AJVlANUALOF AF\CH/EOLOGY 7 r /V\AXIME (JJLLIGNON THE FINE-ART LIBRARY. EDITED BY JOHN C. L, SPARKES, Principal of the National Art Training School, South Kensington A fuse tun. A MANUAL GREEK ARCHEOLOGY MAX I ME COLLIGNON, Formerly Member of the French School at Athens ; Deputy Professor of Archaeology in ihe Faculty of Letters of Paris (Sorbon-iie}. i R A N S L A T E I) I! Y JOHN HENRY WRIGHT, Associate Professor of Greek in Dartmouth College, Hanover, Nciu Hampshire, U.S.A. CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED: LONDON, PARIS, NEW YORK & MELBOURNE. 1886. [ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.] CONTENTS. PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION Book J'trst. The Origin of Greek Art. L'HAI 1 . I. GR.KCO-l'ELASGIC PERIOD ... I II. ORIENTAL SOURCES OF GREEK ART .. 14 HI. THE GR.ECO-ORIENTAL PERIOD ... ... 27 TQoofe Scconli. Architecture, I. GR.ECO-PELASGIC MONUMENTS ... ... 35 II. THE ORDERS OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE THEIR ORIGIN AND PRINCIPLES ... ... ... ... ... ... 40 III. THE MONUMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE 62 I. IIKM PKRIOD. LK;F.M>\KY r.i.i;i.\MNc,x, DOWN 10 IIIK CI.OSK or IIIF SKYF.MH ('I:\ILUY n.r. ioi II. SLCOND I'F.kioi). Tin-: I'KIMITIYI. MASTLKS i IMM IIIK F.ND OK THF. SKVKN rn CKVITKY .c. 10 nil-. SixTiF.ru OLYMPIAD (540 n.r.)... ... ... iud III. TIIIKD I'KKit >i>. ARCHAIC SITI.I-TURK : i UOM IIIK SIXIIKIH ID -iiiK KICHTIETH OLYMPIAD (540 )*..(. 460 i:.c.) 12, i I\'. FOCRIH rKRIOD.--SCUI.nLKK FROM IIIK K ICHT1 K Til TO THK NiM-.i Y- SIXTH OLYMPIAD (460 i;.c. 396 i:.c.) 140 V. FIFTH I'KUIOD. To THK AI.KXANDKINK ACK. -- -FROM THK XlNF.TY - SIXTH TO THK OM -1 I U N DR KI ) AN I )- T \VF.NTIKTH OLYMPIAD (396 r..r. 292 n. <.)... 1-14 \'I. SIXLII I'KRU'D. I IKI.I.F.M.STIC AIM. FROM THK OM-:- IfUXDRED- AND -TWENTIETH <>I.Y.MPIAD TO IMF ROMAN CONC^UEST, THK ONE-HUNDRF.I>-A\D-FIITY- FlC.HTII Ol.YMPIAIJ (292 P..C. 146 ll.C.) ... 212 Ylf. SIKI..I: AND VOTIVE SCUI.PTURKS .. 221 $ ounf), 'J err a- cot t a Figurines .. .. ... ..239 CONTENTS. Vil 13oofe J'iftf). Painted Vases. CHAP. PAf.F I. GENERAL QUESTIONS IN THE HISTORY OF CERAMIC ART 261 II. THE FORMS AND TECHNIQUE or PAINTED VASES ... 266 III. CLASSIFICATION or PAINTED VASES 279 IV. TERKA-COTTA PLAQUES WITH PAINTINGS ... ... 322 Siitf). Xitinismatics and Glyptics. I. NUMISMATICS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 325 II. GLYPTICS ... ... 335 ISoofe Stbcntl). Bronzes and Jewels. I. BRONZES ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 343 II. JEWELLERY ... ... .. ... 363 PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION. MODERN culture owes to the civilisation of the ancient Greeks a profound debt, which is at once direct and indirect. The direct debt has arisen principally from the place long held by Greek studies in our system of education. The indirect debt, which is more subtle and less easily recognised, is that of many forces, inspirations, and models, in art, literature, and science, that have been transmitted to us from a remote past, through various peoples and through diverse civili- sations. In our schools, and to a certain extent still in our colleges and universities, we understand by Greek studies almost exclusively the study of the language and literature of the ancient Hellenes. But the Hellenic spirit and it is this only that gives life to these studies has revealed itself in a novel and distinctly different manner, and with equal if not with greater vividness, delicacy, and force, in the manifold remains of Greek art, from the rudest specimens of the potter's industry, up to the glorious monuments due to the genius of the sculptor and architect in the service of religion. Greek studies, then, that leave X (iUKKK ARC I !.!.( )!.<>< ;Y. out of view the art of the ancient (i reeks, are one- sided, fragmentary, and essentially defective. It is for reasons like the above that a cordial welcome should be extended, not only by lovers of Greek art, but also by students and teachers of Greek, to such a book as M. Collignon's handbook, which aims modestly to introduce the reader to these monuments of art, to "orient" him, as it were, both as to their general character and as to their historical relations and connections. A few worJs on the scope and method of the book, in part taken from the author's preface to the French edition, are perhaps not out of place. Forming one of a scries of educational works on art (Bibliothiqne de F Enseignewent dcs Beanx-Arts), it is above all an elementary text-book, designed for pupils in schools and colleges, and for amateurs in the study of art. The results of archaeological research arc- as a rule recorded in elaborate scientific treatises or journals difficult of access to the average reader. These works, even when not in an unfamiliar language, arc also commonly so technical in character as to disconcert and bewilder the beginner in his studies. Though there are, in some of the departments of classical archaeology as in sculpture, and in archi- tecture and even, for certain groups of departments, excellent handbooks of the nature of introductions, there seems to be no book in English, in line with recent research, which gives a bird's-eye view, as it PREFACE. xi were, of the whole field, especially of the archaeology of Greek art. The present book endeavours to supply this deficiency. After a brief resume of the question as to the beginnings of Greek art, and as to the early influences that moulded it more or less, its several branches are passed successively in review, the usual classifications being retained. In each of these branches of Greek archaeology, the monuments are treated in chrono- logical order, selections from the more important receiving special attention. This historical study of the several branches independently, impresses upon the reader the important truths that, while the mani- festations of the artistic spirit among the Greeks are manifold and varied, they are all subject to the same principles and to the same laws of development. Each illustrates the other, and all faithfully mirror the same native artistic genius. The chronological classification has also the advantage of coinciding with the classifications of works of ancient art commonly adopted in our museums and other col- lections. The book will thus aid the objects in the museums in telling their own story clearly and consecutively. The small size of the volume, as well as its aim, precludes the introduction of any extensive or ex- haustive scientific apparatus. In the brief biblio- graphies printed at the head of most chapters, a selection only from the more important works on the XII r.RKKK AKCH.liOLOCY. topics reviewed in the pages following is made, for the benefit of readers who may wish to read further. The translation, the first draft of which was written by Mrs. Wright, is based upon the last French edition, with numerous manuscript additions and corrections kindly furnished by the author. In re- vising the translation, and in comparing it with the French, I have made a number of changes in the text ; but this has been done only, upon consultation with M. Collignon, and in no instance without his consent. The bibliography has been expanded here and there, and a very few notes have been added. It is hoped that this little book, which seems in itself happily to illustrate the sense of proportion in all things so characteristic of the art it reviews, will do much to axvaken and to deepen interest in the art of the ancient Greeks, among those hitherto un- acquainted with it. Thus will be thrown a new light, not only upon the pages of familiar authors, but also into our conceptions of the life and genius of this wonderfully gifted people. JOHN HKNKV WRIGHT. Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S.A. February, 1886. GREEK ARCHAEOLOGY. 10ok Jitst. THE ORIGIN OF GREEK ART. CHAPTER I. GR/ECO-PELASGIC PERIOD. SCHLIEMANN : Troy, 1875 ; Ilios, 1881 ; Troja, 1884. FR. LENORMANT : Les Antiquites de la Troade, 1875. FOUQUE : Rapport sur line Mission scientifique a Vile de Santorin : Archives des Missions scientijiques, Vol. IV., and Santorin ct ses Eruptions, 1871. JEBB : Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vols. II., III. SCHLIEMANN : Mycetue, 1878; Tiryns, 1885. FR. LENORMANT: Les Antiquites de Myccnes : Gazette des Beaux-Arts, February, April, 1879. MII.CHHOKER : Die Anf'dnge dcr Kunst in Griechenland, 1883. DUMONT ET CHAPLAIN: Les Ccratniques de la Grcce, 1881, 1883^ (In course of publication.) I. THE ANTIQUITIES OF HISSARLIK AND OF SANTORIN. TlIE most ancient monuments left on the soil of Greece, both Asiatic and European, by her primitive inhabitants, date from a time when as yet Greece had no history. The empires of Egypt and Assyria had passed through long ages of prosperity before the early inhabitants of Greece had emerged from a low grade of civilisation. Occasional scattered references in documents written in Egypt, a few mythological E <;RKI:K AKCII.I-'.OLOCV. legends, and monuments recovered in successful ex- cavations, are the only materials at the service of the student of this obscure period. Before the final establishment of the Dorians in Peloponnesus, that great historical fact which closely followed the Trojan \Yar, we catch glimpses of a long succession of migrations and of conflicts, the theatre of which was in the countries bordering upon the /Egcan Sea. The great Aryan migration from the East had in Asia Minor separated into three groups. One, crossing .the Hellespont and passing through Macedonia, had settled down in the moun- tainous regions of Macedonia and Thrace ; here arose the Hellenic tribes that later descended into Hellas proper. A second group had established itself on the table-lands of Phrygia, whence it did not emerge. A third finally occupied the coasts of Asia Minor, and from thence colonised the islands of the yEgcan and a part of continental Greece. This is the Pelasgic stock which the Greeks themselves regarded as aboriginal, and whose monuments bear witness to a high antiquity. Professor Curtius recognises in them, not without reason, the ancestors of the people whom he calls the Oriental Greeks : -" \Ye give to the maritime people of Asia Minor, to those at least who belonged to the Phrygo-Pelasgic stock, the name of Oriental Greeks." When the Hellenic tribes, the Achajans, Dorians, lonians, and yEolians, left Phthiotis (in Southern Thessaly), and spread ox-ci- tric surface of Greece, they cither drove from it, or reduced to servitude, the Pelasgic inhabitants. THE ORIGIN OF GREEK ART. 3 These Pelasgians, undoubtedly closely related to the Hellenes, appear in history long before them. Egyptian monuments, as early as the eighteenth dynasty, make mention of them, and in the reign of Seti