THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER: BEING A DESCRIPTION OF THE VARIOUS PROCESSES FOR THE FABRICATION, COLORING, AND FINISHING OF EVERY KIND OF PAPER; INCLUDING THE DIFFERENT RAW MATERIALS AND THE METHODS FOR DETERMINING THEIR VALUES; THE TOOLS, MACHINES, AND PRACTICAL DETAILS CONNECTED WITH AN INTELLIGENT AND A PROFITABLE PROSECUTION OF THE ART, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE BEST AMERICAN PRACTICE. TO WHICH ARE ADDED A HISTORY OF PAPER, COMPLETE LISTS OF PAPER-MAKING MATERIALS, LISTS OF AMERICAN MACHINES, TOOLS, AND PROCESSES USED IN TREATING THE RAW MATERIALS, AND IN MAKING, COLORING, AND FINISHING PAPER. BY CHARLES THOMAS DAVIS, AUTHOR OF THE " MANUFACTURE OF LEATHER," " A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS. TILES, AND TERRA-COTTA," ETC. ETC. ILLUSTRATED BY ONE HUNDRED AND EIGHTY ENGRAVINGS. PHILADELPHIA: HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND IMPORTERS, No. 810 WALNUT STREET. LOXDOK : SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE & RIVING/TON, CROWN BUILDINGS, 1SS FLEET STREET. 1886. Copyright by CHARLES THOMAS DAVIS, 1886. Copyright by HENRY CAREY BAIRD & CO., 188G. C \s Pbixtijm Housk, 70.", .laync street. PREFACE. To tell the story of the manufacture of paper and describe con- cisely the processes employed in the various stages of paper- making, and give an account of all the known substances that have ever been used for the purposes for which we employ paper is by no means an easy task. At the present time, when books, newspapers, and other periodicals are issued to the world in numbers almost beyond calculation, certainly no apology is due for a dissertation on the manufacture of paper, on the score of the lack of importance of that article. The remarkable advance which has been made in the United States in all classes of manufactures during the past twenty years has excited alike the admiration and the envy of the civilized world, but in no industry has greater progress been made than in the fabrication of paper. The great ingenuity and intelligence of our people, coupled with an abundance of all the raw materials used in paper-making, have aided in developing that industry in this country to proportions entirely unknown in any other country on the globe. It was the writer's first intention to have devoted the book entirely to a description of the " practical" processes employed IV PREFACE. in paper-making in various parts of the world; and to this end he collected in the United States, Germany, France, Belgium, and Great Britain a large amount of so-called "practical infor- mation/' But upon a reconsideration of the subject, and by the advice of some of the leading paper-makers in the United States and in Europe, he decided that the publication of such information would prove of little value to the paper trade, for the reason that paper-makers in the United States have little to learn from the paper manufacturers of Europe. The machinery and processes in use in Great Britain and on the continent of Europe arc far behind those employed in the United States, consequently the author determined that the book should be confined almost exclusively to a description of the machines and processes em- ployed in the leading mills of this country. In order that such descriptions should not be too meagre the size of the volume has been materially enlarged over that at first contemplated. If American readers of the present volume complain that the author haa described at length processes and machines which are already familiar to them through trade publications or otherwise, they should remember that such inventions are probably not so fami- liar to those engaged in paper-making in foreign countries whence a considerable proportion of the present edition of this book will go. On account of the importance of the acid or bisulphite pro- cessea Cor making pulp from wood, etc., the author has given considerable space to a description of such processes, and while lie thinks the apparatus employed in working these processes is much too cumbersome and expensive for general use, he could PREFACE. V not on that account omit a description of them ; nor should he be held accountable for the defects in such processes, the aim in view being to present a description of the state of the art as it exists at the present time. It would, of course, be impossible, in a book the size of the present one, to describe all the processes and machines which have been invented and used in paper-making in the United States ; but the lists of patents which this volume con- tains give reference to the number and date of nearly all the inventions which have been patented in the United States since the year 1790 to the end of the year 1885, and copies of all patents issued subsequent to the year 1866 can be obtained, upon application to the Commissioner of Patents, at a cost of twenty- live cents each. Patents issued prior to the year 1866 require to be copied in manuscript, and the cost of such copies depends upon the number of w r ords contained in the patent. CHARLES T. DAVIS. Washington, D. C, 1114 Pennsylvania Ave., July 1, 1886. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. The History of the Manufacture of Paper. page Alliance between the manufacture of paper and progress in civilization . 17 Materials belonging to the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms used for records of human intelligence . . . . . . . .18 Clay and Terra-cotta used for bank notes, public records, etc., in Nineveh and Babylon ; Histories of Chaldea, Babylonia, and Assyria found on clay tablets 19 Terra-cotta tablets in the British Museum ; The history of Creation and of the Flood found on terra-cotta tablets ....... 20 Egyptian papyri in the British Museum ; Description of the three forms of writing used by the Egyptians, Hieroglyphic, Hieratic, and the Demotic 21 Characteristic differences of the works written with Hieratic and Demotic characters ............ 22 Form and size of the Egyptian papyri ; Depositories of cylindrical rolls of papyrus ; Introduction of papyrus among the Western nations aided by Alexander ; Description of papyrus ....... 23 Papyrus superseded by cotton paper ; Leather used by the Israelites ; Probable invention of parchment ; Manufacture and present use of parch- ment ............. 24 Chinese use of the inner bark of the bamboo ; Origin of the word paper ; Modern materials used in the manufacture of paper; Other uses for paper than as a printing and writing material ..... 25 Uncertainty of the precise time of the introduction of modern paper ; Rewards offered by M. Miserman and the Royal Society of Sciences at Gottingen for oldest manuscripts written upon rag paper ; Tract of Peter, Abbot of Cluny, A. D., 1122-50, giving the first mention of rag paper . . . . . . . . . . .26 Paper from fibrous materials and cotton- wool made by the Chinese, in A. D. 152; Cotton paper and its manufacture made known to the AVestern world by the Arabs ; Materials used by the Chinese in manufacture of paper . . . . . . . . , ""g . .s ... 27 viii CONTENTS. PAGE Various titles applied to cotton paper in the Middle Ages ; Early use of cotton paper by the Arabians; Remarks upon the existing samples of cotton- paper MSS. written in European countries 28 Copies of statutes left by Empress Irene, in the eleventh or twelfth cen- tury; Use of paper among the Greeks ; The oldest European documents on cotton paper ; Arabians introduce paper into Spain, in 704 . . 29 Valencia, Xativa, and Toledo, the primitive seats of cotton-paper industry in Europe; Introduction by the Crusaders, in 1189, of manufacture of cotton paper into France; Rapid development of the paper trade in France in the fourteenth century 30 Superiority, during a long period, of French and Dutch papers; Manufac- ture of paper in England ; First English paper patent .... 31 Manufacture of paper in Italy after the fall of the Moorish power in Spain ; Establishment of paper-mills in Germany ...... 32 Arabians, in Spain, the first to mix rags with cotton pulp; First manufac- ture of linen paper in Europe ; Discussion by James Yates as to the period and manner of the invention of linen paper .... 33 Specimens of linen paper described by Gotthelf Fischer, and by Schwand- ner 34 Uncertainty of the circumstances which led to the invention of linen paper; Remark by the Arabian physician, Abdollatiph, upon the sale of cloth found in the catacombs 35 Abundant testimony that Egypt supplied all Europe with papyrus until near the close of the eleventh century ; Introduction of cotton paper into Europe in the eleventh century . . . . . . . 36 Superior facilities of the Egyptians for improvement in manufacture of paper; Extract from Petrus Cluniacensis ...... 37 Linen paper proved to be an Eastern invention, and first introduced into Europe by the Saracens of Spain ; Papers with and without water-marks 39 Varieties of paper and water-marks serve as a guide to approximating the periods of undated documents; Peculiarities of rag paper at different periods of its manufacture .40 Paper mills in Europe, in January, 188G ; Enumeration of the countries in Europe according to their relative importance in paper manufacture ; Modern paper-mills in Japan, India, and Australia .... 41 Comparative production of paper in Canada, South America, Cuba, and Mexico ; United States the greatest paper manufacturing country in the world ; Manufacture of paper in England ...... 42 Progress of paper manufacture impeded in the United States by industrial depressions, arising from financial complications; First paper-mill in the American Colonies established by the efforts of William Bradford, one of the earliest printers 43 CONTENTS. ix PAGE First paper-mill in the Colonies built by William Rittenhuysen (William Rittenhouse) on Paper Mill Run, near Philadelphia ; Ivy Mill, in Dela- ware County, Pa., built by Thomas Willcox, in 1727; Paper-mills in Massachusetts under an exclusive patent, in 1728 ..... 44 Difficulty of procuring suitable workmen causes the stoppage of the mill . 45 Paper-mill in Connecticut established by a State bounty in 17G8 ; Paper- mills in America at the commencement of the Revolution . . .46 Invention of making paper of large size, by N. L. Robert, of Essonnes, France ; French bounty to aid the inventor ; Transfer of the machine to England . . . . . . . . . . . .47 English patent to John Gamble for improvement of Robert's machine ; Patent to Henry Fourdrinier for manufacturing paper of an indefinite length. . . ... . . . . '.4 : .~>i ■ * r ,r-« 48 History of the Fourdrinier machine ; Paper-mills in the United States in 1810 49 Value of paper produced in the United States in 1810 ; Importation of rags from Europe ; Development of American industry by the War of 1812; American patent system; Destruction of Patent-office by fire in 1836 50 American patents for manufacture of paper; John Dickinson's invention patented in England, in 1809 ; Mr. Canson's -improvement of the Four- drinier machine, in 1826 . . . . . . . . . 51 U. S. patent to Thomas Gilpin, of Philadelphia, for paper-making machine, in 1816 ; Thomas Gilpin's mills on the Brandywine for the manufacture of wool, cotton, and paper ; Disastrous results to wool and cotton manufac- tures by English competition after the close of the war .... 52 Paper cut from a continuous sheet sent by Thos. Gilpin to Philadelphia ; Poulson's "Daily Advertiser" the first publication printed upon it; M. Carey & Son's Historical Atlas of Lavoisne, printed on paper made by T. Gilpin, in 1821. .......... 53 Loss of Thomas Gilpin's mills by a flood, in 1822; Destruction of the paper industry in Pennsylvania and Delaware by heavy importations of paper for want of proper protection; Tariff Act of April 26, 1816; Congres- sional use of paper imported from England and France . . . .54 List of patents for paper manufacture issued by the United States, from 1820 to 1830 55 Encouragement to cylinder machines of American invention after 1822 ; Value of the machinery and paper-mill property stated at the convention of paper-makers, in 1842 56 Keller's invention for grinding wood for manufacture of pulp ; Henry Voelter's improvement of the pulp- machine, patented in the United States ; Prejudice against wood- paper overcome by stratagem in Boston . 57 Superiority of wood-paper for rapid printing ...... 58 X CONTENTS. PAGE (neat improvements in manufacture of paper since I860 .... 59 Comparison of decades 1830-1840 and 1840-1850; Advance in price of paper between 1850-1855 GO Census returns of 1860 of paper-making; Paper as a substitute for cotton after the outbreak of the Civil War ; Prices of paper in 1 8C2 . . Gl Decline in price of paper after 18G5 ; Introduction of wood-pulp and large consumption of straw for newspaper ; New materials for manufacture of Manilla paper ; Larue number of patents issued for paper-making from 18G5 to 1885 ; Cheapening of paper production from 1870 to 1885 . . 62 CHAPTER II. Materials used for Paper — Micrograpiiical Study of the Manu- facture of Paper — Cellulose — Determination of Cellulose — Recognition of Vegetable Fibres. Materials used for paper 64 Mierographic study of the manufacture of paper ; Necessary qualities of fibres for paper-making; Five classes of paper-making substances; Cellu- lose an especially characteristic product of the vegetable kingdom . . 7 7 Hydrocellulose and oxycellulose^ with their chemical characteristics . . 78 Determination of cellulose ; Muller's processes for 79 Improvement by Bevan and Cross upon Muller's processes ... 80 Recognition of vegetable fibres ; Filaments of cotton as shown by the micro- scope ; Distinguishing feature of cotton filament from all other vegetable fibres 81 Linen or flax fibre as seen under the microscope ; Effects of caustic potash upon linen and cotton fibres ; Effects produced upon linen and cotton fibres and tissues by their immersion in oil . . . . . 82 Distinguishing properties of New Zealand flax, hemp-fibre, sizal, and jute fibres 83 Examining fibres under the microscope ....... 84 CHAPTER III. Commercial Classifications of Paper — Sizes of Paper — Commercial Classifications of Paper-Making Materials. Classifications of papers an74 A. 1)., of particular interest as having been written at Samarcand on paper, presumably made at that seat of the first Arab manufacture (Pal. Soc, pi. GO). Other early examples are a volume of poems written at Bagdad, 990 A. 1)., now at Leipsic, and tin; (iospel of St. Luke, 993 A. D., in the Vatican Library (Pal. Soc, pis. 7, 21). In the great collection of Syriac MSS., which woe obtained from the Nitrian desert in Egypt, and are now in the British Museum, there are many volumes written on cotton paper of the tenth century. The oldest two dated examples, however, are not earlier than 1075 and 1084 A. D. It may not be amiss to include in this note a few words regarding the extant samples of cotton paper MSS. written in European countries. Several which have been quoted by former writers as early instances have proved, on more recent examination, to be nothing but vellum. The ancient fragments of the (Iospel of St. Mark, preserved at Venice, which were stated by Moffer to be of cotton paper, by Montfaucon of papyrus, and by the Benedictines HISTORY. 29 The Empress Irene, wife of Alexes Commene, at about the close of the eleventh century or the commencement of the twelfth, in the statutes for regulating some religious houses at Constantinople, states that she had left three copies of these statutes, two on parchment and one on cotton paper (de Martin, 4 Essais chirniques sur les arts et manufactures,' t. iii. p. 161). "Tolle pergamenam Grcecam, quce fit ex lana lingi" are the words used by Theophilus, presbyter, who wrote in the twelfth century. 1 But notwithstanding this early reference to cotton paper by Theophilus, under the name of Greek parchment, paper probably was not used to any great extent in Greece, much prior to the second half of the thirteenth century, for there are no reliable Greek MSS. on paper which bear an earlier date than about the middle of that century. After the capture of Samarcand in 704, the Arabians transplanted the art of fabricating paper to Spain, and to of bark, are in fact written on skin. The oldest European document on cotton paper is a diploma of King Roger of Sicily, of the year 1 102. The oldest known imperial deed on the same material is a charter of Frederick II., to the nuns of Goess in Styria, of the year 1228, now at Vienna. In 1231, however, the same emperor, on account of the liability of paper made from cotton to be affected by the damp atmosphere, forbade further use of paper for official documents, which were in future to be inscribed on vellum. In France the Liber plegiorum, the entries of which began with the year 1223, is made of rough cotton paper; and similarly the registers of the Council of Ten, beginning in 1325, and of the Emperor Henry VII. (1308-13), preserved at Tunis, are also written on a like substance. The letters addressed from Castile to the English king, Edward L, in 1279 and following years (Pauli in Bericht. Berl. Akad., 1854), are instances of Spanish-made paper ; and other specimens in existence prove that in this latter country a rough kind of charta bonbycina was manufactured to a compar- atively late date. ' Encyclopaedia Brit.' 1 Schedula diversarum artium, 1, 23. 30 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the Moors, the credit of first manufacturing paper in Europe is undoubtedly due. Valencia and its neighbor Xativa, as also Toledo, the latter city being about forty miles distant from Madrid, were the primitive seats of the cotton-paper industry in Europe. When the Crusaders visited Byzantium, Palestine, and Syria, they became acquainted with the great convenience and the value of paper, and they carried back with them some knowledge of its manufacture. But it was not until after the fourth crusade that the first paper-mills were estab- lished in France, the art of making cotton paper being intro- duced in the year 1189, in the district of Herault. The French were a very energetic and cultured race, and as the Norman buildings of the twelfth century plainly show, they took excessive delight in construction ; their princes and nobles seem to have taken their greatest pleasure in dwelling in and constantly beautifying their magnificent castles. They did not care so much for feasting and high living as their English neighbors, but devoted their time and talents to the development of those arts and manufactures which contribute so greatly to the refinement of society. In the twelfth century new ideas everywhere appeared at once in France, and the people prosecuted their acquired knowledge and their own inventions with so much energy and skill that we are not surprised at the very rapid develop- ment of the paper trade in France during the fourteenth century, for she was not only soon in a position to provide for HISTORY. 31 her own wants, but also to supply all her neighbors. Troyes and Essonnes are the oldest centres of the paper industry in France. The great progress of France in paper manufacture stimu- lated the fabrication of paper in the Netherlands, and for a long period the French and Dutch papers were the best produced in Europe. That England was far less progressive in the manufacture of paper than either of the two countries which have been last mentioned, is incontestibly shown by the language of the English patent of John Briscoe, granted July 4, 1685, and which is for: "The true art and way of making English paper for writing, printing, and for other uses, both as good and, as serviceable in all respects and as white as any French or Dutch paper." It seems almost incredible that no paper was made in England prior to the time of the Tudors, but such indeed seems to be the fact. A manufacturer by the name of Tait is stated to have operated a paper manufactory in Hertfort early in the six- teenth century, and a German named Spielman is said to have had a paper-mill at Dartford in 1588; but if paper was produced at these works it was undoubtedly of the common sort. In corroboration of the last statement we have the lan- guage of the first English patent for making paper granted as late as February 16, 1665, to Charles Hildegerd for "the way and art of making blew paper used by sugar bakers and others," and also the second English patent for paper granted 32 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. in January, 1675, to Eustace Bameby, for "The art and skill of making all sorts of white paper for the use of writing and printing, being a new manufacture and never practised in any way in any of our kingdoms or dominions" thus show- ing the incipiency in England of the manufacture of writing and printing paper. 1 After the fall of the Moorish power and the decline of the paper-making industry in Spain, the little town of Fabriano in the province of Ancona, in Central Italy, rose into promi- nence as a centre for the fabrication of fine paper. In 1340 a paper-mill was established at Padua, this was followed by one at Treviso, and then a little later other paper manu- factories were established in the territories of Florence, Bologna, Milan, Venice, etc. Southern Germany, even as late as the fifteenth century, imported most of its paper from the line of factories in Northern Italy. Italian workmen were, however, induced to aid in estab- lishing paper-mills in Germany, and the manufacture of paper was commenced in the latter country at an early date, and numerous mills were operated during the fourteenth century near Cologne and in Mainz, in the latter even as early as about 1320. Nuremberg did not possess a paper-mill until 1390; but Augsburgh and Ratisbon were places of early manufacture. 1 In regard to the early use of cotton paper in England for writing upon there is evidence that it was employed for registers and accounts even as early as 1309. The register of the Hustings Court of Lyme Regis, now in the British Museum, contains entries which commenced in the last-named year. But the appearance of the paper shows that it was without doubt imported either from Spain or from France. HISTORY. 33 The Arabians in Spain were the first to mix rags with the cotton pulp in the fabrication of paper, and in that im- ported into England from Spain at the commencement of the fourteenth century the threads of rags are plainly visible imbedded in the pulp. Linen paper was first made in Europe in the fourteenth century, but until about the middle of that century woollen fabrics probably formed a large percentage of the material from which the pulp was produced, but in individual in- stances this fact requires to be established by the assistance of the microscope. The period and manner of the invention of linen paper are thus described in 4 Trextinum Antiquorum,' by James Yates, M.A., Tart I. pp. 383-388 : " No part of the res diplo- matica has been more frequently discussed than the question respecting the origin of paper made from linen rags. The inquiry is interesting on account of the unspeakable import- ance of this material in connection with the progress of knowledge and all the means of civilization, and it also claims attention from the philologist as an aid in determin- ing the age of manuscripts. " Wehrs refers to a document written A. D. 1308, as the oldest known specimen of linen paper ; and, as the inven- tion must have been at least a little previous to the prepara- tion of this document, he fixes upon 1300 as its probable date. 1 Various writers on the subject, as Von Murr, Breit- kopf, SchOnemann, etc., concur in this opinion. 1 'Vom Papier,' pp. 309, 343. 3 34 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. i; Gotthelf Fischer, in his essay on paper marks, 1 cites an extract from an account written in 1301 on linen paper. In this specimen the mark is a circle surmounted by a sprig, at the end of which is a star. The paper is thick, firm, and well grained; and its water-lines and water-marks (vergures et pontuseaux) may readily be distinguished. " The date was carried considerably higher by Schwandner, principal keeper of the Imperial Library at Vienna, who found among the charters of the Monastery of Gossin Upper Styria one in a state of decay, only seven inches long and three wide. So highly did he estimate the value of this curious relic as to publish in 1788 a full account of his discovery in a thin quarto volume, which bears the following title: 4 Chartam linteam antiquissiman, omnia hactenus producta specimina a?tate sua superantem, ex cimeliis Bibliotheca? Augustac Vindobonensis, exponit Jo. Ge. Schwandner,' etc. The document is a mandate of Frederick II. , Emperor of the Romans, entrusting to the Archbishop of Saltzburg and the Duke of Austria the determination of a dispute between the Duke of Carinthia and the Monastery of Goss, respecting the property of the latter in Carinthia. Schwandner proves the date of it to be 1243. He does not say whether it has any lines or water-marks, but is quite satisfied from its flexi- bility and other qualities that it is linen. Although on the first discovery of this document some doubt was expressed as to its genuineness, it appears to have risen in estimation with 1 This essay translated into French is published by Jansen, in his 1 Essai snr Porigine de la gravure en bois et en taille-douce.' Paris, 1808, tome i. pp. 357- 385. HISTORY. 35 succeeding writers ; and it is probable rather from inadvert- ence than from any deficiency in the evidence, that it is not noticed at all by Schonemann, Ebert, Delandine, or by Home. Due attention is, however, bestowed upon it by August Friedrich PfeifFer, 4 Uber Biicher-Handschriften, Erlangen,' 1810, pp. 39, 40. " With regard to the circumstances which led to the inven- tion of the paper now in common use, or the country in which it took place, we find in the writers on the subject from Polydore Virgil to the present day nothing but con- jectures or confessions of ignorance. Wehrs supposes, and others follow him, that in making paper linen rags were either by accident or through design at first mixed with cotton rags, so as to produce a paper which was partly linen and partly cotton, and that this led by degrees to the manu- facture of paper from linen only. 1 Wehrs also endeavors to claim the honor of the invention for Germany, his own country ; but Schonemann gives that distinction to Italy, because there, in the district of Ancona, a considerable manufacture of cotton paper was carried on before the four- teenth century. 2 All, however, admit that they have no satisfactory evidence on the subject. " A clear light is thrown upon these questions by a remark 3 of the Arabian physician Abdollatiph, who visited Egypt 1 'Vom Papier,' p. 183. 2 ' Diplomatik,' vol. i. p. 494. 3 Chapter iv. p. 188 of Silvestre de Saey's French translation, p. 221 of Wahl's German translation. This interesting passage was translated as follows by Edward Pococke, the younger. "Et qui ex Arabibus, ineolisve Rifae aliieve has areas indagant, hiec integumenta diripiunt, quodque in iis rapienduin invenitur; et confieiunt sibi vestes, aut ea ehartariis vendunt ad conficiendam 36 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. A. I). 1200. He informs us 4 that the cloth found in the cata- combs, (did used to envelop the mummies, teas made into gar- ments or sold to the scribes to make paper for shopkeepers' This cloth was linen, and the passage of Abdollatiph is proof, which, however, lias never been produced as such, of the manufacture of linen paper as early as the year 1200. " This account coincides remarkably with what we know from various other sources. Professor Tychsen, in his learned and curious dissertation on the use of paper from papyrus (published in the 1 Commentationes Keg. Soc. Gottingensis Eecentiores,' vol. iv. A. D. 1820), has brought abundant testimony to prove that Egypt supplied all Europe with this kind of paper until towards the end of the eleventh century. The use of it was then abandoned, cotton paper being employed instead. The Arabs in consequence of their conquests in Bucharia had learned the art of making cotton paper about the year 704, and through them or the Saracens it was introduced into Europe in the eleventh century. 1 We may therefore consider it as in the highest degree probable, that the mode of making cotton paper was known to the paper-makers of Egypt. At the same time endless quantities of linen cloth, the best of all materials for the manufacture of paper, were to be obtained from the catacombs. " If we put together these circumstances we cannot but perceive how they concur in illustrating and justifying the chartam emporeaticam." Silvestre de Sacy (Notice, etc.), animadverting on White's version, which is entirely different, expresses his approbation ofPococke's, from which Wahl's does not materially differ. 1 Wehrs, 'vom Papier,' pp. 131, 144, note. Breitkopf, p. 81. HISTORY. 37 statement of Abdollatiph. We perceive the interest which the great Egyptian paper-manufacturers had in the improve- ment of their article, and the unrivalled facilities which thev possessed for this purpose ; and thus the direct testimony of an eye-witness of the highest reputation for veracity and intelligence, supported as it is by collateral probabilities, tends to clear up in a great measure the long-agitated ques- tion respecting the origin of paper such as we now com- monly use for writing. 44 The evidence being carried thus far, we may now take in connection with it the following passage from Petrus Cluniacensis : — 44 4 Seel cvjusmodi librwn ? Si talem quotes quotidie in asu legendi habemus, utique ex pellibus arietum, liircorum, vet vitulorum, sive ex biblis, veljtmcis orientalium pallidum, out ex rasuris veterum pannorum, seu ex qualibet alia forte viliore materia compactos, et pennis avium vet calamis palustrium locorum, qualibet tincturo infectis descriptos? Tractates adv. Judaeos, c. v. in Max. Bibl. vet. Patrum, torn. xxii. p. 1014. 44 All the writers upon this subject, except Trombelli, suppose the Abbot of Cluny to allude in the phrase 'ex rasuris veterum pannorum'' to the use of woollen and cotton cloth only, and not of linen. But, as we are now authorized to carry up the invention of linen paper higher than before, and as the mention of it by Abdollatiph justi- fies the conclusion that it was manufactured in Egypt some time before his visit to that country in 1200, we may rea- sonably conjecture that Petrus Cluniacensis alluded to the 38 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. same fact. The treatise above quoted is supposed to have been written A. D. 1120. The account of the materials used for making books appears to be full and accurate. The expression 'scrapings of old cloths' agrees exactly with the mode of making paper from linen rags, but is not in accordance with any facts known to us respecting the use of woollen or cotton cloth. The only objection I can sup- pose to arise to this view of the subject is, that, as Peter of Cluny had not when he wrote this passage travelled east- ward of France, we can scarcely suppose him to have been sufficiently acquainted with the manners and productions of Egypt to introduce any allusion to their newly invented mode of making paper. But we know that the Abbey of Cluny had more than three hundred churches, colleges, and monasteries dependent on it, and that at least two of these were in Palestine and one at Constantinople. The inter- course which must have subsisted in this way between the Abbey of Cluny and the Levant may account for the Abbot Peter's acquaintance with the fact, and I therefore think it probable that he alludes to the manufacture of paper in Egypt from the cloth of mummies, which on this supposition had been invented early in the twelfth century. 1 " Another fact, which not only coincides with all the evi- dence now produced, but carries the date of the invention still a little higher, is the description of the manuscript No. 1 Gibbon says (vol. v. p. 295, 4to. edition), " The inestimable art of trans- forming linen into paper lias been diffused from the manufacture of Samarcanrf over (he western world." This assertion seems to me entirely destitute of foundation. HISTORY. 39 787, containing an Arabic version of the 'Aphorisms of Hippocrates,' in Casiri's 'Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis,' torn. i. p. 235. This MS. was probably brought from Egypt, or the East. It has a date corre- sponding to A. D. 1100, and is of linen paper, according to Casiri, who calls it 8 Chartaceus.' 44 4 Cordices chart aceij i. e., MSS. on linen paper, as old as the thirteenth century, are mentioned not unfrequently in the catalogues of the Escurial, the Nani, and other libraries. 44 The preceding facts coincide with the opinion long ago expressed by Prindeaux, who concluded that linen paper was an Eastern invention, because 4 most of the old MSS. in Arabic and other Oriental languages are written on this sort of paper,' and that it was first introduced into Europe by the Saracens of Spain." 1 In the first years of the fourteenth century the art of fabricating paper had become a truly European industry, and it, therefore, becomes manifest that it is of much prac- tical importance to seek to define the line of demarcation between the two classes of linen paper then made. The papers into which linen first entered as a constituent of the pulp may be described as water-marked and non- water-marked, the first-named variety of paper making its appearance in the early years of the fourteenth century. The Oriental fashion was to make the paper without water-marks, and while instances of cotton paper of the Oriental pattern made in the first half of the fourteenth 1 Old and New Testament connected, part i., chapter vii. , p. 393, 3d edition, folio. 40 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. century are extant, still they occur but seldom, if ever, in the north of Europe. The water-marks on paper have been partially investi- gated with a view to discovering the various channels in which the trade in paper of different nations travelled ; but up to this time there has been no thorough and systematic collection of water-marks and consequently no classifica- tion can now be made. The student will be greatly aided in fixing very approxi- mate periods to undated documents by acquiring a know- ledge of the different varieties of paper and of water-marks. " Rag paper of the fourteenth century may generally be recognized by its firm texture, its stoutness, and the large size of its wires. The water-marks are usually simple in design ; and being the result of the impress of thick wires, they are, therefore, strongly marked. In the course of the fifteenth century the texture gradually becomes finer and the water-marks more elaborate. While the old subjects of the latter are still continued in use, they are more neatly outlined, and, particularly in Italian paper, they are fre- quently inclosed in circles. The practice of inserting the full name of the maker in the water-marks came into fashion in the sixteenth century. The variety of subjects of water-marks is quite extensive. Animals, birds, fishes, heads, flowers, domestic and warlike implements, armorial bearings, etc., are found from the earliest times. Some of these, such as armorial bearings, and national, provincial or personal cognizances, as the imperial crown, the crossed keys, or the cardinal's hat, can be attributed to particular countries or districts, and the wide dissemination of the HISTORY. 41 * paper bearing these marks in different countries seems to prove how large and international was the paper trade in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries." QEncyc. Brit?) Some idea of the rapidity with which paper-making has been developed in Europe may be judged from the fact that at this writing (Jan. 1886) there are probably not less than three thousand five hundred paper-mills in Europe. Germany possesses by far the largest number of mills of any country in Europe, after which comes France, next Great Britain, then Austro-Hungary, Italy, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Holland, Norway, Switzerland, Belgium, Portugal, and Denmark, all following in regular order according to their present relative importance in paper manufacture. The paper-mills of Asia are few, and the aggregate of all of them would probably not be equal to the number of mills in the smallest paper-making country of Europe, which is Denmark, with about fifteen mills. In China there are probably no modern paper-mills. But Japan has several in operation, and, judging from the pro- gress shown in the machine-made paper on which are printed the first, second, and third statistical reports on agriculture published by the department of agriculture and commerce, Tokio, Japan, and which now lie before the author, he hazards the opinion that Japan will in the near future become a paper-making country of considerable importance. India is also rapidly developing her paper manufacture, and is probably abreast of Japan in this department. The Australasian Continent contains but few mills, Austra- lia of course leading. 42 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. On the Western Continent we find the Dominion of Canada producing paper in abont the same quantity as Norway, which latter country occupies but an insignificant position among the paper-making countries of Europe. All the paper-mills in South America do not probably exceed in number those of Japan, and in Cuba and Mexico there are not more than two or three mills. But in the United States we find the greatest paper- manufacturing country in the world, and the great and re- lentless energy with which our country is developing her productions in excess of all other nations is shown in one instance in the strides which she has made in the fabrication of paper. We have already shown that the manufacture of paper for writing and printing upon was probably not under way in England prior to the year 1685, but it is probable that the fabrication of paper did not flourish in that country until after the year 1688, for in the 4 British Merchant' of the latter year we find the statement that hardly any sort of paper except brown was made in England previous to the Revolution, and in 1689 Bohun, in his autobiography, says " paper became so dear that all printing stopped almost, and the stationers did not care to undertake anything." If England was not entirely dependent upon other nations ln r publishers would not have been reduced in 1689 to such dire straits as stated by Bohun to have existed. The first paper-mill was established in America in 1690, the mill being near Philadelphia, Pa., and thus we find the manufacture of paper to have commenced almost simulta- neously in America and in England. HISTORY. 43 But now, after the lapse of almost two centuries, we dis- cover that the United States possesses mills for the manu- facture of paper which exceed in number the aggregate of those in England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, with the addition of France, Belgium, Portugal, Sweden, Norway, and Holland. When we realize that this remarkable development has been made in spite of almost insurmountable obstacles and serious foreign competition, added to the drain upon our energies caused by the two wars with Great Britain, our own civil war, disastrous industrial depressions, and numerous financial panics, and complications in currency, it forcibly reminds us how surely and rapidly the great advance which our country is making in mechanics and the arts is unset- tling the commerce of the world. There are in this industry, as in all others, times of de- pression, but the natural facilities for obtaining the raw material, the great ingenuity of our people, added to the large home consumption of paper, with an increasing export demand, are certain to keep the United States in the posi- tion of the leading paper-producing country in the world. The art of printing was, of course, the immediate cause stimulating the manufacture of paper, and it was through the efforts of William Bradford, one of the earliest printers in the American colonies, that the first paper-mill was estab- lished on our soil. Bradford realized the advantage of having a constant supply of paper near at hand, and he, therefore, readily joined William llittenhiiysen, who had emigrated from 41 Till: MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Broich, in Holland, in the project of starting a paper-mill in Etoxborongh, near Philadelphia. The location for the mill was selected on a small tributary of the Wissahickon, the pure water of the little stream, which is still called Paper Mill Run, making it very desirable for paper-making ; the abundant supply of cotton and linen rags in the neighbor- hood furnishing ample raw material for continuing the mill for a long time. The name of Rittenhuysen in time became angli- cized into that of Rittenhouse, which is now in common use. In 1710 and 1728 other paper-mills were established in Pennsylvania by relations and apprentices of Rittenhouse. In 1724, William Bradford made an effort to induce the council of New York to grant him an exclusive privilege for manufacturing paper in the province for the space of fifteen years, but was unsuccessful. But, in 1728, Bradford succeeded in establishing a mill in Elizabeth town, N. J., which was the first paper-mill in the State. In 1727, Thomas Willcox, a native of England, built the Ivy Mill, on Chester Creek, in what is now Delaware County, Pa., on land purchased from Wm. Penn. This property has remained continuously in this family, who are still manufac- turers of paper under the firm name of James M. Willcox & Co., the oldest existing commercial house in America, and who now have other mills on the same tract of land. Ivy Mill still stands, although it has not been used for several years. In the records of Massachusetts for 1730, there is an Act for the encouragement of the first paper-mill built in New England, passed September 13th, 1728, granting a patent to Daniel Eenchman, Gillam Phillips, Benjamin Faneuil, HISTORY. 45 Thomas Hancock, and Henry Dering, for the sole manufac- ture of paper in the province for ten years. The granting of the patent was conditional upon the pro- duction of a stated quantity of paper yearly, until at the end of the third year and each year thereafter the total annual produce of the various qualities of paper described in the patent was not to be less than five hundred reams. The proprietors mentioned in the above Act soon erected a small paper-mill in Milton, afterward in the county of Norfolk, on a site adjoining the Neponset River. The master- work- man at the mill was an Englishman, by the name of Henry Woodman, under whose management very satisfactory quali- ties of paper were produced, samples of which were exhi- bited to the Court in General Term, in 1731, by one of the proprietors of the mill, Daniel Henchman, an enterprising bookseller of Boston. It is not probable that the mill at Milton suffered for the want of raw material, for in 1732 we find Richard Fry, of Cornhill, Boston, who was an agent for the mill, thanking the public for saving and selling him their rags, of which he had already received upwards of seven thousand weight. But on account of the scarcity of good workmen the mill was finally compelled to stop, and was afterward sold to Mr. Jeremiah Smith, who also for the lack of suitable workmen was unable to utilize his purchase. In 1760 the mill was again started by James Boies, of Boston, who became acquainted with a soldier by the name of Hazleton who was a practical paper-maker and a member of a British regiment then stationed in Boston. THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. It was not a difficult matter to obtain a furlough for Hazleton, who at once put the mill in proper condition and started it to work, his main assistant being Abijah Smith then living in Milton. But Hazleton was compelled to leave the mill and join the regiment when the latter was ordered to Quebec, and, like Wolfe, the private soldier received a mortal wound on the Plains of Abraham. A short interval then took place before another English- man by the name of Eichard Clarke arrived from New York and again set the mill in operation. In a few years Clarke, who was an excellent workman, was joined by his son George, a young man of about twenty years of age, who also proved himself to be a good paper-maker. Hazleton's assistant, Abijah Smith, developed into a good workman, and continued at the business until of an advanced age. In 1768 a paper-mill was established in Norwich, Conn., by Christopher Leffingwell, who was promised a bounty by the Legislature of 2d. per quire on all good writing paper and Id. per quire on all printing and common paper; but this subsidy was withdrawn in 1770. When the American Revolution commenced, there were probably not more than an aggregate of fifty paper-mills in all the American colonies ; the produce of these mills was inadequate in quantity to supply the home demand, which made the price of paper very high. For a long time there was a gn at scarcity of rags, and as but little labor could be bestowed upon paper then made, the quality was very infe- rior, and these conditions continued until after the adoption of the Constitution. HISTORY. 47 While the manufacture of paper was being prosecuted under such difficulties in the United States, the important announcement was made in France that N. L. Robert, a machinist connected with Didot's paper-mill at Essonnes, had invented a machine for making sheets of paper of very large size, even twelve feet wide and fifty feet long. On account of the importance of Robert's invention, and the great influence which it afterwards exerted in building- up our paper manufactures, we will here divert from an account of the history of paper-making in the United States, and follow the history of the Robert's machine. On the 18th of January, 1799, the government of France granted Mr. N. L. Robert a patent (No. 329) for fifteen years, for his invention for making paper by machinery, and during the same year a working model of the machine was constructed, but its work was not fully satisfactory. But the French government, appreciating the usefulness of Robert's invention, and realizing that its imperfections would be overcome by experience, granted him a bounty of 8000 francs. The experiments necessary for perfecting the machine were both troublesome and expensive, and on account of the difficulties in which France was then involved it became manifest that the machine could be better perfected in England. M. Leger Didot, of Essonnes, agreed to purchase the patent and model from Robert, and accompanied by John Gamble, an Englishman, Didot sailed for England. Some improve- ments were made on Robert's model by Didot before leaving France ; but on reaching England, Didot was fortunate in 48 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. securing the aid of a Mr. Bryan Donkin, a man of consider- able mechanical skill, and by means of the experiments and observations of the trio — Didot, Gamble, and Donkin — the invention of Robert was perfected. On April 2, 1801, a patent (No. 2487) was granted in England to John Gamble, for the improved invention of Robert, the title of the patent being "An invention for making paper in single sheets without seam or joining, from one to twelve feet and up- wards wide, and from one to forty-five feet and upwards in length." On June 7, 1803, a patent (No. 2708) was granted by the English government to John Gamble for 44 Improve- ments and additions to a machine for making paper in single sheets without seam or joinings, from one to twelve feet and upwards wide, and from one to fifty feet and upwards in length," and during the same year the first machine for making paper by machinery was successfully put in opera- tion at Erogmore, England. During the next year, 1804, the second paper-making machine was put in operation at Two Waters, England. In 1804 .Messrs. Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier purchased the interest of Didot and Gamble in the improved Robert machine. Henry Fourdrinier on July 24, 1806, was granted a patent (No. 2951) for 44 The method of making a machine for manufacturing paper of an indefinite length, laid and wove 4 with separate moulds.'" On August 14, 1807, an Act of Parliament was obtained for prolonging the term of certain letters patent assigned to Henry Fourdrinier and Sealy Fourdrinier for the invention of making paper by HISTORY. 49 means of machinery, and the machine described by John Gamble in the specifications of his patents (Nos. 2487 and 2708), with any other improvements added to it, was also fully described by diagrams. During the next year, 1808, John Gamble assigned to the Messrs. Fourdrinier all his right in the patents as extended by the Act of Parliament, thus making the latter gentlemen the sole proprietors of the patent for the only satisfactory paper-making machine in England, and in this manner the machine invented by Robert, and improved by Gamble, assisted by the skill of Didot and Donkin, came to be and continues to be known as the Fourdrinier machine. But let us now return to the history of paper-making in our own country. After the adoption of the Constitution a stimulus was given to manufactures, and, although rags continued to be scarce for many years, we learn from estimates of Isaiah Thomas that there* were in 1810 about one hundred and eighty-five paper-mills in the United States, distributee! and producing as follows : — No. of mills. Value of products. Pennsylvania . . 60 $626,749 Massachusetts . . 38 290,951 New York . 28 233,368 Connecticut . 17 82,188 Vermont 9 70,050 New Hampshire 7 42,450 Kentucky 6 18,600 Rhode Island . . 4 52,297 Delaware 4 75,000 Virginia 4 22,400 Tennessee 4 15,500 Maryland 3 77,515 North Carolina 1 6,000 4 50 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. But as New Jersey is credited by Tench Coxc with pro- ducing paper in 1810 to the value of $49,750, Maine with $16,000, and Ohio with $10,000, it is probable that Mr. Thomas did not gather all the paper-mills into his estimate. The total value of all the paper produced in the United States in 1810 was therefore about $1,689,718. On account of the increased consumption of rags used for the manufacture of paper, the United States commenced in 1810 to import rags from Europe. It does not appear of record that our American inventors gave any great amount of attention prior to the war of 1812 to the matter of making paper by machinery. By Act of Congress of April 10, 1790, the first American patent system was founded; but during the years from 1790 to 1812, our inventors confined themselves almost wholly to agricultural and commercial objects. Implements for tilling the soil and converting its products and machinery for navi- gation attracted most attention. The war of 1812, however, forced our people to attempt production in many branches of manufacture and industry heretofore almost wholly uncultivated, and the result was the most remarkable development of human ingenuity ever known to any age or country. It is a source of great regret that no well-preserved history of American inventions dating from this time is in existence, and that no classified list of models which were in the Patent Office at the time of the fire in 1830 can be obtained. The earliest date that can be reached is January 21, 1823, and that is only partially com- plete. HISTORY. 51 After the fire in 1836, the United States government advertised for the patents which had been issued prior to the conflagration, and in this way some copies of the earlier patents were received. The records of the United States Patent Office show that patents for manufacturing paper were issued to J. Biddis, May 31, 1794; C. Austin, December 14, 1798; and R. TL Livingston, October 28, 1799. T. Langstroth was granted a patent for a paper-mill May 1, 1804; J. Tatterson, Southampton, Long Island, N. Y., was granted a patent on December 7, 1805, for a machine for preparing and hacking tow for paper ; and a patent for a paper-making machine was issued May 8, 1807, to C. Kin- sey, of Essex, N. J. But there are no specifications or other descriptions of any of these early patents now extant. In 1809, Mr. John Dickinson invented and patented in England a new system of making paper in a continuous sheet by machinery ; the apparatus consisted of a cylinder the periphery of which was covered with a metallic cloth properly supported ; this cylinder revolved in a vat kept filled with pulp, in which the cylinder was half immersed. By a special system of suction a partial vacuum was created in the cylin- der, thus causing the pulp to adhere to the metallic cloth and thereby forming the sheet, which being immediately detached passed upon a cylinder covered with felting. Later, in 1826, Mr. Canson applied suction pumps to the Fourdrinier machine, causing a suction underneath the me- tallic cloth upon which the sheet is formed, uniting thereby 52 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. to that machine the only advantage of the Dickinson inven- tion. While the Fourdrinier and Dickinson machines were being perfected in England, American inventors were also working in the same line, and in corroboration of this state- ment we have the paper-making machine, which, on Decem- ber 2-i, 1816, was patented by Thomas Gilpin, of Philadel- phia, and, which, in 1817, was put in operation in the paper manufactory of Messrs. Thomas Gilpin & Co., their mill being located on the Brandywine. This machine was doubt- less suggested by Dickinson's invention, and was what is known as a cylinder machine, and it is stated that it would do the work of ten paper vats, and deliver a sheet of greater width than any other made in America, and of an indefinite length. The war with England gave a great impulse to all branches of manufactures, and Thomas Gilpin covered the water-power on the Brandywine with large structures for the manufacture of wool and cotton, in addition to those for the manufacture of paper, which continued in their previous perfection. The great reverses which, in a few years, befell the manufacturing establishments of the United States, pro- duced disastrous effects on these large works, and under the circumstances it seemed expedient to suspend them until better times should come. Thomas Gilpin determined in this emergency to augment the paper works. So far, in the United States, all such works had been conducted upon the ancient system ; but, in England, considerable advances HISTORY. 53 had been made by the introduction of machinery, which produced paper in an endless sheet. Every publication on this subject had been carefully noted by Mr. Gilpin, and availing himself of all the published drawings explaining the parts of the new machinery, he became convinced, by care- ful study, that he could construct a machine which, if not exactly similar to, or as perfect as those of England, would enable him to produce paper of an indefinite length, and of a merchantable quality. This effort on the part of Mr. Gilpin was attended with almost infinite trouble, but success crowned his efforts, and in February, 1817, he sent to Philadelphia paper cut from a continuous sheet. Poulson's 4 Daily Advertiser/ a leading gazette of the city, was the first publication printed upon this paper. The enterprising firm of Mathew Carey & Sons, then the largest publishing house in the United States, were preparing an edition of the 4 Historical Atlas of Lavoisne,' and the work appeared in 1821, printed on paper made by Thomas Gilpin's machine. Mr. Gilpin was greatly encouraged by the success of his experiment, and he continued for several years after the machine was set to work in 1817 to make successive im- provements, until it altogether superseded his other machin- ery, and promised a result not less valuable to the arts than remunerative to Mr. Gilpin for the years of anxious labor that the work had cost, and the large expense which he had incurred in perfecting the machine. But Mr. Gilpin, like many other pioneers, was not des- 54 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. tined to enjoy his well-earned reward, for, in the spring of 1822, the paper-mill and the valuable machinery were de- stroyed during a flood of unprecedented violence and mag- nitude, which occurred on the Brandywine. The thousands of dollars which had been expended by Mr. Gilpin in perfecting his machine was a small loss com- pared with the study of many years, the numerous experi- ments, and the many mechanical improvements which had in a few hours been rendered abortive by the fury of the flood. The failure of Congress to impose a suitable tariff on paper was a great drawback to the development of that industry in the United States after the close of the war of 1812. The heavy importations of paper from Europe, which commenced soon after the war was ended, and the greatly depressed financial condition of the country, caused the almost total destruction of paper manufacture in the States of Pennsylvania and Delaware. By Act of Congress of April 26, 1816, the rate of duty on paper imported into the United States after June 30, 1816, was to be fixed at thirty per cent.; but in the year 1820 we find the paper-makers of the last named States with those of Maryland earnestly petitioning Congress for an increased tariff on paper, the paper-makers of Pennsylvania and Delaware stating that in their district there were seventy paper-mills with ninety-five vats in operation until the importations after the war, since which they had been reduced to seventeen vats. Congress itself was at this time using and continued for HISTORY. 55 some years afterwards to use paper imported from England and from France, but, under the continued criticism of the newspapers, paper made in the United States came finally to be used by Congress. We have seen on page 50 that the value of the paper produced in the United States in 1810 was $1,689,718. In 1820 the value was estimated at $3,000,000, thus showing a great increase in spite of the large importations of paper from Europe, and the widespread and deeply seated period of bankruptcy which had intervened. The period from 1820 to 1830 was not remarkable for progress in paper-making, either in the United States or in England. The following list of patents will convey an idea of what was accomplished in this line in the United States from 1820 to 1830:— Date. May 14, 1822. Sept. 1, 1822. Sept. 8, 1824. April 12, 1826. Feb. 28, 1827. April 15, 1828. May 22, 1828. July 17, 1828. Sept. 11,1828. Oct. 30, 1828. Oct. 20, 1828. Jan. 13, 1829. Name. J. Ames, J. Ames, I. Burbank, G. Burbank, J. White and L. Gale, E. H. Collier, W. Magaw, Resideuce. Springfield, Mass. Springfield, Mass. Worcester, Mass. Worcester, Mass. Newburg, Vermont. Plymouth Co., Mass. Meadville, Pa. M. Haddock, New York, N. Y. M. T. Beach, Springfield, Mass. A.&N. A. Sprague, Fredonia, N. Y. M. Hunting, Watertown, Mass. W. Debit, East Hartford, Conn. Nature of Invention. Paper-making machine. Paper sizing. Manufacturing paper. Paper-making machi- nery. Finishing paper. Making paper from " Ulvamarina." Preparing hay, straw and other substances for making paper. Machine for making pa- per in the sheet. Machine for cutting rags for paper. Manufacturing paper from corn husks. Top press roller for making paper. Machinery for cleaning rags for paper-mills. 56 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Date. Feb. 7, 1829. Name. Rosidence. Nature of Invention. J. W. Cooper, Washing-town Twp., White paper from rags, April 18, 1829. I. Sanderson, May 4, 1829. R. Fairehild, Pa. straw, and corn husks. Milton, Mass. Cylinder paper machine. Trumbull, Conn. Machine for manufactur- ing paper. Sept. 10, 1829. L. Bomcisler. Philadelphia, Pa. Manufacture of white paper from straw. Efforts were made during the decade from 1820 to 1830 to introduce paper-making machinery from England ; but on account of the high price few orders were given for it. encouragement in the States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania after the year 1822, but for a long time they were very crude, and were used mostly for the lower In 1831 it was estimated that the quantity of paper manufactured in the United States during the year 1830 amounted to more than seven millions of dollars. From 1830 to 1840 there were no remarkable advances made in the manufacture of paper in the United States. Machinery was more commonly employed, the use of bleach- ing and other chemicals came to be better understood, and with the advances in its manufacture the price of paper declined, but its quality was better and the importations of paper gradually diminished while the exports increased. In 1842 a convention of paper-makers was held in New- York City, and an estimate then made, placed the value of the machinery and paper-mill property in the United States at $1 (),()()(), 000, and the value of the paper manufactured at $15,000,000 per annum. But there is great difference between the above estimate Cvlinder machines of American invention met with some grades of paper. HISTORY. 57 and the census report for 1840, which places the value of all the paper manufactured in the United States during the year 1840 at $5,641,495 and the capital invested at $4,745,239. During the whole of the decade from 1840 to 1850 the importations of paper constantly increased while the exports did not average more than one-fourth of the imports of that material. In 1844 there was patented in Germany a machine for grinding wood for the manufacture of pulp. The inventor, Keller, sold the patent to the firm of Henry Voelter's Sons, who afterwards used the pulp in the manufacture of news paper. The Voelters made numerous improvements in Keller's invention, and a quarter of a century after it was patented in Germany by Keller this wood-pulp machine was destined to play an important part in the United States, when in response to the demand for the rapid printing of daily news- papers the web press was to come into use. The Voelters, Christian and Henry, made numerous improvements in the machine, Christian Voelter obtaining patents in various European countries, in France even as early as April 11, 1847. Henry Voelter patented his improvement on the pulp machine in Wurtemburg, Germany, August 29, 1856, and in the United States, August 10, 1858. Pearson C. Chenney, ex-governor of New Hampshire, has described the difficulty of introducing paper made from wood. In his testimony before the Senate Committee on Education and Labor, Mr. Chenney said : " When Mr. Russell built his mill at Franklin, those of us who were 58 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. engaged in the manufacture of paper and had no know- ledge of what could be done with wood supposed that his enterprise would ruin him. We supposed that his material would be more like sawdust or clay. Mr. Russell com- pleted his mills at Franklin, but after manufacturing the pulp, he could not find a paper manufacturer who would buy a pound of his wood pulp, because they did not believe in it — they had no faith in it, and he was compelled to buy a paper-mill in order to make a good test of it, which he did in Franklin, right beside his pulp-mill, and made the test, and a successful test, and showed a very good paper. After the paper was made he found great difficulty in selling it. The printers felt that they could not use it; they were afraid to use paper made from raw wood ; they were afraid it would injure their type or ruin it, and they declined to use it. His selling agents were the firm of Rice & Kendall, of Boston. They resorted to all sorts of devices to get this paper used, but they were finally obliged to resort to some- thing that did not appear on the surface, but seemed to be necessary in order to secure the introduction of the paper into use. They had an order from, I think the 6 Boston Herald' for about 500 reams of paper. They were supplying that journal regularly from month to month, and, without saying anything as to the nature of the paper, they sent paper made from this wood ; the paper passed, and was used, and when the next order came and they delivered the regu- lar paper which they had been in the habit of sending before, the ' Herald' people came to Mr. Rice in some displeasure, and asked him why he could not send such paper as he had HISTORY. 59 sent the month previous. He told them that he could do so if they preferred it, and they said they did. They said that it worked very well — very much better than the other. So he told them that the next order they gave him he would send some of that paper. The next month he again delivered 500 reams of the wood paper, and that was used and gave great satisfaction. But I think they were using it for six months before they knew that it was wood paper. That established the use of that class of paper, and there was no trouble after that in selling it. The fact is that it absorbs the ink better and works much better for printing than other paper does, and works particularly well in rapid presses." If we compare the methods of manufacturing paper in the United States during the decade from 1840 to 1850 with those in use at the present time, the result will, of course, in many respects be greatly in favor of the present methods. But as the plants and products were small, wages low, and the margins of profits large, it was easier in those days to do business with a small capital than it now is with a large one. Forty years ago the present method of boiling rags in rotary boilers under pressure was not employed, the boiling was then done in open kettles or tubs. Instead of working different grades of stock separately and uniting them in the beating engines as required, hard and soft stock was in those days commonly boiled and worked together ; the proportions varying according to thickness, strength, and quality desired. The washing and beating engines then employed were small, 60 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. averaging from about one-fourth to one-eighth the size of those now used. Light, narrow, slow-running cylinder machines were almost exclusively employed. There was still considerable waste in the use of chemicals and loss in labor. Elevators from drainers to engine-room and from the machine-room to the loft were unknown, the paper being carried to the loft on men's shoulders. The almost general employment of the Fourdrinier machine in Europe and the numerous improvements which were made in paper-making in England from 1840 to 1850, added to the enforcement in 1843 of a new duty on rags, operated to check our exports and increase our imports of paper, and it is questionable whether any material advance was made in the quantity of paper manufactured in the United States during the last-named decade over that from 1830 to 1840. The year 1850 opened with a bright prospect for all branches of trade in the United States ; the new empire which was arising and following the discovery of gold on the Pacific coast, and the new markets abroad which were being opened for our grain and cotton acted as powerful stimulants to many branches of manufacture. It was not long before many of the paper-makers, espe- cially in Massachusetts, New York, and Connecticut, were compelled to enlarge their capacities, and the Fourdrinier machine came into more common use. Many old and narrow cylinder machines were removed and superseded by new and wider ones having steam dryers and other improve- ments. Larger beaters and washers were also introduced; HISTORY. 