratz, to Vi- 
 enna and Bohemia, and by Klagenfurth, Salzburg, 
 and Innspruck, to Bavaria and Switzerland. 
 
 The harbour of Trieste is easy of access, and is 
 protected from the south by a mole. 
 
 The Borra is a cold east-north-east wind, which 
 sometimes blows in winter with great violence ; but 
 as it blows off the land, it does not produce a high 
 sea, and is, therefore, less injurious to the shipping 
 than a sea wind of ’equal force. 
 
 Jn the road, where there is good anchorage, his 
 Majesty’s frigate Tagus, Captain D. Dundas, was 
 lying for some days at this time, (November 1817,) 
 and excited the attention of the inhabitants by her 
 fine appearance. 
 
 The tides are perceptible at Trieste, but are com 
 siderably influenced by the winds. 
 
 The ships built at Trieste are much esteemed. 
 There is a yard with eight building slips, for the 
 construction of merchant vessels of 200 to 600 tons. 
 
SHIP-BUILDING. 
 
 i 
 
 The ships are said to last fifty or sixty years, where- 
 as fifteen to twenty-five is the duration of ships built 
 in some other parts of Europe. The oak of which 
 they are built is excellent, and is got near Trieste 
 and Fiume. In the country near Trieste the soil 
 is scanty, upon limestone rock, so that the trees have 
 a slow growth, and produce wood of great density* 
 If the ship has a cargo of salt in her first voyage, 
 the wood is hardened by the salt, and the durabili- 
 ty of the ship is thereby increased. Vessels, also, 
 that carry quicklime, are of long duration, the lime 
 absorbing the damp, and, by its caustic quality, pre- 
 venting the action of worms and the rot. Other 
 cargoes, such as hemp, cotton, and pepper, that 
 hinder the circulation of air in the hold, and con- 
 fine the damp, are found to occasion the rot in 
 ships. Good cordage is made at Trieste from the 
 excellent hemp of Bologna. The masts are of spruce 
 fir, ( Finus abies , J and grow in Hungary and the 
 district of Adelsberg, but they are found to be 
 much inferior in durability to the masts of Norway 
 and the Baltic. 
 
 There are manufactories of white lead, soap, 
 leather, bleached wax, maccaroni paste for export- 
 ation, an establishment for dyeing Turkey red on 
 cotton, a sugar refining house, &c. In the sugar- 
 house and other manufactories, pit-coal from Basso- 
 viza, some miles distant from Trieste, is used as fuel. 
 
 At some distance from Trieste is a paper manu- 
 
8 
 
 TRIESTE. MANUFACTURES. 
 
 factory. From the low price of subsistence, and the 
 consequent lowness of wages, and from the small 
 expence of their rude machinery, the paper is ma- 
 nufactured so cheap, that paper from Britain, made 
 with improved machinery, cannot come into com- 
 petition with it. The same may be said of the pa- 
 per manufactories in Italy, some of the finer kinds 
 of paper only being imported from England, France, 
 or Holland ; but the manufacture is of so little 
 extent in Italy, that considerable quantities of rags 
 for making paper are exported to Britain from Leg- 
 horn, Naples, and Trieste. 
 
 Three miles from the town are salt works. The 
 water of the sea is raised up by a scoop into a num- 
 ber of large shallow pools of a rectangular form, 
 and separated from each other by banks of clay. 
 The bottom of these beds is of clay, and is rolled 
 fiat and horizontal by a small stone roller, like a 
 garden roller. The water is evaporated by the na- 
 tural heat of the sun, and the salt forms into cry- 
 stals, which are raked together by a wooden rake 
 without teeth. The salt is made in May, June, July, 
 and August. During the rest of the year the heat 
 is not great enough to accomplish the evaporation. 
 
 In Britain the sun’s heat is not sufficient to pro- 
 duce salt at a marketable price, by a complete eva- 
 poration of sea water, but part of the process is ac- 
 complished by the sun at Lyminton in Hampshire, 
 where the sea water, after it has been brought to a 
 
SALT. 
 
 9 
 
 certain density, by exposure in the shallow clay re- 
 servoirs like those mentioned above, is pumped up 
 into a pan in which the evaporation is finished by a 
 coal fire. 
 
 The salt got near Trieste is not sufficient for the 
 supply of the adjacent countries, and the Austrian 
 government, which has the monopoly of that arti- 
 cle, imports salt from Naples and Sicily. 
 
 The Austrian government has also the monopo- 
 ly of tobacco. 
 
 In the warehouses at Trieste are seen the iron and 
 steel goods manufactured in Styria. The small 
 scythes are much esteemed.* The files are coarsely 
 made, and sold at a low price. The Styrian steel, 
 of which these articles are formed, is made at 
 one process from the ore, in the same way as the 
 steel of the Hartz, of Brescia, of the Pyrennees, 
 and the East Indian steel called Wootz. The 
 English steel made by the cementation of bar-iron 
 with charcoal is more homogeneous, and preferable 
 for cutlery, gravers, files, &c. especially after it has 
 been cast. Very few articles made of cast iron are 
 to be seen. Some cast iron cannon are made at 
 Maria Zell in Styria. 
 
 The warehouse for the products of the imperial 
 mines is the deposit of mercury, Vermillion, corrosive 
 
 * Some of the scythe forges are seen at Schottwien on the 
 road from Vienna to Gratz. 
 
10 
 
 TRIESTE .—MONEY* 
 
 sublimate and other salts of mercury, and of sheet 
 brass, which is much used in Austria for making 
 spoons, 
 
 Minium, made at Villach in Carinthia, is met 
 with at Trieste. 
 
 In November 1817, the most common coins in 
 circulation at Trieste were Austrian twenty kreuzer 
 pieces, of base silver, * of the current value of eight- 
 pence halfpenny sterling. 
 
 Trieste, Carnioia, and the other Illyrian provinces 
 belonging to the House of Austria, are favoured by 
 government so far as to enjoy an exemption from 
 the Vienna paper money, which has entirely super- 
 seded silver in the common circulation of Austria, 
 Bohemia, Moravia, Hungary, and Styria. This pa- 
 per money at Vienna, in October 1817, was at one- 
 third of its original nominal value, the notes inscri- 
 bed sixty kreuzers being current for about twenty, 
 but their value fluctuated from day to day. A one 
 gulden note passed for the value of eightpence half- 
 penny sterling ; the other notes in circulation at 
 Vienna are for two, three, five gulden, and for larger 
 sums. 
 
 Roman Catholic is the prevailing religion, and 
 the religion of the government. Joseph II. gave 
 the free exercise of worship to all religions ; 
 
 * The silver they contain is only 7-I2ths of their weight.— 
 Nelkenbrechers Munzkunde, Berlin 1817. 
 
 
RELIGION. 
 
 11 
 
 and this toleration has been continued ever since. 
 The Protestants of the confession of Augsburg 
 occupy the church that was formerly dedicated 
 to Santa Maria del Rosario. They have bells to 
 announce public worship, and their hymns are ac- 
 companied by a good organ. On the altar is a cru- 
 cifix, and over it a painting of Christ. In the 
 church of the Protestants called the Reformed or 
 Helvetic community, all ornament is carefully avoid- 
 ed. There are neither pictures, crucifix, nor organ. 
 The walls are inscribed with texts from Scripture. 
 The greatest number of the community are from 
 the country of the Grisorts, whose language is Ro- 
 manish ; * and in that language the service is per- 
 formed. 
 
 * The country of the Grisons is a part of the ancient Rhae- 
 tia Propria, or Prima, which occupied the southern declivity 
 of the Rhaetian Alps ; the northern declivity being Rhaetia 
 Secunda, or Vindelicia. 
 
 The Romanish, Rhaetish, or Chur Walsh, is spoken by 
 about a half of the population of the country of the Grisons; 
 5-14ths speak German, and 2-14ths a corrupt Italian. The 
 Romanish is a modification of the Romana Rustica, or vulgar 
 Latin, that was spoken in the provinces of the Roman empire. 
 From the Alpine and inaccessible situation of the Grison country, 
 the Romana Rusiicahas suffered less alteration in the Romanish, 
 than in other languages of which the Romana Rustica forms 
 the ground-work. 
 
 The Proven9ale, or Romance, and, in some degree, the 
 Furlana or Friuli languages, resemble the Romanish. The 
 following example of the Romanish is from Adelung : « A 
 
12 
 
 TRIESTE. RELIGION. 
 
 The Illyrian Greek church is ornamented inter- 
 nally with paintings of saints, on a gilded ground, 
 in the Greek style. 
 
 The church of the Oriental Greeks has fewer de- 
 corations. Each of these Greek churches is admini- 
 stered by an archimandrite and subordinate priests. 
 
 The synagogue is situated in the Ghetto de’Ebrei, 
 the Jewry, or part of the town appropriated to the 
 habitation of the Jews. 
 
 The manners and the mode of living in Trieste 
 are Italian ; and Italian is the language most gene- 
 rally spoken. It is the language of the church and 
 of the theatre. German, the language of the go- 
 vernment, is not universally understood. Many 
 of the labouring class in Trieste are natives of Friuli, 
 and speak the corrupt Italian of that district. * * The 
 
 nus manar bee enten pruvament ; mo nus spindre d’ilg mal.” 
 And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. — 
 See Planta’s Account of the Romanish Language, in the 
 Philosophical Transactions, 1775 ; Adelung and Vaters Mi- 
 thridates. 
 
 * The Furlano, or dialect of Friuli, is a corrupt Italian, 
 with a mixture of French and Slavic words. It is by some 
 considered to be allied to the Romanish language of the Gri. 
 son country. The French words that occur in the Furlano 
 were introduced by the priests, who came from Provence and 
 Gascony in the fourteenth century, with the two patriarchs of 
 Aquileia, Bertrand de Quercy and Cardinal Philip. There 
 are poems in this dialect by Brunalesco Brunaleschi, and 
 others. — See Adelungs Mithridates oder sprachenkunde. 
 
 i 
 
LANGUAGE. 
 
 13 
 
 country people in the neighbourhood of Trieste, and 
 in other parts of Carniola, speak Krainish, a dialect 
 of the Slavic ; * and in this language the church ser- 
 
 * The Slavic languages are spoken in the extensive conti- 
 nuous tract of country which comprehends Russia, Poland, Si- 
 lesia, Bohemia, and Moravia. In that part of Saxony, which 
 borders on Silesia, the Serbi are distinguished from the neigh- 
 bouring Germans, by their Slavic language and their peculiar 
 dress. 
 
 The Slavic dialects are spoken also in the countries adjacent 
 to Hungary on the east and south, and on the right of the 
 Drave and Danube, namely, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Croa- 
 tia, Sclavonia, Dalmatia, Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria. 
 
 Adelung’s classification of the Slavic languages is as follows: 
 
 The Eastern Slavic includes, 1 . The Russian . 2. The 
 
 Illyrian , comprehending the Servian, spoken in Servia, Bos- 
 nia, Bulgaria, Morlacbia, Sclavonic Walachia, Eastern Dal- 
 matia, and the territory of Ragusa, and by the colonies of 
 Servians in Hungary and Transilvania ; the Croatian, spoken 
 in Croatia, Western Dalmatia, in the Croatian counties in 
 Hungary, and in some parts of Hungary on the left of the 
 Danube ; the language of the Southern Wends, or Krainish, 
 spoken in Carniola, Carinthia, Styria, and in the counties of 
 CEdinburg and Eisenburg in Hungary. 
 
 The Western Slavic comprehends, 1 . The Polish , and 
 the language spoken by the Kasubi in Pomerania, and by 
 some of the inhabitants of Silesia. 2. The Tschechish , (Czes- 
 ky,) or Bohemian, spoken by two millions out of three of the 
 inhabitants of Bohemia, by the inhabitants of Moravia, and by 
 the Slovaks in Hungary. 3. The language of the Serbi , who 
 amount to 60,000 in Lausatia. 4. The language of the North- 
 ern Wends , of whom there are some remains in the dutchy of 
 Luneburg. 
 
24 
 
 TRIESTE. LANGUAGE. 
 
 vice in the country parishes is performed. A trans- 
 lation of the New Testament into Krainish was pub- 
 lished at Lay bach in 1780, by orders of the Bishop 
 of Laybach. 
 
 The inhabitants of Carniola are composed of the 
 fragments and remains of several different nations, — 
 Uskoques,* * a Slavic people, who were driven from 
 Walachia, — Germans t of different races, — the Krai- 
 nish race which is found all over Carniola ; there are 
 besides, five Slavic races varying from the Krainish, 
 and from each other in their dialect and dress, who 
 inhabit different parts of the dutchy. 
 
 Styria also contains the remains of several old Ger- 
 man tribes ; and there are in that province six or 
 
 The Old Prussian and the Lettish, in Livonia and Kurland, 
 are languages composed of Slavic and German. 
 
 The Walachian is composed of Romana Rustica, or the 
 Latin anciently prevalent in the provinces of the Roman em- 
 pire, and Slavic. It is spoken in Moldavia, Walachia, Transilva- 
 nia, the Bukovine, the Bannat, and Upper Hungary ; and, on 
 the right of the Danube, by the greatest part of the inhabit- 
 ants of Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly. Persons of rank 
 in Moldavia and Walachia speak Greek and Turkish. 
 
 * The Uskoques, 200 years ago, infested the Venetian trade 
 by their piracies. Some of them are called Heiducks, from 
 Hajduk, a captain of robbers. A specimen of their poetical 
 compositions is given by Fort is, Viaggio in Dalmazia ; Venet . 
 1774. 
 
 f The Gottshevoarer , one of these small German tribes, are 
 depraved in their morals, and speak a very corrupt dialect of 
 German,— -Adelung’s Mith. II. Th. 211. 
 
LANGUAGE* 
 
 15 
 
 eight different dialects of German. The different 
 tribes are also distinguished by their dress. * 
 
 Many of the names of places in Carniola, Styria, 
 &c. are Slavic. In these names, Grad, equivalent to 
 the Russian Gorod, signifies town. Brod, the pas- 
 sage of a river, &c. The word Windisch is prefixed 
 to the names of some towns and districts, denoting 
 that these places are inhabited by Slavi, called Wends 
 by the Germans. Many of the places have two names, 
 one German, the other Italian or Slavic. Laybach 
 is otherwise called Lubiana ; Carniola in German is 
 called Krain, &c. 
 
 The newspapers in the coffeehouses of Trieste are. 
 — the two German papers published at Vienna,— 
 the Italian papers of Venice, &c., — an Italian paper 
 for advertisements published at Trieste,— a paper in 
 the Illyrian language, published at Zara, and print- 
 ed in the Cyrillic letters, which the Russians use,— 
 a Greek paper entitled, rr,x^apg croX/7«?jc. t The 
 
 * I passed through the town of Marburg in Styria, on the 
 forenoon of the 29th of October, the day the emperor was ex- 
 pected. Arches of green fir boughs were erected in honour 
 of the sovereign ; and the town was crowded with great num- 
 hers of the country people of different races, Slavi or Wends. 
 Hungarians, and Germans, distinguished from each other by 
 their dress, which was most curiously varied in form and'co- 
 lour. 
 
 f One of the largest houses in Trieste is the property of a 
 Greek merchant who has been long established in the place- 
 
16 
 
 TRIESTE. NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 Austrian government does not admit English news- 
 papers, and even the British merchants at Trieste 
 find difficulty in procuring them. 
 
 The inns in Trieste are like the Italian inns. 
 The Locanda Grande is one of the best, and has 
 a view of the sea. 
 
 Madame Eliza Baziocchi, one of Bonaparte’s 
 sisters, lives at this time (November 181 7) at 
 Trieste, and inhabits a handsome house to the south 
 of the town. 
 
 The country near Trieste is stony, and contains 
 scarcely any arable land fit for producing grain, so 
 that the grain for the supply of the town must be 
 imported. 
 
 The cattle are small. They are used for drawing 
 carts and in the plough. Buffaloes are rarely em- 
 ployed. The sheep fed upon the rocky pastures 
 are esteemed for the table. 
 
 Trieste is plentifully supplied with a variety of 
 fish. They reckon 60 kinds of fish and shell-fish. 
 The oysters fix themselves on wooden posts placed 
 in the sea. Considerable quantities of tunny, sar- 
 doni, and anchovies, are salted. 
 
 The Turkish subjects of the Greek religion, who frequent Trieste, 
 Vienna, and Venice, are frequently termed by the inhabitants 
 of these cities Raitzen. This name, which should be written 
 Rascier, in a strict sense denotes the inhabitants of the south- 
 ern part of Servia, who live near the river Raska. 
 
FRUITS. 
 
 17 
 
 The fruits in the market of Trieste in the begin- 
 ning of November were the following : Apples. A 
 large winter pear, common in the middle and north 
 of Italy. Oranges and lemons. The fruit of the 
 strawberry tree, unpalatable, and full of small seeds. 
 The pods of the caroub ; the pod is sweet and eatable, 
 the seeds are hard and are not eaten. The fruit of 
 the Sorbus domestica , in shape like a small pear an 
 inch long ; * it is eaten when it has begun to rot, 
 and is agreeable to the taste ; it is met with at 
 Vienna, and, as that climate is not very mild, it is 
 likely that the fruit would ripen in Britain. Lazze- 
 roni, a pleasant tasted fruit, in size and shape like a 
 very small apple, produced by the Cratcegus rubra , 
 a fruit-tree common also in the gardens at Rome and 
 other parts of Italy. 
 
 Amongst the garden-stuffs in the market is the 
 kohl raabi, a kind of brassica, which produces a pear- 
 shaped bulb above ground, three or four inches in 
 diameter, of the consistence of a turnip, and agree- 
 able to the taste when boiled. This vegetable is com- 
 monly cultivated in gardens all over Germany. In 
 Britain, although it has not come into general use, 
 
 * Pliny mentions sorbi, with a fruit of a pear-shape, “ Sorbis 
 quadruplex differentia. Aliis enim eorum rotunditas iriali, 
 aliis turbinatio pyri.’* Plin. Hist. Nat. XV. 23. A figure of the 
 Sorbus domestica is in Jacquin, Flora Austriaca, 5 t. 447. 
 
 B 
 
18 
 
 TRIESTE. — OIL.— WINE. 
 
 it thrives well, and comes to maturity, at least when 
 raised from foreign seed. 
 
 Good olive-oil is made at a village two miles 
 north-west of Trieste, and the wine of Prosecco, a 
 village in the neighbourhood, is in some estimation. 
 
 The spirit called Sirmischer Slivovitz is met with 
 at Trieste. It is distilled from fermented plums, 
 and is made in Sirmia * near Belgrade. This kind 
 of spirit is also in use at Vienna and Prague. 
 
 Besides the limestone rocks which compose the 
 higher ground inland from Trieste, there are strata 
 containing clay ironstone. Pit-coal is wrought at 
 Bassoviza and at Lippiza, some miles distant, and 
 is used as fuel in the sugar-house, the sulphur- 
 refinery, and the soap-w r ork, at Trieste. In the 
 clay ironstone strata is got a stratum of stone, one 
 to two feet thick, used for street pavement. This 
 stratum has the upper and under surface tolerably 
 even. It is broken across into pieces of an irre- 
 gularly polygonal figure, of the thickness of the stra- 
 tum, and having a surface of two or three square feet ; 
 of these pieces the pavement of the streets of Trieste 
 is made. The pavement of the streets of Florence 
 is formed in the same way of a similar kind of stone. 
 
 The limestone or marble of the neighbourhood of 
 
 * Sirmium was the capital of the ancient Roman province 
 of Illyricum 
 
FACE OF THE COUNTRY. 
 
 19 
 
 Trieste is hewn into door-posts and other carved 
 parts of buildings. 
 
 That part of the Vienna road which ascends the 
 steep hill from Trieste was made by Count Zinzendorf, 
 governor of Trieste, in the time of Maria Theresa. 
 In going up there is an agreeable view of the town 
 and the sea, but after the summit the scene changes 
 to a barren rocky country, which continues for seve- 
 ral stages on the Vienna road. The rock is lime- 
 stone, composed of strata nearly horizontal. In 
 some places the surface of this rock is bare for a con- 
 siderable extent, and very uneven, being full of fis- 
 sures, and grotesquely perforated with water-worn 
 holes. These bare limestone rocks occupy more than 
 one- half of the surface, there being only a little grass 
 in the space between the prominent parts of the rock. 
 The prominences are generally three or four feet 
 high, and the vegetation between them can afford only 
 a scanty food to a few sheep. From the grey colour 
 of these rocks, the surface of the country looks as if 
 covered with snow or hoar-frost. A green-flowered 
 hellebore ( Helleborus viridis ) is seen here and there 
 amongst the rocks. Near some of the villages there 
 are walnut trees, and a few vines trained high upon 
 a small-leaved maple tree ( Acer campestre ). The 
 common wine of the country is very bad. In the 
 inns on the road the wine is either new and sweet- 
 ish from the imperfect fermentation, or what they 
 call old wine, which is quite acid. The wine of 
 
20 
 
 CARNIOLA.— BASINS IN LIMESTONE^ 
 
 Prosecco is the best in the country. In various 
 places of this rocky ground there are round co- 
 nical pits or basins formed in the limestone by 
 some ancient operation of nature. These basins are 
 of different sizes, some of them about a hundred 
 yards in diameter at the top, and fifty feet deep ; 
 the bottom is a plane surface of good arable ground, 
 which is cultivated. On the sides of most of the 
 basins there are trees. As there are many perfora- 
 tions visibly effected by water in the limestone, it 
 may be supposed that the formation of these basins 
 also, is due to the action of water. 
 
 There are several caverns of considerable extent in 
 this limestone. Amongst these is the grotto at the 
 village of Carnioli, otherwise called Lohiow, seven 
 miles from Trieste. Its entrance is by a descent along 
 the inclined sides of a natural pit. After this descent 
 we walked into the cavern, in a direction nearly hori- 
 zontal, the length of 1000 feet or more. The cavern 
 is very lofty in some places ; and there is a great 
 quantity of calcareous stalactite often reaching from 
 the roof to the floor. In one place there is clear water, 
 but there is no running stream. The rock in which 
 this grotto is formed is limestone containing shells. 
 The limestone is very cavernous and full of fissures. 
 Many of these fissures are water-worn. The wear- 
 ing action of the water appears to have taken place 
 after the stone was consolidated, and after the fis- 
 sures had been formed ; the fissures look as if form- 
 
GROTTOS. 
 
 21 
 
 ed before the stone was consolidated. This grotto 
 is similar in many respects to the cave at Castleton 
 in Derbyshire. 
 
 The country between Carnioli and Trieste is 
 stony and barren. Near the road at Lippiza, in a 
 wooded piece of ground inclosed with a wall, is kept 
 a breeding stud of horses, established in 1805 by 
 the Archduke Charles ; the climate is favourable to 
 Arabian and Spanish horses. 
 
 Near Adelsberg, which is thirty English miles 
 from Trieste, and on the road from Trieste to Vien- 
 na, is a vast cavern through which a river passes. 
 The river is so considerable as to drive a mill with 
 four water- wheels, about 200 yards above the place 
 where it enters the cavern. We went some hund- 
 red feet into the cavern, which is very lofty ; * the 
 roof is covered with stalactites. The river is seen 
 running in the cavern, at the foot of a precipice, and 
 fifty fathoms below the path where we were. The 
 river comes out to day again near Alben, called also 
 Planina, after having run under ground for some 
 miles. The Cyclamen Europeum grows amongst 
 the stones at the mouth of the cavern. 
 
 The lake called the Czirknitzer-see is some miles 
 distant from Adelsberg. From the cavernous nature 
 
 * In the work entitled, Efire des Erzherzogthums Krain, by 
 Joannes Weichard Valvasor at Layback , in 1689. there are 
 views of this and other remarkable objects in Carniola. 
 
22 
 
 PROTEUS ANGUINUS. 
 
 of the rocks in which it is situated, the water, at 
 certain seasons, becomes low. In the w 7 ater con- 
 tained in the caverns of this lake, the singular rep- 
 tile the Proteus anguinus is found. It has been ob- 
 served in no other part of the w^orld. Professors Con- 
 figliachi and Rusconi of Pavia * have lately examined 
 its structure, and are of opinion that it breathes solely 
 by means of the pendulous and fringed gills placed 
 on each side of the throat ; and, consequently, is 
 capable of living always under water, as the larvae of 
 water-newts, which are also provided with pendulous 
 gills, whereas newts in the adult state, and other 
 aquatic reptiles, having no apparatus for respiring 
 the air that is diffused in water, must sometimes 
 come to the surface of the water to inhale the air 
 of the atmosphere into their lungs. These learn- 
 ed observers consider the Proteus anguinus to be 
 an animal in the adult state, and not a larva. But 
 the Syren lacertina, examined by John Hunter and 
 Camper, and the aloxolotl brought from South 
 America by Humboldt, are supposed to be in the 
 state of larva. The eyes of the Proteus anguinus 
 
 • See Descrizione Notomica degli organi della circulazione, 
 delle larve delle salamandre aquatiche, fatta dal Dott. Mauro 
 Rusconi, Pavia, 1817 ; and the description of the Proteus an- 
 guinus, which Professors Configliachi and Rusconi were pre- 
 paring to publish in 1818. 
 
 The anatomy of the Proteus anguinus has also been exam- 
 ned by the eminent naturalists Schreiber of Vienna, and Cuvier. 
 
 4 
 
CAVERNS IN LIMESTONE. 
 
 23 
 
 are so small as scarcely to be visible, the animal in its 
 native situation, being, like the mole, always in the 
 dark, as it inhabits the water of caverns ; the colour 
 of the animal is pink; the length about nine inches ; 
 the feet very short. I saw one of these animals alive 
 at Pavia, it was kept in a bucket of water in a dark 
 place, and had been brought from the Czirknitz lake. 
 The country people sometimes bring them alive to 
 Trieste, and sell them as objects of curiosity. 
 
 Another river in the neighbourhood of Trieste 
 that appears to have run in caverns, is the Timavo, 
 near Montefalcone, on the road from Trieste to 
 Udine and Venice. It issues at once from the rock, 
 and after a very short course falls into the sea. * 
 
 * Caverns with stalactites, and rivers passing under ground, 
 occur in other countries composed of small-grained limestone. 
 The limestone near Trieste is probably of the same formation 
 with the limestone at Buxton and Castleton in Derbyshire, 
 where large caverns are seen resembling those in Carniola, 
 and with that limestone in which the Rhone runs after leaving 
 the lake of Geneva. 
 
 The quantity of water of the Rhone is much more consi- 
 derable after issuing from the lake, and after it is joined by 
 the Arve, than it is some miles below ; the water goes away 
 by the crevices of the limestone ; and at the place called La 
 Perte du Rhone, the stream runs for some hundred feet un- 
 der a cover of limestone strata, and then emerges. 
 
 Near Dovedale, in Derbyshire, part of the water goes off 
 into crevices of the limestone, and joins the main channel of 
 the river, after having run under ground for the space of se- 
 veral miles. 
 
24 
 
 IDRIA. 
 
 Idria is sixty English miles from Trieste, and may 
 be visited from Laybach, in coming from Vienna to 
 Trieste. The small town of Idria, with its old ba- 
 ronial castle, church, and via crucis or calvary in a 
 serpentine form which travellers are apt to mistake 
 for some metallurgic apparatus, is situated in a deep 
 valley, surrounded with verdant and lofty mountains 
 of limestone. The more extensive horizon, seen 
 from the height, is bounded by distant mountains, 
 at this season (the beginning of November) cover- 
 ed with snow. 
 
 Wood covers a part of the hills, and adds to the 
 beauty of the scenery. The woods consist of beech, 
 ash, birch, cherry-tree, pear, and apple. I saw no 
 larix, which is common in the neighbouring pro- 
 vince of Styria. Spruce fir ( Pinus abies ) is the 
 most frequent of the fir tribe. There are some sil- 
 ver fir, and Scotch fir, ( P . silvatica.) Barberry, 
 juniper, and the hellebore, called Christmas rose, 
 are met with. 
 
 Fern is collected, and kept on a skreen composed 
 of horizontal poles, * to be used for litter to the 
 
 * These skreens, or narrow barns, are used in other parts 
 of Carniola for hanging buck-wheat upon. The skreen is 
 composed of two upright posts twenty feet in height. Through 
 holes in the upright posts, horizontal poles are placed, reach- 
 ing from one upright to the other. On these poles, the buck- 
 wheat, and other kinds of fodder, are placed. A narrow roof 
 
 11 
 
Skreen and Poles on whichPuch-wheatc. is 
 stocked, in Carniola >. page, 24. 
 
 Barn on the, sides of winch, 
 radian corn, is hiuur in Carniola, 
 
 Edinburgh TuHtslud h-JL Constable .£- ( o-JitJO- 
 

INDIAN CORN*) &C. 
 
 25 
 
 cattle ; and, for the same purpose, beech leaves are 
 gathered in baskets made of hoops. 
 
 Indian corn is a good deal cultivated in other 
 parts of Carniola ; much of it is seen on the Vienna 
 road, between Gratz and Cilli, in Styria ; and it is 
 cultivated partially, as far north as Prague, near the 
 latitude 50°. Gourds also are cultivated in consi- 
 derable quantity in Carniola and Styria. They 
 are cut into slices, and given to the hogs and cows. 
 
 The stream that runs by Idria, when seen from 
 the height, appears of a greenish blue colour. The 
 water, when looked at near, is colourless and trans- 
 parent. This green colour is observed in other rivers 
 which run over limestone. It is remarkable in the 
 Rhone, issuing from the lake of Geneva. 
 
 The mine, from which the quicksilver ore is got, 
 is 450 feet deep. We went down by a stair, with 
 stone steps, inclined about 35 degrees to the hori- 
 zon. A great deal of wood is employed to support 
 the galleries of the mine. These wooden pillars 
 caught fire ten or twelve years ago, and it was found 
 necessary to allow the water to grow in the mine till 
 it covered and drowned out the fire. They now use 
 piers of stone and lime for supports, in some parts 
 of the mine, instead of wood. — In one of the galle- 
 
 of boards covers the whole, passing from one upright to the 
 other. The sheaves of buck- wheat are also sometimes fixed 
 on one upright post. 
 
26 
 
 IDRIA.— QUICKSILVER MINE. 
 
 vies is an altar, with an image of the Virgin, and of St 
 John of Nepomuk, a saint much venerated by the 
 Roman Catholics at Prague, and in the south of 
 Germany.— The Emperor Francis, who makes fre- 
 quent excursions into different parts of his domi- 
 nions, descended into this mine in 1816. It has 
 been visited also by the Archduke John, who culti- 
 vates and promotes natural science, founder of the 
 school of mineralogy and botany, called the Joan- 
 neum, at Gratz, and by some of the archdukes, his 
 brothers.— After going through several parts of the 
 mine, we came up in a bucket, moved by a forty 
 fee e over shot water-wheel, which w r orks the pumps 
 that keep the mine dry. The working barrels of the 
 pumps are of bronze, the rest of the pump-pipes 
 are of wood. In Britain, the working barrels and 
 pipes, in similar situations, are now always of cast- 
 iron, which has many advantages ; but the cast-iron 
 manufacture in the Austrian dominions is not suffi- 
 ciently improved to furnish such articles. The daily 
 wages paid to a miner are seventeen kreuzers, equal 
 to sevenpence halfpenny sterling. The adjacent 
 rock i§ small-grained limestone ; and, according to 
 Ferber, the ore is situated in shistus, lying under the 
 limestone. * 
 
 The ore is for the most part of a reddish brown 
 colour. Some pieces are incrusted with bright red 
 cinnabar. The mercury exists in it in combination 
 
 * Ferber’ s Letters. 
 
ORE. 
 
 2? 
 
 with sulphur. * Native mercury is found in small 
 quantities. 
 
 After the ore is raised from the mine, it is pick- 
 ed and separated into different sorts by the hand. 
 It is then pounded by stampers, and exposed at 
 the same time to a stream of water. The water 
 carries away the small particles of the pounded ore, 
 and, running along a wooden canal, the richest ore, 
 which is also the heaviest, falls down and remains 
 on the bottom of the canal in the form of slime. 
 In the next reach of the canal, the ore of a small- 
 er specific weight is deposited. The ore is some- 
 times washed in an iron sieve, immersed in a tub of 
 water, in order to separate the heavier parts from 
 the lighter. Use is also made of the large washing- 
 table, inclined at an angle of four or five degrees, 
 and kept in a tremulous motion, whilst the slime 
 and water run over it. 
 
 * The brown ore of Idria, on account of its liver colour, is 
 called in German Quecksilber leber erz. Klaproth found the 
 contents of a selected piece of it to be, 
 
 Mercury, 
 
 818. 
 
 Sulphur, 
 
 137-5 
 
 Carbon, 
 
 23. 
 
 Silica, 
 
 6.5 
 
 Alumina, 
 
 5.5 
 
 Oxid of iron. 
 
 - 2. 
 
 Copper, 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 Water, 
 
 rr o 
 
 1000.0 
 
28 
 
 IDRIA. SUBLIMATION. 
 
 Some native mercury is collected, by washing the 
 ore, and is sold at a higher price than that obtained 
 by sublimation, being considered more free from 
 mixture. 
 
 The ore, being reduced to powder and assorted, 
 is next to be subjected to the process of sublima- 
 tion. For this purpose, there are vaulted ovens, 
 within which are two or three tiers of brick grating. 
 On the brick grating are placed flat earthen dishes, 
 containing the ore without addition. Fire is made 
 in the lower part of the oven, under the brick grat- 
 ing, and the mercury is volatilized, and passes 
 through a chimney into the cooling-room, where it 
 is condensed, and remains in small drops amongst 
 the soot which covers the walls. The soot proba- 
 bly contains also black sulphuret of mercury. The 
 soot and mercury are swept from the walls, and 
 the mercury is collected in a cavity in the middle of 
 the floor of the cooling-room. 
 
 The mercury is measured by a glazed earthenware 
 vessel, with a vertical slit at its upper end ; when filled 
 up to the lower part of the slit, the vessel contains 
 twenty-five pounds of mercury. This portion of twen- 
 ty-five pounds is put in a piece of white leather, the 
 edges of which are gathered up round the mercury, 
 and firmly bound together, by many turns of a string 
 of the size of the little finger. The leather, after 
 being tied, has the form of a round bag, and no mer- 
 cury can be made to pass from any part of it, even 
 by a considerable pressure. This bag is packed in 
 
VERMILLION, &C. 
 
 29 
 
 a cask made to fit it, and three of the casks are pla- 
 ced in a strong deal box. In this form it is sent off. 
 
 The process for making vermillion is not shewn 
 to strangers. It is made of a great many differ- 
 ent shades, and is esteemed good ; some of it, 
 perhaps, approaches to the brilliancy of the vermil- 
 lion imported from China. The vermillion is pack- 
 ed like the mercury ; it is tied up in brown leather. 
 
 Corrosive sublimate, calomel, and red nitrate of 
 mercury called red precipitate, are also made at Idria. 
 
 The workmen at the subliming furnaces have 
 their health injured by the action of the mercury on 
 their constitutions. The miners are not affected. 
 
 During the four years that the French were in 
 possession of Idria, they wrought a much greater 
 quantity of ore, and produced more mercury, than 
 is now done by the Austrian government. 
 
 Mercury was formerly obtained from a mine in 
 Friuli by the Venetians. Almaden in Spain, and 
 Idria, are now the two most considerable mines. It 
 is also extracted at Deux Ponts. The mine of Gual- 
 cavalica, in South America, has been abandoned. 
 
 Much of the mercury from Idria is sent to 
 Spanish South America, for the purpose of extract- 
 ing the silver from the ore by the process of amal- 
 gamation. * 
 
 * The process for obtaining silver from the ore by amalga- 
 mation, originated in Spanish South America. 
 
 It was afterwards introduced in Hungary by Born, but is 
 in a great degree relinquished there. 
 
SO 1DRIA. AMALGAMATION, &C. 
 
 Leaving Iclria, a good road conducts us for twelve 
 or fifteen miles mostly along the ridges of the hills, 
 till we came to Lohitsch, on the great road leading 
 from Vienna to Trieste, and to the latter place I 
 returned through Adeisberg, &c. 
 
 The transit of goods on this road is very consider- 
 able. Sugar, coffee, lemons, and other articles, im- 
 ported into Trieste, are sent to Vienna and the cir- 
 cumjacent parts of the Austrian dominions ; and the 
 glass of Bohemia, and other produce of these coun- 
 tries, is brought to Trieste to be shipped. The 
 road, however, is rough, and is not kept in a suffi- 
 cient state of repair to facilitate the passage of the 
 numerous four-wheeled waggons, each of which is 
 drawn by many horses. The high roads in Italy 
 are kept in much better order. 
 
 The diligence from Vienna to Trieste, which 
 travels all night, except one night at Gratz, and 
 makes out the journey, of about 300 English miles, 
 in eight days, is a heavy vehicle in form of a coach, 
 and suspended on steel springs. Although not 
 excellent, it is better than the public conveyances 
 in Hanover and Saxony, and not worse than se- 
 veral of the diligences in France ; but these last 
 are now improving by the adoption of coaches 
 
 In Saxony the process is carried on with much activity, and 
 with well constructed machinery, at the amalgamation esta- 
 blishment at the Halsbriicke, near Freyberg, as I witnessed 
 there in 1817* 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
PUBLIC CARRIAGES. 
 
 31 
 
 made in the English way. There are also coaches 
 that go between Trieste and Vienna, when they 
 have got their complement of passengers, and tra- 
 vel with the same horses, stopping at night. Tra- 
 vellers that take post-horses may have a calesh at 
 each post-house, for which they are charged a fixed 
 hire, but these caleshes are not very commodious, so 
 that it is better for those who travel far with post- 
 horses to procure a carriage for the whole journey. 
 
 There are numerous barks which carry goods 
 between Trieste and Venice. They are like the 
 other coasting vessels of the Adriatic, about thirty 
 tons burden, with two masts, and a lug sail some- 
 thing in the latine form, to each mast. With these 
 sails they are. able to go weil before the wind, but 
 cannot beat up against a wind so well as a sloop-rig- 
 ged vessel. In one of these barks I went from 
 Trieste to Venice. The passengers have the use 
 cf a cabin and beds, but must not expect very de- 
 licate accommodation. Soon after the time of which 
 I speak, a steam-boat, for conveying passengers from 
 Trieste to Venice, was constructed by the American 
 Consul. 
 
 The distance is seventy English miles, and is 
 gone in twelve hours with a good wind ; but the 
 wind proving unfavourable, we put into the harbour 
 of Pirano, a small town in Istria, with a church tower 
 built on the model of the tower of Saint Mark at 
 Venice. The Venetian lion is seen sculptured on 
 several of the buildings, the town having belonged 
 
m 
 
 TRIESTE TO VENICE. 
 
 to the republic. It is inhabited by sea-faring men, 
 who, like other sailors in this part of the Adriatic, 
 wear a brown great coat with a hood that goes over 
 the head. 
 
 The chamber of commerce of Trieste, in 1818, 
 erected a lighthouse near Pirano, illuminated by 
 the gas from pit- coal. 
 
 At Pola on this coast, forty miles south of Trieste, 
 are the remains of a Roman building, consisting of 
 an elliptical wall of three floors, with rustic arcades 
 like the outer wall of the amphitheatre at Verona. 
 Maffei * considers this fabric to have been a theatre 
 and not an amphitheatre, as the seats are on one side 
 only, and formed on the declivity of a hill. The 
 length, according to that learned author, is 4?1 6 Eng- 
 lish feet, the height 97* It is the only one of the 
 Roman elliptical precincts that now remains entire 
 in its whole circumference ; about a half of the pre- 
 cinct of the amphitheatre at Rome, and the greatest 
 part of the precinct at Verona, having long since 
 come to the ground. 
 
 The wind becoming favourable, we sailed from 
 Pirano, and arrived at the port of Lido, the entrance 
 of the Laguna, where there is a fort to guard the 
 passage, and from whence, after a tedious examina- 
 tion of baggage by the custom-house officers, we pro- 
 ceeded in a boat the distance of two or three miles 
 to Venice. 
 
 * Verona Illustr. parte quarta. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 Venice . — Laguna. — Ancient state and decline of Venice. — Saint 
 Mark's Place. — Saint Mark's Church. — Ducal Palace. — Li- 
 brary . — Churches. — School of Saint Rocq. — Academy of 
 Painting. — Mode of Building. — Public Garden . — Collection 
 of Minerals. — Climate. — Coffeehouses . — - Theatres. — Rialto 
 Bridge . — Arsenal. — -Fish and other productions . — Wells . — 
 Armenian Monastery. — Manufacture of Glass Beads. — Bu~ 
 vying Ground. — Islands of Tor cello, Sfc. 
 
 T. he Laguna is separated from the sea by a line of 
 narrow sandy islands. This line is broken by three 
 passages, which are the principal entrances into the 
 Laguna ; — the most northerly at the port del Lido, 
 by which we entered ; — the passage at the port of 
 Malamocco, between the points of the two longest 
 of the sandy islands ; — and the most southerly at the 
 port of Chiozza. 
 
 At Chiozza, at the southern extremity of this 
 line of sandy islands, massive stone bulwarks, called 
 Murazze, have been constructed, to render the de- 
 fence against the action of the sea more secure. * 
 
 * The strengthening the barriers that defend the Laguna 
 against the sea is recommended in the Trattato delle acque 
 di Luigi Cornaro , published at Padua in 1560. The same 
 author, who, in his work, De Vita Sobria , gives an agreeable 
 
 c 
 
34 
 
 VENICE. — LAGUNA. 
 
 The Laguna, within the line of sandy islands, is 
 an extensive bay, a great part of which is so shal- 
 low as to be dry at low water. It is intersected 
 by channels of various depths, some of them deep 
 enough to allow ships of considerable size to come 
 close to the town. 
 
 The silt, or sandy mud, accumulates in the La- 
 guna, and tends to exclude the sea. This exten- 
 sion of the land, by alluvial matter, has taken place 
 in different situations on the Adriatic, near the 
 mouths of the Po ; and particularly at Ravenna, 
 which was anciently on the edge of the sea, but, 
 from the accumulation of mud and sand, is now 
 three or four miles inland from the shore. To 
 counteract this filling up of the Laguna, in the be- 
 ginning of the sixteenth century, a part of the river 
 Brenta was made to discharge itself near Chiozza ; 
 and the bucket-dredging machine, called by the 
 French Marie salope, is used for keeping the chan- 
 nels clear of silt. 
 
 There are several low islands in the Laguna. 
 The city of Venice is built on two of these islands, 
 separated from each other by the great canal, which 
 has a serpentine course. The two islands are again 
 
 description of the way in which he passed his old age, and of 
 the temperate regimen he observed, with the desired effect of 
 keeping off the diseases to which his delicate constitution wa 6 
 predisposed. He was a wealthy Venetian of the distinguish- 
 ed family of Cornaro, and lived to the age of 98. 
 
POPULATION. 
 
 35 
 
 subdivided by a great many smaller canals. The long 
 narrow island of La Giudecca, so called from having 
 been formerly the residence of the Jews, being at a 
 short distance, is included in the city. The surface 
 occupied by the city may be about one English square 
 mile and a half. The population is stated to be 
 120,000; sixty years ago, it was 170 , 000 . Murano, 
 and some other islands covered with buildings, are more 
 distant, and are to be considered as separate villages. 
 
 The province, called Venetia by the ancient Ro- 
 mans, was bounded by the Adda, the Rhoetian and 
 Julian Alps, and the Po. Maffei gives the history 
 of that province to the time of Charlemagne. * 
 
 About the year 450, the cities of Aquileia, t Pa- 
 dua, and others, situated in the ancient province of 
 Venetia, were ruined by the Huns under Attila, 
 and the inhabitants took refuge in the islands along 
 the coast. On the island of Ripa-alta, or Rialto, 
 the first foundation of the city of Venice was laid. 
 An epistle of Cassiodorus, praetorian prefect, and 
 
 * Maffei Verona Ulustrata, parte prima. 
 f The inhabitants of Aquileia took refuge on the island of 
 Grado, not far distant from Aquileia. In 570, the patriarch 
 of Aquileia, flying from the Lombards, removed his treasure 
 to Grado, which was called New Aquileia. The patriarchs, of 
 Aquileia were adopted by the infant republic of Venice, be- 
 came the ecclesiastical primates in the Venetian territory, 
 and, in 14-50, the seat of the patriarch was removed from 
 Grado to Venice. Of the city of Aquileia, which was at its 
 greatest in the fourth century, little now remains. 
 
36 
 
 VENICE. ANCIENT STATE. 
 
 minister of Theodoric, describes the state of the 
 islands of the Laguna in -523, seventy years after 
 Attila’s irruption. * At that time the chief pro- 
 duce of these islands was fish and salt. The inhabit- 
 ants had trading barks that ascended the Po, and the 
 neighbouring rivers, and vessels that traded in the 
 Adriatic. They performed the transports of wine 
 and oil from Istria to Ravenna, Theodoric’s royal re- 
 sidence. The epistle of Cassiodorus, which is ad- 
 dressed to the twelve tribunes, or magistrates, shews 
 that the islands of the Venetian Laguna were at that 
 time subject to the Gothic kingdom of Italy. 
 
 Charlemagne resigned all claims to the sovereign- 
 ty of Venice. His son Pepin made an unsuccess- 
 ful attack upon the islands of the Laguna. The 
 Venetians then, and in the ninth and tenth cen- 
 turies, considered themselves as an unalienable 
 portion of the Greek empire of Constantinople. 
 Venice in religion did not adhere to the Greek 
 church ; but she was less servile in her obedience to 
 
 * This epistle is commented on by Maffei, Verona Illus- 
 trata. 
 
 The anonymous Chronicle of the Eleventh Century, and 
 the Chronicle of the Fourteenth Century, composed by the 
 Doge Andrew Dandolo, are the oldest chronicles of the 
 Venetian history. — See Muratori Script. Rer. Italic, Tom. 
 XII. Paruta’s History of Venice, from 1513 to 1551, and 
 his History of the War of Cyprus, from 1570 to 1572, are 
 much esteemed. Paolo Ramusio il Giovane, Storia della 
 Guerra di Costantinopoli, is partly a translation of Villehar- 
 douin, who was a commander in that war. 
 
ANCIENT STATE. 
 
 the Popes than many other Catholic states, and the 
 Papal laws against usury, and other inquisitorial laws 
 of the church of Home, were never acknowledged 
 by the republic. 
 
 The annual election of the twelve tribunes passed 
 into the permanent command of a doge or duke. 
 The government was then a mixture of democracy 
 and monarchy ; the doge was elected by the votes 
 of the general assembly, and reigned with the au- 
 thority of a prince whilst he was successful ; but 
 when bad fortune prevailed in the public affairs, he 
 was deposed, banished, or put to death, by the mul- 
 titude. 
 
 In the twelfth century began the power of the 
 aristocracy, which reduced the doge to the mere ap- 
 pearance of command, and deprived the people of 
 all power. 
 
 After the capture of Constantinople by the com- 
 bined forces of the Venetians and the crusaders, 
 and the subsequent election, by these two powers, 
 of Baldwin, Count of Flanders, to the imperial 
 throne, Venice possessed three of the eight parts 
 into which Constantinople was divided, and the 
 doge, till 1356, was styled Dominus quartte partis 
 et dimidiae imperii Romani, the lord of one-fourth 
 and of the half of a fourth of the Roman em- 
 pire. * 
 
 Along the sea-coast, from Ragusa to the Helles- 
 
 * See Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 
 
38 
 
 VENICE. ANCIENT STATE'. 
 
 pont and Bosphorus, the Venetians had a chain of 
 factories and towns, many of which were held by 
 Venetian families in feu from the republic. The 
 Venetian family of Sanuto held the dutchy of Naxos, 
 which comprehended the greatest part of the Ar- 
 chipelago. 
 
 The island of Candia was purchased by the re- 
 public from the Marquis of Montferrat, one of the 
 crusaders, who got that island and the kingdom of 
 Macedonia as his share of the spoils after the cap- 
 ture of Constantinople. 
 
 Corfu, Cefalonia, Zante, &c. were conquered by 
 the republic and by the feudatory nobles of Venice. 
 
 Padua, Vicenza, Verona, Brescia, Bergamo, and 
 other cities, were acquired in 1410. 
 
 Venice possessed the East India trade when the 
 goods were brought to Europe by the Levant. But 
 she lost this trade after the route by the Cape of 
 Good Hope was discovered by the Portuguese. 
 
 In 1508, Venice had the energy and the good 
 fortune to withstand the combination formed against 
 her by the league of Cambray, composed of the Em- 
 peror Maximilian, Louis XII., Ferdinand of Ar- 
 ragon, Pope Julius II., and the Duke of Savoy. 
 
 In 1618, Venice was on the eve of being destroy- 
 ed by a conspiracy, at the head of which was the 
 ambassador from Spain. * 
 
 Candia was lost in 1669* 
 
 * See the Abbe de S. Real's Account of the Conspiracy of 
 the Spaniards against Venice. 
 
FALL. 
 
 39 
 
 A hundred years ago Venice was already in a 
 state of decline, and had lost much of her trade. * 
 France and Austria had long speculated upon 
 seizing the Venetian territory. At the peace of 
 1747> France offered to allow the Empress Maria 
 Theresa to occupy the Venetian possessions. During 
 Bonaparte’s campaign in Italy in 1795 and 1796, 
 the Venetian government did not possess sufficient 
 energy to take a decided part or to maintain a re- 
 spected neutrality. Verona, Brescia, Vicenza, Pa- 
 dua, Friuli, and the rest of the Venetian territory 
 on the mainland of Italy, were the seat of war be- 
 tween the French and Austrians. The French 
 troops were maintained and equipped, and their ge- 
 nerals enriched at the expense of these provinces, 
 which were at length revolutionized and taken pos- 
 session of by the French, notwithstanding the sub- 
 missive conduct of Venice. The Venetians had no 
 effective fleet, t England had the command of the 
 Adriatic, but want of union prevented the Venetian 
 government from taking advantage of the assistance 
 of England to defend the town, which, from its si- 
 tuation, was considered as impregnable. Many Ve- 
 netian nobles, members of the government, were in 
 
 * Addison’s Remarks on Italy, in 1701. 
 
 + In 1786, the Venetian fleet was scarcely sufficient to keep 
 the pirates of Tunis in order, and failed in an expedition 
 against that place. 
 
40 
 
 VENICE. FALL. 
 
 the French interest. The 12,000 Sclavonian troops 
 in the pay of the republic were disbanded and sent 
 home, and after Bonaparte had concluded the Italian 
 campaign by the treaty with the Austrians at Cam- 
 po Formio, the French were admitted into Venice 
 in May 1797> the ancient government of the repub- 
 lic was dissolved, and a new government, on the 
 French revolutionary model, was substituted in its 
 place. Thus Venice lost her independence, after 
 having subsisted, with various fortune, for upwards 
 of 1000 years. 
 
 Under the French, Venice continued from 1797? 
 for eighteen years, till the fall of Bonaparte’s power, 
 and since that she has been subject to the Austrian 
 government, forming part of the Lombardo- Vene- 
 tian kingdom. 
 
 Venice is no longer the brilliant and prosperous 
 city from whose stories Shakespeare chose the sub- 
 ject of his plays ; the life is gone, * but the material 
 
 * Two hundred years ago Venice was called the rich, Ve- 
 nezia la ricca ; and the following epithets, some of which still 
 continue to be applicable, were given to the other cities of 
 Italy : Roma la santa, Rome the holy ; Napoli la gentile, 
 Naples the courtly, and the abode of nobles ; Genova la su- 
 perba, Genoa the magnificent, on account of its fine palaces; 
 Milano la grande,- Milan the great, from its extent and po- 
 pulation ; Firenze la beila, Florence the beautiful, on account 
 of the neatne-ss of the streets and the agreeable situation of 
 the town ; Bologna la grassa. Bologna the fertile, on account 
 
SAINT MARK’S PLACE. 
 
 41 
 
 remains of former magnificence still exist in the 
 works of the eminent artists whose talents were cal- 
 led into action 300 years ago by the wealth of the 
 republic, the pictures of Titian and Paul Veronese, 
 and the buildings of Sansovino. 
 
 Saint Mark’s Place, and the Merceria, which 
 leads from Saint Mark’s Place to the Rialto, are 
 the most frequented parts of the town. In the 
 more remote parts there are many untenanted 
 houses going to ruin. Much of the trade that 
 formerly gave animation to the city has been trans- 
 ferred to Trieste. 
 
 Saint Mark’s Place is an oblong rectangle, sur- 
 rounded on three sides by buildings in a good style 
 of architecture, on the ground-floor of which is a 
 gallery with open arcades, forming a public walk. 
 
 The south side was commenced by Sansovino ; * * 
 
 of the fertility of the adjacent country ; Ravenna l’antica, 
 Ravenna the ancient ; Padova la dotta, Padua the learned, 
 on account of the university. 
 
 * Jacopo Tatti, called Sansovino from the name of his ma- 
 ster’s birth-place, was born at Florence, studied at Rome, 
 along with Michael Angelo, and even aspired to emulate 
 that great genius. It is remarked, in an account of Sansovi- 
 no’s life, that he was qualified to hold the first place amongst 
 his companions, but not when Michael Angelo was present, — 
 Jacopo era nato per primeggiare ma non ove fosse Michel Ag- 
 nolo. Sansovino’s architectural works at Venice are the zecca 
 or mint, — the building formerly employed as the library of 
 
42 
 
 VENICE. — SAINT MARKUS PLACE. 
 
 part of it is by Scamozzi, and the rest successively 
 by three other architects. * It is of Istrian marble, 
 was begun in 1583, and finished in 1682. The 
 architecture is nearly uniform ; it was called the 
 Proeuratorie Nuove, and contained the habitations 
 for each of the nine procurators of state. The 
 French converted the Proeuratorie Nuove into a 
 palace for the sovereign, and it is still used for that 
 purpose by the Austrian government, and contains 
 a splendid suit of rooms for the emperor. 
 
 The Proeuratorie Vecchie, the range of build- 
 ings on the north side of Saint Mark’s Place, was 
 built about the year 1500. It has the windows 
 disposed in arcades, and is not so much decorated 
 with sculpture as the Proeuratorie Nuove. 
 
 The small west side of Saint Mark’s Place for- 
 merly contained the church of Saint Geminiani, 
 which interrupted the arcaded walk, but this church 
 has been removed by the French, who. constructed 
 in its place the grand staircase of the palace, and 
 the arcades are now continued without a break, 
 round the three sides of Saint Mark’s Place. 
 
 Saint Mark, — the palace of the Cornaro family on the great 
 canal, which was burnt in December 1817, — the Scuola della 
 Misericordia, and some churches. There are also several 
 statues executed by Sansovino at Venice. He died at Venice 
 in 1570, at the age of 91. 
 
 f F. di Bernardino, M. della Carita, and Longhena. 
 
SAINT MARK’S CHURCH. 
 
 4 3 
 
 The pavement of Saint Mark’s Place is of squar- 
 ed pieces of grey marble, with tracery in white mar- 
 ble. It was first paved in 1723. 
 
 In the form and in the galleries, Saint Mark’s 
 Place resembles the Palais Royal at Paris, but is not 
 a scene of such bustle. 
 
 At the east end of Saint Mark’s Place is the 
 church of Saint Mark, in the round-arched style of 
 architecture that prevailed in the middle ages. It 
 was built about the year 1000, and contained the 
 body of Saint Mark, brought from Alexandria by 
 the Venetians in 829. The first church of Saint 
 Mark, on the same site, was built in 828, and con- 
 sumed by fire in 976. 
 
 The church has five domes, which admit no light, 
 and are low. 
 
 The interior has a gloomy appearance. The walls 
 and ceiling are decorated with scripture histories in 
 mosaic, executed at different periods, from the 
 eleventh century downwards. Some of the finest 
 pieces of mosaic are of the year 1545, by the bro- 
 thers Zuccati of Trevise, who wrought after the 
 designs and with the advice of Titian. 
 
 The atrium or vestibule, a kind of portico that 
 runs along the front and part of the sides of the 
 church, is also adorned with mosaid, as is the exte- 
 rior front of the church. 
 
 In the church are sculptures by Sansovino. 
 
 There are a great many antique columns of mar- 
 ble and porphyry, but mostly of a small size. 
 
VENICE. SAINT MARK’S CHURCH. 
 
 44 
 
 In the middle of the church is a large brass lustre, 
 in form of a cross, with four arms. * 
 
 In the vestibule are the tombs of some Doges, 
 and several Latin inscriptions of the eleventh and 
 twelfth centuries, in letters called Lombard, which 
 are a modification of the Roman letters. The old- 
 est of these inscriptions is in memory of the Doge 
 Vitale Falerio, who died in 1096. 
 
 Above the middle door of the front are now again 
 placed the four antique bronze horses, after having 
 decorated the Place da Carousel in Paris. These 
 horses are not seen to advantage in this situation, 
 being too far from the eye. They are supposed to 
 have been brought from Constantinople, after the 
 combined army of the Crusaders and Venetian fleet 
 had taken that city in 1 204. t These horses are ably 
 executed, but they are thought to be inferior in 
 
 * The mode of disposing lamps in form of a cross was a- 
 dopted by Bernini, in the church of Saint Peter’s at Rome, 
 where the great illuminated brass cross displayed at Easter is 
 admired for its simple form, and the just proportion it bears 
 to that vast edifice. 
 
 'j- See Sanuto vite degli Dogi in Muratori Scriptor. Rer. 
 Italic. Tom. XXII. ; and Paolo Ramusio de Bello Constantino- 
 politano et Imperatoribu6 Commenis per Gallos et Venetos 
 restitutis ; Venet. 1635. Nicetas, a senator of Constantinople, 
 enumerates, in his history, the ancient bronze statues that were 
 broken and coined into money by the Crusaders and Veneti- 
 ans, after getting possession of Constantinople, 
 
Form of the, letters of inscriptions of the 13 ^ Century, 
 iri Saint Mark’s church, at Venice. page, 44. 
 
 A at)QCP6h|iLn\n?p 
 
 a c d ef’g'kil m u p tj 
 
 sTviry marffLvyy 
 
 s t v u x 12 8 0 
 
 Fi luiburghFu blislbecl hyt.Conatal/e ,f Co. 1820. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
DUCAL PALACE. 
 
 45 
 
 spirit to the horses’ heads in the Elgin collection, 
 and the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius in the 
 court of the Capitol. 
 
 The south and west sides of the ducal palace, 
 which was rebuilt in 1439, produce an agreeable ef- 
 fect ; they are of pointed arched Gothic architec- 
 ture, and the walls are chequered with marble of two 
 different colours, light red and white, disposed sym- 
 metrically. 
 
 The palace is built round a court, the east side of 
 which consists of round arcades, more modern than 
 the exterior part of the building, being of the style 
 of the sixteenth and seventeenth century. On the 
 balustrade of the Scala de’Giganti, within the court, 
 are two colossal statues of Mars and Neptune, by 
 Sansovino, erected in 1566. 
 
 The interior of the palace is occupied by courts 
 of justice and public offices, and contains pictures 
 and other decorations. In one of the rooms is a set 
 of large geographical maps, painted on the walls, 
 after the maps of Ramusio. * 
 
 The hall of the great council, a very large and 
 noble room, is now occupied by the public library, 
 and contains a collection of antique statues, present- 
 ed to the republic by Giov. Grimani, patriarch of 
 Aquileia. t The side walls are adorned with pictures 
 
 * Large painted maps also occur in the Vatican, 
 f An account of these statues is published by Zanetti. 
 
46 
 
 LIBRARY OF SAINT MARK* 
 
 on canvas, relating to the history of Venice, and 
 one end is covered by a very large picture of the 
 saints in celestial glory, by Jacopo Tintoretto. Oa 
 the ceiling are paintings by Paul Veronese and 
 others. 
 
 There are some celestial and terrestrial globes by 
 Coronelli. * 
 
 The library, before the extinction of the repub- 
 lic, was kept in the building erected by Sansovino, 
 opposite to the ducal palace, and has since been re- 
 moved to this great hall. Petrarch gave his library 
 to the republic of Venice, but the books were 
 neglected and lost. In 1468, Cardinal Besarionf 
 made a donation of his extensive collection of ma- 
 nuscript books to the church of Saint Mark ; and 
 
 * Coronelli, a native of Venice, a monk of the minor con- 
 ventual order, author of many folio volumes on Geography, 
 made, in 1 683, the two large globes that are seen in the Biblio - 
 theque clu Roi at Paris, 11 feet, 11 inches, 6 lines, French, in 
 diameter, and of which there is an account published by De 
 la Hire. They were made by order of Cardinal d’Estree, and 
 presented by him to Louis XIV. A large modern terrestrial 
 globe, of about the same size, and made in the latter part of 
 the eighteenth century, is in the Mazarine library at Paris. 
 
 \ Besarion was born at Trebizond, and educated at Con- 
 stantinople. He was one of the Greek ecclesiastics that ac- 
 companied John Paleologus II. to the council held at Flo- 
 rence, for the union of the Greek and Latin church. This 
 council was held only fourteen years before the Turks got 
 possession of Constantinople. Besarion came over to the opi- 
 4 
 
One oftlxe four Antique bronze horses of S.Atarks as seen on- n pedestal 
 iniJxe p levee dn Carroiorel at Parts in L8dZ ■ pdf. 
 
BESARION. MANUTIUS. 
 
 *7 
 
 this gift is the first commencement of the public li- 
 brary of Saint Mark. * * The cardinal’s portrait is 
 seen in the library. 
 
 In this and other libraries of Italy are seen col- 
 lections of the finely printed editions, by the cele- 
 brated Venetian printer, Aldus Mauritius, t 
 
 nions of the Latin church, and was made cardinal in 1439> 
 by Eugenius IV. He was employed by the popes in embas- 
 sies ; was legate at Bologna, &c. He wrote in defence of 
 Plato and other works, which are enumerated in the Biblio- 
 theca Graeca of Fabricius. Besarion died in 1472, at the age 
 of 77. 
 
 * See Dissertazione della Publica Libreria di San Marco, 
 da Jacopo Morelli, 1774. 
 
 f The elder Aldo Manuzio was born near Rome in 1447. 
 He was a man of learning ; and, in 1494, formed an establish- 
 ment in Venice for printing Greek and Latin works. He 
 published almost all the Greek and Roman classics. Erasmus 
 lived with him for some time, and had his Proverbs printed 
 by Aldus. The letters of Aldus are admired for their Cice- 
 ronian Latin. He died in 1515, at the age of 08. 
 
 The printing establishment at Venice was continued by his 
 son Paolo Manuzio, who likewise printed at Rome in the sena- 
 tor s palace in the Capitol, with the Rubric, Apud Paulum 
 Manutium in Aidibus Populi Romani, 1562. 
 
 Aldo Manuzio the younger, and son of Paolo, was professor 
 of literature at Pisa and Rome, and superintendent of the 
 printing-house of the Vatican. — See Foscarini Storia della 
 Letteratura Veneziana. Tiraboschi, st. d. lett. Ital. Apos- 
 tolo Zeno Notizie del Manuzio. 
 
48 
 
 VENICE. COLUMNS. TOWER. 
 
 On the place called Broglio are two columns of 
 thirty feet or more in height, brought from Greece 
 in the time of the Doge Tiani. Each of the co- 
 lumns is of one stone. One of them is of small- 
 grained grey syenite, and on its top is now again 
 placed the bronze winged lion by Donatello, which, 
 during Bonaparte’s reign, was removed to the Place 
 of the Invalids at Paris. The other column is of 
 red Egyptian large-grained granite, and has on its 
 summit a statue of Saint Theodore, formerly patron 
 of the city, till the republic thought fit to choose a 
 more dignified protector Saint Mark. 
 
 The Campanile, a square tower of brick, in Saint 
 Mark’s Place, is 350 English feet in height, and 
 was built in 1148, in the reign of the doge Dome- 
 nico Morosini. At the base of the tower, on the 
 east side, is a small ornamented building by San- 
 sovino, called la logetta. The tower is composed of 
 a double wall, and between the walls is an inclined 
 plane of brick, without steps, which winds round the 
 central tower and leads to the top. 
 
 From the gallery at the top of the tower there is 
 a view of the town and the Laguna. The point of 
 sight is not high enough to open the great canal, 
 nor even the canal of the Giudecca, so that the three 
 principal islands of Venice appear in one. To the 
 north the view is bounded by the Friuli, or Julian Alps, 
 which occupy about ninety degrees of the horizon, 
 
 li 
 

/Wountalns see? t /ha??? the t&wer' of Sai??t 7?iar/cs at I'eniee. p.48 . 4g> . 
 
 Jlfons-e lice . the CeULJEuganei near -Padua; cind the Jibuti Beiici near Vicenza i distant 38JSnal. mjles-.em.thc Western hoiizi 
 
 H 
 
 
 Pidinbni^gli Published h\> A. Constable <& (bJ 820 . 
 
vrcw. 
 
 49 
 
 extending from the neighbourhood of Trieste to the 
 mountains near the lake di Garda. The upper part 
 of this range of mountains is covered with snow at 
 this season, (November 1817.) At their foot are 
 lower hills, and a plain extending to the sea. In 
 this plain several towns are seen, amongst others 
 Treviso. Thirty miles distant, and rising above the 
 level horizon to the west, are the hills called Monte 
 Selice, or the Euganean Hills, composed of porphyry 
 and trap, which Fortis, in his work entitled Geolo- 
 gia del Vicentino, considers to have been formed by 
 submarine volcanos. 
 
 The grand view of the chain of the Julian Alps 
 is seen also from the northern quay, called the Fon- 
 damento Novo. 
 
 From the east end of Saint Mark’s Place are seen a 
 number of buildings of different ages ; — Saint Mark’s 
 church, with round arches and low cupolas, of the 
 beginning of the eleventh century ; — the Campanile, 
 of the twelfth ; — the ducal palace, with pointed 
 arched windows, and the walls chequered with red 
 and white marble, of the thirteenth or fourteenth ; — 
 the torre del orlogio and the procurators vecchie, 
 with round arches, of the end of the fifteenth ; — the 
 library of Saint Mark, highly decorated with sculp- 
 ture by Sansovino, of the beginning of the sixteenth ; 
 — the procurators nuove, nearly in the same 
 style, and built in the seventeenth century and 
 if the spectator goes a few paces towards the gra- 
 
 D 
 
50 
 
 ARCHITECTS — ANT. CANAL. 
 
 nite columns, he has a view of the church of 
 San Giorgio Maggiore, by Palladio, - built in 1560. 
 
 The paintings of different views in Venice, with 
 the principal buildings, canals, &c. by Antonio 
 Canal, commonly called Canaletto, t are excellent 
 for the truth of the linear perspective and colouring. 
 
 * The following are the names and the years of some of 
 the principal architects whose fabrics are seen in Venice : 
 
 Niccolo Pisano, flourished in 1230. Built the church of 
 Saint Anthony at Padua, and the Frari at Venice. 
 
 Sansovino, (Jacopo Tatti,) flourished in 1510. Built the 
 mint, the library of Saint Mark, &c. 
 
 Tullio Lombardo, flourished in 1516. Built some churches 
 in Venice. 
 
 Santi Lombardo, his son. Built the hall of Saint Rocq. 
 
 Serlio, flourished in 1534. Constructed the ceiling of Saint 
 Mark’s library, and some churches. 
 
 Palladio, flourished in 1550. Designed several churches in 
 Venice. 
 
 Scamozzi, flourished in 1580. Built part of the procu- 
 rators nuove, &c. 
 
 Antonio da Ponte, flourished in 1590. Built the Rialto 
 bridge, the prison. 
 
 Baldassar Longhena, flourished in 1630. Built the church 
 of la Salute, &c. 
 
 Domenico Rossi, in the eighteenth century. Constructed 
 the front of the Jesuits’ church. 
 
 f Antonio Canal was born in 1697, and died in 1768. 
 Bernardo Beiloti Canaletto, the pupil of his uncle Antonio, 
 painted views of Venice in the same style, and etched. He 
 was bom at Venice in 1724, and died at Warsaw in 1780. 
 
CHURCHES IN VENICE. 
 
 51 
 
 and contain representations of the old Venetian festi- 
 vals. These pictures are seen in many of the first 
 collections in Europe, and engravings from them are 
 commonly to be met with in Venice. 
 
 Pictures, Statues, Architecture, &c. of some 
 of the Principal Churches in Venice. 
 
 Churches of the period from the Eleventh to the 
 Fifteenth Century . 
 
 Saint Mark’s church, as before mentioned, was 
 built in the beginning of the eleventh century. 
 
 The church of La Carita was first consecrated in 
 1177. 
 
 The Frari, in the pointed-arched Gothic style, 
 and one of the largest churches in the city, ^vas built 
 about 1234, by Niccolo Pisano, the same architect 
 who erected the church of Saint Anthony at Padua. 
 This church contains the tomb of the great painter 
 Titian, who died in 1576, at the age of 99, and some 
 large monuments, erected in memory of Doges. 
 
 In the large church of the Servi di Maria, built 
 in 1316, is the tomb of Santorio, and of Fra Paola 
 Sarpi, theologian to the republic. * 
 
 * Fra Paolo Sarpi was born in 1552 . He was a Servite 
 monk, and for supporting the rights of the Venetians in their 
 
52 
 
 RESTORATION 
 
 In another church is a monument in memory of 
 Rosalba Camera, from whose pencil many portraits 
 in crayons are seen in the collections in various 
 parts of Europe. She was born in Venice in 
 167^, and died in 1757* * 
 
 Santi Giovanni e Paolo is a large church, with 
 some pointed arched Gothic, built in 1430. The 
 interior produces a grand effect. It contains the 
 celebrated great picture by Titian, representing 
 the Assassination of San Pietro Domenicano. * 
 
 disputes with the Pope, he was excommunicated by Paul V. 
 Borghese. I11 Fra Paolo’s History of the Council of Trent, he 
 exposes the intrigues of the court of Rome, who attempted 
 to refute the work of Fra Paolo by the publication of Cardinal 
 Palavicini’s history of that council. Fra Paolo was thought 
 to be inclined to the opinions of Calvin. 
 
 * This picture of the Assasination of San Pietro Domeni- 
 cano, considered to be the finest of Titian’s compositions, is 
 returned to its former place in this church, after having been 
 in the Louvre during Bonaparte’s reign. It was originally 
 painted on board, but was transferred to canvas in Paris. The 
 frigate, in which it was conveyed from Venice to Marseilles, 
 met with tempestuous weather ; the box containing the picture 
 got wet ; the damp penetrated to the board and the size 
 ground of the picture ; and when the picture was taken out, 
 and put in a dry place, the painting, not being capable of con- 
 tracting so rapidly as the ground, cracked into a multitude of 
 scales. 
 
 The reparation of the picture was performed by Hacquin, 
 under the inspection of a committee of the Institute, compo- 
 sed of four men eminent in their professions, the chemists Ber- 
 
OF PICTURES# 
 
 There are other good pictures, and many monu- 
 ments of Doges, and eminent persons. On the pi- 
 azza, or square, in front of the church, is the bronze 
 
 thollet and Guiton, and the painters Vincent and Taunay, 
 from whose report the following account of the process is 
 taken. 
 
 Gauze was pasted on the surface of the picture ; and 
 this being dry, another gauze, and then two layers of grey 
 paper, were pasted on. When these were dry, the pic- 
 ture was fixed with the face downwards on a table, and the 
 wood taken off, first with two small saws, one acting perpen- 
 dicularly, the other in a horizontal direction. Then with a 
 plane, having an iron with a convex face, and applied in such 
 a way as to take off very short shavings. Next with a plane 
 having a straight faced iron with teeth, producing the effect 
 of a rasp. After this the wood that remained was no thicker 
 than a sheet of paper. 
 
 The wood was then moistened with water, in small portions 
 at a time, and taken off with the point of a knife. 
 
 The distemper or size ground was then removed, by means 
 of water, and the back of the painting was exposed to view. 
 
 To restore some flexibility to the painting, much dried with 
 age, it was rubbed over with cotton dipt in oil, and then 
 wiped with a muslin rag. It was afterwards painted over with 
 white lead and oil, in place of the former distemper ground. 
 
 In this state, the picture was allowed to dry for three 
 months, and gauze was pasted on the ground, and on the 
 gauze canvas was pasted. 
 
 When these were dry, the picture was detached from the 
 table, and turned with the face uppermost, and the grey pa- 
 per taken off by means of water. Then, in order to bring the 
 picture to an even surface, diluted flour paste was applied up- 
 
54t 
 
 RESTORATION OF PICTURES. 
 
 equestrian statue by Verrocchio, representing Col- 
 leone of Bergamo, commander of the troops of the 
 republic, who died in 1475. Four other equestrian 
 
 on the scales of the painting, an oiled paper was laid on the 
 moistened part, and a heated iron cautiously applied. In 
 this way, the scales were rendered flat. 
 
 It remained to fix the picture upon canvas. For this pur- 
 pose grey paper was again pasted on the face of the picture. 
 The gauze was taken off from its back, another coat of white 
 lead and oil was applied on the back, and over this a flexible 
 gauze ; then a. coat of white lead and oil ; then a canvas wo- 
 ven all ©f one piece, and coated exteriorly with a resinous 
 mixture, by which the large surface was carefully made to ad- 
 here in every part, to a similar canvas stretched on a frame. 
 The grey paper was taken off from the surface of the picture 
 before applying it on the rame. 
 
 After this the picture was put into the hands of a painter 
 skilled in the restoration of pictures, to receive the repairs 
 that he judged necessary. 
 
 Raphael’s Virgin, with the portrait of the Donor, Conti, 
 the chamberlain of Julius II., which was taken from the 
 church of the Nuns of Saint Ann at Foligno, and is now in 
 the Vatican, was restored in Paris by the same process. 
 
 The picture, on a board of soft white wood, was so ruinous 
 at the time of its being sent to France, that it was found ne- 
 cessary to paste gauze over the surface, to preserve it du- 
 ring the transit. It was worm-eaten, — some of the painting 
 had scaled off,— and there was a considerable crack in the 
 board, which was warped into a curved surface. To reme- 
 dy this crack, before proceeding to the other steps of the 
 reparation, the following method was employed : A gauze 
 was pasted on the face of the picture. The picture was pla- 
 
 10 
 
CHURCHES IN VENICE. 
 
 55 
 
 statues of commanders of the troops are within the 
 church. 
 
 San Zaccaria, a grand and spacious church, built 
 in 1457, contains a fine picture of the Virgin and 
 Child, represented under a mosaic niche, with Saints, 
 painted, in 1505, by Giovanni Bellino, the master of 
 Titian. 
 
 The church of Saint Giobbe, built at the expence 
 of the Doge Moro about 1470, contains pictures 
 by Giovanni Bellino, Paris Bordone, &c. 
 
 Churches of the beginning of the Sixteenth Century , 
 by Serlio , Sansovino , Tullio Lombardo , 
 
 The interior of the church of San Salvatore is 
 adorned in an agreeable style, with composite co- 
 lumns and arches, and was finished in 1534. It was 
 
 ced with the face downwards. Furrows were made in the 
 wood at some distance from each other, and near the crack. 
 Into these furrows small wedges of wood were introduced. 
 The whole surface of the wood was covered with wet cloths 
 frequently renewed ; by this means the wedges were dilated, 
 and forced the wood to resume its ancient form. The two edges 
 of the crack came together, and glue was inserted between 
 them. Cross bars of oak were applied to retain the board in 
 its position during the time of drying. The rest of the repa- 
 ration was performed in the manner already described.^ — See 
 Notice de Plusieurs Precieux Tableaux Ilecuellis a Venise, 
 &c. published at Paris in 1802 . 
 
56 
 
 VENICE. — CHURCHES EY 
 
 built by Tullio Lombardo, with the assistance of 
 Sansovino. Scamozzi was afterwards employed in 
 making additions to the church. The front was 
 erected in 1663, after a design of Longhena. This 
 church contains two fine pictures by Titian, the 
 Transfiguration and the Annunciation ; — the Sup* 
 per at Emaus, by Giovanni Bellino, &c. ; — tombs of 
 Doges of the family of Cornaro, and of Doges of the 
 family Veniero. On one of the latter are well de- 
 signed statues of Hope and Faith, by Sansovino. 
 
 The church of Saint Sebastian was built in 1506 
 by Serlio. The front is by Sansovino. The inte- 
 rior is adorned with pictures by Paul Veronese. The 
 tomb of that excellent painter is in this church ; he 
 died in 1588. 
 
 San Giorgio dei Greci is a church of moderate 
 size, built by Sansovino. The front is adorned with 
 mosaic, and the interior with pictures of saints, on 
 a gilded ground, in the middle-aged Greek style. 
 The Greeks obtained permission to erect this church 
 from Leo X. in 15 1L 
 
 Churches built after designs of Palladio, in the 
 Sixteenth Century. 
 
 Most of Palladio’s churches in Venice have the 
 front decorated with a pediment supported by co- 
 lumns, and between the columns statues in niches. 
 Statues are also placed on the top and angles of the 
 pediment. 
 
PALLADIO* 
 
 67 
 
 The church of San Giorgio Maggiore, after a 
 design of Palladio, was begun in J 556, and com- 
 pleted in I G 1 0. The front is of Istrian marble. 
 Jn the church is a portrait of* the reigning Pope 
 Pius VII., who was consecrated pope in this church 
 in 1 800. The adjoining buildings, formerly a mo- 
 nastery, are now occupied as the customhouse, 
 Dogana di Mare. In the dining hall of this mo- 
 nastery was the great picture of the Marriage Feast 
 at Cana, which was taken to Paris, and still deco- 
 rates the saloon of the Louvre gallery. 
 
 The church of San Francesco della Vigna was 
 begun in 1534. The front is by Palladio, of Is- 
 trian marble, and adorned with composite columns. 
 The rest of the church is by Sansovino. In this 
 church are pictures by Giovanni Bellino, and other 
 esteemed masters, and monuments of doges, procu- 
 rators of state, senators, &c. The adjoining build- 
 ings, formerly a monastery, are now occupied as 
 soldiers’ barracks. On one side of the piazza, which 
 is before the church, is the palace formerly inhabit- 
 ed by the pope’s nuncio, and now by the consul of 
 the pope, by whom it is necessary for travellers pro- 
 ceeding from Venice to Rome to have their pass- 
 ports signed. 
 
 The front of the church of il Redentore is of 
 marble, with Corinthian columns, after a design of 
 Palladio. This church was erected in consequence 
 of a vow made by the senate during the plague that 
 afflicted Venice in 1576. 
 
58 
 
 MARCO POLO. 
 
 The atrium and cloister of the convent della Ca« 
 rita, * the small church of the Zitelle, and the 
 church of Saints Gervasio and Protasio, commonly 
 called San Trovaso, were built after designs of Pal- 
 ladio. 
 
 Churches of the end of the Sixteenth Century . 
 
 The church of la Celestia was built in 1580 by 
 Scamozzi. 
 
 In the church of San Lorenzo, rebuilt after the 
 design of Sorella in 1590, is the tomb of Nicolo 
 Polo the Venetian traveller, t 
 
 Churches built in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth 
 Centuries . 
 
 The church of San Pietro di Gastello was the 
 seat of the patriarch. It is large* and the interior 
 
 * See a design of the atrium and cloister in the Architet- 
 tura di Palladio. Ven. 1 642. 
 
 f Marco Polo, about the year 1270, accompanied his fa- 
 ther Nicolo and his uncle, who traded in precious stones, to 
 the court of Kublai, the Grand Khan of the Tartars, Emperor 
 of the Moguls and of China, and sixth in succession from 
 Gengis Khan. In the dominions of Kublai Khan they passed 
 twenty-seven years. Marco Polo’s account of his travels is 
 in Ramusio’s collection, published at Venice, by Tomaso Giunti 
 in 1559; and with notes by Muller, Berlin, 1675. — See Tira- 
 boschi st. d# 1. It, 
 
CHURCH OF LA SALUTE. 
 
 59 
 
 produces a noble effect. It was begun in 1621, and 
 completed in l6d0, after the design of Grapiglia, 
 The church of Santa Maria della Salute was built 
 in 1631 by the Venetian architect Baldassar Lough - 
 ena, in consequence of a vow made by the senate 
 whilst the city was afflicted by the plague in 1 680, 
 It has two handsome cupolas, and is one of the most 
 considerable buildings of the seventeenth century in 
 Venice. At the high altar are four large columns 
 of Marino Greco, brought from Pola in Istria, the 
 remains of a Roman edifice demolished by the en- 
 gineer employed in building the fortifications of 
 that place in the seventeenth century.* Whilst 
 I was at Venice in December, a great annual festi- 
 val was celebrated in this church. In the proces- 
 sion there walked the members of a fraternity, dress- 
 ed in white cloaks, with a hood that entirely covers 
 the face, leaving two holes for the eyes, so that the 
 persons cannot be known, one of them bearing a 
 large and heavy cross. These fraternities are insti- 
 tuted for charitable purposes, attending criminals to 
 execution, carrying the sick to the hospital, &c. ; the 
 members are tradesmen in Venice, and sometimes 
 persons of the middle and higher classes. They 
 exercise the functions of the fraternity gratuitously, 
 and from motives of devotion. Some of these so- 
 
 * Maffei Veron, Ilia?, parte quart a. 
 
60 
 
 CHURCH OF THE JESUITS. 
 
 cieties are composed of females. On occasion of 
 this festival there was a bridge of boats constructed 
 across the great canal, and terminating on the quay 
 before the church. 
 
 The front of the church of Santa Giustina was 
 built in 1 610, after the design of Longhena. 
 
 The church of the hospital of mendicants was 
 built in 1673. 
 
 The church of the Gesuati, * built by Masari af- 
 ter the suppression of the order, is adorned inter- 
 nally with red Sicilian brocatello marble, and con- 
 tains the tomb of Apostolo Zeno, who left his libra- 
 ry to the monastery that formerly existed near the 
 church, t 
 
 Santa Maria Formosa was built in the end of the 
 seventeenth century. 
 
 The church of the Jesuits was built in the begin- 
 ning of the eighteenth century, t It is large and 
 
 * This order is different from the order of Jesuits. It was 
 suppressed in 1669 . 
 
 f Apostolo Zeno, of a Venetian family settled in Candia, 
 was born in 1669 * He was poet and historiographer to the 
 Emperor at Vienna, where he composed a great number of 
 dramatic poems for musical operas and for azioni sacri, or 
 oratorios. His successor at Vienna was the celebrated dra- 
 matic poet Metastasio. Zeno wrote also on antiquities, of 
 which he was a good judge, — on the Italian historical writ- 
 ers, — letters, &c. He died at Venice in 1750 
 J In 1773 the order of Jesuits was suppressed. 
 
 1 
 
SCALZI.— CAMPAN MARBLE. 
 
 61 
 
 highly decorated. The front is by Domenico Rossi. 
 Within the church, the columns and walls, and the 
 pavement, are covered with Carrara marble curiously 
 inlaid with verde antico in the form of foliage. The 
 pulpit is adorned with a drapery in marble, inlaid in 
 the same way, and representing damask. The church 
 contains the picture of the Martyrdom of San Lorenzo 
 by Titian ; — the Presentation in the Temple by Giac. 
 Tintoretto, &c. Amongst other tombs is that of the 
 Doge Cicogna, whose reign ended in 1595, and 
 under whose government the bridge of the Rialto, 
 the prison, the fondamento nuovo, or quay on the 
 north side of the city, and other public works, were 
 constructed. 
 
 The front of the church of the Scalzi, or barefoot- 
 ed Carmelites, is of Istrian marble, and is highly de- 
 corated ; it was designed by Sardi in the eighteenth 
 century. The interior of the church is ornamented 
 in the richest manner with brilliant coloured marbles, 
 Rosso di Francia, * of which the spiraly twisted co- 
 
 * The marble called in Italy Rosso di Francia and Brec- 
 cia Corallina, is the red marble of Campan in the Pyrenees. 
 It is bright-red with white spots. There is another marble 
 from Campan with green veins, called in France Verd de Cam- 
 pan. These Campan marbles are seen on the exterior of the 
 palace of Trianon near Versailles, — in the columns of Bona- 
 parte’s arch in the Place du Carousel,' — in the interior of the 
 church of Saint Sulpice, and in other buildings in Paris. 
 
 The Campan marble, however, is not the most common 
 
m 
 
 HALL OF SAINT ROCQ. 
 
 1 umiis at the high altar are formed, — breccia Africa* * 
 na, and others. Pietra di paragone, or black touch- 
 stone, occurs in this and other churches and palaces 
 in Venice, in slabs of considerable size ; it is dis- 
 tinguished from black marble by its hardness. 
 
 In the churches in Venice and some other towns 
 in Italy, columns are incrusted on the surface with 
 pieces of the finer kinds of marble, fitted together 
 so as to appear like a column of solid marble. Most 
 of the columns of solid marble or granite, in Italy, 
 fprmed the decoration of ancient buildings, and by far 
 the greatest number of these columns is at Rome. 
 
 San Simion Piccolo is round, with a dome, and 
 a portico supported by columns. It is, in some re- 
 spects, an imitation of the pantheon at Rome, but 
 being much smaller produces a very different effect. 
 The grandeur of the pantheon cannot be conveyed 
 to the spectator by a copy on a smaller scale. San 
 Simion Piccolo was built in 1718, after the design 
 of Scalfarotto. 
 
 The Scuola di San Rocco is the hall of one of the 
 six scuole grandly or great fraternities, * which are 
 
 marble in Paris. The slabs on the top of stoves and of fur- 
 niture, and the marble tables so much used in Paris, are made 
 of marble, from Flanders, some of which is black and white, 
 and some of a dull red. 
 
 * These six fraternities are seen in the procession of Cor- 
 pus Christi day, (the fete Dieu,) painted by Canaletto. 
 
VENETIAN PAINTERS*. 
 
 63 
 
 now suppressed. It was built in 1516 by Santi 
 Lombardo, the son of Tullio Lombardo, and is re- 
 markable for the beauty of the building, the internal 
 decorations, and the pictures of Tintorett it contains. 
 This is the only one of the six scuole grandi that 
 has been kept in repair after the suppression of the 
 fraternities, which happened in 1797 j at the extinc- 
 tion of the Venetian government. 
 
 In the churches and palaces of Venice are seen 
 pictures by Giovanni Bellino, Titian, Paul Vero» 
 nese, Giacomo Tintoretto, Domenico Tintoretto, 
 Palma the elder, Palma the younger, Bassano, Pa- 
 ris Bordone, Sebastian del Piombo, Giorgione. * 
 
 * The periods at which some of the principal painters, born 
 
 in Venice and the Venetian dominions, 
 
 lived, are as 
 
 follows : 
 
 Gentil Bellino, - born in 1419, died 
 
 in 1501. 
 
 Giovanni Bellino, 
 
 14-26, 
 
 1514. 
 
 Titian, 
 
 1477, 
 
 1576. 
 
 Barbarelli, called Giorgione, 
 
 14-78, 
 
 1511. 
 
 Sebastian del Piombo, 
 
 1485, 
 
 1547. 
 
 Giovanni da Udine, pupil of Raphael, 
 
 1494, 
 
 1564. 
 
 Paris Bordone, 
 
 1500, 
 
 1570. 
 
 Giacomo Robusti, called Tintoretto, 
 
 1512, 
 
 1594. 
 
 Domenico Tintoretto, son of Giacomo, 
 
 
 1637. 
 
 Paul Veronese, 
 
 1532, 
 
 1588. 
 
 Palma the elder, 
 
 1540, 
 
 1588. 
 
 Giacomo da Ponte, called Bassano, 
 
 1510, 
 
 1592. 
 
 Francisco da Bassano and Leandro, 
 
 
 
 sons of Giacomo. 
 
 
 
 Palma the younger, * 
 
 1544, 
 
 1628. 
 
6i< 
 
 ACADEMY OF PAINTING. 
 
 Each of these painters is distinguished by a parti- 
 cular style ; the pictures by Giovanni Bellino, the 
 master of Titian, are in that old and rather formal 
 manner which prevailed before Raphael came to 
 eminence. The Virgin seated on a Throne, under 
 a tribuna or niche, with the Child and Saints, is a 
 subject frequently painted by Bellino ; the figures 
 have a serious and dignified expression. 
 
 Titian was much employed in portraits, and drew 
 most of the princes and distinguished personages 
 of his time. Charles V. sat to him several times ; 
 for which purpose Titian went twice to Bologna, 
 once to Piedmont, and twice to Augsburg. Amongst 
 the excellencies of Titian’s pictures, which en- 
 title him to rank with the three or four great- 
 est painters that have appeared since the revival of 
 the arts, are the beautiful landscapes he introduces 
 as accessories to his compositions. 
 
 The pictures of Paul Veronese are magnificent 
 in the dresses and architecture, which are expressed 
 with excellent colouring and knowledge of direct 
 and reflected light and of linear perspective. 
 
 The academy of painting, called the Scuola delle 
 Belle Arti, is a modern institution, situated in the 
 buildings formerly occupied by the Scuola di Santa 
 Maria della Carita, the oldest of the six scuole grandi, 
 or great fraternities. Many valuable pictures and 
 other productions of art are collected in this insti- 
 tution. Amongst them are ; 
 
ACADEMY OF PAINTING. 
 
 65 
 
 The Assumption of the Virgin, by Titian, which 
 has been restored to brilliancy from a state of al- 
 most total blackness. It was brought from the 
 church of the Frari. — The Presentation in the Tem- 
 ple, by Titian, a large oblong picture. — The Virgin 
 presenting the Child to the aged Simeon, by Car- 
 paccio. — Adam and Eve, by Giacomo Tintorett. — - 
 Saint Mark descending from heaven to liberate a 
 slave from the hands of the Turks, by Giacomo Tin- 
 torett. This picture was in Paris as well as others 
 in this collection. * — Pictures by the old Venetian 
 
 * The greatest number of the pictures and productions of 
 art taken by the French from Venice and the Venetian terra 
 firma were returned, according to the treaty with the Allied 
 Sovereigns ; some manuscripts, however, from Padua, remain 
 in the collections in Paris on account of their not having been 
 claimed, and one masterpiece, which formerly adorned the din- 
 ing-hall of the Benedictine monastery of San G iorgio Maggiore 
 at Venice, Paul Veronese’s splendid picture of the Marriage 
 Feast at Cana, still (June 1818 ) decorates the great saloon of 
 the Louvre. On account of its extraordinary size the picture 
 might be exposed to injury in the carriage ; it does not appear 
 what other motives there were for allowing it to remain. The 
 administration of the Louvre gallery sent a picture by le Brun 
 in place of this great work. 
 
 Paul Veronese’s Feast of Cana was the most considerable 
 of the four feasts painted by him for the dining-halls of 
 the monasteries of San Giorgio Maggiore, San Giovanni e 
 Paolo, San Sebastian, &c. at Venice. It contains portraits 
 of Charles V., Francis I., Titian, Tintoretto, &c. 
 
 E 
 
66 
 
 VENICE. — BUILDING MATERIALS. 
 
 masters Catena and Antonio di Murano, by Boni- 
 facio in 1562, &c. — The seated statue of Polyhym- 
 nia, by Canova. — Bronze sculptures in relief, by Do- 
 natello. 
 
 The houses in Venice are generally of brick 
 plastered over. The Istrian marble with which the 
 fronts of palaces, churches, and other public build- 
 ings, are encrusted, is a small-grained limestone of a 
 dull white colour, which is brought tu Venice in 
 blocks of a large size. It is susceptible of polish* 
 although not polished when used in the exterior of 
 buildings, but is not to be ranked amongst the finer 
 marbles by reason of its dull colour. 
 
 The floors of rooms are almost all of them of 
 plaster, composed of lime coloured red by the admix- 
 ture of brick-dust, with fragments of black and of white 
 marble stuck into it ; the whole is brought to a shin- 
 
 All these four feasts were in the Louvre during the reign 
 of Bonaparte, and two are still in that collection, one of them 
 having been given to Louis XIV. by the Venetian Repub- 
 lic in 1665. 
 
 Repasts were often the subject of the pictures in the dining- 
 halls of large and wealthy monasteries. The Last Supper, in 
 the hall of the monastery of Madonna delle Grazie at Milan, 
 painted by Leonardo da Vinci, 80 years before the time that 
 Paul Veronese flourished, comes under this description, and 
 is celebrated for the grave and solemn character of the 
 figures, and the simplicity of the accessory parts. 
 
 1 
 
PALACES# 67 
 
 ing polish. * In most other parts of Italy the floors 
 are usually laid with rectangular flat tile. 
 
 The foundations in Venice are constructed upon 
 piles with much solidity, few cracks or deviations 
 from the perpendicular being seen in the buildings. 
 
 On the great canal, which has a winding course 
 between the two principal parts of the city, are si- 
 tuated the most magnificent of the great houses, or 
 palaces as they are termed ; some of them are in an 
 agreeable style of architecture, with fronts of Is- 
 trian marble, and contain valuable collections of 
 pictures, t 
 
 In the palace of the Grimani family there are an- 
 tique inscriptions, and some antique statues disposed 
 in the court. One of them is a statue, larger than 
 life, of Marcus Agrippa, brought from the portico 
 of the pantheon at Rome, when that edifice was first 
 used as a church. — Portraits, by Titian, &c. of in- 
 dividuals of the Grimani family, several of whom 
 were patriarchs of Aquileia, and ecclesiastical pri- 
 mates of the Venetian state. — Ceilings painted in 
 fresco, by Giovanni da Udine, in the manner of some 
 of the Chinese paper hangings, representing arbours 
 of overhanging and entwined branches of vines. In- 
 
 * Architettura di Palladio, Cap. XXII. de’ pavementi, e 
 de’ soffittati. 
 
 f Views of the palaces and churches of Venice are publish- 
 ed in Grcevii Thesaurus Antiquitatum cl Historiarim Italic, 
 Tom . V. printed at Leyden in 1722. 
 
68 
 
 VENICE.— PALACES. 
 
 dian corn, reeds, and various plants, with herons, 
 hawks, owls, magpies, and other birds flying and 
 perched : Similar designs occur in the loggie of the 
 Vatican, painted by the same artist, under the di- 
 rection of Raphael.— The architrave and jams of a 
 chimney, all three of one piece of black touchstone, 
 pietra de paragone ; and a slab of the same material 
 forming a table five feet in diameter. 
 
 In the palace of the Pisani family,— the picture 
 of the family of Darius, by Paul Veronese, &c. 
 
 In the palace of the Barbarigo family, — Magdalen 
 by Titian,— Nymph and Satyr, by Titian, and others 
 by the same master.— A Child fixed to the Cross, by 
 Padouanino. 
 
 In the palace di Casa Manferino,- — the Ages of 
 Man, by Titian. — The Body of Christ carried to the 
 Sepulchre, a capital picture, by Titian ; the French 
 had spared the private collections, at least when the 
 proprietors were inclined to their party, and did not 
 take this picture. — The Last Supper, a fine picture, 
 by Giov. Bellino. — A Magdalene, by Corregio.— 
 Cartoon of Noah and his Family, with the animals en- 
 tering the ark, by Raphael ; the picture from this is in 
 the loggie of the Vatican. — Landscape by Tempesta. 
 
 In the palace of the Casa Albricci, — a Hebe, 
 by Canova, and casts of Canova’s bas reliefs of sub- 
 jects from Homer. 
 
 In the possession of Madame Albricci, who is 
 author of a good account of Canova’s statues, is the 
 bust of Helen, by Canova. 
 
PUBLIC GARDEN. 
 
 69 
 
 The palace of the Cornaro family at San Mauri- 
 zio on the great canal was built by Sansovino. This 
 palace being occupied by some of the public offices 
 of the Austrian government, was accidentally burnt 
 in December 18 17, whilst I was at Venice. The 
 walls were strongly built, and had not fallen in, al- 
 though the fire had consumed the interior of the 
 fabric. 
 
 The French formed public walks in several of 
 the cities in Italy, after the model of the gardens of 
 the Tuilleries and of the Luxembourg ; and at 
 Venice the ground formerly occupied by the mo- 
 nastery of Sant Antonio, was laid out by them with 
 alleys of trees, and is still resorted to as a public 
 walk. This garden forms the south-east point of 
 the city, and commands a view of some of the islands 
 in the laguna, and of the sand islands that bound 
 the laguna. 
 
 The botanic-garden, formerly the garden of 
 the monastery of San Giobbe, possesses no great 
 collection of plants. The hot-house has a roof 
 projecting some way forwards to protect the glass 
 from hail, like the hot-houses at Shoenbrun. There 
 are mats * on the outside which are rolled up, 
 
 * These are not the mats of bast or lime tree bark used in 
 our gardens in England ; they are that kind of mat called 
 stuoja, made of a species of stipa, which grows near Venice ; 
 and are much used at Trieste, Venice, and in other parts of 
 Italy, for covering waggons, the floors of rooms, &c. 
 
70 
 
 VENICE. — COLD* 
 
 and at night are let down before the glass. The 
 house is heated in the usual way by flues at this 
 season, (December,) as it freezes every night. 
 There is another small botanic- garden belonging 
 to a gentleman who cultivates that science. 
 
 The professor of mineralogy at the lyceum has a 
 collection in which there are good specimens of cry- 
 stal sized sapphirs, spinell, and hyacinth. Signor 
 Parolini of Bassano, who sometimes resides in Ve- 
 nice, possesses a good collection of minerals, which 
 comprehends a part of the collection of the late Pa- 
 risian mineralogist Delametherie. 
 
 It was rather cold in Venice in the end of No- 
 vember and beginning of December 1817, so that 
 fires were used in rooms. There was generally frost 
 at night. The wood fires in rooms are made in 
 open chimneys. Stoves are not used. The cold 
 is sometimes so severe that part of the laguna is 
 frozen over. This happened in 1788 , and passen- 
 gers went on the ice from Venice to the main land 
 at Mestre. 
 
 There are many conversazione where company is 
 received in the evening, and foreigners introduced 
 at these conversazione are treated with polite atten- 
 tion by the lady of the house who presides. 
 
 Saint Mark’s Place is the centre of public resort, 
 and in this respect, as well as in its form, bears a 
 resemblance to the Palais Royal in Paris, but with 
 less bustle and brilliancy, in proportion as Venice is 
 
COFFEE-HOUSES. — THEATRES. 
 
 71 
 
 smaller, containing only one-sixth of the population 
 of Paris. The merchants hold their exchange on 
 one side of the place of Saint Mark. A great 
 part of the ground floor under the covered walk, or 
 peristyle, is occupied by neat coffeehouses, which, 
 in the evening, are crowded with persons who come 
 to pass the time, and to converse with their acquaint- 
 ances ; some ladies are seen accompanied by their 
 male friends ; bands of singers go about from one 
 coffeehouse to another to amuse the company ; each 
 band is composed of two or three tolerable male and 
 female singers, accompanying their song on the 
 guitar. In Rome the coffeehouses are on a different 
 footing, being dirty, and not so much frequented by 
 genteel people as at Venice. 
 
 The young women in Venice wear a veil of 
 white muslin becomingly thrown over the head and 
 shoulders, something like the veils of the young 
 persons in Paris when receiving their first commu- 
 nion. 
 
 The theatres at Venice, in November 1817, were 
 three in number : An opera, neither to be praised for 
 the performers nor the appearance of the house.— 
 A neat theatre, where a good company of comedians, 
 directed by Vestris, performed. Vestris himself is a 
 good actor in ludicrous and caricatured parts. — The 
 third was a theatre for inferior comedies, in which 
 Harlequin, otherwise called Trufaldino, is always 
 
72 
 
 VENICE. THEATRE. 
 
 prominent ; he is a kind of knave full of jest, repre- 
 sented as a native of Bergamo, and speaking the 
 Bergamasque dialect. The dumb Harlequin of our 
 pantomimes, originally borrowed from the Italians, 
 has now little resemblance, except in dress, to the 
 Italian Harlequin, of whose province leaping is not 
 a part. Quadrio, in his Storia della Poesia, gives 
 an account of the origin of the four masked cha- 
 racters in the Italian farces, Arlechino , Pantalone , 
 il Dottore a scholastic pedant, and Brighella. 
 
 One of the burlesque personages sometimes in- 
 troduced on the Italian stage is Tartaglia , or the 
 stutterer. They play caricatures of the different 
 nations of Italy. In the north of Italy the Neapo- 
 litan is represented on the stage as a boaster and 
 coward, something like the Gascon in France, but 
 with less courage. 
 
 In the time of the carnival, performances are given 
 in the theatre del Phenice , which is the handsomest 
 theatre in Venice, with an agreeable architectural 
 front, and was built in 1791. 
 
 The hours of performance at the theatre, and the 
 hours of seeing company at the conversazione, are 
 late. Very different from the early hours at Vienna, 
 where the theatrical performances are over by nine 
 in the evening, in Venice they finish about midnight, 
 and after the play people go to the conversazione. 
 
 The inn La Grande Bretagna occupies a hand- 
 some building, formerly a palace, on the great canal, 
 
RIALTO BRIDGE.— “STREETS. 
 
