THE 4 Ctfwttum CONTAINING A CONCISE ACCOUNT OF THE SOURCE, MODE OF PRODUCTION OR MANUFACTURE OF THE Principal Articles of Commerce. DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES, BY S. H. BROWNE. PUBLISHED BY BILL, NICHOLS & CO., SPRINGFIELD, MASS. 1871 . coaI.S Hf i oil ge IS7I Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by BILL, NICHOLS & COMPANY, In the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. THE GETTY CENTER LIBRARY PREFACE. The object of this Manual is to afford information in re¬ gard to the principal articles of Commerce. It embraces a short account of the most interesting productions of the Ani¬ mal, Vegetable, and Mineral Kingdoms. It also exhibits the uses to which they have been converted through the agencies of Science, the Arts, or Manufacturers. The book is de¬ signed especially for Schools. It is intended to serve as a convenient volume of reference for the teacher’s desk, fur- ■ nishing appropriate matter for oral instruction and object les¬ sons; and also as a text-book for classes. It contains a vast variety of topics, with much useful information under them, brought down, as nearly as possible, to the present date. It professes to offer, in a condensed and convenient form, what no other single book for schools can do, or has ever done. The need of such a volume, both for teacher and pu¬ pil, has long been felt and acknowledged; and it is hoped that the present work will fully supply that need. For the later terms in Grammar Schools, the earlier in High and Normal Schools, and for general use in Private Schools and Academics, it is eminently adapted, in matter and arrange- IV MANUAL OF COMMERCE. ment. The Manual of Commerce is therefore earnestly commended to the public as a most desirable addition to the list of useful and popular school books. The author believes that those who are entrusted with the responsibility of direct¬ ing the studies of the young will at once recognize its value. Springfield, August, 1871. S. H. B. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE. Commercial Articles of Food. Vegetable Food. Section I.: Grains, etc. Rice — Wheat — Maize and Other Grains—Articles Derived or Manufactured from (-rain—Corn Starch—Farina, etc.—Potatoes—Other Esculent Roots—Sago — Tapioca — Iceland Moss— Arrow-root.' . . 13 Section II.: Fruits. Apples — Pears—Peaches—Prunes or Plums—Almonds — Dates—Figs—Grapes—Oran¬ ges—Citrons — Lemons and Limes — Pine-apples— Pomegranates—Tamarinds — Bananas—Bread Fruit —Tropical Fruits little known—Chirimoya—Litchin —Mangosteen—Durion — Cashew Fruit—Brazil, Co¬ coa, and other nuts.30 CHAPTER II. A ntmal Food. Section I. : Meats, Butter , Cheese, etc. Beef—Pork — Hams—Venison — Pemmican—Meat- biscuit—Canned Meats—Butter — Condensed Milk— Gelatine—Cheese—Isinglass.51 VI CONTENTS. PAGE. Section II.: Fish. Cod—Mackerel—Salmon—Halibut- Shad—Herring — Sardines — Turbot — Shrimps and Anchovies—Oysters—Lobsters—Turtle.54 CHAPTER III. Savors, Siuces, Condiments, etc. Used with food or IN ITS preparation. Salt — Sugar — Molasses — Honey —Vinegar—Olive Oil — Pepper — Mustard— Ginger—Allspice—Nutmeg—Mace—Cinnamon—Cas¬ sia—Cloves—Vanilla—Yeast—Soda—Cream of Tartar. 62 CHAPTER IV. Beverages. Section I.: Drinks not Alcoholic. Tea— Coffee—Chocolate.80 Section II.: Fermented Liquors. Wine—Cider — Perry —Ale—Beer—Porter, etc.88 Section III. : Distilled Spirits. Brandy — Bum—Gin — Whiskey—Arrack, etc.94 CHAPTER V. Materials of Clothing. Section I .: Furs and Skins. Beaver—Fitch — Marten — Mink — Nutria—Sable— Ermine—Leather.97 Section II.: Wool. Common Wool — Llama—Alpaca— Shoddy—Felting.. 107 Section III.: Flax and Hemp. Linen Fabrics—Damasks. 114 CONTENTS. Yll PAGE. Section IV.: Silk. Various textures—Lustring—Satin— Velvet—Ribbons—Moire Antique—Gauze—Crape, etc. 117 Section V.: Cotton. Culture and numerous Manufac¬ tures—Calicoes — Muslin—Ginghams — Thread—Or¬ namental Laces—Trimmings.122 Section VI.: Hats, Caps, Gloves, and Hose .133 CHAPTER VI. Articles of Household Use and Ornament. Sec¬ tion I.: Carpets. Ingrain — Three-ply — Brussels — Velvet—Tapestry — Gobelin Tapestry—Turkey, Per¬ sian and India Carpets—Rugs—Druggets—Feltings— Matting or Straw Carpets—Floor or Oil-cloths. . . 136 Section II.: Feathers. Live Geese—Eider Down—Swans’ Down—Ornamental Feathers.143 Section III.: Porcelain and Pottery. Materials and Man¬ ufacture—Biscuit—Parian — Sevres—China — Stone and Earthen Ware—Wedgwood Ware—Common Pot¬ tery—Bricks—Terra cotta—Plaster of Paris. . . . 148 Section IV.: Glass. Antiquity of Glass—Ancient Speci¬ mens—Portland Vase—Venetian Glass—Flint Glass •—Crown Glass—Plate Glass—Bottle Glass—Colored Glass—Green Mountain Sand for Glass-making. . . 153 CHAPTER VII. Useful and Ornamental Woods. Oak — Pine — Vlll CONTENTS. PAGE. Cedar—Chestnut—Walnut—Maple — Teak—Palm— Mahogany—Rose-wood—Ebony—Lignum-vitse—Box¬ wood—Cork, etc.—Satin-wood.159 CHAPTER VIII. Metals. Section I.: Precious Metals. Gold—Assaying Gold Leaf—Silver — Mining —Alloying — Plating— Mercury or Quicksilver — Cinnabar and Vermilion —Platinum.177 Section II.: Useful Metals. Iron—Smelting—Pig-iron— Steel—Copper—Lead—Tin—Zinc — Nickel—Arsenic —Antimony—Magnesium—Manganese.186 CHAPTER IX. Minerals. Coal, (varieties) — Coke — Coal Gas — Coal Oil or Petroleum—Kerosene—Graphite—Limestone —Marble — Quicklime—Chalk — Chloride of Lime— Granite — Slate — Soapstone — Malachite — Pumice- stone—Emery.202 CHAPTER X. Drugs and Medicines. Section I.: Substances of Vege¬ table Origin. Camphor—Opium—Gum Arabic—Sen¬ egal—Tragacanth—Gamboge—Manna—Myrrh—Asa- foetida—Liquorice—Ginseng—Senna—Sarsaparilla — Sassafras — Rhubarb — Jalap—Ipecacuanha — Orris CONTENTS. IX PAGE. Eoot — Peruvian Bark or Cinchona—Strychnine— Aconite—Belladonna.214 Section II.: Substances of Mineral or Chemical Deriva¬ tion. Epsom and Glauber Salts—Ammonia—Nitre— Sulphur — Alum — Borax — Calomel—Anaesthetics— Ether — Chloroform — Nitrous Oxide — Hydrate of Chloral.229 Section III.: Medicinal Oils. Castor Oil—Croton Oil— Cod Liver Oil, etc.238 Section IV.: Leeches and Animal Substances used in Medi¬ cine. Leeches—Cantharides.240 CHAPTER XI. Dyes and Coloring Substances. Cochineal — Mad¬ der — Brazil-wood — Logwood — Fustic —Annotto— Indigo—Cudbear and Litnus—Ultramarine—Aniline Dyes — Chemical Colors—Ink 3 .243 CHAPTER XII. Animal Substances Manufactured for Use or Ornament. Ivory — Tortoise-shell —Whalebone — Horn—Hair.252 CHAPTER XIII. Precious Stones and Jewelry. Diamond—Ruby— Topaz — Sapphire—Amethyst —Emerald—Jasper — 1 * X CONTENTS. PAGE. Agate—Carnelian—Beryl—Carbuncle—Opal—Cameo Jet—Mosaics—Coral—Pearls—Amber—Filigree. . . 261 CHAPTER XIV. Paper and Books. Paper — Papyrus — Pasteboard — Papier-mache—Parchment Paper—Books—Copyright. 280 CHAPTER XV. Perfumery. Section I.: Perfumes of Animal Origin. Musk—Civet—Ambergris—Castor.287 Section II.: Fragrant Woods and Gums. Sandal-wood— Red Cedar—Frankincense—Sandarach—Benzoin. . 290 Section III.: Oils and Extract from Flowers, Leaves, Fruit, etc. Chemical Odors and Extracts.292 CHAPTER XVI. Explosive Substances. Gunpowder — Gun-cotton — Nitroglycerine—Greek Fire—Fulminating Powders. . 296 CHAPTER XVII. Elastic Gums. Caoutchouc—Gutta Percha. . . . 300 CHAPTER XVIII. Oils, Candles, and Soaps. Fixed Oil — Volatile Oil — Spermaceti—Wax — Stearine — Paraffine — Hard and Soft Soaps.305 CONTENTS. XL CHAPTER XIX. PAGE. Pins, Pens, Pencils, Pans and Matches. . . . 311 CHAPTER XX. Clocks and Watches . " .318 CHAPTER XXI. Tobacco, Hasheesh, Betel and Coca. Tobacco—Ci¬ gars—Snuff—Jean Nicot—The Name—Pipes—Meer¬ schaums—Hasheesh —- Betel and Areca-nut — Peru¬ vian Coca.323 CHAPTER XXII. Miscellaneous Articles. Sponge—Guano — Ice — Hops—Hay—Grass Cloth—Gunnybags—Cordage — Mats and Matting—Bast—Brooms—Brushes—Cards— Pot and Pearl Ashes—Barilla—Toys.333 CHAPTER XXIII. Means and Facilities for the Prosecution of Commerce. Section I.: Land Conveyance — Cara¬ vans—Pack Animals—Reindeer and Dog—Wagons— The Railroad—Expresses. ..... . . . 352 Water Transportation. Merchant Ships and smaller Vessels — Chinese Junks — Steam-vessels — Robert XU CONTENTS. PAGE. Fulton—Line of Steam-ships — Canals and Canal- boats—Timber Rafts—Mariner’s Compass—Docks— Wharves — Light-houses — Breakwaters — Dykes —■ Colossus of Rhodes — Pharos of Alexandria — Eddy- stone Light-house—Sea Signals—Bell Rock. . . . 362 Section III.: Posts and Mails. Telegraphs — Electro- Magnetic Telegraph—Printing or House Telegraph— Western Union Telegraph Company—Samuel F. B. Morse—Statue of Bronze in Central Park—Subma¬ rine Telegraph.373 CHAPTER XXIV. Common Commercial Terms, Forms, Usages, and Operations. Book-keeping — Insurance — Brokerage and Brokers—Banks and Banking—Promissory Notes —Bills of Exchange — Stocks and Public Debt — Stock-jobbing—Bulls and Bears—Consols—Sinking Fund—Coupons—Mint and Coinage—Public Revenue —Tariff—Customs—Legal Tender—Board of Trade, or Chamber of Commerce—A few Commercial Words and Phrases Defined—Quarantine — Privateering — “Alabama Claims”—Future of American Commerce. 388 CHAPTER I. COMMERCIAL ARTICLES OF FOOD, VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. Among the innumerable materials which man has appropriated to his own service in various ways, those occupy the most important place which fur¬ nish him with necessary food. He can exist with¬ out any of the conveniencies, elegancies, or luxuries, with which he surrounds himself in civilized and refined communities. He can even live without clothing, in a favorable climate, but if his supply of food is cut off for only a very short time, he inevit¬ ably languishes and dies. The 'subject of food then, under its natural di¬ vision into vegetable and animal substan- Variety and ces, properly stands at the head of our means of ob- catalogue of commercial articles. tammg food ' These substances are of vast variety and of world¬ wide distribution. They embrace the products of every climate; they are scattered over every land and sea; and the skill and ingenuity of man must convert them to their legitimate use. For some, he must carefully till the soil, and patiently await the harvest; while others require only to be gathered in their season as the lavish bounty of nature. He must cast his line or net into the 14 THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. waters; he must pursue, or snare, or slaughter the animal which he values for its flesh. In this manner he must supply his need with his own hands, contenting himself with what will suf¬ fice for his subsistence, as in savage or barbarous conditions of society ; or he must enlist the agen¬ cies and activities of commerce to bring from every clime and country, that superfluity and vari¬ ety, which a more advanced state of civilization has rendered desirable if not absolutely necessary. VEGETABLE FOOD. SECTION I. —GRAINS, Etc. RICE. Oe all the vegetable substances used as food by man there is no one that sustains so great a number of human beings as Rice,; and if an arti¬ cle of food is important in proportion to the population dependent upon it, none will question that this grain should be placed first in our list, as it furnishes the principal support of xvlC6 2111(1 ltS mode of cui- at least one-third of the human family, tivation. Some of the most densely-peopled coun¬ tries on the globe, rely mainly upon it, to feed their swarming millions; so that its commercial value can not well be overestimated. Bice resembles wheat in its size, color and man¬ ner of growth. The stem reaches a height of about THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 15 three feet, but unlike wheat it requires a low, moist soil, thriving upon lands too wet to produce any other valuable plant. Although cultivated to a great extent within the tropics, it flourishes well beyond them, even producing a larger kernel. The details of the process of cultivation vary with the climate and people, but warmth and abun¬ dant moisture are everywhere indispensable to perfection of the crops. The ground is carefully leveled and prepared in such a manner that it can be overflowed with water after the seed is sown. As the grain grows and ripens, the water dries away and leaves the ground ready for the harvest. In the East it is reaped with the sickle; and, as no new modes of husbandry are ever introduced there, the sheaves are carried from the field on frames of bamboo borne on the shoulders of men. The grain is separated from the straw by threshing, or beating, or the treading of cattle driven over it for the pur¬ pose. It is cleared from the husk by pounding or grinding between two flat stones kept so far apart as not to crack the grain. The kernel is beautifully white when thus separated, and in cooking swells to twice or three times its size when dry. Before the husk ^has been removed it is called paddy. A great deal of rice is imported in this unshelled state, and cleaned in Europe or this country. China, India, and indeed all the warm countries of Asia and Africa produce rice in im- Rice grow _ mense quantities ; and the surplus, after ing regions of supplying the teeming population of these tho Eabt ' regions, is sent to all other parts of the world. 