61 but the demand for paper was greatly in excess of the supply, and notwithstanding the continued introduction of improved machinery the price of paper constantly advanced until about 1855. But on account of the large amount of capital which had been drawn into the business of paper-making the effects of competition were severely felt from 1855 to 1860, and the profits, especially on fine papers, were reduced below the average profits of other branches of manufacture ; an over- stocked market soon played sad havoc with prices, and the final result was that many mills were compelled to shut down. The census of I860 showed that the State of Massachu- setts alone in that year produced paper to the value of $5,968,469 ; New York returned paper to the value of $ 3, 516, 276; Connecticut, $2,528,759; and Pennsylvania, $1,785,900. The decade from 1860 to 1870 was a memorable one in the annals of paper-making in the United States. The enormous rise in the price of cotton which immediately followed the outbreak of the civil war caused paper to be used for many purposes for which cotton had formerly been employed. Paper twine, paper collars, cuffs, and shirt fronts, are some of the new applications of paper which at once consumed very large quantities of the material. Early in 1862 the price of ordinary news paper ruled at 8 cents per pound, but before ten months of the year had passed the price was increased to 17 cents, and No. 1 print- ing was 30 cents, while all writing papers were 40 cents. 62 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The prices of paper continued to increase, until in 1864 news paper sold at 28 cents per pound, and fine book paper at 45 cents. But in January, 1865, the price of common news paper, straw, etc., in New York City ranged from 20 to 22 cents per pound, and the price of good news paper, rag, was from 22 to 25 cents ; fair white book was 25 to 28 cents, and extra book from 28 to 32 cents. The average price for first class writing, folded, during 1865, was 52J cents per pound ; superfine writing, folded, 50 cents ; super- fine flats, 45 cents. Manilla wrapping paper ranged from 18 to 21 cents per pound during 1865. From 1865 to 1870 the price of all kinds of paper con- tinued rapidly to decline, and from 18T0 to 1885 there remains but little to notice, excepting the introduction of wood pulp into paper-making, and the enormous consump- tion of straw, etc., for news paper. For Manilla paper, jute butts and threads, coming princi- pally from India, but partly from Dundee, are largely used in the United States ; old cordage, which is chiefly supplied by the shipping yards of England, is also largely employed in the manufacture of Manilla paper. During the twenty years from 1865 to 1885 the largest number of patents relating to paper making were issued by the government of the United States that has ever been known in the history of any country. The invention and employment of a large number of mechanical appliances and chemical processes have done much to stimulate and cheapen paper production, especially during the fifteen years just past (1870-1885), and many HISTORY. 63 manufacturers who have failed to keep fully abreast of the times have found their business absorbed by more enterpris- ing firms. Such results are only natural, but it is even more important in the future than in the past that small manufacturers should be fully informed regarding all the improvements in the art, for, under the enormous output of paper from many of the large mills in this country, it is becoming a very serious question whether even mills of moderate capacity can afford to manufacture paper on the small margin of profit which produces a meagre but satisfac- tory dividend to the wealthy owners of the capital stock in the larger mills. However, such questions as the latter are matters which do not come within the province of this work, and we shall, therefore, not further discuss them in connection with the history of paper-making, but proceed in the following chap- ters to describe the various materials, processes, and appli- ances employed in the modern methods of manufacturing paper. (>4 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. CHAPTER II. MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER — MICROGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER CELLULOSE DETERMINATION OF CELLULOSE — RECOGNITION OF VEGETABLE FIBRES. During the past century the consumption of paper has increased in a much greater ratio than the supply of rags, and on account of the consequent advance in the price of the latter, numerous other raw materials have been em- ployed in the manufacture of the lower grades of paper. Cotton and linen rags continue to be employed for the higher class of writing and record papers ; but the pulps for news and cheap book papers are almost wholly pro- duced from wood, straw, esparto, corn stock, old papers, etc. It would be almost an impossibility to enumerate all the materials which have been used for the manufacture of pulp for paper ; but in the following list the author has arranged in alphabetical order all those paper-making substances concerning which he has acquired any information, through diligent research : — Materials Used for Paper. Abaca, same as Manilla hemp. Ahutilon Bedfordianum, Hollyhock tree. Ahutilon Indicum, Indian mallow. Ahutilon mollis, Holly hock- tree. Soft-leaved abutilon. MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER. 65 Abutilon strictum, Hollyhock-tree. Vined lantern flower. Abrasive cloth and paper, waste. Acacia. Acacia, Robinia Pseud- Acacia, wood of. Adam's Needle, Hibiscus heterophyllus. Sparmannia Africana. Yucca gloriosa. Adamsonia digitata, Baobab. JEsculus hippocastanum, Horse-chest- nut, wood of. Agave Americana, Maguey. Agave, Agave Americana. Agave Americana, leaves of. Agave, Fourcroya gigantea. Agave Mexicana, Maguey. Agrostis spica venti, Bent-grass. Ailanthus, bark of. Alder, Ainus glutinosa, wood of. Alder-buckthorn. Same as Black alder. Alfa fibre. Alga marina. Alga', fresh- water. Alnus glutinosa, Alder, wood of. Aloe fibre. Aloes. Alpina magnifica, Mulberry. Alsimastrum. Althea. Althea frutex, Cockle-burr. Ambaree. Amianthus. Amomum. Anacharsis. Ananassa. Ananassa Saliva, Pineapple. Animal excrement. Animal substances. Anona reticulator, Nona. Anonacece. Apocinece. Aporentype. Aralia papyrifera. Arrache. Arrowroot, refuse stems and leaves of. Artemisia bark. Artemisia wood. Artichoke. Artiplex. Artocarpecc. Arunda conspicua, Plume-grass. Arundinaria macrosperma. Asclej)iadio3. Asclepias. Ash, Fraxinus excelsior, wood of. Asparagus stalks, Asparagus officinalis. Aspen-tree, Populus tremida, wood of. Asthoder. Avena Sativa, Oats. Bagasse. Bagasse refuse. Bagging, old. Baldengera Arundinacia, Ftomenteau. Bamboo, Bambusa thonarsu, wood of. Bambusa arundinacea. Bambusa thornarsu, Bamboo. Bambusa vulgaris, Bamboo. Inner bark of. Leaves of. Young shoots of. Banana fibre and leaves. Banh inia racemosa. Baobab, Adamsonia digitata. Heliconia gigantea. Strelitz i a r e g in a. Bark of various kinds of woods, includ- ing resinous, etc. Bark of coniferous trees after extracting the resin. Barley straw. Barriala, Sida rlwmboida. Basswood. Bastard Cedar or Guazuma. Bean leaves and vines. Beans. Beech, Fagus sylvatica, wcod of. 66 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Beef and mangel-wurzel root. Beets. Begonaceai. Bent-grass, Agrostis spica-venti. Berries. Betula alba, Birch, wood of. Betula Bhojpattra, Birch. Bhenda, Hibiscus esculentua. Bhurja (Birch), Betula Bhojpattra. Birch, Betula alba, wood of . Betula Bhojpatira. Black alder, Rhamnus Frag u/a, wood of. Blackberries. Black-moss, Tillandsia. Black reed (cutting-grass), Cladium radula. Blue cabbage stalks. Blue-flag, Enoflium cceruleum. Blue-grass, Agrostis spica-vt nti. Ba /inn ria. Bcehmeria vivea, China-grass (Rhea). Bombax. Bon-dhenras, // ib iscu s fie ulne us . Bottle-tree, Stercidia diversifolia. Sterculia foztida. StercuFia lueida. Sterculia repestris. Bowstring hemp, Sanseviera Zeylanica. Br achy chiton aceri/olium, Flame-tree. Bracken. Brake. Bran. Brank. Same as Buckwheat. Brazil-wood. Brazilian-grass. Brewery refuse. Bromeliaceoz, Bromelia Pinguin, Pineapple. Bromelia sylvestris, Pineapple. Broom. Broom corn. Broom-leaved tea-tree, Melaleuca genistifol ia. Broom swamp. Broussonetia. Broussonetia papyri/era, Paper mul- berry. Brown-grass. Brown-hemp (see Sunn). Bryon. Buckwheat, Fagopyrum esculentum. Bulrush, Typha an gusti folia. Burdock. Burlap bagging. Button-tree, j Same ag PWtree> Buttonwood. ) Cabbage. Cabbage stumps. Cactus. Calamus verus, Rattan, wood of. Calotropis gigantea, Yucca. Mudar. Camelina, Camel ina sativa. Canadian poplar, Populus Canadensis. wood of. Canary-grass, Phalaris canariensis. Canes. Cannabis sativa, Kangra hemp. Canvas, old. Cardamom, refuse stems and leaves of. Carex, Sedge. ~ ( Sedu'e-grass. Carex appressa, ■{ £ ff 11 1 Stems of. i Gallingall Carex pseudo-cypher us, < rush. I Stems of. Carludovica palmata, Panama hat straw. Jaggery palm. Stems and leaves of. Catkins of black poplar. Cat-tail, Typha latifolia. ( Jecropia. Cedar-wood. Cenodruli. Cereal and leguminous plants, straws of. ChalE Car y ota urens, MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER. 67 China-grass (Rhea fibre), Boehmeria nine a. Chinese sugar-cane. Cissus family. Claudium radula, Black reed. Clematis bark and wood. Clematite. Cloth, refuse. Clover. Club rush, Scirpus fluviatUis. Coast sword-grass, Lepidosperma ela- tiuSi Cockle-burr, Althea frutex. Cocoons, silk, refuse of. Coir. Colocasia antiquorum, Sago-palm. Coltsfoot. Commersonia Fraseri, Lye-plant. Common rush, Juncus paucijiorus. Common tea-tree, Melaleuca ericifolia. Composites. Conferva. Conferva sp., Swamp moss, stems and leaves of. Coniferce, leaves of. Coniferous trees, bark of, after extract- ing the resin. Convolvulacece. Coral moss. Corchorus olitorius. Jute. Cordage. Cord-grass, Sparlina cynosuroides. Cordia Myxa, Mulberry. Cordyline i.ndivisa, Tall palm-lily, stems and leaves of. Cork. Corn cobs, husks, leaves, and stalks. Corylus Avellana, Filbert-tree, wood of. Cow- itch-tree, Lagunaria Pater sonii. Colon du peuplier. Cotton. Cotton plant, fibre of the. Bark of the root and bark of • the stalk, pith, seed, and stalks of the different spe- cies. Cotton rags. Cotton-seed waste. Cotton waste. Couch-^rass. Same as Dog-crass. Crotalaria juncea, Sunn. Crotalaria tenuifoiia, Jubbulporehemp. Cruciferce. Cryptogams. Cucumbers. Cucurbitacem. Cudweed. Same as Everlasting. Cupheat. Currijong, Dais cotinifolia. Pimellea ax [flora. Pittosporum corn ifo liu m . Cyperus dices, Diss. Cyperus lucidus, Galingale rush, stems and leaves of. Cijperus tegetum. Cijperus sp., stems and leaves of. Cyprian asbestos. Dais continifoUa, Currijong. Danchi, Sesbanio aculeata. Daphne. Daphne cannabina. Daphne oleoides. Datura stramonium, Stramonium. Decayed wood. Dhoncha, Sesbania aculeata. Diannella latifolia, Sea-coast rush, stems and leaves of. Diannella longifolia. Dismodium argenteum . Diss, C '//per us dices. Dog-grass, Triticum repens. Doc-wheat. Same as Dog-grass. Dolbega Natalensis, Lye-plant. Doryanthes excelsa, Spear lily. Draccena Draco, Dragon-tree. Dungar. Durst. THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Dust. Dwarf-palm. Dyer's wood, stalks of, Dye-woods, spent. Earth-moss. Edge war thia Gardner i . Eh rh a rta ten acissim a , W i re-grass, stems of. Bjoo. Elder. Elm, Ulmus campestris. wood of. Enodium cceruleum, Blue-flag. Emery cloth, 1 \ waste. Emery paper, ) Ericacecv. Erica vulgaris, Heath, wood of. Eriphorum cannabinum. Erigeron. Eryth roxyl on g utta fe re ce. Esclepias, down of. Esparto, all varieties of. Eucalyptus Jissilis, Messmate. Eucalyptus obliqua, Stringy bark. Euphorbiaccce. Everlasting, GnapJialium. Excrement of animals. Fagopyrum esculentum, Buckwheat. Fenequen. Ferns. Few-flowered rush, J uncus pauciflorus. Fibres, various. Fibrila. Ficus speciosa, Fig-tree. Filbert-tree, Con/his Avellana, wood of. Fir-cones. Fir, /'inns sylvestris, wood of. Fishing nets, old. Flame-tree, Brachycliiton aceri folium. Ste rculia acerifolia . Flax, hemp, etc. Floss silk. Fourcroya gigan'tea, Agave. Giant lily (Agave), stems and leaves of. Fourdrini. Fraxinus excelsior, Ash, wood of. Frog- spit tie. Ftoraenteau, Baldenegra Arundinacea. Fucus vesiculosus, Varee. Gahnia psiltacorum, Sword-grass. Var. Erytkrocarpum, stems and leaves of. Galega officinalis. ( lalega oriental is. Galingale. Galingale rush, Carex pseudo-cyperus. Cyperus lucidus. Geld, Marsdenia tenacissima. Genista. After extracting dye. Giant nettle, Urticati divartcata. Ginger, refuse stems and leaves of. Glyheria aquatica, Marsh-grass. Called also Keed-grass. GnapJialium. Gombo, Hibiscus syriacus. Gossypium. Grains. i Grape-vine, inner and outer bark. I Grape-vines. Grass-cloth plant (Chinese), Bcehmeria nivea. Grasses. Grass, Spanish. Tide. Grewi a opp o s i t if alia. Guazuma or Bastard cedar. Guazuma ulmi/olia, Urania. ( runny. Gunny bags, old. Gun-cotton. Gutta-percha. MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER. 69 Gynerium argenteum, Pampas-grass, stems and leaves of. Hair. Haifa, Lignum Spatium. Hawthorne, bark of. Hay. Heath, Erica vulgaris, wood of. Heather. Heliconia gigantea, Baobab. Hemp. Hemp-fibres. Hemp, flax, etc. Hemp, jute, dressed. Yield tt , i per ceut Herbaceous plants — of fibre Asparagus stalks, Asparagus officinalis .... 32.56 Banana, Musa ensete . . 31.81 Barley, Hordeum vulgare . . 36.21 Bent-grass, Agrostis spica-venti 45.82 Blue-flag, Enodium cceruleum 40.07 Buckwheat, Fagopyrum escu- lentum ..... 30.60 Camelina, Camelina sativa . 29.16 Canary-grass, Phalaris Cana- riensis . . . . . 44.16 Canua, Canna .... 20.29 Dog-grass, Trilicum vepens . 28.38 Ftomenteau, Baldengera Arun- dinacia ..... 46.17 Giant nettle, Urtica divaricata 21.66 Hop, Humulus Lupulus . . 34.84 Maize, Zea Mays . . . 40.24 Marsh-grass, Olyceria aquatica 38.80 Marsh rush, Scirpus pahistris . 41.70 Mateva, JHyphame Thebaica . 20.08 New Zealand flax, Phormium tenax 32.71 Oats, Avena sativa . . . 35.08 Reed, Phrag mites vulgaris . 41.57 Rye, Secale cereale . . . 44.12 Sedge, Carex .... 3,3.80 Sugar-cane, Saccharum offici- narum ..... 29.15 Wheat, Triticum sativum . . 43.14 Wild broom, Spartium scopa- rium 32.43 Hibiscus arborcus, Mohant-tree. Hibiscus cannabinus, Meshta. Hibiscus esculentus, Bhendi. Hibiscus fibre. Hibiscus Jiculneus, Bon-dheuras. Hibiscus heterophgllus, Adam's Needle. Hibiscus Moscheutos. Hibiscus mutabilis, Stolpoddo. Hibiscus Palustris. Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis, Joba. Hibiscus Sabdariff'a, Meshta. Reselle." Hibiscus splendens, Hollyhock-tree. Hides. Hollyhock-tree, Abutilon Bedford ia- nurn. Abutilon mollis. Abutilon striatum. A but if o)i venosum. II ibiscus splendois. Hop bark. Hop-bind. Hop-plant, Humulus Lupulus. Hops. Hop vines. Hordeum murinum, Bye-grass. Hordeum vulgare, Barley. Hornets' nests. Horse-chestnut, yEsculus Ilippocas- tanum, wood of. Horse-chestnut leaves. Horse-radish. Humulus Lupulus, Hop-plant. Hydrangea sp. Hypltoeue Thebaica, Mateva. Ife-tree, Sanseviera Zeylanica. Immortelle, same as Everlasting. Indian-corn husks. Indian mallow, Abutilon Indicum. India-rubber fibre. Indigo. Imperfections (waste papers). Iris. THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. , , , ( River rush. Isolepvs nodosa, < _ ( Stems of. Italian poplar, Populus Italica, wood of. Ivory. Ivory shavings. Txora cuneifolia, Mulberry. Jaggery palm, Caryota urens. Joba, Hibiscus Rosa- sinensis. Jubbnlpore hemp, < 'rotatoria tenuifolia. Jucca, Yucca. Juncacece. ,hn, ens Gesneri. Juncvs rnuritimus, Sea-coast rush. Stems and leaves of. Juncus paucijlorus, Common rush. Stems of. Juncus vaginatus, Small sheathed rush. Stems and leaves of. Juniper. Jute butts. Jute canvas. Jute, Corchorus olitorim. .lute rags. Jute rejections. Jute rope. Jute sackcloth. Kangra hemp. Killed paper-stock. Knot-grass. Same as Dog-grass. Lace from aloe fibre. Lagunaria Patersonii, Cow-itch-tree. Laportia gigus, Tree nettle. Leather. Leather cuttings and skivings. Leaves. Leaves of trees. \\ ithered. Leguminous plants. Leguminous and cereal plants, stems of. Lentils. Lepidosperma elatius, ( Coast sword- I grass Sword-grass. Tall sword- grass, leaves [ and stems of. Lepidosperma Jlexuosa, Slender sword- grass. Lepidosperma gladiata, Coast sword- rush, stems and leaves of. Lib it ace. Libertia formosa. Lichens. Ligneous meal (Wood-flour pulp), Lignum Spartium, Haifa. Liliacece. Lily of the valley leaves. Lily roots. Lily stalks. t . f Tilia Europaia. wood of. L"»e-tree, j Bark of J Linden. Linden leaves. Linen. Linen rags. Liquorice root. Liquorice wood. Livistonia mauritiana, Sago-palm. Lolium pcrenne, Rye-grass. Long moss, Tillandsia. Lucerne. Lucitodium equisetum. Lychnophora. Lye-plant, Commersoxiia Fraseri. Dom beg a Nata I en sis. Macroch o! a Ten acvssim a . Madar. ( See Mudar.) Madder. Madgascariensis, Urania. Madras hemp. (See Sunn.) Maguey, Agave Americana. Agave Mexican a. Maize, Zea mugs. MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER. 71 Maize, cobs, husks, leaves, and stalks. Mallow. Malpighicece. Malva. Malvaceae. Mandioc, Jatroplia manihot. Mung el-tour zel. Manilla. Manilla hemp, Musa textilis. Manispernum. Manure. Maple. Marica Northiana, stems and leaves of. Marsdenia tenacissima, Geld. Marsh-grass, Glyceria aquatica. Marsh rush, Scirpus palustris. Marzi. Massc-d' eau. Mateva, Hyphaine Tliehaica. Medichey. r Common tea- Melaleuca ericifolia, -l tree. I Swamp tea- tree Melaleuca genistifolia, Broom-leaved tea- tree. Melalanca squarrosa, Victorian yellow wood. Melochia liliacefolia, Urania. Melastomaceaa. Melic-grass, Molinea ccerulea, Meshta, Hibiecus cannbinus. Hibiscus Sahdariffa. Messmate, Eucalyptus jissilis. Milkweed, Asclepias. Mineral fibre. Mohant-tree, Hibiscus arboreus. Molinea coerulea, Melic-grass. Moorva. Moova. Moms bark. Morus tartarica, Mulberry. Mosses. Mothwort. Mudar, Calotropis gigantea. Mug wort, stalks of. Mulberry (Kuwa, Japan). Alpina magnified. Cordia myxa. Ixona cuneifolia. Morus tartarica. Inner bark. Mulberry trees. Mulberry wood. Mummies and cloth. Mummy cloth. Musaceae. Musa ensete, Banana. Musa paradisiaca, Plantain. Musa sapientum, Plantain. Musa textilis, Manilla hemp. Muscovy match. Mustard. Mya-grass. Myrtacese. Native tussock-grass, Xerotes long if alia. I Navy stores, old. Neilgherry nettle, Urtica heterophylla. I Nepal paper plant, Daphne cannabina. Nets, old fishing. Nettle, Urtica incisa. Nettle bark. Nettle wood. Nettles, stinging, Urtica. Nettles, stingless, Bozhmeria. New Zealand flax. Phormium tenax. Nona, Anona reticulata. Oak, Quercus robur, wood of. Oak leaves. Oakum. Oats, Avena sativa. Okra, | A]j e i rnosc ] lvs esculentus. Okro, 1 Onocarpus batava. Orach (written also Orache, Arrache, and Orrach). 72 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Oryza, Rice plant. Osier, Salix alba, wood of. Oryza, Rice plant. Paddy straw. Palm, dwarf. Palm fibre. Palm, palmetto. Palmetto and chamoerops (Palmetto eabbage) . Palmetto fibre. Palmyra, leaves of. Palygaleae, Pampas-grass, Gynerium argenteum. Panama-hat straw, Carludovica pal- mat a. Pandanus. Pandanus utilis, Screw pine. Pandamus utilis, stems and leaves of. Paper cuttings. Paper mulberry, Broussonetia papyri- fero. Paper mulberry, bark of. Paper, old. Pappus. Papyrus. Papyrus, raw fibre of. Parkinsonia aculeata. Pasteboard scraps. Pat, same as Jute. Peas. Pea-stalks. Peat. Pederic fcetida. Phalaria ( 'anariensis, Canary-grass. Phormium tenax, New Zealand llax. Stems and leaves of. Phragmites vulgaris, Reed. Pimelea axiflora, Ourrijong. Pineapple, Ananassa Saliva. Bromt lia Pinguin. Bromelia sylvestr i s . Pineapple leaves. Pine-cones. Pine-leaves. Pine-shavings. Pine-tree, inner bark of. Pinus Australia, Pitch-pine, wood of. Pinus sylvestris, Fir, wood of. Pinus sylvestris rubra, lied pine, wood of. Pipturus propinquus, Queensland grass- cloth plant. Pisang. Pita. ; Pitch pine, Pinus Austral is, wood of. ! Pittosporum cornifolium, Currijong. Pittosporum crassifoiium, Thick-leaved pittosporum. Plagianthus betulinus, Ribbon-tree. Plane-tree, PI at anus occidentalis. Plantain, Musa paradisiaca. Musa sapientum. ' Platan us occidentalis, Plane-tree. Plume-grass, Arunda conspicua. Poa Australis, Wire-grass. Poke-weed, Phytolacca decandra. Pollen of plants. Poplar. Poplar down. Poppy. Popylus Ttalica, Italian poplar. Populus ciliata. ' Populus treniula, Aspen-tree, wood of. Potari, Abutilon Indicum. Potatoes. Potato skins. Potato vines. Pour ret ia plantanifolia. Printed waste. Pteris. Pterospermum aceri folium, Urania. Pulps, wood, straw, and other. Pulu. Puyba Bozhmeria. Queensland grass-cloth plant, Pipturus propinquus. MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER. 73 Queensland hemp, Sida retusa. Quercus robur, lied oak, wood of. Quickens, same as Dog-grass. Rag-bagging. Rags. Ramie. Ram turai of India. Raspberry. Rattan, Calamus verus, wood of, Red pine, Pinus sylvestris rubra, wood of. Reed, Phragmites vulgaris. Reed-grass, meadow, Glyceria aqua- tica. Reeds. Rhamnese. Rhamnus Fragula, Black alder, wood of. Rhea- fibre. Rhubarb. Ribbon-tree, Plagianthus betulinus. Rice- plant, OryzQ. Rice, stalks of the wild. Rice-straw. Ricinus. River rush, Isolepis nodosa. Robinia Pseudo-Acacia, Acacia, wood of. Roots. Roots of grasses. Rope. Rosaccae. Roselle, Hibiscus Sabdariffa. Rose-mallow. Rubiaeeas. Rushes. Rutaceae. Rye, Secale cereale. Rye-grass, I lord em rnurinum. Lolium perenne. Saccharum munja. Saccharum officinarum, Sugar-cane. Sacks, old. Sago. Sago-palm, Colocasia antiquorum. Livistonia mauritiana. Sagus ruffia. Sanseviera cylin drica . Sanseviera latifolia. Sanseviera Zebrina. Sagus ruffia, Sago-palm. ! Sagus saccherifera, Sago-palm. ; Sails, old. | Salix alba, Osier, wood of. Willow, wood of. Salt hay, Spartina juncea. Salvia Canariensis. Sandpaper waste. Sanseviera cylindrica, Sansevier ' Sansevier Bowstring Sanseviera Zelanica, \ hemp. tree. Satin. Sawdust. Scirpus jluviatilis, Club rush. Stems and leaves of. Scirpus Icenstris. Scirj)us palustris, Marsh rush. Scotch ferns. ScreAV pine, Pandanus utilis, stems and leaves of. Seacoast rush, Dianella latifolia. Dianella longifolia. Juncus maritimus. Juncus vaginatus. Sea-grass. Sea-mallow. Sea-weeds. Sea-wrack. (See Varec.) Secole cereale, Rye. Secrate. Sedge, stalks and roots of. Sedge-grass, Carex appressa. Seed down of thistles. •a cylindrica, \ •a latifolia, > Sago-palm. •a Zebrina, ) | Bows i hei I Ife-tr 74 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Seines, old. Seratula ervansis. Sesbania aculeata, Danchi. Dhonchi. Shavings. Ground. Paper. Wood. Shingles, old. Sida. Sida pulchella, Victorian hemp. Sida rhomboida, Barriala. Sida tilicefolia. Silk. Silk cocoon, refuse of. Silk plant, Asclepias. Silk, refuse. Sisal-grass, ) . f ' > Agave Americana. Sisal-hemp, J Skins, pieces of. Slender sword-grass (Mat-grass), Lepi- dosperma Jlexuosa. Small-sheathed rush, Juncus vaginatus, stems and leaves of. Soft- leaved abutilon, Abutilon mollis. Solaneae. Solonacese. Sorghum. Sorghum, refuse. Sorgo suere, Chinese sugar-cane. Sotal tree. Spanish Bayonet, Yucca aloifolia. Spanish Broom, Macrochola Tenacis- sima. Spanish-grass. Sparganium family. Sparrnannia Africana, Adam's Needle. Spartina cynosuroides, Cord-grass. Spartina juncea^ Salt hay. Sparlium junct i*m, Spanish-broom. Spartium scaparium, Wheat. Spear lily, Doryanthes excelsa. Spindle- tree. Spruce, firewood of. Stems and leaves of — Coast rush, Juncus maritimus. Coast sword rush, Lepidosperma gla- diatum. Cypherus lucidus. Cypherus sp. Dianella lati folia, Gahnia psktacorum, Var. erythro- carpum. Giant lily, Agave, Fourcroya gigan- tea. Jaggery palm, Caryota urens. Marica Northiana. Native bulrush. Native tussock-grass, Zerotes longi- folia. New Zealand flax, Phormium ten ax. Pampas-grass, Arundo conspicuo. Scirpus Jluviatilis. Screw pine, Pandanus utilis. Small-sheathed rush, Juncus vagi- natus. Swamp moss, Confeva sp. Tall palm lily, Cordyline indivisa. Tall sword rush, Lepidosperma cla- tius. Stems of — Carex appressa. Ca rex pseu d o- cyper us. Ekrh art a ten acissim a. Few-llowered rush, Juncus pauci- Jlorus. Isonepeis nodosa. Victorian nettle, Urtica incisa. Sterculia acerifolia, Flame-tree. Sterculia diversifolia, Victorian bottle- tree. Sterculia foetida, ^ St.t rati ia lucida, Sterculia rcprestris, \ Bottle-tree. Sterculia villosa. I Sterculia urens. ' Stinging nettle. Stipa tenacissim a . MATERIALS USED FOR PAPER. 75 Stolpoddo, Hibiscus mutdbilis. Stone. Stramonium, Datura Stramonium. Straws of cereal and leguminous plants. Straw paper, old. Strelitza regina, Baobab. Stringy bark, Eucalyptus obliqua. Sty pa spartum. Sugar-cane, Saccharum o(jicinarum. Sugar-cane leaves. Sultana bark. Sunflower. Sun-hemp. (See Sunn.) Sunn, Crotalaria juncea. Swamp moss. Swamp tea-tree, Melaleuca erici folia. Melaleuca yen istifolia . Melaleuca squarrosa. Sweet broom. Sword-grass, Gahnia psittacorum. Lepidosperma el at i us. Tall palm lily, Cordyline indivisa, stems and leaves of. Tall sword rush, Lepidosperma elatius, stems and leaves of. Tan. Tan bark, etc. Tan spent. Tarred rope. Terebinthenacece. Thalipot, leaves of. Thick-leaved pittosporum, Pittosporum crassi folium. Thistle-down. Thistle-stalks. Thistles. Threads. Tikkur, refuse stems and leaves of. Tilia Europcea, Lime-tree, wood of. Tillandsia. Timothy. Tobacco. Tousles Mois, annual stems and leaves. Tow. Tracena endivisa. Tree moss. Tree nettle, Laportia yiyus. Traphis. Triticum repens, Dog-grass (also called Couch-grass, Dog-wheat, Knot-grass, Twitch-grass, Quitch and Quickens). Triticum vulyare, Wheat. Tulip leaves. Turmeric, refuse stems and leaves of. Turf. Turnips. Tussock-grass, Xerotes lonyifolia. Twine. Twitch-grass, same as Dog-grass. Typha angustifolia, Bulrush. Stems and leaves of. Typha latijolia, Cat-tail. Ulraus. Llmus campestris, Elm, wood of. Ulva marina. Urania, Guazama ulmifolia. (Ravenda) Madyascariensis. Me lo cli ia lUiacefolia . Pterospermum acerifolium. Urtica diuaricata, Giant nettle. Urtica heterophylla, Neilgherry nettle. Urtica incisa, A r ictorian nettle. Urticece. Usnea (Lichens). Varec, j j? ucus veit iculosus. \ areeki ) Vegetable fibres, raw. Velloziie. Victorian bottle-tree, Sterculia diversi- folia. Victorian hemp, Sida pulcliella. Victorian nettle, Urtica incisa, stems of. Victorian yellow-wood, JMelaleuca squarrosa. Vined lantern-flower, Abutilon venosum. 76 Vines, grape-vines. Vines, hop. Walnut, Juglans regia, wood of. Walnut leaves. Wasps' nests. Waste, cotton. Waste papers. Water-broom. Water-lilies. Water-moss. Water-oats, Zizania aquatic a. Water-plants. Water-weeds. Wayfaring-tree. Weeds. Wheat, Triticum vulgare. Wheat straw. Whin. White moss. White pine, Abies pectinata, wood of. White-wood. White poplar, Papains alba, wood of. 1 1 zkstrcem ia solicifol ia . Wild broom, Spartium scoparium. Wild cherry (Hino-ki, Japan). Willow, Salix alba, wood of. Willow-herb, stalks of. Willow, inner bark of. Willow twigs. Willow wood. Wire-grass, Ehrkarta tenacissima. I '(hi . 1 ustralis. Wood-chips. Wood. Wood-pulp. Woods — Acacia, Folrinia Pseud- Acacia Alder, Alnus glutinosa Ash, Fraxinus excelsior Aspen-tree, Populus tremula THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Yield per cent, of fibre. 34.10 34.30 32.28 35. Woods- Bamboo, Banibusa thonarsu Beech, Fag us sylvatica Birch Betula alba Black alder, Rhamnus Frangula Canadian poplar, Populus Canadensis .... Elm, Ulmns campestris Filbert-tree, Corylus Avellana . Fir, Finns sylvestris . Heath, Erica vulgaris Horse-chestnut, yFsculus Hip- pocastanum . Italian poplar, Poimlus Italica Lime-tree, Tilia Europcea Oak, Quercus robur . Osier, Salix alba Pitch pine, Finus Australis Rattan, Calamus verus Red pine, Finus sylvestris rubra Walnut, Juglans regia White pine, Abies pectinata White poplar, Populus alba Willow, Salix alba . Woolen. Woolen-grass (Typha). Wrack. (See Yarec.) Xerotes longifolia, Tussock-grass. Yellow wood, after extracting dye. Yercum, Calatropis gigantea. Yucca aloifolia, Spanish bayonet. Yucca angustifolia. Yucca h re viol a. Yucca draconis. Yucca jilamentosa. Yucca gloriosa, Adam's Needle Yucca puberula. Zizania aquatica, Water oats. Zea Mays, ]\Iaize. Zopissa. Yield per cent, of fibre. 34.90 30.00 33.80 37.82 30.88 31.81 31.50 35.17 27.14 38.20 30.12 38.10 29.16 29.5(1 31.08 29.19 32.28 26.52 34.60 35.81 37.82 CELLULOSE. 77 Micrographic Study of the Manufacture of Paper. 1 From a microscopic study of the various vegetable fibres used in paper-making, A. Girard has determined the quali- ties such fibres ought to possess. Absolute length is not of much importance, but the fibre should be slender and elastic, and possess the property of turning upon itself with facility. Tenacity is of but secondary importance, for, when paper is torn, the fibres scarcely ever break. The principal substances employed in paper-making may be divided into five different classes : — 1. Round, ribbed fibres, as hemp and flax. 2. Smooth or feebly ribbed fibres, as esparto, jute, phor- • mium, dwarf palm, hop, and sugar-cane. 3. Fibro-celhdar substances, as the pulp obtained from the straw of rye and wheat, by the action of caustic lye. 4. Flat fibres, as cotton, and those obtained by the action of caustic lye upon wood. 5. Imperfect substances, as the pulp obtained from sawdust. Cellulose. Cellulose, C 6 H 10 O 5 , constitutes the essential part of the solid framework or cellular tissue of plants, and hence is an especially characteristic product of the vegetable king- dom. The outer coating of ascidian animals is, however, apparently identical with cellulose. 1 ' Comp. Rend.,' lxxx. G29-G31 ; ' Chem. Soc. J.,' xxviii. 675. 78 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Cellulose occurs nearly pure in cotton, linen, and the pith of certain plants. Swedish filter paper, linen rags, and cotton-wool are still purer forms of cellulose. Cellulose is a white, tasteless, odorless, non-volatile body of about 1.45 specific gravity. It is insoluble in water and all ordinary menstrua, but dissolves, as first observed by Schweitzer, in a strong solution of cupric oxide in ammonia. Hijdrocdhdose, C ]2 H 22 O n , is the product of the action of mineral acids (, where the strips are separated into short pieces. The size to which the material is cut by the first knife may be varied by varying the feed, or by varying the rapidity of the revolution of the Fig. 22. cutter , E, E\ and F. voelter's wood-pulp machine. 153 To the shaft D is secured a grindstone, D\ and to each of the shafts E E is secured a conical pulley, 2, a belt, 4, pass- Fig. 44. Fig. 45. n— ' — 1 — 0" ing round both pulleys and through the forked ends of a guide, 5, which is adjustable laterally on a screw-shaft, 6. Fig. 46. On the shaft E is a pulley, 7, and on the shaft F turns a pulley, 9, a belt, 8, passing round both pulleys, and to the shaft F, adjacent to the pulley 9, is secured a ratchet-wheel, a, to the teeth of which is adapted the end of a spring-pawl, b, attached to the pulley 9. Through an opening in a cross-piece, 10, extending between the side frames, passes a screw rod, 11, the rod also passing through a worm-wheel, 12, which bears against the cross-piece, and is operated by a worm, 13, on the shaft F. 154: THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. To the upper side of the worm-wheel 12 are hung two jaws, which bear against opposite sides of the rod 11, and Fig. 47. voelter's wood-pulp machine. 155 have threads cut in their edges, the side threads being adapted to the tread on the rod. To a cross-head, 15, which slides on guides, 16, attached to the side frames, is secured a box, c, containing a rubber spring or cushion, c?, and against the latter bears a disk, 17, on the rod 11, which projects through the cushion and through the bottom of the box, a nut on the lower end of the rod preventing the withdrawal of the latter. To the lower side of the cross-head 15 is secured a wooden block, e, the face of which, near the lower edge, is cut away as shown in Fig. 42, for a purpose described hereafter. To the side frames are secured two hollow adjustable cross-pieces or boxes, G G\ each of which communicates with a water-reservoir, and in the lower edge of each box, which is nearly in contact with the face of the stone D\ is a narrow slit or opening, x. The adjacent sides of the boxes G G\ near their lower edges, are parallel, and are such a distance apart as to permit the ready introduction between them of the block e. A rake, H, extends from the bottom of the box B to one side of the grindstone D\ and at the bottom of the box, below the opposite side of the stone, is a projection, i, of the form shown in Fig. 42. On a shelf or partition, 18, at the end of the box B, rests a sieve, J", so fine that fibres which can pass it do not need regrinding, the upper portion of which is inclosed by a casing, 19, secured to the side frames and to the edge of the box. Two pipes, K and K', communicate with this end of the box B, the former above and the latter below the partition 18. 156 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. On a frame-work, A', Fig. 47, rest three tanks, X, 27, and Z 2 , and in the tank L is hung a basket, P, of wire- gauze or other suitable material, in such a manner that it receives a shaking motion by means of arms, / /, which pro- ject from the said basket, bearing on ratchet-wheels, g, secured to a shaft, turning in brackets attached to the tank. In the tank L revolves a cylinder, E, of wire-gauze, which communicates at one end with a reservoir, Fig. 48, at the side of the tank, a pipe, T, leading from the reservoir and communicating with the tank L\ near the bottom of the latter. To arms, i i, secured to a revolving shaft, j, turning in bearings attached to the tank X, is secured a comb, A*, and to arms i % hung to brackets / I, is secured a plate, m, for a purpose described hereafter. In the upper portion of the tank JJ turns a shaft on which is secured a fluted or serrated roller, £7, and above the latter is a hopper, F, in guides, on one of the inclined sides of which slides a plate, ?i, the lower edge of the latter being parallel to the face of the roller. The tank L' is divided by a vertical partition, o, which extends nearly to the bottom into two unequal-sized chambers, x x\ and in the lower por- tion of the former turns a paddle-wheel, W. From the upper edge of the tank L extends an inclined plate or chute, 2>, and below the latter, in the tank X 2 , rotates a hollow cylinder, R\ of wire-gauze, which communicates through an opening in one end with a reservoir, Fig. 48, at the side of the tank. voelter's wood-pulp machine. 157 In the lower portion of the tank Z 2 , below the chute £>, revolves a paddle-wheel, W\ and to a shaft, q, which turns in suitable bearings secured to the tank, is attached a smaller paddle-wheel, r, the upper end of an inclined shute, s, being- secured to the edge of the tank adjacent to the paddle- wheel r. On a platform, M, supported by pillars rests the lower stone, JV, of a pair of millstones, the upper millstone, N\ being hung to and rotating with a vertical shaft, 0, in the ordinary manner, and into the usual central opening in this stone projects the lower end of the chute s. The upper stone, N\ is surrounded by a casing, t, an opening at one side of which communicates with a box or reservoir, S 2 , secured to the platform M. On the framework A 2 , Fig. 43, rest the tanks F, Y\ and F 2 , and in the former is a vertical sieve, and a partition, the latter extending across the upper portion only of the tank. On one side of the sieve v revolves a paddle-wheel, W 2 , and from the opposite side of the tank a chute, 31, pro- jects over a cylinder, i2 2 , of wire-gauze, which revolves in the tank P. The cylinder R 2 communicates, through an opening in one end, with a reservoir, S : \ Fig. 45, a pipe, J 3 , communi- cating with the latter and with the tank F s , in which turns a cylinder, R\ which communicates with a reservoir, # 4 , and against both this cylinder and the cylinder R 2 bear rollers y y, on the ends of which are bands 7i, of leather or other suit- able material, a stationary plate, z, being secured at the side of each roller. In the tank Y 2 turns a paddle-wheel, IT 3 . 158 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The pipe K, Figs. 42 and 48, communicates with a pipe, 7 7/ , leading from the reservoir S', and also with the reservoir # 2 , and from the latter extends a pipe, /f 2 , which communi- cates with the tank Y. The material flowing through the pipe K' is discharged into the basket P, a pump or other suitable apparatus being used to elevate the material when the tank L is above the box B. Operation. — The sections z of wood to be disintegrated are placed between the boxes G G' and against the grind- stone D'. Water is admitted to each of the boxes and into the tank B, and a rotary motion in the direction of its arrow is imparted to each of the shafts D, E\ and F. A rotary motion in the direction of its arrow is also imparted to each of the shafts Q, j, q, and 0, to the paddle-wheels W, W, W\ and W\ to the cylinders U, E, E, B\ and B\ and to the rollers y y. As the worm-wheel 12 is turned the jaws 14 14, acting as a revolving nut, will cause the rod 11 to be moved forward, the block e being brought against the sections z and feeding the latter slowly toward the grindstone by which they are disintegrated, the fibrous particles thus detached being carried into the box B. The undue pressure of the wood against the stone is prevented by the elastic cushion d, which also yields slightly to permit the wood to accommodate itself to inequalities in the stone, while the wedging of the blocks between the boxes G G\ which occurs when the boxes approach each other toward the bottom, is prevented by making the adjacent sides of the boxes parallel. The speed of the forward movement of the rod 11 in pro- voelter's wood-pulp machine. 159 portion to that of the stone is regulated by adjusting the belt 4 on the pulleys 2, the spring-pawl 6, through the medium of which motion is conveyed from the pulley 9 to the shaft F, being sufficiently rigid to retain its hold on the ratchet-wheel I so long as no unusual resistance is offered to the forward movement of the rod 11 and the cross-head. When, however, the blocks of wood are not disintegrated with sufficient rapidity, or the forward movement of the rod 1 1 is otherwise interrupted or retarded, the pawl b will yield and slip over the teeth of the ratchet-wheel, the rattling noise thus produced informing the attendant of the necessity of readjusting the belt 4 to diminish the speed of the shaft F. As the block e is brought near the face of the stone, that portion of the wood beneath the inclined face of the block will be cut to a wedge-shape, the thick edge being toward the box G'. By this means small particles of wood are pre- vented from being wedged into the narrow space between the box G' and the stone, to the retardation of the revolution of the latter. The finer fibres of the wood are carried by the revolution of the stone between the teeth of the rake H, and are thrown against the sieve J", while such coarser particles as would injure the sieve are arrested by the rake. The finest filaments pass through the sieve / with the water thrown up by the stone, and are conducted through the pipe Kto the reservoir S 2 , Fig. 48, while larger particles fall in front of the projection / and pass with the water which flows through the pipe K' into the basket P, Fig. 47. The finer fibres pass through the meshes of the basket P y while the coarser fibres are retained and removed from time 160 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. to time, such a vibrating motion being imparted to the basket by the action of the ratchet-wheels g as will prevent the meshes from becoming obstructed. The finest fibres pass with the water into the gauze cylinder R, and out of the latter into the reservoir S, and through the pipe T to the tank L\ the coarser fibres being carried by the action of the cylinder R within range of the rotating comb 7c. by which they are caught and carried upward until the comb strikes the plate m. As the comb continues to revolve the plate m slides forward and scrapes off the adhering fibres, which fall into any suitable receptacle, the tank L being thus cleared of the useless fibres which would obstruct the action of the cylinder. After the contents of the reservoir S are intro- duced into the tank L\ they are thoroughly agitated and mixed by the action of the paddle-wheel TF, a mash being thus produced, which is directed upward through the chamber X', and on to the chute from which it falls on to the cylinder R' . The finer filaments, which pass through the cylinder R' are conveyed into the reservoir S\ and through the pipe T' into the reservoir aS' 2 , while the mash which remains in the tank is mashed and agitated by the paddle-wheel W, and is directed by the paddle-wheel r into the chute s, down which it flows into the opening in the upper millstone N f . As the fibres pass between the mill- stones they are split and broken into fine filaments, the stones being so prepared that the fibres may be cut rather than worn. The fibres, after being reduced to a pulpy mass, pass from the stones into the casing h and then into the reservoir S 2 . The pulp flows from the reservoir # 2 , through voelter's wood-pulp machine. 161 the pipe K 2 , into the tank F, where it is directed by the paddle-wheel W 2 against the sieve v, the finest fibres passing through the latter and upward to the chute 31, from which they fall on to the cylinder i£ 2 , the fibres which pass into this cylinder being conducted to the reservoir S 3 and through the pipe T 3 to the tank F 2 . The pulp in the tank Y' is agitated by the paddle-wheel TF 3 , so that every portion may be brought into contact with the cylinder. The gauze on the cylinder R 3 is too fine to permit any of the fibres to pass through it. The superfluous water, however, flows into the cylinder and into the reservoir # 4 , from which it is removed by a siphon or other suitable apparatus. As the cylinders R 2 R 3 revolve the fibres on the surfaces of the same are transferred to the rollers y y, and after being scraped from the latter by the plates z, fall into any suitable receptacle, the leather bands It h, at the ends of the rollers, maintaining the surfaces of the same from contact with those of the cylinders, which are thus preserved from abrasion. The coarse fibres, detached by the plate 3, as well as those remaining in the tanks Y Y\ are placed in the hopper V y from which they are fed into the tank 11 by the fluted roller U, the sliding plate n being adjusted to regulate the passage of the fibres in such quantities as may be desired. These fibres are discharged from the tank 1! into the tank Z 2 , and after passing between the millstones are sorted in the tanks F, F', and F 2 , as before. If fibres are required which are not so finely divided as those which pass into the tank F 2 , they may be removed at any stage of the process, and it will be apparent that any desired number of tanks and cylinders 11 162 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. may be employed in order to obtain a greater assortment of fibres. Instead of arranging the cylinders as described they may be placed with their shafts inclined, and the material may be introduced into the interiors of the cylinders, the finer particles passing through the latter into the tanks, while the coarser fibres are rolled toward the lower end and discharge into any suitable receptacle. A perforated pipe communicating with a water-reservoir may be arranged adjacent to each of the cylinders and sieves so as to throw a constant stream of water on to them, and thus maintain the meshes unobstructed. In the process of reducing wood # to fibre by a grinding operation, it always happens that slivers, chips, or small pieces of wood too large either to be used as pulp or to be reground (because they would choke the stones or lift the upper one when stones arranged as shown in the drawing are employed), are detached accidentally from the wooden blocks. These useless pieces of wood are separated from the useful fibres, first, at the rake ; second, at the shaking-basket ; and, third, at the first cylinder R ; and it is better thus to get rid of them at three operations than to remove them all at once ; and this separation of the useless from the useful products of the first grinding, by means of sieves — for the rake, the basket, and the first cylinder are all in fact sieves — and a current of water, bearing both fibres and chips, is the separating process. The fibres which result from the action of the first stone upon the blocks are assorted at the voelter's wood-pulp machine. 163 sieve J at the cylinder R\ in the preferred form of apparatus, and none of the fibres which pass these sieves are reground. This separation of coarser from finer fibres by sieves and a current of water is the assorting- stage of the process. All the fibres might pass directly from the first to the second stone without being assorted, but in that case the finer fibres would probably be made too fine, and rendered useless ; and, at any rate, the regrinding stones would be uselessly loaded with matter which did not need to be acted upon by them. "When a sieve of any kind is employed to assort fibre, the greater part of the water passes through the sieve, and the fibre which does not pass the sieve is left in a pasty state. This is the preferable state for regrinding, and the inventor therefore uses a paddle-wheel to keep the mass in motion to prevent its settling, and another wheel to produce a current to carry the mass to the chute. The regrinding or reducing process is that which is effected by the action of the stones upon the mass of fibre introduced between them. The assorting after the regrinding is caused by the action of a fibre-bearing current and the sieves Fand R 2 . The fibres which do not pass Fmay be ground a third time. So also may those which do not pass R 2 , and the pulp is deprived of the greater portion of its water, so as to fit it for transportation, by means of the cylinders R 2 R 3 and the rollers which gather the fibres from their surface. The cylinder R 2 is, therefore, always a part of the assorting appa- ratus used after regrinding, and when the fibres gathered from its surface are not ground the third time it is also, in 164 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. connection with the rollers, a contrivance for partially drying the pulp. In place of the paddle-wheel r, cords may be wound spirally around the cylinder R 1 , so that as the latter revolves the material is caused to flow toward one side of the tank, and, consequently, into the chute. Nature, etc., of the Pulp produced by Voelter s Method. Voelter's method does not produce a real pulp, but rather a semi- flour of wood, it adds nothing to the strength of the paper, and is an injury in the sizing. It is said with reason that the Voelter process produces little with a large amount of power; it requires, in fact, a considerable- fall of water to yield 55 or 60 horse-power net to manufacture 1200 pounds of pulp in 24 hours. Further- more, the Voelter machines can be used with profit only in proximity to large supplies of wood. Another unfavorable condition is the necessity of working the wood while green ; the sap which remains in the pulp causes it to easily ferment, to heat while piled up, and to take a reddish color. Fig. 49 shows the arrangement of a plant for producing pulp by the Voelter process. The following letters refer to the various mechanical contrivances employed. T, elevator for hoisting the wood to the floor of the mill on which the Voelter machine is located. R, circular saw to cut the wood into blocks. Z?, Voelter's machine composed of a millstone mounted upon an horizontal shaft and against which the blocks arc pressed by mechanical pushers, causing them to advance constantly and regularly as the blocks are ground off. 166 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. A continuous stream of water falls upon the circumference of the millstone. E, first sieve removing the wood splinters and separating the fine pulp from the coarser, which must pass to the refining-machine. (7, refiner, composed of two horizontal millstones like those of a grain-mill. 6r, crane for lifting and displacing the millstones for dressing. 0. water-reservoir. P, pump. sorter dividing the pulp according to its grade of fineness. Z, pulp press. List of Patents for Wood Grinders, issued by the Government of the United States of America from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. No. Date. Inventor. 5,251 Aug. 21, 1847. Roberts and Hambly 12,978 May 29, 1855 M. 1). Whipple. 21,161 Aug. 10, 1858. 1 1 1 Reissue 3,361 April 6, 1869. \ ixtended for 7 yrs. Aug. 29, 1870. } H. Voelter. Reissue i 4,418 June 6, 1871. i Ixtended for 7 yrs. Aug. 29, 187 7. j 37,951 March 24, 1863. P. A. Chadburne. 40,217 Oct 6, 1863. G. E. Sellers. 55,031 May 22, 1866. Reissue | H. Voelter. 4,881 April 23, 1872. 59,042 Oct. 23, 1866. H. and F. Marks. 7 7,829 May 12, 1868. W. Miller. 84,640 Dec. 1, 1868. H. Marks. 87,139 Feb. 23, 1869. F. Burghardt. 89,220 | April 20, 1869. J. H. Hawes. 89,221 i 89,255 April 20, 1869. J. Stutt. 97,041 Nov. 23, 1869. F. Burghardt. 98,210 Dec. 21, 1869. G. Vining. 99,071 Jan. 25, 1870. H. Dodge. 101,785 April 12, 1870. S. C. Taft. 1 Antedated to Aug 29, 1856, so as to correspond with the date of the earliest foreign patent. PATENTS FOR WOOD GRINDERS. 167 No. Date. 102,239 April 26, 1870. 103,968 June 7, 1870. 105,622 July 26, 1870. 106,710 Aug. 23, 1870. Reissues "] 8.256 1 8.257 [ May 28, 1878. 8,258 j 111,415 Jan. 31, 1871. 111,419 Jan. 31, 1871. 112.733 ) 112.734 i March 14, 1871. 113,297 April 4, 1871. 113,488 April 11, 1871. 115,274 May 30, 1871. 117,122 July 18, 1871. Reissue 8,845 Aug. 12, 1879. 117,683 Aug. 1, 1871. 119,107 Sept. 19, 1871. 119,601 Oct. 3, 1871. 122,353 Jan. 2, 1872. 122,581 June 9, 1872. 126,041 April 23, 1872. 127,337 May 28, 1872. 128,788 July 9, 1872. 130,803 Aug. 27, 1872. 130,944 Oct. 8, 1872. 133,243 Nov. 19, 1872. Reissue 5,936 June 30, 1874. 141,206 July 29, 1873. 141,976 Aug. 19, 1873. 144,313 Nov. 4, 1873. 144,354 Nov. 4, 1873. 148,452 March 10, 1874. Reissue 5,936 June 30, 1874. 150,209 April 28, 1874. 150,932 May 19, 1874. 153,190 July 21, 1874. Reissue 8,198 April 23, 1878. 155,074 Sept. 15, 1874. Inventor. A. Fickett. Bliss and Rees. G. Ames. ] I } H. B. Meech. I i J C. and C. WolfF, Jr. Waissing and Specker. S. A. Perkins. W. M. Howland. j- J. Bridge. | J. Taylor. W. Riddell. B. F. Barker. J. K. Griffin. J. Bridge. H. Dodge. J. S. Elliott and J. F. Wood. A. K. Gilmore. Burghardt and Burghardt. H. W. Higley. C. De Negri. | J. G. Moore. J. F. Daniels. S. B. Zimmer. J. Bridge. M. S. and M. E. Otis. A. Harmes and A. Wagenfuer. C. W. Weld. B. F. Barker. F. A. Cushman. L. M. Egery. 1 168 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. 156,355 Oct. 27, 1874. lie issue 8,197 April 23, 1878. 1G0,99G March 23, 1875. 163,926 June 1, 1875. 163,958 June 1, 1875. 165,706 June 20, 1875. 166,835 Aug. 17, 1875. 182,891 Oct. 3, 1876. 183,155 Oct. 10, 1876. 187,292 Feb. 13, 1877. 191,899 June 12, 1877. Reissue 8,877 Sept. 2, 1879. 194,591 Aug. 28, 1877. 195,478 Sept. 25, 1877. 196,515 Aug. 23, 1877. 196,944 Nov. 6, 1877. 198,236 Dec. 18, -1877. 198,845 Jan. 1, 1878. 200,540 Feb. 19, 1878. 201,083 March 12, 1878. 201,152 March 12, 1878. 201,486 March 19, 1878. 201,501 March 19, 1878. 201,550 March 19, 1878. 202,097 April 9, 1878. 202,185 April 9, 1878. Reissue 8,698 May 6, 1879. 202,698 April 23, 1878. 203,437 May 7, 1878. 203,928 May 21, 1878. 204,077 May 21, 1878. 205,34 7 June 25, 1878. 206,971 Aug. 13, 1878. 207,553 Aug. 27, 1878. Reissue 9,110 March 9, 1880. 207,568 Aug. 27, 1878. 208,890 Oct. 15, 1878. 209,197 Oct. 22, 1878. 2 11, 138 Jan. 7, 1879. 212,232 Feb. 11, 1879. Inventor. F. A. Cushman. B. F. Barker. J. O. Gregg. A. M. Zi miner. J. M. Burghardt.' O. Abell. J. Chase. J. O. Gregg. G. H. Mallory. | J. Taylor and J. T. Outterson. A. Fickett. J. W. Bowers and D. A. Curtis. M. R. Fletcher. E. N. Speer. J. H. Burghardt. W. H. Haskins. W. YV. D. JefTers. S. M. Allen. N. Bly. W. J. Baxendale and D. Barry. F. A. Cushman. J. G. Moore. W. A. Doane. | R. D. Mossman. J. W. Brightman. A. H. Fisher. J. C. Mclntyre. W. R. Patrick B. F. Brown. 1 I I- P. and G. C. Rose. I J. Taylor. W. N. Cornell and C. Tollner. W. D. and N. H. Shaw. W. N. Cornell. E. Johnson. PATENTS FOR WOOD GRINDERS. 169 No. Date. 212,782 March 14, 18^9. 217,509 July 15, 1879. 218,912 Aug. 26, 1879. 218,958 Aug. 26, 1879. 219,034 Aug. 26, 1879. 219,170 Sept. 2, 1879. 220,808 Oct. 21, 1879. 220,970 Oct. 28, 1879. 221,404 Nov. 11, 1879. 221,992 Nov. 25, 1879. 221,993 Nov. 25, 1879. 223,304 Jan. 6, 1880. 223,670 Jan. 20, 1880. 224,002 Feb. 3, 1880. 224,623 Feb. 17, 1880. 225,292 March 9, 1880. 225,988 March 30, 1880. 226,013 March 30, 1880. 228,041 May 25, 1880. 228,477 June 8, 1880. 228,899 June 15, 1880. 229,073 June 22, 1880. 229,513 July 6, 1880. 229,588 July 6, 1880. 229,879 July 13, 1880. 230,471 July 27, 1880. 231,720 May 27, 1880. 231,761 Aug. 31, 1880. 232,431 Sept. 21, 1880. 232,480 Sept. 21, 1880. 233,014 Oct. 5, 1880. 233,070 Oct. 12, 1880. 233,071 Oct. 12, 1880. 233,105 Oct. 12, 1880. 233,611 Oct. 26, 1880. 234,893 Nov. 30, 1880. 235,721 Nov. 26, 1880. 236,794 Jan. 18, 1881. 236,856 Jan. 18, 1881. 237,839 Feb. 15, 1881. 239,040 I March 22, 1881. 239,041 j 239,807 April 5, 1881. 240,027 April 19, 1881. 241,277 May 10, 1881. Inventor. S. M. Allen. N. H. Burnhans. S. M. Allen. J. C. Forbes. A. L. Sturdevant. J. R. Moffitt. W. N. Cornell. H. A. Frambach. S. M. Allen. W. E. Farrell. W. A. Doane. S. M. Alien. J. W. Martin. G. D. King. S. M. Allen. N. Cowan. A. W. Priest. P. Holmes. S. M. Allen. C. W. Clark. H. A. Frambach. G. P. Enos. T. F. Hoxie. C. W. Clark. S. M. Allen. A. Fickett. J. C. Potter. | J. Chase. R. B. Lane. H. A. Frambach. S. H. Scott, and Pontee and Wyman. S. M. Allen. G. F. Evans. J. M. Stewart. M. V. Eichelberger. H. A. Frambach. Pv. B. Lane. A. Kreider. E. M. Ball. 170 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. 241,311 May 10, 1881. 242,138 May 31, 1881. 242,308 May 31, 1881. 243, GIG June 28, 1881. 243,965 July 5, 1881. 244, 416 July 19, 1881. 246,516 Aug. 30 1881. 247,072 Sept. 13 , 1881. 252,983 Jan. 31, 1882. 253.654 I 253.655 i Feb. 14, 1882. 253,814 Feb. 14, 1882. 254,327 Feb. 28, 1882. 257,436 May 2, 1882. 259,974 June 20, 1882. 259,992 June 27, 1882. 261,536 July 25, 1882. 263,119 Aug. 22, 1882. 263,250 Aug. 22 1882. 264,167 Sept. 12, 1882. 267,715 Nov. 21, 1882. 269,291 Dec. 19, 1882. 271,409 Jan. 30, 1883. Reissue 10,429 Dec. 26, 1883. 277,060 May 8, 1883. 284,433 Sept. 4, 1883. 286,902 Oct. 16, 1883. 287,980 Nov. 6, 1883. 289,187 Nov. 27 1883. 291,777 Jan. 8, 1884. 291,848 Jan. 8, 1884. 293,235 Feb. 12, 1884. 296,780 April 15 , 1884. 298,851 May 20, 1884. 298,875 May 20, 1884. 304,182 Aug. 2G 1884. 305,062 1 305, OG 3 } Sept. 16 1884. 306,979 Oct, 21, 1884. 309,532 Dec. 23, 1884. 310,659 Jan. 13, 1885. 311,212 Jan. 27, 1885. 320,574 June 23, 1885. Inventor. A. Dean. G. D. King. T. Hanvey. G. H. Pond. B. F. Perkins. S. M. Allen. N. Kaiser. R. B. Lane. G. AVerner. S. M. Allen. D. R. Burns. G. L. Jaeger. R. Cartmell. D. R. Burns. S. M. Allen. A. Crosby. W. N. Cornell. H. P. Litus. W. Jones. G. H. Pond. G. L. Huxtable. H. N. Brokaw. J. Prickett. . W. Jones. Cartmell and Ball. E. Thompson. F. Voith. F. G. Ritchie. P. H. Holmes. G. F. Evans. G. H. Pond. Hayden and Sleepei E. F. Millard. F. A. Cushman. E. P. Ely. S. S. Webber. | E. P. Ely. A. B. Tower. E. F. Millard. CORN-HUSK CUTTER. 171 Corn-Husk Cutter. The machine for cutting or slicing corn-husks shown in Figs. 50, 51, and 52 is the invention of Mr. Wra. A. Wright, of Centreton, N. J. Fig. 50. Fig. 50 is a top or plan view of the apparatus, is a central vertical section thereof in line xx, Fig. 50. 52 is a front view of a portion thereof. Fig. 51 Fig. 172 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. A represents a frame, which is provided with an apron or table, B, and on which is mounted a drum or roller, (7, from Fig. 52. the periphery whereof project cutters, Z>, which are separated one from another, or made adjustable relatively to the required width of the strips or shreds into which the husks are to be cut. On the inner end of the table B, and beneath the .drum (7, is a curved bed, F, the curvature being coincident with the path of the knives or cutters D. To the frame A is connected a swinging frame, F, on whose upper end is mounted a rotary clearer, 6r, consisting of bristles or fingers fitted to a journaled head or roller, which receives motion from a belt passing around a pulley, a, on the head or roller and a pulley, b, on the shaft c, which latter constitutes the axis of the frame F, and carries a pulley, a\ to which power is communicated by means of a pulley, b', on the shaft of the cutter-drum (7, or other gear- ing, it being noticed that the clearer G and said drum G rotate in the same direction. H represents a lever with downwardly-projecting teeth, pivoted to a slide J, whose sides are grooved or formed with CORN-HUSK CUTTER. 173 guides to fit the sides of the apron or table B, so that while the slide is permitted to be moved to and from the cutters D it is prevented from vertical disengagement. The operation is as follows : The lever H is raised and a husk, with the stalk end toward the operator, placed on the table B and held by the lever, is pushed to the cutters D by advancing the slide-clamp H J, power having been properly applied to the drum or roller G and the rotary clearer G. The cutters slice the husk into shreds or strips the length of the husk, the shreds or strips passing between the drum G and bed E as the husk is advanced. The clearer G forces the shreds or strips down from the cutters D, and also pre- vents them from winding on the drum. It will be noticed that the outer ends of the cutters describe a greater circle than the drum. Consequently when the cutters reach the clearer the latter is forced away by the former and its frame F caused to swing on the axial shaft c, so as to permit the cutters to pass the clearer, without, however, avoiding the stripping action thereof. As soon as the cutters clear the brushes or fingers of the clearer the frame G returns to its normal position and causes the brushes or fingers to sweep the circumference of the drum G unoccupied by the cutters D. When the length of the husk, excepting the stalk or stub, is entirely cut the slide J is drawn back, the lever H raised, and the husk removed, after which a fresh husk is applied and the operations of slicing, etc., are repeated. The bed E sustains the husk during the cutting thereof, and its lower end being open permits the escape of loose 174 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. cutting, dirt, etc., the rotary clearer 67 also serving as a fan to assist said escape. The stalk or stub of the husk is severed preferably after the cutting operations. Although only one row of cutters is shown, the number of them may be increased as desired. DUSTING RAGS. 175 CHAPTER VIII. DUSTING RAGS — WET DUSTING — WASTE PAPER DUSTER AND WASHER. Dusting Rags. The next operation to which the rags or other paper stock are subjected is that of "dusting," and numerous mechanical contrivances for removing the dust, sand, and other foreign substances mechanically mixed with rags and paper stock have been invented in the United States and are technically known to the trade as "pin dusters," "railroad dusters," " fan dusters," etc. The operation of dusting is commonly performed by passing the cut rags, etc., through a cylinder and sometimes through a conical drum to which a rotary movement is imparted by suitable gearing. The periphery of these dusters is formed of coarse wire-cloth having about nine meshes to the square inch. These drams are sometimes placed on an incline and at other times on a level, their dis- position in this respect depending upon the arrangement of the mechanism for agitating and carrying the rags through the drum. The rags enter at one end of the drum and issue from the other ; the double motion of rotation and transmission causes 176 TIIE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the adhering impurities to separate from the rags, etc., and sift through the wire covering of the drum. When the paper stock is coarse and very dirty and con- tains much straw or hemp, such as pack cloths, old ropes, etc., a " devil" is used for dusting the material. The action of the 44 devil" is much more severe than that of the ordinary duster, and by it the fibres are more thoroughly loosened up and put in condition for the boiling. Some dusters which we have seen consist of a revolving drum with loose or swinging arms against which the rags are fed, and the force with which the rags are struck by these swinging arms whips them around under the drum upon a coarse wire apron through which the dust escapes. The dusted rags issue from the opposite side of the cylinder from that into which they were fed, and if not sufficiently dusted they are caused to pass through a hollow revolving cylinder, also covered with coarse wire cloth, and placed either on a line with the thresher or turned at any desired angle from it. A wooden or metal partition is placed directly against the threshing-drum, against which and the sides of the cylinder the rags are thrown with great force which assists in beating the dust out of them. At the upper portion of the machine at a convenient point an opening is left for the purpose of ventilation and carrying off the light dust, a strong current of air being created by the rapid revolutions of the drum. In England, Belgium, and other parts of the Continent as well as in the United States, the writer has seen rags dusted by a combination of the devil and duster; the devil being com- DUSTING RAGS. 177 posed of two conical cylinders, the interiors of which contain projecting steel spikes. In the interior of these cylinders an iron drum, having its periphery studded with steel spikes, is made to revolve at the rate of about 300 revolutions per minute. " The rags are fed into the first cylinder by a travelling belt, and dashed through from the one to the other by the action of the revolving drum, and from the second cylinder thrown forward on the duster. This con- sists of a large rectangular wooden case, in the interior of which an iron cage, covered with coarse wire-cloth, revolves slowly at right angles to the devil. This cage is set at a slight incline, so that the rags which are thrown into it by the willow at one end slowly pass to the other, while the dust, etc., which have been disengaged by the action of the willow, falls through the wire-cloth, and the dusted rags pass out at the other end, now ready for the boiler." Before describing other forms of rag duster we would call the reader's attention to the different firms mentioned on page 142, from whose catalogues all information regarding the workings of the various dusters in common use can be obtained. It would not be possible in a volume of the size of the present one to fully describe all the machines made, and used in paper-making, and we shall consequently confine our atten- tion principally to those possessing features of novelty, and the complete list of patents which this volume contains of all inventions relating to paper-making will enable the theorist or practical man to readily inform himself as to the exact state of the art up to the close of the year 1885. 12 178 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The Waste from Dusting, etc. The amount of loss resulting from passing the rags through the duster cannot be accurately estimated, as it varies with their nature and condition, the number and con- struction of the machines through which they are passed, the manner in which the rags have been cut, etc. When the cut- ting knives are dull a much greater loss results from ravelling than is the case when the knives are kept properly sharpened. Prouteaux, in his ' Guide Pratique de la Fabrication du Papier et du Carton' 1 on p. 25, repeats the statement made by him nearly a quarter of a century since regarding the mean waste in the dusting, viz : — 1.5 per cent, for clean white rags ; 2.5 to 3.5 " " hems and seams ; 4 to 5 " " rags containing straw. Owing to the greater care now given to the condition and classification of rags by foreign shippers than was formerly the case, and the improvements which have been made in the dusters now employed in the mills of the United States, it is probable that the above figures are 25 per cent, too high. The waste of rags from the moisture which they contain, overhauling, cutting, and dusting, may be stated to be as follows : — G to 8 per cent, for fine and half-line whites, 8 to 12 " " coarse whites, (i to 9 " " white cottons, 8 to 12 " " colored cottons, 12 to 18 " " pack-cloths and coarse threads containing straw. 