and of Ramcscs II. (nineteenth dynasty) they are recorded as taking part in the expeditions made against Egypt by the Khetas (Hittites) of Syria and by the Libyans of Africa. Little would be known of the state of the civili- sation of this early people, if recent and most import- ant excavations had not brought to light materials and documents that are entirely new. The dis- coveries at Hissarlik and at Santorin, those at Mycenae and at Spata, reveal to us a civilisation that must have been common to the whole of the ancient Greek world. This Grasco-Pelasgic civilisation extended to all the people occupying the basin of the yEgean Sea, who by means of an active coasting trade were continually in close relations with each other. It is im- possible to fix, with perfect exactness, the date of the monuments discovered. These monuments, however, may be classified in two principal groups, that of Hissarlik and of Santorin, on the one hand, which carries us back to the very earliest times ; and, on the other hand, that of Mycenae and of Spata, belonging to a more recent epoch, where Oriental influences begin to appear. The objects found by Schlicmann near the village of Hissarlik, in the Troad, belong, it seems, to the earliest civilisation. The important objects discovered here, which their discoverer would assign B 2 4 < K I [: K to the Homeric age, have given rise to much dis- cussion. Schlicmann exhumed the ruins of several superimposed cities. In the most ancient ruins, which showed evidence of a conflagration, the ex- plorer believed he had found the traces of Homeric Ilium, and he gave the name of the Treasure of Priam to a rich collection of barbaric jewellery, con- taining vases of gold and of silver, beads of cast gold, etc., which were rescued from the debris. The identification of the ruins near Ilissarlik with the Troy of Homer is far from being accepted without question. Certain scholars still place the city of Priam near Bunarbashi, following the opinion advocated in J/88 by Lechcvalier. Ilissarlik would thus mark the situation of Ilium of the Romans, or 1/iiti/i rcceiis, which was often destroyed and rebuilt at the time of the /Eolians, of the Lydians, of Lysimachus, and of the Cajsars. Nevertheless, the view which places Homer's Troy at Ilissarlik is very plausible. The beds of debris there accumulated, to the depth of sixteen metres, prove that for ages a dense population had inhabited the Hill of Ilissarlik ; furthermore, this place is nearer the sea than Bunarbashi, and thus is more in harmony with the scenes and situations presented in Homer.* As to the objects found at Ilissarlik, it is im- possible to see in them, as would Dr. Schlicmann, the remains of the civilisation described in Homer. They * Compare (i. Perrot, /.,s Dccotivcrtcs \\c frofrf, 1 88 1, Icr fascic. , p. 75. THE ORIGIN OF GREEK ART. 13 trading settlements or emporia of the Phoenicians, located among the islands of the yEgean and along the shores of Peloponnesus, imported types of work- manship which the Greek with a naive spirit of artistic imitation endeavoured to reproduce. On the other hand Ionian Greece, already half Oriental, bordered upon Lydia, and came into contact with the peoples of Asia Minor, whose art was distinctly and thoroughly under the control of Assyrian influences. Greek art awoke slowly and with difficulty, after passing through a long period of imitation, which continued until towards the close of the seventh century B.C. It is important, therefore, that we should examine the question as to what it owed to the more advanced civilisations which gave it its first models for imitation. CHAPTER II. ORIKXTAL SOl'RCKS OF (1RKKK ART. GEKHARD: I'eber die Kutist tier riionicier (Gesainnulte Akad. Al'kandlnngcn, 1867-8). RF.NAN : Mission tie rhenicie, 1864 187.1. CKSNOLA : Cyprus, 1878 ; Atlas of the Cesiwla Collection, Vol. I., 1884. DE CHARAS : L'A ntigm'tc historii/uc et les Monuments t'gyflicns, 1873. Ltrsuis : Ueber einige trgyptische Kunsl-fonnen und Hire Enttuickelting (Ab/i. Kon. P rents. Akiui. d. H'iss. zit Berlin). DE LONT.I-^RIEK : Musce Xapolcon If!., 18651874. LAVAKU : Nineveh and its Remains, 1850; and The Monuments of Xineveh, 1849. PLACE : Ninive et r Assyrie, 1865. PKKKOT and GUILLAIMI: : Exploration archcologique de. la Galatie tt de /y Armstrong, Egypt, 1883 ; ChaMira and Assyria, 1884 ; Plwnicia and Cyprus, 1885). PKRROT : L'Art de CAsie Mincure (Melanges if A rtJtcologie, 1875). SEMI-EK : DerStil in den technisclien und iektonischen Kunstcn (1860-3) 1878-9. HEL'ZEY : Catalogue des Figurines antiques dc Terrc-cuitc dii Louvre, 1878. THE Greeks seem to have attempted to render the origin of their art obscure. If we are .to believe what they say of themselves, they invented everything, and the earlier writers on the history of Greek art, knowing but little of the Kast, have given currency to this erroneous opinion. " Art/' says \Yinckel- mann,* " though born much later among the Greeks than among the Orientals, began there with the humblest elements, and it exhibits a simplicity which easily convinces us that the Greeks took nothing * History of Art, chap. i. $ 7, S. THE ORIGIN OF GREEK ART. 15 from the art of other nations, but invented their own art." It has, however, been thoroughly proved since Winckelmann's time, that Greek art at the outset was subject to the influences of Oriental civilisations, that it owed to them its first models, and that it received from them a knowledge of methods of execution as well as technical skill. A glance, moreover, at the geographical situation of Greece suffices to show us how favourably she was placed in respect to a continuous commerce with the East ; the islands scattered in the yEgean Sea, at distances apart so slight that they could be traversed in a few hours, put Greece into direct communication with Egypt and Phoenicia. Again, the great valleys of Asia Minor were equally natural routes of travel opened up in the direction of Assyria. These material conditions, and the inferiority of Greece, in the midst of the advanced and flourishing civilisations of older peoples, contributed to make her the pupil of the East. I. PHOENICIAN INFLUENCES. It was upon the Greeks of the islands and of Peloponnesus that Phoenician industries exercised the most potent influence. The colonies of the Sidonians and of the Tyrians had made of the Medi- terranean a Phoenician sea : their trading settlements and factories had been established at Rhodes, on Crete, on the Cyclades, and as far west as Cythera. From Cythera the Phoenicians passed over into Pelo- 1 6 (iKF.KK AK< II I.OI.OCY. ponncsus up to Amycl;L- and Gythium, ami advanced as far even as Argolis, Attica, and Bu-otia. These establishments placed them in close contact with the occidental Greeks, above all with the Dorians. What Greek civilisation owed to these Phoenicians is generally recognised ; above all the alphabet. Phoenician ships brought into Greece works of gold, silver, glass, and ivory, manufactured by the glass-workers and goldsmiths of Tyre and Sidon ; painted vases, statuettes of bronze and of tcrra-cotta, like those that were sold at Paphos in the seventh century B.C., and that served the sailors as talismans. These objects became the models for Greek workmen, who imitated them with childish awkwardness. Thus a whole class of painted vases discovered in the Cyclades shows how, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries 15. c., Greek potters copied the products of Phoenician art. The Sidonian and Tyrian navigators imported more than the products of their own industry. By a privilege acquired in the reign of Thothmes I., they had received a monopoly of Egyptian commerce with foreign lands, and they had thus scattered over Greece articles of Egyptian manufacture which, be- cause Egypt was less known to them, must have made a marked impression upon the inhabitants. To the Phoenicians then must be ascribed the double role, that of intermediaries between Greece and Egypt, and that of initiators in respect of their own peculiar in- dustries. To what degree did Phoenician art act upon the THE ORIGIN OF GREEK ART. I/ nascent art of Greece? It offered, for the imitation of the Greeks, works of extremely mixed styles. It has often been noticed that Phoenician productions never do more than reflect the style of Egypt or Assyria, according as each nation had the political supremacy over Phoenicia. The most conclusive proof of this is furnished by the monuments of Cypriote art, one of the most important branches of Phoenician art. In the discoveries of General Palma di Cesnola in the island of Cyprus we possess a rich series of statues coming from the ancient cities of Golgos and of Idalium. In them may be found predominant suc- cessively the influences of Egypt and of Assyria. The statues in Egyptian style show erect figures with arms hanging parallel to the body, with the klaft or Egyptian pshent for head-dress ; about their loins are worn the slienti or sloping short trousers. Other statues, in the Assyrian style, contrast with the pre- ceding ; in these the figures, kings or priests, wear a kind of pointed cap \* the beard and hair arc arranged in symmetrical coils, and a long robe covers almost the entire body. Finally, statues of a later date suggest the style of archaic Greek art, but all have a common basis or family resemblance, which con- stitutes the Cypriote type. These successive changes, due to changes in foreign influences, can be followed in the valuable collection of figurines in the Louvre, the fruit of the excavations of M. de Vogue. In these * The Antiquities of Cyprus, edited by Newton and Sidney Colvin, 1873, plates IX., xvm. ; Perrot and Chipiez, Art in Phcenicia and Cyprus. C 18 CKKKK AKCII.V.OI.OGV. can be recognised the styles of Egypt ami of Assyria down to the time when Cyprus had become one of the centres of Greek civilisation in the Kast. It is not difficult to grasp the style of the models offered by Phienicia to the Greeks for imitation ; in general, we find the Egyptian form, \vith an Assyrian carefulness as to detail and execution. This combina- tion can be seen in the important monuments dis- covered in Cyprus. The collection known as the Curium treasure comprises numerous objects in which the Egyptian and Assyrian styles appear at the same time ; to the former belong the scarabs and gilded cups ; to the latter the clasps decorated with chima;ras and flowers, as well as the cups ornamented with subjects familiar to the artists of the kingdom of Assur. Beautiful silver-gilt cups of Phoenician workmanship, found at Larnaca, present the same characteristics ; the attitude and the costumes of the figures represented on the frie/.es, and the details of ornamentation, show such a confusion of styles, that we may recognise at one and the same time the iircens of the Egyptian kings and motives employed in the decoration of the palaces of Nineveh.