 73 
 
 near the Rialto bridge. The inn called La Re - 
 gina (T Ingilterra is pretty well regulated : a print- 
 ed list of the prices of the rooms, &c. is fixed up in 
 the entrance hall. 
 
 Few of the English who visit Italy for amuse- 
 ment or curiosity pass any considerable time at Ve- 
 nice ; Florence, Rome, and Naples, are the cities 
 which detain them most. 
 
 The bridge of the Rialto is the only bridge over 
 the great canal. It is of marble, and of one large 
 arch ; and, like the other smaller bridges in Ve- 
 nice, the way over it consists of a stair which the 
 passenger ascends on one side and descends on the 
 other. The span is about eighty feet. As there 
 are no carriages, the bridge has no great weight or 
 shake to sustain. It was built in 1591, as appears 
 from the inscription. The architect was Antonio 
 da Ponte. Formerly there was a wooden bridge in 
 this place. Vasari, in his life of Friar Giocondo of 
 Verona, speaks contemptuously of the present bridge, 
 and praises the design presented by the friar, which 
 was not accepted. Many of the bridges over the 
 other canals are without parapets. 
 
 The French made one broad street near the pub- 
 lic garden of Sant Antonio, by arching over a ca- 
 nal but this was only for shew and ornament, and 
 not a matter of use. There being no carriages nor 
 beasts of burden in Venice, broad streets are not ne- 
 cessary. The communication, therefore, by land is 
 effected by means of narrow streets, or rather lanes, 
 
7 4 
 
 VENICE. — BARKS.— TIDE. 
 
 called Calle, which are about eight feet broad, and 
 serve for foot passengers. These lanes are paved 
 with cubical pieces of trap-porphyry, whose upper 
 surface is about a foot square, from Monte Selici, 
 near Padua. 
 
 There are canals that penetrate to most parts of 
 the town, so that almost every house has a commu- 
 nication with a canal, by a landing stair, which is 
 frequently the threshold of the principal entrance 
 to the house. The place of coaches is supplied 
 by gondolas, which are light skiffs thirty-five feet 
 long, and six feet broad at midship, without any 
 keel, drawing very little water, — having a cabin in 
 which four or five persons can sit, covered and 
 furnished with a door, and plate glass windows, like 
 the windows of a coach. This box or cabin is co- 
 vered on the outside with black cloth and black 
 tassels, like the furniture of a mourning coach in 
 England, and the rest of the gondola is also black. 
 In the time of the republic, a sumptuary law order- 
 ed that the gondolas should be of no other colour, 
 with the intention of preventing expence in painted 
 and gilded ornaments. The gondola is rowed by 
 one man standing near the stern, with a single oar, 
 which he pushes, moving the boat in the same di- 
 rection as he looks. Other gondolas have two oars. 
 The rowlock is a strong piece of wood rising a foot 
 or eighteen inches above the gunwale, with two 
 notches to receive the oar. There are numerous 
 
— 
 
 
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 u. irum . .> Vcne-nan- del- 
 
 Transverse- section- wi the- inzeLdle-. 
 
 Rowlock- of the- &orulola on- a- larger scale >. 
 
 W-d- c. oUlt 
 
 Ztzca's Sculp P 
 
 Rdinbwyh Published- Try A. Constable * Co.l 82 C. 
 

 
ARSENAL* 
 
 7 5 
 
 gondolas to be hired as hackney coaches in other 
 cities, and they wait at the door of the theatre in 
 the evening. 
 
 The tide rises three or four feet in Venice, and 
 occasions a considerable current in some of the chan- 
 nels of the laguna, and there were anciently tide 
 mills near the island of San Georgio Maggiore. 
 At low water, some of the small canals in the town 
 are left dry. Sometimes the high water rises so as 
 to cover the eastern part of Saint Mark’s Place ; as 
 I saw in November X8I7. 
 
 The arsenal, inclosed with a high wall, includes 
 slips for building ships, mast-houses, a long build- 
 ing for making ropes in, a foundery for brass can- 
 non, an armoury, and other establishments. The 
 ships are built under a roof, a practice which has 
 been adopted within these few years in the English 
 dock-yards, and is found very advantageous in 
 protecting the timber from the injurious action of 
 the rain, and of the sun’s rays. The camel for 
 floating large ships of war out of the laguna con- 
 sists of four pieces, which have a concave surface 
 that fits close to the convexity of the sides and 
 bottom of the ship, and the four pieces are then 
 joined together; when the camel thus embraces 
 the ship, the water in the cavities of the camel is 
 pumped out, it becomes buoyant, and floats the ship. 
 Bonaparte had several seventy-four gun ships and 
 
7 6 VENICE. — -ARSENAL. 
 
 frigates built at this arsenal of Venice. At this 
 time, in November 1817, there are no ships build- 
 ing, and few men employed in the yard. There are 
 some thirty-six pounder cast-iron guns and large 
 carronades, cast at Huelle near Paris, and at Ne- 
 vers, as appears from the inscriptions on the trun- 
 nions. The keeper said that some iron guns had 
 been cast at the iron-works at Brescia. In the ar- 
 moury is an ancient howitzer, made of rope gaskins 
 covered with leather. At the gate of the arsenal 
 are some large antique figures of lions, rudely sculp- 
 tured in marble. They were brought from Greece 
 when the Venetian republic possessed territory in 
 that country. On one of them is an inscription in 
 very ancient and unknown letters, called by some 
 authors Pelasgic, and concerning which Akerhlad 
 and others have written. 
 
 Natural Productions . 
 
 Folega (Fulica, Lat.) and Mazorini are two kinds 
 of scollop-footed water fowl, with black plumage, 
 common in the markets in November ; as are also 
 wild-ducks, snipe, woodcock, red-legged partridge. I 
 saw likewise one of the large birds called cock of 
 the woods, the Tetrao urogallus, killed in the Friuli 
 Alps. This species of bird formerly existed in the 
 mountains of Scotland, but has become extinct there. 
 It is sometimes imported fresh from Norway to Lon» 
 
% 
 
VIII. 
 
 [Page 75, Vol, I.] 
 
 Camel used for Floating large Ships of War out to 
 Sea from the Laguna of Venice, 
 
 Drawn by W- A. C. 
 
 Etched by Lizars. 
 
NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. 
 
 77 
 
 don and Leith. Frogs are sold in the market in 
 Venice. 
 
 The fish and other sea animals in the market of 
 Venice are, the turbot, the soal, the flounder, the 
 red mullet, the dory, called pesce di San Pietro , the 
 skate, the red gurnard, a sparus called in Venice 
 orade, the electric silurus, called tremola , the Lo- 
 phius piscatorius ; — oysters, the Solen siliqua or razor 
 fish, Cardium edule called Tellina di mare, and some 
 other shell fish, — a kind of cuttle fish called polpi,— 
 gammari a kind of sea Cray fish, white, nine inches 
 long, and without large claws, — shrimps, &c. Va- 
 rious articles of food ready dressed are sold in the 
 streets to the poorer class, such as gourd stewed, 
 white turnips, polpi, polenta or hasty- pudding, made 
 of the meal of Indian corn, and forming a large mass 
 which is cut with a string. Gourd seeds, seme della 
 zucca , are sold on the streets, and eaten by the poor. 
 
 The trees in the public walk are, the Platanus 
 orientalis, Robinia pseudacacia, Bigonia catalpa, a 
 tree which thrives near London, but does not bear 
 the cold in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, Melia 
 azederach, a justicia, hornbeam, Hibiscus Syriacus 
 formed into hedges. The Stipa palustris, which 
 grows in the neighbourhood of Venice, is used for 
 making mats called stuoje. A stipa is employed 
 for making brushes for clothes, &c. The ruscus, 
 or butcher’s broom, is used for brooms, and for sweep- 
 ing chimneys. 
 
 Fresh water for drinking is got from wells that 
 
78 
 
 VENICE. — WELLS. 
 
 are supplied with the rain water, falling on the 
 houses in their immediate vicinity. The well is 
 placed in the court of the house, and in the earth round 
 the well a great basin is formed, and moated with 
 clay. This basin being filled with rubbish, and covered 
 with the pavement, the rain water, which falls from 
 the tiles of the roof, and that which falls immedi- 
 ately on the pavement, sinks into the rubbish, and 
 cannot get deeper than the clay ; it therefore flows 
 to the bottom of the well, which is the lowest part 
 of the basin. The surface of the water in these 
 wells is from five to ten feet below the surface of 
 the ground. Around the mouth of the well is a 
 cylindrical parapet of one stone, such as the ancient 
 Romans called puteal, which prevents the high 
 tides from flowing into the well. * The pavement 
 of the court is also elevated, to prevent as much as 
 possible the sea- water from sinking through the in- 
 terstices of the stones into the basin. Fresh water 
 for the use of ships and of some parts of the town, 
 
 * Olivier de Serres, in his interesting old treatise le Theatre 
 <T Agriculture, describes a similar mode of collecting rain wa- 
 ter, practised m some parts of the south of France. It is also 
 employed in situations where the nature of the strata is such 
 as not to retain the rain water. Near Castleton, and in other 
 parts of Derbyshire, ponds are thus moated with clay, to col- 
 lect the rain water for the use of men and cattle ; without 
 this precaution the rain water sinks, and is lost in the porous 
 limestone beneath the soil. 
 
THERIAC. 79 
 
 is brought from the main land, by boats in large 
 open tubs. 
 
 The theriac of Venice has long been, and still 
 continues to be, in great repute. It is a medicine 
 used internally, as an astringent, &c. It is de- 
 scribed by some of the ancient Greek medical wri- 
 ters, and is composed of a great number of different 
 vegetable drugs. Some of these are spices from the 
 East Indies, of which Venice had formerly the mo- 
 nopoly. They were making theriac when I was at 
 Venice in December. Thirty or forty porters in a 
 row were seen daily pounding the ingredients with 
 pestle and mortar, on the Rialto Bridge, before the 
 shop of the apothecary. The ingredients are after- 
 wards heated in large cauldrons ; and this part of 
 the operation also is performed on the public street* 
 Mithridate, another medicament composed of a mul- 
 titude of ingredients, is prepared in the same establish- 
 ment. The leaf of the Laurus nobilis appears to be 
 one of the ingredients of these medicaments, boat 
 loads of these leaves being brought from Trieste. Both 
 these medicines have been banished from the Phar- 
 macopoeias of Britain for a good many years, on ac- 
 count of the needless multiplicity of their ingredi- 
 ents, when the same effects may be obtained by the 
 exhibition of some more simple preparation. The 
 medical practice in many parts of the Continent of 
 Europe employs various other drugs which are 
 thought quite inefficacious by the English practi- 
 tioner. The English medical practice is more ac- 
 
80 
 
 VENICE. CIRCULATING COINS. 
 
 tive, that of the French and Italians is la medecine 
 expectante , they only watch the course of the dis- 
 ease. 
 
 The most frequent coins in common circulation in 
 18 17, were pieces of very base silver, marked with 
 the Austrian eagle, and with the inscription one and 
 a half lira, others with one lira, others with one-half 
 lira, denoting the value for which they had been 
 issued ; but most of these coins were depreciated, 
 and only current for a smaller value than that which 
 was stamped upon them. One lira is equal to half 
 a franc, or in English money fivepence. One sol- 
 do is one-twentieth of a lira. 
 
 The coins of the Venetian republic are no longer 
 seen in circulation at Venice. In most parts of the 
 Austrian dominions, the common circulating medium 
 is in a bad state. In Vienna, Bohemia, and Hungary, 
 it is paper depreciated to one-third of its original va- 
 lue. In Venice, it is base silver. At Milan, the 
 most convenient money in common circulation is 
 that coined by Bonaparte, during the existence of 
 his kingdom of Italy. 
 
 The lingua Veneziana, or Venetian dialect, is 
 soft, having been preserved, by the insular situation, 
 from intermixture with the language of the nations 
 who overrun the mainland ; whereas, the Berga- 
 masque, and other dialects in the neighbourhood of 
 the Venetian territory, are harsh-sounding. 
 
 Goldoni’s comedy, i Rusteghi , is in the Venetian 
 dialect, and many other printed comedies and poems. 
 
 11 
 
DIALECT.— ARMENIAN MONASTER Y. 
 
 81 
 
 Tasso’s Gierusalemme liberata is translated into 
 Venetian, and into several other provincial dialects 
 of Italy, as Bergamasque, Bolognese, Milanese, 
 Neapolitan. 
 
 The three last petitions of the Lord’s prayer in 
 Venetian, as given by Adelung, are, 
 
 E perdona i nostri debiti come anca nu perdo- 
 niamo ai nostri debitori ; 
 
 E no ghe indur in tentazion ; 
 
 Ma libera ghe del cativo. 
 
 The only monastic community that remains in 
 Venice, or indeed in the whole Lombardo- Vene- 
 tian kingdom, is the Armenian monastery, which oc- 
 cupies the small island of San Lazzero, in the la- 
 guna and near the town. The monastery is neat, 
 and the monks receive strangers, and show them the 
 objects worthy of attention with great politeness. 
 The monastery and its garden, with walks covered 
 by an arched arbour or berceau of vines, occupy the 
 whole island. A great dog serves to protect the 
 garden from water thieves. The monastic commu- 
 nity is now raising ground on the adjoining shallow 
 to extend their garden. They educate a certain 
 number of young Armenians. They print Armenian 
 books. Amongst the books they have printed are, 
 a French and Armenian Dictionary ; an English 
 Grammar, for the use of Armenians ; an Italian 
 Grammar for Armenians. They have some good 
 English philosophical and astronomical instruments 
 
S c 2 
 
 VENICE.— GLASS-MAN UFACTORY. 
 
 for the instruction of their pupils. The monastery 
 is much patronized by a wealthy Armenian merchant, 
 who resides in London. 
 
 On the island of Murano, half a mile from Ve- 
 nice, are the glass-works, in which they manufac- 
 ture window glass in small panes, flasks, tubes for 
 making beads, and some plate-glass for mirrors. 
 These works were first established in the thirteenth 
 century. In the year 1300, the art of making glass 
 mirrors was practised in Venice, and in no other part 
 of Europe ; but this manufactory of mirrors has 
 now become inconsiderable in Venice, and is car- 
 ried on to a greater extent in France, * and also in 
 England, Vienna, &c. in which places mirrors can be 
 made of a larger size than at Murano, being cast. 
 
 To form the tubes, from which the small beads 
 are made, a lump of colourless glass, in a melted 
 state, is taken on the end of the steel pipe, and this 
 is plunged into coloured glass, likewise melted ; a 
 boy seizes a portion of this with pincers, and runs 
 with it, drawing after him a thread of glass, which 
 becomes smaller as he moves from the workman 
 who holds the pipe ; a very small tube is thus ob- 
 
 * The French mirrors are cast at Saint Gobin, in Picardy, 
 and polished in the Faubourg Saint Antoine, in Paris. This 
 extensive manufactory is carried on by government. It is 
 the largest manufactory of mirrors in Europe ; and mirrors 
 are more frequently used for the furniture and ornament of 
 rooms in Paris than in other places. 
 
GLASS BEADS. 
 
 83 
 
 tained. These coloured tubes are broken into pie- 
 ces of about a foot long, and sent to the bead ma- 
 nufactories in the town. To break them into the 
 size of the beads, a bunch of tubes, all of the same 
 length and colour, is held by a workman, with the 
 part to be cut resting on an iron edge ; he strikes 
 them with an iron chisel, so that a piece about an 
 eighth of an inch long is separated from the end of 
 each tube, and falls into a bag. This operation is 
 repeated till the whole are cut into small pieces. 
 These pieces must then undergo an operation to 
 round off their edges. This is done, by putting 
 them into a copper pan with sand ; the pan has a 
 long handle, by means of which it is held exposed 
 over a flame in an open oven, and shaken continual- 
 ly. The heat is such as only to fuse the edges, 
 without altering the form of the bead, and the sand 
 prevents their coherence. The operation of the 
 fire being finished, the beads are separated from 
 the sand by means of a sieve, and they come out 
 of this process with the edges rounded by fusion. 
 These beads are of a cylindrical form, and are 
 called piccoli perletti. The smallest of them are 
 strung by women and children, who place a quan- 
 tity of the beads in a saucer, and push amongst 
 them repeatedly a bristle fixed on the end of a slen- 
 der silk thread ; some beads get upon the bristle 
 each time. For stringing the larger beads, a small 
 wire is fixed at the end of the thread. With these 
 
84 < 
 
 VENICE. CEMETERIES. 
 
 small beads of different colours, purses, bags, watch 
 chains, and other articles are embroidered. 
 
 Beads of enamel, of a larger size than the glass 
 beads just spoken of, are made at Venice by the 
 enameller’s lamp. A small pair of smith’s bellows 
 supplies air to several lamps. Some of these beads 
 have the colour of metallic copper, which is produ- 
 ced by metallic copper introduced into the enamel, 
 and heated, and exposed in a particular way to the 
 flame of the lamp. This metallic copper colour is 
 the same as is seen on some old Italian earthen- 
 ware ; and it has also come into use within these 
 few years on English stoneware. 
 
 The practice of burying in churches has been re- 
 linquished for some years, and the burying ground 
 of Venice now occupies the small island of San 
 Cristofero, situated in the Laguna, between Venice 
 and Murano. * 
 
 The burying-ground of the Jews, on the sandy 
 
 * This salutary practice, of burying out of the city, which 
 tends to lessen the quantity of putrid effluvia, too abundant in 
 crowded towns, was introduced by the French. There have 
 been no burials for the last twenty-five years within the city 
 of Paris, with a very few exceptions of senators in the church 
 of Sainte Genevieve ; the cemeteries are at Mont Martre, &c. 
 The dead are still buried in the most populous parts of 
 London and Westminster ; new church-yards, however, have 
 been formed of late years, removed from the crowded parts, 
 and in the vicinity of the town. 
 
ADJACENT ISLANDS. 
 
 85 
 
 Island of Lido, is covered with tombstones bearing 
 Hebrew epitaphs. The Jews in Venice, as in other 
 towns of Italy, inhabit a particular part of the city, 
 called Ghetto degli Hebrei , the Jewry. 
 
 The burying-ground of the Protestants is within 
 one of the bastions of the fortress of Lido. It con- 
 tains several tombs of English. Amongst the rest, 
 that of the British consul, Smith, known as a col- 
 lector and encourager of the arts. There are also 
 some tombs erected in memory of Germans. 
 
 The islands of Torcello, Burano, Mazorbo, and 
 Murano, lie in the Laguna, to the north-east of 
 Venice. Torcello is five miles distant, and was 
 peopled by emigrants from the ancient city of Alti- 
 num, who fled from Attila. Torcello was the seat 
 of a bishop, and Burano, Mazorbo, and Murano, 
 were subject to it. It was a considerable town, but 
 is now diminished in population, by reason of the 
 situation having become unhealthy. The cathedral 
 of Torcello was built in the eleventh century ; and, 
 according to the printed descriptions, contains some 
 columns of Greek marble, and other remains of an- 
 tiquities. Opposite the cathedral is the Baptiste- 
 rium. Mazorbo is inhabited by fishermen and a 
 few gardeners. Near Torcello, some islands, for- 
 merly inhabited, are now washed away by the sea. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 Venice to Padua.— Padua ; — Church of Saint Anthony ; Hall 
 of Justice ; University ; Galileo, Sfc. ; Botanic Garden . — - 
 Gustavus Adolphus. — Davila. — Petrarch. — Dialect.- — Mode 
 of Travelling. — Vicenza . — Buildings by Palladio. — Mine- 
 rals. — Verona. — Old Bastions. — Amphitheatre Cathedral. 
 ‘ — Fracastoro, ^c.— Castle Bridge. — Attila . — Verona to 
 Mantua.— Mantua . — Edifices.— Palazzo del T. — Julio Ro- 
 mano. — Mantua to Modena.— Modena .- — Pcdace. — Mura - 
 tori. — Guicciardini. — Wells . — Modena to Bologna. — Bo- 
 logna . — • University. — Aldrovandi, SfC. — Botanic Garden - 
 Agricultural Implements .- — Painters of Bologna. — Church 
 of San Pelronio.— Cassini . — Church of the Madonna di San 
 Luca, S^c. — Building Materials, SfC . — Vievo from the Asi* 
 nelli Tower. — Operas. — Dialect. 
 
 The passage-boat from Venice to Padua is towed 
 by a boat with oars across the Laguna to Fusina. 
 At Fusina there are several carriages waiting, in 
 which places may be taken by those who wish to go 
 the rest of the journey to Padua by land. Fusina 
 is at the mouth of a canal communicating with the 
 Brenta, and along this canal the boat proceeds, and is 
 drawn by horses. The boat, which is conveniently 
 laid out for passengers, leaves Venice in the morning, 
 and arrives at Padua in the evening. The distance 
 is thirty English miles. The fare is of the cheapest, 
 as low as in our modern steam-boats. A travelling 
 
VENICE TO PADUA. 
 
 87 
 
 cook comes aboard with a box containing a small 
 charcoal furnace, and the whole apparatus and pro- 
 visions for dinner, and furnishes the passengers with 
 rice soup, and a few other dishes, and wine. 
 
 The canal from Fusina to Dolo is bordered, un- 
 interruptedly, with populous villages, and with vil- 
 las of handsome architecture, some by Palladio, 
 and many of them in a neglected state ; the fa- 
 brics and habitations of Venetian nobles in the 
 flourishing times of the republic. At Dolo, after 
 passing through three locks, and thereby getting 
 into a higher level, the boat enters the broad 
 channel of the Brenta, some way above the place 
 where there is a bridge of masonry of several arches. 
 After this, at Stra, we pass a large palace belonging 
 to the Emperor, and at Stra is another bridge over 
 the Brenta. The river is confined between em- 
 bankments. 
 
 Padua is mentioned by Strabo as one of the most 
 considerable cities of Italy in his time. 
 
 Over the gate is seen the defaced figure of the 
 Venetian lion. * Many of the public buildings are 
 in imitation of those of Venice. 
 
 The interior of the large church of Saint An- 
 thony is majestic ; it is in the pointed-arched style, 
 and was begun in 1255 by the architect Nic- 
 
 * The Venetian lion is the winged cherubim, with a lion’s 
 face, in the vision of Ezekiel, the mystical image of the se- 
 cond Evangelist Saint Mark. 
 
88 
 
 PADUA* CHURCHES. GREAT HALL* 
 
 colo Pisano, and finished in 1307* On the piazza 
 before the church is the bronze equestrian statue of 
 the Captain-General Gattamelata by Donatello. 
 
 In the cathedral is a cadelabrum of bronze fifteen 
 feet high, with sculptures in relief by Ricci, in the 
 style of the year >500, the mille cinque cento . 
 
 The church of Santa Giustina was built by 
 Riccio after the design of Palladio. The front is of 
 brick, rough and uncoated. The small cupolas in 
 the interior, and the rest of the interior, resembles 
 Saint Paul’s in London. Palladio died in 1.580, 
 Sir Christopher Wren, therefore, 90 years after, 
 may have taken some hints from the design of this 
 church. The columns of the church of Santa Gius- 
 tina are Ionic. 
 
 The great justice hall, Palazzo della Ragione, 
 was begun in 117^> and finished in 1306; the 
 ceiling is pointed-arched, of timber, held together 
 by chiave , or tie rods of iron. At the end of the 
 hall is an inscription in memory of Livy, erected 
 by his countrymen the Paduans. 
 
 In 1283, an old tomb was discovered which Lo- 
 vato, a poet and lawyer of Padua, maintained to be 
 the tomb of Antenor, the leader of the Heneti, and 
 founder of the city, according to the traditions of 
 the heroic age. * An inscription, written by Lova- 
 
 * Strabo, 1 . ] S, mentions the arrival of the Heneti at Adria # 
 and the month of the Po, under the command of Antenor. 
 
VENETI. — UNIVERSITY* 
 
 89 
 
 to, in memory of Antenor, was engraved on the 
 sarcophagus, and the tomb of Lovato himself is 
 placed opposite. * 
 
 The building of the university has a court with a 
 peristyle, said to be by Palladio- On the walls of 
 the peristyle are carved the arms of distinguished 
 persons who have studied at the university. 
 
 The university was first established in the thir- 
 teenth century, by professors and scholars who se- 
 ceded from Bologna, t Padua came into the pos- 
 session of the Venetians in the beginning of the 
 
 These Heneti came from Asia Minor. The Latin mode of 
 pronunciation changed the word Heneti into Veneti. The 
 name Euganei, which signifies illustrious, seems to be applied 
 by some ancient authors to the Veneti, who lived on the 
 shores of the Adriatic. 
 
 According to Adelung, the word Wend, Wand, Vend, in 
 several ancient languages, signifies Water, Sea ; and Veneti 
 signifies a people who inhabit the sea-coast. Hence there 
 were Veneti at the head of the Adriatic, Veneti in Gaul, 
 Vand-ali and Wendi on the coast of the Baltic, Heneti or 
 Eneti, according to Herodotus, in Asia Minor on the coast 
 of the Black Sea. But these nations had nothing common 
 with respect to their origin. See Lanzi Saggio di Lingua 
 Etrusca, T. II. p. 634. Adelung’s Mithridates, II. s. 365. 
 
 The word Venetus, signifying a sea-green colour, was af- 
 terwards applied to denote one of the four factions of the cir- 
 cus at Rome. 
 
 * See Tiraboschi, stor. della lett. It 
 
 f Tiraboschi, st. dell. lett. It. T. IV. p. 43. 
 
90 
 
 PADUA. “““EMINENT TEACHERS. 
 
 fifteenth century, and, after that, it was the only 
 privileged university in the dominions of the re- 
 public. 
 
 A law, first promulgated by the republic in 1407, 
 forbade the teaching of science in all other cities. 
 Grammar alone was excepted, and might be taught 
 in other places. 
 
 The following are some of the distinguished pro- 
 fessors who taught at Padua in the sixteenth and 
 seventeenth centuries. 
 
 Galileo was professor of natural philosophy at 
 Padua, from 1592 to 1610. 
 
 Guglielmini, in 1700, was professor of hydraulic 
 engineering, a subject important to the proprietors, 
 and, therefore, much studied in Italy on account of 
 the peculiar state of the rivers, which require em- 
 bankments to protect the adjacent country, whilst 
 the river-water for irrigating the fields is derived 
 and distributed to the different proprietors of ground 
 by means of canals, and constitutes a valuable spe- 
 cies of property. Guglielmini was born at Bologna 
 in 1655. His principal work is on rivers, Trattato 
 jisico matematica della natura de’Fiume. 
 
 Vesalius of Brussels was celebrated throughout 
 Europe for his skill in anatomy, and accepted invi- 
 tations to teach at Montpellier, Paris, Louvain. He 
 was invited also by the republic of Venice, and 
 taught anatomy at Padua from 1537 to 1542. He 
 was afterwards physician at the court of Charles V. 
 
 12 
 
SANTORIO. 
 
 91 
 
 Faloppio was professor of anatomy in 1555. 
 
 The anatomical theatre was first constructed at 
 Padua in 1594, at the instance of Fabrizio de Aqua- 
 pendente, professor of anatomy at Padua. Pisa had 
 the first anatomical theatre in Italy, and then Pavia 
 in 155^. 
 
 Morgagni was professor of anatomy in the eight- 
 eenth century. He was born at Forii in Romagna. 
 
 Santorio, professor of the theory of medicine, was 
 the first who made observations on the quantity of 
 the transpiration of the human body. The loss of 
 weight by transpiration he ascertained by weighing 
 himself at different times of the day, and found it 
 to be very considerable. He published the results 
 of his experiments in the work entitled Medicina 
 Statica, which went through many editions, and was 
 translated into different languages. — He invented 
 the air thermometer, in which the changes of tem- 
 perature are rendered visible by the variations in the 
 volume of a quantity of air confined by a moveable 
 surface of water.— He also improved the form of dif- 
 ferent surgical instruments. — He was born at Capo 
 dTstria in 1561, and lived to the age of seventy-five. 
 After having been professor in the university of Pa- 
 dua, he practised medicine in Venice with great ce- 
 lebrity. A monument was erected over his tomb in 
 the cloister of the Servi di Maria at Venice. 
 
 The botanic garden is handsome. The hot-houses 
 
92 PADUA.— BOTANIC GARDEN. 
 
 have a small-meshed -wire trellis on the outside to 
 defend the glass from hail. 
 
 In the open air is a Magnolia grandiflora thirty 
 feet high, now (in December) bearing many ripe 
 seeds. The Bignonia capreolata also climbs on the 
 wall in the open air. The cedar of Lebanon is not 
 so frequent in the Italian gardens as it is in those 
 near London ; a large one in the garden at Padua 
 was blown down by a storm. 
 
 There is also a giardino economico, or garden for 
 the use of the students of agriculture. 
 
 A professorship of botany, at that time confined 
 to plants used in medicine, was first instituted at 
 Padua in 1538. Bologna had not a professor of 
 botany till a year after. 
 
 The foundation of the botanic garden, in 1552, 
 is due to Daniel Barbaro. * 
 
 Soon after the formation of the garden, Guilan- 
 dinus, a Prussian botanist, had the superintendence 
 of it. 
 
 In I59L the garden was under the direction of 
 
 % Daniel Barbaro was born in Venice in 1513. He was 
 coadjutor to the patriarch of Aquileia, and one of the mem- 
 bers of the council of Trent in 1563. He was a man of learn- 
 ing, and published La Pratica della Prospettiva, the first ex- 
 tended treatise on perspective that appeared after the revival of 
 science, — an edition of Vitruvius, and other works. See Tira- 
 hoschi, stor. dell, lett. Ital. 
 
GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. — DAVILA. 98 
 
 Prosper Alpinus, author of a work on the medical 
 art amongst the Egyptians, and a treatise on the 
 plants of Egypt, in which country he had travelled. 
 He was a native of the Vicentine. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus, the great energetic and skil- 
 ful antagonist of the power of Austria, and de- 
 fender of the Protestant cause in Germany, * was 
 at Padua, for some months, in l60y, at the age 
 of fifteen, and attended the lectures of Galileo, as 
 Galileo mentions in one of his letters, t In con- 
 sequence of this, when the king of Sweden visited 
 Padua in 1788, he asked leave to erect a statue of 
 Gustavus in the Prato della Valle, where the statues 
 of the most celebrated men who have studied at the 
 university are placed. 
 
 The celebrated historian Davila was born near 
 Padua. He was named Arrigo Caterina, after 
 Henry III. of France and his queen-consort Cate- 
 rina de’Medici, and resided long in France. He 
 afterwards held several military commands under the 
 Venetian republic. His history of the French 
 civil wars, Storia delle Guerre Civile di Francia, is 
 a classical work. He was born in 1576, and lived 
 to the age of fifty- five. 
 
 * An animated description of the exploits of Gustavus 
 Adolphus, and of the other leaders in the thirty years’ war, is 
 to be found in Schiller’s history of that war, one of the most 
 esteemed historical works in the German language, 
 f See Tiraboschi, stor. dell. lett. Ital. 
 
94< 
 
 PADUA. —“PETR ARCH® 
 
 The tomb of Petrarch is at Arqua, near Padua, 
 
 Petrarch was treated with distinction by many of 
 the princes of Italy, Galeazzo Visconti duke of 
 Milan, the king of Naples, the Homan family Co- 
 lonna, and, amongst others, by the Carrara family, 
 who were sovereign lords of Padua in the fourteenth 
 century, and he died at Arqua, in the territory of 
 that family, in 1374. He was born at Arezzo in 
 1304. His father was a notary of Florence of the 
 name of Pietro, and familiarly called Petracco and 
 Petraccolo, and the son was first called Francesco 
 di Petracco, and afterwards Petrarca. 
 
 In his childhood Petrarch accompanied his pa- 
 rents to Avignon ; to which place the popes had 
 transferred their seat in 1309, in consequence of the 
 turbulence and disobedience of the inhabitants of 
 Rome, Philip III. of France having ceded to the 
 popes the country round Avignon, the Comtat Ve- 
 naissin. 
 
 Petrarch studied law at Montpellier and Bologna, 
 but did not become a practical lawyer. He was in 
 orders, and held some ecclesiastical benefices, 
 
 Laura, celebrated in the sonnets of Petrarch, was 
 the daughter of the syndic of Avignon, and wife of 
 Hugo de Sade, as the Abbe de Sade has shewn in 
 his life of the poet. 
 
 Petrarch was one of the most eloquent writers at 
 the revival of letters, and enjoyed vast celebrity du- 
 ring his life. He received the poet’s crown of laurel 
 
DIALECT. 
 
 95 
 
 in the Capitol, on Easter-day 1341. This was a 
 revival of an ancient ceremony that had been bor- 
 rowed from the games of Greece, and was introduc- 
 ed into Rome by Nero and Domitian, but had fallen 
 into disuse after the year 230. 
 
 After Petrarch had acquired fame, the Florentines 
 restored the confiscated property of his family, and 
 invited him to Florence, from whence his father had 
 been banished by the prevailing faction, but Pe- 
 trarch did not accept of the invitation, and continu- 
 ed to live at the courts of different Italian princes. 
 
 The dialect of the country people near Padua dif- 
 fers considerably from the written Italian, and is a 
 mixture of the Venetian and the lower Lombard, 
 which prevails in Modena, Mantua, &c. In the 
 sixteenth century the composition of comedies, in 
 different popular dialects of Italy, was in fashion, 
 and Ruzzante Beolco, * a native of Padua, was cele- 
 brated for the comedies he composed and acted in 
 the lengua rustegci Pandovana , the dialect of the 
 country people of Padua. 
 
 The high-roads in the Lombardo- Venetian king- 
 dom and other parts of Italy are generally good, and 
 the traveller who has a carriage gets forward expe- 
 ditiously with post-horses, of which there are relays 
 
 * He was born in 1502* Tiraboschi, st dell. lett. It, 
 
96 
 
 PUBLIC CARRIAGES IN' ITALY. 
 
 at every stage. Some travellers, however, left their 
 own carriages and went in the public vehicles, that 
 they might be less exposed to the attacks of bandit- 
 ti, who, at this time, in the beginning of 818 , 
 sometimes committed depredations on travellers, 
 and particularly between Rome and Naples. For 
 those wdto travel at a smaller expence there are three 
 modes generally resorted to. — First, the diligenza , 
 or public stage-coach, which is tolerably commodi- 
 ous, and goes from Venice to Milan, and from Mi- 
 lan communicates with the stage coaches of Pied- 
 mont. — Secondly, the sedia , or seggiola , a one-horse 
 chaise, on two wheels, with a seat for a single per- 
 son. This kind of vehicle is to be hired from one 
 town to the next, and goes at a good rate. It is 
 rather rough, the seat being fixed upon the long 
 flexible shafts, which but imperfectly supply the 
 want of steel-springs. The sedia has neither apron 
 nor cover, and therefore affords no protection against 
 the rain. Sedie are met with at the different towns 
 on the road between Venice and Turin, and from 
 Pesaro and Rimini to Bologna, Parma, &c., but they 
 are not found in Tuscany, nor in the Pope’s terri- 
 tory to the west of the Appennines. — The third 
 kind of public carriage, and the most commonly em- 
 ployed, are the coaches driven by the Vetturini , who 
 set out when they have got their complement of pas- 
 sengers, four or five in number ; each passenger makes 
 his bargain, the vetturino engaging to convey the 
 
 4 
 
VETTURINI. — C0RRIERE. 
 
 97 
 
 passenger and furnish him with supper and bed every 
 night during the journey for a sum agreed upon. The 
 inexperienced traveller is always made to pay more 
 than the usual fare by the vetturino, but in this 
 way of travelling he escapes imposition at the inns 
 on the road, as the bill at night is paid by the vet- 
 turino. The vetturini travel very slow, only from 
 thirty to thirty-five English miles a-day, stop during 
 the night, and proceed always with the same horses 
 unaided, except in hilly places, where the vet- 
 turino finds the country people ready with oxen to 
 hire to assist in dragging the coach up the hill. 
 South of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom there 
 are almost no diligenze or stage-coaches, so that 
 those who travel in public carriages usually have re- 
 course to the vetturini. At Florence there is an 
 extensive proprietor of vetturino coaches, which 
 sometimes perform long journeys, as, for instance, 
 from Florence or Rome to Paris. A great many 
 vetturini are to be met with at Rome. 
 
 In Tuscany and the Roman State, the courier 
 who carries packets for the post-office, has a, coach 
 suspended on springs, in which he takes three or 
 four passengers. These couriers go ail night, 
 change horses at every post station, and consequent- 
 ly travel quicker than the vetturini. Their fare is 
 higher than that of the vetturini, the carriage is 
 not more commodious, and a bargain must be made 
 also with them, for the price is not fixed, and ad- 
 
 G 
 
98 
 
 INNS. PADUA TO VICENZA. 
 
 vantage is always taken of the foreigner^ want of 
 practice. 
 
 The inns at the small towns on the road are ge- 
 nerally tolerable, but not much to be commended 
 for cleanliness, in which even the inns in the 
 large towns are deficient. Women servants are 
 rarely seen in the inns in Italy ; all the service is 
 performed by men. 
 
 Between Padua and Vicenza the country is flat; 
 wheat-fields are now green, (16th December.) The 
 fields are divided from each other by wet ditches. 
 There are rows of pollard willows, and pollard pop- 
 lars with vines trained upon them. The road is 
 well made, it is elevated higher than the surface of 
 the adjoining fields, and has a ditch on each side. 
 
 Vicenza . 
 
 At Vicenza, a town of 30,000 inhabitants, are 
 seen many considerable mansions and other fabrics 
 designed by Palladio, who was a native and an in- 
 habitant of this town. 
 
 In the 6th, 7th> 8th, 9th, 10th, and 11th cen- 
 turies, the prevalent architecture was the round- 
 arched style which sprung from the Roman, and 
 which gave rise to the pointed-arched. What con- 
 nection existed between the architects of the point- 
 
vicenza.— Palladio’s buildings. 99 
 
 ed-arched buildings on the banks of the Ganges, * 
 and the builders of the pointed-arched cathedrals 
 in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in Europe, 
 is not well ascertained. 
 
 At the revival of the arts the architects quitted 
 the round-arched style, and began to imitate the fa- 
 brics of the beginning of the Roman empire ; they 
 returned to the straight architraves and columns 
 which the ancient Romans had borrowed from 
 Greece, and they copied the models which existed 
 in the ruins of Rome. 
 
 In the first part of the sixteenth century, the 
 most flourishing period of the arts in Italy since 
 their revival, this imitation of the Roman style of 
 architecture was practised in its greatest perfection, 
 and the fabrics of that period, by Michael Angelo, 
 Sansovino, Palladio, and Vignola, have served as 
 models in Europe ever since. Amongst these ar- 
 chitects Palladio is perhaps the most distinguished 
 for graceful and appropriate buildings, although the 
 works in which he was employed are small in com- 
 parison with the majestic cupola of Saint Peter’s, by 
 Michael Angelo, Sir Christopher Wren’s Church 
 of Saint Paul, or Perrault’s colonnade of the Louvre. 
 
 One of the most considerable buildings at Vi- 
 
 * Views of these mosques, tombs, and bridges, with point- 
 ed arches, situated on the banks of the Ganges, are to be seen 
 in the Views in India, by William Hodges r published in 1786. 
 
100 VICENZA.—PALLADIo’s THEATRE- 
 
 cenza is the justice-hall, the palazzo della Ragione, 
 renovated and decorated with porticoes by Palladio. 
 It has two loggie, or galleries, externally, one on 
 the ground with Doric pilastres, the other on the 
 principal floor with Ionic. The length of the whole 
 fabric is 217 English feet, the breadth 121. It is 
 now used as a guard- room. The justice halls at 
 Padua and Brescia are similar to this in their ge- 
 neral form and destination. 
 
 The interior of the Olympic theatre, constructed by 
 Palladio in the manner of the ancient Roman theatres, 
 and after the description contained in the writings of 
 Vitruvius, produces now but little effect. It is not 
 large, and being scarcely ever made use of for theatri- 
 cal or other public performances, it is neglected and 
 covered with dust. The decorated ceiling is gone 
 and replaced with boards. The scenes are in perspec- 
 tive, in relief, and are made of carved wood, repre- 
 senting three streets that diverge from the stage. 
 The front scene represents a magnificent hall open- 
 ing into these streets. This theatre was built at 
 the expence of the Academia Olimpica. Palladio 
 died before the building was completed* It was 
 finished under the direction of Scamozzi. An Aca- 
 demia di Musica, or concert, was given in it in 
 1816, when the Emperor Francis visited Vicenza. 
 A theatre on a similar plan was constructed by Sca- 
 mozzi at Sabionetta, for the Duke Vespasian Gon- 
 zaga, but it has now gone to ruin. At the end of 
 
ROTONDA BY PALLADIO. 
 
 101 
 
 the sixteenth century, when these theatres were 
 built, the Italian stage was in a flourishing state. 
 Musical operas (draimne per musica) were then in- 
 vented, and many poets of eminence were employ- 
 ed in writing ‘for the stage. 
 
 One of the principal private buildings by Palla- 
 dio in the town is the mansion of the Chiericati 
 family, fronting the large open place called La 
 Piazza dell Tsola. The ground floor on the front 
 has a loggia, or open gallery, with Doric columns. 
 The first or principal floor (piano nobile) is orna- 
 mented with Ionic columns, and a loggia interrupt- 
 ed in the middle. The cornice of the Ionic co- 
 lumns is immediately surmounted by the roof. This 
 palace is in a neglected state* 
 
 The Rotonda of the Capra family is a celebrated 
 fabric by Palladio, and finished, after Palladio’s de- 
 sign, by Scamozzi, situated three miles from Vicen- 
 za, amidst ground varied with hill and dale. It con- 
 tains a basement floor, a principal floor, and an attic. 
 The plan is a perfect square. In the centre is a sa- 
 loon, whose height reaches from the principal floor 
 to the top of the vaulted cupola, which has a lan- 
 tern to admit the light. Each front of the square 
 building is adorned by a portico of six Ionic co- 
 lumns of the same height as the principal rooms, 
 and supporting a pediment ; the reason assigned by 
 Palladio for having a portico on each of the four 
 sides is, that the situation of the house commands 
 
102 VICENZA. MANSIONS BY PALLADIO. 
 
 agreeable views on every side. * A flight of steps as- 
 cends to each of these porticoes. The villa design- 
 ed by Palladio at Meledo, t in the Vicentine, is 
 nearly similar, and is accompanied by buildings for 
 the use of the farm, connected with the main fabric 
 by colonnades. 
 
 It is said that Palladio took the idea of this ro- 
 tonda from a small fabric at Padua. In a way 
 nearly similar to this Rotonda are disposed the 
 rooms in the Casino of the Villa Pamfili, near 
 Rome, built by Algardi about 1630, and those of 
 Bagatelle, in the Bois de Boulogne, built in the 
 end of the eighteenth century. The Duke of De- 
 vonshire’s house at Chiswick, erected by that ex- 
 cellent judge of ornamental architecture the Earl of 
 Burlington, is a copy of the Rotonda de’ Capra. 
 
 Other fabrics by Palladio in Vicenza are, the 
 Palace of the Prefect, — part of the front of the Bar- 
 barani mansion, Ionic and Corinthian, — the man- 
 sion of Count Porta, Rustic and Ionic ; both of 
 these have an attic above the principal floor. — The 
 mansion of the Counts Tiene, the ground floor 
 Rustic, the principal floor Composite, without an 
 
 * Archit. di Palladio, libro secondo. Cap. III. De i di- 
 segni delle case della citta. 
 
 f See Archit. di Palladio, libro secondo, Cap. XV. De i 
 disegni delle case di villa di alcuni gentii’ huomini di terra 
 ferma. 
 
SCAMOZZl’s BUILDINGS. 
 
 103 
 
 attic ; the design was not completely executed.- — 
 The mansion of the Counts Valmarana, with Com- 
 posite pilasters, which include in their height the 
 ground floor and the first floor. — The front of the 
 house of Franceschini, formerly Schio, of three win- 
 dows only in breadth, — and the still smaller fabric 
 called Palladio’s house, the front ornamented with 
 paintings in fresco by Fasolo, now injured by time. 
 Some of these buildings differ in several respects 
 from the designs in the printed collections of Palla- 
 dio’s works.* 
 
 The mansion of the Fressini, in the Corso street, 
 with an extensive front, is by Scamozzi. It has a 
 
 * Palladio was born at Vicenza in 1518, and lived to the 
 age of sixty-two. He visited Rome in 1547. 
 
 Besides the buildings at Vicenza, he designed the Bishop’s 
 palace at Trent ; the wooden bridge of five arches over the 
 Brenta, at Bassano ; the fronts of some churches in Venice, 
 and the church of Santa Giustina at Padua ; the mansion of 
 Floriano at Udine ; country houses, case di villa , with farm 
 buildings attached to them, in the Vicentine, the Trevisan 
 and the Veronese territory, on the Brenta, &c. He publish- 
 ed, — Architettura , in four books, which contains the designs 
 of buildings executed under his own direction, the designs of 
 the ancient fabrics in Rome, and of those described by Vi- 
 truvius, Bramante’s temple, &c. ; — Notes and Illustrations of 
 Caesar’s Commentaries, where he explains the construction 
 of Caesar’s bridge over the Rhine ; — and some other w r orks. 
 A collection of his designs of buildings was published at Vi- 
 cenza, in four volumes folio. 
 
104. 
 
 VICENZA*' — SCAMOZZI. MINERALS. 
 
 loggia with Ionic columns on the ground door, and 
 above these Corinthian pilasters, comprehending in 
 their height the principal and upper door. * 
 
 Pigafetta, knight of Rhodes, who accompanied 
 Magellan (Magaglianes) in the first voyage round 
 the world, made in the period from 1519 to 1522, 
 and who wrote the account of that voyage publish- 
 ed by Ramusio,t was a native of Vicenza. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Padua and Vicenza are 
 rocks of trap porphyry, which Portis, in his Geolo- 
 gia del Vicentino, published at Paris in 1802, con- 
 siders to be of volcanic formation. This porphyry is 
 used in paving the streets of Vicenza, Padua, and 
 Venice.™ A limestone or marble, similar to the 
 Verona marble, is employed for the ornamental parts 
 
 # Vincenzo Scamozzi was bom at Vicenza in 1550, and 
 lived to the age of sixty-six. He built a part of the Precu- 
 ratorie Nuove at Venice, and the Palazzo Strozzi at Florence. 
 The design he gave for the Rialto bridge was not approved 
 of, and Antonio da Ponte was preferred as the architect of 
 that structure. He published a treatise on architecture in ten 
 books, and Discorsi Sopra le Antichita di Roma, Ven. 1583, 
 with forty engravings, of which fifteen give the detail of the 
 amphitheatre. The buildings executed by him in the latter part 
 of his life are thought to deviate from the simplicity of his 
 first productions, and to partake of the decline of taste which 
 took place in the beginning of the seventeenth century. His 
 son also was an architect. See Temanza vite degli Archi- 
 tetti Veneziani, 1770. 
 
 f Ramusio Navigazioni, Tom. I. Ven. 1606. 
 
NOSTRA DONNA DI MONTE BERICO. 
 
 105 
 
 of buildings in Vicenza. — -Strata of pit-coal are found 
 in the territory of Vicenza. — Of the porcellane earth 
 got at Tretto, in the Vicentine, the specimen I 
 saw, was of a dull white, with some reddish spots, 
 like decomposed garnets ; it has not the appearance 
 of a granite, whilst the Cornish porcellane rock and 
 that of Limoges are evidently granites. Porcellane 
 is made from this Vicenza rock at Vicenza, and it 
 is used at the porcellane manufactory of the Mar- 
 quis Ginori, near Florence. 
 
 Stone- ware in the English manner, a luso d’In- 
 gilterra, is also made at Vicenza. 
 
 Before Bonaparte’s campaign in Italy, the pre- 
 sent King of France, Louis XVI II., resided for 
 some time at Vicenza, which was then a part of the 
 Venetian territory. 
 
 The church of the Madonna di Monte Berico is 
 situated on a hill, two miles from the town. A por- 
 tico, one side of which is composed of open arcades, 
 affords a covered walk all the way from the town to 
 the church. Another approach to the church is by 
 a stair of 194 steps, from the top of which there is 
 an agreeable view of the neighbouring country. 
 The church was built in the end of the seventeenth 
 century. It has a cupola, and produces an agreea- 
 ble effect, particularly the interior, which resembles 
 Sir Christopher Wren’s church of Saint Stephen 
 Walbrook, the plan being square, and the columns 
 disposed within so as to form a cross ; but the or- 
 
106 
 
 VERONA.-— HISTORY. 
 
 naments and mouldings are complicated, and in the 
 degenerate style that prevailed in Italy in the end 
 of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth 
 century. The most esteemed works of architecture 
 in Italy since the revival of the arts, are productions 
 of the end of the fifteenth and of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 From Vicenza to Verona the soil is gravelly, and 
 there are several embanked rivers which carry and 
 deposit much gravel in their beds. 
 
 Verona . 
 
 Verona is beautifully situated on the Adige. 
 Near the town, on the left of the river, there are 
 hills with villas, and cypresses* the usual ornament 
 of the villas in this country. At a distance behind 
 these lower hills the more lofty mountains connect- 
 ed with the Alps are seen. 
 
 Verona first came under the dominion of the Ro- 
 mans, soon after the arrival of Hannibal in Italy. 
 It was very considerable amongst the towns of the 
 ancient province of Venetia, in the beginning of the 
 Roman empire. In the thirteenth and fourteenth 
 centuries, Verona was governed by its sovereign 
 princes the Sealigers. In the beginning of the fif- 
 
 * The cypress and Pinus pinea at Verona do not grow spon- 
 taneously, but are planted for ornament. 
 
 Pliny mentions that the cypress was first introduced into 
 Italy from Crete. 
 
FORTIFICATIONS. 
 
 107 
 
 teenth century it came into the possession of the 
 Venetians, and was the second city in the dominions 
 of the republic. It is now included in the Lom- 
 bardo- Venetian kingdom belonging to the Emper- 
 or of Austria. 
 
 The neck of land formed by the Adige at Verona 
 was fortified by a wall by the Emperor Gallienus in 
 the third century, and by another wall built by 
 Theodoric in the beginning of the sixth ; the river 
 flowing round, and defending the other sides of the 
 town. Afterwards, other fortifications, including 
 the rising ground on the left side of the river, were 
 formed by Can Grande in 1 325, and by Galeazzo 
 Visconti in 1389. When cannon came into use in 
 the end of the fourteenth century, the old walls, with 
 battlements and towers, were no longer a sufficient 
 defence ; and recourse was had to fortifications made 
 of walls twenty feet thick, with a broad terrace or 
 mound of earth thrown up behind them, and with 
 bastions formed of thick walls and filled with earth, 
 or filled with vaulted places for cannon, called case- 
 mates. * 
 
 Amongst the first bastions of this kind were those 
 constructed at Verona for the Venetian republic, 
 about 1530, by Micheli San Micheli. t And, ac- 
 
 * Casemate, in Italian, Casa matta , signifies a building hol- 
 low within. Maffei. Veron. ill. 
 
 f The architect Micheli §an Micheli constructed likewise 
 
108 
 
 VERONA,— ANCIENT BASTIONS. 
 
 cording to MafFei, San Michel i was the first who 
 made pentagonal bastions, of which all the faces are 
 seen, Hanked, and protected by the fire from the 
 curtain and adjacent bastions. 
 
 Other Italian authors state the fortifications of 
 Urbino to be the first that were made with penta- 
 gonal bastions and oreillons ; and these fortifications 
 were built by Batista Couimandino, the father of 
 Frederic Commandine, the mathematician. 
 
 The bastions of Verona were blown up by the 
 French, and are still in ruins. 
 
 Two of the gates of Verona, the Porta Nova and 
 Porta di Palio, by San Mieheli, are admired for their 
 architecture and solidity. They have Doric columns 
 and rustic masonry. Each of these gates is in the 
 curtain between two bastions, and is intended to 
 
 for the Venetian republic the fortifications of Candia, which 
 was taken by the Turks after a siege of twenty years, the fort 
 of Sant Andrea del Lido at the entrance of the Laguna of Ve- 
 nice, the fortress of Corfu, &c. He was bom in 1434, and 
 died in 1559. 
 
 According to MafFei and Denina, the treatise by Marchi, a 
 military officer, published at Bologna in 1599? contains seve- 
 ral of the methods of fortification afterwards employed by 
 Vauban. 
 
 The military engineers, as well as the other artists of Italy 
 in the sixteenth century, were esteemed and employed in diL 
 ferent parts of Europe. Henry VIII. had an Italian engineer, 
 Girolami di Trivigi, in his service at the siege of Boulogne.— 
 See Ttraboschi storia d. lett. It.,— MafFei. Veron. ill,,. — and 
 Vasari vita di San Mieheli. 
 
AMPHITHEATRE. 
 
 109 
 
 serve as a cavalier commanding and protecting the 
 bastions. 
 
 Amphitheatre . 
 
 The amphitheatre is spacious, although not so 
 large as the Flavian amphitheatre, the Coliseum, at 
 Rome. The building of the Verona amphitheatre 
 has no great appearance on the outside, as there on- 
 ly remains a small part of the high exterior wall, 
 and the rest of the fabric scarcely rises above the 
 adjacent houses. The stone seats within have been 
 renewed since the middle of the sixteenth century, 
 so that the interior forms a vast hollow elliptical 
 cone, the surface of which is composed of the rows 
 of seats. The effect of this view is striking, when 
 seen from one of the upper rows. The seats as they 
 now are, are capable of containing ^£,000 persons. 
 A portion of the seats is inclosed in a precinct of 
 wood, for the use of a small theatre, in which plays 
 are acted in summer by day- light. The interior of 
 the Coliseum presents a very different view, the seats 
 being entirely demolished, and the arches that sup- 
 ported them covered with wild shrubs and herbage. 
 The amphitheatre of Verona is built of large squared 
 masses of marble, from Sant Ambrosio, nine miles 
 from Verona on the Tyrol road. This stone has a 
 slight tinge of red. The soffit stones of the arcades 
 are eight or nine feet long. There are also bricks 
 in some parts of the building which are still unin- 
 jured, after having suffered the action of the wea- 
 ther for 1700 years ; these bricks are large and flat, 
 
110 
 
 AMPHITHEATRE. GLADIATORS. 
 
 like the bricks generally used by the Homans in 
 building; they are eighteen inches long, nine inches 
 broad, and two inches thick. 
 
 The long axis of the precinct, inclosed by the 
 outer wall of this amphitheatre, was 5°22 English 
 feet. The height of the remains of the external 
 wall, consisting of three tier of rusticated arcades, 
 96 English feet ; the fourth story of rectangular 
 windows has fallen down. 
 
 The time when this amphitheatre was built is nei- 
 ther recorded in books nor inscriptions ; Maffei 
 conjectures, that it was after the building of the 
 Homan amphitheatre, and in the reign of Domitian, 
 Nerva, or the first years of Trajan. 
 
 The practice of keeping gladiators, a set of men 
 trained to fight for the amusement of the public, 
 w T as peculiar to the Homans. In the Olympic games 
 of the Greeks there were no exhibitions of that kind. 
 The number of the gladiators amongst the Homans 
 was very considerable ; many thousands are mention- 
 ed as being on some occasions inlisted into the army. 
 
 In the last times of the republic, and under the 
 first emperors, the combats of gladiators with one 
 another, and with wild beasts, at Home, were exhi- 
 bited in the circus, in the forum and in amphi- 
 theatres constructed of timber. Vitruvius, who 
 wrote in the time of Augustus, and described the 
 different edifices then in use, does not mention 
 the amphitheatre, from which it is inferred, that 
 there was no amphitheatre of stone at that time. 
 
AMPHITHEATRES* 
 
 111 
 
 The fabric of the ancient theatres was borrowed 
 by the Romans from the Greeks ; but the amphi- 
 theatre was a building of Roman invention, and 
 constructed for the exhibition of gladiators and wild 
 beasts, spectacles peculiar to the Romans. 
 
 The amphitheatre of Rome, called Coliseum or 
 Colosseum, and in Italian, Coliseo and Coloseo, be- 
 gun by Vespasian, and finished by Titus, was the 
 first amphitheatre built of stone, and is the largest 
 Roman edifice of stone that exists. After the mo- 
 del of the amphitheatre of Rome those of Capua 
 and Verona were built. 
 
 The exterior precinct of the amphitheatre of Ca- 
 pua had already come to the ground in the time of 
 Theodoric, as Cassiodorus mentions, and the re- 
 mains of the fabric are now inconsiderable. Of the 
 amphitheatre of Rome and that of Verona the re- 
 mains are considerable at this day. The seats, and 
 the disposition of the stairs leading to them, is best 
 seen in the Verona amphitheatre. In that of Rome 
 the seats have long been destroyed. 
 
 Besides the three amphitheatres above mentioned, 
 the number of those constructed of masonry in other 
 parts of the empire was small. There are some re- 
 mains of fabrics, considered by authors to have been 
 Roman amphitheatres,— at Syracuse and Catania ; 
 in Candia ; at Nismes, * and Frejus ; at Tarragona, 
 
 * The wall ofthe amphitheatre at Nismes, where the height 
 is entire, is 70 English feet in height, and consists of two tier 
 
AMPHITHEATRES. 
 
 m 
 
 Seville, and Italica, in Spain. The edifice at Pola, 
 in Istria, is considered by MafFei to have been an 
 elliptical theatre and not an amphitheatre, as it has 
 the seats only on one side. 
 
 There was no amphitheatre of masonry at Con- 
 stantinople, nor in the Roman provinces in Asia 
 and Africa. In these places the combats of gladia- 
 tors and wild beasts were exhibited in the hippo- 
 drome or circus. 
 
 MafFei has published six medals, stamped with 
 representations of the amphitheatre, and he could 
 find no others that were authentic ; three are of 
 Vespasian, one of Alexander Severus, and two of 
 Gordian ; on the last is represented a combat be- 
 tween an elephant and a bull in the amphitheatre. 
 
 From the combats of wild beasts the amphitheatre 
 is called by Cassiodorus and other writers, Theatrum 
 Venaticum. 
 
 Besides the gladiators who were trained to fight 
 in public, individuals were condemned by the courts 
 of justice to fight with men or with wild beasts, and 
 sometimes the condemned were bound and exposed 
 to the wild beasts. In the times of persecution 
 
 of arcades of masomy, not rusticated, according to the draw- 
 ings published in the Antiquites de la France par Clerisseau, 
 primiere partie, a Paris, 1778, MafFei doubts whether it was 
 an amphitheatre in the strict sense, with the seats all round. 
 
 In the Antiquite Explique of Montfaucon, an engraving 
 is given of an amphitheatre at Autun, and this engraving is 
 the copy of a falsified view of that of Verona, MafFei y V- 111- 
 
114 VERONA. MUSEUM OF INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 to this theatre are placed the ancient inscriptions 
 and carved stones collected and arranged under the 
 inspection of Maffei. These antiquities are kept 
 under a lofty portico, supported by Ionic columns, 
 which forms one side of the court, and under a low 
 portico, or colonnade, which goes along the other 
 three sides. Many of the inscriptions were found 
 in the neighbourhood of Verona, and are described 
 in Maffei’s Verona Illustrata . An ancient Lace- 
 demonian testamentary deed, engraved on marble, 
 is in this collection, after having been in Paris. 
 
 The cathedral of Verona is a large old church. In 
 this and some of the other churches several good pic- 
 tures are to be seen. In the church of Saint George 
 is the Martyrdom of Saint George, by Paul Veronese ; 
 an excellent picture, which was in Paris. In the 
 church of San Bernardino is the Capella Pellegrini, 
 a round chapel highly finished, with a cupola, the 
 whole interior formed of polished marble of a dull 
 white, and of that particular kind called bronzino 
 marble, * from the neighbourhood of Verona, most 
 accurately joined, and skilfully carved. This pleas- 
 ing piece of architecture is the w x ork of the archi- 
 
 * The term bronzino is applied on account of the sound 
 the marble gives when struck. A kind of marble in Tuscany 
 is called Campanino, and a porphyry is named by the Ger* 
 mans Klingstein, for the same reason. 
 
FABRICS.— BUILDING MATERIALS. 
 
 115 
 
 tect San Micheli. Four of the eight Corinthian co- 
 lumns which decorate the chapel are fluted spirally. 
 
 There are several mansions or palaces which are 
 of good architecture. The Bevilacqua palace in the 
 Corso is by San Micheli ; some of the columns are 
 spirally fluted ; the front is incomplete. 
 
 The buildings in Verona as well as in Mantua 
 and Padua, are generally of brick plastered over. 
 The fronts of churches, public buildings, and of the 
 more magnificent of the houses of private individuals, 
 are faced with marble, which is got in the country 
 to the north of Verona and Vicenza. This stone 
 is of a dull white, and is susceptible of a shining 
 polish, but it is not polished when employed in the 
 exterior of buildings. The facing of brick build- 
 ings with stone is much practised in Italy. When this 
 operation is done in the most solid way, the stone 
 which forms the facing is built in at the same time 
 with the brick in the original construction of the 
 wall ; this is called Opera collegata nel muro. But 
 frequently the brick fronts of churches are built 
 rough, with holes and pierres d’attente for receiv- 
 ing the stone facing afterwards, which, if it is ap- 
 plied, never unites firmly with the wall. A less 
 solid manner of incrustation, called investigione and 
 incrostatione, is that in which some of the stones 
 only are built into the wall, and the rest are thin 
 slabs applied to the wall, and retained by the dove- 
 
116 
 
 VERONA. TOMBS. FRACASTORO. 
 
 tail form of their edges, which fit into the grooves 
 of the stones that are built in. * 
 
 The tombs of three of the Scaligers, sovereign 
 princes of Verona, Can Grande, and two others, 
 covered with canopies composed of pointed arches 
 and pinnacles, are situated on the outside of a small 
 church in the town. Can Grande I. was lord of 
 Verona, and conquered Brescia, Padua, and Friuli ; 
 he died in 1328. Mastino died in 1350. Cansig- 
 norio Scaliger died in 1375. Another tomb, with- 
 out inscription, is said to be the tomb of Mastino I. 
 della Scala, who was elected captain-general of Ve- 
 rona in 1261. 
 
 For the sake of English travellers, the shewers of 
 curiosities gave the name of Juliet’s tomb to a fabric 
 which has now disappeared, in consequence of the 
 demolition of the adjacent building. 
 
 In the Piazza de’ Signori are sculptures represent- 
 ing celebrated men natives of Verona, Catullus, 
 Cornelius Nepos, M. Vitruvius, Pliny the natu- 
 ralist, Fracastoro, t and the Marquis Maffei. t 
 
 * Architettura di Sebastian Serlio Bolognese. 
 
 f Fracastoro was born of a noble family of Verona in 1483, 
 and died in 1554. He was physician to the Council of Trent. 
 He was a patron and encourager of learning, and his resi- 
 dence on the beautiful hill dTncaffi, near Verona, was the re- 
 sort of men of letters. In his Latin poem de Siphilitide, he 
 describes the symptoms and ravages of that disease in a seri- 
 ous and elevated style. 
 
 + Amongst the principal publications by the Marquis Maf- 
 12 
 
MAFFEI. — »J. C. SCALIGER. — ADIGE. 11 7 
 
 Giulio Cesare Bordone, commonly known by the 
 name of Julius Caesar Scaliger, was a native of Ve- 
 rona or of Padua. He went to Agen, where he 
 lived with an Italian bishop of that place, and assum- 
 ed the name of Scaliger, under pretence of being 
 descended from the family of the Scaligers princes 
 of Verona. He wrote concerning the origin of the 
 Latin language,— a* * controversial treatise against 
 Cardan, &c. and possessed great celebrity in his 
 time, as did his son Joseph Scaliger. * 
 
 The river Adige, which rises in the Tyrol, and 
 has its course to the east of the Lake di Garda, runs 
 through and nearly surrounds the principal part of 
 the town by its winding course. The Ponte del 
 Castel Vecchio, a bridge of three arches built over 
 this river in 1354, in the reign of Can Grande II. 
 is remarkable for the extent of one of the arches, 
 which is 157 English feet in span, t This bridge 
 
 fei are, — the tragedy of Merope, which had great success, 
 was translated into English, and other languages, and was prai- 
 sed by Voltaire, in the preface to his tragedy of the same 
 name, which he addressed to Malfei La Scienza Cavalle* 
 resca, a treatise against duels the learned historical and 
 antiquarian work, Verona Illustrata. MafFei obtained cele- 
 brity during his life, and was much esteemed by his fellow 
 citizens of Verona. He died in 1755, at the age of 80. 
 
 * See Tiraboschi, stor. dell. lett. Ital. ; and MafFei, Veroqa 
 Illustr. 
 
 f 142 Verona feet, each of which is about 1 3*% English 
 inches, and is | of a Roman architectural palm. MafFei, Ve« 
 rona IUust. parte quarta, p. 102, 
 
118 BRIDGE. WATERWHEELS. MONTE BOLCA. 
 
 communicates with the castle; it is narrow, and was 
 part of the old fortifications, and is not used for the 
 passage of the public road. There are three other 
 bridges over the Adige at Verona. — Of the rivers 
 of Lombardy, the Adige, called by the German 
 Tirolese, Etsch, is next in size to the Po. 
 
 On the river are seen some wheels that lift water 
 for watering the gardens. The rim of the wheel is 
 hollow^ and divided into compartments. Each com- 
 partment plunges in the water of the river, is fil- 
 led when at the bottom of the circumference, and 
 empties itself into a trough when it comes to the 
 upper part. 
 
 Monte Bolca, situated about fifteen miles from 
 Verona, on the confines between the Veronese ter- 
 ritory and the Vicentine, is famous amongst na- 
 turalists for the remains of fish which are there found 
 imbedded between the layers of a whitish shale, 
 as between the leaves of a book. The fish are of 
 many different species, and are drawn and describ- 
 ed in the publications of various naturalists, accord- 
 ing to whose judgment the fish differ in kind from 
 those now got in the Mediterranean ; as the natu- 
 ralists also find, that most other remains of animal 
 bodies in a fossil state in Europe differ from the 
 animals at this day inhabiting the adjacent land and 
 water, and most commonly resemble the animals of 
 a warmer climate. Count Giambatista Gazzola, the 
 proprietor of Monte Bolca, has a very large collec™ 
 
FOSSIL FISH. GERMAN COLONIES. 119 
 
 tion of these fish at his house in Verona. Amongst 
 other objects in the collection, I remarked a kind 
 of crab without large claws, from Monte Bolca, like 
 the white sea cray-fLsh, called at Venice Gammara ; 
 and the grinding-teeth and bones of elephants from 
 Romagnano, near Verona, similar to the remains 
 of elephants found in Britain, and in many other 
 parts of Europe. Another extensive collection of 
 the fish of Monte Bolca was disposed of by Count 
 Gazzola to the French government, who placed it 
 in the museum of the Jardin des Blantes at Paris, 
 where it is now to be seen. 
 
 Near Verona, a small district, called the Tredici 
 Commune, is inhabited by Germans, who retain 
 their native language. Their dialect resembles the 
 German, spoken in the bishoprick of Trent j and 
 towards Trent and Feltre, amongst the hills, is a 
 similar colony of Germans, called the Sette Corn* 
 mune. The origin of these German colonies, at 
 the foot of the southern declivity of the Alps, is not 
 precisely ascertained. * Maffei is inclined to as- 
 cribe their origin to the remains of the Cimbri, who 
 were conquered by Marius, in a great battle near 
 Verona ; but this is not supported by any probable 
 evidence. 
 
 From Verona, the Lake di Garda, anciently call- 
 
 * See A delung’s Mithridates, and Maffei Ver. III. 
 
120 COUNTRY NEAR VERONA. ATTILA. VIRGIL. 
 
 ed Lacus Benacus, may be visited ; the road from 
 Verona to Brescia passes near its southern extre- 
 mity. The Lake di Garda is one of the three larg 
 est lakes on the southern declivity of the Alps. 
 
 At *Peschiera, where the Mincio issues from the 
 lake, Attila, in 45 2 , a year before his death, and 
 after having conquered the country, afterwards call- 
 ed Lombardy, received the ambassadors of Valen- 
 tinian III., emperor of the west, and agreed to with- 
 draw from Italy, on receiving in marriage Honoria, 
 the sister of Valentinian, and a large sum of money. 
 Saint Leo, bishop * of Rome, w^as one of the am- 
 bassadors. This event is the subject of Algardi’s 
 sculpture in relief in Saint Peter’s, and of one of 
 Raphael’s pictures in the rooms of the Vatican. In 
 both of these celebrated compositions, Saint Peter 
 and Saint Paul are represented in the air driving 
 back Attila. t 
 
 Near this is the village of Bandes, which Maffei 
 lias shewn to be Andes, the birth place of Virgil. 
 It is situated on the brow 7 of the Veronese hills, and 
 commands a view of the plain of Mantua. 
 
 * The bishop of Rome had not begun to assume exclusive- 
 ly the title of Pope till about the year 500, in the time of 
 Theodoric, and one of the Popes was elected by that Prince. 
 Gibbon. 
 
 f Vasari, a painter, and little acquainted with history, er- 
 roneously describes this event as having happened at Monte 
 Mario, near Rome. See Vasari vita di Raffaelle. 
 
TREES.-— INDIAN CORN* 
 
 121 
 
 In the mountainous part of the Veronese territo- 
 ry, there grow Scotch fir, silver fir, and larix. Ma- 
 ny woods of different kinds in the Veronese were 
 destroyed a hundred years ago, by neglect, and by 
 attempting to cultivate ground which was " better 
 suited for wood. * 
 
 On one of the mountains is a cavity sheltered 
 from the rays of the sun, in which the snow remains 
 during the whole year ; and when the ice-houses in 
 Verona happen to be exhausted in summer, a sup- 
 ply is obtained from this natural ice-house. 
 
 Indian corn is cultivated in considerable quantity 
 near Verona, where it was introduced about £00 
 years ago. t 
 
 It is called Form ent one at Verona, Mel gone at 
 Milan, Granone in Piemont, Gran turco in Tus- 
 cany, Maiz by the native inhabitants of South Ame- 
 rica, and Zea Maiz by Linnaeus. 
 
 It is a native of the warm climates of America, 
 and is the grain principally cultivated on the Mis- 
 sissippi, where wheat is frequently injured by the 
 great heat. 
 
 It is cultivated in Carniola, Styria, and in small 
 quantities as far north as Prague, which is near the 
 latitude of 50° ; and nearly in the same latitude 
 are the most northerly vineyards in Bohemia, t — It 
 
 * Maffei Ver. 111. f Maffei Ver, 111. 
 
 J Wine of a good quality was made near Aussig in Bohe- 
 
122 INDIAN CORN. FOGLIA. FRUIT. 
 
 gives a great produce, but exhausts the ground, and 
 requires more manure than wheat ; it also has the 
 disadvantage of being difficult to keep. It is es- 
 teemed much less nourishing than wheat. It is 
 brought to market at a cheap rate, and is the food 
 of the poorer classes in the north of Italy, Carniola, 
 and other climates fitted for its culture. 
 
 The bread, which is sometimes made of the meal, 
 has a yellow colour, and is unpleasant to the taste, 
 heavy, and not capable of being well raised. 
 
 Indian corn is more frequently used in the form 
 of polenta, which is a mass of paste or hasty -pud- 
 ding, made by boiling the meal with water. 
 
 The stalks of Indian corn are kept in stacks, and 
 serve as food for cattle. 
 
 The sheath, called foglia, which envelopes the 
 ear, is generally used in Italy to stuff mattrasses, 
 and is well suited for that purpose. The beds most 
 common, and usually met with in the inns in Italy, 
 consist of two tressels of wood or iron, on which 
 boards or reeds are laid ; on these a thick mattrass 
 of foglia, and over it the bed, without bed-posts or 
 curtains. 
 
 Peaches, apples, pears, melons, strawberries, and 
 
 mia, in the latitude 51° ; but some severe winters killed the 
 vines about the year 1787. See Kessler’s Travels ; and Gar- 
 denstone’s Travels, 
 
 4 
 
WINE.' — OIL. VERONA TO MANTUA. 125 
 
 other fruits, are abundantly cultivated in the terri- 
 tory of Verona, and are of excellent quality. 
 
 The wine of the Veronese, which is most com- 
 monly used, is sweet, not being completely fer- 
 mented. 
 
 Olives are a good deal cultivated ; and the oil 
 that is made from the pulp alone, is esteemed nearly 
 as good as the oil of Lucca and the south of Italy. 
 That which is made by bruising the kernels along 
 with the pulp is less agreeable to the taste, and 
 sells at an inferior price. The olive trees, near Ve- * 
 rona, were destroyed by the frost in 1710 ; it was 
 found necessary to root them out, and plant young 
 trees, so that the produce of olive oil was still defi- 
 cient twenty years after the accident. * In similar 
 cases, it is often found more advantageous to cut the 
 old olive tree over by the roots, which then send 
 forth a new stem, t 
 
 Proceeding from Verona to Mantua, we observe 
 many white mulberry trees, called morari, and in 
 Tuscany, gelsi and mori, a good deal of silk being 
 produced near Verona. Maffei, who wrote about a 
 hundred years ago, complains that the silk was ex- 
 ported from the territory of Verona to Leipsic and 
 Vienna in thread, instead of being dyed and manu- 
 factured, and thereby affording employment to the 
 inhabitants. The fields are separated by dry ditch- 
 
 * Maffei Ver. 111. 
 
 f Virgil. Georg. 
 
MANTUA.—— THE T PALACE. 
 
 m 
 
 es. On approaching Mantua, there are clear run- 
 ning streams in the ditches by the road. The road 
 is well made of water- worn gravel. 
 
 Mantua . 
 
 Mantua is situated in a lake, with reedy shores, 
 surrounded by a flat country, and without the beauty 
 of a mountain lake. The town is fortified ; it has 
 four communications with the land by bridges and 
 causeways ; and, from the situation, is considered to 
 * be capable of holding out long against an enemy. 
 
 The church of Saint Andrew is spacious, with 
 Corinthian pilasters, ornamented w ith grotesque fo- 
 liage, in the style of the Milie cinque cento, the 
 end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth 
 century. In this church is a bronze bust of the 
 early painter Andrea Mantegna, who was born at 
 Padua, and died in 1517. He w*as contemporary 
 with Leonardo da Vinci, and had for pupil Correg- 
 gio. This bust was taken to Paris by the French, 
 and is now restored to its former place. 
 
 The cathedral has a flat ceiling and Corinthian 
 columns for its internal decoration. 
 
 At the scuola delle belle arti there is a theatre 
 ornamented in a heavy style. 
 
 The Palazzo del T, so called from the form of 
 a building that once stood in the vicinity, is of 
 brick plastered over ; some of the ornamental parts 
 are of stone. It consists of a ground floor only, and 
 
PAINTINGS IN FRESCO BY JULIO ROMANO. 1 %5 
 
 was built by Frederic Gonzaga, Marquis of Man- 
 tua, who employed Julio Romano in the decorations. 
 The ceiling and walls of the saloon, and adjacent 
 suit of rooms, are painted in fresco by that artist. 
 There are many beautiful figures in these pictures. 
 The figures on the ceiling are painted in their just 
 perspective, that is, as figures seen from a low point 
 of view. This strict attention to the point of view 
 is remarkable also in the ceiling pictures of Paul 
 Veronese, and in the architectural part of the fresco 
 paintings of Raphael in the loggie of the Vatican. 
 The singular subject, which composes the decora- 
 tion of one of the rooms in the palazzo del T, shews 
 the exuberance of the artist’s fancy. It is a repre- 
 sentation of Jupiter fulminating the Titans. On 
 the walls of the room are the gigantic Titans, crush- 
 ed by the fall of the rocks they had piled up, in or- 
 der to scale the habitation of the gods. The thun- 
 derbolts which destroy the giants and their works 
 are seen to issue from the hand of Jove, who is re- 
 presented in the centre of the ceiling. 
 
 The house which Julio Romano * inhabited is in 
 
 * Julio Pipi, usually called Julio Romano, was the favour- 
 ite pupil of Raphael, and completed the pictures in the stanze 
 of the Vatican, which were left unfinished at Raphael’s death. 
 Julio was patronized by Clement VII., and afterwards by 
 Frederic II. Gonzaga, marquis of Mantua, who brought him to 
 reside at Mantua. Julio, as Benvenuto Cellini relates, gave 
 
126 STREETS. MANTUA TO MODENA. 
 
 one of the principal streets ; it is a moderate sized 
 house, with architectural ornaments. In the same 
 street is a large house, with huge statues in form of 
 termini, in a fantastic and uncommon style. The 
 streets of Mantua are of a convenient breadth, in 
 straight lines, and were laid out by Julio Romano, 
 who was employed by the Marquis to beautify and 
 improve the town. * * 
 
 In the church of the Madonna delle Grazle , some 
 miles from Mantua, a monument was erected under 
 the direction of Julio Romano, in memory of Bal- 
 thassar Castiglione. 
 
 Between Mantua and Modena, we cross the Po 
 by a ferry-boat, which swings on a rope attached to 
 four or five small boats, the uppermost of which is 
 moored in the middle of the river, and up the 
 stream. By means of the helm the boat is placed 
 diagonally in the river, and the stream acting on the 
 upper side of the boat puts it over. The whole h 
 similar to the swinging boat on the Elbe at Pilnitz 
 near Dresden. The country is flat and well cultivat- 
 ed. Vines are trained on a kind of maple. Wheat is 
 sown under the trees, which are thirty or forty feet 
 asunder. 
 
 offence to the Pope, by his lascivious drawings engraved by 
 Marc Antonio Raimondi, for a book of Pietro Aretino. Julio 
 died at Mantua in 1546. 
 
 * Vasari Vita di Julio Romano. 
 
MODENA.— HOUSE OF ESTE. 1^7 
 
 The part of the dutchy of Modena that we pass 
 through on this road is a plain and fertile country ; 
 but the mountainous part to the west, amongst the 
 Apennines, is poor ; and chestnuts form a principal- 
 part of the food of the inhabitants, as in other parts 
 of the Apennines. 
 
 Modena. 
 
 In the sixteenth century, the dominions of the 
 family of Este, the parent of the house of Bruns- 
 wick, included Ferrara, as well as Modena. Their 
 sovereign authority in these cities began in 1249. 
 Ferrara was the chief residence ; and the dukes of 
 Ferrara were distinguished for their encouragement 
 of men of genius. The two greatest poets in the re- 
 fined period of the Italian language, Tasso and Ari- 
 osto, lived at their court. 
 
 In 1597? Clement VIII. Aldobrandini took pos- 
 session of Ferrara, with 3000 horse, and ^0,000 foot ; 
 the most numerous army that has ever appeared under 
 the banners of the popes. After this, the dominions 
 of the family of Este were reduced to the dutchy of 
 Modena. 
 
 The duke of Modena, now reigning, is son of the 
 Archduke Ferdinand of Austria, who married the 
 princess of Este, heiress of Modena and Carrara, in 
 177C and died in 1807, and for the repose of this 
 Archduke they were celebrating a solemn anniver- 
 sary mass at the time I was in Modena. In the 
 duke’s palace at Modena, a large building begun 
 
1^8 MODENA. — PICTURES.— LIBRARY. 
 
 by Duke Francis I. in the seventeenth century, 
 there are many good pictures. The Inamorata of 
 Titian, Venus and Mars by Guercino, both of them 
 returned from Paris ; as is Julio Romano’s drawing 
 of the bas reliefs on Trajan’s column. 
 
 The collection of pictures in the palace was for- 
 merly more numerous and valuable. Augustus III., 
 king of Poland, and elector of Saxony, bought 100 
 of the best pictures of the duke of Modena’s collec- 
 tion for L. 50,000 sterling. These pictures, amongst 
 which is the Ploly Family of Corregio called the 
 Night, the Magdalen of Corregio, &c. are now in 
 the gallery at Dresden. 
 
 The duke’s library, called the Biblioteca Estense, 
 was formed of the ducal library brought from Fer- 
 rara, to which great additions have been made. 
 The learned historian and antiquary Muratori * was 
 superintendent of this library in 1700, and ano- 
 
 * Muratori was born at Vignola, in the dutchy of Modena, 
 in 1672, and lived to the age of 78. He was an ecclesiastic, 
 and held the benehce of prior of Santa Maria di Pomposa. He 
 elucidated the history of Italy in the middle ages by his writings, 
 which are voluminous. His principal works are,- — Rerum Italica- 
 rum Scriptores, ab anno 500 ad 1 500, in 27 folio volumes.— An- 
 tiquitates Italicse Medii eevi, sive Dissertations de Moribuslta- 
 lici Populi, ab inclinatione Romani Imperii usque ad annum 
 1500, 6 vol. folio. — Novus Thesaurus veterum Inscriptionum 
 in Prsecipuis earundum Collectionibus hactenus Praetermissa- 
 rum, 6 vol. folio. — Annali dTtalia dal Principio dell era voR 
 gare fino all anno 1500, 12 vol. quarto, &c. 
 
TIRABOSCHI. — TOWER.— GUICCIARDINI, 1^9 
 
 ther eminent Italian author, Tiraboschi, * held that 
 place in 1780. 
 
 The tower of the cathedral, and the sculptures of 
 the pulpit, were the work of Arrigo da Campions 
 in as appears from the inscription. The ca- 
 
 thedral is in the round-arched style. 
 
 In the piazza della cathedrals is an inscription in 
 honour of the celebrated historian Guicciardini, a 
 memorial of his having widened and embellished the 
 streets whilst he was governor of Modena, t 
 
 * Tiraboschi, author of the Storia della Letteratura Xta* 
 liana, was a Jesuit till the suppression of that order. He was 
 afterwards professor of rhetoric in the college of Brera at 
 Milan, and lastly librarian to the Duke of Modena. He was 
 born at Bergamo in 1731, and died at the age of 62. 
 
 f Francesco Guicciardini was born at Florence, and died 
 in 1540 at the age of 58. He was appointed by Leo X. go- 
 vernor of Modena, which was at that time under the dominion 
 of the Pope, and was afterwards governor of Bologna. He 
 retired from the Papal court after the death of Clement VII. 
 In his villa of Arcietri, near Florence, he wrote his History 
 of Italy, from 1494 to 1534, one of the most esteemed histo^ 
 rical works in the Italian language, although the style is ra- 
 ther diffuse. In the first editions, the passages which were 
 thought injurious to the Popes are left out, and one particu- 
 larly in Book IV. concerning the origin of their temporal 
 power. 
 
 Ludovico Guicciardini, a nephew of Francesco, lived at 
 Antwerp, and published a description of the Low Countries, 
 and a History of the Events in Flanders, from 1529 to 1560® 
 See Tiraboschi St. d. lett. It. 
 
 I 
 
130 MODENA. — -WELLS.— ALLUVIAL SOIL. 
 
 Tassoni, author of the burlesque poem, the Secchia 
 Rapita, was a native of Modena. * 
 
 The plain in which Modena is situated is com- 
 posed of alluvial matter deposited by rivers. Wells 
 are dug to the depth of about sixty-three feet, till 
 the workmen come to a bed of sand, into which they 
 bore five feet, and a spring of water issues imme- 
 diately, and keeps the well always supplied with 
 good water. 
 
 In some parts of England also the disposition 
 and nature of the alluvial strata admit of this mode 
 of getting water by boring. 
 
 In sinking the wells at Modena, they first pass 
 through fourteen feet of rubbish of old buildings ; — 
 then vegetable mould ; — peat earth, with remains of 
 plants, hazel nuts and other seeds ; this earth is 
 in layers, some of which are of a black, others of a 
 lighter colour. — At twenty-eight feet, the workmen 
 come to a bed of clay eleven feet thick, in passing 
 through which there is no water to incommode 
 them ; it ends at the depth of thirty-nine feet, — 
 and then there is a bed of peat earth, composed of 
 decayed vegetables.- — Then another bed of clay, 
 which terminates at the depth of fifty-two feet. — 
 Decayed vegetables again,— and a third bed of clay, 
 rather thinner than the others.— Decayed vegeta- 
 bles, — and, lastly, the bed of sand and gravel, con- 
 
 * Tassoni died in 1635, at the age of 70. 
 
COUNTRY BETWEEN MODENA AND BOLOGNA. 131 
 
 taining remains of sea- she! Is, and through this the 
 perforation is made by which the water rises. * 
 
 The country between Modena and Bologna is a 
 cultivated plain. At this season, the 23d of De- 
 cember, it was seen unfavourably, the snow falling 
 and lying some inches thick. But returning again 
 in April, we saw a country highly cultivated, in- 
 closed with hedges, and interspersed with many 
 houses, some of them of considerable size, occupied 
 by farmers or proprietors. The farm-houses in 
 Italy are large, a part of the fabric being employed 
 as a granary. The grain is threshed immediately 
 after reaping, and there are no stacks of unthreshed 
 corn near the farm-houses, but only a few small 
 stacks of straw. In April the hills thirty miles off 
 to the west were still seen covered with snow. 
 Many of the hedges are of Rhamnus paliums, a 
 thorny plant which scarcely endures the cold of the 
 climate of London. 
 
 Bologna . 
 
 Bologna is the mater studiorum, the principal 
 place of study in the Pope’s territory. In the scho- 
 lastic times, that is, in the end of the twelfth, and 
 in the thirteenth century, when vast numbers of 
 students flocked to the schools to learn systems 
 
 * Bacchini de Fontium Mutinensium Scaturigine, publish- 
 ed about 1700. 
 
1 82 BOLOGNA.— EMINENT TEACHERS. 
 
 which are now seen to be nugatory and useless, 
 Bologna was the most celebrated university in 
 Italy. * Afterwards, in the sixteenth and seven- 
 teenth centuries, when the objects of study had be- 
 come more similar to those of the present day, se- 
 veral men of eminence taught at Bologna. Amongst 
 the professors who at that period attained eminence 
 are the following : 
 
 Berengario da Carpi, professor of surgery in 
 1510, was one of the first who introduced the ex- 
 ternal application of mercury. 
 
 Aldrovandi lectured on uncompounded medicines. 
 By his advice the botanic garden was instituted in 
 1567. He left his collection of objects of natural 
 history and his library to the Senate of Bologna, 
 who transferred them to the Institute. He was 
 versed in different sciences. His Treatise on qua- 
 drupeds, birds, fishes, insects, &c. is in thirteen 
 folio volumes. He was born at Bologna in 1522, 
 and died at the age of eighty-five. 
 
 Gaspar Taliacozzi, named from Tagliacozzo, a 
 town in the kingdom of Naples, a native of Bologna, 
 and professor of surgery and anatomy in that uni- 
 versity in 1580, author of the book, De Curtorum 
 Chirurgia per Insitionem seu de Narium et Au- 
 rium defectu per Insitionem arte hactenus ignoto 
 
 * Tiraboschi, Stor. d. lett. It. t. 4. p. 4*3. 
 
CAVALIERI. RICCIOLI. 
 
 138 
 
 sarciendo, is the learned Taliacotius whose art is 
 celebrated in Hudibras. 
 
 Cavalieri, a native of Milan, was professor of 
 mathematics at Bologna. Galileo considered him 
 to be one of the first mathematicians of his time. 
 His book, Geometria indivisibilibus continuomm 
 nova quadam ratione promota, published in 1635, 
 is one of the first works containing the remote prin- 
 ciples of the differential and integral calculus. It 
 appears from his book, entitled Ruota planetaria, 
 that he was not free from the belief in judicial astro- 
 logy. He died in 164?7, at the age of forty- nine. 
 
 Grimaldi, a Jesuit, was professor at the Jesuits* 
 college in Bologna. His names of the spots on the 
 moon are usually adopted by astronomers. He 
 wrote on the refraction of light, and died in 1663. 
 
 Riccioli, a Jesuit and professor in the college of 
 that order at Bologna, died in I 67 I. His Almagest 
 is a collection of all that was known in astronomy 
 in his time. In his Astronomia nova, he tried to 
 combat the system of Copernicus, with a view to 
 support the censures of the inquisition against Ga- 
 lileo. 
 
 The Institute of Bologna was established by 
 Count Marsigli in 1710 . * According to its prigi- 
 
 * Count Marsigli was of a noble family of Bologna, and 
 served in the army of the Emperor, which service he was 
 obliged to quit, being unfortunately an officer, though not 
 first in command, in Brisach, when that place surrendered, 
 
1 34< BOLOGNA. INSTIT UTE. MARS1GLI. 
 
 nal foundation it consisted of an academy of sciences, 
 like the Academy of Sciences of Paris, various pro- 
 fessorships, a cabinet of natural history, a printing 
 establishment. 
 
 The university and institute occupy a handsome 
 and commodious edifice, in which are contained a 
 collection of objects for the study of natural history, 
 a collection of philosophical instruments, a library, 
 a collection of antiquities, an observatory. The ob- 
 servatory is furnished with a transit instrument and 
 a circle, both made by Reichenbach the Bavarian 
 artist, and a ten feet reflecting telescope, after the 
 manner of Herschel, by Amici of Modena. 
 
 In the collection of antiquities I remarked some 
 ancient Roman lead pipes for conveying water. The 
 pipe is fixed between two stones, each of which has 
 a semi cylindrical cavity embracing one half of the 
 pipe ; the other stone fits on the remaining half. 
 Some of these pipes have a section that is not dr- 
 
 after a resistance which was considered too short by the Au- 
 strian Government. He afterwards received marks of atten- 
 tion and encouragement from Louis XIV. The Institute of 
 Bologna was established by him in 1710, as above mentioned. 
 He published a description of the Danube, with the antiqui- 
 ties and natural productions, from Kalemberg, in Austria, to 
 the confluence of the river Jantra, in Bulgaria, in six volumes 
 folio — An Account of the Forces of the Ottoman Govern- 
 ment, and other works. He died in 1730, at the age of 72. 
 
ANCIENT LEAD PIPES.— GALVANI. 
 
 135 
 
 eular, but pear shaped. * Lead pipes were some- 
 times used by the Romans to convey water across a 
 valley, the pipe following the curvature of the val- 
 ley. This is supposed to have been put in practice 
 by the Roman artists who constructed the aqueduct 
 at Lyons, as the aqueduct of masonry goes no far- 
 ther than the brow of the hill above the valley. 
 
 In the same collection is a statue of Pope Boni- 
 facio, composed of embossed plates of brass, and 
 made about the year 1300. 
 
 The abbate Mesofanti, librarian, and one of the 
 professors of the university, is celebrated for his ac- 
 quaintance with a great number of languages, many 
 of which he speaks fluently. 
 
 In the portico of the university is a tablet in me- 
 mory of Galvani, the natural philosopher, and cele- 
 brated as the first who observed the phenomena of 
 galvanism, which Volta afterwards explained, and 
 shewed to belong to electricity. 
 
 Another tablet is in memory of Laura Bassi, do- 
 toressa di flsica, a lady who was professor of natural 
 philosophy in the university of Bologna. She died 
 in 1778, and in Saint Catherine’s church is her 
 tomb, erected by her husband, who was a professor, 
 and by her sons, f 
 
 * A figure of ancient pipes of this kind, found near the 
 Pantheon, is published in the treatise of the Jesuit Donatus 
 de Urbe Roma, in Graevii thes. antiq. Rom. Tom. III. p. 765. 
 f Authors have recorded the names of other ladies distin- 
 
136 BOLOGNA. NOVELLA. BOTANIC GARDEN. 
 
 The botanic garden is furnished with hot-houses, 
 and near it is the giardino economico, a garden 
 for the purpose of giving instructions in agricul- 
 ture, on which subject a course of lectures is deliver- 
 ed. 
 
 In the collection of models of agricultural instru- 
 ments kept in this garden, I observed an instrument 
 
 guished for learning in Bologna at an earlier period. Novella, 
 the daughter of a professor of canon law, about 1350, used 
 to read the public lectures for her father ; and that the atten- 
 tion of the students might not be drawn off from the lecture 
 to the teacher, the face of this learned and beautiful profes- 
 sor was concealed by a skreen, as Cristina da Pisano, also 
 of a Bolognese family, curiously relates in the Tresor de la 
 Cite des Dames : 
 
 ei Pareillement a parler de plus nouveaux terns sans querre 
 les anciennes histoires, Jean Andry solempnel legiste a Bou- 
 logne la grasse, n’amie soixante ans, n’etoit pas d’opinion 
 que mal fust que femmes fussent lettrdes. Quand a sa belle 
 et bonne fille, que il tant ama, qui ot nom nouvelle, fist 
 appendre lettres, et si avant la loix, que quand il estoit occu- 
 pe d’aucune essoine, pourquoy il ne puvoit vacquer a lire les 
 legons a ses escholiers, il envoyat Nouvelle sa fille lire en 
 son lieu aux escholes en chayere. Et afin que la beaute 
 d’icelle n’empechast la pensee des oyans, elle avoit un petit 
 courtine devant d’elle. Et par cette maniere suppleoit et 
 allegoit aucunes fois les occupations de son pere, lequel Paima 
 tant que pour mettre le nom d’elle en memoire fist un no- 
 table lecture d’un livres des loix, qu’il nomma du nom de sa 
 fille la Nouvelle.” Wolfius de Mulier, Erud. and Tiraboschi. 
 
AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 137 
 
 for threshing wheat used near Bologna ; it consists 
 of a thick piece of wood in the shape of an isosceles 
 triangle about five feet high. Along the base of the 
 triangle is a row of short iron teeth, like the teeth 
 of a comb. The interval between the teeth is so 
 small as not to admit the passage of a grain of wheat. 
 The ears of corn are placed upon a floor, and the 
 teeth of the instrument are drawn over them. The 
 machine is drawn by a couple of horses or oxen. 
 
 The waggon used at Bologna and in the neigh- 
 bouring country is a four-wheeled waggon of a pe- 
 culiar form, drawn by oxen. These draught oxen 
 are of a grey colour, like those in Tuscany, at Rome, 
 and at Vienna. 
 
 The Bolognese school of painting is called the 
 school of the Caracci Scuola Caraccesca, from its 
 founders, Ludovico Caracci and his two cousins, 
 Hanibal and Augustine. 
 
 The celebrated fresco paintings in the Farnese 
 palace at Rome were executed in eight years by 
 Hanibal Caracci, and the general plan of the pic- 
 tures was furnished by Augustine Caracci, a man of 
 erudition. The distinguished pupils of the Caracci 
 were Guido Reni, — Domenichino, whose beautiful 
 fresco paintings adorn several churches in Rome, and 
 whose communion of Saint Jerome, now in the Va- 
 tican, is considered to be second only to Raphael’s 
 Transfiguration, — Lanfranco,— Guercino,— Michael 
 
1S8 BOLOGNA.— CARACCI SCHOOL OF PAINTING. 
 
 Angelo da Caravaggio,— Carlo Cignani, a pupil of 
 this school after the death of the Caracei. * 
 
 The greatest painters, since the revival of the 
 arts, were the painters who lived about the 1500, 
 in Rome, Florence, Parma, and Venice. They 
 surpassed their predecessors, and produced works of 
 such excellence, that all who have come after are 
 ranked as their imitators ; f and of these their suc- 
 cessors, the most eminent are the painters of the 
 school of the Caracci, and of the school of Rubens, 
 who was contemporary with Guido. 
 
 At the academy for painting, called the Scuola 
 
 # Ludovico Caracci was born at Bologna in 
 
 1555, and died 1619. 
 Hanibal Caracci, - born in 1560, 1609. 
 
 Guido Reni, - - 1575, - 1642. 
 
 Domenico Zampieri,calledDomenichino 5 1581, - 1641. 
 
 Lanfranco, - 1581, - 1647. 
 
 Gianfrancesco Barbiere, called Guerci- 
 
 no, from his squinting, - 1590, - 1666. 
 
 Michel Angelo da Caravaggio, - 1569, - I60g. 
 
 Carlo Cignani, - - 1628, - 1719. 
 
 Two ladies of some eminence as painters flourished at Bo- 
 logna, Lavinia Fontana, pupil of her father, Prosper Fontana, 
 and Elizabeth Sirano, in 1663, pupil of Guido. Vasari gives 
 an account of Propertia de Rossi, a Bolognese lady, who 
 sculptured statues and bas reliefs, and engraved copperplates 
 in 1520, and succeeded, as he says, in every thing except in 
 gaining the affections of the man she loved. 
 
 ■\ Winkelmann, Hist, de FArt. 
 
PICTURES.— PAINTERS IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 1S9 
 
 delle belle arti, there is a collection containing many 
 pictures of eminent masters. Amongst these are the 
 Patron Saints of Bologna, by Guido ; the Mysteries 
 of the Rosary, by Domenichino ; the Martyrdom of 
 Saint Catherine, by the same. The two celebrated 
 pictures last mentioned are here, after their return 
 from Paris, as is also the Saint Cecilia of Raphael. 
 There are several fine pictures by Guido and the 
 Caracci ; also many pictures by old masters, who 
 lived at the time of the revival of painting in Italy, 
 painted on a gilded ground, in carnpo d’oro, in the 
 manner then prevalent in Greece, and at Constan- 
 tinople. Of this style is the Virgin and Child, 
 with the painter’s name and year. Vital is de Bo- 
 nonia, 1420. There are always some individuals 
 who possess a talent for drawing, but in the 7th* 
 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, and L2th centuries, the state 
 of society in Italy was such, that no one had leisure, 
 encouragement, or good teachers to improve these 
 talents, so as to become an able painter or sculptor. 
 According to Vasari, the paintings executed in Ita- 
 ly during the above-mentioned period were by 
 Greeks ; but Tiraboschi, who shews Vasari’s inaccu- 
 racies with respect to the history of the middle ages, 
 maintains that there were also some Italian painters. 
 Vasari, excessively partial to his countrymen, the 
 Tuscan artists, relates that Cimabue, a native of 
 Florence, born in 1240, was the first Italian painter 
 after the Greeks of the middle age. Several wri- 
 
140 BOLOGNA.— CHURCH OF SAINT PETRONIUS. 
 
 ters, however, have shewn that there were Italian 
 painters, in different towns of Italy, before the 
 time of Cimabue. This is proved with respect to 
 Bologna, in the treatise entitled la Felsina * Pittrice. 
 
 There are also several private collections of pic- 
 tures to be seen in the great houses or palaces in 
 Bologna. In the Piazza del Gigante is a statue of 
 Neptune, by the celebrated sculptor Giovanni Bo- 
 logna. f 
 
 On Christmas day I was present at the celebra- 
 tion of mass in the cathedral, at which the cardinal, 
 governor of Bologna, and another cardinal attended. 
 The cathedral is of modern architecture. 
 
 The church of Saint Petronius is of brick, and in 
 the pointed-arched Gothic style. It was begun in the 
 year 1390. The front is rough, and waits for an or- 
 namented coat, as is the case with many of the fronts 
 of the churches in Italy. The columns in the interior 
 of the church are of brick and whitened over. On 
 the pavement within the church is the meridian line, 
 traced in 1656 by Cassini, t and renewed in 1776. 
 
 * Felsina is an ancient name of Bologna. 
 
 ■f Giovanni Bologna, a native of Douay in Flanders, flourish- 
 ed in the sixteenth century. His sculptures, which are most- 
 ly at Florence, shew him to have been one of the best statu- 
 aries since the revival of the arts. 
 
 J Giandomenico Cassini was born at Perinaldo, in the 
 county of Nice, in 1625, and died in 1712, at the age of 87. 
 He studied with the Jesuits at Genoa, and was professor of 
 
CASSINI.—MERIDIAN LINE.— ITALIAN HOURS. 141 
 
 The length of the line, from the point perpendicu* 
 larly under the aperture in the roof that admits the 
 ray, to the point shone upon at the winter solstice, 
 is one six hundredth thousand part of the circum- 
 ference of the earth ; that is, g- 6 - of a degree, or 
 about 219 English feet. The Italian hour, that hap- 
 pens at mid-day, is marked all along by the side of 
 the line. In the church are two clocks, the one 
 marking the Italian hours, and the other the hore 
 ultramontane, the hours used in the rest of Europe. 
 
 astronomy at Bologna at the age of twenty-five. He con- 
 structed a new meridian in the church of Saint Petronius in 
 place of the old one, which was the work of Egnazio Dante, 
 and made observations with it for the purpose of correcting the 
 theory of the earth’s real, and the sun’s apparent motion. He 
 observed the shadows of the satellites on the body of the 
 planet Jupiter, and was able to calculate the period of the ro- 
 tation of that planet on its axis ; he was the first who pub- 
 lished an ephemeris of the motions of Jupiter in 1668. At 
 the end of 1668, he was called to France by Louis XIV», at the 
 instance of Colbert. Clement IX. granted him leave of ab- 
 sence for a few years, but Cassini married a French lady, and 
 settled permanently in France. Huygens discovered one of 
 the satellites of Saturn, and Cassini afterwards discovered four 
 others. Cassini observed the zodiacal light, and shewed it to 
 be the atmosphere of the sun. The telescopes he used were 
 made by Campani, an artist who resided in Rome. Maraldi 
 the astronomer was Cassini’s nephew. The descendants of 
 Cassini, for three generations, were astronomers at the Royal 
 Observatory of Paris, and his descendant, in the fourth or fifth 
 degree, is distinguished in that city as a botanist. 
 