15 to 18 " " ropes not of hemp, 18 to 25 " " hempen ropes containing much straw. Paris, 1884. DUSTING KAGS. 179 The above figures are only approximate however, and are not, of course, intended to apply to every case, the only intention being to give some conception of the proportion of loss which the same materials suffer under the same treat- ment. The loss is less in new and unbleached rags than in old rags. In some paper manufactories on the Continent they have substituted for the dry dusting a washing process which gives less loss of fine thready matters. In this connection we shall later (page 185) speak of a combined washing or cleansing and boiling process. A Machine for Reducing the Loss in Cleaning Cut Bags. The contrivance shown in Figs. 53 to 59 is the invention of Messrs. John B. Hart and Emory H. Walker, of Holyoke, Mass. ; the object being to provide a treatment for rags and similar materials used in paper-manufacture, by which the rags, after being cut, will be separated in a degree from foreign substances without so great a waste of small rags as is common to processes now in use. Fig. 53 is a perspective view of the invention. Fig. 54 is a diagram showing in side elevation and section the lead- ing details of the device ; and Figs. 55, 56, 57, 58, and 59 are enlarged views of certain parts in detail. In Fig. 53, A is a frame or guide containing an endless belt, B, passing over the roll (7, and over suitable rolls (not shown) on other portions of the frame. The roll C is 180 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. attached to a shaft, D, having at one end the tight and loose pulleys E, for the purpose of transmitting motion to Fior 53. Fijx. 54. Fig. 55. Fisr. 56. Fia. 57. ODDDQ o o o o o Fi 2 , Fig. 65, on the dusting-engine frame ; and the hollow screen G has circular rim bearings, p s , that are supported by the wheels p 4 , fast on the shafts p 5 , that are supported in journal-bearings in the frame of the dusting-engine, so that by the rotation of one of the shafts, p 5 , the screen will be revolved. In practice the revolutions of the beater F may be about thirty to one of the screen 6r, or in a considerably greater or less ratio. When the screen G is about ten feet long and WASTE-PAPER DUSTER AND WASHER. 201 about five feet in diameter at the large end, and the beater F is of corresponding size, as illustrated in Fig. 65, a good speed for the screen is from about eight to ten, and for the beater from about two hundred and fifty to three hundred revolutions in a minute ; but good work may be done when they revolve considerably faster or slower. Such different rates of rotation are to be imparted to the screen and beater by any suitable gearing or belting from any suitable motor or motors. In the mechanism represented by Figs. 65, 66, and 67 motion is imparted , to the beater F, to the shaft p 5 of one of the two pairs of wheels p 4 , that support the screen 6r, and to the exhausting-blower Q, all from the one driving- shaft T. by means of the pulleys, counter-shafts, and belts clearly represented by those figures. In carrying out this invention the paddle-wheels can have the active faces of their paddles in planes parallel to the axes and inclined to the radii of the wheels, as shown in the drawings, or in planes parallel to the axes and radii; or the paddles may be of various shapes and arrangements, provided the wheels shall operate as already described. The rate of rotation of the paddle-wheels can be consider- ably varied. A good speed is ten to twelve revolutions in a minute, when the wheel is about seven feet in diameter and has eight paddles, each about eight feet long and three feet wide, arranged as in the wheel /, and the wheel is arranged to revolve in a circuit- vat, of corresponding size, as illus- trated by Fig. 69. The paddle-wheels, rotary washers, dusting-engine and its feed-apron, exhausting-blower, and devices for transferring 202 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the materials may be actuated by any suitable mechanisms from any suitable motor or motors. List of American Patents for Rag-Dusters. For list of patents for rag-dusters issued by the government of the United States of America, see page 143. BOILING RAGS. 203 CHAPTER IX. BOILING RAGS — STATIONARY BOILERS — REVOLVING BOILERS TREATING COLORED RAGS — BOILING WASTE PAPER BOILING STRAW BOILING ESPARTO BOILING MANILLA AND JUTE BOILING WOOD SODA-RECOVERY ACID OR BISULPHITE PRO- CESSES OF TREATING WOOD LIST OF PATENTS FOR PREPARING CELLULOSE FROM WOOD BY THE ACID OR BISULPHITE PRO- CESSES LIST OF PATENTS FOR DIGESTERS WITH LEAD LININGS LIST OF ALL AMERICAN PATENTS FOR DIGESTERS FOR PAPER pulp methods other than the mechanical, soda, and bisulphite processes for the treatment of wood. Boiling Rags. After being dusted, the rags are next boiled in an alkaline lye. Prior to the substitution of the boiling process, the rags were subjected to fermentation by piling them in stone vats for five or six weeks, and frequently adding water, which operation curtailed the power required for the subse- quent mechanical comminution ; but the process was so wasteful that the modern method of boiling was substituted, the invention being that of Schauffelen, of Heilbronn. The operation of boiling is a most important one, and mistakes here made cannot afterwards be rectified ; it is, consequently, imperative that intelligent care should be given to the rags during the boiling, so as not to injure their texture or make the cost of the process too great. 204 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The object of boiling is not only to get rid of the dirt remaining in the rags after the dusting and the removal of some of the coloring matter, but also to decompose a par- ticular glutinous substance, which, if allowed to remain, impairs the flexibility of the fibres, and renders them too harsh and stiff to be readily fabricated into paper. If the rags are improperly boiled, they will, in addition to consuming too much chlorine, make an inferior appear- ing paper. The alkaline substances employed in boiling are fresh burned quick-lime, carbonate of soda, and caustic soda. The quantities of chemicals used, as well as the pressure and length of time the rags remain in the boiler, vary with the character and condition of the rags, and upon the alki- metrical degree of the agent employed. Various forms of vessels are used in which to boil the rags. Some are stationary, and others are made to revolve by means of suitable gearing; the latter class of boilers being commonly either cylindrical or spherical, cylindrical boilers being usually geared so as to revolve horizontally. Fig. 73 shows the form of spherical rotary boiler used on the Continent, and is about the same as those used in Great Britain and in the United States. In the gearing, however, a worm is generally substituted for the small pinion shown in the illustration. Some manufacturers of fine paper still prefer to boil the rags in stationary tubs, which are made of wood, and in such cases soda is used to saponify the fatty substances con- tained in the rasrs. BOILING EAGS. 205 Most manufacturers use lime in the boiling process for all ordinary grades of paper ; some, however, prefer soda, and others employ a mixture of lime and soda. Fig. 73. When rotary boilers are used, lime is probably equally as effective with uncolored rags as soda, whether used alone or mixed with lime. The quantity of lime employed varies according to its composition and the condition of the rags, and ranges from about five to fifteen pounds per hundred pounds of rags. 206 TIIE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. It is well known that the solvent properties of water far exceed those of any other known liquid. A very large pro- portion of all the different salts are more or less soluble in it, the solubility increasing generally as the temperature rises, so that a hot saturated solution deposits crystals on cooling. There are a few exceptions to this rule, one of the most remarkable of which is common salt, the solubility of which is nearly the same at all temperatures, the hydrate of lime (slaked lime) being more soluble in cold than in hot water, sulphate of lime being also less soluble in hot than in cold water, and insoluble at 302° F., or between 284° and 302° F. The solvent properties of water are still further increased when heated in a strong vessel under pres- sure ; hence the greater the pressure under which the rags are boiled, the smaller the proportion of lime which it will hold in solution, and the less the quantity required to accom- plish the object of the boiling. An excess of lime will not injure the rags, but as it would be waste, it is best to employ the lime only in the necessary quantities. The pressure of the steam for any class of rags should seldom exceed thirty pounds. Some manufacturers use a mixture of lime and soda-ash in about the following proportions : — Lime. Soda. For 100 lbs. of tarred rope or similar coarse material 15 lbs. (> lbs. " l< deeply dyed rags . . . . 12 4 ' 3 " In some cases it will be found that better results will be obtained from colored rags, such as cuttings from print cloths, by first boiling them with about 5 per cent, of lime BOILING RAGS. 207 under about 25 pounds pressure in a rotary boiler, and, after washing in the engine and put into drainers, they should be again boiled in the rotary with a solution of about 2 pounds of soda ash to each 100 pounds of rags. The following table shows the proportions of lime and soda ash used on the Continent for boiling the various stuffs : — No. 1 stuff Nos. 3 and 5 stuff No. 4 stuff for 100 lbs. rags. for 100 lbs. rags. for 100 lbs. rags. Lime 5.4 lbs. 8.1 lbs. 8.0 Soda- ash (48 per cent.) . 2.8 " 3.8 " 4.0 The boiling is usually continued for twelve hours under a pressure of 30 pounds of steam in a boiler revolving hori- zontally. The boiling of ropes for tissue, copying, and cigarette paper is continued for twenty-four hours under a pressure of 30 pounds of steam, and for each 100 pounds of rope 16.5 pounds of lime and 11.5 pounds of soda-ash, 48 per cent., are used. Oblong wooden boxes, measuring about fifteen by five feet, and four feet deep, are used in which to prepare the milk of lime. The boxes are divided into three compart- ments, and in order to retain small stones, etc., false bottoms, perforated with one-half-inch holes, are fitted to each com- partment. In the third compartment a revolving drum, similar to the drum-washer of a half-stuff engine, is so arranged that the milk of lime is strained as it flows through a movable sluice in the division between the second and third compartments, and is discharged through a pipe directly into the rag-boilers. A finer wire strainer can be placed 208 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. over the mouth of the pipe leading to the boilers in case it is desired to keep out finer particles of sand and grit. By means of suitable waste pipes connected with each compart- ment of the box all refuse can be readily carried away with the water. The best way to introduce the soda-ash is to dissolve it, and strain through a fine wire cloth as it passes into the boiler. Care should be exercised to use sufficient water with the rags during the boiling, as otherwise they are liable to come from the boiler with an undesirable dark appearance, which cannot be removed by either washing or bleaching. The majority of manufacturers in the United States use lime in the boiling process, and the result is most satisfac- tory, but as caustic soda is often employed in Europe and sometimes in America, we will here give the quantities of caustic soda employed in boiling the different classes of rags. S P F F F are boiled with 5 per cent, of lime, and, after washing in the boiler, are afterwards boiled with 2 per cent, of soda-ash. 100 lbs. S P F F require 10.5 lbs. of caustic soda, 70 per cent, u SPF " 12.25 " " Fines " G.12 " " " " Seconds " 5.25 " " " " LFX " 17.5 " CLFX " 24.5 " " CCLFX " 2G.25 » F F " 13.0 STATIONARY BOILERS. 209 Stationary Boilers. The boiling is continued for about ten or twelve hours in stationary boilers without vomit, under a steam pressure of from 20 to 25 pounds. Fig. 74 shows a section of a form of stationary boiler much used in Great Britain. " It consists of an upright Fig. 74. cylinder of half-inch iron, about eight feet in diameter, by six feet deep, and fitted with a perforated false bottom, on which the rags rest. The boiler is further fitted with a filling door, A, at the top, and an emptying door, B, below. 14 210 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. After being charged with rags, it is filled to about one-half its height with water ; a sufficient quantity of caustic soda, varying according to the nature of the rags, is introduced ; the door is then closed, and steam is then admitted by a small pipe, (7, which is contained in, and communicates at the foot with, a larger pipe, D, and causes a constant circu- lation of hot liquid, which is dispensed all over the boiler by striking against the hood E at the top. This is technically known as the 4 vomit.' The rags are boiled in this solution of caustic soda for ten or twelve hours, when the steam is turned off, and the liquid is discharged by the pipe G. After a subsequent washing with cold water in the boiler, the door B is opened, and the boiled rags withdrawn into small trucks, and picked by women to remove impurities, such as India-rubber, etc." Revolting Boilers. In revolving boilers as heretofore constructed steam has been introduced generally through the journals at one end of the boiler, sometimes at each end ; but no provision has been made for determining the height of the water-level in them, nor for drawing off an excess of water, nor for know- ing exactly the steam-pressure and heat inside of the boiler. An apparatus has been devised and used for the purpose of reducing the pressure of steam in the revolver below that carried in the boilers where the steam is generated for common use in paper-mills ; but it is uncertain in use, and only operates when in good order by withdrawing the REVOLVING BOILERS. 211 steam. To accomplish these several and other desirable results which the old form of construction failed to attain, Mr. George F. Wilson, of East Providence, R. I., has devised and patented the following-described mechanism and appli- ances. Fig. 75. Fig. 75, letter A, represents a view of the revolving boiler with its man-hole entrances used for filling the boiler, and others at the bottom, which, by reason of the great weight of the man-hole entrances, it has been found necessary to use as balances for the upper ones. Fig. 76 is a vertical Fig. 76. longitudinal section of the revolver, showing the proper height of the water-level or water-line and the means which 212 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the inventor has devised for the introduction of steam into the contents of the boiler below that water-line. In order to determine where the water-line is inside the boiler, which, when in use, is hermetically sealed, the pipe h is inserted into the steam-pipe carrying steam into the boiler at the point c and between the boiler and the steam- gauge. The pipe li li runs around above the boiler in any convenient way for fastening it to the other or right-hand end of the boiler, through the journal of which is inserted the steam-pipe g, which has been connected with the pipe li li by a glass tube, g\ Fig. 76. At /is shown a strainer, which, in drawing off the water through the valve , Fig. 84. The spherical portion of the piece F is properly perforated, and as a separator of stock from the steam admi- rably serves its purpose. In use, however, fragments of stock gradually work through the perforations, and clog the apparatus, and it must be frequently removed for repairs. To remove the strainer shown in Fig. 83, the rivets a a, etc., must be cut, which is a laborious and expensive operation. To remove the piece F, in Fig. 84, a number of bolts must be taken out, and as, under the action of heat, pressure, and chemicals, the bolts b b, etc., are likely to be corroded in place, this work will usually be found to be more expensive for removing and replacing than in the former case. REVOLVING BOILERS. 217 Mr. Benjamin F. Mullin, of Holyoke, Mass., has invented a strainer which he claims is readily accessible for cleaning, Fig. 83. r easily detachable for repairs, and firm and secure when in place. This strainer is shown in Figs. 85, 86, and 87. The strainer proper is shown at F. It is of spherical form, of proper size, and with suitable holes, as shown, to meet the conditions respecting strength and capacity ot the given service. At the line where the strainer F meets the boiler-shell A it comes to an edge (without flanging), and is given the form of the surface which it meets, for the pur- pose of forming a close connection. A row of half-holes is made around the edge of the strainer, as shown, for the pur- pose of allowing it to come to a better bearing, and also permitting particles of stock to blow back into the boiler that would otherwise collect in the corner between the strainer-edge and the boiler-shell. The strainer F as described is attached to the boiler-shell in the following manner : To opposite sides of F are firmly 218 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. united heavy ears, G 6r, as shown. Pairs of corresponding ears, H H, etc., are securely riveted in the proper position on the shell A, as indicated, and heavy pins, / /, pass through the ears, firmly holding the parts in place, accidental dis- placement being prevented by the split pins K IC When necessary to reach the concave surface of strainer F, a pin, /, is removed, F being swung back on the pin as a hinge, as in Fig. 87. F may be entirely separated by removing both pins. The relative position of the two hinges shown gives square resistance to the action of the stock when the boiler is in motion, and prevents lateral strains. TREATING COLORED RAGS. 219 Treating Colored Rags. The course practically pursued by paper-manufacturers in preparing their paper-stock for use is as follows : — The stock is put into the well-known form of apparatus, and boiled for several hours in a solution of quicklime or of soda-ash, or caustic soda and quicklime, for the double pur- pose of removing the oils or greasy matters adherent to the stock, and for discharging the colors. It often happens that the greasy matters are rendered insoluble, or the coloring- matters are rendered more prominent, so as seriously to interfere with the action of the chloride of lime, to which the stock is subsequently subjected for bleaching purposes. In discharging colors from misprints or calicoes, the mor- dants are usually removed by various acid baths adapted to the particular mordants, after which the colors can be easily removed by alkalies. This process, however, affects more or less injuriously the strength of the cloths. Messrs. George F. Wilson and Philip O'Reilley, of Provi- dence, R. I., have patented a process by which they claim that the mordants can be treated with chemicals in such a manner that a double decomposition in the bath will take place in contact with the colors, and the effect of this nas- cent action, so produced, they claim, will be to produce the oxidation or deoxidation of the mordants, and that the dis- charge of the coloring-matters may be brought about with- out injury to the fabrics or paper-stock so treated. In Fig. 88 is shown the apparatus which the inventors 220 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. have devised to save labor and to utilize to the utmost extent all of the chemicals employed. Fig 88. A represents an iron-wire basket with a strong iron frame, which holds the paper-stock in the several processes until it TREATING COLORED RAGS. 221 is bleached and ready to be dried. This basket is sus- pended by a rope passing over a pulley, so that it can be readily raised and lowered. This pulley is suspended from a carrier, B, which travels on a rail, C. Beneath this rail, and in a line with its length, is a series of keirs, D, E, F, G, IT. The basket A can, by raising and lowering it and moving the carrier B, be readily transferred to any of the keirs. In connection with the keir H, a stirring device, /, is em- ployed. This is so constructed as to be raised and lowered. It is supported in a bearing attached to the bar or rail K, so as to be revolved by means of the belt or strap on the pul- ley L. The spindle or arbor of the stirrer passes through the hub of the pulley, and is free to move up and down therein and in its bearing ; but rotary movement independ- ent of the pulley is prevented by a spline-and-groove con- nection. From the upper part of the spindle of the stirrer a rope passes over a pulley, ilf, so that the stirrer may be raised, as shown in full lines, or lowered into the keir, as shown in dotted lines, as required. A cover is or may be employed for the keir H. It is made to serve as a step or bearing for the spindle of the stirrer, as well as to close the keir. The operation of preparing the stock is as follows: The first step is to put into the wire basket a suitable quantity — say five hundred pounds — of colored rags cut into small pieces, as is the common practice, for convenience in work- ing them. Into the keir I) are put, for treating the weight 222 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. of rags mentioned, five hundred gallons of water and fifteen pounds of caustic soda, to which is added a small quantity — say two gallons — of soft soap. The wire basket and rags are now put into the keir and boiled, preferably under atmospheric pressure, for about three hours, or sufficiently long to remove the oils and grease, which may be accom- plished with frequent stirring in much less time. They may now be transferred in the basket to keir H, to be thor- oughly washed with water. In washing the stirring appa- ratus is employed, it being let down into the position indi- cated in dotted lines in the drawing. The operation is continued until the stock is sufficiently clean, which an expert paper-maker will readily determine. The keir E is now supplied with two hundred and fifty gallons of water, with which have been mixed five pounds of a soluble salt of manganese, prepared for the purpose from black oxide of manganese, and muriatic and sulphuric acids, as hereafter described. The rags having been washed are now immersed in this solution, where they are to remain for about three hours, being thoroughly agitated or stirred during this whole or a portion of the time. While this process is going on put into the keir F two hundred gallons of water having in solution fifteen pounds of chloride of lime, where the rags are thoroughly stirred and where they remain for about two hours. If the goods have obtained or taken on a brown color they may be washed thoroughly in the keir H, and then removed to the keir 6r, in which have been put two hundred and fifty gallons of water and five pounds of oxalic acid. This is for the purpose of removing any traces of iron TREATING COLORED RAGS. 223 or manganese which may be left in the rags. They are allowed to remain in this solution for about three hours, when they may be again washed in keir H, and then thrown into a hydro-extractor of any ordinary or suitable construc- tion, which will take out nearly all the water remaining in them ; after which they may be dried and made ready for shipment. The rags coming out of this process are ready to be reduced to pulp in the ordinary engines. Should the rags not have obtained the brown color referred to above, they may be returned to the manganese solution again, and then again to the chloride-of-lime solution, as before. The remaining part of the processes following this second treatment will be the same as before described. Permanganate of potash could be employed for the man- ganese with excellent results. It would be preferable to use it but for economical reasons. The patentees state that they have obtained nearly or quite as good results by means of the soluble salt of manga- nese, before referred to, which is prepared in the following way : In a suitable vessel, to one pound of black oxide of manganese add one pound of commercial muriatic acid, or other quantities in approximately the same proportion can be used. Mix them well and let the whole remain for from thirty minutes to one hour, and then add two and one-half pounds of commercial sulphuric acid ; stir and heat the mass gently until the manganese is dissolved, then add about three gallons of water, stir it well, and leave the whole to settle. In charging the keir E only the clear liquor of the soluble salt of manganese is used. 224 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. We have indicated the proportions in the foregoing pro- cess with considerable minuteness in order that the inven- tion can be readily carried into effect ; but it is obvious that these may be varied more or less. The stirring apparatus can, if desired, be readily constructed so as to be shifted from one keir to the other by supporting the bearing for the spin- dle of the stirrer in a travelling bracket, and making the elevating and lowering pulley also movable, like that which supports the basket. This is not, however, considered neces- sary, as the stirring is principally required in the washing- keir. Boiling Waste Paper. W T aste paper can be boiled in either stationary or rotary boilers ; but in mills where its manufacture is made a spe- cialty it is commonly boiled in stationary iron tubs. Writing-ink can be extracted by simply boiling with water; but a solution of soda-ash is generally used for extracting printing-ink. The tubs used for boiling waste paper vary in size in dif- ferent mills, but a form of tub, very similar in design to that shown in Fig. 89, which has been found to give satisfaction is built of boiler iron and measures about eight feet in depth and eight feet in diameter at the bottom, and six inches wider at the top than at the bottom. Steam is evenly distributed to all parts of the tub through a false bottom perforated with a large number of small holes. In order to expedite the emptying of the tubs the false bottoms have attached to them three or four iron rods to the BOILING WASTE PAPER. 225 tops of which iron chains are hooked and the false bottom and mass of boiled paper raised and deposited at any desired point by means of a steam hoisting engine or a crane. It is preferable not to pack the waste paper while in a dry state in the tubs, as it is liable to be imperfectly boiled owing to the imperfect circulation of the liquid through dry paper. To properly begin the boiling operation it is necessary to fill the tubs one-quarter full with a solution of soda-ash, which should then be brought to the boiling-point, when the papers should be thrown in and evenly distributed. In order to obtain an even distribution of the boiling liquor over the surface of the tubs an iron pipe extends from the centre of the false bottom to nearly the top of the tub, and this pipe being covered with a suitable hood distributes the soda-ash solution over the whole surface of the vessel. The iron tubs are cased with wood or covered with an asbestos coating to prevent the escape of the heat, and the top is covered with a flat iron cover in one or two pieces. The steam enters the tub at the side, near the real bottom, but under the false bottom ; and the liquor is drawn off through a pipe and valve connected directly with the bottom of the tub. In many mills the liquor is not drawn off after each boil- ing, the paper only being hoisted from the tub and the liquor strengthened by the addition of ten to twenty pounds of fresh soda-ash to each one hundred pounds of the paper to be next boiled. In proportion as the waste paper is more thickly covered with printing ink the more soda-ash will it require in the boiling operation. The period of boiling 15 226 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. varies from twelve to twenty-four hours, according to the nature and condition of the waste paper to be treated. The waste steam from the engine can be profitably em- ployed in the boiling operation, as water in becoming steam absorbs a large quantity of heat, which becomes latent, and is termed the heat of vaporization ; but this heat is again given out when the steam condenses to water. The latent heat of steam by one observer is 996.4° F., and by another 998°. The latent heat of steam diminishes as the tempera- ture of the steam rises, so that equal weights of steam thrown into cold water will have nearly the same heating power, although the temperatures may vary exceedingly. This also appears to be below the boiling-point, so that to evapo- rate a given quantity of water a certain amount of heat is requisite at whatever temperature the evaporation is con- ducted. It is for this reason that distillation in vacuo at a low temperature effects no saving of fuel. The tubs which are described above will each hold about four thousand pounds of papers ; heavy book papers, how- ever, require less room than news or shavings, and the quan- tity which a tub will hold varies according to the class of waste papers to be treated. Treating Waste Papers so as to maize Paper entirely therefrom. By the common process the imperfections, consisting of old letters, documents, newspapers, books, etc., are dusted, and then put into a rotary boiler, and cooked and pulped in an alkali solution. This operation produces a mass partly BOILING WASTE PAPER. 227 pulped and so conglomerated that the alkali cannot reach all of the ink. Much of the ink thus remains to form a constituent part of the pulp and paper made from it. This mass is then put into a washer, and the alkali and dissolved ink removed, after which it is beaten to the proper pulp and mixed with the other portions of the stock ; usually not over fifty per cent, of imperfections being admitted into the stock for new paper, the remainder of the stock being made up of rags, etc. The object of the process patented by Mr. J. T. Ryan, of Hamilton, Ohio, is to so treat the imperfections that a first- class clean paper may be made entirely therefrom. In exe- cuting this process first pass the imperfections through a duster, all thick old books being previously torn apart to reduce them to a few leaves. Then treat the imperfections to the action of hot alkali without pulping them. The alkali solution thus acts on the surfaces of the imperfections and dissolves off and carries away all the ink into the solu- tion. Then drain the imperfections, which are still in sheet form, as free from the alkali solution as convenient. Then place the imperfections, still in sheet form, in the washing- engine, and wash out the alkali solution, which leaves the imperfections perfectly clean. The material is then pulped in the beating-engine, and it is claimed can be formed into first-class clean paper without the addition of aay new or expensive paper-stock. In executing this process use a common duster. Into a bucking-keir put a soda-ash solution having a density of 5° Baume at 160° Fahrenheit. Put in the stock, and shower 228 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. for eight hours at a temperature of 160° F., without pulping the imperfections ; then lift, and drain and cleanse well in the washing-engine ; then pulp and form into paper. As the draining operation will always be imperfect, each charge removed will carry away some of the soda-ash solu- tion and leave the remainder of impaired strength. After each drainage, add water to make up for loss in quantity of solution, and add enough soda-ash solution, having a density of 13° Baume, to bring all the solution up to 5° Baume at 160° F. In about eighteen working days the liquor will have accumulated considerable ink and other matter. Then blow off one-half of the liquor, and restore the quantity for proper working. None of the soda-ash solution is wasted, except such as fails to drain, and such as is blown out, as last mentioned. Boiling scrap paper in alkali, then cooling it, then boiling in a new solution, then beating to pulp in alkali, then wash- ing, etc., is an old process. But in the present method every care is to be taken to guard against pulping before the alkali is washed out. Other Methods of Treating Waste Papers. Fig. 69 shows a view of a circuit-vat in which the sizing of the paper and the vehicle of the ink can be quickly dissolved - f the temperature necessary to be maintained and the quantity of alkali to be employed are given in the text describing the construction and operation of this circuit-vat. In the section of Chapter X., devoted to " Washing Waste Taper or 'Imperfections,' " a process is described by which BOILING STRAW. 229 it is claimed that the sizing, etc., can be removed from the imperfections, and the fibres separated in the beater without breaking. Boiling Straw. Mellier's Process for Treating Straw. Mellier's process for treating straw to prepare it for use in the manufacture of paper consists in steeping the straw for a few hours in hot water after it has been cut and freed from knots and dirt. The straw is then placed in a rotary boiler containing a weak solution of caustic alkali, and, after making it steam- tight, the pressure should be gradually raised to about 55 to 70 lbs. to the square inch, at which point it should be main- tained for about three hours, the boiler in the meanwhile being made to revolve at the rate of about one or two revo- lutions per minute. The solution used by Mellier is from 2 to 3 degrees Baume, and in the proportion of about seventy gallons of such solution to each hundred weight of straw. In order not to dilute the caustic alkaline solution by the condensation of the steam it is recommended, if the boiler is to rotate vertically on its small axis, to cover it with a jacket so that the steam may circulate from one end to the other between the two plates ; but if it is to revolve horizontally, or upon its long axis, there should be fixed near each end of the boiler and inside of it a diaphragm or partition, which partition should be connected by numerous tubes arranged 230 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. in a circle near the outer circumference of each partition. By this arrangement the steam introduced through the hol- low axis at one end of the boiler passes through the steam- pipes, and thence into the compartment at the other end of the boiler, where it and the condensed steam are conveyed away through the other hollow axis. By not delivering the steam directly into the boiler, in addition to not diluting the alkaline solutions, the trouble is saved of sometimes having the end of the steam-pipe in the boiler choked with straw, and there is another additional advantage of being able to quickly cool the boiler, after the pressure has been maintained for a sufficient length of time, by passing a stream of cold water through the jacket or steam-pipes. After the apparatus and fibres under treatment have been cooled in the manner described, the manhole is opened and the materials emptied into suitable vessels, where they are washed first with hot and afterwards with cold water until the liquor runs perfectly clear. The fibre is next steeped for about an hour in hot water acidulated with a quantity of sulphuric acid equal to about two per cent, of the fibres under treatment, and, finally, the washing is completed with cold water. The bleaching is then done in the ordinary way, and it is claimed that it can be accomplished by the employment of a comparatively small quantity of chloride of lime. This process was patented in America and also in Europe by Mr. M. C. Mellier, of Paris, France, the patent in the United States bearing date May 26, 1857. BOILING STRAW. 231 Burns' 8 Process for Treating Straw. Heretofore in the art of making straw paper the straw has been reduced to pulp by means of beating-machines, or by means of a machine having a rotary cylinder carrying a series of cutting-knives. The objections to these machines are several, among which may be stated the fact that the fibre of the stock is sometimes completely cut to pieces, and that the bleaching material in solid particles is introduced into these machines, both of which objections, especially where straw-stock is used, tend to make the paper, straw- board, and the like extremely brittle and rotten, and conse- quently unsatisfactory to the trade. To remedy these objections Mr. Daniel H. Burns, of Day- ton, Ohio, has invented a process by means of which the stock is first cooked, then disintegrated by separating and tearing the fibre apart without destroying the fibre itself, thereby, it is claimed, allowing the fibre to retain all its albu- men and gluten properties. Finally the stock is subjected to a bleaching process without the contact therewith of any solid-matter bleaching material. The bleaching process, as conducted by Mr. Burns, is described in Chapter XI. Fig. 89 shows a section of the vessel used for boiling the straw ; Fig. 90 shows a transverse section of the disintegrat- ing machine, and Fig. 91 shows a face view of the stationary grinding disk. The boiler shown in Fig. 89 consists of the vessel J., hav- ing a suitable cover, and in which the stock is first placed to be cooked. It is provided with an upright perforated cen- THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. tral tube, B, having a deflecting-cap, (7, at the top, and a steam-pipe entering it at the bottom. The stock is placed around this pipe B, and the steam from the steam-pipe, en- tering the pipe B and passing out through its perforations, thoroughly cooks the stock throughout. The process and manner of treating the stock when intro- duced into the vessel A is as follows : Twenty pounds of carbonate of soda are added to every one hundred gallons of water, which is not raised to a higher temperature than 212° F. at any time during the process. The straw is introduced when the water is cold, after which the heat is gradually Fig-. 89. Fig. 90. Fig. 91. BOILING STRAW. 233 raised to the boiling-point, In most cases it is claimed that the straw is in condition to be removed from the tub as soon as the boiling-point is reached. To ascertain if it be suffi- ciently cooked, a small sample is taken from the tub, and if the knots on the straw, hay, grasses, etc., can be easily crushed under the fingers by a slight pressure, it is ready to be delivered from the tub. If not, the boiling must be con- tinued. This is intended for stock to be bleached white. For stock which is to retain the natural color, or not be- yond a buff, there are introduced into the water ten pounds of extract of hemlock or oak bark to every one hundred gallons of water, and the same amount of carbonate of soda as above (twenty pounds), and dissolved. The liquid is now the tannate of soda. The stock is then introduced as be- fore, when the water is about 60° F. The tannic acid uniting with the gluten and albuminous properties of the stock imparts to it the properties of leather, the same as to hides or skins in tanning, which preserves it from the action of the water. The soda acts upon the fibre, soften- ing and disintegrating it, so as to make it useful for paper- stock. This gives to the darker colored stock, paper, straw- board, etc., a greater amount of tenacity and strength than has heretofore been obtained by any other process. After being cooked the stock is removed from the vessel in which the boiling is conducted, and is fed into the dis- integrating-machine. (Shown in Fig. 90.) This machine consists of the revolving shaft D, driven by any suitable power by means of pulley E. One end of shaft E carries a rotary disk, F, of peculiar construction — that is, its grinding- 234 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. face is concaved. The grin ding-disk G is of similar construc- tion, only it is preferably made stationary (although it may be made to revolve), and is also 'provided with the central feed-orifice , is provided with a stopcock, V . Under ordinary conditions these cocks, b\ are all open and each is ready to discharge any fluid, whether hot air, steam, or solution, which may seek to issue through the orifice b, which it controls. /is a sample-cock controlling an orifice, i, made at a con- venient point in the boiler, and through which small quanti- ties of the contents of the boiler may be drawn from time to time to examine its condition. The surfaces of the cock 1 which are exposed ,to the solution are lead. The orifice i is re-enforced by a bushing of lead, J, having a head on the inner face and one on the outer face. The cock is secured by bolts tapped in holes in the steel shell B. Operation. — As the boiler is rotated by mechanism (not shown), the contents of the boiler are gently agitated. The proper valves (not shown) being operated, steam at a suffi- cient pressure is allowed to flow inward through the pipes B' D 2 . These pipes agitate the contents of the boiler by being traversed through the same as the boiler slowly re- volves, and deliver steam through orifices distributed along their whole length. Thus the heat is delivered in the form of steam, mingling directly with the contents of the boiler and imparting all its caloric thereto, rapidly raising the tem- perature of the boiler until it very nearly corresponds to that of the steam-pressure employed. The transfer of heat from the steam to the contents of the boiler results in the production of considerable quantities of water due to the condensation of the steam. This water becomes added to the contents of the boiler. It is therefore important at the 286 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. commencement that the solution be strong, though not stronger than 4|° to 5° Baume, and not of sufficient quan- tity to fill the boiler. As the work proceeds, the water, added by the condensation of the steam, increases the volume and weakens the strength of the fluid contents of the boiler. At the close of the operation the boiler will be nearly full. The solution — the acid sulphite of lime — is produced, as has been explained on page 275, by causing sulphurous acid- fumes to pass up through a tower containing carbonate of lime kept wetted with water. The sulphurous fumes are absorbed by the water, making the water acidulous, which then attacks the lime, and in trickling down the tower ob- tains nearly its equivalent of alkali, leaving just a sufficient excess of the acid. This gives the desired acid sulphite of lime for the proper treatment of the woody matter in the boiler. By the ordinary methods of treating wood with acid sul- phite a large quantity of sulphate forms and remains attached to the fibres of the pulp r which sulphate is practically inso- luble, and, adhering to the fibres, remains in the pulp. All known methods of extracting it tend to darken the pulp and make it more difficult to bleach. Mr. Francke is not con- fident as to the precise chemical reactions occurring, but he claims to have discovered that the absence of highly-heated surfaces reduces the evil. The formation of the sulphate and its disposition upon the fibres depends, probably, on a high temperature throughout the solution; such as is required to effect the heating by metallic surfaces. Mr. Francke's method of heating by direct steam avoids the necessity for ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 287 any particles of the material under treatment being heated much above the mean temperature of the solution. The steam-pipes are liberally perforated, and allow a perfectly free discharge of the steam. The apparatus, by thus avoid- ing the presence of any surfaces much hotter than the solu- tion, produces, it is claimed, a pulp having, when dried, not more than one per cent, of sulphate. Lead is of such a nature that even with the care taken in the present instance to give it expansion and contraction it is still shorter lived^ than the steel. When a flaw occurs in any portion of the lead lining of sufficient magnitude to induce a. visible escape of steam from the nearest stopcock, b\ the attendant marks that stopcock and then closes all the stopcocks, thus preventing any serious loss of the con- tents. As soon thereafter as practicable, a workman enters the boiler and, knowing by the marked stopcock what part of the lead shell is defective, solders or otherwise repairs the defect, introducing a new sheet of lead if required. We have in Figs. 100 and 101 described a boiler having a portion of each end occupied as steam space with tubes con- necting such spaces, and in which steam flowed from one chamber to another. Such apparatus imparted the heat of the steam to the contents of the boiler only through the medium of the metal of the tubes and of the tube-sheets. A portion of the steam was necessarily allowed to escape at the opposite end of the boiler from that through which it was received, in order to maintain the presence of steam on all the surfaces. Mr. Francke's present invention, by intro- ducing the steam directly, imparts the heat of the steam 288 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. fully and effects the heating more rapidly and with less consumption of steam. It also economizes room by dispens- ing with the considerable steam-spaces at each end and by dispensing with a large proportion of the tube-spaces. It also (and to this the inventor attaches the most importance) conveys the heat to the solution directly without being transmitted through metal. It thus avoids the presentation to the pulp of any surfaces materially hotter than itself. It will be understood that the wood or analogous material to be treated, previously made quite fine by mechanical means, is introduced into the boiler with the solution, so as to fill the boiler about two-thirds full, and then it is heated by the direct application of steam to about 300° F., or some- what more or less, and rotated slowly from ten to fifteen hours, as described on page 279. After being discharged from the boiler, the dissolved material may be removed by wash- ing in a common rag-engine. The pulp may then be either made into paper directly by any ordinary or suitable process, or it may be dried and stored or transported to distant points. The paper-pulp produced in the present boiler is claimed to be not only relatively free from gypsum, but easily bleached, and even without bleaching, it is said to be of a very light color. It is claimed that it may be used without bleaching for many purposes requiring white or nearly white paper. ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 289 Some of the Defects of the Acid or Bisulphite Processes of Treating Wood. In the acid treatment of wood for the purpose of convert- ing the fibres into pulp for use in the manufacture of paper the general practice has been to use alkaline solutions of soda, combined in various proportions with certain acids — such, for instance, as sulphurous acid, hydrochloric acid, etc. These solutions have been heated in digesting-vessels, and the high temperature resulting from this process of heating developing a pressure of from six to seven atmospheres, the wood being disintegrated by the action of the boiling solution. The gum, resinous constituents, and other incrustating or cementing substances that bind the fibres together are decomposed, destroyed, or dissolved, while the pure cellu- lose, which constitutes the essential elements of the ligneous fibres, is separated therefrom. To this end high tempera- tures had to be employed, otherwise the disintegration was found to be only partial, the wood remaining in a condition unfit for further treatment. The high, temperature not un- frequently converts a large proportion of the resinous and gummy constituents of the wood into tar and pitch — that is to say, carbonaceous bodies that penetrate into the fibre and render its bleaching difficult, laborious, and costly, while the frequent washing and lixiviation necessary to bleach such products seriously affect the strength of the fibre, its white- ness, and also materially reduce the percentage of the pro- duct in some instances as much as eighteen per cent. These difficulties and detrimental results necessarily materially 19 290 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. enhance the cost of production, while the fibre itself suffers considerably in strength from the repeated action of the chloride of lime employed in the process of bleaching. The difficulties are due chiefly to the carbonization of certain constituent parts of the fibres under temperatures exceeding 212° F., such carbonized constituents being insolu- ble and incapable of being bleached, and as they permeate the fibres cannot be entirely removed. To overcome these difficulties, the wood should be chemi- cally treated at a temperature sufficiently low to insure that in the solution and decomposition of the cementing sub- stances of the fibres the carbon will remain chemically combined with other elements — such as the hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen — in order to obtain an increased product of superior quality, and render the process more economical. Pictet and Brelaz's Process of treating Wood for conversion into Paper- Pulp, which consists in Jirst subjecting the same to the action of a Vacuum and to that of a sursaturated Solution of Sulphurous Acid at a temperature not exceeding 212° F. The process invented by Mr. Raul P. Pictet, of Geneva, and Mr. George L. Brelaz, of Lausanne, Switzerland, con- sists, essentially, in the use of sursaturated solutions of sul- phurous acid — say from \ to J lb. avoirdupois of sulphurous acid to a quart of water — employed under a pressure of from three to six atmospheres, and at a temperature not exceeding 212° F. Under these conditions the cementing substances of the wood fibre retain their chemical character without a trace of decomposition of a nature to show carboni- ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 291 zation, while the liquor completely permeates the wood and dissolves out all the cementing constituents that envelop the fibres. In carrying into practice the process invented by Messrs. Pictet and Brelaz the wood is cut into small blocks, as usual, and charged into a digesting- vessel of such strength as will resist the necessary pressure, and of any desired or usual form and material — as, for instance, of iron or steel lined with lead. Water is then admitted to the vessel, and after- ward the sulphurous acid from a suitable receiver, in which it is stored in a liquid form, until the proportion of acid has reached that above indicated — namely, from one hundred to one hundred and fifty quarts of acid to one thousand quarts of water. The volume of the bath will be determined by the absorbing capacity of the wood, and is preferably so regulated as not to materially exceed that capacity. In practice it is preferable to form a partial vacuum in the digesting-vessel, whereby the pores of the wood are opened, when it will be in a condition to more readily absorb the solution, thereby accelerating the process of disintegra- tion. When disintegration has resulted, which generally occurs in from twelve to twenty-four hours, according to the nature of the wood treated, the liquor, which is usually not quite spent in one operation, is transferred to another diges- ter, a sufficient quantity of water and acid being added to complete the change. In order to remove the liquor absorbed by the wood, the latter is compressed, the digester being connected with a gas- receiver, into which the free gas escapes, and in which it 292 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. is collected for use again in the operation of disintegration. The bath is heated and kept at a temperature of from 177° to 194° F. by means of a coil in the digester supplied with steam from a suitable generator. The wood, after disinte- gration, undergoes the usual treatment for converting it into paper-pulp, which may thus be readily bleached by means of chloride of lime. The unaltered by-products contained in the bath may be recovered and treated for use in various branches of the arts by well-known methods and means. Marshall's Boiler for Treating Wood for Paper Pulp by the Acid or Bisulphite Processes. The boiler shown in Figs. 106 to 108 is intended to be used in the manufacture of wood pulp according to the acid or bisulphite processes, and is the invention of Mr. James F. Marshall, of Rumford, Rhode Island. When wood is boiled with sulphurous acid or similar agents for separating the fibres of the wood, the boilers employed require to be lined with lead in order to protect the iron shell from the action of the acid, and as usually made the sections are transverse and united by horizontal flanges, so that there are about five joints to each boiler. The object of Marshall's invention is to reduce the jointed surfaces and consequently lessen the liability to leakage, and to that end he forms the boiler with vertical flanges, and packs the joints as hereafter described. Fig. 106 is a side elevation, partly sectional, of a boiler constructed after Marshall's idea. Fig. 107 is a cross section ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 293 of the same; and Fig. 108 is a detailed section in larger size of the flange-joint. The two sections of the boiler A are connected together by means of their flanges, a, which extend lengthwise of the Fig. 106. Fig. 107. Fis. 108. boiler. The upper part of the boiler is drawn inward to form a steam-dome, b, and the bottom is also drawn inward 294: THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. to give support to the lining and also to reduce the area of the false bottom, described hereafter. c is the lead lining of the boiler, attached and held in place by its edges, that are bent out to pass between the flanges a. The turned edges of the lead are corrugated, and in the joint between the surfaces is a packing, d, of asbestus, lead, or other suitable material, so that when the flanges are drawn together by the bolts the joint is rendered perfectly tight. The lining c terminates a short distance from the bottom of the boiler, so as to leave a clear space below. The object of this is that in case the lining leaks the steam and acid escaping through the leaks will condense when the boiler cools down and work down behind the lining to the space below and escape by small holes bored in the bottom of the boiler. Without this opportunity to escape the water of condensation would be converted into steam when the boiler is reheated, and the pressure would bulge the lining. e is a perforated false bottom supported by brackets /. The object of this is to prevent the steam from acting directly on the wood or other material. By uniting the boiler-sections by longitudinal flanges the extent of joint surface is largely reduced, and there is con- sequently less liability of leakage, which is liable to weaken, if not break, the lining. The boiler is also less expensive to manufacture and to line. ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 295 List of Patents for preparing Cellulose from Wood by the Acid or Bisulphite Processes, issued by the Government of the United States of America from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. No. Date. Inventor. A no- 90 1 Sfi 7 xVU. -Oil UI1. T A A Q K i U,4oO IN OV. D, lob I . ■ B. C. Tilghman. no 99Q y z, zzy tiuiyo, iooj. oept. Zo, lo / i . j\. iv. iiia ion. 9 - o o c 7 .r eo. / , i ooi. Reissue r V/ • A.J • J-J lv 1 1 1 (1 1 1 • 1 A 1 Q1 1U, iOl T, 1V , A /» 1000 June o, looi. J • 263, 797 Sept. 5, 1882. A. Mitseherlich. 274,250 March 20, 1883. Reissue - Ct. Arehibold. 10,328 May 22, 1883. J 280,171 June 26, 1883. J. A. Graham. 284,319 May 4, 1883. A. Mitseherlich. 295,865 March 25, 1884. D. O. Franche. 296,935 April 5, 1884. C. F. Dahl. 306,476 Oct. 14, 1884. F Fremerey. 307,972 Nov. 11, 1884. D. Minthorn. 310,753 Jan. 13, 1885. G. B. Walker. 329,215 | Oct. 27, 1885. E. B. Ritter and C. Kellner. 329,216 J 331,323 Dec. 1, 1885. R. P. Pietet and G L. Brelaz. List of Patents for Digesters with Lead Linings to be used in the Preparation of Cellulose, issued by the Government of the United States of America, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. No. Date. Inventor. 238,227 March 1, 1881. H. H. Furbish. 259,206 June 6, 1882. A. H. Pond. 265,649 Oct. 10, 1882. G. F. Wilson. 284,319 Sept. 4, 1883. A. Mitseherlich. 298,602 May 13, 1884. J. S. McDougal. 300,778 June 24, 1884. J A. Hitter. 304,092 Aug. 26, 1884. D. O. Francke. 304.674 | 304.675 f Sept. 2, 1884. J. A. Southmayd. 305,740 Sept. 30, 1884. E. H. Clapp. 307,587 Nov. 4, 1884. G. R. Philippe. 296 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. \r<-» 1.1 u. 307 608 ) Nov. 4, 1884. 307,609 i 312,485 Feb. 17, 1885. 312,875 Feb. 24, 1885. 314,643 March 31, 1885. 328,812 Oct. 20, 1885. 329,214 Oct. 27, 1885. Inventor. C. L. Wheelwright et aL J. Makin. J. F. Marshall. T. Alcheson. E. B. Ritter and C. Kellner. List of all Patents for Digesters for Paper Pulp, issued by the Govern- ment of the United States of America, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. Inventor. I j- G. Spafford. R. Deering, Sr. L. W. Wright. H. Pohls. J. T. Coupier and M. A. C. Mellier. W. Watt. M. A. C. Mellier. M. Nixon. A. S. Lyman. No. Date. 1,753 Sept. 2, 1840. Reissue 171 June 11, 1850. 4,093 June 25, 1845. 6,980 Dec. 25, 1849. 7,497 July 9, 1850. 9,910 Aug. 2, 1853. Reissue 1,295 March 25, 1862. 11,981 Nov. 21, 1854. 17,387 May 26, 1857. 20,294 May 18, 1858. 21,077 Aug. 3, 1858. 24,484 June 21, 1859. Reissues 996 ) July 3, 1860. 997 J 1,590 Dec. 15, 1863. 2,730 ) Aug. 15, 1867. 2,731 J 24,819 July 19, 1859. 25,418 Sept. 13, 1859. 26,199 Nov. 22, 1859. 27,564 March 20, 1860. 28,062 May 1, 1860. 37,846 March 10, 1863. 38,901 June 16, 1863. 40,659 Nov. 17, 1863. 40,696 Nov. 24, 1863. 41,812 March 1, 1864. 42,319 April 12, 1864. 43,015 Jan. 7, 1864. )■ J. B. Palser and G. Howland. A. S. Pitkin. M. L. Keen. M. Nixon. G. Howland and J. B. Palser. C. S. Buchanan. S. M. Allen. M. L. Keen. J. B. Fuller. A. S. Lyman. J. B. Fuller. J. Stover. J. B. Fuller and J. P. Upham. ACID OR BISULPHITE PROCESSES OF TREATING WOOD. 297 No. 43,073 44,209 45,791 45,849 47,217 47,539 50,108 50,266 50,835 51.430 1 51.431 ! 51.432 | 51.433 J 51.570 ) 51.571 J 51.704 | 51.705 I 51.706 3 51,813 52.543 I 52.544 j 52,694 52,941 52,994 54.308 ) 54.309 i 54,510 54,932 55,031 55,253 55,418 Reissue 2,383 55,835 56,832 57,947 61,848 63,044 71,728 73,138 80,737 84,850 90,566 94,228 Date. Inventor* Jan. 7, 1864. J. B. Fuller. H B Meech Jan. 3, 1865. W. Deltour. Jan. 10, 1865. H. B. Meech. April 11, 1865. T. A. Nixon. May 2, 1865. J. B. Fuller and J. B. Upham. Sept. 26, 1865. J. Evans. Oct. 3, 1865. T. A. Nixon. Nov. 7, 1865. H. B. Meech. Dec. 12, 1865. Dec. 19, 1865. Dec. 26, 1865. ► J. W. Dixon. Jan. 2, 1866. Feb. 13, 1866. Feb. 20, 1866. Feb. 27, 1866. J. Eastor, Jr., and F. Thiry. March 6, 1866. A. K. H ax tun. May 1, 1866. J. W. Dixon. Mav 8 1866 J. W. Dixon and G. Harding. Mav 22 1866. H. B. Meech. May 22, 1866. H. Voelter. June 5, 1866. J. W. Dixon. .Tiinp ^ 1 ftfifi JH.L. Jones and D. S. Farquharson. June 2S 1 866 June 26, 1866. J. W. Dixon. Julv 31 1866 J. Tiifanv. Sept. 11, 1866. Feb. 5, 1867. | H. B. Meech. March 19, 1867. J. Pi. Haskell. Dec. 3, 1867. A. Fickett. Jan. 7, 1868. J. Tiffany. Aug. 4, 1868. W. Holdman. Dec. 8, 1868. Geo. L. Witsil. May 25, 1869. Aug. 31, 1869. | G. E. Marshall. 298 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. IN O. Date. 96 237 Opt 9fi i 8f>o i or; 185 Ancr 1870 108,241 Oct 11 1 8 70 108 487 Opt 18 1870 v/tl. 1(3] lo/V. 100 505 Nov 90 1870 -LI UV. —*^5 1 O 1 V • 1 10,873 Jan 10 1871 Reissue 4 771 Feb 9 r > 1879 113 509 Anril 11 1871 J V Mill A J. ^ 1 O 1 A • 1 1 4 901 J. 11,0111 Al'iv 9 1871 1 15,327 "Mm v 80 1871 1 1 080 .Tnl v 11 1871 117 427 J ill v 25 1871 fj LI IV £**J . ± (J I A . 117 f!8 9 -1 1 I jUOO Ann* 1 1 ft 7 1 119,107 Sept. 19, 1871. 119 465 Oct 3 1871 123 757 Feb 13 1871 124, 196 Mnrcli t 18 79 128 732 131,794 Oct. 1 1872. 137 484 Anril 1 1879 Xll'l 11 1, 1 O I o . 140 999 Jimp OA 18 79 141,016 Jiil v 99 1 873 143 546 Oct 7 1878 148 125 Maron 3 1874 151 127 Mav 10 1874 151 991 June 16, 1874. 155 836 Oct 18 1874 166, 117 Julv 27 1875 1H8 382 Oct 5 18 75 1 Q(l Of! K Nov 19 187 7 X 1 L*V. lO, lo<<* 10 7 8 50 Doc 4 187 7 206,277 July 23, 1878. 209 179 Oct 99 18 78 919 447 Fpb 18 1870 ri u, i o, i o < J. 234, 144 Nov 1 880 234,431 Nov. 16, 1880. 238,227 March 1, 1881. 240,318 April 19, 1881. 241,815 May 24, 1881. 246,083 Aug. 23, 1881. 258,400 May 23, 1882. 259,206 June 6, 1882. Inventor. V. E. Keegan. L. Dean. A. H. F. Deininger. M. L. Keen. L. Dean. | G. Sinclair. J. Denis. M. L. Keen. W. F. Ladd. H. B. Meech. M. L. Keen. W. Riddell. B. F. Barker. M. L. Keen. F. W. Zanders. G. Demailly. M. L. Keen. D. A. Fyfe. L. Routledge. W. E. Woodbridge. L. Routledge. A. Ungerer. H. J. Lanhouse. J. P. Herron. A. S. Lyman. W. F. Ladd. H. Loring. J. W. Dixon. H. Allen and L. S. Mason. W. W. Harding. J. Thorpe. G. Miles. S. and J. Deacon. W. R. Patrick. J. Saunders. H. H. Furbish. M. L. Keen. H. B. Meech. H. Coker. H. A. Frambach. G. H. Pond. OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 299 No. Date. Inventor. ^> * ) <7 , Ut/O .Tnnp 90 1 u u lit' j-0 0w« JL • XI. LL 11 t. Mill • 269,649 Oct 10 188^ G T Wilson 276,163 April 24, 1883. J. W. Dixon. 284,31 9 Sept. 4, 1883. A. Mitscherlicli. 286,031 Oct. 2, 1883. G. E. Marshall. 298,602 May 13, 1884. J. S. McDou frail. 300, 778 June 24, 1884. J. A. Hitter. 304,092 Aug. 26, 1884. D. O. Francke. 304.674 } 304.675 i Sept. 2, 1884. J. A. Southmayd. 305,740 Sept. 30, 1884. E. H. Clapp. 307 587 Nov 4 1 884 G K Pliillins 307,608 Nov. 4, 1884. C. S. Weelwright. 307,609 Nov. 4, 1884. C. S. Weelwright and G. E. Marshall 312,875 Feb. 24, 1885. J. F. Marshall. 313,011 Feb. 24, 1885. B. F. Mullin. 314,643 March 31, 1885. T. Atcheson. 328,812 Oct. 20, 1885. 329,214 1 329,217 i Oct. 27, 1885. | E. B. Bitter and C. Killner. 329,949 Nov. 10, 1885. J. F. Quinn. 333,105 Dec. 29, 1885. C. Bremaker and M. Zier, Sr. Methods other than the Mechanical, Soda, and Bisul- phite Processes for the Treatment of Wood. Ausseclafs Process of Treating Wood} By this process the wood is disintegrated by means of an injection of steam. The apparatus consists of a vertical boiler, tested at six atmospheres, four and one-half feet in diameter, and about ten feet high ; it is closed at its upper part by a manhole used to fill and discharge the wood ; it is provided at the lower part with a perforated false bottom upon which the wood rests, so that there remains between the 1 Dictionnaire de Chemie, Wurtz, tome ii. p. 749 et seq. 300 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. false and true bottoms of the boiler a space sufficient to con- tain the condensed steam, which can be discharged by means of a cock or valve, according to the requirements of the work. Another valve is placed upon the manhole, to be used at the end of the operation to discharge the non-condensed steam. The boiler is supported upon two hollow lateral axles, resting in suitable boxes, and used for the admission of steam. The wood is piled in the boiler so as to occupy the least possible space ; the filling of the boiler being com- pleted the manhole is closed. The discharge valves being closed, the injection of steam is proceeded with. The steam must be as dry as possible, and it must be admitted gradually. This last condition is essential, if a supple and strong pulp is desired, and to prevent the wood from get- ting black. For this reason the steam-cock is only one- third opened, and it is then regulated so as to attain, after three or four hours, a temperature corresponding to five atmospheres, which temperature must be maintained for about one hour. During the operation the condensation chamber must often be emptied, as the least contact of the wood with this water would blacken the wood; furthermore, the rush of steam which takes place at the moment of the opening of the dis- charge valve facilitates the disintegration, in removing, either by dissolution or by displacement, all the gummy and resinous matters which fill the cells of the wood. These condensed liquids are heavily colored during the first part of the operation. It is advisable to open for a few minutes the OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 301 valve placed on the manhole, so as to insure a convenient distribution of the heat ; the air thus being evacuated a free circulation of steam is insured. The time required for the injection varies according to the wood to be treated ; it takes three hours for white woods, poplar, aspen, birch, etc., and five hours for hard and resi- nous woods. The steam valve being closed, the two valves on the boiler are opened in order to completely discharge the steam and not to allow it to settle upon the wood. Every- thing being cooled the discharging of the wood is proceeded with. The wood is then of a reddish color, more or less dark, according to the nature of the wood treated and to the pres- sure of the steam injected. The higher the pressure used, the darker will be the wood. A much clearer shade in the wood is obtained if a pres- sure of three atmospheres is not exceeded and the duration of the injection prolonged ; but the disintegration of the wood is not so complete and the subsequent operations for the trituration will be rendered longer and more difficult. When, for the injection, steam is introduced in a boiler the pressure of which is already at five atmospheres, great precautions must be taken to prevent the too prompt heating of the wood. The admission valve must be operated with intelligence. It is best to make steam in proportion to the consumption and to start the fire under the steam generator when the filling of the boiler is commenced; the greatest 302 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. drawback to be feared in the management of the operation is thus avoided. The wood is charged into the boiler for injection in any shape, with or without the bark, without it being necessary to remove the knots or the rotten parts ; the bark is suffi- ciently softened by the injection, while the knots, etc., are re- moved by the condensing water. Still, it is better to remove the bark than to allow it to remain, but, then, its removal is done so much more easily after the injection than before. The wood is generally used in the shape of logs three feet, of any diameter ; chips, shavings, wastes from saw- mills, packing-shops, floor-joiners, etc., can all be utilized. The trituration succeeding the disintegration is subdivided into two parts : the crushing and the refining. The wood, which has been injected in the shape of logs, is cross cut in sections | of an inch thick by means of a cir- cular saw. The sawdust produced by this operation is very fibrous : it may be worked into pulp, but as its refining takes a long time it is generally burned. The production of this sawdust may be avoided by sub- mitting the log at its end to the action of a chipper of the style used to crush resinous barks or tincture woods ; but its reduction in disks gives a more uniform pulp, while the pro- ducts obtained through the use of a chipper are very uneven. Furthermore, we may, with the disk, and when the disinte- gration has been well performed, obtain long or short fibres by varying the thickness of this disk, which is of great ad- vantage, considering the commercial value of the product. The disks are crushed by means of the crushing-machine OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 303 invented and patented in France by Mr. Iwan Koechlin and operated for the first time at the Isle Saint Martin. This apparatus is essentially composed of a vertical shaft upon which a burr-pestle of a special pattern is mounted, which drags, breaks, and crushes the wood against the sides of a fixed envelope or shell, the interior of which represents, in inverse sense, the relief of the burr-pestle. It is, in one word, a kind of coffee-mill. One of these crushers, requir- ing three horse-power, will prepare about 75 lbs. of wood per hour. According to the opinion of manufacturers who have these machines in use, they answer the purpose very successfully. Mr. Roger, machinist at Epinal, France, built them. The crushed wood is mixed with water in sufficient quan- tity, in the agitating boxes, before its passage through the mill. The mills used and patented in France by Mr. Aussedat, are provided with conical millstones. The opening in the lower millstone is more inclined towards the horizontal line, in order to give passage to the material. Burr-stones give excellent results, but they should be of one piece, as the water rapidly disintegrates the plaster which is commonly used to bind the fragments together ; when whole stones cannot be had, the fragments should be united with cement. Granite-stones yield less product, and furthermore, they wear off rapidly and require frequent dressing. These pulps are especially used for fine card-board and wall papers. The cream tint of the prepared wood presents to the eye a very agreeable ground, much appreciated by the 304 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. wall-paper manufacturers, as the colors show upon this ground in fresher and sharper lines than upon any other paper. Still, it is possible, that some economical method may be found to bleach the product of the Aussedat process. The problem does not offer as many difficulties as the bleaching of the Voelter pulp, as the larger part of the sap and the rosin have been displaced by the dissolving action of the steam. It results from experiments made at the Onnonay labora- tory, and which Mr. Bourdillat has kindly communicated, that the manipulation by steam causes a mechanical and a chemical action ; it traverses the cellular tissue of the wood, dissolving and expelling the larger portion of the gummy and resinous substances which fill the cell. Furthermore, the heat disengages a certain quantity of acetic acid, the action of which adds to that of the steam, acting especially upon the incrustating matter. The following experiments have been made to bleach the more or less deep reddish pulp : — 1. The use of hydrochloric or azotic acids in the boiling removes from the pulp a large portion of the incrustating matter : thus treated, the pulp presents a clearer tint after washing, but it is susceptible to the action of hypochlorites only when operated upon in highly concentrated baths and under the influence of heat. The hypochlorite baths used must be at least of 400 chlorometric degrees. (French.) 