* The influence of Phcenicia upon the industrial art of Greece is incontestable ; in the domain of sculpture, however, this influence is less distinct. Phoenicia did not possess a style sufficiently original and character- istic to impress itself upon the earliest Greek sculptors. The researches of Hcu/cy have shown that Phoenicia, * De Longpericr, Music Napoleon 111., plates x. and xi. THE ORIGIN OF GREEK ART. 19 on the contrary, early subjected her art to the influence of the archaic art of the Greeks, as it was developed in the sixth century i:.C. in the Greek cities of Asia Minor and the islands.* 2. EGYPTIAN INFLUENCES. The direct influence of Egypt upon the art of Greece has been greatly exaggerated. It is certain that for a long time Egypt was closed to the Greeks, and known to them only through the medium of the Phoenicians. It was not opened to them until the twenty-sixth dynasty (Saitic), in the reign of Psam- metichus I. (seventh century B.C.), and at that time the Greeks were already in possession of the technical processes of art. The historians tell us of the astonishment with which Egyptian civilisation struck the Greeks. The influence of Egypt, however, was somewhat felt at the beginnings of Greek art. Pausanias, speaking of the ancient ^oava, the primitive images of Greek divinities, declares that many of them were Egyptian. According to him the wooden statues of Heracles, of Hermes, and of Theseus, in the gymnasium at Messene, clearly show Egyptian origin, and the same style may be exactly (a/c/3t/3w?) recognised in the Heracles of Erythrae, brought from Tyre by the Phoenicians, f Pausanias divides the %6ava into two classes those wrought in the Egyptian style, or brought from Egypt, and those of the Daedalidse, the pupils of * Heuzey, Catalogue da Figurines antiques du Louvre, 1882. t Pausanias, vn. 5. C 2 20 CRKKK ARCII.KOLOr.V. Daxlalus ; in other words, in the view of the (ireeks, their most ancient religious statues follow the Egyptian tradition, and in l);ixlalus are to he seen the first attempts of Greek art to emancipate itself from tin's tradition. \Ve have noted the part played by Phu-nicia in this matter of the Egyptian origin of Greek art. Through her commerce she imported into Greece objects that served for models ; by the Egyptian character of her art, she gave to the early examples of Greek art a reflection, as it were, of the arts of Kgypt. \Vhcn Psammctichus, by subduing the Ionian and Carian pirates in the seventh century M.C., opened his kingdom to the Greeks, Hellenic genius had begun to emerge from its long infancy ; it was then read}- to receive from Kgypt that which it actually seems to have borrowed a profounder and more religious feeling in art. In architecture the budding Doric was inspired afresh by the massive forms of the Egyptian column ; in sculpture, the Greek artists, following the Egyptian, applied to the human figure the principle of a more exact canon. This Egyptian influence may be detected in many archaic Greek sculptures. A statue of Artemis, found at Delos, and made by a Naxian* in the seventh century ]:.('., is a reproduc- tion of those Egyptian statues of wood (%oava AlyuTTTia), of which Pausanias spoke ; the arms hang close to the body, and the legs seem encased in a sort of sheath. Imitation of Egyptian art is no less * Bulletin de Correspondence helUniQue, Vol. III., plate i. This statue was discovered at Delos by M. Homolle. THE ORIGIN OF GREEK ART. 21 visible in a statue of a lioness of calcareous stone (Fig. 5), of a date subsequent to that of the Dclian Artemis described above. 3. ASSYRIAN INFLUENCES. The part played by Assyria in the history of the Oriental sources of Greek art is of the utmost import- ance. This influence was shown, above all, in Asiatic FlG. 5. STATUE OF A LIONESS. (Found at Corfu.) Greece, in Ionia, where art was first developed, and in some parts of Greece proper at Corinth for example, a commercial city, the business relations of which placed it in direct connection with Asia Minor. The discoveries made at Nineveh by Botta, and the excavations of Layard at Koyunjik and at Nimriid, are of the highest importance as throwing light on the history of Greek art. The comparison of Assyrian monuments with the most ancient Hellenic works has shown clearly that in Ionia Hellenic art was formed in the school of Assyria. 22 CRKKK ARCH T.OI.OCY. This relationship may be proved from ;i large number of facts, which may he grouped as follows: (l) motives in ornamentation ; (2) types of the human figure and of animals; and (3) technique, both orna- mental and plastic. (1) Certain motives, or subjects of decoration, have passed directly from the stc/a" and enamelled bricks of Assyria to the painted vases and marbles of Greece. Such are the palm-leaf ornament and the rosette which appear upon Greek vases of the most ancient style. The lotus flower, in full bloom between two buds, is Assyrian, and is often met with in Greece in ceramic paintings of the Corinthian style. (2) This imitation is no less visible in subjects comprising types of animals or of the human figure. It is the East which has created all that fantastic world of sphinxes, of winged figures, of impossible animals with human heads, those belts of tigers, rams, and moufflons, which march in long files on bas-reliefs, or on the surface of the metal cups of Nineveh, and also find a place on archaic Greek vases. The rcscmbl nice between the Assyrian griffins found at Nimrud, and those that decorate the vases of Rhodes, is equally striking. These mon- strous and fantastic figures of the Assyrians were frequent in earl}' Greek art, but no longer appear on later monuments. The earliest Greek artists did not limit themselves to the imitation of Assyrian subjects ; they also copied the Assyrian system of decoration. Their vases were orna- mented, as were the metal cups of Cyprus and of THE ORIGIN OF GREEK ART. 23 Nineveh, with successive zones, which resembled so many superimposed friezes. The bronze crater, which the Dorians of Sparta had ordered for Croesus, was ornamented in the same way. " It was," says Herod- otus, "decorated up to the brim with the figures of plants and of animals."'" Besides the vases and articles in metal, carpets and other rich stuffs of Assyria furnished the Greek with these types of ornamentation. Thus it was that the peplos of Alcimenes of Sybaris had its border decorated, as Aristotle tells us, with Oriental sub- jects. " The upper portion represented the sacred animals of the Susii, and the lower those of the Persians. "f (3) Assyrian influence betrayed itself likewise in the earlier examples of Greek sculpture. Even though, from the beginning, the Greeks showed themselves much more original in the plastic than in the industrial arts, such as pottery, there was here also a distinct debt to the East. The carefulness of detail, the attention with which the accessories of beard, hair, and costume are treated, a certain tendency to accent the an atom}' in the nude, causing the muscles to stand out, heavy and thickset figures are features common alike to the plastic art of Assyria and to that of these earlier Greeks. It should be admitted, however, that in this field of art, imitation is more difficult, and that direct study of the nude enabled the Greeks to develop their individual peculiarities with much greater rapidity. * Herodotus, I. 70. t Aristotle, Mir. Ausc., 96. 24 GKF.KK AKCII.I.OLOCY. 4. I, V DO- 1' H R V C I A N A R T. The dominion of Assyria in Cyprus and in Phoenicia at the time of the Salmons is not sufficient to explain the influences of which we have just spoken. The transmission to (ireece of Assyrian forms and technique was effected chiefl\' through Asia Minor ; we are able to stud}- chiefly the art serving as intermediary through the researches of (i. IVrrot. In Ptcria and in Phrygia, at Huyuk, at Bogha/.-Kieui, at Kalaba, this Lydo- Phrygian art can best be studied. It seems to have been common to Lydia, Cappadocia, and Phrygia, and is directl}' connected with Assyria. In the figures of animals lions and bulls may be recognised an exact imitation of the Assyrian types which commerce had scattered over Asia Minor. On seeing the bas-relief of Pteria, where figures in hieratic attitudes clothed in Oriental costumes advance in long files, it is difficult not to be reminded of the sculptures of Nineveh. Doubt as to the role played by Asia Minor in the beginnings of Greek art is no longer admissible.* Recent discoveries have only confirmed * [" Ilirrn r, " ART. Among the many monuments of inland Asia Minor, here called Lydo-Phrygian, i.- an important .-cries exhibit- ing a peculiar art, in which the original- of several types in Phrygian art, strictly so called, may be detected. These monuments, which are found principally in Pteria (Cappadocia), but also in Phrygia, and at Karabel (the "Sesostris"' of Herodotus), and Mt. Sipylu.- (the so- called ''Niche"), in Lydia, commonly represent figures in relief, in stiff hieratic attitudes, wearing shoes with ends turned up, and either a pointed or a cylindrical shaped cap (polus) ; inscriptions, which have not yet been deciphered, of a peculiar character, written boustrophedon, THE ORIGIN OF GREEK ART. 25 the theory of Gerhard, who, speaking of subjects borrowed by primitive Greek art from Assyria, remarks : " These artistic types seem to have been imported into Greece less by the Phoenicians than by the people of Asia Minor, who had control of the commercial routes that pass through Comana and Tarsus and finally terminate at Nineveh and Babylon." * frequently accompanying the sculptures. The art represented by these monuments was undoubtedly the most important medium through which the art of Mesopotamia, more or less modified in the process, was transmitted overland to the Phrygians, and through them to the people dwelling on the coasts of the .Egean. These monuments, both in style and in some of the hieroglyphic characters used in the accompanying inscriptions, bear a striking, though in some respects an illusory, resemblance to certain monuments found in Northern Syria, ascribed to the ancient Hittites (" Kheta " of the Karnak inscription of Rameses II., the Hittites of the A.V. of the Bible). On the strength of these resemblances, some scholars would ascribe these monuments to the civilisation and art of the Hittites, who, according to Sayce, the most prominent advocate of this theory, were a non- Aryan people with a kingdom extending about the fourteenth century B.C. as far west as the --Egean. (Sayce, Trans. Soc. Biblical Arch., Vol. VII. ; Herodotos, 1883, pp. 425^; Academy, Aug. 18, 1883; W. Wright, Empire of the Hiitites, 1884; Ebers, Annali dcW Inst., 1883, p. 109). The arguments adduced in favour of this theory, and in fact of the Hittite conquest of central and western Asia Minor, cannot be regarded as conclusive, and the Hittite origin of these monuments is accepted by but few archaeologists. For this early, and as yet enigmatical, phase of art in Asia Minor, the designation "Anatolian" has been proposed. Cf. Ramsay, Athenczmn, Dec. 27, 1884 ; Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vols. \\\.ff. ; G. Hirschfeld, Paphlagonische Felsengr'dber(Abh. Berliner Akad.