16 THE MANUAL OE COMMENCE. Recent travelers in India and the adjacent islands some details S ive us some Cresting particulars of of the rice cui- this branch of agriculture as it is there ture in India. • j carried on. The aspect of the lowland rice-field, they say, is very different at various seasons of the year. In Java, for instance, where you see to-day long-legged herons stalking over an inundated plain partitioned by small dykes, or buffaloes wading through the mud, you will, three or four months later, be charm¬ ed by the view of a green and waving rice-field which rarely disappoints the hopes of the husband¬ man. He watches it from day to day, driving from it the flocks of sparrows and rice-birds which prey upon the forming grain, with ingenious devices of cords and scarecrows , which traverse the field in every direction. When the waters are wholly evap¬ orated, and the harvest is ripe, it is a time of general rejoicing, for all the villagers, old and young, busy themselves in reaping and securing the precious grain. After the harvest, the field, especially in the moun¬ tain region, (where this grain is also cultivated by an artificial system of irrigation,) is sown a second time with some other crops; it is then allowed to lie fallow for a few years, and is soon covered Avith a rank vegetation. When cultivated next, it is burnt over, and the ashes afford the richest fertiliza¬ tion for the next crop. Rice is said to have been brought to the West Indies by Columbus, in 1498. In 1697 its culture was introduced into South Carolina, and since THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 17 then it has been greatly extended along the south¬ eastern and Gulf coasts of the United introduc- States, and has proved a most valuable Svation^nthe addition to the grain products of the united states, country, the kernel being finer and larger than that grown in the East. The mode by which this valuable grain was first introduced into our Southern States was the fol¬ lowing : A vessel from the island of Madagascar, about the beginning of the last century, happened to put in at Charleston, S. C. Having a little seed- rice the captain gave it to a gentleman by the name of Woodward. From a part of this seed a crop was raised, and distributed among neighboring planters. Thus it found its way to the whole neighborhood; and ultimately changed into fruitful fields, the swamps and bogs of the whole coast which had hith¬ erto been worthless; not merely supplying the United States with all the rice they require, but an¬ nually exporting immense quantities to the various markets of Europe. As an article of diet, rice is agreeable and highly nutritious. Its use is almost universal, and its va¬ rious modes of preparation for the table are too well known to need description. It is often L m Native ground into flour and thus enters into country many culinary compounds. The native ofnce - country of the grain was probably in southern Asia, whence it has spread not only over the whole trop¬ ical world but far beyond; for it thrives alike wher¬ ever its conditions of growth are observed, requiring a bountiful supply of water in its early stages. 18 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. A species of wild rice grows in some of the in¬ land parts of America which is valued bv Wild rice. . , J the new settlers, and was formerly an important article of food among the Indians. WHEAT. Wheat may properly stand second in the list of food plants, on account of its extensive cultivation and almost universal use. Its native place is not certainly known, but it is supposed to have origi¬ nated in Tartary or Persia. As it is adapted to a wheat. temperate climate, its area of cultivation is very wide in both hemispheres. Immense quan¬ tities are raised in Europe particularly in Russia, and thence exported to other countries. Dantzic, near the mouth of the Vistula, is one of the principal ports in Europe for the trade in wheat. All the grains of the old world have been intro¬ duced into the new. The first wheat sown in North America is said to have been a few kernels accidentally discovered in a quantity of rice brought over for the support of the army of Cortez. Its cul¬ ture now extends over vast tracts of country be¬ tween the Atlantic and Pacific, furnishing to com- introduc- merce an inexhaustible supply; and as tion into its area of growth annually extends with America. ge ^i emen t 0 f the country, it is prob¬ able that at no distant day our great country will become the granary of the world. Wheat is generally sold by the producer to those who convert it by grinding and bolting, into THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 19 flour, in which form it is sent in barrels and sacks to all markets of the earth. Different qualities of flour command different prices. MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN. This most valuable grain is no less important to the rapidly increasing population of America than the rice-plant to the inhabitants of India; and when in future years the banks of our great rivers, the Mississippi, Missouri, Amazon and Orinoco, shall be as densely popula¬ ted as the plains of India, perhaps the number of maize eaters will exceed those who now live mainly upon rice. It is a plant of the new world and was called mahiz or malm in the language of the natives ; but the Spaniards gave it'the name of Indian Corn , being first found among those whom they errone¬ ously supposed to be inhabitants of India. It made a very important article of their ^ s ®.^ g tlie simple diet, and though their mode of cultivation was exceedingly rude, the genial cli¬ mate favored its growth and perfection with little labor. They ate it green or boiled, parched or bruised in mortars of stone. Columbus exhibited specimens of it to Ferdinand and Isabella when he returned to Spain laden with the productions and wonders of a new country. He did not know, neither did Intro ^ uctlon his royal patrons, that the spikes (or ears, as we call them) of maize, were in reality of far 20 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE, greater importance than the gold and silver which were then considered the richest trophies of liis great discovery. From Spain, where it was first seen in Europe, the cultivation of maize extended over the tropical and temperate portions of the eastern hemisphere; and it is at present one of the most valuable articles of human subsistence. It is planted in hills and re¬ quires considerable labor in preparing the soil and keeping it free from weeds; but it is a crop that generally rewards the industry of the planter. This noble cereal is too well known to need par¬ ticular description; its mode of culture, its elegant appearance in the field, its great productiveness (especially in warm regions) and its innumerable uses for man and beast, are entirely famil- Growth van- i ar ever y one . it m ay truly be styled eties and uses. J # J ^ J the King of Grains; and is one of the most important of all the articles of commerce. There are several varieties of maize, differing chiefly in the size and shape of the kernel; such as the common yellow corn, southern or white corn, sweet corn, pop corn, rice corn, etc. The meal is used for bread, for feeding and fat¬ tening animals, and for many other purposes. Enor¬ mous quantities of maize are annually produced in the Northern and Western States, and sent to the southern parts of the country and to foreign markets. RYE, OATS AND BARLEY. These grains will grow in a higher latitude than wheat. They were once staples of food for the com- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 21 mon people in the northern parts of Europe, and are still used to a considerable extent where wheat can not be cultivated. But it has Rye > oats and barley. superseded them in many places where it was formerly believed this valuable grain would not flourish; so that they are less and less de¬ pended on, except as food for domestic animals. Reduced to a state of malt, barley forms one of the principal ingredients in beer, ale and kindred liquors. BUCKWHEAT. This is a kind of grain which grows in temper¬ ate climates but is of less importance than most others. The kernel is triangular, and the T . - Buckwheat. flour o± a dark color. It is used exten¬ sively in this country in making “ griddle-cakes ” to be eaten hot for breakfast. It is also considered a valuable food for fowls. PEARL BARLEY. This is the small round kernel of the common barley, which remains after the skin and part of the grain have been ground off by pass- ^ ^ I^GEirl barley. ing it between mill stones of a peculiar kind. The kernels are first steamed and then dried to soften the skin, in order that it may be more easily removed. ARTICLES OF FOOD DERIVED OR MANUFACTURED FROM GRAIN. There are some articles obtained from various grains by mechanical or chemical processes, which 22 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. form branches of commerce more or less impor¬ tant. Hominy is the kernel of maize slightly broken or Hominy. veiy coarsel 7 ground. It is boiled till soft and makes a very nutritious and palatable dish. Wheat grits , or crached wheat, is the kernel of wheat prepared in a similar manner. Corn starch and Farina are obtained by washing the flour of corn or wheat, and separating from it the starchy substance, which is used and”Farina. in man y forms of cookery. The starch for stiffening linen is procured much in the same way. Macaroni is a kind of wheaten paste formed into long slender tubes, by passing it through holes so contrived that it takes this form. It wmic°em and is of several sizes, the largest being called macaroni , the next vermicelli , and the smallest fedelini. The best is prepared at Na¬ ples. It is generally used as a nutritious ingre¬ dient of soups. The Italians are very fond of it, and it forms a constant article of diet with them. POTATOES. The common potato is a native of the New World, probably of South America, as it still exists Native conn- Peru an( * Chili in a wild state. Some try of the po- writers however maintain that it was first found in Virginia, as it was introduced into Europe from that region. It is now culti- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 23 vated in nearly every part of the civilized world, and is justly regarded as one of the most valuable food plants on the globe. The principal kinds are the common or Irish potato, as it is sometimes called, and the sweet or Carolina potato , also called the Spanish potato. The first is much the most important and widely distributed, as it will grow in almost any ° f climate though it matures best in the tem¬ perate zones. The sweet or Carolina potato is botanically, an entirely different plant from the other, and requires a much milder climate. Its na¬ tive country is the Malayan peninsula, whence it has found its way to other warm regions of the earth. It is extensively cultivated in the south of Europe, and the middle and ^ monpo “ southern portions of the United States. The common potato has been wonderfully improved by cultivation and there are many varieties, some of which produce a larger and surer crop than others. Considerable quantities are exported from the Northern to the Southern States, and to foreign countries. Many thousand bushels are also annu¬ ally converted into starch. In Ireland the potato crop is so important that its failure haS been the cause of great suffer- Importance ing and sometimes of frightful famine. of the crop - The modes of cultivation and use of the com¬ mon potato are too well known to need description. The sweet potato is an herbaceous perennial plant which sends out many trailing stalks extending six or eight feet in different directions, and putting forth 24 THE MANUAL