2. The fermentation, produced by the addition of a certain quantity of beer yeast to the pulp, previously slightly acidu- lated by sulphuric acid, produces a clear enough pulp, if the OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 305 fermentation lasts only a few days ; the pulp will be gray if this action is unduly prolonged. In the first form the pulp is not sensibly susceptible to the hypochlorites, while in the latter the bleaching is effected tolerably with 400° (French) baths. The large waste resulting from this method, and the considerable time needed to complete the action of the fer- mentation, make this process impracticable. The caustic alkalies have not given good results, the color- ing matter becomes of a darker hue, and resists more ener- getically the action of the hypochlorites than when the pulp has been previously treated. Backet- Macliard Process of Disintegrating Wood. 1 Messrs. I wan Koechlin & Co. have carried on the Bachet- Machard patent at the Isle Saint Martin, near Chatel (Vosges), France, and it has also been experimented with on a large scale at Bex and at Saint Tryphon, Switzerland. At the start, the inventors had in view the saccharification of wood, the paper-pulp being intended to be only a secondary pro- duct of the manufacture of alcohol, but in practice the inverse result has been obtained ; the paper-pulp becoming the prin- cipal product and alcohol the secondary one. The wood, previously sawed in thin disks, was thrown in tubs, the filling of which was then completed with water and sulphuric acid ; the latter in the proportion of one-tenth. Each tub would contain 188 cubic feet; 18 hours' boiling was needed ; the disks were then washed as well as possible 1 Dietionnaire de Chemie. Wurtz, tome ii. p. 749 et seq. 20 306 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. in order to eliminate the acid, then passed through the crushers and the mills. Each 31| cubic feet produced about 330 lbs. of dry pulp; 65 lbs. of acid and 136 lbs. of coal were used for the production of 220 lbs. of pulp. Calculating the value of the wood at 3j\ cents per cubic foot, the cost of production of 220 lbs. of pulp would be $1.95. With the Bachet-Machard method a brown pulp is ob- tained, producing a good brown folding paper costing about 90 cents per 100 lbs. dry pulp. This brown pulp is easily transformed, by a half bleaching, into a blond pulp costing about $2 per 100 lbs., and which can be utilized, with or without mixing, for the manufacture of wrapping-paper and of all the colored papers. Up to this time a method for economically transforming this blond pulp into white pulp has not been found. The inventors think that the tenth of acid, which they cause to react at 212° F. upon the wood, saccharifies the ligneous, or rather the incrustating substance, without touch- ing the cellulose fibres. Thus the cellulose becomes easily separated into fibres by mechanical means. It is prob- able that the acids modify the incrustating substance and ren- der it friable, and that at the same time certain principles of the wood are converted into glucose. The process is the same as with straw and esparto, when alkaline washes are used, but it requires more energetic boiling ; the proportion of alkali is doubled and the boiling done at a pressure of 165 lbs. A little more chlorine is also required for the bleaching. OTHER METHODS FOR TREATMENT OF WOOD. 307 The yield of esparto is . " rye- straw . " wheat-straw " oats-straw . " barley-straw " buckwheat-straw " pine- wood (the most used) As per quality, the succedaneous pulps may be classified in the following order: — 1, Esparto-pulp; 2, wood-pulp; 3, rye-pulp; 4, wheat- straw-pulp; 5, oats-straw- pulp ; 6, barley-straw-pulp ; 7, buck- wheat-straw-pulp. Treating Wood with Aqua Regia. A. Poncharac, near Grenoble, uses aqua regia (nitro- hydrochloric acid), cold, for disintegrating the wood ; 94 parts of ordinary hydrochloric acid and 6 parts of azotic acid are employed in earthen vessels of a capacity of 175 gallons. It is allowed to soak from 6 to 12 hours. 132 pounds of aqua regia are required for 220 pounds of wood. It is a dangerous process. When it is desired to operate with hot liquids, 6 parts of hydrochloric acid, 4 parts of azotic acid, and 240 parts of water are used, in granite tubs, provided with a double bottom; it is then heated by the admission of steam during 12 hours, then washed and crushed. Treating Wood toith Ammonia, etc. It has also been proposed to boil the wood in ammonia, in a closed vessel, heating by steam by means of a worm. 900 gallons of ordinary ammonia are used to disintegrate 42 40 (< 36 u 32 26 < t 20 i i THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. 3300 pounds of wood. 65 to 75 pounds of caustic soda are added, and the operation is followed by bleaching. There has been mentioned a process patented in France by Mr. Tessie du Motay. The wood is treated under pres- sure with alkaline liquids, then bleached by means of man- ganate of sodium. The incrustating substances dissolved in the lye may be separated from it by a stream of carbonic acid ; the alkali is thus regenerated at little cost. It has also been proposed to replace the caustic alkalies with sulphuret of sodium, which would act like them, but which would offer the advantage of an easy regeneration of the active agent, as it would be sufficient to evaporate and calcine the lyes in order to destroy the organic matters and to recover the primitive alkaline sulphuret. WASHING RAGS. 309 CHAPTER X. washing rags — washing waste paper or "imperfections" washing straw washing wood pulp washing and poaching esparto wash water list of patents for pulp-w r ashing and straining. Washing Rags. The next process to which the material to be reduced to paper pulp is subjected is that of washing. For lower grades of paper, such as wrapping, etc., the rags (of which we shall first particularly speak) or other materials are washed and beaten into pulp in one engine; but for the production of " half-stuff" or bleached pulp separate engines are commonly employed in the United States in which to accomplish the washing and the beating. The rag engine is commonly known as "The Hollander," from the fact that it was invented in Holland about the middle of the eighteenth century. Prior to the invention of the rag-engine, rags were reduced to pulp by stamps or beaters acting in mortars, the contrivance being not unlike the stamping mills used for reducing ores to powder ; but as it w 7 ould require about five thousand of these stamps to supply a modern Fourdrinier machine of average width and speed, it will readily be seen that the enormous modern development of the paper-making industry is largely owing 310 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. to the Dutch invention which made it possible to use the paper machine invented by the French workman Robert, who was employed in the paper-mill at Essone in 1798, and which machine is now commonly known as the "Fourdrinier." The machines used for washing and beating are almost similar in their construction ; in the rolls of the washing- engine, however, there are usually only two bars to the bunch, while in the rolls of the beater there are usually three bars to the bunch. Fig. 109. r r The rag engines employed in the mills of the United States vary in size and details of construction. In Figs. 109 to 111 the principal parts of the rag-engine are shown. Figure 109 represents a top or plan view of the engine. WASHING RAGS. 311 Figure 110 is a vertical longitudinal section of Fig. 109, through the line x x. Figure 111 is a vertical cross-section of Fig. 109, through the line y y. Fig 110. Fig. 111. 3 A represents the tub, trough, tank, or vat, which may measure about 12 feet long by 6 feet wide and 2 feet deep. B is the cylinder or roll fitted with bars which revolve at a high rate of speed on the plate J", also furnished with bars ; the term " bars" being the technical name for knives. C is the back-fall ; and D the mid-fellow. As these engines were made about fifteen years ago, the back-fall C was carried up to an angle at its ttfp by continu- ing the curve e, and then dropping back directly, as at /. From the point /the back-fall sloped down to the bottom of the tub, leaving sharp angles on each side. These sharp or right angles were continued around the rnid-fellow and 312 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. around the tub, allowing the fibre of the half-ground pulp to catch and hang in the angles or corners, thereby obstruct- ing the current, while the fibre which thus caught in the corners would not receive its proper share of grinding, but being mixed with the rest of the pulp, the result was pulp of uneven fineness, which is very detrimental to good paper. To remedy these evils, the top of the back-fall was curved or rounded off as seen at g, and the back slope curved trans- versely, as seen at h, and the corner or angle of the tub and that of the mid-fellow were rounded, as seen at i i. Figs. 112 and 113 show the washing or breaking engine more in detail, and the operation is as follows : — Fig. 112. The tub of the engine should be half filled with water, which is admitted through the valve 7), after which the rags or other materials are taken from the trucks on which they come from the boiler and are gradually introduced into the engine. When the proper quantity of boiled rags or other material has been placed in the engine the operation of washing is commenced, and the roll B is let down just sufficiently to open up the rags and allow the dirt to escape. WASHING RAGS. 313 The rags or other material to be washed should not be introduced into the trough of the engine in such quantities Fig. 113. as to be so thick that difficulty will be experienced in turning it. When the engine is started the stirring stick should be used directly above the sand-trap, and around the sides and back-fall of the engine. The object in thus using the stir- ring stick is to prevent 44 lodgers," or pieces of rag not reduced to half-stuff, from hanging or catching about, which pieces if not forced to travel with the current cause knots and gray specks in the finished paper. The water introduced into the trough of the engine is withdrawn by the washer E, which consists of a drum about three feet in diameter and of such width as to allow a space of about two inches on each side between it and the sides of the engine. The periphery of the washer E is covered with 3U THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. fine wire-cloth, and in the interior of the drum there are arranged buckets indicated by the dotted lines G. The washer E is partly immersed in the water and material con- tained in the trough, and as the drum revolves the buckets G lift the water into a conical pipe and discharge it through the spout H. In regard to the time which the rags or other materials are treated in the washing and breaking engine, it is of course not possible to apply any fixed rule, as the duration of the treatment varies with the capacity of the trough, the weight of the roll, the number of its revolutions per minute, the extent to which its bars and those of the bed-plate are worn, the quantity and nature of the water used in washing, the nature of the rags or other material being washed, and the skill and experience of the workman who directs the operation. The quality of the paper depends largely upon the knowl- edge possessed by the workman having charge of the wash- ing and breaking department of the mill, and an experienced man is generally known by the cleanliness of his surround- ings. When the water from the washing engine runs off clean the roll is lowered upon the bed-plate so as to disintegrate the rags or other material being operated upon, which gradu- ally lose their compact or textile appearance, and are con- verted into a substance greatly resembling that of a fine, long-fibred lint saturated with water, the new substance being more or less white, according to the nature of the ma- terial from which it has been produced. WASHING RAGS. 315 In mills where the number of washing and beating engines is limited it is often necessary to hasten the process of reduc- ing the rags to half-stuff, but such haste must necessarily be at the expense of the quality of the product, and it is seldom that the work of reducing rags can be properly accomplished in less than two or three hours. It is necessary to continue the reduction of the rags for a longer time when the bleaching is to be accomplished with chlorine gas than when liquid chlorine is to be employed. The old custom of bleaching in the washing and beating engine is almost exclusively employed in the mills of the United States ; but the plan is not a good one, as a larger number of engines are required, and the metallic tubs are more or less corroded by the action of the chlorine and sul- phuric acid employed to neutralize the agent used to accom- plish the bleaching, and this is especially true of the bars of the roll and the bed-plates which are not protected by a coat- ing of paint as is the case with the interior of the trough. When the stuff is in condition for emptying into the drainers or into the bleaching cisterns, the discharge valve should be carefully drawn and deposited on the floor until the engine is empty. Before replacing the valve the workman in charge throws a few buckets of water under the cylinder in order to remove any of the half-stuff remaining adhering to the back-fall. The valve should also be carefully washed before it is replaced, as dirt and sand are always lodged in the hole on the top of the valve, and when the valve is carelessly drawn these impurities escape with the stuff. 316 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The sand-trap plate should next be lifted and all impuri- ties carefully removed, after which the plate is replaced and the engine is ready for the reduction of a new lot. If the paper is to possess the requisite strength care must be observed not to reduce the rags to half-stuff too quickly, as in such case the washing will not be properly done and the material will be weakened ; but if attention and time are given for properly drawing the stuff into fibre there results no injury to its texture, and a stronger and better paper can be produced. It is desirable to keep a register of the daily operations in the engine-room, in which the time of commencing and completing each operation may be recorded, and for night- work, when the superintendence is less regular than during the day, such a record is especially desirable. The average waste resulting from washing, boiling, and reduction of the rags to half-stuff can be only approximated ; Prouteaux gives the following figures, which are probably from 10 to 15 per cent, too high: — Whites, fine, half-fine 7 to 10 per cent. " coarse 9 to 13 " Cottons, white 7 to 9 " " colored 8 to 14 " Thirds and pack-cloths 18 to 26 " Ropes 20 to 25 " " tarred and containing much straw . . 20 to 35 " The pipe which supplies the water to the washing or breaking engine varies in size from 3 to 6 inches in diameter, the diameter depending upon the pressure of the water, the size of the engine, and the capacity of the washers, and, as WASHING WASTE PAPER OR IMPERFECTIONS. 317 it is necessary to mix the water with the pulp as quickly as the action of the cylinder will allow, the water is admitted at the end where the rags ascend. There are two systems in use in regard to the manner of admitting the water to the tub of the engine; one method being to allow the water to flow in from the top, and the other plan being to let it in at the lower part of the tub. When the supply of water is introduced from the top the flow can always be observed, and flannel bags or other additional filtering arrangements can be more conveniently attached to the mouth of the supply pipe. But if the water is naturally very pure or has been care- fully filtered, its admission from the bottom of the tub fur- nishes an easy mechanical means for keeping up the stir- ring of the contents of the tub, removing "lodgers," and forcing the dirty water to the top, where it is removed by the washers. Washing Waste Paper or "Imperfections." Scrap-paper, be it newspaper, letter-paper, or book-paper, when used as a stock from which to make paper, is by the paper-maker termed " imperfections." The boiled papers are conveyed on trucks from the open boilers, from which they are lifted on the false bottom and are supplied to the washing engine, which should be pro- vided with blunt bars, and abundantly supplied with clear wash water. When the tub of the engine has been properly supplied 318 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. with the desired quantity of imperfections the cylinder is raised and the washers made to revolve until the water runs off clear, when the cylinder is lowered and the papers brushed out. When the imperfections are boiled, rags and threads always make their appearance in the stock, no matter how carefully the papers have been sorted. Sometimes papers are pasted on one or both sides of a body of cloth, which does not make its appearance until the paper has been separated from it, either by the action of the water when heated in the boiler, or by the brushing in the engine, and small threads are often overlooked on account of their fine- ness. A rack, constructed similar to those used for water-wheels, and placed across the tub of the engine, between the mid- fellow and front side, where the pulp begins to ascend the cylinder, has been recommended for catching the rags and strings. The upright teeth which form the rack are fastened in a frame of hard wood which hangs in boxes on the mid-fellow and front side of the engine. The lower part of the frame rests on the floor of the engine. The teeth should be sufficiently strong to resist the pres- sure of the pulp, and are arranged about 2\ inches apart, and should be about § of an inch thick at the back end. It is desirable to have the edges of the teeth which come in contact with the pulp either sharp or pointed, as the strings then catch on easier. Metal teeth, which become WASHING WASTE PAPER OR IMPERFECTIONS. 319 polished and allow the strings to slip off, are not as good as wooden ones. When it is not desired to use the rack it is raised and held above the tub by placing under the rack a stick or paddle, one end of which rests on the mid-fellow and the other end on the front side of the tub. But when the imperfections have been sufficiently reduced to pass through the rack, the stick or paddle is removed and the rack lowered into working position, and it must be frequently raised to remove the rags and strings from the teeth. The pulp, after being properly reduced, can be bleached in the engine in the same way as rags, or by such other methods as may be desirable. Low-priced paper is produced from one class of imperfec- tions, and the entire operation can be finished in one engine ; but if it is desired to produce a paper of the best quality from different classes of waste papers by mixing the various pulps, it is much better to empty the bleached pulp into drainers. When it is possible to obtain fine blue letter-paper in large lots such material should not be bleached, but only washed, as its pulp furnishes a coloring material which can often be used in lieu of ultramarine. The difficulty commonly experienced in repulping paper- stock — that is, clippings and scraps of paper — arises from the breaking or shortening of the fibres, which are thus made so short that they will not unite to form a sheet of adequate strength. The paper having been previously hardened and toughened by the admixture with the pulp of size and other 320 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. substances, it is found that the necessary grinding and disin- tegrating required to pulp it break and destroy the fibre. It has been customary, therefore, to mingle with the paper- stock a quantity of rags, and to reduce the whole to pulp by grinding them together. Thus the paper-stock is employed merely as a filler, the fibre being supplied by the rags. Mr. Charles Coon, of Saugerties, N. Y., by a process in- vented by him, claims to preserve the fibre of the paper-stock in repulping it, so that the stock may be employed alone or without the admixture of rags or other fibrous material in the manufacture of paper. To this end it is necessary to re- move the sizing which firmly binds the fibres together, after which it is claimed they will readily separate without break- ing under the subsequent operation of the beater or pulper. When proceeding according to Mr. Coon's method, first place the paper-stock, which usually consists of cuttings, clippings, and waste, in an upright tank or vessel having a perforated false bottom, and add to it a solution of pearlash of about six degrees strength, in the proportion of about two gallons to six hundred pounds of the dry stock. Water, either hot or cold, may be added to the dry stock before the steam is admitted, if desired. The vessel is then covered and hot steam admitted under the false bottom of the vessel for about four hours. . This treatment causes the sizing and other substances to separate from the stock and to rise to the surface of the water of condensation which will have accumu- lated in the vessel. The steam is now shut off, and water (cither hot or cold) is admitted at the bottom of the vessel until the water in the latter rises, bearing the sizing, etc., WASHING WASTE PAPER OR IMPERFECTIONS. 321 on its surface, and overflows the top of the vessel or passes off at a waste outlet. This the inventor terms " floating" the size. When the surface impurities are thus removed the incoming water is cut off and the water in the vessel is allowed to drain off at the bottom. The stock thus treated is termed " water-leaf," and contains little or no sizing or other substances which would cause the fibres to adhere. In floating off the size after the steaming operation, it is preferable to admit warm or hot water at the bottom of the tank, although the hot stock may be sufficient to warm it. Care should be taken that the size be not chilled, as it will set and be difficult to remove. The next step consists in removing the water-leaf to the beater, where it is placed in water having a temperature of from 120° to 150° F., and to which has previously been added two gallons of solution of pearlash of about 6° strength, which serves to remove or destroy all the size that may remain in the stock, and leaves the latter in condition to receive the bleach, color, etc. The temperature of the water or solution in the beater should not exceed 150° F., as a higher temperature is liable to thicken or cook the sizing materials employed in pre- paring the pulp for use. For pulping soft material 120° F. is sufficient. It is preferable to employ this temperature for rag-stock fibre, while for grass or wood fibre 140° F. is preferable. It is best to employ pearlash as the best form of potash, as caustic potash appears to weaken, rot, or burn the fibres, and they break and become too short in the operation of 21 322 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. pulping. The pearlash solution should be of sufficient strength to remove the sizing and free the fibres, and this will vary somewhat with the kind of stock employed, the softer kinds requiring a little weaker, and the harder kinds a little stronger solution than that named; but a slight experience will enable the operator to readily determine the proper strength for his purpose. When the water-leaf is placed in the beater the pulping proceeds, and while it is in progress the chlorine is added, which bleaches the mass in about fifteen minutes. The chlorine being employed while the stock is hot, the bath in the beater being kept at from 120° to 150° F., it accom- plishes its work and passes off with the steam and vapor, leaving no traces behind. Consequently it is not necessary to employ anti-chlorine to remove it, as is ordinarily done. By the ordinary method the bleaching is commonly done while the stock is in the washer and known as " half-stuff," and from the washer it is let down into the drainers, where it is allowed to remain eight or ten days. The anti- chlorine is added when this half- stuff is removed to the beater, and as cold water is usually employed in beating or pulping, the chlorine is generally only partially removed, and the paper made from the stock is apt to turn yellow with age. In the present process the hot pearlash solution acts in concert with the chlorine, so as to accelerate the bleaching of the stock or pulp and to dissipate the chlorine, as above stated. After the stock has been reduced to pulp in the beater it may be sized, colored^ etc., in the usual way. WASHING STRAW. 323 Waste papers are sometimes washed in a circuit-vat furnished with a paddle-wheel and a rotary washer such as is shown in Fig. 69. Washing Straw. After the straw has been boiled it is sometimes washed by emptying it from the boiler into a vat or tub of suitable capa- city, which should have a false perforated bottom. Before the straw is emptied into the vat the perforated bottom should be covered with a piece of coarse bagging or cocoa-matting, which will allow the liquid to escape. Hot water under a. strong pressure should be introduced beneath the false bottom, and after the water has risen and become sufficiently mixed with the pulp the contents of the tub should be stirred with paddles and then allowed to drain ; the opera- tion being repeated until the pulp has been sufficiently washed. If possible, the straw pulp should be washed in the wash- ing engine in preference to the tubs just described ; but in some mills the tubs and washing engine are both used, the pulp being pumped from the tubs to the washing engines while it is in a fluid state, or if it is allowed to drain in the tubs the pulp is conveyed on trucks to the engine. If the straw has been properly digested the bed-plate of the washing engine should be smooth and the bars of the cylinder should be blunt, as it will not be necessary to subject the pulp to any further disintegrating action. The first washing of the pulp in the washing engine 324 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. should be done with hot water in order to thoroughly wash out any alkali so as to avoid loss of chlorine in the bleaching. After being washed the pulp is either emptied into drainers, and after being removed treated like rag pulp, or it may be emptied into a large stuff-chest provided with a suitable agitator from whence it is run over a wet machine for the purpose of removing sand, knots, and other parts of the straw which have not been thoroughly digested. The bleaching of straw pulp is usually accomplished in the washing engine in the same manner as rags. Washing Wood Pulp. Mechanically prepared wood pulp is simply added to and thoroughly incorporated with the rag pulp in the beating engine ; but as it is necessary to reduce it, to the finest fibres it is subjected to the action of the cylinder for about one and one-half hour. Chemically prepared wood pulp after being emptied out of the digester into the discharge tank is allowed to drain, and the liquor is saved to be used for the first wash to which the pulp is subjected while in the digester, as has been ex- plained on page 249. When the fibre has been allowed to properly drain in the tank the drain-cock is closed and warm water is run in until the tank is full, and after it has been allowed sufficient time to penetrate the fibres the drain valve is again opened and the water drained off, and afterwards the tank is again run full of water and then drained as before. After being washed in the tank as has been described, the pulp is allowed to drain as dry as possible after the second WASHING AND POACHING ESPARTO. 325 washing and is then transferred, either by a centrifugal pump or by other suitable means, to the washing engine, which should have a smooth bed-plate and blunt bars on the cylinder. If the pulp has been properly prepared but little washing will be necessary in the engine, and any chips which are in the pulp will be readily reduced to fibre by the action of the cylinder. After the washing is completed the valve on the water- supply pipe is closed and a sufficient quantity of water is removed by the washer to make room for the bleaching liquor, which is then introduced at a temperature of about 100° F., and the engine run until the desired color is ob- tained, after which the pulp is run into the drainers. If the pulp is to be used at the mill where the fibre is pro- duced it is desirable to run it from the washing engine into a large stuff-chest, such as has been mentioned for straw, from whence it is passed over a wet machine before bleach- ing ; but if it is intended to make the fibre into dry rolls for transportation the screening can be accomplished during the passage over the machine as it is being fabricated into rolls. Washing and " Poaching" Esparto. The washing of esparto is a simple operation if the treat- ment of the grass in the boiler has received proper attention. The tub of the washing engine is half-filled with water, after which the grass is introduced and run for about twenty or thirty minutes. Esparto is not commonly bleached in the washing engine, 326 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. but is passed in a "poacher," which is arranged on a slightly lower level than the washer. The poacher or the "potching engine," as it is also termed, is larger than the washer, and instead of the cylinder and bars it has a hollow drum which carries on its periphery a number of cast-iron paddles which thoroughly agitate the pulp. In introducing the half-stuff from the washer to the poacher care should be exercised to keep the quantities as near uniform as possible, as irregular bleaching will result if the quantity of stuff filled into the poacher is changed and the bleach is not varied accordingly. A finer wire is used on the washer of the poacher than on that of the washing engine ; the washing in the poacher being continued until the esparto is thoroughly washed, after which the bleaching liquor is introduced in the desired quantity, the washer of the poacher being raised before the bleach is put in. After remaining in the poacher usually for about two hours the pulp is emptied into stone chests or drainers, which have each a capacity for containing two engines of the bleached stuff, where it remains usually for about eight hours. The stone chests are commonly placed in an exposed position, as it is thought that the action of light assists the bleaching. The chests are supplied with two perforated zinc drainers, one extending up the back of the chest and connecting with the second, which is placed on the bottom of the drainer. "WASH WATER. 327 In some cases the washing and bleaching are done in the washing engine, in which case it is provided with two drums, the peripheries of which are covered with wires of different fineness, the coarser being used for removing the water from the washing and the finer for removing the excess of bleach, at which stage much of the pulp is so fine that it would pass through the coarse wire-cloth of the washer. When this method is employed the pulp is run directly into the beating engine without pressing. List of American Patents for Washing Engines. The distinction between washing engines and beating engines is so slight that it would be impracticable to separate the two classes, and both varieties are con- solidated in the " List of Patents for Pulp Engines and Bed Plates" at the close of Chapter XIV. Wash Water. An abundance of pure, clear water is one of the first con- ditions in the manufacture of fine white papers ; for lower classes of papers, such as wrapping, etc., it is not a matter of such vital importance. When we consider that each one pound of rags or other material to be converted into paper will be brought in intimate association with from 100 to 200 times their own weight of water, it becomes manifest that even the smallest proportion of certain impurities which such water may con- tain will result in serious injury to the pulp. The value of the soda, bleach liquor, alum, sulphuric acid, and coloring matters neutralized by impure waters aggre- gate an important sum of money in a short time, and every 328 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. paper manufacturer should know the exact constituents of the water which he employs. Water is composed of the two gases, oxygen and hydro- gen, in the proportion by weight of 88.9 parts of the former and 11.1 parts of the latter, or 1 volume of oxygen to 2 volumes of hydrogen in chemical combination. The composition of water can be proved analytically as well as synthetically, a current of electricity decomposing it into its constituent gases, twice as much hydrogen as oxygen, by volume, being produced. Water, when pure, is colorless (in small quantities) and transparent, without taste or odor, and a bad conductor of heat and electricity. It is slightly elastic; under a pressure of 30,000 pounds to the square inch 14 volumes may be condensed into 13 volumes. It is 815 times heavier than atmospheric air, an imperial gallon weighing (at 62° F. and barometric pressure at 29.92 in.) 70,000 grains, or 10 pounds avoirdupois ; but being the standard to which the gravities of solids and liquids are referred, its specific weight is usually said to be 1.0. It is proper that we should give a description of the different sources from which natural waters are obtained, and also the properties of the water in each case when they are used in paper-making. We will divide the several natural waters into rain, river, and well waters, and the principal source of these is rain, snow, or hail. It is probable that rain as it leaves the clouds is almost pure, but in its passage through the air it absorbs certain gases, and carries with it small particles of organic matter WASH WATER. 329 which are floating about in the air. The substances thus dissolved by the rain in its passage to the earth, i. e., in the open country, are the gases, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid, a little carbonate of ammonia, nitric acid, this latter more especially after a thunder storm, it being formed from ammonia and water by the passage of the electric spark through the air. In or near large manufacturing towns several other substances are found in rain water, such as sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, etc., varying with the kind of manufacture carried on near the spot. Again, if rain water is collected after having fallen upon the roofs of houses it will be further contaminated by various sub- stances with which it comes in contact. Rain water from the absence of earthy salts is very soft, and on that account is preferable to hard waters. Rain, after it reaches the earth, soaks down into it, and during its passage through the various strata dissolves certain salts, etc., the quantity and quality of which vary with the nature of the strata with which it comes in contact. When this takes place on high ground the water percolates the strata, and very frequently finds an outlet at some lower point, as a spring. One or more of these springs is generally the source of commence- ment of rivers, which, as they flow on in their course, become increased in size by the various additions of water received from rain, drainage from the surface of the earth, etc. The springs above mentioned generally yield hard waters, that is, water containing earthy salts in solution, the most frequent of which are carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, sulphates of lime and magnesia, common salt, and organic 330 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. matter. These are the substances which the rain, contain- ing a considerable quantity of carbonic acid in solution, dissolves in its passage through the earth. Spring waters resemble well waters. The river water, receiving supplies from those other sources which do not contain earthy mat- ters, is, of course, softer than spring water. River water usually contains from 10 to 20 or 25 grains of solid matter per imperial gallon of 70,000 grains. The quantity, how- ever, varies with the time of the year and the dryness of the season. Carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, sul- phate of lime, chloride of sodium, and organic matter are the substances most generally found in river water, the quantities per gallon and the relative proportions of the constituents varying according to circumstances. The hard- ness of water is generally determined by a solution of soap in proof spirit, made of such a strength that every degree of hardness shall be equivalent to one grain of carbonate of lime in a gallon. This simple method is known as Dr. Clark's soap test. In water the carbonate of lime is held in solution by the presence of free carbonic acid. When the water is boiled this carbonic acid escapes, and the carbonate of lime is de- posited ; and it is this deposit which forms the principal in- crustation in steam boilers. The removal of this carbonate of lime, or the greater portion of it, of course renders the water softer than before boiling. If carbonic acid gas be passed through lime-water until the precipitate first formed is dissolved, the resulting liquid is a solution of carbonate of calcium in carbonic acid water. WASH WATER. 331 When the solution is boiled carbonic acid escapes, and the carbonate is again precipitated. Such an experiment will serve to show how chalk is kept in solution in ordinary well waters, giving the property of ;4 hardness" and the manner in which the incrustation of boilers is formed. It may here be stated that sulphate of calcium produces similar hardness, and that these, with small quantities of the sulphate and carbonate of magnesium, con- stitute the hardening constituents of well waters. The waters from wells differ from each other much more than do river waters, from the fact of the waters passing through different strata in different spots, and having no direct addition of rain water. Determination of Constituents and Hardness of Water. We cannot enter upon a full description of the different qualitative and quantitative methods for determining the constituents of water, but will only briefly describe a few ex- aminations of importance, and refer those of our readers who may desire more minute information, concerning methods and apparatus employed, to the treatises of W^anklyn and Frankland on Water Analysis. The qualitative examination of water as to its admixtures of iron, lime, magnesia, alkalies, chlorine combinations, sul- phuric and carbonic acids, the larger or smaller quantity of which generally determines its character, can be executed in the following manner : — 1. The presence of iron can be readily discovered by the 332 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. addition of a solution of yellow prussiate of potash to the water ; the iron salts will form with it Prussian blue. 2. The chlorine combinations are shown by the formation of a white precipitate when treated with nitrate of silver in nitrate solution. 1 3. Sulphuric acid and sulphates are recognized by the formation of a white precipitate with chloride of barium. 2 4. Carbonic acid is present when the addition of clear lime-water gives a white precipitate. 5. The presence of silicic acid, lime, and magnesia, by evaporating to dryness, with an addition of hydrochloric acid, in a platinum dish of a capacity of about one litre. The residue is taken up with hydrochloric acid and water, the portion remaining undissolved being silicic acid. The lime can be separated as calcium oxalate from the filtrate with ammonium oxalate. After removing the calcium oxa- late by filtration and evaporation of the filtrate, the magne- sia is precipitated with ammonium phosphate, as ammonium magnesium phosphate 6. Organic substances are shown by adding a few drops 1 Numerous apparatus containing chemical tests for water have been contrived, and without wishing to disparage such apparatus, it is probably best to state that without a knowledge of chemistry those who use them will be worse off with than without them. For instance, nitrate of silver is usually provided to determine the presence of chloride and chlorine ; but if carbonate of soda should be present in the water under examination, carbonate of silver would be formed as well as chloride. Before the nitrate of silver could be applied the water should be acidu- lated with nitric acid to remove the carbonates, and then the nitrate of silver would throw down the chloride. 2 200-300 c. c. of clear water is heated to boiling, and then heated with a slight excess of solution of chloride of barium and a few drops of hydrochloric acid, boiled and filtered. The precipitate is washed, ignited, and weighed. Good filter-paper is essential for this determination. WASH WATER. 333 of potassium permanganate and some pure sulphuric acid. If organic substances are present the potassium permanga- nate, added drop by drop, is decolorized until all the organic substances are completely oxidized. 7. Determination of the entire residue. One litre is care- fully evaporated to dryness in a platinum dish, the weight of which has been previously determined. The residue is dried at 356° F. until a decrease in weight no longer takes place. It not uncommonly happens that the solid residue is exceedingly deliquescent; in such a case it must be rapidly weighed. 8. A determination of hardness with alcoholic soap solu- tion serves in most cases as a substitute for a quantitative analysis. We give, therefore, a short description of it. The process of determining the hardness of water by a soap solu- tion of a determined percentage, which was introduced by Clark, is a very simple one. By an addition of soap solution to water containing too much lime or magnesia a white pre- cipitate of lime or magnesia soap insoluble in water is formed as long as calcium or magnesium salts are present. A distinction is made between " total hardness 1 ' and "permanent hardness." The hardness of water not boiled is termed total hardness, and the hardness produced by the earthy sulphates is termed " permanent hardness," because unaffected by ebullition ; the term " temporary or change- able hardness" being also frequently used to denote the hardness produced by the earthy carbonates, because re- movable by ebullition. The process of determining the total hardness is as fol- 334 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. lows : 50 c. c. of water are measured with a pipette into a bottle having a capacity of about 8 ozs., and provided with an accurately-fitting ground stopper. Before adding the soap solution the free carbonic acid is removed by shaking the water, and then sucking out the air from the bottle through a glass tube. Then add from a burette or pipette graduated into cubic centimetres 1 c. c. of a standard solu- tion of soap, 1 shake the bottle vigorously, and repeat the process after each addition, the quantity of soap test being gradually decreased until it is added only drop by drop as the reaction approaches completion. When a dense, deli- cate lather is formed which will endure for the space of five minutes, 'the bottle being laid down on its side, then the operation is finished, and the quantity of soap solution must be accurately noted. The number of cubic centimetres of soap solution required to produce a lather being known, the degree of hardness can be ascertained from Table No. 1 or 2. 1 Standard Soap Solution. — To make a potash soap, -which keeps well, 40 parts of dry potassie carbonate and 150 parts of lead plaster [Emplastrum plumbi, B. P.) arc; rubbed together in a mortar until thoroughly mixed. Methylated spirit is then added and triturated to a cream, and after allowing to rest for a few hours, transfer to a filter and wash repeatedly with methylated spirit. The strength of this is determined by adding it to 50 c. c. of standard calcic chloride solution (the preparation of which will be explained); proceeding as in determining hardness. Dilute with water and alcohol until exactly 14 25 C. c. are required to form a permanent lather with 50 c. c. of solution of calcic chloride. The water is added in quantities such as to make the proportion of water to spirit as one to two. Standard Calcic Chloride Solution. — This may be prepared by weighing 0.2 gram of any pure form of calcic carbonate, such as Iceland spar, into a platinum dish and gradually adding dilute hydrochloric acid until it is dissolved; loss may be prevented by covering the dish with a clock glass. Excess of HCI is driven oil" by successive evaporations to dryness, with distilled water, then re-dissolve in distilled water, and make up to one litre. WASH WATER. 335 1. Clark's Table of Hardness — 1000 grains of Water used. Degree of hardness. Distilled water = 0... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2. Table of Hardness in Parts per 100,000, 50 c. c. of Water used. C. C. of soap solution. Q.O C. C. of soap solution. u p.© o c<= C3 O C. C. of soap solution. CaCos per 100,000. C. C. of soap solution. u c ~„ Qo a o O C. C. of soap solution. a front view of the plate of the Kingsland engine. The half-stuff descends through the pipe B, Fig. 124, and passes into a circular chamber, the sides of which are formed of two plates, 0, Q, provided with steel teeth; these are stationary, and can be brought closer together, or placed further apart, by the handle and gearing, G, A, C, E, Fig. 122, so as to grind the half-stuff in pulp of the desired length of fibre. The threaded bolts F, passed through lugs J9, bring up the back plate 0, while F forms guides for E. Between and Q a plate, P, is placed; it has steel teeth, and is rotated rapidly between them by a shaft and belt. This shaft works in journals, and has no collars, so that it can adjust itself to the varying distances between the outer plates. The pulp, when ground, passes out through pipe / in a continuous stream. Usual Construction of Beating Engines. Beating engines are very similar in construction to wash- ing engines. A beater-roller set with knives around its periphery is used in combination with a bed-plate, also set with knives, the parts being operated in a vat or trough, in which a constant circulation of the material to be pulped is maintained. Heretofore, ordinarily, the material has been circulated horizontally around in an upright partition termed a " mid- fellow," and the beater-roll and bed-plate have been placed in the alley or channel between this mid-fellow and one side of the tank. The beater-roll lifted the material over a sort BEATING ENGINES. 401 of dam (termed a " back-fall"), and the material then flowed by the action of gravity around the mid-fellow, and entered again between the beater-roll and the bed-plate. It has, however, been proposed to dispense with the mid-fellow, and have the material returned under the back-fall and bed-plate. In either case, however, the circulating force is that of gravity due to the piling up of the liquid or semi-liquid on the side of the back-fall opposite to the beater-roll. Con- sequently, the flow is comparatively feeble, and it is neces- sary to use a large quantity of water in order to prevent the fibre in suspension from depositing. In the invention patented by Mr. John Hoyt, of Manchester, N. H., and shown in Figs. 127 to 130, a much more rapid and vigor- ous circulation is claimed to be maintained. The beater- roll in this invention is placed at one end of the vat, which is of a depth sufficient to contain it, and the other part of the vat is divided by a horizontal partition or divi- sion, which extends from the beater-roll nearly to the other end. The material to be pulped is carried around by the beater-roll, and is delivered into the upper section above the partition. It flows over the partition, then passes down around the end of the same, and returns through the lower section of the vat to the beater-roll. The bed-plate is placed at the bottom of the vat under the beater-roll. The beater-roll not only draws in the material, creating a partial vacuum in the lower section of the vat, but delivers it into the upper section with considerable force, impelling it forward very rapidly. By the aid of this more rapid as well as more vigorous circulation not only is the 26 402 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. material returned more quickly, and, therefore, acted upon more often by the beater-roll in the same time, but it may be worked with a much less quantity of water, and thereby very important advantages may be secured. These advan- tages are stated to be, first, in the improved quality of the product, for when a considerable body of the fibrous mate- rial is drawn between the knives the different pieces are rubbed together, and thus disintegrated without destroying the length and felting quality of the fibre, whereas when the pulp is thin, the pieces are ground individually, as it were, between the knives, and the integrity of the fibre in large measure destroyed ; secondly, in the greater quantity of pulp which can be prepared in a medium of given size, owing to the larger proportion of fibrous material in the charge ; and thirdly, in avoiding the liability of the fibrous material depositing out of the liquid, and lodging in the channels. Hoyfs Beating Engine. Figs. 127 to 130 represent a beating engine constructed in accordance with Hoyt's invention. Fig. 127 is a plan with part of the casing or vat removed ; Fig. 128, a vertical longitudinal section; Fig. 129, a plan of the bed-plate ; Fig. 130, a partial view in cross section. The cylindrical roll A, provided with knives, Z?, set radially in the periphery, is mounted concentrically on the shaft (7, which is journalled in the sides of the vat D. The vat is of any suitable length, and in depth about equals the diameter of the roll, which is set in the vat close to one end. The BEATING ENGINES. 403 ends of the vat are rounded. The beater-roll is slightly eccentric to the curvature of the end of the vat, in order to Fig. 127. give a clearance (see Fig. 128) and allow the crude pulp to be lifted with less difficulty. The bed-plate knives E are set in the shoe F, which is fixed in or to the bottom of the vat under the beater-roll. 404 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The knives are separated by strips or blocks, G, of wood or other suitable material, and a number of these knives and Fig. 129. Fig. 130. strips are fastened together by a curved bolt or rivet, H. As shown, the knives on each side of the middle are fastened together. The shoe F has flanges /, which are radial with respect to the axis of the beater-roll and form a dovetail. The two sets of knives with their spacing-strips are placed in the dovetail and are spread apart by the wedges iTand L. Those marked /fare of wood, the wedge L of iron. The wedges K are first inserted and the wedge L is driven be- tween them. When the bed-plate knives become worn they can be set out by withdrawing the wedges, and placing strips or pieces under the knives. As they are set out the two sets are drawn toward each other, owing to the inclina- tion of the flanges /, and it is necessary therefore to plane off a little of the wooden wedges K before replacing them and the iron wedge. The bed-plate knives are placed radi- ally with respect to the axis of the beater-roll,, and are adjusted in nearly radial planes. The shaft of the beater- roll turns in close boxes, which are further provided with collars, I/, in order to make the joint liquid-tight. Any BEATING ENGINES. 405 ordinary or suitable means can be used to adjust the shaft of the roll. Between the beater-roll and the opposite end of the vat is the horizontal partition which extends to within a short distance of the end of the vat. There is an upright inclined plate, P, which is brought at the upper edge into close proximity to the beater-knives, but does not touch them. The vat is provided with the usual valve for with- drawing the pulp and also with the pipe for supplying water. In the sides of the vat opposite the ends of the bed- plate knives are curved slots, through which the knives and wedges can be inserted and withdrawn. In operation these slots are closed by blocks, of corresponding shape, so as to fit the hole. The blocks are held in place by the plates R, which are bolted over the slots after the blocks have been put in place. The operation of the engine is as follows : The beater- roll and bed- plate knives being properly adjusted, the 'vat is filled with the rags or fibrous material to be pulped and the proper quantity of water. The beater-roll being revolved at the proper speed — say, for a roll four feet in diameter, at the speed of one hundred and twenty revolutions per minute — the rags and liquid are drawn between the knives, are carried up by the beater-roll, and thrown over the edge of the plate P. They flow around the partition N with considerable velocity and return again and again to be acted upon by the knives. The roll is revolved until the pulp is properly re- duced. 406 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Umpherston' 9 s Beating Engine. As we have previously explained, pulp engines generally consist of a trough having straight sides and semicircular ends, an operating roll, a co-operating bottom plate and back- fall, the trough being partly divided by a longitudinal par- tition, called the " mid-fellow" or " mid-feather," around which the pulp flows from the back of the roll to its front, passing between the roll and bottom plate over the back-fall, and again around the " mid-fellow" to the front of the roll, from whence the operation is repeated. Such a construction and arrangement of parts are found in practice to be ineffi- cient, the pulp nearest the circumference of the trough hav- ing a greater distance to travel than that portion near the mid-fellow, that in its repeated revolutions is not so often acted upon, and the mass is therefore unequally treated. The invention patented by Mr. William Umpherston, of Leith, Scotland, is designed to overcome this difficulty ; and it consists in providing a longitudinal and direct passage beneath the back-fall, whereby the pulp, in its delivery from the back of the roll and movement through the passage to the front of the roll, is directed as through an inverted siphon and pressed through the passage by its superincum- bent weight at the terminus of the back-fall. As we have already several times described the minor details of construction common to this class of machines, we shall now simply outline a machine containing such essential parts as are necessary to understand Umpherston 's improve- ments. BEATING ENGINES. 407 In Fig. 131 the rotating roll A has a surface adapted for grating, rasping, or filing, and the fixed bottom plate B is also provided with a similar surface co-operating with that upon the roll A, the distance between such parts being FiV. 131. regulated by a vertical adjustment of the latter. The form of the back-fall C is similar to that of ordinary pulping- machines ; but in the present invention a return-passage, Z>, is provided beneath the fall, so that the semi-fluid contents that pass over the back-fall are directed by the return-pas- sage to the front of the roll A, the superincumbent weight of the mass of pulp as it is delivered from the back-fall press- ing the mass along this return-passage. The relative posi- tion of the drum-washer or cleaning-cylinder is shown at E, and a hood, 6r, is also provided to prevent the pulp from being thrown out of the machine. It will be seen that Umpherston's construction provides 408 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. for an equal distribution and treatment of every portion of the material acted upon, which insures rapidity and uniform- ity of treatment. This engine is manufactured by the J. Morton Poole Co., of Wilmington, Del., who state that they have one of Urn- pherston's engines of 10 cwt. capacity now (1886) in success- ful operation at the Rockland Mill of the Jessup & Moore Paper Co., near Wilmington, Del. It is claimed for this engine that it occupies only about one-half of the floor space required for an engine of the ordi- nary kind of equal capacity. The movement of the pulp in it is uniform, and no stirring is necessary to prevent lodg- ments. It is claimed that the pulp circulates freely, although furnished thicker than can be done in engines of the ordinary kind of equal capacity. The Jordan pulp engine made by Messrs. J. H. Home & Sons, Lawrence, Mass., and also by the Windsor Locks Machine Co., Windsor Locks, Conn., the Brightman Engine, made by the Cleveland Paper Company, Cleveland, O., the Jeffers Refining Engine, built by the Pusey & Jones Com- pany, Wilmington, Del., as well as a large number of other engines which will be enumerated in the list of patents at the close of this section, are so well known to the trade that it is scarcely necessary to describe them in detail in this volume. List of Patents for Pulp Engines and Bed Plates, issued by the Govern- ment of the United States of An/erica, front 1790 to 1885 inclusive. No. Date. Inventor. 1,760 Sept. 5, 1840. W. Dickenson. 1,818 Oct. 10, 1840. R. Daniels. 6,784 Oct. 9, 1849. W. Clarke. LIST OF PATENTS FOR PULP ENGINES AND BED PLATES. 409 No. Date. 8,26] July 29, 1861. 22,707 Jan. 25, 1859. 34,214 Jan. 21, 1862. 26,387 Dec. 6, 1859. 43,707 June 7, 1864. 46,893 March 21, 1865. 47,739 May 16, 1865. 47,849 May 23, 1865. 52,941 Feb. 27, 1866. 57,355 Aug. 21, 1866. 60,045 Dec. 18, 1866. 70,878 Nov. 12, 1867. 76,270 March 31, 1868. 85,386 Dec. 29, 1868. 86,858 Feb. 9, 1869. 94,816 Sept. 14, 1869. 94,843 Sept. 14, 1869. 98,691 Jan. 11, 1870. 101,008 March 22, 1870. 105,728 July 26, 1870. 115,274 May 30, 1871. 1 16,039 June 20, 1871. 116,045 June 20, 1871. 116,978 July 11, 1871. 117,122 July 18, 1871. 118,092 Aug. 15, 1871. 118,767 Sept. 5, 1871. 119,107 Sept. 19, 1871. 120,265 Oct. 24, 1871. Reissue 4,976 July 16, 1872. 120,787 Nov. 7, 1872. 120,837 Nov. 14, 1871. 121,780 Dec. 12, 1871. 121,970 Dec. 19, 1871. 124,612 March 12, 1872. 128,788 July 9, 1872. 130,067 July 30, 1872. 135,631 Feb. 11, 1873. 144,557 Nov. 11, 1873. 150,147 April 28, 1874. 151,992 June 16, 1874. 153,774 Aug. 4, 1874. Inventor. J. C. Fonda. F. Stiles, Jr., and J. N. Crehore. J. Percy. F. Vandeventer. G. A. Corser. J. G. Fuller. T. Lindsay. O. Morse. J. Easton, Jr., and F. Thiry. J. McCracken. J. M. Shew. S. F. Merrill. J. Taggart. D. Hunter. W. Parkinson. P. Frost. P. Rose. E. Hawkins. A. Hankey. T. Rose and R. Gibson. J. Bridge. R. M. Fletcher. P. Frost. H. B. Meech. J. Taylor. G. Ames. E. Wilkinson. B. F. Barker. | S. L. Gould. Wm. R. Smith. N. W. Taylor and J. H. Brightman. J. Hatch. C. Smith. T. Nugent. J. M. Burghardt and F. Burghardt. T. Nugent. G. A. Corser. S. Moore and R. H. Hurlburt. W. B. Fowler. A. S. Lyman. W. Kennedy. 410 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. Inventor. 155, 1 52 Sent 22 1874 T 1 Gpnin 157,625 Dec. 8, 1874. M. Meyer. 160, 746 March 16, 1875. M. R. Bonjin. 160,996 March 23, 1875. B. F. Barker. 163,638 May 25, 1875. A. Cushman. 166,519 Aug. 10, 1875. A. Gardner. 1 63,638 May 25, 1875. F. A. Cushman. 174,805 March 14, 1876. S. S. Gould. 178,205 May 30, 1876. W. E. Taylor. 182,891 Oct. 3, 1876. J. Chase. 183,349 Oct. 17, 1876. J. S. Warren. 189,671 April 7, 1876. J. S. Warren. 190,373 May 1, 1877. J. H. Robinson. 191,898 June 12, 1877. E. Sumner. 194,824 Sept. 4, 1877. Reissue I E D G Jones 8 609 March 4, 1879. 199,940 Feb. 5, 1878. A. A. Simonds. March 5 1878 -LT-Kll L_, 11 tJ j -t (. J I O • C. L. Hamilton. 208 292 Sent 24 1878 J. Carroll. 210 937 Dec. 17, 1878. J. H. Home. 21 3 640 March 25, 1879. P. P. Emory. 216 349 June 10, 1879. W. H. Russell. 216 505 .Tii up 17 1879 C. Bremaker. 221 812 "NTov 18 1879 A. Hankey. 224,079 Feb. 3, 1880. G. A. Corser. 225, 976 March 30 1 880 G. H. Ennis. 99fi 09k March 30 1880 0. Morse. 229 201 •Tune 99 1 880 J. Taylor. 232 460 Sept. 21, 1880. C. E. B. Cooke, J. Cooke and G. Hibbert. 2S9 3 50 March 29, 1881. A. J. Shipton. 244,220 Julv 12 1881 A. Forbes. 94fi ^98 ill)] JiO E Miitlipr 248, 707 Oct 25 1881 H. P. Case and E. L. Granger. 249,257 Nov. 8, 1881. A. C. Rice. 253,44 7 Feb. 7, 1882. W. E. Taylor. 253,606 Feb. 14, 1882. J. H. Home. 254,251 Feb. 28, 1882. J. R. Abbe. 256,352 April 11, 1882. G. Miller. 273,801 March 13, 1883. C. S. Barton. 277,268 May 8, 1883. S. L. Gould, 282,818 Aug. 7, 1883. W. Whitely. LIST OF PATENTS FOR PULP ENGINES AND BED PLATES. 411 No. Date. Inventor. 286,216 Oct. 9, 1883. O. Morse. 288,234 Nov. 13, 1883. A. Hankey. 289,235 Nov. 27, 1883. G. W. Cressman. 297,037 April 15, 1884. ] Reissue V W. Umpherston. 10,658 Nov. 3, 1885. J 299,307 May 27, 1884. W. Whitely. 302,399 July 22, 1884. A. Hankey. 303,374 Aug. 12, 1884. J. Hoyt. 307,237 Oct. 28, 1884. C. F. Taylor. 308,255 Nov. 18, 1884. G. F. Harlan. 310,230 Jan. 6, 1885. A. A. Simonds. 312,390 Feb. 17, 1885. J. F. Seiberling, 320,612 June 23, 1885. H. Allen and L. S. Mason. 320,721 June 23, 1885. F. S. Taylor. 412 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. CHAPTER XIII. SIZING ENGINE SIZING BLEACHING RESIN AND PREPARING size therefrom surface sizing — hard sizing paper in process of manufacture 41 double-sized" paper tub sizing with benzine and resin — sizing the surface of printing paper — materials used in sizing paper water- proof sizings for paper. Sizing. Prior to the introduction of paper- making machinery the sheets were sized only with gelatine or animal size ; but resin or vegetable size is now commonly used ; it is added to the pulp in the beating engine, and greatly facilitates the manufacture of paper in continuous sheets. The present century has been rich in great mechanical and chemical achievements, and the adaptation of inventions to industrial pursuits ; one improvement has engendered many others, consequently we should not be surprised at the large number of inventions relating to paper manufac- ture which were a natural sequence to the invention and perfection of our modern paper-making machines. The first attempts at sizing pulp in the beating engine commenced at the beginning of this century; the experi- ments of Braconnot, d'Arcet, and others leading to the preparation of resin or vegetable size. ENGINE SIZING. 413 Papers may be roughly divided into two classes, viz., " tub sized" and "engine sized;" but as most papers, even tub sized, excepting blotting- or water-leaf paper, are more or less sized in the engine we shall first speak of the latter method. Engine Sizing. The intimate mixture with the pulp and precipitation upon the fibres of a substance which, when desiccated, will virtually fill the interstices between the fibres, and at the same time be comparatively water-proof, is the theory upon which engine sizing is based, and the substance commonly employed for this purpose is a mixture of resin soap treated with alum. The thorough incorporation of this body with the fibre is best produced by first adding an aqueous solution of resin soap to the pulp in the trough of the engine, and then, after an intimate mixture of the pulp and soap has been made, a solution of alum is run in. A combination of resin and alumina arid of sulphate of sodium is formed by a double decomposition in the pulp. The resinate of alumina thus intimately incorporated with the pulp under- goes a fusion when the paper passes over the drying cylinders and communicates to the paper its hydrofuge property. When there is added to the sizing a small proportion of starch the latter in swelling draws together and unites the fibres of the paper and renders it less spongy. The resin soap is usually prepared in a wooden tub or 414 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. iron-jacketed boiler having a capacity of about 250 or 300 gallons, which is a convenient size for dissolving two barrels of resin ; steam is admitted near the bottom of the tub or boiler through a suitable pipe. The desired quantity of water having been run into the receptacle, carbonate or caustic soda dissolved and previously strained is next added to the water, and the contents of the tub or boiler raised to the boiling point, when the finely powdered resin is gradu- ally thrown in, and the contents constantly stirred with a paddle for two hours, or until the resin is entirely dissolved. It is desirable not to use too small a proportion of water in the preparation of the resin soap, as the impurities of both the resin and the soda in such a case will be mixed with the soap. Some manufacturers of paper prefer to dissolve the resin in a solution of soda-ash of such concentration that its specific gravity is greater than that of the resin soap. The quantity of water required to dissolve the resin and produce the desired concentration is a matter for experiment, and is readily discovered after a few trials. The impurities of the soda and resin fall to the bottom of the boiler after about two hours' boiling and stirring ; the resin soap remains on top, and can be taken off in a clear condition. Should a large quantity of soda remain on the bottom of the tub or boiler after the soap is removed, more resin or less solution must be used next time ; but if the resin is not properly dissolved after the boiling has been continued for the usual length of time, the proportion of soda should be increased. ENGINE SIZING. 