142 B0L0GNA.—1TALIAN HOURS AND CLOCKS. 
 
 The Italian hours are reckoned from the end of 
 the twilight, half an hour after sunset, which is the 
 beginning of the first hour, and are counted on to 
 half an hour after the following sunset, which mo- 
 ment is the end of the twenty-fourth hour. The 
 end of the twenty-fourth hour is called le venti qua - 
 tro hove , and Vave Maria della sera ; one hour af- 
 ter that is una hora di notte y and so forth. The 
 Italian hours are now almost entirely out of use in 
 Venice, Milan, and other parts of the Lombardo- 
 Venetian kingdom and in Tuscany, in all which 
 places the mode of counting hours common in the 
 rest of Europe is employed. But at Rome particu- 
 larly, and in other parts of the Pope’s territory, the 
 Italian hours are generally used, and these hours 
 are marked by the public clocks. * 
 
 * This mode of counting hours prevailed also in Bohemia 
 and other parts of Europe. There is to this day a public 
 clock of a peculiar kind at Prague, which marks the Italian 
 hours, also at Deutsch Brod there is a public clock that strikes 
 the Italian hours, and a similar clock, but not in use, is seen 
 in the cathedral of Lyons. In the Emperor’s collection of the 
 schatzkammer at Vienna, there are smaller clocks of the same 
 construction as that at Prague and Lyons, having an astro- 
 labe or sterographic projection of the sphere on the plane of 
 the equator that moves round according to the diurnal revo- 
 lution of the earth in twenty-four hours, and by another mo- 
 tion shews the sun’s place in the ecliptic, whilst the reticula 
 that represents the verticals remains fixed ; a clock of this 
 
 6 
 
CHURCHES.™— RELIC OF SAINT CATHERINE. 143 
 
 The chureli of the Dominicans contains the pic- 
 ture in fresco of the ascension of Saint Dominic, by 
 Guido. In this church is the tomb of Count Mar- 
 sigli, the founder of the Institute. 
 
 The church of the Madonna di San Luca is on 
 a hill called Monte della Guardia, three miles from 
 Bologna. In this church, which was built in 1765 , 
 is kept one of the pictures of the Virgin, said to 
 have been painted by Saint Luke. A covered portico 
 or gallery leads all the way from the gate of the town 
 to the church. The portico is of brick plastered over, 
 one side of it is composed of open arcades ; it was 
 built at the expence of individuals and the corpora- 
 tions of the town, each of them building one or more 
 arcades as a mark of their devotion. 
 
 In the church of Santa Caterina di Bologna is 
 shewn the body of that holy lady Saint Catherine, 
 who died 300 years ago. She is seated and dressed 
 in a gown all embroidered with tinsel. The face 
 and hands, which are uncovered, are black and shri- 
 
 kind is drawn in Daniel Barbaro’s translation of Vitruvius. 
 The clocks used to mark the Italian hours at Rome'have no- 
 thing peculiar in their mechanism, and are constructed in the 
 same way as our common clocks; the hour hand generally 
 goes round in six hours. The Italian hour at which mid-day 
 happens is marked in the almanacs at Rome, and by that 
 means the clocks are set by a sun dial. The beginning of the 
 first, hour is fixed sometimes at half an hour, sometimes at 
 three quarters after sunset,, so that mid- day is expressed in 
 quarters of an hour. 
 
144 BOLOGNA.*— BUILDING MATERIALS. 
 
 veiled. This relic, decorated in such an incongruous 
 manner, is not, however, always exposed to public 
 view, but is shewn by the sacristan, a more decent 
 mode than that practised at Vienna, where skeletons 
 of saints, dressed in blue sattin and ribbons, are ex- 
 posed in the churches to the eyes of the public. 
 
 The public burying-ground of Bologna is at the 
 Certosa, a short distance from the town. The practice 
 of burying without the city was introduced here by 
 the French. 
 
 In the fourteenth century, when there were two 
 or three simultaneous and rival popes, most of the 
 cities in the ecclesiastical territory came under the 
 dominion of enterprising individuals. Bologna, 
 amongst the rest, was alternately obedient to the 
 Popes and opposed to them, and was sometimes go- 
 verned by a powerful baron, sometimes by a council 
 of citizens ; the word libertas is still inscribed on 
 the arms of the city. 
 
 The buildings of Bologna are almost entirely of 
 brick. What stone is used in the ornamental parts 
 is Verona or Vicentine marble, and sandstone for 
 steps from the neighbourhood of Bologna. Most of 
 the streets have porticos or galleries, under which 
 is the path for foot passengers. The pavement un- 
 der the porticos is in some places of stucco, made of 
 lime mortar, with fragments of marble stuck into it. 
 In other places the pavement of the galleries is of 
 brick. The pavement of the carriage way in the streets 
 is incommodious, being of small water worn stones. 
 
 l 
 
MARKETS. MANUFACTURES. — TOWERS. 145 
 
 The streets are ill lighted at night, the lamps being 
 at too great a distance from each other. The regula- 
 tions for lighting the streets, which the Trench at- 
 tempted to introduce, have not been continued. 
 The streets and even the coffee-houses are infested 
 with beggars. 
 
 There is a large covered fish-market built some 
 years ago. It is lighted at night with candles 
 placed in glass lustres. The sea fish is brought from 
 Comacchio, fifteen miles distant. 
 
 Bologna possesses manufactories of silk, paper* 
 perfumed soap, and others. The hemp of the neigh- 
 bouring country is much esteemed for ropes. The 
 liqueurs, cotognato or preserved quinces, and sau- 
 sages of Bologna, are famed throughout Italy. 
 
 The mineral called Bologna stone is a sulphate of 
 barytes, which is found in masses imbedded in the 
 clay or marl near Bologna. After being calcined, it 
 gives out a phosphorescent light, visible in the dark. 
 
 The slender unornamented square brick watch- 
 tower is an edifice of a peculiar kind that was in 
 use in, some towns of Italy in the middle ages. Se- 
 veral of these towers are still to be seen at Pavia. 
 At Bologna there are two ; the highest is called 
 the Tower of the Asineili. Near it is the Garisenda 
 Tower, which is considerably inclined from the per- 
 pendicular. It appears that the foundation having 
 sunk, the upper part of this tower fell, and the part 
 which now exists remained inclined. Bologna is 
 founded on an alluvial soil. 
 
 K 
 
146 
 
 BOLOGNA. VIEW. THEATRE. 
 
 In December the ground was covered with snow’, 
 and the atmosphere obscured by mist, so that no 
 view could be had of the neighbouring country. 
 But in the line clear weather in April, when I re- 
 visited Bologna, the view from the top of the Asi- 
 nelli tower was seen to advantage. This beautiful 
 prospect comprehends the extensive plain, highly 
 cultivated, inclosed, and planted with trees, and 
 near the town some gently elevated heights adorned 
 with villas, amongst which the Villa Aldini, a mo- 
 dern fabric, with its portico and pediment, is con- 
 spicuous. The towers of Modena are seen on the 
 horizon to the north-west, and Monselice, or the 
 Euganean hills, near Padua, to the north. These 
 hills are also seen from the tower of Saint Mark’s at 
 Venice. 
 
 During the carnival, that is, from the end of De- 
 cember to Lent, is the season when theatrical repre- 
 sentations are most frequent in Italy. There are 
 generally a few new operas produced every year at 
 that time, and one of these is acted in each of the 
 principal towns, for many nights in succession. The 
 new operas performed in different parts of Italy this 
 season, January 1818, were compositions of Rosini. 
 At Bologna, however, an old opera, Mozart’s Don 
 Juan, w r as in preparation to be exhibited after Christ- 
 mas. One of the theatres is agreeably decorated 
 in the interior. 
 
 The lingua Bolognese, or dialect of Bologna, is 
 
dialect- 
 
 147 
 
 spoken not only by the common people, but is also 
 frequently used by people of the middle ranks. 
 It differs considerably from the classical Italian, the 
 volgare illustre . For example,— 
 
 Perdonnaz i noster debit, sicom no alter i per- 
 donen ai noster debitur ; 
 
 E n c\ indusi in tentazion ; 
 
 Ma liberaz da mal. * 
 
 Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors ; 
 and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from 
 evil. 
 
 * See Adelung and Vaters, Mithridates, Berlin, 1809* 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Bologna to Florence. — Florence. — Cathedral , and other 
 Churches. — San Lorenzo.- — Santa Croce. — Gallery . — Fitti 
 Palace , and other Palaces — Pictures and Statues . — Quays, 
 Bridges. — Building Materials. — Library of San Lorenzo, 
 and other Libraries. — Museum of Natural History . — Wea- 
 ther. — Plants. — Granary.— Manufactory of Inlaid. Agate. 
 —Copperplate Engraving. — Alabaster Figures. — Earthen- 
 ware , Glass, fyc. — Money.— Hospitals . — Wall of the Town. 
 — Pavement. — Language.— Theatres.— Inns. 
 
 From Bologna to Florence the road is mountain- 
 ous, over the Apennines, and the distance about 
 seventy English miles. The Vetturini generally 
 have their coaches drawn by mules, and go in two 
 days. In ascending, we observed the Erica Medi- 
 terranean the Ruscus, called Butcher’s broom, the 
 Mespilus pyracantha, oaks, and chesnut trees, which 
 grow on ground of a middle elevation, and not on 
 the highest part of these mountains. The rock 
 some miles from Bologna is sandstone. 
 
 At Pietramala, which is about the most elevated 
 part of the road, the country is bleak and cold, and 
 
SOURCE OF INFLAMED GAS. 
 
 149 
 
 bow, on the 27 th of December, there was frost and 
 snow. Near this, at a quarter of a mile east from 
 the road, a stream of inflammable gas ascends out 
 of the ground. This stream of gas is on fire, and 
 large enough to be distinctly seen from the road at 
 night. It rises from amongst broken stones. * The 
 gas has been analyzed, and found to consist of car- 
 bonated hydrogen gas, like the fire damp which oc- 
 curs in the coal mines in Britain. A source of in- 
 flamed gas, similar to that of Pietramala, occurs on 
 the south coast of Asia Minor* t 
 
 Monte Radicoso, over which the road passes, 
 near Pietramala, the highest summit in this part of 
 the Apennines, was found by the barometrical ob- 
 servations of Sir George Shuckburgh in 177 ^? to be 
 1901 English feet above the sea. 
 
 Going on towards Florence, we come to a long 
 descent where the road is newly made, and conduct* 
 ed in a winding direction. At intervals, the gutter 
 for conducting the water goes into a well, from which 
 there is a large conduit under the road into the val- 
 ley. This part of the road is made with great care 
 and intelligence ; it was begun by orders of Bona- 
 parte. The rock appears to be a sandstone. 
 
 * See Ferber’s Letters. 
 
 t See Captain Beaufort’s Voyage in the Levant, published 
 in 1817. 
 
150 FLORENCE.— CATHEDRAL.— INCRUSTATION. 
 
 We now descend to the region where the ches- 
 nut trees grow, and afford a principal article of food 
 to the inhabitants. 
 
 Descending still farther, olive plantations and 
 villas with cypresses appear. Under the olive trees 
 there are fields of wheat, now green. Phylerea and 
 Prunus laurocerasus are planted as ornamental shrubs 
 m the gardens. 
 
 After passing an old country seat belonging to 
 the Grand Duke of Tuscany, we have a view of 
 Florence from the height, and the valley in which 
 the Arno runs, circumscribed by mountains. 
 
 The Cathedral Church of Santa Maria del Fiore . 
 
 The cathedral, whose cupola is conspicuous in a 
 distant view of the town, is remarkable, on a nearer 
 view, from the peculiar manner in which it is de- 
 corated, the walls being coated with white marble, 
 and dark green magnesian serpentine, called Pietra 
 di garbo. These stones are applied gh the rough 
 wall in thin slabs, polished and cut into figures that 
 represent pannels, foliage, and other ornaments. 
 The outer surface of the wall covered in this way 
 produces an agreeable effect when seen near. The 
 cathedral, the Campanile, the churches of St John 
 the Baptist, of Santa Maria Novella, and of San 
 Miniato, are adorned in this way. 
 
 The cathedral was begun in 1298 by Arnolfo di 
 Lapo, a disciple of Cimabue. The architecture is 
 a kind of Roman, with Corinthian pilasters, &c. 
 
CUPOLA BY BRUNALESCO. 
 
 151 
 
 The churches built at that period without the Alps 
 were in the pointed-arched style. The cupola is 
 by Brunalesco, and the lantern, which is of solid 
 marble, and was finished in 147 2. This is the first 
 lofty cupola erected in Europe ; Michael Angelo 
 praised its structure, and had it in view when he 
 designed the cupola of Saint Peter’s Basilic. The 
 cupolas of Saint Paul’s in London, and of Saint 
 Genevieve in Paris, rank with these two in magni- 
 tude. The cupolas that remain of the ancient Ro- 
 mans, of which that of the Pantheon is the largest, 
 were of a flatter curve, and not raised on such lofty 
 piers ; the cupola of the Pantheon is hemispherical 
 within. The cupola of the cathedral of Florence 
 is like the half of an elongated elipsoid, with the long 
 axis vertical, but the horizontal section is octagonal ; 
 it was built without timber centerings, and consists 
 of two vaults, an exterior and an interior, with a 
 vacant space intervening. * The height from the 
 ground to the foot of the lantern is £99 English 
 feet ; the whole height from the ground to the top 
 of the cross, 384 English feet, t 
 
 The front of the cathedral is unfinished, being 
 
 * See Vasari’s Life of Brunalesco. 
 f 154 Braccie to the foot of the lantern. 
 
 36 Braccie, the height of the lantern. 
 
 201 Braccie, the whole height from the ground to the 
 top of the cross. See Vasari’s Life of Brunalesco. 
 
 The braccia, according to Nelchenbrecher, is equal t® 
 23 /q 7 q English inches. 
 
152 FLORENCE.— SCULPTURES IN THE CATHEDRAL. 
 
 without incrustation, and only plastered and paint- 
 ed in fresco, with an architectural design. Vasari * 
 mentions that a front, designed by Sansovino, and 
 composed of wooden columns, and painted imita- 
 tions of mouldings, statues, and has reliefs on canvas, 
 was erected on occasion of Leo X. visiting Florence. 
 The interior is spacious, but dark. At the chief 
 altar is a group of a Dead Christ and other figures, 
 larger than life, sculptured by Baccio Bandinelli in 
 1551. Behind the altar is a group in marble by 
 Michael Angelo Buonaroti ; the subject is La Pieta, 
 or the Mater Dolorosa, the Virgin mourning over 
 the dead body of Christ, with two other figures ; 
 it is the last work of Michael Angelo, as appears 
 from the inscription, and, like many others of his 
 statues, is unfinished. 
 
 The sculptured figures of the Evangelists on the 
 pedestals of the Ionic columns, that form the octa- 
 gonal inclosure under the cupola, are by Braccio 
 Bandinelli and another artist. The octagonal in- 
 closure is the choir, and was constructed after the 
 design of Brunalesco. 
 
 An old picture by Orcagna, representing Dante 
 in a Garden, serves as a memorial of that great poet 
 in the cathedral of this his native city. His body 
 lies at Ravenna, where a monument is erected over 
 his grave. 
 
 Near the entrance, and within the church, are 
 
 * Vasari Vit. di Sansovino. 
 11 
 
GIOTTO.— BRUNALESCO.— LEVIS. 
 
 1 53 
 
 two monuments, the one in memory of Giotto, * 
 the most distinguished of the early Florentine paint- 
 ers, and architect of the Campanile, adjacent to the 
 cathedral, who was bora in 1 ^ 6 , and died in 1836. 
 The other in memory of Brunalesco, the architect 
 of the cupola of this cathedral, who died in 1446. t 
 The Florentines once erected in the cathedral a 
 statue of Poggio, the historian, who died in 1459* 
 He was noted for his virulent calumnies ; but it is 
 said, that, in course of time, and when the original 
 destination of the statue was forgotten, it came to 
 be placed on the altar as a figure of one of the At 
 postles. 
 
 * Giotto was the son of a countryman, near Florence. He 
 was employed in keeping sheep, and had made drawings on the 
 rock with chalk. Cimabue, who painted in the manner of the 
 Greeks of the middle ages, passed that way, was struck with the 
 boy’s talent, took him home, and Giotto became the pupil of 
 Cimabue. His pictures, which are seen in the churches at 
 Florence and Pisa, are very superior to those of his master 
 Cimabue. They are less formal, have more expression and 
 well designed perspective, and the drapery is more gracefully 
 disposed. He painted in oil, in fresco, also in Mosaic, and per- 
 formed some works in architecture and sculpture. He was 
 the friend of Dante, and is spoken of as a great painter by his 
 contemporaries and countrymen, Petrarch and Boccaccio. See 
 Vasari Vita di Giotto. 
 
 4 Brunalesco was eminent for his application of machines 
 to the art of building, and, according to Vasari, he revived 
 the use of the three iron wedges called Ulivella , the levis 
 for raising stones, having observed the holes used for its in- 
 sertion in the stones of ancient buildings. 
 
1 54 FLORENCE.— MERIDIAN LINE. 
 
 The gnomon and meridian line were formed in 
 1408 by Paolo Toscanelli, a physician and astrono- 
 mer of Florence, and repaired in 1756 by the Ab- 
 ba te Ximines. The line drawn on the pavement 
 
 runs in the transept, in a direction nearly at right 
 angles to the nave, the nave being nearly east and 
 west. The line is only about thirty feet long, and 
 receives the image of the sun, at and near the sol- 
 stice, in June and July; at other seasons the image 
 is lost on the sides of the cupola. The short dia- 
 meter of the image in July is about thirty-six inches. 
 The height of the aperture, through which the ray 
 enters in a window of the cupolina, is 277 feet, 4 in- 
 ches, 9*68 lines French measure ; and the inscrip- 
 tion farther states, that it is the greatest gnomon 
 existing. * 
 
 Observations are still made with this meridian 
 line at the solstice ; and at one time large gnomons, 
 with meridian lines similar to this, were used by as- 
 tronomers, for observing the change which takes 
 place in the obliquity of the ecliptic. Such are the 
 meridian lines in the church of Saint Petronius at 
 Bologna, in the church of the Certosa at Rome, 
 and that constructed by Lemonier in 1743, in the 
 church of Saint Sulpice at Paris. But it is found, 
 that the dilatation and contraction of great buildings. 
 
 * It is higher than the sum of the heights of the gnomons 
 of the Certosa at Rome, of Bologna, and of Saint Sulpice at 
 Paris. See Ximines Trattato del Gnomone Fiorentino . 
 
 12 
 
TOWER.- — SCULPTURES* 
 
 135 
 
 from heat and cold, and other causes of error, ren- 
 der the observations made with these gnomons in- 
 exact, and far inferior in accuracy to the observa- 
 tions made by modern quadrants and circles. 
 
 The Campanile . 
 
 Near the cathedral is the campanile , or bell tower, 
 incrusted like it with a coating of white marble and 
 green serpentine. This serpentine is got at Prato, 
 and in other parts of Tuscany. The marble also is 
 from Tuscany. This campanile, or tower, was built 
 after the design of Giotto, in 1384, and forms a 
 pleasing object when seen near. In niches, on the 
 lower part of the tower, are statues of the arts and 
 sciences, represented under the figures of Plato, A- 
 ristotle, Apelles, and the rest, the work of the chisels 
 of Giotto, Andrea Pisano, the author of the oldest 
 bronze door of the baptistery, and Luca della Rob- 
 bia, the inventor of the glazed earthen figures. The 
 height is 144 braccie. Giotto intended to have 
 placed on the top a spire of 50 braccie ; * but after- 
 wards it was thought to be too much in the degene- 
 rate style of the middle ages, and the design was 
 laid aside. No spire of any considerable height is 
 to be seen in Italy. 
 
 The Church of Saint John the Baptist . 
 
 Opposite to the west entrance of the cathedral is 
 
 * Vasari Vita di Giotto. 
 
156 FLORENCE. CHURCH OF SAINT JOHN. 
 
 the church of Saint John the Baptist, otherwise 
 called the Baptisterium. In this church all the 
 baptisms of the city of Florence are performed. It 
 is older than the cathedral, being of the eleventh 
 or twelfth century. The outside is coated like the 
 buildings already mentioned. The figure of the 
 church is octagonal, and the external form of the 
 roof is an octagonal pyramid. The inside is deco- 
 rated with round arches, and pictures of saints 
 in Mosaic of the middle ages, resembling the 
 older Mosaics in Saint Mark’s church at Venice. 
 There are some large columns of reddish small- 
 grained granite, (or syenite of the mineralogists,) 
 twenty feet or more in height. They have been 
 taken, it is likely, from some ancient Roman edifice. 
 On one of the altars is a statue of Mary Magdalen, 
 represented as emaciated with penitence, and clad 
 in a shaggy garment. The statue is of wood, and 
 the work of Donatello. 
 
 The three entrances to the church have each of 
 them a folding door of two leaves. These doors are 
 of bronze, and are celebrated for the excellent work- 
 manship of the sculptures with which they are adorn- 
 ed. The north door is the most ancient, and was 
 made by Andrea Pisano, * after the design of Giot- 
 
 * Andrea Pisano was bora at Pisa in 1270, and died in 
 1345. He profited in his studies from the antique sculptures, 
 brought by the ships of Pisa, which was then a flourishing re- 
 public, the rival of Genoa. See Vasari Vita di Andrea 
 Pisano. 
 
BRONZE DOORS BY GHIBERTI. 
 
 167 
 
 to. The south door has the name of the artist and 
 the year inscribed on it, Laurenti Cionis de Ghi- 
 bertis, 14<80. It was made on the plan of Andrea 
 Pisano’s door, at the expence of the corporation of 
 merchants of Florence, who adjudged the work to 
 Lorenzo Ghiberti, after he had proved his superiority 
 in the art of bronze sculpture in a competition, where 
 his antagonists were Bmnalesco, Donatello, and 
 other artists. Both these doors are ornamented 
 with figures, representing historial actions from 
 scripture, and heads in high relief, sculptured in a 
 masterly style, and cast in bronze. A bronze ar- 
 chitrave, ornamented with foliage, surrounds the 
 do or- ways. 
 
 The eastern door is also the work of Lorenzo 
 Ghiberti. It is the finest of the three, and is supe- 
 rior to the bronze door at the east entrance of Saint 
 Peter’s in the Vatican, and to those by Giovanni 
 Bologna, at the entrance of the cathedral church of 
 Pisa. After Ghiberti had succeeded so well in the 
 south door, he was employed by the corporation of 
 merchants to make this eastern door, and was al- 
 lowed to form it according to his own design, with- 
 out being restricted to imitate in any degree the 
 door of Andrea Pisano. He was employed in this 
 difficult and masterly work for twenty years, from 
 his twentieth to his fortieth year. The pannels are 
 occupied by subjects from scripture in relief. By 
 the side of the pannels are figures of the prophets 
 
158 FLORENCE. SCULPTURES BY GHIBERTI. 
 
 and sybils, ten inches high, in niches ; and at the 
 corner of the pannels are heads in full relief, one of 
 which is a portrait of the artist himself. The fi- 
 gures are on the outer surface of the door. One of 
 the leaves of the door is too large a mass to be cast 
 with the figures on it at once. The door, there- 
 fore, was cast with the heads on it ; and the tablets, 
 with the scripture histories, were cast separately and 
 inserted, though the joining is not easily seen. The 
 sculptures on the door are so excellent, by the ex- 
 pression in the features and attitudes, the correct- 
 ness of design, and the agreeable disposition of the 
 ornaments, that they called forth the praise of Mi- 
 chael Angelo ; and they are recommended as mo- 
 dels for study, for which reason plaster casts of them 
 are seen in Raphael Mengs’s collection of casts at 
 Dresden, and in the collections of casts formed for 
 the improvement of young artists in the different 
 academies in Italy. 
 
 Lorenzo Ghiberti, the author of these admirable 
 bronzes, was the son of a goldsmith in Florence, and 
 followed his father’s trade. Two of the bronze sta- 
 tues of saints on the outside of Saint Michael’s 
 church at Florence are of his work. * 
 
 • Vasari Vita di Lorenzo Ghiberti. 
 
GNOMONIC INSTRUMENTS. 
 
 m 
 
 The Church of Santa Maria Novella. 
 
 The church of Santa Maria Novella has the front, 
 which looks on a spacious place, incmsted like the 
 before mentioned churches. 
 
 The front was designed by Leo Alberti, * and 
 erected at the expence of Giovanni Rucellai, an emi- 
 nent citizen of Florence, in the fifteenth century, 
 and his name is inscribed in large letters on the 
 freeze. Joannes Orcellarius, 1470. The front is in 
 that style of Roman architecture which came into 
 use at the revival of the arts in Italy. The inside 
 is pointed-arched Gothic ; the columns supporting 
 the arches are lofty, and have capitals like the 
 Corinthian capital. Michael Angelo is said to 
 have admired and studied the architecture of this 
 church. 
 
 The front is exposed to the south, and two gno- 
 monic instruments are affixed to it. The western in- 
 strument consists of two armillse of brass, at right 
 angles to each other, and having the same centre, 
 the one in the plane of the meridian, the other in 
 the plane of the equator. Their diameter is about 
 two feet. A wire parallel to the pole of the world 
 
 * Leo Alberti, in 1481, published Architecture, in ten 
 books, and is one of the first who published engravings of the 
 ancient fabrics of Rome, See Vasari Vita di Leone Alberti. 
 
160 
 
 FLORENCE.— -‘■I GN A Z 10 DANTE. 
 
 passes through the common centre, and through the 
 circumference of the meridian armilla. 
 
 The other instrument, which is placed on the east 
 side of the entrance, is a slab of white marble, in 
 the plane of the meridian. There are inscribed on 
 it a quadrant of a circle, divided into degrees, with a 
 style in the centre whose shadow shews the altitude 
 of the sun near mid-day j a dial shewing the hours, 
 counted from sunset ; another shewing the hours 
 counted from sunrise ; and one shewing the astro- 
 nomical hours. These instruments were made and 
 erected by Ignazio Dante,* in 1576, at the expence 
 of Cosmo I. de’ Medici. 
 
 * Ignazio Dante was a monk of the order of Predicatori. 
 He was employed in making celestial and terrestrial globes. 
 The Grand Duke Cosmo I. de* Medici brought him to Florence. 
 He began the construction of a gnomon in Santa Maria No- 
 vella, but it was not completed. See Ximines, Trattato del 
 Gnom. Fior. On the death of Cosmo, Dante went to Bologna, 
 and was professor of mathematics. In 1576, he constructed 
 the gnomon in the church of Saint Petronius, which was after- 
 wards improved by Cassini. 
 
 The geographical maps of different regions of Italy, paint- 
 ed on the walls of the Vatican gallery, are his work, and done 
 by order of Gregory XIII. - 
 
 He was employed, with ClaviuS the Jesuit of Baftiberg, in 
 calculations for reforming the calendar. He published Le 
 Scienze Matematiche ridottein Tavole, — Trattato del uso del 
 Astrolabio, — -Comenfco suila regola della prospettiva del Ba- 
 rozzi, He was bom at Perugia in 1537, and died in 1586. 
 
PICTURES BY GHIRLANDAIO. 
 
 361 
 
 This church contains several paintings by old 
 masters. In the choir, behind the chief altar, are a 
 set of beautiful pictures representing the life of the 
 Virgin and the life of Saint John the Baptist, paint- 
 ed in 1483 by Ghirlandaio. The artist has intro- 
 duced portraits of Peter, John, and Lorenzo de’ 
 Medici ; of himself, of Politian, Ficinus, Demetrius 
 Chalcondylas, and others of his contemporaries. 
 These pictures are described in Vasari’s Life of 
 Ghirlandaio. 
 
 Paradise and the Infernal Regions are represent- 
 ed on the walls of one of the chapels by Orcagna. 
 
 A Virgin and Child, larger than life, by Cima- 
 bue, the earliest Florentine painter of note since the 
 revival of the arts ; he flourished in the end of the 
 thirteenth century. 
 
 There are some paintings on the walls of the 
 cloister of the monastery which is contiguous to the 
 church. 
 
 The Spezieria, or drug-shop, of this monastery is 
 noted for the preparation of various medicines and 
 of essence of orange flower, and other essential oils 
 and perfumes. 
 
 San Miniato. 
 
 The church of San Miniato, on the hill situated 
 without the walls of Florence, is likewise incrusted 
 exteriorly with marble and verde di Prato or mag- 
 nesian serpentine. It was begun in 1013. The 
 
 L 
 
162 SHRINE IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY. 
 
 nave is separated from the aisles by round arches, 
 supported by columns with Corinthian capitals. 
 There is some mosaic of the middle ages, like that 
 in Saint Mark’s at Venice. At the east end is the 
 Presbiterio or chancel, elevated above the rest of 
 the pavement, as was usual in the ancient churches. 
 Behind the altar are five windows closed with thin 
 slabs of pavonazzo marble, * which admit a yel- 
 lowish light. The pavement of one of the chapels 
 is composed of antique red porphyry, and the an- 
 tique green serpentine t of the statuaries and archi- 
 tects. This particular kind of inlaid pavement 
 occurs in several ancient churches in Florence, in 
 Rome, and other towns of Italy. It is also to be 
 seen in Westminster Abbey on the shrine of Edward 
 the Confessor, who died in 1066; which shrine was 
 evidently constructed by Italian artists of the same 
 school as those who formed the pavements here 
 spoken of. The twisted columns covered with gild- 
 
 * Or perhaps the marble from Seravazza near Carrara, 
 which has some resemblance to the antique pavonazzo mar- 
 ble. 
 
 In the church of Saints Cosmo and Damian at Rome, there 
 is a window closed with a translucid slab of pavonazzo mar- 
 ble, in the same way as those just mentioned. 
 
 f The surface of the antique serpentine is dark green, with 
 angular spots of a lighter green. It is a porphyry in mineralo- 
 gical language, the term serpentine being appropriated, in mi- 
 neralogy, to a class of stones which contain magnesia. 
 
TABERNACLE BY ORCAGNA. DONATELLO. l6g 
 
 ed and coloured mosaic, similar to the columns 
 which adorn the shrine of Edward the Confessor, 
 are also met with in old churches in Rome and Flo- 
 rence, and especially in Saint Michael’s church in 
 Florence, where the beautiful pointed-arched and 
 pinnacled tabernacle or canopy over the altar is sup- 
 ported by twisted columns covered with the same 
 kind of mosaic. This tabernacle w r as the work of 
 Orcagna, * otherwise called Cionis, and is inscribed 
 with his name, Andreas Cionis pictor Florentinus 
 hujus oratorii archimagester extitit 1359. It is or- 
 namented with Scripture histories in relief in mar- 
 ble ; the pieces of marble of which it is composed 
 are fixed together by pins of bronze run in with 
 lead. 
 
 Church of San Lorenzo . 
 
 In the church of San Lorenzo, built in 14&5 by 
 Rrunalesco, are two pergani, or reading desks, adorn- 
 ed with subjects from Scripture, in relief and in 
 bronze, by Donatello, t— the tomb of Peter and 
 John de Medici, sons of Cosmo Pater Patriae, with 
 
 * Orcagna also designed the Loggia in the Piazza del 
 Gran Duca, and painted some of the pictures in the Campo, 
 Santo at Pisa. See Vasari Vita d’ Andrea Orcagna. 
 
 f Donato, called Donatello, was a native of Florence, and 
 lived from 1383 to 1466. His principal works at Florence 
 are, the statue of Judith in bronze, in the Piazzo del 
 Gran Duca ; Magdalen, a statue in wood, in the haptisterium ; 
 
164 FLORENCE.— CHAPEL BY MICHAEL ANGELO. 
 
 a bronze grate in form of a net of ropes, by Verroc- 
 chio, and other works of art. In the passage from 
 the church into the cloister is the statue, in a sit- 
 ting attitude, of Paulus Jovius, the historical writer, 
 and Bishop of Como, by Francesco di S. Gallo. In 
 the court of the monastery adjoining to the church 
 of Saint Lorenzo, is the Medico Laurentia library, 
 of which we shall speak afterwards. 
 
 The Chapel de’ Depositi . 
 
 From the church of San Lorenzo an entrance 
 opens into the Sagrestia Nova, or Capella de’ De- 
 positi, erected by Michael Angelo, by orders of 
 Leo X. This circular chapel is of a moderate size. 
 The ceiling is a round cupola. 
 
 There are two monuments of the Medici facing 
 each other, and adorned with statues from the 
 chisel of Michael Angelo. Each monument is 
 composed of a sarcophagus, on the top of which are 
 two reclining emblematic statues larger than life. On 
 one is a figure of Night, represented by a female 
 asleep wearied with the fatigues of the day. The 
 
 David, a statue in bronze, in the bronze room of the gallery ; 
 David, a statue in marble ; Saint John, a statue in marble, 
 both in the gallery. The reliefs in bronze, on the pergami, 
 in the church of Saint Lorenzo. The winged lion of bronze, 
 placed on one of the granite columns at Venice, is a work of 
 his, and the equestrian statue of General Gattamelata at Padua, 
 —See Vasari Vita di Donato, 
 
HIS ~TATUES OF NIGHT AND AURORA. 16.5 
 
 female figure on the other sarcophagus is Aurora, 
 awaking and reluctantly quitting a state of repose. 
 The second reclining figure on each sarcophagus is 
 a male ; both these are only rough hewn and unfi- 
 nished. Above the one sarcophagus, in a rectangular 
 niche, is a statue, in a sitting posture, of Giuliano 
 de Medici, Duke of Nemours, and brother of Leo 
 X. In the niche above the other sarcophagus is the 
 seated statue of Lorenzo de’ Medici, Duke of Urbi- 
 no. Besides these works of Michael Angelo, there is 
 another production of his chisel in this chapel, a 
 statue of the Virgin and Child. In this chapel, and 
 on the tomb of Julius II. in the church of Saint Pe- 
 ter in Vinculis at Rome, Michael Angelo’s chief 
 works in sculpture are to be seen ; the wonderful 
 figure of Moses on the tomb of Julius II., in that 
 church, is his most celebrated statue ; next in rank 
 come Night and Aurora in this chapel ; and La 
 Pieta in Saint Peter’s Basilic. Some of his other 
 sculptures are, the Restoration of the Dancing 
 Faun in the gallery at Florence, — La Pieta in the 
 cathedral at Florence, — a Virgin on the high altar in 
 the church of San Lorenzo, — David in the Piazza 
 del Granduca, — Adonis wounded in the Grand 
 Duke’s Villa Poggia Imperiale, near Florence, — a 
 bas relief of the Virgin with a dead Christ, in, the 
 church of the Albergo de’ Poveri at Genoa. 
 
 The Great Chapel 
 
 A passage leads from the Capella de’ Depositi to 
 
166 FLORENCE. CHAPEL COATED WITH JASPER. 
 
 Capella Grande, a spacious octagon covered by a 
 lofty cupola, built, in 1604, by the Grand Duke 
 Ferdinand I. de* Medici, as a burying place for the 
 sovereigns of Tuscany. The original design was, 
 that the whole inside should be incrusted with agate 
 and jasper of various colours, * and a part is execu- 
 ted, producing a brilliant effect, but a great part re- 
 mains to be done, and still presents to the eye the 
 
 * Amongst the stones employed are, Sicilian jasper, with 
 yellow stripes ; red jasper from Cyprus, Rosso di Cipro ; jas- 
 per of Barga in Tuscany, there is a slab five feet in diame- 
 ter ; Egyptian granite; granite of the island of Elba, called 
 Ethalian granite, from an ancient name of that island ; Verde 
 di Corsica Duro or Smaragdito, a compound rock, of which 
 the chief constituent mineral is that called by the French mi- 
 neralogists Diallage and Emphodite, and by the Germans^ 
 Schillerstein and Labrador Hornblend ; Pietra di Paragone, 
 black touchstone, and black Egyptian basalt, which is dis- 
 tinguishable from black marble by the metallic trace it re- 
 ceives when iron is rubbed on it ; red coral and mother-of- 
 pearl shell are also inlaid amongst these stones. 
 
 The art of forming and polishing the hard siliceous stones 
 has long been practised in Florence, Vasari mentions several 
 artists about the year 1500, who made vases and crosses of 
 rock-crystal, lazuli, and other hard stones, some of which are 
 seen in the gallery ; these artists also engraved gems of Corne- 
 lian and agate. In course of time, the manufactory of inlaid 
 agate was established, of which we shall speak afterwards ; and 
 which is a work of the same kind with the coating of the 
 Capella Grande of San Lorenzo, both in respect to the nature 
 of the stones, and the mode of working them into thin slabs. 
 
TOMBS OF EMINENT AUTHORS. 
 
 16 ? 
 
 rough brick wall. The Grand Duke, Ferdinand L, 
 had the project of removing the holy sepulchre from 
 Jerusalem, and erecting it within this chapel. 
 
 Santa Croce . 
 
 The spacious church of Santa Croce contains the 
 tombs of Michael Angelo Buonarroti, of Galileo, 
 and his disciple Viviani, of Machiavel, * of Leonar- 
 
 * Galileo Galilei was born at Pisa in 1564, and died in 
 1641, aged 77* In 1589, he was appointed professor at Pi- 
 sa; and, in 1592, was called by the republic of Venice to 
 their university of Padua, where he taught for eighteen years. 
 At the end of this period he received the appointments of prin- 
 cipal mathematician in the university of Pisa, and natural phi- 
 losopher to the Grand Duke, together with a considerable sa- 
 lary, and without the obligation to reside or read lectures. 
 
 Paul III. Farnese, was an admirer of the science of astro- 
 nomy, and favoured the doctrines of Copernicus, who was 
 then publishing his work. But afterwards the court of Rome 
 held a different opinion ; and the Inquisition forbade Galileo 
 to write in defence of the opinion, that the earth moves round 
 the sun : he did notwithstanding publish a dialogue on the 
 question, and, at the age of seventy, he was called before the 
 Inquisition at Rome, accused of having maintained and pub- 
 lished the doctrine of Copernicus, concerning the motion of 
 the earth in its orbit round the sun. Galileo’s account of the 
 manner in which he was treated b}^ the Inquisition, in a letter to 
 his friend Father Vincenzo Renieri, is published byTiraboschi.* 
 The punishment inflicted on him was confinement for some 
 months, first in the Villa Medici, the residence of the Floren- 
 
 * Tiraboschi Star, dell. lett. Ital. The letters of the ambassador, address 
 
168 
 
 GALILEO. 
 
 do Bruni Arettino the historian, of Alfieri and other 
 men of distinguished talent. It has frequently been 
 
 tine ambassador at Rome, and then at Siena, in the house of 
 his friend the Bishop of Siena. 
 
 Galileo was one of the first who made telescopes. Viviani, 
 the pupil of Galileo, in the life he has written of his master, 
 states, that Galileo, whilst a student at Pisa, discovered that 
 the vibrations of a pendulum in a small arc are synchronous, 
 from having observed the vibrations of a lamp suspended from 
 the lofty ceiling of the cathedral of Pisa. He is said to have 
 had the idea of applying this discovery to regulate the mo- 
 tion of clocks ; but he did not put this idea in execution. 
 This was first done by Huygens in 1657. Galileo w*as one of 
 the first who invented the sector, called by him Compasso 
 geometrico e militare , and compas de proportion, by the French, 
 Byrgius, in Germany, invented one about the same time. 
 
 Galileo was the first who observed and calculated the pe- 
 riodical revolutions of some of the satellites of Jupiter, which 
 he called stelle Medicee , and proposed the simultaneous ob- 
 servation of their eclipses at two different places on the earth, 
 the precise moment of mean time at each place being ob- 
 served, the difference of these two times is the difference 
 of longitude between the two places, or the angle formed by 
 the meridian planes on which the places are situated ; — a 
 mode of observing the longitude which is still employed at 
 land, and which gives the result, without the necessity of a 
 long calculation. The occultation of a fixed star by the moon, 
 is the most exact of all the methods for determining the longi- 
 tude, but requires a long calculation. Galileo intended to form 
 
 sed to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, contain a particular diary of what hap- 
 pened to Galileo, while engaged with the Inquisition. These letters are 
 published by Targioni Tozzetti. 
 
GALILEO.— VIVIANI. 
 
 189 
 
 proposed at Florence to erect monuments in memory 
 of the celebrated Florentine authors, Dante, Pe- 
 
 an ephemeris and tables of Jupiter’s satellites, for the pur- 
 pose of deducing the longitude from their eclipses ; but he 
 was prevented from carrying this into effect by the loss of 
 sight. Cassini was the first who published accurate tables of 
 these satellites, thirty years after Galileo’s death. 
 
 Galileo discovered the phases of Venus by means of his te- 
 lescopes, and was one of the first who observed the spots on 
 the. sun. 
 
 He was unfortunate in his opinion concerning comets, 
 which he considered to be formed from terrestrial exhala- 
 tions, in opposition to the theory of Tycho, who held the true 
 opinion, that they are celestial bodies moving in eccentric 
 orbits. 
 
 But the genius of Galileo is principally displayed in his dis- 
 covery of the phenomena of falling bodies. He shewed the 
 falsity of the opinions of Aristotle on that subject, and de- 
 monstrated that the spaces fallen through by bodies near the 
 earth’s surface are in proportion to the squares of the times. * 
 Newton afterwards made his wonderful discovery, and prov- 
 ed this to be a particular case of the law of gravitation, 
 which deflects the planets from a rectilinear motion, and re- 
 tains them in their orbits. Galileo deduced that the path of a 
 projectile is a parabola. 
 
 Vincenzo Viviani was born in Florence in 1622, and died 
 in 1703, aged 81. He became a pupil of Galileo, when that great 
 genius was old and deprived of sight; and he afterwards pub- 
 lished a life of his master. The fifth book of the conics of 
 Appolonius Pergeus was awanting : it was known to contain 
 a treatise on the maxima and minima of straight lines, drawn 
 
 * Galileo, Dialoghi intorno alia nuova Scienza. 
 
170 VIVIANI. MACHIAVEL. BOCCACCIO, 
 
 trarch, and Boccaccio, * and of Accorso or Accur- 
 tius, the commentator on Roman law, who lived in 
 the year 1200 ; but this has not yet been effected. 
 
 to the periphery of the conic sections. Viviani composed and 
 demonstrated a set of propositions on this subject ; and, in 
 his restauration, the subject was found to be treated as in the 
 work of Appolonius, which was afterwards obtained by a 
 translation from the Arabic. He was employed as engineer, 
 to examine the waters of the Chiana, with Cassini who was ap- 
 pointed by the Pope. The problem proposed by him, to design 
 a cupola with four equal windows, so that the internal surface 
 shall be capable of exact quadrature, had celebrity at the time, 
 and was answered by Leibnitz, James Bernoulli, the Marquis 
 de l’Hopital, Wallis, Gregory, and by himself, in the work he 
 published on the subject in 1692. The house built by Viviani,, 
 with the money he received in pension from Louis XIV., is 
 to be seen in Florence. 
 
 Maciiiavel was born at Florence in 3469, and died in 1527> 
 at the age of 56. He was secretary of the government or re- 
 public of Florence, and ambassador at the courts of Louis 
 XII., of the Emperor Maximilian, of Julius II., and others. 
 In his History of Florence, from 1215 to 1492, and Life 
 of Castruccio Castrucani, Machiavel is judged to be guilty 
 of partiality. His verses and comedies are little esteemed. 
 II Principe, and his Discourses on the First Decade of Livy, 
 are his most noted works, and attracted notice on account of 
 the principles of selfishness and direct villany that he recom- 
 mends. To controvert this doctrine, Frederic II. of Prussia 
 published a book entitled Anti-Machiavel. 
 
 ** Boccaccio was born in 1304, and died in 1375, aged 71 
 His father was a citizen of Florence, and the son was bred a 
 merchant, but quitted that profession. Boccaccio was em- 
 ployed in different embassies by the government or republic 
 
ALFIERI.- — CAPELLA DE 5 PAZZI. 
 
 171 
 
 Tiie monument in memory of Aifieri, executed 
 by Canova at the expence of the Countess of Alba- 
 ny, consists a female figure, a statue representing 
 Italy mourning for the death of the poet. 
 
 The fine picture called the Limbus, or Prelimi- 
 nary Habitation of the Saints in the World to come, 
 by Angiolo Bronzino, contains a beautiful figure of 
 Eve ; other celebrated pictures adorn the church 
 and sacristy, or vestry. 
 
 Adjoining to the church are the buildings for- 
 merly occupied as a monastery, and a chapel, the 
 capella de Pazzi, decorated in front with a portico 
 of Corinthian columns, in a pleasing style, by Bm- 
 nalesco. In the ceiling of this portico is a cupola 
 twelve feet or more in diameter, composed of pair- 
 nels containing rosone or roses, of Lucca della 
 
 of Florence. An intimate friendship existed between him and 
 Petrarch. His collection of tales, entitled Decameron, is con- 
 sidered as one of the best models of Italian prose. Its circu- 
 lation was very great ; Mazuchelli enumerates ninety -seven 
 Italian editions. The obscenities in the Decameron were a 
 subject of repentance to Boccaccio in his old age. The first 
 professor’s chair for reading to scholars on the Greek language 
 in Italy at the revival of science, was instituted in Florence a« 
 bout the year 1362, at the instance of Boccaccio ; the prqfessor 
 who occupied this chair was Leo Pilatus, author of a Latin ver- 
 sion of Homer. Greek was not taught at Oxford till thirty years 
 after, and then it began to be prelected on by Latimer and 
 others, who had studied at Florence under Demetrius Chal- 
 condylas, as Knight mentions in his Life of Erasmus. 
 
17& FLORENCE. THE MADONNA DELLA SACCA. 
 
 Robbia’s glazed earthenware, which remains entire 
 after so many years exposure to the air. The colours 
 of the glazing are white, biue, and green. # 
 
 The Annunziata . 
 
 In the church of the Annunziata there is kept, 
 but not publicly exposed, a miraculous picture of 
 the Annunciation. The artist who was employed 
 despaired of being able to paint the Virgin ; having 
 finished the other parts of the picture, he was over- 
 come with sleep, and on waking found the figure of 
 the Virgin completed by some celestial being. This 
 was in 1 252. In the Lives of the Saints, mention 
 is made of several images of this kind, not formed 
 by mortal hands, and termed ayj.io'iKMp.w, and ayjioo%KOi. 
 
 A more incontestible work of inspiration is the 
 celebrated Madonna della Sacca, painted by Andrea 
 del Sarto, in fresco, in the cloister adjoining to the 
 church. The Virgin is seated on a cushion, the 
 Child and Saint Joseph are the other figures. The 
 four walls of the ambulacrum of this cloister are 
 covered with fresco pictures, by Procetti and others, 
 representing the actions of the seven Florentines, 
 who founded the order of the Servi di Maria. The 
 tomb of Andrea del Sarto is in this cloister, with 
 his bust in bronze \ he died in 1606. 
 
 * Views of the Capella de’ Pazzi are published in Montig- 
 ny et Famip, ilrchitecture Toscane, Paris, 1815. 
 
ANDREA DEL SARTO. CIPRIANI. 173 
 
 Another cloister is painted in fresco, with the ac- 
 tions of Saint Philip, some of which are by Andrea 
 del Sarto ; as are the Adoration of the Three 
 Kings, &c. 
 
 In the church is a chapel built at the expence of 
 the celebrated sculptor Giovanni Bologna ; it is in 
 the style of Michael Angelo’s vestibule to the Lau- 
 rentian library. 
 
 In the church of Santa Magdalena de’ Pazzi, 
 the organ screen is painted by Cipriani, a native of 
 Florence, whose works are know-n in England ; he 
 died in London in 1789. 
 
 In the Piazza before the church is an equestrian 
 statue in bronae of Ferdinand I., Grand Duke of Tus- 
 cany, by Giovanni Bologna, erected in 1 650 ; the 
 pedestal is of granite from the island of Elba. 
 
 The ancient Etruscans, called by the Greeks Ty- 
 rheni, were a civilized nation, as appears from the 
 perfection they attained in the arts, which the 
 bronze figures, gems, and other sculptures with E- 
 truscan inscriptions attest. The history of the Etrus- 
 cans is obscure, and the fragments of their language 
 that remain are now unintelligible. 
 
 They were, originally, according to Adelung, a 
 Celtic nation, in Rhoetia, the Tyrol, from which 
 they migrated by Trent and the valley of the Adige, 
 into Italy, about 1000 years before Christ, and sub- 
 dued the Umbri, another Celtic nation, who occu- 
 
HISTORY.— ETRUSCANS. 
 
 174 « 
 
 pied the banks of the Po, forcing them to remove 
 southward and westward. * Adelung founds this 
 conjecture on the resemblance of some names of 
 places in the Tyrol and in Tuscany, and on the 
 works of Tuscan art found in the Tyrol, which 
 were seen in Maffei’s collection at Verona, t He 
 rejects the opinion of Herodotus, that the Etruscans 
 came from Lydia. 
 
 The civilization of the Etruscans, which did not 
 happen at so early a period as is generally supposed, 
 arose from their connection with the Pelasgi, whom 
 they found already established in the middle of 
 Italy, t and who peopled that country with colonies, 
 before the time of the later Greek "colonies, who 
 settled in the south of Italy, Adelung and Lanzi 
 consider the oldest Etruscan inscriptions to be only 
 of the third and fourth century after the building 
 of Rome. 
 
 * A delung’s Mithridates, II. Th. s. 455. See also Freret, 
 recherches sur Forigine et 1‘ancienne histoire des differens 
 peuples d’ltalie, in the Memoires de l’Acad. des Inscriptions # 
 Tom. 18. ; and Heine’s Observations on the 7th and 8th Books 
 of the iEneid. 
 
 f See Job. v. Muller’s Geschichte der Schweitz, B. I. 
 Cap. V. and von Hormayrs Geschichte, von Tyrol. 
 
 J The following works treat of the Etruscans and their 
 language : Gori difesa dell Alfabeto degli antichi Toscani, 
 Firenze, 1742. Luigi Lanzi Saggio di Lingua Etrusca e di 
 altre antiche d’ltalia, Rom. 1789. Heyne, in Novis Com~ 
 mentat. Gottingens. 
 
TUSCANY IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 I75 
 
 They were conquered by the Romans, 280 years be- 
 fore Christ, and Tuscany continued subject to the 
 Roman empire for 700 years, till the fifth century, 
 when it was subdued by the Goths, and during the 
 sixty years that the Gothic kingdom of Italy subsisted, 
 Tuscany was governed by a prefect. In 568 Tus- 
 cany was conquered by the Lombards, who appoint- 
 ed Dukes, reinoveable at will. In 77^ it came un- 
 der the dominion of Charlemagne, and was govern- 
 ed by Counts appointed by that Prince, as Eginhard, 
 Chancellor of Charlemagne relates, in his History 
 
 Under Louis le Debonnaire, the Governors of 
 Tuscany had the title of Marquis, being appointed 
 to guard the marches, or frontiers ; they were also 
 called Dukes. 
 
 Afterwards Tuscany was sometimes ruled by Go- 
 vernors, appointed by the Emperors of Germany, 
 sometimes by Marquisses, Counts, or Dukes, who 
 were hereditary, and considered by the Emperors, 
 successors of Charlemagne, as their feudal vassals. 
 
 Of these hereditary rulers w r as the Countess Ma- 
 tilda, called la Gran Contessa Matilda, who was born 
 about the year 1046, and died in 1115. She was 
 cousin of the Emperor Henry IV., but carried on war 
 against the Emperor, in support of the interest of 
 the Popes, and made a donation to the Papal throne 
 of her patrimonial territories, and also of the domi- 
 nions which she held in fee from the crown of Italy, 
 which fiefs she had not the right to dispose of ; but. 
 
17'G THE COUNTESS MATILDA. CASTRUCCIO, 
 
 after her death, the Popes claimed both, and dispu- 
 ted the point with the emperors for 200 years. The 
 Popes still retain Viterbo, a part of her bequest, 
 and a monument is erected to her memory in Saint 
 Peter’s Basilic church, where she is honoured along 
 with the great benefactors of the Papal power, Con- 
 stantine and Charlemagne. She refused in mar- 
 riage the son of William the Conqueror, and, in 
 1089, married the son of Guelf, Duke of Bavaria ; 
 this was her second marriage. Her dominion ex- 
 tended over Tuscany, Mantua, Modena, Reggio, 
 Parma, and other places south of the Po. 
 
 After the year 1267 the government of Tuscany 
 became oligarchical or republican, with elective ma- 
 gistrates, and sometimes was in the hands of a lord 
 or military chief, elected by the principal families. 
 
 At this period lived the enterprising leader, Cas- 
 truccio Castrucani, of whom Machiavel has written 
 the life. He was chosen Lord of Lucca by the ci- 
 tizens of that place, and was created by the Emperor 
 Duke of Pistoja and Prato. He carried on war 
 against the Florentines, who chose as their Lord, 
 to make head against Castruccio, the Due of Cala- 
 bria, son to the King of Naples. Castruccio was * 
 opposed to the Popes, and supported the cause of 
 the Emperor Louis of Bavaria. Castruccio died in 
 1 328, at the age of 47- 
 
 In 1342 the Florentines elected, as their lord 
 and ruler, Gautier de Brienne, Duke of Athens, 
 who was deposed a year after. 
 
COSMO PATER PATRL®.— LORENZO. 
 
 177 
 
 The Florentines got possession of Pisa in 1408, 
 by the treason of Giovanni Gambacorta, Captain- 
 General of the Pisans. 
 
 The family of Medici in the fourteenth century 
 held the rank of private citizens in Florence. They 
 acquired great riches by trade, and, from the address 
 with which they conducted themselves, they became 
 the leaders of one of the parties or factions, and, at 
 last, rulers of the state. Cosmo, in 1464, govern™ 
 ed without assuming the title of Prince. He gain- 
 ed the esteem and affections of the people by his 
 prudence, and the liberal use he made of his wealth 
 and, after his death, was called the Father of his 
 Country, Padre della Patria. 
 
 His son Pietro lived a short time, and left two 
 sons, Giovanni and Lorenzo. Giovanni was killed 
 in 1478, in Francesco Pazzi’s conspiracy against 
 the Medici. By Lorenzo the family was brought 
 to the summit of its glory. He ruled without the 
 title of Prince, and managed the affairs of govern- 
 ment with such prudence, as to gain the love of his 
 countrymen, and the respect of foreign nations. He 
 collected manuscripts and antiquities in a princely 
 style, and died in 1492, at the age of forty-four. 
 
 Lorenzo left three sons, Pietro, who succeeded 
 him in the administration of the government, Gio- 
 vanni, afterwards Leo X., and Giuliano. 
 
 Pietro incurred the hatred of the Florentines by 
 taking part against Charles VIIL of France. He 
 
178 EXTINCTION OF THE MEDICI FAMILY. 
 
 was driven from Florence, and the palaces of the 
 Medici were given up to pillage. He was drown- 
 ed in the Garigliano in 1503. 
 
 The Medici returned to Florence, and regained 
 their power, and, in 1531, Alexander de’ Medici 
 was the first solemnly recognized by the States of 
 Florence as Duke. The Medici family reigned 
 from 1531 to 1737? when Gaston de’ Medici, the 
 last Grand Duke of that family, died without heirs. 
 Before his death, France, Spain, and Germany, made 
 a treaty, by which it was determined, that the Duke 
 of Lorrain should inherit the Grand Dutchy. 
 
 Francis, Duke of Lorrain, accordingly succeeded. 
 He espoused the Empress Maria Theresa, and, in 
 1765, was succeeded in the Grand Dutchy of Tus- 
 cany by the second son of that marriage, Peter Leo- 
 pold, who ruled with wisdom, and gained the affec- 
 tion of his subjects. After the death of his brother, 
 Joseph IL, Leopold ascended the imperial throne 
 in 1790. He left a numerous family. 
 
 In 1801, Tuscany came under the dominion of 
 the house of Parma, of the Spanish branch of the 
 Bourbons. Bonaparte afterwards forced the Queen 
 of Etruria, of the royal family of Spain, now 
 Dutchess of Lucca, to resign, and Florence was un- 
 der his government till 1814, his sister, Eliza Ba- 
 ziocchi, residing there as his vicegerent and repre- 
 sentative. In 1814, Tuscany came again to be go- 
 verned by a Prince of the house of Austria, in the 
 
VENUS AND NIOBE ACQUIRED BY FERDINAND# 179 
 
 person of the Grand Duke Ferdinand III., now 
 reigning. 
 
 Works of Art collected by the Medici . 
 
 The antiquities collected by Cosmo Pater Pa- 
 triae and Lorenzo were mostly dispersed during the 
 revolutions of the Medici family, in the fifteenth 
 century. Leo X. recovered a part of these collec- 
 tions. In the sixteenth century the Grand Duke 
 Cosmo I. laid out large sums of money in collecting 
 productions of art ; and, by his command, Georgio 
 Vasari, the painter and architect, erected the build- 
 ing called the Ufizi, in the upper floor of which 
 the gallery is situated. Francis I., the successor of 
 Cosmo, increased the collection, and added the Tri- 
 buna, and some other rooms. Ferdinand I. de’ Me- 
 dici, brother of Francis, made many valuable additions 
 to the gallery: whilst Cardinal, he acquired the Venus 
 since called Medicea, which remained in the villa 
 Medici at Rome till the time of Cosmo III., when 
 it was removed to Florence. The group of Niobe 
 also was acquired by Ferdinand, and was not brought 
 to Florence till the time of Peter Leopold. The 
 Popes prohibit the removal of any considerable an- 
 tique w r ork from Rome ; but these statues here spo- 
 ken of, and the Farnese statues now at Naples, have 
 been removed during the vacancy of the Pope’s 
 throne, or by favour of the Pope. 
 
180 
 
 FLORENCE. THE GALLERY. 
 
 The Gallery . 
 
 The magnificent collection of pictures, statues, and 
 other productions of the graphic arts contained in 
 the gallery, is one of the most extensive and valu- 
 able in Europe, a monument of the taste and activity 
 of the Medici family, by whom it was formed. It 
 may be ranked next to the collection in the Vatican, 
 which surpasses all others in the number of master- 
 pieces of ancient sculpture. The public are allowed 
 access unincumbered by any unnecessary restraint, 
 and artists are permitted to copy. 
 
 In the vestibule of the gallery are the busts of 
 different individuals of the family of Medici who 
 contributed to enrich the collection, from Lorenzo 
 downwards. Amongst the statues in the vestibule 
 are two antique figures of dogs in marble, both 
 alike. Of this figure there are other antique repe- 
 titions, similar in size and attitude, at Rome, and 
 one at Helmsley in Yorkshire. 
 
 The gallery itself, adorned in every part with 
 pictures and statues, forms three sides of an oblong 
 rectangle. On the two long sides of the gallery 
 there are entrances into rooms in which the more 
 remarkable objects are kept. 
 
 The ceiling of the gallery is painted with gro- 
 tesque designs, (grottesche ;) in other places with 
 interlaced branches and vines on trellis work, imi- 
 tating an arbour, with birds perched or flying a- 
 
PORTRAITS OF EMINENT MEN. 
 
 181 
 
 mongst them, a mode of decoration in which Ra- 
 phael’s pupil, Giovanni da Udine, was excellent, as 
 is seen in the loggie of the Vatican, and in the 
 Grimani Palace at Venice, painted by Giovanni da 
 Udine. In one part the ceiling is decorated with 
 the story of the Twelve Ambassadors, * and other 
 subjects pertaining to the history of Florence. 
 
 Below the frieze, all round the gallery, is a col- 
 lection of portraits of eminent men, Gustavus Adol- 
 phus the supporter of the Protestants and the op- 
 ponent of the house of Austria, Wallstein, and 
 other generals of the thirty years’ war, and states- 
 men, philosophers, and poets of all nations. These 
 portraits are less interesting for the merit of the 
 painting than for the persons they represent. 
 
 Along the sides of the gallery are placed a num- 
 ber of ancient Roman busts of emperors and mem- 
 
 * In 1294?, when twelve ambassadors from different courts 
 came to Rome, to congratulate Ronifazio VIII., the Pope, 
 astonished to find that they were all Florentines, exclaim- 
 ed, “ Florence is the first city in the world, and the Flo- 
 rentines the refined fifth element, the quintessence of man- 
 kind. — La citta di Firenze e la migliore citta del mondo, 
 e la nazione Fiorentina nelle cose umane e il quinto elemen« 
 to.” 
 
 The story is expressed by Verino in the following lines ; 
 
 Roman* merito antistes Bonefacius urbis, 
 
 Cum Florentines diversis partibus orbis 
 Vidisset Rom* regum mandata ferentes, 
 
 Terrarum semen turn quinta elements vocavit , 
 
382 
 
 WORKS OF ART IN THE TRIBUNA. 
 
 bers of the imperial family, Augusti et Augustas. 
 One of the most esteemed is a bust of Marcus Au- 
 relius. 
 
 The most distinguished of all the rooms which 
 have their entrance from the gallery is the round cu- 
 pola room, lighted from the top, called the Tribuna , 
 containing a selection of the most precious of the 
 pictures and statues that belong to the collection. 
 The statues are the Venus de Medici, the hands of 
 which are modern, and added by Baccio Bandit 
 nelli;* the Dancing Faun, the body antique, the 
 arms and head added by Michael Angelo ; the 
 antique group of Two Wrestlers ; the Young Apol- 
 lo, called the Apollino ; and the statue called the 
 Arrotatore. 
 
 Amongst the pictures in the tribuna are, the 
 Young Saint John, or San Giovanino, the Amoret- 
 ta, the portrait of Julius II., t all by Raphael ; the 
 Virgin looking at the new-born Child lying on the 
 Ground, by Correggio ; a Holy Family, the Virgin, 
 Child, and Saint Joseph, by Michael Angelo ; the 
 
 * This famous statue is the only object of the gallery that 
 was carried to Paris. 
 
 f Raphael painted several other portraits of this warlike 
 and impetuous Pope, who patronized him. They are to be 
 seen at the Pitti Palace, and the Corsini Palace in Florence, 
 and several times repeat ed in the Stanze of the Vatican. The 
 tomb of Julius II. is the most celebrated production of Mi- 
 chael Angelo’s chiseh 
 
BUONAROTI. — PORTRAITS OF PAINTERS. 1 S3 
 
 attitudes are uncommon, and the colouring is yel- 
 lowish ; * a Recumbent Venus, by Titian; a pic- 
 ture by Andrea Mantegna ; one by Albert Durer, &c. 
 
 One of the rooms contains an interesting and nu- 
 merous collection of the portraits of eminent paint- 
 ers, painted by themselves. Two hundred of these 
 were collected in the seventeenth century, by Car- 
 dinal Leopold de 5 Medici, brother of the Grand 
 Duke Ferdinand. In the portrait of Michael An- 
 gelo, he is represented at an advanced age, but with 
 the hair of the head still black. There is one of 
 
 * This is one of the few pictures by Buonaroti in oil. 
 Some of his other pictures in oil are the Parche the Three 
 Fates, at the Palazzo Pitti ; Fortune, in the Corsini Palace 
 at Florence ; David cutting off the Head of Goliah, treated 
 in two different ways on the two opposite surfaces of a large 
 Pietra di Lavagna, in the gallery of the Louvre at Paris. This 
 Pietra de Lavagna is a slate which is got at Lavagna, in the 
 territory of Genoa ; it is used for covering roofs in that 
 country, and pictures on this kind of slate are seen in differ- 
 ent collections. The principal paintings of Buonaroti in 
 fresco are in the Sistine chapel, and are much injured by 
 time. Buonaroti is recommended by Sir Joshua Reynolds 
 as a model for painters to imitate, although Sir Joshua's 
 own manner bears little resemblance to that of Michael 
 Angelo. Raphael Mengs dissents from the opinion of Sir 
 Joshua, and proposes for imitation the pictures of Correg- 
 gio, distinguished by pleasing gracefulness of expression, and 
 beautiful colouring, in which the pictures of Michael Angelo 
 are deficient. 
 
184 
 
 PICTURES OF DIFFERENT SCHOOLS. 
 
 Raphael. The portraits of some British artists are 
 seen, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Jacob More, the land- 
 scape painter, and some others. 
 
 In the other rooms, the pictures are disposed ac- 
 cording to the schools, that is, the pictures of artists 
 of the same country are placed together. In the 
 room containing the Florentine school is a celebrat- 
 ed chiaroscuro, or picture in one uniform colour, by 
 Fra Bartolomeo ; * the Virgin, by Sassoferrato ; a 
 Magdalen, by Carlo Dolce, half figure, and many 
 others. 
 
 Fine pictures by Titian and Paul Veronese are 
 seen amongst those of the Venetian school. 
 
 Amongst the Flemish there are some by Rubens, 
 but more of the productions of this great master, so 
 varied in the subjects he treated, are to be seen in 
 the gallery at Dresden,— and in the Louvre, where 
 his pictures of the Life of Mary de’ Medici, the 
 consort of Henry IV,, formerly at the Luxembourg 
 Palace, are now placed ; his celebrated Descent 
 from the Cross is returned to its former situation 
 in the cathedral of Antwerp. He succeeded in 
 
 * Bartolomeo was a Florentine of great talent as a painter. 
 He lived in the time of Michael Angelo. He was converted 
 to a religious life by the sermons of Savonarola, to whom he 
 was much attached. He afterwards became a friar, and was 
 called Fra Bartolomeo di San Marco, from the monastery of 
 Saint Mark at Florence. See Vasari Vita di Fra Bartolomeo. 
 
RUBENS. — NIOBE. 
 
 185 
 
 every character. — The Kermess or Flemish Wake, 
 in the Louvre, is a representation of the dances and 
 gross amusements of the country people, — the Judg- 
 ment of Paris, in the Dresden gallery, is treated 
 with drollery and humour. In the Louvre, Lot 
 and his Family leaving the devoted city is solemn, 
 with varied expression. That,/ and other collec- 
 tions, contain his landskips, — lion hunts, — portraits, 
 — bacchanalian scenes, — emblematic and heroic ac- 
 tions, — and his church pictures in the grand and 
 elevated style. 
 
 There are several pictures by Gerard Hondhorst 
 of Utrecht, called Gerardo delle Notti, on account 
 of his excellence in representing night scenes, with 
 fire-light. He flourished in 1630. 
 
 Amongst the pictures by old German masters is 
 a portrait of Luther and his wife Catherina de Bore, 
 by Holbein. 
 
 In the room allotted to the French school are 
 pictures by Lebrun, Poussin, Lesueur, Vernet the 
 painter of sea-pieces, and others. 
 
 The celebrated statues of Niobe and her Children 
 were placed in the room, which they now ornament, 
 in I78O, by the Grand Duke Leopold, afterwards 
 Emperor. At one end of the room is the group of 
 Niobe and one of the daughters, of one piece, of 
 marble. The others, which are single figures, are 
 disposed along the sides of the room. The whole 
 of these figures were found between Rome and 
 
186 
 
 GIOV. BOLOGNA. BRONZES. 
 
 Adrian’s Villa at Tivoli. Mr Cockerell’s opinion, 
 which is received with much approbation by anti- 
 quaries, is, that the figures were placed in the tym- 
 panum of a pediment, the statue of Niobe occupying 
 the middle. 
 
 A collection of statues, and other ornaments in 
 bronze, is disposed in one of the rooms. Amongst 
 them is the celebrated Mercury ascending, by Gio- 
 vanni Bologna, # and two or three smaller figures 
 of the same subject, which he made previous to 
 the production of the complete one \ another cele- 
 brated statue of this master is in the loggia of the 
 Piazza del Granduca at Florence, and the two eques- 
 trian statues at Florence are his productions. 
 
 In this bronze room, there is a small human 
 figure, a span high, representing the exterior muscles 
 
 * Jean Bologne, called in Italy Giovanni Bologna, was born 
 at Douay in French Flanders, and died in 1606. He studied 
 at Florence, before the death of Michael Angelo, and is one 
 of the most esteemed sculptors since the revival of the arts. 
 His principal works, four of which are mentioned above, are, — 
 The Group of the Sabine, at Florence, in imitation of which 
 is the Pluto carrying off Proserpine, a group of three figures, 
 by Girardon of Troyes, after the design of Lebrun, in the 
 Garden at Versailles, — the bronze Mercury in the gallery at 
 Florence, — the marble Group of the Centaur at Florence, — the 
 two equestrian statues at Florence,— -the statue of the Grand 
 Duke at Leghorn, — the Neptune at Bologna, — Mercury and 
 Psyche formerly at Marli, before the destruction of that palace, 
 which happened in the revolution of the French government. 
 
ETRUSCAN BRONZES. OLD MAJOLICA. 187 
 
 as divested of the skin, by Michael Angelo, and an- 
 other figure of the same kind, eighteen inches high, 
 by Cigoli. ■* A large bronze antique Etruscan figure 
 of a chimera, a bronze statue of a man in the dress 
 of a Roman senator, with Etruscan letters on the 
 border of the robe ; both are of the natural size, and 
 very few other Etruscan figures of so large a size 
 exist. Winkelmann considers the bronze wolf in 
 the conservator’s palace in the Capitol to be also an 
 Etruscan work. 
 
 A room contains majolica, the thick and clumsy 
 earthenware, made by Castelfranco, ornamented 
 with mythological designs, after Raphael and Julio 
 Romano. 
 
 In the collection of Greek vases that have been 
 called Etruscan, there are some entirely black, with 
 foliage in relief, which are less frequently met with 
 than the vases with red figures on a dark ground. 
 Most of the ancient painted earthenware vases 
 have been found in the kingdom of Naples, particu- 
 larly in the ancient tombs at Nola ; also in Sicily, 
 at Girgenti, and Catania. It is uncertain whether 
 any of them have been found in Tuscany. The 
 histories represented on these vases are frequently 
 subjects from Homer, and from the Greek mytho- 
 
 * Ludovico Cardi, called Cigoli, of whom there are several 
 works in the gallery, and, amongst the rest, a fine picture of 
 the Continence of Joseph, was born near Florence, in 1559, 
 and died in 1613. 
 
188 ANTIQUE PAINTED EARTHENWARE. 
 
 logy, and events of the heroic age of Greece, and 
 the names sometimes written over the figures are in 
 Greek, and none have been found with Etruscan 
 inscriptions. * Wink elm arm, however, is of opi- 
 nion, t that the figures on some of these vases are 
 drawn in the Etruscan style, and, therefore, may be 
 the workmanship of the Campanians, who lived at 
 Capua, and were sprung from the Etruscans. The 
 drawing of the human figure on many of these an- 
 cient earthen vases is masterly, and, from the ab- 
 sorbent quality of the pottery, the outline must have 
 been formed with rapidity, at once, without going 
 over again or retouching. Drawings are valued as 
 shewing the original spirit and the bold ideas of the 
 painter, unrestrained, and not cooled by the labour, 
 thought, and time that a finished picture requires. 
 These earthen vases are specimens of the drawing 
 of tSie ancients, and are thought to equal the draw- 
 ings of the best artists since the revival of the arts 
 in Europe. The outline of the figure is drawn in 
 black, the ground is painted of the same colour, and 
 the figure is left of the reddish colour of the pot- 
 tery. — The pottery is light, thin, neatly turned, and 
 of no great hardness.— Some of the vases have been 
 found of the large size of four feet high.— They were 
 
 * Winkelmann, Hist, de PArt. 
 
 f Winkelmann, Histoire de l’Art, Livre III. Chapitre Ilf 
 de FArt des Etrusques, 
 
B. CELLINI.— VALERIO OF VICENZA. 189 
 
 osed by tlie ancients for containing the ashes of the 
 dead $ some of them for ornamenting rooms, and 
 they were given as prizes in the games of Greece. 
 The vases have been imitated by Wedge wood ; and 
 some less perfect imitations have been made in Italy, 
 and sold as ancient. 
 
 In the room where the vases of rock crystal 
 and of other hard stones are kept, some works of 
 Benvenuto Cellini attract the attention, particu- 
 larly a vase of lapis lazuli, adorned with handles 
 in form of fanciful dragons or salamanders. In 
 the bronze room there is a shield, helmet, and 
 breastplate, with figures in silver, in relief, by the 
 same artist. The bronze figure of Perseus, after 
 cutting off Medusa’s head, is also his ; it is in the 
 piazza del Granduca. Cellini sunk the dies, and 
 coined several of the medals and coins of Clement 
 VII. ; one has Moses striking the rock, on the re- 
 verse. These medals are much esteemed for the ex- 
 cellence of their sculpture. * 
 
 In the same room is a casket, composed of pannels 
 of rock crystal, on which is beautifully sunk or en- 
 
 * Benvenuto Cellini was a goldsmith, and exercised his 
 trade in Rome and other places. He published an amusing 
 account of his own life, in which he relates, in a natural style, 
 the vicissitudes consequent on his irregular and turbulent con- 
 duct, and gives some particulars of the history of his contem- 
 poraries, Michael Angelo, Julio Romano, and others. He was 
 bom at Florence in 1500 , and died in 1570. 
 
190 ENGRAVERS OF GEMS IN THE MD. 
 
 graved in cavo , the history of the Passion, consisting 
 of many small figures, an inch high, which are seen 
 through the substance of the crystal ; this casket 
 was made for Clement VII., by Valerio of Vicenza, 
 a celebrated engraver of gems, who died in 15^6. * 
 
 A remarkable object in one of the rooms is the 
 large antique marble vase, adorned with figures in 
 high relief, celebrated under the name of the Medi- 
 ci vase. The companion to this vase was in the 
 Borghese collection, and is now in the Louvre. 
 
 Pitti Palace . 
 
 The collection next in point of importance is 
 that at the Palazzo Pitti. In this palace the Grand 
 Duke resides. It formerly belonged to the Pitti 
 family, whose name it bears, and was from them 
 purchased by Cosmo I. de’ Medici. The front, be- 
 gun by Brunalesco, is extensive. It is of broached 
 rustic, and looks rather gloomy. The court within 
 
 * See Vasari’s Life of Valerio Vicentino, and of other en-. 
 gravers of gems, rock crystal, and dies for medals, who lived 
 at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Of Marmita, one 
 of these engravers, Vasari says, that, he made money by coun- 
 terfeiting antique medals,— ‘Fu gran maestro di contrafar me- 
 daglie antiche, delle quali ne cave grandissima utilita. Greco , 
 another engraver of cameos, made a medal with a head of 
 Paul III. Farnese, and on the reverse, Alexander the Great, 
 adoring the high priest of the Jews, which Michael Angelo 
 praised highly as a masterly work. 
 
 II 
 
Raphael’s leo x. — His madonna. 191 
 
 the building is in a style somewhat different. One 
 suite of rooms contains the magnificent collection of 
 pictures chiefly formed by the Medici family. 
 
 It comprehends the collection of the Dukes of 
 Urbino, of the family della Rovere, * which, af- 
 ter the death of the last Duke of that family, be- 
 came the property of Victoria, Grand Dutchess of 
 Tuscany, consort of Ferdinand II., and heiress of 
 the family della Rovere. 
 
 Amongst the many excellent pictures in this col- 
 lection are, the Three Fates by Michael Angelo, — 
 the portrait of Leo X., with Cardinal Julio de* Me- 
 dici and Cardinal Rossi,— the celebrated Madonna 
 della Seggiola, — the Madonna della Finestra Im- 
 pannata, so called from the papered window repre- 
 sented in the picture, — all by Raphael. The two 
 first of these pictures, by Raphael, were in Paris, as 
 was the Martyrdom of Saint Agatha, by Sebastian 
 delPiombo, and the picture of three figures with musi- 
 cal instruments, said to represent Luther, Calvin, t 
 
 * Pope Julius II. della Rovere prevailed upon the Duke 
 of Urbino to adopt his nephew, who was likewise nephew of 
 the Duke, by which means the Dutchy of Urbino passed into 
 the family della Rovere. Duke Francis della Rovere died in 
 1631, leaving his principality to the Papal government, as his 
 feudal superior ; his free, allodial, and acquired property went 
 to Victoria, Grand Dutchess of Tuscany. 
 
 f Calvin was for some time in secret at the court of Fer- 
 rara in 1535. See Tiraboschi, st. d. 1. It, 
 
192 GIORGIONE. CANOVA*S VENUS. 
 
 and Catherine de Bore, by Giorgione ; * but there 
 is little resemblance between this portrait and those 
 of Luther by Lucas Cranach and by Holbein; 
 and in the account of the Louvre gallery this picture 
 is only termed a concert, with a Benedictine monk at 
 the harpsichord, a Dominican with a violoncello, and 
 a young person with a black bonnet and feather. — - 
 A picture composed of two female figures, called 
 la Modestia e la Vanita femminile, by Leonardo 
 da Vinci. — Judith carrying the head of Holopher- 
 nes, by Cristofano Allori. f This picture was in 
 Paris. 
 
 The other half of the principal floor is occupied by 
 the state apartments, at the end of which, in the centre 
 of a circular room hung with four mirrors, is Cano- 
 va’s beautiful statue of Venus. It is seen to much ad- 
 vantage by means of the mirrors, four different views 
 by reflection being seen from one place. This sta- 
 tue was got by the Florentine government after the 
 French had removed the Venus de Medici, and fill- 
 
 * Giorgione died in 1511 at the age of thirty -four. Vasa- 
 ri mentions a head drawn by him, a portrait of one of the 
 Fuggers, the celebrated merchants of Antwerp who were con- 
 cerned in the Fondaco de' Tedeschi at Venice, and possessed 
 palaces in Rome. See Vasari Vita di Giorgio da Castelfranco 
 detto Giorgione ; and Luther’s Colloquia Mensalia. 
 
 'I' Cristofano Allori was born at Florence in 1577, and died 
 in 1621. 
 
 12 
 
BOBOLI GARDEN. — CIMABUE. 
 
 193 
 
 ed the place in the tribuna of the public gallery dur- 
 ing the time that celebrated masterpiece of ancient 
 art was in Paris. On the return of the Venus de 
 Medici to Florence, Canova’s Venus yielded up the 
 pedestal in the tribuna, and was placed in the palazzo 
 Pitti. 
 
 Adjoining to the palace is the Boboli garden, of 
 considerable extent, and partly on a rising ground. 
 It is laid out with broad walks bordered with high 
 hedges of laurel, ( Laurus nobilis.j There are 
 many fine cypresses, numerous statues, and, in the 
 lower part of the garden, fountains. 
 
 Academy of Fainting, 
 
 At the academy of painting, the Scuola delle 
 belle arti, instituted by the Grand Duke Peter Leo- 
 pold in 1784, there is a considerable collection of 
 pictures, amongst which are several productions 
 of the oldest masters. A large picture of the 
 Virgin, seated on a throne, with the Child and An- 
 gels, by Cimabue. Like his other pictures it is on a 
 ground of gold, in campo d’oro, and in a very for- 
 mal style. Cimabue was the earliest of the Floren- 
 tine painters. He learnt the art from some Greek 
 painters who were employed in Santa Maria Novel- 
 la. * He flourished in 1280. His colours are em» 
 
 * Vasari, Vita di Cimabue. 
 
194* FLORENCE.— OLD PICTURES. 
 
 bodied with size and with the yolk of eggs, as Va- 
 sari relates in his introduction to the lives. The 
 art of painting with colours embodied by oil, was 
 not used till a hundred years after his death, when 
 it was discovered by John van Eyck, called John of 
 Bruges, who flourished in the year 1400. The num- 
 ber of Cimabue’s pictures that now exist is very 
 small. 
 
 A picture of the Adoration of the Magi, by Gen- 
 tilis di Fabriano, with the year inscribed 1423. 
 Mary Magdalen, clothed in a brown shaggy rug, in 
 the same w r ay as in Donatello’s statue in the baptis- 
 try, with the inscription, 
 
 Ne desperetis vos qui peccare soletis 
 Exemploque meo vos reparate Deo. 
 
 The ground is gold, and on the border are eight 
 small pictures representing the actions of Magda- 
 len. 
 
 Small figures, two feet in length, in burnt clay, 
 by Michael Angelo, representing Night and Aurora, 
 the models of the marble statues executed by him 
 in the Capella de’ Depositi at San Lorenzo. 
 
 There is also a collection of plaster casts of the 
 most esteemed statues and bas reliefs for the use of 
 the students. 
 
 On the walls of the court are busts and bas re- 
 
 4 
 
FORTUNE BY MICHAEL ANGELO. 
 
 195 
 
 • liefs in glazed earthenware, terra cotta invetriata, 
 by Luca della Robbia or his school. 
 
 Corsini Pictures . 
 
 The collection of pictures in the Corsini palace, 
 a conspicuous building by Silvani, on the quay 
 Lung* Arno, is numerous and valuable. In this 
 collection are to be remarked, — a cartoon, by Ra- 
 phael, of the portrait of Julius II. A head of 
 a woman representing Poetry, finished so that 
 it seems to rise from the canvas, by Carlo Dolce; 
 the pictures of Carlo Dolce have become too dark 
 in the shaded parts, a defect owing to the printers* 
 ink, or lamp-black, which retains its colour whilst 
 the colours mixed with it fade. * Horse-travellers 
 going over rocks, with a plain and river seen below, 
 and in the distance, by Salvator Rosa. Fortune, 
 dropping crowns and treasures from her right hand, 
 instruments of punishment from the left, by Michael 
 Angelo. At the head of the staircase is a seated 
 statue of Clement XII. Corsini, who died in 1739° 
 
 Fabrics . 
 
 The palace formerly the residence of the Medici 
 family, built by Cosmo Pater Patriae, has the court 
 surrounded with a loggia or open-sided gallery on 
 the ground-floor, and adorned with busts, bas reliefs. 
 
 * This effect of printers’ ink in painting is mentioned by 
 Vasari. 
 
196 FLORENCE.— PALACES. 
 
 and ancient inscriptions, resembling, by these deco- 
 rations, the courts of some of the palaces in Rome, 
 
 The palace of Duke Strozzi is a large gloomy cu- 
 bical mass of building, with rustic work on the out- 
 side. Another Strozzi palace was, in part, design- 
 ed by Scamozzi. 
 
 In the mansion of the Buonaroti family are pre- 
 served some sketches by the great Michael Angelo. 
 
 The Palazzo del Podesta, which is now used as a 
 prison, has the court covered with old coats of arms 
 carved in stone, and the windows pointed-arched. * 
 
 In Florence, and other towns in Italy, the exte- 
 rior of houses and the fronts of churches are some- 
 times painted with designs in fresco on the plaster. 
 In the piazza Santa Croce the front of a large house 
 was painted, in 1619, with figures and architecture 
 by Pasignano, and fifteen other good artists, in the 
 space of twenty days. These paintings have in some 
 degree retained their colour after 200 years exposure 
 to the weather. At this day, in Italy, large paint- 
 ings or outlines of histories are sometimes seen de- 
 signed on the outside of a plastered wall, the work 
 of some young painter who takes that method of 
 making his talent known. 
 
 * A view of the court of the Palazzo del Podesta, and views 
 of the principal buildings in Florence, Siena, and Pisa, are 
 published in the Architecture Toscane par Montigny et Fa- 
 min, Paris, 1815. 
 
PALAZZO VECCHIO* 
 
 297 
 
 In this same piazza Santa Croce is the house in 
 which Urban VIII. Barberini was born. He was 
 elected pope in 1 6‘23. 
 
 There were, in the middle ages, a great many 
 towers or private fortresses in Florence, as in Rome 
 and other cities in Italy. The number in Florence 
 is said to have been 150. Most of these were de- 
 molished when the government began to be more 
 regular, in the beginning of the dominion of the 
 Medici family. 
 
 The Palazzo Vecchio, in the Piazza del Gran- 
 duca, is a lofty old building, with battlements, ori- 
 ginally designed by Arnolfo di Lapo, and now oc- 
 cupied by some of the public offices. The court is 
 small, surrounded by a colonade and corridor, 
 painted with grotesques, and with views of the cities 
 of Germany ; in the middle, a bronze Cupid by 
 Verrocchio. The great hall is adorned with pic- 
 tures and statues ; the ceiling painted by Vasari, 
 who designed the architecture of the interior of this 
 palace ; the pictures relate to the history of Flo- 
 rence, Cosmo I., crowned Grand Duke of Tuscany 
 by Pius V. in 1570, &c. Amongst the statues is 
 a group of Victory with a prisoner, by Buonaroti, 
 intended for the tomb of Julius II. The adjoin- 
 ing Guardaroba also contains some pictures, and 
 other works of art. 
 
 In front of the Palazzo Vecchio are two colossal 
 sculptures ; the one the statue of David, with a sling 
 
198 FLORENCE. — STATUES IN THE LOGGIA AND 
 
 in his hand, by Michael Angelo, the second cele- 
 brated statue in point of time that he executed, La 
 Pieta, in Saint Peter’s basilic, being the first 
 the other is the group of Hercules and Cacus, by 
 Baccio Bandinelli. t 
 
 On the public clock of the old palace the hour at 
 night is shewn by the transparent and illuminated 
 numbers of the hour and minute. In theatres at 
 Venice, and other places in Italy, a clock of this 
 kind is placed above the stage. 
 
 The loggia, built after the design of Orcagna in 
 1356, and which occupies part of one of the sides of 
 the Piazza del Granduca, is adorned with some 
 good statues. Under its round arches are placed 
 the group of a Homan carrying off a Sabine woman, 
 with an old man on the ground by Giovanni di Bo- 
 logna, in marble ; — Perseus, after having cut off the 
 head of Medusa, by Benvenuto Cellini, in bronze ; 
 — Judith, by Donatello, in bronze ; — two marble 
 lions, one of which is by Flaminio Vaeca, a sculp- 
 tor who flourished at Rome in the latter part of the 
 sixteenth century. 
 
 In the Piazza del Granduca is the equestrian 
 
 * See Vasari Vita di Michel Agnolo Buonaroti. 
 
 •f Baccio was the contemporary of Michel Angelo. He 
 was laborious, and had a good knowledge of design, but was 
 endowed with little genius. See the Life of Baccio, which 
 name is the Florentine contraction for Bartolomeo, in Vasari 
 Vit. de 9 Pittori, 
 
PUBLIC SQUARES. 
 
 199 
 
 statue of Cosmo L, Grand Duke of Tuscany, by 
 Giovanni Bologna, erected in 1594, with three 
 histories in relief on the pedestal ; — the Coronation 
 of Cosmo by Pius V. in 1570 ;■ — the entry of Cos- 
 mo into Siena, which had submitted to his forces ; — ■ 
 Cosmo, elected Duke of Florence by the Florentine 
 senate. Near this statue, in the piazza, is the front 
 of a house designed by Palladio. 
 
 In the Piazza della Nunziata is the equestrian 
 statue, in bronze, of Ferdinand I., Grand Duke of 
 Tuscany, by the same master, as already mentioned. 
 Between the bridge of the Trinity and the Pitti Pa- 
 lace is the group, in marble, of a centaur, combating 
 with one of the Lapythae, by Giovanni Bologna. 
 
 A pedestal, in the place before the church of 
 Saint Lorenzo, is adorned with figures, sculptured 
 in high relief, by Baccio Bandinelli, representing 
 captives brought to John the father of Cosmo I. 
 The column of granite, surmounted by a statue of 
 Justice, was erected in 1564 by Cosmo I., to whom 
 it was presented by Pius IV. It was taken from 
 the baths of Antoninus Caracalla at Rome. 
 
 The loggia of the Mercato Nuovo was built in 
 1548 by order of Cosmo I., for the conveniency of 
 the dealers in silk. Under it is a wild boar in 
 bronze, copied from the antique one of marble in 
 the gallery. 
 
 Another similar loggia, in which corn is sold, is 
 called Piazza del Grano. It was built in 1619. 
 
200 FLORENCE. ARCH OF FRANCIS OF LORRAIN, 
 
 Without the gate of San Gallo is a triumphal 
 arch, erected in 17 ^ 9 , on occasion of the arrival of 
 the Emperor Francis I., when he succeeded to the 
 sovereignty of Tuscany after the extinction of the 
 Medici ; the arch is from the design of Schamant 
 of Lorrain, and is loaded with ill-selected ornament. 
 
 Quays and Bridges . 
 
 The Amo, during its course through Florence, 
 is embanked on each side by stone quays, with a 
 street between the quay and the front of the houses, 
 a disposition which gives an agreeable view of the 
 river and the opposite bank from the street. At 
 Pisa a similar arrangement is seen. And the quays 
 in Paris, opposite to the gallery of the Louvre, pre- 
 sent a view of the same kind, but decorated with 
 more magnificent buildings. The quay, by the side 
 of the Arno, at Florence, is stated by Sir G. Shuck- 
 burgh to be 190 English feet above the sea. 
 
 Of the four bridges over the Arno, the Ponte del- 
 la Trinita is celebrated for the agreeable flat elliptic 
 form of its three arches. The abutments of the 
 piers project much, so as to produce the disagree- 
 able effect of concealing the arches from the view 
 when the bridge is looked at obliquely. It was built 
 after the design of Ammanati, in the reign of Cos- 
 mo I., in place of a bridge washed away by the over- 
 flowing of the river in 1557. 
 
 There are two wears across the Arno at Florence 
 for the purpose of driving mills* The boats that 
 
MAGNESIAN SERPENTINE. 
 
 <201 
 
 come up the river from Pisa lie some distance be- 
 low the lowest wear. When there is a sufficient 
 quantity of water in the river, the passage by the 
 boats from Florence to Pisa is made speedily. 
 
 The Arno has deposited considerable banks of 
 sand, with some gravel, by the side of its channel, 
 just below Florence. 
 
 The spouting fountains at Florence are not nu- 
 merous. There are some in the Boboli garden. 
 They are supplied with water brought by a con- 
 duit from the neighbouring heights. It is at Rome 
 that spouting fountains are in greater abundance and 
 perfection than in any other city of Europe. In 
 Florence water for domestic purposes is got by 
 means of wells sunk in different parts of the town. 
 
 Building Materials. 
 
 Dark green magnesian serpentine, called pietra 
 di garbo, or gabro, * is got near Prato, at Imprune- 
 ta, and in other parts of Tuscany. It is employed, 
 along with white marble, in facing the outer surface 
 of some of the old churches in Florence, dis- 
 posed in the form of pannels and other ornaments, 
 being set off and rendered conspicuous by the white 
 
 * It is also called Verde di Prato, from the place where 
 the quarries are. In the territory of Genoa, also, magnesian 
 serpentine is wrought, and called Poizevera, that being the 
 name of the place where it is quarried. 
 
202 FLORENCE. MARBLE. STYLE OF BUILDING. 
 
 marble, which composes the rest of the incrustation. 
 The marble of Serravazza, near Carrara, which is 
 sometimes used in Florence for columns and other de- 
 corations, - has veins of a purple colour. The varieties 
 of Serravazza marble resemble some of the antique 
 marbles, Pavonazzo, Africano, Fior di Persico, and 
 sometimes pass by these names. The marmo paesino, 
 or landskip marble, called Florentine marble, got 
 near Florence, is a limestone of a grey colour, with 
 dark-coloured dendritical veins, which look like the 
 picture of ruins, when the stone is cut and polish- 
 ed ; it is only got in pieces of a moderate size. 
 
 The buildings in Florence are solid, with thick 
 walls. The dark-coloured stone of the secondary 
 strata, in the hills near Florence, # is much employ- 
 ed in building. Brick is also used. 
 
 The great houses, or palaces, generally have with- 
 in the building a court, with a colonade or loggia 
 round it on the ground floor. This court is often of 
 the small dimension of twenty Tour feet square. The 
 whole edifice has a heavy and gloomy appearance, 
 arising both from the dark colour of the stone, and 
 from the style of architecture? 
 
 The style of the great mansions, or palaces, in Ve- 
 nice is very different from those in Florence, and quite 
 
 * This stone is called, in Florence, Pietra forte ; and from itu 
 bluish grey colour, Pietra serena. Pietra bigia, grey stone, 
 is another variety. 
 

 v 
 
X. 
 
 ROOF TILES' 
 
 used at Elarenae and Rame. page; 203 
 
 ROOT' TILES 
 
 used at Trieste at Venice and at Lombardy . page 203 
 
 TILES of the FLOORS, \ of ROOMS . 
 used in Lombards Tuscany and Rome . page 103 
 
 used in Paris 
 
 |§§ 16 inches (_ 
 
 WyL.C. da* 
 
 LL 
 
 
 JZchnbarqh Published Ty dL Constable & Co, 18Z0< 
 
HOOF TILE. FLOOR PAVEMENT. 
 
 <10S 
 
 peculiar to Venice. They are lofty, generally with 
 three tier of high arched apertures and balconies on 
 the front, for the purpose of looking on the great 
 canal. The fronts are of unpolished Istrian marble, 
 which is of a light colour, producing an agreeable 
 and cheerful effect in the exterior of a building. 
 
 The roofs at Florence are of a low pitch, and 
 covered with tile. Every roof is covered with tile 
 of two different forms,- — a flat tile, with ledges on 
 the side, and a tile nearly semi-cylindrical, but a 
 little tapering upwards, which covers the interstice 
 between the ledges of the flat tiles, and is named 
 canale. These tiles are are also used at Rome, 
 and in many other parts of Italy ; and tiles are found 
 in ancient Greek and Roman buildings, of a similar 
 form, and sometimes made of marble. The tiles at 
 Trieste and Venice are all of the tapering cylindri- 
 cal form, a tile, with the convexity outwards, being 
 laid, so as to cover the edges of two tiles, of which 
 the concave side is outwards. The rooms at Flo- 
 rence are lofty, and are not all provided with 
 fire-places. Floors of rooms are usually of large 
 oblong rectangular tiles, placed in the herring- 
 bone form, named spina di pesce in Italy, and 
 testacea spicata, by Vitruvius, the same form in 
 which the small hard bricks called Dutch clinkers, 
 are laid in Holland and in Britain. The walls of 
 rooms are painted with landscapes, or parterres as 
 
204< FLORENCE.— MANUSCRIPTS. 
 
 seen through colonades, and with other ornaments ; 
 the ceilings also are painted with ornaments. 
 
 Libraries . 
 
 Another of the splendid collections, made by the 
 Medici family, is the library of manuscripts, called 
 the Bibliotheca Mediceo Laurentiana. The build- 
 ing, in which these manuscripts are 'kept, forms one 
 side of the court of the monastery of San Lorenzo. 
 It is after the design of Michael Angelo ; and the 
 singular form of ornament he made use of is seen in 
 none of his works more strikingly, than in the vesti- 
 bule of the Mediceo Laurentian library, which is 
 adorned with columns, having capitals of a peculiar 
 form. * 
 
 In the fifteenth century, at the period that im- 
 mediately preceded the use of printing, the princes 
 who encouraged the arts in Italy were active in 
 collecting manuscripts of ancient Greek and Ro- 
 man authors. In consequence of this, many remark- 
 able manuscripts were discovered in the monasteries 
 of Saint Gall in Switzerland, of Montecassino in the 
 kingdom of Naples, and other monasteries. 
 
 * The peculiar style of Michael Angelo is also visible in 
 his other architectural works, — the Capelia de’ Depositi at San 
 Lorenzo at Florence, — the part which is his of Saint Peter’s 
 Basilic, — the Capitol,-— the Porta Pia,— and Porta del Popolo 
 at Rome,— part of the Farnese palace. 
 
MANUSCRIPT VIRGIL OF THE FIFTH CENT* 20 5 
 
 Cosmo de’ Medici Pater Patrise, collected many, 
 and formed a public library in the monastery of 
 Saint Mark at Florence. * 
 
 Lorenzo de Medici collected a great number of 
 manuscripts, and sent John Lascaris to Sultan Ba- 
 jazet for that purpose. 
 
 Pietro, the son of Lorenzo, having shewn himself 
 hostile to Charles VIII. of France, was driven from 
 Florence, and the library, collected by Lorenzo, 
 was pillaged by the French. The books that were 
 saved, together with Saint Mark’s library, were 
 bought, and removed to Rome, by Cardinal John 
 de’ Medici, afterwards Leo X. Clement VII. de’ 
 Medici t restored the library to Florence ; and, by 
 his orders, Michael Angelo began the building at 
 Saint Lorenzo for its reception, which was finished 
 under the inspection of Vasari in 1571, in the reign 
 of the Grand Duke Cosmo I. 
 
 Amongst the remarkable manuscripts, there is one 
 of Virgil of the fourth century in Roman capitals, 
 not very different in form from the letters on an- 
 
 * See the preface to the catalogue of the Biblioth. Medi- 
 ceo Lauren nana, by the Canons Biscione and Bandini. 
 
 f There were three Popes of the Medici family,— -Leo X., 
 who died in 1521 ; Clement VII., who died in 1533 ; and 
 Leo XI., who died in 1605, after a very short reign. Pius 
 IV. was of a Milanese family of the same name, but distinct 
 from the Medici of Florence. 
 
206 FLORENCE. PANDECTS OF THE SIXTH CENT. 
 
 cient Roman marbles ; it is on vellum of the size of 
 a small quarto, with notes ; the notes written in 
 the fifth century by the Consul Turcius Rufus Apro- 
 nianus, as his signature attests. This is one of the 
 most ancient legible manuscript books in Europe, of 
 which the period is authentic. The manuscript of 
 Virgil, in the Vatican library, with paintings, was 
 said to be of the fourth century, of the time of Con- 
 stantine. The manuscripts of the middle ages are no 
 longer in Roman capitals, but in letters resembling in 
 some degree the small Roman printed letter now in 
 use ; and, at a still later period, the manuscripts are 
 in a running hand. * This library also possesses 
 the celebrated manuscript of the Pandects, suppo- 
 sed to be of the time of Justinian in the sixth cen- 
 tury, written in capital letters, which vary a little 
 from the capitals on ancient Roman marbles ; it is 
 on vellum of the size of a large folio book ; it was 
 brought from Pisa, and Cosmo I. caused an edition 
 to be printed from it by Lelio Torelli. A Tacitus, 
 of the eleventh century, is in a running letter. 
 
 The library contains 7000 volumes of manuscripts. 
 Many of them are chained to the desks. 
 
 The building, called the Ufizi, contains several 
 public offices and courts of justice ; and the upper 
 floor is occupied by the gallery. It forms three 
 
 * See Mafiei Verona Illustrata, parte terza, p. 246. 
 
MAGLXABECHIAN LIBRARY. 
 
 £07 
 
 sides of a rectangle ; and on the ground floor is an 
 open colonade or gallery for walking. The stones 
 of the cornice of this colonade are wedge-formed, 
 and combined like the stones of an arch, in order to 
 free the architrave from weight, as in many build- 
 ings, ancient and modern, the architraves are crack- 
 ed by the superincumbent weight. * The architect 
 of the Ufizi was George Vasari. 
 
 In an apartment of this building is kept the Mag- 
 liabechian library, a numerous and valuable collec- 
 tion of printed books, left for the use of the public, 
 with an annual rent for its maintenance, by the cele- 
 brated Magliabechi. The collection has been aug- 
 mented since his time by the addition of other li- 
 braries. 
 
 The number of books is estimated at ninety 
 thousand. There is a large collection of the first 
 printed books of the fifteenth century, and some 
 manuscripts. The public have access to consult 
 books in the library. 
 
 The bust of Magliabechi is in the vestibule. He 
 was born at Florence in 1633, and died in 1714, 
 at the age of 81. He was librarian to the Grand 
 Duke, and passed his life sequestered amongst books, 
 which were his sole occupation and amusement. 
 He never was farther from Florence than Prato, a 
 
 * See Vasari Vite de’ Pittori Introduzzione; and Architet- 
 tura di Palladio. 
 
€08 FLORENCE.— FOSSIL BONES. WAX MODELS. 
 
 distance of ten miles ; and that journey he went on- 
 ly once, and for the purpose of seeing a manuscript. 
 He retained in his memory the substance of the vast 
 number of books he had read. His correspondence 
 was extensive with men of letters, who consulted 
 him on questions of literary history. He published 
 some authors of the middle ages, but no work of 
 his own composition. 
 
 Another library, open for the use of the public* 
 is the Marucellian library. 
 
 Museum of Natural History . 
 
 Near the Palazzo Pitti is a building appropriated 
 to the museum of natural history and of anatomy, 
 the collection of philosophical instruments, and the 
 astronomical observatory. The botanic garden is 
 adjoining. These splendid collections were founded 
 by the Grand Duke Leopold. 
 
 The museum of natural history contains a collec- 
 tion well arranged and named, of stuffed birds and 
 quadrupeds, and preparations in spirits, of fishes, 
 reptiles, worms. Amongst the minerals are fossil 
 bones of elephants, found in Val cT Arno Superior , 
 the bones of a hippopotamus, and the jaw-bone of a 
 physiter whale from the same place. 
 