}, 1885. Other literature on the Hittites in Reinach, Manuel dt Philologie dassique, Vol. II., p. 77 78. Compare Perrot et Chipiez, Histoire de FArt dans T Antiquite, Vol. III. (Phenice, Chypre, Asie Mineure), 1884.] * Ueber die Kunst der Photricier. 26 GRKKK AKCII.KOLOr.Y. Sucli arc the data \vhich modern archaeological science has substituted for the fables wherein the Greeks obscured the sources and beginnings of their art. The Lydian Cyclopes, the Dactyl! of Mount Ida, the first skilled workers in iron and other metals, and the Tclchincs coming from Crete to Cyprus and Rhodes, all symbolise a fabulous art. But even beneath these legends \vc may discern what the Greek dimly recognised as to the forms and processes of art transmitted from the East to Greece. Greek art has thus followed a natural law : the latest comer, though with some original traits which arc apparent in its first attempts, it has borrowed from anterior civilisations all that could be learned, and finally, after a vigorous effort, has brought into independent existence its own original qualities. CHAPTER III. THE GR.IICO-ORIENTAL PERIOD. HKUNN: Die Kunst bci Homer. 1868. HELBIG : Das hoinerische Epos aits den Denkiadlern erliiittert. i CONZE : Alelische T/iongcfiisse, i862_/. DUMONT ET CHAPLAIN : LesCtramiques de laGrece propre, He fascic., 1883 SALZMANN : Necropole ae Cultures, 1867 73. I. ART IN THE HOMERIC AGE. WE do not venture to fix accurately the date when the influences of the East upon Greek art began to be felt. In matters of this sort too positive affirmations are a source of error. At the same time it is safe to say that, from the end of the seventh century B.C., the Greeks were in full possession of technical pro- cesses, and that at about that date the history of Greek art really begins. The period immediately preceding this time, which we have named the Gntco- Oriental period, is marked by the efforts of Greek- genius to emancipate itself and to overcome the in- fluences to which it had necessarily been subject. Monuments of this period are rare. Our know- ledge of Greek civilisation, from the Trojan War and the Dorian invasion down to historic times, is largely to be gathered from the texts of the Greek authors. 28 C.RKKK AKCII.I-OI.CXIV. These texts themselves sho\v how much Greece owed to the Kast. The Homeric poems, the date of which must be placed nearer the ninth century ];.('. than the Trojan War, describe the civilisation of those times. They ascribe to the personages of the heroic age contemporaneous manners and customs: Homeric civilisation is half Oriental. The buildings described in the Odyssey show an architecture of an Assyrian rather than of a Greek type. The palace of Alcinoiis is an Oriental palace ; brilliant colours, precious metals, are there scattered in rich profusion, and give it " a splendour like that of the sun or of the moon." The walls of bronze may be explained by the plaques of beaten bronze which adorned the palaces of Assyria ; walls brilliant with a dark blue colour (jrepl Be Opiy/cos Kudvoio}* call to mind the enamelled bricks of Nineveh. In the dogs of gold and silver, fashioned by Hephaestus, which guarded the portals, we may recognise the counterpart of those fabulous animals, winged bulls with human faces, that stood at the gates of the palace of Khorsabad. The works of art de- scribed by Homer show that the most advanced art was that of working in metals, but the poems show no knowledge of the use of solder, subsequently in- vented by a Greek of Chios. The complicated shield of Achilles was covered with small figures of gold and of silver, hammered (crtyvpi'jXaTa) and put together mechanically : the figures were without doubt ar- ranged in zones or belts. This was art in the style of * Horn. OJyss. vii. 87. THE ORIGIN OF GREEK ART. 29 the Ionian Greeks of the tenth century B.C., pupils of the Assyrians and Phoenicians. Homer speaks, to be sure, of vases of great value,* but these craters were, in the words of the poet, the work of Sidonians. 2. ART IN THE SEVENTH CENTURY I!.C. In the seventh century B.C., a time at last historic, the texts show us that the mixture of Asiatic and Hellenic influences is still characteristic of the period. Pausanias has left a description of an important monument of the seventh century B.C., the chest of Cypselus, dedicated at Olympia by the Cypselidae in memory of Cypselus, tyrant of Corinth, whom his mother had concealed in a chest in order to save his lifc.f Current opinion placed this monument at about the thirtieth Olympiad.^: It was decorated in horizontal belts, some of the figures being carved in the cedar, while others, of gold or of ivory, were inlaid. The subjects represented were taken in great part from the Hellenic myths, but the influence of the East is still deeply felt in their treatment. This influence betrays itself by the striving after a crude symbolism and by the frightful character of some of the figures, such as that, for instance, of Destiny (Krjp), represented with the features of a woman, but with hooked nails and enormous teeth. * Horn. //., xxiii. 740, Oifyss. iv. 616. t Pausanias, V. 17 19. J It may have been made much earlier. Pausanias says only that the inscriptions accompanying the subjects were taken from the poet Eumelus, who flourished towards the close of the ninth Olympiad (741 B.C.). GRKKK ARCILF.OLOCY. Certain subjects purely Oriental were not understood by 1'ausanias, such as the Persian Artemis. This (Jreck traveller asks why she is represented "with wings on her shoulders, holding a panther in one hand and a IMC. 6. I'KRSIAN ARTEMIS. (From a Greek vase.) lion in the other," a design often reproduced on Oriental gems and on the Phcenico-Grcck ornaments from Camcirus in Rhodes. An idea as to the style of the figures ma}- be ob- tained from the vase paintings of the eighth and seventh centuries B.C. \Ye have already spoken of the vases of Rhodes and of Corinth ; those of Melos are THE ORIGIN OF GREEK ART. 31 no less interesting. The ornaments are still Oriental ; belts of Asiatic animals are still found, but the figures they mark off and include are now Hellenic gods in a Greek form. On a vase from Melos may be seen Apollo and Artemis treated as the figures on the chest of Cypselus must have been. Soon after the second half of the seventh century B.C., schools of art were instituted in Oriental Greece, and the art of working in metal underwent a remark- able development. Eastern art is no longer slavishly copied. Greek art, as it were, realises itself, and becomes something individual. About the fortieth Olympiad (or about the twentieth, according to the chronicle of Eusebius) Glaucus of Chios invented the art of soldering metals ; thus was substituted a new process for the old one of putting pieces together mechanically. This old method was employed before the thirty-eighth Olympiad, when a colossal figure, de- signed for Olympia, made of sheets of hammered gold, riveted with nails, was executed for the Cypselidae. At Chios likewise, the sculptors Melas, Micciadcs, and Archermus, in the seventh century B.C., were the founders of a school which developed brilliantly in the sixth century B.C. At Samos the art of working in bronze made rapid progress under the impulse given it by Rhoecus and his sons Theodorus and Telecles. These workers in metal (ropevrai) were also architects. They began the great temple of Hera (Heraeum), the construction of which demanded * Conze, Ale!. Thotigefiisse, plate iv. 32 CRKKK AKCII.KOI.OCY. a large variety in workmanship, and displayed the many-sided talents of these old masters. In the seventh century !'..('., this Samian school of bron/c- casters produced some important works, such as the bron/.e crater dedicated in the Ileneum by the Samians on their return from Tartcssus (in the thirty-seventh Olympiad). This crater was orna- mented with griffins' heads in round bosses, three kneeling figures serving as a pedestal. The artists of Samos acquired such skill that their works were in demand in the East less than a century later. This Samian school also executed for Cnesus a crater of gold, which many years afterwards was in use in the palaces of the Persian kings (Olymp. l,\. I.YIII.). This rapid progress in art took place during tins period almost entirely among the Oriental Greeks. While in the seventh century r,.c. man}- temples were built in these regions (at Samos, Sardis, and Kphcsus), the Dorian districts of European Greece could count up but a small number. Before long, however, the de- velopment of art proceeded equally among the western Greeks as among the eastern Greeks. About the fortieth Olympiad the Dorian schools blossomed into life under the influence of the Cretan sculptors Dipcenus and Scyllis, and of the Magncsian Bathyclcs. The orders of architecture were formed ; to the ancient rudely shaped wooden images succeeded statues of gods and heroes that bore clear testimony to a direct study of nature ; sculptors ceased to be called " stone-cutters," as the first artists working in marble were termed. A hundred years, however, still THE ORIGIN OF GREEK ART. 33 separated Greek art from the wonderful fifth century U.C., that epoch of its perfection. While the traces of Oriental influence grow fainter, and in time become actually effaced, the contrary tendencies of Doric and Ionic genius become more and more marked. In spite, however, of these dif- ferences, there is still in all this early art a character common to the whole Hellenic race ; a fine instinct for the beautiful, a supreme faith in its own genius, a disdain for every thine: un-Hellenic. |5 oak ARCHITECTURE. CHAPTER I. GR.ECO-PELASGIC MONUMENTS. MIDDLETON : Grecian Remains in Italy, a Description of Cyclopian H'alls, etc. 1812. PETIT RADEL : Recherches siir ?es Monuments cyclopcens, etc., 1841. DODWELL : Views and Descriptions of Cyclopean or Pelasgic Remains, 1834. WE shall give only slight attention to monuments anterior to the appearance of the Orders in archi- tecture. Art can have but little to do with the erection of those massive structures raised by the Pelasgians in Asia Minor and Italy, as well as in Greece. The Greeks, struck with astonishment at them, believed them to be of mythological origin; they ascribed them to fabulous