OF COMMENCE. at each joint, roots which in a favorable climate grow to be very large tubers; so that from one plant forty or fifty large roots are produced. The leaves are angular, standing on long stems; the flowers are purple. The sweet potato is propaga¬ ted by laying down the young shoots in the spring; Sweet potato. illdeed ’ in its native climate it multiplies almost spontaneously; for if the branches of roots that have been pulled up are suffered to remain on the ground, and a shower of rain falls soon after, they will at once begin to grow again. Although the plant is so prolific in a tropical cli¬ mate, yet in Brazil it is raised more as a luxury for the planter’s table than as an article of food for the negroes who till the soil. The Southern and Middle United States furnish a supply for those portions where it does not thrive well. It is only used when first grown, as it does not keep in store like the common potato. YAMS. The Yam roots are also a product of tropical, or quite warm regions. They are cultivated much like the common potato, which they resemble in taste, though of a finer texture. There are two varieties, growing from climbing plants. Yams. with tender stems from eighteen to twenty feet in length having smooth sharp-pointed leaves on long foots-talks, from the base of which arise spikes of small flowers. The roots of one kind are fiat and spread out like fin- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 25 gers, about a foot in length, white within, and ex¬ ternally of a dark brown color approaching black. Those of the other kind are still larger, being fre¬ quently three feet long and weighing thirty pounds. When dug from the earth the roots are placed in the sun to dry, and are then put into sand or casks, where, if kept from moisture, they may be preserved for a considerable time. The yam is a native of southern Asia, and is supposed to have been transplanted to the West Indies, as it has never been found growing wild in any part of America; while in the island of Ceylon, and on the coast of Malabar, it flourishes spontaneously in the woods. Yams are now very extensively cultivated in Africa, Asia, and America, as their large nutritious roots amply reward the labor required to raise them. OTHER ESCULENT VEGETABLES. Although there is no other root which compares with the potato in importance, there are many oth¬ ers which furnish a lively trade at certain seasons, between the warmer and colder parts of the coun¬ try ; the warmer sending its earlier ripe vegetables and fruits to the colder in advance of its own. Aside from tropical productions, of which we do not now speak, the beet, radish, onion, cucumber, aspara¬ gus, tomato, cauliflower, etc., etc., might be named. Peas and beans , shelled and dried, are also much used for ship and army stores, besides other yegeta _ their 'consumption in families, to some Mesnot trop- extent, either in the green or dry state. lca ' 26 THE MAN UAH OF COMMERCE. SAGO. This is the product of a palm called the Sago Palm, which grows in the East Indig, islands, Sago Palm. 0 China, Japan, the Moluccas, etc. It at¬ tains the hight of thirty or forty feet, and is sur¬ mounted by a beautiful crown of foliage consisting of long drooping leaves, from the base of which rises the flower stem. It flourishes best in low and moist situations. The fruit is a nut which is of no value; the only eatable part being the pith which is contained in the trunk of the tree. Before reaching its maturity the stem consists of a woody shell usually about an inch thick, filled with an enormous quantity of spongy pith penetrated with long fibres in a kind of net-work, which is filled up with this powdery substance, almost like meal. After the tree has borne fruit, this substance is , , _ . gradually absorbed and the trunk ulti- taming the mately becomes hollow. But at the Sag0 ' right period, which is just before flower¬ ing, the tree is cut down and divided into lengths of five or six feet. These are split and the con¬ tents carefully scraped out after being reduced to a coarse powder by pounding with a heavy wooden club. The meal is soaked and washed in water to clear it from the fibrous and woody matter which may adhere. It is strained into vessels where the meal settles to the bottom, and the water being drained off, it dries into a kind of paste. * This is called raw sago and may be eaten at once or THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 27 made into cakes and baked to dryness. In this form much is sold and consumed by the natives. The sago of commerce is prepared by moistening the raw sago and passing it through a Preparation sieve over a moderate heat. The grains of sa s°- aie thus partially baked, and will keep a long time if protected from the air. If the raw sago is boiled, it forms a thick glu¬ tinous mass which is eaten by the natives of the Malayan Archipelago, with salt, limes, or peppers. But more frequently it is used for making bread. The raw sago is broken up and beaten into meal. “ The oven is a square Sag0 bread or i ,, 1 biscuit. clay pan, says Mr. Wallace, a late traveller in that quarter of the world, “divided into compartments six or eight inches square, and three quarters of an inch deep. This is heated over a clear fire of embers, and then filled with the flour and covered with a piece of sago bark. In five minutes the cakes are baked, which fill the squares of the pan. When hot they are very pal¬ atable, eaten with butter; and with the addition of a little sugar or grated cocoanut, form quite a deli¬ cacy. They are soft and not unlike our ‘ Johnny cakes ’ made of Indian corn meal. When not wanted for immediate use the cakes are dried in the sun for several days ; they will then keep for years. Dipped in water and toasted, they are almost as,, good as when fresh; soaked and boiled, they maH a good pudding. There is no reason why thes® sago biscuits should not form an article of foreign commerce, and furnish a valuable addition to ship 28 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. stores, especially in tropical regions where it is dif¬ ficult to preserve food for any length of time.” A good sized sago palm will afford eight or nine hundred pounds of raw sago. Pearl sago is a refined quality which has a pearly lustre and is in small and even grains. This is the kind generally used. Common sago has Pearland i ar on er an d more unequal grains. Sago common sago. o . . -i i • • meal is sometimes imported, but it is not much used in this form. TAPIOCA. This substance comes from the root of a plant which is a native of Brazil in South America, though it is cultivated largely in the West tey'outhe' 111 " Indies. In Brazil it is called mandioca mandioc. or tapioca; in the West Indies, cassava —the only difference consisting in the size of the grains—the cassava being the finest. The mandioc is a shrub about six or eight feet in hight, with a round jointed stem and deep green leaves. It has a very large, white, fleshy The shrub r00 £ wPiyP often weighs thirty pounds. described. 0 The plant grows quickly, and the root arrives at perfection in about eight months. There are two varieties, the sweet and bitter. The root of the sweet is wholesome and may be eaten with impunity ; but the bitter abounds in an acrid milky juice, which is poisonous if eaten fresh. Both how¬ ever are used to produce the tapioca of commerce. It is prepared by washing, scraping and grinding THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 29 the root into pulp, which is then subjected to pressure to separate the poisonous juice. What remains is of a mealy consistence, Mode •J ’ preparation. and is ready to be made into bread, cakes, or puddings. What we know by the name of tapi¬ oca is obtained from the juice. By standing it de¬ posits a powder which after repeated washings in cold water, is nearly pure starch. It is dried by ex¬ posure to heat, which makes it assume that semi¬ transparent appearance we notice in cooking. When dried in the sun it is mealy and resembles arrow root. It is nutritious food (all the poison¬ ous qualities being expelled by heat) and is much used for puddings. It comes to us in the form of coarse irregular grains. ICELAND MOSS. This is a kind of lichen which is found in the northern latitudes of both continents. It received its name from the great quantity produced in Ice¬ land. It is also abundant on the higher slopes and sandy plains of the Northern United States. It grows two or three inches high, is of a . . . iTT, t Iceland moss. brownish green color, lighter on the un¬ der, than the upper surface. It is dried, and its bitterness afterwards extracted by repeated wash¬ ings in water. It contains gum, starch, and other nutritious principles, and is a very important article of food in the high latitudes of Europe and Asia. Ground and made into bread, or dissolved in boil¬ ing milk or water, it is a wholesome food, and is often used as a diet for the sick. 30 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. ARROW ROOT. Arrow root is a starchy substance obtained from the fleshy root of two different plants; one a native of the West Indies and the other of South America. It reaches a hight of two or three feet and is prop¬ agated by parting the roots. It has broad, pointed leaves, and from the top rises a spike of small white flowers. The roots are dug when a year old, and beaten in a large wooden mortar, after which the pulp is thrown into water where the starch is sepa¬ rated from the fibres and collects at the bottom of the vessel in which it is washed. It is then dried in the sun. It makes a light nourishing food. SECTION II.—FRUITS. The fruits of the earth likewise minister largely to the sustenance of mankind. Although many may be ranked among the luxuries, rather than the necessaries of life, and some may be considered as luxuries in one section while they are necessaries in another, yet as a whole, they occupy a very im¬ portant place, and furnish a great many valuable articles of commerce. In tropical countries, a vegetable is generally pre¬ ferred to an animal diet, and here we find the nutri¬ tious and luscious fruits in the greatest abundance and perfection; growing spontaneously, or culti- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 31 vated with little labor. Commerce, however, ex¬ changes the productions of one zone for D . in those of another, and thus the bounties Tropical -of nature are shared by all. Science, too, countnes - lends her aid, and by the process of canning , so recently brought into common use, not only adds to the resources of trade, but furnishes those palatable and delicious articles in a fresh state to every clime and country, at all seasons of the year. Canned fruits. APPLES. The fruits of temperate regions are not generally depended on as staples of food,- although they furnish many of its most agreeable diversities. Apples are perhaps the most abundant and widely distributed, as they are very hardy and of rapid growth. The apple, like most of our fruit trees, was in¬ troduced into this country from Europe ; . . . The apple. and it is supposed that the numerous and fine varieties have sprung from the original crab- apple of Europe. Great care is taken at the present day to improve the size and flavor of the apple and it has become an important article of export from this country. The inferior qualities are made into cider by grind¬ ing and pressing, much of which is converted after¬ wards into vinegar. Apples are also dried, and in this form are thrown into market in large quantities. 32 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. PEARS. 