415 The proportion of resin used to each pound of soda-ash varies in different mills, three, four, and even five pounds of resin being used to each pound of soda-ash. * The proportions of resin, soda-ash, and water can be best determined by practical experience, as no prescription could be devised which would be suitable to every case. M. d'Arcet, who modified the proportions recommended by M. Braconnot, recommended for the preparation of the resinous soap : — Powdered resin . . . . . . .4.80 parts. Crystals of soda at 80° (Fr. alkalimeter) . . 2.22 " Water 100 44 Theoretically speaking, only 2.45 parts of alum would be required to precipitate the resin ; but the waters, which are almost always calcareous, neutralize a part of the alum. Crystals of soda are much more expensive than soda-ash, but on account of their greater purity they are sometimes preferred to soda-ash. At the present day the resin soap is preferably made by dissolving ordinary resin with a solution of carbonate of soda under a boiling heat in a steam-jacketed boiler, the class of paper to be made governing the quality of resin to be employed. The boiling usually requires from one to eight hours, according to the relative proportions of soda-ash and resin used — the greater the proportion of soda- ash employed, the less the time required for boiling — the process being completed when a sample of the soap formed is completely soluble in water. As we have previously intimated, the proportion of resin used to each pound of carbonate of soda differs in almost 416 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. every mill ; but about three pounds of resin to one pound of carbonate of soda is the usual proportion. It is really waste to use a greater quantity of soda than is absolutely neces- sary to thoroughly dissolve the resin, as it only consumes its equivalent of alum, without yielding any beneficial results. We have several times mentioned carbonate of soda (washing soda) as the material used for dissolving the resin, but caustic soda is used in some mills, and soda-ash in others, all being about equally suitable. The resin soap is cooled after boiling by running it off into iron-tanks, where it is allowed to settle, the soap forming as a dense syrup-like mass, and the coloring matters and other admixtures of the resin rising to the top are easily removed. It is important to run off the mother-liquor containing the excess of alkali, for when the soap is used it consumes alum to neutralize it. After the impurities have been removed from the tank containing the resin soap, the latter is dissolved in water. If, owing to imperfect boiling, the resin is not thoroughly dissolved, a small quantity of carbonate of soda is added to the water used for dissolving the soap. In many mills where starch is used for stiffening purposes the soap is mixed with a quantity (about 1| part of starch to 1 part of resin) of starch paste, which is prepared in a separate vessel by dissolving farina in hot water. Some manufacturers mix the starch paste with the kaolin in lieu of mixing it with the resin. ENGINE SIZING. 417 The mixtures of either resin soap and starch paste, or of starch paste and kaolin after being sifted very carefully, are in readiness to be used. From 3 to 4 pounds of the mixture of resin soap and starch paste to each 100 pounds of dry pulp are about the proportions in which the size is generally used ; but the quantity added to the pulp in the trough of the beating- engine, of course, depends upon whether the paper is to be soft-sized or hard-sized. The mixture of soap and starch after being dissolved in water, and in some cases even without being dissolved, is put into the beating engine in which the pulp is circulating, and after being thoroughly mixed with the pulp the solu- tion of alum or sulphate of alumina is added. The " crystallized alum" used by paper manufacturers is valuable in the sizing process only on account of the sulphate of alumina which it contains, the other ingredients, sulphate of potash, water, etc., contained in the alum exerting no influence upon the resin soap, are consequently of no value. The concentrated alum, which always contains the greatest percentage of sulphate of alumina and other sulphates which have a direct action on the resin soap, are the most economical for use, being proportionately cheaper than crystallized alum ; such concentrated alums as " Pearl" alum, etc., being especially employed. Some paper-makers do not object to the presence of iron, for ordinary purposes, provided it is in the state of a proto- salt, or in the ferrous state, and is accompanied by more or less free acid. Many of the concentrated alums and alumi- 27 418 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. nous cakes contain the iron as a ferric salt, and this is readily decomposed, depositing the ferric oxide and making more or less discoloration, which is very objectionable when clear, white papers are desired. The acid alums are not altogether objectionable because they are very largely used, especially for all common papers, such as news and low grade books ; and the bulk of paper made is no doubt of this character. They are especially important, not only as being more active in sizing than neutral or basic alum, with the same, or larger, percentage of sulphate of alumina, but are particularly use- ful in developing the aniline blue employed in common papers for the purpose of correcting the color. Acid alums are also useful in sizing when the water employed is at all hard, as the free acid more or less neutralizes the hardness of the water. The best type of a concentrated acid alum is Harrison's " Lion" alum, which contains from 52 to 55 per cent, of neutral sulphate of alumina and from one to three per cent, of free acid. This alum is used with the greatest success by numbers of manufacturers of common papers, such as news and low grade book papers. " Aluminous cake" is used in many mills as a substitute for alum. If aluminous cake consisted entirely of sulphate of alumina it would be a most valuable substitute for alum in the sizing process, but the great objection to it for fine and colored papers is that it sometimes contains an excess of free sulphuric acid and soluble iron ; the sulphuric acid not only discharging some colors from the pulp but also destroy- ing the brass wire-cloths of the paper machines. The solution of either alum or aluminous cake is prepared ENGINE SIZING. 419 in a lead-lined receptacle of suitable size, and furnished with a pipe for heating the contents of the tank by steam. The quantity of alum or aluminous cake used varies with the sulphates themselves and with the class of pulps to which they are added, and as a large number of vegetable and aniline colors are brightened by sulphate of alumina it is desirable for many kinds of colored papers to add the solu- tion of alum or aluminous cake to the pulps in quantities which will be in excess of those required for precipitating the resin upon the fibres. Litmus papers may be employed to detect a surplus of either resin soap or sulphates in the pulp : if, after the incorporation of the sizing with the pulp it turns red litmus paper blue, the proportion of alum or aluminous cake is insufficient, and for uncolored papers these materials should be increased until the pulp turns blue litmus paper red. Practical experience is always the best guide in regulating the proportion of alum and other chemicals to be used, for the reason that there is such a difference in the strength of various alums, etc., employed, and in the nature of the wash- water, etc., used in various mills, that directions which would prove effective in one case might result disastrously in another. We could here again remark that neither the solution of resin soap, alum, nor any other chemical should be run into the engine without being previously strained, either through a wire gauze or flannel cloth, and the size, alum, kaolin, coloring matters, etc., should be accurately weighed or other- wise determined. 420 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Various substances have been employed in special mills as a substitute for resin in the sizing process ; but as most of these lack that most important requisite — economy — none of them have as yet come into extended use. Wax dissolved with a concentrated solution of caustic soda and precipitated with alum has been proposed, and makes an excellent size, but its costliness would confine its use to the highest grades of fine papers. The addition of about 12 pounds of gum tragacanth to each 500 pounds of resin has been proposed and used in preparing some kinds of engine-sized papers, and imparts to them, it is claimed, an appearance resembling tub-sized papers. Bleaching Resin and Preparing Size therefrom. The following method of preparing resin size was patented in 1868, by Mr. Thomas Gray, of London, Eng. Operating on any quantity of resin, say eight hundred pounds, throw into a copper or sheet-iron boiler forty gallons of water ; dissolve into it, in heating, about seventy pounds of salt of soda, or other alkaline salt, agitating and stirring the mixture till perfect dissolution of the alkaline salt occurs. When this result is attained, gradually add the resin in small quantities, stirring the material, and waiting till all is completely dissolved before throwing in any more. When the whole is thoroughly mixed turn off the steam, and the first operation being over proceed with the prepara- tion of the size. Having previously dissolved forty pounds of common salt SURFACE SIZING OR SIZING IN SHEET AND IN WEB. 421 in fifty gallons of cold water, take a boiler twice or three times more capacious than that used for preparing the resin, pour in together with the resin, yet hot, one-half part of the salt water prepared, adding thereto thirty gallons of cold water. Then apply heat, stirring the mixture by means of a spattle, and a homogeneous whitish mass will soon be obtained. Continue stirring until the mixture assumes a very intense dark color, much like that of wine, which change is pro- duced by the perfect union of the prepared resin and the salt at that moment. Let the mixture settle, and afterward draw off the liquid portion. Then add some cold water and the remainder of salt water and allow the mixture to again settle, and after decanting the supernatant liquor the mixture is ready for use. Surface Sizing or Sizing in the Sheet and in the Web. Papers to be used for writing purposes are commonly coated with animal size, which is as colorless as possible in order not to injure the color of the paper. Hide and skin trimmings, cartilages, and membranes from animals slaughtered for food or to supply the hides and skins used for the manufacture of leather; hog, hare, and rabbit skins, the hoofs and ears of oxen, sheep, and goats, parch- ment refuse, eel-skins, etc., form the principal sources of supply from which the materials used for the preparation of 422 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. animal size used in the manufacture of writing papers are derived. The treatments which the materials receive in the prepara- tion of size vary with their nature and condition and the variety and grade of papers to which the size is to be applied. Speaking generally, and having in view the sizing of sheets of paper by the hand method of sizing, the materials named are usually washed, then steeped in lime-water, and afterwards perfectly cleansed from it by washing in acidulated and then in pure water. In order to convert the fat into an insoluble lime soap, the material is next gently boiled in eight or ten times its weight of water for about six hours, during which time it is sprinkled with a small quantity of very finely powdered lime ; the boiling point being completed as soon as a drop of the liquor placed upon a cold porcelain plate solidifies to a jelly. There are next added to one hundred parts of the jelly thus produced two or three parts of alum previously dissolved in water, by which the size is coagulated and rendered inso- luble, and consequently is in a more suitable form for the sizing of paper. Sometimes the ready-made size of commerce is used. This is steeped for two or three hours in water and then dissolved in boiling water ; 13 to 18 lbs. of size mixed with 4 to 6 lbs. of alum, dissolved in 22 gallons of water, is usually sufficient for sizing an average-size vatful of paper. The solution of size is brought to a temperature of 77° F., and then about 100 sheets of paper are dipped into it at one time, and so moved about that each sheet becomes coated SURFACE SIZING OR SIZING IN SHEET AND IN WEB. 423 with size on both sides ; they are next pressed so as to dis- tribute the size in the interior of the separate sheets, and afterwards separated and hung to dry on lines in a drying room. It is necessary that the drying should proceed slowly; cau- tion, however, must be exercised that desiccation is not con- tinued for a sufficiently long time to permit the decomposi- tion of the moist size. In summer thunderstorms induce the decomposition of the size, which becomes covered with mould, liquefies, and loses its glutinous properties. If the sheets of paper are too rapidly dried the size remains distri- buted throughout the body of the material ; but during slow desiccation the size as it dries is drawn, in company with the moisture, to the surface, where it forms an impermeable layer. Thus it happens that strictly animal sized papers if properly dried will blot if there has been an erasure or scraping of the surface. If the paper is to be sized in the web by the use of ma- chinery, the preparation of the size is conducted on a larger scale than has been just described. In large paper-mills the size is generally prepared in a room devoted to the purpose, and is commonly located near the machine, adjoining it if the latter is on the ground floor, and usually below the machine-room if it is on the second floor. The finest grades of light hide and skin clippings are em- ployed for No. 1 letter papers ; but less costly stock is employed for the lower grades of animal-sized papers. In order to preserve the glue stock tanners and tawers macerate it in milk of lime and afterwards dry it, and as the 424 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. clippings require to be freed from the lime the first treatment which the glue-stock receives after arriving at the paper-mill is to put it in large wooden tubs filled with water in which it is allowed to remain for several days in soak. If the paper-mill is situated on the banks of a stream the glue-stock is sometimes packed in large willow baskets and the latter submerged in water by means of a travelling crane, and in this the stock is soaked and freed from lime. But the more desirable way is to soak the glue-stock in wooden tubs and then put it in a larger revolving wash-drum about five feet in diameter and ten feet in length, which drum should be driven by power and so constructed that it will be one-half immersed in a vat. The drum suitably covered with wood is filled with the necessary quantity of stock through a door, which is formed by hinging one of the boards which form the surface of the drum, and clean water being admitted through one of the hollow trunnions the dirty water is allowed to escape through perforations in the periphery of the drum while it is being revolved. The objection to the glue-stock washing apparatus in com- mon use is that the stock is usually damaged by being broken up too much, and considerable loss results, besides from the fact that the small particles are allowed to escape with the wash water. Mr. W. A. Hoeveler has lately patented a washer by which the defects named are claimed to be reme- died and other advantages derived. Fresh waste, i. e., such as has not been limed and dried, and which is sometimes purchased by paper manufacturers from neighboring tanneries, must be prepared as soon as SURFACE SIZING OR SIZING IN SHEET AND IN WEB. 425 possible after it arrives at the paper-mill, as otherwise it would taint the air, be attacked by rats and other vermin, and suffer injurious alterations by decomposition. The fresh waste is first placed in tubs filled with water in which has been dissolved 2 per cent., by weight, of caustic lime. It is best to allow the water to stand for a week or so before using it for the fresh waste. The length of time which the stock remains in the lime bath varies according to the material : trimmings from calf-skins requiring from 10 to 15 days; sheep-skins, 15 to 20 days; and trimmings from heavy hides, such as ox, 25 to 30 days. The milk of lime should be renewed once or twice a week and thoroughly stirred. The material is washed in the washing drum after being removed from the lime, and is afterward spread out in the yard to drain and dry. When sufficiently dried the mate- rials are ready for boiling to glue, and can be stored until wanted. The glue stock, after being cleaned or prepared as has been described, is placed in a boiler of cast-iron, sheet-iron, or copper. Its capacity depends upon the quantity of raw material to be boiled at one time. It is best to have boilers holding from 100 to 400 pounds of raw material, and to place two or more of such boilers together. Resting upon the bottom there should be a stopcock for drawing off the gelatinous solution. From 1 to 3 inches above the bottom of the boiler there should be a perforated and movable false bottom supported by flanges, thereby preventing direct con- 426 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. tact of the materials with the heated bottom of the boiler, and obviating injury by scorching. The glue stock having been placed in the boiler, water is poured over it and steam admitted under the false bottom; but the water should at no time be allowed to come to a boil, care being observed not to allow the temperature to exceed 200 F., which should be maintained from 10 to 18 hours, the time depending upon the nature of the raw material. As the gelatinous solution is formed it is drawn off from the boiler into wooden tubs, and is at the same time carefully strained to remove impurities. Two or three extracts are made from the same lot of glue stock, all the solutions being mixed together in the receiv- ing tubs, where a solution of alum is added in such propor- tions as to be recognized by tasting the liquor. The object in view in adding the alum solution is to prevent the gela- tine from fermenting or decomposing, and as the danger from this cause increases with the higher temperature of the atmosphere, more alum should be used in summer than in winter. After the solutions cool they are ready for use, the gela- tine being removed from the receiving tubs and dissolved in a separate tub as required for use, the tub in which it is dissolved being provided with a steam pipe. The propor- tion of water (which should be only lukewarm) employed in dissolving the gelatine varies from one-quarter to. one- half of the volume of the latter, the nature of the fibre and thickness of the paper regulating the proportion of water to gelatine ; the concentration of the solution being SURFACE SIZING OR SIZING IN SHEET AND IN WEB. 427 greater for thin papers and weak fibres than for thick papers and strong fibres. The mechanism for supplying the size to the trough, through which the web of paper is passed, and the manner of running it over the Fourdrinier machine are so well understood that it is not necessary to enter upon a detailed description of either. The best method of drying paper after it is tub-sized is still an unsettled question among manufacturers of paper. In this connection we quote from an editorial in the 4 Paper Trade Journal 44 When the paper is passed through the size-tub it is again wet; the fibres expand, and their hold on each other is relaxed. Now it must make a difference to the subsequent strength and quality of this paper whether it is hung up in a loft to dry or run over a drying machine. If it is hung in the loft no strain is put upon it, and the fibres are at liberty to shrink or slowly contract in all direc- tions ; whereas if it is run over a drying machine, consisting of from fifty to one hundred reels, the longitudinal strain prevents the fibres from shrinking and resuming their normal position in that direction. Attempts have been made to obviate this defect by regulating the speed of each section of the machine in such manner as to allow for the shrinkage ; but this only remedies the evil by preventing the paper from breaking as it travels over the machine. Everything else being equal, it would seem that loft-dried paper must be superior to that dried on the drying machine. Our home manufacturers indorse this view, inasmuch as 428 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. they continue to prefer the system of loft-drying to the less expensive machine methods." It is, of course, understood that papers which are surface sized may previously have been sized in the beating engine, and this method is mentioned under the head of " Double Sized" Paper. The methods employed for drying the papers will be found treated in Chapter XV. Hard-Sizing Paper in process of Manufacture by ad- ministering Vegetable and Animal Sizes successively to the Web before it is Dried upon the Heated Cylinders. The following composition and method of hard-sizing paper was patented in 1873 by Mr. X. Karcheski, of Belle- ville, N. J. The invention consists in submitting paper in the web, before it is dried, first to a bath of vegetable size, and then to a bath of animal size, both of peculiar com- position, and in removing the superfluous sizes by scraping. Also in drying the product upon the heated cylinders of the paper-machine, so that the complete operation of manu- facturing paper which is sized is conducted with only one dry- ing process, irrespective of whether the paper is more or less hard-sized or enamelled. The invention further consists in distributing the earthy matter contained in the vegetable size upon a web composed solely of paper-pulp, filling its pores and cavities, and thus producing an even surface upon which the animal size is subsequently deposited in a thin pellicle. Thus the making of the paper brittle is avoided, which brit- tleness is one objectionable result of mixing earthy matter HARD-SIZING. 429 with the pulp, and preventing the paper from absorbing animal size to such an extent as to become translucent. These sizes contain some novel ingredients, and their com- position is varied according to the various results sought to be accomplished. Mr. Karcheski's process involves the introduction between the drying-cylinders and the last pair of press-rolls, in a Fourdrinier or "cylinder" machine, of two vats or tanks, for containing vegetable and animal sizes respectively, each provided with a suitable device for scraping off the super- fluous size from the material operated upon. The first vat contains the vegetable size, consisting of bleached resin dis- solved by heat in the least possible quantity of alkalies and water, with the addition to the solution of a quantity of color- less earth and soap. The web of paper from the press-rolls passes through the size and absorbs the resin and soap, while the colorless earth fills its pores. When the paper is manufactured from new stock and is free from impurities and foreign matters, colorless earth in the first vat may be omitted, if increase in the weight of paper should be objectionable. The excess of size is removed from the paper by scrapers, and the web then passes into the second vat, which contains the animal size, consisting of a solution of glue, alum, tallow, or other soap, colorless earth, and a trace of chloride of sodium. In combining these ingredients the proportions are not arbitrary. The operator will soon learn to vary them according to the quality of surface required, as to hardness, lustre, and enamel, and also according to the purity of the 430 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER ingredients themselves, and the conditions attending their use. Care must be taken in all cases that a sufficient quantity of alum is present to neutralize the alkalies used in the pro- cess. The superfluous animal size is removed by scrapers, as before, and the web then passes on to the drying cylinders. The apparatus invented by Mr. Kercheski, by means of which the web of paper is subjected to the process of hard Ficr. 132. Fill. 133. sizing, coloring, or water proofing, is shown in Figs. 132 and 133. Fig. 132 is a vertical longitudinal section, showing Ker- HARD-SIZING. 431 cheski's apparatus interposed between the last pair of press- rolls, and the drying cylinders of a Fourdrinier machine, and Fig. 133 is a plan of the same. The dotted lines indicate the paper or other material under treatment, and the arrows indicate the direction in which it moves. The two vats, A and B, are interposed between the last pair of press-rolls, G C, and the drying cylinders D D, of a Fourdrinier or cylinder machine. These vats are provided with guide-rollers, e e e, and carrying-rollers, / /, for the purpose of conveying the paper or other material operated upon into and from the sizing compositions contained in the vats. Each vat is provided with adjustable scrapers, g g, for removing the superfluous size from the surface of the paper. In sizing paper and other materials which vary in strength of tenacity, and in applying sizes which vary in consistency, it is necessary to regulate the tension to which the web is subjected by the scraping process; hence the importance of the feature of adjustability, as^ applied to the scraping mechanism. From what we have previously stated it will be seen that by the present mode of sizing paper the web is in a wet state when introduced into the first or vegetable-size bath, so that the water it contains combines with the vegetable size. The fibre of the web it is claimed absorbs the resin and soap solutions, while the earthy matter fills the pores and cavities in the web, and the scraping operation pro- duces an even surface. The web being then introduced into the animal-size bath, and being incapable of absorb- 432 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. ing any more liquid, simply receives upon its surface a thin pellicle of animal size, and the repetition of the scraping operation not only removes the superfluous size, but still further tends to equalize and smooth the surface of the web. The web, which then passes onto the drying-cylinders, is prevented, it is claimed, from adhering thereto by the pres- ence of the chloride of sodium contained in the size, and loss of size by evaporation during the drying process is prevented by the presence of the fatty acids in the size. Printing-paper manufactured by this process, while it is not increased in cost, it is claimed is greatly improved in quality in respect to superior smoothness, evenness of tex- ture, and capability of bearing writing or receiving even impressions from printer's types. ;i Hard-sized paper," so called, i. e., writing-paper, it is claimed is not only improved in quality by this process of manufacture, but is greatly re- duced in cost. Heretofore there has been no successful process of hard- sizing paper in the web before drying it, and consequently a second drying operation has been necessary. By the present process the time and labor expended in the second drying operation are saved. In manufacturing writing-paper it is to be observed that the vegetable size of resin, alkaline soap, and colorless earth, which fills the pores of the web, as we have described, prevents the translucency which is a charac- teristic of paper finished with purely animal size. To produce the hard surface required in writing-paper the following it is stated will be found to be an effectual compo- sition of animal size, to be applied after the administration DOUBLE-SIZED PAPER. 433 of the resin or vegetable size : Dissolve one and a half pounds of white soap in two gallons of water, and two pounds of strong white glue in two gallons of water, mix the two solutions, and add sufficient alum to neutralize the alkalies present, then add colorless earth and a handful of chloride of sodium. This size is to be used warm, say at a tempera- ture of about 120° F. Paper sized with this succession of resin and animal sizes it is claimed will be perfectly opaque and firm, and will have a hard, even surface. In manufacturing printing-paper the animal size is made weaker — that is, with a weaker solution of glue, printing- paper not requiring so hard a surface. " Double-Sized" Paper. Large quantities of writing paper are sized by the process called " double sizing." The pulp is sized in the beating engine with resin size and alum after the usual method. The pulp thus sized then passes into the stuff chest, and thence on to the paper machine. The paper, as it leaves the dry felt, then passes between two rollers, revolving in a vat containing animal size, thence over the dryers in the usual manner. Instead of drying on the machine the double-sized paper is usually taken wet from the machine and dried in drying lofts. 28 434 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Tub Sizing with Benzine and Resin. The following process has been employed for sizing paper: One and one-half pounds of resin are added to ten gallons of benzine or naphtha in a close vessel ; the resin quickly dissolves, after which the composition is ready for use ; but it is stated that the size is much improved in quality if allowed to rest for three or four days before using it. The quantity of size specified is claimed to be sufficient for about three hundred yards of paper, fifty-eight inches wide, and weighing twenty-five pounds to the ream, when cut into sheets 19 by 28 inches. The unsized paper, on leaving the drying cylinders, is passed through a sizing trough containing the composition, the rate of speed being about twenty feet per minute, the superfluous composition being wiped or scraped off from both surfaces of the paper and returned to the sizing trough. The paper thus sized should be air-dried, and it is stated to be usually sufficiently dry after passing through about ten feet of space to be calendered and cut up into sheets or made into rolls. Sizing the Surface of Printing Paper. Hover, in 1867, after numerous experiments, proposed the following process for sizing the surface of printing paper: 4 ounces of starch are dissolved in 240 ounces of water, and 12 ounces of commercial carbonate of lime, magnesia, or its equivalent are added to the solution, a small portion of glue being also added if desired. This MATERIALS USED IN SIZING PAPER. 435 size is applied to the surface of any of the papers usually employed for printing, and the paper being afterwards dried and calendered will be ready for use. This sizing may be applied to the paper after it is finished or during the process of its manufacture, while other materials than those alluded to may be used for sizing the paper ; the main object of the process being to impart to the surface of the paper a permanent coating of carbonate of lime, or of magnesia, or their equivalents. In 1869 Hover patented the following composition for treating paper, which compound he claims possesses the property of more thoroughly permeating and becoming incorporated with the " water leaf" than ordinary sizing : Seven gallons of ordinary glue sizing are mixed with one gallon of strong solution of acetate of lime. This sizing may be applied in the same manner as other sizing, and it is claimed for it that it not only renders the paper whiter but that it at the same time improves the surface. Materials used in Sizing Paper. Alum. Alum, in the narrower sense of the word, is such a double combination of two sulphates, which will always contain aluminium as a sesquioxide, when solutions of aluminium sulphate are brought together with sulphates of suitable simple oxides. According to the nature of the sulphate combined with the aluminium sulphate, the fol- lowing principal distinctions are made in the varieties of 436 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. alum : Potash-alum, ammonia-alum, and soda-alum. Soda- alum is more readily soluble in cold water than the others ; but is not used in paper-making in the United States. It is not a permanent salt, deliquescing rapidly. For coloring pur- poses potash-alum is sometimes used, or as a substitute for ammonia-alum, or there may be employed a mixture of both in varying proportions. For the purpose of recognizing whether potash-alum is pure, rub a piece of it with caustic lime and moisten the mixture with water. The presence of ammonia will be readily detected by its characteristic odor. It is well for the better grades of paper to subject the alum to a test for iron before using it. This is readily effected, according to Prof. Ilunge, by throwing a piece of alum to be tested into a solution containing 15| grains of potassium ferro-cyanide in 7 ounces of water. If the color of the surface of the alum remains unchanged it is free from iron, but in case blue spots make their appearance it contains iron. This test is entirely reliable for alum in pieces ; it is claimed to be equally reliable for pulverized alum and alum solution. Up to about the year 1870 crystal alum was used almost entirely as the sizing agent in paper manufacture. About the date named the Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Com- pany introduced a concentrated "porous" alum manufactured under Mr. Henry Pemberton's patent. The company named possessed alumina as a residue from the manufacture of soda from the mineral cryolite. The process of manufacture con- sisted of simply treating the alumina with sulphuric acid, then running it on to a floor on which there was sprinkled MATERIALS USED IN SIZING PAPER. 437 more or less bicarbonate of soda ; the hot sulphate of alumina rapidly decomposed the carbonate of soda, causing the free carbonic acid to rise through the mass, giving the alum its porous properties, and absorbing into its composition the resulting sulphate of soda. This also served to neutralize whatever uncombined acid there may have been present. Because of the large percentage of the sulphate of alumina contained in this alum, paper-makers were enabled to pro- duce the same results by using about one-half the quantity of it that they had previously used of crystal alum. The analysis published by the manufacturers shows some 53 per cent, of sulphate of alumina, whereas crystal alum contains from 36 to 39 per cent. ; and the quantities employed of the respective alums would be in about the ratio of these per- centages. This porous alum had been very generally intro- duced in all the better class of paper-mills in the United States by the year 1880. In the year 1879, Harrison Bros. & Co., of Philadelphia, acquired control of the Laur patent for the manufacture of a concentrated paper-maker's alum from bauxite, and that firm immediately erected a plant for the introduction of this article to the paper trade of the United States. Bauxite is probably the mineral richest in alumina ; the best varieties contain as high as 70 per cent, of anhydrous alumina, and the greater part of it is indus- trially available. The Laur patent principally covered the use of zinc for reducing and removing the iron, which is always present in bauxite, from the solution of sulphate of alumina made from it. The zinc used in the metallic state is dissolved by the sulphate of alumina solution, reducing 438 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. and removing the iron and neutralizing all the free acid. Alumina is such a peculiar substance, acting either as a base or an acid, according to the character of the substance opposed to it, that, while in the presence of sulphuric acid, it becomes a base ; in the presence of zinc oxide it appears to act as an acid, combining with the zinc as it does with the sulphuric acid. The compound known as " pearl" alum resulting from this treatment consists of sulphuric acid, alumina, and oxide of zinc, all perfectly soluble, and is the most powerful sizing agent yet offered to paper-makers. The aggregate of these materials is stated in the manufacturer's circular to be not less than 63 per cent. ; analyses show as high as 70 per cent. ; and the claim made by the manufac- turers that its sizing power is 15 to 20 per cent, greater than " Natrona" porous alum is generally admitted by care- ful paper-makers. At the present time this alum divides the honors with the " porous" alum, and " pearl" and "porous" are recognized as the two standard concentrated alums in the paper-making trade. "Pearl" alum is particu- larly neutral to colors ; ultramarine, which is destroyed by the weakest of acids, will remain unaffected by pearl alum for a long time. The inertness of pearl alum to colors like orange mineral is also very marked when compared with other alums. It has already been stated that it is the sulphate of alumina only which gives to crystal alum its value as a sizing mate- rial. Crystal alum contains but 36.31 per cent, of sulphate of alumina, the remaining 63.69 per cent, consisting of water and other inert material. It is on this account, that, for MATERIALS USED IN" SIZING PAPER. 439 many years, crystal alum has been superseded in engine- sizing by the so-called u concentrated alums," which contain a much larger percentage of sulphate of alumina. The greater the amount of sulphate of alumina which any con- centrated alum contains the greater its sizing power. But it does not necessarily follow that a concentrated alum having the highest sizing power is the purest, and, therefore, the best alum. The best concentrated alum is that which contains only sulphate of alumina — it should contain no iron. An alum may contain iron and yet be perfectly white in its dry state. But such an alum (or mixture of sulphate of alumina with other substance), if it contains iron (though it may dissolve in water into a colorless solution), will, in time, assume a brown color. This brown color is due to the conversion of the iron it contains into ferric oxide or iron rust. It requires time to produce this brown color in a colorless solution of alum containing iron, and it also requires time to produce the same effect on paper that has been sized with an alum containing iron. In a perfectly white alum con- taining iron the latter is present as ferrous oxide, which by the action of air is transformed into ferric oxide or iron rust. For many years there have been, and are still, used by paper-makers enormous quantities of a concentrated alum known in the trade as " Natrona porous alum," made by the Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Company of Philadelphia. This alum, made from pure hydrated oxide of alumina, is of uniform strength, and is very rich in sulphate of alumina. It contains neither zinc nor iron, nor any other material that THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. can affect the purest white of the best and finest qualities of high grade paper. The practical paper-maker can easily distinguish the pre- sence or absence of iron in alum by dissolving half an ounce, more or less, in two or three ounces of water, and adding half as much clear "bleach liquor." Submitted to this test, Natrona porous alum throws down only a white precipitate of sulphate of lime, while the supernatant liquid remains perfectly colorless. The same test (bleach liquor) applied to any alum containing iron (though the solution may be colorless) will at once turn the solution brown and throw down a portion of the iron as a brown precipitate. Concentrated Alum as a Water Purifier. Although a paper-mill may have a supply of water which is of excellent quality during dry weather, its water shed may be such that after rain the water is unfit for immediate use. In a few hours a clear brook of crystal purity may be converted into a running stream of dirty water. If it should run into the reservoir of a paper-mill in this condition the water would require many days to clear itself by settling in the natural way. It must, therefore, be " cleared" by artifi- cial means, and the only material that will effect the clearing (or deposition of the impurities held in mechanical suspen- sion) is sulphate of alumina. Crystal alum has been used for this purpose by paper-makers for many years. But, as has been already stated, this material contains, in round numbers, only thirty-six per cent, of sulphate of alumina. Therefore, of late years, crystal alum lias been superseded MATERIALS USED IN SIZING PAPER. 441 for clearing water by use of sulphate of alumina in a more concentrated form — a " concentrated alum." The quantity of sulphate of alumina required to clear water is very small, and therefore the sulphate of alumina should be in such form that it will dissolve very slowly. In engine sizing, where it is desirable that an alum should dissolve rapidly, alum should be in a porous or ground condition. But in such form it would dissolve far too rapidly for water clearing. It must, therefore, be concentrated and cast into large blocks, which present but little surface to the dissolving action of the water. Such blocks are either thrown into the reservoir of the water to be cleared, or, better, should be placed in a trough through which the muddy water runs into the reservoir. It must be remembered, that it is the sulphate of alumina only that does the clearing of the water. A concentrated alum, in blocks or cakes, for water clearing should contain neither iron, zinc, nor free acid. The Pennsylvania Salt Manufacturing Com- pany of Philadelphia, the makers of the Natrona porous alum already referred to, are also manufacturers of a concentrated alum in blocks, which admirably fulfils all the requirements of a perfect clearing alum. False Economy in the Use of Alum. The more advanced paper-makers of the present day have found that there is no economy in the use of too small pro- portions of alum. An excess of alum insures a more com- plete matting of all the fibre, and, in the end, a larger product of paper. If a pound or two extra of alum per each one hundred pounds of paper produced can be made to yield — 442 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. on account of the alum insuring the more complete collection of the stock — from two to five pounds additional weight of paper, the money expended for the extra alum is well in- vested. The competition of Harrison Bros. & Co. for the alum trade of paper-makers has le*d, no doubt, to a more thorough understanding of alum requirements on the part of the paper-makers than would have been acquired through their own volition. The firm named first showed that 80 lbs. of the "pearl" alum would do as much sizing as 100 lbs. of the heretofore strongest known alum — the " porous" — would effect, leading to a gradual cutting down of the quantity of alum required. When this quantity was cut down below a certain limit, other troubles would result which were not manifested so long as alum was used in excess. In admit- ting the advisability always to use an excess of alum in sizing there will still be proportionately less of the more concen- trated alums used than there would be of the weaker alum, and of crystal alums, and the strongest alum consequently is always the cheapest. When the alum is carried a long distance from the place of manufacture to the paper-mill, the item of freight becomes of serious importance. At the present time, owing to the great competition between the two leading alum-makers, the manufacture is concentrated almost entirely in and around Philadelphia; no other manu- facturing centre supplying, to any extent, the paper-makers' alum ; and in the city named the manufacture is narrowed down to four concerns — Harrison Bros. & Co., the Penn- sylvania Salt Manufacturing Company, and two others. MATERIALS USED IN SIZING PAPER. 443 Aluminium Sulphate. Neutral aluminium sulphate (A1 2 3S0 4 ) is prepared either by treating clay or bauxite with concentrated sulphuric acid, or from cryolite. In an anhydrous state it contains 30 per cent, of alumina and 70 per cent, of sulphuric acid. With eighteen equivalents of water it crystallizes into octahe- drons, or at a temperature of 32° F. into hexagonal rhom- bohedrons. Aluminium sulphate is soluble in double its weight in water. A solution prepared with the assistance of heat separates, on cooling, crystalline lamina of aluminium sul- phate (A1 2 3S0 4 -|- 18H 2 0). Aluminium sulphate is found in commerce in a nearly pure state, the best qualities con- taining only traces of iron, but from 0.5 to 2 per cent, of free sulphuric acid, 1 which is injurious when the salt is to be used for paper-making purposes. The presence of free sulphuric acid may also be detected by adding to a solution of aluminium sulphate logwood tincture. The solution, if free acid be present, will be colored brown-yellow and deep violet if it is neutral. To make aluminium sulphate con- taining free sulphuric acid available add to a solution of it 1 to 2 per cent, of zinc chips, the solution of which will be attended by a violent development of hydrogen. By the free sulphuric acid combining with the zinc, zinc sulphate is formed. An excess of zinc is dissolved with formation of 1 To test aluminium sulphate for free sulphuric acid compound, according to Edward Donath, a solution of it at an ordinary temperature with a few drops of potassium iodide and potassium bichromate, and add a little bisulphate of carbon. If free acid is present the iodine is liberated and the bisulphide of carbon, on shaking, assumes a beautiful violet color. 444 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. zinc sulphate and separation of basic sulphate of alumina. Instead of zinc chips 1 to 2 per cent, of sodium carbonate may be used. Aluminium sulphate or alum cake is found in commerce in the United States, generally in the form of powder, ex- cepting when prepared in a very dense form used in the settling ponds of paper-mills. By boiling aluminium sul- phate with water, it is gradually and completely dissolved, and yields a colorless fluid with an acid reaction. The solution can be advantageously used in all cases where alum was formerly employed, especially if it contains no excess of sulphuric acid, as it constitutes the only com- ponent part of alum which makes the latter valuable to the paper manufacturer. English cakes have always been imported in the form of lumps or blocks, but American manufacturers reduce theirs by chipping or powdering to a more or less comminuted state, in which state the aluminium sulphate is much more serviceable to the paper-maker. The Harrison " Lion" alum is a fair example of a high grade sulphate of alumina, which is chipped so as to be in a state readily soluble. This alum is soluble without residue. Another class of alumi- nous cakes is made by boiling together the alumina-giving material and sulphuric acid, and allowing the entire mass to harden into a cake, containing all the insoluble material of the alumina mineral. This insoluble material is generally silica or silicate of alumina, which has not been acted on by the acid. If the alumina mineral contains this silica in a coarse state, it gives a sandy residuum, which may be the MATERIALS USED IN SIZING PAPER. 445 cause of a great deal of trouble to the paper-maker, cutting his wires and injuring the machinery generally. When, for very common paper, such as binder's boards, building papers, etc., it is desirable to have a cheap alum, and this sort of a cake is selected on account of its low price, the buyer is cautioned to select such a one as will give this insoluble residue in the finest possible state, for all medium and good classes of papers, the alums which are soluble without resi- due are, in the end, the best. Resins. The resins used by paper-makers vary greatly in quality and in price, and are usually graded commercially as Com- mon to Good Strained, Good No. 2, Low No. 1, Good No. 1, Pale, Extra Pale, etc., the first named being the most inferior in quality, and the other varieties increasing in value in the order named. To prevent injuring the whiteness of the paper, upon which much of the value of the best classes of paper depends, it is necessary that the purest resins be used. Of the different kinds of resins the American and French have the preference. They are the residues obtained in dis- tilling turpentine with steam in the preparation of oil of turpentine, and are usually known as colophony. This resin is either only slightly yellowish or quite colorless. Of course, the lighter and cleaner in color the resin is the better will be the quality and appearance of the papers to which it is applied. It may be that the resin at hand is dark, and contains many impurities. If so, it may be necessary 446 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. to submit it to a purification, which is usually done by boiling it with a solution of common salt, when the impuri- ties and much of its color are precipitated with the salt water. This boiling is often repeated a second or third time to insure a bright color. The resins are rarely ever approximately pure definite bodies, but are usually mixtures of several analogous oxy- genated bodies in various proportions. Their chemical rela- tions are at present but very imperfectly understood. Starch. For the paper-manufacturer a specially pure and white starch is made. Of the best two varieties of starch used, corn-starch and potato-starch, the former is the cheaper in price, and the latter the better in quality. Neither variety should contain more than 18 per cent, of water, which is tested by the loss of a weighed quantity at 230° F. The ash should not amount to more than three or four parts per thousand ; a larger quantity would indicate a fraudulent admixture. Stock for Paper-makers' Sizing. Adamson's method of preparing stock for paper-makers' sizing is as follows : — Take ordinary glue-stock, such as the cuttings of raw-hide, bones, etc., which has been treated with lime or alkali in the usual manner, and wash this glue-stock with water until as much of the lime as possible has been removed. Then im- pregnate the stock with alum by steeping it in a solution of MATERIALS USED IN SIZING PAPER. 447 alum and water for from four to ten hours, or as long as the thickness and quantity of lime remaining may demand, after which drain off the solution, leaving the stock in a moist and swollen condition, in which state pack it into bar- rels, boxes, or bags, ready for transportation to, and use by, the consumers. The alum acts as a preservative, so that the stock can be kept for a considerable length of time without deterioration. As the stock thus prepared reaches the consumer while it still retains its moisture, it will readily yield to the dissolving action of heat and water, and can be speedily converted into the desired size, thereby avoiding the long-continued boiling, which has a tendency to discolor the size. The alum treatment has the further advantage of neutral- izing the lime which has remained in the stock, and which would otherwise detract from the quality of the size. A further important action of the alum is to make the size limpid and transparent, and to render paper and other material to which it is applied partially water- proof. One of the main advantages of this process is, that the size-stock can be prepared and packed and forwarded directly to the consumer, thereby obviating the usual preliminary drying, which is costly, and frequently injures the stock. The proportion of alum to the water in the solution will in a great measure depend upon the character of the glue stock, as will also the time during which the stock is steeped in the water ; but the desired result may be attained by steeping ordinary raw-hide, clippings, bones, etc., for from four to ten hours in a bath in which the proportions are 448 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. about three to five pounds of alum to one hundred pounds of wet unprepared glue-stock. Water-proof Sizings for Paper. Sizing and Water-proofing Paper with a Compound consist- ing of Water, Soda, Lime, Lard or Tallow, Glue, Bichro- mate of Potash, and Linseed Oil. The following compound is designed to be incorporated with the pulp with a view to rendering the paper water-proof. The mixture is prepared as follows: Dissolve twenty- five pounds of soda in thirty-one gallons of water by boiling. To this liquor add gradually twelve pounds of recently burned lime, mixed in a small quantity of water. Let this boil about an hour, and then allow it to settle, and pour off the clear liquor, which should be a caustic lye of 36° Baume. Melt fifty-six pounds of lard or tallow by a gentle heat, and add fourteen pounds of the above-named lye, stirring well, and not allowing it to boil. When thoroughly mixed, add four- teen pounds more of the lye, stirring constantly, and not allowing it to get to a higher temperature than 148° F. To this add fifty-six pounds of glue, dissolved in twenty-eight pounds of caustic lye, at 18° Baume, by a gentle heat. Stir well until the whole is a homogeneous paste ; then add six- teen ounces of bichromate of potash, dissolved in a small quantity of hot water, and finally add sixteen pounds of linseed oil. Stir continually for about half an hour, and then run it into a box, and keep it covered closely for about twelve hours. This size should be made a few days before using. "WATER-PROOF SIZINGS FOR PAPER. 449 By this method of making the size it is claimed that the glycerine of the fat is retained, and forms with the glue a compound very much like India-rubber, which adds greatly to the strength and elasticity of the paper. To use the size, dissolve three pounds of it in two gallons of water for a two-himdred-and-fifty-pound engine, and when thoroughly incorporated with the pulp add twenty pounds of alum and ten pounds of acetate of lead; or, in place of the alum and acetate of lead, add twenty pounds of sulphate of iron; or ten pounds of chloride of lime and one-fifth of a pound of bichromate of potash, or vary the proportions of these according to the nature of the pulp materials. When preparing the size for ledger or writing-paper omit the linseed oil, and instead use one ounce of lime, in the form of milk and lime, and two ounces of hyposulphite of soda, dissolved in a small quantity of hot water, to every pound of the size, and mix thoroughly. For straw paper, use the size with the oil, retaining the lime-water used in boiling the straw, using the alum as usual. For photograph- paper, prepare the size the same as for writing-paper, except that the alum is omitted in the engine, and instead two pails of milk of lime are used to the two-hundred-and-flfty-pound engine. Sizing with a Composition of Soda- Ash (Carbonate of Soda), Resin, Chloride of Sodium, Linseed Oil, and Silicate of Soda. The following process has for its object to render the paper more or less impervious to ink, so that the ink will 29 450 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. lie up clear and distinct, and not be absorbed into the tissue of the paper ; also, for making the paper stronger, and of smooth and fine surface finish, at the same time improving the color of the paper, and for acting as a mordant for fixing the colors of the compound. The following is an example of the material and proportion of the same, and the manner of compounding them: — Soda-ash (carbonate of soda), three hundred pounds; twelve hundred pounds resin ; chloride of sodium (common salt), five pounds ; raw linseed oil, two gallons, or its equivalent vegetable oil ; silicate of soda, thirty-six gallons, gravity 28° Baume. The process of compounding these ingredients is as fol- lows, or substantially so : Take the three hundred pounds of soda-ash, and dissolve it in about eighty-five gallons of boiling water, and allow the solution to settle. The solution is then siphoned off into any suitable vessel, the precipitate remaining in the bottom of the vessel in which the solution was effected. This precipitate is utilized for destroying the fatty or animal matter in boiling rags. The twelve hundred pounds of resin is reduced to a powder, which is then added slowly and under constant stirring to the soda-ash solution, after the solution is raised to a boiling point, and the boiling is then continued for about one hour. Then is added the chloride of sodium (common salt). This mixture is continued to be boiled until a chemical union is formed of the said alkaline solution, resin, and common salt. While in this heated state next combine with the mixture the two gallons of linseed or other equivalent vegetable oil, thoroughly in- WATER-PROOF SIZING S FOR PAPER. 451 corporating it therewith. Now add the silicate of soda slowly to the mixture, constantly stirring the same all the while, continue the boiling for about thirty minutes after all the ingredients are mixed together. It is then drawn off into suitable vessels for use. The practical application of this sizing for the purpose specified is as follows : Of this sizing compound take from one to three quarts, and dissolve it in about a pailful of boiling water, and add it to the pulp that will make about one hundred pounds of paper. To this compound and pulp, when thoroughly mixed in the beating-engine, add from three to four pounds of alum dissolved in water. The pulp thus treated and having attained the proper consistency is now run off into receivers, from which it is taken on to the machine when the paper is formed. Water-proofing Building or Sheathing Paper with a Compo- sition consisting of Resin, Parajfine, and Silicate of Soda. This composition for water-proofing paper consists of the following ingredients, combined in the proportions stated, viz : Resin, 50 per cent. ; paraffine, 45 per cent. ; silicate of soda, 5 per cent. These ingredients are thoroughly mingled by heating them together, and by agitation. In using the above-named composition it is placed in a suitable open tank, to which heat is applied in any conve- vient manner, so as to keep it hot while being used. The paper to which the composition is applied is mainly building or sheathing paper. The latter is taken in the condition in which it comes from the paper-machine, being 452 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. quite dry. A strip or strips of the paper, from a roll or other convenient holder, are conducted and drawn through the tank of hot composition, and upon emerging from the tank the paper passes between suitable rolls, which press any surplus composition from it, leaving it hard and smooth. The proportions of resin, paraffine, and silicate of soda previously named are employed generally for the purpose just described ; but in some cases, according to the solidity of the texture of the paper to which they are applied, the proportions of resin and of paraffine are varied from five to fifteen per cent, from those stated, but about five per cent, of silicate of soda being retained. Thus the proportions of resin and paraffine may vary, under such conditions, between fifty and sixty-five per cent, of the former, and between forty-five and thirty of the latter, making a composition consisting of said ingredients by which it is claimed the paper is rendered water-proof and durable when exposed to the weather, and by the combined effects of such ingre- dients the proper degree of water-proofing effect is produced and a surface-finish both smooth and hard is obtained. Method of Applying Paraffine to Paper and Strawboard. The following process is intended to facilitate methods of applying paraffine and similar substances to paper or strawboard, such, for instance, as paper cartons or boxes used for packing sensitive articles, as tea, coffee, or spices, and separating frames or mats used for packing pho- tographers' " dry-plates," the sensitive film upon which is WATER-PROOF SIZINGS FOR PAPER. 453 liable to injury by moisture or chemical substances which may be contained in the paper or board. The process constituting this invention, which is that of Mr. Warren B. How, of Chicago, 111., consists, essentially, in dipping the article to be treated in a bath of melted paraffine or other substance similar in its characteristics when the article is at a temperature lower than the melting- point of the paraffine, and promptly removing it from the bath, whereby the adhering paraffine is prevented from entering the body of the article to any considerable extent, and practically forms by congealment only a thin coating or film upon its surface, and then subjecting the article to heat above the melting-point of the paraffine until the former has been brought to substantially the same temperature throughout, and the superficial paraffine is thereby caused to sink into the paper or board. It has been proposed heretofore to treat articles of paper or strawboard with paraffine or similar substances by a pro- cess in which the article is first heated to a temperature higher than the melting-point of paraffine, and then im- mersed in such heated state in the bath of melted material. In this older process the article, being when dipped in the bath in condition to readily absorb the melted material, will become fully or substantially saturated, and will also, in addition to the substance absorbed, be covered by a dis- tinctly visible coating of surplus material, forming a con- siderable external body thereon. The subsequent heating of the article for the purpose of removing this surplus mate- rial has been found to leave the article with a greasy surface, 454 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. and not one of a dry, smooth texture and even color, such as may be obtained by the process herein described, and claimed as new. The inventor of the present method states that he has found by experiment that the quantity of paraf- fine deposited in the form of a coating upon the article by dipping it when at a temperature lower than the melting- point of the paraffine will be less than will serve to com- pletely saturate paper or board of the usual thickness used in making boxes or other articles intended for packing merchan- dise, so that when the article is afterwards heated for causing the absorption of the said coating a less quantity is present than will fully saturate the paper, and when absorbed will leave the article with a smooth, dry surface, and one which is not objectionably greasy to the touch or harmful to the contents of the package by reason of an excess of paraf- fine. The article will be quickly removed from the bath, because if allowed to remain a sufficient time therein to become heated through, the paraffine will soak into and fill the paper or board, with the same objectionable result which follows from previously heating the article, to wit, of apply- ing an excess of paraffine. That portion of the bath sub- stance which strikes and to a slight extent enters the paper in this brief dipping of the article is congealed by the lower temperature of the paper with which it comes in contact, and, the article being promptly removed from the bath, instead of being itself heated by the liquid, it cools the latter, and insures, as stated, that an adhering coat shall be practically confined to the external surface of the article. The appliances employed in the present process may WATER-PROOF SIZINGS FOR PAPER. 455 obviously be of the ordinary construction, any form of oven or hot-air chamber being all that is required for the heating which follows the dipping. It is to be understood, of course, that the paraffine coating may either be allowed to cool and become solidified after dipping and before the heating of the article, or that the article after being dipped may be imme- diately heated to cause the absorption of the coating, the final result being the same in either case. Treating Paper with Ozocerite. The following process consists in saturating paper with a natural bitumen or wax known as 44 ozocerite." The object is to supply meat and fish venders with a paper which will be water-proof, and which at the same time will not impart to the article inclosed within the paper dis- coloration or a disagreeable odor. Paper has heretofore been rendered water-proof by means of paraffine, which answers the purpose well ; but owing to its cost it has not come into general use. Paper has also been rendered water-proof by means of coal-tar and its pro- ducts ; but, owing to its offensive odor, it cannot be used to wrap provisions of any kind, and its use is necessarily con- fined to wrapping hardware or in wrapping articles to protect them from the ravages of insects. In carrying out the present process the inventor, Mr. Charles A. Maxfield, of New York, N. Y., utilizes any of the well-known machines in the manufacture of roofing- felt, in which a heating-tank is provided, and devices for removing a surplus of the saturating material. He then 456 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. places the ozocerite in the melting-tank and reduces it by heat to the desired consistency. The paper, which is in long strips or rolls, is then drawn through the melted or liquid ozocerite, and any surplus of the material removed therefrom. The paper may then be passed through a drying-chamber, so that it can be cut to the desired size and packed into reams and bundles ready for use. The prime object of this invention is to saturate the ordi- nary wrapping-paper used by butchers and meat and fish venders with a compound which will be odorless and color- less — that is, will not discolor the article — and at the same time render it water-proof and strong. COLORING. 