 The anatomical collection consists of a large se« 
 ries of representations of dissections of the human 
 body, and of some dissections of animals, such as 
 the dissection of the cuttle fish, the progress of the 
 
CHAMjEROPS PALM. 
 
 *209 
 
 growth of the chick in the fecundated egg of a fowl, 
 the progress of the changes of the silk-worm, all mo- 
 delled in wax. The wax is coloured, so that the 
 model resembles the parts in colour as well as in 
 shape. Many of these models were made by a fe- 
 male artist. 
 
 The Abbate Felice Fontana was director in 177V* 
 and promoted the formation of this part of the col- 
 lection, and of the whole establishment. 
 
 The art of making wax models of anatomical pre- 
 parations was practised by Italians in the end of the 
 seventeenth century. Zumbo, a Siracusan, present- 
 ed a wax model of a human head anatomized to the 
 Academy of Sciences of Paris in 1701. f 
 
 The botanic garden is furnished with convenient 
 hot-houses. The Chamaerops humilis grows in the 
 open air, and is the only palm that can endure the 
 winter’s cold in Florence. It grows, likewise, near 
 the sea coast, in the neighbourhood of Genoa. In 
 Rome, where the mid-day sun is nearly two de- 
 grees higher than at Florence, the date palm also 
 thrives in the open air. 
 
 In the Grand Duke’s collection of philosophical 
 
 * Fontana was professor of mathematics at Pisa, and after- 
 wards mathematician to the Grand Duke. Fie published Re- 
 searches on the Venom of the Viper, and some other treatises. 
 
 f See the History of the Academy of Sciences of Paris for 
 the year 1701. 
 
 o 
 
21G 
 
 FLORENCE. — OBSERVATORY. 
 
 instruments, which is very extensive, are some of 
 the instruments used by Galileo, and by the Acade- 
 mia del Cimento. * There is a curious series of old 
 gnomonical and astronomical instruments. The mo- 
 dem instruments are mostly by London makers. 
 
 The observatory is a quadrangular tower, furnish- 
 ed with a large transit instrument by Sisson, and 
 some other instruments. There is another astrono- 
 mical observatory at the Scuole Pie, in the collegio di 
 San Giovanni, where the Padre Ingherami makes 
 observations. It contains a circle by Reichenbach 
 of two feet, and another of nine inches by the same 
 artist. The latter instrument is employed for the 
 purposes of a geometrical survey now making of 
 Tuscany. 
 
 In the vestibule of the museum are busts of Ga- 
 
 * The Academy of Experiment, Academia del Cimento, 
 was formed in 1657, and assembled in the palace of Prince 
 Leopold de’ Medici, who was always present at the experi- 
 ments. The academy published, in 1666, an account of ex- 
 periments in natural philosophy, Saggi di Naturali Sperienze 
 fatte nell Academia del Cimento, of which there is a modern 
 edition published by Targioni Tozzetti. Viviani, Toricelli, 
 and Borelli, were of the nine who composed the academy. 
 Auzout, the French academician, and Steno, a native of Den* 
 mark, were present, and assisted in the experiments. 
 
 In 1667, some of the members having left Florence, and 
 Prince Leopold being made Cardinal, the academy was dis- 
 solved, after an existence of ten yearSc 
 
VESPUCCI.— SCUOLE PIE. SIX 
 
 lileo and of Americo Vespucci. * An old terres- 
 trial globe, three feet in diameter, placed in the 
 portico, and now quite black, might, if cleaned, be 
 interesting to the history of maritime discoveries. 
 It is, I suppose, one of the globes made by Ignazio 
 Dante. 
 
 The college of San Giovanni, called San Giovan- 
 nino, is occupied by the religious order of monks of 
 the Seuole Pie, who are employed in teaching the 
 various branches of knowledge from the elements 
 upwards. The observatory of the college is under 
 the direction of the astronomer Father Xngherami, 
 and is furnished with good modern instruments, as 
 before mentioned. This college of San Giovanni 
 formerly belonged to the Jesuits, and was founded 
 by them in 1551 , eleven years after Toy ola’s order 
 had received the papal approbation from Paul III, 
 Farnese. The college is a considerable building, 
 but the ambitious order of Jesuits has not left such 
 splendid fabrics at Florence as those which shew 
 
 * Amerigo Vespucci was bora near Florence in 1451, and 
 lived to the age of 65. He went in the capacity of astrono- 
 mical observer in an expedition fitted out by the Spanish go, 
 vernment. This expedition landed on the main land, since 
 called South America, which Columbus had discovered a year 
 or two before, Amerigo was employed to draw the charts 
 of the new discoveries ; and in these charts he called the 
 terra firma by his own name America. 
 
212 FLORENCE.— ACADEMIES. WEATHER. 
 
 the wealth and power they attained to in Rome, 
 Venice, and Prague. 
 
 Amongst the men eminent in natural science 
 now living in Florence are, Fabroni, the celebrated 
 chemist ; Targioni Tozzetti, author of Viaggi per 
 la Toscana, I 76 O, Travels in Tuscany, in which he 
 treats of the physical topography and natural pro- 
 ductions ; Nesti, professor of mineralogy, who has 
 published Observations on the Fossil Bones found 
 in the upper Val d'Arno ; Ingherami, professor of 
 astronomy at the Scuole Pie. 
 
 The academy della Crusca published the first 
 edition of their vocabulary of the Italian language 
 in 161S. 
 
 In the eighteenth century, the academia della 
 Crusca, the academia Florentina, the academia degli 
 Apatisti, were united into one under the name of 
 the Academia Florentina, by the Grand Duke Leo- 
 pold, afterwards emperor. There is an agricultural 
 society, l’academia degli Georgofili. 
 
 From the 1st to the 20th of January, Fahrenheit's 
 thermometer, on the outside of a window in the 
 shade, stood from 33 ° to 47° at eight in the morn- 
 ing. Of these twenty days ten or eleven were with- 
 out rain, and several of these were clear with few 
 clouds. The distant hills were covered with snow, 
 which is the case six or seven months in the year. 
 
 The cold in Florence now, in January 1818, is 
 such that fire is often required in rooms in the morn- 
 
ORANGE TREES REQUIRE SHELTER. 
 
 213 
 
 ing and evening. In the afternoon the heat of the 
 sun is considerable, and produces an agreeable 
 warmth. The common people make use of a seal- 
 dino , an earthen pot containing burning charcoal ; 
 this vessel they carry in their hands for the sake of 
 warmth. Men of the better classes, when they go 
 out in winter, wrap themselves in a great-coat with 
 many capes, called pastrano ; this is used also in 
 Venice, Home, and other towns. 
 
 The plants that are cultivated and indigenous in 
 a country, serve as an indication of the prevalent 
 degree of heat and cold. 
 
 Orange trees scarcely bear the winter’s cold with- 
 out covering in Florence, although there are some 
 planted in the open ground in the courts of the mo- 
 nasteries. At Home, nearly two degrees farther 
 south, orange trees bear the winter’s cold, but lemon 
 trees, citron, and some other varieties of the genus 
 Citrus, are covered in winter by houses formed of 
 reeds. On the Boromean islands in the Lago Mag- 
 giore, two degrees north of Florence, orange and 
 lemon trees require to be covered with houses of 
 boards during six months of the year. The Cham as- 
 rops humilis is the only palm that endures the win- 
 ter’s cold in the open air in Florence. There are 
 two kinds of cypress planted in the gardens at 
 Florence, the Cupressus sempervirens, with erect 
 side branches, and the Cupressus dispersa, with side 
 branches nearly horizontal. The cypresses grow to 
 
SI 4? FLORENCE.— CYPRESS WOOD. WINE. 
 
 the height of sixty or seventy feet. Their tapering 
 form and dark green colour render them a beautiful 
 ornament to the gardens and country houses. The 
 cypress is a coniferous tree, but its wood is heavier 
 than the wood of fir and several other pines, and 
 from the longitudinal disposition of its fibres resists 
 being broken across. It is, therefore, used at Flo- 
 rence for making window-frames and bars. The cy- 
 press was introduced into Italy from Crete, as Pliny 
 relates. * 
 
 Most of the ground moderately elevated in the 
 neighbourhood of the city is planted with olive trees, 
 some of which are of a great age, and bear fruit, al- 
 though the wood in the interior of the trunk is quite 
 decayed ; they are planted like fruit trees, in an or- 
 chard, and wheat is sown under them. Fig trees 
 also are cultivated. 
 
 Vines are trained on trees in fields sown with 
 wheat or other grain, and they are not cultivated in 
 vineyards solely appropriated to the culture of the 
 vine, as in Burgundy and Austria. 
 
 The common wine met with in Florence and in 
 Home has little flavour. The more esteemed kinds 
 are the Monte Pulciano, the Orvieto wine, and the 
 Aleatico. 
 
 The Monte Pulciano, the best of the Tuscan 
 wines, is compared by the English to a weak claret, 
 
 * Plin- Hist. Nat, 
 
CHESNUT MEAL. 
 
 n 5 
 
 without any particular flavour. The Tuscan wines 
 do not bear carriage, and do not keep long. They 
 are sometimes sent to Britain in the thin glass flasks 
 woven round with plaited straw, and with a little oil 
 on the surface of the wine, to exclude the air ; this 
 method is not so favourable for keeping the wine as 
 the green bottles well corked. 
 
 Wine from the proprietor’s estate is sold by re- 
 tail in some of the large palaces in Florence \ they 
 have a little window or wicket in the wall just large 
 enough to admit the flask which the purchaser hands 
 in to be filled. 
 
 Chesnut trees are cultivated in the mountainous 
 parts of Tuscany, of the dutchy of Modena, and in 
 other parts of the Apennines, and no grain being 
 produced in these elevated situations, chesnuts con- 
 stitute a principal part of the food of the moun- 
 taineers. Chesnuts are mentioned as the food of 
 the country people in Italy by Virgil. * It is on the 
 ground of a middle elevation, and not on the highest 
 of the mountains, that the chesnut trees grow. The 
 large-fruited kinds are propagated in Tuscany by 
 inoculation. A great part of the chesnuts are dried, 
 they are then hard, and may be ground into meal. 
 Of this meal, mixed with water and baked in a pan 
 over the fire, a mass of paste is made which is used 
 
 * Virgil. Eclog. I. 
 
21 6 FLORENCE,— PLANTS.— GRANARY. 
 
 as food. Its taste is sweetish. It is met with in 
 Florence, Bologna, and Modena. In Tuscany it is 
 called Polenta, a name which, in the north of Italy, 
 is applied to a paste of a similar consistence made 
 of the meal of Indian corn. 
 
 The kernels of the nuts of the Pinus pinea are 
 commonly eaten in Florence, and used as a dessert 
 after dinner. 
 
 Different kinds of garden-stuffs, which in Britain 
 are only produced in summer, are to be had all the 
 year round in Florence and other parts of Italy. 
 Flowers of ranunculus, violet, narcissus, hyacinth, 
 pink, and others, are sold commonly in the market 
 at this season — January. 
 
 In the hedges about Florence grow the Mespilus 
 pyracantha, box, the Laurus nobilis, Viburnum tinus, 
 called Laurus tinus, a kind of Smilax. The caper 
 bush, Capparis spinosa, grows in the crevices of the 
 walls of the town. 
 
 Near Pistoja, going up towards the hills, are the 
 following plants : Vinca minor, or periwinkle ; Ulex 
 Europeus, furze or whin ; Spanish broom, Clematis 
 vitalba, Cistus Italicus, a foot in height, Heleborus 
 viridis. 
 
 The public granary is a mass of masonry about 
 twenty feet high, and containing pits or cavities 
 which have their aperture on the flat top or platform 
 of the edifice. Each aperture is round, and of a 
 
 diameter sufficient to allow a man to go into the pit. 
 
 n 
 
Granary at Florences. page, 216 . 
 

 
 
 
INLAID AGATE AND MOSAIC. 
 
 217 
 
 When the pit is filled with grain the aperture is 
 covered with a stone made to fit, and the top of the 
 building is so disposed that rain-water runs off and 
 does not get into the grain-pits. From the ground 
 to the platform there is an inclined plane with low 
 rounded steps (a scala cordonata) by which horses 
 carry the grain to the pits. 
 
 Inlaid Work in Agate. 
 
 At the 1500, that period when the arts were at 
 the highest in Italy since their revival, several artists 
 wrought in agate and rock crystal ; of these materials 
 they made cups and vases, many of which are seen in 
 one of the rooms of the gallery of Florence. They 
 also made cameos ; and Vasari gives an accoutit of 
 several of these artists and of their works. 
 
 At the same period the art of Tarsia or inlaying 
 in wood of different colours, so as to form the repre- 
 sentation of buildings in perspective, was practised 
 at Verona and in Florence, as Vasari mentions. 
 
 From a combination of the arts of working agate 
 and rock crystal, and of inlaid work, is formed the 
 art of inlaid work in agate (lavoro di commesso, la - 
 voro d’ intersecatura ) now practised in Florence. 
 
 In this manufactory, carried on at the expence of 
 the Grand Duke, agates and other hard stones are 
 cut into various figures, so as to form, when put to- 
 gether, a flat surface exhibiting a picture of shells, 
 flowers, foliage, or other objects. This kind of pic- 
 
£18 STONES USED FOR INLAID WORK, 
 
 lure differs essentially, and in many respects, from 
 Mosaic y the pieces of agate have a considerable sur- 
 face, and are cut into the form of the outline of the 
 object, and the colour of each piece is not uniform 
 over its whole surface ; whereas, in Mosaic, the pieces 
 of enamel are small and all nearly of one form, most 
 frequently square on the surface, and each piece is 
 of one colour. Mosaic is suited to represent the 
 most finished pictures with many variations of tint 
 and shade. Inlaid agate is only fit for simple de- 
 signs, composed of outline and a few colours, with- 
 out a gradual passage from one colour to the other. 
 
 The stones chiefly employed are, — -agates of a light 
 colour, for the enlightened parts, and darker colour- 
 ed agates for the shadows ; sometimes the piece of 
 agate is light coloured in one part and dark colour- 
 ed on the rest of its surface, and is employed to re- 
 present a body partly enlightened and partly in the 
 shade,— chalcedony and jasper of different colours, 
 —lapis lazuli, and other stones suitable by their co- 
 lour, hardness, and polish. Antique red porphyry 
 is frequently employed for the ground of the tables. 
 Some stones of less hardness, but distinguished by 
 their fine colour and polish, are also used, such as 
 antique yellow marble, oriental alabaster, and others. 
 Likewise substances not of the mineral class, mother- 
 of-pearl shell, and red coral. 
 
 Formerly, pictures of buildings and human figures 
 wore made in this way, such as a View of the Pan* 
 
BOW AND WIRE FOR SLITTING AGATES. 21 Q 
 
 theon, — a View of the Tomb of Cecilia Metella,— 
 Sculpture represented by a Sculptor at work on a 
 Statue of Apollo, &c. These pictures are about 
 two feet long. But this inlaid work is not capable 
 of the details of outline, nor the gradation of colour 
 requisite for these subjects, so that, after much la- 
 bour and expence, the effect of a pleasing imitation 
 is as far from being produced as in the most ordi- 
 nary and cheapest print. 
 
 But the subjects now chosen admit of a better 
 imitation in inlaid work. These subjects are shells, 
 corals, flowers, vases, and grotesque foliage. They 
 are generally disposed so as to form a table, and 
 produce a beautiful effect. A round table of this 
 kind, with grotesque foliage, is admired in one of 
 the rooms of the gallery $ and several fine tables, 
 ornamented with figures of shells and corals, are in 
 the Pitti Palace, and were in the gallery of Apollo 
 in the Louvre, during Bonaparte’s reign. 
 
 The agates and other stones are slit by a bow 
 with an iron wire and emery, into slices about an 
 eighth of an inch thick. This iron wire effects the 
 same purpose as the thin iron wheel used by our 
 lapidaries. The slices are then polished, and after- 
 wards they are cut by the wire into the form requi- 
 site for the design of which the piece makes a part. 
 The different pieces that form the picture of a shell 
 or other object, are put together and cemented on 
 a slab of sandstone half an inch thick, which forms 
 
%°20 FLORENCE. ENGRAVING IN THE XV. CENT. 
 
 a temporary base. When all the ornaments of a 
 table are done, pieces of antique red porphyry, cut 
 into slices of the same thickness as the agates, are 
 so adjusted as to cover entirely the table which it 
 is proposed to form. Out of this ground of por- 
 phyry pieces are cut by the wire, and taken out, 
 exactly of the form of each picture or ornament. 
 The pictures are then taken off from their tempor- 
 ary base, and the porphyry ground being cement- 
 ed on a slab of sandstone of the size of the table, the 
 pictures or ornaments are cemented in the vacuities 
 of the ground. The cement used is a composition 
 of wax, turpentine, and resins. 
 
 Copperplate Engraving, 
 
 Vasari relates, that the first who took impressions 
 from an engraved plate of metal in Florence was 
 Maso (that is Tomaso) Finiguerra, a Florentine 
 goldsmith, who flourished about the year 1460. It 
 was the fashion at that time to have casquets and 
 silver boxes engraved with designs cut by the grac- 
 ing tool, and the engraved lines were afterwards 
 filled up by running into them a melted sulfuret of 
 silver, called Niello, the composition of which is 
 given in the printed works of Benvenuto Cellini. 
 Maso took impressions in clay from the engraved 
 silver plate, and on the clay he cast melted sul- 
 phur ; the lines on the sulphur he filled with 
 lamp black, and from these, on a moist paper. 
 
DELLA BELLA.— R. MORGHEN. 221 
 
 rolled on a wooden cylinder, he took an impres- 
 sion. After this, Andrea Mantegna, about the 
 year 1490, had his own pictures engraved in.Rome. 
 Albert Durer, excellent in his engravings both on 
 wood and copper, as well as in his paintings, flou- 
 rished in the year 1500, and his works were so much 
 in request, that Marc Antonio Raimondi of Bolog- 
 na counterfeited his engravings, and his mark, and 
 sold the counterfeits at Venice, for which Albert 
 Durer sought redress from the tribunals of that 
 city. * 
 
 In the seventeenth century, two natives of Flo- 
 rence were celebrated as copperplate engravers, An- 
 tonio Tempesta, known by his engravings of hunt- 
 ing scenes and wild beasts, pupil of the painter, 
 Santi di Tito ; and Stefano Della Bella, who passed 
 part of his life in France, and engraved the Siege 
 of Arras, of Saint Omer, &c. ; Della Bella also paint- 
 ed, and some of his pictures are in the Louvre gal- 
 lery. 
 
 Many fine engravings, after celebrated pictures, 
 have been executed in Florence of late years, by 
 that excellent engraver, Raphael Morghen, and his 
 pupils. 
 
 Alabaster Figures . 
 
 There are several stud'll , or manufactories of 
 
 * Vasari, Vita di Marc Antonio Bolognese. 
 
222 FLORENCE.— CARRARA MARBLE. 
 
 small statues, and other ornaments, sculptured in 
 white gypseous alabaster. This alabaster is brought 
 from Vol terra, and other parts of Tuscany. It is 
 more easily cut than Carrara marble. It is not got 
 in large blocks ; the largest statues made of it are 
 about two feet in height. 
 
 Carrara marble excels all others that are at this 
 day quarried in Europe for the purpose of the sta- 
 tuary, by reason of the large sized blocks that can 
 be obtained. Those from which Michael Angelo’s 
 David, and Bandinelli’s Hercules, in the Piazza del 
 Granduca, were made, were about twenty feet 
 high, by ten feet square. The Carrara marble is 
 also, for the most part, free from fissures, and from 
 veins of quartz, both of which are hurtful to the 
 sculptor, although sometimes cavities occur in it fil- 
 led with quartz crystals, of a beautiful lustre and 
 transparence, which are to be seen in many collec- 
 tions of minerals. Many antique Roman statues 
 are of marble from Carrara, anciently called Luni. 
 The marble of which the Greek statues are made 
 is from Paros, and from Mount Pentelicon near 
 Athens. 
 
 The gypseous alabaster does not endure so long 
 as marble, when exposed to the weather ; the sul- 
 phate of lime, of which it consists, being more 
 readily dissolved and corroded by the rain than the 
 carbonate of lime, which constitutes marble. At 
 Leghorn, also, there is an establishment where these 
 
 alabaster statues are sold. 
 
 12 
 
CASTELFRANCO’S MAJOLICA. 
 
 Manufacture of Earthenware. 
 
 Pliny states, that Etruria was the first country 
 of Italy in which the art of making pottery was 
 practised, and that the art was afterwards carried to 
 the greatest perfection there $ and Arezzo was par- 
 ticularly celebrated for this kind of manufacture* 
 
 The ancient Romans made much use of vessels 
 of earthenware, called amphorae, for keeping wine ; 
 wooden casks, however, were employed for trans- 
 porting wine, as appears from the waggons loaded 
 with casks represented on the column of Antoni- 
 nus. At Madrid, at this day, wine is kept in earthen 
 vessels, and not in casks. % 
 
 It is uncertain whether the antique ancient earth- 
 en vases, painted with mythological subjects, were 
 made in Etruria , most of them have been found in 
 the kingdom of Naples, and in Sicily, as before 
 mentioned, when speaking of the gallery. After 
 the revival of the arts in Europe, several ingenious 
 artists, in different countries, ameliorated the menu* 
 facture. Castelfrancc, at Faenza, in the beginning 
 of the sixteenth century, manufactured the Majo- 
 lica, or earthenware, decorated with designs after 
 Raphael and Julio Romano, specimens of which 
 are preserved in many collections. In France, 
 
 * See a paper of Percy, member qf the Institute of France* 
 published about 18Q0, 
 
224 SAXON PORCELAIN. 
 
 Bernard de Palissy, versed in the chemical know- 
 ledge of his time, improved the art of making Fa- 
 yence. Bottcher, an apothecary at Dresden, pro- 
 duced two or three kinds of pottery, one of which 
 is of a brownish red colour, semivitrified, and so 
 hard as to receive a polish on the lapidary’s wheel, 
 aiid in that way to acquire the lustre of glazed earth- 
 enware ; cups, and other vessels of this singular 
 earthenware, are seen in the Japan Palace at Dres- 
 den. In 1709, * Bottcher first composed the white 
 porcelain in imitation of the Chinese, which is now 
 made at the King of Saxony’s manufactory at Meis* 
 sen. Other manufactories of porcelain of a semi- 
 vitrified body, like the Chinese, have been establish- 
 ed at Sevres, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, Naples, Flo- 
 rence, Vicenza, in Staffordshire, Worcester, &c. 
 
 The decomposed white granite of Limoges, of 
 which the French porcelain is made, and the de- 
 composed white granite of Cornwall, were found to 
 be similar to the materials used in making porcelain 
 in China, so that, with this material, the Europeans 
 have been able to form a porcelain in imitation of 
 the Chinese, and having the same semivitrified body. 
 The most considerable manufactory of this kind of 
 porcelain is the manufactory at Sevres, near Paris, 
 which belongs to the French government. 
 
 * Engelhardt, Erdbeschreibang von Sachsen. 
 
jLUCA della robbia’s earthen figures. QQ 5 
 
 Wedge wood, and other Staffordshire manufactur- 
 ers, have produced the English stone-ware, made of 
 white pipe-clay, much lighter and better glazed than 
 the Delft, Fayence, and Majolica. These three 
 kinds of pottery resemble each other ; they are 
 thick and heavy, and composed of a clay which burns 
 to a yellow, or light red colour ; they are still in 
 use in many parts of Europe. The manufacture of 
 English stoneware is now introduced into several 
 places of France and Italy. 
 
 Amongst those who have distinguished themselves 
 in the manufactory of earthenware, is Luca della 
 Robbia, a Florentine goldsmith and statuary, born 
 in 1888. He made heads and human figures in re- 
 lief, and architectural ornaments of glazed earthen- 
 ware, terra cotta invetnata. These figures were 
 employed in the decoration of buildings, and many 
 of them, the works of the Della Robbias, are seen 
 in the churches of Florence to this day. They are 
 in a good style of sculpture, the colours of the glaz- 
 ing are white, blue, green, brown, and yellow. The 
 art of making these glazed earthen figures invented 
 by Luca, was taught by him to his brothers Otta- 
 viano and Agostino, and was afterwards practised by 
 his nephew Andrea ; but the family and the art be- 
 came extinct in Florence about the year 1560. * 
 
 * See Vasari, Vita di Luca della Robbia, 
 
 P 
 
$26 PORCELAIN. — LARGE OIL JARS. 
 
 Other artists in unglazed terra cotta were, An- 
 drea da Sansovino, master of the celebrated sculptor 
 and architect Jacopo Sansovino ; Antonio Begarelli, 
 of Modena, who died in 1565, and whose works 
 were highly praised by Buonaroti, as Vasari relates 
 in his Life of Buonaroti. 
 
 Stoneware* after the Staffordshire manner, and 
 porcelain, of a pretty good quality, are made at 
 Doccia, near Florence, at the manufactory of the 
 Marquis Ginori. The porcelain earth is not got 
 in the country* but imported from Vicenza. This 
 manufactory of porcelain has been established up- 
 wards of fifty years. 
 
 Large vessels of red earthenware are made at 
 Florence and in other parts of Tuscany for holding 
 oil and other purposes ; some of them are four feet 
 high* They are not made on the potter’s wheel, 
 but are formed of rolls of clay, built up one over the 
 other, round a conical form of wood. The large oil 
 jars are contracted at the mouth, and are made in 
 two pieces, which are joined whilst the clay is wet. 
 Large earthen jars of this kind are also made at 
 Rome ; and in Spain they are made, and used at 
 Madrid for holding wine in place of wooden casks. 
 
 Glass Manufactory . 
 
 At a small glasshouse in Florence, the flasks for 
 wine and oil, known in England by the name of 
 Florence flasks, are made, and other vessels of thin 
 
 12 
 
FLORENCE.”MANUFACTURES. $27 
 
 glass. There are glasshouses also in Bologna and 
 Rome for making the thin wine decanters, and other 
 vessels commonly used in Italy. Some stronger 
 vessels of white glass are imported from Bohemia. 
 
 Silk and Woollen Manufactory . 
 
 A considerable quantity of silk is grown in Tus- 
 cany ; and flowered silks, like those of Lyons, are 
 manufactured at Florence. The apartments of the 
 Palazzo Pitti are hung with these Florentine silks, 
 the floors are covered with carpets made at Florence. 
 There are also manufactories of coarse woollen cloth 
 in the city, and several high open edifices are seen 
 in the town, called Tiratoii , for exposing the cloth 
 on tenters. Formerly the woollen manufactory was 
 one of the principal branches of trade of the place® 
 
 Essences . 
 
 Essence of orange flowers, and other vegetable 
 essential oils, are obtained by distillation in Flo- 
 rence, and are exported from Leghorn to Britain, 
 and the north of Europe ; as are also the preserved 
 citrons, plums, &c. made at Florence. A particular 
 mixture of preserved fruit bears the name of Mos«. 
 tarda de Frutti. 
 
 Straw Plaiting . 
 
 The Tuscan straw hats are superior to those of 
 "any other country in Europe, and the plaiting of 
 
£28 
 
 FLORENCE, 
 
 straw for hats occupies the countrywomen and girls 
 in the neighbourhood of Florence. They have 
 straw assorted into many different kinds, according 
 to its fineness, the one kind gradually more slender 
 than the preceding. The wheat for producing this 
 straw is sown in March, and is cut before the grain 
 is ripe. 
 
 Coins . 
 
 In 1252 was first coined in Florence the Gigliato, 
 a money so called from the figure of the lily, the 
 arms of Florence, with which it was stamped. The 
 Fiorino also derives its name from the flower im- 
 pressed on it. 
 
 The coins most common in circulation in Florence 
 are, The Scudo or Francescone of silver equal to 10 
 paoli value in English money, about 5S-— pence. The 
 half scudo of silver equal to 5 paoli. A coin of sil- 
 ver of 2 paoli. The paolo , a silver coin, its current 
 value in English money is 5j~ pence. The craz - 
 zia, a small and very thin coin of copper, mixed 
 with a little silver, equal to -§• of a paolo, and its 
 current value in English money is of a penny. 
 
 Hospitals . 
 
 The hospital of Santa Maria Nuova for the recep- 
 tion and treatment of sick is large, containing 600 
 beds for male, and 600 for female patients, and appears 
 to be kept in good order. The beds, of which there 
 
HOSPITAL NUNS* 
 
 229 
 
 is one for each patient, are disposed in long and 
 spacious rooms, in two rows, one row on each side 
 of the room ; these rooms are on the principal floor, 
 and have no floor above them. The hospitals at 
 Rome are built in a similar way. The sick are 
 waited on by nuns, a custom which prevails also in 
 the hospitals in France, where the Soeurs hospita - 
 lieres did before and during the revolution, and still 
 continue to perform the duty of waiting on the sick* 
 They even assisted in the ambulatory hospitals of the 
 army, and during the war in France in 1814, the 
 Soeur Marthe was so distinguished by her activity 
 and skill in the care of the w r ounded, that she at- 
 tracted the notice of the allied sovereigns, and was 
 presented with the decorations of their orders. 
 There are also friars who wait on the male patients in 
 the hospitals at Florence. Attached to the hospital 
 of Santa Maria Nova is a school of medicine, and a 
 small botanic garden. The sick or wounded are 
 carried to the hospital by the members of the 
 charitable company or fraternity della misericordia , 
 who are inhabitants of Florence of the class of 
 tradesmen, and voluntarily perform this office* 
 Whilst on duty they are covered, so that they can- 
 not be known, having a black cloak and hood, which 
 covers the face with two holes left for the eyes. * 
 
 * The confraternities for charitable purposes in Italy had 
 
230 FLORENCE.— WALLS OF THE TOWN. 
 
 Another large hospital is that of Bonifazio. It 
 is allotted for the reception of patients affected with 
 chronic diseases. 
 
 The hospital degl’ Innocent i is for the reception of 
 children that are exposed. 
 
 There is a workhouse in Florence, to which all 
 -individuals found begging within the city are trans- 
 ferred,— an institution introduced by Bonaparte, 
 who also suppressed public street-begging in Paris. 
 Prostitutes are not allowed to appear in the streets 
 in the evening *, a regulation which is also enforced 
 in Rome, Bologna, and other towns of the Pope’s 
 territory. 
 
 Florence is surrounded by a wall, with square 
 towers, in the old manner of fortification, which 
 was sufficient before the use of cannon. In the 
 circuit of the wall there are two forts, with pen- 
 tagonal bastions in the more recent style. One of 
 them, the fortezza di Belvedere, constructed in 
 1500, under the direction of the architect Buonta- 
 
 their origin in the middle ages, and resembled in some degree 
 the Sodalitates of the ancient Romans, such as the Fratres 
 Arvales, the Septemviri Epulonum, and others. The confra- 
 ternities were very numerous in Italy before the last invasion 
 of the French, there was, at least, one in every town, and 
 several still exist. Each confraternity assembles in a par- 
 ticular church. 
 
 The Scuole Grandi in Venice, which were amongst the 
 most considerable of the confraternities in Italy, originated in 
 
XII 
 
 [Page 231, Vol. I.] 
 
 Pavement of the Streets of Florence, 
 
 Vertical Transverse Section . 
 
 Horizontal Plan . 
 
 Breadth of the Street • 
 
 5 10 15 feet. 
 
 Etched by Lisai's. 
 
 Drawn by W. A. C. 
 
STREET PAVEMENT. 
 
 231 
 
 lenti, is situated on the elevated ground to the left 
 of the Arno, near the Boboli garden ; the other, 
 the Castello San Giovanni, is a pentagon on the 
 northern part of the walL 
 
 The streets are rather sparingly lighted at night, 
 the lamps being too distant, about 500 feet from 
 each other. 
 
 The pavement of the streets, which was begun in 
 1250, by the architect Lapo di Colle and his son, 
 is formed of a stratified stone of a secondary forma- 
 tion, somewhat of the nature of sandstone, called 
 pietra forte, and from its grey and bluish colour, 
 pietra bigia, pietra turchina. These different names 
 are applied to different strata of this kind of stone, 
 according to their colour and other qualities. The 
 building stone of Florence is from the same quar- 
 ries. The stones employed in paving the streets, 
 when taken from the quarry, are nine inches or a 
 foot in thickness ; the upper and under surfaces 
 plane and nearly parallel. They are irregular po- 
 lygonal prisms. The upper surface of each is equal 
 
 the twelfth century. The word schola was used by the ancient 
 Romans to denote a corporation of tradesmen, as was also the 
 word universitas, and the memberswere called scholares. From 
 this application of the word schola, it came afterwards to de- 
 note the societies for works of mercy at Venice. See Mura- 
 tori Antiquitates Italicae medii aevi, dissertatio 75, de piis laico-* 
 rum confraternitatibus. 
 
23$ FLORENTINE WRITTEN LANGUAGE* 
 
 to two or three square feet. In order to form the 
 pavement, these stones are laid in mortar ; and af- 
 ter they are laid, the surfaces of the different stones 
 are hewn into one plane by the chisel. Lines are 
 also drove with the chisel, to render the surface less 
 slippery for horses. When a new stone is to be put 
 in, the worn-out stone being taken out, the edges 
 of the adjoining stones are cut, so as to give the 
 opening the form of the new stone that is to be in- 
 serted. The pavement of Florence is kept in good 
 repair. The pavement of Pistoja and other towns 
 of Tuscany, that are within reach of quarries of this 
 kind of stone, is similar ; as is also the pavement of 
 Trieste, in the neighbourhood of which strata of 
 this stone occur. 
 
 The Italian used by good writers, and in the con- 
 versation of the better classes, is called by Dante 
 Yolgare Illustre. * 
 
 This book and conversation language was found- 
 ed upon the Tuscan dialect, because the principal 
 authors, at the revival of letters, Dante, Petrarch, 
 and Bocaccio, were natives of Florence. After 
 
 * See Dante de Vulgari Eloquio, Paris, 1572, a work in 
 which the author enumerates fourteen different dialects of 
 Italian, which are very much altered by political changes and 
 other causes since his time. Some of them have become less 
 coarse. The Neapolitan is the least changed. Fontanini 
 della Eloquenza Volgare, is a commentary on Dante. Ven. 
 1737. See also Adelung's Mithridates. 
 
 s 
 
FLORENTINE DIALECT., 
 
 S3S 
 
 Dante’s time, therefore, it was called Tuscan, lin- 
 gua Toscana or Fiorentina. 
 
 The great reputation of the writings of these 
 three authors occasioned their language to be ge* 
 nerally adopted, and in particular the extensive cir- 
 culation of the Decameron, or Tales of Bocaccio, of 
 which Mazuchelli enumerates ninety-seven Italian 
 editions. 
 
 The reputation of the Florentine written language 
 was fixed by the flourishing state of Florence under 
 the Medici family. 
 
 The Florentines have shewn much jealousy in re- 
 spect to the origin of the Italian written language £ 
 and, in 1717? Girolamo Gigli, who called in ques- 
 tion the claims of Florence, and asserted those of 
 his native city of Siena, was condemned to have his 
 work, Vocabolario delle Opere di Santa Cater ina 
 de Siena e della lingua Sanese, publicly burnt, him- 
 self expelled from the Academia della Crusca, and 
 banished, at the request of the Archduke, forty 
 miles from Rome. 
 
 The pronunciation of Italian in Florence is pecu- 
 liar. The c is pronounced like the German ch, in 
 the word bach. Cavallo is pronounced havallo ; 
 casa is pronounced hasa. 
 
 The Tancia, a comedy by Michael Angelo Buo- 
 naroti, nephew of the great artist Buonaroti, is 
 written in the language of the common people of 
 Florence and the vicinity. 
 
%34f ACADEMIE IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, 
 
 Benvenuto Cellini’s life contains many peculiar 
 words and phrases, and is considered by Adelung as 
 an example of the provincial dialect of Florence in 
 the beginning of the sixteenth century. 
 
 In the fifteenth, but chiefly in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, the societies called Academie were frequent 
 in different towns of Italy, The greatest number 
 were meetings held periodically, at which the mem- 
 bers read verses of their composition, discourses and 
 essays on literary subjects, and held literary conver- 
 sation ; some collections of these verses are pub- 
 lished, and lives of the eminent members, as 
 those of the Arcadi of Rome. *■ Some were insti- 
 tuted for promoting music, painting, architecture, 
 and other arts and exercises. The Academia della 
 Virtu was instituted at Rome in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury, by Claudio Tolomeo, a poet and man of let- 
 ters, for the purpose of illustrating the writings of 
 Vitruvius. The Academia de’ Lincei, at Rome, 
 was for the study of natural history. The Acade- 
 mia de 5 Filarmonici, at Verona, for music. The 
 Academia Olimpica, at Vicenza, for theatrical re- 
 presentations. The Academia della Cavalerizza of 
 Vicenza for riding. Some academie attended to na- 
 tural philosophy, as the Academia del Cimento, at 
 Florence, in the seventeenth century. The Aca- 
 
 * Yite degli Arcadi Illustri, 
 
ACADEMIES 
 
 <236 
 
 demia della Crusca of Florence was employed in the 
 Italian language in the sixteenth century. 
 
 Many of these academie were very inconsider- 
 able. The names they adopted are singular, and 
 often not in praise of the academy. There were in 
 different towns of Italy, the Academia degli Infiam- 
 mati, de’ Transformati of Milan in the sixteenth 
 century, de’ Costanti, degli Occulti, degli Intrepidi, 
 degli Affidati of Pavia in the sixteenth century, 
 degli Insensati of Pistoja, and a multitude of others.* 
 The name of the academy was connected with a de- 
 vice and motto, (impresa.) That of the Academia 
 degli Incogniti of Turin had for its device a picture, 
 covered with a green veil, with the inscription, Pro* 
 feret aetas. The Academia della Crusca of Florence, 
 the picture of a bolting machine, which separates 
 the fine flour from the bran, the word crusca signi- 
 fying bran. In the sixteenth century, devices were 
 much in fashion also for individuals ; and every per- 
 son that thought himself of some note, and above the 
 vulgar, had a device and motto. 
 
 One of Goldoni’s comedies contains a lively and 
 humorous representation of the academie for read- 
 ing verses. The word academia is often used in 
 Italy to denote an evening party for the purpose of 
 conversation. Academia di musica is a concert. 
 
 About the middle of the sixteenth century, three 
 
 # See Tiraboscln st, dell, left, I tab 
 
<236 
 
 FLORENCE. THEATRES. 
 
 academie , or societies, were formed at Florence for 
 the encouragement of theatrical representations, the 
 Academia degli Infocati, degli Immobili, and de’ 
 Sorgenti. Each had a theatre, and each strove to 
 excel. Some of the theatres now in Florence be- 
 long to societies, called Academie, who let them out 
 to companies of comedians. 
 
 Dramas in music, with recitative, (called 11 cantar 
 recitativo, il cantar senza cantar,) came into use in 
 Italy at the end of the sixteenth century. Giulio 
 Caccini was the inventor of recitative, and composed 
 the music for the first musical dramas. The words 
 were written by Rinuccini ; and his Eurydice was 
 represented at Florence in 1600 , at the celebration 
 of the nuptials of Mary de 5 Medici with Henry IV. 
 of France. * 
 
 During the Carnival, which was this year (1818) 
 from the 1st of January to the 1st of February, its 
 duration depending on the time that Easter hap- 
 pens, there were in Florence representations almost 
 every evening in seven different theatres. These 
 were the Pergola theatre, where musical operas are 
 performed ) three or four theatres, where comedies 
 of Goldoni and others, and tragedies of Alfieri were 
 acted ; the rest, in which plays were performed, and 
 farces interspersed with songs, cantilene di trivia , 
 were lesser theatres, with inferior performers, and 
 
 * See Tirabeschi st. dell lett Ttal, 
 
MASKS.— INNSp 
 
 %37 
 
 the price of admission small. None of all these 
 theatres is very remarkable for the size or beauty of 
 the house. At other times, out of the Carnival, 
 performances are exhibited on two only of the 
 theatres. 
 
 During the Carnival, there were public masked 
 balls in a room adjoining to the Pergola theatre \ 
 and masks walked the quay by the side of the river, 
 called Lung d’Arno, some time before sunset. It 
 is mostly women that are masked ; the better sort 
 dressed in black dominos, others as contadine , mon - 
 tagnare , country girls, inhabitants of the mountains, 
 as pazze or romps ; some of the common people are 
 as harlequins, See. 
 
 There are many inns and hotels of various mag* 
 nitudes for the accommodation of travellers in Flo- 
 rence. Schneider’s is the most noted, being a 
 large handsome house, on the left bank of the Arno^ 
 with an establishment on a great scale* 
 
CHAPTER V, 
 
 The Cascine . — Poggio Imperiale . — Fiesole. — -Pistoja. — Iron 
 Forge. — Florence to Pisa . — Pisa. — Leghorn. — Florence to 
 Rome by Perugia . — Val di Chiana. — Agriculture.- — A rez- 
 zo. — Trasimene Lake . — Perugia. — Early printed Books . — ■ 
 Foligno. — Clitumnus. — Spoleto. — Cascade of Terni. — Nar- 
 ni.— Country near Rome.-— Ponte Molle . 
 
 On the right side of the Arno, a little below the 
 city, are the Cascine,* an extensive piece of ground, 
 laid out partly as a wood, and partly in pasture, 
 with a casino of the Grand Duke’s, built in 1787? 
 in the wings of which are dairy rooms, and houses 
 where milch cows are kept. This ground is the pub- 
 lic walk of Florence, and contains a spacious way 
 between trees, used as a drive for carriages. 
 
 On an eminence, a mile without the gate called 
 Porta Fomana, is situated a palace with a handsome 
 front, belonging to the Grand Duke, and called the 
 
 * Cascina signifies a field, or a dairy farm, where cows are 
 fed, for the purpose of making cheese ; the word is derived 
 from Cacio, cheese. 
 
POGGIO IMPER. GLAZED EARTHEN STATUE. 23 9 
 
 Poggio * Imperiale. The ascent to the palace from 
 the Porta Romana is by an avenue, planted with 
 cypresses and evergreen oaks. In the garden is a 
 statue of a Wounded Adonis, by Buonaroti. 
 
 Fiesole . 
 
 Fiesole is a village three miles from Florence, 
 upon a hill which is part of a ridge composed of 
 dark coloured sandstone, in secondary strata. Fiesole 
 is elevated perhaps 600 or 700 feet above Florence. 
 The whole way is an ascent, and passes amongst 
 villages and farms with olive plantations. Pliny, 
 in his Natural History, speaks of the Florentines, 
 Prssfluenti Arno adpositi, but there are no re- 
 mains of ancient Roman buildings at Florence. 
 Some inconsiderable remains of Roman buildings 
 are to be seen at Fiesole, which is named in Pliny 
 Fesulae. 
 
 The cathedral was built in 1028. The nave is 
 separated from the aisles by columns with Corin- 
 thian capitals, supporting round arches. In the 
 church is a seated statue of Saint Romulus, the 
 size of life, in glazed earthenware, (terra invetriata,) 
 made about 1560, by Luca della Robbia, or his ne- 
 phews. 
 
 * The word Poggio signifies a hill, and is of the same ori- 
 gin as the old French word Puy, in Latin Podium,, which oc- 
 curs in the name of the mountain Puy de Dome in Auvergne, 
 Puy en Velay, and others. 
 
240 
 
 VIEW FROM FIESOLE. MONKS. 
 
 From the Monastery of the Franciscans, situated 
 on the highest part of the eminence, there is an ex- 
 tensive view of the country to the west, through which 
 the Arno runs ; Florence is seen below, and Pistoja 
 is perceived in the distance ; to the north, to the east, 
 and to the south, the view is composed of mountains. 
 This monastery is occupied by monks of a mendicant 
 order, and, in different places of Tuscany and the 
 Pope’s territory, communities of mendicant monks 
 begin to re-establish themselves, living on the alms 
 they collect. A Franciscan is frequently seen on 
 the road followed by a horse to carry the bread, 
 grain, and other articles he obtains from the devo- 
 tion of the farmers. The monastic societies of wo- 
 men and men engaged in the care of the sick, and 
 the Scuole Pie , at Florence, a society employed in 
 the education of youth, were found to be useful, 
 and therefore have subsisted amidst the general sup- 
 pression. The Jesuits are reinstated, and have a 
 college for the purposes of education at Rome. 
 Most of the other orders who subsisted without di- 
 rect and daily begging, have not yet been able to 
 collect funds for their re-establishment. 
 
 Florence to Pistoja . 
 
 The road from Florence to Pistoja passes through 
 a plain and highly cultivated country, four to six 
 miles in breadth. The hills which confine this val- 
 ley of the Arno are mostly bare of wood, and rocky. 
 
MULBERRY TREES. ARUNDO DONAX. 
 
 241 
 
 with snow on the highest parts of those to the north, 
 now, on the 14th January 1818. Olive trees are 
 planted on the lower part of the rising grounds. 
 
 Every foot of the plain is carefully cultivated. 
 The fields are planted with the white mulberry tree, 
 called in Tuscany Gelso, the leaves of which are 
 brought to market in the spring, and sold to those 
 who rear silk-worms. The ground under the trees 
 is occupied by wheat, now green, and sown on nar- 
 row ridges about eighteen inches broad, with deep 
 furrow's between the ridges. A good deal of flax 
 is grown here, and is now, at this season, six inches 
 high. Poplar, and other pollard trees, with vines 
 trained on them, are planted on the edges of the 
 fields, and formed into an espalier with reeds. The 
 Arundo donax, a strong reed, eight feet high, is 
 cultivated for the purpose of forming these espaliers, 
 and for making pales for fences. 
 
 The fields are separated by ditches of running 
 water, which are derived from torrents flowing from 
 the mountains. These torrents are embanked on 
 each side, to prevent their overflowing. The gra- 
 velly bed of the torrent is most frequently higher 
 than the adjacent country. 
 
 The fields are generally dug with a spade, and 
 not ploughed. Great attention is paid to the coh 
 lecting of manure, in consequence of which, the 
 ■streets of Florence are kept very clean. The dung 
 
 Q 
 
IRON FORGES. 
 
 242 
 
 and dead leaves are carefully collected from the 
 high roads. 
 
 The road from Florence to Pistoja is well made 
 with river gravel, and kept in good order. 
 
 Pistoja. 
 
 Pistoja is a neat town, with some of the churches 
 built on the model of those at Florence, amongst 
 others a baptisterium, built in 1337 by Andrea Pi- 
 sano, * like that of Florence and Pisa. In like man- 
 ner in Padua, Pirano, and other towns situated in the 
 territory which formerly belonged to the Venetian 
 republic, the churches and towers are copied from 
 the buildings of the same description in Venice. 
 
 Amongst the hills three miles from Pistoja are 
 forges where iron is made into bars. The iron is 
 brought in blooms, or irregularly shaped masses, pos- 
 sessing an imperfect state of malleability, from fur- 
 naces situated in the Maremma, a district on the 
 sea-coast near the island of Elba, and the furnaces 
 are supplied with ore from the famous mine in that 
 island, t In the Maremma of Siena also there is 
 
 * Vasari Vit. di Andrea Pisano. 
 
 | The island of Elba is mentioned by Pliny, Hist. Nat. 
 lib. iii. 12. “ Ilva cum ferri rnetallis ... a Graecis iEthalia 
 dicta/’ The works supplied with Elba ore and those at Bre- 
 scia are the principal manufactories of iron in Italy. Mines 
 of other metals are rare in Italy, although Pliny thinks it for 
 the honour of the country to say that they exist, but the 
 Senate, with a view of sparing the ground of Italy, would not 
 
WIRE-MILL. 
 
 243 
 
 •a vein which contains iron, copper, and galena, si- 
 tuated between the limestone and the shist ; the 
 copper was smelted and silver extracted from the 
 galena in I 76 O. Sulphuret of antimony occurs in 
 the same district. * * 
 
 A mile nearer to Pistoja is an establishment where 
 rods made at the forge are drawn out into iron-wire. 
 The machinery is put in motion by the impulsion of 
 water upon small wheels four or five feet in diameter. 
 The motion thus produced is rapid, and does not re- 
 quire to be accelerated and transferred to another 
 axis by toothed wheels, but the power of the water is 
 much more completely obtained by an overshot wheel, 
 as Smeaton has proved. Wire of various sizes is ma- 
 nufactured. After the wire has been drawn it is hard, 
 and, in order to recover its flexibility, it must be heated 
 and suffered to cool gradually. For this process of 
 annealing large cast-iron vessels are employed, four 
 feet high, in form of a truncated cone with the base 
 uppermost. The wire is put into the vessels, which 
 are then covered and luted tight. The vessel is sur- 
 rounded by a brick wall at some distance from its 
 sides, and burning charcoal is put between the vessel 
 and the wall. These cast-iron vessels are made at the 
 
 allow the mines to be worked, “ metallorum omnium fertili- 
 tate nullis cedit terris Italia. Sed interdictum id vetere con- 
 sulto patrum, Italiae parci jubentium.” Hist. Nat, lib. iii. 24. 
 
 * Berber’s Letters. 
 
£44 PAPER MILL. —FIN US PINEA. 
 
 furnaces in the Maremma, and they are almost the 
 only articles of cast-iron I observed in Tuscany. 
 
 The water coming from the hills near Pistoja is 
 also employed in working a paper manufactory. A 
 small water-wheel, three or four feet in diameter, 
 puts in motion wooden hammers to reduce the mois- 
 tened rags into pulp, a mode which is still used 
 either solely or partially in Bohemia and some other 
 parts of Europe, although it has been abandoned 
 many years ago in Britain, and has given place to 
 the engine in which the moistened rags are convert- 
 ed into pulp by passing between two sharp edges of 
 steel, the one of which is fixed on a revolving cy- 
 linder. 
 
 Florence to Pisa. 
 
 The road from Florence to Pisa and Leghorn 
 passes, after leaving Florence, through a cultivated 
 country on the left of the Arno, and then over sandy 
 hills, on which trees of the Pinus pinea are dissemi- 
 nated. The large cones of this pine are in form like 
 a pine apple, and contain kernels inclosed in a hard 
 shell ; these kernels are agreeable to the taste, and 
 are much eaten in Tuscany. The Pinus pinaster is 
 also indigenous in Tuscany. 
 
 At Montelupo there is a palace and preserve be- 
 longing to the Grand Duke. The preserve for 
 hares, partridges, and other game, consists of fifty 
 or sixty acres of wood-land inclosed by a wall. There 
 are wild boars in the country, near the sea-coast. 
 
 When there is a sufficient quantity of water to 
 
OCTAGONAL CHURCH AT PISA, 245 
 
 cover the gravel banks and shallows in the Arno, 
 the traveller may come by water from Florence to 
 Pisa. The boats, loaded with merchandize, descend 
 at a good rate. 
 
 Pisa . 
 
 Pisa is built like Florence. Through the middle 
 of the city flows the Arno, embanked with stone 
 quays and a broad street on each side. The river 
 is larger than at Florence, and has several bridges 
 over it. 
 
 Some of the public buildings also are constructed 
 in the manner of those in the capital of Tuscany. 
 The church of Saint John, or Baptisterium, re- 
 sembles in form the octagonal church of St John 
 the Baptist at Florence in its form and situation, 
 near the portal of the cathedral.* It is less spacious, 
 
 * Of the ancient churches of a round or octagonal form, 
 some of which were constructed for baptism, are,- — the church 
 of Santa Constanza at Rome, built in the time of Constantine ; 
 the church of Santa Maria Maggiore, near Nocera, accord- 
 ing to the view in Cameron’s Ancient Baths, is quite like 
 Santa Constanza in form and size ; San Stefano rotonda at 
 Rome, said to be built by Saint Simplicius, resembles Santa 
 Constantia in the general form, but is much larger ; the Bap- 
 tistery of San Giovanni, in fonte, near the Lateran Basilic at 
 Rome. Differing from these in architecture, and resembling 
 each other, are the churches of Saint John the Baptist at 
 Florence, Pisa, and Pistoja; the octagonal round arched Bap- 
 tistery at Cremona, of which there is a view in Grsevii, Thes. 
 
£46 PISA. CATHEDRAL.— CAMPO SANTO. 
 
 the interior is decorated with two large columns of 
 reddish granite, about thirty feet high, said to be of 
 Elba granite, and with a pulpit of marble sculptur- 
 ed in relief ; on the Baptisterium is inscribed the 
 year of its foundation, 1 163.^ 
 
 The Cathedral, a fine old building with round 
 arches, is constructed of marble. It was" built, as 
 Vasari relates, in 1016, by Buschetto, a Greek 
 architect, t The nave is separated from the aisles 
 by fifty or sixty large columns of greyish coloured 
 granite. Some of them are said to be from Elba 
 and Sardinia ; they are surmounted by Corinthian 
 capitals. At the principal portal are three large 
 bronze doors, with sculptures in relief, by Giovanni 
 Bologna. 
 
 The Campo Santo , or burying-ground, is a rec- 
 
 Antiquitatum, Ital. Tom. III. There is a small ancient Bap- 
 tistery at Ravenna. The round building called Theodoric’s 
 tomb, at Ravenna, seems to belong to another class. The 
 round church of the Temple in London, of pointed- arched ar- 
 chitecture, and the round church at Cambridge, differ from 
 the Tuscan Baptisteries in the disposition of their parts. The 
 round form of the ancient Roman fabrics, the Pantheon, and 
 the small temple of Vesta at Rome, existed before they were 
 used as churches. 
 
 * Vasari says it was built in 1060, which does not agree 
 with the inscription on the building. — Vasari Vite de Pitt, proe- 
 mio delle Vite, p. 74. 
 
 f Vasar. Vit. proem, p. 73. 
 
 6 
 
PICTURES IN FRESCO* 
 
 24 7 
 
 tangle surrounded by a spacious corridor or portico, 
 the interior wall of which is perforated by round 
 arched windows, ornamented with pointed-arched 
 ribs. The length is 388 English feet, the breadth 
 127. This structure was built in the year 1200, by 
 the architect Giovanni Pisano. Under the portico 
 are many sarcophagi and inscribed tomb-stones of 
 the ancient Roman times and of the middle ages. 
 A large antique vase of white marble, in relief, with 
 figures of bacchanals, approaches in size to the Me * 
 dici vase; Amongst the tombs of modern times is 
 a monument in memory of Algarotti, erected by 
 Frederick IL King of Prussia. * 
 
 The fresco pictures on the wall of the portico 
 are the works of Giotto, and of his pupils Benozzo 
 Gozzoli, and Rondinelli. On another part of the 
 wall is a picture by Andrew and Simon Orcag- 
 na, pupils of Giotto, t representing the infernal re- 
 
 * In the inscription, Frederick styles Algarotti the rival of 
 Ovid, and the disciple of Newton ; 
 
 Algarotti Ovidii oemulo , Newtoni discipub Fredericas . 
 
 Algarotti was born at Venice, and died at Pisa in 1765. Fre- 
 derick erected a monument over the tomb of another of his 
 literary friends, the Marquis D’Argens et Aix. He even 
 testified his remembrance of his favourite dogs by a monu- 
 ment, and in front of the Sans Souci palace at Potsdam, 
 eleven tomb-stones are seen, each inscribed with the name of 
 the dog that lies under it. 
 
 f Giotto died in 1336 , Andrew Orcagna died about 1360, 
 at the age of 70. See Vasari Vitte de* Pittori. 
 
£48 PISA. INCLINED TOWER. VIEW. 
 
 gions and the last judgment, with figures lying on 
 the ground and breathing out their souls, which 
 have a human form. In a chapel, at one end of the 
 gallery, are kept some old pictures of a smaller size. 
 A virgin by Cimabue, and a picture by Giovanni 
 Pisano, the master of Cimabue. 
 
 The inclined or hanging tower is constructed of 
 large squared blocks of a compact marble, which is 
 well adapted for building, and brought from the 
 quarries of Mount Saint Julian near Pisa. The 
 outside is formed by several stories of round arched 
 open galleries. A stair three feet wide, formed in 
 the thickness of the wall, leads to each of the galle- 
 ries and to the top. The ground at Pisa is alluvial 
 and insecure for foundations, which require to be 
 laid on piles or upon arches, the piers of which are 
 founded on piles, as Vasari * mentions. The founda- 
 tions of this tower, it appears, were not sufficiently 
 solid, so that they sunk on one side, and gave the 
 building the inclined position it now has. The 
 sinking has taken place without producing any con- 
 siderable fissure in the walls. The deviation from 
 the perpendicular is sixteen feet on the outside, 
 and twelve feet within. 
 
 The fine and extensive view from the top of the 
 tower comprehends the plain to the west, with the 
 
 * Visari Vite de’ Pitt, 
 
ANCIENT STATE.— UNIVERSITY* 
 
 249 
 
 Arno running through it, and beyond that the sea 
 and the small rocky island of Meloria. To the 
 north, mountains, the nearest of which are free from 
 snow, but the more distant and higher are covered 
 with snow at this season, on the 27th of January 
 1818. 
 
 The ancient city of Pisa was founded by a Greek 
 colony, according to Pliny. Pisa, in the middle 
 ages, became a powerful republic, possessed of an ex- 
 tensive trade, and the rival of Genoa. But in i 298 
 the fleet of the Pisans was destroyed by the Geno- 
 ese, and the republic of Pisa never recovered from 
 this calamity. 
 
 In the wars between the Florentines and Pisans 
 in 1862, the Pisan troops were commanded by an 
 English leader, John Aucud, (perhaps Hawkwood,) 
 as Villani relates. The Florentines at last got pos- 
 session of Pisa in 1406, by the treason of Gamba- 
 corta, the captain-general of the Pisans. 
 
 The remains of ancient Roman baths at Pisa are 
 described by Montfaucon and others. The natural 
 warm baths now in use are at a short distance from 
 Pisa. 
 
 Pisa in 1406 came into the possession of the 
 Florentines, who for some time encouraged the 
 schools at Florence, and allowed the university of 
 Pisa to languish, but in 1472 they re-established 
 the university of Pisa, and Lorenzo de’ Medici, then 
 at the head of affairs in Florence, was one of the 
 
250 
 
 TORICELLI.— MALPIGHI. 
 
 chief promoters of this new foundation. The uni- 
 versity suffered again from war and pestilence, and 
 was revived by Cosmo I. Grand Duke of Tuscany, 
 in 1 543. In the seventeenth century the university 
 was protected and encouraged by Cosmo II., Fer- 
 dinand II., and Cosmo III. 
 
 Amongst the professors at Pisa in the seventeenth 
 century was the great Galileo, and the eminent 
 names of Viviani, Toricelli, * Redi, t Malpighi, 
 
 * Toricelli was born at Faenza in 1608, and died in 1647, 
 at the age of 39. He studied at Rome under Father Castelli, 
 and lived in the house with Galileo at Arcetri, for a few 
 months before the death of Galileo. He was then appointed 
 mathematician to the Grand Duke. His most celebrated dis- 
 covery is the barometer ; and he was the first who shewed 
 that the cause of the rise of the liquid in a pump, and of the 
 height at which the mercury stands in the barometer, is the 
 pressure of the column of external air reaching to the top of 
 the atmosphere, and that this column of air is an exact coun- 
 terpoise to the column of fluid in the tube, and, therefore, 
 the column of mercury, a dense liquid, is shorter than the 
 column of water, a rarer liquid, the heights being inversely as 
 the densities. He also discovered the quadrature of the cy- 
 cloid. 
 
 f Redi, a native of Arezzo, died in 1694. He published Ob- 
 servations on Insects, on the Venom of the Viper, and other 
 works. 
 
 Malpighi was born near Bologna in 1628, and died 1694, 
 aged 66- He was professor of the theory of medicine at 
 Fisa, and afterwards at Messina, and at Bologna. Three 
 years before his death he was appointed physician to Xnne- 
 
BORELLI. CASTELLX. 
 
 %5l 
 
 Borelli, * * Castelli. t Some foreign professors were 
 employed at Pisa in the seventeenth century* 
 amongst whom are mentioned Thomas Dempster, 
 Finch the English anatomist, the Dutch professor 
 Gronovius* 
 
 cent XII. A monument was erected over his tomb in the 
 church of Saint Gregory at Bologna. He published his Ana- 
 tomical and Microscopical Observations on the Lungs, the 
 Spleen, the Gravid Uterus, &c. A treatise on Silk Worms ; 
 Observations on the Anatomy of Plants. Like to the Dutch 
 anatomist Ruysch, he employed the microscope in all his re- 
 searches. 
 
 * Aljonzo Borelli was born at Naples in 1608, and died in 
 1679. He was professor at Pisa for eleven years, and was pa- 
 tronized at Rome by Cristina, Queen of Sweden, and to gain 
 favour with her he incurred the blame of writing in defence 
 of judicial astrology. His most celebrated work is that en- 
 titled de Motu Animalium, in which he explains the mo- 
 tion of the limbs upon mathematical principles. See Mazzu- 
 chelli Scritt. Ital. ; and Vitae Ital. doctrin. excell, by Angiolo 
 Fabroni. 
 
 f Castelli was born at Brescia in 1595, and died in 164L 
 He was a Benedictine, and was professor of mathematics at 
 Pisa, from 1615 to 1625, and afterwards in the Sapienza at 
 Rome. He was the pupil and friend of Galileo* and the 
 first accurate writer on the measure of the quantity of wa- 
 ter in a running stream. His most celebrated works are La 
 Misura delle acque correnti, and Le Dimostrazioni Geome- 
 triche della Misura delle acque correnti, published in the 
 Racolta d’Autori del moto delle acque, Fir. 1723. He wrote 
 concerning the Laguna of Venice, and was employed in em- 
 banking the lake of Perugia, 
 
PISA. BOTANIC GARDEN. 
 
 °25°Z 
 
 The university possesses an observatory and a bo- 
 tanic garden, which is kept in good order. I re- 
 marked in this garden a tree of the Salisburea or 
 Gingko biloba, thirty feet high, and the Sacharum 
 strictum, a tall arundinaceous plant, a native of the 
 coast of Tuscany. * 
 
 The winter at Pisa is milder than at Florence, 
 Florence being nearer the mountains. On this ac- 
 count the Grand Duke passes part of the winter at 
 Pisa, and had not yet left it at this time in the end 
 of January. Many English also reside in Pisa for 
 the relief which a mild climate affords in affections 
 of the lungs. 
 
 Orange and lemon trees, extended on walls, are 
 now covered with ripe fruit ; the climate, however. 
 
 * The botanic garden of Pisa was formed in 1544, under 
 the inspection of the botanist Ghini, nine years after the 
 formation of the botanic garden at Padua. Andrea Cesal ~ 
 pino was superintendent of the garden and professor in the 
 university of Pisa for several years. After leaving Pisa he 
 was physician to Clement VIII., and professor of medicine 
 in the university of the Sapienza at Rome. He published, at 
 Florence, in 15-83, his work on Plants, in sixteen books, and 
 was one of the first who formed a methodical arrangement of 
 plants, and this arrangement was founded on the form of the 
 fruit. Be was also known as a commentator on the dialectics 
 and metaphysics of Aristotle. He was a native of Arezzo, 
 and lived to the age of 84, from 1519 to 1603. 
 
 A history of this botanic garden is contained in the Ag- 
 grandementi, &c. of Dr Targione Tozetti. 
 
POPULATION AND EXPORTS OF LEGHORN. 253 
 
 is cold enough to require that they should be some- 
 times covered with boards or mats. 
 
 Near Pisa the Grand Duke has a park where 
 dromedaries are kept ; they breed, and are employ- 
 ed as beasts of burden. 
 
 From Pisa to Leghorn the country is little culti- 
 vated. Montfaucon speaks of this district as cover- 
 ed with evergreen oaks when he saw it in 1701 ; it 
 is now cleared of trees and intersected by large 
 ditches full of water. A navigable canal serves for 
 conveying goods between Leghorn and Pisa. 
 
 Leghorn. 
 
 Leghorn, in the fifteenth century, was a small 
 and inconsiderable place, and, in 1421, it was ceded 
 to the Grand Duke of Tuscany by Genoa in ex- 
 change for Sarzana. It is now a place of great im- 
 portance to Tuscany, by the revenue arising from its 
 trade, and it displays the activity of a flourishing 
 commercial city, being one of the principal places of 
 trade in the Mediterranean. It contains from 
 50,000 to 60,000 inhabitants. 
 
 The exports from Leghorn, in 1818, were, ac- 
 cording to the list published in alphabetical order, 
 almonds of Sicily, anchovies, argol, or rock moss, 
 white and red; barilla of Sicily, berries juniper, brim- 
 stone, or unrefined sulphur of Tuscany and of Sicily, 
 brimstone in rolls ; camels' hair , cheese Parmesan, 
 cream of tartar ; essence of lemon, essence of her- 
 
251 < LEGHORN.— EXPORTS AND IMPORTS* 
 
 gamot ; fruits , including currants of Zante, figs, 
 raisins of Smyrna, raisins of Lipari ; gum arabic, 
 gum tragacanth, gall nuts of Aleppo, black gall nuts 
 of Smyrna ; irios root of Florence ; liquorice paste 
 of Calabria, liquorice paste of Sicily ; madder roots 
 of Cyprus, madder roots of Smyrna, manna, marble 
 of Carrara is occasionally exported to Britain from 
 Leghorn, and other mischie or marbles of mixed 
 colours of Tuscany ; opium , olive oil of Lucca, of 
 Gallipoli, olive oil of the Morea and Levant ; rags , 
 Tuscan; safflower , scammony of Aleppo, senna leaves 
 of Alexandria, shumac of Sicily ; skins, lamb and kid 
 skins; valonea the acorn of a. species of oak used 
 in dyeing. 
 
 The imports, — alum, English ; cassia lignea, cin- 
 namon, cloves, coccineal ; cocoa of Caracca, of Marti- 
 nique, and of Marignon; coffee, West Indian, Bour- 
 bon and Mocha ; cotton ; dye-woods , including log- 
 wood, fustic ; fsh, including, cod-fish called in 
 Italy Baccala, pilchards, red- herrings of Yarmouth, 
 salmon, stockfish; flax of Riga, and of Petersburgh ; 
 hides , Buenos Ayres, Brazil, Russia leather, and Ros- 
 wals ; indigo, Guatimala, Caracca, Bengal ; iron, 
 Russia, Swedish ; lead ; English sole leather ; nan- 
 keens , nutmegs ; pepper, Jamaica ; pimento ; rice, Ca- 
 rolina; rum, Jamaica and Leeward Island ; shell lac , 
 refined sugar, crushed, brown, and other kinds ; 
 tin- plates, tin in bars ; wheat from Odessa, much 
 of which is re-exported to England. 
 
CORAL BEADS.— SHELLY LIMESTONE. 255 
 
 The manufacture of red coral beads is carried on 
 extensively at Leghorn, and chiefly by Jews. The 
 coral is fished near Sardinia. An extensive oil 
 warehouse is one of the objects of curiosity visited 
 by travellers. In the new baths that are construct- 
 ing, which are to be supplied with sea water, each 
 bathing vessel (bagnuola) is a trough formed out of 
 one piece of marble, like the ancient Roman bathing 
 vessels. 
 
 Near the harbour is a statue of Ferdinand I. 
 Grand Duke of Tuscany, with four figures attached 
 to the pedestal, the work of Giovanni Bologna. 
 
 A great trading town requires the free exercise 
 of different forms of worship, and this liberty the 
 Catholic governments find it their interest to accord. 
 There is at Leghorn a chapel in which the church 
 of England service is performed by the chaplain of 
 the English factory, a Greek church, and a large 
 synagogue. 
 
 The Cavipo Inglese, or English burying-ground, 
 contains many monuments in memory of consuls 
 and merchants who resided in Leghorn, and of 
 English carried off at Pisa by pulmonary diseases. 
 
 The mole runs a considerable way out to sea ; it 
 is founded on a rock of stratified shelly limestone. 
 
 Florence to Rome . 
 
 I left Florence for Rome by the way of Perugia. 
 The road passes along the Arno in the valley eal- 
 
256 val d’arno.-— fossil bones. 
 
 led Val d 9 Arno Superior , in which the bones of 
 the elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus, are 
 found. 
 
 It is now well known, that bones of these large 
 quadrupeds are found in a fossil state in most of 
 the countries of Europe ; and the deposition of all 
 these bones seems to have taken place at one period 
 and in similar circumstances, whatever these circum- 
 stances may have been. Many naturalists suppose, 
 that the heat of the temperate climates was once 
 greater than it now is, and that the elephants and 
 other animals lived in the places where their bones 
 are found. Cuvier has shewn, that the bones of the va- 
 rious quadrupeds in the gypsum rock of Montmartre 
 differ in several respects from the bones of all the 
 species of animals that are now known to naturalists. 
 The bones calcareously incrusted in the crevices of 
 the rock of Gibraltar are more recent, and resemble 
 the quadrupeds that now exist. Naturalists, with- 
 in the last fifty years, have collected and published' 
 a great many observations with respect to fossil 
 bones. A century ago some authors maintain- 
 ed, that the elephants’ bones of Val d’Arno Su- 
 perior were the remains of the elephants of Han- 
 nibal ; but Livy relates that of the fourteen with 
 which Hannibal began his journey across the Alps, 
 only one remained when he had got to the Val d’ 
 Arno. It was in the marshes of this valley that 
 
 6 
 
VAL DI CHIANA* 
 
 %57 
 
 Hannibal lost one of bis eyes by inflammation from 
 exposure to cold and wet. 
 
 Amongst the mountains to the right of the Arno, 
 and twenty miles from Florence, is the monastery 
 of Valombrosa, which was the chief monastery of 
 the order of monks called from the place Valombro- 
 sani. 
 
 Before Arezzo we cross the river Chiana, ancient- 
 ly named Clanis, which runs into the Arno ; ano- 
 ther part of the waters of the same valley of the 
 Chiana goes into the Tiber. 
 
 In the time of Tiberius, an inundation of the 
 Tiber having destroyed many buildings in Rome, 
 it was proposed to turn away some of the streams 
 that feed the Tiber. Amongst others, the waters 
 of the valley of Chiana were to be turned into the 
 Arno. The Florentines petitioned against this, 
 and the project was not put in execution. * 
 
 Cassini and Viviani were employed, the former 
 by the Pope, the latter by the Grand Duke of Tus- 
 cany, to regulate the distribution of the waters of 
 this valley. 
 
 Agriculture of the Val di Chiana . 
 
 The Val di Chiana is forty miles broad, and se- 
 
 * ** Seu preces coloniarum seu difficultas operum, sive su- 
 perstitio, valuit ut in sententiam Pisonis concederetur qui oil 
 mutandum censuerat.” Tacit. Annal. I. 7,0» 
 
 R 
 
258 
 
 VAL DI CHIANA. 
 
 ven to twelve broad, laid out in cultivated fields, di- 
 vided into rectangular inclosures and squares, with 
 ditches round every ten or twelve acres, and maples 
 and elms, supporting vines, on the banks of the 
 ditches. 
 
 It was converted into arable ground from the 
 State of a marsh, by Cosmo I. in 1560, soon after 
 he got possession of the territory of Siena, in which 
 territory half of the Val di Chiana is included. 
 The Chiana, in its whole length, was confined be- 
 tween embankments ; and then the streams that run 
 into it were confined in a similar way. 
 
 The Val di Chiana is interspersed with consider- 
 able farm-houses, like gentlemen’s seats, with exten- 
 sive offices. Many of these are the property of the 
 Grand Duke, to whom a great part of the valley 
 belongs, and were built by the Grand Duke Leo- 
 pold, * who also constructed roads, bridges, em- 
 bankments, and drains in the Val di Chiana, and in 
 the Maremma of Siena, which has thereby become 
 less unhealthy ; and for these beneficial works, and 
 for the good regulations he made, bis memory is 
 honoured in Tuscany. 
 
 Part of the Val di Chiana belonged formerly to 
 the military order of San Stefano, which was sup- 
 
 * The Grand Duke Peter Leopold succeeded his brother 
 Joseph IL on the imperial throne in 1790. 
 
MODE OF LETTING LAND. 25 $ 
 
 pressed by the French ; and their territory is now 
 the property of the Grand Duke. This order was 
 in some measure re-established by the Grand Duke 
 in 1818. 
 
 In different parts of Britain we see as heavy crops 
 as can stand on the ground ; but they have in Tus- 
 cany a greater variety of produce, and can follow 
 a more speedy rotation of productive crops, advan- 
 tages which are owing to the warmth and fine wea- 
 ther of the climate. Tuscany is 120 English miles 
 in length, on a meridian line from north to south, 
 and 100 miles in breadth from east to west ; but 
 a great part of the surface is mountainous, and not 
 susceptible of cultivation. 
 
 The farmers in the Val di Chiana, and in other 
 parts of Tuscany, are steel -bow tenants, coloni par- 
 tiarii, the whole produce of the ground being divided 
 into two equal parts, of which the landlord gets one, 
 and the farmer the other. The landlord is at 
 the expence of manure, the repair of walls and 
 other fences, reeds and stakes for vines, agricultural 
 implements, and live stock of oxen, &c. land tax, 
 and of keeping a stew ard, or fattore , who collects 
 and sells the landlord’s share of the produce ; — of 
 buildings for keeping the grain and produce, and of 
 houses, granaries, and stables for the farmer and 
 stock. The farmer, on his part, cultivates the 
 ground, and performs all the requisite labour ; he 
 also bears half the expence of seed and some other 
 articles. 
 
260 
 
 KENT OF LAND. 
 
 In this mode of farming land, as in other cases 
 where the rents are paid in grain, the value of the 
 rent keeps pace with the price of grain. The land- 
 lord is put to the expence of keeping a steward to 
 sell the produce, which expence he does not incur 
 in case of a fixed rent. Writers on political econo- 
 my are of opinion, that this mode of letting ground 
 occurs chiefly in countries where the farmers are 
 not possessed of capital sufficient to purchase the 
 stock necessary for the farm, and maintain that it 
 tends more to the improvement of agriculture, when 
 the farmers are possessed of capital, and pay a sta- 
 ted rent. 
 
 In Scotland it used to be estimated, that the rent 
 paid to the landlord generally amounts to one-third 
 of the total produce of the farm. Of the other two- 
 thirds, one is employed in defraying the expence of 
 stock and cultivation, and the other is the profit of 
 the farmer. If it be supposed, that in Tuscany the 
 landlord’s expence on the farm is 1 6 per cent., or 
 between a sixth and a seventh of his half share of 
 the produce, then his profit, or clear rent, will be 
 in this proportion of one- third of the produce. 
 
 The following is an account of the landlord’s 
 profit, or rent, from a piece of ground, not remark- 
 ably fertile, near Siena, which was estimated to con- 
 tain about an acre, and situated too far from the 
 town to be benefited by its vicinity. But the ac- 
 count appears to be imperfect, as no mention is 
 made of the expence of stock, &c. 
 
VALUE OF LAND. 
 
 26 1 
 
 Wheat on one half of the ground, 
 Beans on one half, 
 
 Wine, 250 quarts, 
 
 Olive oil, . 
 
 Cherries, peaches, apples, &c. 
 
 Scud. lir. sol. den. 
 
 3 3-00 
 2 6 0 0 
 
 10 0 0 0 
 
 2 6 0 0 
 
 0 4 0 0 
 
 Value of the landlord’s half of the gross pro 
 
 duce of one acre, . . . . 19 5 0 0 
 
 Scud. lir. sol. den. 
 
 Deduct, reeds and stakes for 
 
 vines, . . . 1 0 10 0 
 
 Repair of walls, &c. . . 0 2 6 8 
 
 Manure, . . . 13 0 0 
 
 Land-tax, . . . 0 4 0 0 
 
 3 2 6 8 
 
 The expence to be deducted, . . 3 2 6 8 
 
 The landlord’s profit, or rent, from one acre, 16 2 3 4 
 
 equal to L. 4, Is. 8d. Sterling. 
 
 Land near Siena sells at twenty years* purchase 
 of the nett annual profit, or free rent. 
 
 The mode of dividing the produce of the soil be- 
 tween landlord and fanner was in use in Italy in 
 the time of the ancient Romans. The farmers were 
 called Coloni partiarii, * and are mentioned by Cato, 
 and other ancient writers on agriculture. 
 
 The system of the ancients, however, differed in 
 respect to the slaves, whether saleable separately or 
 
 * Pandect. 1. 25, Locati. 
 
J 
 
 %62 METAYER.—0XEN. 
 
 attached to the land, glebag adscript!, who were em- 
 ployed in its cultivation. The ancient Romans had 
 also lands let at fixed rent, as had the Italians of the 
 middle age, who employed to denote this rent the 
 word fitto from the Latin fixus, census fixus, written 
 in the middle ages census fictus ; and from this the^ 
 modern Italian word affitare, to let. * 
 
 Medietarius, in the middle ages, was used in the 
 same sense as partiarius, and from medietarius is 
 formed the French word metayer, which originally 
 signified a steelbow tenant, but is now applied to 
 farmers of every kind in whatever way their rent is 
 allotted, and metayrie is a farm generally. 
 
 The oxen used in the plough in Tuscany are very 
 tractable, but slow. In the Val di Chiana, one pair, 
 wrought by one man, ploughs an acre a day. This 
 is done in eight hours, and the man works four hours 
 more in other labours of the farm. The ground 
 when prepared for seed is as fine as garden mould. 
 
 The oxen in Tuscany are beautiful, large, of a 
 grey colour, with fine deep chests, little bone, and, 
 when fat for the butcher, at four years old, weigh 
 seventy-five stone English, and sell for a price equal 
 to L. °Zl Sterling. 
 
 At a great fair for the sale of these cattle at Cor- 
 tona, an astonishing number were seen, beautiful, 
 
 * Muratori, Ant. Ital. Dissert, Undecima. 
 12 
 
MARKETS. — ‘ROTATION - OF CROPS* 
 
 c 2 63 
 
 and in good condition. They have abundance of 
 green food all the year. 
 
 Beef and mutton are sold in the market at Siena 
 at fourpence Sterling for a quantity equal to an avoir- 
 dupois pound. Pork, majale , is good, and fed entirely 
 in the woods on acorns and some chesnuts. Wild 
 boar, cignale , is plenty and good in the market at 
 Siena, and is sold at fivepence Sterling for an avoir- 
 dupois pound. 
 
 Wheat is sown much thinner than in Britain, on 
 broad drills, and the seed is covered in with hand 
 hoes. They sow wheat in the end of October and 
 beginning of November, and reap in the beginning 
 of July. The wheat is well filled, clear, and hard. 
 The farms are so small that they cut down the corn 
 with the labourers usually employed, and have only 
 occasion to hire one or two additional* 
 
 The country people, the coniadinl , cut down the 
 crop usually in six days, and during that time they 
 work very hard under the bright and elevated sun 
 in July, from four in the morning till eight or nine 
 in the evening, with only two hours of rest in the 
 day. Most of the country people are small farmers, 
 few of them are labourers only. The wages in the 
 country ninepence, in Siena tenpence a-day. 
 
 After reaping, the corn is immediately thrashed 
 out and laid up in granaries, which form part of the 
 farm-houses. 
 
 Near Siena they sow wheat every second year 
 
264* AGRICULTURE. WINE. SILK. 
 
 The usual return of wheat is twelve to fourteen 
 after one ; when wheat is taken two years succes- 
 sively, the second year’s crop is somewhat less pro- 
 ductive than the first. 
 
 The usual course of husbandry, in the Val di 
 Chiana, is two years wheat, with a little manure 
 each year. Then, after the second year’s wheat is 
 reaped, the land is plowed and turnips are sown ; 
 the turnips are off the ground by April. Then the 
 land is dug, manured, and planted with Indian corn, 
 beans, hemp ; or, if the land is not manured, it is 
 sown with kidney beans, lupines, a kind of clover, 
 vetches mixed with oats, lupinelli ; the three last are 
 for the cattle ; the lupines, after they have grown for 
 some time, are generally plowed in as manure. 
 
 The crop of turnips is great, and the turnips are 
 of a large size. It never freezes strong enough to 
 injure them. The profit from Indian corn and 
 hemp is greater than from wheat, but they both 
 require more manure, and must be dug. The pro- 
 duce on wine is considerable, but the wine is of an 
 inferior quality in most parts of Tuscany; Vines 
 are planted on espaliers thirty or forty yards from 
 each other, and corn is cultivated on the ground 
 between them. 
 
 The Monte Pulciano, the most esteemed wine in 
 Tuscany, is like a weak claret, with little flavour, 
 and does not bear the voyage to England. 
 
 The profit on silk is also considerable. Of an 
 
COLMATA. 
 
 265 
 
 estate in the Yal di Chiana of L. 2500 Sterling a 
 year, L. 600 of the rent was from the white mulber- 
 ry trees called gelsi, and the rearing of silk-worms. 
 
 In many parts of Italy the proprietors of the 
 white mulberry trees, which are planted as hedge- 
 rows in the cultivated fields, do not grow silk, but 
 send the leaves to market to supply those who have 
 silk- worms. 
 
 All the fallow crops are well hoed. The wheat 
 is sown in broad drills, and they often hoe between 
 the drills. The wheat when grown is generally so 
 strong as to leave no visible marks of the drills, and 
 is higher than a man’s height. 
 
 Although the ground is lower than the water in 
 the rivers, yet the Yal di Chiana is said not to be 
 unhealthy. The countrymen never go out in the 
 morning without eating bread, and drinking some 
 wine. They look stout and healthy. The Val 
 d’Arno di Sopra is considered to be equal in fertility 
 to the Val di Chiana. 
 
 In the Yal di Chiana, fields that are too low are 
 raised and fertilized by the process called colmata, 
 which is done in the following manner. The field 
 is surrounded by an embankment to confine the 
 water. The dike of the rivulet is broken down, so 
 as to admit the muddy water of the high floods. 
 The Chiana itself is too powerful a 'body of water to 
 be used for this purpose ; it is only the streams that 
 
 flow into the Chiana that are used. This water is 
 
 6 
 
s866 
 
 COLMATA. 
 
 allowed to settle and deposit its mud on the field. 
 The water is then let off into the river at the lower 
 end of the field, by a discharging course called 
 scolo, and in French canal d’ecoulment. The wa- 
 ter course which conducts the water from a river, 
 either to a field for irrigation, or to a mill, is 
 called gora. In this manner a field will be raised 
 five and a half, and sometimes seven and a half feet 
 in ten years, if the dike is broken down to the 
 bottom, the field will be raised the same height in 
 seven years, but then in this case gravel is also car- 
 ried in along with the mud. In a field of twenty - 
 five acres, which had been six years under the pro- 
 cess of colmata, in which the dike was broken down 
 to within three feet of the bottom, the process was 
 seen to be so far advanced that only another year 
 was requisite for its completion. The floods in 
 this instance had been much charged with soil. 
 The water which comes off cultivated land com- 
 pletes the process sooner then that which comes off 
 hill and wood-lands. Almost the whole of the Val 
 di Chiana has been raised by the process of col- 
 mata. 
 
 A proprietor, whose field is not adjacent to a 
 stream, may conduct the stream through the inter- 
 vening lands of another proprietor, on paying the 
 damage he occasions. The process of colmata is 
 expensive, because the ground is unproductive dur- 
 ing the seven or eight years that the process lasts ; 
 
COLMATA. ^67 
 
 but this is soon repaid with great profit by the ferti- 
 lity of the newly deposited soil. 
 
 By the gravel which the rivers carry and deposit, 
 their bed is much raised above the level of the adjoin- 
 ing fields ; so that, in order to carry off the rain-wa- 
 ter from the fields, drains are formed, which pass in 
 arched conduits under the embanked rivers, and go 
 into larger drains, which pass to the lowest part of 
 the plain near Arezzo, and there enter the Chian a. 
 
 The soil in the Val di Chiana is generally the 
 same to the depth of six feet from the surface, and 
 under that is gravel or sand. After the com- 
 pletion of the process of colmata, the expence of 
 which is always repaid with profit, the ground is 
 cultivated for five years on the proprietor’s own ac- 
 count ; and the produce during these five years re- 
 pays the expence of the process of colmata with pro- 
 fit. The two first years it is sown with Indian com, 
 (gran turco,) and sometimes hemp, the soil being 
 then too strong for wheat. The next three it is 
 sown with wheat, without any manure. The pro- 
 duce of wheat in this highly fertile state of the soil 
 is twenty from one, whilst, in the usual state of the 
 ground, the return of wheat is from twelve to four- 
 teen after one. After this the field is let out in the 
 ordinary way to the farmers, the contadini. * 
 
 * The above remarks on the agriculture of the Val di 
 
268 
 
 AREZZO. 
 
 An operation similar to the Colmata has been 
 practised near Gainsborough. 
 
 Arezzo was the birth place of several persons of 
 celebrity, of whom are the following : 
 
 Guido d? Arezzo, who improved the theory and 
 practice of church-music in the eleventh century, 
 was a monk in one of the monasteries of Arezzo 
 about the year 1020. His treatise on music, called 
 Micro! ogus, has not been printed, but exists in ma- 
 nuscript in some libraries. * 
 
 Leonardo Bruni Arettino was born in 1369, and 
 died in 1444. He was apostolic secretary to Inno- 
 cent VII., and afterwards chancellor of the repub- 
 lic of Florence. He published in Latin the Histo- 
 ry of Florence from its Origin to 1404 ; De Orb 
 gine Urbis Mantuas ; The Lives of Petrarch and 
 Dante. A monument is erected to his memory in 
 Santa Croce at Florence. 
 
 Chiana and of Tuscany are collected from the notes of a gen- 
 tleman well acquainted with British agriculture, who lately 
 passed a year in that part of Italy, 
 
 The following works treat of the agriculture of Italy ; — Sis- 
 mondi, Tableau de I’ Agriculture Toscane, Genev. 1801 - 
 
 Lettres d’ltalie, a M. Pictet, en j 8 1 2 et 1813, par de Chateau- 
 vieux, Paris, 1816;— La Coltivazione is an esteemed poem 
 on the subject, written in the sixteenth century, by Alaman- 
 ni, a Florentine, in the service of Francis I. of France. 
 
 * Tiraboschi stor. dell. 1. It. Tom. ill. p. 395. 
 

 VASARI. ' TKASIMENE LAKE* 269 
 
 Georgia Vasari, born in 1512, painter and ar- 
 chitect, and author of the Lives of the Painters. 
 He was pupil of Buonaroti, and of Andrea del Sarto. 
 Many of his pictures are to be seen in Florence ; 
 they are generally much crowded with figures. 
 The building, called the Ufizj, which contains the 
 gallery, is his architecture. In his Lives of the 
 Painters, he is too partial to his countrymen the 
 Tuscans, and is deficient in accuracy, not citing au- 
 thors in support of his assertions in doubtful points 
 of the history of the arts. 
 
 Pietro Arettino , a writer noted for the venality 
 and impudence of his satirical productions. 
 
 After Arezzo and Cortona the road passes along 
 the east side of the lake of Perugia, anciently called 
 Lacus Trasimenus. Between the edge of the lake 
 and the precipitous banks there is only room for the 
 road. 
 
 In this place, and in the year 217 before Christ, the 
 battle of the Trasimene lake took place, one of the 
 few signal defeats the Romans met with whilst they 
 were growing in power. Hannibal was encamped 
 on the high ground which is traversed by the road 
 from the lake to Perugia. He fell upon the Ro- 
 man army whilst it was coining up in the narrow 
 pass between the lake and the hills. The Romans, 
 not informed of the position of Hannibal’s army, 
 did not expect an attack. They fought, but in the 
 greatest confusion, each man for himself, without 
 
BATTLE.™— PLANTS. 
 
 °270 
 
 any attention to military orders. After a desperate 
 contest for three hours, the Consul Flaminius being 
 killed, the Romans gave up hopes and fled. Some 
 tried to save themselves by swimming, but the 
 breadth of the lake was too great, and they were 
 either drowned or compelled to return to the shore, 
 where they were cut to pieces by the Carthaginian 
 cavalry. Fifteen thousand Romans were slain on 
 the field, ten thousand fled dispersed. The num- 
 ber of killed in the Carthaginian army was fifteen 
 hundred. * 
 
 The lake is about eight English miles broad. The 
 inhabitants of its banks are sallow complexioned, and 
 subject to fevers. 
 
 The plantations of old olive trees, with the trunk 
 decayed internally, but the branches of the top 
 growing, have the appearance of pollard willows. 
 The yellow flower of the Helleborus hiemalis is 
 seen in the fields, it being now the 30th January. 
 On the precipitous bank that overhangs the road, 
 and descends from the town of Passignano to the 
 lake, there are several plants of the Agave Ameri- 
 cana, which does not bear the climate of Milan, al- 
 though it grows a little farther north, in the shel- 
 tered situation of the Boromean islands. 
 
 The strata on the banks of the lake are of the fiat 
 
 * See the descriptions of this battle in Livy and Polybius. 
 
PERUGIA. 
 
 271 
 
 secondary kind. Some of them appear to be calca- 
 reous. There are strata of pit-coal, as I was inform- 
 ed, near the lake of Monte Pulciano. 
 
 Perugia is a considerable town, situated amongst 
 the hills. The collegio del cambio, a room former- 
 ly used as the place of meeting of the money-chan- 
 gers, has its walls painted by Pietro Perugino, the 
 master of Raphael. There are pictures by Pietro 
 and other esteemed masters in several of the church- 
 es. In the cathedral is the taking down from the 
 cross by Rarocci, a picture that is now returned to 
 its former place, after having been at the Louvre. 
 
 The large edifice of Monte Morosini contains the 
 apartments appropriated to the university, which 
 was founded in the year 1400 ; and also the aca- 
 demy of painting, or Scuola delle belle arti, which 
 has a collection of pictures. 
 
 The public library contains some early printed 
 editions. Baccius Ballionius brought German prin- 
 ters to Perugia, and the first work that appeared 
 there is a law book, entitled De Relationibus , print- 
 ed by Wydenast in 14-70. The princeps edition 
 of the Codex of Justinian was printed at Perugia, 
 by Clayn of Ulm, in 1476. * The librarian also 
 
 * The art of printing was introduced into Italy soon after 
 its invention in Germany, and before it was practised in 
 France. The first book printed in Italy was in 1465 ; and 
 there is no mention of any work printed in Paris before 1470. 
 
£7^ FIRST PRINTED BOOKS IN ITALY. 
 
 shewed us a Greek manuscript of Stephanus de Ur~ 
 bibus, a geographical work, which has been pub- 
 lished by the Benedictine antiquary Montfaucon ^ 
 
 The following is a list of the first books printed in different 
 places in Italy : 
 
 In or before 1465, Donatus pro Puerulis , a grammar for 
 gchool-boys, named from the ancient grammarian Donatus, 
 the first book printed in Italy, and of which scarcely any co- 
 pies exist. 
 
 In 1465, Lactantii Firmiani Divinarum Institutionum, 
 Lib. VII., is the second book printed in Italy. Both were 
 printed at the monastery of German Monks at Subjaco, on 
 the Teverone, twenty miles above Tivoli, and forty miles from 
 Home. Sweinheim and Pannartz were the printers. 
 
 In 1467, M. Tul. Ciceronis Epistolarum ad Familiar es, 
 Lib. XVI., in domo Petri de Maximis. The first book print- 
 ed in Rome. It was printed in one of the mansions of the 
 Massimi family. 
 
 Venice is the next city in which printing was carried on. 
 The first book printed at Venice was in 1469, Ciceronis Epist. 
 ad Famil. In that city the number of printers rapidly in- 
 creased, and the art was soon brought to great perfection 
 there by the elder Aldus Manutius, who lived 68 years, from 
 1447 to 1515, and was succeeded by his son Paolo Manuzzio, 
 celebrated for his Ciceronian Latin, and his editions of Cicero. 
 Paulo began to print in 1533. Aldus, the son of Paulus, was 
 a man of letters, but not equal in eminence to his father and 
 grandfather. 
 
 The first book printed in Milan was in 1469? Miracoli 
 della Gloriosa V erzine Maria. 
 
 The first book printed at Perugia, as above mentioned, was 
 
 in 1470, the treatise De Relationibus. 
 
ITALIAN NAMES OF THE WINDS. ^7-3 
 
 and the beautiful edition of Saint Augustin, printed 
 at Venice in 1470, and another early edition of the 
 same work printed at Rome. 
 
 The public clock at Perugia has four dial plates.* 
 one of which shews the Italian hour, the hand mak- 
 ing a revolution in six hours ; — the second shews 
 the hore ultramontane, or the hours reckoned from 
 the sun’s passing the meridian, in the way com- 
 mon in other parts of Europe the third shews 
 the phases of the moon and the fourth is 
 marked on the circumference with the letters T, 
 G, -f , S, O, L, P, M ; it shews the direction of 
 the wind, the hand being moved by a weathercock. 
 The letters are the initials of the eight principal 
 rumbs. T, signifies Tramontana , the north wind j 
 G, Greco , the Aquilo of the ancient Romans, 
 the north-east ; +, Levante , the east ; S, Sirocco , 
 the Eurus of the ancient Romans, the south-east 5 
 O, Ostro , the south ; L, Libecchio , also named 
 Garbino, the Africus of the ancient Romans, the 
 south-west ; P, Ponente, the west ; M, Maestro 9 
 the north-west ; it is called Maestro on account of 
 its strength. In the Italian compass, the names 
 
 In 1471, the first book was printed at Naples, Bartholi 
 Saxo Ferrato Lectura in II. Cod , Justin . 'partem . 
 
 In almost every city of Italy printing-houses were esta- 
 blished before the end of the fifteenth century. See Tira- 
 boschi, Storia della Letteratura Italians, Torn. VI. 
 
FOLIGNO.— NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 274 
 
 of the intermediate rumbs, which are each two points 
 from those already mentioned, are Greco-Tramon- 
 tana, N.N.E. ; Greco-Levante, E.N.E. ; Sirocco- 
 Levante, E.S.E. ; Ostro- Sirocco, S.S.E. ; Ostro - 
 Libecchio , or Ostro-Garbino , S.S.W. ; Ponente - 
 Maestro , W.N.W. ; Maestro-Tramontnna> N.N. 
 W. The intermediate rumbs, one point distant 
 from the foregoing, are named tra Tramontana e 
 Greco-Tramontana , and so forth in the same way. 
 
 Just after Perugia the road crosses the Tiber. 
 
 Foligno, situated in the fine valley of Spoleto, 
 has manufactories of wax and paper, and some in- 
 land trade. A newspaper is published here, which, 
 however, is only a copy of the uninteresting and 
 meagre newspaper of Rome. Besides the newspa- 
 per of Rome, and that of Foligno, there is no other 
 published in the pope’s territory, on this side west 
 of the Apennines. * 
 
 On the way to Spoleto, near a place called le 
 Vene , is a small ancient temple, situated on the 
 Clitumnus. It has a pediment, supported by four 
 columns with spiral flutings, and a Christian in- 
 
 * One newspaper is published at each of the following 
 places: Venice, Milan, Genoa, Bologna, Rome, Naples; less 
 extensive papers at Foligno, Modena, and in some other 
 places in Italy. A newspaper in Italian is printed at Lugano, 
 in the Italian bailiwicks of Switzerland, and circulates in dif- 
 ferent parts of Italy. 
 
CLITUMNUS. — SPOLETO. T/5 
 
 scription on the front. This edifice is now used as 
 a chapel. 
 
 The Clitumnus takes its course to join the Tiber 
 through fertile plains, which were famous in ancient 
 times for feeding cattle. The victims maxima?, 
 the white bullocks reserved for the sacrifices at the 
 Roman triumphs, were fed in these pastures. * 
 
 Spoleto may contain about 6000 inhabitants. 
 Hannibal, after defeating the Roman army at the 
 Trasimene lake, marched to Spoleto, and having 
 laid waste the country, made an attempt to get pos- 
 session of the town, but was repulsed with loss. 
 An arched gate-way, through which the street passes 
 in ascending the hill, is called the Porta d* Anni- 
 bale, from having resisted the attacks of Hannibal. 
 There is another ancient arch, without architectural 
 ornament, called the Arch of Drusus. 
 
 The mosaic on the front of the church was exe« 
 cuted in 1207 , according to the inscription. 
 
 The aqueduct of Spoleto connects the hill on which 
 the town is situated with the adjacent hills, convey- 
 ing water to the town over a narrow and deep valley. 
 
 * Hinc albi Clitumni greges, et maxima taurus 
 Victima ; saepe tuo perfusi flumine sacro 
 Ptomanos ad templa Deum duxere triumphos. Virg. 
 Clitumnus is mentioned also in Juvenal, Sat. xii, 7 Proper- 
 tius, Lucan, Silius Italicus, and Claudian. 
 
AQUEDUCT.— ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 It serves also as a bridge, having a path for passen- 
 gers, and consists of ten pointed arches, and nine 
 piers. The middle piers are of a great height, by 
 reason of the great depth of the valley. This point- 
 ed-arched fabric, which has no ornamental mould- 
 ings, was built about the year 500, in the reign of 
 Theodoric, King of the Goths, and of Italy. It 
 does not appear, however, that the pointed-arched 
 style of architecture was introduced into Italy by 
 the Goths ; this style seems to have arisen out of 
 the round-arched stvle, of which the commence- 
 ments are seen in the palace of Dioclesian at Spa- 
 latro, and an example twenty or thirty years after, 
 in the reign of Constantine, is the round church of 
 Santa Constanza, near Rome. The round-arched 
 style succeeded the ancient Greek and Roman man- 
 ner with straight architraves, and was adopted, pro- 
 bably, from the difficulty of procuring large stones 
 for architraves, and from the insecurity of these ar- 
 chitraves, which most commonly break by the su- 
 perincumbent weight, unless they are relieved by 
 arches, an accident visible in many ancient build- 
 ings. 
 
 The ancient Greeks seldom employed arches in 
 the ornamental parts of the fabric, and the ancient 
 Roman architecture was borrowed from the Greek, 
 and, in this respect, the Greek resembles the Egyp- 
 tian style. The Egyptians employed the largest 
 stones that have ever been wrought, by which means. 
 
ARCHITECTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES* 27? 
 
 they were enabled to construct their great fabrics 
 with architraves, and without arches. The archi- 
 traved manner of building practised by the Egyp- 
 tians, the ancient Greeks, and Romans, came to be 
 laid aside in Italy in the fourth century, and round 
 arches were used, springing from the columns. 
 This round-arched, and sometimes the pointed-arch- 
 ed style, prevailed in Italy, and at Constantinople, 
 during the midddle ages. Santa Sophia, built by 
 Justinian, is in the round-arched manner. Both 
 these styles are commonly called Gothic in Italy, an 
 appellation which is to be understood only as equiva- 
 lent to barbarous, or ungraceful, and not as signify- 
 ing a style introduced by the Goths, for MafFei, 
 Muratori, and Tiraboschi, have shewn that neither 
 the Goths nor the Lombards introduced any par- 
 ticular style, but employed the architects they found 
 in Italy. There are many buildings of pointed- 
 arched architecture on the banks of the Ganges, as 
 before mentioned ; * whether any connection ex- 
 isted between the architects of these, and of the 
 pointed-arched cathedrals in Europe, is not knowm 
 Spoleto was on the road between Theodoric’s 
 royal residence Ravenna, and Rome, which then 
 had only the second rank amongst the cities of his 
 kingdom, and in his reign of thirty-three years, the 
 
 Page 99 . 
 
SPOLETO. ANCIENT COLUMNS. 
 
 country round Spoleto was improved by the drain- 
 ing of the marshy ground in the valleys. 
 
 In the church of the monastery of Saint Andrew, 
 a quarter of a mile from the town, there are some 
 handsome fluted columns of marmo pavonazzato, of 
 the Corinthian order, the remains of an ancient 
 Roman temple. These columns are in their origi- 
 nal position, the church having been built round 
 them. 
 
 A new bridge is now making at the place where 
 the Foligno road enters Spoleto. In clearing away 
 the gravel to form the foundations, two arches of an 
 ancient Roman bridge were discovered, called the 
 Ponte Sanguinaria, on account of the Christian 
 martyrs that are said to have been thrown from it. 
 
 From Spoleto, in the twelfth century, originated 
 the Ursini family, the head of a powerful faction, 
 and the rivals and antagonists of the faction of the 
 Colonna family in Rome. The feuds between these 
 two families kept the city of Rome in a state of in- 
 ternal war for 250 years, including the seventy 
 years, during which the popes, from their inability 
 to control these factions, quitted Rome, and fixed 
 their seat at Avignon. The Colonna were Ghibe- 
 lines, and took the part of the German emperors $ 
 The Ursini were Guelphs, and embraced the cause 
 of the church, but the real object of both par- 
 ties was to obtain dominion and pre-eminence in 
 Rome* 
 
PLANTS. STRATA.*— MONTE SOMMA. 279 
 
 There have been two popes of the Ursini family, 
 Celestin III. and Nicholas III. 
 
 After Spoleto, the sides of the hills close by the 
 road are covered with box, intermixed with Cle- 
 matis viorna, Spanish broom, Helleborus viridis in 
 flower. There are some oak trees of a good size. 
 