1 ears are much more common than formerly, and Pears. are nOW P roduced in great variety. Many are grown on dwarf trees which afford fruit very early. Ground and pressed, they fur¬ nish a liquor called perry. PEACHES. The native country of the peach is supposed to be x ersia, but it was brought to this country from Europe ; and nowhere does it attain greater perfec¬ tion in regard to the character of its fruit than in p j fb e United States. Besides being can¬ ned for use, fresh peaches are dried like apples. The kernels of the fruit resemble bitter al¬ monds. A liquor has been distilled from the peach called peach brandy. PRUNES OR PLUMS. The common prune or plum is well known to all. It was originally brought from Asia to Europe and Plums or from Europe to this country. There are prunes numerous varieties. The prunes of com¬ merce, which are dried plums, are brought chiefly from the south of France; the best from Bordeaux. They are prepared by drying in the sun, after hav¬ ing been exposed to the heat of an oven. ALMONDS. Almonds are the fruit of a tree which resembles the peach in its foliage and flowers. It is a native THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 33 of Persia, Syria and Barbary, and is very exten¬ sively cultivated in the south of Europe. It has been introduced into the United States, 7 Almonds, but in the northern and middle sections the tree and fruit does not come to perfection. The frult ' tree grows usually from fifteen to twenty feet high, and divides into numerous spreading branches. The flowers are large, of a pale red color varying to white. The fruit is of the peach kind, with the outer covering thin, tough and dry, which opens when fully ripe. Within this covering is a rough shell, which contains the kernel or almond. The two principal varieties are the sweet or Jordan al¬ monds, which are imported from Malaga, gweet and and the bitter, which are obtained chiefly bitter ai- from Morocco, and are exported from monds - Mogadore. They come in casks and boxes, and are used in cookery and in medicine. When the brown coating of the kernel has been removed they are called blanched almonds. This is done by immersing them in boiling water. DATES. Dates are the fruit of a palm-tree which abounds in Egypt, Barbary, Arabia, Persia and other neigh¬ boring countries. It is a tall majestic tree, and highly regarded in the East both for its beauty and utility. It reaches the hight of sixty feet having a rugged trunk terminated with ^® n datc ' a tuft of leaves six or eight feet long. The flowers come out in large bunches- from the 2 * 34 THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. trunk between tlie leaves, and produce a cluster of oval berries with a thick sweet pulp, and enclos¬ ing a hard oblong stone, which has a furrow on one side. When quite ripe these berries are soft and of a red color. They are gathered and formed into a hard mass or cake, by pressing them market. into large baskets containing about two hundred pounds. In this form the fruit is exported. In retail trade it is cut out of the baskets and sold by the pound. Dates form a considerable part of the food of the people where they grow plentifully, and the harvest is looked for with anxiety, and welcomed with gen¬ eral rejoicing. Its failure causes apprehensions of , famine. Between the Atlas range of Importance of # ° tiie date-paim mountains and the Great Desert, the and its abun- q a t e -palm grows in such abundance that the Arabs have named the country “ Be- led el jerid ,” the Land of Bates. One tree will yield from one hundred to three hundred pounds in a season. Besides its value as a food plant, the date tree supplies many other needs of the inhabitants. From the leaves are made baskets, bags, mats, brushes, etc., their stems serving to construct poultry cages and other rough articles. The trunk is used for timber; the fibrous mass at the base of the leaves, is twisted into cordage, and employed in rigging small vessels. The pith of the tbeTate tree f t run k is eatable, as are also the buds and young shoots. From the sap is distilled a kind of spirituous liquor called arrack; and finally THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 35 the hard stones of the fruit are soaked and ground up as food for camels, cows, and sheep. • FIGS. The fig-tree flourishes in all the countries that border upon the Mediterranean Sea, particularly in Italy and France. It has been intro- duced into other places where the climate and it8 fruit . is sufficiently mild. The southern United States produce very fine fruit, though not yet an article of export. The tree ordinarily grows from twelve to fifteen feet high, though it sometimes reaches twenty-five or thirty. The fruit grows from the angles of the leaves without any visible flowers; these being inside the receptacle, the walls of which become thick and fleshy, and constitute what is commonly called the fruit; though strictly speaking this term is applicable only to the small seeds found in great numbers on the interior sur¬ face, to which they are attached by minute fleshy stems. When ripe it is soft and sweet; of a whitish yellow or purple color. Cultivation has produced in the fig as in other fruits, many varieties in shape, size, color, and taste. Some of the most enormous trees of the tropi¬ cal world are fig-trees; such as the sycamore of Egypt whose trunk in the course of centuries swells to a colossal size, though it does not grow more than forty or fifty feet high. Its ^amore vast crown of foliage covers a large space of ground with a dense and delightful shade. Its 36 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. figs have an excellent flavor, and its wood is nearly incorruptible. Most of the mummy coffins are made of it. The stately banyan of India, too, is a fig-tree— each one, rather, a grove in itself. Some of them are already of astonishing size and continually in¬ creasing by throwing out new branches The banyan. , . . ., , . ,, , which strike down to the earth, root, and then become parent trees themselves, by swelling into trunks and sending forth other branches. *“The Hindoos,” says Hartwig, “are peculiarly fond of this tree; they consider its long duration, its outstretching arms, and overshadowing benefi- Eegardofthe CenCe aSemblemS ° f the Deit ^ The J Hindoos for plant it near their temples ; and in those the banyan. v pj a g es w here there is no temple for worship, they place an image under a banyan, and there perform their sacrifices. “ Many of those immense fig-trees are celebrated in history and are of unknown age. The famous 4 Cubbeer-burr ’ (named from a Hindoo saint,) is supposed to be the same as that described beer-burr. b P Nearchus, a general of Alexander the Great. Portions of the tree have been washed away from time to time by floods of the Nerbuddah river, near which it stands, but what remains is nearly 2,000 feet in circumference measuring round the principal stems, while the overhanging branches not yet struck down cover a much larger space. In the march of an army it has been known to shelter 7,000 men. ” Hartwig’s Tropical World. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 37 The figs of commerce come chiefly from Smyrna and Turkey. After being dried by the Figs „f com- heat of the sun or in ovens, they are merce - packed in small drums or boxes, so firmly as to flatten the fruit. GRAPES. The grape , which is supposed to have been de¬ rived originally from Asia, is now spread over all the temperate regions of the civilized world. Its fruit is exceedingly influenced by soil and climate, and the varieties which have resulted from culture and situation are innumer¬ able. The finest grapes are imported from Malaga m Spain, and some parts of Portugal, France, and Italy. The white grapes come in large jars or boxes secured from damage by grapes . means of dry sawdust. In this country grapes of fine flavor are raised, and the cultivation of the vine is rapidly extending. When grapes are dried and preserved they are called raisins. The best are also brought from Malaga. They are of a purplish ra j S i lls . brown color, and a delicious taste. They are prepared by partially cutting the stems of the bunches, and allowing them to dry upon the vine. Sometimes two or three of the neighboring clusters are tied together and dipped into a weak alkaline solution, the effect of which is to shrivel slightly, and harden the skin. In a few days they are cut off and dried in the sun. 38 THE MANUAL OE COMMENCE. The cheaper and more ordinary qualities are Packing dried m ovens. 1 acked in boxes and and use. casks, in this form they are thrown into market. They are used for the table, and in vari¬ ous sorts of cookery. Currants are a small species of dried grape cul¬ tivated in and imported from the Levant. They are used in cookery like raisins. ORANGES. The orange is a native of China and India, but was early introduced into Europe, and transplanted to America soon after its discovery. It tree. 0 ™ 1186 * s now f° un d in every country where the climate will admit of its cultivation. This beautiful tree whose fruit and foliage are mingled with its blossoms, grows about fifteen feet high. The stem is covered with a smooth shining greenish-brown bark. The leaves are of a brilliant glossy green, and when held between the eye and the light, exhibit numerous transpa¬ rent points, which are minute vessels con- Fiowersund Gaining a fragrant oil. The flowers are large, white, and of a delightful odor. The fruit is spherical, somewhat flattened, of a yel¬ low or orange color, and too well known to need description. The orange flourishes in the southern part of our country, especially in Florida. In the West Indies they grow to perfection, and large quantities are exported from Havana and other West Indian ports, THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 39 as well as from the south of Europe. An essential oil is derived from the peel, particularly of the Bergamot orange , much used in ^5^°* perfumery. The leaves and flowers are also used in medicine. The fruit is gathered before it is fully ripe and packed in boxes for transporta¬ tion. CITRONS, LEMONS AND LIMES. The citron , lemon , and lime , are kindred fruits, and like the orange are natives of Asia, having also been scattered over themivilized world. Even where the climate is too severe to permit their exposure in the open air during winter, they are often ripened in hot-houses by artificial heat. We are supplied with these fruits principally from the West Indies and the regions bordering on the Mediterranean. The citron is the largest of the three, being sometimes six inches in length, of an oval form and a yellowish color, with a very rough, thick and spongy rind. In the interior it is divided into cells containing an acid juice pre¬ cisely like that of the lemon. The rind is used in making conserves. The lemon is smaller than the preceding, oblong in shape, with a pointed tip on the sum- T]ielemon mit. It has a smoother coat, a brighter color, a thinner peel and contains a very juicy and acid pulp. The lime is still smaller than the lemon; with the rind still smoother and thinnej. It is rounded Tlie citron. 40 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. at the extremities, of a pale or greenish yellow color, and abounds in juice. These are all used for The lime. similar Purposes; mostly for the pleasant acid of their juice. The trees which bear them resemble the orange, in size and appearance. The fruit is gathered while yet somewhat green, and ripens after packing and exportation. The lemon is much used in flavoring, cooking, and drinks; and is far the most agreeable and useful of the three. PINE-APPLES. The pine-apple is a native of tropical America, Pine-appie ^ ias ^ een diffused into other warm countries. It grows without much culti¬ vation in Mexico, South America, Africa and the East and West Indies; and is often ripened in hot¬ houses in colder latitudes. The stout stem of the fruit rises from a cluster of tough green leaves upon the ground, and bears on the summit a single fruit named from its resem¬ blance in shape to a pine-cone. It is of a brown¬ ish yellow color when ripe, sweet, juicy, and of a delicious flavor. On the top is a tuft of green leaves which, if placed in the earth, will grow and produce a new plant. The pine-apples are picked before they are fully ripe, like most tropical fruits; and packed in boxes, are sent to all countries where they do not grow. POMEGRANATES. The pomegranate is the fruit of a tree belonging to a warm climate, though much cultivated as an THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 41 ornamental shrub where it does not produce fruit. Its native place is doubtful, but it grows wild on both shores of the Mediterranean, in Thepome _ Arabia, Persia, China and Japan, and has granate tree been introduced into most other countries where the climate is favorable. It often reaches a hight of twenty feet, with many branches, bright green leaves, and sometimes thorns. The flowers are large and of a rich scarlet. The fruit is about the size of an orange, covered with a thick rind and divided into numerous cells about the size and shape of a kernel of corn. These are filled with a pleasant acid juice, in which lies an oblong angular seed. The rind of the fruit, the bark of the root, and the flowers, are used in medicine, and are all very astringent. It thrives well in our Southern States. TAMARINDS. Tamarinds are the fruit of a tree growing both in the East and West Indies, and in other warm countries. It is cultivated for its shade as well as its fruit. The tamarind tree somewhat , Tamarind resembles the ash, m appearance, having tre e and fruit, a large lofty trunk and wide-spreading branches. The flowers are in clusters, and are of a yellowish color, beautifully variegated with red veins. The fruit consists of reddish or ash-col¬ ored pods, very much curved, from two to six inches long, and containing from four to eight or ten brown, flat, four-sided seeds, in cells, covered with a tough membrane. Outside of this mem- 42 THE MANUAL OF COMMENCE. brane is a light-colored acid pulp, which gives the peculiar flavor to the fruit. The external covering of the pod is very brittle and easily separated from it. Tamarinds are prepared for commerce by taking off the outer coating of the pods, placing them in a cask in layers, and pouring over them I r r ?r« l boiling syrup. Sometimes they are put in stone jars between layers of powdered sugar. As we obtain them, they form a dark-col¬ ored adhesive mass, of a slightly acid and very agreeable taste. They are much used for the sick, and are brought to us chiefly from the West Indies. BANANAS. The banana and plantain are also natives of' the West Indies but are now cultivated in many other tropical countries, where they are used as an article of subsistence. The plant is herbaceous, juicy, and of very rapid growth. Suckers are planted, and in thefbanana.