457 CHAPTER XIV. COLORING. Coloring is a special branch of paper-making and requires much practical experience, as mistakes made in the coloring of paper are difficult and expensive to remedy. A line of receipts for coloring paper are, of course, useful ; but it must be remembered that the ingredients and directions which will result in producing the desired color with one engine of pulp may not be so successful in another case when the pulp may be supposed to be of exactly the same nature. It is, therefore, well to understand something of the theory of coloring, and of the nature of the different coloring ingredients commonly employed; such knowledge will enable a practical man to quietly confront any problem which he may in the course of his operations encounter, giving at the same time an astonishing accuracy to his calculations for the elementary composition, as well as the production of colors and shades, which he desires to imitate. Light is the source of all color, and it is the result of the vibrating motions of a very subtle substance, which the natural philosophers term ether. The ether receives vibrations from self-lighting bodies, such as the sun, and spreads them in the same manner as 458 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the air spreads sound, with this difference, that the oscillat- ing motions called light are brought forth many million times quicker than those of sound, because the ether is many million times finer than the air; consequently, the vibrations are more rapid and intensive. The light entering our eye excites the optic nerve, pro- ducing a sensation called vision, and thus light renders objects visible. Light itself is not a simple body, but is composed of various colors of which we distinguish seven by separate names. All the colors observed in the organic and inor- ganic world around us are derived by reflection from the different colors, of which the white light or sunlight is com- posed. When a ray of sunlight is admitted into a dark room, and there split by a prism, there is observed upon the screen placed opposite to the hole a series of bright colors, consisting of violet at the top, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. This phenomenon is termed a spectrum. Apparently there are seven colors ; really there are twelve ; but there are only three primitive colors, namely, red, yellow, and blue, from which all others are derived. If we look at- tentively at a spectrum, we soon realize the fact that violet, indigo, green, and orange are the products of amalgamation of either two of the three primitive colors, namely, violet and indigo from red and blue, green from blue and orange, orange from yellow and red. When speaking of primary colors, here- after, it must be borne in mind that we refer to the colors of the spectrum. There exists no primary color substance, that is to say, a color representing nothing but itself, in the true COLORING. 459 sense of the word. In fact, if we compare all known dye- stuffs, we find that they always contain, besides the principal ones, more or less of some other color. This is not of course by bodily mixture, but their intimate atomic construction is such as to reflect more or less of the others, too, which are the component parts of the white light. In composing our shades for paper there are, in fact, only three primary colors at our disposal, that is, red, yellow, and blue. The modi- fications which these three colors are capable of undergoing, and the limitless combinations into which they can enter with each other, enable us to reproduce any required color or shade. It should be borne in mind, however, that in all cases, the dye-stuffs which are used for producing the various combinations of colors must be of such a nature as to allow their combination, that is, of their perfect embodying one into the other, if mixed in solution ; so that, after the paper pulp is colored, no separate colors can be distinguished upon the finished material. If we take three very bright artificial dye-stuffs, red, yellow, and blue, products of coal tar, better known as aniline colors, whose chemical composition allows their perfect union by mixing their solutions with one another, we can produce the twelve colors which a close examination and dissection of a spectrum discloses are con- tained in it. These colors are red at the bottom, and follow- ing in successive order upwards, red-orange, orange, yellow- orange, yellow, yellow-green, green, blue-green, blue, blue- violet, violet, and red-violet. Nine of these are binary colors, so-called from being composed of two of the three primary colors. If, in the transition from one prismatic color to 460 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. another we were at each step to exchange only one hundred parts of the one for an equal quantity of the other, it is evident that infinitely more colors might be produced ; but these slight modifications would be hardly distinguishable. To our eye the whole color-scale would appear as an amalgam like the spectrum of a white light. But if it is considered that either of the two colors can be graduated, that is, pro- gressively changed from very dark, nearly dark, to light and very light, nearly white, it may readily be imagined that thousands of colors can be produced by this very simple means. The slightest alteration of white is at once per- ceptible ; while a considerable proportion of any other color can be added to black, before the modification becomes apparent to even the trained eye. All colors growing out of primary colors must be classed under that denomination, until they reach the compound of the primary with the nearly binary standard color. For instance, all colors originating in red are to be classed as reds, until the red-orange is reached, with this difference, however, that they are distinguished as first, second, third, etc., reds, according to the degree of modification the red has under- gone. Thus, if red is denominated as No. 15 on the side toward blue, it would signify that this red contains 15 per cent, of blue, as only with the addition of 25 per cent, blue the red becomes red-violet. The same nomenclature should be used for blues and yellows. From the above it is easy to see that a precise knowledge of this circle is sufficient to determine a color at once, thus enabling the paper colorer to reproduce it. The series of modifications of which any COLORING. 461 primary or binary color is susceptible, is collectively called the category of that color, and it should be understood that the category is not identical with the shade, though the erroneous application of this term is quite general and popu- lar. We know what a simple (or primary) color is, of which there are only three : red, yellow, blue ; we know also, that either two of these simple colors combined with one another form a binary (or secondary) color. But a shade is the result of the combinations of one binary color with one or two other binary colors, not belonging to the category of the former. Brown, for instance, is a shade. All the browns are oranges, shaded more or less with blue or violet. When a paper colorer is called upon to repro- duce a certain brown, the first thing he has to do is to ascer- tain what kind of orange is the base of it, whether red, pure, or yellow-orange. By contrasting various browns with one another, it is easy to determine whether the particular brown in question belongs to the reddish or yellowish category ; the category once defined there is no further difficulty in deciding upon the base of the coloring, whether reddish or yellowish-orange. This base is then to be composed, then to be shaded, and the mixture is ready for coloring the paper ; if the diagnosis of the orange is correct, and the shading carefully done, there should be no difficulty in producing the exact brown. From this it may be seen how indispens- able it is for the paper colorer to thoroughly understand his binary colors ; upon this knowledge depends, in fact, the whole art of producing the various shades ; the whole variety of binary colors being so many bases for all imagi- 462 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. nable shades. The shades, in their turn, are again susceptible of infinite modification, that is, of being rendered light by the addition of water, or darkened by the chemical action of various salts. This brings us to the subject of "mordants," which, in addition to being bodies possessing the power of fixing cer- tain dyes upon materials to be colored, are also certain bodies which possess the properties of changing the natural color characteristic to coloring matters, thus producing dif- ferent shades with one and the same substance. The acids, chlorine, resin, and the alkalies contained in the pulp may act as mordants, and the paper-colorer has consequently to take their effect into consideration. The mordants commonly employed in paper-coloring are alum, green vitriol, nitrate of lead, and sugar of lead. Sodi- um carbonate (soda) is used by the paper-colorer chiefly for neutralizing purposes and for dissolving coloring-matters. Alum is used as a mordant with nearly all the colors employed for coloring paper. For a description of the various alums see p. 435 et seq. There are two chromates of potash known, viz., the chro- mate and the bichromate. Bichromate or acid chromate of potash occurs in commerce in beautiful red crystals, very easily soluble in water, and is employed in the preparation of red, yellow, and green colors. Green vitriol {ferrous sulphate) is a combination of ferrous oxide with sulphuric acid. It is used as a mordant, espe- cially for black, gray, and violet, and also in the production of Berlin blue. COLORING. 463 Lead nitrate (nitrate of lead) is prepared by dissolving litharge in nitric acid. It forms white crystals of a nause- ously metallic taste, which are difficult to dissolve in cold water, but readily so in boiling water. Plumbic acetate (sugar of lead) is prepared by dissolving litharge in vinegar, and evaporating the resulting solution. Both nitrate of lead and sugar of lead are poisonous, and when even handled carelessly produce symptoms of colic. As a rule it may be stated that acid mordants should be employed for aniline colors. Yellow prussiate of potash, potassium ferrocyanide, is not used as a mordant for fixing other colors, but in combination with different salts of iron produces different shades of the well-known beautiful blue color, Prussian or Berlin blue. Potassium ferricyanide, red prussiate of potash, produces with ferrous salts a desira- ble blue color, Turnbull blue, which is similar to Prussian blue. We will mention some of the natural and artificial dye- stuffs which can be advantageously employed for producing the various colors and shades upon paper, and will enumerate them in their natural order, namely, red, yellow, blue, etc. It should be remembered, however, that there is quite a difference between the colored pulp in the beating-engine and the finished colored paper, and if a sample of paper is to be imitated in color it will be necessary to have them in the same condition as to moisture. The most expeditious way is to reduce a piece of the colored sample paper to pulp by macerating it in water. Some of the pulp can be taken from the trough of the engine and both the sample and the 464 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. pulp under treatment can be squeezed so as to reduce both to about the same state of moisture. It can then be readily determined whether it will be necessary to add additional coloring matter to the pulp in the engine. If the pulp is too highly colored it will be difficult to remedy the mistake, and it is best to be on the safe side by not employing too much coloring matter at first. It will be noticed in the following receipts that the pro- portion of size to be used with certain colors is not specified, and that it is often suggested to first mordant the pulp and color it afterwards. This is the rational way, but for low and medium grades of paper it will usually be found more expeditious to add the mordant to the coloring mixture. Such points are matters for practical consideration; the object of the present chapter is to suggest combinations of materials which can be used to produce various colors and shades, the proportions of tlie ingredients to be used and the manner of applying them must be determined by experience as the same directions would not apply to any two mills. A great many of the coloring matters which we shall now enumerate are not now used in practice, the object being to suggest those capable of employment. Red Shades on Paper. — The natural dye-stuffs capable of producing red colors and shades on paper are cochineal, and the numerous red woods usually comprised under the name of Brazil wood, kermes grains, etc. Cochineal and kirmes grains are derived from the same species of insect, as is also the so-called lac-dye, the coloring matter in all of them being identical. The ordinary Brazil wood is COLORING. 465 derived from Ccesalpinia brasilienisis, a native of Brazil. Other varieties of red wood are Jamaica wood, Nicaragua wood, Pernambuco wood, Santa Martha wood, and Sapan wood, the latter yielding a somewhat lighter coloring mate- rial than that derived from the other red woods which we have named. The extracts of these woods, or rather the coloring matter, the so-called Braziline, may be employed for amaranth, crimson, purple rose, and similar shades, but it should be remembered that the red colors produced from these Avoods alone are not at all fast. The coloring matter is extracted by boiling the woods, and the extract so obtained is soluble in water. Red upon paper may also be produced by ammoniacal solution of carmine, or of cochineal, or of cochineal heightened by a solution of tin, or by means of a decoction of Brazil wood and alum in malt liquor. Lobster red, rose red, scarlet, crimson, and Morocco red, may be produced upon paper by employing cochineal extracted by diluted ammonia ; or carmine, lac-dye, drop lake, and aqua- fortis can be used in case the cochineal does not answer. Paper when first colored with decoctions of Brazil wood, freshly prepared, has a perceptible touch of orange, but on exposing the colored paper to the action of the air the orange shade disappears leaving only red ; it is possible to impart a bluish tone to paper colored with Brazil wood by the use of alkalies. Cochineal red of a magnificent shade may be applied to paper, the color being best prepared by tying the cochineal in small linen bags and then boiling in water con- taining about two per cent, of spirit of sal-ammoniac, or liquid ammonia can be used in lieu of sal-ammoniac. Scarlet may 30 466 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. be produced by applying an extract of carthamus. The extract of carthamus is dissolved in a solution of one part of tartaric acid in sixty parts of water. Red sanders wood and barwood cannot be extracted, or, rather, they are difficult to extract with boiling water, but with alcohol and sulphuric ether their coloring matter is readily obtained, and it possesses the advantage of being much faster than any of the red-wood decoctions which we have heretofore named, and is especially valuable when such shades as rose are desired. Hypernic can be employed in preparing red dye-stuffs for coloring paper, it is not, as is commonly supposed, a species of any particular variety of wood, but is composed of a mix- ture of chips of numerous varieties of red wood ; but it is employed the same as any of the single species for coloring red, and can also be employed for mixed colors. Extracts of the various woods which we have mentioned are regular articles of commerce, and can be employed in lieu of the various woods. A few years since it was a com- plaint among persons whose business compelled them to use dye-stuffs that they could not always depend on the extracts of dye-woods ; there may have been just grounds for their objection at that time, but since the introduction of improved processes and machinery it is now possible to pro- cure highly satisfactory extracts of dye-woods. In order to produce a strong dye liquor from extract of Brazil wood, place two and a half pounds of extract in ten gallons of clear w T ater, and boil it for ten minutes, a copper kettle being used if the boiling is conducted over an open COLORING. 467 fire ; but if boiled by steam a wooden tub or barrel should be used. When the boiling has proceeded for the length of time specified, add in small quantities, and always under vigorous stirring, one-half ounce of potash and one-half ounce of soda ; the boiling should then be continued for about four or five minutes longer, after which the dye liquor so prepared should be drawn off into a separate barrel, and properly covered for use. The liquor can afterwards be diluted to any desired degree with water. Venetian red (ferric oxide), when thoroughly washed, is used for delicate brown colors, and is employed in its mer- chantable form for wrapping and other low grades of paper. Aniline red colors of various kinds come into commerce under the names azaleine, fuchsine, magenta, mauve, roseine, rubine, solferino, tyraline, etc. ; but although they may differ very greatly in the manner of their manufacture, they are all produced from the salts of a base termed " rosaniline," and they find their way into trade in the form of greenish, granular crystals having a metallic lustre, but often the pro- duct has the form of a red powder. The acetate of rosani- line, which is commonly known in the United States and in England under the name of fuchsine, is readily recognized, as it forms crystals which are especially beautiful ; but in Germany the acetate is known under the name of roseine, and the hypochlorate of rosaniline is known as fuchsine. It is necessary to exercise considerable precaution in buying crystallized fuchsine, as it is not uncommon to find it con- siderably adulterated, sugar crystals being especially used for this purpose, and all aniline colors in the form of 468 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. powders, are also liable to be greatly adulterated. When unadulterated, fuchsine may be dissolved quite easily in hot water, and very easily in acetic acid, alcohol, wood- spirit, or even in a solution of tartaric acid, but it is only sparingly soluble in water of an ordinary temperature. The solution which pure fuchsine yields is of a beautiful purple- red color, and the additions of alkalies or strong acids dis- color them ; but when the red color of the solution is dis- colored by the addition of an alkali, it may be restored by adding an acid, and when discolored by strong acid the color may be restored by adding water. Azaleine, known chemically as the nitrate of rosaniline, is not often brought into commerce, and it may be readily dis- tinguished from the various other aniline reds by means of the cherry-red color of its solution. Diamond magenta, or fuchsine, comes into commerce in the form of large crystals having a greenish lustre, and it possesses about the same properties as fuchsine, but an addi- tional advantage is that it is non-poisonous. Kosaniline colors are not fast, but with the exception of this class the other aniline products have probably found a permanent employment for coloring paper, their brilliancy and freshness especially recommending them. Another series of colors are derived from the creasote in coal tar, and these are known chemically as phenol colors, and one of the most important of this class is phenol red, or corralline, which is a magnificent red coloring matter, and comes into commerce in the form of a red powder which is with diffi- COLORING. 469 culty soluble in water, but is readily dissolved in alcohol, and yields a scarlet solution. Coralline is also soluble in alkalies, but the solutions thus obtained change very readily, but it is not changed by acids. A beautiful color is imparted to pulp previously mordanted with alum by means of coralline. In order to prepare the color it is first dissolved in alcohol, after which some caustic soda is added, and the alkaline solution thus prepared is mixed with water, which should be sufficiently acidulated with acid in order to fully neutralize the soda. A great objection to the employment of coralline is that the color produced with it will not stand exposure to light. Aniline red occurs but seldom in commerce in the form of a paste or in solution. Yellow shades on paper can be produced with various vegetable, mineral, and aniline coloring matters. Barberry-yellow may be produced by treating the pulp with a liquor produced by boiling two pounds of barberry root and six ounces of alum in every seven gallons of water. It has been stated that the fruit of the barberry might be employed, but this, however, is not the case, the color being derived from the root and the bark of the shrub. A decoction of the ground bark and root can be employed for the pur- pose of producing a lustrous lemon color when the paper- pulp has been previously mordanted with alum, an addi- tional mordant or striker of tin salt being also employed in the production of the latter color. Quercitron-yellow can be produced in any desired shade by the use of a decoction of quercitron bark. 470 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Rust-yellow can be produced with a liquor made by boiling two pounds of annotto, and four ounces of potash in every nine gallons of water. There are various grades of annotto, such as the French, East and West Indian, Brazilian, etc., but the first named is most valuable and comes into com- merce neatly and securely put up in tin cans, and this grade of annotto is distinguished by its bright red color and its peculiar odor, which somewhat resembles carrots. In addition to the substances which have been named, fustic, alder bark, bablah or babool, sumac, saw-wort, tumeric, dyer's broom, and the American golden rod, can be used for producing various shades of yellow grays, and orange red on pulps previously mordanted with alum. Canary-yellow can be produced with weld. Lemon yellow can be produced by digesting one part of tumeric in four parts of ordinary spirit of wine. Mineral Pigments. — Chrome yellow can be produced by first adding to the pulp a solution of two ounces of bichro- mate of potash or bichromate of soda in one quart of water, and afterwards adding a solution of one ounce of sugar of lead in one quart of water. The basic acetate of lead may be used in lieu of acetate of lead, and is prepared by boiling a solution of plumbic acetate with an excess of litharge, and comes into commerce in solution under the name of vinegar of lead. The poisonous properties of these salts should not be forgotten. Orange mineral may be used to intensify the chrome yellow, or orange. Yellow ochre should also be mentioned among the mineral pigments employed for color- ing paper. COLORING. 471 Aniline-yellow, ordinary, is now coming into use as a sub- stitute for chrome yellow, and like most aniline colors it is more soluble in hot than in cold water. Chrysaniline is a yellow powder which is not in the slightest degree soluble in water, but when dissolved in alcohol, it gives a beautiful yellow color. Aurin is the commercial name usually applied to the hydrochlorate of chrysaniline, which is somewhat soluble in water and produces beautiful golden-yellow colors, and is readily recognized by its red-yellow needles. Zinaline comes into commerce in the form of a cinnabar- colored powder ; it is not soluble in water, but warm solu- tions of borax, sodium phosphate, or sodium acetate dissolve it. Zinaline is also soluble in alcohol and wood spirit, but water precipitates it from these solutions. The shades which it yields are a reddish-yellow. Blue Shades on Paper. — The number of blue coloring matters applicable to paper coloring is not large. A dura- ble blue on paper is obtained by the use of mineral pigments, which produce a color offering greater resistance to air and moisture than that obtained by employing aniline colors. Prussian blue, or Berlin blue, is produced by the employ- ment of yellow prussiate of potash, which, on coming into contact with iron salts, produces a blue color. Prussian blue may also be obtained by somewhat varying the method of coloring, by employing a solution of ferric salts and ammo- nium oxalate, which is used to saturate the pulp, which is next treated with yellow prussiate of potash, and finally adding to the pulp a weak acid solution. When produced 472 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. by cither of the above methods Berlin or Prussian blue forms a fast color, which is destroyed only by alkalies, and is not affected by acids. Pulps which have been sized with vegetable (resin) size would injure these blues because of the alkaline nature of the resin soap, provided the coloring ingredients were added to the pulp before the alum solution was run into the engine trough, hence care should be taken not to commence the coloring until the sizing is complete. Any surplus of alum will be beneficial as it will act as a mordant and intensify the blue color. This blue color can also be prepared through the action of yellow prussiate of potash upon sulphate of iron, green vitriol, but in this case a slow oxidizing process is sometimes employed in the preparation of the coloring liquor. The oxidation, however, may be accelerated by using a solution of about one pound of bleaching powder to each two pounds of the green vitriol. Nitric acid is now much employed for hastening the oxidation, because of the bright shade of blue which it produces. But after using either of these oxidizing agents the blue precipitate should be washed with clean water several times. In commerce, yellow prussiate of potash is recognized in the form of yellow crystalline masses, the surface of which by exposure to the air loses water and is converted into a greenish-white powder. In water previously heated the salt is readily soluble, and is distinguished by its bitter taste and neutral reaction, and is poisonous. The so-called Turnbull blue, may be produced with red COLORING. 473 prussiate of potash, which acts upon ferrous salts in the same manner as yellow prussiate of potash acts on ferric salts. Like the latter, red prussiate of potash is soluble in water, and it is poisonous. Yellow prussiate of potash is, however, prefer- able for producing blue colors as it is cheaper. Berlin or Prussian blue can be prepared by dissolving twenty-five pounds of yellow prussiate of potash and thirty pounds of sulphate of iron in hot water, in separate vessels, and pouring the two solutions into an empty barrel or other receptacle and thoroughly agitating the contents of the barrel and then filling it with water. Nitric acid or a solution of bleaching powder is then added, and the contents of the barrel are allowed to settle, and after several hours the super- natant clear liquor is decanted. The blue sediment in the bottom of the barrel is again agitated while fresh water is added, and the contents of the barrel are again allowed to settle. After being thus two or three times thoroughly washed the blue sediment is taken from the barrel and placed in another receptacle, which is afterwards filled with water and covered to protect from dirt. The blue liquid must be always thoroughly stirred before furnishing the engine in order to produce the same results with each engine of pulp. The coloring can be accomplished in the beating engine by adding directly to the pulp ninety-five parts of sulphate of iron and one hundred parts of yellow prussiate of potash. Berlin or Prussian blue is usually employed for low and medium grades of paper, such as news, etc., and the blue is not injured even if the bleaching solutions are not thoroughly 474 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. washed out of the pulps. The greenish tint sometimes objec- tionable in papers colored with Berlin or Prussian blue can be neutralized by the addition of a small proportion of red color. Ultramarine is employed for coloring the finer grades of paper. But this coloring material should not be added to the pulp until some time after the resin size and alum have both been added to the pulp in the beating engine. This method prevents the alum from affecting the color of the ultramarine blue. Cobalt blue, and a mixture of sulphate of copper and red extract, are sometimes used for imparting a blue color to paper pulp. Sky blue can be obtained by heavily mordanting the pulp with yellow prussiate of potash and afterwards applying a solution of acetate of iron. The mordant is prepared by dissolving eight pounds of yellow prussiate of potash in twenty-four gallons of water, the pulp being thoroughly per- meated therewith ; the solution of acetate of iron, which should be afterward added to the pulp, should contain four or five ounces of the salt to each gallon of water. Formerly aniline blues required the use of alcohol or wood spirit to dissolve them. At the present time, however, paper makers use only these aniline blues, which are soluble in water. The Lieu de lumiere, which shows a pure color by candle light, and bleu de Pavme, which is a darker blue, having a violet tinge, and showing a different color by candle light, are two principal shades of ordinary aniline blue. Bleu de Lyon dissolves only with difficulty in water, but COLORING. 475 very readily in alcohol, and the hlue color which it imparts to paper is very beautiful. In commerce this blue is readily recognized by its lustrous masses of copper-red color. Bleu de Paris (soluble aniline blue) is a powder having a blue-black color, with a slight copper lustre, and is soluble in water. It may be precipitated from its aqueous solution with acids or common salt. On account of its easy solubility in water, this blue may be especially recommended for color- ing some classes of paper. Phenol blue or azuline, is one of the direct products of creasote in coal tar. This blue coloring matter, with a shade resembling ultramarine, is a coarse-grained powder, having a slightly copper lustre ; it is soluble in alcohol, but insoluble in water. Phenol blue may be dissolved in alcohol, and after diluting with water containing tartaric acid be employed for coloring paper. Blue rags are still in some mills separately sorted out and employed where a very deep blue colored paper is required, and in such cases the rags are neither boiled nor bleached. Blueing Paper. — The bleaching operation invariably leaves the paper pulp with a yellowish tinge more or less deep according to the nature of the material from which the pulp has been made, the care exercised, and the method of bleaching employed. This yellowish tinge is unpleasant when the finished paper is exposed to the light, and it is necessary to neutralize it. If blue alone were added the paper would present a greenish tint, consequently a little red color is necessary in order to impart to it a pleasant white appearance. Magenta and aniline blue are usually employed 476 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. for low and medium grades of paper ; and carmine and ultra- marine for the finer grades. Mi\ James Hogben, of Cleveland, O., patented in 1869 the following process for the combination of aniline or other suitable red pigment with sulphate of iron, prussiate of potassa, and sulphuric acid, for the purpose of giving the desired tint or color to paper in the process of its manu- facture. The compound consists of the following ingredients and proportions, viz., sulphate of iron, sixteen pounds; prussiate of potassa, eight pounds ; sulphuric acid, eight pounds ; red aniline, two ounces ; making altogether thirty-two pounds and two ounces. Pulverize the sulphate of iron (green is preferred) and the prussiate of potash, and add the sulphuric acid. Mix it in a glass or stone vessel, then let it remain until it is digested or assumes a pasty condition. Dissolve the aniline in sulphuric acid (one ounce) or suffi- cient to liquefy the same. Add this to the compound of sulphate of iron, prussiate of potassa, and sulphuric acid. Then mix the entire mass thoroughly, dry, and grind the same to a powder. Previous to drying and grinding, in order to guard against any free acid that may remain in the compound, add one gallon of clear solution of caustic lime. An insoluble sulphate of lime will be formed, if any free acid remains, which sulphate of lime will not injure the paper. The compound or preparation, without the aniline, may be used first with the pulp, and the aniline or red pigment COLORING. 477 subsequently added, while the pulp is in the engine or beaters, but allowing sufficient time for the preparation to be dissolved so completely as to leave no specks or spots upon the paper. Green Shades on Paper. — Dark green can be produced with a decoction consisting of eight parts of quercitron, two parts of logwood, one part of alum, and one part of green vitriol. Sap-green may be produced by digesting two parts of buckthorn sap in eight parts of spirit of wine; this decoction should be applied to pulp previously slightly mordanted with alum. Olive green can be produced with a decoction of four parts of quercitron bark, two parts of Hungarian fustic, and a small quantity of dog-wood berries ; the pulp to which this mixture is to be added should first be strongly mor- danted with alum. Olive green may also be produced with a liquor prepared by boiling one part of the quercitron bark by measure, with two parts of water to which there is added a solution of green vitriol. Olive green, light, can be pro- duced upon paper by first treating the pulp so as to obtain a Berlin or Prussian blue, and then adding a liquor pro- duced by boiling five pounds of fustic and one and one- quarter pounds of archil in ten gallons of water. Picric green can be produced by first treating the pulp with a moderately strong solution of Berlin or Prussian blue, and afterwards adding a solution of picric acid in water. Greens of various shades can be obtained by varying the 478 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. proportions of a mixture of Prussian blue and chromate of lead. Aniline green colors are now coming into general use for coloring certain grades of paper. Brilliant green, new Vic- toria green, and Russia green can be used for coloring paper. All of these colors should be applied to pulps previously mordanted with alum. The various other aniline greens, such as Hoffman's night green, Lowe & Clift's emeraldine, as well as Fritsche's erne- raldine, cannot be utilized for coloring paper. Brown Shades on Paper. — Dark brown can be produced with a decoction prepared by boiling one-half part of quer- citron, one part of logwood, one part of sandal wood, two parts of Brazil wood, and eight parts by weight of Hungarian fustic in a sufficient quantity of water to cover the ingredients to the depth of about two inches. The boiling should be continued for about one hour, after which the liquor is strained through linen, and then allowed to cool. By boiling a second time the ingredients above named the resulting product can be used for a similar color. Before applying this decoction to the pulp it should be previously mordanted with a solution of green vitriol. Light brown can be produced by using the mixture pre- pared for dark brown. But instead of mordanting the pulp with green vitriol a weak mordant in the form of a bichro- mate of potash solution should be used. Catechu brown can be produced with a decoction com- posed of two and one-fourth pounds of catechu and four ounces of green vitriol in twenty gallons of water. The pulp COLORING. 479 to which this decoction is applied should first be slightly mordanted with alum. Olive brown can be produced by boiling one-half part of logwood, two parts quercitron and four parts of Hungarian fustic, all by weight, in sufficient water to cover the ingre- dients about two inches deep. After boiling for one hour the liquid is strained through linen, and when cold is applied to the pulp which should first be strongly mordanted with a solution of potash. After the coloring liquor is applied the pulp should be treated with a solution of green vitriol. Coffee-brown is produced by mordanting the pulp with a solution of one pound and two ounces of acetate of copper in seven gallons of water, and then immediately treating it with a solution of yellow prussiate of potash in slightly acid- ulated water. Light leather brown can be produced by employing three pints of logwood liquor, five pints of Brazil wood dye liquor and six gallons of fustic dye liquor. After this mixture is applied to the pulp it should be treated with a solution of one pound of alum in thirteen gallons of water. Mifonce brown is produced by employing one gallon of logwood dye liquor, one gallon of fustic dye liquor, and one and one-half gallons of Brazil wood dye liquor. After this mixture is applied to the pulp it should be treated with a mixture of one pound of sulphate of copper in ten gallons of water to which should be added a solution of one-fourth pound of sulphate of iron in ten gallons of water. The two 480 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. solutions should be thoroughly stirred before the resulting mixture is added to the pulp. Aniline brown. Bismarck brown comes into commerce in the form of a tarry, black brown mass which is soluble in spirit of wine and insoluble in water ; but the spirituous solution after being mixed with water can be directly used for producing a dye liquor for imparting a brown color to paper. Coloring m itters of a character similar to that of Bismarck brown, and also known as aniline brown, not infrequently consist of only by-products obtained by over- heating the composition in the preparation of fuchsine. Havana brown is soluble in alcohol, acetic acid, and also in water, and is purified by precipitation from its solution from common salt. Phenol brown is one of the direct products of the creasote in coal tar. In commerce it is found as a delicate brown powder which is readily soluble in alcohol, acetic acid, and alkalies, especially with an addition of some tartaric acid ; but in water this coloring matter is only partially soluble. If such an oxidizing agent as potassium chromate be added to the solution of coloring matter it is possible to obtain a variety of shades ranging from dark wood brown to light leather brown. Phenol brown gives an agreeable brown color, and is readily absorbed by the fibre. Violet Shades on Paper. — Violet may be produced by first coloring the pulp a pale blue with Berlin or Prussian blue, or with ultramarine, and then treating it with a solu- tion of carmine. Violet can also be produced by digesting two parts of dry shavings of logwood in sixteen parts of spirit COLORING. 481 of wine, and after adding a little alcohol, the mixture should be applied to the pulp, which should first be slightly mor- danted with alum. Violet can also be prepared with an extract of Campeachy wood and alum. Aniline Violets. — Dahlia is a beautiful coloring matter of rare purity of color, and in hot water it is readily soluble. Dahlia (dahlia imperial) is probably a by-product obtained in the manufacture of aniline red, and it assumes a brownish- red color when treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, thus differing from the ordinary aniline violet, as the latter color is colored blue when treated with concentrated sul- phuric acid. Hoffman's violet comes into commerce in two varieties, one of which is a reddish violet and the other a blue violet ; they both occur in bronze-colored grins or crystals, and are readily soluble in alcohol, wood spirit, etc., but only moderately soluble in water. This dye-stuff is pre-eminent for its beauty and purity. Perkins's violet commonly occurs in commerce as a green crystalline powder, having a metallic lustre, that is, when in a pure state ; but it sometimes comes as a dark violet paste, and is readily soluble in hot water, and also, in the presence of an acid, in alcohol, wood spirit, glycerine, acetic acid, etc., but is only moderately soluble in cold water. This coloring matter is precipitated by alkalies and alkaline salts from its solution, but from spirituous solutions it is precipitated by water. 31 482 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Parisian violet is not soluble in water, but by adding an acid it readily dissolves. Rosaniline violet dissolves readily in alcohol and acetic acid, but it is with difficulty soluble in water. This coloring matter comes into commerce in the form of a brownish-blue powder having a weak lustre. In addition to the aniline colors and the phenol colors there is another series belonging to this class which are the so-called naphthaline colors, and they are produced from naphthaline, which is a constituent of coal tar, and is a white crystalline body belonging to the hydrocarbons. Naphthaline violet is one of this class of colors, but it has not as yet been so generally introduced as the regular aniline colors. Gray Shades on Paper. — Dark gray can be produced by employing a decoction of two ounces of concentrated extract of logwood, four ounces of Indian fustic, three pounds of tan liquor, three pounds of alum, and one pound of green vitriol. Iron gray can be produced by employing a decoction of one ounce of logwood extract, two and one-half pounds of tan liquor, and nine pounds of solution of green vitriol. Dark gray can also be obtained by neutralizing the grease contained in lampblack by treating it with a warm dilute solution of soda or potash. The lampblack is then washed until all traces of the alkali have been removed, and the material is then run into the beating engine. The gray color can be deepened or lightened by increasing or decreas- ing the proportion of the lampblack employed. Gray can also be obtained by employing a mixture of one part of COLORING. 483 gallotannic acid, two parts of green vitriol, and ten parts of water. The material should be filtered through a linen rag, and the liquor freed from the insoluble particles run into the beating engine. Aniline gray, sometimes called murine, is one of the important aniline colors, and in many respects it approaches aniline violet ; it is soluble in boiling water, and yields a pretty gray. By the action of aldehyde upon aniline violet in the presence of sulphuric acid, there is produced another gray ; but this, on account of its high price, has not as yet been generally adopted for coloring paper. Black. — The pulp is seldom colored black ; the color, however, can be produced either by the employment of lampblack, cleansed as has been described, or the color can be obtained by the employment of a concentrated decoction of logwood and acetate of iron, the latter usually being of 2° Baume, the pulp being previously mordanted with alum. Aniline black does not occur in commerce as an actual coloring matter, but by the action of oxidizing agents upon the paper pulp, treated with an aniline salt (best aniline acetate), the black color can be produced directly upon the material to be treated. The color which results from this treatment is, in fact, a very dark aniline green, and on account of the insolubility of the products of oxidation formed upon the fibre itself, the color so produced is very fast, and the action of the most energetic acids and bases affect it less than any other black color. Various receipts have been given for preparing this color, but the nature of the fibre used for paper does not allow the employment of 484 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. every oxidizing agent; ammonium ferrocyanide is probably the best oxident that can be used. Deep, indelible black, such as is used in coloring paper to be employed in lieu of leather for the manufacture of cheap pocketbooks, etc., can be prepared as follows: — Blue aniline . . . . . . . . .94 parts. Yellow aniline 2G " Naphthaline 48 " Red aniline 32 " Aleohol ........ 74.00 " The whole is dissolved in a suitable vessel by agitation, and the liquid afterwards filtered. Bronze Shades on Paper. — To prepare an aniline bronze according to Fiorillo's formula, proceed as follows : Dissolve ten parts of aniline red, five parts of aniline purple, in one hundred parts of alcohol. Aniline red, as we have previously stated, is also sometimes called diamond fuchsine or roseine, and aniline purple is also known in commerce as Hoffman's violet and also as methyl violet. The strength of the alcohol employed measures about 95°, and, in order to promote the dissolution of the ingredients, the vessel containing the mixture is placed in either hot water or a sand bath. When the anilines above named have been dissolved by the alcohol, there should then be added five parts of benzoic acid, and the mixture is then allowed to boil gently, after which there is added 32 parts of gum benzoine, which will impart a cantharide green color to the mixture, but by continuing the boiling for about eight or ten minutes, the color will become changed into a bright golden-bronze hue. A brilliant bronze may be prepared as follows : Take of aniline blue, violet, or purple, one ounce ; aniline red, three COLORING. 485 ounces ; acetic acid, one pint. The above mixture is slightly heated in order to promote the solution of the aniline, and the mixture is then allowed to cool. One pound of gelatine is next dissolved in a separate vessel in two quarts of acetic acid, and the mixture thus prepared is added to the one first described, and the whole is thoroughly incorporated by vigorous stirring. Surface Coloring. — The bronze colors as well as some of the other colors and shades which we have mentioned are oftentimes applied only to the surface of the paper, and in such cases the apparatus shown in Figures 132 and 133 can be used for the purpose. Vegetable Substances not always Desirable for Coloring Paper. — Vegetable substances should be cautiously used in paper-making for coloring the pulp, and, as a rule, they should not be employed except under circumstances where the coloring matters derived from mineral substances and from the anilines would not give pure shades. Vegetable colors are often so unstable that they are readily decomposed under the action of air and light, and vegetable substances should not be employed under any circumstances when the paper colored therewith is to be used for covering books, pamphlets, etc. Stains used for Coloring Paper after it is Manufactured in order to prepare it for use in the Fabrication of Artificial Flowers, etc. Sap-colors are only used and principally those containing much coloring matter. The following colors are calculated for one ream of paper of medium size and weight : — 486 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The gum-Arabic given in the receipts is dissolved in the sap-liquor. Blue {Dark). — I. Mix 1 gallon of tincture of Berlin blue and 2 ounces each of wax-soap and gum tragacanth. II. Mix f gallons of tincture of Berlin blue with 2 ounces of wax-soap and 4 J ounces of gum tragacanth. Crimson. — Mix 1 gallon of liquor of Brazil wood com- pounded with borax, 2 ounces of wax-soap, and 8f ounces of gum-Arabic. Green {Dark). — I. Take \ gallon of liquor of sap-green (boiled down juice of the berries of Rliamniis cat hardens), 4^ ounces of indigo rubbed fine, 1 ounce of wax-soap, and 4| ounces of gum-Arabic. II. One-half gallon of liquor of sap-green, 4-j; ounces of distilled verdigris, 1 ounce of wax-soap, and 4| ounces of gum-Arabic. Yelloto {Golden). — Mix 6^ pounds of gamboge with 2 ounces of wax-soap. Yellow {Lemon). — I. Compound 1 gallon of juice of Persian berries with 2 ounces of wax-soap and 8f ounces of gum-Arabic. II. Add to 1 gallon of liquor of quercitron compounded with solution of tin 2 ounces of wax-soap and 8f ounces of gum-Arabic. Yellow {Pale). — Mix 1 gallon of liquor of fustic, 2 ounces of wax-soap, and 8f ounces of gum-Arabic. Yelloto {Green). — I. Compound 1 gallon of liquor sap- green with 2 ounces each of distilled verdigris and wax-soap and 8^ ounces of gum-Arabic. COLORING. 487 II. Take 1 gallon of liquor of sap-green, 2 ounces each of dissolved indigo and wax-soap, and 8| ounces of gum- Arabic. Red (Dark). — Compound 1 gallon of liquor of Brazil wood with 2 ounces of wax-soap and 8f ounces of gum- Arabic. Rose Color. — Mix 1 gallon of liquor of cochineal with 2 ounces of wax-soap and 8f ounces of gum- Arabic. Scarlet. — I. Mix 1 gallon of liquor of Brazil wood com- pounded with alum, and a solution of copper with 2 ounces of wax-soap and 8f ounces of gum-xlrabic. II. Mix 1 gallon of liquor of cochineal compounded with citrate of tin with "2 ounces of wax-soap and 8f ounces of gum-Arabic. Stains for Glazed Papers. On account of the cheapness of these papers a solution of glue is used as an agglutinant. The following proportions are generally used for one ream of paper of medium size and weight: One pound of glue and l-j; gallons of water. Black. — I. Dissolve one pound of glue in 1^ gallons of water ; triturate with this 1 pound of lampblack previously rubbed up in rye whiskey, 2| pounds of Frankfort black, 2 ounces of Paris blue, 1 ounce of wax-soap, and add 1| pounds of liquor of logwood. II. Take | gallon of liquor of logwood compounded with sulphate of iron, 1 ounce of wax-soap, and 4^ ounces of gum- Arabic. Blue {Azure). — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in 1^ gallons of 488 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. water, and compound the solution with 1^ pounds of Berlin blue, 2f pounds of pulverized chalk, 2\ ounces of light mineral blue, and 2 ounces of wax-soap. Blue (Dark). — I. Dissolve 1 pound of glue in 1^ gallons of water, and mix with it 4| pounds of pulverized chalk, 4^ ounces of Paris blue, and 2 ounces of wax-soap. II. Mix \ gallon of tincture of Berlin blue and 1 ounce of wax-soap with 2^ ounces of dissolved gum tragacanth. Blue (Pale). — I. Mix | gallon of tincture of Berlin blue and 1 ounce of wax-soap with 3J ounces of dissolved gum tragacanth. II. Dissolve 1 pound of glue in 1^ gallons of water, and mix with it 4 pounds of pulverized chalk and 2 ounces each of Parisian blue and wax-soap. Brown (Dark). — I. Dissolve 1 pound of glue in 1^ gallons of water, and mix with it 1 pound of colcothar, a like quan- tity of English pink, 1| pounds of pulverized chalk, and 2 ounces of wax-soap. II. Dissolve 1 ounce of wax-soap and 4| ounces of gum- Arabic in \ gallon of good liquor of Brazil wood and a like quantity of tincture of gall-nuts. Green (Copper). — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in lj gallons of water, and triturate with it 4 pounds of English green, \\ pounds of pulverized chalk, and 4 ounces of wax- soap. Green (Pah). — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in 1^ gallons of water, and mix with it 1 pound of Bremen Blue, 8^ ounces of whiting, 1 ounce of light chrome-yellow, and 2 ounces of wax-soap. Lemon Color. — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in \\ gallons of COLORING. 489 water, and mix with it 13 ounces of light chrome-yellow, 2 pounds of pulverized chalk, and 2 ounces of wax-soap. Orange-yellow. — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in 1^ gallons of water, and mix with it 2 pounds of light chrome-yellow, 1 pound of Turkish minium, 2 pounds of white lead, and 2 ounces of wax-soap. Bed {Cherry). — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in gallons of water, and mix with it 8J pounds of Turkish minium pre- viously rubbed up with \ gallon of liquor of Brazil wood, and 2 ounces of wax-soap. Red {Dark). — Mix J gallons of liquor of Brazil wood with 1 ounce of wax-soap and 4| ounces of gum-Arabic. Red {Pale). — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in 1^ gallons of water, and mix with it pounds of Turkish minium pre- viously rubbed up with 2 ounces of wax-soap. Rose Color. — Dissolve 1 pound of glue in 1J gallons of liquor of Brazil wood and mix with it 50 pounds of rose madder , previously rubbed up with 2 ounces of wax-soap. Violet.— Mix 4| ounces of gum-Arabic and 1 ounce of wax-soap with \ gallon of good liquor of logwood. After the gum has dissolved in the liquor compound it with suffi- cient potash to form a mordant. Stains for Morocco Papers. The following colors are calculated for one ream of paper of medium size and weight. Black. — Dissolve 8f ounces of good parchment shavings in \\ gallons of water and stir in 1 pound of lampblack, 30 pounds of Frankfort black, and If ounces of fine Paris blue. 490 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Blue {Dark). — Dissolve 8f ounces of good parchment shavings in 1| gallons of water, and mix with the solution 8{ pounds of white lead and 4| ounces of fine Paris blue. Blue {Light). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings in 1| gallons of water, and mix with it 8f pounds of white lead and 2j ounces of fine Paris blue. Green {Dark). — Dissolve 13 ounces of parchment shav- ings in 2\ gallons of water, and mix with 10 pounds of Schweinfurth green. Green (Pale). — Dissolve 13 ounces of parchment shavings in 2\ gallons of water, and mix with 8f pounds of Schwein- furth green and 1 pound of fine Paris blue. Orange-yellow. — Dissolve 8^ ounces of parchment shav- ings in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 1| pounds of light chrome yellow, 8| ounces of orange chrome-yellow, and 1 pound of white lead. Red (Dark). — Dissolve 8§ ounces of parchment shavings in 1| gallons of water, and compound this with 7§ pounds of fine cinnabar and 1 pound of Turkish minium. Red (Pale). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings in 1| gallons of water, and mix it with 8f pounds of Turkish minium. Violet (Dark). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings in 1^ gallons of water, and mix with 3^ pounds of white lead, 1 pound of pale mineral blue, and 8| ounces of scarlet lake. Violet (Light). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shav- ings in 1^ gallons of water, and mix with 4j pounds of COLORING. 491 white lead, 13 ounces of light mineral blue, and 8f ounces of scarlet lake. Yellow {Pale). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shav- ings in \\ gallons of water, and mix with 2 pounds of light chrome-yellow and 8f ounces of white lead. Stains for Satin Papers. The following colors are calculated for one ream of paper of medium size and weight. Blue {Azure). — Dissolve 13 ounces of parchment shavings in 2\ gallons of water, and mix with 3 pounds of Bremen blue, If pounds of English mineral blue, and 4| ounces of wax-soap. Blue (Light). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings in \\ gallons of water, and mix with 1 pound of light mine- ral blue and 3J ounces of wax-soap. Brown {Light). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shav- ings in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 13 ounces of light chrome-yellow, 6| ounces of colcothar, 2 ounces of Frank- fort black, 3 pounds of pulverized chalk, and 3| ounces of wax-soap. Brown {Reddish). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings in 1-| gallons of w 7 ater, and mix with one pound of yellow ochre, 4| ounces of light chrome-yellow, 1 pound of white lead, 1 ounce of red ochre, and 3| ounces of wax- soap. Gray {Light). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings in \\ gallons of water, and mix with \\ pounds of pulverized 492 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. chalk, 8f ounces of Frankfort black, 1 ounce of Paris blue, and 3^ ounces of wax-soap. Gray {Bluish). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings in gallons of water, and mix with 4-j; pounds of pulver- ized chalk, 1 pound of light mineral blue, 4-j ounces of English green, If ounces of Frankfort black, and 3 J ounces of wax-soap. Green (Brownish). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings in \\ gallons of water, and mix with 1 pound of Schweinfurth green, 8f ounces of mineral green, 4-j; ounces each of burnt umber and English pink, 1 pound of whiting, and 3 J ounces of wax-soap. Green (Light). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings in \\ gallons of water, and mix with 2f pounds of English green a like quantity of pulverized chalk and 3| ounces of wax-soap. Lemon Color. — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings in 1^ gallons of water, and mix with 1| pounds of light chrome-yellow, 1 pound of white lead, and 3| ounces of wax-soap. Orange-yellow. — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shav- ings in \\ gallons of water, and mix with 1^ pounds of light chrome-yellow, 8f ounces of orange chrome-yellow, 1 pound of white lead, and 3| ounces of wax-soap. Orange-yellow. — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shav- ings in \\ gallons of water, and mix with 4^ pounds of light chrome-yellow, 8f ounces of Turkish minium, 1 pound of white lead, and 3^ ounces of wax-soap. Rose Color. — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings COLORING. 493 in 1 J gallons of water, and mix with ^ gallon of rose color prepared from liquor of Brazil wood and chalk, and 6| pounds of wax-soap. Violet {Light). — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings in 1| gallons of water, and mix with \\ pounds of light mineral blue, a like quantity of scarlet lake, 1 pound of white lead, and 3^ ounces of wax-soap. White. — Dissolve 8§ ounces of parchment shavings in \\ gallons of water, and mix with 8| pounds of tine Kremnitz white, ounces of fine Bremen blue, and 3^ ounces of wax-soap. Silver White. — Dissolve 8J ounces of parchment shavings in 1| gallons of water, and mix with 8f pounds of Krem- nitz white, 8f ounces of Frankfort black, and 3| ounces of wax-soap. Pale Yellow. — Dissolve 8f ounces of parchment shavings in \\ gallons of water, and mix with \\ pounds of light chrome-yellow, 1 pound of pulverized chalk, and 3| ounces of wax-soap. MAKING AND FINISHING. 495 CHAPTER XV. MAKING AND FINISHING. The materials to be made into paper having been sub- jected to all the preliminary operations which we have described, the pulp is ready for transformation into sheets by means of the paper-machine. Before proceeding further, we shall recapitulate in a few words the operations of which we have treated. The materials arrive at the mill, are sorted and cut by hand or by machinery, dusted, boiled in water and in alkalies, dripped, washed, and reduced to half-stuff in the rag-engine. The half-stuff is drained, pressed or air dried, and submitted to the action of an hypochlorite or ot gaseous chlorine, or to the action of both these chemicals. After the bleaching with chlorine or other chemicals, the pulp is washed, and, if necessary, the last traces of chlorine are eliminated by means of antichlorine ; then the refining is proceeded with in the beating engine, and the minute fibres or pulp thus obtained is treated with agglutinative, loading, and coloring materials, intended to give weight, body, and finish to the paper. The pulp having been thus pre- pared is passed into the stuff-chest of the paper-machine. In Fig. 134 we show an interior view of a machine room in a modern paper-mill, containing a Fourdrinier machine. The pulp is passed into the stuff-chest of the paper- 496 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. machine and is kept in suspension by means of an agitator ; it is delivered to the paper-machine in constant quantities, and after passing through several purifying contrivances, intended to free it from the last traces of sand, it is run in a thin and wide sheet upon endless metallic cloth, horizon- tally disposed at its anterior part. A continuous forward movement is communicated to this metallic cloth, technically termed the 44 wire," which receives during its forward move- ment a continuous succession of lateral shakes, in imitation of the 44 shake" which the vatman gives to the sheet of paper when moulded by hand ; the 44 shake" is intended to favor the dripping and felting of the pulp upon the 41 wire." A suction contrivance operated underneath a certain part of the metallic cloth also assists in the abstraction of moisture and renders the sheet more solid. The sheet, having reached the extremity of the horizontal parts of the metallic cloth, passes upon a cylinder which delivers it to two laminating cylinders covered with felt ; thence the sheet passes through the pressing rolls and to the drying cylinders heated by steam ; lastly it may be made to pass between one or more pairs of circular scissors which trim and slit the paper into strips of the desired width; these strips are then rolled upon a cylinder fixed on a mandrel. It will not be possible in a volume of the size of the pres- ent one to enter upon a detailed description of all the parts and the manner of operating our modern paper-machines. We shall consequently devote space only to such portions of the machines employed for making and finishing the paper as possess features susceptible of improvement, and in this MAKING AND FINISHING. 497 connection illustrate some of the recent inventions of practical paper manufacturers. The practical parts of the work of forming and finishing the paper will be treated only so far as may be necessary for comprehension, as, in the opinion of the writer, a description of the mechanical skill which can be acquired only through actual experience offers no advant- age to either the theorist or to the practical paper-maker ; the " machine man" can become familiar with the best man- ner of adjusting and operating the paper-making machine under his charge only by long and practical experience. It' was the writer's first intention to have made the present chapter as well as the various other chapters in this work entirely " practical," and to this end he secured personally in the United States, as well as in the other great paper- making countries in the world — Great Britain, Germany, France, and Belgium — a large number of notes entirely practical in their character. But upon a full consideration of the subject, and by the advice of some of the leading paper makers, the author decided that the present volume could be made more valuable by surrendering the space to a description of some of the leading mechanical inventions of the present day which have done so much to increase the product and lessen the cost of all kinds of paper. In adopt- ing the latter plan the writer is well aware that he renders himself liable to the old complaint of the " practical" man who neglects and condemns books because they do not enter into the minutest details contributing to successful operations; but this criticism does not by any means lessen the value of books. After all, we can only reiterate that 32 498 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. "practical information" can be obtained only by actual practice. The province of a book on any of the arts is that of a guide-post which points out the correct road, but leaves the traveller to take it and to encounter and remove for him- self all the small obstacles found on the way. Hence, while books cannot take the place of actual experience, their value, as embodying the experiences of others must not be ignored, and nothing can be more useful or valuable to the really practical man thau a volume describing and illustrating in detail the state of the art in any manufacture and thereby pointing out the roads that are being pursued by successful manu- facturers and inventors of the present time. Such a book, if intelligently used, should prove a never-failing means of suggestion and inspiration to all progressive practical men. Whereas, a description of methods and mechanical appliances which have for a long series of years been employed in various portions of the world, and have already become common property can, in reality, prove of little value to the advanced paper-makers of the day. Fig. 135 shows an apparatus for purifying the pulp. The machine oscillates, and receives a shaking movement from blades arranged for that purpose. The pulp is received from the supply-box through the tube H, and is distributed in compartments provided with stops for the sand and other heavy bodies ; then, passing through grooves made in a cop- per plate, it falls in the reservoir B. It then passes through the pressure of its upper level, in the compartment (7, going through other grooves, passes over rubber sheets, D, and falls in the channel F to be conveyed to the machine. MAKING AND FINISHING. 499 In order to insure satisfactory weight and uniformity in the color of the paper, some manufacturers employ two stuff- Fig. 135. chests with each machine, into one of these chests the pulp is emptied from the beater while the 44 machine" is being supplied from the other. In some cases it may be found advantageous to work the 44 wire" taut on the machine, and in other cases it may be found more economical to work the 44 wire" quite slack ; but these matters, as we have previously hinted, ar^ subjects for practical consideration. Stuff Regulator for Paper-Ma7cwg Machines. The invention shown in Figs. 136 to 140, which is that of Mr. Cornelius Young, of Sandy Hill, New York, relates to improvements in stuff-regulators for paper-machines ; and it consists in providing an adjustable gate, the movements of which are automatically controlled by the movements of a balanced stuff-chute, and in providing the stuff-box with a vertically-sliding gate. 500 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. The object is to regulate the flow of pulp or "stuff" from the stuff-box to the paper-machine proper. Figure 136 is a plan view of a stuff-box provided with Young's improved device. Fig. 137 is a vertical section of it taken at broken line x y in Fig. 136. Fig. 138 is a FiV 136. -J Fitr. 137. front elevation of it, with part of front wall broken away to show gate / closed. Fig. 139 is same showing gate / open. Fig. 140 is a perspective of gate /and pivoted arms. The box is divided by partitions A, B, and C into four compartments. One of the compartments is provided with MAKING AND FINISHING. 