 The strata are a fine grained greyish or drab* co- 
 loured limestone. Some of the strata contain no- 
 dules of opaque flint, and, in this respect, and also 
 from their texture, they may be considered as indu- 
 rated chalk. 
 
 Between Spoleto and Strettura, on the way to 
 Terni, we ascend the Monte Somma, the highest 
 part of this road between Perugia and Rome, and 
 covered now, on the 1st February, with one or two 
 inches of snow. According to Sir George Shuck- 
 burgh, the height of the summit of this Monte 
 Somma above the sea is SJ38 English feet. 
 
 There is much copsewood of evergreen oak* 
 Quercus ilex, called lecce, in this part of Italy. 
 The acorns of another species of oak are used in 
 this part of the country as food for horses, and are 
 sometimes eaten by the poor. Another kind of a- 
 corn, with the cups called Valonia, is imported in- 
 to Britain in considerable quantity from the eastern 
 parts of the Mediterranean, for the purpose of tan- 
 ning. On old walls here, and also on the walls of 
 Rome and Florence, grows the Cotyledon umbili- 
 cus, a plant which is found in similar situations in 
 
280 PLANTS.— tERNI.— cascade. 
 
 Ireland, and on the west coast of Scotland, but not 
 in the eastern parts of Britain. A certain degree 
 of humidity, therefore, or some other circumstance 
 requisite for the growth of this plant, exists in this 
 part of Italy, and in the west of Britain, and is 
 wanting in the eastern parts of Britain. There is 
 also seen the Cercis siliquastrum, called the Judas 
 tree, and Erica Mediterranea six feet high. Truffles 
 grow in this district. 
 
 The name of the town of Terni is derived from 
 the ancient name Interamna, signifying a place si- 
 tuated between rivers. 
 
 From Terni we went four miles off the highroad 
 to visit the cascade, at which we arrive after walking 
 up the river Nera, in a narrow valley or glen cover- 
 ed with copse of evergreen oak. The cascade is 
 formed by the waters of the Velino, which join the 
 Nera at the bottom of the fall. The body of water 
 is considerable. The height is stated to be 368 
 palms, that is, 266 English feet. The Velino con- 
 sists of the water issuing from the lake of Velino, 
 and in order to prevent the inundation of the val- 
 leys, was turned by Marcus Curius into a new chan- 
 nel conducting it to the brink of the precipice, 
 over which its waters form the cascade. The for- 
 mation of this channel is mentioned by Cicero. * 
 
 * “ Reatini me ad sua rs/Axy duxerunt, ut agerem causam 
 Contra Interamnates apud consulem et decern legates, quod 
 
NARNI. 
 
 281 
 
 The river Nera, anciently called Nar, runs in a 
 rocky channel composed of limestone, and the water 
 of the cascade deposits much calcareous tufa, which 
 form large masses of rock, as at Tivoli. 
 
 Proceeding on the road towards Rome, we pass 
 along the beautiful and fertile valley of Terni, and 
 arrive at Narni, which is situated on a stratified lime- 
 stone rock. In a deep and vast fissure of this rock, 
 the river Nera runs and washes the foot of the rock 
 on which the town is built. The rock, in some 
 places, is a grey indurated chalk, with blotches of a 
 reddish brown. There are caverns in the rock 
 which are used as habitations. At Narni are the 
 remains of an ancient Roman bridge. 
 
 Some miles after Narni, on a solitary part of the 
 road, is a post of infantry to protect travellers against 
 the attacks of banditti. 
 
 Before crossing the Tiber there are extensive 
 banks of agglutinated gravel. 
 
 Between Narni and Civita Castellana, the road 
 crosses the Tiber by a bridge of three arches of 
 brick. The arches are modern. There was a bridge 
 in this same situation built in the time of Augus- 
 tus. 
 
 At Nepi and Civita Castellana the rocks are 
 volcanic tufa. 
 
 lacus Velinus a M. Curio emissus interciso monte in Nar de- 
 ficit,” Ciceron. Epist. ad Attic, iv. 14. 
 
COUNTRY NEAR ROME. 
 
 ?282 
 
 At twenty-five or thirty miles from Rome, there 
 are well grown oak trees by the road for several 
 miles. 
 
 For sixteen miles before Rome, the country in 
 sight of the road is bare of trees, with only here and 
 there a few bushes of alder, sloe, and crab apple. 
 The surface is undulated with small eminences and 
 dry. Ruined farm-houses are seen, and no corn 
 fields, but the ridges on pasture fields shew that 
 they have been once cultivated. 
 
 The neglect of agriculture in the neighbourhood 
 of Rome is attributed partly to the great extent of 
 the landed estates. The territory belongs to a few 
 great families, whose ancestors were the nephews 
 of some of the popes, * and whose lands are kept 
 together by majorats, substitutions, and entails. 
 
 The ground, varied with hill and valley, appears 
 dry on a general view, but the low ground between 
 the hills is so situated, that it becomes marshy unless 
 constant attention is paid to draining ; and the 
 marshy ground thus formed renders the neighbour- 
 hood unhealthy, the inhabitants being affected with 
 intermittent fevers, as in other marshy countries, 
 particularly where the heat of the weather is consi- 
 
 * The disadvantages which are sometimes ascribed to 
 great landed estates, were felt likewise in ancient times in 
 Italy, according to Pliny. “ Verumque confitentibus latifundia 
 
 perdidere Italiam.” Plin. Hist. Nat. XVXII. 7* 
 
 4 
 
NEGLECT OF AGRICULTURE.’ — ANCIENT TOMB. %8S 
 
 derable. If the low grounds were more carefully 
 cultivated and drained, the country would be less 
 unhealthy. Draining has been found to produce 
 this salutary effect in several places within the walls 
 of Rome. * 
 
 The want of demand for manure, in consequence 
 of the neglect of agriculture, occasions a great ac- 
 cumulation of filth in Rome. Filth prevails in the 
 streets, squares, and courts of palaces ; and, in par- 
 ticular streets there is an immondezzaio , a part 
 of the street where the inhabitants are allowed 
 to throw the dust and filth from the houses which 
 accumulates for some time, and then is thrown into 
 the river. 
 
 Near the road, three miles from Rome, is a large 
 sarcophagus, upon a base of masonry, of which only 
 the internal rough stones remain. It is the tomb of 
 Vibius Marianus, procurator and praeses of the pro- 
 vince of Sardinia, &c. and of his wife, erected by their 
 daughter, Yibia Mariana Maxima, as the inscription 
 bears, t This sepulchre adds to the gloomy effect 
 of the desolate fields that surround it. It was vul- 
 garly and erroneously called the Tomb of Nero. 
 
 Near this, by the side of the ancient Via Cassia, 
 was discovered, in 1667, the sepulchre of the Na- 
 
 * See Lancisi de cceli Romani qualitatibus. 
 f See a figure and the inscription in Bartoli, Sepolchri 
 Anti chi, pi. 44. 
 
284 
 
 FONTE MOLLE. 
 
 sonii, containing chambers adorned with paintings 
 in fresco, which are drawn and published by Bel- 
 lori. Winkelmann mentions some pieces of these 
 fresco paintings, preserved at the Villa Albani. 
 
 The road again passes the Tiber two miles before 
 Home, by the Ponte Molle, anciently Pons Milvius, 
 over which Maxentius was precipitated in the flight, 
 after the defeat of his troops by Constantine. 
 
 This bridge consists of four large arches equal to 
 each other, and a small arch at each end. The two 
 great arches on the left hand side are of the broad 
 thin ancient Roman brick, called in Rome tavoloni. 
 The other arches are of stone. All the arches have 
 lost their semi-circular shape, and the intrados has 
 assumed an irregular form. The width of the river, 
 
 measured on the bridge, is 138 paces, that is, about 
 380 feet. 
 
 The tower at the north end of the bridge was 
 built in the middle ages for defending this entrance 
 to Rome, and bears an armorial shield with the 
 name of Pope Callistus, and the year 1458. The 
 pope now reigning, Pius VII., perforated the tower 
 to give passage to the road. 
 
 We enter Rome by the Porta del Popolo, the 
 gate by which all who come from the north of Italy 
 pass. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Rome.— Sect. I . Churches. — Sect. II. Ancient Build- 
 ings, and Public Collections of Works of Ait.— Sect. III. 
 Palaces and Villas. — Sect. IV. University, Libra- 
 ries, and other Objects. 
 
 Sect. I. Saint Peter’s . Sistine Chapel. — Monte Testaceo. 
 
 English Burying Ground. Pyramid of Cestius. Basilic 
 Church of Saint Paul. Ancient Columns.— Saint John La- 
 ter an. Porphyry Sarcophagus. Scala Santa . — Santa Ma- 
 ria Maggiore. Column. — San Pietro in Vincoli. Michael 
 Angelo's Moses. — Church of the Minerva. Statue by Mi- 
 chael Angelo.— Church of the Santi Apostoli. Tomb by 
 Canova. — Santa Maria del Popolo. Statue by Raphael . — 
 Santa Maria della Pace. Raphael's Sybils. — Saint Agnes. 
 Algardi. — Sant Andrea della Valle. Domenichino. — 
 Churches of the Jesuits.— Saint Agnes ’without the Porta 
 Pia. Santa Constanza . — Santa Prassede. — Santa Maria 
 in Cosmedin . — Temple of Vesta . — Temple of Fortuna Vi- 
 rilis . — Santa Maria della Navicella.—San Stefano Roton - 
 da — San Giovanni e Paolo. — San Lorenzo. Ambones.— 
 Church of Saint Andrew. — Saint Martin . — San Carlo.— 
 Torre delle Milizie. — San Pietro in Monlorio. Bramanle's 
 Temple. — Catacombs. 
 
 Saint Peter’s Basilic. 
 
 The basilic church of Saint Peter on the Vatican, 
 the largest and most splendid church in the world. 
 
286 
 
 COLONADE OF SAINT PETEIt’s. 
 
 liolds the first place among the modern fabrics of 
 Rome. The piazza in front of the eastern and prin- 
 cipal portal is surrounded by a colonade which 
 forms a curve on each side. The colonade is com- 
 posed of four rows of columns, and the columns are 
 so placed in radii of a circle, that on each side there 
 is a central point, from whence the three columns 
 of the more distant rows are concealed and covered 
 by the columns of the nearest and interior row of 
 the colonade. It has been proposed to extend the 
 open place from the colonade, as far as the river and 
 the Castle of Saint Angelo, by taking down the 
 houses that at present cover the ground. This 
 would add greatly to the magnificence of the ap- 
 proach to Saint Peter’s. 
 
 In the centre of this curvilinear colonade is erect- 
 ed an Egyptian obelisk of granite, without hiero- 
 glyphics. This obelisk was the only one at Rome 
 that remained erect during the middle ages ; it was 
 near Saint Peter’s, and was removed to its present 
 situation by order of Sixtus V., by the architect 
 Domenico Fontana, who was born in 1543, in 
 the territory of Como. Fontana published an ac- 
 count of the operation, with engravings of the ma- 
 chines employed in elevating this great mass of gra- 
 nite, which is eighty-three English feet in length, 
 seven feet, four inches square in the middle, and 
 weighs nearly 300 ton. Fontana also erected the 
 obelisk at the Lateran, and that at Santa Maria 
 
MERIDIAN. — ILLUMINATION. 287 
 
 Maggiore, but they are broken, and the several 
 pieces were put up separately. He likewise erected 
 the obelisk at the Piazza del Popolo. 
 
 A meridian line is drawn to the north of this obe- 
 lisk of the Vatican, with the signs of the zodiac, 
 marked so that when the sun is in the meridian, 
 the shadow of the top of the obelisk falls upon the 
 line at the sign in which the sun is. 
 
 On each side of the obelisk is a magnificent foun- 
 tain constantly throwing up a large quantity of water 
 which falls down in spray. 
 
 From the foot of the obelisk the upper part only 
 of the cupola is seen, the rest being hid by the front 
 of the church. But, when viewed from a distance, the 
 whole of the cupola is seen, and forms a magnificent 
 object. The outside of the cupola and front of Saint 
 Peter’s are illuminated on certain festivals. This 
 was the case this year ( 1818 ) at Easter. It is first 
 illuminated with small lights, and these are after- 
 wards changed for more brilliant ones. In this state, 
 the illuminated outline of the building was seen to 
 much advantage from the walk near the Villa Medici. 
 
 The colonades terminate in the vestibule which 
 forms the east front of the church, at each end of 
 the vestibule is an equestrian statue of marble, by 
 Bernini. These statues represent the two great 
 protectors and benefactors of the papal throne ; the 
 one is Constantine, the first emperor who adopted 
 and promoted Christianity in the Roman empire* 
 
28S CONSTANTINE AND CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 and who, as the popes pretend, made a donation of 
 Rome to them ; the other statue represents Charle- 
 magne, to whom they owe their territory on the 
 other side of the Apennines. Pepin le Bref, and his 
 son Charlemagne, gave the exarchate of Ravenna to 
 the popes ; this was the origin of their temporal 
 power. In the twelfth century the popes first got 
 the command of Rome, when the authority of the 
 German emperors ceased in that city, as Muratori 
 observes ; but in the fourteenth they were unable to 
 maintain their authority against the powerful factions 
 in Rome, and retired to Avignon, where they re- 
 mained seventy years. 
 
 The interior of the vestibule is adorned with co- 
 lumns of granite and of marble, taken from an- 
 cient buildings. 
 
 The central door of the church is of bronze, with 
 bas-reliefs. On each side of the central door are 
 the doors commonly used for entrance from the ves- 
 tibule into the church, and on one side is the porta 
 santa, a door-way walled up, which is opened with 
 ceremony by the pope at the Jubilee. There is a 
 porta santa at the other three principal basilic 
 churches of Rome, Saint Paul, the Lateran, and 
 Santa Maria Maggiore. The year of Jubilee, or 
 the Holy Year, was instituted by Boniface VIII. 
 in 1300, with plenary indulgence to the faithful 
 who should visit the churches of Saint Peter and 
 Saint Paul at Rome during that year. It had the 
 
JUBILEES. 
 
 £89 
 
 effect, at that time, of bringing vast numbers of pil- 
 grims to Rome, and rich offerings to the pope’s 
 treasury. The interval between the years of Ju- 
 bilee was at first one hundred years, afterwards it 
 was reduced to fifty, and the number of pilgrims 
 being found profitable to the popes and to the in- 
 habitants of Rome, the Jubilee was sometimes cele- 
 brated at the end of thirty-three, twenty five ; and 
 even, at last, of ten years, during the simultaneous 
 existence of the rival popes. * 
 
 Saint Peter’s is built of Travertine stone. The 
 stones obtained, about 1587, from the demolition of 
 the Septizonium of Septimius Severus, which had 
 become ruinous, were employed in the construction 
 of Saint Peter’s by Sixtus V. t 
 
 The nave, with its great lateral pilasters, are of 
 
 * See Chais, Lettres Historiques sur les Jubilees et les In- 
 dulgences, a la Haye, 1751. 
 
 f See Leti Vit. Sixt. V. The Septizonium of Septimius 
 Severus, which Nardini does not admit to have been the tomb 
 of that emperor, consisted of three stories or tiers of colon- 
 ades, at the time of its demolition ; it was situated at the foot 
 of the Palatine hill, opposite to the church of Saint Gregory. 
 A fortified tower was built upon it in the middle ages, as 
 on many other ancient structures, and this fortress resisted 
 the attacks of the Emperor Henry IV. ; Muratori Anal, d’ltal, 
 Tom. IX. A view of the Septizonium, as it was in the six- 
 teenth century, is published in Donatus de urbe Roma, in 
 Graev. Thes. Antiq. Rom. Tom. III. Fig. 31. 
 
 T 
 
290 
 
 saint Peter’s. — mosaics. 
 
 Travertine stone, painted to represent white marble 
 with blue veins. The cylindrically-arched ceiling of 
 the nave is covered with sunk pannels containing or- 
 naments richly gilt. The side aisles, or side naves 
 as they are termed in Italy, and by the French les 
 bas cotes, are incrusted with marbles of different co- 
 lours. The c r irch receives a great deal of light from 
 the window^, which are well disposed for that pur- 
 pose, and is free from the obscurity that prevails in 
 many large churches. 
 
 All the pictures in the church are composed of 
 Mosaic, which resists the effects of humidity better 
 than oil paintings do. Amongst these Mosaics 
 there are copies from the two celebrated master- 
 pieces, Raphael’s Transfiguration, and Domenichi- 
 no’s Communion of St Jerom. The originals of 
 both of which are now in the picture gallery of the 
 Vatican Palace. 
 
 The chair at the west end of the nave, with the 
 colossal statues of bronze that support it, is designed 
 by Bernini. The effect of this huge fabric is ra- 
 ther heavy. It is an example of the degenerate or- 
 namental style that prevailed in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Under the cupola is the high altar, over which is 
 the grand canopy, the baldachino of bronze support- 
 ed by four spiral- shafted columns, also of bronze. This 
 canopy, cast out of the bronze beams taken from the 
 soffit of the portico of the Pantheon, is well propor- 
 
ILLUMINATED CROSS. 
 
 291 
 
 tioned to the size of the church, aud on account of 
 its being seen at the same time as the great pilasters 
 of the church, it appears of a moderate size. Its 
 height is said to be equal to that of the Farnese 
 Palace, which consists of three tiers of very lofty 
 windows. 
 
 On two evenings of Easter week, th inside of 
 the church is illuminated by a cross suspended at 
 the eastern verge of the cupola. This cross is about 
 twenty-four feet high, covered with brass plates, on 
 which are fixed about 120 lamps. There is no 
 other light in the church, and the arms of the cross 
 being rectilinear and without ornament, a simple 
 and pleasing effect is produced. The idea may 
 have been borrowed by Bernini from the lustre, in 
 form of a four armed cross, in the church of Saint 
 Mark at Venice. 
 
 In a chapel, near the entrance, is a group of the 
 Virgin mourning over the dead body of Christ, 
 by Michael Angelo. The subject is called la Pieta. 
 It was the earliest of his celebrated statues. The 
 next was the David in the piazza del Granduca at 
 Florence.^ 
 
 By the side of St Peter’s chair is the sepulchral 
 monument of Paul III. Farnese, with recumbent 
 emblematical female figures, after the design of 
 
 * Vasari^ Vita di Michel Agnolo Bonarroti, Firenze, 1550 
 
^92 saint peter’s.— algardi. 
 
 Michael Angelo, but not executed by him. Pru- 
 dence is represented by a female of an age some- 
 what advanced. The other figure was considered 
 too naked, and a drapery of bronze has been added. 
 
 In the south transept is the large marble sculp- 
 ture, in high relief, by Algardi, representing Saint 
 Leo, and the Apostles Peter and Paul, who appear 
 in the air compelling Attila to retreat from Italy. * 
 By Algardi also is the monument of Leo XI. de 
 Medici. Of the four statues larger than life, at 
 the great piers which support the cupola, that of St 
 Andrew, by Fiamingo,t is the best. 
 
 The sepulchral monuments are in considerable 
 number. Besides the two already mentioned, and 
 several others, there is one of Pope Clement XIII. 
 Bezzonico, who died in 1769, and was succeeded by 
 Ganganelli, sculptured by Canova. — One in memory 
 
 * Near Verona and the southern extremity of the Lake di 
 Garda , Attila, in 452, was induced to withdraw his troops 
 from Italy by means of an embassy from Valentiniari. Saint 
 Leo, bishop of Rome, was one of the ambassadors, but he 
 did not succeed, three years after, in prevailing on Geneseric,. 
 king of the Vandals, to retire from before Rome, which 
 Geneseric took and pillaged. The Sermons and Epistles of 
 Saint Leo exist in libraries. 
 
 f Francois du Quesnoy, called in Italy ifFiamingo from his 
 country, was born at Brussels, and died at Leghorn in 1644. 
 Fie executed bas reliefs of groups of children, which are 
 much esteemed. 
 
SEPULCHRAL MONUMENTS. 
 
 £93 
 
 of Christina, * queen of Sweden. — The monument 
 of Clementina Sobieski, styled in the epitaph Queen 
 of England, consort of the Pretender to the crown. 
 —That of the Countess Matilda, whose ashes were 
 brought from Mantua in 1630 ; she made a dona- 
 tion of her dominions to the popes, and Viterbo, 
 which they still retain, was a part of this donation, 
 as mentioned before, t 
 
 Under the pavement of the cupola is the subter- 
 raneous edifice called the chiesa antic a , the old 
 church. It is low, being only eight or nine feet to 
 the top of the flat elliptic arches which compose the 
 ceiling. It contains various altars with lamps burn- 
 ing before them ; the shrines in which are the 
 bodies of Saint Peter and Saint Paul, and a number 
 of large stone arks, sarcophagi, or quadrangular urns, 
 containing the remains of different popes. A granite 
 sarcophagus contains those of Pope Adrian, a native 
 of England, who was pope from 1154< to 1159® 
 
 * Christina, after resigning the crown of Sweden, em- 
 braced the Catholic religion and lived at Rome in 1668. 
 She formed an academy or meeting of learned men in her 
 palace for the cultivation of poetry. This meeting gave ori- 
 gin of the Academy delf Arcadia, which exists in Rome at 
 this day, and which was instituted in 1690 for the purpose of 
 correcting the bad taste in poetry which then prevailed. 
 Tiraboschi , stor. del lett. It . 
 
 f See page 17 6, and Fiorentini, Vita della Gran Contessa 
 Matilde. 
 
saint Peter’s. — vestry. 
 
 294< 
 
 Near it are the urns holding the ashes of the Pre- 
 tender to the crown of England, who died in 17 66, 
 aged 72 ; of the Cardinal of York ; and of Chris- 
 tina, queen of Sweden. 
 
 Women are not permitted to enter this subterra- 
 neous church, for fear the darkness of the place 
 should invite to sensual rather than spiritual love. 
 
 The length of Saint Peter’s, within the walls, is 
 606 feet 9 To inches, taking the Roman palm at 
 8“ English inches.* 
 
 The sacristy, or vestry, is attached to the south 
 side, and is more recent than the rest of the church, 
 having been constructed in 1777? i n the time of Pius 
 VI. Braschi. It contains large presses of walnut-tree 
 for the reception of the church-plate, which was di- 
 minished in quantity during the last invasion of the 
 
 % On a line drawn along the middle of the pavement of 
 Saint Peter’s, from the west end to the east door, are marked 
 the lengths of Saint Peter’s itself, and of five other large 
 churches ; the length of each is set off from the west end of 
 St Peter’s, and is indicated by a brass star, and the name in- 
 serted in the pavement. These marks are as follows, begin- 
 ning from the east : 
 
 Templum Vaticanum, Saint Peters , measured within walls , 
 837 Roman palms ; Londinense Paulianum, Saint Paul's , 
 JLondony 710 ; Primarium Templum Mediolanense, the Ca- 
 thedral at Milan , 606; Basilica Sancti Pauli via ostiensi, 
 Saint Paul's near Rome , 572 ; Constantinopolitana Divae 
 Sophise Ecclesia, Sancta Sophia at Constantinople , 492. 
 
 1 
 
THE CUPOLA. 
 
 295 
 
 French. The relics, of which there is a great collec- 
 tion, are shewn to the public from one of the high 
 galleries under the cupola at Easter and other great 
 festivals. 
 
 On the walls of the vestibule of the sacristy are 
 in crusted some ancient Roman inscriptions, found 
 in digging the foundations of the sacristy. Amongst 
 them are the acts of the college of priests, called 
 Fratres Arvales, in the year £18, in the reign of 
 Elagabalus, containing a hymn, which is considered 
 to be an example of the Latin language in its an- 
 cient unimproved state. * 
 
 The way up to the roof is by a broad cordonated 
 spiral stair. The roof is terraced with brick, in planes 
 gently inclined inwards so as to allow the water to 
 run into pipes disposed for carrying it away. The 
 roof, with the three principal cupolas and the other 
 smaller ones, to a spectator that is upon it, presents 
 the appearance of a piazza with different buildings. 
 The three principal cupolas are covered with lead, 
 and in some places with copper. In the vaulted 
 part of the great cupola, the stair is between the 
 exterior and the interior vault, of which the cupola 
 is composed. 
 
 The view from the top of the cupola comprehends, 
 
 * This inscription is published under the title of Gli atti e 
 Monumenti de’ Fratelli Arvali, 1795. 
 
296 saint peter’s.— bonaroti. 
 
 like that from other eminences in Rome, the volcanie 
 group of the Latian hills, with Frascati and Albano ; 
 the more distant Apennines with Tivoli ; the an- 
 cient Soracte to the left. The sea is seen in clear 
 weather. There is access into the ball, w 7 hich is of 
 copper, and steps on the outside of the ball for go- 
 ing upon the cross. The height of the cross above 
 the base of the obelisk in the piazza is stated to be 
 471 English feet, and above the Tiber 502. 
 
 Saint Peter’s had at different times received injury 
 from lightning ; to guard against such accidents it 
 was furnished with thunder-rods some years ago, 
 and all the metallic parts on the roof are connected 
 together, and communicate with the ground by 
 metallic conductors. 
 
 Saint Peter’s was built in the space of about 100 
 years, from 1510 to 1610, during the pontificates of 
 Julius II., Leo X., and Sixtus V., and other popes, 
 and finished in the seventeenth century, in the time 
 of Paul V. Borghese ; some additions were made in 
 1650, under Innocent X. Pamfili. 
 
 That great genius Michael Angelo Bonaroti gave 
 the design which has been chiefly followed, super- 
 intended the building for seventeen years, and till his 
 death. Before his time the architects Bramante, Bal- 
 dassar Peruzzi, * Raphael and Sangallo had succes- 
 
 * A design of a fiattish cupola for Saint Peter, by Baldas- 
 sar Peruzzi, is published in the Architettura de Sebastian Ser- 
 
VIGNOLA. 
 
 297 
 
 lively the superintendence of the fabric, but nothing 
 of theirs is to be seen, Michael Angelo having pro- 
 ceeded on a design different from that followed by 
 his predecessors. At the death of Michael Angelo 
 the erect walls of the cupola were built, and he left 
 a model in wood, according to which the brick vault 
 of the cupola and lantern were constructed after his 
 death. 
 
 After the death of Michael Angelo, which hap- 
 pened in 1564, Vignola 71 ' was employed as architect 
 of Saint Peter’s, he followed the design of Michael 
 Angelo, and built the two small cupolas. The 
 front was constructed after the design and under 
 the inspection of Carlo Maderno. t The colonade 
 is after a design of Bernini. Carlo Fontana esti- 
 mates that, up to 1694, a sum equal to ten millions 
 sterling had been expended on Saint Peter’s. 
 
 lio. Venet. 1663. The Massimi Palace at Rome is a work 
 of Peruzzi. 
 
 * Jacopo Barozzi da Vignola, born at Vignola, in the 
 dutchy of Modena, in 1507, and died in 1573, at the age of 
 66. His book on architecture, entitled the Rule of the Five 
 Orders of Architecture, has gone through many editions, in 
 different languages. The canal from Bologna to Ferrara ; the 
 aqueduct of the Acqua Vergine at Rome, which is a restora- 
 tion of the ancient Aqua Virgins ; and was executed by order 
 of Julius III.; the octagonal palace of Capraola, between 
 Viterbo and Rome, built for Alexander Farnese, are some of 
 his principal works. Tiraboschi, stor. dell. Lett. Ital. 
 
 f See Historia del Tempio del Vaticano, by Bonani, a Jesuit. 
 
£98 FRESCO PICTURES BY MICHAEL ANGELO. 
 
 Civitas Leonina . 
 
 The suburb of the Vatican was formed by the 
 Greek, Gothic, Lombard, and Saxon pilgrims, who 
 came to Rome, to visit the shrine of Saint Peter. 
 This suburb was surrounded by a wall, by Pope 
 Leo IV. in 849, and called the Civitas Leonina ; 
 the name it is commonly known by is the Borgo San 
 Pietro. A fortified wall was afterwards made round 
 this suburb in 1548, under the direction of Jacopo 
 Castriotta of Urbino, by order of Paul III. 
 
 A covered passage forms a communication be- 
 tween the Vatican Palace and the castle of Saint 
 Angelo. 
 
 Sistine Chapel. 
 
 The Capella Sistina is in the Vatican Palace, ad- 
 jacent to Saint Peter’s. The ceiling is vaulted and 
 adorned with paintings, in fresco, representing the 
 Prophets and Sybils, by Michael Angelo. His ce- 
 lebrated fresco picture of the Last Judgment covers 
 the end wall of the chapel. All these pictures are 
 considerably injured by the smoke of the tapers used 
 in the church ceremonies. 
 
 In this chapel are performed the admired services 
 of Tenebrae, on the Wednesday, Thursday, and 
 Friday of Easter week, in presence of the Pope and 
 Cardinals. The whole of the service is sung by 
 voices, without the accompaniment of any instrument. 
 
THE POPE’S CHAPELS. 
 
 299 
 
 The chaunting of the lessons from the Lamenta- 
 tions of Jeremiah, and of the Miserere, is plaintive 
 and affecting. The great effect of this music is ob- 
 tained by the perfect training of the band of singers 
 continually practised in singing together. The em- 
 peror procured a copy of the music from the pope, 
 and had it performed at Vienna, but without the 
 effect that it produces in the Sistine. 
 
 The Capeila Paulina , which is near the Sistine, 
 both of them having their entrance from the hall 
 called the Sala Regia, contains, The Conversion of 
 Saint Paul, and the Crucification of Saint Peter, in 
 fresco, by Michael Angelo, much injured by the 
 smoke of tapers, which are lighted up in great num- 
 bers to receive the host, which the pope deposits in 
 the altar of this chapel on Good Friday. 
 
 The Scala Regia , designed by Bernini, is a long 
 stair of one flight, which leads from the vestibule of 
 Saint Peter’s up to these chapels. 
 
 The Road leading to Saint Paul's without the City. 
 
 To arrive at this church, we proceed by the way 
 which passes between the river and the abrupt face 
 of the Aventine hill , in which Virgil * describes the 
 den of Cacus to have been. Farther on, and on the 
 right hand, is the Monte Testaceo , a considerable 
 eminence 174 feet in height, formed in ancient times 
 
 * /Eneid. Lib. VIII. 
 
300 MONTE TESTACEO. PYRAMID OF CESTIUS. 
 
 by the broken pottery of Rome. The ancient Ro- 
 mans had a great variety of objects made of potter’s 
 clay, vessels for holding wine, tubes for conveying 
 water, large sarcophagi, bas reliefs, bricks of various 
 forms, tiles, and many others. The fragments of 
 earthenware vessels, of which Monte Testaceo con- 
 sists, are supposed to be the refuse collected from the 
 potteries of Rome, that it might not be thrown in- 
 to the river with injury to the depth of the channel.* 
 Monte Testaceo is now a place to which the populace 
 resort for amusement in fine weather ; and at the 
 foot of the hill are drinking-houses for the reception 
 of the guests. 
 
 The pyramid ofCaius Cestius, 119 feet in height, 
 forms part of the wall of the city near the gate of 
 Saint Paul. Cestius was the friend of Agrippa. 
 The inscription bears, that he was one of the Sep- 
 temviri Epulonum, a fraternity or sodalitas, that had 
 the charge of the lectisternia, the feasts of the gods. 
 This fraternity was composed of persons of high 
 dignity, like the sodalitas of the Fratres Arvales, 
 whose decoration, the crown of ears of wheat, is seen 
 on the ancient busts of Lucius Verus and Antoninus 
 Pius. The paintings on the walls and Ceiling of 
 the included chamber, which is small in proportion 
 
 * Marliani, Topog. Rom. 
 
JACOB MORE. SAINT PAUl/s. 
 
 SOI 
 
 to the solid mass of masonry of the pyramid, are 
 drawn and published by Bartoli. * 
 
 Near the pyramid, and within the walls of the 
 city, is the English burying ground . Amongst the 
 monuments is one in memory of Sir James Macdo- 
 nald, erected by J. B. Piranesi, the engraver and 
 architect, in 1766. Another is placed over the re- 
 mains of Jacob More, the landscape painter, who was 
 a native of Edinburgh, and died in 179S. The 
 ground is uninclosed, and the monuments are de- 
 faced by the mischievous, probably by reason of the 
 dislike which the populace bear to foreigners and 
 Protestants. The road from the gate of Saint Paul, 
 for a couple of miles, till we arrive at the church, is 
 between market gardens, in some of which the gar- 
 deners’ huts are perched upon masses of masonry, 
 the remains of old tombs, as if upon a piece of rock. 
 
 Saint Paul's. 
 
 The basilic church of Saint Paul is the second of 
 the basilics in point of size. It was rebuilt by Leo III. 
 about the year 800. 
 
 The mosaic on the front of the church is of the 
 fourteenth century. 
 
 * Bartoli, Sepolchri Antichi, tav. 64, 65, &c. A section of 
 the pyramid and cylindrically vaulted chamber is drawn in his 
 tav. 62. A dissertation on the pyramid of Cestius, by Falco- 
 nieri, is published in Graev. Thes. Ant. Rom. Tom. IV. 
 
302 SAINT Paul’s.— -ancient columns. 
 
 The bronze door, which has only some rudely 
 engraved outlines of human figures, representing 
 scripture histories, was cast at Constantinople in 
 1070. 
 
 The interior of the church of Saint Paul is mag- 
 nificent, and exceeds all others in Rome, by the 
 great number of large marble columns with which 
 it is constructed. There are five naves parallel to 
 each other, and separated by marble columns sup- 
 porting semicircular arches. The middle nave is 
 the largest, and has 40 magnificent marble columns, 
 57 feet in height ; £4 of these columns are each of 
 one piece of pavonazzo marble, and formerly deco- 
 rated the tomb of Adrian, now called the castle of 
 Sant Angelo. 
 
 The number of marble columns in the side naves 
 is 80. At the crossing, and in the transept, there 
 are ten large columns of granite, some of them of 
 red Egyptian granite, like that of the obelisks, the 
 others of grey granite. The whole number of co- 
 lumns in the church is stated to be 1 SO, all taken 
 from ancient buildings. Above the arches in the 
 middle nave is a series of portraits of the popes 
 painted on the wall, and also subjects from scrip- 
 ture, both much injured by time. There are some 
 small pointed arched windows in the side of the 
 church ; but the prevailing architecture of the build- 
 ing is the round-arched style. 
 
 There is some mosaic in the church, said to be of 
 
BASILICiE OF THE ROMANS. 
 
 803 
 
 the year 400, in the time of Saint Leo, bishop of 
 Rome. The carpentry of the roof is exposed to 
 view in the ceiling, and is said to be of cedar. 
 
 The church of Saint Paul is one of the four prin- 
 cipal basilic churches of Rome, and has a porta San- 
 ta, a walled door, opened by the pope at the jubilee. 
 The building, called Basilica amongst the ancient 
 Romans, according to the description given by Vi- 
 truvius, consisted of porticos formed of columns, in 
 which the public met for transacting business, and 
 containing apartments for courts of justice. The 
 first churches may have been formed of these an- 
 cient basilicse, and the naves, or internal porticos of 
 which churches are formed, may have been derived 
 from the ancient Roman basilicae. The name also 
 of basilica, in the early times of Christianity, was 
 synonymous with church, and, in latter times, is ap- 
 plied to churches distinguished by certain privileges, 
 as the seven basilic churches of Rome. 
 
 The original foundation of the church of Saint 
 Paul’s is ascribed to Constantine ; but the building 
 that now exists is not so ancient. The principal 
 columns were taken, it is said, from the Moles A- 
 driani, now the Castel Sant Angelo. That fabric 
 had not been stripped of its ornaments before 537, 
 in which year the Romans and the troops of Justi- 
 nian used it as a place of defence, and threw the 
 fragments of statues upon the Goths, who were the 
 assailants ; and this was 200 years after the death 
 
304? saint Paul’s.— mosaic columns. 
 
 of Constantine. Donati mentions, that the church 
 was rebuilt by Gregory II., who died in 731, and 
 afterwards by Leo III., * who reigned from 795 to 
 816, and crowned Charlemagne at Rome. 
 
 Adjacent to the church is a cloister, the columns 
 of which are twisted and ornamented with gilded 
 mosaic, as is also the frieze* 
 
 The portico in front of the church was added by 
 Benedict XIII., Orsini, about 17 ^ 6 . Near the 
 church is a descent into catacombs, the old quarries 
 used as burying places by the primitive Christians. 
 
 Some way farther out on this road is the ancient 
 church Alle tre Fontane. 
 
 Saint John Late?' an. 
 
 The four principal basilic churches in Rome are 
 the churches of Saint Peter, Saint John Lateran, 
 Santa Maria Maggiore, and Saint Paul. Of the 
 churches of Saint Peter and of Saint Paul we have 
 spoken already. 
 
 The church of Saint" John Lateran is called the 
 principal church in Christendom, Lateranensis ec- 
 clesia urbis et orbis mater et caput, and several ge- 
 neral and provincial councils have been held in it. 
 The principal front, of Travertine stone, was erect- 
 ed about the year 17 65 by Clement XII. Corsini, 
 
 * Donatus e Societate Jcsu, de Urbe Roma, Lib. IV. cap. 5. 
 
 11 
 
THE LATERAN.— VERDE ANTICO COLUMNS. 305 
 
 under the direction of the architect Galilei, and has 
 .a loggia or open gallery on the second tier, for the 
 pope to give his benediction from on solemn occa- 
 sions. The Lateran has another less modern front 
 and loggia by Domenico Fontana, in the time of 
 Sixtus V. There are similar benediction galleries on 
 the fronts of the other three principal basilic churches. 
 The niches in the interior are adorned with columns 
 of verde antico from the baths of Diocletian. This 
 beautiful marble, verde antico, is said by Visconti to 
 have been imported from Thessalonica, * others say 
 from Lacedemonia. One of the columns of antique 
 yellow marble which support the organ was taken 
 from the arch of Constantine, and formerly belong- 
 ed to Trajan’s forum. In the highly decorated Cor- 
 sini chapel is the tomb of Clement XII. Corsini, 
 consisting of a large antique sarcophagus of red por- 
 phyry, which was found in the place before the Pan* 
 theon. 
 
 The two antique chairs of ancient red marble, one 
 of which is now in the museum of the Vatican, and 
 the other in the Louvre, were formerly used as ponti- 
 fical chairs in the Lateran church. They are per- 
 forated, and, it is supposed, were used in the an- 
 cient baths. 
 
 The Patriarchium or palace, adjoining to the La- 
 
 * See Visconti’s Catalogue of the Statues in the Louvre. 
 
306 
 
 LATERAN PALACE.— SC ALA SANTA. 
 
 teran church, was once inhabited by the popes ; the 
 fabric that now exists was built by the architect Do- 
 menico Fontana, in the reign of Sixtus V. Sixtus 
 V. also began the fabric of the Belvidere palace of 
 the Vatican. The popes at different times had their 
 residence at different churches in Rome ; at Santa 
 Sabina on the Aventine, at Santa Maria Maggiore, 
 at Saint John Lateran, and, lastly, at Saint Peter’s 
 on the Vatican. * This palace of the Lateran is 
 now used as an hospital for indigent girls, Conser- 
 vatorio di Zitelle. 
 
 Near the Lateran church is a chapel which form- 
 ed part of the old church destroyed by fire in 1308. 
 This chapel contains the scala santa , the stair, ac- 
 cording to tradition, of the house of Pontius Pilate 
 brought from Jerusalem. The faithful ascend this 
 stair on their knees ; the steps are protected from 
 being worn by a covering of boards. Adjoining to 
 this is a tribuna with Mosaic, the remains of a hall 
 of the ancient pontifical palace, originally construct- 
 ed in the time of Leo III. 
 
 Near the Lateran is an ancient octagonal church 
 called the Church of San Giovanni in Fonte, or 
 the Raptisterium. The cupola within is supported 
 by columns of porphyry, and the general form of 
 
 * Fabricii Bescriptio Urbis Romas, cap. 21, in Grsev. 
 Thes. Antiq. Rom. Tom. III. 
 
OBELISK OF THE LATERAN. 
 
 307 
 
 the edifice is like that of the church of Santa Con-* 
 stanza and the church of San Stefano Hotonda. 
 
 The largest obelisk in Rome is erected on the 
 piazza of the Lateran. It is one of the four which 
 were placed by the architect Domenico Fontana by 
 order of Sixtus V. The other three are the obelisk 
 of Saint Peter’s, which was the only one then erect 
 and unbroken, and was at that time removed to its 
 present situation ; the obelisk of the Piazza del Popolo ; 
 and that of Santa Maria Maggiore, which was 
 broken into three pieces. The mechanism employ- 
 ed in removing the obelisks, and an account of the 
 fabrics of Sixtus V., are published by the architect 
 D. Fontana, with engravings. * 
 
 The obelisk of the Lateran lay buried twenty feet 
 below the surface in the soil of the Circus Maximus, 
 which, by the ruin of the drains, had become a 
 marsh, t By order of Sixtus V., and under the di- 
 rection of Domenico Fontana, it was removed a dis- 
 tance of a mile and a haif up hill, and erected in its 
 present situation ; oOO men were constantly at work 
 in the removal. When found it was broken into 
 three pieces ; each piece was lifted up by ropes tied 
 round it ; furrows in form of a cross were cut on 
 
 * Delia transportatione dell’ obelisco Vaticano efc delle fa- 
 briche di N. S. Papa Sisto V. fatte dal Cavallier Domenico 
 Fontana, architetto di sua santita. In Roma I590> 
 
 F Marliani Topog. Rom, 1544. 
 
308 
 
 OBELISK* 
 
 the upper and under surfaces of the pieces ; these 
 furrows were in form of a dovetail, in coda di ron- 
 dine ; the ropes were passed in these furrows ; 
 when the pieces were placed erect one above the 
 other, in the situation in which they were to re- 
 main, the ropes were withdrawn, and one cross 
 groove being directly over the other, dovetailed 
 pieces of granite, fitting exactly, were put into the 
 dovetailed cavities, and run in with lead ; in this 
 way the three fragments were fixed together. * 
 
 A broken pedestal was found in the Circus near 
 this obelisk, with an inscription, which shews that 
 the obelisk was brought from Thebes to Rome by the 
 Emperor Constantius. The obelisk of the Piazza 
 del Popolo also was found in the Circus Maximus, 
 and erected in its present situation by Sixtus V. 
 
 Santa Mftria Maggiore . 
 
 The church of Santa Maria Maggiore, called the 
 Basilica Liberiana, having been originally founded by 
 Liberius, bishop of Rome, who began his reign in 352, 
 is adorned internally with magnificent old Ionic co- 
 lumns of marble. It contains some Mosaic of the 
 year 434. The Borghese chapel is highly ornament- 
 ed, and contains the tomb of Paul V. Borghese. Of 
 the two cupolas which are seen on the outside of the 
 
 * See Dom. Fontana, del. tr. dell’ obelisco. 
 
COLUMN OF SANTA MARIA MAGGIORE. 309 
 
 edifice, the one covers the chapel of Paul III. Farnese, 
 the other the chapel of Sixtus V. Felice Peretti. 
 
 Before the principal front of this church is erect* 
 ed a very large fluted column of cipollino marble, 
 which was the last column that remained of the 
 Temple of Peace, the ruins of which now exist in 
 the Forum Romanum, and was placed in its present 
 situation by Paul V, The height of the shaft is 
 46 English feet, 4 inches. It is surmounted by a 
 Corinthian capital, on the entablature of which is 
 placed a statue of the Virgin. This column was erect 
 at the Temple of Peace in the time of Poggio in 
 1430, and is mentioned in the account he gives of 
 the appearance of Rome in his book de Varietate 
 Fortune. In old drawings this column is represented 
 in the interior of the temple, and placed against one 
 of the piers which support the arches. On medals of 
 Vespasian, who built the Temple of Peace, the tem- 
 ple is represented with six columns in front. * 
 
 On the place behind the tribuna of the church is 
 erected an Egyptian obelisk without hieroglyphics, 
 brought to Rome by Claudius, and formerly placed 
 on the mausoleum of Augustus. 
 
 Michael Angelo’s Moses , in San Pietro in Vincolu 
 
 The Moses of Bonaroti is placed on the tomb 
 of Julius II. in the church of San Pietro in Vin- 
 
 * See Nardini Roma An tic a. 
 
310 
 
 STATUE OF MOSES. 
 
 eoli. It is larger than life, and seated ; and remark- 
 able for the noble commanding expression of the 
 lawgiver, and for the correctness of execution. It 
 is considered as Michael Angelo’s chief masterpiece 
 in sculpture. The tomb which this statue adorns 
 has no inscription, nor even the name of Julius II. 
 to whose memory it was erected. There are only 
 some oak branches sculptured on a frieze, the em- 
 blem of the family della Rovere to which he belong- 
 ed ; the name Rovere signifying robur, oak. 
 
 Some time ago the statue was brought forward a 
 little out of its rectangular niche in order to take a 
 mould from it, and since the mould was taken the 
 statue has been allowed to remain thus drawn for- 
 ward, it being thought that the statue is seen to 
 more advantage than when pushed back into the 
 niche. A cast from the above-mentioned mould was 
 lately exhibited in London. 
 
 Julius II. was violent and ambitious, and employ- 
 ed the arts to hand down his name to posterity. 
 Raphael painted for him the rooms in the Vatican 
 palace, and in these paintings the portrait of Julius 
 is introduced several times. 
 
 The tomb w T as begun during the life, and by or- 
 ders of Julius, and was to have been of great magni- 
 ficence. According to Michael Angelo’s original 
 design it was to consist of an insulated quadrangu- 
 lar fabric of marble 18 braccie, or about 33 English 
 feet, in length, and 12 braccie, or 22 feet in breadth, 
 
TOMB OF JULIUS II. 
 
 811 
 
 and within this there was to be an elliptic chapel, 
 with a recumbent statue of Julius. The portion 
 that was executed, and which is seen at this clay, is 
 only one of the smaller sides of the quadrangular 
 edifice. * Besides the statue of Moses, it is adorn- 
 ed with female figures representing la Vita Con- 
 templativa, or meditation, and la Vita Attiva, or ac- 
 tive life, and some others, not executed by Michael 
 Angelo, but after his design. 
 
 The church of San Pietro in Vincoli, which con- 
 tains this admirable statue, is so called from its pos- 
 sessing the chain with which Saint Peter was bound* 
 The interior is handsome, the nave being separated 
 from the aisles by twenty-two large antique fluted 
 columns of marmo Greco, with Ionic capitals $ an 
 antique marble, so called at Rome, which has light 
 blue veins, in parallel straight lines, running along 
 the length of the columns, and a large grained cry- 
 stalline fracture. The ceiling is a flattish arch. 
 
 Works of Art in other Churches . 
 
 In Santa Maria sopra Minerva is the upright 
 statue of Christ holding the Cross, by Michel An- 
 gelo, and the monuments of Leo X. de J Medici and 
 Clement VII. de’ Medici, by Baccio Bandinelli. 
 
 In the church of the Santi XII. Apostoli is the mo- 
 
 * Vasari, Vita di Michel .Agnolo BonarrotL 
 
3 \% 
 
 TOMB OF GANGANELLI. 
 
 nument of Clement XIV. Ganganelli, by Canova ; 
 and in the vestibule a sculpture in relief, represent- 
 ing an emblematic figure of Friendship mourning 
 over a medallion of the copperplate engraver Volpato, 
 the work of Canova, and erected at his expence. In 
 this church is the tomb of Besarion. * 
 
 In the church of Santa Maria del Popolo is a 
 statue of Jonas, executed after the model and un- 
 der the direction of Raphael. It is recorded by 
 an inscription on an altar in this church, that 
 Paschal II. drove away the evil spirits who were 
 perched on the branches of a walnut tree by the way 
 side, and insulted passengers, t According to the 
 tales of the middle ages, these demons were the 
 guardians of the ashes of Nero, who was buried in 
 the sepulchre of the Domitia family, t near the site 
 of this church. 
 
 In the church of Saint Augustine is a picture of 
 Isaiah by Raphael, painted in emulation of Bona- 
 roti’s prophets in the Capella Sistina. 
 
 In the church of Santa Maria della Pace are the 
 
 * See p. 46. 
 
 f The inscription given byMontfaucon, in his Diarium, is as 
 follows : ii Altare a Paschali Papa II. divino afflatu,ritu solenni 
 hoc loco ereclum ; quo dgemones.proceros nucis arbori insi- 
 dentes transeuntem hinc populum dire insultantes confestim 
 expulit,Urbani VIII. Pont. Max. Auctoritate excelsiorem in 
 locum quern conspicistranslatumfuit. An.Dom. MDCXX^TI/' 
 See also the History of the Church, by Alberici. 
 
 ± Sueton. Nero. 
 
SANT ANDREA DELLA VALLE.”— PASCHAL CYCLE. 313 
 
 paintings of the Sybils, by Raphael, but much in- 
 jured by time. 
 
 In the vault under the church of Santa Agnese , 
 in the Piazza Navona, is the celebrated sculpture, 
 by Algardi, in high relief, representing Saint Agnes 
 miraculously protected by her long flowing hair. The 
 two belfries in the front of this church resemble those 
 of Saint Paul’s in London. The architecture of the 
 church and cupola is by Borromini. 
 
 In the church of Sant Andrea della Valle are 
 the beautiful fresco pictures, on the vault of the 
 Apsis or Tribuna, by Domenichino. 
 
 The chapel of the Strozzi family, in this church, 
 is after a design of Bonaroti, and contains two 
 sarcophagi of black marble, of a form similar to 
 those designed by him in the chapel of the church 
 of San Lorenzo at Florence. There are bronze 
 statues on the altar, and the whole chapel is of dark 
 coloured materials. 
 
 In this church is a copy, in marble, of the statue 
 in the Vatican library, representing Saint Hypolite, 
 with the Paschal cycle in Greek engraved on the 
 chair, and here a Latin translation is added. The 
 original of this statue is of the time of Alexander 
 Severus ; and, according to Winkelmann, is the 
 most ancient Christian figure in stone that exists. 
 The head on the original is modern. * 
 
 * Winkelmann, Hist, de PArt, Tom. III. p, 252. 
 
3U 
 
 TASSO® 
 
 In the church of San Carlo ai Catinari , on the 
 four angles of the cupola, are fresco paintings by 
 Domemchino. 
 
 In San Luigi dei Francesi are Acts of Saint 
 Cecilia, in fresco, by Domenichino. 
 
 The cupola of the church of San Silvestro con- 
 tains some paintings by Domenichino. 
 
 In the portico of the church of Sant Onofrio are 
 some fresco pictures, representing the actions of 
 Saint Jerome, by Domenichino. In this church is 
 the tomb of Tasso. * 
 
 * Torquato Tasso was born of a Bergamasc family, in 
 1544. Ilis father, Bernardo, was author of two poems, on 
 subjects taken from romance, Amadigi, and Fioridante. Tor- 
 quato was patronized by Alfonso II., d’Este Duke of Ferrara, 
 and lived at his court. After the publication of his poem Tor- 
 {• # ifco fell into a state of melancholy, and was on that account 
 confined atFerrara, in the hospital of Saint Anne. Fie was after- 
 wards in Mantua under the protection of the Duke of Mantua, 
 on whose death he went to Naples, still in a desponding state 
 ©f mind, and suffering from the narrowness of his pecuniary 
 circumstances. A short time before his death he came to 
 Rome, Cardinal Cinzio Aldobrandini having the intention 
 that Torquato should be crowned with the poetic laurel in the 
 Capitol. But Tasso was taken ill, and had himself removed, 
 on account of the salubrity of the situation, and from religious 
 motives, to the convent of Saint Onofrio, then belonging to 
 the order of Saint Jerome, where he died soon after in 1595, 
 at the age of 51. 
 
 Soon after the appearance of his Gierusalemme Liberata, 
 3 great contest began amongst the literary critics of Italy, 
 
 12 . 
 
SAN GREGORIO. 
 
 315 
 
 In the church of San Gregorio , on the Mons 
 Cselius, are two celebrated fresco pictures : The Fla- 
 gellation of Saint Andrew, by Domenichino, and the 
 crucifixion of Saint Andrew, by Guido. These two 
 great masters painted these pictures at the same 
 time, each trying to excel, and to produce a work, 
 superior to that of his rival. 
 
 In the church of the Santissima Concezione is 
 the celebrated picture of the Archangel Michael, by 
 Guido, and Saint Francis, by Domenichino. 
 
 Santa Maria in Transtevere is a fine old church, 
 with twenty- two large Ionic columns of granite, and 
 the pavement adorned with porphyry. On the ceil- 
 ing is the Assumption, by Domenichino. There is 
 a chapel, the architecture of which is by that master, 
 and also the painting on the ceiling. In this church 
 is some Mosaic of the year 1143. 
 
 on the question, whether the preference was due to that poem 
 or to the Orlando Furioso. 
 
 The Gierusalemme Liberata is considered as the first epic 
 poem in the Italian language ; Orlando Furioso as the first 
 poem of romance. Ariosto has a more fertile imagination ; 
 Tasso’s expressions are more select and noble. 
 
 Metastasio is inclined to give the preference to Tasso, al- 
 though the general opinion is rather in favour of Ariosto. 
 
 Tasso’s pastoral drama 1’Aminta is much esteemed. He. 
 published many other works, the morbid state of his mind not 
 being qf such a nat ure as to prevent his writing. See Tim- 
 ho s chi, stor. dell. lett. Ital. 
 
316 
 
 CHURCHES OF THE JESUITS. 
 
 Contiguous to the Jesuits’ College, called Col- 
 legium Romanum, is the church of Saint Ignatius , 
 the front of which is by Algardi, and the ceiling is 
 painted with an architectural design and figures in 
 perspective, by Pozzo, * a Jesuit, author of a trea- 
 tise on Perspective. 
 
 Another magnificent church belonging to the 
 Jesuits in Rome, is the church del Gesu, adjacent 
 to the casa professa of their order. The interior of 
 this church is highly decorated with marbles. 
 
 In another church of the Jesuits is a recumbent 
 statue of Saint Stanislas. 
 
 Without the Porta Pia, the interior front of 
 which is after the design of Michael Angelo, is the 
 ancient church of Sant Agnese , adorned inter- 
 nally with antique columns of pavonazzato and por- 
 ta santa marble, t two of which have a double fluting 
 of a singular kind. The descent into this church 
 is by a flight of forty-five steps. The walls of this 
 staircase are covered with ancient Christian epi- 
 taphs. 
 
 Hard by is the round church of Santa Constan - 
 
 * Pozzo was a native of Trent, ar?d died in 1709, at the age 
 of 67. 
 
 f Pavonazzato is an antique marble, white, with purple 
 viens. Porta Santa is so called from the door-posts of the 
 Porta Santa of St Peter’s being made of it ; it is an antique 
 marble, with spots apd veins of a brownish red colour. 
 
SANTA CONSTANZA. — PORPHYRY URN® 317 
 
 za. The church is seventy-six feet in diameter. 
 The central part is separated from the rest by gra- 
 nite columns, in pairs, which support the arches and 
 the cupola. The cupola is a hemispherical vault with- 
 out an aperture at top to admit the light. Each pair 
 of columns is placed in the direction of a radius. 
 According to the drawing of Cameron, * the round 
 church of Santa Maria Maggiore, near Nocera, very 
 much resembles this, having pairs of columns placed 
 diametrically. In the internal and external form 
 also, Santa Constanza is like the church of San 
 Stefano Rotonda, and the Baptisterium of the Late- 
 ran. 
 
 The ashes of Constantia the sister, and Constan- 
 ts the daughter, of Constantine the Great, were de- 
 posited in this church, in a large sarcophagus of 
 porphyry, sculptured with foliage in relief. The 
 sarcophagus was removed by Pius VI. to the Vati- 
 can Museum, of which, with its companion, the sar- 
 cophagus of St Helena, it forms a conspicuous or- 
 nament. There is some ancient mosaic on the walls 
 of this church, representing fauns employed in the 
 labour of the vintage, like the sculptures on the 
 porphyry sarcophagus of Saint Constantia. 
 
 The columns of this church appear to have been 
 taken from some more ancient fabric. The com- 
 
 * Cameron’s Ancient Baths. 
 
318 
 
 SANTA FKASSEDEo 
 
 posite capitals do not fit the shafts, some of the ca- 
 pitals being of a larger diameter than the shaft, 
 others of a smaller. * The arches, springing from 
 the entablature, constitute that style, from which 
 the round-arched architecture of the middle ages 
 arose. The intrados of the arches does not coin- 
 cide with the plane of the bands of the architrave of 
 the entablature, from which the arches spring, but 
 is farther out ; — this is evidently improper. From 
 the style of architecture, it is the opinion of Win- 
 kelmann t and others, that the church was built by 
 Constantine, his daughter Constantia having been 
 baptized there ; that the fauns, grapes, and vine fo- 
 liage are only the remains of the pagan ornaments 
 which, at that time, continued to be employed in 
 Christian churches ; and that the edifice never was 
 a temple of Bacchus, as Ciampini and others have 
 maintained. 
 
 In the church of Santa Prassede is a column 
 two feet high, called the column of the flagellation 
 of Christ, brought from Jerusalem, in 1223, by 
 Cardinal John Colonna. It consists of an uncom- 
 mon kind of granite or syenite, whose surface pre- 
 sents large white angular spots with black angular 
 spots of hornblend ; it is called large spotted an- 
 tique black granite by the marble cutters of Rome. 
 
 * Piranesi Ant. di Rom. Tom. II. tav. 21, 22. 23 . 
 f Winkelmann, Hist, de l’Art, Liv. VI. chap. 8. 
 
X I V. 
 
 Sculp fares ire the, style; of tfte, Arab esq ues of the, ^IDiambras. page 319. 
 
 In, the. Church, of 
 SantaTrossede, at Rome. 
 
 (tOtC. del, 
 
 J&dinlmrgh. ^Published by^L Constable <k Co. 1320. 
 
MOSAIC OF THE PASCHAL LAMB. 
 
 319 
 
 The door-post of the chapel of the column is 
 sculptured with an interlaced design like those that 
 are seen on tombs at Xcolmkiil, the island in Loch- 
 awe, and other old churches in the west of Scot- 
 land ; and no doubt all these sculptures are of the 
 same period, and by artists of the same school. In 
 the middle ages, the monastic establishments in 
 these countries had intercourse with Italy; and 
 Saint Columbanus, a native of Ireland, founded the 
 monastery of Robbio in Italy, in 
 
 On the hemispherical vault of the Tribuna or 
 Apsis, in old mosaic, is the Paschal lamb, and on 
 each side six sheep representing the Apostles. The 
 same subject is represented in mosaic in the tribu- 
 na of the church of Santi Cosmo e Damiano, for- 
 3 nerly the Temple of Remus, in the Forum Roma- 
 num. 
 
 Near the Arch of Janus is the church of Santa 
 Maria in Cosmedin. Cosmedin is a Greek word, 
 signifying a part of the ornamental dress of the 
 priests. The temple of Pudicitia Patricia was on 
 this site in the year 26 1, and the ancient temple 
 has been altered and transformed into the church. 
 The ancient marble columns of the temple with 
 Corinthian capitals are enveloped and hid by the 
 front of the organ loft, and are to be seen behind it. 
 
 * Mabillcm Annul, Bened ‘ Tirafe jschi, st. d. 3. T, Til, 13 L 
 
32 0 
 
 BOCCA DELLA VERITA. 
 
 This edifice was called Schola Graeca in the time 
 of Adrian, and Saint Augustine is said to have 
 taught rhetoric in it. 
 
 In the portico of the church is a large round slab 
 of marble, five or six feet in diameter, sculptured 
 with the representation of a human face in low re- 
 lief, and perforated at the mouth, nose, and eyes. 
 It is said to have been in a temple of Jupiter, and 
 that those who made a solemn oath, placed their 
 hand in the mouth of the figure. Others suppose 
 that this stone was placed in a pavement, and served 
 to let the water pass into the sewer beneath. From 
 this figure, the church and the neighbouring place 
 have the name of Bocca della verita. 
 
 In this church, and several other old churches in 
 Rome, are the two marble reading desks called 
 ambones, that on one side of the church for the 
 epistle, that on the other side more elevated for the 
 gospel. 
 
 In the piazza della Bocca della verita, near the 
 side of the river, is the small round temple, said to 
 be of Vesta, with fluted Corinthian columns, now 
 the chapel of Saint Stephen , called also Santa Ma- 
 ria del Sole, in form and size like the round temple 
 at Tivoli. The temple of the Sun at Balbec, also 
 a Roman work, is somewhat similar. 
 
 Under this temple is the stone arch by which the 
 Cloaca Maxima issues into the Tiber. This arch 
 
 n 
 
COLA m RIENZI. 
 
 32 1 
 
 is best seen from the opposite side of the river, 
 near the end of the Ponte Ilotto. The arch is 
 semicircular, and composed of three courses of large 
 blocks of stone, which is said to be Piperino, one 
 over the other. The vacuity of the Cloaca is thirteen 
 feet in height, and thirteen feet in width, A short 
 way from the issue, and near the Arch of Janus, a 
 stream of water, employed in turning a paper-mill, 
 flows into the Cloaca Maxima. 
 
 On the other side of the way is the church of 
 Santa Maria Egyptiaca , anciently the temple of 
 Portuna Yirilis. The columns are Ionic, and half 
 engaged in the wall, which formed the side of the 
 ancient temple ; the front or pediment is gone ; part 
 of the building is of Piperino. * This church be- 
 longs to the Armenians. 
 
 Hard by is the house of Cola de Rienzi f in a 
 singular style of architecture. 
 
 * Piranesi Ant. di Rom. 
 
 f Nicola di Lorenzo, commonly called Cola di Rienzi, in 
 1347 had the supreme power in Rome, with the title of tri- 
 bune of Rome. But from his imprudent conduct, his domi- 
 nion lasted only for a few months. For five hundred years, 
 from the beginning of the tenth to the end of the fourteenth 
 century, the city of Rome was in a state of lawless anarchy, 
 and afflicted by the private wars of the powerful citizens. 
 During the short time that Rienzi governed, he checked the 
 power and punished the disorders of the Colonna and Ursi- 
 ni families and other barons, who possessed fortresses in the 
 
 x 
 

 CHURCHES ANTIQUE SHIP. 
 
 The ancient church of Santa Maria in Domni- 
 ca 9 called della Navicella, on the Caelian hill, near 
 the Villa Mattei, is adorned with ancient columns 
 within, and was restored, with a new front, under the 
 direction of Raphael, by order of Leo X., who was 
 cardinal of this church. 
 
 In the place before the church is the model of 
 an ancient ship in marble, about fifteen feet in 
 length. A cast of this ship, from which the place 
 is called piazza della navicella, is to be seen in 
 Greenwich Hospital. 
 
 Not far from this is the ancient church of San 
 Stefano Rotonda, which some suppose to have 
 been a temple of Faunus ; but from its round- 
 arched style of architecture, the account, which 
 ascribes its construction to Saint Simplicius, bishop 
 of Rome, in the reign of Theodoric, is more pro- 
 bable. The figure of the church is round, and 
 140 feet in diameter. The central part is divid- 
 ed from the exterior parts, by a circle of ancient 
 columns, with Ionic capitals. Many of these 
 columns are of granite. Through the centre runs 
 in a straight line a lofty arcade, supported by Co- 
 rinthian columns, an anomalous part of the build- 
 
 city and adjacent country, and were the protectors of every 
 kind of violence, when committed by their partisans. Itienzi 
 enjoyed the friendship of Petrarch, who entertained hopes 
 that Rienzi was to bring back the prosperous days of Rome. 
 

 
 - 
 
SAlSTTr GTO VAINTX I E P LO . P. 323. 
 
 Ef«f 
 
 S AJSTT^l CR O VX. IJST 16<)0 . 
 
 Shewing the form of the Oldest Churches in. Home constructed with 
 -Ancient Columns, after the Model of die cineientjBasilicae.jP.329. see also 
 Basilica in IheMlphabeliccil table 
 
 JFdtD.Ziaars Sculp? 
 
ROUND- ARCHED GALLERY. 
 
 323 
 
 ing which is perhaps necessary for its support. 
 The number of columns in the church is 58, the 
 spoils of more ancient buildings. The ancient 
 buildings have furnished a vast quantity of columns 
 of marble and of granite, which now form the chief 
 ornament of many of the churches in Rome. Other 
 ancient columns are sawed up by the marble-cutters 
 for various uses. This circular church resembles in 
 its general form the church of Saint Constantia and 
 the Baptisterium of the Lateran, but is of a larger 
 size. 
 
 A chair of white marble is here preserved, from 
 which Saint Gregory the Great delivered his fourth 
 homily. 
 
 The church of Santi Giovanni e Paulo , on the 
 Caelian Mount, near Saint Gregory, has an open 
 gallery of small arches, supported by columns, run- 
 ning on the outside of the round extremity of the 
 church ; this gallery is in the round-arched style of 
 architecture, which commenced in the decline of the 
 Roman empire, and occurs in old churches in Eng- 
 land. Almost no pointed-arched architecture is 
 seen in the churches of Rome. At Florence there 
 is some. 
 
 In the basilic church of San Lorenzo , originally 
 founded by Constantine, and situated without the 
 gate of San Lorenzo, are two ancient sculptured 
 sarcophagi, one of which serves as the tomb of a 
 cardinal, who died in the thirteenth century. 
 
324 CHURCHES AMBONES CERA PASQUALE. 
 
 In the Tribuna are twelve ancient fluted columns 
 of qpavonazzato marble* with Corinthian capitals* 
 Some of the capitals are ornamented in a singular 
 manner, with well sculptured human figures, inter- 
 mixed with the foliage of the capital. 
 
 The two marble reading desks, called ambones, 
 here ornamented with round slabs of red porphyry 
 and green serpentine of the statuaries, and the twist- 
 ed column, with gilded mosaic for supporting the 
 paschal taper, are seen in this ancient church, and 
 in others of the old churches of Rome. The taper, 
 or cera pasquale, is a large wax-candle, painted with 
 foliage and ornaments, which is lighted at Easter, 
 and continues to be lighted on certain subsequent 
 festivals. 
 
 Without the Porta del Popolo, near the Ponte 
 Molle, is the small polygonal church of Saint An - 
 drew , with a round cupola, designed by Vignola. * 
 
 The church of Saint Martin is adorned by a set 
 of landscapes, painted on the walls of the side aisles, 
 by Gaspar Dughet, commonly called Gaspar Pous- 
 sin, containing some figures by Nicholas Poussin. 
 The nave is separated from the ailes by twenty-four 
 antique columns of marble. The subterraneous 
 church underneath was built by Saint Silvester, who 
 held a council there about the year 324, at which 
 Constantine was present. 
 
 * See page 297. 
 
BRICK TOWERS. 
 
 325 
 
 The church and convent of San Carlo alle quatro 
 fontane, called, on account of its small size, Scm 
 Car lino, were constructed by Borromini in l6l0, 
 on a space equal to the ground plan of one of the 
 four piers that support the cupola of Saint Peter’s. 
 This space is equal to a square, whose side is about 
 fifty-six English feet. 
 
 The church of Santa Maria della Vittoria con- 
 tains the statue of Saint Theresa with the Angel, 
 by Bernini, considered to be one of his best works. 
 
 In the church of Santa Maria di Loreto , near 
 Trajan’s column, is a statue of Saint Susanna, by 
 the celebrated sculptor Francis du Quesnoy, called 
 il Fiamingo. * 
 
 In the court of the monastery of Saint Catherine, 
 on the descent which leads from Monte Cavallo to 
 Trajan’s column, is a brick tower, built as a private 
 fortress by Gregory IX., in 1230 , called Torre del - 
 le Milizie. It is one of these towers, constructed 
 in the middle ages as private fortresses, of which 
 several still exist in Rome, Florence, Bologna, Pa- 
 via, and other cities in Italy. Another similar 
 brick tower at Rome is called Torre de’ Conti, and 
 was built by the architect Marchione, by orders of 
 Innocent III., of the same family of Conti di Segin, 
 about the year 1200. t 
 
 * Concerning this sculptor, see page 292 . 
 
 f Donatus de Urbe Roma, Lib. IV. cap. S. Quae post; 
 Leonem IV. aedificata sunt. 
 
S26 
 
 CHURCHES.— PHILIPPINE 
 
 The interior of the church of Santa Maria in Va» 
 licella is architecturally decorated by Pietro da Cor- 
 tona. There is a statue of Saint Philip Neri by 
 Algardi, and some pictures by Rubens and others. 
 The church belongs to the Oratorians of Saint 
 Philip Neri, who perform some musical orato- 
 rios during Lent, in a chapel contiguous to the 
 church. Before the oratorio a short discourse is de- 
 livered, with lively expression, by one of the boys 
 who are educated in the monastery. To these 
 representations women are not admitted, in order 
 to prevent indecent behaviour, which might take 
 place by reason of the darkness of the chapel. The 
 Philippini or Oratorians are secular, and not subject 
 to monastic vows. The front of the monastery is by 
 Borromini, in the seventeenth century, and, like 
 his other fabrics, crowded with ill-selected orna- 
 ment. 
 
 'I he Janiculine hill is called Monte Aureo, from 
 the yellow colour of the gravel and sand, of which 
 its surface is composed ; and from this circumstance 
 is named the church of San Pietro in Montorio , on 
 the Janiculine hill. In this church is a chapel 
 painted after the designs of Bonaroti, by Sebastian 
 del Piombo. * Raphael’s Transfiguration, formerly 
 
 * Sebastian del Piombo, so called from the office of Frate 
 del Piombo, which he held at Rome, and which was so lu- 
 crative as to make him idle and negligent of his art, as Vasari 
 
FRANCISCAN FRIARS. 
 
 327 
 
 in this church, is now in the picture gallery of the 
 Vatican. In the middle of the cloister is a small 
 round temple, with a cupola, and circular por- 
 tico of sixteen Doric columns of grey granite, 
 built by the celebrated architect Bramante, by order 
 of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, who founded the 
 monastery ; the temple is said to be on the place 
 where Saint Peter suffered martyrdom. This tem- 
 ple is small, being only about twelve feet in diame- 
 ter within. The principal floor is a chapel, and un- 
 derneath is a subterraneous chapel. It is, in its ge- 
 neral form, an imitation of the round temple at Th 
 voli, and that by the side of the Ty’ber, now the 
 chapel of Saint Stephan, both which are something 
 larger than Bramante's temple. The temple of the 
 Sun at Balbec, a Roman work, is also nearly of this 
 kind. 
 
 The church and convent are now occupied by 
 monks of a mendicant order, Franciscans. These 
 monks make long journies into foreign countries ; 
 the one that accompanied us to shew the monastery 
 had lately been at Constantinople ; he travelled ge- 
 
 relates, was a Venetian, as before mentioned, in p. 63. His 
 martyrdom of Saint Agatha, in the Pitti palace, in which pic- 
 ture the executioners are represented tearing off the breasts 
 of the saint, who had refused to gratify the lust of Quin- 
 tianus, governor of Sicily, in the year 251, is mentioned in 
 p. 191. 
 
328 CHURCHES — VIEW FROM THE JANICULINE. 
 
 nerally on foot, and sometimes, he said, on a sorry 
 nag a cavalluccio, when he could procure one. * 
 From the esplanade before the church is a fine 
 view of Rome. The white villas at Frascati are 
 seen on the Latian hills, and Tivoli is perceived less 
 distinctly on the more distant mountains, which form 
 part of the Apennines. This view from the Jani- 
 culine is mentioned by Martial, in his description 
 of the villa of Julius Martial is, situated on that 
 hill, t 
 
 * The friars are accustomed to a hard life, and are put to 
 the use of various expedients to maintain themselves, and 
 make converts. They can turn their hands to any thing. In 
 a voyage published by Ramusio, there is an account of one 
 of them who was in the country near the river Don, and em- 
 ployed himself in catching wild fowl with a net, by which in- 
 dustry he gained so much money as to purchase a Circassian 
 boy, to whom he gave the name of Partridge, (Pernice,) and 
 made him a friar. 
 
 “ .Ritrovandosi a quel tempo nella Tana, (the country near 
 the Tanais, or Don,) un Frate Thermo deli’ ordine di San 
 Francesco, con un rizaglio faccendo di due cerchi uno grande, 
 e ficcando un palo alquanto start© in terra fuor delle mura; 
 ne (di gallinaccie, a large kind of tetrao, or grouse) pigliava 
 dieci e venti al tratto ; e vendendole, trovo tanti danari : che 
 di quelli compro un garzon Cercasso, alquale pose nome Per- 
 nice, e fecelo frate.” Viag. di Barbaro, in 1^34, in Ramusio, 
 Tom. II. fol. 93, E. 
 
 f Juli jugera pauca Martialis, 
 
 Hortis hesperidum beatiora, 
 
 Longo Janiculi Jugo recumbunt. 
 
THE SEVEN CHURCHES. 
 
 329 
 
 In the church of the Trinita de* * 'Pellegrini is a 
 picture of the Trinity, by Guido. 
 
 In the church of Santa Maria della Traspon - 
 tina f near Saint Peter’s, is the tomb of Nicola 
 Zabaglia, who died in 1750, eminent for his me- 
 chanical inventions. * 
 
 The church of San Puca e Santa Martina , be- 
 longing to the Academy of Painters of Saint Luke, 
 near the Arch of Severus, is designed by Pietro da 
 Cortona, and is ornamented with an octagonal cu- 
 pola. 
 
 Catacombs of the early Christians . 
 
 In allusion to the seven churches of Asia Minor, 
 Ephesus, Laodicea, Sardis, Thyatira, Pergamus, 
 Smyrna, Philadelphia, typified by the seven candle- 
 sticks, the like number of churches in Rome were 
 endowed with particular indulgences, granted to 
 the faithful who visit them, and afterwards the 
 
 Paris leniter admoventur astris, 
 
 Celsse culrama delicata villas, 
 
 Hinc septem dominos videre montes 
 Et totam licet sestimare Romarn. 
 
 Albanos quoque, Tusculosque colies 
 Et quodcunque jacet sub urbe frigus. 
 
 Mart. Epigr. IV. 64. 
 
 * Zabaglia was a carpenter, and, in the reign of Benedict 
 XIV. Lambertini, be erected the large obelisk of the Campus 
 Martius at Monte Citorio. A description of the machines 
 invented by Zabaglia was published by Bollari in 1743. 
 
330 TOMBS IN THE OLD QUARRIES OF POZZOLANA* 
 
 popes extended these indulgences to seven altars, 
 situated in certain ehurcnes in different parts of 
 Italy ; so that there is often seen written over an 
 altar, for the information of the devout who desire 
 to gain the indulgences, unum e septem altaribus. 
 The seven churches of Glendallough, in the coun« 
 ty of Wicklow, derive their number from the same 
 source. * 
 
 These seven basilic churches of Rome are Saint 
 Peter’s, Saint John Lateran, Santa Maria Mag- 
 giore, Saint Paul, Santa Croce in Gierusalem, San 
 Sebastian, and San Lorenzo ; three of them are 
 without the walls. 
 
 San Lorenzo, one of these seven churches, is si- 
 tuated about two miles without the gate of San Lo- 
 renzo. From this church there is an entrance to 
 one of the ancient arenaria, or pozzolana quarries. 
 This arenarium, called the cemetery of Saint Ciriaca, 
 is a low and ill formed gallery of a mine, driven 
 through the volcanic tufa. It is a small depth un- 
 der the surface, perhaps fifteen feet. On the side 
 of the gallery are rude ill formed shelves, on which 
 the bodies of the primitive Christians were deposit- 
 ed. This gaillery is said to extend to the church 
 of Santa Agnese, two miles distant. 
 
 The volcanic tufa, in which the catacombs are 
 formed, is considered to be an argillaceous stratum 
 
 * See Smith’s Survey of the Seven Churches of Asia, 
 
POZZOLANA USED FOR MORTAR* 
 
 331 
 
 which has been burnt by volcanic fire, and is of a 
 reddish brown colour. It is the subsoil in the 
 eastern part of Rome, and the adjacent country. 
 In some places it is in a pulverulent state, and then 
 it is called Pozzolana, and is used in Rome for 
 making mortar, which acquires great hardness. Ter- 
 ra Pozzolana is so called from Pozzuoli, near Naples, 
 where the best was got, as Vitruvius mentions. For- 
 merly considerable quantities of pozzolana used to 
 be imported into Britain for mixing with lime to 
 form the mortar of bridge piers, canal-lock basins, 
 harbours, light-houses, and other fabrics, situated 
 under water. But within the last twenty years it 
 has been found that clay ironstone, calcined in the 
 fire and reduced to powder, has the same effect, and 
 when made into a paste with water soon becomes 
 hard, and is not washed away by the water in which 
 the fabric is constructed ; this has been named Ro- 
 man cement, and in the neighbourhood of London is 
 made of the nodules of clay ironstone that occur in 
 the London clay ; on the banks of the Firth of 
 Forth it is made of a stratified clay ironstone, also 
 near Whitby. It is now generally used for the pur- 
 poses for which pozzolana was formerly imported, 
 and likewise for smooth plastering the fronts of 
 houses in London. 
 
 There is an entrance into another extensive range 
 of catacombs in the basilic church of Saint Sebastian, 
 
33% 
 
 AGNUS DEI. 
 
 near the circus of Caracalla \ there are other cata- 
 combs near Saint Paul’s. 
 
 The bones found in the above-mentioned cata- 
 combs have been for centuries of years sold as re- 
 lics of martyrs. Only these tombs, however, that 
 contain a small glass vessel of red liquor called a 
 Lacrymatory, and have the letters B. M. in- 
 scribed, that is, Beatus Martyr, are considered by 
 antiquaries as the tombs of martyrs. * The glass 
 phials were used for holding balsams and other li- 
 quors, of which libations were made on the ashes of 
 the dead. 
 
 A paste composed of wax and the pulverized 
 bones from the catacombs, after receiving the papal 
 benediction, is stamped into medallions, bearing the 
 figure of a lamb, and distributed to the faithful. 
 This kind of medallion is called Agnus Dei, from 
 the figure imprinted on it. The ceremony of be- 
 stowing the benediction on this paste was performed 
 by the pope in Easter week of this year, 1818 . 
 
 Rome.— II. — Ancient Works of Art. — Coliseum . 
 — Pantheon . — Column of Trajan. — Column of Antoninus. 
 — Arches . — Monument of the Claudian Aqueduct. — Obelisks • 
 — Circus of Caracalla . — Tomb of Metella. — Baths of Ti~ 
 
 * See Muratori Antiq. Ital. Dissert. LVI1I. 
 
AMPHITHEATRE. 
 
 333 
 
 ius.— Moles Hadriani.— Mausoleum of Augustus.— Forum 
 Romanum.- — Forum of Nerva . — Palace (f the Ccesars, ■ 
 Theatre of Marcellus . — Quirinal Pill Colossal Statues . 
 — Amphitheatrum Castrense . — Temple of Minerva Medi - 
 
 ca ,. Piazza Navona ; Pasquino. — • Museum of the Vatican ; 
 
 Garden of the Belvedere of the Vatican.— Museum of the 
 Capitol . 
 
 Coliseum . 
 
 The most remarkable * of all that remains of 
 ancient buildings in Rome, and the largest Roman 
 building of stone that exists, is the Coliseum. 
 
 The name Coliseum, otherwise written Colosseum, 
 is derived by some from a colossal statue of Nero, 
 placed in the vicinity. Maffei derives the name from 
 the magnitude of the building. The amphitheatre 
 
 * It is described by Martial as exceeding all other fabrics : 
 
 “ Omnis Ceesareo cedat labor amphitheatro ; 
 
 Unum prae cunctis fama loquatur opus.” 
 
 Ammianus, in 35 0, mentions the Coliseum : “ Amphitheatr! 
 molem solidatam lapidis Tiburtini compage, ad cujus summi- 
 tatem aegre visio humana conscendit.” Ammian, lib. xvi. 
 And Cassiodorus. in the time of Theodoric, in the year 500 : 
 “ Hoc Titi potentia principalis divitiarum profuso flumine co- 
 gitavit sedificium fieri, unde caput urbium potuisset.” Cassio- 
 dor. lib. v. ep. 42. Bede relates that, in his time, in 735, the 
 pilgrims who visited Rome were wont to say that the Colise- 
 um was made to endure as long as the great globe itself 
 “ Quamdiu stabit Colyseus, stabit et Roma ; quando cadet 
 Colyseus cadet Roma ; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mun. 
 dus.” 
 
334 < 
 
 MAGNITUDE OF THE COLISEUM. 
 
 of Capua, of which little now remains, was next to 
 the Coliseum in size. 
 
 This vast amphitheatre, built by Vespasian about 
 the year 7^ s and completed by his son Titus, was 
 1702 English feet in its external elliptic circumfer- 
 ence, which was composed of eighty piers, and as 
 many apertures on each tier. The long axis of the 
 external circumference is 612 English feet, the short 
 axis 0 O 7 , the height of the external wall 163. * 
 According to Publius Victor, the Coliseum contained 
 77,000 seats, t 
 
 The external wall consists of four tiers, the three 
 lowest with arcades and columns, the highest with 
 rectangular pilasters and windows. 
 
 The external wall is of the calcareous tufa of Ti- 
 voli, called Travertine stone ; the vaults on which 
 the seats were supported are of large flat brick. 
 Some of the pavement of the corridors is of small 
 brick set in the herring-bone form. 
 
 The part that remains erect of the great external 
 wall is the northern and long side, extending over 
 about half of the original elliptic circumference, 
 
 * See Maffei, Verona Iliu*trata;-—*L , anfiteatroFlavio descrit- 
 to e delineato dal Cavaliere Carlo Fontana, nell’Haia, 1725 
 Les Edifices Antiques de Rome mesures par Antoine Des- 
 godetz, dedie a M. Colbert. — Architettura di Seriio. 
 
 f * e Regio III., Amphitheatrum quod capit loca L XXVII 
 Millia ; in other editions LXXXVII Millia,” P. Victoris de 
 Region. Urbis Roinee liber. 
 
DILAPIDATIONS. 
 
 835 
 
 the rest has been demolished for the sake of the 
 materials, and the Travertine stone, of which it was 
 composed, was used for building. 
 
 The arch of Trajan was demolished to form the 
 arch of Constantine, and churches built in the time 
 of Constantine are seen to be formed of columns 
 taken from more ancient fabrics. And, afterwards, 
 in the fifth century, the inhabitants of Rome were 
 in the habit of demolishing ancient public edifices 
 to employ the materials in building, as appears from 
 an edict of Majorian, Emperor of the West, for- 
 bidding these dilapidations. * 
 
 Theodoric was at pains to maintain the ancient 
 fabrics in Rome, as appears from the writings of his 
 minister Cassiodorus ; an officer called Gustos niten- 
 tium rerum had the charge of the ornamented pub- 
 lic buildings and statues. 
 
 Barthelmy speaks of a letter in the Vatican which 
 treats of an agreement between the Colonna and 
 the Ursini, in the fourteenth century, about the 
 right of taking Travertine stone (Tiburtinus) from 
 the Coliseum, t The stones served both for building 
 and for burning into lime. At that period, how- 
 ever, few building materials were wanted. The fa- 
 brics constructed in these times of anarchy were 
 
 * Novel'ae Majorianse, Lib. VI. 
 
 f Mem. sur les Anc. Mon. de Rome, par 1’Abbe Barthe- 
 lemy, in the Mem. de l 9 Acad, des Inscript • Voi. XXVIII. 
 
536 
 
 COLISEUM — PERFORATIONS. 
 
 only a few brick towers, serving as fortresses, 
 and erected upon the solid masonry of the ancient 
 buildings ; Rome being then thinly peopled, the 
 inhabitants poor, having neither arts, com- 
 merce, nor a regular government, and divided 
 into factions at war with each other. The di- 
 lapidations, therefore, were for a long time in- 
 considerable, and confined to the interior parts 
 of the amphitheatre. The building suffered most 
 after the revival of the arts, when large palaces 
 came to be erected, for which the squared Traver- 
 tine stones of the Coliseum afforded a good mate- 
 rial, and saved the trouble of quarrying and bring- 
 ing the stones from the rock twenty miles distant. 
 The exterior wall remained entire till the middle of 
 the sixteenth century, when the nephews of Paul III. 
 Farnese demolished a great part of the exterior wall, 
 and employed the stones in building the Farnese 
 palace. The palace of the Cancelleria, by Bra- 
 mante, is also built of the Coliseum Travertine. 
 
 A strong and lofty buttress has been constructed 
 by the reigning pope, Pius VII., to support the 
 extremity of the remaining part of this external walk 
 
 The perforations, which are numerous, between 
 the stones of the piers in the outer wall appear to 
 have been made for taking out the iron pins by which 
 the stones were connected. * The stones were laid 
 
 * Salengre Thesaurus Romanus ; and Montfaucon Dia- 
 
COLISEUM. — PERFORATIONS. 337 
 
 without mortar, as in the elliptic theatre at Pola and 
 many other Roman fabrics. Maffei observed similar 
 perforations in the stones of the Roman arch at 
 Susa, and having made a perforation in one of the 
 stones that was entire, he came to an iron pin, run 
 with lead into a cavity in the bed of the lower stone. * * 
 Some of these perforations in the Coliseum seem 
 also to have been made for the insertion of rafters 
 to support the roofs of booths and small shops, 
 which may have existed there during the middle 
 ages. 
 
 Barthelemy, from a measurement he made in com- 
 pany with Jaquier, calculates that the external 
 wall of the Coliseum would have cost, in his time* 
 (1761,) a sum equal to L. 680,000 sterling; la- 
 bour was then cheaper than it is now, and the ex- 
 ternal wall may be only a third or fourth part of the 
 whole work. 
 
 The sanguinary exhibitions of the gladiators, t for 
 which this fabric was constructed, were not abolished 
 till the reign of Honorius. t In the year 1382 a bull 
 
 rium Italicum. Many treatises have been published concern- 
 ing the perforations in the Coliseum. 
 
 * Maffei, Ver. 111. The pins, which are sometimes of bronze, 
 and the cavities for receiving them, are drawn in Piranesi, 
 Antich. di Roma. Tom. IV. tav. 6 . 
 f Maffei, Ver. 111. 
 
 t Seneca exclaims against the atrocity and the immoral 
 effect of this Roman entertainment, which is said to have 
 
 Y 
 
ass 
 
 COLISEUM. 
 
 feast was exhibited in the Coliseum, in which the 
 Colonna and Ursini factions were conspicuous.* * 
 At that time, probably, the stone seats remained 
 which are now entirely demolished. 
 
 Round the elliptical circumference of the arena 
 are placed the altars or stations of the via crucis,t 
 and two or three friars live in one of the damp 
 vaults of the ruin, to officiate, and to receive the 
 contributions of the charitable. The place is con- 
 sidered as holy, on account of the martyrdom of 
 many of the early Christians, who were exposed to 
 wild beasts in the arena. 
 
 been borrowed from the Etruscans, and which was unknown 
 to the Greeks and other nations of antiquity. “ Nihil vero est 
 tam damnosum bonis moribus, quam in aliquo spectaculo de- 
 sidere . . . crudelior et inhumanior redeo . . . Mane leombus et 
 ursis homines, meridie spectatoribus suis objiciuntur. Inter- 
 fectores interfecturis jubentur objici, et victorem in aliam 
 detinent coedem. Exitus pugnantium mors est, ferro et igne 
 res geritur.” Senec. Epist. 7 . See also Cassiodor. lib. v. 
 ep. 42. 
 
 * See an historical dissertation on the games of the middle 
 ages, in Muratori, Antiq. Italic. Disser. XXIX. 
 
 f The via crucis is a representation of the different circum- 
 stances of the passion that occurred in ascending the hill to 
 the crucifixion. It consists of a path, with a certain number 
 of stations ; at each station is a picture representing one of 
 the events. The whole is intended to impress the mind with 
 an image of the passion, and the devout Roman Catholic pro- 
 ceeds along the path repeating certain prayers at each station. 
 
;%<SRIPPA* 
 
 839 
 
 The French, when they had possession of Rome, 
 made excavations in the arena, and found several 
 sewers for leading off the water from the building. 
 
 The Pantheon . 
 
 The Pantheon was built by Marcus Agrippa, and 
 restored, 230 years after, by Septimius Severus, and 
 his son Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, called Cara- 
 calla, as the two ancient inscriptions attest. The 
 first of these inscriptions is on the frieze of the por- 
 tico, the other on the two bands of the architrave. # 
 The third consulship of Agrippa, in which the 
 portico was erected, happened in the twenty- 
 seventh year before Christ. Adjacent to the Pan- 
 theon were the baths, which were amongst the 
 many public works executed by Agrippa, the son- 
 in-law and friend of Augustus.! He bequeath- 
 
 * On the frieze, in large letters, M. AGRIPPA. L. F. rs 
 COS. TERTIUM. FECIT. 
 
 The other, on the two fascie of the architrave, and in smaller 
 letters, imp.c^es . septimius . severus .pius . pertinax .= 
 
 ARABICUS. ADIABEN1CUS. PARTHICUS . MAXIMUS . PONTIF.v^ 
 MAX. TRIB. POT. Xl. COS. m* P. P. PROCOS. ET. 
 
 IMP. CiES. M. AURELIUS ANTONINUS . PIUS . FELIX . AUG.~ 
 TRIB. POTEST. Y. COS. PROCOS. PANTHEUM . VETU3TATE . == 
 CORRUPTUM . CUM OMNI CULTU RESTITUERUNT. 
 
 f M. Agrippa . . . qui tot in urbe maxima opera excitavit 
 quae et priorem magnificentiam vincerent, et nulla postea yin- 
 cerentur.” Seneca de Beneficiis, lib. 3. 
 
340 
 
 PANTHEON. 
 
 ed these baths and the annexed gardens to the Ro- 
 man people for the general use. He also construct- 
 ed the aqueducts of the Aqua Virginis and Aqua 
 Julia, * and formed 10.5 fountains, (salientes,) in the 
 city ; he restored the Aqua Marcia ; he repaired 
 the Cloaca Maxima, and other sewers, and con- 
 structed new ones. 
 
 The Pantheon was first dedicated as a church in 
 609, to the Virgin and the holy martyrs, by Saint 
 Bonifacius IV., bishop of Rome. It is now called 
 la Rotonda, and is dedicated to Santa Maria ad 
 martyres. 
 
 The portico produces a noble effect, being sup- 
 ported by eight large columns in front, and eight 
 columns within, and on the sides. The shaft of 
 each column is of one piece of granite, forty feet in 
 height. Two of the front columns at the east cor- 
 ner were awanting, and were replaced in 1660. The 
 beams that formed the ceiling of the portico over 
 the door were of bronze, t which Urban VIII., 
 Barberini, took about the year 1630, and formed 
 of it the canopy over the high altar of Saint Peter’s, 
 and the chair of Saint Peter. The two belfries are 
 by Bernini, erected by order of Urban VIII. In 
 
 * Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. 36. c. 15. 
 
 f See a figure of these bronze beams in the Architettura 
 di Serlio. lib, iii- 
 
PANTHEON® 
 
 841 
 
 erecting these belfries, the middle of the second pedi- 
 ment was taken away. This second pediment is re- 
 presented as entire in Palladio’s drawings. The six 
 projecting stones on the face of the second pedi- 
 ment, of which Palladio says he did not conjec- 
 ture the use, are supposed by Piranesi to have ser- 
 ved for fixing tent poles on particular occasions, 
 like the apparatus for fixing the tent poles that is 
 seen on the upper tier of the Coliseum. 
 
 The round part of the building is constructed of 
 brick, which was anciently coated with lime stucco. 
 Some of the bricks are disposed in arches in the 
 wall. The diameter within the walls is 140 feet. 
 The height from the floor to the ceiling is also 140 
 feet. * The portico has been added, and did not 
 form part of the original design, as is visible in the 
 cornices of the round building, which do not fit, 
 and join those of the portico. 
 
 In the interior of the building the hemispherical 
 surface of the cupola is covered with sunk quadran- 
 gular pannels, or cassettoni, which formerly contain- 
 ed ornaments. There are thirty-two pannels in 
 the circumference, and five tier of pannels. The 
 exterior surface of the cupola is a low curve. The 
 round aperture at the top is not covered with glass. 
 
 * See the dimensions in Desgodetz, and in the Architett, 
 di Palladio. 
 
342 
 
 BUSTS OF ARTISTS. 
 
 so that the rain falls on the pavement, the lowest 
 part of which is in the middle, and is perforated by 
 holes, to allow the water to pass into the drain be- 
 neath. This exposure to the weather gives the in- 
 terior a dirty appearance. The Tiber sometimes 
 overflows so as to inundate the pavement of the 
 Pantheon. 
 
 A fraternity of artists is attached to this church, 
 and they have placed around the interior the busts 
 of eminent artists and authors, natives or inhabit- 
 ants of Italy. Some of these busts are represen- 
 tations of Raphael and Annibal Caracci, erected at 
 the expence of Carlo Maratt ; — Corregio, — Nicolas 
 Poussin,— Palladio, — Mengs, the Saxon painter, 
 erected by the Spanish ambassador Azara ; — Piranesi 
 the architect and copperplate engraver, — Angelica 
 Kaufmann the painter ; this lady was a native of the 
 Tyrol, — Pichler the elder, the engraver of cameos 
 and gems, — Bodoni of Parma, the eminent printer, 
 — Corelli, the celebrated violin performer and com- 
 poser,— Sacchini of Naples, the musical composer, 
 — Winkelmann, erected by Reiffenstein ; — Metas- 
 tasio, who died in 1782, and many others. Several 
 of these busts were erected at the expence of Ca- 
 nova. 
 
 The two Latin verses by Cardinal Bembo, under 
 the bust of Raphael, are remarkable only for their 
 extravagance, representing the Creator of the uni- 
 verse as emulous of a painter. 
 
CAMPUS MARTIUS. 
 
 348 
 
 The place before the Pantheon is occupied by a 
 fish market, and is in a state of excessive filth. The 
 flat and low ground on which the Pantheon is si- 
 tuated was part of the Campus Martius. It was 
 first built upon in the time of Leo X.,* who brought 
 colonies from Lombardy and other regions to in- 
 crease the population of Rome, and the site of the 
 Campus Martius is now the most populous part of 
 Rome. A part of it is still known by the name of 
 Campo Marzo. 
 
 Trajan 9 s Column « 
 
 The column erected in the beginning of the 
 second century, in honour of Trajan, and sculptured 
 with a representation of his victories in Dacia, was 
 anciently surrounded by the forum of Trajan ; 
 and, some years ago, the ground was cleared away 
 down to a pavement composed of squared flag stones, 
 the pavement of the ancient forum. The shaft 
 consists of twenty-three large blocks of white marble 
 placed over each other, and perforated by a spiral 
 stair-case, the newel of which is solid. 
 
 The solidity of the structure of the columns of 
 Trajan and of Antoninus is proved by their hating 
 stood to this day. They are mentioned by Poggio 
 
 # Lancisi de cseli Romani qualitatibus. 
 
344 SCULPTURES ON TRAJAN’S COLUMN. 
 
 in 1430, when all the obelisks in Rome lay pro- 
 strate, except the obelisk of the Vatican. * 
 
 The outer surface is sculptured with figures in 
 relief, representing the expedition against the Da- 
 cians. The sculpture is excellent, and superior to 
 that on the column of Antoninus ; but on both co- 
 lumns the figures are too distant from the eye, and 
 cannot be distinctly seen. The astonishing variety 
 of expression in the figures is best seen in casts ta- 
 ken from the column, t The pedestal is adorned 
 with trophies disposed in an agreeable manner. 
 The joint between two stones often passes through 
 the middle of the sculptured heads, and therefore 
 Palladio is of opinion that the sculptures were exe- 
 cuted after the stones had been placed. The 
 height of the column, including the pedestal and 
 capital, is 1 13 English feet 9 inches, a height, ac- 
 cording to the ancient inscription, equal to that of 
 the part of the adjacent Quirinal hill, which was re- 
 moved to make the forum. The height of the co- 
 lumn of Antoninus is eighteen inches less. 
 
 * loggias de Varietate Fortunae. 
 
 f The modellers of Rome obtain plaster casts of heads and 
 parts of figures of the columns by means of a workman sus- 
 pended from the top, who. takes a mould in clay ; from this 
 mould one plaster cast can be taken, and then the mould 
 becomes useless, by the shrinking of the clay. 
 
 To obtain a correct mould in plaster of all the sculptures 
 on the column, would require an expensive scaffold. 
 
trajan’s forum. 
 
 345 
 
 The forum of Trajan, in which the column was 
 situated, was magnificently adorned with sculptures 
 by the able artists of that period, and was sur- 
 rounded by porticos with one or more triumphal 
 arches. The bas-relief sculptures of these arches 
 were taken down and employed to adorn the arch of 
 Constantine, on which they are seen to this day ; 
 the arts, at the time of Constantine, having fallen 
 into decline, from which they did not recover till 
 1 1 00 years after, were not able to furnish enough 
 of sculptures for the arch, and what they did exe- 
 cute is far inferior to those taken from Trajan’s 
 arch. On the top of the column is a bronze statue 
 of Saint Peter, placed there by Sixtus V. 
 
 Column of 'Antoninus. 
 
 The column in the piazza colonna was dedicated 
 to Antoninus Pius, as appears from ancient medals. 
 The sculptures represent the victories of his succes- 
 sor M. Aurelius over the Marcomanni, and other 
 German nations. The column, it is supposed, 
 was erected after the death of Marcus, which hap- 
 pened in 380. The sculptures are disposed in a 
 spiral line, like those of Trajan’s column, but are 
 considerably inferior in point of execution and ex- 
 pression. It is impossible for a spectator placed on 
 the ground to follow the histories on the column, 
 unless, perhaps, by means of a telescope and much 
 
846 SCULPTURES OF THE WARS OF M. AURELIUS. 
 
 time, the figures being at too great a distance \ but 
 the whole series of reliefs of the Antonine column is 
 engraved by Bartoli, from drawings that were in the 
 Barberini collection. The reliefs, as is seen in these 
 engravings, represent battles,— the passage of rivers, 
 —Marcus haranguing the troops, or the adlocutio, 
 as seen on his coins ; — camps, — burning of vil- 
 lages, — and the first series is terminated by tro- 
 phies, and a winged figure of victory inscribing 
 on a shield. This series is understood by anti- 
 quarians to represent the expedition of Marcus on 
 the Danube and the Marus, now called the Morava. 
 After the figure of victory, a second series com- 
 mences, terminated at the top of the spiral by a 
 triumphal procession, with Marcus on horseback, 
 and is supposed to represent the expedition on the 
 Granua, or perhaps the Elbe. One of the sculp- 
 tures represents the rain in form of the Rainy Jupi- 
 ter, or Jupiter Pluvius, which relieved the army 
 suffering from thirst, as historians mention. With- 
 out the explanations drawn from written histories of 
 the time of Marcus, these sculptures would be as 
 unintelligible now as the Egyptian hieroglyphics. 
 
 The column was surrounded by the forum of An- 
 toninus Pius, a part of which is now occupied by the 
 Piazza coionna. The column had suffered injury by 
 fires of the adjacent houses, and by a stroke of light- 
 ning. Sixtus Y. in 1587, employed Domenico 
 
 i 
 
COLUMNS COCLIDES. 847 
 
 Fontana to repair these, and placed the bronze 
 statue of Saint Paul upon the top. * 
 
 The name of Columna Coclis is given to the co- 
 lumns of Trajan and Antonine, in Publius Victor’s 
 list of the fabrics of Rome. 
 
 There were two columns at Constantinople adorn- 
 ed with sculptures in relief, disposed spirally, like 
 the columns of Trajan and of Antonine. One of 
 these was erected in honour of Arcadius, and was 
 demolished in the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, because the neighbouring houses were in dan- 
 ger of being injured by its fall. Of this column 
 there are engravings, after drawings of Gentil Belli- 
 no, the Venetian painter, who was called to Con- 
 stantinople by Mahomet II. t 
 
 The other, the column of Constantine, is called 
 the burnt column, having been injured by fires. It 
 consists of seven large cylinders of porphyry, ex- 
 clusive of the base, t 
 
 There is an ancient column of antique red marble, 
 four or five feet high, sculptured spirally with the 
 representation of a triumph, in the gallery of the 
 Colonna palace at Rome. 
 
 Copies of Trajan’s column, two or three feet 
 
 * See Delle Fabriche di N. S. Papa Sisto V. fatte da Do- 
 menico Fontana Archittetto di sua santita, Rom. 1590. 
 f Banduri Imp. Orient. Tom. II. 
 
 J Winkelmann, Hist, de l’Art. liv. vi. chap, viii, de 1’Art 
 depuis Septime Severe jpsqua son dernier sort. 
 
SPIRAL COLUMNS. 
 
 84S 
 
 high, with the bas-reliefs, have been made in gilded 
 bronze by goldsmiths in Rome. The column erect- 
 ed by Bonaparte, in the Place Vendome at Paris, is 
 an imitation of those of Trajan and of Antonine, but 
 the reliefs are not sculptured on the column itself, 
 they are only bronze reliefs applied round a stone 
 column. Sir Christopher Wren’s column, the Monu- 
 ment in London, is remarkable for its size, but has 
 neither the sculptures nor the solid and massive 
 structure of the two Roman columns. 
 