beings, the Cyclopes or the Gasterocheires of Lycia. The ruins, known indiscriminately at the present day as Pelasgic or Cyclopean, belong to diverse epochs, and are to be classified in accordance with the differences shown in the structure of their walls. The most ancient are commonly termed Cyclopean walls. These ramparts are formed of enormous blocks, put together without cement, with smaller stones filling up the interstices. The most striking D 2 36 C.REF.K AKCII F.OLOC.Y. examples of this method of construction are found in A rijolis, in the corridor-like galleries of Tiryns. These galleries, built between thick Cyclopean walls, end in narrow triangular doors, and were planned with a view to defence. The constructions called Pclasgic are composed of huge blocks, executed with greater regularity ; these blocks are polygonal in shape, well fitted together, and finished with smooth outer surfaces. This type is met with in several parts of Italy and Greece ; a portion of the walls of Mycenrc exhibits it. The Pclasgic construction includes a second variety, which has sometimes been termed the third polygonal system. In this the blocks begin to assume a quad- rangular form, but the layers are not horizontal, and the lines of juncture cross in every direction. This construction was employed at Myccnaj in that portion of the walls of the Acropolis adjoining the Gate of Lions. There is reason to believe that these walls arc of a more recent period than the Cyclopean masonry, and that they belong to the Achaean age. At any rate, we cannot give them a precise date. Euripides is only echoing popular tradition when he ascribes them to the Cyclopes, who built them " with lever, rule, and hammer."* These massive walls clearly enough declare that the chief concern in their construction by the ancient inhabitants of Greece was the provision for defence in case of attack. Cities were merely places of * Euripides, Here. fur. 943/1 ARCHITECTURE. 37 refuge, built upon high hills. In time of alarm every- thing that could be saved was hurried within the precincts of the Acropolis, and each man defended himself as best he could. Graeco-Pelasgic architecture, however, is susceptible of a more careful finish than the rude construction of these walls might indicate. Monuments of the 38 CKKFK AKCH.KOLOnV. Achaean period, anterior to the Dorian invasions, testify to a certain decree of art, and reveal that mixture of individual and Oriental styles which has already been remarked. The most beautiful specimen of this architectural decoration has long been known ; it is the sculpture which decorates the tympanum of the Gate of Lions at Myccna,-. A bas- relief represents two lions facing each other, on opposite sides of a column with a circular capital, and with a base a design essentially Asiatic in origin. The heads of the lions, undoubtedl}' of bronze, have disappeared. Architectural fragments discovered at Myccna: by Dr. Schliemann show a keen sense for decoration in art : here are fragments of fluted columns, of friezes, and of shafts of porphyry orna- mented with spirals and palm leaves. The most remarkable remains of this period arc the so-called Treasuries of Orchomcnus and of My- cenae, which were probably of the nature of tombs. Before Dr. Schliemann's excavations, the Treasury of Atreus alone was known at Mycenaj ; but recent ex- amination has brought a second to light. These structures arc built of slabs placed horizontally, the layers of which gradually approach each other and form a sort of pointed arch with a keystone. The door, with splaying jambs, has a pyramidal form, and is surmounted by a triangular tympanum. The interior wall, faced with bronze plates, in the Oriental style, was, without doubt, ornamented with columns ; near the Treasury of Atreus has been found a column with cir- cular base, and ornamented with chevrons and spirals. ARCHITECTURE. 39 Such were the obscure beginnings of an art which was destined to a brilliant development after the period of warfare had passed, and after the Hellenic people, firmly established in their own territory, were no longer obliged to provide solely for defence in their principal public works. CHAPTER II. TIN-: ORDKRS OF CKKKK AK< 'I I ITIXTUKK T1IKIU OKKilN AM) I'KIN* II'LKS. Kri.i.i-u : GcsJtichtc dcr Baitkiinst, 1854 187:. l.t I;KK : Gc^hichtf tier . I rchitcktur ( 1855), 1875. J. FKKI;I-SSJN : The Illustrated Handbook of Architecture, 1855, Second Kuitiun, 1859. History of Architecture, Second Kdition, 1874. Ki;x. WAI.NEK and (). KAUIEI. ; Die Grumlformcn dtr atttiHen classischen linn- kiiHst, 1869. }'.. VINET : Esqitissc d'une Ifistoire de I' Architecture classiyite, 1875. CH. BI.ANC : Gtammaire des Artsdu Dessin, Third Edition, 1876. Cmriicz : Ifistoire critique des Origines et de la Formation des Ordrcs frees, 1876 I'.ErLK : Histoire de [ 'Art grec avant Pericles, 1868. HALSER : Styllehre der architect. Forinen des Altertluinis, 1882. li'iTTiCHER : Die Tektonik der Hellenen, Second Edition, 18731801. PEAKSE: Principles of Athenian Architecture, 1851. (New Kdition in preparation. <$ I. ORIGIN OF THK ORDERS. SOON after the Dorian invasion of Peloponnesus, Greek genius began to create those forms in architec- ture that arc peculiar to it, and that bear its distinct imprint. It \vas by this step, by the creation and use of the orders, that it discovered, as it were, and asserted its individuality : at the same time the prin- ciple of proportions, necessarily involved, gave to Greek architecture a beauty altogether unique and original. The orders of architecture were finally developed at the close of the seventh century ];.c\, and during ARCHITECTURE. 41 the sixth century B.C. This \vas only after a long period of experimentation, during which the several elements of Hellenic architecture, borrowed from the East, were applied somewhat at random, although at last made subject to fixed laws. Before this epoch ancient Hellenic edifices, erected either according to traditions from abroad, or under purely local in- fluences, may be classed in five distinct groups, the characteristic types of which were simultaneously followed throughout this early period. M. Chipiez has defined these groups as follows : (1) Temples made of metal, or faced with metal in Media, in Judaea, and in Asia Minor. Greek authors, especially Pausanias, speak of edifices con- structed of bronze, such as the legendary temple of Apollo at Delphi, that of Athena Chalcioecus at Sparta, and the treasury of Myron, tyrant of Sicyon. In the sEneidvi Virgil the temple erected at Carthage by the Phoenician Dido is described as being of bronze. (2) The temple of wood, hardly more than an enlargement of the cabins built of logs and clay in which the ancient Hellenes dwelt. In later times popular piety preserved these buildings with care. Such were the temple of wood at Metapontum, and the sekos of Poseidon Hippios, near Mantineia, which tradition ascribed to the legendary architects Aga- medes and Trophonius. Hadrian caused the latter building to be enclosed within a marble temple. It is probable that the use of wood was determined by the poverty of the primitive cities. (3) Temples in which both wood and metal were 42 C-KF.KK AKCII.r.Ol.OGY. used, wood in the upper part of the edifices. Instances of this type are the temples of Zeus at Nemca, and of Zeus Larissnjus at Corinth. The wood became rotten in the course of time, and the roof was thus destroyed. Pausanias mentions several sanctuaries thus deprived of covering. (4) Temples in the form of a cave : an instance is the sanctuary of the Dclian Apollo on Mount Cyn- thus, in the island of Dclos.* (5) The temple of stone, forming a quadrangular enclosure, like that of Mount Ocha in Kubeea. It is doubtful by what process the Greek temple, with its regular observance of the orders, came to be substituted for these irregularly constructed sanc- tuaries. Several explanations have been proposed. The oldest is that of Vitruvius, which prevailed during the whole of the Renaissance, and has been accepted more or less absolute!}' by the writers of our own times. According to this system, Greek architecture takes its origin from constructions in wood. Recent writers who accept this view (Hittorf, Beule, Charles Blanc), while making due allowance for clear Oriental influences, have endeavoured to find the explanation of the several architectural members of a Greek temple in wooden constructions. They recognise in the entablature, or upper portion of the temple, beams, pegs, and ceilings of wood ; the column is derived from a wooden support squared and fluted by the axe. Another system, advocated by Yiollet- * Lcbcgue : Recherchts sur Dclos, 1876. ARCHITECTURE. 43 Ic-Duc and Rcgnault, sees the origin of Greek archi- tecture in the necessary conditions of stone con- struction, and would thus regard the art as one born on the soil of Greece. Discoveries made in the East invalidate this theory, by showing that the elements of the Greek orders were borrowed from Oriental countries Assyria, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor. M. Chipiez has endeavoured to show that the principles of architecture in wood but imperfectly explain certain details in the Greek temple. According to him, the forms adopted in the orders had been pre- viously applied in Oriental buildings ; in the final determination of the orders, however, the Greek artists were subject to the restrictions of plastic art, and to the intuitive necessity of constructing a reasoned and harmonious unity. 2. THE DORIC ORDER. The only orders purely Greek are the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The most ancient of these is the Doric, which, towards the close of the seventh century B.C., appeared simultaneously in all the Dorian countries at Corinth, Metapontum, Paestum, Segeste, Agrigentum, Syracuse. It is the national order of the Dorian stock, which gave to it its own characteristics of severity, force, and power. In its essential elements, and at the time of its perfect development, the Doric order was composed of the following members : The shaft of the column rested directly on the stylobate or sub-base. It was 44 C.REKK ARCIU-.OLOCY. FIG. 8. (Column DORIC ORDEK. with entablature. )J cut with twenty vertical Hillings without interven- ing spaces, and assumed to the eye the appearance of two truncated cones placed the one above the other at their largest section. The column showed in this way a swelling or entasis, which gave it the aspect of strength and of elasticity. It was composed of cylin- drical drums attached to each other, which were often fluted after being placed in position. The top of the column ter- minated in the gorgerin or neck, enclosed be- tween rows of fillets (in this place called an- nulets "little rings"), which appear to unite as it were into a band the resisting forces of the shaft in order to support the capital. This is sur- mounted by a sort of cushion or cc/iinns, upon which rests a flat rcct- ARCHITECTURE. 