501 one or more apertures, e e\ in the bottom, through which the stuff is forced by a pump into the box, until the com- partment is filled to the top of partition (7, when it flows Fig. 138. Fig. 139. over between G and D into the next compartment, which retains the stuff until filled to the top of partition i?, which extends across the box from block T'to block T\ the blocks serving to narrow the compartment on the side next the partition B. When this compartment is filled, the stuff flows over partition Z?, one portion entering the chute H, from which it is conveyed to the paper-machine proper, and the other portion into the compartment provided with out- 502 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. let through which it flows back to the reservoir from which it was originally pumped into the box. The thickness and weight of paper produced depend upon the thickness and rapidity of flow of stuff to the machine. As the thick- ness or quality of stuff is not subject to absolute control, uniformity in the weight of paper produced must be secured by subjecting the rapidity of flow to the quality of the stuff. Such control has been heretofore attempted in various ways — by means of valves or adjustable gates controlled by an attendant or by floats and balances. The present invention makes use of an adjustable gate, /, attached to one side of the box by means of the parallel arms, a which are pivoted one end to the gate and the other end to the block T 7 , so that when the gate is lifted it travels horizontally away from the side of the box to which the arms are pivoted, and when it is allowed to fall it travels toward the side of the box. There is also used another adjust- able gate, 6r, supported by rod c, on which it is adapted to slide to and fro between the blocks TT\ the lower end of the gate resting upon the upper edge of the partition B, or a metallic strip, ra, projecting therefrom. The gate is also provided with a threaded arm passing through stop n', fixed upon rod c, having adjusting-nuts, n, by means of which the gate may be secured in different positions. By sliding gate G toward gate / the opening G is diminished in size, and less stuff will flow to the machine, the opening U will be increased in size, and more stuff will escape by outlet g. By sliding gate G in the opposite direction toward opening V more stuff is allowed to flow to the machine and less back MAKING AND FINISHING. 503 to the stuff-reservoir through outlet g. The gate G is there- fore first set at the proper point to make paper of the desired weight with a constant flow of the stuff to be used, provided the flow is even in quantity ; but experience shows the impossibility of securing such a flow. The pump forces a constant quantity into the box ; but the thickness — i. e., the relative quantity of pulp and water — varies continually. When the stuff flows thick, more of it must be held back from the machine, and diverted to the outlet g, and when it flows thin a greater supply must be sent to the machine. This is accomplished by means of the gate /, which is con- nected by link P with one end of the sweep 0, the other end of the sweep being connected by link Q and bail R with the chute H at one end, the other end of the chute being hinged upon partition B directly beneath the opening C\ so that the stuff which goes to the machine passes through the chute. The weight of the stuff in the chute will depress its projecting end, which raises the gate 7, and, as before ex- plained, narrows the opening C. By means of the weight W, adapted to slide upon the sweep and the spring S, the gravity of the stuff in the hinged chute may be balanced to secure the desired width of opening C After the respective parts have been once adjusted to produce paper of a given weight from a constant flow of stuff of known average qual- ity they will thereafter be automatically adjusted to the varying quality of stuff as the latter passes through and from the stuff-box. If the stuff suddenly thickens, its progress upon the chute is slower, and it dams up, as it were, thereon. The additional weight overcomes the force of the spring & 504 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. and the gate /is elevated and forced toward opening C to close the latter, which forces a larger proportion of the stuff through opening b\ and admits a smaller quantity to the chute and machine. If the stuff is thinner than the average, it flows more readily from the chute, leaving a less lighter quantity thereon, which lowers the gate and widens the opening C and permits a larger flow of stuff to the chute and machine. Fig. 138 shows the gate closed to narrow opening C\ and Fig. 139 shows the gate opened to widen opening C . In Fig. 137 the link Q is shown in two slotted lapping parts, which permits of its longitudinal adjustment by means of the thumb-screw q. The spring S is also attached to its supporting-arm, Z, by a threaded rod, which permits of the adjustment of the spring by the thumb-screw i. There is shown sweep 0, pivoted at the arm y ; but it may be pivoted at arm i instead, through another aperture in the sweep, to change the leverage of chute and gate. In Figs. 138 and 139 the supporting-arm d is shown ver- tically adjustable upon the upright K\ by means of set- screw u. To prevent a sudden rush of thick pulp upon the chute, which might cause it to overflow, there are provided the partitions, D and (7, the latter extending from the bottom of the box upward about half the height of the box, and the former being situated a little one side of the latter and extending both above and below the top of G. It can be slid vertically in grooves, F, in the sides of the box. When the stuff is of the usual thickness, it flows through MAKING AND FINISHING. 505 the aperture between D and (7, and does not attain a level much above the top of outlet-partition B or m; but if a considerable quantity of thick stuff is suddenly forced into the compartment D it will not run so freely between D and (7, and rises in the compartment D until the stuff runs thinner, or until its height affords sufficient pressure to fores it through the opening. By raising or lowering the sliding partition D, the narrow opening between it and G is lengthened or shortened, which gives it more resistance when lengthened and less when shortened. The inventor claims he is thus able to secure a perfect adjustment of the flow of stuff to the machine auto- matically and produce an even quality of paper. Automatic Wire- Guide for Paper-Making Machines. The objects of the invention shown in Figs. 141 to 145, which is that of Mr. Thomas P. Barry, of Stillwater, N. Y., are to provide means by which the guide-roll cylinder which supports the wire apron is made to operate mechanism placed intermediate between the guide-roll cylinder and guides at the side edges of the wire apron, so that the guides will be automatically operated to truly and properly guide the wire apron in its forward movement, and also to provide means by which an attendant will be enabled to cause the wire apron to be guided in its forward movement should certain parts of the automatic mechanism become disarranged. Fig. 141 represents a plan view of a section of a paper- making machine and Mr. Barry's improved wire-guiding device attached. Fig. 142 is a side elevation of the guide- 506 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. roll cylinder carrying the wire to be guided. Fig. 143 is a front side elevation of the device. Fig. 144 is a rear side elevation of it ; and Fig. 145 is a cross-sectional view of it, taken at line No. 1 in Fig. 141. Fig. 141. A A represent the frame of a paper-making machine, and B is a guide-roller supporting the wire web or apron (7, which the present device is intended to guide as it moves forward. Secured to one of the side portions, A, of the frame of the machine is the bed or way D, made preferably with a V-shaped form, as shown in Fig. 145. Made with the way, and extending outward and in a lateral direction from the MAKING AND FINISHING. 507 Fin. 143. r:~-::.3 Fig. 144. same, are brackets, a a, which brackets support shaft 6, which is free to revolve in bearings made in the rear ends of the brackets. The shaft is held from being moved longitudinally by the shoulders of the journals of the shaft bearing against the sides of the bearings in which they work. 508 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Made with shaft h is a screw-thread section, c. Mounted on the shaft is a duplex ratchet-wheel, E, which is secured from turning on the shaft by a feather or spline, d, fixed in the shaft and working in a seat made in the hub of the ratchet-wheel. F is a bearing of shaft e of guide-roll cylinder or roller B, which bearing is made solid with or attached to bracket H, which bracket is pivoted to shaft b by arms g g', and is sup- ported by way or bed i), on which the lower foot ends of the bracket rests, as shown in Figs. 141, 143, and 145. Being thus pivoted to shaft Z>, and supported by way or bed Z>, the bracket H is adapted to be turned up from a horizontal position, as shown in the several figures, to the position shown by dotted lines in Fig. 145. The pivoting eye or bearing in arm g of the bracket H is provided with a screw-thread, which corresponds with the screw-thread of section c of shaft 6, and the screw-threaded section works in the screw-threaded eye of arm g\ as shown in Figs. 141 and 143. Mounted on the upper side of bracket H, and against or adjacent to bearing F of guide-roll cylinder B, is housing 7, in which freely works bar which bar is adapted to be MAKING AND FINISHING. 509 moved in either direction transversely to the direction of shaft b. A notch, v, Fig. 141, is made in the end of the reciprocating bar J" next to the end of guide-roll cylinder B, and in its side facing. Secured to the shaft of the guide- roll cylinder, so as to revolve with it, is cam-wheel K, formed 'by an annular flange arranged in one direction slightly oblique in the axis of guide-roll cylinder B, as shown in Fig. 142. The cam-wheel works in notch v of bar J", and moves the bar alternately in opposite directions as guide-roll cylinder B is revolved. Pivoted to the end of reciprocating bar J, opposite to its notched end, are dogs n n\ Figs. 141 and 143, which dogs are held and drawn toward each other by spring s, Fig. 143, and engage respectively with the teeth m m' of wheel E, as shown in Figs. 141 and 143, according as the wheel E is in situation for engagement with the dogs, as will be herein- after described. Supported in arms o o, projecting from the way or bed D, is a vertical shaft, L. To the lower end of the shaft is secured crank p. provided with vertical arms g, Figs. 142, 143, and 144. Pivoted to the upper end of the vertical arm q is a forked pitman, r, which pitman is yoked to a loose collar or sleeve, tf, on the hub of wheel E. Secured to the vertical shaft L at its upper end is arm M, carrying a clamping device, consisting of upright stud JV, provided with an oblong slot and set-screw. (Shown in Figs. 143 and 144.) Secured in the clamping device at one of its ends is the shifting-bar P, the opposite end of which 510 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. works freely in sleeve Q, supported by standard Q\ attached to the frame of the machine, as shown in Figs. 141 and 142. Secured to the shifting-bar P by clamping devices R E are guides T T', which guides are each composed of two rollers, m m, Figs. 141, 142, 143, and 144, arranged and con- nected with plate u by being pivoted to ears made with the plate, as shown in Fig. 144. The guides thus composed are each pivoted to their respective clamping devices R R\ as indicated by dotted lines w in Fig. 144, and are each capable of a swiveling movement. Secured to one end of shaft b is a hand-wheel, JT, which may be operated in either direction for shifting the bearings of guide-roll by hand when circumstances require, as will be hereinafter described. The manner in which the several parts of Mr. Barry's device operate is as follows : The guides T T' are set near to the side edges of the wire apron (7, with their rollers u it at a distance from the same as the machine-tender may select. The guide-roll cylinder B revolves in direction of arrow No. 1 in Figs. 141 and 143, and carries the wire apron to be guided in direction of arrow 2 in same figures. The cam TC, attached to the shaft or journal of guide-roll cylinder B, revolves with the same, and works in the notch made in the reciprocating bar J, and causes the bar to be moved once in each direction at each revolution of the guide- roll cylinder and operate the bar, so as to carry the dogs n n' to a full movement back and return at each side of the ratchet-wheel. The ratchet-wheel E being mounted loosely on shaft b, and held by its feather so as to turn with the shaft, MAKING AND FINISHING. 511 is adapted to move longitudinally on the same in either direction and between dogs n n. When the wire apron is moving forward uniformly and truly with its side edges in straight lines of direction the dogs will be moved back and forth without engaging with the teeth of the ratchet- wheel. When the wire apron C begins to shift or run from side A of the machine the off side edge, 1, of the apron will crowd against the rollers it u of the guide T 7 , when the shift- ing-bar P will draw arm M in direction of arrow 4 and cause crank-arm p to move in direction of arrow 5, and through pitman r and sleeve t move ratchet-wheel E toward dog 7i, so that the dog will work in engagement with the teeth m of the same. As the revolution of guide-roll cylinder B is continued cam K will impart to bar J a reciprocating movement, by which the dogs n n' will be moved back and forth, the dog n' being out of engagement with the ratchet- wheel, while the dog n will be in engagement with the teeth m of the same, and at each return movement draw on the teeth and cause the ratchet-wheel to be moved in direction of arrow 6, when the screw c on shaft b will be turned and cause bearing F to be shifted in direction of arrow 7. This shifting of the bearing will be attended by a gradual shifting also of bar e7and its attached dogs n n' in the same direction, so that in a short time the dog n will be out of engagement with the ratchet-wheel, while dog n' will be thrown into engagement and will operate to turn the ratchet-wheel in an opposite direction, and also operate the screw of shaft b to shift bearing F, and also the dogs, in direction opposite to arrow 7. 512 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. It will be seen that the dog n operates to turn the ratchet- wheel when it is drawn toward the wire apron, and moves the ratchet-wheel in direction of arrow 6 ; also, that dog n' operates to turn the ratchet-wheel when it is pushed back, and moves the ratchet-wheel in an opposite direction to that indicated by arrow 6. When the dogs are operated back and forth, and at the same time free from engagement with the teeth of the ratchet-wheel, the ratchet-wheel will be idle, and there will be no relative shifting of parts. When this idle condition of parts exists the wire apron is running evenly and uniformly straight without its side edges exerting any great pressure on their respective guides T T\ while when the edge at guide T bears against that guide it will tend to throw the ratchet-wheel toward dog n at engage- ment with the same, when the dog, operating with teeth will gradually shift the parts and cause the opposite operat- ing-dog, n\ to be carried toward teeth rri of the ratchet- wheel, while the dog n will be thrown out of engagement with teeth m. When the side edge of the wire apron presses against guide T' the pressure will operate to slightly move arm M in opposite direction to arrow 4, and cause the crank-arm p to operate pitman r so as to shift the ratchet- wheel toward dog n' and in engagement with the same, when the screw will be turned in an opposite direction and carry bearing F and bar /and dogs n n' in direction opposite to arrow 7, when dog n! will be released from engagement with teeth in' of the ratchet-wheel. These alternate move- ments or reversals of action of parts operate to hold the ratchet-wheel at nearly one situation, and consequently it is MAKING AND FINISHING. 513 made to resist the excessive pressure of the respective side edges of the wire apron, and be compelled to run with its edges with comparatively uniform lines of movement. It should be understood that the wire apron does not run around guide-roll B, but is merely supported by the same, ■and is affected by the slight shifting of its bearing F, in the manner above described. Should the dogs n n' from any cause whatever become disarranged or out of working order, an attendant may, by moving the hand-wheel X in alternate directions, readily direct the movement of the wire apron. This is claimed to be a great advantage, as the machine need not be purposely stopped, but may be continued to run until the web being made is completed or the usual time for stop- page arrives. The support of the bearing F of the guide- roll cylinder directly over the way D removes all weight from shaft Z>, so that the shaft is rendered easy to be turned. In Fig. 145 dotted lines illustrate the manner in which the bearing F and its adjunctive parts may be turned up. This adaptation of the bearing to be turned up, as shown, enables the operator to properly set the bearing in line, as required, as he may, by turning the bearing up without moving the shaft and then turning it down and moving the shaft, gradually adjust the bearing in one direction, while by turning the bearing F up and at the same time moving the shaft in the same direction, and then turning the bearing down while the shaft is held from turning, the bearing will be shifted in an opposite direction. It will therefore be seen that by this means the bearing F will be set properly. 33 514 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. It is not new to construct paper-making machines with a rule provided with plates and connected to a pair of levers, in connection with a screw on which a double toothed wheel is secured, a curved lever carried by another lever, and a crank which imparts motion to the last-named lever. Nor is it new to provide the mechanism for guiding the wire cloths or belts of paper-making machines with a crank-action for operating a double pawl to engage by draft or thrust a screw-nut ratchet-wheel to slide laterally a slide or purchase. The combination, with the journal of a roller, of an adjust- able crank to operate double-acting pawls, which operate in either direction a ratchet-wheel, is not new; nor is the com- bination of a bed-plate and a fixed screw-bolt with a screw- nut ratchet-wheel to hold and operate a slide by the action of double pawls, which are operated by a crank, Mr. Barn- con sequently does not claim such constructions in his patent. Suction-Box for Paper-Making Machines. The following invention, which is that of Mr. Isaac Brat- ton, of Wilmington, Del., relates to improvements in connec- tion with the suction-box of a paper-making machine, the object of the invention being to facilitate the operation of the machine and improve the product: — Fig. 146 is a longitudinal section of the suction-box of a paper-making machine with Mr. Bratton's improvements; Fig. 147, a transverse section of it. A represents a suction-box of an ordinary Fourdrinier paper-machine; B, the perforated plate forming the top of the box ; Z>, part of the endless web or apron of wire-gauze MAKING AND FINISHING. 515 on which the sheet of pulp is deposited ; E E, the usual deckle-straps for limiting the width of the sheet, and F F Fig. 146. the adjustable heads or plungers, which coincide with the deckle-straps, and are intended to prevent leakage of air into the suction-chamber G of the box. A partial vacuum being established in the chamber, the water is drawn from the sheet of pulp as the endless apron B carries the sheet over the perforated cover of the box A, the water being drawn from the box through a pipe, H. Ordinarily a pump is used for this purpose, and it becomes necessary to prevent the entrance of air to the suction-cham- ber 6r, as a mixture of air with the water would interfere with the operation of the pump ; hence it has been usual to seal the suction-chamber by filling the box A with water 516 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. outside of the adjustable heads F. A portion of this water finds its way beneath the deckle-straps and wets the edges of the sheet of pulp on the apron D, thus weakening the edges of the sheet and interfering with the proper uniform drying and calendering of the sheet by the rollers used for that purpose. In carrying out his invention Mr. Bratton dispenses with the usual pump, and uses in place of it an ejector, J", which effects the rapid removal of the water from the box A, and is not affected in its action by the admixture of air with the water. For this reason the present inventor claims to be enabled to dispense with the water-seal for the heads F, and thus obviate the objections above mentioned, and there being no leakage of air to guard against, he is also enabled to maintain in the suction-chamber G a condition more nearly approaching a perfect vacuum than is possible with the pump, the water being thus rapidly drawn from the sheet of pulp, so that the speed of the apron can be mate- rially increased without risk of carrying off the pulp while it still retains a surplus of moisture. Another advantage of using the ejector in place of the pump is the facility with which the ejector can be cleansed by passing a current of clean water through it. It is the common practice to convey the discharge from the suction-box of the machine back to the mixing-box, in order to save the particles of pulp carried off with the water. In making colored paper the particles of colored pulp fill the interstices in the cylinder, valve-boxes, and other parts of an exhaust-pump to such an extent that it is difficult to MAKING AND FINISHING. 517 properly clean the latter when changing from the manufac- ture of paper of one color to that of another color, or from colored to white paper, and in consequence the first paper produced after the change is apt to be streaky or spotted. This objection is claimed to be effectually overcome by this invention, there being no parts in the ejector which would serve to retain the colored particles of pulp, so that the thorough cleansing of the ejector can be effected in a few moments. Incidental to the use of the ejector in place of the pump are the further advantages of its compactness, its freedom from liability to get out of order, and the facility with which it can be used in positions where the use of a pump would be impossible. Various forms of ejectors may be used in carrying out Mr. Bratton's invention ; but the form which the inventor states he has found to answer well in prac- tice, and which he prefers to employ, is that shown in Fig. 148, a being the steam- chamber of the ejector, having a branch, a! ; b the inlet and d the outlet branch. The branch b has a conical end and the branch d a flaring mouth, and the steam passes from the chamber a through the tapering annular passage thus formed, the water from the suction-box being drawn through the branch b and forced from the branch d. A free and unbroken flow of water through the branches b and d is thus permitted, whereas in an ordinary 518 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. ejector the water takes a more or less circuitous course through a contracted passage, and when the water carries with it numerous particles of pulp it has a tendency to clog such a passage and interfere with the proper working of the device. The ejector is shown in a vertical position at the side of the machine ; but it may be located wherever convenience or circumstances may suggest. Dandy-Roll for Paper-Making Machines. The invention shown in Figs. 149 to 153 is that of Mr. David McKay, of Holyoke, Mass., and consists of a catch- pan placed inside of and hung upon the centre shaft of dandy-rolls used in paper-machines for the purpose of clean- ing the inside of dandy-rolls of froth and other accumula- tions. Fig. 149. Figure 149 is an ordinary dandy-roll. Fig. 150 is a long- section view of a dandy-roll with the catch-pan A attached. Fig. 151 is a transverse section of dandy-roll without the MAKING AND FINISHING. 519 catch-pan. Fig. 152 is a transverse section of dandy-roll with catch-pan B attached. Fig. 153 is a view, in perspec- tive, of the catch-pan. Fig. 151. Fig. 152. The dandy-roll, the purpose of which is to make both surfaces of the paper alike, is a hollow cylinder of woven wire. As the roll revolves upon the wet paper, particles of the paper-pulp are forced through the wire net-work of the roll until, accumulating in masses inside of the roll, they are again forced out through the wire net-work upon the paper, blotching and marring its surface. Heretofore the manner in which these accumulations have been removed was to take the dandy-roll out of position, causing a stoppage of the machine and a consequent loss of production. The catch-pan, as seen in Fig. 150, hangs upon the centre shaft of the dandy-roll, and is held by its own weight in an upright position while the roll revolves, catching the drip- pings from the top of the inside of the roll, and also catch- ing upon the edge of the pan, which may be made of sheet- 520 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. tin or other material of like thinness, the particles of pulp or other matter forced through the net- work surface of the roll. Through the opening B, Figs. 152 and 153, in one end of the catch-pan, the contents of the pan will be constantly carried off at the end of the dandy-roll. If the accumula- tions in the . pan are such as will not run off freely through the opening B, Fig. 152, a stream of water is to be poured into the pan at the opposite end, or otherwise. Regulating the Speed of the various portions of Paper- Ma Icing Machines. That part of the machinery in a paper-mill which drives the " machine,'' the couch-roll, the presser-rolls, the drying- cylinders, and the calenders, has long been susceptible of improvements ; the object being to allow ready access to be had to the machine. This can be accomplished by doing away with a train of shafting, spur and mitre-wheels, belts, pulleys, etc., all arranged on the floor alongside of the machine and its adjuncts, impeding any approach with safety to the machine. A change of speed on any of the parts of the ma- chine singly or together can thereby be made much more easy and convenient. Ordinarily the whole train is driven from the main shaft, which, by means of spur-wheels, mitre-wheels, and pulleys with belts of various widths and lengths (some very long), drive the coucher, press-rolls, driers, and calen- ders in a long line. The belts are often very close to the train and extend nearly their whole length, making approach to the machine difficult and dangerous, even to the loss of life in more than one case in a single mill, since in order to MAKING AND FINISHING. 521 reach the machine for oiling or any other purpose it is necessary to crawl through and between long wide belts when in motion, and the very first principle in using ma- chinery — safety to the operatives — is quite disregarded. In running a paper-machine it is absolutely necessary that the harmony between the different parts should be main- tained by exact and quick adjustments. The paper, while passing over the different parts of the machine, is always kept under a strong but steady tension, which must neces- sarily stretch it lengthwise, especially while it is wet. The first press, in drawing the web from the wire while it is in a very soft condition, will stretch it somewhat. Another small addition to its length is made by the second press, while it will shrink on the driers, and again become elon- gated on the calenders. If all the pulleys for driving the different parts have been fixed for a certain speed, weight of paper, and kind of pulp, so as to adapt themselves to these elongations and contractions, and suddenly a change in the pulp occurs — if it is beaten longer or shorter, if it is thicker, or if " imperfections" have entered into its composition — it will be found that the first press and following parts are pulling the web either too much or too little for its changed character and tenacity, and the paper breaks or is injured. The same experience will be had if the paper be made thinner or thicker ; even if the speed of the whole machine only be changed, everything else remaining as before, the paper may be differently formed on the wire. It may leave the coucher with more or less water, and its tenacity will be increased or decreased. Any inequality of tension, too, is 522 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. liable to make a wrinkle in the calendering, and much more so to break the sheet. Great quantities of paper are destroyed by these causes, which are constantly occurring, often three or four times during a day's work, making it necessary that the relative speeds of the presses, driers, and calenders should be frequently but slightly changed. The common way of accomplishing this is by what is termed " lagging." A number of strips of canvas or felting or thick cloth about as wide as the face of the pulley, called " lag- ging," are kept on hand. When a change of speed is desired one of these is smeared with " lagging- wax," so called, and laid on the surface of the driving-pulley to increase its diameter and quicken the speed of the pulley or gear at the other end of the shaft. Through the number and length of the strips held on the pulley by the wax any slight change can be produced, and though a very rude and clumsy expedient, this lagging has been in almost universal use up to the present time, as nothing practical has yet been found to supersede it. Expanding pulleys of various forms and other devices have been tried ; but some have been found too complicated, some get out of order too easily, some cannot be adjusted without stopping the machine, and others, still, require occasional lagging. In the usual way, in the train for running the machine, are two or three sets of gearing and from four to six heavy belts from twelve to sixteen inches wide and from eight to twenty- four feet long, all very expen- sive in their first cost and difficult to keep in repair, strained to their fullest tension, while by the use of the invention MAKING AND FINISHING. 523 shown in Figs. 154 to 156, which is that of Mr. Marshall, of Turner's Falls, Mass., the belts used are only few in number, are short — none over four inches wide — and all run vertically, not interfering with work and ready access to the machine. Mr. Marshall's invention dispenses entirely with lagging, does away with the long and dangerous train of shafting, wheels, pulleys, and belts on the floor by the side of the machine, giving free approach to all its parts. Mr. Marshall claims that by his invention danger is avoided, safety increased, regularity of tension secured, speed regulated, power reduced, and production increased. Fiff. 154. Figure 154 is a plan view of the machinery. Fig. 156 is a side elevation of a set of pulleys, etc. Fig. 155 is a side view of the belt-shipper and the device for actuating it. 524 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Finr. 155. Fiff. 156. A represents the couch-roll. B and C represent the first and second press-rolls. D represents the drying- cylinders. E represents the calenders. F represents the main driving-shaft running in hangers overhead. G re- presents one of the pair of cone- pulleys driving the couch. G' repre- sents one of the pair of cone-pulleys driving first press-roll. G 2 represents one of the pair of cone-pulleys driving second press-rolls. " G 3 represents one of the pair of cone- pulleys driving drying-cylinders. G 4 represents one of the pair of cone-pulleys driving the calender-rolls. The main shaft F runs overhead instead of on the floor. This removes the great obstacle to approaching the machine, and although placing shafting overhead rather than on the floor is not of itself new, yet in running the machinery of a paper-machine, in connection with the other devices of this invention, it has never before been done. On the shaft F are fixed conical pulleys or drums, each of which is con- nected by a belt with another corresponding one below, driving each of the presses, the driers, and the calenders. MAKING AND FINISHING. 525 To any one at all familiar with mechanics it will he obvious that when the belt is moved up on the increasing form of one of these cone-pulleys, it is correspondingly moved down on the decreasing face of the other pulley, and thereby increases its speed and consequently that of the roller or drier, to which it is connected by a mitre-wheel gearing into a shaft on which the roller or drier is fixed at a right angle to that running the cone-pulley ; and, vice versa, when the belt running over the cone-pulley on the driving-shaft over- head is shifted toward the decreasing face of the pulley, the one on which it turns below will be diminished in speed. Now, the capability to increase or decrease the speed of any one of these rollers — couch, press, calender, or driers — at will in a moment's time, and to any exent ever so small, has never been effectually done on any paper-machine ever made, and it is what Mr. Marshall claims to accomplish by means of these cone-pulleys and the belt- shippers to be now de- scribed. The belt-shipper H- — one for each pair of cone pulleys — is hung at a convenient height midway between the two pulleys, and of a length suitable to reach from the upper to the lower pulley. The ends are forked as usual in belt- shippers of all kinds. To enable the shipper, which is of some length, to be held firmly in place and yet to move readily when required, the arms a are formed at their middle into a sleeve or box, b — say, fourteen to sixteen inches long — through which passes a bar, c, securely bolted to supports, and on this bar the shipper moves steadily. To the upper side of this sleeve b is bolted a box, nut, or 526 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. female screw, through which passes the male screw e, running in fixed gudgeons on the same supports that hold the har c, and having on one end a hand-wheel, /, by which the screw is readily turned. The operation of these devices will be readily seen, and how the speed of any of the rollers can be adjusted instantly to suit circumstances. For instance, if from a slight change in the stock in thickness, or in its being beaten up, it should take more water, and should, in passing over the driers, gain a trifle more on the calenders than it had been running, so as to become a little slack on reaching the calender, the machine-tender in an instant seizes the hand- wheel on the belt-shipper, which moves the belt on G*, and which runs the calender-rolls, gives it two or three turns to the left, runs the belt up on 6r 4 , and correspondingly down on the opposite pulley on the shaft below, and instantly brings up the speed to the extent required ; and so with any one or all. Cone-pulleys have long been in use for changing speed on various machines, and in various ways, but never in any such combination as Mr. Marshall presents, by the operation of which, as described, he secures greater convenience and certainty in controlling the speed of every member of the machine, more equal tension of the stock and paper, a considerable saving of power in running the machine, a decided saving of labor in avoiding lagging, and also much expense in the care and straining of long heavy belts, by which he gets a large increase in the production of paper, more room in working about the machine, which, most important of all, allows the machine tender easy and MAKING AND FINISHING. 527 comfortable access to every part of the machine with entire safety and unexposed to the constant danger of losing his life among the complication of belts and gearing of machines as at present commonly used. Mr. Marshall has also made another improvement which relates to that part of the machinery of a paper-mill which drives the " machine" and all the concomitant parts, and it is a continuation of and a combination with the devices shown in Figs. 154 to 156. In running a paper-machine it is absolutely necessary that the harmony between the different parts should be preserved and maintained by exact and quick adjustments, as has previously been stated; but it is also of equal import- ance to provide, in the driving apparatus for making paper, for maintaining in certain portions of the machinery a constant and unvarying rate of speed as it is delivered from the controlled action of the steam-engine, water-wheel, or what- ever motive power impels the whole machinery. All practical paper-makers know that this applies thoroughly to the pump which returns the water strained from the paper pulp as it is being formed into paper on the Fourdrinier wire, to the screens through which the pulp is strained on its passage to the Fourdrinier wire, to the agitators which keep the pulp in motion in the vat, and to the 44 shake" which gives the oscillating motion to the 44 wire." But while it is of such importance to maintain in all the above-mentioned parts of paper machinery a constant and uniform speed, it is equally necessary that the couch-rolls, the press-rolls, the driers, and calenders, including all those parts of a paper-machine on 528 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. which the paper is formed, pressed, dried, and calendered, must, in order to produce the full amount of paper the ma- chine is capable of making economically, be varied and run at a greater or less speed, according to the character of the pulp and the thickness of the paper manufactured. The pro- vision ordinarily made to accomplish this is to use gears of different sizes at a point on the main line of shafting between the point of transmission to those parts necessary to run at a constant speed and those parts which it is desirable to increase or diminish in speed. This is commonly done by cutting the main line of shafting at the desired point, and employing a counter-shaft running parallel to the main shaft and connected at each end by spur-gears to the two sections of the main line. The employment of different sizes of spur-wheels at these points of connection gives any desired speed to the couch-rolls, press-rolls, driers, and calenders, as the speed at that point of the main shaft transmitting power to these several points is varied by changing the spur-gears at the points of connection with that part of the main line which runs at a constant and unvarying speed. This is an unhandy and expensive way of working, for as the changing of the spur-gear necessitates the stopping of the whole paper-machine while the alteration is being made, considerable time is lost in accomplishing the shifts. Efforts have been made to obviate the necessity of stopping the machine while the changes are being made by combining two cone-pulleys ten to twelve feet long with the speed-gear running from one hundred and fifty to two hundred and twenty-five revolutions per minute ; but they MAKING AND FINISHING. 529 have never been so effectual as to be satisfactory. The length of these cones — ten to twelve feet — does not admit of a high speed, on account of the springing of the cones, and it is necessary to use a belt at least ten inches wide, in order to transmit sufficient power to drive the machine, and as a belt of this width can work to advantage only on cones of a moderate pitch, the range of the change of speed as con- trolled by the pitch and length of the cone is not sufficient to make all the changes of speed required in producing paper at rates of from twenty to two hundred feet per minute, and it has still been found necessary to use three or more sets of spur-gears in connection with these cone-pulleys. The extent of change of speed allowed by these cones from the slowest to the fastest being only about sixty feet per minute, when a change in the thickness of paper being made requires a greater rate of speed than this, the machine must be stopped and a change of the speed-gears must be made. So manufacturers have found that all their efforts to effect the desired changes of speed by the use of the cone- pulleys alone as commonly employed have been but partially successful. Again, the use of two long cone-pulleys in combination with the common back line or driving shafting of a paper-machine necessitated so much additional room on the back side of the machine that it has commonly been found necessary to erect a small building outside the machine-house, but attached to it, in which to operate these unwieldy cones. To accomplish this desirable purpose of changing the speed of the machine at once without the disagreeable necessity of stopping it and changing the gear- 34 530 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. ing, and without requiring any additional floor room, Mr. Marshall combines four cone-pulleys in pairs — one of each pair placed above the other — about five or six feet long, or half the length of those commonly used, and of different diameters, as shown in Fig. 157. These cones, being comparatively short, admit of a high rate of speed, which permits the use of a narrow belt of only four inches in width. This gives the required power, and being able to use these narrow belts, it is possible to get a much sharper pitch of the cones, and thus the required range of speed is obtained without the annoyance of stopping the machine to change the gear. By placing these pulleys one above the other, and one pair driving the other, the inventor greatly economizes space and obviates the employment of a long, wide belt, which is always costly and troublesome. Fig. 157. Fig. 157 is an elevation, partly in section, illustrating Mr. Marshall's invention. MAKING AND FINISHING. 531 L is the main driving-shaft, connected with the motor by pulley and belt, and terminates at K. M is the main driving cone-pulley, connected by a belt with the cone-pulley N. placed underneath it. On the same shaft with N is the cone-pulley 0, the larger end of the pulley being of the same size as the small end of the pulley N. The cone-pulley is connected with the cone- pulley P, placed over it, and driven by a belt passing over both. The cone-pulley P is on a short shaft overhead, extending to and stopping at its bearing K on the right, and on the left extending far enough beyond the bearing 7 to carry a spur-wheel, R. The belts connecting all the cone-pulleys are controlled by the shipper, as shown in Figs. 154 to 156. On the shaft P, which is stopped and has its bearing in the rear of bearing 7, is a spur-wheel engaging in the wheel P, which carries the shaft P, with all its dependencies. So it will be seen that the main shaft P, with all its driving-power, runs steadily and always the same. The power for the other parts of the machine is communicated from M to jV, to and P, and by the spur- gears to the shaft P, from which are run the couch-rolls, the press-rolls, the drier, and the calenders, and the speed of all these together may be accelerated or slackened to any desired extent by simply moving the belts on the two pairs of pulleys iff JV, P, while the individual parts are each controlled by the arrangement of cone-pulleys as shown in Figs. 154 to 156. V V are friction-wheels — one on the main shaft P, the other on a counter-shaft, TT, which extends in the rear of 532 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the cone-pulleys to the mitre-gears 8, for driving the felt washers 2 2 — which are necessarily driven from the main shaft, to insure the necessary uniformity of speed, which they could not have if driven from the shaft bearing the cone-pulleys. These friction-wheels are controlled by a screw, X, engaging in the bearing of the shaft W. Fis a pump used for returning the water used in forming the paper. Z Z are the screens for straining the pulp. 6 is the pul- ley that drives the " shake." All these require to be driven by a steady, unvarying power, and are therefore necessarily attached to the main shaft by belts and pulleys. Drying Cylinders. Cast-iron cylinders, perfectly true on their surfaces, and having Avell balanced bodies are used for drying machine- made paper. It is necessary that the shells of the driers should be of uniform thickness, and that the surfaces should be entirely free from sand holes, it is consequently desirable that these shells should be cast in loam and that they should be turned true on the inside as well as on their surfaces. Steam is admitted to the drying cylinders through hollow journals. Usually these journals are provided with a valve- seat in which is arranged a valve, which is held to its seat by the pressure of the steam within the drum or cylinder. When a very low pressure of steam is employed in the cylinder, the valve is not held tightly to its seat, and permits foreign substances and sediment to work between the valve MAKING AND FINISHING. 533 and its seat, whereby the parts are caused to wear unevenly and become leaky. The object of Roach's invention, shown in Fig. 158, is to provide the joint with means whereby the valve is retained in its seat at all times. Fig. 158 is a vertical section of Roach's improved pipe- joint applied to a hollow journal. Fig. 158. A represents the drum or cylinder, and a the hollow journal upon which the drum rotates, and which is supported in a suitable bearing, B. D represents a head or cap, which is applied to the end of the hollow journal and provided with a depression or cavity, d; into which the end of the journal is fitted. The head D is secured to the journal by screw-bolts, d', so as to 534 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. turn therewith ; or, if preferred, the head and journal may be provided, respectively, with screw-threads and the head screwed on the journal. The head D is provided with a valve-seat, d 2 , of conical, oval, or other suitable form, in which is seated a valve, e, of similar form. The valve e is secured to a steam-pipe, /, by means of an internal screw- thread, which engages with an external screw-thread formed on the inner end of the pipe /. If preferred, the valve may be formed in one piece with the steam-pipe /. The pipe / opens into the hollow jour- nal, arid may extend through it into the cylinder A, if desired. g represents a spiral or other suitable spring, which sur- rounds the steam-pipe /, and bears with its inner end against the head D, and with its opposite end against a collar, 7j, which is secured to the pipe / by a set-screw, h f . The spring g tends to draw the pipe / and valve e outwardly, whereby the valve is forced tightly against its seat. The tension of the spring can be regulated by means of the collar h and set-screw 7i' m By this construction the valve is held on its seat at all times, thereby preventing the accumulation of sediment between the valve and its seat, which results in an unequal wear of the parts, causing leakage, and it also prevents cor- rosion of the parts when the machine is not in operation. It has also been a common practice to force the steam for heating directly into the drying-cylinders through the jour- nals, into the ends of which the steam-pipe is packed, the journal, in effect, being made only a continuation of the MAKING AND FINISHING. 535 steam-pipe, but always with a leakage and escape of steam, from the inevitable wear of the end of the stationary steam- pipe being packed into the moving grinding-journal, requir- ing constant repacking. The condensed water, which accumulates rapidly in these drying cylinders, has usually been conducted out by means of a pipe attached to the inside of the cylinder-head, extend- ing across its diameter, and curved near the bottom, so as to take up at each revolution a quantity of water which was blown out or discharged through an opening in the cylinder- head as at each revolution of the cylinder it was lifted and turned over. As this water was blown out a consider- able amount of steam escaped with it, and continued to do so till the end of the discharge-pipe, in revolving, was again filled with water. The percentage of steam thus escaping and wasted is large enough to very materially affect the heat in the cylinder, and in a battery of four, six, or more, draws very largely on the supply of steam, and adds a heavy item to the operating expenses of the mill. Fig. 150. Fig. 159 shows a longitudinal section through the drying cylinder of Jaminson's improvement in steam-traps. A is the drying-cylinder. B is the steam-pipe passing 536 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. through the journals of the cylinder and the cylinder longi- tudinally, having in it perforations, a, for the discharge of the steam to heat the drier, of the same capacity as the pipe itself. In this pipe, midway between the cylinder-heads, is a partition, on one side of which steam enters the cylinder, and on the other the water condensed is discharged. These perforations are in the half of the pipe next the entrance of the steam. On the other side of this partition, in the steam- pipe B, is fastened a pipe, (7, which passes almost to the bottom of the cylinder, when it turns and terminates with a valve or gate, E. This gate or valve E has an opening in its side, which is closed by a gate balanced on a pin. On the upper end of this sliding gate is fastened a rod projecting forward some inches. To the end of this rod is secured a float, D, which, rising on the surface as the water increases in the bottom of the cylinder, pushes back the rod attached to it and to the sliding gate, whereby the gate is opened and the water of condensation rushes into the valve-opening, and, by the pressure of the steam, is forced up into the closed half of the steam-pipe and out through it, where, by a con- nection on its end, it is conveyed into a tank, or back to the boiler, without the loss of heat or the escape of steam, the float falling just as fast as the water is lowered by the dis- charge, and the gate is closed at the same rate. It will be seen that in this way, as the water is discharged as the gate is open, and as that is automatically controlled by the amount of water acting on the float, nothing but water can pass out, and not a particle of steam can escape or be wasted. MAKING AND FINISHING. 537 The steam-pipe passing through the journals of the cylin- der is made tight at both ends by a sleeve of brass or other metal, that may be readily renewed, fitting closely into the journal-bearings with ordinary steam-packing, preventing all loss of steam. This of itself is a great advantage over the ordinary way of driving the steam directly through the jour- nal into the cylinder, as it is impossible with the constant wear of the journal against the end of the steam-pipe to make the fitting continue secure and steam tight. With the device shown in Fig. 159 the water, it is claimed, is kept constantly discharging without the loss of a particle of steam either through the discharge-pipe or by leakage at the journals. Single Cylinder Machine. A machine adapted to the forming of thin papers and Fig. 160. n 1 6 1 us* ^ m I such as are required to be smooth on only one face is illus- trated in Fig. 160. It is a modification of the Fourdrinier 538 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. machine, and consists of an ordinary paper-machine as far as the conch-rolls A A. After leaving the conch-rolls the paper is carried backwards on the top of the endless belt B, and is brought in contact and adheres at d with the large heated cylinder C. The press-roll E presses the paper against the periphery of the cylinder C, and the paper pass- ing around the cylinder is wound up when quite dry on reels at 6r, and is afterward cut or calendered in the usual way. The felt, as it travels, passes through the box H, which is filled with water and acts as a belt washer. Calendering. Leading Paper through Calender- Rolls. — Hitherto in the process of calendering the paper web, as it passes con- tinuously from the driers of the machine, has been conducted and guided through the stack of calender-rolls by the fingers of the machine tender, and serious accidents are continually occurring, in which the fingers of the operator get jammed and terribly bruised and the danger multiplied, since the paper web has to be restored every time its continuity is interrupted for any cause whatsoever. Moreover, in the process of " mending up" a large amount of " broken" is produced, because the draft and tension across the paper web are not uniform, and folds or wrinkles are caused, which at once make a crack or break in the paper, and these con- tinue until the tension is properly restored, the paper during this interval being rendered useless for commercial purposes. Smith's Pneumatic Guide. — To overcome the objections MAKING AND FINISHING. 539 which have been mentioned, and to render the waste of the paper less and make the effort of mending-up not so labor- ions to the operative, and reduce the danger to a minimum, various mechanical contrivances have been devised. Fig. 161 illustrates a pneumatic device for leading paper through calender-rolls ; it is the invention of Mr. Richard Smith, of Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada. Fig. 161 is a side elevation of Mr. Smith's invention arranged as a whole and fitted upon the calender-roll stack and drier-frame, the two upper rolls being in section. Fig. 161. As the inventor proposes to use a blast of air or its equiva- lent (either suction or pressure) in order to guide the paper web automatically through and around the rolls, it becomes 540 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. necessary to partially cover and protect a portion of the surface of the calender-rolls in order to produce the de- sired effect, by confining the current of air, and thus oblige it to assume a certain direction, and carry with it the advance end of the paper web to be led between the rolls. There is therefore shown, as partially closing the exterior peri- pheries of the rolls, a series of alternately oppositely-disposed wind-cases, //' P, etc., which are plates bent preferably concentric with the curvature of the rolls and extending their entire length. In revolving bodies centripetal force always exerts a some- what important function upon an object located upon its surface ; hence, and more especially in paper-making ma- chines, the paper web has a great tendency to adhere to the surface of the calender-rolls, and pass continuously around one roll in lieu of advancing on and around the next adja- cent roll. This fact is especially noticeable in the manufac- ture of light-weight paper, and it is found necessary to em- ploy in connection with the wind-cases above alluded to, a device called a " doctor." In this especial instance the inventor has terminated the upper extremity of the wind- cases, which enter between two rolls in the shape of a straight steel bar or doctor, M, which is bevelled to coincide, or approximately so, with the line of a tangent to the roll at the point where the doctor touches the roll. The most effective position is a point a short distance to one side of the place of contact between the two rolls where the exterior surface of the top roll first begins to assume an upward path of movement in its rotation ; hence, when the paper after a MAKING AND FINISHING. 541 break is to be mended up, the operator raises the lever and advances the wind-cases towards the rolls and in close prox- imity thereto, while their respective doctors are brought in close contact with the upwardly-moving surface of each roll, and thus any tendency which the paper web may have as it emerges from one side between two rolls to the other to pass up and wind around the top roll of the pair, is instantly checked by the doctor, w 7 hich, as the curve of the latter coin- cides with the interior curve of the wind-case, it guides the paper along in its proper course down around the lower roll of the pair. The same action ensues as the paper web emerges from between the next two rolls and meets the next doctor, and so on down between the rolls composing the stack. Mounted upon the wind-cases, with which they are suit- ably connected, there is disposed a series of pipes, / T I 2 , etc. The latter communicate with a blower, X, either exhaust or pressure, and from which the air is obtained as means for guiding and passing the paper web through the rolls. Operation. — The operation of the apparatus, shown in Fig. 161, is as follows, with the various rolls and pulleys moving in the direction of the arrows, as indicated: The paper web has been interrupted and broken from some cause, and it must be restored ; hence the operator drops the table C into a horizontal position and lifts the lever IP to bring the doctors to bear against the rolls li h' h 2 , etc., and the wind-cases IIP near to the surfaces of the rolls. The paper is then passed around the rolls a a and drier A\ thence over the table C between the quick-running rolls 542 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. E E', which exert sufficient tension upon the web commen- surate with its strength, hence adjustable but not enough to break it. Immediately upon the proper restoration of the tension and removal of the slack consequent upon the mend- ing up, the operator swings the table upward, the paper web meantime continuously passing along until the movable cutter g has engaged with and passed the fixed cutter (J upon the arms G G'. The paper web is then instantly severed, and the draft rolls carry and feed it directly to the tapes d 2 d 2 d 2 , whence it is conveyed to the entrance of the wind-case /in a line directly at right angles to the calender- rolls — an important feature, since it obviates the loss of paper incidental to the ordinary method, where the paper web is introduced at an angle with the axis of rotation of the rolls. Upon the arrival of the advance end of the paper web in front of the wind-case the pressure from the air- current through the pipe I forces it quickly around the roll 7i, while the interior surface of the case maintains and guides it in a proper direction between the rolls li and h'. Imme- diately after the web emerges from between the rolls, although in close contact and with a tendency to pass up and wind around the upper one, it at once encounters the doctor, which removes it therefrom and compels it to follow the curve of the wind-case when the pressure from the air- current emerging from the pipe T still further advances it, and so on through the rolls of the stack, when it may either be passed onward and led through in a similar manner by means of a second series of tapes, d 2 d 2 , to a second stack, or be led to the reels, upon which it is temporarily stored. MAKING AND FINISHING. 543 A great advantage accrues by the operation of conducting paper through calender-rolls in the manner just described — that is, the current of air in passing over the surface of the paper exercises a decided influence in cooling the heated continuous paper web as it passes from the driers. Hitherto it has been customary to grind and finish the calender-rolls cold ; hence, after being mounted in proper position, and the heated web has passed through them for any length of time, the rolls become hot and expand, and the result is that the faces of the rolls do not coincide, since they were ground to fit when in cool position. Further, it is found in practice that a special cold blast of air applied across the web prior to its entrance between the rolls of the stack and independent of the current inducing the progress of the web through the stack, accomplishes the cooling of the individual rolls to remain cold ; hence there is no expansion, and the surfaces coincide exactly with the greatest degree of efficiency. Cram's Entering Guide. — The device for threading calen- der-rolls, shown in Figs. 162 to 164, is the invention of Mr. Madison H. Cram, of Pawtucket, R. I., and its object is to provide a simple means for guiding the paper between the rolls with certainty and precision; and it consists in the combination, with the set of calender-rolls, of two narrow endless belts passing together between the rolls, and means for shifting the location of the belt along the rolls. Fig. 162 is an end elevation of a set of calender-rolls pro- vided with Mr. Cram's improvement. Fig. 163 is a rear elevation of the same. Fig. 164 is a vertical section taken 544 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. in the line of the inner face of the bearing standard, showing the belts running on the large diameter of the rolls. Fig. 162. Fig. 163. Fig. 1(54. A A are the bearing standards, in which the rolls B B B are placed one above the other with their peripheries touch- ing each other. The upper ends of the standards A A are connected by means of the parallel guide-rods C C\ upon which is placed the sliding belt-carriage D, a sliding move- ment being imparted to the carriage along the rods by means of the pivoted shipper-handle a, provided with a slot, 6, which embraces the smaller outer end of the stud c pro- jecting from the carriage. The carriage D is provided with the loose belt-carrying pulleys d, e, and /, which revolve upon suitable pins or studs ; and upon the rods g and ft, which extend from one of the bearing-standards to the other, MAKING AND FINISHING. 545 near the base of the same, are placed the loose belt-carry- ing pulleys i and j\ these pulleys being made capable of a sliding movement along the rods ; and' also upon a rod 7c, which extends from one of the bearing-standards to the other at the same height and parallel with the guide-rod O , is placed the loose pulley J. The weight E is provided with the upright ears m m, between which is pivoted the loose pulley o, and the opposite weight, E, is in like manner pro- vided with the loose pulley n. The narrow endless guide- belt F, when in its normal position, passes from the carriage- pulley / over the smaller end portion of the top roll B, thence downward from side to side between the smaller end portions of the rolls and under the bottom roll B, thence over the loose pulley j upon the rod 7i, then under the loose pulley o of the weight E, and upward to the pulley /. The narrow endless belt 6r, which runs over the rolls B in contact with the belt F, passes from the roll e.of the carriage JD over the smaller portion of the top roll B in contact with and above the belt F, thence downward with the belt F from side to side between the rolls B and outward over the loose pulley i upon the rod g, thence under the pulley n of the weight E' and upward to the loose pulley I upon the rod 7c, and thence over the loose carriage-pulley d to the pulley e, the belts F and G moving uniformly in the same direction between the rolls B B. Operation. — In guiding the paper into the calender-rolls the belts F and G are first moved from the smaller to the larger portion of the rolls by the lateral movement of the carriage D, by means of the shipper a. The paper fed 35 546 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. forward between the guiding-belts F and 6r, and upon the completion of its passage through the rolls of the carriage Z), is moved back to its* normal position, the guiding-belts being thus carried from the larger to the smaller portion of the rolls B B, the resulting slack of the belts F and G being taken up by the action of the weights E and E'. The calender-rolls are thus claimed to be rapidly threaded with- out danger to the workmen. The belt 6r, instead of running directly upon the belt F, may run side by side with it if preferred. Moistening the Paper. — When the web of paper leaves the driers it is usually too hard to receive the impression of the calenders as readily as if its surface were slightly humid, and the paper is consequently sometimes moistened with steam just before it passes through the calenders. The paper is dampened by means of a three-eighths inch pipe perforated with small holes about the size of the head of a pin ; this pipe is secured to the frames of the calenders a short distance below the sheet where it first enters. Some- times two pipes are employed, one on each side of the calenders, so as to dampen each side of the paper. Automatic devices are used for turning off the steam from the pipe in case the paper should break so as to prevent the rolls from getting wet. Moistening the Calender Rolls. Br excels Method. — Some- times it is desirable to moisten the calender-rolls of paper- making machines, the object being to heat the same from the exterior. The " steam condensing doctor" invented by Mr. Frank MAKING AND FINISHING. 547 Brewer, of Marseilles, 111., is shown in Figs. 165, 166, and 167, and it is designed to accomplish the purpose first named. Fig. 167. The device, besides performing the above-mentioned func- tions, acts as a doctor to remove any waste from the rolls and prevents them from clogging. Fig. 165 represents a side elevation of a stand of calender- rolls with Mr. Brewer's device attached. Fig. 166 is a transverse vertical section through the rolls and the device. Fig. 167 is a longitudinal view of one of the pipes of the device partly broken away and partly in section. A designates the frame, upon which the rolls a a are 548 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. journaled in proper bearings, the journals being designated by a' a'. bbb are pipes having their ends closed by the screw-caps having central circular openings, for a purpose hereafter explained. The caps may be secured in position, when screwed on the ends of the pipes by set-screws. Brackets are secured to the standards of the frame in such a position that pipes b, near their ends, rest in concave notches of the brackets, and may be firmly held therein by the set- screws which pass through the flanges of the notches. The brackets may be secured in place in any desirable manner, but are preferably secured by means of set-screws passing through the slots and entering the outer sides of the standards, thus making the brackets adjustable. The pipes b cross the frame A transversely, and are pre- ferably so situated as to lie adjacent to every second one of the smaller rolls a, as shown in Fig. 166, the axis of each roll and its corresponding pipe being in the same horizontal plane. Each pipe b has a longitudinal slot, the edges of which form a close joint against the surface of the roll. The slot does not extend the entire length of the pipe, its end being equally distant from the ends. The axis of the slot lies in the plane with those of the roll and pipe. G C are small steam-pipes running through the pipes b, passing through the openings in the caps and having their ends on one side closed. Their other ends are connected by proper couplings, ccc, to the steam-pipe C, Fig. 165, which takes steam from any suitable source of supply. MAKING AND FINISHING. 