 Triumphal Arches . 
 
 The Three Triumphal Arches at Rome are those 
 of Titus, of Septimius Severus, and of Constantine. 
 The Arch of Titus is the most ancient of the tri- 
 umphal arches now remaining in Rome. It is not 
 so large a mass of architecture as either of the others, 
 and is the only one of the three which has sculptures 
 of a good style originally made for it. It has co- 
 lumns of the composite order. The sculpture is ex- 
 cellent, but in many places defaced. On each side 
 of the arched passage are bas reliefs, the one repre- 
 senting the Emperor Titus, in a chariot drawn by 
 four horses, and accompanied by soldiers, crowned 
 with laurel. In the sculpture on the other side is 
 seen the seven-branched candlestick, and other spoils 
 of Jerusalem. * In the middle ages, a tower was 
 
 * See Reland de Spoliis Tempi} Hierosolomytani in area 
 Titian o Romas conspicuis, 17 1 6. 
 
ARCH OF SEPT. SEVERUS. 
 
 349 
 
 built upon this arch. The arch was undergoing re- 
 pairs in ISIS, by orders of the pope. 
 
 The Arch oj Septimius Sever us, in the forum Ho* 
 manum, at the foot of the Capitolini hill, is perfo- 
 rated by three vaulted passages. The architecture 
 is esteemed good, but the sculpture is poor, and is 
 also much disfigured by time. Although these 
 sculptures, executed at the beginning of the third 
 century, are unskilfully designed, yet it appears 
 from other monuments and statues, that there were 
 still some able artists at that period, and during the 
 third century. * The troubles that preceded the 
 reign of Constantine, in the end of the third centu- 
 ry, seem to have extinguished the school of arts, 
 which was not revived in Europe till 1100 years 
 after, in the fifteenth century. The arch was erected 
 in honour of Septimius Severus and his two sons, as 
 appears from the large inscription which occupies the 
 upper part of the fabric. Caracalla, after lie had 
 murdered his brother Geta, caused the name of Geta 
 to be effaced, but it is still legible under the addi- 
 tional line that was substituted. Barthelemy has 
 published the original and the alteration, t The 
 
 * Winkelmann, Hist, de FArt. liv. vi. chap. viii. de FArt 
 depuis Septime Severe jusqua son dernier sort. 
 
 f Memoire sur les Anciens Monumens de Rome par l’Abbe 
 Barthelemy, in the Mem. de FA cad. des Inscriptions, Tom. 
 XXVIII. 
 
350 
 
 ARCHES. 
 
 triumphal arch built by orders of Bonaparte, in the 
 Place du Carousel, at Paris, is copied chiefly from 
 this arch of Septimius Severus. 
 
 The Arch of Constantine was erected in honour 
 of that emperor, in the beginning of the fourth 
 century, three years after he had got possession 
 of Rome, by defeating the forces of Maxentius at 
 the Milvian Bridge, the Ponte Molle, The sculp- 
 tures in relief that represent the victories of Con- 
 stantine are in a style that testifies how much the 
 arts had declined. But a great many of the reliefs 
 on this arch are in a good style, having been taken 
 from an arch of Trajan that was in the forum of 
 Trajan, near Trajan’s column, and these sculptures 
 represent huntings, and other actions of Trajan ; * 
 Trajan is represented with the golden circle called 
 Nimbus over his head, t 
 
 The Arch of the Goldsmiths . 
 
 The small arch, or rather architraved gate- way, 
 erected in honour of Septimius Severus, by the gold- 
 smiths, is situated in the Forum Boarium near the 
 Arch of Janus, and by the ancient church of San 
 Giorgio in Velabro. The sculpture is in little es- 
 timation. The figure of Geta was erased by or- 
 der of Caracalla. 
 
 * These bas reliefs are published in the Admiranda Roma- 
 narum Antiquitatum Vestigia, engraved by Bartoli. 
 
 f See Plin. panegyric. 
 
JANUS.— BRICK TOWERS. 
 
 35 1 
 
 The Arch of Janus. 
 
 The arch of Janus Quadrifrons is a quadrilateral 
 mass of building, composed of large squared pieces 
 of marble, and perforated by two spacious passages, 
 so that each of the sides is occupied by a great arch, 
 by the side of which are a number of niches. The 
 buildings of this kind, called Jani, in ancient Rome, 
 were used as places of meeting for merchants and 
 money-dealers, * and were different from the temple 
 of Janus. Thirty-six Jani are mentioned by Victor 
 in his list of the fabrics of Rome. The temple of 
 Janus Bifrons, which was shut in time of peace, was 
 in the Forum Romanum, and of a different shape, 
 as appears from its figure on ancient medals. 
 
 When Rome had passed from the command of one 
 of the largest empires recorded in history, and had 
 become in the middle ages a small place of 50,000 in- 
 habitants, without government, and divided into seve- 
 ral factions at war with each other, the chiefs of these 
 factions erected towers, or fortresses, to defend their 
 power. One of these brick fabrics is seen on the 
 Janus, which was called the tower of Cencio Fran- 
 gipani, t from the name of the baron who built the 
 
 * te Sed toto hoc genere de quaerenda, de collocanda pecu- 
 nia etiam de utenda commodius a quibusdam viris ad medium 
 Janum sedentibus, quamab ullis philosophis, ulla in schola dis- 
 putatur.” — Cic. 
 
 f Cencio Frangipani was a powerful baron in Rome in 
 
352 
 
 ARCHES. 
 
 tower. The tomb of Adrian became the tower of 
 Crescentius, the greatest of all the fortresses ; others 
 are seen erected on the tomb of Metella, on the 
 tomb of Plautius, on the arch of Titus, on the arch 
 of Septimius Severus as figured in Donati. There 
 was one on the Septizonium. 
 
 The Arch of Gallienus. 
 
 The arch of Gallienus, erected in honour of that 
 emperor about 265, has no sculpture of human fi- 
 gures, and little merit in point of architecture. 
 
 The Arch ofDrusus , 
 
 The arch of Drusus, near the gate of Saint Sebas- 
 tian, is built of large blocks of Travertine stone, 
 and is not ornamented with sculpture. One of the 
 ancient aqueducts passed over this arch. 
 
 1119. Pandulphus Pisanus relates, that Frangipani dragged 
 Pope Gelasius II. from the altar of the church, and kept him 
 a prisoner in chains till the pope was rescued by the factions 
 who opposed Frangipani. 
 
 Brancaleone of Bologna, who was governor of Rome, inde- 
 pendent of the pope, in 1253, demolished in Rome and the 
 vicinity 140 towers, used as strongholds by the rapacious and 
 mischievous barons. 
 
 Fabricius, in 1550, mentions 360 towers in Rome, some of 
 them at that time falling to ruin ; see G. Fabricii Chemni* 
 censis Roma, cap. 2. in Graev. Thes. Ant. Rom. Tom. III. 
 
 4 
 
CL AUDI AN AQUEDUCT. 
 
 353 
 
 Monument of the Aqua Claudia . 
 
 The magnificent fabric, which commemorates the 
 Aqua Claudia at the Porta Maggiore, was a part of 
 the arched edifice for conveying the two streams 
 brought into Rome by Claudius, and formed at the 
 same time one of the gates of ancient Rome. It was 
 perforated by two arched-ways, one of which serves 
 for the gate-way of the Porta Maggiore. Within the 
 town, over the arched-ways, are three inscriptions 
 of a great size, the largest that exist in Rome. The 
 highest of the three commemorates the formation 
 of the aqueduct by Claudius, the second its restora- 
 tion by Vespasian, and the third the restoration by 
 Titus. * There were two formas, or conduits, for 
 
 * The three magnificent inscriptions, as given by Marlia- 
 nus, are, 
 
 TI. CLAUDIUS . DRUSI . F. CAISAR . AUGUSTUS . GERMANICUS 
 PONT1F. MAXIM. 
 
 TRIEUNICIA . POTESTATE . XII. COS. V. IMPERATOR . XVII. 
 PATER PATRIA2. 
 
 AQUAS . CLAUDIAM . EX . FONTIBUS . QUI . VOCABANTUR .CM* 
 RULEUS . ET . CURTIUS . A MILLIARIO . XXXV. 
 
 ITEM . ANIENEM . NOVAM . A MILLIARIO . LXlf- SUA , IMPEN-' 
 SA . CURAVIT. 
 
 IMP. CAESAR . VESPASIANUS . AUGUST. PONTIF. MAX. TRIE. 
 POT. fl. IMP. VI. COS. HI. DESIG. IJlI. P. P. 
 
 z 
 
354 ) INSCRIPTIONS OF THE CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT* * 
 
 higher level, and consequently that conduit was 
 above the other. 
 
 Pliny mentions the Aqua Claudia as a greater 
 work than any of the aqueducts that preceded ; it 
 was brought from the distance of forty miles, on so 
 high a level, as to supply the most elevated of the 
 hills in the city. * 
 
 Other fountains were taken in near Sublaqueum, 
 
 AQUAS . CURTIAM . ET . CAERULEAM . PERDUCTAS . A . DIVO 
 CLAUDIO ET POSTEA . INTERMISSAS . DILAPSAS . QUE 
 PER . ANNOS . NOVEM . SUA . 1MPENSA . URBI . RESTITUIT. 
 
 IMP. T. CiESAR . DIVI . F. VESPASIANUS . AUGUSTUS , PON- 
 TIFEX . MAXIMUS . TRIBUNIC. 
 
 FOTESTATE . X. IMPERATOR . XVII. PATER . PATRI^ . CEN- 
 SOR . cos. m 
 
 AQUAS . CURTIAM . ET . CJERULEAM . PERDUCTAS . A . DI- 
 VO . CLAUDIO . ET . POSTEA. 
 
 A - DIVO . VESPASIANO . PATP.E . SUO . URBI . RESTITUTAS 
 CUM . A . CAPITE . AQUARCM . A . SOLO . VETUSTATE . DI- 
 LA PS/E . ESSENT NOVA . FORMA . REDUCENDAS . SUA . IM- 
 PENSA . CURAVIT. 
 
 See Urbis Romae Topographia Bartholomei Marliani, lib. 
 iv. cap. xi. ; also Grater’s Collection of Inscriptions. 
 
 * IC Vicit antecedentes aquarum ductus novissimum impen- 
 dium operis inchoati a C. Caesare et peracti a Claudio ; quippe 
 a lapide quadragesimo ad earn excelsitatem, ut in omnes urbis 
 montes levarentur, influxere Curtius atque Caeruleus fons • 
 erogata ad id opus sestei tia 555,000.” Plin. Hist. Nat, 
 
CLAUDIAN AQUEDUCT. 
 
 355 
 
 13 ow Subiaco, twenty miles above Tivoli, on the A- 
 nio, so that the whole length of the forma, or con- 
 duit, was forty-six ancient miles, of which thirty- 
 six miles were subterraneous, and nine miles sup- 
 ported on arches. * 
 
 Egyptian Obelisks . 
 
 The obelisk is called by Herodotus o( 3 sXog 9 by the 
 Italians guglia, needle. Pliny, Ammianus Marcel- 
 linus, and Publius Victor, mention six or seven large 
 obelisks, and Publius Victor, in the time of Va- 
 lentinian, enumerates forty-two small obelisks at 
 Home, f The number of Egyptian obelisks in 
 
 * See Frontinus de Aquaeductibus urbis Romae. 
 
 f Obelisci magni sex. 
 
 II. In cireo maximo major est pedum CXXXII. (now at the 
 Lateran. ) 
 
 Minor pedum LXXXVIII. semis, (now at the Porta del 
 Popolo.) 
 
 Unus in Vaticano pedum LXXII. (now at Saint Peter’s.) 
 
 Unus in Campo Martio pedum LXXII. (now at Monte 
 Citorio.) 
 
 Duo in Mausoleo Augusti pares singuli pedum XL1L 
 sen vs, (now at Santa Maria Maggiore and Monte Cavallo.) 
 
 In insula Tiberis unus, (this is not mentioned in the older 
 editions.) 
 
 Obelisci parvi quadraginta duo. In pie risque sunt notae 
 iEgyptiorum. 3 ’ P. Victoris de regionibus urbis liber. Some 
 of the lengths mentioned by Victor and Pliny do not agree 
 with the actual measurement. 
 
356 OBELISKS PROSTRATE IN THE MIDDLE AGES* 
 
 Rome at this day is twelve, of which eleven are 
 erect, three are without hieroglyphics, and three 
 are of a smaller size than the others. All are of 
 large-grained red granite, and some of them are 
 remarkable for their size. Each was originally of 
 one piece, but some of the largest are broken in- 
 to several pieces. This granite is of such a nature, 
 as to resist the action of the weather, so that the 
 hieroglyphics remain quite entire, after having been 
 exposed for 3000 years. The hieroglyphics are in 
 relief, but this relief is on the surface of the cavity 
 sunk in the stone ; the cavity is of the form of the 
 outline of the figure, and serves to protect it. 
 
 In the time of Poggio, in 1430, all the obelisks 
 were down, and most of them broken, except the 
 obelisk of the Vatican. * The four obelisks of the 
 Vatican, the Lateran, Santa Maria Maggiore, and 
 the Piazza del Popolo, were erected by Sixtus V. 
 about the year 1590. Other three obelisks of con- 
 siderable size have been erected more recently at 
 Monte Citorio, at the Trinita de* Monti, and at 
 Monte Cavallo. 
 
 I. The obelisk of the Vatican is without hiero- 
 glyphics. It is of one piece unbroken, and was the 
 only one that remained erect during the middle 
 ages, near Saint Peter’s. It bears an ancient in- 
 scription, which attests that it was dedicated to Au- 
 
 * Poggius de Varietate Fortunae. 
 
REMOVAL OF THE OBELISK. 
 
 357 
 
 gustus by Tiberius. Its height to the apex is eighty- 
 three English feet nine inches. It is seven feet se- 
 ven inches square in the middle of its height, and 
 its weight is above 300 tons. * It was removed 
 to its present situation in front of the church by 
 Domenico Fontana, by order of Sixtus V. 
 
 In 1584, it was erect near the old vestry of Saint 
 Peter’s, and was buried, by the accumulation of 
 marshy soil, up to the top of the pedestal. The 
 four lower angles rested on four pieces of metal, 
 fixed with lead in the pedestal. There was an in- 
 terval between the lower surface of the obelisk and 
 the pedestal. The operations to remove it were as 
 follows, t 
 
 The castellum . — A castellum, or shears, was con- 
 
 * The length, exclusive of the' pyramid at the apex, is 
 77i% English feet. The transverse section at the middle is 
 7^ feet square. The solid contents are l66|f cubic yards. 
 Each cubic yard of granite weighs, as Smeaton estimates, 
 2 tons ; the weight of the shaft of the obelisk, therefore, is 
 upwards of 332 tons. The pyramid at top is upwards of 
 4 > tons ; and the whole weight of the obelisk, upwards of 336 
 tons. — The height of the shaft, excluding the pyramid at top, 
 is 107^ palms ; each of the four sides at bottom is 12 J palrxis, 
 at top the height of the py amid at top is seven palms ; 
 the palm is taken at 8 T ^ English inches. 
 
 f See Della Trasportazione dell Obelisco Vaticano e delle 
 fabriche di nostro Signore Papa Sisto V. fatte dal Cavallier 
 Domenico Fontana Architetto di sua Santita. In Roma, 1.590. 
 
358 
 
 REMOVAL OF THE OBELISK. 
 
 structed, seven feet higher than the length of the 
 obelisk. 
 
 The eight principal uprights, four on each side, 
 were eighty-nine feet in height from the foundation. 
 They were built of beams of oak and walnut, four 
 beams in thickness ; the ends of the beams making 
 band, or not meeting ; hooped at every nine feet with 
 strong iron hoops, locked at two opposite points by iron 
 wedges ; the beams were also held together by iron 
 bolts passing through them, secured by wedges in a 
 slit at the end. Moreover, the four pieces were tied 
 together at certain distances with bands of rope. 
 The whole scaffolding was made so as to be put up 
 again ; it being first used in taking down the obe- 
 lisk, and then removed and employed in erecting 
 it. When the castellum was employed in erecting 
 the obelisk, the principal posts were fixed in holes 
 three feet square, in a Travertine stone platform, 
 which was part of the foundation of the pedestal. 
 
 Coating of the Obelisk . — Alter the castellum, or 
 shears, was erected over it, the obelisk was wrap- 
 ped round with double mats, to protect it from in- 
 jury. And over these it was covered with two-inch 
 plank ; then iron bars, four inches broad, three of 
 them running along each face, connected in the 
 length by stirrups, and connected together below 
 the foot of the obelisk. They were introduced 
 under the obelisk by the interval between the 
 obelisk and the pedestal. The bars were kept close 
 
REMOVAL OF THE OBELISK. 
 
 359 
 
 to the planks by nine transverse iron hoops. The 
 iron rods and hoops were for the purpose of fixing 
 the blocks to. This coating of mat, wood, and 
 iron, weighed about a twelfth part of the weight 
 of the obelisk. Some of the hoops of iron broke 
 in lifting the obelisk from its pedestal, and ropes 
 were substituted, surrounding the obelisk trans- 
 versely, and fixed by ropes which passed longitudi- 
 nally under the foot of the obelisk. The ropes were 
 found to stand better than the iron. 
 
 Lifting and Lowering the Obelisk . — -The obe- 
 lisk, covered in this way, was lifted up from its pe- 
 destal, by means of the capstanes and blocks attach- 
 ed to the iron hoops on the obelisk, and the blocks 
 attached to the cross beams of the shears. 
 
 When the obelisk was lifted up two feet perpen- 
 dicularly, a platform of wood was introduced under 
 the foot of the obelisk. This platform was placed 
 on wooden rollers, nine inches in diameter, hooped 
 with iron at the ends. The ropes of the blocks at- 
 tached to the four angles of the foot of the obelisk 
 being then drawn, the platform bearing the foot slid 
 along on the rollers, and the ropes of the blocks, at- 
 tached to the upper part of the Gbelisk, being slack- 
 ened, the obelisk descended gradually till it lay ho- 
 rizontal on the platform. During the descent, the 
 obelisk was supported by two beams fixed to its mid- 
 dle, and moveable on an axis, that the ropes might 
 not be strained. 
 
360 
 
 REMOVAL OF THE OBELISK 
 
 Removing the Obelisk.— & plane-way, of suffi- 
 cient breadth, was formed by a mound of earth, 
 from the first place to the present situation of the 
 obelisk. The distance was about J OO feet. This 
 plane-way had a gentle descent. The sides of the 
 mound were supported by timbers, and cased with 
 boards. The surface of the plane-way coincided 
 with the top of the pedestal, on which the obelisk 
 was to be placed, a mound of earth, strengthened 
 by beams, having been raised round the pedestal. 
 
 Erecting the Obelisk . — After the obelisk had 
 been taken down, and moved to the place appoint- 
 ed on wooden rollers, it was erected by means of 
 forty-four capstanes ; the capstanes were on the 
 place round the mound ; the ropes passed up to the 
 mound from the capstanes on the place over pul- 
 leys, which gave the ropes their direction to the 
 blocks at the top of the castellum or shears, and 
 from these to the blocks fixed on three of the sides 
 of the obelisk. The capstanes were fixed on the 
 ground on each side, and each had four arms ; at the 
 first and third arm there was a horse, the second 
 and fourth were each wrought by six to ten men. 
 Four of the capstanes served to draw the foot of 
 the obelisk forward, acting upon four blocks, one 
 near each of the angles of the foot of the obelisk 
 forward. The rest were employed in raising the 
 obelisk till it was brought into a vertical position. 
 
 Foundation.— The foundation on which Fontana 
 
General VijiW oftteMechanism employed Try Domenico Tontana, for Removing 
 StDrecfbru) ile Obelisk of the TTcdxcan . if. 2>57 . 
 
 J±.is a Rope passing front the Obelisk to one of the 4d capstan*. Tte transverse 
 car d diagonal Umbers, several ofthc Stays oral otter partieulars are rwt drawn . 
 
 Edinlurgh Published, Tryst Constable & Cod820. 
 
 
 
BY DOMENICO FONTANA. 86 1 
 
 erected the obelisk, was formed by an excavation 
 forty-three feet square and twenty-four feet deep ; 
 the bottom of this proving clay and wet, was piled 
 with piles of oak and of chesnut, both with the bark 
 taken off, eighteen feet long, and nine inches in 
 diameter. The masonry in the foundation is of 
 small broken stones of basalt and pieces of brick, 
 with mortar made of lime and pozzolana. 
 
 At the time of the erection of the obelisk by Fon- 
 tana, the edifice of Saint Peter’s was considerably 
 advanced. The windows and the erect part of the 
 cupola was formed, but not the vaulted part. * 
 
 Fontana is of opinion, that the upper part of this 
 obelisk was broken off and a new point formed on it ; 
 because the height is not so many diameters as in 
 the obelisk of the Lateran, and the point is less acu- 
 minated, and not so smoothly finished as the rest of 
 the obelisk. 
 
 The obelisk reposed on four pieces of metal, which 
 were firmly run in with lead into the pedestal, and 
 a piece of iron, enveloped in the lead, was found un~ 
 coroded by rust. On the top of the obelisk was a 
 hollow ball of bronze cast in one piece, in which 
 were holes produced by musket bullets fired at it in 
 the sack of Rome. It did not contain the ashes of 
 any mortal ; the vulgar belief was, that it contained 
 the ashes of Augustus. 
 
 * See the view in D. Fontana’s book. 
 
36 % 
 
 OBELISKS. 
 
 The largest masses of stone have been wrought 
 by the Egyptians. Also, in the ruins of the temple 
 of Balbec in Syria, there are blocks of granite of a 
 very great size. Smeaton mentions one which, ac- 
 cording to the measurement taken from the engrav- 
 ing in Wood’s account of Balbec, weighs 1500 
 tons. * 
 
 The working of these large blocks is an art un- 
 known to the Europeans both ancient and modern, 
 and there are few rocks in which sound pieces of 
 such a size occur. 
 
 Of the obelisks brought from Egypt by the an- 
 cient Romans, the obelisk of the Vatican is the 
 largest that remains entire, and is the largest wrought 
 stone in Europe. The obelisk of the Lateran was 
 greater, but is broken into three pieces, which were 
 moved separately when it was put up by Fontana, 
 Another large mass of granite that has been moved 
 in more recent times, is the block which serves as 
 base to the statue of Peter at Petersburgh ; but this 
 block is not squared or wrought, being in the form 
 in which it was found. It is an alluvial fragment, 
 like other roiled stones, and was not quarried from 
 the rock. The carriage on which it was conveved 
 moved on balls of metal, which fitted into semicylin- 
 drical grooves in the lower surface of the carriage. 
 
 * See Smeaton’s Account of the Construction of Lie Edy* 
 jstone Light-house.’ 12 
 
OBELISKS. 
 
 363 
 
 and in tlie upper surface of the beams of the 
 way. * 
 
 II. The obelisk of Saint John Lateran is the 
 largest in Rome, but is broken into three pieces. It 
 lay buried in the soil of the Circus Maximus, which 
 had become a marsh from the neglect of the sewers. 
 The obelisk was removed from that to the distance of 
 a mile and a half, and erected opposite the loggia of 
 the church of the Lateran by Domenico Tontana, 
 Its height is 107 foot, 3 inches. It is covered with 
 hieroglyphics, of which Ammianus Marcellinus has 
 given the explanation, taken from a Greek author, 
 Hermapion. According to this explanation, the 
 hieroglyphics form an inscription in praise of King 
 Rhamestes. “ The sun, the lord of heaven, be- 
 stowed power on the King Rhamestes ; Apollo, the 
 lover of truth and ruler of the seasons, and Vulcan, 
 the father of the gods, chose Rhamestes for their 
 warrior,” and so forth.' t This obelisk was placed 
 before the Temple of the Sun at Heliopolis, and 
 Constantine intended to remove it to Constantinople; 
 but, on the death of Constantine, his son Constantius 
 had it brought to Rome in the year 357 • 
 
 III. The obelisk in the Piazza del Pcpolo, with 
 hieroglyphics, seventy-nine feet, nine inches in 
 
 * See Carburi, Travaux pour transporter un R ocher. Paris, 
 
 1777 - 
 
 t Ammian. Marcell. lib. xvii. ; and Bargsei Commentaries 
 de Obelisco in Graev. Thes. Antiq. Rom. Tom. IV. 
 
864 
 
 OBELISK OF THE CAMPUS MARTIUS. 
 
 height, was removed to its present situation from 
 the Circus Maximus, and was brought to Rome by 
 Augustus. 
 
 IV. The obelisk, without hieroglyphics, at Santa 
 Maria Maggiore, forty-seven feet ten inches in 
 height. It is broken into three pieces, and was 
 brought from the mausoleum of Augustus. * 
 
 These four were erected by Domenico Fontana, 
 and the machines he employed are described in his 
 book. f 
 
 V. The obelisk on the place of Monte Citorio is 
 of considerable size, with hieroglyphics. Many of 
 the hieroglyphics are broken off, and the fractures 
 have been repaired with the granite of the column 
 of the Apotheosis of Antoninus ; the sculptured 
 marble pedestal of that column was found near 
 Monte Citorio, and is now in the garden of the 
 Vatican. 
 
 The erection of this obelisk, the largest that has 
 been removed at Rome since the time of Fontana, was 
 performed by the mechanist Zabaglia, about 17 12 . t 
 This obelisk was anciently erected in the Campus Mar- 
 
 * A drawing of the fractures is given by Fontana, 
 t Della trasportatione dell’ obelisco Vaticano, et delle fa- 
 bric! ic di nostro signore Papa Sisto V. fatte dal Cavallier Do- 
 menico Fontana da Mili diocese di Como, architetto, di sua 
 santita. In Roma, 1590. 
 
 J See an account of the inventions of Zabaglia, published 
 
 by Bollard See also p. 329* 
 
 6 
 
'0Z8T a J r ‘'tfv+snioj -jr<q f’Jil-i'iiqnj -qfcmquzpg 
 
 Columns and Obkrisics cut Rome 
 
 e shewing t/nebr Slice, arul the proportion they bear to ececlv other. 
 

OBELISKS. 
 
 365 
 
 tius, not; far from the place where it now stands ; 
 and on the pavement, proceeding northward from 
 its base, Pliny relates, that a meridian line was 
 drawn by order of Augustus, with marks to shew 
 the length of the mid-day shadow, or the me- 
 ridian height of the sun at different seasons of the 
 year ; the shadow of a ball on the top of the obelisk 
 falling upon the mark which belonged to the day of 
 observation. * Montfaucon mentions, that some 
 fragments of this meridian line were found, t 
 
 VI. The obelisk at the Trinita de* Monti, co- 
 vered with hieroglyphics, is forty or fifty feet long. 
 
 VII. The obelisk at Monte Cavallo, placed be- 
 tween the two colossal groups, appears to be forty 
 feet in length. It is without hieroglyphics, and was 
 anciently on the tomb of Augustus. 
 
 * “ Is obeliscus qui est in Campo Martio CX. pedum est, 
 a Mersotide inscriptus : rerumque interpretationem i£gyp. 
 tiorum philosophise continet. Cui Divus Augustus addidit 
 mirabilem usum ad deprehendendas solis umbras, dierum- 
 que ac noctium magnitudines, strato lapide ad obelisci mag- 
 nitudinem, cui par fieret umbra Romse (brums according 
 to Salmasius ) confecta diei sexta hora, ( that is, at mid-day ,) 
 paulatimque per regulas (quae sunt ex sere inclusae) singulis 
 diebus decresceret et rursus augesceret, digna cognitu res, et 
 ingenio faecundo, Manlius Mathematicus apici pilam auream 
 addidit.” Plin. Hist. Nat. 
 
 t Montfaucon, Diarium Italicum and Marliani topog- 
 Romae. 
 
366 
 
 OBELISKS. 
 
 VIII. The obelisk lying broken in two or three 
 pieces in a court at the Belvidere of the Vatican, is 
 of considerable size. On each of the sides that are 
 seen there are two rows of hieroglyphics, the figures 
 looking to the right of the spectator. It has no 
 hieroglyphics inclosed in a border. The inclosed 
 hieroglyphics are the proper name of the king, as 
 Dr Young has shewn in his explanation of the stone 
 in the British Museum, on which one and the same 
 inscription is given both in Greek and in hierogly- 
 phics. 
 
 The other obelisks are of a smaller size. 
 
 IX. The obelisk on Bernini’s fountain, in the 
 Piazza Navona, was brought from the Circus of Cara- 
 calla, where it lay broken. 
 
 X. The obelisk, with some hieroglyphics, appa- 
 rently twenty feet high, in the garden of the Villa 
 Mattei. 
 
 XL The obelisk in the place before Santa Ma- 
 ria della Minerva, with hieroglyphics, is fourteen 
 feet three inches in height. It is, perhaps, only a 
 fragment of an obelisk, as its height is only five di- 
 ameters to the foot of the pyramid at top, whereas 
 the height of the Lateran obelisk is nine or nine 
 and a half. 
 
 XII. The obelisk, with hieroglyphics, on the 
 piazza before the Pantheon, is ten or twelve feet in 
 length. 
 
 Part of the shaft of a broken obelisk with hiero- 
 
ANCIENT LATIN LANGUAGE. 36 7 
 
 glyphics, is placed before the church of Saint Bar- 
 tholomew, in the Isola Tiberina. * 
 
 The Via Appia leading to Capo di Bove. 
 
 Tomb of the Scipios . — On the left hand of the 
 road, before going out of the city, is the tomb of the 
 Scipios, discovered in 1 780. A gardener’s house is 
 perched upon the ruins of the tomb, and under- 
 neath are the vaults in which was found the parallel- 
 sided urn, or sarcophagus, of Piperino, now in 
 the Vatican museum, two busts, and some inscrip- 
 tions, of which copies are placed in the vault. The 
 inscription on the urn is one of the examples of the 
 ancient Latin before it was refined ; t other exam- 
 ples are the fragment of the inscription of Duilius, 
 in the Capitol, and the hymn of the Fratres Arvales, 
 in the vestry of Saint Peter’s. Before the situation 
 of the tomb of the Scipios was ascertained by the 
 discovery of this urn, the tomb on the Via Appia, 
 opposite to the church Domine quo vadis, was sup- 
 posed to be the tomb of the Scipios. t 
 
 From the Porta San Sebastiano, anciently Porta 
 Capena, we proceed along the road which was an- 
 ciently the Via Appia, the ground on each side 
 of which is occupied by market gardens. The small 
 
 * It is figured in Piranesi, Ant. di Rom. Tom. IV. tav. LL 
 t See the inscription, in a subsequent page in the account 
 of the museum of the Vatican. 
 
 i Piranesi, Antichita di Roma, Tom. XL tav. 28. 
 
868 
 
 POTS USED IN FORMING ARCHES. 
 
 houses, inhabited by those who cultivate the gardens,, 
 are perched as it were on rocks, on the ruins of an- 
 cient tombs. These tombs are composed of masses 
 of small fragments of stones and pozzolana mortar, a 
 kind of masonry which possesses great firmness, and 
 has resisted the action of time, whilst the external 
 ornaments of the fabric have perished. 
 
 On the right hand near the road is the church of 
 Saint Sebastian, which is one of the seven basilic 
 churches of Rome, and from which there is a descent 
 leading into a set of catacombs or tombs, formed by 
 the ancient Christians in the old quarries of pozzo- 
 lana. 
 
 Circus of Caracalla . — On the other side of the 
 road is the Circus of Caracalla. The spine run- 
 ning along the middle of the oblong space which 
 constitutes the circus, and on which the obelisk and 
 metae stood, is still visible. This is the only fabric in 
 which the form of the ancient circus can be traced. 
 The circus Maximus and others are utterly destroy- 
 ed. The figure of the circus is seen on some an- 
 cient coins. 
 
 The Egyptian obelisk, now on Bernini’s fountain 
 in the Piazzo Navona, was removed from this circus 
 of Caracalla, where it lay broken, about the year 
 1650, by Innocent X. Pamfili. 
 
 The half arches, forming a projection from the 
 wall that surrounds the circus, are composed of large 
 narrow-mouthed earthenware pots, of an oval form, 
 
CAPO DI BOVE. 
 
 869 
 
 and about eighteen inches in diameter. These pots 
 are imbedded in the mortar, but have no mortar with- 
 in them. Each pot has a narrow mouth and two 
 handles. These pots occur also in the ancient fabric 
 called the tomb of Saint Helena, at Tor pignatara, 
 near Rome, and in other fabrics ; they are figured 
 by Piranesi. * They were used for the purpose of 
 diminishing the weight of the arch. 
 
 The walls of the circus are of brick, and near it 
 is a lofty quadrangular building of brick called the 
 Stables of the Circus, and considered by some to 
 have been a market. 
 
 Tomb of Metella .— Farther on the road ascends, 
 and on an eminence is the round building which 
 formed the sepulchre of Caecilia Metella, daughter 
 of Quintus Creticus, and wife of the Triumvir 
 Crassus, as is attested by the ancient inscription in 
 large letters below the frieze, t 
 
 This massive structure has a square base, on which 
 is placed a circular building, 88 feet 6 inches in dia~ 
 meter, t the exterior of w T hieh is of large blocks of 
 Travertine. The void space within is in form of a 
 
 * Piranesi, Ant. di Rom, Tom. III. 
 t Caecilia . 
 
 Q. Cretici . 
 
 Metellce . 
 
 Crassi. 
 
 t Piranesi, Ant. di Rom. 
 
CAPO DI &OVE. 
 
 370 
 
 cone* and about twenty feet in diameter at the widest 
 and lower part. The mass of masonry is of great 
 thickness, composed of mortar and small fragments 
 of stone cast in irregularly. The blocks of Traver- 
 tine which form the exterior are built in along with 
 the irregular mass, and, according to Piranesi, the 
 blocks are fixed together by cramps of iron inserted 
 in cavities formed in the beds and run in with 
 lead. This kind of building with irregular masses 
 of stone is seen in many other ancient buildings ; at 
 the distance of every three or four feet there is a 
 level course of regularly laid pieces. 
 
 Within the tower was found, in the time of Paul 
 III. Farnese, the large sarcophagus of white marble 
 now in the court of the Farnese palace. The tower 
 is surmounted with battlements constructed in the 
 middle ages, and there are buildings of the same 
 period attached to the tower. Over the gate of this 
 castle is the armorial bearing of the Gaetani family, 
 a bull’s head, for which reason the whole building is 
 called Capo di Bove. It was an important fortress, 
 and gave protection to a small town of several habi- 
 tations that are built around it, during the long pe- 
 riod that the rival factions of the Colonna and Ur~ 
 sini, and other families, were contending for the 
 command of Rome and the neighbouring district. 
 
 The tomb of Cecilia MeteJla forms the extremity 
 
 of one of the bases measured by the learned mathe- 
 
 6 
 
BAS ALT. —^ANCIENT ROAD-PAVEMENT. 3J1 
 
 matician and Jesuit, Boscovich, in his geometrical 
 survey of the ecclesiastical state. 
 
 Near Capo di Bove is a dike or vein of basalt, 
 which is considered by some geologists to have been 
 formed by a current of lava that flowed before the 
 times recorded in history, from the volcanic hills of 
 Albano. This basalt is not divided into polygonal 
 columns ; but columnar basalt is to be seen near 
 Bolsena, on the road between Rome and Siena. 
 
 This basalt of Capo di Bove was quarried by the 
 ancient Romans, and formed into their large pave- 
 ment stones, such as are still seen in ancient pave- 
 ments of the Via Appia, near Capo di Bove, also 
 between the arch of Titus and the arch of Constan- 
 tine, and in other places. In these ancient pave- 
 ments the surface of each stone is one or two square 
 feet. The figure of the upper surface of the stones 
 is an irregular polygon. The breadth of these an- 
 cient Roman paved roads is about twenty-five feet. 
 
 The streets of modern Rome are also paved with 
 basalt from Capo di Bove, but the stones are small, 
 the upper surface of each being only two or three 
 inches square. To form the pavement these stones 
 are imbedded in mortar made with pozzolana, which 
 becomes very hard. This pavement is defective on 
 account of the small size of the stones. 
 
 From the eminence of Capo di Bove are seen the 
 long ranges of lofty arches of the ancient Roman 
 aqueducts. The arches are composed of large flat 
 
3?2 SMALL TEMPLES NEAR CAPO DI BOVE. 
 
 bricks, two feet square, called in Rome tavoloni. 
 And the Acqua Felice, one of the three aqueducts 
 used for the supply of modern Rome, is seen sup- 
 ported upon arches by the side of the ancient. 
 
 Walking through the fields from Capo di Bove 
 we pass an ancient temple of a quadrangular form, 
 situated on the rising ground. It is built of brick, 
 and is supposed to have been dedicated to Bacchus. 
 It is now a half deserted chapel. 
 
 Fountain of Egeria*— In the hollow is the grotto 
 and fountain della Caffarella, which is understood to 
 be that which was consecrated to the nymph Egeria, 
 from whom Numa pretended to receive his laws. * 
 The spring of water rises under a lofty antique vault, 
 the walls of which are covered with Opus reticula- 
 tum. A mutilated recumbent statue is placed above 
 the source. There is one niche in the end wall, 
 and three niches on each of the sides. 
 
 Following the course of the sluggish and muddy 
 brook Acquataccio, anciently called A Imo, into which 
 the water of the fountain runs, we pass a small 
 quadrangular temple of brick, called the temple of 
 
 * u Egeria est quae prsebet aquas, dea grata camcenis. 
 
 Ilia Numae conjux consiliumque fuit.” — Ovid. Fast* 3. 
 See also Livy and Plutarch. Juvenal complains that 
 the grotto was adorned with too much neatness, and not in 
 the rural manner, as a grotto ought to be, with mossy margin 
 and natural rock. Time has now again brought the grotty 
 to the rustic form that Juvenal wished for. 
 
THE ALMO* 
 
 373 
 
 Rediculus, the deity to whom the Romans ascribed 
 the retreat of Hannibal, when he quitted his encamp- 
 ment near Rome.* The architecture, however, of 
 this temple is evidently not of such remote antiquity 
 as the time of the republic. The Acquataccio re- 
 ceives the water of a spring called Acqua Santa, 
 which is used for curing cutaneous diseases in cattle, 
 and also for some affections of the humaft body. 
 The Acquataccio runs parallel to the Via Appia; 
 it does not pass through Rome, but falls into the 
 Tiber a little below the city. 
 
 Proceeding, we enter Rome again by the Porta 
 San Sebastiano. 
 
 Ancient Baths . 
 
 The baths of Titus , the Termi di Tito, are si- 
 tuated not far from the Coliseum, and consist of 
 large vaulted halls, which are in part subter- 
 raneous, the building being applied to the side 
 of the hill. In these vaults were the baths, and 
 on the story above them may have been halls 
 for exercise, libraries, and other rooms. Where 
 the vault is broken, the light of day is admitted $ 
 the halls, whose vaults are entire, are quite dark, 
 
 % <l Rediculi fanum extra portam Capenam Cornificius 
 ait fecisse, qui Rediculus propterea appellatus est, quia 
 accedens ad urbera Annibal ex eo loco redierit quibusdam 
 visis perterritus.” Fest. 
 
87 4 grotesque paintings. 
 
 and in order to render visible the fresco paint- 
 ings on the lofty ceilings, the keeper is provided 
 with lighted tapers fixed on a long reed. The walls 
 and vaulted ceilings of the different apartments are 
 covered with stucco, the surface of which is smooth, 
 and on this smooth stucco the fresco paintings are 
 executed. The stucco is composed of quicklime and 
 pounded marble, and was susceptible of being polish- 
 ed after it was dry. These paintings consist of the 
 ornaments called grottesque, which include, in dif- 
 ferent places, pictures in which the human figure 
 is painted in an excellent style ; the colours are well 
 preserved. 
 
 Raphael, and his pupil Giovanni da Udine, copied 
 this fanciful kind of ornament in the loggie of the 
 Vatican ; and the word grottesca was applied to 
 ornaments of this kind, from the circumstance of 
 their occurring in the grottos or subterraneous halls 
 of the ancient ruins at Rome, 
 
 These are the principal ancient fresco paintings 
 now remaining in Rome. Engravings of them are 
 published. Since the publication another apartment 
 has been cleared of rubbish by the French. The 
 celebrated antique fresco picture, the Aldobrandini 
 Marriage, in which the marriage of Thetis and 
 Peleus is represented, was found near Santa Maria 
 Maggiore, and was at this time( 181 8)for sale in Rome, 
 in the possession of Signor Nelli. Having been detach- 
 ed from its original wall, it is fixed in a frame. The 
 
BATHS OF TITUS. — SALTPETRE BEDS. 375 
 
 colours have suffered and lost their lustre. A copy 
 of this picture by Nicholas Poussin is to be seen in 
 the Doria palace in Rome. Other fresco paintings 
 and ceilings, ornamented with stucco in relief, have 
 been found at Rome, and the neighbourhood, in 
 Adrian’s Villa, in the sepulchre of the Nasonii, in 
 the pyramid of Cestius, and in other tombs. * 
 
 The ground incumbent on the vaults of the baths 
 of Titus is occupied with saltpetre beds, composed 
 of alternate layers of stable litter, and the rubbish 
 of old walls, and placed under lofty sheds open at 
 the sides. 
 
 In the adjacent market gardens is the ancient 
 ruin called the Sette Sale , which contained the re- 
 servoirs of water for the baths. 
 
 The celebrated group of Loucoon, now in the 
 Vatican, was found in 1506, in the time of Julius 
 II., in the ruins of the palace of Titus near these 
 baths. It is supposed to be the statue described by 
 Pliny. 
 
 The baths of Diocletian , , or Terme Diocletiane, 
 form one of the most extensive ruins in Rome ; 
 they were built and dedicated by that emperor, in 
 the year 304, a few years before he abdicated the 
 empire, t 
 
 * Some of them are figured in Camejron’s Ancient Baths ; 
 in Bartoli Sepolchr. Ant. ; in Piranesi, Ant. di Rom. 
 j* See the Inscription in Gruter, Inscrip, p. 178. 
 
376 TERME DT0CLET1ANE. OIL CISTERNS. 
 
 The Thermae, in ancient Rome, were places of 
 public resort, and contained, besides the baths, por- 
 ticoes for walking, places of exercise, large public 
 libraries, and schools for various sciences. 
 
 The size and magnificence of the baths in Rome 
 in the time of Nero are described by Seneca, in his 
 86th epistle, and compared with their simplicity in 
 the time of the elder Scipio. 
 
 These baths of Diocletian covered a great space 
 of ground, and much of the building yet remains, 
 consisting of massive brick arches. The vestiges of 
 the square, which included the whole edifice, are 
 represented as measuring 1196 English feet each 
 side. * Some parts of the building are now occu- 
 pied as warehouses for keeping oil, and as granaries, 
 formed about 1710, by Clement XI. Albani. The 
 oil magazines belong to the papal government ; 
 they are subterraneous, and vaulted over like a cellar. 
 In the floor are formed the pozzi or wells for contain- 
 ing the oil. These wells are, perhaps, ten feet 
 deep ; their aperture at top is three or four feet in 
 diameter ; they are made of mortar, which, like all 
 the mortar used in Rome, is composed of lime and 
 pozzolana, and acquires great hardness. Round 
 the wall of the cellar is a range of masonry raised 
 
 * 1650 palms, Piranesi, Antichita di Roma, Tom, T. 
 
 4 
 
CHURCH OF THE CERTOSA. 377 
 
 two or three feet from the floor, containing smaller 
 oil cisterns, likewise of mortar* 
 
 After a design of Michael Angelo Bonaroti, one 
 of the spacious halls of the baths, said to have been 
 the Pinacotheca, or picture gallery, was converted 
 into the church of the Certosa or Carthusian monas- 
 tery, dedicated to Santa Maria degli Angeli. Far- 
 ther decorations were afterwards added under the di- 
 rection of Carlo Maratti, whose tomb is in the round 
 vestibule of the church, opposite to that of Salvator 
 Rosa. The church is in form of a Greek cross. 
 Two hundred columns anciently decorated these 
 baths, and eight of these of granite still remain in 
 the church. These columns are of different lengths ; 
 and, in order that the visible parts of the shafts may 
 be equal, the longest ones have the lower part sunk 
 in the ground, the ancient pavement having been 
 elevated by Michael Angelo. 
 
 Diocletian did not import the columns from 
 Egypt, but only collected them from other build- 
 ings, constructed in the more flourishing times of 
 Rome. The graphic arts had declined much at 
 the time of Diocletian, as is visible in his medals. 
 The baths of Diocletian are now a great mass of 
 arched brick building, completely stript of the co- 
 lumns and marble incrustations, but there is a spe- 
 cimen of the architecture of that period in the 
 palace of Diocletian, at Spalatro in Dalmatia, of 
 which there are good engravings, with a description 
 
378 THE CERTOSA. MERIDIAN. — CLOISTER. 
 
 published by Adam. * The use of round arches, 
 springing from the entablature of the columns, is 
 seen in the palace of Spalatro, a practice which af- 
 terwards passed into the round-arched style of the 
 middle age. 
 
 In this church of the Certosa is a long meridian 
 line drawn on the pavement, in 1701, by Bianchini, 
 on which the image of the sun is received from a 
 window in the upper part of the building. The 
 declination of the principal stars is marked on the 
 line, and a note of certain remarkable events is made 
 by the side of the line, opposite to the day of the 
 month on which they happened. The apparent 
 orbits described by the polar star, as visible through 
 an aperture in the window, during eight hundred 
 years, to the year 25G0, are projected in ellipses on 
 the pavement, near the meridian line. 
 
 In the church are several pictures, of which there 
 are copies in mosaic in Saint Peter’s, and a picture 
 in fresco, of the martyrdom of Saint Sebastian, by 
 Domenichino. Near the church is the cloister of 
 the Certosa, of 100 mode rate- sized columns, the 
 work of Michael Angelo. The architecture is simple 
 and pleasing, with few ornaments. It forms the 
 four sides of a square, and consists of a corridor, 
 with an open arcade, and above that an attic story. 
 
 * The ruins of the palace of Diocletian at Spalatro, by 
 Robert Adam, architect, London, 1764. 
 
BATHS OF CARACALLA. 
 
 379 
 
 The number of arches on each side is twenty five. 
 The columns, supporting the arches, are about 
 twelve feet high, of stone, and the whole is plaster- 
 ed and whitened. It is the largest cloister in Rome. 
 In the middle are three fine old cypresses. 
 
 The remains of the Thermo Antoninianse, or 
 baths of Antoninus Caracalla , situated in the mar- 
 ket gardens on the Aventine hill, consist of lofty 
 and extensive brick walls, with arches. They were 
 built by the son of Septimius Severus, who is styled 
 on inscriptions Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Pius, 
 but is known in history by the appellation of Cara- 
 calla, which was a nickname given him from a kind 
 of cloak used in Gaul, called Caracalla, which he 
 distributed to the people of Rome. * The space 
 of ground they covered appears nearly equal to the 
 extent of Diocletian’s baths. According to architects, 
 the vestiges of the extreme precinct in which these 
 baths w^ere included, forms nearly a square, each side 
 being 1160 English feet, t In these baths of Cara- 
 calla were found the celebrated statues, called the 
 Earnesian Bull, the Hercules Farnese, and the Flora 
 Farnese, which were formerly in the Farnese palace 
 at Rome, and are now at Naples. 
 
 * “ Vixit diu in odio populi Antoninus, aaamvis et vesti- 
 menta populo dederit, unde Caracallus est dietus, et Ther- 
 mas magnincentissimas fecerit.” S partian. 
 f 1600 palms. Piranesi, Ant* di Roma, Tom. I. 
 
380 
 
 MOLES HADRIANI. 
 
 The baths of Lima, situated on the Palatine hill, 
 are subterraneous, and of much smaller extent than 
 the three above mentioned. 
 
 Castel Sant Angelo . 
 
 The Moles Hadriani was built by that emperor, 
 as a sepulchre for himself, and for persons of the im- 
 perial family ; # and was also the tomb of his succes- 
 sors, the Antonines. In the siege of Rome, in 
 537, the Romans made use of it as a place of de- 
 fence, and threw down the statues and other orna- 
 ments upon the assailing Goths, t Its remains 
 consist of a round building, ^19 English feet in dia- 
 meter, t placed on a large square base, and composed 
 of a great mass of masonry, of courses of irregular 
 fragments of stone and mortar. These courses are 
 bound together by large squared blocks of piperino, § 
 placed at a distance from each other. The exterior 
 is also composed of large squared stones. This kind 
 of masonry, called emplecton by Vitruvius and Pli- 
 
 * “ Sepultus est Hadrianus in ripa fluvii, juxta pontem i£- 
 lium. Illic enim sepulchrum conditum. Jam enim August! 
 monimentum repletum erat ; nec quisquam ampiius in eo se- 
 peliebatur.” Dion. 
 
 + See Procopius de Bello Gothico, and Winkelmann, Hist, 
 de l’Art. 
 
 X 302 palms. Bartoli, Sepolchri Antich. 
 
 § Piranesi, Ant, di Rom. Tom. IV. 
 
MOLES HADRIAN!* 
 
 381 
 
 ny, * is of great solidity, and is seen in many tombs 
 and other ancient buildings at Rome. 
 
 In this mass of masonry there were some sepul- 
 chral chambers and passages, small in comparison to 
 the whole mass, as is seen in the section given by 
 Bartoli. 
 
 It is similar in form to the mausoleum of Augus- 
 tus, of which there are some remains ; and several 
 ancient Roman tombs exist like these two, both in 
 their cylindrical form, and in the nature of the ma- 
 terials of which they consist ; such are the tomb of 
 Metella, of Plautius near Tivoli, and of Munatius 
 Plancus near Gaeta. f 
 
 In the middle ages, there were fortresses on the 
 Coliseum, the baths of Titus, at the arch of Titus, 
 on the Janus, and a great many others occupied by 
 the powerful families. Of these fortresses, the Moles 
 Hadriani was the most important, both from its si- 
 tuation commanding the entrance to Rome, and by 
 reason of its massive structure. 
 
 When the Pons Milvius was broken down during 
 the middle ages, and impassable, the sepulchre of 
 Adrian served to command the iElian bridge, which 
 was then the only entrance into Rome from the 
 
 * fi Emplecton, tantummodo frontibus politis, ^eliqua 
 fortuito collocata.’’ Plin. Hist. Nat. 36, cap. 22. See also 
 Vitruv, lib. ii. cap. 8. 
 
 t See B artoli, Sepolchri Antichi. 
 
MOLES HADRIANI* 
 
 382 
 
 north. In the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries* 
 it was occupied as a fortress, sometimes by the 
 popes, sometimes by their adversaries ; from one of 
 these it was called the tower of Crescendos, In 
 the eleventh century, it was sometimes called the 
 house of Theodoric. * 
 
 The upper works of brick were built on the an- 
 cient solid mass by Alexander VI. Lencoli, father of 
 the infamous Caesar Borgia. Clement VII. was be- 
 sieged in this castle by the troops of Charles V. Ben- 
 venuto Cellini was with the pope, and acted as chief 
 gunner to his holiness, t The Moles Hadriani is 
 now called the Castel Sant Angelo, from the vi- 
 sion of an angel sheathing his sword, which Gre- 
 gory the Great saw resplendent on the top of 
 the mole, when that pope went to offer up prayers 
 for the deliverance of Rome from the pestilence, t 
 A statue of this angel is placed on the top. The 
 building was surrounded by a ditch and rampart, in 
 form of a pentagon, with bastions, by Urban VIII. 
 Barberini. It is now garrisoned, and used as a 
 prison for criminals. 
 
 There is a communication between the castle of 
 Saint Angelo and the Vatican palace, by means of 
 a covered gallery, which was constructed about the 
 
 * Donat, de Urbe Rom. lib. iv. cap. 7* 
 f Benvenuto Cellini’s Life, written by himself. 
 X Donat, de Urbe Rom. lib. iv. cap. 7 . 
 
THE GIRANDOLA* 
 
 383 
 
 year 1500, by Alexander VL On certain festivals, 
 a great fire-work, composed of multitudes of rockets, 
 called the girandola, is discharged from the castle 
 of Saint Angelo ; and proves that the Roman artifi- 
 cial fire-workers are deservedly famous. This giran- 
 dola was exhibited this year, 1818, on the evening 
 of the pope’s birth-day, a few days after Easter. 
 
 Mausoleum of Augustus . 
 
 Not far from the Porta del Popolo is the Mau- 
 soleum of Augustus, now much dilapidated and con- 
 cealed by modem buildings. It was built by 
 Augustus.* It was circular. The Moles Hadriani 
 was afterwards constructed of that form. The di- 
 ameter 139 English feet, t The walls that still re- 
 main are of great thickness. The Campus Martius, 
 in which this mausoleum was situated, extended, ac- 
 cording to Nardini, from the Pantheon, up along the 
 Tiber about an English mile, to near the Porta del 
 Popolo, and perhaps farther up, towards the Ponte 
 Molle. It was laid out in grass, and was used for a 
 place of exercise and recreation, as the public walks 
 in the vicinity of London, Paris, Vienna, or Flo- 
 rence. 
 
 The Campus Martius is the principal object in 
 the following description of Rome given by Strabo.. 
 
 * Sueton. in Augusto, c. 100. 
 f 192 palms. Bartcli, Sepoicri Antich. 
 
884 STRABO’S DESCRIPTION OF ROME. 
 
 “ The ancient Romans attended little to the em- 
 bellishment of Rome, being occupied with more 
 urgent affairs ; but their posterity, and especially 
 the princes of the present day, have not been defec- 
 tive in this, having filled the city with numerous 
 and beautiful buildings. For Pompey, Caesar, Au- 
 gustus, his sons, his friends, his consort, and his 
 sister, exceeded the liberality and activity of all their 
 predecessors, in the edifices they erected for the 
 public use. The greatest number of these buildings 
 are in the Campus Martius, which is adorned by 
 nature and by human art, for the magnitude of the 
 plain is admirable, and it is accommodated to chariot 
 and horse races, and to the multitude of people who 
 are engaged in playing at ball, in the game called 
 circus, and in the palestra ; likewise the edifices 
 that surround it, and the ground laid out in grass, 
 which is green all the year, and the crowns of hills 
 which come even to the river, form a scene which 
 the spectator does not willingly leave. Near this 
 plain is another plain, and many porticos all around 
 and groves, and three theatres, an amphitheatre, and 
 magnificent temples, numerous and close to each 
 other, so that the city appears only an accessory and 
 secondary object in respect to the Campus Martius. 
 Therefore, in this place, which is considered as 
 most sacred, the monuments of the most illustrious 
 citizens are erected ; the most remarkable of these 
 is that called the mausoleum, a building of white 
 
CAMPUS MARTIUS. 
 
 385 
 
 stone erected on lofty arches by the river, and orna- 
 mented to the top with evergreen trees ; on the 
 summit is a statue of Augustus ; in the vaults are 
 the tombs of Augustus and of his relations and 
 domestic friends ; behind is an extensive grove with 
 beautiful walks. In the middle of the plain is the 
 funeral pile of Augustus of white stone, surround- 
 ed by a circular iron rail, which incloses a planta- 
 tion of alders, (xiyetpois,) and if the spectator proceeds 
 to the old forum, and views the many tempies and 
 basilic porticos, and if he then inspects the capitol 
 and its splendid works, and those of the Palatium, 
 and the covered walk of Livia. he will easily forget 
 every thing out of the metropolis. And such is 
 the city of Rome.”* 
 
 The beauty of the Campus Martius has perished ; 
 it is now occupied by houses, and is one of the most 
 populous parts of the city, t 
 
 Temple of Antoninus ,— Near the Piazza Colon- 
 na are eleven large columns of Marmo Greco, sup- 
 porting a cornice, supposed to be the remains of the 
 temple erected to Antoninus Pius, in the Forum of 
 Antoninus. It is now the front of the land custom- 
 house. 
 
 * Strabo's Geography, Book v. written in the reign of Ti» 
 berius, 
 
 f See page 343, 
 
386 
 
 COLUMNS IN THE FORUM. 
 
 Forum Romanum and Ancient Buildings in its 
 vicinity . 
 
 The Forum Romanum is now a large open place 
 with a double row of small trees, unpaved, and used 
 as a cattle market ; and, therefore, called the Campo 
 Yaccino. It contains many remains of ancient build- 
 ings. 
 
 At the extremity near the Capitoline hill is the 
 Arch of Septimius Severus. 
 
 The three very large fluted Corinthian columns 
 of Marmo Greco, with their entablature, which 
 formed the angle of the portico, are supposed to be 
 part of the Temple of Jupiter Tonans. 
 
 The eight Ionic columns, each of one piece of 
 granite, with their architrave, are the remains of the 
 Temple oj Concord ; six of the columns formed the 
 front of the portico. This edifice was repaired in 
 the time of Constantine, as appeared from an in- 
 scription that is now gone ; and Winkelmann says, 
 that a remarkable mistake has been committed in 
 placing two of the columns with their diminished 
 part undermost. * 
 
 An insulated Corinthian column of Marmo Greco, 
 from the pedestal of which the earth has lately been 
 
 * Winkelmann, Hist, de 1’Art, liv. vi. chap. 8. de l’Art. 
 sous les Empereurs, 
 
TEMPLE OP ANTONINUS AND FAUSTINA. 387 
 
 iemoved,and the inscription discovered, which shews, 
 that the column was erected in honour of the Em- 
 peror Phocas, by Samargdus, Exarch of Ravenna, 
 about the year 608. The column is not of that pe- 
 riod, but had been taken from some more ancient 
 building. Marlianus conjectured the use of this co- 
 lumn. * 
 
 The three large columns supporting a straight 
 piece of cornice, are supposed to be the remains of 
 the temple of Jupiter Stator . 
 
 Farther on, and on the other side of the Campo 
 Vaccino, is the portico of the Temple oj Antoninus 
 and Faustina , erected in 168, by M. Aurelius. 
 This portico consists of ten large columns, each of 
 one piece of Cipollino marble, t with Corinthian 
 
 * “ Stat adhuc in foro unica columna cui ut videtur nil erat 
 adjunctum ideo honoris virtutisque causa alicui horum posi- 
 tam fuisse existimamus ; presertim quod in uno latere plinti 
 cernuntur adhuc quaedam literae sed vetustate ita con- 
 sumpiae, ut nullum percipias sensum.” Urbis Romae topo- 
 graphia B. Marliani, Romae, 1544. , 
 
 f Cipollino marble is an antique marble, that is to say, it is 
 now not quarried from the rock, but only got in the remains 
 of ancient buildings. It contains mica, and belongs to that 
 formation of rocks called primitive, and consists of shistose 
 layers, which form veins in parallel straight lines running 
 longitudinally along the surface of the columns. The veins 
 are of a light green colour. From the colour and also from 
 the shistose structure, by which qualities this marble resem- 
 bles a leek, cipollo , the name Cipollino is given to it. Seve- 
 
388 
 
 TEMPLE OF REMUS. 
 
 capitals, and supporting an entablature of large 
 blocks of marble ; six of the columns are in front. 
 On the frieze is inscribed Divo Antonino et Divae 
 Faustinae eoc S.C. Faustina, the daughter of Antoni- 
 nus Pius, and wife of Marcus Aurelius, was declared 
 a goddess, after her death, by the senate, at the re- 
 quest of Marcus. Her irregularities are recorded 
 by historians. * * Behind the portico is the church 
 belonging to the corporation of druggists, Santa 
 Maria in Miranda de’ Speziali. 
 
 Nearer the Coliseum is the circular Temple of 
 Remus , which serves as the vestibule to the church 
 of Santi Cosmo e Damiano. On the hemispheri- 
 cal vault of the Tribuna or Apsis is some Mosaic 
 of the middle ages ; and in the subterraneous church 
 underneath, the light of day shines, with a yellow 
 colour, through a thin slab of pavonazzato marble, 
 placed like glass in a window. 
 
 Next are the three large brick arches, the remains 
 of the magnificent Temple of Peace , built by Ves- 
 pasian about the year 77- + The vault of the mid- 
 dle arch is a portion of a sphere, the two ethers 
 
 ral columns of this marble, lately brought from the eastern 
 part of the Mediterranean, are seen in the court of the Bri- 
 tish Museum. 
 
 * Hist. Aug. 
 
 f “ Templum pacis D. Vespasiani Imp. Augusti pulcherrima 
 operum quae unquam.” Plin. Hist. Nat. 
 
TEMPLE OF PEACE. 
 
 389 
 
 are cylindrical ; all the three are adorned with sunk 
 pannels. 
 
 All that now remains of this temple is of brick* 
 stripped of the marble with which it was formerly 
 ornamented. One of the columns was in place* 
 and removed, about 1610, by Paul V. Borghese, to 
 the piazza of Saint Maria Maggiore, where it now 
 stands. This column is of the shistose marble, cal- 
 led Cipoliino, and of a great size;'* it stood by one of 
 the piers that support the arches of the temple, as 
 is seen in old views. Palladio has given a design of 
 what he supposes this temple to have been when 
 entire ; he considers the three arches as forming the 
 side of the temple in the interior, and the front with 
 the pediment, he supposes, was at right angles to 
 the wall which closed the back part of the arches, t 
 
 On the other side of the Forum Romanum is the 
 Arch of Titus, 
 
 Nearer the Coliseum are two tribune ornamented 
 with sunk pannels, supposed to be the remains of the 
 Temple of the Sun , 
 
 Forum of Nerva 
 
 The remains of the forum of Nerva consist of a 
 large wall of piperino, perforated by a semicircular 
 
 * See page 309 and page 3S7* 
 
 f Architettura di Palladio, The same plan is given in Mar- 
 liaiii, Topogr. Rom. 
 
39 0 
 
 FORUM OF NERVA. 
 
 arch called l’Arco dei Pantani, and of three fluted 
 Corinthian columns, the shafts of which are compos- 
 ed of several pieces. The foliage of the capitals is 
 pretty well preserved. The foliage of the capitals 
 at the pantheon is broken off. 
 
 The volcanic stone called piperino, of which the 
 wall of Nerva’s forum is built, is quarried near Ma- 
 rino, on the Latian hills. It does not occur so fre- 
 quently in buildings at Rome as the calcareous tufa 
 of Tivoli, called Travertine. 
 
 On taking down a wall of the forum of Nerva, 
 the stones were found to have dove- tailed cavities, 
 into which a piece of wood was fitted, connecting 
 the two adjacent stones. The wood was still entire, 
 as Montfaucon relates. * The same contrivance is 
 described by Piranesi, in another ancient building.t 
 
 Near the forum of Nerva is a temple or altar 
 of Pallas, with two Corinthian columns, called the 
 Colonacce, and a fine figure of Minerva, in relief, 
 of a large size, on the attic. This edifice is said to 
 have been a part of the forum of Domitian, and is 
 cited by Winkelmann as a specimen of the art in 
 the time of that emperor, t 
 
 Palatine Hill . — On the brow of the Palatine hill 
 are the massive arched buildings of brick, the remains 
 
 * Montfaucon Diarium. 
 f Piranesi, Ant. di Rom. Tom. III. tav. 9. 
 
 ^ See Winkelmann, Hist, de l’Art, Livre vi. chap. v. 
 
PALACE OF THE CJESARS. 
 
 391 
 
 of the palace of the Caesars. Ceilings ornamented 
 with painting, and relief in stucco, were found in the 
 ruins, * but these ceilings have perished. From this 
 situation, the spectator overlooks the valley between 
 the Palatine and Coelian hills, in which the circus 
 Maximus was situated, and commands a view of the 
 great brick ruins of the baths of Antoninus Caracalla, 
 on the Coelian hill. The name Palatium arose from 
 the mansion of the Caesars being situated on the Pa- 
 latine hill, and the word palace was afterwards used 
 to signify any great mansion. 
 
 The Palatine hill is now chiefly occupied by mar- 
 ket gardens. In one of these are the baths of Li- 
 via, which are of small extent, and consist of subter- 
 raneous vaulted chambers of brick. 
 
 The Circus Maximus , in the valley beneath, was 
 23%9 feet, or less than half a mile, in length. The 
 seats placed around were capable of accommodating 
 150,000 spectators t to view the chariot races, and 
 other exhibitions. The obelisk of the place of Saint 
 John Lateran, and that of the Piazza del Popolo, 
 were found in the circus Maximus. Scarcely any 
 vestiges remain of the buildings that formed the cir- 
 cus. 
 
 At the foot of the Palatine hill, towards the Cam- 
 
 * See the figures in Cameron’s Ancient Baths, 
 f Dion. Halyc. According to Pliny, 260,000. Accord” 
 ing to Publius Victor,- 380,000. 
 
392 
 
 PORTICO OF OCtAVIA. 
 
 po Vaccino, was the lupercal, a cave, so called from 
 the wolf of Romulus and Remus, and consecrated to 
 the Lycean Pan. * 
 
 Theatre of Marcellus . 
 
 The theatre of Marcellus was built by Augustus, 
 and dedicated by him to his nephew Marcellus, The 
 remains of this building consist of a semicircular 
 wall, ornamented with two orders of architecture, 
 one above the other. 
 
 In the middle ages it was used as a fortress by 
 the Savelli family, and afterwards a palace of the 
 Massimi family was erected on it, by the architect 
 Baldassar Peruzzi. It is now the mansion of the 
 Orsini family. In the court are two sarcophagi 
 with bas reliefs, and over the door of the hall is one 
 of the beautiful reliefs taken from the arch of M. 
 Aurelius, which stood in the Corso. 
 
 An arch with Corinthian columns, not far from 
 the theatre, is part of the Portico of Octavia , built 
 by Augustus, and restored by Septimius Severus 
 and Caracalla, as appears from the inscription. This 
 portico was built for the use of the people who fre- 
 quented the theatre. It is of brick, and was an- 
 ciently incrusted with thin slabs of marble. Some of 
 
 * Virgil. iEneid. Lib. viii. 
 
THE MARBLE HORSES* 59S 
 
 the marble still remains. * The vicinity of the por- 
 tico is occupied as a fish-market, which cannot be 
 mentioned as a model of cleanliness, and the place 
 near the theatre is called the Piazza Montan ara, 
 from the number of country people from the moun- 
 tains who frequent it. This part of the city is poor, 
 and even exceeds in filth the other parts of Rome. 
 
 Monte Cavallo. 
 
 The large palace on the Quirinal hill, now the 
 usual residence of the pope, was begun, by Gregory 
 XIIL, about 1574, and was continued, at different 
 times, under the direction of various architects, 
 Fontana, Maderno, Bernini, and others. Bona- 
 parte had apartments fitted up in this palace, for his 
 reception, when he chose to visit Rome, which he 
 styled the second city in the French empire ; Am- 
 sterdam was the third. Adjoining to the palace is 
 an extensive garden. 
 
 The Quirinal hill is called also Monte Cavallo, 
 from the two celebrated colossal statues of Castor 
 and Pollux, placed on the piazza near the Quirinal 
 palace. Each of these figures is eighteen English 
 feet in height, and is represented holding a horse 
 
 * The marble incrustation is mentioned by Ovid : 
 
 Aut ubi muneribus nati ( the theatre of Marcellas ) sua munera raster 
 Addidit, externo marmore dives opus. 
 
 Ov. de Art. Am. I. 
 
S94> FABLES OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY. 
 
 by the bridle. They are of a shistose marble. A 
 plaster cast of one of these colossal human figures 
 has been for some time exhibited in London. Be- 
 tween the two groups is erected an obelisk, and a 
 large basin, of one piece of granite, is now (in March 
 1818) placing before the obelisk. In digging the 
 foundation for the pedestal of this basin, the work- 
 men penetrated through the friable pozzolana, and 
 came to the solid piperino rock. 
 
 The pedestals are inscribed with the words Opus 
 Phidias and Opus Praxitelis. These inscriptions be- 
 ing in Latin, were made after the statues had been 
 brought from Greece to Rome, and therefore are no 
 authentic proof of the statues being the workman- 
 ship of these artists. 
 
 In the thirteenth century, most of the antique 
 statues in Rome that had escaped the destructive 
 action of time and neglect, lay buried amongst the 
 ruins. Amongst the few that were then to be 
 seen were these two colossal groups on Monte Ca- 
 vallo. They are described in an account of Rome, 
 written about 1191, and published by Mon tf an- 
 con, * in which account the author relates that 
 they are the statues of two giants, who liberated 
 Rome from a siege ; a like fabulous story he gives 
 of the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. At 
 
 Mcmtfaucon Diarium Italicum 
 
ANCIENT FABRICS OF BRICK. 
 
 395 
 
 that period of the middle ages, the authentic records 
 of history were forgotten, and fable supplied their 
 place ; Virgil war represented as a great magician, 
 who being put in gaol in Rome, conveyed himself 
 and his fellow prisoners away to Naples in a boat, 
 sailing through the air. Poggio, in 1430, speaks of 
 only five or six statues, in which number these two 
 colossal groups are the most remarkable. * 
 
 The Amph i theatrum Castrense is a fabric of no 
 great magnitude, forming part of the wall of Rome, 
 and situated near the basilic church of Santa Croce 
 and the gate of Saint John. The Coliseum and the 
 amphitheatre of Verona shew what the ancient am- 
 phitheatres were, and this building is too small to be 
 ranked in the same class with them. The circular 
 wall that remains of this building is entirely of brick. 
 It is ornamented with Corinthian columns, the 
 shafts of which are built of bricks, forming sextants, 
 or other segments of a circle. The capitals are also 
 of brick. 
 
 Near the Porta Maggiore, in a market garden, is 
 the fabric supposed to be the temple of Minerva Me - 
 dica. It is of brick, of a decagonal form, with a large 
 semicircular niche on each of the sides. The roof, a 
 vault of brick, composed of a rib, or costata, spring- 
 ing from each angle, is ruinous, and seems nearly 
 falling. Several statues have been found in this 
 
 * Poggius de varietate Fortune. 
 
398 
 
 PIAZZA NAVONA. 
 
 building, and amongst them, one of’ Minerva, from 
 which, and from Publius Victor’s ancient list of 
 the buildings of Rome, this fabric is supposed to 
 be a temple of Minerva. The diameter is 7^ feet, 
 the height 94 feet. 
 
 A large open place, called the Piazza Nav et- 
 na, was anciently the Circus Agonalis , formed 
 by Alexander Severus near his baths. In the 
 middle ages, it was called Inagone, then Nagone, 
 and latterly Navona, It retains the oblong form 
 of the circus, the houses being built where the 
 seats were. The largest of the fountains in this 
 piazza is decorated with an Egyptian obelisk, and 
 statues after the models of Bernini. A smaller 
 sized model of this fountain by Bernini is in the 
 gardens at Blenheim. A market is held in this 
 place, and on the Saturdays and Sundays of the 
 month of August the Piazza Navona is laid under 
 water, and the people pass through it on foot and in 
 carriages to enjoy the coolness of the water. The 
 filth must be removed before the water is laid on, 
 and after it is taken off ; if this is neglected, the air 
 next day is infected with putrid exhalations. * 
 
 Near the Piazza Navona, at the point formed by 
 the Braschi palace, is the mutilated and disfigured 
 statue called Pasquino. It is supposed to represent 
 Menelaus supporting the dead body of Patroclus. 
 
 * Lancisi de coeli Rom. qualit. 
 
PASQUINO. 
 
 <397 
 
 In the time of Leo X., a satirical tailor, called Pas- 
 quino, kept his shop near the place where the statue 
 now stands. Pasquino and his men were the daily 
 collectors and distributors of the scandalous history 
 of the pope and cardinals. After the death of Pas- 
 quino, the statue, which lay half buried, and served 
 as a stepping-stone in the muddy way, was erected, 
 and called by his name. In the sixteenth century 
 it was the place in which satirical writings were 
 posted, and which are therefore called pasquinades ; 
 they were feigned to be written by the spirit of the 
 deceased Pasquino. Lampoons were still posted at 
 Pasquino in Evelyn’s time in 1 645. 
 
 The statue, now in the capitol, representing the 
 Rhine, and called Marforio, from having been in 
 the forum near the temple of Mars, shared with 
 Pasquino the office of promulgating satirical produc- 
 tions, The answers to the satires of Pasquino were 
 stuck up at Marforio. 
 
 Museum of the Va tican . 
 
 The Museum of the Vatican had its commence- 
 ment in the sixteenth century, by Cardinal Marcello 
 Cervini’s collection of statues and medals, and other 
 antiquities, which were deposited in the Vatican pa- 
 lace. It is called the Museo Pio~Clementino> from 
 the names of the popes Clement XIV. Ganganelli, 
 and Pius VI. Braschi, to whom, and especially t© 
 
398 
 
 GALLERY OF INSCRIPTIONS. 
 
 Pius VI., the great augmentation of the collection 
 in latter times is due. Pius VI. began his reign 
 in 1775* The splendid book, entitled Museo Pio- 
 Clementino, contains engravings of the statues in 
 the Vatican, accompanied with their history and 
 description, by the learned antiquary Visconti, who 
 was called from Rome, and established at Paris by 
 Bonaparte, and died lately in Paris, (1818.) 
 
 The entrance to the Museum of the Vatican is 
 through a long gallery, called the Corridore delle la - 
 fldiy the walls being covered with ancient inscrip- 
 tions, which are arranged under different classes ; 
 the epitaphs of primitive Christians form a nume- 
 rous class. The following part of the gallery is 
 adorned with antique statues, and some rooms fol- 
 low, in which the celebrated torso of Hercules, 
 and the piperino sarcophagus of Scipio, * with the 
 inscription, are to be remarked. The torso of the 
 
 * The vaults in which this sarcophagus was found in 1780 
 are to be seen near the Porta S. Sebastiano, as already men- 
 tioned. L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus died 298 years before 
 Christ, about thirty years before the inscription of Duilius in 
 the Capitol. The inscription on the sarcophagus is in old La- 
 tin. “ Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbatus Cnaivod (that is 
 Cnaeio) patre prognatus fortis nir sapiensq. quojus forma nir- 
 tutei parisuma (parissima) fait consol censor aidilis quei fuit 
 apud nos taurasia cisauna samnio cepit subicit omne lucanaa ob - 
 sidesque ctbdoucit .” — See Monumenti degli Scipioni pub. dal. 
 C. Tr. Piranesi, 1785, and Lanzi saggio della lingua Etrusca, 
 1789. 
 
 4 
 
STATUES OF THE BELVEDERE* 
 
 399 
 
 Belvedere was found at Borne, in the Campo di 
 Fiore, and acquired and placed in the Belvedere 
 by Julius II. It bears the name of the statuary 
 in Greek, and from the form of the letters, Vis- 
 conti judges the work not to be more ancient than 
 the time of Pompey. Michael Angelo and the 
 other artists in the 1500 at Borne studied this frag- 
 ment. Flaxman has designed a restoration of it, 
 representing Hercules deified, and received into 
 Heaven, after the end of his earthly career on the 
 funeral pile of mount CEta, and attended by Hebe, 
 the goddess of youth. * 
 
 After these there is an octagonal open court, with 
 a fountain in the middle ; this court is the Cortile 
 delle Statue , in which Julius II. placed the celebrat- 
 ed masterpieces, the Apollo, the Laocoon ; and 
 Paul III. the Mercury, called erroneously Antinous. 
 Around this court are rooms, one of which contains 
 the most sublime of ancient statues, the Apollo of 
 the Belvedere , so called from its being placed in that 
 part of the Vatican palace, called the Belvedere* 
 The right fore-arm and the left hand are restored by 
 Giovanni da Montorsoli, pupil of Michael Angelo. 
 The Apollo was found at Capo d’ Anzo, the ancient 
 Antium, in the fifteenth century, and was acquired 
 
 * Notice des statues du Musee Napoleon, (by Visconti ,) 
 a Paris, 1803. / 
 
400 
 
 LAOCOON. 
 
 by Julius II. Visconti considers the marble to be 
 Greek, although differing from the ancient Greek 
 marble which occurs most frequently. Dolomieu 
 held it to be Carrara marble. 
 
 Another of the rooms, which surround the oc- 
 tagonal court, contains the Laocoon, one of the 
 three masterpieces of ancient statuary. It was found 
 in 1506, in. the reign of Julius II., in the ruins 
 of the palace of Titus, near the baths of Titus. 
 Pliny describes it as in that place, and mentions 
 the names of the three sculptors of Rhodes, whose 
 work it is. Pliny says it is of one piece, * but it 
 has been found to consist of five pieces of marble, 
 united so perfectly that the joints are not easily 
 seen. The ancient right arm of Laocoon, and 
 two of the arms of the sons, are lost. The oc- 
 tagonal court and rooms contain a variety of an- 
 tique statues, sarcophagi ; and baths of porphyry, 
 and of red and of grey granite. Two of these 
 bathing vessels of granite are each nine feet in length; 
 Vessels of this kind are seen in different parts of 
 Rome ; two large ones of granite receive the water 
 of the two fountains in the place before the Palazzo 
 Farnese . In one of the rooms is the statue of Per- 
 
 * ei Laocoon in Titi imperatoris domo opus omnibus, et 
 picturse et statuarias artis praeferendum ; ex uno Japide eum, 
 et liberos, draconumque mirabiles nexus de concilii senten- 
 tia fecere summi artifices Agesander, et Polydorus, et Athene- 
 dorus Rhodii.” Plin. Hist. Nat. 
 
VATICAN MUSEUM. 
 
 401 
 
 sens holding Medusa’s head, and two pancratiastas, 
 or boxers ; these three statues are by Canova, who 
 is director of the museum. 
 
 Animals , — From this octagonal court we proceed to 
 a room containing a collection of antique figures of 
 different animals. The stone of which some of these 
 are formed is of the colour of the animal represented. 
 Amongst these are a crocodile of black marble, 
 three feet in length ; figures of tygers in grey syen- 
 ite, containing large light-coloured oblong crystals of 
 felspar ; a panther in light* coloured alabaster, inlaid 
 with pieces of black marble, to represent the spots of 
 the skin ; a lobster in green serpentine, the green 
 porphyry of mineralogists. Under this head of ani- 
 mals, we may mention the two Egyptian lions of 
 black syenite at the foot of the stair of the Capitol. 
 
 Stanza of the Muses . — After this is a gallery pav- 
 ed with antique mosaic, containing the statues of the 
 Muses, found in the villa of Cassius, called la Pia- 
 nella di Cassio, at Tivoli, and added to the Vatican 
 museum by Pius VI. These muses were at Paris. In 
 this part of the gallery there are also some termini, 
 with the heads of the Greek philosophers, and their 
 sayings written in Greek on the breast of the ter- 
 minus ; these ancient inscriptions are. Know thyself, 
 and the other sayings. 
 
 The Rotonda . — This gallery leads to a spacious 
 circular hall, likewise paved with antique mosaic. 
 Some of this mosaic represents figures of Tritons and 
 
402 
 
 VATICAN MUSEUM. 
 
 Nereids, in black, on a white ground ; it was found 
 at Otricoli. In other parts of the pavement are 
 representations of scenic masks, and comedians in 
 coloured mosaic.* This round hall contains many 
 fine statues ; and in the middle is a large flat basin 
 of red porphyry, of great size, about twenty feet 
 in diameter. In one of the rooms near this is 
 Marble ^ perforated chair of antique red marble, 
 Chairs . the companion of which has not returned 
 from Paris, and remains in the Louvre ; it is sup- 
 posed that this kind of perforated chair was used in 
 the ancient Roman baths. These two chairs were 
 afterwards employed as pontifical chairs in the church 
 of Saint John Lateran. 
 
 Great Vestibule . — From the circular hall we pass 
 into the great vestibule, La Sola a Croce Greca y 
 in which are two very large and beautiful sarco- 
 phagi, or quadrangular urns, of red porphyry sculptu- 
 red in relief. The one with the figures of men 
 
 * There was to be seen at this time at Rome a piece of ancient 
 Roman mosaic, which had formed part of the pavement of 
 an ancient Roman dwelling house, and had been lately dug 
 up in a garden belonging to the Dutchess of Chablais, situat- 
 ed without the Porta San Giovanni . The effect and colour- 
 ing are excellent. The objects, which are of the natural size, 
 are, a common fowl stripped of the feathers, a basket of cray- 
 fish, a small cuttle-fish, a bunch of green vegetables something 
 like asparagus, a fish of the dorade species, (spar us,) a bunch 
 of dates. 
 
VATICAN MUSEUM. 
 
 403 
 
 on horseback in high relief was originally in the 
 sepulchre of Saint Helena, called Torpignatara, with- 
 out the Porta Maggiore of Rome. Saint Helena 
 was converted to Christianity by her son Constan- 
 tine. * The urn was afterwards in the cloister of 
 the Lateran. It was much broken, but is restored.! 
 The other, which contained the remains of Constant 
 tia the daughter of Constantine, is adorned with ara- 
 besque foliage, and figures of boys collecting the 
 grapes and pressing the juice, and was removed from 
 the church of Santa Constanza, situated without the 
 walls of Rome, as before mentioned in page 317 > 
 each of them is eight feet long, and four in height. 
 These urns are admirable from their size, and the 
 nature of the stone, which is very difficult to be 
 worked on account of its hardness, but the sculpture 
 is an example of the fallen state of the arts of 
 design in the time of Constantine, a decline which 
 is visible in the medals of Constantine. The sur- 
 face of the porphyry is brought to a fine polish. A 
 part of the museum is sometimes lighted up to shew 
 the statues by candle-light. 
 
 Great Staircase . — We come now to the grand 
 staircase of the Museum. This is the farthest ex- 
 tremity of the Vatican palace, and we return to the 
 
 * See Eusebius, Vita Constantin. 
 
 f See a view of both these urns in Piranesi, Antichita di 
 Roma. 
 
40 4 
 
 VATICAN MUSEUM. 
 
 loggie through a succession of galleries, the first of 
 which contains antique vases made of marble and 
 other stones. There is one of these vases of that 
 compound rock called Verde di Corsica. 
 
 Galleria Geografica .— Then comes a long galle- 
 ry, on the walls of which are painted geographical 
 maps of different districts of Italy on a large scale. 
 They were painted in 1581, by order of Gregory 
 XIII. The painter was Paolo Brighi, and they 
 were executed under the direction of Ignazio Danti 
 the astronomer, * and repaired in the time of Urban 
 VIIL, Barberini. 
 
 Tapestry . — From the end of this gallery there is 
 an entrance to some rooms containing tapestry wo- 
 ven at Arras in Flanders,! by order of Leo X., af- 
 ter six of the cartoons of Raphael which are at Wind* 
 sor, and after some other cartoons of that great mas- 
 ter. The strong lights are effected in these pieces 
 of tapestry by gold thread. 
 
 Stanze of Raphael . — Next come the four rooms, 
 the Stanze of Raphael, the walls and ceilings of which 
 are painted mostly in fresco, some in oil, by Raphael, 
 and by his pupil Julio Romano, after the designs of 
 Raphael. In the Sala di Constantino, which is deco- 
 rated with the actions of that emperor, is the large 
 
 * See page 160. 
 f Va?ari, Vite de’ Pittori. 
 
VATICAN PALACE. 
 
 405 
 
 picture of the Victory of Constantine over Maxen- 
 tius at the Ponte Molle. Between the windows is 
 the Donation of Rome by Constantine to Saint Sil- 
 vester ; the emperor presents a golden image of 
 the goddess Roma to the bishop of Rome, a fine 
 and pleasing picture. This donation, which, ac- 
 cording to the best historians, never really took 
 place, has been held out by the popes as the foun- 
 dation of their temporal power in Rome. The Li- 
 beration of Saint Peter from Prison is over one of 
 the windows of another room. The Conference of 
 the Fathers of the Church concerning the Sacra- 
 ment occupies a side of one of the rooms. In the 
 picture called the School of Athens, Raphael has 
 introduced a portrait of himself, and of his master 
 Pietro Perugino ; the portraits of the architect 
 Bramante as Archimedes ; that of Balthassar Cas- 
 tiglione, * and others. There are many other pic- 
 
 * Balthassar Castiglione was born at Mantua in 1468, and 
 died in 1529> at the age of 6l. He was for some time in the 
 service of the Duke of Urbino, and was ambassador from that 
 duke at the court of Henry VII. King of England. He was 
 afterwards employed by Frederic Gonzago, Marquis of Man- 
 tua, and by the pope, in embassies at different courts of Eu- 
 rope. His work, II Cortigiano, containing rules of conduct 
 for a courtier, was in much estimation, and has gone through 
 many editions. The style is held to be classical. He was 
 the friend of Raphael, and brought Julio Romano to Mantua, 
 where the fresco paintings of that artist are still admired, as 
 we have mentioned in speaking of that city. A monument. 
 
406 
 
 VATICAN PALACE* 
 
 tures, the whole of the walls and ceilings being co- 
 vered with painting, which is mostly in fresco. The 
 pavement of some of the Stanze is inlaid with red 
 porphyry and green, in spiral foliage, like that of 
 the Lateran, and some other old churches in Rome 
 and Florence, and contains the name of Julius II., 
 by whose order Raphael painted these rooms. The 
 portrait of Julius II. is also introduced into several 
 of the pictures. 
 
 The Loggia of Raphael - — From the stanze we 
 go cut into the loggie , or corridors, which are 
 open on one side with arcades, and go round 
 three sides of a quadrangular court. One of these 
 corridors is celebrated as having been painted in 
 fresco after the designs of Raphael, and under his 
 direction, by Giovanni da Udine. On the ceil- 
 ing, which corresponds to each of the arches, 
 there are four pictures representing subjects from 
 the Old Testament. The series of the Old Testa- 
 ment is complete, and there are a few from the 
 commencement of the New. Some of these pic- 
 tures are executed by Raphael himself ; many of 
 them are in good preservation, the colours having 
 retained their original brilliancy. The Creation of 
 Eve and the Finding of Moses are very pleasing. 
 The piers and walls of this loggia are painted with 
 
 designed by Juiio Romano, was erected to the memory of 
 Castiglione in the church of the Madonna delle Grazie, some 
 miles from Mantua. Tiraboschi, Stor. del. let. It. 
 
VATICAN PALACE. 
 
 407 
 
 foliage, flowers, and fruit, disposed in a style which 
 Raphael borrowed from the paintings on the stucco 
 of the baths of Titus. The ceilings are painted 
 with architectural designs in very correct perspec- 
 tive. In some places the sky is represented with 
 swallows, distant flights of cranes, and other birds. 
 Stucco medallions in bas relief, by Giovanni da 
 Udine, are introduced amongst the painted orna- 
 ments. 
 
 The rest of the loggie that surround the court 
 are painted after the designs of other artists. 
 
 Picture Gallery . — From the loggie we enter a 
 suit of rooms in which some valuable pictures are 
 kept. The famous picture of the Transfiguration — 
 the Virgin with the portrait of the donor — the 
 small uncoloured figures of the theological virtues, 
 Faith, Hope, and Charity, — all by Raphael. 
 
 The Communion of Saint Jerome, by Domeni- 
 chino, one of the greatest productions of the art, 
 and ranked near to RaphaePs Transfiguration. 
 
 The Burial of Christ, by Caravaggio. 
 
 Fortune, by Guido ; and other pictures. 
 
 All the above mentioned pictures of Raphael, of 
 Domenichino, and Caravaggio are returned, after 
 having adorned the gallery of the Louvre during 
 the years of Bonaparte’s reign. 
 
 Garden of the Vatican . 
 
 The extensive garden of the Vatican palace occu* 
 
408 GARDEN OF THE VATICAN. 
 
 pies a rising ground ; and, from the fine view over 
 Rome to the Apennines, both the garden and the 
 palace had the name of Belvedere. The garden is 
 laid out with broad walks between hedges of box 
 and of bay, (Laurus nobilis,) twelve feet in height. 
 There are two ornamental summer-houses. 
 
 Pedestal of the Column of Antoninus . — In this 
 garden is seen the marble pedestal of a granite 
 column that was erected in honour of Antoninus 
 Pius. The column was forty-nine feet in length, 
 but, having been injured by a fire, it was cut into 
 pieces to repair the obelisk of Monte Citorio. The 
 pedestal is a great block of marble, nine feet square 
 and six feet high. On one side of the pedestal is 
 sculptured the apotheosis of Antoninus Pius and 
 Faustina senior, his consort, in high relief. 
 
 Bronze Pine Cone . — In front of that part of the 
 palace of the Vatican which surrounds the flower 
 parterre, is placed the great bronze cone, made in 
 the form of the cone of the Pinus pinea, which is 
 supposed to have been placed on the summit of the 
 Moles Adriani. *■ On each side of the cone is an 
 antique bronze peacock. 
 
 Capita line Hill 
 
 Of the temples and magnificent buildings that 
 
 * Winkelmann, Hist, de FArt. 
 
THE CAPITOL. 
 
 409 
 
 adorned the ancient capitol scarcely a vestige re- 
 mains. 
 
 The modern capitol consists of three buildings, 
 occupying three sides of a quadrangle. On the 
 fourth side is a ballustrade, and the inclined surface 
 or scala cordonata, which leads from the foot of the 
 hill. External stairs of this kind are frequently 
 employed in Italy. They admit of the passage 
 of beasts of burden. The edges of the steps are 
 semicylindrical bars of stone, and only two or three 
 inches high. The upper surface of the step is an 
 inclined plane formed either of pavement stones or 
 bricks. These three buildings were erected about 
 1540, by Paul III. Farnese, after a design of Bo- 
 naroti. 
 
 Egyptian Lions .— At the foot of the stair are 
 two Egyptian lions of syenite, dark coloured, with 
 some veins of red. This stone is different from the 
 syenite of the obelisks, and resembles the stone of 
 the colossal head lately brought from Egypt, and 
 placed in the British Museum. 
 
 Sculptures on the Ballustrade.— On the ballus- 
 trade, at the top of the ascent, are statues of Castor 
 and Pollux, each with a horse ; two antique tro- 
 phies which were formerly placed under two arches 
 on each side of a large niche or tribuna, at a cas- 
 tellum of the Aqua Marcia near the arch of Galli-* 
 enus. They are figured in their ancient situation in 
 
410 
 
 THE CAPITOL. 
 
 Donati. * On the ballustrade of the capitol is like- 
 wise an ancient mile-stone with the number I., and 
 some other sculptures. 
 
 Equestrian Statue.-— In the middle of the square 
 formed by the three buildings is the celebrated 
 bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, which 
 Michel Agnolo admired for its animated expression. 
 
 Palace of the Senator . — Of the three buildings, 
 that in the middle, called the Palace of the Senator, 
 contains a great hall, where courts of justice are 
 held, and a prison. The senate of ancient Rome 
 continued under the emperors long after its power 
 was gone, but in course of time even the nominal 
 senate ceased to exist. 
 
 Rome v^as taken five times during sixteen years, 
 from 536 to 55°2, in the reign of Justinian ; twice 
 by Eeiisarius, twice by Totila the Gothic king of 
 Italy, and once by Narses, Justinian’s general. By 
 these sieges the senators of Rome were dispersed, 
 the senate ceased to exist, and never again assem- 
 bled as a council. 
 
 In 1144, the inhabitants of Rome revived a sem- 
 blance of the senate. In 1278, Nicholas III. claim- 
 ed the temporal sovereignty of Rome, founding his 
 claim on the alleged donation of Constantine to the 
 bishop of Rome, and established the annual election 
 of the senator of Rome, t The senator, whose duty 
 
 * Donatus de Urbe Roma. Lib. III. cap. xi. 
 
 f See Statutse almae urbis Romse auctoritate S. D. N. Gre- 
 
 11 
 
MUSEUM OF THE CAPITOL. 
 
 411 
 
 is confined to the administration of justice, must be 
 an alien, and of a place at least forty miles from 
 Rome. In 1818, Prince Corsini, a Florentine, was 
 elected senator. 
 
 From the belfry of the senator’s palace is a good 
 view of Rome. 
 
 Museum of Sculptures . — The building to the 
 right of the senator’s palace contains the Capitoline 
 museum, consisting of a noble collection of statues 
 which was begun by Clement XII. Corsini, about 
 the year 1735 ; it is the second collection in Rome 
 after the museum of the Vatican. 
 
 Ground Floor . — On the ground floor, in a court, 
 is the recumbent statue of the river Rhine, called 
 Marforio, formerly placed at the ascent to the Capi- 
 tol, near the arch of Septimius Severus, and at that 
 time celebrated for the lampoons that used to be post- 
 ed near it, in answer to those posted at Pasquino. 
 
 ZJrn . — Another remarkable object is a celebrated 
 marble urn, with parallel sides, and two recum- 
 bent statues on the top, of the size of life, and 
 with histories in relief on the front, and less fi- 
 nished histories on the other side. This urn was 
 found, as Flaminio Vacca, the sculptor, relates,* 
 
 gorii XTII. Pont. Max. a Senatu Populoque Rom. reformats; 
 et editae. Rom. 3 580. These statutes form part of the mo- 
 dern law of the city. 
 
 # See the notes of Flaminio Vacca on the different antiqui- 
 
4* *12 MUSEUM OF THE CAPITOL. 
 
 in the vault of a considerable ancient sepulchre, the 
 ruins covering which formed a mount called Monte 
 di Grano, between Capo di Bove and the Frascati 
 road, near Rome. * The urn was called the urn 
 of Alexander Severus and his mother, Julia Mamea, 
 from some resemblance to the heads on the medals 
 of that emperor ; but Winkelmann dissents from 
 this opinion, and considers that the two recumbent 
 figures on the top represent a husband and wife. 
 The histories sculptured in relief on the sides have 
 received different explanations. According to de- 
 scription by Venuti in the Museum Capitolinum, 
 the front is Breseis, Achilles, and Agamemnon, 
 the other of the long sides Achilles and Priam. 
 Within this 'marble urn was found the singular 
 Portland and beautifully sculptured vase acquired 
 Vase, by the Dutchess of Portland from the 
 Barberini family, and now in the British Mu- 
 seum ; it is of a dark coloured glass, which was 
 coated exteriorly with opaque white glass ; the ex- 
 terior coat of white glass was sculptured so as to 
 leave the figures in relief white, and the ground is 
 the dark coloured glass of the vase. The history 
 represented by the figures on the vase has received 
 
 ties found at Rome in his time, about 1580, published in 
 Montfaucon, Diar. Italic. 
 
 * See drawings of the urn and the sepulchre in J. B. Pi- 
 ranesi, Antich. di Roma ; and Bartoli, Sepolchri Antichi, Tav. 
 85. 
 
MUSEUM OF THE CAPITOL. 
 
 413 
 
 various explanations \ according to Winkelmann, it 
 is the story of Thetis transformed into a serpent to 
 avoid the pursuit of Peleus. * Darwin conjectures 
 it to be a representation of the passage of the soul 
 into the Elysian fields, f This vase was skilfully 
 imitated in fine earthenware and porcelain by Wedge- 
 wood. 
 
 On the ground floor is also a room containing 
 Egyptian idols, many of them in basalt, from the 
 Egyptian temple in the Villa Adriana near Tivoli. 
 
 Ancient Plan of Rome .— The walls of the stair- 
 case leading to the principal floor are covered with 
 the fragments of an ancient plan of Home, engraved 
 on white marble, on a very large scale. This plan 
 anciently formed a pavement which was broken 
 when the empire and every thing in the city went 
 to ruin, and the pieces, disjointed and confused, were 
 employed to incrust the wall of the church of Santi 
 Cosmo e Damiano, formerly the temple of Remus. 
 From some letters of an inscription on one of the 
 fragments, it is supposed to have been engraved in 
 the time of Septimius Severus. In the reign of 
 Paul III. Farnese, about 1340, the fragments were 
 collected and placed by that pope in the Farnese 
 palace. An engraving and description of the dis- 
 jointed and imperfect fragments of this ancient plan. 
 
 * Winkelmann, Hist, de l’Art. Liv. vi. chap. viii. de l 9 Art 
 depuis Septime Severe jusqua son dernier sort a Rome, 
 t See the Botanic Garden, a poem, by Erasmus Darwin. 
 
414 ? 
 
 MUSEUM OF THE CAPITOL. 
 
 leaving out the pieces that represent only private 
 buildings, is published by Bellori.* So many are 
 lost that the remaining fragments of this plan do 
 not join, and, therefore, are not sufficient to give 
 the idea of the whole extent of the city. Of the 
 names there are only a few words that are entire, as 
 ludus magnus, theatrum arcelli, theatrum, affix- 
 ed to the plan of another theatre. Of most of the 
 other names only a few letters remain. A marble 
 fragment of another ancient topographical plan, 
 serving for the distribution of water from the aque- 
 ducts, is published by Fabretti. t Frontinus, who 
 was director of the aqueducts in the time of Nerva, 
 mentions, that he introduced the use of plans of the 
 aqueducts for the convenience of the overseers. 
 
 Statues . — In this museum is the celebrated statue 
 of Antinous, which was found in the Villa Adriana 
 at Tivoli ; Antinous in the Egyptian habit, also 
 found in the Villa Adriana ; the celebrated statue 
 called the Dying Gladiator. These three statues 
 were in Paris, and have been returned since the se- 
 cond occupation of that city by the Allies. The 
 Venus of the Capitol, which was also in Paris. A 
 young Hercules in basalt. A laughing Faun in 
 antique red marble. There are some Mosaics from 
 
 * Fragmenta vestigii veteris Romse ex lapidibus Farnesi- 
 anis, cum notis Bellorii, in Grsev. Thes. Ant. Rom. Tom. IV. 
 
 f Fabretti de Aqueeductibus, Diss. III. in Grsev. Thes. 
 Ant. Rom. Tom. IV. 
 
MUSEUM OF THE CAPITOL. 
 
 415 
 
 a pavement in the Villa Adriana, one representing 
 doves perched on the edge of a cup ; this Mosaic 
 was once in the possession of Cardinal Furietti, who 
 published a description of it. 
 
 Basts .— One of the rooms contains a collection 
 of antique busts of philosophers, poets, orators, and 
 other eminent men. In another room are busts of 
 emperors and persons of the imperial family, arrang- 
 ed chronologically. With respect to some of these 
 busts it is doubtful whether they are really portraits 
 of the persons whose names have been affixed to 
 them by the moderns. The authenticity of an an- 
 tique portrait can only be ascertained by the antique 
 name affixed to it, or by the resemblance to the por- 
 traits of the individuals on antique medals which 
 have the name affixed. Cardinal Alexander Albani 
 doubted whether there existed any well authenticat- 
 ed portrait in marble of Julius Caesar.* 
 
 Palace of the Conservators .— The building to the 
 left of the senator’s palace is the palace of the con- 
 servators. The three conservators have the care of 
 the Capitol, the treasury, and the government of 
 the city and its territory. In the court are the 
 hand and head of a colossal statue of bronze which 
 represented Commodus, a colossal head in marble 
 of Domitian, and some other fragments of colossal 
 statues. 
 
 Measures . — In this court of the conservators’ 
 
 * Winkelmann, Hist, de 1’Art. 
 
416 
 
 THE CAPITOL. 
 
 palace tlie modem Roman measures of length, the 
 palm, and others, and some ancient measures, are 
 engraved on marble, executed under the direction 
 of Lucas Foetus. * 
 
 Inscription of Duilius.—On the first landing 
 place of the stair is the very ancient inscription in 
 honour of the naval victory gained by Duilius over 
 the Carthaginians, in the year 26 1 before Christ. 
 The inscription is in old Latin. Over it is placed 
 a column adorned with the rostra of ships in marble ; 
 this column is modern, and has been copied from 
 the figure of the columna rostrata on ancient medals. 
 The inscription is much mutilated ; it is given by 
 Grsevius. f 
 
 Bas Reliefs of M. Aurelius . — In the staircase 
 are some fine large reliefs representing acts of Mar- 
 cus Aurelius Antoninus, two of which adorned the 
 arch of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, called l’Arco 
 di Portogallo, from the Cardinal Legate of Portu- 
 gal, who lived near it. This arch was situated in 
 the Corso, and, having become ruinous, was taken 
 down in 1662. One of the sculptures from this 
 arch represents, as Nardini interprets it, the apo- 
 theosis of Faustina. The other is Marcus Aurelius, 
 
 * See Pcetus de mens, et ponder. 
 
 f Graevii Thes. Ant. Rom. Tom. IV. praefat. The expla- 
 nation and restoration by Ciacconius is in the same volume. 
 
 There are some observations on this inscription in Ade» 
 lung’s Mithridates. 
 
THE CAPITOL, 417 
 
 or L. Verus, receiving petitions. A view of the 
 arch is published in Donatus. * 
 
 The rooms of the conservators contain fresco 
 paintings, of which some by Annibal Carracci ; and 
 statues, amongst which are a bronze bust of Michel 
 Agnolo, executed by himself ; the antique bronze 
 wolf ; and the Boy plucking a thorn from his foot, 
 an ancient bronze statue which is full of life ; this 
 statue was in Paris. 
 