° f aboLlt ei S ht months they flower and begin to develop the cluster of fruit which is ripe enough to gather in the tenth month. The leaves are often ten feet long and two broad; the flowers grow in bunches between them. Sprouts come up from the parent plant and produce fruit soon after; so that a plantation of bananas perpet¬ uates itself with little care or labor. No plant produces so great an amount of nutri¬ tious food on a given space. Humboldt estimated THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 43 that a tract of ground planted with the banana, would yield one hundred and* thirty- three times as much food as a simi- Xo'd plant lar extent sown with wheat. In Mexico it furnishes a large part of the food of the people. The cluster is cut off before it is ripe, and brought to our northern ports, where it is esteemed a great luxury. BREAD FRUIT. Bread fruit is the production of a tree that grows wild in many of the Pacific Islands. It is about forty feet in hight with large spreading branches and beautiful green leaves, sometimes a foot and a half long and deeply lobed like those of the fig- tree, which they resemble, not only in color and appearance, but also in exuding a milky juice when broken. The fruit is as large or larger than a cocoanut containing a core and a somewhat fibrous pulp around it, which, when ripe, becomes juicy and yel¬ low. The eatable part lies between the skin and the core. It is snow white and has somewhat the consistence of new wheaten bread. It furnishes the islanders with a plentiful sup¬ ply of nutritious food for many months in the year. The tree also supplies other needs of the natives. The inner bark, which is a network of fibres, is made into a kind of cloth; the wood is employed in constructing boats and habi- other uses of tations; the milky juice which flows out when an incision is made, furnishes a cement; the 44 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. dried flowers are used as tinder, the large leaves for wrapping up food, etc. I he bread fruit tree has been introduced into the West India and other tropical islands, where it is used both as an article of food and luxury. It is not yet a commercial fruit to any great extent, but perhaps may become so, as well as many other pro¬ ductions of those tropical islands and regions which have been until recently almost unknown. The explorations of late travelers have added vastly to our knowledge of the peculiar fruits and vegetables of those distant and rarely visited places; some of which will in time no doubt be more widely diffused in their cultivation, and become valuable articles of commerce. A few of them, des¬ cribed by Wallace and others may be mentioned here. TROPICAL FRUITS LITTLE KNOWN. THE CHIRIMOYA. Where man has yet done little or nothing to im¬ prove the gifts of nature by cultivation, the fruits, even of the torrid zone, lack, as a general thing, the delicious flavor which long years of careful husbandry have imparted to those of a colder cli¬ mate, such as our own. Yet there are chirimoja. rare exceptions and the Peruvian chiri- moya is one. Travelers agree in apply¬ ing to it such terms of admiration that we may reasonably conclude it is equal, if not superior, THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 45 to the most exquisite fruits of European growth. It abounds, and attains perfection in many parts of Peru, and the neighboring countries. . The fruit is produced by a tree about twenty feet high, with a broad, dull-green crown of leaves. It is heart-shaped, with the broad base attached to the branch. The rind is green, covered with small tubercles and scales, and encloses a white juicy pulp with many black kernels embedded in it. Both fruit and blossoms exhale a delightful odor. The fruit weighs fourteen or sixteen pounds, and the flavor is described as exquisitely delicious, though comparable to no other known. THE LITCHI. This is a small insignificant tree growing origi¬ nally in China and Cochin-China; but its cultivation has now spread over most of the East and Wbst Indies. It has lance-shaped leaves, small greenish- white flowers, and produces a plum-like ^ litcM _ scarlet fruit greatly relished by the Chi¬ nese, and commonly eaten with their tea. It is also dried in ovens and exported. It is said that, in order to obtain the fruit in its perfection for the use of the Imperial court at Pekin, (which is in too high a latitude to produce it) the trees, as soon as they blossom, are ' t4 i • p. How obtained conveyed from Canton to Pekin on ratts, in Pekin, at enormous trouble and expense, so that this luxury may be freshly ripe on its arrival at the northern capital. 46 THE MANUAL OF COMMENCE. THE MANGOSTEEN. The Molucca Islands are the home of this beau¬ tiful fruit, though it has been introduced into Java, biam, the Philippines, and Ceylon. The tree which bears it resembles the citron and lemon. Its flow¬ ers are as large as roses and very handsome. The fruit is about the size of a small apple, and tastes, according to travelers, like a mixture of strawber- Fiavor of the riGS ’ ras P berries > grapes and oranges. It mangosteen. also said that the sick person who has lost an appetite for everything else, still relishes the mangosteen; and that the case is con- sideied perfectly hopeless when he refuses it. THE DURION. In various islands of the Malayan Archipelago is found the durion^ a fruit utterly unknown in Europe and America even by description, until very Thedurion It stands apart from all other anditsoppo- vegetable productions by possessing the site qualities. .. .... „ & opposite qualities of extreme offensive¬ ness to the smell, while it is most delicious to the taste. The odor is like that of decaying onions / while the flavor is such that those who have once partaken of it prefer it to all other fruit. Wallace, in his “ Malayan Archipelago M gives the following account of it: “ TIie durion grows on a large and lofty forest tree, somewhat resembling an elm in its general character, but with a more smooth and scaly bark. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 47 The fruit is round or slightly oval, about the size of a large cocoa-nut, of a green color, and covered all over with short, stout spines, the bases of which touch each other, the points being very Wallace’s ac- stroner and sharp. It is so completely count of the ® \ durion. armed, that if the stem is broken on, it is a very difficult matter to lift one from the ground. The outer rind is so thick and tough, that from whatever hight it may fall, it is never bioken. From the base to the point there are five faint lines to be seen, which show where the fruit may be divided with a heavy knife and a strong hand. The five cells are white within, and filled with an oval mass of cream-colored pulp, in which two or three seeds, about the size of chestnuts, lie embed¬ ded. The pulp is the eatable part, and its con¬ sistence and flavor are indescribable. A rich but¬ ter-like custard, spiced with almonds, gives the best general idea of it. There is a glutinous smooth¬ ness in the pulp which nothing else possesses, but which adds to it delicacy. It is neither acid, nor sweet, nor juicy; yet one feels the want of none of these qualities, for it is perfect in itself. Opening and It produces no bad effect, and the more preservation r . . ' , of the fruit. one eats the more he is inclined to. When the durion is ripe it falls from the tree daily and almost hourly, and accidents frequently hap¬ pen to those who are walking or working under the trees. When it strikes a man with its strong spines it produces a dreadful wound, tearing open the flesh, besides severely bruising it. In a good fruit season, large quantities are preserved-by the natives in salt, 48 THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. thus keeping it the year round. It acquires by this mode of preservation a smell intolerably disgust¬ ing to Europeans, though the natives find that no objection. They eat it as a relish with their rice.” Wallace calls the orange and durion the “king and queen of fruits.” THE CASHEW FRUIT. This singular production of the West Indies and tropical South America is a kind of compound fruit borne by a small tree belonging to the Sumac Fruit and nut. fam %- ls about the size of an orange, and contains an acrid juice, from which a pleasant wine is made. At the base of this fruit or apple, grows a large, flattened, kidney-shaped nut, having a hard external shell, between which and the shell of the kernel, is a strong caustic oil. The kernel, when fresh, is used as an article of food, and is said to be of a delicious taste. The oil around the kernel, makes an enduring color on cloth, and for this reason the nut is sometimes called the marking nut. NUTS. BRAZIL-NUTS. These are the fruit of a splendid tree (the Juvia) growing sometimes to the hight of more than a hundred feet on the banks of the Orinoco, and in the northern parts of llrazil, whence they derive THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. 49 the name. The nuts are triangular in shape, the shell rough and hard, of a brownish ? . . Brazil-nuts. color, and contain a great deal ot oil which may be extracted by pressing. These nuts do not grow singly, but in a large outer shell which contains from fifteen to twenty packed closely inside. This shell is so hard as to be broken open with difficulty. The natives are extremely fond of this nut and celebrate the harvest of the Zuvia with rejoicings. It is also much esteemed else¬ where, and large quantities are annually exported to foreign countries, chiefly from the port of Para, near the Amazon. COCOA-NUTS. The cocoa-nut is the fruit of a species of palm which grows in the West Indies, and the tropical islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans. It rises without branches to the hight of Cocoa ' nut sixty or seventy feet, having the leaves in a tuft at the top. These leaves are of great size, being fifteen or twenty feet in length, and among them the flowers appear, and the fruit hangs in a cluster of a dozen or more. The nut is of an oval shape, with a woody shell, surrounded by a fibrous coating, and contains a firm fleshy kernel, white, and of a rich oily taste. When unripe this substance is of a milky consistence. The nut is used in The nut and many kinds of cookery and confectionery. lts usos ' Oil is pressed from it which is employed in mak¬ ing toilet soaps and in other cosmetic prepara- 3 50 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. tions. Large quantities reach us “from the West Indies. The cocoa-palm is a very useful tree to the na¬ tives of the islands where it grows. The trunk furnishes wood, the fruit food, the shell is used for household purposes, cloth is made from the fibres, and houses are thatched with the leaves. OTHER NUTS. There are many other species of nut which serve for food to some extent, in both warm and cold countries ; but though a few of them are articles of commerce we can not afford space to give each a other nuts se P arate description; which is the less necessary, as most of them are well and widely known. The walnut, chestnut, hazel-nut, pecan-nut, butternut, and many others might be mentioned. They are all oily, and some yield large quantities to heavy pressure; especially the cocoa and other nuts of palm-trees. Many thousand tons of oil are annua,lly employed in making candles and soaps. CHAPTER II. COMMERCIAL ARTICLES OF ANIMAL FOOD. SECTION I.