549 Each pipe (7, Fig. 166, has a longitudinal series of small equidistant openings, D, on the side facing the roll, and lying in the same plane as the axes of the roll and pipe. d d are discharge-pipes for water of condensation, which pipes depend from the pipes b on the side adjacent to the steam-pipe C . Steam being admitted through the pipes C G passes out of the openings D and fills the spaces E between the pipes b and (7, and as the rolls rotate heats and moistens them. The pipes b, on account of their contact to the rolls, act as doctors to the rolls to remove waste that might clog them. Newton's Method. — The essential feature of the invention of Mr. Moses Newton, of Holyoke, Mass., illustrated in Figs. 168 and 169, consists in the delivery of steam upon the sur- faces of the calender-rolls and in conveying running water to the interior of the rolls and thence out again, causing the condensation of the steam upon the surfaces of the rolls, thereby producing a polished surface on the paper as it passes over and between the calender-rolls. Fig. 168 shows a front elevation of an ordinary stack or series of calender-rolls provided with water and steam pipes in accordance with Mr. Newton's plan. Fig. 169 represents a vertical cross-section of the same. A illustrates the main frame of the apparatus ; B, the calender-rolls, arranged horizontally in the frame, as usual; (7, pipes arranged to deliver cold water into a greater or less number of the calender-rolls at one end ; D, pipes which carry off the water from the opposite end of the rolls, and E a steam-pipe having any desired' number of perforated 550 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. arms or branches extending along the outside of the rolls and delivering the steam thereon. Water may be admitted Fig. 168. Fig. 169. to all or any desired number of the rolls, and the steam may, in like manner, be delivered to a greater or less number of the rolls, as circumstances may require. In most cases the best results are secured by supplying water to the top rolls only and delivering steam upon the bottom rolls only. The steam condenses upon the surface of the rolls, damp- ening them slightly, but with perfect uniformity, and the consequence is that the rolls impart to the surface of the paper a much smoother finish and higher polish than can be attained by the ordinary mode of procedure. When the steam and water pipes bear the relation shown in the illus- MAKING AND FINISHING. 551 trations the condensation takes place gradually, but mainly upon the upper rolls, with which the steam comes in contact. Preventing the Burning or Injury by Heating of the Paper or Material of which the Calender- Rolls is composed. — As paper-calender rolls are ordinarily constructed, the great pressure to which they are subjected, together with the speed at which they revolve, operate to heat their bearings, as well as the rolls themselves, and they are often completely ruined from this cause, the heat being so intense as to burn and destroy the paper or material of which the rolls are composed, especially near their ends. The object of the invention of Mr. H. J. Frink, of Chi- copee, Mass., illustrated in Fig. 170, is to provide one or Fi2. 170. more internal annular chambers in the interior of a paper calender-roll, through which to force water to prevent the paper or material of which the roll is composed from being burned or injured by heating, and to keep the journal-bear- ings at as uniform temperature as possible. Fig. 1 TO is a sectional view of a calender-roll made accord- 552 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. ing to Mr. Frink's invention, at a plane on the line of its axis, with the extreme end of the shaft in section, showing the application of a stuffing-box thereto. The main shaft should be of suitable size to withstand the great pressure to which it is subjected, in which, near each end, is made an annular groove, 5, into one of which are fitted two half-collars, 6, with preferably a little space be- tween its ends, and another collar, 7, is shrunk on to these two half-collars 6, which keeps them solid and firm in their groove. A retaining-head, 8, is then fitted snugly and firmly on to the main shaft 3 and against the retaining-collar 6, and a series of rings, 4, are then shrunk on to the main shaft 3 at suitable distances from each other, each ring, except that at each end, having a recess in it, or perforation, extending through it transversely, as shown at 10, the end ring 4 being fitted snugly against the head 8. An orifice, 9, is made in each end of the shaft at its axis, and another one is made from the side just inside of the first ring 4, which communi- cates with the orifice 9, made at the axis of the shaft ; and a tube, 13, is either forced on to the rings 4 or shrunk thereon, so as to fit the exterior of the rings snugly, to give the tube a firm and solid bearing against each ring ; the space between the tube and the shaft thus forming one or more annular chambers or compartments — if more than one, com- municating with each other through the transverse perfora- tion or cavity in the dividing rings 4. After the tube 13 is fitted properly in place, the paper or other substance, 2, is forced upon the tube 13 and against the fixed head 8 by hydraulic pressure. The other head 8 MAKING AND FINISHING. 553 is then forced into place against the roll 2, and the other end half-collars 6 are placed in their groove 5, and the collar 7 is shrunk thereon, so that the heads 8, tube 13, and roll 2 are solidly in place, with the annular chambers or compart- ments 14 inside the tube and between the rings 4. If the roll is to be made very short for special purposes, there may be but one of these annular chambers, the orifice 9 at each end of the shaft opening into the same chamber ; but if the roll is to be longer, there may be several of these annular chambers or compartments, with the orifice 9 at each end of the shaft opening into the end chamber or compartment. The exterior surface of the roll 2 is then turned off and finished, and a pipe, 15, is connected with the orifice 9 in each end of the shaft 3 with any ordinary and well-known packing or stuffing-box attachment, as shown at 12, so that the roll may revolve and the pipe remain stationary, and the joint where the two are connected may be water-tight. The constant flow of water through the annular chambers, 14, between the tube and its shaft, it is claimed, keeps the whole of the roll 2 perfectly cool, so that it or its bearings never become heated to any appreciable or injurious extent. As this introduction of water into the roll operates to keep its journal-bearings at a more uniform degree of tempera- ture, it follows that the frictional bearing of the journals is also more uniform, inasmuch as there is little or no expan- sion of the metal of the journals, and no consequent increase of friction. It is evident that instead of securing or shrinking the rings 4 on to the shaft 3 the latter may be turned down, 554 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. leaving a series of annular projections or collars, having sub- stantially the same form as the rings 4. Method for the easy Removal and Replacement of Calen- der-Rolls. — Usually calender-rolls of paper, wood, or metal are used in a " stack" as it is called ; or a series placed one above another, have been kept in place within the frame, which is made open from the bottom roll to the top, the opening only large enough to receive the journal-boxes of the rolls, which are perhaps from four to five inches in dia- meter, while the roll itself is from six to fifteen inches in diameter. The pillow-block is always solid, with the open-sided frame cast with it, and holds the bearings in which the lower and usually largest cylinder runs, and to which the power is applied, and by the friction of which upon the one next above and resting on it gives motion to the whole com- posing the stack. Calender-housings having been constructed in this way, it became necessary, whenever it was required to remove rolls for " turning-ofP or for any purpose, to hoist them up and out at the top one by one, even to the last one at the bottom, which is the driving-roll, and very heavy, weighing often several tons, making the removal of any of the lower ones especially a long, tedious, and expensive operation, and not unaccompanied with danger. The pressure upon the rolls has usually been applied by a screw or weighted lever working upon the upper roll, and it has been proposed to use, instead of this device, a cushion of steam or water or some other fluid, to be forced to any MAKING AND FINISHING. 555 extent needed into a tight cylinder having a piston the rod of which, bearing upon the cap of the upper journal-box when the cylinder is charged, shall hold the rolls firmly down, and at the same time allow a slight recoil if anything of an improper thickness passes between the rolls. In this connection we illustrate in Figs. 171 and 172 the invention of Mr. George E. Marshall, of Turner's Falls, Mass. Fig. 171 is a front view of a "stack" of cylinder- rolls. Fig. 172 is an end view of the same. Fig. 171. A represents the frame of heavy cast-iron holding the rolls, having between the sides an opening wide enough to allow the withdrawal of the rolls ; and these sides, near the bottom, are expanded in their breadth, and correspondingly in the opening, wide enough to allow of the withdrawal of the bottom or driving-roll. This frame has cast on it a base of 556 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. sufficient width and thickness to sustain solidly the rolls, when it is bolted to the floor. G shows the boxes, each pair of which holds the journals of the respective rolls, and are of a peculiar construction, made in several parts, so that they can be taken to pieces and removed from the frame without disturbing the roll. Fig. 172. trunnions D, which enter the adjustable sliding sides of the boxes. G represents the end of the journal 7, the roll, having between it and the trunnion-box steel rings or washers. MAKING AND FINISHING. 557 The trunnion-box can be turned and adjusted in any way or removed with ease by slipping the sliding boxes on the trunnions. Through the sides of the frame, holes are drilled under each box, to allow a pin to be put in to sustain the boxes when it is necessary to remove any roll below them. C is the upper roll, larger than the others, and upon the boxes of which the pressure is applied from the cylinders and pistons and piston-rods above them, to keep the rolls to a close pressure. D' is a steam-tight cylinder, one over each end of the rolls into the top of which steam is forced by a pipe T. Within each cylinder is a piston, D" , both having on their under sides piston-rods, which, when steam is let into the cylinder above the pistons, are forced down upon the boxes of the upper roll, thus giving the desired pressure. The steam is let on through the pipe I 7 , and the pressure is controlled by steam-cocks. Entering the side of each cylinder D' about midway is a discharge-pipe, K, for taking off the water of condensation through a steam-trap. H' is a pipe, with a trap, for drawing off any water that by leakage may accumulate under the piston. L L are yokes bolted into the caps and passing down under each roll as it is required to be raised. G' is a pillow-block, which sustains the lower or driving roll in the stack. This is bolted to the base of the frame of the calender-stack, but so that it can be removed by reliev- ing it of the pressure of the rolls. 558 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Stripping Sheets of Paper from off the last Roller of Calendering Machines. — The stripping-fingers for stripping the sheets of paper from off the last roller of calendering machines as usually made are secured to one rod and their ends caused to press against the roller by means of a weight or spring actuating the rod. The fingers are rigid on the rod as regards lateral movement, and consequently bear always on the same parts of the roller, which necessitates frequent refitting of the same by grinding ; otherwise these grooves mark the paper being calendered. This objectionable feat- ure in calendering machines may be overcome by makiug the stripping-fingers independent in their action on the last roller by securing them to separate blocks provided with adjustable weights to cause the fingers to bear indepen- dently with the proper force against the roller, and the blocks have open bearings, by which they are placed on a fixed rod, thus enabling each finger to be moved laterally, so that its end may bear on different parts of the roller, thus causing an even wear to the surface of the roller. The fingers may be moved laterally, as desired, by the attendant while the machine is in operation, or taken off and placed and arranged on the fixed bar, to suit the sizes of the sheets of paper being calendered. In this connection we illustrate in Fig. 173 the invention of Mr. John McLaughlin, of Lee, Mass. Fig. 173 represents an elevation of a calendering-machine with the independent detachable fingers in position to strip the paper from off the last roller. MAKING AND FINISHING. 559 Only sufficient of a calendering-machine is shown to illustrate the application of the improved stripping-fingers. a a are the side frames, and Z>, c, and d the rollers, d is the last roller and it is against this that the stripping-fingers e e bear to discharge the paper from it into the receiving-box. Three stripping-fingers only are here shown, it of course being understood that the number of them will depend on the size of the machine and quality and size of the paper being calendered. Fig. 173. Fig. 173 illustrates the essential features of Mr. McLaugh- lin's invention. The finger e is secured in an angular position to the block or head / by means of a screw, which passes through a slot in the lower end of the finger to enable the upper end, which is tapered off to a sharp edge, so as to lie close to the roller d, to be set in line with the ends of 560 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the other fingers, to strip the paper evenly off the roller d. The head or block / has an open bearing, by which it rests on the fixed rod g, secured in brackets from the side frames a a ; and projecting from its sides in a horizontal position under the free end of the finger e is a rod which may be cast with the block or head /, or be screwed or driven in a hole therein ; and on this rod is placed a pressure-weight secured thereto by a screw. The position in which this weight is set on the rod determines the pressure of the end of the finger against the roller d. Each finger, with its carrying block or head / and pressure-weight, being inde- pendent, and merely resting on the fixed rod g, it will be observed may be set to bear on any part of the roller d desired, and be shifted about, so as to prevent grooves being worn in the roller, and also be readily removed from and replaced on the rod g, according to the number required to properly strip the sheets of paper from the roller d. We have shown tapes i i on small pulleys f i\ arranged and adapted to convey the paper off the fingers e e into a receptacle, placed under the lower pulleys jfc 2 , but the recep- tacle is not shown in the illustrations. Plate Calenders. — Prior to the introduction of the method of glazing paper in super-calenders, the paper was first cut into sheets and passed through plate calenders. Plate calenders are still used to a considerable extent in English and Continental mills ; but there are probably not two mills in the United States where they are now employed. With these calenders the paper to be glazed is laid in single sheets between zinc or copper plates until a pile of MAKING AND FINISHING. 561 about twenty-five sheets of paper are so arranged, and this stack of alternate sheets of paper and metallic plates is then passed forward and backward between the rollers, under great pressure, until the polished surface of the plates com- municates a gloss to the paper. If a very highly calendered surface is desired the plates are frequently changed and the paper relaid between them. Fig. 174 shows a side elevation of a plate calender; it con- sists of two solid iron press rolls, B B, mounted in a frame- work, A. Pressure is applied to the top roll by means of levers and weights. Fig. 174. In operating this form of calender the stock of paper and plates is first deposited on the table in front of the rolls and is then pushed forward until the rolls take a " bite" on the stack and carry it through the rolls, the stack then comes in contact with a shifting device which reverses the motion of the rolls and carries the stack backward through the rolls. 36 562 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Catting and Rolling. — After the paper has been wound up at the end of the drier it is trimmed and slit so as to pro- duce the width of web required. The usual form of paper cutter employed in British and Continental mills as well as in many of the mills of the United States is shown in Fig. 175, and it cuts from six to eight webs at one time. Fig. 175. The webs of paper to be operated upon are shown at a «, from whence they are led between the leading rolls b b through the feeding rolls c c, which latter are driven, by means of the change pulley d, at such a rate of speed that the paper is fed to the revolving knife at the precise speed requisite to produce the exact length of sheet required. The paper after passing the feeding rolls c c travels on to the slitting-knives e, which are circular revolving knives which slit the paper into the required width. From the slitting-knives e the web travels through the drawing rolls / / to the revolving knive g, which, pressing MAKING AND FINISHING. 563 down with sufficient sheering force against the dead knive g\ cuts the web of paper crosswise into the required length of sheet. The dimensions of the sheet of paper may be increased or diminished by changing the diameter of the expanding pulley h and the change pulley d. After being cut, the sheets of paper fall upon the endless felt i and are carried forward to the table where they are arranged by boys or girls. Cutting Water-Marked Paper. — In machines for cutting water-marked paper a greater degree of nicety in the adjust- ment is necessary than in the revolving cutters. A form of single sheet paper-cutter adapted for cutting water-marked paper is shown in Fig. 176. Fig. 176. The paper after passing through the slitting-knives A, which are similar to those of the revolving cutter shown jn 564 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Fig. 175, it passes over the measuring drum (7, which by a crank arrangement, D has imparted to it an oscillatory movement and can be adjusted to draw the exact quantity of paper forward for the length of sheet required. The paper is made to adhere to the drum by means of the gripper rolls F F, arranged so as to rise and fall as the drum oscillates, while the dancing roll B keeps the web at a uniform tension. By means of the knife /, the paper is cut into sheets ; this knife is connected with cranks and links, 6r, and is supported by the link rods H H working horizontally with a swinging motion against the dead knife K. At the same time clamp L holds the web in position. The sheets to be cut may be seen hanging down at the dotted lines M. The sheets are then arranged by boys or girls in the usual way. On account of the great amount of attention which this cutter requires it is only employed when extreme accuracy is necessary. The question is often asked, " What style of cutter is best adapted to cut the paper into sheets directly off the machine V 9 In reply we probably cannot do better than to quote the answer to the above question which was made by the ' Paper Trade Journal' as follows: — " Either a good dog cutter or a continuous feed cone- pulley cutter will cut, in good condition, say 6000 pounds of paper per day of twenty-four hours. If the production is greater, the cutter ought to be separate from the machine and the paper should be run on rolls and then carried to the cutter, and the paper from six to eight rolls should be cut MAKING AND FINISHING. 565 off at one time. When the machine is speeded to make four to seven tons of paper per day, the machine tender has not time to attend to the cutter, and, in fact, there is no cutter made that will do the work as it ought to be done, at the speed necessary. The best cutters will make from twenty to twenty-four cuts per minute if they are kept in the best possible condition, and this is as fast as girls can sort and lay the paper properly. It is, therefore, better to put in two cutting machines and run them slow enough to secure good work and to cut all of the paper in daytime. If the paper is made up into large rolls, a sufficient quantity is run on a large reel, which is then removed from the machine and an empty one substituted, and while it is being filled the one just removed is run through the winder, which trims the edges, cuts the paper in proper width, and winds it up on wooden rolls or spools. The winder is simply the cutting machine divested of the cross-cut knife and all superfluous rolls. One or two shafts, as the case may be, are added with suitable framework; the spools are put on these shafts and held in place by collars and set screws ; the shafts are driven by friction motion of the same power that drives the reel on the machine. The spools must be of exactly the same diameter, since, if they are not, the paper will wind loose and uneven on the smaller, while that being wound on the larger, having all the strain to bear, will be likely to break, and even when the spools are on different shafts, and each is driven by its own friction belt, it is difficult to make the rolls uniform. For the purpose of overcoming this difficulty Messrs. J. and W. Jolly, of Holyoke, have built a 566 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. driver, consisting of a combination of pulleys and bevel gears which permit the use of spools of different diameters, and it is likely to prove the best means yet devised for driving the winder. Inasmuch as many of these rolls are made large and heavy, it is necessary that they should be wound solidly in order that they shall be able to withstand the inevitable rough handling which they receive in transportation from the mill to the printing house, and the rewinding they are subjected to for the purpose of wetting down previous to being printed*" Defects in Apparatus in common use for Winding the Cut Web of Paper into Rolls. — In apparatus for winding the cut web of paper into rolls there has been a great draw- back, in the form of the impossibility of equalizing the speed of the several rolls in such a manner that rolls of different diameters can be revolved at different speeds corresponding to their respective diameters and still be driven from the same main shaft, so that the paper after it is cut into strips may be wound evenly upon all the rolls regardless of their diameters. If this drawback could be overcome there would be accomplished a great saving in the manufacture of paper, inasmuch as in machinery heretofore used it has been neces- sary to remove as much good paper from the other rolls as damaged paper from one roll in case. the paper on one roll should be damaged by some accident or other. It is also desirable that a new roll may be started while the paper is still being wound upon the other rolls. Manning's Machine. — By the use of the apparatus illus- trated in Fig. 177 the inventor, Mr. John J. Manning, of MAKING AND FINISHING. 567 Great Barrington, Mass., claims that all the objections which have been named are overcome, and, in short, that the several rolls and their shafts may be revolved at a speed cor- responding to their diameter, and that the result is performed automatically. Fig. 177. Fig. 177 is a side elevation of as much of a paper-making machine as is necessary to illustrate Mr. Manning's improve- ment. A indicates the roll of paper, which is to be cut in suit- able widths to be wound upon the rolls, and the web passes from the roll A under a roller or cylinder, B, then upward over a small roller, C, between the revolving shears or cutters Z), which cut the web into suitable widths, and between two rollers or cylinders, E and F, from which rollers the several webs or strips of paper pass down to their respective rolls, which are wound each upon a shaft, 6r, journaled transversely in bearings in the frame of the machine, the bearings being of such a construction that the shafts may be lifted out of their bearings. The shafts, of which there are as many as there are rolls to be wound and webs of paper cut, have 568 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. small pinions secured upon them inside of the bearings, which pinions mesh with pinions secured upon the ends of shafts which are provided with pulleys, K, or similar gears, such as cog-wheels. In the illustration the gears K are shown as pulleys hav- ing belts passing over them, and we shall refer to the gears as pulleys in this description. Belts, Z, pass over the pulleys, and each pair of belts of adjoining pulleys pass over two pulley-rims, M, forming parts of Manning's improved equali- zing-pulley. Both of these equalizing pulleys, JV, with their two rims, are placed upon shafts, 0, which have common pulleys or gears, over which pass belts, which again pass over the two rims of an equalizing-pulley, i£, upon the drive or power shaft S. In the illustration there are shown four rolls, and conse- quently four shafts, and therefore two equalizing-pulleys, iV, are shown, and one equalizing-pulley upon the drive- shaft, and it follows that if more than four shafts are used the number of equalizing-pulleys, jV, is increased at the rate of one pulley for each pair of shafts and belts, and the number of equalizing-pulleys, J?, is increased at the rate of one for each pair or less of equalizing-pulleys, N, each of which pairs of equalizing-pulleys are again provided with suitable belting, which passes to another equalizing-pulley, the pulleys having separate shafts and belt-pulleys, the number of equalizing-pulleys decreasing gradually by divi- sion with two in the number of pulleys until one equalizing- pulley is reached, which is placed upon the drive-shaft. It follows that if an uneven number of rolls and shafts is used, MAKING AND FINISHING. 569 one of the pulleys, N, will only have one belt passing over it and will have the two rims revolving together, the manner of connecting the rims being described hereafter. If only two shafts and rolls are used, one equalizing-pulley only is used. In this manner it will be seen that these pulleys serve as equalizers for the several shafts revolving in concert, auto- matically regulating the speed according to the tension upon the several pulleys. It follows that, although these pulleys are especially adapted to and intended for paper-cutting apparatus for paper-making machinery, the pulleys may be used in any other machinery, in which it is desirable to automatically regulate the speed of pulleys or cog-wheels according to the tension upon them. By using these pul- leys any damaged part of the web winding upon one roll may be removed, and the roll started again without the necessity of removing any paper from the other rolls so as to equalize their thickness and consequently their speed of revolution, or a roll may be removed and a new roll started while the other rolls continue to wind the paper upon the large rolls already formed. Dangoise's Machine. — There has of late years been invented a large number of machines for trimming, slitting, and roll- ing paper. Dangoise's machine, which the writer has seen in practical operation in Belgium, is an ingenious contrivance for trimming, slitting, and rolling paper, and we illustrate the machine in Figs. 178 and 179. Fig. 178 is a side elevation of the machine and Fig. 179 a front view. 570 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. To bearings on the opposite side frames of the machine are adapted the journals of a drum, H, which is driven, through the medium of suitable gear-wheels, from the driving-shaft, carrying the smoothing-roller C. On the Fig. 178. Fig. 179. drum H rests the roller E on to which the continuous sheets of paper, after they are cut are wound, the journals of this roller being adapted to bearings arranged in guides Pin the opposite side frames of the machine. To these guides are also adapted plates, which form bearings for three rollers, D, G, and F, the two former being arranged to rest on the rolls of paper, which are wound on the roller E, while the roller F carries a series of circular cutting knives, Fig. 179, arranged at points corresponding with the width of paper MAKING AND FINISHING. 571 desired to be cut. The edges of these knives are adapted to corresponding grooves in the roller D, and on the roller G are arranged a series of blades, corresponding in position to the knives on the roller E, for a purpose explained hereafter. The cutter-roll Fis driven from a vertical shaft, M, through bevel-wheels, o o, receiving motion from the driving-shaft through suitable gearing. The front plates, iV, of the guides Pare removable, so that the roll E may be withdrawn when it is desired to remove the rolls of paper from the roller E. The plates which form the bearings for the rollers EDO have secured to them vertical racks, K Z, controlled by pin- ions on a horizontal shaft, furnished with retaining-pawls and ratchets, so that the rollers may be raised to any desired height after the required amount of paper has been wound on the roller E. The roll A of paper to be cut is arranged on the lower part of the frame, as is shown in Fig. 178, and immediately above this roll is the stretcher or tension device X, so secured to the opposite side frames that it can be adjusted to different angles to vary the tension. This stretcher carries two bars, B and B\ the paper from the roll A first passing over the bar B and under the bar B\ and thence over the roll (7, which, being caused to rotate in a direction opposite to that pursued by the paper, smooths the paper and removes all creases therefrom. The paper then passes over the roller D and between the latter and the cutter-roll E, by which the paper is cut into a number of strips of the required width, these strips being wound by means of the drum H on to 572 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. metal or wooden bobbins arranged on the roller E. The rollers D G, resting on the rolls of paper as they are wound on to the bobbins, give the required tension and pressure to the paper, while the rings or blades Q on the roller G, entering between the strips of paper as they are wound into rolls, guide the strips and insure the formation of even and compact rolls. If desired, the cutting-knives on the roll F, except those at the ends for trimming the edges of the paper, may be dispensed with, in which case the blades Q on the roller G are so constructed as to cut the paper to the proper widths as it is wound on to the roller E, these blades thus serving the purpose of both cutting and guiding the paper. Finishing Paper. After being cut, and, if necessary, calendered, the paper is sorted, or, in other words, it is examined sheet by sheet, and all soiled or torn sheets are thrown out. It is next counted into quires and reams, each quire containing twenty-four sheets, and each ream twenty quires. The appearance, and consequently the market value, of the paper when finished depends very greatly upon those who have charge of this department. Carelessness of any kind in handling and finishing the paper should not be tolerated. In putting up the sheets into quires, half-reams, and reams, it should always be re- membered that buyers pay a great deal for "fancy" in this world. A neat and attractive package of stationery will catch the eye of a purchaser much more quickly than one LIST OF PATENTS RELATING TO PAPER-MAKING MACHINES. 573 that is not so invitingly finished, and although the material in the latter is identically the same as in the former package, the attractively finished paper will be the more valuable for the reason that it commands a quicker sale. American paper-manufacturers usually appreciate this point, but British manufacturers, as a rule, seem to pay little attention to it. When the paper is sent out in web too much care cannot be given to tightly reeling it and keeping the edges even, thus imparting to it a neat and finished appearance, which makes it more desirable and salable, as there results economy in both the printing and in the cutting. List of Patents relating to Paper-making Machines, issued by the Govern- ment of the United States of America, from 1790 to 1885 inclusive. No. Date. Inventor. Jan. 23, 1833. W. Cole. Feb. 20, 1836. C. Forbes. 1,059 Dec. 31, 1838. J. M. Hollingsworth. 1,336 Sept 25, 1839. W. and A. L. Knight and E. F. Condit. 5,041 March 27, 1847. L. W. Wright. 5,671 July 18, 1848. G. L. Wright. 6,337 April 7, 1849. J. M. Hollingsworth. 8,698 Jan. 27, 1852. G. W. Turner. 10,519 Feb. 14, 1854. S. G. Levis. 12,027 ) Dec. 5, 1854. O. Marland. 12,028 J 13,913 Dec. 11, 1855. C. D. Jones. 14,621 April 8, 1856. P. H. Wait. 15,852 Oct. 7, 1856. J. Kinsey. 16,430 Jan. 20, 1857. J. S. Blake. 17,663 June 30, 1857. E. M. Bingham. 17,817 Aug. 4, 1857. P. Clark. 19,045 Jan. 5, 1858. S. Rossman. 21,008 July 27, 1858. F. Lindsay and W. Geddes. 21,768 Oct. 12, 1858. J. and R. McMurray. 26,387 Oct. 12, 1858. T. Vandeventer. 31,215 Jan. 22, 1861. G. J. Wheeler, G. N. Dunnell, and W. Sharp. 574 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. Inventor. 34,633 March 11, 1862. J. Harper. 38,684 May 26, 1863. J. F. Jones. 38,698 May 26, 1863. G. E. Rutledge. 39,500 Aug. 11, 1863. J. L. Seaverns. 41,102 Jan. 5, 1864. G. E. Sellers. 42,854 May 24, 1864. R. L. Howe. 42,896 May 24, 1864. J. B. Wortendyke. Reissues ) 1,817 May 24, 1864. >J. B. Wortendyke. 1,818 J 43,280 June 28, 1864. F. Baker. 43,860 Aug. 16, 1864. S. Nowlan. 44,059 Sept. 6, 1864. A. Anderson. 45,149 Nov. 22, 1864. E. N. Foote. 46,405 Feb. 14, 1865. J. P. Tice. 48,347 June 20, 1865. J. Shanlan. 50,323 Oct. 10, 1865. S. W. Baker. 51,293 Dec. 5, 1865. H. Chapman. 53,991 April 17, 1866. C. Lang. 58,051 Sept. 18, 1866. E. B. Bingham. 59,661 Nov. 13, 1866. S. G. and G. S. Rogers. 62,958 March 19, 1867. R. L. Howe. 63,939 April 16, 1867. E. O. Potter. 70,534 Nov. 5, 1867. E. Curtis. 71,10,8 Nov. 19, 1867. E. AVilmot. 72,564 Dec. 24, 1867. F. Thing. 79,659 July 7, 1868-. J. Jennings. 82,854 Oct. 6, 1868. A. B. Lowell. 83,165 Oct. 20, 1868. A. Howland. 83,616 | Nov 3 1868 E. T. Ford. 83,617 ) 84,235 Nov. 17, 1868. J. Viney. 85,157 Dec. 22, 1868. J. Wrinkle. 88,035 March 23, 1869. S. Gwynn. 89,132 April 20, 1869. A. T. Dennison. 89,766 May 4, 1869. C. Hofmann. 90,711 June 1, 1869. J. W. White. 90,898 June 1, 1869. C. B. Van Walkenburgh. 91,842 June 29, 1869. R. C. Harris. 92,161 July 6, 1869. W. Campbell. 92,303 July 6, 1869. G. F. Goetzie. 92,596 July 15, 1869. E. F. Ford. 95,153 Sept. 21, 1869. J. P. Sherwood. LIST OF PATENTS RELATING TO PAPER-MAKING MACHINES. 575 No. Date. 100,755 March 15, 1870. 101,345 March 29, 1870. 102,265 April 26, 1870. 102,754 May 10, 1870. 104,281 June 14, 1870. 106,134 Aug. 9, 1870. 106,179 Aug. 9, 1870. 109,552 Nov. 22, 1870. 111,081 Jan. 17, 1871. 111,496 Jan. 31, 1871. 111,751 Feb. 14, 1871. 112,422 March 7, 1871. 118,624 Aug. 29, 1871. 123,573 Feb. 13, 1872. 124,881 JYlarcn 26, 1872. 127,463 June 4, 1872. 128,469 July 2, 1872. 131,103 oept. 3, 1872. 131,732 Oct. 1, 1872. 134,810 Jan. 14, 1873. 138,173 April 22, 1873. 140,418 July 1, 1873. 141,358 July 29, 1873. 144,172 Sept. 11, 1873. 143,801 Oct. 21, 1873. 144,902 Nov. 25, 1873. 146,520 Nov. 25, 1873. 149,381 April 7, 1874. 150,545 May 5, 1874. 152,216 June 23, 1874. 153,277 July 21, 1874. 155,027 Sept. 15, 1874. 158,204 Dec. 29, 1874. 158,400 Jan. 5, 1875. 160,175 Feb. 23, 1875. 164,468 Dec. 1, 1874. 164,81 4 June 22, 1875. 166,122 July 27, 1875. 167,574 Sept. 7, 1875. 168,746 Oct. 11, 1875. 174,369 March 7, 1876. 175,724 April 4, 1876. 176,344 April 18, 1876. Inventor. W. W. Harding. G. S. Barton. I. Hoffman. W. H. Beasdale. L. Dodge. L. Dean. C. P. Leavitt. P. Scanlan. C. A. Pease. M. and A. Waissnix and C. A. Shecker. R. A. Kelly. D. Crosby. C. McBurney and L. Hollingsworth. James F. Marshall. J. Burns and J. Campbell. L. M. Crane. F. Curtis. M. J. Kearney. C. J. Bradbury. M. Lawler. W. McLaughlin. R. Hutton. N. Keely. C. Whealan. J. Whitehead. D. Hamel. B. F. Field. G. Dunn and R. Mc Alpine. L. A. Duckett. C. W. Cronk. B. G. Read. R. Hutton. B. F. Eaton. J. Butler. J. L. Firm. R. McMurray. C. L. Crum. M. Matthews. S. Sellers. J. W. Huested. A. W. Keeney. A. McDermid. C. O. Perrine. 576 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. Inventor. 179,161 June 27, 1876. W. Conquest. 181,921 Sept. 5, 1876. J. H. DeWitt. 183,112 Oct. 10, 1876. C. T. Bischoff. 185,536 Dec. 19, 1876. G. Howland. 194,582 Aug. 28, 1877. L. Cole. 195,698 Oct. 2, 1877. W. Buchanan and C. Smith. 195,821 Oct. 2, 1877. P. W. Hudson. 196,542 Oct. 30, 1877. D. Scrymgeour. 196,634 Oct. 30, 1877. M. H. Cornell. 197,004 Nov. 13, 1877. J. Bacon. 197,502 Nov. 27, 1877. J. A. Turner and J. T. Stoneham. 199,359 Jan. 22, 1878. J. Dunbar. 200,209 Feb. 12, 1878. G. W. Lewthwaite. 200,309 Feb. 12, 1878. G. F. Jones. 200,337 Feb. 12, 1878. F. Phillips. 200,367 Feb. 12, 1878. J. A. White. 200,369 Feb. 12, 1878. C. Young. 201,757 March 26, 1878. J. W. Dixon. 206,106 ) Tnl \r 1 (X 1 Q7Q T T4 it nil v . ij.aicn. 206,107 i 207,287 Aug. 20, 1878. F. A. B. Koons. 208,792 Oct. 8, 1878. H. Burgess. 209,003 Oct. 15, 1878. C. Young. 210,097 Nov. 19, 1878. O. W. Clark. 211,991 Feb. 4, 1879. J. O. Gregg. 211,362 Feb. 18, 1879. G. Dunn and F. Hollister. 212,485 Feb. 18, 1879. J. W. Moose. 215,422 May 13, 1879. G. Wilson and A. Raymond. 215,946 May 27, 1879. J. T. F. McDonald. " 216,696 June 17, 1879. J. Peaslee. 216,914 June 24, 1879. W. S. Tyler. 218,003 July 29, 1879. J. Dunbar. 222,353 Dec. 9, 1879. E. B. Hayden. 223,918 Jan. 27, 1880. N. Kaiser. Reissue 10,074 April 4, 1882. 223,381 Jan. 6, 1880. W. C. Phelps. 225,141 March 2, 1 880. J. Jordan and C. C. Markle. 225,609 March 16, 1880. J. Jamison. 226,609 April 20, 1880. H. Hay ward. 229,636 July 6, 1880. S. Pusey. 230,029 July 13, 1880. A. McDermid. 231,038 Aug. 10, 1880. J. J. Harris. LIST OF PATENTS RELATING TO PAPER-MAKING MACHINES. No. Date. Inventor. 231,169 Aug. 17, 1880. G. Holloway. 231,579 Aug. 24, 1880. G. Holloway. 232,031 Sept. 7, 1880. J. H. Henry. 237,021 Jan. 25, 1881. R. Hutton. 237,047 Jan. 25, 1881. C. B. Rice. 239,275 March 22, 1881. J. M. Shew. 241,522 May 17, 1881. P. Ambjorn. 242,815 June 14, 1881. C. W. Cronk. 246,799 Sept. 6, 1881. C. W. Mace. 247,844 Oct. 4, 1881. G. H. Moore. 248,001 Oct. 4, 1881. C. C. Wool worth. 249,992 Nov. 22, 1881. J. Randall. 252,050 Jan. 10, 1882. D. McKay. 255,867 April 4, 1882. R. Hutton. 256,047 April 4, 1882. J. Randall. 258,710 May 30, 1882. C. M. Burnett. 258,937 June 6, 1882. M. A. Martin. 259,391 June 13, 1882. B. A. Hickox. 260,172 June 27, 1882. F. Curtis. 260,356 July 4, 1882. T. P. Barry. 260,988 July 11 j, 1882. W. O. Jacobs. 263,012 Aug. 22, 1882. J. B. Bird. 266,307 Oct 24, 1882. C. Pareus. 267,704 Nov. 21, 1882. J. J. Manning. 268,276 Nov. 28, 1882. R. W. Perkins. 270,718 Jan. 16, 1883. J. Albey. 274,483 May 27, 1883. G. Garceau. 275,056 April 3, 1883. G. E. Marshall. 276,127 April 17, 1883. C. Young. 280,123 June 26, 1883. C. Batter. 280,555 July 3, 1883. H. A. Barber. 280,564 July 3, 1883. I. Bratton. 281,034 July 10, 1883. L. Dejonge. 282,096 July 31, 1883. J. J. Manning. 284,273 Sept. 4, 1883. G. R. Caldwell. 285,838 Oct. 2, 1883. S. Pember and S. Bird. 285,954 Oct. 2, 1883. T. P. Barry. 286,587 Oct. 16, 1883. H. F. Chase. 288,152 Nov. 6, 1883. M. Sembritzki. 289,675 Dec. 4, 1883. H. Marsden and H. Schofield. 291,406 Jan. 1, 1884. H. Sawyer. 293,471 Feb. 12, 1884. G. Kaffenberger. 293,785 Feb. 19, 1884. W. H. and W. S. Ravenscroft. 37 578 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. No. Date. Inventor. 293,870 Feb. 19, 1884. J. J. Harris. 29G,083 April 1, 1884. J. V. Stenger. 296,222 April 1, 1884. B. A. Schubiger. 297,702 April 29, 1884. G. E. Marshall. 297,775 April 29, 1884. J. L. Firm. 298,562 May 13, 1884. F. W. Bunnell. 298,634 May 13, 1884. T. Stewart. 301,596 July 8, 1884. R. W. Hopking. 301,732 July 8, 1884. D. Lock wood. 303,404 Aug. 12, 1884. C. Smith. 304,091 Aug. 26, 1884. W. J. Foley. 305,615 Sept. 23, 1884. J. J. Manning. o05, 824 oept. oU, ioo4. wr "n Trifle nr .A t? t i t?;ii;^ vv . u. lvites ana rj. u. r alio. ouy, uoo O • O la II . 312,314 Feb. 17, 1885. C. Young. 313,994 March 17, 1885. J. Crossley. 316,221 April 21, 1885. H. A. Barber. 318,378 May 19, 1885. W. Leishman. 319,567 June 9, 1885. G. Dunn. 319,615 ) June 9, 1885. F. C. Plume. 319,616 J 319,969 June 16, 1885. M. Fitzgibbons. 320,372 June 16, 1885. J. F. 1 . MacDonnell. 321,312 June 30, 1885. W. A. Philpott, Jr. 323,079 July 28, 1885. J. F. Seiberling. 324,601 Aug. 18, 1885. R. Smith. 325,165 Aug. 25, 1885. W. A. Fletcher and W. E. Keightley 325,973 Sept. 8, 1885. M. J. Roach. 329,610 Nov. 3, 1885. C. Smith. THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 579 CHAPTER XVI. THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPERS. Asbestos or amianthus paper consists usually of two parts of paper pulp and one of amianthus. It is distinguished from ordinary paper by its color, having a yellowish tint. When burned in a flame it leaves a white residue, which, when not violently shaken, retains the form of the paper, and upon which the writing, provided ink containing sulphate of iron has been used, can be traced and deciphered with some trouble by the yellow marks left behind. Expe- riments in the manufacture of asbestos paper have been made in the United States, where beds of amianthus have been discovered and the price of the material is low. The asbestos used in the United States is in part mined here, in part imported. In this country the mineral is found in very many localities, but usually in pockets or other small deposits. In most cases of occurrence the amount is not sufficient to warrant the expenditure of the capital necessary for opening the deposits ; consequently the number of occurrences is far greater than that of operated mines. The following are the leading localities at which this mineral is obtained : the towns of Brighton, Sheffield, Pelham, and Winsdor, Massachusetts ; Richmond County 580 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. and elsewhere in New York ; near New Brunswick, New Jersey ; near Media and Colerain, Pennsylvania ; in the western part of Maryland ; Hanover and Loudon counties, Virginia ; western North Carolina ; northwestern South Carolina ; Rabun and Fulton counties, Georgia ; Butte, Fresno, Los Angeles, Tulare, Mariposa, Placer, and Inyo counties, California. It is reported also from Dakota, Wyoming, Colorada, Utah, and Nevada. This list of occur- rences might be increased indefinitely, as the mineral is by no means an uncommon one. The annual production in 1883 and 1884 was about 1000 short tons. The price in New York ranged from $15 to $40 per ton, the price varying with the quality. The American asbestos is usually characterized by a short fibre, and by being somewhat brittle and harsh. These qualities, while unfitting it to a greater or less extent for such uses as the manufacture of rope, cloth, etc., in which a long fibre is required, do not greatly injure it for the manufacture of paper. Imported asbestos comes mainly from the province of Quebec, Canada, and is perhaps the best for general uses. The better qualities of the Quebec asbestos bring $75 to $100 per ton in New York, while the price of the poorer grades ranges as low as $40 per ton. For the manufacture of drop- curtains for theatres, etc., Italian asbestos is principally used, as it has a long, silky, tough fibre, well fitted for the purpose. This brings in New York from $100 to $250 per ton. A demand has lately sprung up for asbestos paper for insulation of electric wires. Sheathing paper is also largely made from asbestos. THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 581 Carbolic acid paper is prepared with 3| ounces of carbolic acid to the square foot. It is used for disinfecting purposes, and also for packing fresh meat. The process of preparing it is as follows : Melt at a moderate heat 5 parts of stearine, 6 of paraffine, and 2 of carbolic acid. Apply the melted mixture to the paper with a brush. A still more effective paper, and which can be used for a great many purposes, is obtained by the use of a smaller quantity of nitric acid in place of carbolic acid, the remainder of the process being the same. Improved Cigarette Paper. — Tobacco leaves are ground to an impalpable powder which is sifted in a box upon a moistened sheet of cigarette paper. The sheet thus prepared is covered with another sheet and brought under a press. Other sheets treated in the same manner are placed upon these and the whole finally subjected to strong pressure, whereby the tobacco-powder is intimately united with the moist paper. After remaining in the press for 12 to 24 hours the paper is removed and is ready for use. By a suitable mixture the color, flavor, and smell of the various kinds of tobacco can be successfully imitated. Paper thus prepared burns uniformly, never on one side only, and does not char. Colored Paper for Tying up Bottles^ etc. — The dry aniline colors of all shades are used. Dissolve 15 grains of aniline color in 1 ounce of highly rectified alcohol, dilute the solu- tion with 10 ounces of distilled water, and add 23 grains of tannin dissolved in \ fluid ounce of alcohol. The object of the addition of tannin is to fix the color permanently upon 582 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. the fibres of the paper, as without it the color on drying could be easily rubbed off. Now take thin white writing- paper, spread it upon a marble or copper plate, and apply the fluid by means of a sponge. Hang the paper over a cord to dry, and in a few days varnish it with a concentrated solution of sodium water-glass to 100 parts of which have been added 10 parts of glycerine. Cork paper, patented in America by H. Felt & Co., is prepared by coating one side of a thick, soft, and flexible paper with a preparation of 20 parts of glue, 1 of gelatine, and 3 of molasses, and covering it with fine particles of cork lightly rolled on. The material is used for packing glass, bottles, etc. Electro-chemical Telegraph Paper, Pouget-Maisonneuve's. — Sufficiently sized paper is treated with a solution of 5 parts of ferrocyanide of potassium and 150 of salammoniac in 100 of water. Telegrams received by means of this paper and Morse's apparatus, before the present system of receiv- ing by sound was introduced, gave very satisfactory results. Emery Paper. — Fig. 180 represents Edwards's patented apparatus used in the manufacture of emery, sand, glass, and similar papers, a is the beam on which the endless "paper is rolled. In unrolling it passes over the brush- roller i, which takes up the glue from the boiler h and applies it to the paper. The boiler containing the glue is constructed of copper or iron, and surrounded with a steam- jacket. The small rollers h and n act as distributers, both being turned by friction with b. As soon as the paper reaches the even plane from b to c the glue upon it is THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 583 heated by steam emanating from the apparatus d, and a e upon the surface thus heated. The powder penetrates deeply into the soft, sticky mass, and adheres quickly. The excess falls off by the paper turning over c, and is collected in a box. The powder in e is heated by a steam- pipe. The fan / sets the paper in motion, whereby all the powder not adhering tightly is shaken off. A jet of steam striking the surface of the paper through g helps to set the powder more securely in the glue. Water-proof Emery Paper. — The paper is coated on both sides with pulverized emery which is made to adhere to it by means of a water-proof cement, so that moisture can have no injurious effect upon the paper. This flexible water-proof cement is prepared by melting 2 parts of hard, African copal, pouring over this, while yet hot, 3 of boiled linseed oil and adding one part of oil-lacquer, 1 of Venetian turpentine, 1 of Venetian red, | of Berlin blue, J of litharge, and 1 of dissolved caoutchouc. Mix these ingredients inti- mately, and should the compound be too thick dilute with fine jet of the material, emery, glass, sand, etc., falls from Fig. 180. 584 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. some linseed-oil varnish. Then spread it uniformly upon paper, or a suitable cheap fabric, stretched in a frame, and sift finely pulverized emery, or glass, quartz sand, etc., over it ; and, when dry, remove the excess of powder. Some- times both sides of the paper are covered, one side with coarser and the other with finer powder. Enamelled Writing Surfaces on Pasteboard and Paper. — A mixture of bleached shellac and borax dissolved in 10 per cent, of water and glue and vine-black rubbed to an impal- pable powder is used for the first coloring material. It is transferred to the paper to be coated by means of a felt roller, and distributed with a brush. The paper is then dried and rolled up. After this operation a second color consisting of vine-black, pergamentine (water-glass and gly- cerine) is used, the paper receiving three coats of this. It is then cut into suitable sizes, steamed at a temperature of 248° F., and finally smoothed by calendering. For white tablets Kremnitz white is used in place of vine-black ; for colored, ultramarine, etc. Iridescent Paper. — Boil 4| ounces of coarsely powdered gall-nuts, 2f ounces of sulphate of iron, \ ounce of sulphate of indigo, and 12 grains of gum- Arabic ; strain through a cloth, brush the paper with the liquor, and expose it quickly to ammoniacal vapors. Imitation of Mot Jier-of- Pearl on Paper. — Stout paper with a glossy coating is allowed to float upon a solution of salts of silver, lead, or bismuth. As soon as the paper lies smooth upon the surface of the solution it is slowly lifted and allowed to dry. The dry paper is then placed in a room THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 585 impregnated with sulphide of hydrogen, and remains here until the surface has assumed a metallic lustre. Diluted collodion is now poured over the paper thus prepared, or it is drawn through a bath of it, when, after drying, the beau- tiful iridescent colors will appear upon the paper. The most varying effects can be produced by sprinkling reducing substances or salts upon the surface of the paper before sub- mitting it to the action of the sulphide of hydrogen. This process is not only adapted for paper but can also be employed for finished articles, as boxes, bonbonnieres, etc. Leather Waste — Hoiv Prepared for Use in tl\e Manufac- ture of Paper. — To extract the tannin place the waste for a few hours in a solution of 5 parts of lime, 5 of crystallized soda, and 1^ of salammoniac in 100 of water; then wash first with acidulated and next with pure water. The pre- pared waste is worked into paper in the ordinary manner, either by itself or mixed with rags. Photo-litliograpliic Transfer Paper, and Transfer-color belonging to it. — Paper is treated with a solution of 100 parts of gelatine and 1 of chrome-alum in 2400 of water, and, after drying, with white of egg. It is sensitized in a bath consisting of 1 part of chrome alum, 14 of water, and 4 of alcohol. The addition of the latter prevents the solution of the white of egg. On the places not exposed to the light the white of egg becomes detached, together with the color with which the exposed paper has been coated. The transfer color consists of 20 parts of printing ink, 50 of wax, 40 of tallow, 35 of resin, 210 of oil of turpentine, and 30 of Berlin blue. 586 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. Preserving Papers. — Two new varieties of preserving- papers have been recently brought into the market. The one is obtained by immersing soft paper in a bath of salicylic acid, and then drying in the air. The bath is prepared by diluting a strong solution of the acid in alcohol with a large volume of water. This paper may then be used for wrap- ping up apples, etc. The other paper used as protection against moths and mildew is best prepared from strong Manilla paper by immers- ing it in the following bath: Seventy parts of tar oil, 5 of crude carbolic acid containing about \ phenol, 20 of coal- tar at a temperature of 160° F., and 5 of refined petroleum. The paper is then squeezed out, and dried by passing it over hot rollers. Tar Paper. — Boil 100 pounds of tar for 3 hours, then dissolve in it a quantity of a glue prepared from resin and soap, pour 8 gallons of boiling water upon the mixture, stir carefully, and let the mixture boil. Then stir carefully 100 pounds of potato flour into 60 gallons of water in a vat, mix the dissolved tar with 15 gallons of boiling water, and add this to the potato flour in the vat, stirring constantly. Twenty-four parts of this homogeneous fluid are taken to 20 parts of paper-pulp. From the pulp the tar-paper is manufactured, which can be painted black and varnished to make it water-proof. The prepared tar-solution may also be used to impregnate wood, sail-cloth, etc. Tracing Paper, Tracing Linen, and Transparent Packing Paper. — The paper is first treated with boiled linseed oil, and the excess of oily particles removed with benzine. The THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 587 paper is then washed in a chlorine bath. When dry it is again washed with oxygenated water. Paper can be made transparent by applying a thin coating of a solution of Canada balsam in turpentine to the paper, then give it a good coating of much thicker varnish on both sides. Perform the work before a hot fire, to keep the paper warm, and a third or even fourth coating until the paper becomes evenly translucent. Paper prepared in this manner comes nearer to perfection than any other. By the following very simple process ordinary drawing paper can be rendered transparent, for the purpose of mak- ing tracings, and its transparency removed so as to restore its former appearance when the drawing is completed. Dissolve any quantity of castor oil in one, two, or three volumes of absolute alcohol, according to the thickness of the paper, and apply it by means of a sponge. The alcohol evaporates in a few minutes, and the tracing paper is dry and ready for immediate use. The drawing or tracing can be made either with lead-pencil or India ink, and the oil removed from the paper by immersing it in absolute alcohol, thus restoring its original opacity. The alcohol employed in removing the oil is, of course, preserved for diluting the oil used in preparing the next sheet. Linen, to prepare it for being used for tracing purposes, is first provided with a coating of starch and then with an application of linseed oil and benzine. It is finished by being smoothed between polished rollers. Transfer Paper. — Mix lard to a paste with lampblack, rub this upon the paper, remove the excess with a rag, and 588 THE MANUFACTURE OF PAPER. dry the paper. A copy of the writing can be transferred on a clean sheet of paper by placing it underneath the pre- pared paper and writing upon the latter with a lead-pencil or sharp point. Water-proof paper, transparent and impervious to grease, is obtained by soaking good paper in an aqueous solution of shellac and borax. It resembles parchment paper in some respects. . If the aqueous solution be colored with aniline colors very handsome paper, of use for artificial flowers, is prepared. Peterson's Water-proof Paper. — Dissolve 3| ounces of tallow soap in water, add sufficient solution of alum until the soap is entirely decomposed, and mix this fluid with a gallon of paper-pulp. The paper is in all other respects prepared in the ordinary manner, and need not to be sized. It is especially suitable for cartridge-shells. Wrapping Paper for Silver Ware. — The appearance of silver ware is frequently injured by being exposed to air containing sulphuretted hydrogen or sulphurous and other acids. The small quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen con- tained in illuminating gas and which in burning yields sul- phurous acid is frequently sufficient to spoil the appearance of all the articles in a store. To prevent this a prepared paper is recommended. Prepare a solution of 6 parts of caustic soda in water of 20° Baume, then add 4 of zinc oxide and let the mixture boil for two hours, if possible under a pressure of 5 atmospheres. Dilute the solution, when clear, to 10° Baume\ and it is ready for impregnating the paper. THE PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KINDS OF PAPER. 589 Writing, Copying, and Drawing Paper which can he Washed.- — The paper is made transparent by immersion in benzine and then, before the benzine volatilizes, plunged into a solution of siccative prepared in the following manner: One pound each of lead shavings and oxide of zinc are boiled for 8 hours, together with 8f ounces of hardened Venetian turpentine in 2| gallons of purified linseed-oil var- nish, and then allowed to stand for a few days to cool and settle. The clear layer is then poured off and to this are added 5 pounds of white West Indian copal and 8f to 10 ounces of sandarac dissolved in spirit of wine or ether. This paper can be written or drawn upon with pen and ink or water colors ; or, by using good copying ink, good copies can be taken from it without a press. INDEX. AD AM SON'S method of preparing stock for paper-makers' sizing, 446-448 Aldrich, E. D., contrivance for holding knife for cutting rags by hand, 117- 120 Alkali, quantity of, used for dissolving the ink from printed papers, 195 Allen and Mason's dusting engine for preparing pulp from papers, 189-202 Alum, 435-442 aluminous cake, substitute for, 418 as a mordant, 462 concentrated, as a water purifier, 440, 441 false economy in the use of, 441, 442 from bauxite, 437 "Lion," 418 pearl, the most powerful sizing agent, 438 test for iron in, 440 Alumina bleach liquor, 353, 354 Aluminium sulphate, 443-445 Aluminous cake, substitute for alum, 418 Alums, varieties of, 435, 436 Amianthus or asbestos paper, 579, 580 Ammonia, treating wood with, 307, 308 Ancient history found on clay tablets, 19 Aniline and other reds, combination of, in coloring paper, 476 black, 483, 484 colors, acid mordants for, 463 dyes used in paper-making, 93 gray (murine), 483 red colors, commercial names of, 467 violets, 481 Animal size, materials from which it is made, 421, 422 Antichlorine, preparation of, 397, 398 Aqua regia, treating wood with, 307 Arsenious acid, preparation of the solu- tion of, 348 Artificial flower-paper, crimson stain for, 486 dark blue stain for, 486 dark green stains for, 486 dark red stain for, 487 rose color stain for, 487 scarlet stains for, 487 yellow stains for, 486, 487 flowers, to stain paper for, 485-487 Asbestos, annual production of, 580 average prices of, 580 large use of, for sheathing paper, 580 leading localities at which it is ob- tained, 579, 580 or amianthus paper, 579, 580 paper for insulating electric wires, 580 Assyrian antiquities in the British Museum, 19, 20 Mythology found on clay tablets, 20 Aussedat's paper-mills, 303 process of .treating wood, 299-304 Automatic wire-guide for paper-making machines, 505-514 BACHET-M ACHAKLV S process of disintegrating straw and esparto, 306 process of disintegrating wood, 305-307 Bagging, rope, and threads, classifica- tion of, 90 Bankruptcy in the United States after the war of 1812, 54, 55 Barley straw, treatment of, 236 Barry's (Thos. P.), improved wire- guide device, illustrated, 505-514 Bastose, a mordanted cellulose, 377 592 INDEX. Baumann's machine for cutting rags, 130-133 Bauxite, rich in alumina, 437 Beating, 391-398 engine, Hoyt's, 401-405 Wm Umpherston's, 406-408 engines, 399-408 usual construction of, 400-402 process, theory of, 394 usually timed by the thickness of the paper to be made, 394, 395 Benzine and resin, tub sizing with, 434 Bevan and Cross's treatment with chlo- rine gas in M tiller's processes, 80, 81 Bisulphide processes of treating Avood, some of the defects of, 289, 290 Black, aniline, 483, 484 color on paper, 483, 484 coloring for paper used for cheap pocket-books, 484 indelible, 484 stain for Morocco paper, 489, 490 stains for glazed papers, 487 Bleach liquor, alumina, 353, 354 zinc, 352, 353 Bleaching boilers, American patents issued from 1790 to 1885 inclu- sive, 389, 390 esparto, 37 7 in rotaries, 388, 389 in the washing and beating engine, disadvantages of, 315 jute, 377-380 Conley's process for, 240-242 of materials composed of hemp, flax, etc., 380-382 of pulp, experiments made in, 304, 305 of straw, Burns' s process for, 362, 364 paper pulp by applying the bleach- ing agent in a pulverized or sprayed condition, 385-388 powder, 341-346 alteration by keeping, 343, 344 estimation of chlorine in, 346- 350 injured by too hurried a pack- ing, 343 requisite attributes of, 343, 344 pulp made from old papers, 361 resin and preparing size therefrom, 420, 421 solution, preparing and using, 350 Bleaching — sour, 357, 358 straw, 361-364 vegetable tissues with permanga- nate of potash, and neutralizing with oxalic acid, sulphite of sodium, and chlorine, 382-385 with chlorine gas requires longer time for reduction of the rags than when liquid chlorine is used, 315 with gas, 358-360 wood fibre, 364-367 wood, straw, etc., 367, 376 Blue (azure and light) stains for satin papers, 491 (azure) stain for glazed papers, 487, 488^ (dark and light) stains for Morocco papers, 490 (dark and pale) stains for glazed papers, 488 potassium ferrocyanide for produc- ing different shades of, 463 rags for deep blue colored paper, 475 shades on paper, 471-477 stain for artificial flower paper, 486 Blueing paper, 475 Boiler, Marshall's, for digesting wood by the soda process, 254-258 rag, illustrated, 209 rotary, illustrated, 204, 205, 215- 218 of Geo. F. Wilson, illustrated, 211-214 Boilers for digesting wood by the soda process, defects of, 252-254 rag, forms of, 204 revolving, 210-218 stationary, 209, 210 Boiling, alkaline substances used in, 204 and washing rags, 185-189 coal tar with the alkalies employed in treating straw, 235 esparto, 237-239 liquor, not drawn off* after each boiling, 225 Manilla and jute, 239-242 object of, 204 rags, 203-208 combined process for washing and, 185-191 use of lime and soda ash in, 206, 207 INDEX. 593 Boiling rags — usual time of steam pressure, 207 straw, 229-237 waste paper, 224-229 period of, varies with the nature of the stock, 226 wood, 242-258 wood chips with soda, 246-249 Bradford, William, aids in the intro- duction of the paper manufacture into the United States, 43, 44 Bratton's (Isaac) improvements in con- nection with the suction-box of a paper-making machine, illustrated, 514-518 Brazaline, shades of red, employed for, 465 Brazil wood, to extract a strong dye liquor from, 466, 467 Brewer's method of moistening calen- der rolls, 546-549 British Museum, Assyrian antiquities in, 19, 20 Brown colors, Venetian red for, 467 (dark) stain for glazed papers, 488 (reddish and light) stains for satin papers, 491 shades on paper, 478-480, 484, 485 Building paper, water- proofing, 451, 452 Burns' s apparatus for bleaching straw, 362, 363 process for bleaching straw, etc., 362-364 for treating straw, 231-235 CALCIC chloride solution, standard for testing water, 334 Calender rolls, Brewer's method of moistening, 546-549 H. J. Frink's method of pre- venting over-heating, 551- 554 leading paper through, 538- 543 " method for the easy removal and replacement, 554-557 Newton's method of moisten- ing, 549-551 Calendering, 538-561 machines, stripping paper from, 558-560 Calenders, plate, 560, 561 Carbolic acid paper, 581 38 Carbonate of sodium, economical re- generation of, 260 Card-board and wall papers, pulp for, 303, 304 Carey, Mathew, & Sons, 53 Caustic soda, quantities used in boiling different classes of rags, 208 used in boiling esparto, 238 use of, for dissolving ink from printed papers, 1"95 Cellulose, 7 7-79 American patents for lead lined digesters to be used in pre- paring, from wood, issued by the United States from 1790 to 1885 inclusive, 295, 296 for preparing, from wood, is- sued from "1790 to 1885 in- clusive, 295 Dahl's process of producing, from wood, straw, and other vegetable matters, by boiling in a chemical solution, 249-252 determination of, 79-81 Dr. Mitscherlich's process of pre- paring, from wood, 244, 245 oxidation of, 79 pure, necessary process to obtain, 246 Chaldea, Babylonia, and Assyria, best histories of, found on clay tablets, 19 Chemical fibre, cutting wood for, 145 wood-pulp, woods most easily used for, 246 Chemically prepared wood-pulp, 242-246 Chemicals, clays, coloring materials, resins, etc., employed in paper- making, 92 Chenney, Pearson C, 57 Chlorine gas, preparation of, 359, 360 substitute for bromine water in Mliller's processes, 80, 81 in bleaching powder, estimation of, 346-350 testing for, 393", 394 Cigarette paper, improved, 581 boiling ropes for, 207 Clark's (Dr.) soap test for hardness in water, 330-333 table of hardness of water, 335 Clay, early use of, for writing upon, 19 tablets containing best histories of Chaldea, Babylonia, and Assy- ria, 19 594 INDEX. Clays employed in paper-making, 92 Coal tar, boiling, with the alkalies em- ployed in treating straw, 235 Coburn's machine for cutting rags, etc., or materials containing metallic and other substances, 133-139 Cochineal, shades of red employed for, 4G5 Colored paper for tying up bottles, 581, 582 -papers, dry aniline colors of all shades used, 581 rags, treatment of, 219-224 treatment of, in boiling, 206, 207 Coloring, 457-493 materials employed in paper-mak- ing, 92, 93 surface, 485 Colors, binary, 458, 4 61 primary, 458, 461 for paper, 459 the, 458-462 vegetable, instability of, 485 Concentrated alum as a water purifier, 440, 441 Congress, use of imported paper by, 54, 55 Conley's process for boiling and bleach- ing jute, 240-242 Connecticut, first paper-mill in, 46 Coon's process of repulping paper-stock, 320-322 Copying paper, boiling ropes for, 207 cigarette, and tissue paper, boiling- ropes for, 207 writing, and drawing paper which can be washed, 589 Cork-paper, 582 Corn-husk cutter, 171-174 Corn leaves and stalks, treatment of, 236 Cotton and linen fibres, effect of a cold solution of potash on, 82 effects of oil upon, 82 to distinguish between, 81 fibre, effect of a boiling solution of caustic potash on, 82 filaments, microscopic appearance of, 81, 82 of, appearance of, under the microscope,