 Fasti .— In the wall of one of the rooms are in- 
 serted the fragments, in marble, of the consular fasti 
 to the time of Augustus, found in the Forum Ho- 
 rn an urn, and in another place are the modern fasti 
 of the senators of Rome. 
 
 Picture Gallery*— The collection of pictures 
 formed by Benedict XIV., about 1750, occupies 
 two large rooms of this building. Amongst the 
 pictures are, Bacchus and Ariadne by Guido ; Ju- 
 piter and Europa by Paul Veronese ^ and several 
 other pictures by eminent masters. 
 
 Tarpeian Rock *— The precipitous side of the 
 Capitoline hill, behind the palace of the conserva- 
 tors, is the Tarpeian rock, from which condemned 
 criminals were anciently thrown. Its height, which 
 has been diminished by the falling down of the earthy 
 
 * Donatus de Urbe Roma, Lib. III. cap. xvi. ; Roma An- 
 ti ca di Famiano Nardini ; Museum Capitolinum, Rom. 1750, 
 1775, Vol. L 
 
418 
 
 THE CAPITOL. 
 
 is now fifty feet. Tacitus mentions that the ascent 
 to it was by a stair of 100 steps. In the tables of 
 heights measured by Sir George Shuckburgh, the 
 height of the Capitoline hill above the valley is stat- 
 ed to be 150 English feet. 
 
 By the side of the stair to the Capitol is that 
 which forms the ascent to the church of Araceli, 
 consisting of 122 steps. On the Capitoline hill 
 there are the remains of ancient walls of Piperino, 
 which some have supposed to be part of the fortress 
 that resisted the attack of the Gauls who destroyed 
 the rest of the city, in the year 387 before Christ. 
 At the foot of the Capitoline hill, towards the Cam- 
 pus Martius, is the ancient sepulchre of C. Bibulus. 
 
 Rome. — Sect. III. Palaces and Villas. — Farnese Palace. 
 Annibal Caraccis Paintings. — Farnesina. Raphael's Cu- 
 pid and Psyche. — Rospigliosi Palace. Guidos Aurora . — 
 Colonna Palace. Beatrice Cenci. Antique Entablature 
 Borghese Palace. The Sybil of Domenichino . Porphyry 
 IJrn. — Justiniani Palace. Statues — -C or sini Palace. Pic- 
 tures.- — Cancellaria.— Palazzo Madama. — Doria Palace. 
 Landscapes. — Chigi Palace.- — Barberini Palace. Charles 
 IV. of Spain. — Braschi Palace. — Stoppani Palace , design- 
 ed by Raphael. — Spada Palace. Stuccoes . Pictures . — 
 Vigna di Papa Julio. Church of Saint Andrew, by Vig- 
 nola. — Madonna de Candelabri.- — Cardinal Fesch. — Cos- 
 taguti Palace. Ceilings by Domenichino. — Mattei Palace. 
 Fontana delle Tartarughe. — Lanti Palace. Satirical Pic- 
 ture.— Massimi Palace. Baldassar Peruzzi the Architect . 
 JJiscobulus . First Printing Establishment in Rome . 
 
FARNESE PALACE. 
 
 419 
 
 Villa Borghese . — Villa Pamfili . — Villa Albani. WinheU 
 mann. — Villa Ludovisi.— Villa Mattel . Godoy . — Monte 
 Mario . Villa Madama. 
 
 Albano . — Lake of Albano. — Castcl Gandolfo. — Frascati. 
 
 Villa Aldobrandini. La Riifinella. 
 
 Tivoli . Aqueducts . Banditti . Tomb of Plautius. Calca - 
 reous Deposit. Travertine Stone. Medallions. Cascade 
 at Tivoli. Iron Forges and other Machines . Ancient 
 Aqueducts. Ancient Temple . Villa d* Este. Villa of 
 Maecenas. Adrians Villa. 
 
 Aqueducts of Rome. Bridges. Landing Quays . Walls 
 of the City. Population. 
 
 The Farnese Palace , the finest in Rome, both on 
 account of its size and of its architecture, was begun 
 by Paul III., Farnese, whilst he was yet cardinal* 
 about 1530, after the design of the architect An- 
 tonio da Sangallo, and finished by his nephew, Car- 
 dinal Alexander Farnese, under the direction of 
 Bonaroti and Giacomo della Porta. * 
 
 The Travertine stone of which it is built was ob- 
 tained by the demolition of a part of the external 
 wall of the Coliseum, and from the Theatre of Mar- 
 eellus. 
 
 This palace, as well as the other possessions of 
 the Farnese family, now belongs to the king of 
 Naples, and is the residence of his ambassador at 
 R ome ; it is neglected, and almost dismantled. 
 
 * A view of the Farnese Palace is published in Graevii 
 Thes, Antiq. Romanorum, Tom, VI, 
 
. 420 
 
 FARNESE PALACE, 
 
 The palace is quadrangular, and the walls are 
 quite detached from other buildings. Opposite to 
 the principal front is a large open place with two 
 fountains, with ancient granite bathing vessels. In 
 the middle of that front which is towards the river, 
 the upper story is occupied by a loggia, or portico 
 of three arches, by Vignola. The court is an exact 
 square, and is decorated with three orders of archi- 
 tecture, one above the other. The two lowest, 
 Doric and Ionic, support "arcades, forming porticoes 
 all round. The third is composed of Corinthian 
 pilasters, with windows between. In this court 
 were formerly placed the Farnese Hercules, and the 
 Farnese Flora ; and in the court behind the palace 
 was the group of Dirce, called the Farnese Bull, 
 all which were removed to Naples during the eigh- 
 teenth centiiry. The only piece of ancient sculp- 
 ture that remains in the court is the large urn of 
 white marble, with carved fluting, found in the 
 tomb of Caecilia Metella. 
 
 Annibal Caracci’s Fresco Paintings . — In the a- 
 partment on the first floor are the celebrated fres- 
 co paintings on the ceiling, painted by Annibal 
 Caracci, with the assistance of his pupils. That 
 on the flat part of the ceiling represents the Tri- 
 umph of Bacchus and Ariadne. On the curved 
 sides of the ceiling are, Galatea on the Sea, sur- 
 rounded by Tritons, Nymphs, and Cupids ; Cepha- 
 lus and Aurora ; Polyphemus and Galatea ; Pol)'- 
 
FARNESE PALACE. — FARNESINA. 
 
 421 
 
 phemus throwing the Rock at Acis *, Jupiter and 
 Juno ; Diana and Edimion ; Hercules and Jole j 
 Venus and Anchises ; Apollo and Hyacinthus ; 
 Ganymede and the Eagle. There are some other 
 smaller frescos. The walls are painted with An- 
 dromeda chained to the Rock, and Perseus with the 
 Head of Medusa. The fresco pictures on the ceil- 
 ing are admirable for their execution, and the bril- 
 liancy of their colours, which have resisted the ef- 
 fects of time, and remain uninjured after the lapse 
 of 220 years. 
 
 These, and the fresco paintings by Raphael at 
 the Farnesina, are the finest in Rome. Raphael’s 
 Loggie of the Vatican are not so well preserved. 
 The frescos of Domenichino in Sant Andrea della 
 Valle, San Carlo ai Catinari, and Saint Gregory 
 come next in rank. 
 
 One of the rooms is painted by Zuccari and Va- 
 sari with subjects relating to the hostility of Paul 
 III. Farnese against the Protestants. This Pope 
 excommunicated Henry VIII. of England in 1546. 
 
 In another room are more fresco pictures by An- 
 nibal Caracci. In the great saloon is an antique 
 equestrian statue, smaller than life. 
 
 The Farnesina , or small Farnese Palace, is on 
 the opposite side of the river. It was built after 
 the design of Raldassar Peruzzi, by Agostino Chigi, 
 an eminent banker in the time of Leo X., and af- 
 terwards was purchased by the Farnese family. It 
 is inhabited by the Neapolitan consul. 
 
422 FARNESINA. OTHER FALACES. 
 
 Paintings of Cupid and Psyche . — On the ceil- 
 ing of the hall of entrance are the beautiful fres- 
 co pictures of the story of Cupid and Psyche, af- 
 ter the design, and painted under the inspection 
 of Raphael. The two large pictures on the flat 
 part of the ceiling represent Venus and Cupid 
 pleading their cause before the Assembly of the 
 Gods, and the Marriage of Cupid and Psyche in 
 presence of the Deities. The ten pictures on the 
 sides of the ceiling represent different parts of the 
 same story, as related in the tale which Apuleius, a 
 writer of the time of Antoninus Pius, has introduce 
 ed in his metamorphosis, as told by the old woman 
 in the den of robbers. These histories here design- 
 ed by Raphael have not the advantage of explaining 
 themselves, a defect which arises from the story of 
 Cupid and Psyche being a kind of fairy tale. 
 
 In another room is a fresco painting of Galatea 
 upon a Shell drawn by Dolphins, by the hand of 
 Raphael himself. In this room is a colossal head, 
 drawn with charcoal by Bonaroti, when he came to 
 visit Daniel da Volterra, who was employed in 
 painting the apartments of this palace. The gar- 
 den of the Farnesina extends along the banks of 
 the river. 
 
 Farnese Garden . — The Farnese garden on the 
 Palatine hill is now stripped of its ornaments and 
 neglected. The gate is by Vignola. 
 
 Jn the Rospigliosi Palace , on the ceiling of a sa- 
 
COLONNA PALACE. 
 
 428 
 
 loon of the Casino in the garden, is the Aurora 
 painted by Guido. The exterior of the Casino is 
 richly decorated with antique sculptures in relief in- 
 crusted in the wall. In the palace are many other 
 fine pictures. 
 
 Portrait of the Cenci . — A masterpiece which is 
 admired in the great collection of pictures in the 
 Palazzo Colonna is a most beautiful and inte- 
 resting head, the portrait of Beatrice Cenci, by 
 Guido, apparently only fifteen, although the ma- 
 nuscript account says she was twenty-two. This 
 young lady was beheaded on the place at the bridge 
 of Saint Angelo, on the accusation of having con- 
 spired to murder her father,. The father was a 
 monster of vice, addicted to disordinate lust, had 
 attempted to violate the chastity of his daughter, 
 and treated all the members of his family with ty- 
 rannical cruelty. He passed from this life in a 
 rocca or castle in the country, where he had retired 
 from Home with his family for the summer. A 
 considerable time after his death, the stepmother, 
 the daughter Beatrice, and two of the sons, were 
 accused of having murdered him, and were thrown 
 into prison. By means of the torture, the step- 
 mother and the sons were brought to confess them- 
 selves guilty. Beatrice underwent the torture with- 
 out confessing; but at last, at the entreaty of her 
 brothers, she made an imperfect avowal. The proofs 
 were inadequate, and it has been said, that the cop- 
 
COLONNA PALACE., 
 
 424 
 
 fiscation of the property of the Cenci family, which 
 was considerable, was a motive that induced the Pope, 
 Paul Vc Borghese, to procure the condemnation of 
 the Cenci. The villa Pinciana, which is now the 
 villa Borghese, belonged to the Cenci family. The 
 portrait of Beatrice was painted by Guido after her 
 condemnation. She underwent the execution with 
 great firmness. In the edition of Lavater’s Phy- 
 siognomy, published at the Hague, there are several 
 vague and unimportant remarks on the portrait of 
 Beatrice Cenci. 
 
 In one of the apartments of this palace is admir- 
 ed a spacious gallery, ornamented with marble pi- 
 lasters. Amongst other pictures there are two 
 called Melpomene and Thalia, by Salviati ; these 
 two figures are copied from Michael Angelo’s statues 
 of Night and Aurora, in the Capella de’ Depositi of 
 San Lorenzo at Florence. 
 
 Ancient Entablature.— h\ the garden of the Co- 
 lonna Palace, which occupies the face of the hill, 
 there are pieces of a very large entablature of marble, 
 supposed by some to have belonged to a temple of 
 the Sun, built by Aurelian. Nardini thinks these 
 entablatures are of better workmanship than what 
 was done in Aurelian’s time, and that they were 
 part of the temple Salus, on the Quirinal, of which 
 Livy makes mention. Winkelmann, however, main* 
 tains, that they may be of the time of Aurelian, as 
 the buildings erected by that emperor at Palmyra 
 shew that the art of carving architectural ornament^ 
 
BORGHESE PALACE.— JUSTINIANI PALACE. 425 
 
 in the Corinthian style and proportions was still in 
 vigour. 
 
 The Borghese Palace , a large edifice, the ground 
 plan of which is compared to the form of a harpsi- 
 chord, was completed about 1 615, in the time of 
 Paul V. Borghese. Prince Borghese, to whom this 
 palace belongs, is possessed of large property ; he 
 is one of the richest of the Roman princes, and re- 
 sides at Florence. 
 
 Pictures . — This palace contains a numerous col- 
 lection, and amongst which are several pictures by 
 the great masters, Raphael, Titian, Domenichino, 
 Julio Romano. Of these we shall mention only 
 the celebrated masterpiece, the Sybil, by Domeni- 
 chino. It is a half-length picture of a beautiful fe- 
 male with auburn hair. Domenichino has repeated 
 this head in some of his other works. 
 
 Porphyry Urn*— hi this palace is a porphyry 
 sarcophagus found in the mausoleum of Adrian, 
 now the Castle of Saint Angelo. 
 
 The Justiniani Palace is situated between the 
 Pantheon and the Piazza Navona, on the ground 
 where stood the baths of Nero, afterwards called 
 Thermae Alexandrinae, from Alexander Severus* 
 Flaminio Yacca, the sculptor, mentions a row of six 
 large marble columns discovered in this place, and 
 afterwards sawed up for various purposes. * This 
 
 * See the Notes of Flaminio Vacca in Montfaucon, Diari= 
 urn Italicum. 
 
426 
 
 CORSTNI PALACE. 
 
 palace was finished in the seventeenth century, by 
 the architect Boromini, and is loaded with orna- 
 ment in the degenerate manner of that time. The 
 collection of statues is one of the largest private col- 
 lections in Rome. The court also is adorned with 
 numerous reliefs and statues. Amongst them is an 
 ancient mile stone, with the number VII., like that 
 on the balustrade of the Capitol. There is likewise 
 a valuable collection of pictures. 
 
 The Corsini Palace , situated in the long street of 
 the Transtevere, called the Lungara, is a large edi- 
 fice in which Cristina Queen of Sweden resided 
 and died in 1689. It was purchased and enlarged by 
 the Corsini family about 1735, in the time of Cle- 
 ment XII. Corsini. The Corsini is a Florentine 
 family. The gallery of pictures in their palace at 
 Florence we have mentioned in speaking of that city. * 
 
 Pictures — The collection of pictures is very con- 
 siderable ; amongst them is a portrait of Julius II. 
 by Raphael, like that in the tribune of the gallery at 
 Florence ; Philip II. by Titian ; Paul III. Farnese, 
 whilst cardinal, by Titian ; two Sons of Charles V. 
 by the same ; a Holy Family, and a picture of the 
 Annunciation, both by Bonaroti ; Herodias with the 
 head of John the Baptist, a celebrated picture by 
 Guido; Innocent X. by Velasquez ; Velasquez was 
 a native of Seville, and died in 1 660. 
 
 * See page 1 95. 
 
PALACES. 
 
 427 
 
 The library contains many books printed in the 
 fifteenth century, and 400 volumes of prints. 
 
 View . — The garden occupies the declivity of the 
 Janiculine hill, and from a casino in the upper part 
 of the garden there is a fine view of the city. 
 A large engraving of Rome seen from this point, 
 was published by Yasi. The view is like that 
 from San Pietro Montorio, which is not far dis- 
 tant. * 
 
 The Palace of the Cancellaria was built of the 
 travertine from the Coliseum by Bramante. 
 
 The Palazzo Madama , so called from having 
 been the residence of Madama Caterina de* Medici, 
 niece of Leo X. and afterwards Queen of France, 
 is situated between the Piazza Navona and the Pan- 
 theon. Jt is now the residence of the governor of 
 Rome, and in this building is the office in which 
 foreigners must deposit their passports during their 
 residence in Rome. 
 
 The Doria Pamfli Palace in the Corso is a 
 large edifice loaded with ornament, in the degene- 
 rate style of the seventeenth century, partly after 
 the design of BorominL 
 
 The collection of pictures is extensive, and con- 
 tains many works of the most eminent masters* 
 There are a great number of landscapes by Gaspar 
 
 * See page 328 . 
 
428 
 
 BARBERINI PALACE. 
 
 Dughet, commonly called Gaspar Poussin ; * and 
 landscapes by Rosa di Tivoli, t 
 
 The Chigi Palace, forming the angle of the Piaz- 
 za Colonna and the Corso, was built about 1670, 
 for the nephews of Alexander VII. Chigi. Part of 
 the architecture is by Carlo Maderno. It contains a 
 large collection of pictures and some statues, like- 
 wise a considerable library. 
 
 The Barberini Palace . — Urban VII L Barberini, 
 during a long reign of twenty- one years, from 1623 
 to 1644, was much ruled by his nephews, who made 
 a bad use of their power. A proof of the riches 
 they acquired is the Barberini palace, one of the 
 largest palaces in Rome, which was built about the 
 year 1630, by the nephews of Urban VIII. It was be- 
 gun by the architect Maderno, continued by Boro- 
 mini, and finished by Bernini. 
 
 King of Spain , — -It is now (1818) the residence 
 of Carlo IV. the abdicated King of Spain. This old 
 king appeared very fervent in his devotions at the 
 pope’s chapel in Easter of 1818. He was travelled 
 about by Bonaparte from Spain to Fontainebleau, and 
 then to Compiegne, and at last was allowed to reside 
 in Rome ; he died at Rome in 1819. The prime 
 
 * Gaspar Dughet, called Gaspar Poussin, was born at 
 Rome in 1613. 
 
 t Philip Roos, commonly called Rosa di Tivoli, was born 
 at Frankfort on the Main in 1655. 
 
man: 
 
PICTURES IN THE SPADA PALACE. 
 
 429 
 
 minister and creature of the king and queen, Godoy, 
 the Prince of Peace, died also at Rome soon after, 
 possessed, it is said, of property amounting to ten 
 millions Sterling, placed in the public funds of dif- 
 ferent nations of Europe. 
 
 The Braschi Palace , situated at the Piazza dP 
 Pasquino, is a large and handsome modern building 
 constructed near the end of the eighteenth century, 
 by the relations of Pius VI. Braschi, who reigned from 
 1775 to 1800. The staircase is grand, and is adorn- 
 ed with beautiful large polished columns of red 
 Egyptian granite. There is an unfinished gallery 
 containing several ancient marbles. 
 
 Near the church of Sant Andrea della Valle is 
 the Palazzo Stoppani , formerly Caffarelli, built af- 
 ter the design of Raphael. The front has been 
 lately repaired, and consists of a ground floor with 
 rustic arches. The principal floor, ornamented with 
 Doric columns, and an attic story with pilasters. 
 
 The Palazzo Spada is situated near the Farnese 
 palace, and was built about 1540, in the time of 
 Paul III. Farnese. The architecture is by Giulio 
 Mazzoni, a native of Placentia, pupil of Daniel da 
 Vol terra. The front to the street and the walls of 
 the court are covered with a great number of sculp- 
 tures in stucco. There is a fine staircase ascending 
 in one line without turnings. Amongst many fine, 
 paintings is Paris embarking with Helen by Guido ; 
 Cleopatra by the same master ; a portrait of Paul 
 
430 
 
 PALACES. 
 
 III. Farnese by Titian. There is also a collec- 
 tion of statues. 
 
 The palace of Pope Julius III., the Vigna di Pa - 
 pa Julio , without the Porta del Popolo, is admired 
 for its architecture, which is by Vignola. It is now 
 occupied as a farm house and quite neglected. Far- 
 ther on, on the same road, is the small polygonal 
 church of Saint Andrew by the same architect. 
 
 Madonna de* Candelabri. — In the palace of Lu- 
 cian Bonaparte, together with many other fine pic - 
 tures, is the Madonna de’ Candelabri by Raphael, 
 formerly in the Borghese collection ; it is a round 
 picture of the same form as Raphael’s Madonna 
 della Seggiola. 
 
 Cardinal Fesch also, the maternal uncle of Bo- 
 naparte, possesses a valuable collection of pictures 
 in his palace. 
 
 In the Costaguti Palace is a picture on the ceil- 
 ing by Domenichino, of which the subject is Time 
 unveiling Truth. There is another ceiling by Al- 
 ban a, and one by Guercino. 
 
 In the court of the Mattel Palace are many an- 
 tique sculptures in relief, and in the apartments pic- 
 tures and statues, some of which were lately sold 
 and carried to Paris. 
 
 Fountain.— In the piazza near the Mattei palace 
 is the fountain of the Tartarughe or Tortoises, a 
 pleasing design of Giacomo della Porta. 
 
 Satirical Picture. — In the Palazzo Lanti is a 
 
MASSIMI PALACE. 
 
 4 31 
 
 large satirical picture by Zuccari, in which is repre- 
 sented the Pope, Paul III. Farnese, with asses’ ears, 
 and accompanied by emblematical figures of hatred 
 and lust, coveting the wife of Zuccari, and stretching 
 forth his arm to persecute Zuccari, who is leading 
 away his wife. The wife is represented naked. 
 This picture is kept veiled. 
 
 Massimi Palace .— The Massimi family is one of 
 the old families of the middle ages. * The Massimi 
 palace is remarkable for its architectural decora- 
 tions, and the convenient disposition of the apart- 
 ments, though it occupies but a small space of 
 ground. The principal front is curved, so as to suit 
 the angle formed by the street, and the ground 
 floor is a portico supported by six Doric columns. 
 Baldassar Peruzzi of Siena was the architect, t In 
 this palace are several pictures, and a celebrated an- 
 tique statue of a Discobulus, of large grained mar- 
 ble, and quite entire. 
 
 * See Storia de’ cinque antiche Famiglie di Roma cioe de 8 
 Frangipani, de’ Savelli, de’ Massimi, de* Cenci, e de’ Mattel, 
 by Onofrio Panvinio. 
 
 f Baldassar Peruzzi was born in 1475, and died in 1550 * 
 He was celebrated as a painter and architect, and for his skill 
 in perspective. He was employed as architect at Saint Peter’s 
 before Michael Angelo had the charge of the building, and 
 the design he proposed for rebuilding Saint Peter’s is publish- 
 ed in the Architettura di Serlio. An account of Baldassar is 
 published in Le Vite de’ piu eccellenti pittori, scultori et ar« 
 chitetti di Giorgio Vasari. Firenze, 1540, 
 
VILLA BORGHESE. 
 
 432 
 
 Printing . — In an adjoining house, which belongs 
 also to the Massimi family, was the first establish- 
 ment for printing books in Rome, by the German 
 printers Sweynheim and Panartz, in 1470. 
 
 Augustin de Civitate Dei was printed in the house 
 of the Massimi in 1470, and a Bible in 1471, as the 
 following verses at the end of the book testify : 
 
 Conradus Sweynhem, Arnoldus Pannartsque magistri 
 Romae impresserunt talia multa simul. 
 
 Fetrus cam fratre Francisco Maximus Ambo 
 
 Huic cperi optatam contribuere domum mcdlxxi. 
 
 Villas . 
 
 Villa signifies at Rome a pleasure garden, consi- 
 derable for extent and magnificence. The Casino 
 is the principal house built in this pleasure ground. 
 The name Vigna is given to a garden, or small 
 farm, which is partly, or altogether cultivated for 
 supplying the markets. 
 
 The villa Borghese, belonging to the prince of 
 that name, situated just without the walls, was form- 
 ed about 1610, by Cardinal Scipio Borghese, ne- 
 phew of Paul V. This pope, during a reign of fif- 
 teen years, bestowed great riches on his nephews, 
 which their descendants the Borghese family possess 
 at this day. The villa is an extensive piece of ground, 
 three Roman miles in circuit, part of which is laid 
 out with broad walks between hedges of eight to 
 
 ii 
 
VILLA BORGHESE. 
 
 433 
 
 twelve feet high. Another part consists of uneven 
 ground interspersed with trees, having something 
 the appearance of an English park. There are se- 
 veral roads for driving in carriages through this ex- 
 tensive villa. 
 
 Plants . — The ground is adorned with evergreen 
 oak ; Laurus nobilis ; Viburnum tinus, now, on the 
 13th February, in flower ; and many large trees of 
 the Pinus pinea. Cactus opuntia, Yucca gloriosa, 
 and Agave Americana, grow in the open air, and 
 the Agave is usually placed in pots to ornament the 
 top of a wall, or the gate posts. 
 
 Orange trees ripen their fruit, and, in general, do 
 not suffer by the cold when exposed to the air during 
 winter at Rome ; but lemon trees, and some other 
 species of citrus, are apt to lose their leaves, and 
 to have their small branches killed by the cold, and 
 therefore they are kept in pots, and covered in win- 
 ter by a house made of reeds (Arundo donax) and 
 straw, with apertures which admit the light in the 
 day, and are closed at night by shutters of reeds and 
 straw. 
 
 Buildings . — There are several casinos in the 
 villa, and many small ornamental buildings, amongst 
 which are an artificial ruin, representing a temple 
 of Antoninus and Faustina ; a temple of Esculapius, 
 surrounded by a piece of water ; an imitation of 
 an ancient circus, or hippodrome. There are, in 
 different parts of the ground, statues, ancient in- 
 
VILLA PAMFILI* 
 
 484 
 
 scriptions, old sepulchral monuments, and foun- 
 tains. The conduit of the Acqua vergine, one of 
 the three aqueducts that supply Rome, passes 
 through the villa. 
 
 The principal casino is a handsome building, and 
 formerly contained the Borghese collection of sta- 
 tues, which was sold to France, and is now in the 
 Louvre. 
 
 Villa Pamfili .■ — The villa Pamfili, which rivals 
 the Borghese villa in beauty, and perhaps surpasses 
 it in extent, was formed by Prince Pamfili about 
 1650, in the time of Innocent X. Pamfili. Part 
 of this extensive pleasure ground is laid out with 
 broad walks and high hedges, in the Italian style, 
 and the rest is like an English park, with large 
 groves of old pines, (Pinus pinea,) some artificial 
 ruins, and ornamental buildings. There is a con- 
 siderable piece of water. The views are beautiful, 
 and are terminated by the Latian hills, on which 
 the white villas of Frascati are discerned. 
 
 Plants . — The Ulex Europeus, whin, or furze, is 
 cultivated as a shrub. There is much of the Ane- 
 mone pulsatilla, and other anemones, growing native 
 in the pasture, and now, on the 24th February, in 
 flower. In this villa is a pretty large cedar of Le- 
 banon, the diameter of the trunk eighteen inches. 
 This kind of tree is not frequent in Italy. 
 
 Casino by Algardi . — The casino is designed by 
 Algardi, and highly ornamented exteriorly with 
 
 l 
 
XXL. 
 
 Souse Tor Trotectirux lemon, Trees ni Winter at Home. 
 Tape 4f33.5S9.- see also iP.213.ajul Vbl.TLpJ44. X one of the. Shutters 
 Trees of Tiruts Tinea T. 434?? See also T.216. 244? and VolJLp ■ 23 . 
 
 Tgaredniericana. -planted Tor Ornament otl Gar den walls 
 atJRome JP. 4-33 . see cd.ro T4d.IT. p. 85 and p.TM?. 
 
 IF.TLC. (Ze£? W.jkDTLxzars Sculpt 
 
 Tdinlwgh Tublishcd lp> A.ConstaUe & Co.1320. 
 
VILLA ALEANX. 
 
 4 35 
 
 sculpture in relief. In the interior the rooms are 
 also decorated with reliefs. There are pictures and 
 busts, amongst which is the bust of Donna Olimpia 
 Maidalchini, niece of Innocent X. Pamfili. Dur- 
 ing a reign of eleven years, from 1644 to 1655, 
 Innocent X. became unpopular by the great power 
 he gave to this lady. 
 
 Fountains . — Near the casino are some fountains, 
 and a water organ, which is nothing more than a 
 barrel organ put in motion by a water wheel. 
 
 Villa Albani, —The villa Albani is a garden of 
 moderate extent, laid out with walks and hedges. 
 
 It is visited on account of the large and valuable 
 collection of antique statues which are kept in the 
 casino. The casino itself is adorned with colonades 
 and porticos. Opposite to the casino is an orna- 
 mental building which likewise contains statues. 
 This building is called the Cafehaus, a German 
 name sometimes applied in Rome to a building in a 
 garden appropriated for refreshment in the after- 
 noon. 
 
 The villa Albani and the collection of statues 
 was formed in the latter half of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, by Cardinal Alexander Albani, an excellent 
 judge of sculpture, and who continued to estimate 
 the merit of statues even after he had become blind. 
 The French took many articles from this collection. 
 Cardinal Albani having opposed their views, and 
 having gone to reside at Vienna. The eminent 
 
436 
 
 VILLA ALBANI. 
 
 antiquary Winkelmann was librarian to Cardinal 
 Alexander Albani. * 
 
 # Winkelmann was a native of the country of Brandenburg. 
 He was employed in the library of the Saxon minister Count 
 Bunau, a copious collection of historical books, of which there 
 is a well arranged catalogue by Frank, and which now forms 
 part of the king’s library in the Japan palace at Dresden. 
 Winkelmann desired ardently to visit Rome for the purpose of 
 studying the remains of ancient art; to obtain a livelihood 
 there, he submitted to the degradation of changing his religion, 
 and became a Roman Catholic, and Rome was his resi- 
 dence during the rest of his life. He was librarian to Cardi- 
 nal Alexander Albani, and held the places of scrittoro in the 
 Vatican library, and of prefetto d’antichita di Roma, or anti- 
 quary to the Pope. Winkelmann employs too much the lan- 
 guage of a pedant and an infallible judge, and willingly cen- 
 sures the mistakes of others. This humour excited opposition 
 and detraction. A painter, Casanova, exhibited two pictures 
 as antiques, and Winkelmann gave credit to the painter* s story, 
 and published an account of the pictures ; the painter, after- 
 wards, to the confusion of Winkelmann, shewed that the pic- 
 tures were works of his own pencil. Winkelmann bestows the 
 most exaggerated praise on the productions of his friend and 
 countryman Mengs. 
 
 Winkelmann, in a depressed state of mind, returning from a 
 journey he had made to Vienna, met an individual, of whom 
 he had no knowledge ; he had the imprudence, without having 
 made any inquiry concerning character or pursuits, to admit 
 this man into his confidence, and shewed him some gold me- 
 dals he had got at Vienna ; the man, to get possession of the 
 treasure, murdered Winkelmann in the inn called the Locanda 
 Grande at Trieste. This happened in 1768 , when Winkelmann 
 was 51 , The assassin did not escape the hand of justice ; he 
 
VILLA LUDOVISL 
 
 43 7 
 
 Villa Ludovisi , — The villa Ludovisi is within 
 the walls of Rome, and contains several fine statues, 
 amongst which is the group erroneously called Fetus 
 and Aria, which Winkelmann supposes to be the 
 messenger sent to Canacea by her father Eolus 
 King of the Tyrrhenians, to present her with the 
 sword with which she was condemned to kill her^ 
 self, * for the incestuous love which she bore to her 
 brother. Another celebrated group in this collec- 
 tion, which was called Papyrius and his Mother, is 
 considered by Winkelmann to represent the Meet- 
 ing of Orestes with his Sister Electra. 
 
 The villas and palaces of Rome are shewn to 
 strangers without any difficulty. The villa Ludo- 
 visi is one of the few exceptions ; the proprietor re- 
 fuses admission except to those who are particularly 
 recommended to him. 
 
 was found to be a native of Pistoja, had been a cook in a gen- 
 tleman's family at Vienna ; when Winkelmann met with him, 
 he had already been convicted of crimes, and was just got 
 out of gaol. 
 
 Winkelmann's successor as director of the antiquities of Rome 
 was Visconti, a native of Rome, who was afterwards removed 
 to Pans by Bonaparte, and had the inspection of the statues in 
 the Louvre gallery. Visconti wrote the descriptions in the Museo 
 Pio Clementino, the descriptions of the statues in the Louvre, 
 and other valuable works. He died at Paris in 1818. His 
 brother deals in sulphur-casts of medals in the Strada Julia. 
 
 * Winkelmann, Hist, de l’Art. Liv. VI. Chap. 6. 
 
438 
 
 VILLAS. 
 
 The Villa Mattel is situated on the Ccelian Hill. 
 It now belongs to Emanuel Godoy, Prince of Peace. 
 The garden contains some ancient marbles, and a 
 small Egyptian obelisk fifteen or twenty feet in 
 height, with hieroglyphics towards the top. On 
 the pedestal an inscription testifies that the obelisk 
 was restored by Emanuel Godoy, who came here to 
 seek quiet retirement, which he had long desired. 
 In 1819, and after the above was written, Godoy 
 died, possessed of property to a great amount. * 
 
 The villa Mattei commands a view of the exten- 
 sive and lofty brick walls, the remains of the baths 
 of Antoninus Caracalla, situated on the Aventine 
 Mount. 
 
 Monte Mario . — The name Monte Mario is mo- 
 dern, and derived from the villa of Mario Millini, 
 situated on its summit. It was anciently called the 
 Hill of Cinna. From this hill, which is on the 
 right side of the Tiber, there is an agreeable view 
 of Pome and the adjacent country. 
 
 Shells . — Sea-shells are seen in the sand and gra- 
 vel of which this hill consists. 
 
 Villa Madama . — On the side of Monte Mario is 
 the villa Madama, constructed in the year 1520. 
 It was the residence of Madama Caterina de’ Me- 
 dici, niece of Leo X., and afterwards consort of 
 Henry II. of France ; the marriage took place in 
 
 * See page 428. 
 
THE ALBANO HILLS. 
 
 459 
 
 1533, during the life of his father Francis I. Ca- 
 therine was conducted to France by her uncle Cle- 
 ment VII. 
 
 The house was begun under the direction of 
 Raphael, and after his death was continued by Ju- 
 lio Romano. By Julio Romano is the frieze of 
 one of the large rooms painted in fresco, with fes- 
 toons supported by dancing nymphs. The portico 
 is painted by Julio Romano and Giovanni da U~ 
 dine. 
 
 The villa is now occupied as a farm, and the 
 house, become the habitation and the granary of 
 the farmer, is quite neglected and going to decay. 
 It belongs to the King of Naples. 
 
 Albano. Marino . Frascati 
 
 Albano, Marino, and Frascati, are situated on 
 that side of the Latian hills which looks towards 
 Rome. The Albano or Latian hills are a volcanic 
 group of hills, rising from the plain, not attached to 
 the Apennines. The highest summit is the Monte 
 Cavi, from which there is an extensive view, com- 
 prehending the lakes of Albano and of Nemi, suppos- 
 ed to be two ancient craters of this volcanic group. 
 
 Piperino . — At Marino and the lake of Albano 
 the rock is piperino, a volcanic breccia containing 
 mica, large pieces of primitive rock, and sometimes 
 wood. 
 
 Quarries at Marino .— The piperino is suscepti- 
 
THE ALBANO HILLS. 
 
 MO 
 
 ble of being hewed into squared stones, and is quar- 
 ried near Marino for the purposes of building. The 
 sarcophagus of Scipio, now in the museum of the 
 Vatican, is composed of it. 
 
 Latialite . — In the piperino is found the latialite, 
 called by some mineralogists Hauine, a blue colour- 
 ed mineral discovered by Gismondi, professor of mi- 
 neralogy in the university of Rome. It is general- 
 ly found without a regularly crystallized form, but 
 in the collection at the Sapienza there is a rare spe- 
 cimen of it in form of an octahedron, each side of 
 which is two- tenths of an inch, of a light blue colour 
 and translucid. 
 
 Lava of Capo di Bove.— The lava or basalt at 
 Capo di Bove, which is quarried for pavement, is 
 supposed by some to proceed from the ancient vol- 
 canoes of the Latian hills. 
 
 Snow for the Supply of Rome. — Every winter there 
 falls snow on the Monte Cavi, the highest part of 
 this volcanic group. A provision of this snow is 
 made by placing the snow in pits, the upper part of 
 the pit being left void and then filled with straw. 
 The snow is brought from these pits at Monte Ca- 
 vi to similar pits in Rome, as occasion requires. The 
 sale of snow in Rome is an exclusive privilege grant- 
 ed by government. This privileged establishment 
 for the sale of snow is called Appalto generate delle 
 Neve. 
 
 In Italy, exclusive of the Alps, there are only 
 
ALBANO. 
 
 Ul 
 
 two summits on which there is perpetual snow, and 
 that in small quantity ; they are in the kingdom of 
 Naples, the Sasso Grande, which Sir G. Shuckburgh 
 found to be 9577 English feet above the sea, and 
 another. On the Apennines of the dutchy of Mo- 
 dena, there are some caverns in which, as in a na- 
 tural ice house, the snow, protected from the action 
 of the sun, endures through the year. 
 
 The way from Rome to Albano passes through the 
 gate of Saint John, called Juxta Lateranos, near 
 the site where anciently the Porta Cadimontana was*. 
 The road is that which leads to Naples, at two or 
 three miles from Rome, and at some distance from 
 the road is a mineral water, used for medicinal pur- 
 poses, called Acqua Santa. 
 
 Albano . — Albano is on the situation where was 
 anciently Alba longa, founded by Ascanius, as Virgil 
 relates. 
 
 Ancient Tomb . — Emplecion . — Near Albano is an 
 ancient mausoleum, now reduced to an irregular mass 
 of masonry, in which is seen the same manner of build- 
 ing as in the Moles Hadriani and the tomb of Me- 
 tella, large squared stones being inserted at some dis- 
 tance from each other, in a mass of small irregular frag- 
 ments, called scaglie in Italy, and pozzolana mortar. 
 This kind of building is not practised in modern 
 times. Most of the ancient sepulchres near Rome 
 are composed of it, the mausoleum of Augustus, the 
 Moles Hadriani, the tomb of Metella, Monte de 
 Grano, and many others. It forms a mass of great 
 
U2 
 
 ALBANO. 
 
 solidity like a rock ; and these buildings, therefore* 
 served as the base for the brick towers or fortresses 
 of the chieftains in the middle ages. The solidity, 
 and the long resistance to the action of time that this 
 kind of structure exhibits, is owing in a great measure 
 to the hard mass which the pozzolana forms ; the 
 piers of the aqueduct of Lyons, however, which are 
 made in this way, and not with pozzolana, have also 
 endured since the time of the Roman power. It is 
 named by the ancients opus incertum and em- 
 plecton, * and by the Italians opera incerta and 
 reimpietura. It was formed in a way similar to 
 that in which the mud walls are constructed in 
 Oxfordshire and at Lyons. A layer of three feet 
 deep, consisting of the fragments of stone and 
 liquid mortar, was put on at one time. The 
 sides were confined by boards, or by the stones 
 which formed the outside of the building. In some 
 buildings, squared blocks of travertine or of piperino 
 were placed in the courses of opus incertum to bind 
 the courses together ; this is seen in the moles Ha- 
 driani, in the tomb of Metella, in the building just 
 spoken of, and in others, and is figured by Piranesi, t 
 Sometimes, the interior being of opus incertum, the 
 face of the wall was of opus reticulatum, as in the 
 piers of the aqueduct of Lyons, sometimes of flat 
 triangular brick ; and the whole is bound together, at 
 
 * See page 380. 
 
 f Piranesi, Ant. di Rom. Tom. IV, tav. 6 , 
 
ALBANO* 
 
 US 
 
 every three feet in height, by a horizontal stratum of 
 flat quadrangular brick. * * * § 
 
 On the other side of the town is an ancient tomb, 
 with two or three cones of masonry, remaining erect 
 on a quadrangular mass of building, said to be the 
 sepulchre of Pompey, who had a villa here ; it has 
 been vulgarly and erroneously called the tomb of the 
 Curatii. t 
 
 At Albano are villas frequented in autumn by the 
 inhabitants of Pome. 
 
 At Albano there are considerable remains of an- 
 cient buildings, a reservoir for water composed of 
 many large vaulted chambers, ruins supposed to be 
 of an ampitheatre, and others, t 
 
 Cora . — Twenty miles beyond Albano towards Ter- 
 racina, at Cora, near Velletri, are walls composed of 
 large irregular polygonal prisms, an example of a 
 kind of building which occurs in different parts of 
 Italy, and supposed to be fortresses constructed by 
 the Etrusci, Pelasgi, or some other ancient inhabit- 
 ants of Italy. Petit Radel, who has written parti- 
 cularly on this kind of structure, terms it Cyclopean 
 architecture. A view of the ancient buildings at 
 Cora is published by Piranesi. § 
 
 * See figures in Piranesi, Antichita di Roma, 
 
 f See a view of this tomb in Bartoli, Sepolchri antichi. tav. 
 SO. 
 
 t These remains are figured in Piranesi, Antichita d’Albano. 
 
 § G. B. Piranesi, Antichita di Cora. 
 
LAKE OF ALBANO. 
 
 444 
 
 Caste l Gandolfo . — A mile from Albano is the 
 village of Castel Gandolfo, situated on an eminence, 
 at the foot of which is the lake of Albano, other- 
 wise called lago di Castello. The villa, or country 
 palace of the popes, is in this village. 
 
 Lake of Albano . — The view of the lake, which is 
 five miles in circumference, is singular. The water 
 occupies the lower part of a basin, surrounded on all 
 sides by high ground, so that the lake presents the 
 appearance of a crater. 
 
 Emissarium . — We descend the steep banks in or- 
 der to see the mouth of the emissarium, which gives 
 the only issue to the waters of the lake. This outlet 
 was made by the Romans whilst they besieged Veii, 
 393 years before Christ. It is a mine of five feet in 
 height, driven through the volcanic rock for a mile 
 and a half. * There is an arch of stone over the 
 entrance of the emissarium. At the other extre- 
 mity of the emissarium, where it gives out its water, 
 there is also some masonry. 
 
 It is said that the emissarium was driven at a time 
 when the water in the lake stood high. The con- 
 structors of the work may have begun, therefore, by 
 sinking a shaft some way above the water’s edge to 
 the depth of the level to which they wished to re- 
 
 * 11,000 palms — to 7975 English feet, which is 55 feet 
 more than a mile and a half. G. B. Piranesi, Descrizione del 
 Emissario del lago d'Albano. 
 
ALBANO TO FRASCATI. 
 
 445 
 
 diice the water* From the bottom of this shaft they 
 drove the mine outwards till they got to the day on 
 the other side of the hill ; they might then bore 
 through the inundated ground into the sides of the 
 shaft, and let the water go off into the mine, and, 
 using the boring instrument several times, the level 
 of the water would be reduced nearly to the level of 
 the mine ; and, lastly, when the height of the water 
 was diminished by these bleedings, they would ex- 
 tend the mine from the bottom of the shaft to the 
 lake. * 
 
 At the foot of the banks, and near the lake, is 
 a nimpheum, a cylindrically vaulted building con- 
 structed over a spring of water, like that called the 
 fountain of Egeria, near Rome. 
 
 In a monastery at Palazzuolo, near Albano, is a 
 tomb with twelve fasces cut on the rock. It is un- 
 known to whose memory it was erected, t 
 
 The way from Castel Gandolfo to Marino lies 
 through a wood of hornbeam and deciduous oak. 
 
 Marino is a neat town, and pleasantly situated. 
 A picture by Guercino, and one by Guido, are to 
 be seen in the churches. 
 
 In going from Marino to Frascati, Grottaf errata 
 is visited, on account of the fresco paintings by Do- 
 menichino in the church. The Tusculan villa of 
 
 ■* Piranesi, Descrizione del Emissario del la^o d’Albano. 
 f See a figure in Piranesi, Antichita d' Albano. 
 
446 
 
 FRASCATI, 
 
 Cicero is said to have been situated on the place 
 where the church of Grottaferrata now is. 
 
 Frascati . — Frascati is built near the situation of 
 the ancient Tusculum. It is styled a city from be- 
 ing the seat of a bishop. The name Frascati arises 
 from the frasche , the branches of trees with which 
 the inhabitants formed their houses after the de- 
 struction of their town in 1191, by the inhabitants 
 of Rome. In the cathedral church is an epitaph 
 in memory of Charles Edward, son of James III., 
 the pretender to the crown of England, erected by 
 his brother the Cardinal of York, bishop of Tuscu- 
 lum, that is, of Frascati. The face of the hill on 
 which Frascati is situated is adorned with several 
 magnificent villas. 
 
 Villa Aldobrandini . — The villa Aldobrandini, 
 called the Villa di Belvedere on account of the a- 
 greeable view it commands towards Rome, was 
 formed by Cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew of Cle- 
 ment VIII., about the year 1600, and now belongs 
 to the Borghese family. The casino, or principal 
 house of this villa, is handsome ; and, facing the ca- 
 sino, there is a building with fountains, and a hall 
 with paintings in fresco by Domenichino, consisting 
 of landscape, with some figures. Some of these 
 pictures have been sawed out and taken to Rome. 
 
 Another villa belonging to the Borghese family, 
 called villa Taverna, was constructed by Cardinal 
 Borghese, nephew of Paul V., about 1610. 
 
FRASCATI. 
 
 447 
 
 The villa Mondragone, belonging also to the 
 Borghese family, is laid out with spacious walks, 
 and adorned with fountains. 
 
 Lucian Bonaparte 9 s Villa*— The villa called La 
 Rufinella formerly belonged to the Jesuits, and now 
 to Lucian Bonaparte. The casino is handsome, 
 and commands a fine view of the plain, and of 
 Rome. 
 
 From Frascati the whole height of Saint Peter’s, 
 from the base of the building to the top of the cu- 
 polina, subtends about 21 minutes of a vertical cir- 
 cle, measured by a mother-of-pearl micrometer. This 
 corresponds to the distance which is laid down on 
 large maps 12-^- English miles, if the height of Saint 
 Peter’s is taken at 418 feet. 
 
 Excavations *— A mile up the hill Lucian has 
 made excavations on the site of the ancient city of 
 Tusculum, and has discovered a small theatre, con- 
 sisting of five or six rows of stone seats in a curve. 
 At some distance from this, an ancient street and a 
 conduit for water are laid open. 
 
 On the road from Frascati to Rome are seen the 
 long ranges of arches that supported the ancient a- 
 queducts, the Aqua Marcia, and the Aqua Claudia ; 
 the first of which was celebrated as being the best 
 water, and the other was on the highest level of all 
 the aqueducts. By the side of these run the arches 
 which sustain the Acqua Felice, constructed by 
 Sixtus V. ; it is on a lower level than the two an- 
 
448 
 
 TIVOLI. 
 
 cient aqueducts ; its source is near the Palestrina 
 Road, and much of its course is subterraneous, or in 
 a channel excavated in the ground. 
 
 Tivoli . 
 
 Tivoli, anciently called Tibur, is eighteen miles 
 from Rome. We leave Rome by the gate of San 
 Lorenzo. Some of the principal ancient aqueducts 
 were on this side of Rome ; they derived the water 
 from the sources that flow into the Anio, and the 
 long extended lines of their arcades are seen near 
 the road, with those of the modern aqueduct of the 
 Aqua Felice, which has been constructed near the 
 ancient ones. 
 
 In the times of the prosperity of ancient Rome 
 the road to Tivoli was thickly set with habitations, 
 so that it is said by Florus to have been almost a 
 suburb of Rome. * Few houses are now to be seen, 
 and the road is through a pasture country, which is 
 in general a plain, with some inconsiderable eleva- 
 tions and vallies, and destitute of trees. 
 
 The road is not kept in good order, and many ar- 
 ticles are carried on pack-saddles by horses or mules. 
 
 Briganti . — In different places by the side of the 
 road are exposed the detached limbs of malefactors, 
 suspended on posts, a practice which has not pro- 
 
 * Tibur nunc suburbanum. Flor. I. 11. 
 
tivoli. 449 
 
 duced the eifect of preventing robberies on the road 
 near Tivoli. There is a military post for keeping 
 the robbers in awe, and all the paths near Tivoli 
 were at this time, 4th March 1818, occupied by 
 military, engaged in the pursuit of some banditti 
 that seized two inhabitants of Tivoli who had gone 
 out to shoot. The practice of these banditti is 
 to seize on persons at a distance from the town, 
 and to send a shepherd from the mountains to the 
 habitation of their prisoner in the town, for the pur- 
 pose of demanding a ransom. 
 
 The papal government soon after this made an 
 agreement with several of these robbers, who deli- 
 vered themselves up on condition that no capital 
 nor severe punishment should be inflicted on them. 
 They were lodged in the Castle of Saint Angelo, 
 and boasted of the number of murders they had 
 committed. 
 
 The banditti have long existed in this district. 
 In the time of Evelyn, in 1645, it was usual for 
 travellers to take a military escort between Rome 
 and Naples, * and the banditti continued their de- 
 predations even during the French government, 
 notwithstanding the activity and strong military 
 force of that administration, f 
 
 In 1584, Sixtus V., by his active and vigorous 
 
 * Evelyn’s Memoirs. London, 1819* 
 f Letters d’ltalie, par De Chateauvieux, en 1813. 
 
 rf 
 
450 
 
 TIVOLI, 
 
 administration, suppressed the banditti during his 
 reign, and this is recorded on one of his coins, which 
 has the figure of a man sleeping in the country un- 
 der a tree, and the inscription “ Perfecta securitas.” 
 
 j Hy dr o- sulfur ate d Water.— -In the plain below 
 the hills of Tivoli is a small lake, the water of which 
 contains sulphur in solution, and, four miles from 
 Tivoli, the road crosses a canal which has been cut 
 to let off the water from the lake. The sides of this 
 channel in which the stream runs are white by the 
 deposit of sulphur which is precipitated from the 
 water. These deposits of sulphur are sometimes of 
 a considerable thickness, and have a concentric sphe- 
 roidal structure, like calcareous stalactite. The wa- 
 ter runs into the Teverone. 
 
 River . — The Teverone is crossed twice by the 
 road from Rome to Tivoli, first at the Ponte Ma- 
 molo, and then at the Ponte Lucano. This river, 
 the Anio of the ancients, has its course amongst the 
 Apennines till it comes to Tivoli, and there it falls 
 over the rocks, forming the cascade ; its course af- 
 ter that is in the plain. It falls into the Tiber three 
 quarters of a mile above the Ponte Molle. 
 
 Bridges , and Monument of the Ptautia Family. 
 — Some time before we come to the mountain on 
 which Tivoli is situated, the road passes over the 
 bridge called Ponte Lucano, at the end of which is 
 the circular monument of the Plautia family. This 
 
TIVOLI. 
 
 451 
 
 monument, overgrown with ivy, is an agreeable object, 
 and a frequent subject amongst landscape-painters. 
 By the side of the round building, which is sixty 
 English feet in diameter, * there are large tablets with 
 inscriptions in large letters in memory of M. Plau- 
 tius, and other persons of the Plautian family, t 
 
 This monument was built in the time of Ves- 
 pasian, and is constructed in the same manner as 
 the Moles Hadriani, or castle Saint Angelo, and 
 the tomb of Caecilia Metella. The walls of these 
 buildings are of great thickness, and are composed 
 interiorly of small stones and pozzolana mortar, 
 in this mass large squared stones are imbedded, and 
 placed regularly and at a considerable distance from 
 each other. The same structure is visible in the 
 tomb of Metella and the castle Saint Angelo. This 
 monument, like other ancient buildings, served as 
 a fortress in the middle ages, and it is terminated 
 by battlements constructed at that period. Near 
 the monument is stationed a military post for keep- 
 ing the banditti in awe. 
 
 Before we come to the monument of Plautius 
 
 * Eighty palms, Piranesi. 
 
 4 The following is one of the inscriptions. 
 
 M • Plautius M. F. An. Silvaaus Cos. VII. vir. Epul&num 
 huic senatus triumphalia monumenta decrevit ob 
 res in Illyria bene gest as Lartia qu. f. uxor 
 A . Plautius M. F. Virgulanius vixit an. IX. 
 
 Respecting the septemviri epulorum, see page 30C„ 
 
452 
 
 TIVOLI. 
 
 the town of Tivoli is seen amongst the mountains, 
 and, to the right of the town, a large building be- 
 longing to the Jesuits of the Collegium Romanum, 
 and used by them as a residence in autumn. 
 
 Oliveti . — The face of the mountain below Tivoli 
 is covered with olive plantations ; many of the olive 
 trees are very old, and, though the wood of the 
 trunk is decayed, they continue to bear fruit. Many 
 years must elapse before a young olive tree comes to 
 bear fruit, thef old trees therefore are preserved. 
 Ripe olives are sometimes eaten by the country 
 people, but they are not agreeable, being of a very 
 astringent taste. 
 
 Calcareous Rock.— The mountain on which Ti- 
 voli is situated is part of the Apennines, and con- 
 sists of calcareous rock ; a considerable portion of 
 this calcareous rock is formed by the deposition of 
 calcareous matter, which is held in solution by the 
 water of the Teverone, and great bodies of rock, 
 formed in this way, are seen under the cascade. 
 This rock, in its structure, is like other calcareous sta- 
 lactites, being composed of curved concentric layers. 
 
 Travertine Stone . — The Travertine stone, for- 
 merly called Tiburtine, which is the principal build- 
 ing stone used in Rome, and of which the Coliseum, 
 Saint Peter’s, and most of the other stone edifices in 
 Rome are formed, is quarried in the neighbourhood 
 of Tivoli, and ow^es its formation to the deposition of 
 calcareous matter from water ; it is a calcareous tufa* 
 
 10 
 
TIVOLI, 
 
 4 53 
 
 This calcareous stone of recent deposition, rests 
 upon the less recent limestone of the Apennines. 
 
 The water of some of the principal ancient aque- 
 ducts, and of those of which the water was thought 
 most wholesome, the Marcia and the Claudia, was 
 brought from sources which flowed into the Teve- 
 rone. Some of the ancient conduits of these aque- 
 ducts are found thickly incrusted with a calcareous 
 deposit, which, in some cases, is of such density that 
 it can be polished, and is ranked by the marble-cutters 
 under the class of figured alabaster, alabastro fiorito. 
 
 Medallions ,— Many of the waters from the Apen- 
 nines, running over limestone, become charged with 
 calcareous matter, and form deposits similar to these 
 at Tivoli. Rocks thus formed occur at the cascade 
 of Terni, as before mentioned; and at the warm 
 baths of San Filippo, near Radicofani, between Siena 
 and Rome, casts of medallions are obtained by the 
 deposition of the stalactitical substance from the hot 
 water in a mould. For this purpose, water is made to 
 fall on cross sticks, and is thereby dispersed on the 
 surface of the moulds placed in a vessel beneath. Af- 
 ter some time, the mould is taken out, covered with a 
 crystallized calcareous crust, which, being detached, 
 is a correct impression and counterpart of the mould. 
 By passing the water through logwood, the calca- 
 reous deposit acquires a red colour. 
 
 Calcareous matter is deposited from water so as to 
 fpnn a compact crystallized crust, and penetrates in- 
 
454 
 
 TIVOLI. 
 
 to the minute pores of substances immersed in the 
 water. Entire unbroken hazel-nut shells are found 
 in the north of Ireland, near Belfast, having their 
 cavity filled with this stalactitical matter. 
 
 The inn, usually frequented by those who visit 
 Tivoli, is called la Sybilla , and is close by the cir- 
 cular temple and the cascade. 
 
 Cascade .« — The cascade of Tivoli is formed by the 
 Teverone. The height is considerable, 100 feet 
 and upwards, I suppose. There is a zigzag path, 
 formed in a precipitous bank, leading down to the 
 grotto of Neptune, near the foot of the cascade. This 
 grotto is constantly surrounded by a cloud of spray, 
 in which the morning sun in March is seen reflected 
 in beautiful rainbows. The zigzag path, leading down 
 to the grotto, was formed by General Mioilis, the 
 French governor of Borne in 1809, as an inscrip- 
 tion testifies. 
 
 Derivations from the River, —Above the cascade, 
 streams of water are taken off from the Teverone, 
 some of which are employed in driving water wheels, 
 others supply the fountains of the villa d’Este, and run 
 through the villa of Mecamas, and under its lofty se- 
 micylindrical vaults. After having served for the mills 
 and the fountains, the water is conducted to the edge 
 of the precipice in different places, and falling over, 
 forms the lesser falls called the cascatelle , and after- 
 wards reunites itself to the Teverone in the valley. 
 
 Various machines are driven by the derivations 
 from the Teverone at Tivoli. 
 
TIVOLI. 
 
 455 
 
 Iron Forges . — Amongst these are iron forges, 
 in which irregularly shaped semimalleable lumps of 
 iron are formed into bars by means of hammers driven 
 by water. The operation of reducing the iron into 
 semimalleable lumps or blooms, is performed in the 
 country towards the sea coast, where they make use 
 of ore from the island of Elba, and the lumps or 
 blooms are sent to Tivoli to be manufactured. 
 
 Water Bellows .-— The furnace of these forges is 
 blown by a water trunk, consisting of a long perpen- 
 dicular pipe, which receives at the top a stream of 
 water, and terminates in a trunk with free issue for 
 the water ; from this trunk the air has no other issue 
 but the blowing pipe, which goes off from the trunk, 
 and conveys the blast to the furnace. The blast 
 arises from the air which is hurried down along with 
 the current of water. This kind of bellows has long 
 been used in different parts of Europe. 
 
 Construction of the Water- Wheels. —The water- 
 wheels made use of for driving the machinery at 
 Tivoli are small, being about four feet in diameter, 
 like those used in other parts of the Roman state 
 and in Tuscany, and upon these wheels the water is 
 let fall through a tunnel from the height of twenty 
 or thirty feet. The whole of the machinery is con- 
 structed in a very rude way, so that much of the 
 power of this high and copious waterfall goes to 
 waste. The same may be said of the water-wheels 
 in Rome, driven by the water of the PaoJine aque- 
 
456 
 
 TIVOLI. 
 
 duct, as it descends from the Porta San Pancra - 
 zio, and falls down the side of the Janiculine. 
 
 Other Water Mills . — The other machines driven 
 by the water of the Teverone at Tivoli are, a hammer 
 for beating out copper, a gunpowder mill, grain-mills, 
 coarse-paper mills, and some others. 
 
 Aqueducts .- — Subiaco, anciently called Sublaqueum, 
 is on the Anio, twenty miles above Tivoli. In the 
 country between Tivoli and Subiaco, were the sources 
 of the three principal aqueducts of ancient Rome ; 
 the Aqua Marcia, the water of which was the most 
 wholesome, the Anio Nova, and the Aqua Claudia, 
 which was on a higher level than any of the others. 
 Fabretti has published a map of the district between 
 Tivoli and Subiaco, in which are marked the remains 
 of arched work for conveying the conduits over 
 brooks and valleys, and other vestiges of these aque- 
 ducts, and the several springs which, according to 
 his conjecture, supplied these aqueducts. At Su- 
 biaco there are some galleries cut in the rock, and 
 some arched work. * 
 
 Pound. Temple.— The circular temple, with a peri- 
 style which overlooks the gulf into which the cascade 
 falls, is supposed to have been dedicated to Vesta, 
 although it is usually called the Temple of the Sybil. 
 The inscription on this temple does not mention 
 either of these deities, t 
 
 * Fabretti de Aquaeduct. veteris Romse, Dissertatio II.] 680. 
 f The inscription is, L. Gellio L. F. 
 
TIVOLI. 
 
 457 
 
 Rectangular Temple. — The small rectangular 
 temple near it is said to have been the temple of the 
 Sybil, and is now used as a church. 
 
 Small Rotonda . — Another ancient fabric, situated 
 in a market garden near Tivoli, is a small round 
 vaulted building said to have been dedicated to the 
 deity Tussis. It is something like the brick temple 
 of Minerva Medica at Rome. 
 
 Villa d’ Esie . — The villa d’Este belongs to the 
 Duke of Modena, the representative of the ancient 
 family of Este. This villa is laid out with terraces 
 on the face of the hill, and adorned with a variety 
 of fountains, old cypresses, and some fine lofty and 
 spreading trees of the Platanus orientalis. The dia- 
 meter of the trunk of one of the latter is three feet. This 
 beautiful species of platanus was much used by the 
 Romans for the sake of shade, and was first introduced 
 amongst them from the Archipelago and Asia Mi- 
 nor. * It will not grow to a tree in that part of 
 Britain which is so far north as the 56th degree, the 
 summer’s growth being frequently killed by the cold 
 of the following winter, and almost all those in the 
 south of England were killed some years ago in one 
 season. 
 
 In the villa d’Este the Viburnum tinus, other- 
 wise called Laurustinus, grows to the size of a large 
 shrub, having stems the thickness of the wrist. 
 
 Plin. Hist. Nat. XU. 3 , 4. 
 
458 
 
 TIVOLI. 
 
 The villa d’Este commands an extensive view 
 over the plain towards Home. There are some 
 fresco paintings in the house by Zuccari and others. 
 This villa is at present in a neglected state. 
 
 There is a description of the villa d’Este by the 
 esteemed historical writer Uberto Foglietta of Ge- 
 noa, who died in 1581. The Cardinal Hippolito 
 d’Este, son of Alfonso Duke of Ferrara, and patron 
 of Ariosto, was the founder of the villa. 
 
 Villa of MecamaSs — Below the declivity on which 
 the villa d’Este is formed are the extensive remains 
 of the villa of Mecaenas. They consist of spacious 
 vaulted galleries, through which runs a copious 
 stream of water, forming cascades amongst the ruins, 
 and derived from the Teverone. 
 
 Iron Manufactory. — Ten or twelve years ago 
 this water was employed to work iron forges and a 
 small blast furnace for smelting Elba iron ore. 
 The water wheels of this establishment are of the 
 same rude structure as the other mills at Tivoli. 
 The height of the furnace is about eighteen feet. 
 It is built of refractory stone from Pietra Santa near 
 Carrara. 
 
 All these, with a manufactory of cannon ball, 
 musket barrels, and sword blades, were established 
 under the antique vaults of the villa. The arms 
 produced at this manufactory were for the armies of 
 Bonaparte, and the establishment was formed by his 
 brother Lucian, who is the proprietor of Mecaenas’s 
 
TlVOtfl. 
 
 459 
 
 villa ; but it failed of success, and the machinery and 
 furnaces are now deserted and at a stand, and the 
 ruin contains no other machine in action but an olive 
 oil press. 
 
 Lucian Bonaparte has also some forges at Canino 
 and Bracciano in the pope’s territory. In the Ho- 
 man state he has the title of Prince of Canino. 
 
 Opus Reticulatum . — In Mecaenas’s villa are seen 
 columns whose surface is formed of opus reticulatum 
 of calcareous stone. The opus reticulatum, or che- 
 quered masonry, consists of pieces of stone of a form 
 approaching to that of a pyramid. The base of the 
 stone is smooth, and forms the outer surface of the 
 edifice, the small end being stuck into the mortar, the 
 outer surface of each piece is a square whose side is 
 about three inches, and the diagonal of this square 
 surface is placed vertically. The stones are insert- 
 ed in the mortar as the pieces of enamel in mosaic. 
 The opus reticulatum is here used to form the round 
 surface of a column, but it is more frequently seen 
 constituting a plane surface. There is much of it 
 in the remains of Adrian’s villa, and in several ruins 
 in Rome. The piers of the Roman aqueduct at 
 Lyons are faced with it. Sometimes basalt, in other 
 fabrics calcareous stone, was used for the opus reticu- 
 latum. Although the stones are only kept in their 
 place by the adhesion of the mortar, they are gene- 
 rally quite firm after a lapse of many centuries. The 
 walls faced in this way seem to have been formed in 
 
460 
 
 TIVOLI. 
 
 a wooden case, to the sides of which the flat surfaces 
 of the pieces of opus reticulatum were applied, then 
 liquid mortar and small stones were put in to fill the 
 centre, then another course of the reticular pieces 
 and mortar again, and so on till the wooden case was 
 filled. The wooden case was supported on the out- 
 side. In this way the piers of the aqueducts of 
 Lyons appear to have been constructed, in courses 
 of three feet high, in a way similar to that in which 
 mud walls are built in Oxfordshire and at Lyons. 
 
 Other Ruins .— On the side of the precipitous 
 hollow or glen opposite to that on which the town 
 of Tivoli, with its narrow and crooked streets, and 
 the villa of Mecsenas stand, there are several re- 
 mains of ancient villas, one of which is called the 
 Villa of Horace. 
 
 View of Rome . — From the brow of the heights 
 is an interesting view over the extensive plain in 
 which Rome is situated. The chief object that is 
 to be distinguished is the cupola of Saint Peter’s, and 
 the lofty eastern front of the Lateran church, which 
 is on the side of Rome nearest Tivoli, is seen en- 
 lightened by the morning sun. The portion of the 
 cupola of Saint Peter’s, seen from Tivoli, subtends 
 nine minutes of a vertical circle, and is, therefore, 
 about 250 feet in height, taking the distance at 
 eighteen English miles. 
 
 Villa Adriana .— At the foot of the mountain 
 9 n which Tivoli is situated, are the . remains of 
 
AQUEDUCTS OF ROHE. 
 
 461 
 
 Adrian’s villa. The inclosure, which is extensive, 
 is now occupied as a farm ; and in different parts of 
 it are situated the ruins of the temples, libraries, 
 baths, and habitations for soldiers, which com- 
 posed the magnificent establishment of the emperor* 
 There were imitations of the most celebrated edi- 
 fices of different countries in the world, and even a 
 representation of the dominions of Pluto in the 
 world to come. * 
 
 A vaulted corridor, which goes round a quadran- 
 gle, is covered with white polished stucco, with a 
 small ornamental border painted in fresco, and run- 
 ning the whole length of the corridor > the colours 
 of the painting are still entire, but more varied spe- 
 cimens of the fresco painting of the ancients are seen 
 in the baths of Titus at Rome. The Egyptian 
 idols in the museum of the Capitol were found in 
 Adrian’s villa, and the mosaic of the Pigeons which 
 belonged to Cardinal Furietti. 
 
 AQUEDUCTS. 
 
 Waters that supply the Anio . — Most of the aque- 
 ducts which supplied ancient Rome were derived 
 
 * “ Tiburtinam villam mire exaediiicavit, ita ut in ea etpro- 
 vjnciarum et locorum celeberrima loca inscriberet, velut Ly- 
 ceum, Academiam, Prytaneum, Canopum, Paecilen, Tempe 
 vocaret, et ut nihil prsetermitteret, etiam inferos finxit.”— 
 Spartianus in Hadrian, C. 14. 
 
462 
 
 AQUEDUCTS OF ROME. 
 
 from springs that belong to the Anio, now the Te- 
 verone, which runs into the Tiber above Rome ; 
 these aqueducts were in this respect like the water 
 courses which are brought in a conduit moderately 
 inclined from the upper part of a river for the pur- 
 pose of turning a mill. They brought water to ani- 
 mate the great machine of the metropolis, and one 
 of them really served for working the mills. It 
 does not appear that the Romans were acquainted 
 with the use of large pumps ; for these machines, 
 if they had been known, would have been employed 
 to raise w r ater from the Tiber at Rome, as they are 
 now used in London and Paris. Neither did they 
 employ large pipes to convey water along the curva- 
 ture of the vallies, from one hill to another hill of 
 the same altitude, although it is said that there is 
 some appearance of this having been practised in 
 the aqueduct at Lyons. London is now very copi- 
 ously supplied with water by the seven water com- 
 panies. Ancient Rome, in the first century, was 
 supplied perhaps more abundantly. There is no 
 doubt, however, that Rome was supplied by means 
 of more laborious and costly structures, the water 
 being derived from a much greater distance, with- 
 out the aid of pumps, or of large conducting main 
 pipes. 
 
 Ca Stella . — Castellum is a reservoir, from which 
 the water of the aqueduct was distributed in con- 
 duits and pipes to individuals and to the public 
 
AQUEDUCTS OF ROME. 
 
 463 
 
 baths. The word is used by Vitruvius to denote 
 the reservoir into which the water is poured by a 
 water-raising wheel. * 
 
 The water was given out from the castella, or 
 reservoirs, to those who had bought a grant of wa- 
 ter from the emperor ; it was given out by pipes, 
 the orifice of which was of brass, and the rest of the 
 pipe of lead. Some large ancient lead pipes of per- 
 haps a foot in diameter were found near the Pan- 
 theon, t of a pear-formed section. 
 
 Quinaria . — The most common measure used in 
 the grants of water was called quinaria. This 
 measure was a pipe of the diameter of five qua- 
 drantes or quarters of a digitus, according to Fron- 
 tiniis, placed at a certain depth under the surface 
 of the water. 
 
 Different Qualities of the Waters .— The water of 
 some aqueducts was more agreable for bathing, that 
 of others was preferable for drinking, t 
 
 Galen mentions that the water brought from the 
 
 * “ Ita cum rota a calcantibus versabatur, modioli pleni 
 ad summum elati rursus ad imum revertentes iiafundent in 
 eastellum ipsi per se quod extulerunt.”— Vitruv. Lib. X. 
 cap. 9. 
 
 t See the figure in Donatus, de Urbe Roma. 
 
 I u Quantum Virgo taclu, tantum praestat Martia haustu> 
 — Plin. Hist. Nat. Lib. XXXI. 
 
4 6 k 
 
 AQUEDUCTS OF ROME. 
 
 hills near Tivoli was hard and unfit for boiling ve- 
 getables, which arises from the carbonate of lime it 
 contains ; and some of the ancient conduits of the 
 aqueducts are found incrusted with a thick coat of 
 carbonate of lime deposited by the w T ater, and which 
 sometimes has been polished by the Roman marble 
 cutters, and called an alabastro fiorito. 
 
 The Anio Vetus was unwholesome water, not 
 used for drinking, but only for watering gardens 
 and for cleansing the sewers. * 
 
 Some of the waters were injured by their junc- 
 tion with other aqueducts of muddy water, t 
 
 Size of the Conduits . — Many of the format, or 
 water courses of the aqueducts, remain at this day. 
 In one of the aqueducts Frontinus mentions that 
 the volume of the water in the w r ater course was 
 5 feet deep, and 1 T 9 ^ of a foot wide. 
 
 Officers of the Aqueducts . — The aqueducts were 
 kept in order by the continual attention of nu- 
 merous officers, which was necessary for the repair 
 of the fabrics, and to prevent the neighbouring pro- 
 prietors from leading off the water for their own use, 
 a kind of depredation that was commonly practis- 
 ed, t 
 
 * Frontinus. 
 
 + “ Rivus purissimus sed mixtusgratiam splendoris sui amit- 
 tit.” — F rontin. 
 
 1 See Frontinus, de Aquseductibus. 
 
AQUEDUCTS OF ROME. 
 
 465 
 
 Agrippa appointed a familia or regiment of men 
 constantly employed in keeping the aqueducts in 
 repair. Another familia was appointed by Claudius. 
 These two were in number about 700 men. 
 
 When Rome declined from her prosperity, the 
 constant attention that was necessary ceased, the 
 aqueducts soon went to ruin ; they were cut dur- 
 ing the sieges, and the water resumed its natural 
 course in spite of the lofty arched fabrics, which 
 Frontinus, on account of their usefulness, prefers to 
 the pyramids, and the “ idle architectural works of 
 Greece.” * 
 
 Each Aqueduct on a different Level . — Each of the 
 aqueducts came to the city on a different level, t 
 Two, the Anio Nova and Claudia, were high 
 enough to supply the most elevated parts of the 
 town. 
 
 The Aqua Virgo, not being brought from so far 
 up the Anio, was of a low level ; there were six 
 aqueducts that had a higher level. 
 
 The Alseatina in the Transtevere w r as the lowest, 
 according to Frontinus. 
 
 * “ Tot aquarum tam multis necessariis molibus, py rami das 
 videlicet otiosas comparem, aut caetera inertia, sed fama cele- 
 brata Graecoium opera Frontin. de Aquaeductibus Romse. 
 Lib. I. 
 
 t u Aquas omnes diversa in urbem libra proveniunt.” — Frontim 
 Lib. I.; some were, “ ad libram collis Viminalis,” and so forth. 
 Front. 
 
 G g 
 
466 
 
 AQUEDUCTS OF ROME. 
 
 The oldest of the aqueducts were made with a 
 considerable declivity, and level was thereby lost ; * 
 they were carried along the sides of the hill, and 
 with less arched work than the aqueducts made af- 
 terwards. 
 
 Two Conduits on one Substructure — In some 
 cases, one line of arches served for the support and 
 passage of two or three different conduits, t Two 
 conduits, one over the other, are seen at this day 
 near the Porta Maggiore. And over the monument 
 of the Aqua Claudia, at the Porta Maggiore, there 
 passed two conduits; that of the Anio Nova, being on 
 a higher level, was in the highest, and below it the 
 Claudia. 
 
 Piscince . — Several of the aqueducts had turbid wa- 
 ter ; and to clarify the water, they had each a pis- 
 cina or reservoir, within the distance of seven miles 
 from Pome, in which the water was allowed to rest 
 and deposit its impurities, t Fabretti has given 
 
 * “ Sed veteres humiliore directura perduxerunt, sive nondum 
 subtili explorala arte librandi seu quia ex industria terrani 
 aquas mergebant, ne facile ab hostibus interciperentur, cum fre- 
 quentia adhuc contra Italicos bella gererentur.” — Frontin. 
 Lib. I. 
 
 f “ Plures aquas singub sustinent.”. — Frontinus de Aquaeduct. 
 
 | “ Ex his, via Latina, sex intra VII. miliarium contentis pis- 
 cinis excipiuntur, ubi quasi respirante rivorum cursu limum 
 deponunt.”— -Frontin. Lib, I, 
 
AQUEDUCTS OF ROME. 467 
 
 drawings of some of these piscina, having guessed 
 at their ancient form from their remains. * 
 
 The Virgo and two others had no piscina. 
 
 Abundance oj Water . — The quantity of water was 
 so great in ancient Rome, that almost every house 
 had a water-pipe, as Strabo mentions, t Much was 
 also employed for the public baths, the public foun- 
 tains, the floating of the circus, in the workshops of 
 the many fullers employed in washing the woollen 
 garments, no linen being worn, and for other pur- 
 poses. After the water had served for these va- 
 rious purposes, it was made to run into the sewers 
 in seven streams. 
 
 Salubrity,— The superfluous water that overflow- 
 ed from the castella or reservoirs served to keep the 
 streets clean, and thereby removed the causes of un« 
 healthiness, for which Rome was noted in more an- 
 cient times, t 
 
 * Fabretti de Aquaeductibus. 
 
 •j' “ The Romans attended to some kind of civil structure 
 which the Greeks neglected, paved roads, aqueducts, and 
 sewers. So great is the quantity of water brought into Rome 
 by the aqueducts, that rivers flow along the streets and through 
 the sewers, and almost every house has a water-pipe and a cis- 
 tern constantly supplied. On which subject much industry was 
 bestowed by Marcus Agrippa, who adorned the city with many 
 other public works.”— The Geography of Strabo, Book V. 
 
 t “ Ne pereuntes quidem aquae otiosae sunt ; nam immundi- 
 tiarum facies, et impurior spiritus, et causae gravioris ceeli, qui- 
 
468 
 
 AQUEDUCTS OF ROME. 
 
 Frontinus states the quantity of water brought in- 
 to Rome by each of the aqueducts ; but it is doubt- 
 ful, whether the whole quantity could be accurately 
 deduced in modern measures from the numbers 
 given by Frontinus. 
 
 According to Frontinus, there was no water 
 brought to Rome in aqueducts before the 440th year 
 after the foundation of the city, that is, 814 years 
 before the beginning of the Christian era. The 
 inhabitants, before that, made use of the turbid wa- 
 ter of the Tiber, and the water of wells. 
 
 Frontinus, who was director of the aqueducts of 
 Rome, in the reign of Nerva, in the year 97> enu- 
 merates nine aqueducts existing at Rome in his 
 time. * * 
 
 I. Aqua Appia . — The Aqua Appia was the 
 most ancient, formed by Appius Claudius, who made 
 the Via Appia. f The Aqua Appia was brought 
 from the Palestrina Road, (anciently Prseneste,) the 
 distance of eleven ancient Roman miles, f carried 
 
 bus apud veteres urbis infamis acr fuit sunt remotas.” — Sexti 
 Julii Frontini de Aquasductibus Itomae. 
 
 * Sexti Julii Frontini de Aquaeductibus Romae, libri duo. 
 
 + Liv. Lib.ix. 
 
 X The ancient Roman mile was the seventy-fifth part of a 
 degree, according to D’Anville, consequently was4892 x 9 x 6 5 Eng- 
 lish feet, the English mile being 5280 ; and it was called mille 
 passuum, a thousand passus. The passus was originally the 
 rectilinear distance between the extremities of the fingers of the 
 
AQUEDUCTS OF ROME. 
 
 469 
 
 along the ground, or subterraneous, except before 
 entering Rome, where it passed over arches for the 
 sixteenth part of a mile. * * 
 
 II. Anio Vetus . — The Anio Vetus was the next 
 brought to the city. It was derived from a greater 
 distance from springs that flowed into the river 
 Anio, now called Teverone, above Tivoli, in the 
 mountains. Its length was forty-two ancient Ro- 
 man miles, in which distance it passed over seven- 
 tenths of a mile of substructure. 
 
 III. Aqua Marcia . — The next aqueduct formed 
 was the Aqua Marcia, t the water of which was 
 conducted to the capitol. It was brought from 
 fountains in the neighbourhood of Subiaco on the 
 Anio, twenty miles above Tivoli, in the mountains, 
 and was in length sixty ancient Roman miles, seven 
 miles of which were above ground ; and part of 
 these seven miles was composed of the arches for 
 crossing the brooks and vallies, and of the arches 
 near the city. It was the most wholesome water 
 of all the aqueducts. 
 
 right and left hand of a man, (manibus expansis,) when the arms 
 are stretched out on each side at right angles to the body; this 
 is the geometrical pace, and is stated by Frontinus to be five 
 feet; the common walking pace was called Gradus , and mea- 
 sured 2J ancient Roman feet. From the ancient name mille 
 passuum, the modern word mile is formed. 
 
 * Frontin. Lib, I. 
 
 Plin. Hist. Nat. 35. cap. 15. 
 
470 
 
 AQUEDUCTS OF ROME. 
 
 IV. The next was the Aqua Tepula. 
 
 V. After this the Aqua Julia was formed by 
 Agrippa, fifteen and a half ancient Roman miles in 
 length. Agrippa also repaired the old aqueducts. 
 
 VI. Aqua Virgo .— The Aqua Virgo, so called 
 from a young girl who first pointed out the spring 
 to the workmen, * was brought to the city by Agrip- 
 pa. It rises in a marsh, round which a basin of 
 brick and mortar (opus signinum, so called from 
 Segni, the place where the bricks were made) was 
 constructed to retain the springs. The length of 
 the conduit is 1 1 T 8 -^ ancient Roman miles, of which 
 one mile and two-tenths was above ground, and in 
 that one mile and two-tenths there was the length 
 of seven-tenths of a mile on arches. 
 
 The Modern Acqua Vergine ,— This aqueduct 
 was restored by Pius IV. about 1560. It passes 
 through the villa Borghese, and goes to the foun- 
 tain of Trevi : a branch goes off along the Strada de* 
 Condotti. The fountains in the Piazza Navona are 
 supplied by the Acqua Vergine. 
 
 VII. Aqua Alseatina .— The Aqua Alseatina 
 was brought in by Augustus to the Transtevere. 
 The water was of an unwholesome quality, and ser- 
 ved only for the naumachia and for watering gar- 
 dens. Its conduit was twenty-two miles long. 
 
 VIII. Aqua Claudia .— Caligula and his successor 
 
 * Front! nus. 
 
AQUEDUCTS OF ROME. 
 
 471 
 
 Claudius brought into the city the Aqua Claudia, 
 and the Anio Novus. The Aqua Claudia was next 
 to the Marcia in wholesomeness, and the Anio Nova, 
 The Claudia was brought from the way to Subiaco, 
 in the mountains. Its length was forty-six ancient 
 Roman miles ; thirty-six miles under ground, ten 
 miles above ground, of which ten there were nine 
 miles on arches, and in the nine there was a conti- 
 nuous line of arches near the city of six miles in 
 length. 
 
 IX. Anio Novus . — The Anio Novus was deriv- 
 ed immediately from the Teverone * near Subiaco, 
 and was 58 T " {T ancient Roman miles in length ; 
 near Rome it was supported by the same arches as 
 the Aqua Claudia. Some of the arches were of a 
 great height, 109 ancient Roman feet. These two 
 were on a higher level than any of the other aque- 
 ducts ; the Anio Novus was the highest ; they were 
 the greatest of the aqueducts of Rome, and their 
 remains at this day are also the most considerable ; 
 many of their lofty brick arches still remain between 
 the Porta Maggiore and San Stefano Rotondo, and 
 also without the Porta Maggiore and on the way to 
 Frascati. Both these waters passed over the mag- 
 nificent monument at the Porta Maggiore, f which 
 was constructed as a memorial of the great work, , 
 
 Modern Acqua Felice . — By the side of the arches 
 
 * Frontin, 
 
 f See page 3 55. 
 
472 AQUEDUCTS OF ROME. 
 
 of the ancient Aqua Claudia, on the road to Marine 
 and Frascati, are seen the arches of the modern 
 aqueduct the Acqua Felice, on a lower level, form- 
 ed by Sixtus V. in 1587. 
 
 Time has hitherto spared many of the arches 
 used in carrying the conduits over the hollows and 
 brooks, and from these remains antiquaries have 
 been enabled to trace, in some degree, the eight 
 aqu ducts enumerated by Frontinus. * 
 
 From the construction of the first to that of the 
 last aqueduct mentioned by Frontinus, 350 years 
 intervened. 
 
 Some of the aqueducts had become ruinous, and 
 were choked by the calcareous matter deposited by 
 the water when Frontinus was appointed to the care 
 of them in the reign of Nerva. 
 
 Some aqueducts were formed after the reign of 
 Nerva. 
 
 Aqua Sabatina , — the modern Acqua Paola . — Of 
 these was the Aqua Sabatina, of which aqueduct 
 much of the arched structure remains. It is sup- 
 posed to have been constructed by Trajan, t The 
 Alseatina, in the Transtevere, is considered by 
 some to be different, because Frontinus says that 
 the Alseatina was on a lower level than any of the 
 other aqueducts. Venuti, however, is of opinion* 
 
 * See Fabretti, de Aqineductibus. 
 f Fabrettvde Aquaeductibus. 
 
AQUEDUCTS OF ROME, 
 
 that the Alseatina, the Sabatina, and the Trajana, 
 were the same aqueduct. The Sabatina was re- 
 stored by Paul V. Borghese about 1610, and brings 
 water from the vicinity of the lake of Bracciano, 
 anciently called Lacus Sabatinus, to the Janiculine 
 hill, Saint Peter’s, and the Transtevere. The water 
 of this aqueduct was anciently employed for work- 
 ing mills, * as it descended along the steep face of 
 the Janiculine, and it is employed for the same pur- 
 pose at this day. 
 
 In Publius Victor’s list of the fabrics of Rome, 
 which is supposed to have been written in the reign 
 of Valentinian, twenty aqueducts are named, several 
 of which are supposed to have been only branches, t 
 
 Some of the aqueducts of Rome were repaired by 
 Theodoric, as Cassiodorus relates. Procopius, in 
 the reign of Justinian, enumerates fourteen aque- 
 ducts at Rome, but it is probable also that some of 
 these were only branches. 
 
 Demolition of the Aqueducts — Many of the a- 
 queducts were destroyed in the sieges of Rome in 
 the time of Justinian. If any remained entire after 
 these sieges, they were neglected, and went to ruin ; 
 so that, in the middle ages, Rome was again brought 
 to use the water of the Tiber, and of wells, which 
 
 * Procop. de Bell. Goth. 
 
 f Roma Antica di Famiano Nardini, p. 1666 ; and Fa- 
 hretti, de Aquseductibus in Graev. Thes. Ant, Rom. Tom. IV. 
 
474* FOUNTAINS AND MODERN AQUEDUCTS, 
 
 were sufficient for the small and uncultivated popu- 
 lation of the town. An ancient aqueduct, however, 
 was sometimes imperfectly repaired^ so as to supply 
 a little water, as Donato mentions. * 
 
 Modern Aqueducts . — The three aqueducts that 
 now supply Rome copiously were formed in 1560, 
 1587, and 1610. Of these the water of the Acqua 
 Vergine, which supplies the fountain of Trevi, is 
 the best. 
 
 The Brook Mar anna * — Besides these aqueducts, 
 a brook called Maranna, and anciently Aqua Cra- 
 bra, runs through the town and falls into the Tiber; 
 it is muddy, and not fit for domestic use, but it 
 gives motion to a large paper-mill belonging to go- 
 vernment, and is used by the makers of parchment, 
 carta pecora, which is manufactured of an excellent 
 quality at Rome from sheep and goat skins. A 
 small stream also rises near the Janus, and falls into 
 the Tiber by the Cloaca Maxima. 
 
 The Brook Aquataccio . — Another muddy brook, 
 the Aquataccio, anciently called Almo, flows into 
 the Tiber a little below the town. 
 
 Fountains . 
 
 The three principal fountains in Rome, each sup- 
 plied by one of the three modern aqueducts, are the 
 
 * Donatas de Urbe Roma.. 
 
FOUNTAINS AND MODERN AQUEDUCTS® 4,^5 
 
 fountain of San Pietro Montorio , that of the Ac qua 
 Felice , and the Fountain of Trevi. 
 
 Aqua Paola . — The fountain of San Pietro Mon- 
 torio, otherwise II Fontanone Paolino, was con- 
 structed by Paul V. Borghese in 1612, with Tra- 
 vertine stone from the Forum of Nerva ; Stefano 
 Maderno was the architect. The fountain is adorn- 
 ed with six Ionic columns of red granite. On the 
 attic is a large inscription commemorating the for- 
 mation of the aqueduct of the Acqua Paola by 
 Paul V. The water which supplies the fountain is 
 brought by this aqueduct from the lake of Brac- 
 ciano ; the length of the aqueduct is thirty-five Ro- 
 man miles, as the inscription attests. * 
 
 This aqueduct t was originally constructed by 
 Trajan to supply the Trail stevere, and called the 
 Aqua Sabatina, from the ancient name of the lake 
 of Bracciano. Paul V. restored this aqueduct, and 
 built new arches where they were wanting, for 
 crossing the low ground. Like the other aque- 
 ducts, it is partly subterraneous, or conducted along 
 the surface of the ground, and is supported on 
 arches only where the ground is lower than the 
 gently inclined plane which forms the bottom of 
 
 * The modern Roman mile, according to Lalande, is, a~ 
 bout of an English mile : 74 J Roman miles being equal 
 to a degree of latitude. It is 1000 passi geometrichi ; the 
 passo is live Roman feet. 
 
 ■f Eabretti, de Aquseduct. 
 
476 FOUNTAINS AND MODERN AQUEDUCTS. 
 
 the conduit. A branch goes off two miles from the 
 city to supply the garden of the Vatican, the foun- 
 tains before Saint Peter’s, and the other fountains 
 in the Civitas Leonina, or Borgo San Pietro. 
 
 Mills.*— From this fountain of San Pietro Mon- 
 torio the water descends along the steep face of the 
 Janiculine towards the Tiber, and in its course puts 
 in motion a great many mills, employed in making 
 paper, in fulling cloth, and in grinding corn. 
 
 The mills of ancient Rome also were on the brow 
 of this hill, and driven by the water of the aque- 
 duct ; and when the aqueduct was cut by the Goths 
 during the siege, Belisarius was obliged to have re- 
 course to a boat mill, which he caused to be con- 
 structed for grinding corn on the river, at the rapid 
 formed by an arch of the Janiculine bridge, now 
 the Ponte Sisto, as Procopius describes. * 
 
 * u Beyond the Tiber is a considerable hill, and there the 
 mills were anciently situated; a large stream of water is 
 brought to the top of the hill by an artificial aqueduct, and 
 falls down along the face of the hill with great force. When 
 these aqueducts were cut by the enemy, as we have already 
 mentioned, the mills were stopped for want of water. Beli- 
 sarius, however, being a man who had many resources, in 
 the intelligent activity of his mind, devised a remedy for this 
 urgent want. Immediately below the bridge of which we 
 have spoken, near the walls of the Janiculine, he stretched 
 strong cables across the river; to these cables be attached 
 two boats of equal size, in the place where the stream was 
 most rapid, passing through the arch of the bridge ; in one 
 
lErf-inhirgh Published by uL Constable &■ CoJ-820- 
 
FOUNTAINS AND MODERN AQUEDUCTS. 477 
 
 Behind this fountain is the botanic garden, which 
 is not in a flourishing condition. 
 
 Fontana di Ponte Sis to. Part of the Acqua 
 Paola passes the river by the Ponte Sisto, and sup- 
 plies the large fountain of the Ponte Sisto, at the 
 end of the Strada Julia, and the two fountains in 
 front of the Farnese Palace. 
 
 Acqua Felice . — The fountain of the Acqua Fe- 
 lice is adorned with a statue of Moses striking the 
 rock, and two other figures, with four Ionic columns 
 of granite, and two Egyptian lions of basalt, with 
 hieroglyphics on their base. These lions were for- 
 merly in front of the Pantheon. * * The muscles of 
 the shoulder and other parts are skilfully and accu- 
 rately expressed, t 
 
 This fountain was built under the direction of 
 Domenico Fontana, in 1587? by Sixtus V., and re- 
 ceives the water of the Acqua Felice, an aqueduct 
 constructed by that pope in the years 1585, 1586, 
 and 1587. This aqueduct brings the water from 
 the Campo Colonna, situated to the left of the Pa- 
 lestrina road, fourteen Roman miles from Rome, 
 and enters by the Porta Maggiore, where its con- 
 
 of the boats were the mill-stones, which were put in motion 
 by a water wheel situated between the two boats.” — History 
 of the Gothic War, by Procopius. 
 
 * See Le Statue di Roma, per M. Ulisse Aldrovandi, in Vc- 
 netia, 1558. 
 
 i See Winkelmann. Hist, de PArt, Liv. II. cap. i. 
 
478 FOUNTAINS AND MODERN AQUEDUCTS. 
 
 duit is driven through that remarkable ancient edi- 
 fice, the monument of the Aqua Claudia. * The 
 length of the aqueduct is twenty-two Roman miles, 
 as the large inscription on the attic of the fountain 
 attests. The Acqua Felice follows a course ap- 
 proaching to that of the Acqua Marcia and Acqua 
 Claudia, but is on a lower level than these ancient 
 aqueducts; it is not brought from so high up the 
 Anio. 
 
 The name of Sixtus V. was Felice Peretti, and, 
 hence the aqueduct is called Acqua Felice. | 
 
 * See p. 353, and p. 471. 
 
 t Sixtus V. Felice Peretti was born at the Grotta di Mon- 
 talto in the March of Ancona. He was a swine-herd, and af- 
 terwards a Franciscan friar. He became general of that or- 
 der. Fie was cardinal with the name of Cardinal di Montalto. 
 He was elected pope in 1585, and reigned five \ears. From po- 
 litical motives, he excommunicated Queen Elizabeth, but was 
 more inclined to favour her party than that of Philip II,, and 
 was pleased at the defeat of the Spanish Armada. He was se* 
 vere in punishing the banditti, and thereby brought them to or- 
 der. Besides the aqueduct of the Acqua Felice, he embellish- 
 ed the city with many other public edifices. He erected the 
 four large obelisks, and repaired the column of Antoninus. He 
 advanced the building of Saint Peter’s, and formed the vault that 
 constitutes the cupola. He began to repair the Vatican libra- 
 ry, injured and dissipated by the sack of Rome in 1527 * He 
 laid on heavy taxes, and the populace, after his death, destroy- 
 ed his statue. He left a large sum of money to the Holy See. 
 Ilis death is ascribed by some to poison administered by the 
 Spanish faction. 
 
FOUNTAINS AND MODERN AQUEDUCTS. 479 
 
 Fontana, * in 1696, found that the reservoir of 
 the Acqua Felice, at Torre San Giovanni, yielded 
 10S0 oncie of water. 
 
 Oncia cT Acqua . — The Oncia d’ Acqua is a mea- 
 sure of the same kind with the French pouce d’eau 
 de Fontainier. The oncia d’acqua at Rome, ac- 
 cording to Lalande, is the quantity of water which 
 flows through a circular aperture, whose area is equal 
 to twelve square minuti ; t the centre of the pipe 
 being always a palm and a quarter under the surface 
 of the water, and an adjutage or tube of that same 
 length being placed for the water to flow through. 
 
 Acqua Vergine. — Fontana di Trevi . — The foun- 
 tain of Trevi is so called from Trivium, on ac- 
 count of the three principal streets that termi- 
 nate in the place. The fountain is supplied by the 
 Acqua Vergine, which is brought from a source 
 7{ English miles distant, between the Tivoli road 
 and the Palestrina road. The aqueduct in which 
 this water is brought is, for the most part, under 
 ground. It passes through the villa Borghese, and 
 a branch goes along the Strada Condotti, from 
 
 * Fontana, Relazione dello stato veeehio e nuovo deli’ Ac- 
 qua Felice. 
 
 + The Palmo or Span at Rome is divided into twelve oncje, 
 the oncia into five minuti. The Palmo da Muratore, the Ar- 
 chitects' Palm, according to Boscovich, is, huit ponces trois 
 lignes et un trentieme de ligne French, which makes 
 English inches. 
 
480 FOUNTAINS AND MODERN AQUEDUCTS, 
 
 whence the street has its name. This water was 
 brought into ancient Rome by Agrippa, and sup- 
 plied his baths at the Pantheon. About 1450, the 
 aqueduct was imperfectly repaired by Nicolas V., 
 and the fountain was brought to its present magni- 
 ficent state by Clement XII. and Clement XIII. 
 about 1760. The architectural decorations of the 
 fountain were designed by Nicola Salvi. 
 
 Of the three modern aqueducts, the Acqua Ver- 
 gine is the most wholesome and the best for domes- 
 tic use ; and the pipes of this water are sold by the 
 apostolic chamber at a higher price than pipes from 
 the other aqueducts. 
 
 Smaller Fountains . — There are likewise a num- 
 ber of smaller fountains ornamented with sculpture 
 in different parts of the city, each supplied with 
 water from one of the three aqueducts. 
 
 Want of Cleanliness . — Notwithstanding the a- 
 bundant supply of water, the want of cleanliness is 
 remarkable in every street and place of Rome. 
 
 Mode of raising Water to the Upper Floors.— 
 The water is not conveyed by pipes to the upper 
 stories of houses ; and in order to raise the water from 
 the fountain in the court, there is a strong iron wire 
 with one end fixed above the fountain and the other 
 above the window. Along this iron wire a bucket 
 is made to slide. The bucket has a rope attached 
 to it, by which the bucket is let down to the water. 
 
 6 
 
BRIDGES. 
 
 481 
 
 The rope passes over a pulley fixed above the win- 
 dow ; the end of the rope is held by the person in 
 the window, and, when the bucket is filled, it is 
 pulled up by means of the rope, and sliding along 
 the iron wire arrives at the window. This mode of 
 raising water to the upper stories is also practised 
 in Venice and some other towns of Italy. 
 
 BRIDGES. 
 
 There are four bridges over the Tiber at present 
 in use at Rome. 
 
 I. The Ponte Molle, anciently Pons Milvius, is a 
 mile and three quarters up the river from the Porta 
 del Popolo. It was built by iEmilius Scaur us, and 
 called Pons iEmilius, which was corrupted into Pons 
 Milvius. * The breadth of the river at this bridge 
 is 406 English feet. In the middle ages the Ponte 
 Molle was broken down and rendered impassable. 
 
 II. The bridge of Saint Angelo, anciently called 
 Pons JElius, from the Emperor iElius Hadrianus, 
 who built it to serve as a passage to his tomb, the 
 Moles Hadriani, of which fabric this bridge forms 
 a part. A figure of the bridge is seen on me- 
 dals of Adrian. The span of each of the three 
 principal semicircular arches is English feet, t 
 The breadth of the river at this bridge is 611 Eng- 
 
 * Nardini, Rom. Vet. Lib. VIII. cap. 3 . 
 f S3 palms, Piranesi, Ant. di Rom. 
 
 H h 
 
BRIDGES. 
 
 482 
 
 lish feet. *■ The marble statues on the parapet, re- 
 presenting angels, each of which holds one of the 
 instruments of the passion, are designed by Berni- 
 ni. 
 
 III. The Ponte Sisto, so called from Sixtus IV., 
 who rebuilt it in 1474, on the ruins of the ancient 
 Janiculine bridge. 
 
 IV. The Island . — The small island called the 
 Isola Tiber ina was formed, as Pliny relates, by the 
 corn which grew on Tarquin’s fields ; the people 
 threw the sheaves of corn into the river, and the ac- 
 cumulation of mud on tire sheaves, which were stop- 
 ped by the shallows at this place, formed the island, t 
 The field of Tarquin was afterwards made public, 
 and formed the Campus Martius. 
 
 Ponte Quattro Capi , — The island divides the ri- 
 ver into two branches ; over the left hand branch 
 is the Ponte Quattro Capi, anciently Pons Eabri- 
 cius. The name Quattro Capi is taken from some 
 ancient Termini of Janus Quadrifrons, one of which 
 with four bearded faces is placed near the bridge. 
 
 The diameter of each of the two principal arches 
 is eighty-two English feet, t Inscriptions that were 
 once legible on the arch stones of the two principal 
 arches, shew that the bridge was built under the in- 
 
 * Donati Roma, 
 f Plin. Hist. Nat. Lib. II. 
 
 J 114 palms, Piranesi, Ant. di Rom, Tom. IV. tav. 20. 
 
BRIDGES. 
 
 483 
 
 spection of L. Fabricius, curator of the roads, who 
 was consul in the year £1 of the Christian era. ■* 
 
 Suppositions of Piranesi . — Piranesi has given a 
 drawing of an imaginary section, in which he sup- 
 poses that this bridge was constructed by turning off 
 the water, and forming an excavation across the chan- 
 nel, then driving piles and building several courses 
 of squared stones all the way across ; on these the 
 bridge was formed, the arches being complete cylin- 
 ders, only the upper half of which is seen, the rest be- 
 ing hid by the foundation. But this design of Pi- 
 ranesi is merely supposition, as he could have no 
 opportunity of seeing the foundations. Of a si- 
 milar kind are his designs of the foundations of the 
 Pons ^Elius and of the Moles Hadriani. He repre- 
 sents the stones in these foundations as dove-tailed 
 into one another, almost in the manner of the 
 granites of the Edystone light-house as executed by 
 Smeaton. t 
 
 Ponte Ferrato .— The Ponte Ferrato, of which 
 name the meaning is not known, is otherwise called 
 the Bridge of Saint Bartholomew, and anciently 
 Pons Cestius. It completes the communication in 
 this part between Borne and the Transtevere, and is 
 
 * L. Fabricius , C. F . cur. viar. Faciundum curavit ; and 
 .over the small arches, eidemque probavit. See Piranesi, A(i- 
 tichita di Roma, and Venuti, Descr. delle Antich. di Roma. 
 
 ■f* See Smeaton’ s description of the Edystone. 
 
,484 
 
 BRIDGES. 
 
 built over the right hand branch of the river. This 
 bridge consists of three arches, the span of the cen- 
 tral and largest being seventy-seven English feet. * 
 It was built by Valentinian, Valens, and Gratian, as 
 the inscription shews in large letters on the fascia of 
 travertine that runs the whole length of the bridge 
 above the arches. 
 
 At the lower end of the island was the represen- 
 tation of the ship in which the sacred serpent of 
 Esculapius was brought from Epidaurus. Of some 
 remains of this ship, built and sculptured in stone, 
 with the figure of a serpent, Piranesi has published 
 a drawing, t 
 
 Ferry-Boats .- — There are ferry-boats for cros- 
 sing the river at four different places. A haw- 
 ser is stretched across the river, and' fixed on each 
 side, and along this hawser a pulley is moveable. 
 The head of the boat is connected with the pulley 
 by a long rope, and the boat swings in the current 
 with its head up the stream, and by the action of 
 the current the boat moves across in either direction, 
 according as the helm is put. 
 
 Ruined Bridges . — There are vestiges of three 
 other bridges. 1. The Pons Triumphalis. 2. The 
 Ponte Rotto, anciently Pons Palatinus, three arches 
 of which remain. It had been restored, but was 
 
 * 106 palms Piranesi, Ant. di Rom. Tom. IV. tav. 22. 
 f G. B, Piranesi, Ant. di Ptoin. Tom. IV. tav. 15. 
 
THE TIBER. 
 
 485 
 
 again broken clown by the inundation of 1598, and 
 remains in that broken state. 3. The Pons Subli- 
 eius. Of the first and third little remains. Pub- 
 lius Victor, in his list of the fabrics of Rome, writ- 
 ten in the time of Valentinian, enumerates eight 
 bridges, which agrees with the number here men- 
 tioned ; two bridges being reckoned at the passage 
 of the river at the Isola Tiberina. 
 