45 angular block the abacus the edges of which project over the echinus. This powerful column, with its capital, supported FlG. 9. DETAIL OF THE FRIEZE AND CORONA. an entablature comprising several distinct members. First came the architrave, entirely uniform, composed of smooth blocks, with a free bearing from column to 46 (ikF.r.K ARCII.KOLOGV. column. Above this ran a flat moulding, the Uenia, separating the architrave from the frie/.e. Tlie frie/.e was made up of alternate triglyphs and metopes. The triglyphs were bevelled flirtings in decoration of a projecting rectangle resting directly on the ta,Miia, beneath which were fixed six small marble cones called //*?, or drops. The channels of the triglyphs arc in fact not three in number as the name seems to indicate ; they arc- made up of two complete ones on the face of the rectangle, and a half one at each edge. These grooves have been explained in various ways. Yitruvius, true to his principle, asserts that the)- are derived from the wooden tringles that were placed for decora- tion at the ends of the beams. The metope is a slab of marble, sometimes smooth, but more commonly ornamented by sculptures in bas-relief, and it com- pletely fills the space between the triglyphs. In early times this space was left open, as we may infer from the statements of ancient authors. In the Orestes of Euripides, the hero relates that he made his escape from a temple through the openings between the triglyphs.* The entablature is crowned by the cornice, the essential feature of which is the corona or drip-stone, a surface made smooth so as to render easy the escape of water from the roof. The lower, nearly horizontal, face of the corona consists of mutules, a sort of corbel, which support this projecting member. * Euripides, Ores/. 1369 ff. ARCHITECTURE. 47 They are covered with three rows of truncated cones, six in each row, termed gutter. Above the corona runs the cyma, a waving beak-moulding, which on the sides of the temple terminates the entablature, while on the ends of the temple it forms the border of the pedi- ment. The pediment is the large triangular member at the ends of the temple above the entablature, and is en- closed between t\vo copings. The Greeks termed the Doric the masculine order ; in it nothing was sacrificed to mere grace. Its proportions are vigorous ; its orna- mentation soberly dis- tributed ; the general effect is one of power and austere simplicity, which might well sug- gest to the Greeks the robust outlines of the masculine form. It is a commonplace among archaeologists of the present time that the elements of the Doric order are to be found in Oriental architecture. At Karnak and in the columns of the Egyptian tombs at Beni-Hassan FlG. 10. DETAIL OF THE MUTULES. 4& GREEK AKCH.EOLCK.Y. we recognise the prototype, as it were, of the Doric column ; the capital, composed of abacus and echinus is found in Cyprus, at Golgos, and at Kdde ; finally the monuments of Pteria in .Asia Minor show us small structures surmounted by a pediment enclosed with curved lines resembling outspread wings, which seems to explain the name actos ("eagle", given by the Greeks to the pediment. But while we admit this transmission of forms, made above all through the mediation of Asia Minor and Phoenicia, we must allow that Greek art has most remarkably assimilated these elements, and has transformed them to a degree that amounts to original creation. Monu- ments still in existence permit us to follow the steps by which Greek genius approached perfection in this respect. The progress of the Doric order may be traced in the study of dimensions, which were slowly modified into what became canonical proportions. At first massive and thickset, the columns had the effect of heaviness, which was removed as the column became more slender, the ratio of diameter to height gradually increasing. The following table may give an idea of this progress : UNCERTAIN DATE. Olympia, Hera?um. The most ancient Doric temple in Greece proper. Corinth. The column is not as much as even four diameters in height : it is extremely heavy in aspect, and the applied stucco increases this effect. SEVENTH CENTURY i;.c. (?) Selinus. The old temple ; height of column, four and two-fifths diameters. ARCHITECTURE. 49 SIXTH CENTURY B.C. Selinus. Thejuter' temple ; height of column, four and one-half diameters. The Temple of Zeus, four and two-thirds diameters. Syracuse. So-called temple of Artemis ; height of column four and two-fifths diameters. Temple of Athena (?) at Santa-Maria delle Colonne in the island of Ortygia; height of column less than five diameters. Pacslum. Great Temple of Poseidon, where the entasis of the columns is noticeable ; height of column, four and one -half diameters. Temple of Demeter, four and four- fifths diameters. FIFTH CENTURY B.C. /Egina. Temple of Athena ; the height of the columns is five and one-third diameters. The age of perfection is near at hand. Athens. The so-called Temple of Theseus; five and one- half diameters. These are the proportions of the best period. As the column grew more slender the entablature diminished in size, becoming less heavy and thus more in harmony with the column. The capital underwent similar changes ; at first somewhat flattened, sunken, and as if compressed under the abacus, the echinus gradually became more upright in its lines, and the curves became firmer. This progress can easily be measured by placing side by side for comparison two capitals, one from the old temple at Selinus, and the other from yEgina : the former of the period of begin- nings, the latter near the period of perfection. (Figs. 1 1 and 12.) In fact, it was in the fifth century B.C. that Ictinus, in the construction of the Parthenon, and of the temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassse, employed the Doric in its most severe majesty. In the Pro- pylaea, Mnesicles wedded the Ionic and Doric. In E 50 GKKKK AK< I! 1 <>I.O<;Y. course of time unsuccessful attempts were made to give grace to the Doric order, and these led to its deca- dence. In the fourth century it is still employed, hut the Ionic tends to dethrone it. It was thus that Scopas, in the temple of Athena Alea at Tegca, chose the Ionic as the principal order, and relegated the Doric to the interior of the building. In Ionia a school of architects was formed which even pro- scribed the Doric order. Subsequently Roman architecture altered and perverted all the propor- tions that gave the order its original beauty : there is nothing in common between the feeble and heavy Doric described by Vitruvius and that of the Parthenon. $ 3- THE IONIC OKDKK. According to ancient writers the Ionic order was of more recent origin than the Doric, and was used for the first time in Asia Minor in the temple of Kphcsus, built by Chcrsiphron of Gnosus and his son Metagenes (Olymp. L., 580 577 r,.C.). By these statements we are to understand that the temple at Kphcsus marks the date when the canonical proportions of the order had become fixed, and this to such an extent that these two architects could write a treatise upon it. The Ionic order may, then, be said to have become fully developed by the middle of the sixth century B.C., and the testimony of ancient authors shows that it originated in Ionia. The Ionic column differs essentially from the ARCHITECTURE. FlG. II. CAPITAL FROM SELIXUS. FlG. 12. CAPITAL FROM THE TEMPLE OF ATHENA IX E 2 - 11.1. Doric column. Instead of resting directly upon the stylobate, it rests upon a base made up of a torus decorated with horizontal stria.-, of a scotia or concave moulding, of a second torus, or sometimes a ro\v of double rings. The base formed a sort of elastic cushion, the horizontal mouldings of which con- trasted distinctly with the vertical lines of the flut- ings of the shaft. The latter were more deeply cut, but were of less width than in the Doric. They were separated from each other not by sharp edges (arrises), as in the Doric, but by narrow flat sur- faces. The capital was fashioned according to a rectangular principle. The echinus was very dimi- nutive, ornamented with ovules and rows of beads half concealed by the volutes, which spread widely on two sides : the thin abacus almost vanishes from sight between the volutes and the archi- trave. Occasionally a gorgcrin or band, decorated with palm - ornament and aquatic plants, runs below the capital and forms the upper part of the shaft. The architrave is no longer uniform as in the Doric. It is formed of three divisions or faces super- imposed in such a way that the second juts slightly beyond the first, and the third juts slightly beyond the second. The uppermost face terminates on its higher edge in a row of headings, and is united with the frieze by an ogee moulding. The frieze is orna- mented by a continuous series of bas-reliefs, in imita- tion of Oriental buildings. Finally, the corona, entirely uniform, protects the entablature, and is terminated ARCHITECTURE. 53 by a cyma decorated with headings and with the cgg- and-dart moulding. This order, the rival of the Doric, was born in Oriental Greece, and became the national order of the lonians, as the Doric had become the order of the Do- rians in occidental Greece, where the Dorians were su- preme. And yet we cannot maintain that the architects of the temple at Ephesus created it at one stroke ; in fact, its ele- ments had long been in existence, and the lonians on taking up their abode in Asia Minor had found them already in use. The Oriental origin of Ionic forms is no longer contested at the present da}-. Excavations at Nineveh and at FlG. 13. BASE, CAPITAL, AND EXTAI5- LATURE OF THE IONIC ORDER. 54 (;RKI-:K AKCILKOLO<;Y. Babylon, and discoveries made in Phoenicia, have disclosed many monuments in which we may re- cognise a proto- Ionic type. It will suffice to mention the bas-reliefs of the palace of Sargon at Khorsabad, and those of Koyunjik, which give instances of columns with volutes. In Phoenicia, and at Golgos, we discover the principle of the Ionic capital, and a bas-relief of Pteria in Asia Minor shows a small building with columns surmounted by volutes, which presents all the characteristic elements of the Greek order. Before the Ionic order had become independently developed, the principle of the circular capital had been applied with striking effect in the Doric ; the Ionic architects adopted the quadrangular capital with volutes, and the column with base. In borrow- ing these forms from Oriental civilisations, however, they impressed upon them their own native cha- racteristics of grace and ornate elegance, which clearly contrasted with the severe bareness of the Doric. To carry on the comparison mentioned above, the Ionic is the feminine order ; its elegant and slender forms lend themselves easily to rich ornamentation, which strikingly contrasts with the austerity of the Doric. The marble is finch' carved wherever the severity of Greek taste, ever opposed to excess, would permit. Palm-leaves of exquisite form, braids, lilies, and the egg-and-dart moulding, unite marvellously with the curves of the volutes and with the rounded forms of the base. Another essential feature of the Ionic order is that, instead of being ARCHITECTURE. 