—MEATS, BUTTER, CHEESE, Etc. . The articles of animal food known to commerce are few compared with those of vegetable origin. Beef and pork, salted and packed in barrels, fur¬ nish a very considerable article of home consump¬ tion as well as of ship stores and export from the Northern, Middle and Western p^k salted States to Southern ports and the West Indies. Jerked beef is prepared by cutting the flesh into strips and drying in the sun. It is a method of preserving meat much prac¬ ticed in South America and furnishes a f e . r1 ?^ a ° d dried beef. valuable food from the slaughter of wild cattle. Beef is also cured and dried after a pick¬ ling process, in masses, from which thin bits are sliced as a relish for the table. Hams , salted and smoked, and lard, are also im¬ portant commercial articles, of universal use in this coimtry, and mostly fur¬ nished by the Middle and Western States. Venison is the flesh of the deer and is often sent in winter in a frozen state from the North and West Hams and lard. 52 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. to the Eastern market. By many it is esteemed a greatTuxury. The process of canning has also been applied successfully to meats in a fresh state ; so that they may now be cooked in one country and eaten in another. Pemmican is meat cut in slices, dried in the sun, and then pounded up and mixed with fat. Some¬ times dried fruit is put in to improve the taste. Pemmican ^ packed firmly into bags, and as it contains a great amount of nutriment in very small compass, it is an invaluable article of food for exploring parties or those who are obliged to transport food a considerable distance. This mode of preparing meat was derived from the American Indians. Another form in which the nutritious principles of meat may be greatly concentrated and long pre¬ served, is in meat biscuit. This is an ar- meaTbiscuit. tide of recent date, but it has taken the place its .importance deserves, especially among ship stores. The American meat biscuit is largely manufactured in Galveston, Texas, from the meat of cattle in that region. This is boiled till all the nutritive qualities are extracted. The liquor is then strained and evaporated by heat till quite thick. While it is hot, flour is added, and it is kneaded into a stiff dough, which is rolled, pressed, made into biscuits, and baked. These are kept whole or are ground to powder and preserved in air-tight cans ready for export or use. The employment of this article on shipboard, THE MANUAL OP COMMERCE. 53 especially on vessels destined to long voyages, prom¬ ises a remedy for scurvy, that disease which is pe¬ culiarly the scourge of seamen, and is the result of long confinement to a salt diet. BUTTER AND CHEESE. Among manufactured articles of animal food, butter and cheese hold the first rank. The well- known process of making them from the milk of the cow need not be described. To ^ggg_ and a great extent this is done in the dairy of the farmer, whence it passes into the market; but in some places the milk of an entire farming dis¬ trict is manufactured into cheese in extensive establishments erected for the purpose. Milk is also condensed and canned for ^°^ ensed export in these establishments; and thus another valuable article is added to the commercial list. Butter is packed in tubs and firkins for exporta¬ tion. Great quantities are sent from the northern to the southern market. GELATINE, ISINGLASS, ETC. These are prepared from various animal sub¬ stances by the action of boiling water upon them. Common glue is dried gelatine, made from the skin, hoofs, etc., of cattle, by dissolving these Commongluo and then evaporating the water. It forms a, tough jelly which is cut by wires into thin layers 54 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. and dried by exposure to the air. This is much used in various ways in the arts and manufactures. The nicei preparations of gelatine are employed as food in soups, jellies, etc., as also as a diet for the sick. When pure it is colorless and transparent. Isinglass , which is the purest and best form of isinglass. the article ’ is obtained from the air-blad¬ ders of certain fish, especially the stur¬ geon. The nicest comes from Russia, though it is manufactured in many places. Refined isinglass is made by dissolving the common quality in hot water and drying again on oiled muslins. SECTION II.—FISH. Fish is one of the most valuable articles of ani¬ mal food; and the business of catching, curing, or importance otherwise preparing it for market, gives of fish in life to one of the main departments of commerce. T 1 commerce. It employs innumerable yes- sels, and vast numbers of men every year in all parts of the globe. COD. The Cod-fish is the most important of all, and its fisheries the most extensive. The principal resorts cod-fishing. ^is fish are the Grand Bank of New¬ foundland and others in that region, ly¬ ing off the coasts of Great Britain, Nova Scotia THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 55 and New England; and hither thousands of vessels annually repair. From February to April their crews are employed from morning till night in boats containing from two to four men each. Some¬ times a good fisherman will catch several hundred in a day; but it is hard work, as they are caught with a hook and line, and some of them are very heavy. They often bite with such rapidity that a boat is loaded in two or three hours. On the shore stages or platforms are erected, where the fish are cleaned, salted and dried. Great labor is required to do this in a proper manner; but after they are sufficiently f™ c n e g 8sof cured they are piled in warehouses for shipment, and eventually carried to all parts of the civilized world. This fish is also used fresh, being transported on ice by railroad, to places at a considerable distance from the waters where they are taken. Cod are caught likewise from the decks of the fishing vessels, with lines from thirty to forty fath¬ oms in length. They average about fourteen pounds in weight, though some are taken of forty or fifty. When a fish proves too heavy for the line, the fisherman calls on his neighbor, who strikes a hook attached to a long pole into the fish, and then safely hauls it on deck. After FigMng for fishing for hours a large quantity are ac- cod on the & ° " Grand Bank. cumulated upon deck, where they are thrown from the lines. To make room it is neces¬ sary to “ dress them down ” as it is called. This is done on long planks resting upon barrels and forming ,)J THE manual of commerce. a narrow table. The whole crew divide themselves into throaters, headers, splitters, sabers, uad packers. rlie, throater commences the operation of “ dress- ing by drawing his lmife across the throat of the fish and ripping open its body. He then passes it to the header who wrenches off the head and tears out the entrails which he casts overboard, passing Dressing cod. the fish at the same time to the splitter, who with one cut lays it open from head to tail and then in an instant removes the back-bone. The tongues and sounds are taken out and packed in barrels by themselves as a luxury. The fish next goes to the salter and then are packed ready to be brought into port and there dried. In some places where the water is sufficiently shallow these fish are now caught in sieves or nets. MACKEREL. The mackerel is found in greater abundance near the shore than far out at sea. Immense numbers are annually caught with hook and line along the Mackerel. coast Ncw England. They are salted and packed in barrels on shipboard, and sent to different parts of the United States and the West Indies. The trade in this fish is considera¬ ble both in its bulk and salted state. SALMON. The scdmon is a salt water fish but comes annu¬ ally into our rivers to deposit its spawn. Those THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 57 of Maine furnish immense supplies of this most delicious fish, which are taken in nets on their return to the sea. It is cured by drying, ^ . Salmon. or preserved by pickling and canning. It has a yellowish red color, and is very highly es¬ teemed for the table. HALIBUT. The halibut is a large sea-fish weighing from fifty to two hundred pounds. It is found in northern waters, and caught with difficulty and exposure amid the rigors of winter, prin- ^ halibut cipally on George’s Bank. This is a branch of fishery of recent establishment. At Boston and a few other places, the fish are received, packed in boxes with ice, and sent by rail or steam¬ boat to distant sections of the country. SHAD. The shad is a very fine fish, which, like the salmon, visits the northern rivers for the purpose ghaj of depositing its eggs. Large numbers are taken in seines in the spring. The shad is consid¬ ered a great luxury for the table. HERRINGS. The herring is a very important article of com¬ merce, on account of the vast numbers to whom it furnishes an employment as well as a cheap and 58 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. wholesome food. It is common to the seas of Europe as well as this country. From April to Herrin^ September they are taken in enormous quantities, and after being piclded in barrels, or dried and smoked, are ready for ex¬ portation and use. SARDINES. The sardine is a fish of the herring tribe, but smaller. To some extent it is taken in our own waters, but is exceedingly plentiful on the coasts of Sardines Portugal, Spain and Italy. A very small kind caught on the western shores of France is considered the best. The sardines are pre¬ pared for market, either in oil in small tin boxes, or put in brine in casks. They are thus exported in large quantities. While fresh they are used for food by the poorer classes. TURBOT. The turbot is a nice fish which is caught both on the coasts of Holland and England, in the North Sea. It is a flat fish and haunts the bottom of the sea near some sand-bank which is always covered Turbot. water * The mode of taking the turbot is peculiar. Many baited hooks are attached by horse-hair to one line, which is anchored at both ends to keep it steady, with a buoy attached to show where it may be found. The lines are laid across the current of the tide, and allowed to remain six hours till the tide turns. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 59 When the lines are taken up fish are found upon most of the hooks. SHRIMPS AND ANCHOVIES. Shrimps and anchovies are small fish much used for sauces. Shrimps somewhat resemble the lobster and are caught with nets in the spring of the year. They are found in abundance at the mouth of the Thames. The anchovy is taken in the Mediterranean on the shores of Spain, anXvL^ France and Italy. The fishermen catch them at night by carrying a light at the hinder part of their boat, around which the fish are sure to crowd. They are then easily taken in a net. When sound and good, the anchovy will wholly melt in the sauce. It is kept prepared for this use, and also by pickling, for exportation. OYSTERS. The oyster is found in almost all parts of the world. It inhabits shallow places by the shore, and attaches itself by its shell to rocks or other fixed substances. Oysters are artificially reared and fat¬ tened in beds of mud and sand on the edge of shores where they are visited by the tide mi J i • Oysters. water. These are often very large, nice, and in great demand. Oysters are transmitted to market in the shell, or are removed from it and pickled in small kegs. There is a very extensive trade in oysters as they are used everywhere for the table. 