 Breadth of the Tiber .— The breadth of the river 
 at the bridge of Saint Angelo and the Ponte Sisto 
 is from 810 to 32 0 English feet, as before mention- 
 ed. The height of the Tiber at Rome above the 
 sea is stated to be thirty-three English feet, and 
 the height of the Corse Street ninety-four English 
 feet above the sea. The depth and rapidity of the 
 stream are considerable. It is from ten to twenty 
 English feet in depth at mid-channel at Rome in 
 summer, when at the lowest. It is sufficiently ra- 
 pid to turn boat-mills, of which there are three or 
 four moored with chains. The water is turbid, and 
 of a dull yellowish colour, being loaded with sandy 
 mud, part of which it deposits on the banks. The 
 water is not generally used for domestic purposes, 
 most parts of the town being supplied with water 
 from one of the three aqueducts ; but the water of 
 the Tiber is not considered to be unwholesome, if 
 allowed to deposit for a long time in cisterns, 
 Lancisi mentions. * 
 
 * Lancisi, de Cceli Romani Qualitatibus. 
 
486 
 
 THE TIBER. 
 
 Length of its Course . — The length of the Tiber’s 
 course from the source near Borgo San Sepolcro in 
 the mountains of Tuscany to Rome, is about 160 
 English miles; and in this course it receives the wa- 
 ters from the Val di Chiana, which have a course 
 of forty miles ; the Nera with a course of seventy, 
 and the Teverone of forty-five miles, and some 
 smaller streams. It consists, therefore, of the rain- 
 water which falls over a considerable extent of 
 country, and is a much larger body of water than 
 the Arno, of which the course from the source to 
 Florence is only seventy miles, the Chiana which the 
 Arno receives is forty, and the length of the course 
 to the sea near Pisa 127. 
 
 The course of the Thames to London is about 
 140 miles. 
 
 Floats of wood are sent down the Tiber from Pe- 
 rugia, but it is not navigable for boats so far up, by 
 reason of some rapids. 
 
 Sea-gulls are occasionally seen flying about the 
 Tiber at Rome, in particular states of the weather ; 
 they come up from the sea, which is fourteen Eng- 
 lish miles distant. 
 
 Ancient Course . — It appears that the Tiber once 
 had its course between the Palatine and the Capi- 
 toline hills, and flowed over the place where the 
 Forum Romanum afterwards was. * 
 
 * “ Hie ubi nunc fora sunt li litres errare videres.” — Ovid, 
 
 10 
 
THE TIBER. 
 
 487 
 
 The course of the river in Rome was altered in 
 some respects by Augustus. * * * § 
 
 There were officers in ancient Rome, called 
 euratores riparum et alvei Tiberis, who had the 
 charge of keeping the banks and the channel in 
 order, t 
 
 Inundations . — The channel of the Tiber is nar- 
 rower at Rome than it is some distance above the 
 city ; and this, together with the obstructions occa- 
 sioned by bridges and boat-mills, may be the cause 
 of the inundations happening more frequently in 
 Rome than in the adjacent parts of the river’s 
 course, although the banks of the river at Rome are 
 pretty high, as Pliny observes, being in many places 
 sixty feet above the bottom of the channel. J 
 
 The inundations of the river have often been in- 
 jurious to the city. It was before mentioned, § that, 
 in consequence of a destructive inundation which 
 happened in the reign of Tiberius, it was proposed 
 to turn away some of the streams that flow into the 
 Tiber. This, however, was not executed. 
 
 In the time of Clement VII. there was a remark- 
 able inundation of the Tiber in Rome, in the month 
 
 * <e Amnis 
 
 Docfcus iter melius.” — Horat. ad Pisones. 
 f See Suetonius and ancient inscriptions. 
 
 J Donati Roma. 
 
 § See page 25 7- 
 
488 
 
 BRIDGES ON THE TEVERONE. 
 
 of October, occasioned by the breaking of tbe dikes 
 of the lake of Velino. * 
 
 The inundations, besides injuring the buildings, 
 produce also a deleterious effect on the health of the 
 inhabitants. After the water has subsided, the wails 
 of the houses that were overflowed remain imbibed 
 with moisture, and the cellars full of mud, and the 
 inhabitants are affected with intermittent fevers. 
 After the inundation in December 1702 , Lancisi 
 recommended to dry the walls by means of fires in 
 the chimneys, and obtained an order from the pope 
 to have the mud removed from the cellars ; and he 
 found, that, in consequence of these measures, the 
 number of fevers was diminished, t 
 
 Bridges over the Anio . — The bridges in the vi- 
 cinity of Rome over the Teverone, anciently called 
 Anio, are four : The Ponte Salario, of one principal 
 arch and two smaller arches, is situated not far from 
 the place where the Teyerone falls into the Tiber ; 
 it was built in the sixth century by Narses, the ge- 
 neral of Justinian’s army, as the ancient inscriptions 
 on the bridge testify, t The next is the Ponte No- 
 mentana, commonly called Ponte Alla Mentana, be- 
 
 * Fatmcii, Descr. Urb Rom. cap. 15 . 
 
 f Lancisi, de CceH Romani Qualitatibus. 
 
 X The inscriptions on the Ponte Salario, as given by MarlU 
 anus and Venuti, are, 
 
 imperante . d . n , piissimo . 
 ac . tnuinphali . semper . justiniano « 
 pp . aug . anno , xxxviii 
 
BRIDGES ON THE TEVERONE, 489 
 
 cause it is situated on the road to the ancient Mo- 
 mentum, now called La Mentana ; this bridge also 
 was built by Narses. The third, the Ponte Mam 
 
 molo, which is crossed by the road from Rome to 
 
 — — — 
 
 narses . vir . glonosissimus . 
 ex . prasposito . sacri . palatii . 
 ex . cons .—atque . patricius . 
 post . victoriam . gothicam . 
 ipsis . et . eorum * regibus 
 edentate . mirabili . confiictu « 
 publico . s.uperatis . 
 atque . prostratis 
 libertate « urbis . romse . 
 ac . totius . italiaa . restiluta « 
 pontem . viae . salariae . 
 ns* — que . ad . aquam . 
 a . nefandissimo • totila . 
 tyranno . distructum . 
 purgato . fluminis . aiveo «— «= 
 in . meliorem . statum . 
 quam . quondam . 
 fuerat , renovavit 
 
 On the other side are the following verses : 
 
 quam . bene . curbati . directa . est . scmita . pontis 
 atque . interruptum . continuatur . iter 
 calcamus . rapidas . subjecti . gurgitis . undas 
 et . libet . iratae . cernere . murmur e aquae 
 ite . igitur . faciles . per gaudia . vestra . quirites 
 et . narsin . resonans . piausus . ubique . canat 
 qui . potuit . rigidas . gothorum . subdere . mentes 
 hie . docuit . durum . flumina . ferre . jugum 
 A large view of the Ponte Salario is published in Piranesi^ 
 Antichita di Romp,, 
 
490 
 
 QUAYS. 
 
 Tivoli ; the name is supposed to be derived from 
 Mammea, the mother of Alexander Severus. The 
 fourth, the Ponte Lucano, at the tomb of Plautius, 
 near Tivoli, which is crossed by the same road ; this 
 bridge was rebuilt by Tiberius Plautius in the time 
 of the Emperor Claudius, as an inscription publish- 
 ed by Gruter testifies. 
 
 Landmg Quays. 
 
 The Ripetta . — At the Porta della Ripetta, above 
 the bridges, all the boats are unloaded that bring 
 wood, charcoal, and provisions of different kinds 
 down the Tiber from the Sabine and from Umbria. 
 
 The Ripetta was constructed by Clement XI. 
 Albani about 17 10, of the Travertine stones of one 
 arch of the second tier of the outer wall of the coli- 
 seum. This arch had fallen to the ground, and af- 
 forded stones for the Ripetta and for some other 
 fabrics. * 
 
 Ripa Grande.— The Porto di Ripa Grande, si- 
 tuated below the bridges, and on the right bank of 
 the river, is the landing-place for vessels that come up 
 the river to Rome ; and here the Sea Customhouse, 
 la Dogana di Mare, is established. 
 
 Ospizio di San Micheli .— Near this is the hos- 
 pital of Saint Michael, a large building, begun in 
 1686, and appropriated to the education of poor 
 children, the reception of old invalids, and as a 
 house of correction for delinquent women. 
 
 * Venuti, Dcscr. delle Ant. di Rom. Capo Prime. 
 
WALLS OF ROME. 
 
 491 
 
 N avail Antichi . — The landing quay of ancient 
 Rome was on the left side of the river, opposite to 
 the Ripa Grande. The marble brought from 
 Greece, Asia, and Egypt, was landed in this place \ 
 and there have been found in its vicinity blocks 
 of marble, marked with letters which are supposed 
 to denote the day of the marbles being shipped, the 
 name of the merchant w T ho shipped them, and of 
 the consuls to signify the year. One of these in- 
 scriptions is given by Winkelmann. * 
 
 Near this, when the river is low, the remains of 
 one of the piers of the ancient Pons Sublicius are 
 seen. 
 
 Salt Works . — The ancient salt works were not 
 far from the Navali Antichi, near the ascent to the 
 Aventine ; and Venuti says, that salt is still made 
 between the Aventine hill and the Tiber, f 
 
 Walls of Rome . 
 
 Walls — The walls that surround the principal 
 part of Rome on the left of the Tiber are mostly of 
 brick, and have tow ? ers projecting at intervals. Some 
 of these towers are round, some quadrangular. In 
 the wall of the city near the Porta del Popolo, an- 
 ciently called Porta Flaminia, and nearly opposite to 
 the entrance of the Villa Borghese, is an ancient 
 piece of wall inclined from the perpendicular, called 
 
 * Winkelmann, Hist, de l’Ait. 
 
 f Venuti, Descr. delle Antichita di Itoma, Parte II. cap. ii. 
 
492 
 
 GATES OF THE CITY. 
 
 the Muvo Torto. It is mentioned by Procopius ; * 
 Venuti considers it to be the remains of the sepul- 
 chre of the Domitia family. In the wall between 
 the Porta Maggiore and the Porta San Giovanni, over 
 an old gate now shut up, is an ancient inscription 
 which testifies that the walls were repaired by Arca- 
 dius and Honorius, with the advice of Stilicho, 
 The walls of the Transtevere are more modern ; 
 they were built about 1630 by Urban VIII Barbe- 
 rini, and have triangular bastions with gorges ; and 
 the castle of Saint Angelo is surrounded with a poly- 
 gon, composed of bastions, a ditch, and glacis. 
 
 Gtites. 
 
 Porta del Popolo „■ — -The outside of the Porta del 
 Popolo is built after a design of Michael Angelo, 
 and executed by Vignola. 
 
 Porta Pia . — The inside front of the Porta Pia, 
 anciently Porta Nomentana, is by Michael Angelo 
 in his peculiar style of ornament. 
 
 Porta San Lorenzo . — ^ At the Porta San Lorenzo 
 is a monument with three ancient inscriptions, to 
 commemorate the restoration of the Aqua Marcia, 
 the Tepula, and the Julia. The highest inscription 
 ascribes the restoration to Augustus ; but it is sup- 
 posed that this was a compliment paid to Augustus 
 by Agrippa, because Frontinus mentions that the 
 restoration was the work of Agrippa. The second 
 
 Procpp. de Bello Gothico, lib. I, 
 
GATES OF THE CITY. 
 
 493 
 
 inscription, which is the last in point of time, men- 
 tions the restoration by M. Aurelius Antoninus, 
 known in history by the name of Caracalla. The 
 third inscription, which is the second in point of 
 time, records the restoration by Titus. * In Fa- 
 bretti’s drawing of this monument the three con- 
 duits are seen ; the lowest of these, as is deduced 
 from Frontinus, is that of the Aqua Marcia, above it 
 the conduit of the Aqua Tepula, and above that 
 the conduit of the Julia, t 
 
 Porta Maggiore . — The Porta Maggiore is 
 formed of that remarkable ancient fabric the monu- 
 ment of the Claudian aqueduct, which consists of 
 
 * The inscriptions are, 
 
 “ imp . caes . divi . juli . f . augustus . 
 pontifex . maximus . cos . xii . 
 tribunic . potestat . xix . imp . xiii . 
 rivos . aquarum . Omnium . refecit . 
 
 imp . caes . m . aurelius . antoninus ipius . felix . aug parth . 
 maxim . 
 
 brit .maximus . pontifex . maximus . aquam . marciam . variis. 
 
 kasibus . irapeditam . purgato . fonte . excisis . et perforatis . 
 montibus . restituta . forma . adquisito . etiam . fonte . novo . 
 antoniano . 
 
 in sacram . urbem . suam . perducendam . curavit . 
 
 imp . titus . caesar . divi . f . vespasianus . august . pont max . 
 tribuniciae . potestat . ix , imp. xv . cens . cos . vii . design . viii , 
 rivom . aquae . marciae . vetustate . dilapsum . refecit . 
 et . aquam . quae . in . usu . esse . desierat . reduxit . ’ 
 f Fabretti, de Aquaeductibus, dissertatio prima. 
 
494 
 
 EXTENT OF ROME, 
 
 very large ancient inscriptions, supported by two 
 arched ways with rusticated columns between. * 
 One of the arched ways is used as the gate, and 
 some walls with merli or battlements, the work of 
 the middle ages, compose the fortifications of the 
 gate, and conceal a part of the ancient monument. 
 
 Arch of Drusus .— Within the Porta San Sebas- 
 fciano is the arch of Drusus. t Over this arch there 
 passed an aqueduct, a branch of the Aqua Marcia, 
 This arch is built of large blocks of Travertine, 
 Each of the two stones forming the key of the arch 
 is about nine feet long. There is no ancient in- 
 scription on the arch by which its original destina- 
 tion might be ascertained, but it is supposed by 
 Venuti to be the arch mentioned by Tacitus built in 
 honour of Nero Claudius Drusus ; t and, according 
 to Venuti, Caracalla afterwards made use of this arch 
 for the passage of the aqueduct or branch which he 
 added to the Aqua Marcia. This branch is men- 
 tioned in the inscription of Caracalla in page 493. 
 
 Extent of Ground within the Wails . — The 
 wails of Rome in the time of Vespasian, as men- 
 tioned by Pliny, were thirteen Roman miles in ciiv 
 cuit, and included the seven hills. § The present 
 walls, which, according to Donato, || occupy nearly 
 
 * See page 353, and page 4 71. 
 
 ■f See page 3 5 ‘2. 
 
 J Venuti, Descrizione delle Amichita di Roma, 17^3. 
 
 $ Plin. Hist. Nat. III. 9» 
 
 |J Donati Roma, Lib. I. cap. 1 6 . 
 
POPULATION OF ROME. 
 
 495 
 
 the same circuit as the most extended ancient wall, 
 built by Aurelian in TjQ, are 12f English miles in 
 circuit, and the space included within them is about 
 five square English miles, of which only about one 
 square mile and a half is occupied by dwellings, the 
 rest of the ground is chiefly laid out in market 
 gardens, vigne. * 
 
 No Account Preserved of the Population of 
 Rome in the First Centuries of the Christian 
 Era ,— The account given by Pliny of the extent of 
 Rome is obscure. Ancient writers have not men- 
 tioned the number of inhabitants, t but as Rome, in 
 the time of its prosperity, was the metropolis of a 
 much larger empire than any that now exists in Eu- 
 rope, it may be concluded that the number of in- 
 habitants in Rome and the suburbs was greater 
 than in any of the modem cities of Europe. 
 
 Conjecture concerning the Population in the year 
 400.— Brotier has made an estimate of the number of 
 inhabitants in Rome, deduced from the number of 
 houses mentioned in Publius Victor’s List of the 
 Fabrics in the Fourteen Regions of Rome, written 
 in the time of Valentinian, about the year 400, and 
 before the sack of the city by Alaric. In the work of 
 
 * These dimensions are taken from Vasi’s Map of Rome. 
 
 f “ Incolarum (Romae veteris) quod attinet numerum,, 
 ilium admodum difficile fuerit investigare, cum nullus eorum 
 habitus unquam fuerit census, neque constet quando borum 
 numerus fuerit maximus.”— Isaaci Vosii de Magnit. Romae 
 Veteris, in Graev. Thes. Ant. Rom. Tom, IV, 
 
496 
 
 POPULATION OP ROME, 
 
 Publius Victor the number of dwelling-houses is 
 stated at 48,382, of which 1780 were domus, that 
 is, houses occupied each by one family of the richer 
 class, and 46,602 * insulas buildings of many apart- 
 ments, each apartment being occupied by a separate 
 family. Reckoning twenty-five individuals to each 
 house, the result is 1,209,550 inhabitants. Gibbon 
 adopts this estimate of the population of Rome, f 
 
 Supposing the number of houses included in the 
 fourteen regions within the walls as stated by Vic- 
 tor to be accurate, there is much uncertainty with 
 respect to the number of inhabitants to be allowed 
 to each house. 
 
 The space within the Walls not sufficient to con- 
 tain a Million ,— The population, 1 ,209,550, is too 
 great to be included in five square miles, even al- 
 lowing for the crowded habitations of the poor, 
 which were built to the height of many stories, X 
 considering also that much of the space was occu- 
 pied by gardens of the rich, circi, baths, and other 
 public buildings, and the public walk the Campus 
 
 * See Publii Victoris de Regionibus Urbis Liber in Nar- 
 dini, Rom. Antic. Lib. VI II. cap. 1, and in Graev. Thes. Ant. 
 Rom. Tom. III. 
 
 f Gibbon, Hist. Decl. Rom. Emp. 
 
 I « In ea autem majestate urbis et civium infinita frequen- 
 tia innumerabiies habitadones opus fuit explicare. Ergo cum 
 recipere non posset area plana tantam inulUtudinem in urbe, ad 
 auxilium altitudinis aedificiorum res ipsa coegit devenire.’'— - 
 Vitruv. 
 
POPULATION OF ROME# 
 
 497 
 
 Martius, which was anciently not included within 
 the walls. This space of five square miles would 
 be very much crowded even with half a million of 
 inhabitants. With half a million it would be much 
 more crowded than either London or Paris is at 
 this day. 
 
 The 1,200,000 inhabitants in London occupy a 
 space of more than fifteen square miles. 
 
 The barrier wall of Paris, with a circuit of 1 Si- 
 miles, includes a space of about nine English square 
 miles, and a population of 713,000 inhabitants. A 
 good deal of this space, however, is unoccupied by 
 buildings. The poorer classes in Paris live in houses 
 of several stories ; in London they inhabit houses 
 of two floors, and sometimes of a ground floor only. 
 
 As it appears that the space included within the 
 wall of Aurelian, which was the most extended wall 
 of Rome, is not sufficient for containing a popula- 
 tion so large as that of London, nor even one equal 
 to that of Paris, it may be supposed that a great 
 part of the vast population belonging to such a me- 
 tropolis as Rome dwelt beyond the limits of the 
 fourteen regions, and of Aurelian’s wall, in the 
 suburbs and neighbouring villages, the extent of 
 which is mentioned by Pliny and other ancient au- 
 thors. * 
 
 * “ Ulterius postea non transiit murus civitatis vetantibus 
 ut dicunt religionibus ; sed sunt loca circum habitata omnia 
 multa et ingentia et aperta, captuque facilia ab hostibus, et si 
 
498 
 
 POPULATION OF ROME. 
 
 Great Number of Poor . — A great part of the in- 
 habitants of ancient Rome lived in a state of pover- 
 ty and idleness, and was maintained by daily distri- 
 butions of bread and other provisions at the public 
 expence. 
 
 Cicero * says there were not 2000 persons of in- 
 dependent fortune in Rome. A small number of 
 individuals possessed overgrown fortunes, and drew 
 their revenues from large landed estates situated in 
 the different provinces of the empire, and dispersed 
 over that large portion of the globe which extends 
 in latitude from Britain to Africa, in longitude from 
 Spain to Persia. , 
 
 Fall of Ancient Rome .— Rome declined after 
 the removal of the seat of empire to Constantinople, 
 and many of the inhabitants emigrated in conse- 
 quence of the sieges that afflicted the city in the 
 reign of Justinian. It is the inhabitants, and not 
 
 quisquam hoc intuens civitatis magnitudinem vellet investiga- 
 re, errare cogeretur nec signum teneret aliquod quo ipsa se 
 extendat vel quo desinat ; sic exterius civitati junctum est et 
 civitatis in infinitum protensae praefert speciem.” — Dion. Halic. 
 
 ie Exspatiantia teeta multas addidere urbes.” — Plin. Hist. 
 Nat. Lib. III. c. v. 
 
 “ Tibur nunc Suburbanum.” — Fior. L U. 
 
 The suburbs were comprehended under the name of Rome ; 
 
 “ Urbis appeliatio muris, Romae autem continentibus aedi- 
 ficiis finitur quod latius patet.” — Pandect. Lib. 50, de Yerbo- 
 rum Significatione, Tit. xvi. L. urbis. See also L. iEdificia 
 and L. ut Alfenus in the same title. 
 
 * Cicero de Ofiic. II. 21. 
 
POPULATION OF ROME. 
 
 499 
 
 the buildings that constitute a city, and ancient 
 Rome may be considered then to have perished. 
 Totila had determined to destroy Rome utterly, so 
 that the place should no longer be a town for the 
 habitation of men ; but he was prevailed upon to re- 
 lent and spare it by the letters of Belisarius, as Pro- 
 copius relates. 
 
 The population was at the lowest in the seventh 
 or eighth century, when under the dominion of the 
 Lombards. * 
 
 In the ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, 
 and fourteenth centuries, Rome was without regu- 
 lar government, and the population, therefore, 
 could not be considerable. It increased after the 
 revival of the arts. 
 
 The following are statements of the population of 
 Rome at different periods : 
 
 In the year 4-00, Rome, it is conjectured, contained 1,200,000 f 
 In the fourteenth century, - - 33,000 
 
 In the time of Leo. X. - - 85,000 J 
 
 In 1709, including 10,000 Jews, - 14S,568§ 
 
 In 1765, exclusive of Jews, - - 161,899 || 
 
 In IS 17 , including 8000 Jews, - 153,000 
 
 Rome. — Sect . IV. — La Sapienza .■ — The Jesuits * College . — 
 Congregation de Propaganda Fide . — Academie , — Vatican 
 
 * Muratori, Antiquitat. Italic. Diss. 21, de Italiae Statu 
 Temporibus Barbaricis. 
 f Brotier and Gibbon. 
 
 % Lancisi de Romani Cceli Qualitatibus. 
 f Labat II Gibbon. 
 
500 
 
 LA SAPIENZA, 
 
 Library . — Library of the Minerva — Library of the Sa - 
 pienza.—Impcriali Library . 
 
 Academy of Painting of Saint Luke. — French Academy of 
 Painting. — Sculptors , Canova , Tor'waldson Manufac- 
 
 tory of Mosaic. — Mint. — Scagliola. — Gut-strings. — Parch- 
 ment.— Shell Cameos.— Goldsmiths. 
 
 Courts of Justice at Monte Citorio . — ■ Sanctuaries. — Lotteries . — 
 Monte di Piet a. — Current Coins. — Price of Bread . — Pro- 
 hibited Books.— Toleration.— Jews. — Church of England 
 Service.— Hasp it a l. — F unerals. 
 
 Carnival Amusements. — Improvisatore. — Ceremonies in East- 
 er Week. — Public Walks . — Dress. 
 
 Buffaloes. — Goats. — Plants — Weather. — -Of the Insalubrity of 
 the Atmosphere. 
 
 The edifice for the use of the university of Rome, 
 called la Sapienza, was begun by Leo X. under 
 the direction of Bonaroti, and finished by the ar- 
 chitect Boromini in the seventeenth century, in a 
 style much degenerated from the simplicity and 
 proper selection of ornaments conspicuous in the 
 architects of the sixteenth. At one end of the ob- 
 long court is the church, with a cupola terminating 
 in a cone, having a spiral bas relief around it, an ex- 
 ample of the exaggerated style practised by Boromini. 
 
 In this building the professors of the university 
 of Rome deliver lectures on the various branches 
 of science. The university was first established in 
 the fifteenth century by Eugenius IV. 
 
 Library . — After the holy see had acquired the 
 dutchy of Urbino, * the printed books of the exten- 
 
 * See the Note in page I91. 
 10 
 
LA SAPIENZA. 
 
 501 
 
 sive library of the Dukes of IJrbino were given to 
 the Sapienza ; the manuscripts were placed in the 
 Vatican. The library is open for the use of stu- 
 ‘ dents, and contains 23,000 volumes. 
 
 Botanic Garden . — Alexander VII. Chigi, who 
 finished the building about the year 1660, institut- 
 ed also the botanic garden of the university, situat- 
 ed behind the fountain of San Pietro Montorio. 
 This botanic garden, as before mentioned, is very 
 inconsiderable. * 
 
 Collection of Minerals . — There is a collection of 
 minerals formed in Germany and France ; it was pur- 
 chased by the pope about twelve years ago. To 
 this are added the minerals of different parts of the 
 pope’s territory. 
 
 Latialite . — Amongst these last is a crystal of 
 latialite, in form of an octahedron, of which the side 
 is two or three tenths of an inch. Of this mineral 
 mention has been made already in speaking of Ma- 
 rino where it is found. 
 
 Alum Rock of la Tolfa . — There are specimens of 
 another remarkable mineral of the pope’s territory, 
 the alum rock of La Tolfa, situated ten miles east of 
 Civita Vecchia. Professor Gismondi considers this 
 alum rock to be a species of mineral distinct from 
 others, and characterized byapeculiar crystalline form. 
 Klaproth found the alum rock of La Tolfa to con- 
 tain silica, sulphuric acid, argil, and potass. It is sup- 
 
 * See page 27 6 , 
 
5 02 
 
 LA SAPIENZA. 
 
 posed to have got the sulphuric acid by exposure to 
 volcanic vapours. By reason of the potass it contains, it 
 affords alum without requiring any addition, whilst 
 the shale which is used near Whitby and near Glas- 
 gow does not yield alum in octahedral crystals, un- 
 less potass or ammonia be added ; because the consti- 
 tuent parts of alum are sulphuric acid, argil, and 
 potass or ammonia. The alum obtained from the 
 rock of La Tolta is esteemed above all other alum 
 in commerce for the purpose of dyeing delicate co- 
 lours. 
 
 Eminent Professors .— Amongst the eminent men 
 who have taught in the university of Rome are the 
 following : * 
 
 Copernicus taught astronomy for a short time in 
 1500, at the age of twenty-seven. 
 
 Eustachius , celebrated amongst anatomists for 
 his works on the organ of hearing, his engraved a- 
 natomical tables, and his observations on the tho- 
 racic duct, was professor of medicine in 1562. 
 
 Bagliviy an eminent medical practitioner, and 
 author of a work, De Praxi Medica, was professor 
 of surgery and anatomy. He was a native of Ra- 
 gusa, and died at 38, in I 7 O 7 . 
 
 Gravina was professor of jurisprudence. His 
 work on the origin and history of the civil law is 
 much esteemed. He was an admirer of poetry, and 
 one of the founders of the Academy dell* Arcadia. 
 
 * See Caraffa de Gymnasio Romano, 
 
COLLEGIUM ROMANUM. 
 
 503 
 
 He left his property to the excellent dramatic wri- 
 ter Metastasio, whom he had maintained and edu- 
 cated. Gravina was born in Calabria, and died in 
 1717 at the age of fifty-three. 
 
 Jesuits* College .— The Collegium Romanum has 
 returned into the possession of the Jesuits since the 
 re-establishment of the order. The order of Je- 
 suits received the papal approbation from Paul III. 
 Farnese in 1540, and they soon after established 
 this college. The order having acquired excessive 
 power by means of its artful and ambitious constitu- 
 tion, was abolished by a brief of Clement XIV. 
 Ganganelli in 1762, and re-established by the pope 
 now reigning, Pius VII. about 1815. Various 
 branches of science are taught by the Jesuits in this 
 establishment. 
 
 Kir chef s Museum . — The museum formed by 
 the Jesuit Kircher is to be seen in the Collegium 
 Romanum. It is dusty and ill kept, and offers no- 
 thing remarkable on a general view. It contains 
 some Egyptian hieroglyphics and some ancient 
 bronzes. The Jesuit Buonanni made additions to 
 Kircher’s museum, and published a descriptive cata- 
 logue of it in 1709. 
 
 Eminent Professors .— Amongst the eminent Je- 
 suits who have taught in this college are, Kircher , 
 who wrote on some branches of natural philosophy, 
 on gnomonics, on hieroglyphics, and other subjects ; 
 Strada, who died in 1649, professor of rhetoric, 
 author of Latin Poems, which are esteemed, and of 
 
504 
 
 COLLEGIUM ROMANUM. 
 
 a History of the Wars of Flanders ; Boscovich , the 
 celebrated mathematician, born at Ragusa in 1 7 II. 
 
 Observatory . — In the astronomical observatory of 
 the college they are putting up a three or four feet 
 transit instrument by Reichenbach. There is a theo- 
 dolite by the same artist, and a clock with a gridiron 
 pendulum, by Pons of Paris. Mathematical instru- 
 ment makers have little employment at Rome, and 
 consequently their number is very small. There is 
 one, I was informed, who had worked and learnt 
 his art under Fortin of Paris. 
 
 Observatory of the Vatican . — Another observa- 
 tory at Rome is in the Vatican, but it is not at pre- 
 sent furnished with instruments. 
 
 Congregation de Propaganda Fide.- A large 
 building in the Piazza di Spagna is occupied by the 
 Congregation de Propaganda Fide, which was estab- 
 lished in 16^2 by Gregory XV. for the education 
 of missionaries destined for distant countries, and 
 of natives of these countries, who are instructed in 
 theological doctrine. 
 
 Printing-House.— In 16^7 the printing-house 
 of this college contained founts of letter in fifteen 
 different languages, and this number was afterwards 
 augmented to twenty-three, and latterly to a great- 
 er number. 
 
 Academia del Lincei . — The Academia dei Lincei 
 was instituted about 16 C 20 by Prince Frederic Cesi, 
 a distinguished encourager of science, at the early 
 age of eighteen. 
 
ACADEMIE. 
 
 505 
 
 This academy had for emblem a lynx, to denote 
 the acuteness with which the phenomena of nature 
 require to be examined ; and the object of the aca- 
 demy was to promote the study of natural history. 
 
 They were occupied in publishing Hernandes’s 
 Natural History of Mexico. 
 
 Fabio Colonna, bora at Naples in 1567, author 
 of a work on the plants mentioned by the ancients, 
 was one of the most distinguished members. Bian- 
 chi, under the name of Planco, has written a his- 
 tory of this academy. 
 
 Modern Academy del Lincei. — There exists at 
 this day in Rome an academy of the same name, 
 in which papers on physical science and natural his- 
 tory are read. 
 
 Arcadia . — The Academia dell’ Arcadia was in- 
 stituted for the purpose of correcting the bad taste 
 in poetry which prevailed in the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. - A collection of the lives of the eminent 
 members has been published, with the title of Vite 
 degli Arcadi Illustri. This academy still exists, and 
 holds its meetings every Thursday at the 22d Italian 
 hour, that is, about two hours before sun-set. 
 
 Vatican Library . 
 
 Origin of the Collection of Manuscripts.— Cle- 
 ment V. having fixed his seat at Avignon, removed 
 the papal library to that place, where it remained 
 till 14*17 , when Martin V. Colonna brought it to 
 
506 VATICAN LIBRARY* 
 
 Rome, and placed it in the Vatican palace. In 
 1452 this library was inconsiderable. To Nicho- 
 las V., and his successor Calistus III. Borgia, two 
 pontiffs who reigned from 1447 to 1458, is due a 
 great part of the collection of manuscripts that now 
 forms the Vatican library. Transcribers were em- 
 ployed by these two popes in many different coun- 
 tries in copying manuscripts ; and they had persons 
 employed in collecting manuscripts in France, Ger- 
 many, England, and Greece. Under some of the 
 following popes the library was neglected. *■ 
 
 In 1472 Sixtus IV. della Rovere added to the 
 library, and was the first who opened it for the use 
 of the public, and allotted revenues for its main- 
 tenance. 
 
 Leo X. made considerable additions. In the time 
 of Clement VII. de’ Medici in 1527, happened 
 the sack of Rome by the troops of the Emperor 
 Charles V., and many of the books in the Vatican 
 library were destroyed by the ignorance of the sol- 
 diers. 
 
 Vatican Library Built . — Sixtus V., about the 
 year 1587, built the present library. Domenico 
 Fontana was the architect. 
 
 Cardinal Baronius was librarian from 1568 to 
 1607, and was employed by the popes in composing 
 
 * Praef. ad Catalogum Codd. Manuscript. Bibliothecae Va- 
 ticanas, by Assemanni. 
 
VATICAN LIBRARY. 
 
 507 
 
 an ecclesiastical history in answer to the history pub- 
 lished by Luther and the other reformers. The 
 work of the reformers is entitled Centurise Magde- 
 burgicae, that of Baronius Annales Ecclesiasticae. 
 
 In the seventeenth century the Vatican library 
 was increased by three considerable additions ; the 
 first was the library of manuscripts that belonged to 
 the Elector Palatine at Heidelberg, presented to the 
 pope by Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria ; the second, 
 the manuscripts of the library of the Dukes of Ur- 
 bino ; and the third, the collection of manuscripts, 
 which Christina, Queen of Sweden, left to the Va- 
 tican. 
 
 Number of Volumes . — The Vatican library is 
 said to contain 30,000 volumes of manuscripts. 
 Amongst the manuscripts that are celebrated is a 
 Virgil with paintings, and written in carettere ma« 
 jusculo, in letters nearly of the form of the ancient 
 Roman lapidary letters. A copy of the form of the 
 letters of this manuscript is published in Astle’s 
 History of the Origin of Writing ; this manuscript 
 has been supposed to be of the fourth century of the 
 time of Constantine. * There is also a manuscript 
 of Terence in letters of a similar form. Several of 
 these manuscripts were carried to Paris, as well as 
 the collection of medals, which last has disappeared? 
 as the keeper informed me. 
 
 * See page 206 . 
 
508 
 
 VATICAN LIBRARY. 
 
 First Gallery*— The first gallery of the Vatican 
 library is 250 feet in length, and is adorned with 
 paintings representing the actions of Sixtus V. The 
 manuscripts are in low book cases, with imperforat- 
 ed doors, placed along the walls. In this gallery is 
 an ancient calendar in form of a cross, with full 
 length miniatures of the saints, placed at the day de- 
 dicated to each ; two very large tables of granite, 
 and some other objects of curiosity. 
 
 Greek Vases .- — In this, and some of the other gal- 
 leries, which are very extensive, is a valuable collec- 
 tion of the Greek painted earthen vases, formerly 
 called Etruscan. It is the oldest collection of these 
 vases, and was formed at Naples by Valetta. * One 
 of the vases is painted with a ludicrous caricature of 
 Jupiter and Amphytrio’s wife. The wife of Am- 
 phytrio is looking from a window, Jupiter with a 
 ladder prepared to scale the window, and Mercury. 
 This vase belonged to Mengs, and is described by 
 Winkelmann. t 
 
 Acts of Sixtus V . — Amongst the paintings on the 
 wall and ceiling is the elevation of the obelisk in the 
 piazza of Saint Peter’s. 
 
 Paschal Cycle . — In one of the rooms is the mar- 
 ble statue of Saint Hippolite, bishop of Porto. The 
 figure is seated, and on the chair is engraved the 
 
 * Winkelmann, Hist, de l’Art. 
 
 ■f Winkelmann, Hist, de l’Art. and Monument! inediti. 
 
VATICAN LIBRARY. 
 
 509 
 
 Paschal Cycle in Greek. This Winkelmann consi- 
 ders as the oldest Christian statue that is known. 
 A copy in marble is in Saint Andria della Valle. * 
 Many ancient Christian works, consisting of rectan- 
 gular sepulchral urns with relief sculptures of scrip- 
 ture histories are seen at Pome ; some of these are 
 rudely drawn in the Roma Subterranea of Bosio. 
 
 Christian Antiquities . — The fourth room contains 
 a collection of Christian antiquities formed about 
 1750 by Benedict XIV. They are kept in cases, 
 placed on each wall, with imperforated wooden 
 doors. 
 
 Papyri.— Ancient Running Hand . — The last 
 room has the walls hung round with manuscripts on 
 papyrus extended and exposed to view in frames pro- 
 tected by glass. They are conveyances of land in the 
 Country near Ravenna, and some adjacent parts of 
 Italy. They are in Latin, and in the ancient Ro- 
 man running hand. An exact copy of the form of 
 the letters of one of them, which is a grant of land 
 to the church of Ravenna in the sixth century, is 
 engraved in the Nouveau Traite de Beplomatique, 
 and in Astle’s History of Writing, plate 29. Maf- 
 fei, without giving the form of the letters, has pub- 
 lished some legal deeds relating to the sale of lands, 
 written at Ravenna on papyrus, in the same La r 
 tin running hand, in the fifth century, before the 
 
 * See page 313. 
 
510 
 
 VATICAN LIBRARY. 
 
 Goths got possession of Italy. * It is supposed, 
 that the Romans, in the flourishing times of the 
 empire, employed a running hand for common and 
 daily purposes, in which the pen was not lifted, 
 different from the square letters which are seen on 
 their inscriptions on stone ; and the running hand 
 on these papyri, of the fifth and sixth centuries, is 
 probably a modification of the running hand which 
 was used at the beginning of the empire. This run- 
 ning hand is Roman, and has been erroneously call- 
 ed Gothic ; the Goths and Lombards brought no 
 letters nor arts with them, but made use of those 
 that were prevalent in Italy. The word Gothic in 
 common language in Italy is frequently used to de- 
 note the ungraceful form of a building, or of letters, 
 without signifying that these forms were derived 
 from the Goths. 
 
 The letters of inscriptions on stone of the middle 
 age, which have been called Gothic, — the letters of 
 European manuscript books of the middle age, — -the 
 black letter, — the Anglo-Saxon letters, are all visi- 
 bly derived from the Roman capital letters, which 
 we see on ancient inscriptions on stone, and which 
 are a modification of the Greek letters. The small 
 letters, now commonly used in printing, called 
 by the Italians carattere stampatello, are found in 
 manuscripts of the middle age, and arise from the 
 
 * Verona Illustrata dal Marchese Scipione Maffei, Parte 
 
 Prima, p. 371 . 
 
VATICAN LIBRARY. 
 
 511 
 
 same source, as may be seen by comparing the let- 
 ters of different periods of the middle ages, publish- 
 ed in Astle’s Account of the Origin and Progress of 
 Writing $ although the resemblance of the a, the e, 
 the g, the h, the m, and others, to the letters of an- 
 cient Roman inscriptions, is not obvious at first 
 sight, nevertheless their origin becomes evident, 
 when the different steps of the transition are laid 
 before the eye, and when the modifications of form 
 are compared in manuscripts of the different periods. 
 
 The ceiling of this papyrus room is painted by 
 Raphael Mengs, with an emblematical figure of 
 History, and two figures seated, one representing 
 Saint Peter the other Moses. They are in perspec- 
 tive, as seen from below. These pictures possess 
 great merit. The accessory parts of the painting of 
 this room are the Sphinx and other Egyptian figures, 
 in allusion to the papyrus. 
 
 French Porcelain . — In the same room are two large 
 candelabra of Sevres porcelain, six feet high, pre- 
 sented by Bonaparte to Pius VII., now reigning, 
 after Pius had travelled across the Alps and assisted 
 at the ceremony of the coronation in the church of 
 Notre Dame of Paris. 
 
 There is another gallery subdivided transversely 
 by arcades. 
 
 Small Bronzes.'— In the last room of this suite 
 is a collection of gems, small statues of bronze, and 
 ancient instruments of bronze. 
 
5 12 
 
 LIBRARIES. 
 
 Penates . — One case contains a number of ancient 
 images of household gods, Penates. These ima- 
 ges are rude representations of the human figure, 
 being formed merely of a plate of bronze, cut out 
 with projections representing the legs and arms, as 
 imperfectly as the figure which a child cuts out of a 
 card with scissors. 
 
 Scala Regia . — From this there is a door which 
 opens to the foot of the great staircase, or Scala 
 Regia, leading to the equal branched cross room, 
 the Sala a Croce Greca, of the Museo Pio Clemen- 
 tino. * This staircase, as well as the cross room, 
 the large rotonda, the gallery of the muses, and 
 others, and many statues, were added to the mu- 
 seum of the Vatican by Pius VI. Braschi about 
 1780. The staircase is magnificently adorned with po- 
 lished columns of red Egyptian granite, with columns 
 of breccia corallina, and with beautiful door-posts 
 of granite from the baths of Nero, which were situ- 
 ated between the Pantheon and the Piazza Navona. 
 
 The library of the Vatican is open for the use of 
 those who wish to consult manuscripts. 
 
 Library of the Minerva . — Another considerable 
 public library is the Biblioteca Casanattense della 
 Minerva, situated in the Piazza della Minerva. It 
 was founded in 1655 by Gregory XV/s physician, 
 Castellani, who left his books to the monastery of 
 
 See page 403. 
 
ACADEMY OF PAINTING. 
 
 513 
 
 Santa Maria sopra Minerva. The library was much 
 augmented in 1698 by a donation from Cardinal 
 Casanatta, a Neapolitan, and, for that reason, is 
 called by his name. This library is open to the 
 public, and is frequented by a considerable number 
 of students. The monastery and library is now again 
 in possession of Premonstratensian monks, who wear 
 a white dress. 
 
 Sir ah Ih of. — One of the handsomest libraries in 
 Europe is the library of the monastery of Strahihof 
 at Prague in Bohemia, belonging to this same order, 
 and which still exists unsuppressed, in 1 8 17* 
 
 Eibrary of the Sapienza. — The library of the 
 Sapienza, which has been mentioned already, is also 
 frequented by many students. 
 
 Imperiali Library. — The library founded by Car- 
 dinal Imperiali, of which there is a catalogue published 
 by Fontanini, was kept in the Piazza Colonna, but was 
 sold and dispersed by the Imperiali family during 
 the last invasion of Italy by the French, notwith- 
 standing the destination of the founder, who be- 
 queathed it to be preserved for the use of the public. 
 
 Academy for the Education of Painters. — The 
 academy of Saint Luke, for the instruction of young 
 artists, is near the Piazza Navona. The expence of 
 the institution is defrayed by government. Instruc- 
 tions are given by different professors in drawing, 
 painting, sculpture, architecture, geometry, perspec- 
 tive, anatomy, mythology, and the manners of an- 
 
 k k 
 
5 14 FRENCH ACADEMY. 
 
 dent nations. There is a large collection of plaster- 
 casts, and opportunities to draw from life. Canova 
 is the president. 
 
 Gallery of the Academy of Saint Luke . — The 
 academy of Saint Luke is a society of artists with 
 many honorary members. Adjoining to the church 
 of Saint Luke, in the Forum Romanum, is the gal- 
 lery of pictures belonging to the academy. It con- 
 tains the pictures painted by each member on his 
 admission into the academy. 
 
 The Prince Francesco di Paula, brother of the 
 reigning King of Spain, was ambitious of becoming 
 a member of this academy, and his own portrait, 
 painted by himself, is seen amongst the other ad- 
 mission pictures. The gallery contains many por- 
 traits of artists painted by themselves. The most 
 celebrated work in the collection is Raphael’s pic- 
 ture of Saint Luke painting the portrait of the Vir- 
 gin- 
 
 Villa Medici . — The palace of the villa Medici 
 was built about the year 1 550. The garden front 
 is ascribed to Bonaroti. It was acquired by Cardi- 
 nal Alexander de’ Medici, afterwards Leo XI. The 
 garden is extensive, and commands a fine view. 
 
 French Academy . — This palace and villa having 
 become the property of the crown of France, it was 
 appropriated to the use of the French academy of 
 painting, established at Rome by Louis XIV. For- 
 merly the French academy occupied a palace in the 
 
CANOVA. 
 
 515 
 
 Corso. The academy consists of a director and 
 twenty-four pensioned students, who have gained 
 the prize for painting, sculpture, and architecture in 
 Paris. 
 
 The last director was Le Thierre the historical 
 painter. 
 
 There is a collection of plaster easts of the most 
 esteemed works of sculpture. 
 
 Other Pensioners ,— Some pensioned students of 
 painting are also maintained in the Palazzo di Ve- 
 nezia, where the offices of the Austrian embassy 
 are* 
 
 Canom . — -In the studio or workshop of Canova, 
 the most celebrated sculptor of the present age, are 
 seen many of his marbles, finished or on hand, and 
 plaster casts of most of his other works. He is now 
 (1818) employed with the monument in memory of 
 the Cardinal of York, which is to be erected in 
 Saint Peter’s at the expence of the British govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Canova is a native of the neighbourhood of Bas- 
 sano, in the country that formerly belonged to Ve- 
 nice. The following are some of his works : 
 
 The monument erected in memory of the Arch- 
 dutchess Christina, by her husband the Duke Albert 
 of Saxe-Teschen, in the Augustine church at Vienna. 
 A work consisting of a great many emblematical fi* 
 gures. This is one of Canova’s largest works. It 
 cost L. 10,000 Sterling. 
 
516 
 
 MODERN SCULPTORS* 
 
 The tombs of Clement XIV. Ganganelli, and of 
 Volpato, in the church of the Apostles at Home. 
 
 The tomb of Clement XIII. Rezzonico, in Saint 
 Peter’s. 
 
 The tomb of Alfieri, in the church of Santa Cro- 
 ce at Florence. 
 
 Perseus, and two Greek Boxers, in the Cortilet- 
 to delle Statue in the Vatican. 
 
 Venus, in the Pitti palace at Florence. 
 
 A Magdalen kneeling. 
 
 Polyhymnia seated, in the school of painting at 
 Venice. 
 
 A seated statue of Madame Letitia Bonaparte, 
 mother of Napoleon, called, according to the form 
 of her son’s court, Madame Mere, and afterwards, 
 when fortune deserted him, her name Letitia was 
 translated by the Parisians into the ludicrous appel- 
 lation of La Mere la Joie. It is said this statue was 
 bought by the Duke of Bedford at a sale in Paris, 
 in 1819, for L. 1000. 
 
 A statue of the Princess of Lichtenstein seated, 
 now sending from the workshop to Vienna. 
 
 The Three Graces, now, in February 1818, in 
 Canova’s workshop for the Prince Regent. 
 
 Bas-reliefs of subjects from Homer. 
 
 Helen, a bust in the possession of Madame Al- 
 bricci at Venice, who has published a description of 
 Canova’s statues. 
 
 Torwaldson. — Torwaldson, a native of the King 
 
man ufactory of mosaic. 
 
 51 ? 
 
 of Denmark’s dominions, is the sculptor next in ce- 
 lebrity in Rome. Casts of his two bas-reliefs of 
 Night and Aurora, representing figures floating in 
 the air, are seen in many of the collections of the 
 academies in Italy. 
 
 Painters . — The most esteemed painter at this 
 time in Rome is Camuccini, a native of the kingdom 
 of Naples. 
 
 Manufactory of Mosaic , 
 
 The manufactory of Mosaic pictures belonging 
 to the pope is in a large building to the south of 
 Saint Peter’s. 
 
 Enamels .— The building in which the establish- 
 ment is situated is large, and contains a collection of 
 enamels drawn into the form of sticks. These are 
 arranged, according to their colours, in an extensive 
 suit of rooms. The number of shades of colour is 
 17,000. 
 
 Paste . — The mastic or paste in which the pieces 
 of enamel are stuck is composed of powdered Tra- 
 vertine stone, quicklime, and lintseed oil. This 
 paste has the advantage of receiving little injury 
 from damp. 
 
 The sticks of enamel are placed on a small anvil 
 shaped like a chisel, and broken into pieces of the 
 requisite size by an edged hammer. The enamel is 
 very fusible, so that the small sticks can be melted 
 
518 
 
 MANUFACTORY OF MOSAIC, 
 
 and drawn out into a finer size at the flame of a can- 
 dle, without the assistance of the blow-pipe. 
 
 After the bits of enamel are fixed into the paste, 
 and the whole allowed to dry for two months, their 
 upper surface is brought to a plane, and polished by 
 means of a flat stone and emery. A lapidary’s 
 wheel and emery is also used for polishing the sur- 
 face of individual bits before their insertion. After 
 the surface of the picture is polished, the interstices be- 
 tween the pieces of enamel are filled up with a paste 
 of the same colour with the adjacent pieces. 
 
 Mosaic pictures of a moderate size are imbedded 
 in a case of copper, which has projecting crooked 
 pieces of copper soldered to the bottom, in order to 
 fasten the paste. 
 
 Large pictures are imbedded on a slab of stone. 
 The volcanic stone called Piperino, and also Tra- 
 vertine stone, is used for this purpose. The large 
 Mosaics, of the size of the Transfiguration, cost be- 
 tween L. 4000 and L. 5000 Sterling. 
 
 Cammucini, who is one of the most esteemed 
 painters of the present time in Rome, has the in- 
 spection of this establishment. 
 
 The manufactory is about to be removed to ano- 
 ther situation, in order to make room for the Inqui- 
 sition, which is to be established in the house now, 
 in 1818, occupied by the manufactory of Mosaic. 
 
 Rome is the principal, or rather the only, school 
 of Mosaic painting at this day iu Europe. The 
 
ARTS* 
 
 519 
 
 great Mosaic picture of Leonardo da Vinci’s Last 
 Supper, executed at Milan, was by an artist from 
 the Homan school. 
 
 Musaichisti . — Besides this great establishment 
 there are many artists who work in Mosaic in Rome, 
 and a variety of small Mosaic pictures are made for 
 ornamenting rings, snuff-boxes, and other toys. 
 
 Mint . ■ — In the vicinity of Saint Peter’s is situated 
 the mint, of which the rolling machines, and some 
 other parts, are set in motion by water-wheels. * 
 
 Bronze Manufactory . — In the same suburb is 
 the pope’s foundery of bronze figures. 
 
 Pittnra a Scagliola . — There are some artists in 
 Rome who make tables ornamented with designs 
 in Scagliola, which produce a tolerable effect. The 
 gypseous plaster stone is roasted, pounded, and 
 sifted, and mixed with a solution of animal glue. A 
 coat of this white plaster is laid on for the ground 
 of the picture, and then cavities of the form of the 
 intended design are made in the white ground by 
 means of an engraving tool, and the cavities are af- 
 terwards filled up with coloured plaster, so as to form 
 the representation of the object intended to be imi- 
 tated, a bird, flower, or foliage. This art was first 
 practised in 1 6 1 5 by a native of Carpi. Much de- 
 pends on the proper proportion of glue, The scag» 
 
 * See Giacomo Acami dell’ origine e dell’ Antichita della 
 zgcca pontificia. 
 
52 0 
 
 ARTS. 
 
 liola or stucco is polished with pumice stone, hone, 
 and haematites or colcothar ; the white plaster, which 
 is made with isinglass, is polished with Dutch rush. 
 
 Yellow marble is the kind of marble which the 
 artists succeed best in imitating in stucco ; the yel- 
 low is formed by some oxide or salt of lead. 
 
 Gut Strings for Musical Instruments . — The gut 
 strings for musical instruments made at Rome and 
 Naples are more esteemed than those made in other 
 parts of Europe. According to the accounts that 
 have been published of the process, the strings are 
 made in the months of August and September of 
 the bowels of lambs seven or eight months old. The 
 degree of heat that prevails in August and Septem- 
 ber is necessary for the success of the operation ; and 
 it is probable, that the superior quality of the Roman 
 strings arises from the particular temperature of heat 
 at Rome, being suitable for macerating the bowels. 
 The bowels, after having been steeped for a consi- 
 derable time in lees of wine, are twisted into strings ; 
 small strings are made by twisting two ; large harp 
 strings are composed of a greater number ; and the 
 largest string used for musical instruments consists 
 of 1 50 bowels twisted together. 
 
 Parchment . — Parchment is well manufactured at 
 Rome from the skins of sheep and goats, of which 
 latter the number is considerable in the neighbour- 
 hood of Rome. 
 
 Cipria . — The hair-powder made at Rome is called 
 
ARTS. 
 
 521 
 
 Cipria, and is said to be perfumed with a kind of 
 lichen. 
 
 Cameos . — There are in Rome several artists who 
 engrave sunk figures and cameos on Cornelian. 
 Amongst them, Pichler the son is eminent as his 
 father was formerly. 
 
 Shell Cameos . — A great many cameos, which sell 
 at a cheaper rate, are made of shell. Those in which 
 the raised figure is white, and the ground of a darker 
 colour, are made of the large shell from the Red 
 Sea, which seems to be the Cassis Rufa of Lamark. 
 The shell cameos in which the figure and the ground 
 are of the same colour are made of the large shell of 
 the Murex Atlanticus from Sicily. 
 
 Goldsmiths .— The art of the goldsmith is prac- 
 tised with skill in Rome. In 1786, Ludovici was 
 celebrated in this art, and made a model of Trajan’s 
 pillar three feet in height, in which the reliefs were 
 accurately represented in silver. Similar copies are 
 made by the goldsmiths of the present day. 
 
 Monte Citorio . — Monte Citorio is a small eleva- 
 tion, which Venuti considers to be composed of ruins 
 and rubbish, accumulated during the middle ages. 
 The name he supposes to have been Mons Citato- 
 rius, and derived from the citations of the heralds in- 
 viting the people to enter into the Septa * of the 
 
 * The Septa were “ loca in Campo Martio inclusa tabulatis ; 
 in quibus stans populus Romanus suffragia ferre consueverat,”— 
 Syeton, 
 
COURTS OF JUSTICE. 
 
 Comitia for the election of consuls, tribunes, or 
 sediles. 
 
 The palace of Monte Citorio is a large building, 
 completed by Innocent XIL, who, about the year 
 1695, established in it the tribunals called Curia 
 Innocenziana. 
 
 The Ruota . — Of these the Ruota is the chief 
 court in the pontifical dominions. 
 
 The name Ruota originates from the round form 
 of the table at which the judges sit, or according to 
 the Dictionary of the Academy della Crusca, from 
 the judges giving their opinions in rotation. 
 
 The public are not admitted to the pleadings be- 
 fore this court, as I was informed. The laws collect- 
 ed by Justinian regulate their proceedings chiefly. 
 The pleadings are in Latin. * 
 
 Sanctuaries Abolished . — According to the ac- 
 counts of Rome, thirty years ago, the threshholds 
 and porticoes of churches were inhabited by assassins 
 and other criminals, who took refuge in these sanc- 
 tuaries, where they could not be seized by the offi- 
 cers of justice. This is not to be seen now. The 
 sanctuaries appear not to have been revived since the 
 French had possession of the city \ and the crime of 
 assassination, for the checking of which the French 
 issued many salutary enactments, is probably less 
 frequent. I saw no appearance of the churches be- 
 
 * See Cancell. Lunadoro stato della corte di Roma, 1765. 
 11 
 
LOTTERY. 
 
 52S 
 
 ing used as sanctuaries by criminals in any part of 
 Italy that I visited. 
 
 Lottery . — On the balcony of the palace of the 
 courts of justice at Monte Citorio, the government 
 lottery is drawn twice every month. The lotteries 
 in Italy are within the reach of all, even the poorer 
 classes, and on that account are the more extensively 
 pernicious. Of 100 numbers, five only are taken 
 out at each drawing of the lottery. The person 
 who buys a ticket fixes upon one number, and if 
 that number is one of those drawn, he gains perhaps 
 twenty times the stake he has made ; the amount of 
 this stake which he has paid on receiving the ticket 
 is optional, and may be a very trifling sum. If he 
 fixes on two numbers, then, in case of these coming 
 out, he gains perhaps 1 00 times his stake. If he 
 fixes on three, he has the chance of gaining a much 
 larger multiple of the stake, and still more when he 
 fixes on four or five. 
 
 The lottery in France, which is drawn every 
 week, is on the same principle, being copied from 
 the lottery of Genoa. 
 
 Monte di Pieta . — The Monte di Pieta, opposite 
 the church of La Trinita de’ Pellegrini, for lending 
 money to the poor on pawns, without interest, if 
 the sum does not exceed ten scudi, that is, L.2 Ster- 
 ling, was established as early as 1539. 
 
 In several countries of Europe the trade of pawn^ 
 broker is monopolized by government ; this conti- 
 
CURRENT COINS* 
 
 524 
 
 English Pence. 
 
 53 
 
 JL± 
 
 100 
 
 nues to be the case in Paris, where the business of 
 lending money on pawns is carried on exclusively 
 by the Mont de Piete, which belongs to the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Money. 
 
 The coins most frequent in currency in Rome 
 are. 
 
 The large silver crown called scudo , 
 or moneta , which is equal to ten paoli, 
 is in value about 
 
 The half scudo , a silver coin equal 
 to five paoli. 
 
 The testone , a silver coin equal to 
 three paoli. 
 
 The papetOt a silver coin equal to 
 two paoli. 
 
 The paolo, a silver coin equal to 
 ten bajocchi, and in value about 
 
 The hajocco , a copper coin equal to 
 the tenth of a paola, in value some- 
 thing more than a halfpenny 
 
 The quattrino, a small copper coin, is one-fifth of 
 the bajocco. 
 
 Spanish piasters or dollars were frequent in circu- 
 lation in 1818, and were worth 102^ bajocchi, which 
 is a little more than the Roman scudo. 
 
 The crowns of Tuscany pass in Rome, but the 
 Tuscan half scudi, and other Tuscan coins of smal- 
 ler value, do not. 
 
 0 
 
 5 8 4 
 10 GO 
 
 5584 
 1 0000 
 
PROHIBITED BOOKS. 
 
 525 
 
 The silver current coin is sufficiently abundant, 
 the bankers paid letters of credit in Roman crowns, 
 or Spanish dollars, and not in paper money, as is 
 described to have been the practice thirty years 
 ago. 
 
 Price of Bread . 
 
 According to the assize of bread published in 
 Rome in March 1818, the finest bread must be 
 sold by the bakers at 2 bajocchi 3~ fifths of bajoc- 
 co, that is, about three halfpence Sterling for a 
 pound, * Roman weight. 
 
 Prohibited Boohs. 
 
 The Congregation dell Indice, or committee of car- 
 dinals, whose office it is to form a list of prohibited 
 books, affix the titles of such books as they condemn 
 at the doors of Saint Peter’s, and other churches, t 
 
 Amongst the books prohibited by the decree of 
 December 1817 are, 
 
 Darwin’s Zoonomia, translated into Italian, and 
 published at Milan, 1805. 
 
 Sismondi, Histoire des Republiques Italiennes du 
 Moyen age, a Paris, 1809. 
 
 Villars, sur 1’Esprit et l’lnfluence de la Refor- 
 mation de Luther, a Paris, 1811. 
 
 * The Roman pound is an avoirdupois pound, 
 
 f See Catalano* de Secret, Congreg. Indicis. 
 
526 
 
 JEWS, 
 
 Parny, la Guerre des Dieux Anciens et Mo-' 
 dernes, a Paris, 1799- 
 
 The books prohibited at Rome from 1808 to 
 1817 are only forty in number. Amongst them 
 are, 
 
 Zimmerman on Solitude, translated into Italian, 
 1804% 
 
 Memoirs de Gramont, translated into Italian, 
 Milan, 1814. 
 
 Transactions of the Bible Society, in Italian, 
 Naples, 1817- 
 
 All translations of the Bible into living languages, 
 except those approved by the Apostolic See, and 
 those published with notes taken from the fathers 
 of the church, or from learned Catholic authors. 
 
 The congregation of the index was first establish- 
 ed by Pius V. in 1570. The complete index down 
 to the time of each publication has been printed 
 several times, and forms a thick octavo volume. 
 
 Jews . — In the advertisements published by the 
 Inquisition, and posted in the churches in the pope’s 
 territory, in 1818, all Catholics are required to 
 denounce to the Inquisition any heretics, misbe- 
 lievers, Mahometans, Jew’s, or Gentiles ; but, in 
 practice, the Jews are suffered, and their number at 
 Rome is stated to be 8000. The Ghetto de’ 
 Ebrei, Jewry, or the quarter inhabited by the 
 Jews, is near the Ponte Quattro Capi, on the side 
 of the river. This place was assigned them in 
 
HOSPITAL. 
 
 52 7 
 
 1557 by Paul IV. The inquisition in Rome 
 was not remarkable for severity during the last cen- 
 tury. 
 
 Toleration of the English Service . — The tolera- 
 tion in the spring of 1818 extended so far as to al- 
 low the English to assemble in a room for the pur- 
 pose of hearing the Church of England service 
 read, but they were not allowed a regular and for- 
 mal chapel. 
 
 During Lent in the public eating-houses in Rome 
 there were two bills of fare, one consisting of fish, 
 and meagre for the Catholics, the other of meat for 
 those who did not chuse meagre. This last was some- 
 times entitled, Lista di grasso per gli ammalati, bill 
 of meat for the sick. 
 
 Hospital .— The hospital of the Santo Spirito, 
 situated near Saint Peter’s, and originally instituted 
 for pilgrims, is the largest in Rome. The building is 
 extensive, and consists of a ground door, and one 
 principal floor above. The beds of the sick are pla- 
 ced in spacious halls on the principal floor, but, from 
 some economical regulations, beds are crowded to- 
 gether in some of the halls, whilst the others are left 
 empty. The management of the hospital is in the 
 hands of ecclesiastics. Evelyn in 1 615 describes this 
 hospital, and observes that it is kept with “ as much 
 care, sweetnesse, and conveniency, as can be imagin- 
 ed f and this observation is still applicable to the hos- 
 
528 
 
 CARNIVAL, 
 
 pitals in Italy at this day. * He adds, “ the Italians 
 being generally very neate this would scarcely 
 be said now by any one accustomed to the cleanli- 
 ness of England, which has improved much since 
 the time of Evelyn, and had made some progress 
 even at that time, for Erasmus, who was in England 
 in the time of Henry VI I L, and compared the man- 
 ner of living with what he had seen in various parts 
 of Europe, was disgusted with the dirtiness of the 
 apartments in England, which he describes as strew- 
 ed with rushes, seldom renewed, and the receptacle 
 of various kinds of filth, f 
 
 Funerals , — In Rome the dead are carried in pro- 
 cession to the church extended on a bier, with the 
 face and hands uncovered, and exposed to view. 
 
 Carnival Amusements, 
 
 The Corso , — The long narrowish street called 
 the Corso, which extends an English mile in length 
 from the Porta del Popolo to the vicinity of the 
 Capitol, is ill paved with small stones of basalt from 
 Capi di Bove, and the sides of the street are incum- 
 bered with esplanades elevated to the height of two 
 or three feet, which oblige foot passengers to walk 
 in the middle of the street. This street is used as 
 
 * Memoirs of John Evelyn, Esq. London, 1818, 
 t Erasmi Epistolas. 
 
CARNIVAL. 
 
 52 9 
 
 the fashionable drive in the afternoon, and is walked 
 by masks in the carnival. 
 
 Berlingaccio.— Shrove-Tuesday, or the last day 
 of the carnival, is a scene of merry-making in Italy. 
 This day is called Berlingaccio, a word which in the 
 Dictionary Della Crusca is derived from here and 
 linguare, as denoting drinking and noise in which 
 the people pass the day. Muratori derives the word 
 from burlingi, a kind of cake made of flour which 
 used to be eaten on that day. 
 
 On this last day of the carnival the Corso at Rome 
 is crowded with spectators and with masks, some on 
 foot and some in carriages. The principal amuse- 
 ment of the masks is to throw handfuls of powder- 
 ed chalk at their acquaintances. Amongst the 
 numerous masks some men are seen with carabines 
 and in the dress of Neapolitan robbers. 
 
 Horse Race . — In the midst of all this some dra- 
 goons ride along and clear the street for the race, 
 which consists of half a dozen small horses without 
 riders. The horses are let loose from the obelisk 
 in the Piazza del Popolo,*and have a kind of spur 
 with iron points attached on their back. 
 
 This kind of horse race was first introduced into 
 Rome in 1470. It is called correre il palio, from 
 the palium or silk cloak that used to be the prize. * 
 
 * Muratori, Ant. Italics, Diss, 29* 
 
 L 1 
 
530 
 
 CARNIVAL. 
 
 The masks, after sunset, light up a vast number 
 of small tapers, which they hold in their hands, and 
 soon after they are obliged to disperse by the orders 
 of police. 
 
 Fes lino di B alio. —In the evening of this last 
 day of the carnival there is a public masked ball in 
 the theatre d’Aliberti, where an immense crowd of 
 people of various ranks is assembled. There is 
 much dancing. Many of the young women are 
 dressed as Frascatane, country girls of Frascati, 
 and in dresses of the country people of other parts 
 of the Roman and Neapolitan territory. 
 
 This theatre d’Aliberti is the largest theatre in 
 Rome, and is used for the representation of musical 
 operas. It was first established by Alibert, who 
 came to Rome in the suite of Christina of Sweden. 
 The interior of the house is tolerably decorated, 
 but far inferior to the theatre Delle Scala at Milan, 
 and to the principal theatres in London and Paris. 
 The passages for entrance and communication to 
 different parts of the house are low and inconvenient. 
 
 Improvisator e. 
 
 The Improvisatore Sgricci, a young man of twen- 
 ty-five, gave some exhibitions in Rome in February 
 1818 , during the absence of public amusements, 
 which takes place in Lent. Different subjects were 
 proposed by individuals of the audience, and each 
 subject was written on a slip of paper. These were 
 
EASTER CEREMONIES. 
 
 531 
 
 put together, and three of them were drawn out by 
 some friends of the poet, who, it is to be supposed, 
 drew out the three subjects that the poet had pre- 
 viously fixed upon and studied. The subjects were, 
 ] . The Dispute between Ajax and Ulysses for the 
 Arms of Achilles. 2. The Creation of the World. 
 3. Sophonisbe. On the first subject he recited a 
 poem of three quarters of an hour. The second was 
 a poem of shorter duration. Of the third subject 
 he formed a tragedy, in which he personated six 
 characters, and a chorus of African matrons ; this 
 dramatic piece lasted two hours and a half. The 
 whole was declaimed with great animation. 
 
 Preaching in Lent 
 
 Homilies and sermons are frequent in the churches 
 at Rome during Lent, by preachers of celebrity, who 
 come from different parts of the country to exercise 
 their eloquence. The other towns of Italy and of 
 France are also frequented by preachers during Lent. 
 
 Le Funzione y or Ceremonies in Easter Week. 
 
 The ceremonies in the pope’s chapel during Easter 
 week, la settimana santa, attract a great many 
 strangers to Rome. The number of English pass- 
 ports this year, 1818, during that week, was about 
 700 ; some of these passports included a whole fa- 
 mily. 
 
 Distribution of the Palms .— On Palm Sunday in 
 the chapel in the Quirinal palace the pope performs 
 
532 
 
 EASTER CEREMONIES. 
 
 the ceremony of distributing the palms. They are 
 leaves of the date palm, which are brought from 
 Naples, or taken from the three or four date palms 
 that grow in the gardens at Rome. 
 
 Service in the Sis tine Chapel — In the Sistine 
 chapel on the Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of 
 Easter week, is chaunted the service of Tenebrse, 
 at the twenty-second Italian hour, which is about 
 an hour and a half before sunset. The plaintive and 
 solemn music of the lessons taken from the Lamen- 
 tations of Jeremiah, and the Psalm Miserere, are 
 sung by such excellent and well trained voices, that 
 it has been found impossible to execute the same 
 music with equal effect in other countries of Europe. 
 The composition of the music of the Miserere is ad- 
 mirable ; that performed on the Wednesday is by 
 Allegri ; on another day a Miserere of the compo- 
 sition of Iomelli is sung. No musical instrument is 
 employed in these services in the pope’s chapel. 
 
 The pope is present on his throne, and the car- 
 dinals in their robes, attended by their train-bear- 
 ers. 
 
 Fans of Peacocks 9 Feathers.— Two flabelli or 
 large fans of peacocks’ feathers are carried before the 
 pope. They may have been originally used to drive 
 away flies ; and the eyes of the peacocks’ feathers are 
 said to signify the watchfulness the pope ought to 
 have over the church. 
 
 Cardinals .— The number of cardinals has varied 
 
EASTER CEREMONIES. 
 
 533 
 
 since the ninth century, when there was a cardinal 
 priest appointed to govern each of the twenty-eight 
 parishes of Rome. * The definite number is now 
 seventy-two ; frequently this number is not com* 
 plete. Sixtus V. ordained that there should always 
 be three cardinals taken from mendicant orders, and 
 by this regulation a chance of the sovereignty is 
 given to persons of the lowest degree. The Cardi- 
 nal Camerlingo, so called because he is at the head 
 of the Camera Apostolica, has the most eminent dig- 
 nity at court. The cardinals are commonly chosen 
 from three professions, the ecclesiastics, the mem- 
 bers of monastic orders, and the judges of the courts 
 of law at Rome. The reigning pope was of a mo- 
 nastic order. Of the cardinals who have held places 
 in the courts of justice is Gonsalvi, the most active 
 of the pope’s ministers. 
 
 Conclave . — For the election of a pope the cardi- 
 nals are inclosed in conclave in the Vatican palace, 
 and if the election is not made in eight days, the 
 cardinals are reduced to bread and water for their 
 only sustenance. There is an account of the con- 
 clave at which Cardinal de Retz was present in 
 1 655, in the memoirs of that cardinal, and the con- 
 claves from Alexander VII. are described in the 
 work entitled, Conclavi de’ Pontifici Romani, 1 667 . 
 
 * See Thomassin Discipline de PEglise; Mosheim’s Eccle- 
 siastical History; and Muratori Antiq. Ital. Diss. LXI., de 
 Cardinalimn Institutione. 
 
534 , 
 
 EASTER CEREMONIES. 
 
 Royal Boxes . — Three boxes were allotted in the 
 Sixtine chapel to persons of royal birth, this year, 
 ( 1818 ,) at Rome ; the first to Charles IV. the ab- 
 dicated king of Spain : the second to the abdicated 
 king of Sardinia, brother of the reigning king, and 
 the Dutchess of Chabiais of the Sardinian family ; 
 and the third to the Prince Royal of Bavaria. 
 
 Swiss Guards . — The doors of the chapel are 
 guarded by the Swiss guard of the pope, in old 
 fashioned party-coloured uniforms and cuirasses. 
 These soldiers are natives of the Roman Catholic 
 Cantons of Switzerland ; many of them scarcely un- 
 derstand Italian, and speak only German. 
 
 Washing the Feet oj the Pilgrims . — In an apart- 
 ment of the Vatican palace the pope, though old and 
 feeble, performed the ceremony of washing the feet 
 of twelve poor men called pilgrims ; they are per- 
 sons in deacon’s orders; they are dressed, all uniform- 
 ly in white camlet. The pope afterwards handed 
 the dishes to them whilst they sat at table. The 
 ceremony of washing the feet of twelve poor men 
 is performed in Easter week in several Catholic 
 courts ; at Florence by the grand duke ; in France, 
 since the return of the Bourbon family, by a prince 
 of the blood. In the time of Charles I. it was the 
 custom to wash the feet of twelve poor men at 
 Whitehall, as Evelyn mentions. * 
 
 * Evelyn’s Memoirs. Lond. 1 8 1 9. 
 
 11 
 
EASTER CEREMONIES. 
 
 535 
 
 On Thursday evening after mass the pope depo- 
 sits the host in the altar of the Pauline chapel, which 
 is lighted with a multitude of tapers. This ceremony 
 represents the deposition of the body of Christ in 
 the tomb. 
 
 Illuminated Cross .— On Good Friday the hundred 
 lamps of the shrine of Saint Peter are put out, and 
 an illuminated cross is suspended on the eastern 
 verge of the cupola within Saint Peter’s. 
 
 The Benediction.— On the forenoon of Easter 
 Sunday the pope in his tiara, or triregno, and sur- 
 rounded by the cardinals, delivers his benediction 
 from the gallery on the front of Saint Peter’s. The 
 people are in great numbers, their heads uncovered 
 and kneeling. Immediately after the benediction 
 has been pronounced, a paper is thrown from the 
 gallery amongst the people, inscribed with the in- 
 dulgences conferred on different churches. The 
 pope in his tiara attends at the service in Saint Pe- 
 ter’s. The features of the pope are of a mild and 
 dignified character. 
 
 Pilgrims . — A few pilgrims, not above half-a-dozen, 
 were seen at Rome in Easter week, 18 IS. They 
 wear a cloak of black waxed cloth, having a large 
 flap covering the shoulders, and a long staff. 
 
 Fire - Works . — After Easter Sunday, in honour of 
 the birth-day of the reigning pope, the outside of Saint 
 Peter’s was illuminated, and the fire-works called 
 the Girandola were discharged from the castle of 
 
586 
 
 CEREMONIES, 
 
 Saint Angelo. There were also some houses illumi- 
 nated in the town. 
 
 Procession on Corpus Christi Day * — The cere- 
 monies of Corpus Christi day, or Corpus Domini, 
 a moveable feast happening in May and June, the 
 Fete Dieu of the French, which were established in 
 1^61 by Urban IV., in commemoration of the insti- 
 tution of mass, are also to be mentioned amongst 
 the most magnificent at Rome, The pope is carried 
 in procession on a kind of throne under a canopy. 
 He is seated, but the chair is so formed that he ap- 
 pears to kneel before an altar with the host placed 
 on it. The streets are not hung with tapestry a a 
 on the Fete Dieu at Paris before the revolution, and 
 since the return of the Bourbons, but tapestry is 
 displayed in the colonade of Saint Peter’s. 
 
 The church ceremonies of Rome are described in 
 Catalano Cseremon. S. Rom. Eccl. ; Gattico acta 
 Selecta Caerimonialia S. Rom. Eccles., and other 
 more recent works. 
 
 Public Walks.— The public ride and walk along 
 the hill in front of the Trinita de’ Monti and Villa 
 Medici is much frequented by company in carriages 
 and on foot \ and walks have been laid out on the 
 adjacent ground, which extends to the walls. This 
 public walk, and one near the Coliseum, were begun 
 some years ago by the French when they had pos- 
 session of Rome. The French made public walks 
 also in Venice and other towns. The Corso is the 
 common drive for carriages in the afternoon. 
 
 12 
 
BUFFALOES* 
 
 537 
 
 Dress of the Country People . — The country 
 people in the neighbourhood of Rome are dressed 
 in very coarse clothing, and shew no attention to 
 cleanliness. Even on Easter Sunday, the chief fes- 
 tival of the church, groups of country people, men 
 and women, were seen in Saint Peter’s in their 
 coarse and squalid dress. The figures and peculiar 
 dress of the country women of Frascati, the Fras- 
 catane, and of other places near Rome, are often 
 introduced in pictures, and there the disagreeable 
 part of the figure is concealed, for the art of paint- 
 ing is not able to denote very precisely the differ- 
 ence between cleanliness and the contrary. 
 
 The country men, in the neighbourhood of 
 Rome, generally carry an oiled-cloth umbrella for 
 protection against the rain. 
 
 The broad cloth used in the dress of the better 
 classes is imported from England and from France. 
 
 Buffaloes .— Buffaloes are sometimes used in draw- 
 ing waggons in Rome, and the neighbouring coun- 
 try, but oxen are more frequently employed for that 
 purpose. Buffaloes thrive in marshy situations. 
 There are many in the Pontine marshes, as Lalande 
 observes, and they are accustomed to roll themselves 
 in the mud. Their flesh is not esteemed good for 
 eating. 
 
 Cheese of Buffalo Milk . — Small cheeses of buffa- 
 lo milk are common in Rome. They are of the 
 size of the fist ; they have a fibrous texture when 
 
538 
 
 PLANTS AT ROME. 
 
 broken, and a peculiar taste, wliicli is not disagree- 
 able. 
 
 Buffaloes, (Bubali,) according to Paul Warnefrid, 
 were introduced into Italy by tlie Lombards about 
 580 ; but there is some doubt about the meaning of 
 the word Bubali employed by Warnefrid. 
 
 Goats . — Goats are frequent ; flocks of them are 
 driven along and milked in the streets in the morn- 
 ing. Kid is a common kind of meat in the mar- 
 kets in March. 
 
 Amongst the fish in the market at Rome is stur- 
 geon, which is caught in the Tiber. Frogs are sold 
 in the markets and eaten. 
 
 Plants .— In the gardens in Rome, on the 16th 
 of March, violets, stock-july-flowers hyacinths, tulips, 
 peach trees, green gage plum trees, were in flower. 
 Garden beans a foot high and in flower. 
 
 Lazarelli.— The Cratsegus azarolus, which bears 
 the fruit called Lazarelli, is common in the gardens. 
 This tree is called by Wildenow Pyrus azarolus, and 
 is described by Scopoli ; * the leaves resemble the, 
 common hawthorn ; the fruit is of the form of a 
 very small apple, and is of an agreeable taste. The 
 tree requires a warm temperature like that of Italy. 
 Gooseberry and currant bushes are rarely seen in 
 the gardens. Lemon trees are the only fruit trees 
 that are extended upon walls, and they require to 
 
 * Scopoli Carniol. II. No. 5$7* 
 
PLANTS AT ROME. 
 
 539 
 
 be covered in winter by small houses or sheds of 
 boards and reeds, as before mentioned. * 
 
 Palms . — There are two or three date palms twen- 
 ty to thirty feet high in gardens in the open air, 
 but the weather is scarcely warm enough ; they 
 grow more freely at Naples, where small walking 
 canes are made of the middle rib of the leaf. That 
 kind of Cynara called Cardoon is cultivated in great 
 quantities for the table. 
 
 The root called Pastinaca at Rome, used as an es- 
 culent vegetable, is not cultivated, but collected in 
 the fields. The leaves resemble those of a thistle. 
 
 Small channels conduct water alongside the beds 
 in gardens, and from these channels the gardener 
 throws the water on the beds with a scoop. 
 
 The botanic garden is inconsiderable, and with a 
 small conservatory, poorly furnished with plants, is 
 situated near the fountain of the Acqua Paola, as 
 before mentioned. + 
 
 Spontaneous Plants .— The following plants are 
 amongst those that grow spontaneously in Rome : the 
 small creeping Antirrhinum on walls, called Antirrhi- 
 num cymbalaria ; Antirrhinum majus ; Capparis spi- 
 nosa; Cotyledon umbilicus; all these are found on the 
 old walls. Viburnum tinus; Phylirea alaternus; the 
 common wild fig, called by the ancients Capri ficus ; 
 the Cheiranthus, called stock-july-flower ; Cheiran- 
 
 * See p. 433. 
 
 f See p, 477 and p. 501, 
 
540 
 
 WEATHER AT ROME. 
 
 thus murorum, or wallflower ; bramble ; two kinds of 
 hyacinth ; these grow on the rubbish amongst the 
 ruins, as at the Coliseum, and on the ruins of the 
 Coliseum many other plants are found. 
 
 Cyclamen Europeum under hedges ; Asplenium 
 eeterach on the sides of wells and in subterraneous 
 vaults ; Anemone pulsatilla and our garden anemone 
 in dry fields. 
 
 Weather . — At Rome during fifty-two days, from 
 the 3d of February to the 27 th of March 1818, 
 there were nineteen days in which it rained, and 
 some of these were cold and disagreeable. On most 
 of the other days there was sunshine, sometimes the 
 sky was free from clouds, and the warmth of the sun 
 in the afternoon was considerable. 
 
 Fahrenheit’s thermometer, placed on the outside 
 of a window about eight in the morning, during the 
 above mentioned period of fifty-two days, stood from 
 41 9 to 51 Q , and sometimes as high as 57 9 . 
 
 Annual Quantity of Rain . — The quantity of rain 
 that falls during the year in Rome is considerably 
 greater than the annual quantity in Paris or London, 
 as Lalande states. November and December are the 
 most rainy" months, and in these two months the 
 quantity of’ rain that falls at Rome is very consider- 
 able. 
 
INSALUBRITY OF THE LOW GROUNDS. 541 
 
 Of the Quality of the Atmosphere at Rome in re * 
 sped to Salubrity . 
 
 The situation of Rome, Strabo observes, was fix- 
 ed by necessity, not by choice. # 
 
 The Campus Martius and other low parts of the 
 town are subject to inundations of the river ; and 
 it appears, that, in remote times, the course of the 
 river was between the Capitoline and Palatine hill, 
 
 * “ The first inland city after Ostia is Rome, the only city 
 situated on the Tiber ; concerning which, we have observed, that 
 its situation was originally fixed upon by necessity, and not 
 by choice. It may be added, that those who afterwards enlarged 
 the city were not the masters of what was best, but were obliged 
 to suit the new additions to the old structures of their predeces- 
 sors. In the beginning of Rome, any one judging from the si- 
 tuation, would not have predicted its future prosperity and un« 
 exampled fortune ; but by activity and valour, the Romans hav- 
 ing got possession of the surrounding territory, there appeared a 
 concourse of advantages which exceeded those of all the places 
 on the globe, however favoured by their natural position.’' — 
 The Geography of Strabo, Book Y. — The advantages of the si- 
 tuation of Rome, which Livy introduces in the speech of Ca» 
 miilus, are, the healthiness of the hills, the convenience of the 
 river for bringing provision from the inland regions, and also 
 from the sea ; the sea not too distant, and not so near as to ex* 
 pose the city to the attack of Corsairs ; the situation of the city 
 in the middle of Italy. 
 
542 INSALUBRITY OF THE LOW GROUNDS. 
 
 and where the Forum Romanum was afterwards si- 
 tuated. * 
 
 The low grounds situated between the small hills 
 in Rome and the neighbouring country have no out- 
 let for the water, and if artificial drains are not made 
 these low grounds become marshes. Stagnant wa- 
 ter, in countries where the heat is considerable, is 
 found by experience to affect the inhabitants with 
 intermittent fevers. This effect probably arises from 
 the effluvia of putrid, animal, and vegetable matter, 
 contained in the water. In cold winters, and in 
 countries where there is little heat, the unhealthi- 
 ness from the vicinity of stagnant water is not re- 
 
 * “ Hie ubi nunc fora sunt udas tremuere paludes ; 
 
 Amne redundatis fossa madebat aquis. 
 
 Curtius ille lacus, siccas qui sustinet aras, 
 
 Nunc solida est tellus, sed lacus ante fuit. 
 
 Qua velabra solent in circum ducere pompas, 
 
 Nil prseter salices, crassave canna fuit. 
 
 Sa?pe suburbanas rediens con viva per undas, 
 
 Cantat ; et ad nautas ebria verba jacit. 
 
 Nondum conveniens diversis iste dguris 
 
 Nomen ab averso cepe rat amne Deus. (Vertumnus) 
 Hie quoque lucus erat juncis, et arundine densus, 
 
 Et pede velato non adeunda palus. 
 
 Stagna re^esserunt ; et aquas sua ripa coercet ; 
 
 Siccaque nunc tellus ; mos tamen ille manet. 
 
 Jlic ubi nunc fora sunt lintres errare videres, 
 
 Quaque jacent valles, Maxime Circe tuae.” 
 
 Ovid. Fast. Lib. XL 
 
INSALUBRITY OF THE LOW GROUNDS* 543 
 
 marked. Chemistry has not been able to detect any 
 thing peculiar in the gases composing the air of the 
 places where intermittent fevers prevail. 
 
 At Rome, a rainy season, Lancisi observes, is the 
 most unhealthy, and in such seasons the hospitals 
 receive a greater number of labourers from the country 
 affected with fever. A dry and warm summer is 
 more healthy, and the labourers do not take the 
 fever from exposure to the direct and violent heat of 
 the sun. 
 
 It is the opinion of Lancisi that all the unhealthy 
 situations in Rome and the neighbouring country 
 are marshes formed in the low grounds, from the 
 rain and hill water which collects in the valleys, and 
 which does not run off unless a channel is formed 
 by artificial drains. Any low, hollow, and moist si- 
 tuation in this district is found to be unhealthy ; an 
 elevated situation exposed to the winds is healthy, 
 and places that were unhealthy have become healthy 
 after having been drained and freed from the stag- 
 nant water. 
 
 Insalubrity mentioned by the Ancients . — The un- 
 healthiness of the neighbourhood of Rome is men- 
 tioned by Livy ; # the Vatican is mentioned as un- 
 healthy by Tacitus ; t Strabo speaks of the unheal- 
 
 * Liv. Lib. VII. 
 
 f “ Postremo ne salutis quidem cura infamibus Vatican! 
 locis magna pars tetendit, unde crebrae in vulgus mortes, efc 
 
544 INSALUBRITY OF THE LOW GROUNDS. 
 
 thiness of the Pontine marshes ; * * Seneca of the 
 unhealthiness of Ardea. 
 
 Insalubrity diminished by the Drains and Aque- 
 ducts . — During the growth and prosperity of an- 
 cient Rome, sewers were formed to carry off the 
 water from the valleys in the city, f and there was a 
 plentiful supply of running water from the aque- 
 ducts, which, by carrying away the impurities, di- 
 minished the unhealthiness that formerly prevailed, 
 as Frontinus observes, t 
 
 Destruction of the Aqueducts.— During the three 
 years siege of Rome by Totila and Vitiges, the aque- 
 ducts were cut, as Procopius relates, and the water 
 continuing to flow through the upper part of the 
 conduit might form marshes, and render the coun- 
 try unhealthy for a long time after. 
 
 Insalubrity of Rome in the Middle Ages. — In 
 the eleventh century Rome is described by Saint 
 
 adjacentia Tiber! Germanorum Gallorumque obnoxia mor- 
 bis corpora fluminis aviditas et sestus impatientia labefecit.”— 
 Tacit. 
 
 * Strab. Lib. V. cap. 12. 
 
 f “ Tarquinius infima urbis loca circa forum aliasque in- 
 terjectas collibus convalles, quia ex planis locis haud facile eve- 
 Iiebant aquas, cloacis e fastigio in Tiberim ductis siccat.”— 
 Liv. 
 
 X “ Ne pereuntes quidem aquae ociosae sunt, nam immun- 
 ditiarum facies, et impurior spiritus, [et causae gravioris ceeli, 
 quibus apud veteres urbis infamis aer fuit, sunt renaotae.”— 
 Frontin. de Aqueduct. 
 
DIMINISHED BY DRAINING. 
 
 64 5 
 
 Peter Damian as much inflicted with fevers, ferax 
 febrium, and at the end of the twelfth century, In- 
 nocent III. speaks of the unhealthiness of Rome ; 
 by reason of the prevailing unhealthiness, the Empe- 
 ror Frederic I. was obliged to withdraw his troops 
 from Rome to the hills. 
 
 The city became still more ruinous, marshy, 
 and neglected, during the seventy years that the 
 popes resided at Avignon. 
 
 At the return of Gregory XI. from Avignon 
 the number of inhabitants in Rome was 83,000. 
 
 Improvement of Rome . — Julius II. began to im- 
 prove Rome by buildings. He commenced the o- 
 perations for erecting the new basilic of Saint Pe- 
 ter’s, and laid out the Strada Julia, formerly the 
 Via Recta, which is still one of the principal streets 
 of Rome, extending half a mile in a straight line up 
 the river from the Ponte Sisto. 
 
 Leo X., during his ten years reign, brought new in- 
 habitants to settle in Rome from Como and Bergamo ; 
 they built in the Campus Martius, which in ancient 
 Rome was an open plain ; and in building they ne- 
 cessarily formed drains to carry off the water from the 
 marshy places. The number of inhabitants was in- 
 creased to 80,000. 
 
 By reason of the troubles and the sack of Rome* 
 in the reign of Clement VII., the city relapsed into 
 desolation, and, according to Jovius, the number of 
 inhabitants fell to 3*2, 000. 
 
 m m 
 
546 
 
 INSALUBRITY DIMINISHED, 
 
 From the death of Clement VII. to the time of 
 Lancisi, a period of nearly two centuries, Rome was 
 improved by the formation of sewers, new buildings, 
 the opening and paving of streets, all which opera- 
 tions tend to dry the ground, and to drain off stag- 
 nant water, thereby making the situation less un- 
 healthy. 
 
 Improvement of the Vatican .— The Vatican be- 
 came more healthy after the establishment of the 
 brick and tile kilns, and the manufacture of coarse 
 pottery, which is carried on to the south-east of 
 Saint Peter’s, and still more, by the building of the 
 church of Saint Peter’s, which was much advanced by 
 Sixtus V., and the Vatican library and palace by the 
 same pontiff ; and afterwards by Alexander VII., who 
 built the colonade of Saint Peter’s, cleared the ditch 
 of the Castel Sant Angelo, and formed drains through 
 the neighbouring fields. By these improvements 
 the Vatican has become as healthy as any of the less 
 elevated parts of Rome ; but it is not so healthy 
 as the more elevated parts of the hills of Rome. It 
 happened that the cleaning of the drains was 
 neglected for one or two years, and unhealthiness 
 again appeared in the Vatican and Civitas Leonina, 
 or Borgo. 
 
 Improvement of the Campo Marzo .— The Cam- 
 pus Martins was rendered more healthy by the 
 building of the Borghese palace by Paul III., and 
 afterwards by the building of Monte Citorio by In- 
 
 , 6 ' 
 
BY BUILDING AND DRAINING. 
 
 54 ? 
 
 nocent XII., and the construction of the landing 
 quay, la Ripetta, in an unhealthy place by Clement 
 XL, in Lancisi’s time. 
 
 The Pincian valley became more healthy by the 
 building of the College de Propaganda Fide by 
 Urban VIII., and by collecting the water in sewers. 
 
 Innocent X. rendered the Piazza Navona more 
 healthy by building the church of Santa Agnese. 
 
 Improvement of the Term i . — The baths of Dio- 
 cletian were improved and rendered more healthy 
 by the broad and rectilinear street from the Quiri- 
 nal hill to the Porta Pia, opened by Pius IV., and 
 the continuation of that street from Santa Susanna 
 to the pope’s palace at the marble horses, by Sixtus 
 V. ; and afterwards the baths of Diocletian were as 
 healthy as any of the higher parts of the hills in 
 Rome. 
 
 Clement XI., by the advice of Lancisi, had sewers 
 constructed from the south slope of the Quirinal hill 
 to the Tiber. 
 
 The region of San Francesco , near the Ripa 
 Grande, was unhealthy by reason of the gardens, 
 which must be irrigated, and give out the effluvia of 
 stagnant water ; but afterwards, when houses were 
 built there, in the reign of Clement X., the unheal- 
 thiness disappeared. 
 
 The Circus Maximus , in Lancisi’s Lime, was 
 marshy, and one of the most unhealthy parts of the 
 town. 
 
548 UNHEALTHINESS FROM INUNDATIONS. 
 
 Inundations of the River . — The overflowing of 
 the Tiber, which takes place more in Rome than on 
 other parts of the river, is a cause of unhealthiness 
 to the Campo Marzo, and other places subject to 
 the inundation. The Tiber carries in its water and 
 deposits a muddy sand, and after the water has re- 
 tired the cellars and low parts of the houses are co- 
 vered with this wet slime. After the inundation in 
 December 1702 , Lancisi obtained an order from 
 the pope to have the slime removed from the cellars 
 and houses that had been under water ; and he says, 
 that, in consequence, the intermittent fevers were 
 less frequent for some years than they had been be- 
 fore. After these inundations the walls of the 
 houses are left imbibed with moisture, and they 
 ought to be dried by lighting fires in the rooms ; 
 the neglect of this produces fevers. 
 
 The River obstructed by Boat- Mills and Piers 
 of Bridges . — Belisarius, during the siege by the 
 Goths, first established floating-mills on the Tiber, * 
 and there are still four or five moored on the river 
 by chains, although there is a great fall of a copious 
 stream from, the Acqua Paola down the face of the 
 Janiculine employed for driving mills, which might 
 do more work if they were constructed according to 
 the rational improvements of Smeaton and other 
 modern engineers. 
 
 The disadvantage of the floating-mills is, that they 
 
 * See page 476. 
 
SUMMER HEAT IN ROME. 
 
 549 
 
 obstruct the course of the river, dam up the water, 
 and make the inundations rise higher than they 
 otherwise would. 
 
 The thick piers and moderate sized arches of the 
 bridges contribute also to increase the inundation ; 
 the channel would be less encumbered if the arches 
 were of a greater span, as many of the modern bridges 
 in London and Paris are. 
 
 Heat in the Town and Winds . — Horace mentions 
 the autumnal heat as unhealthy in Rome. * * * § 
 
 Nero was most hurtful to the state by his extra- 
 vagant taste for building, as Suetonius mentions, t 
 Some admired his public buildings, but detested the 
 tyrant, t After the fire, however, in the reign of 
 Nero, a great part of the city was rebuilt with regular 
 and wide streets ; and Nero made many useful regu- 
 lations with respect to the form of the houses and for 
 the prevention of fires ; but it was thought that the 
 old narrow streets and high houses contributed more 
 to the health of the inhabitants, affording shelter from 
 the violent heat of the sun, to which the wide streets 
 were too much exposed. § 
 
 * Hor. Epist. Lib. I. cli. 7« 
 
 -{' “ Non in alia re damnosior (Nero) quara aedificando.” — - 
 Sue ton. 
 
 J “ Quid Nerone pejus 
 
 Quid thermis melius Neronianis.” 
 
 Martial ,«Lib. VII. Epig. 4*2. 
 
 § “ Domus non ut post Gallica incendia nulla distinctione, 
 vel passim erectae ; sed dimensis vicorum ordinibus et latis via- 
 
55 0 
 
 SUMMER HEAT. 
 
 In modern Rome the great heat of the sun in 
 summer is very inconvenient to those who walk the 
 streets, and a carriage is therefore said to be a fifth 
 element, and almost as essential and indispensable 
 to an inhabitant of the city as earth, air, fire, and 
 water. 
 
 The unhealthy season of the year in Rome is con- 
 sidered to be from the 2 L 2d of July to the first rains 
 in October ; and during that period it is thought 
 dangerous for the health to dwell in any part of the 
 country near Rome except the high grounds. 
 
 rum spatiis, cohibita aedificioruni altitudine, affabre factis areis, 
 additisque porticibus, quae frontem insularum protegerent. Eas 
 portions Nero sua pecunia extructurum, purgatasque areas do- 
 minis traditurum poilicitus est. Addidit praemia pro cujusque 
 ordine, et rei familiaris copiis, fimvitque tempus intra quod ef- 
 fectis domibus, aut insulis adipiscerentur. Ituderi accipiendo 
 Hostienses paludes destinabat, utquc naves, quse frumentum 
 Tiberi subvectassent, onustae rudere decurrerent. zEdificiaque 
 ipsa certa sui parte sine trabibus, saxo Gabino, Albanoque so- 
 lidarcntur, (the Albano stone is piperino,) quod is lapis igni 
 impervius est. Jam aqua privatorum licentia intercepta, quo 
 largior, et pluribus in locis in publicum flueret, custodes; et 
 subsidia reprimendis igni bus in propatulo quisque haberet; nec 
 communione parietum, sed propriis quoque muris ambirentur. 
 Ea ex utilitate accepta decorem quoque novae urbi attulere. 
 Erant qui crederent, veterem illam formam salubritati magis 
 conduxisse ; quoniam angustiae itinerum et altitudo tectorum 
 non perinde solis vapore perrumperentur ; at nunc patulam 
 latitudinem, et nulla umbra defensam, graviore aestu ardes= 
 cere.”— -Tacit. Annal. L. XV. 43. 
 
SOUTH-EAST WIND. 
 
 55 1 
 
 On Sundays, in autumn, the Piazza Navona is laid 
 under water for the sake of coolness, and people go 
 through this water in carriages and on foot ; but it 
 is found necessary to remove carefully all corrupti- 
 ble filth from the piazza, both before letting on the 
 water and after it is taken off ; for if the wetted im- 
 purities remain during the ensuing night, the air 
 becomes filled with effluvia most offensive to the 
 sense and hurtful to health. 
 
 By the advice of Lancisi an edict, or what is term- 
 ed a Motu Proprio, from the form of words at the 
 beginning, was issued by the pope, in 1709 5 for clean- 
 ing the streets of Rome. In the present day the 
 cleaning of the streets is very much neglected. 
 
 Sometimes too dry a summer is detrimental to the 
 health in Rome, but Lancisi found, that unhealthi- 
 ness more frequently appeared in wet summers. 
 
 The Sirocco .— The south-east wind, called, in Ita- 
 lian,* Sirocco, is unhealthy and debilitating at Rome, 
 but does not produce fevers. Some of the injurious 
 qualities of this wind may be derived from its blow- 
 ing over the Pontine marshes, which are eighteen 
 English miles in length, nine broad, and their near- 
 est point is thirty-five English miles from Rome ; 
 but the south-east is an unhealthy wind also in other 
 parts of the Mediterranean, as Plippocrates men- 
 tions. t 
 
 * See page 273. f Hippocrat. Aj&orism. 5. 
 
EPIDEMICS AT ROME# 
 
 55°Z 
 
 A hundred years before Lancisi’s time it was cus- 
 tomary to construct the houses at Rome so that 
 they had no windows to the south ; but, in his time, 
 in consequence of the draining of some marshes, it 
 was found that there was no inconvenience in hav- 
 ing windows to the south, and the houses were then 
 built with the greatest part of their windows to the 
 south. 
 
 Occasional Cause of Epidemics at Rome . — Science 
 has not been able to give a satisfactory account of the 
 causes of the appearance of epidemics at particular 
 times and in particular countries. The ancient Ro- 
 mans, when violent epidemics prevailed, knew not 
 what to do, and had recourse to the books of the 
 Sybil!. The moderns are as much at fault, and are 
 still to seek in such cases. * 
 
 Lancisi is of opinion, that the chief causes of the 
 epidemic diseases which occur at Rome, are the ef- 
 fluvia of marshes and of stagnant water, and also the 
 cold north wind in spring, succeeded by a south 
 wind. The diseases produced by these two causes 
 are intermittent fevers or agues, which he terms 
 febris castrensis, catarrhs, continued fevers, and in- 
 flammation of the throat and lungs. 
 
 Villas . — Alexander Petronius, a medical author. 
 
 * Gravis pestilensque omnibus animalibus aestas exce- 
 pit, cujus insanabili pernicie, quando nec causa, nec finis in- 
 veniebatur, libri Sibyllini ex S. C. aditi sunt.” — Liv. Lib. V. 
 
QUALITY OF THE WATER AT ROME. 
 
 553 
 
 lias written a treatise concerning the unhealthiness 
 of the country -houses near Rome, which is cited by 
 Donati. On account of this unhealthiness, the 
 villas to which the wealthy inhabitants of Rome 
 resort in autumn, are built on the Latian hills at 
 Albano and Frascati, and on the Apennine at Ti- 
 voli. Lancisi, however, is of opinion, that many 
 diseases are ascribed to the unhealthiness of the coun- 
 try houses, which, in reality, have been occasioned 
 by fatigue j he mentions cases in which persons were 
 affected with fever after having gone to their villa 
 at Frascati or Tivoli and returned in a day, and these 
 places are not suspected of being unhealthy. Sleep 
 after dinner is a piece of regimen he recommends. 
 In the opinion of Lancisi, no situations near Rome 
 are unhealthy, except those which are in the vicini- 
 ty of marshes and stagnant water. 
 
 The sulphureous soil, the nitrous soil, and the poz- 
 zolana, which occur in and near Rome, he considers 
 not to be unhealthy, unless they are combined with 
 dampness. 
 
 Water . — The water of the Fontana di Trevi, 
 which is supplied by the aqueduct of the Acqua 
 Virgo, is the best water of all the three aqueducts 
 that supply Rome. 
 
 The water of the Tiber, if allowed to deposit dur- 
 ing six months in a cistern, is fit for drinking, and 
 was used by some of the monasteries in the time of 
 Lancisi in 17 10 . 
 
 n n 
 
554 QUALITY OF THE WATER. 
 
 The wells in Rome rise and fall or librate with 
 the water of the Tiber, with which, therefore, it 
 appears they communicate. Their water is whole- 
 some, except when contaminated with extraneous 
 putrid matter. * 
 
 Lancisi . — The eminent medical author Lancisi, 
 from one of whose works most of the preceding ob- 
 servations respecting the salubrity of the atmosphere 
 at Rome are taken, was physician to Clement XI.; 
 he is rather disposed to represent the question on 
 the salubrity of Rome in a favourable point of view. 
 This treatise, de Romani Coeli Qualitatibus, publish- 
 ed in 1710 , and dedicated to Cardinal Annibal Al- 
 bani, nephew of Clement XI., is contained in the 
 second volume of the works of Lancisi, published at 
 Rome in 1745. The third volume contains a trea- 
 tise on the Pontine marshes, entitled, De Noxiis 
 Paludum Effluviis. 
 
 * Lancisi, de Cceli Romani Qualitatibus, 
 
 END OF VOLUME FIRST, 
 
 Fruited by George Ramsay and Company, 
 Edinburgh, 1819.