55 immutable and inflexible, as is its rival order the Doric, it is susceptible of an infinite variety. The base admits of very diverse ornamentation. In Asia Minor, in the temple of Apollo Didymaeus, no two bases are precisely alike ; in one of them, for the upper torus was substituted a cylindrical band decor- Fir,. 14. DETAIL OF AN IONIC CAPITAL. ated with palm-leaves ; upon another the scotise gave way to a dodecagonal trunk, each face of which was decorated in a manner peculiar to itself. Occasion- ally, as at Ephesus, the shaft was ornamented with sculptures. The capital finally shows great variations in the combination of its lines, which may be grouped under three heads : 5G (1) The volutes of the capital are connected by a depressed curved line ; this is the classical style, used in the temple of Windless Victory in Athens. (2) The connecting line is an elevated curve, as at Phigalia. (3) The connecting line is a straight line ; thi> was the form commonly used in Asia Minor. This suppleness, in perfect keeping with the Greek instinct for freedom, has occasioned the just remark that the Ionic is the most Greek of the Greek orders. It is in fact the chief element among the innovations in architecture made by the architects of the age of Pericles. Passing in review the more important Ionic edifices, we shall find that this order was first em- ployed in the temple of Artemis at Kphesus. This temple perished in a conflagration kindled by Hero- stratus, but remains of it have been discovered by Mr. Wood, among the foundations of the new temple erected upon the site of the old. The Henvum of Samos, begun about the thirty-fifth Olympiad (640 P.c.) by Rruecus and his son Tlicodorus, was at first con- formed to the Doric order, but was subsequently completed according to Ionic principles. It is possible that the Ionic was employed, iii a partial degree, in the first Hcratum, an Ionic column of the most ancient type having been found in Samos. In the fifth century P..r. it was almost exclusively employed at Athens. Ictinus had already shown its resources in the temple of Apollo Kpicurius at K'iss;e, near Phigalia. In Athens the order is most strikingly shown in the Propyhea, where it is united with the ARCHITECTURE. 57 Doric ; in the charming temple of Wingless Victor}-, an architectural gem with its limited dimensions ; finally in the Erechtheum, where it displays all its wealth and elegance. The fourth century D.C. is, however, pre-eminently the Ionic century. This supremacy is clearly seen in 3^^ FlG. 15. PALM-LEAVES, PEARL-BEADINGS, LGG-ANIJ-DART AND LEAF-BUD ORNAMENT. (From an Ionic capital. ) the place given to the order in the external features of the temples. In Asia Minor the order blossomed forth in greatest perfection ; it attained its highest degree of excellence under the architect Pythius, who built the Mausoleum, and the temple ot Athena Polias at Piicne. The masters of his school, Paeonius of Ephesus and Daphnis of Miletus, con- 58 CRKI-.K Akm.KOi.or.Y. structcd the temple of Apollo at Didymi, where they applied the Ionic with a marvellously rich inventive power. The flexibility of the principles of the order did not protect it against radical modifications, intro- duced by the Asiatic architects, Hermogcnes of Kphesus and Thargelius of Tralles. The former, in the temples of Tcos and Magnesia, removed one ot the colonnades, and altered the profile of the bases ; the latter, in the temple of Asclepius at Tralles, sub- stituted the Corinthian for the Ionic capital. Here began the decadence of the Ionic order, which was continued under the Roman architects. The prin- ciples of this order, as formulated by Vitruvius, show a singular degeneration. S 4. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. The youngest of the three Greek orders of archi- tecture is the Corinthian. In its canonical form it is composed of a calathus, a sort of basket, about which are applied the tall leaves of the acanthus, and of helices, or volutes supporting an abacus less thick than that of the Doric order, and concave on all of its four vertical surfaces. The projecting corners thus formed require a support, which is given by the volutes. The entablature differs but slightly from that of the Ionic order. It is hardly necessary to recall the legend by which the Greeks sought to explain the origin of this order. A young Corinthian girl died, and her nurse placed upon the grave a basket, containing some articles held ARCHITECTURE. 59 dear in life-time, and covered it with a tile. In the following spring, the basket, surrounded by the leaves of an acanthus, which had grown there, inspired the sculptor Callimachus with the idea of the Corinthian capital. Of this pretty story it is sufficient only to retain the name of the artist. Callimachus lived about the eighty - fifth Olympiad (440 437 B.C.). Before this time, the principle of the bell-shape, upon which this system rests, had been in use ; the French expedition to the Morea discovered at Corone a very ancient type, in which a Doric abacus rests upon a calathus, decorated at its base with slender and pointed acanthus leaves. The modification of Callimachus, important enough to be termed an invention, succeeded in fixing the canonical forms of the capital. This artist was principally a worker in metal ; he made the golden lamp of the temple of Athena Polias in Athens. We are thus justified in believing that the Corinthian capital conceived by him was of metal. The deep concavity of the acanthus leaves, the ornaments fastening the leaves to the calathus in such a way as FlG. l6. CORINTHIAN CAPITAL. Cio cki.F.K AUCII. v.oi.or.y. to hide the heads of the nails in fine, all the workmanship of the capital seems to eon firm this theory. Furthermore, the capital of Callima- chus was designed as the decoration of isolated columns ; the (ireeks, struck by its beauty, made an order of it. About the ninety-sixth Olympiad (396 B.C.), in the temple of Athena AleaatTegea, Scopas employed the Corinthian order for a portion of the columns in the interior. Already, in 431 U.r., Ictinus had used the order in the temple at Basso.-, for a column without doubt intended for an inner sanctuary. These were, however, but isolated experiments. The first instance \vhcre the Corinthian order was openly applied for the exterior seems to have been the small choragic monument of Lysicrates in Athens, the date of which, as indicated by its inscription, is the second year of the one hundred and eleventh Olympiad, or 335 I i.e. About the same time, it is seen in the Didymaeum of Miletus, where it crowns the inner columns of the facade. Thargelius, finally, was the first who, in the temple of Asclepius at Tralles, built a colonnade of Corinthian columns around the temple, and thus con- secrated the use of this, the youngest of the Greek orders. The Corinthian order flourished vigorously in the Roman epoch. It is beyond our task to trace this later history, but it is nevertheless interesting to note the fact, that in Roman edifices are found fine details in execution that confirm the theory of its origin in metallic forms. In Rome, for example, the ARCHITECTURE. 6 1 order followed in the interior of the Pantheon of Agrippa was Corinthian, where the columns were sur- mounted by metallic capitals ; and the portico of Cn. Octavius, erected in 147 B.C., after a victory over Perseus, was, says Pliny, "called Corinthian because the capitals of the columns were of brass." 62 CHAPTER III. THE MONUMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE. 8 I. THE TKMPLE. IT is above all in the religious architecture of the Greeks that \vc can study the use of the orders, the history of which we have sketched in the preceding chapter. The Greek temple is an organic whole the highest expression of Greek art : painters and sculp- tors united in beautifying the dwelling of the god, in making it a harmonious whole, the unity of which was fixed by rules of the utmost precision. The choice of the site for a temple was not left to chance. Usually, according to legend, the divinity indicated by some visible sign the place where he wished his sanctuary to be erected. Thus is explained a not infrequent occurrence the existence of temples far from any human habitations, as at /Egina, Sunium, and Didymi. The building, facing eastward, was sur- rounded by a sacred precinct, the teinctws, within which the piety of the faithful accumulated votive offerings, stc/cz, and statues. On passing through this enclosure we find ourselves in the direct presence of the temple, the several features of which demand detailed description. ARCHITECTURE. 63 The proportions. The fundamental element of the Greek temple is the sanctuary proper (naos, or cello), surrounded by architectural decorations which were variable within certain limits prescribed by the prin- ciple of proportions. We have already indicated what influence the colonnade, or pteroma, of the wooden hut was able to exercise upon Greek architecture. Greek temples may be classified according to the application, more or less complete, of the principle of colonnades ; they may also be grouped according to the ordering of their columns. The temple is said to be in antis when the chief facade is decorated by two columns, and when the two extremities of the facade are formed by the pro- longation of the side walls of the cella, terminating in pilasters. It is prostyle w-hen for these pilasters are substituted columns independent of the walls of the cella; amphiprostyle when it has a facade at the rear similar to that in front.* In peripteral temples the colonnade is prolonged along the lateral walls, thus passing completely around the cella ; the dipteral temple shows a double colonnade around the cella ; the monopterai tern pie is round and has a circular colonnade, which supports a cupola; it is without interior walls or cella ; this form is rare in Greece. These simple principles were modified by certain architects, notably by Hermogenes, contemporary with Alexander, who adopted for the temple of Artemis at Magnesia the pseudo-dipteral principle, in which a second row of columns was attached to the walls of the cella. * See below the plan of the Parthenon, p. 69. 64 C.Kl.KK ARCH F.OI.Or.Y. Another classification is based upon the number of columns in the facade. With four columns in the facade, the temple was called tctrastylc ; with six, Jic.viistylc ; with eight, octostylc. The dccastylc temple- had ten columns, and the dodccaslylc twelve. The originality of the Greek temple consisted above all in its scale of proportions ; it was by this that the Greeks impressed upon their edifices a per- sonal and individual character, with a scientific skill which the discoveries of archaeology only confirm and attest. When Egypt was opened to the Greeks, in the middle of the seventh century B.C., the sensitive and keen spirit of the Greeks was struck with the aspect of power and force given to the Egyptian temples by their thickset columns, placed close to- gether. But while the Egyptian temple had only dimensions, that of the Greeks had proportions, based upon the ratio of the several parts of the building to each other, expressed in terms of the diameter of the column taken at the base. As applied in determining the width of the intcr- columniations, this principle suggested a new classifi- cation of Greek temples. The pycnostylc temple had intcrcolumniations of the width of one and a half measures, i.e., in the pycnostylc between two columns, the diameter of the column at its base may be placed one and a half times ; in the systylc, twice ; in the cnsfylc, two and a quarter ; in the diastylc, three ; in the arccostyle, more than three times. Variations in the height of the columns and of the entablature are controlled largely by these differences: ARCHITECTURE. 65 all the parts of the temple are subject to the same principle to such an extent that it is often quite possible completely to restore an ancient temple, with almost perfect accuracy, from the debris rescued from time. The temple exterior. The general features of the exterior of the temple were not uniform. For the sake of greater precision it will be well to study them in a selected instance. For that purpose we have chosen the Parthenon as a type.* This temple rests upon a base reached by three high marble steps, which directly supports the shafts of the Doric columns ; these surround the main edifice, which has the form of a large rectangle. The architectural ornamentation is of the severe type of the Doric order, triglyphs, guttae, mutules. Probably about the time of the orator Lycurgus a row of golden shields was hung upon the architrave of the eastern facade. The sculptured metopes alternating with the triglyphs, like so many square pictures, depicted a series of subjects borrowed from ancient legend, dear to the Athenians the combats of the Lapithae and Centaurs, the myth of Erechtheus and Pandrosus, the story of the fabulous beginnings of Athens, and the legend of Athena. The pediments were ornamented with statues in high relief, the work of Pheidias and of Alcamenes, representing, on the east,. the birth of Athena ; and on the west, Poseidon and Athena disputing for the possession of Attica. * Compare Michaelis, Der Parthenon^ with atlas, 1870-- 71, F (1RF.FK ARCII.KOLOflY. Under the colonnade, on the upper part of the wall of the cella, a continuous frie/e was carved ; this represented the Panathenaic procession, with the priestesses of the goddess, maidens (arrhcphori\ the group of victims de- stined for sacrifice, armed war-chariots, and a long line of galloping horsemen, whose chlamydes float in the wind. The plastic deco- ration of the exterior is completed by the ornaments placed in the highest parts. These were the gutters terminating in gar- goyles of the shape of lions' heads, intended to empty the water above and beyond the corona. The ex- tremities and the apex of the pediment were orna- mented by acroteria, a sort of pedestal supporting various figures, sphinxes, vases, tripods, victories, lions. This arrangement, while not universal, was frequent ; it is to be found in the Parthenon, in the temple of Wingless Victory, at /Egina, etc. In the temple of ./Egina the ornament decorating the apex of the pediment has been recovered, as well FlG. 17. ACROTERIUM AM) (H'TTKR. ARCHITECTURE. 6/ as two figures of draped women that flanked this ornament. Finally we know that brilliant colours, judiciously disposed, distinctly accented the archi- tectural details. This subject, however, will sub- sequently receive attention when we treat of poly- chroiny. In order to form an adequate conception of the external aspect of an ancient temple, we must see FlG. l8. PEDIMENT OF THE TEMPLE OF y it in its surroundings, under a brilliant sun, which, by its distinct lights and shades, brings out clearly the finest edges cut in the marble ; we must encom- pass it with a girdle of mountains, the contours of which harmonise with the horizontal lines of the edifice, or contrast with the vertical columns. Placed on a naked rock, levelled only about the temple, the edifice appeared as a perfect work, complete in itself. The Greek had no trace of the peculiarly modern desire to give effect to a monument by the F 2 68 GRKKK ARCH.V.OLOr.Y. symmetrical subordination of neighbouring monu- ments. There is nothing more irregular than the arrangement of the buildings of the .Acropolis of Athens. The Propyhea which formed the approach to the Parthenon arc not in its axis. The temple is thus wholly independent, and owes its great beaut}' entirely to the harmony of its own parts. Modern research has shown how far this reasoned endeavour after artistic perfection was carried. Every- thing was arranged that no violence should be done to the most delicate sensibility in vision. From the studies of Pcnncthornc, Penrosc, and Paccard, we learn that the Parthenon was, in its main outlines, a sort of truncated pyramid. In order that the vertical lines of the temple might appear perpendicular, Ictinus, the architect, aimed to correct the natural errors of vision ; he inclined the walls of the cclla and the axes of the columns inward ; the columns at the corners were made somewhat thicker and heavier, and thus, surrounded as they were with light and air, they no longer had the appearance of thinness in com- parison with the other columns. On the other hand, the anta.% the cornices, the faces of the corona.', instead of sloping towards the interior, inclined out- ward, so as to present to the eye of the spectator the painted ornamentation with which they were covered. The horizontal lines of the edifice had a slight curva- ture; the lines of the platform, those of the architrave, and those of the corona which ran beneath the pedi- ment, were lower at their extremities, thus forming convex arcs. The Greek architect took lessons from ARCHITECTURE. 6 9 9 . O the natural curves in the landscape, the curves of the mountains, and of the sea. Tlie temple interior. The interior of the temple had three main divisions : the pronaos, the naos or cella, and the opisthodomos. On passing between the first row of columns of the peristyle directly under the pediment, we enter the pro- naos; this division is formed by the prolongation of the lateral walls of the cella and a transverse wall. (Fig. 19, C.) A row of columns formed the frontage of the pronaos ; a lattice grating between the columns closed it when neces- sary, and made secure the objects placed within the en- closure. The naos, or cella (D), to which the pronaos gave access, was pre-eminently the abode of the god. It was di- vided into a nave and two aisles by two rows of superimposed columns. In each of the rows the lower tier of columns, of the Doric order, rested directly upon the pavement, as may be proved from the traces left on the flagstone of the fluting of the columns, which was done when they were in position ; this lower tier supported an architrave upon which FlG. 19. I'LAN OF A GREEK TEMPLE. (Parthenon.) 70 GREKK ARCHAEOLOGY. rested another tier, which was sometimes Ionic, some- times Doric. It is not known whether or not this second story was floored, thus forming a sort of gallery. In the Parthenon Paccard has failed to discover any traces of stairs, which such a gallery would require as a means of access. The statue of the divinity stood at the further end of the cella (K). In the Parthenon it was the statue of Athena Parthenos, one of the masterpieces of Phcidias, brilliant with costly metals, with ivory and precious stones ; it rested upon a pedestal deli- cately carved. To form an idea of the aspect, at once rich and imposing, of the sanctuary of the god- dess, we must bring before the imagination the columns of the naos decorated with shields and armour ; the store of works of art, votive tablets, rich stuffs, accumulated about the pedestal of Athena ; the statue itself resplendent with the sheen of gold and the dead white of ivory. Byzantine churches St. Mark's at Venice, for instance can alone give us an idea of the interior decoration of a Greek naos. It must be remembered that this ornamentation had an infinite variety in its details. At Olympia the statue of Zeus, seated upon a throne of gold, ebony, ivory, and marble, was enclosed within low barriers covered with paintings ; the floor was set in black marble destined to receive the oil poured upon the ivory of the statue to preserve it. At Didymi the statue of Apollo stood under a small shrine. In Athens, in the Ercchtheum, a golden lamp, the work of Callima- chus, was placed before the wooden statue of Athena FlG. 20. COLL'MNS IN THE INTERIOR OF THE NAOS. /2 GREEK ARCII.-KOLOGY. Polias ; this lamp was shaded by a bronze palm-tree, which served to carry the smoke to the roof. The third and last main division of the temple was the opisthodomos. (Fig. 19, !'.) Though sometimes completely isolated from the eel la, the opisthodomos usually communicated with the naos by means of an entrance lying in line with the entrances from the pronaos ; this space was filled with a bronze door in the midst of a grating. In the Parthenon it is probable that the ceiling of this part of the temple was supported by four columns. In the opistho- domos were preserved the treasures of the goddess, made up of gifts, thank-offerings, the products of sacred property of all sorts, etc. ; here also were kept objects of historic interest, as the sword of Mar- donius, the throne of Xerxes with feet of silver, the treasure of the State, with the grand seals. These treasures were guarded by the " treasurers of the sacred riches of Athena," who made an inventor}-, every 7 four years, of the property in their keeping. Marble stela have preserved to us the details of such inventories, not only of the Parthenon, but also of the Asclcpicion of Athens, and of the temple of Apollo at Delos.* * Inventories from the Parthenon : Corpus Inscriplionum Attic- ariini, Vol. I. ; Traditions quustorum Minerr