60 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. LOBSTERS. The lobster is found along the coasts of this Lobsters. country and Europe, and furnishes a considerable article of traffic at certain seasons of the year. The European species is destitute of the large claws which distinguish those most used in this country. The lobster is boiled before being offered for sale, and its color is thus changed from a dark green to a bright scarlet. TURTLE. The turtle is the sea-tortoise. There are several species, some of which are not fit for food. The sort most esteemed for the table is the green turtle, so named from the color of its fat. This color is supposed to be imparted by its food, turtie. re6n called turtle-grass, which grows at the bottom of the seas of the torrid zone which it inhabits. Great numbers of turtles are brought to us from the Bahama Islands, being kept in large tubs or tanks. Some are of immense size, often measuring five feet in length and weighing five or six hundred pounds. Soups made from the green turtle are considered a great luxury. In the month of April they go on shore during the night to lay their eggs. The men who are on the watch for them need only turn them on their backs to secure them, as they are unable to regain a natural position. I he hawk’s-bill turtle is not valued for food, Mode of capture. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 61 but for the shell which furnishes the beautiful tortoise shell of commerce. “ It is caught Tortoise ghell _ all over the tropical seas, but principally near the Moluccas, the West Indies, and the Fiji Islands. In the latter the chiefs preserve it in pens, to obtain supplies of the shell. They have a barbarous way of removing the valuable part from the living animal. A burning brand* is held close to the outer shell until it curls up and sepa¬ rates a little from that beneath. Into the gap thus formed, a small wooden wedge is inserted, by which the whole is easily peeled from the back. When thus stripped, the turtle is again put into the pen, and time allowed for the growth of a new shell. This cruel process appears to give the poor animal great pain, though it is not fatal.”*' Other kinds of shell-fish are used for food, but those already mentioned are the most important. * Hartwig. CHAPTER III. SAVORS, SPICES, CONDIMENTS, ETC., USED WITH * FOOD OR IN ITS PREPARATION. SALT. This substance, so necessary to man, and for which many animals have an instinctive relish, Sait * s widel F and plentifully diffused over the globe. It exists naturally both in a solid state and in solution. In its solid form it is called rock or fossil salt, and is often found in extensive beds, and even entire mountains, from which it is extracted by mining operations. In solution it exists in certain springs and lakes, and in the water of the ocean, from which it is obtained by various processes of evaporation. Salt mines are found in almost every country of Europe, in various parts of Asia, Africa and America. The most noted are those of Russia. „ , . That of Cracow, in Poland, is located in Salt mines. 7 an enormous mass of rock salt estimated to be five hundred miles in length, twenty broad, and not less than twelve hundred feet thick. In the United States salt is mostly obtained by evaporating the water of saline springs and that THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 63 of the sea. The most productive springs are those of Onondaga county in the State of New York. Those in Virginia are next in importance. Bay salt is that which is evaporated from sea water by the heat of the sun. It is Baysalt called by this name from having been manufactured first in the Bay of St. Ubes, in Portugal. Large quantities of salt come from Turk’s Island in the West Indies, and it is an important article of commerce in many countries. The impurities are generally removed by re-dissolving, and clarify¬ ing the brine. It is of various degrees of fineness, according to the purpose for which it is to be used. Salt is an indispensable aid in preserving meats, fish, and other articles of food; and is also of great importance in chemistry and medicine. SUGAR. Sugar has been known from very ancient times. The sugar-cane from which most of the sugar of commerce is extracted is thought to have origi¬ nated in Asia, though it was very early introduced into other countries, and is now common gugar to all tropical regions of the globe. At first sugar was used as a medicine; for a long period it was an expensive luxury, but now it has become a necessary article of table use the world over, and as a consequence, its manufacture is very exten¬ sive in both continents. The cane is an herbaceous plant, with a jointed 64 THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. stem which rises to the hight of three, six, and sometimes twelve feet, according to the richness The cane. of the soi1 ’ and is from one to two inches in diameter. It is made up of a luscious juice and a fibrous portion. The joints are from forty to sixty in number, and each is or has been em¬ braced by a leaf in the same manner as that of the Indian corn, to which the sugar-cane has a general Mode of culti- resemblance in its mode of growth. It is Tating the cultivated by cuttings, planted in rows. I he top joints of the^stems which are less rich in juice but equally strong to grow, are laid in the ground and sprout from every joint, thus afford- ing plenty of plants for a new crop. The flowers rise in a tuft or plume, like that of the maize, and are of a pink or lilac color. In five or six ing. months alter the blossoming, the canes are ripe, and become of a golden yellow, sometimes streaked with red. They are then cut down close to the earth, topped, stripped of their leaves, and crushed in a mill between iron rollers. The juice, which flows very freely, is collected in a cistern and heated gently with a little lime to correct the acid which abounds in it. After many processes of boiling, skimming, straining, etc., it is allowed to run into broad shallow vessels called cool¬ ers, where it begins to granulate. It is then removed into other vessels perforated at the bottom to allow the fluid portion which will not crystallize to drain off. In this state it is called raw or brown sugar , and the liquor thus drained from it is the common molasses of commerce. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 65 The refining process by which raw sugar is ren¬ dered pure and white is a distinct branch of the business, and is not usually carried on where the sugar is made. It consists mainly in remelting and mingling with it certain substances which cause the scum and all impurities to rise to the surface where they are removed. After several repetitions of this cleansing pro¬ cess the syrup is allowed to cool and harden. When poured into moulds it is called loaf sugar ; broken up into small pieces it is lump sugar; ground to various degrees of fineness, it goes by the names of granulated , pulverized or powdered sugar. The drainings from refined sugar go by the name of syrups. The manufacture of sugar has been greatly im¬ proved by the introduction of steam power, by which the juice is much more rapidly and thoroughly pressed out between the iron rollers which are set in motion by it. Other improvements improve- J i mcntsinthe consist in methods tor separating tne gU g ar manu- granulated or crystallized particles of facture - sugar from the molasses without the long and im¬ perfect process of draining formerly used. The raw sugar is placed in a large, square iron case, air-tight, divided into two compartments by a sieve-like bottom of wire with fine meshes. The sugar is placed in the upper compartment while the lower one communicates with two air pumps that are set in motion by the engine which crushes the canes. When the air is exhausted in this lower compartment, the liquid molasses comes pouring in 66 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. to fill the void, while the crystallized mass remains almost thoroughly purified at the top. The old method of draining in casks, pierced with holes at the bottom, required at least eight days, and then retained a quantity of molasses; while by the new mode, the cleansing is effectually accomplished in a few hours, and at the same time the sugar has a much nicer appearance, and moreover can immedi¬ ately be packed in hogsheads and casks for ship¬ ment. Sugar is also made from many other plants. The maple-tree, date-palm, and beet-root, are the most important for the amount of it they produce. The other sugars sa P ^he ma P^ e is boiled down till crys¬ tallization takes place. It is obtained in the early spring by boring through the bark into the wood of the tree. A spout being introduced the sap flows out into any vessel placed to receive it. The flavor of maple sugar is very agreeable. Beets are crushed and the liquid part pressed out. It is then boiled down and crystallized. Large quantities are made in France. In India and the South Pacific islands sugar is made from the date-palm. It is estimated, however, that about eleven-twelfths of all the sugar extracted for use is obtained from the sugar-cane, and that the annual production from this source over the whole globe amounts amount. to 4,500,000,000 pounds. Immense quan¬ tities are produced in the West Indies, where the plant reaches its highest perfection. In Louisiana and other regions of the Gulf coast, there are many large and productive plantations. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 67 Although highly nutritious, sugar is not usually eaten by itself, but enters into the preparation of food. An enormous amount is annually consumed in candies and confections of every kind. MOLASSES. . Molasses, as has been before mentioned, is the liquid which is drained from raw or brown sugar, through perforations in the casks* containing it, or by improved methods already described. The quantity produced, depends greatly upon the de¬ gree of heat employed in boiling the cane juice. The greater amount of heat, the greater the proportion ot molasses. In improved O f mo i asses . processes for the manufacture of raw sugar, and for refining it, the syrup is heated in what are called “ vacuum pans,” which are large metallic boilers so constructed that they can be ex¬ hausted of air. The boiling point of the syrup is consequently so much reduced that very little mo¬ lasses is formed. This well-known liquid is of a darker or lighter color according to its purity. It is used in innu¬ merable ways in cooking, etc. A great amount is annually distilled into rum, both in this country and the West Indies. HONEY. Before the manufacture of sugar was well under¬ stood honey was extensively used as a sweetener of wines, food, etc., but now principally as a 68 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. table luxury. It is a deliciously sweet substance collected by bees from flowers. The finest honey is that which is allowed to drain from its uses ! 1 d the comb. If obtained from hives that have never swarmed, it is called “ virgin honey." An inferior quality is procured by expos¬ ing the comb to pressure; and if heat be employed, the product is still more impure. Much honey is collected in different parts of the United States. It is imported in barrels from Cuba and other parts of the West Indies. The drink known by the name of mead or me- theglin, is partially composed of honey. It enters also into some medicinal preparations. VINEGAR. Cider or wine vinegar. This well-known acid is obtained in various ways, but chiefly by exposing wines, cider, or malt liquors to the air and a slow fermentation. In this country cider is most used, and by allow¬ ing the casks to stand with the bung- holes open, exposed to the heat of the summer sun, the cider is gradually changed into vinegar. A method, however, borrowed from the Germans, of producing vinegar by a much quicker process has lately come into use. By mixing certain proportions of alcohol and water, (with a little yeast added,) and allowing it to trickle several times slowly through a quantity of beech shavings previously steeped in vinegar, Quick method. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 69 the process is greatly hastened, and good vinegar is thus made in from twenty-four to thirty-six hours. Vinegar is often adulterated, and injurious mix¬ tures under the name offered in market. The va¬ rious culinary uses of vinegar are well known. It is also used extensively in some manufactures and dyes. OLIVE OIL. The olive tree is a native of the south of Europe and is extensively cultivated in France, Italy, Spain, and other countries bordering upon the Med¬ iterranean. Its trunk reaches the hight of twenty or thirty feet, and makes valuable timber. The fruit is .the most useful part of the tree. The oliye This is a smooth oval plum, about three- fourths of a inch in length and one-half in diame¬ ter. It is of a deep violet color when ripe, whitish and fleshy within, of a bitter and nauseous taste, but filled with oil, which is pressed from it and used for many culinary and medicinal purposes. Olives are also used for pickling; and such are gathered before they are ripe. Those designed to produce the oil are bruised, and then subjected to heavy pressure. The Qlive dL first oil that flows is the best. Olive oil is imported in glass bottles, or in flasks surrounded by a peculiar kind of network made of grass and called Florence flasks. The best oil comes from the south of France. It is much used in preparing and preserving certain kinds of food (like sardines 70 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. and some other sorts of fish,) and also as a dressing for salads. PEPPER. The principal varieties of this spice are cayenne and black pepper. The first is now cultivated almost everywhere though it is thought to be a native of the warm regions of both Asia and America. Large quanti¬ ties have long been produced in Guiana, South America, and exported from the port of Cayenne, whence its name of cayenne pepper. While green this fruit is much used for pickling, and is Cayenne f ... x ° pepper. laminar to every one. When ripe it be¬ comes of a bright handsome red, and after drying, it is powdered and brought into market. Besides what is produced in this country, it is im¬ ported from the West Indies. Black pepper is the fruit of a climbing shrub which groAvs wild in some parts of China and India. Black pepper. ^ * s cu lti va ted m °st of the East India islands; the best is said to be produced on the Malabar coast, in Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Singapore. The plant is propagated by cuttings and is supported by poles and props, or by trees of various kinds planted for the purpose, upon which it is trained. It grows ten or twelve feet and some¬ times more. In three or four years from the time of planting it begins to bear fruit. The leaf re¬ sembles the ivy. The flowers are in clusters, small and whitish, the berries globular, and when fully ripe of a red color. The fruit is gathered twice a THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 71 year, before ripening, and upon being dried becomes black and wrinkled. The taste is fiery and pun¬ gent. Pepper is much used as a table condiment and in medicine. The black and white sorts of pepper are both the products of the same plant. The peppers brought white from the plantations, are supposed to be the finest berries which have drop¬ ped from the vines, and become somewhat bleached by exposure to the sun and weather. But the greater part of the white pepper used as a con¬ diment is the black pepper from which the dark coating has been removed. In this state it presents a handsomer appearance, and brings a higher price; but the pungency of the spice is diminished as well as its real value. •% MUSTARD. There are two species of mustard , both very common, and easily cultivated; the black and white. The seeds of both are used, and are sold whole or in powder ready for the table. The plant Mugtard _ is too familiar to every one to need des¬ cription. Mustard seed is also a valuable medicine, mostly used externally to excite redness in the skin and relieve pain. GINGER. The ginger plant is a native of Hindoostan and is cultivated in all parts of India and also in the West Indies, where it has been introduced from the East. The plant is somewhat rush-like, with a 72 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. creeping root a little beneath the surface of the earth. The stem, which is annual, grows piantT f rom two to three feet high. The flower stalk rises by the side of the stem, from six to twelve inches in hight and bears a scaly spike of white and blue flowers. The root is fit for use after it is a year old. In the West Indies the ginger crop is gathered in January and February, after the stems have withered. The root is scalded after having been well washed, and then fftheroot. n dried as quickly as possible. The dark colored ginger is imported from Calcutta. The Jamaica or white ginger comes from the West Indies. It is deprived of its outer coat and when pulverized makes the yellowish powder known to every one, so much used in culinary preparations and drinks. The fresh root is sometimes brought into market and preserved by confectioners by boiling in syrup. It is also brought in jars from the East, already preserved. PIMENTO, ALLSPICE OR JAMAICA PEPPER. These names are all given to the same article. In this country it is usually known by the second, or allspice , because it is thought to resemble in odor a mixture of cloves, nutmeg, and cinnamon. It is the unripe berry of a tree which grows in the West Indies, Mexico and some parts of South America. Being particularly abundant in the island of Ja¬ maica, it has received the name of Jamaica pepper. The tree is about thirty feet high, with a straight THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. 73 trunk, smooth gray bark, evergreen foliage, and small fragrant white flowers. The fruit is a round berry, smooth, shining, and of a dark Growtliand purple or black color. It is gathered preparation when it has attained its full size, though of allspice ‘ not yet ripe, and after being carefully dried in the sun is ready for market. Allspice is brought in bags and casks from the West Indies, and is often pulverized and put up in small boxes ready for family use. The pimento plant belongs to the myrtle family, and is in appearance a very beautiful tree. It grows spontaneously in many paijts of Jamaica. Attempts to propagate it are, (Edwards informs us) very generally unsuccessful. He says that not one in fifty efforts to raise it from cuttings or the seed have resulted favorably. Its growth is therefore left principally to nature. “ When a new plantation is to be formed, no regular planting or sowing takes place, but a piece of land is chosen either in the neighborhood of a plantation al¬ ready formed, or in a part of the wood- p^nto? land where the trees are scattered in a native state. The land is then cleared of all wood except the pimento myrtles, and the felled timber left to decay where it lies. In a short time young pimento plants are found springing up on all parts of the land, produced, it is supposed, from the ripe berries scattered by the birds, while the prostrate trees protect and shade the tender seed¬ lings. At the end of two years the tract is thor¬ oughly cleared and none but the most vigorous 4 74 THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. plants left standing. These come to maturity in about seven years. “ When the fruit is ripe one climbs the tree and gathers the small branches, while others, usually women and children, pick the berries from them. They need to lie in the sun for a week, or till they are fully dry, and are then fit for packing and exportation.” NUTMEG AND MACE. The nutmeg tree is a native of the Molucca or Spice Islands, but is cultivated in many others both of the East and West Indies. The Banda Islands, however, produce it in the greatest abundance and perfection. The tree grows from thirty to fifty feet high with numerous branches, bright and mfif 66 g reen glossy leaves, and small white bell¬ shaped flowers. It has considerable re¬ semblance to the orange tree. The fruit, which appears mingled with the flowers, is about the size of a small peach; at first pale green, but yellow when ripe. The external covering, which is first thick and fleshy, then becomes dry and stiff and separates into halves, disclosing a scarlet network adhering to a shining black nut. This network is the mace of commerce, and is carefully separ- Mace. j r ated, dried and packed closely, breaking it up as little as possible. The nuts are then dried till the husk is readily removed; afterwards they are steeped in sea water and lime to preserve the flavor, and then packed in casks or chests for ex¬ portation. Nutmegs may be gathered three times THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 75 a year. Both nutmeg and mace are much used in cookery. CINNAMON AND CASSIA. The cinnamon tree , whose bark furnishes the spice so well known, is a species of laurel, which grows spontaneously in the forests of Ceylon. It is also largely cultivated there in gardens . . ° Native coun- and plantations which furnish supplies try of the cin- for foreign trade. India and Java also namon Re¬ produce it, as well as some of the West Indian Islands, where it has been introduced. If left to its full growth, the cinnamon tree will attain a hight of thirty or forty feet, and a diam¬ eter of eighteen or twenty inches; but as the best spice is produced from young shoots, the main trunk is kept cut down and new growths from the root allowed to spring every season, and never grow more than ten feet. The shrubs are i 1 • „ Mode of placed m regular rows, four or five feet growth and apart. The shoots with their slender cultlvatlon * stems somewhat resemble the hazel, and are covered with leaves which at first appear partly of a bright red, and partly of a pale yellow color. When ma¬ ture, however, the upper surface is of a dark olive tint, and the under one of a lighter green. The flowers grow on footstalks at the angles of the leaves and at the extremity of the branches, in clusters somewhat like the lilac in shape and size, but are white with a brownish tinge in the center. The odor is not particularly agreeable. One- seeded berries, shaped like an acorn and smaller 76 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. than a common pea,' constitute the fruit. The plants are propagated either by seeds or saplings. In two years the shoots are fit for cutting, being then about half an inch thick. The peeling of the rind takes place twice a year, from May to June, and in November, as the bark at those seasons can be easily detached Gathering f rom the wood. The outside having been scraped off, the bark is laid in the sun to dry, where it curls up and becomes of a darker color. The smaller pieces are then put in¬ side the larger, and the whole closes up into a tube form such as we see it in shops. Cinnamon of the best quality is imported at the present day from Ceylon and the Mala- bar coast, obtained from the smaller twigs and shoots, which furnish the sweetest and strongest bark. It comes in bales and chests, the quills or tubes having been made up into bun¬ dles weighing about a pound each. An oil can be extracted from the bark by soaking and bruising up the pieces which have namon*"" been ground to a coarse powder. In this state it is allowed to stand in sea-water for two days and then distilled. Cassia is another species of the cinnamon laurel, resembling it and producing bark in the same way. It is, however, inferior as to the delicacv Cassia. , . J of its flavor, and considered a coarser and cheaper spice, though not always readily dis¬ tinguishable from it. Cassia buds are the unopened flowers of the THE MANUAL OF COMMENCE. 77 cinnamon tree. They are of a dark brown color and aromatic taste like cinnamon. CLOVES. The clove of commerce is the unexpanded bud of a tree which grows spontaneously in the Spice Islands, but has been introduced into many other places where the climate is similar. The Dutch formerly endeavored to monopolize the cultivation of this spice, as well as the trade in it, but did not succeed. The name comes from the French clou, a nail, because the clove resembles a small nail. The tree which produces it is very handsome, with its glossy, evergreen foliage, and its £ee. clove constant succession of rosy, fragrant flow¬ ers. Its branches assume a pyramidal form, cov¬ ered, like the trunk, with a smooth, grayish bark. When the buds have attained the proper size, they are picked by the hand or beaten from the tree, and quickly dried in the sun. The cultivation of the clove was formerly con¬ fined to the Molucca Islands, but it has been intro¬ duced into the West Indies and some of the tropi¬ cal portions of South America, whence the United States derive their chief supply at present. The quality, however, is inferior to that which comes from the Moluccas, particularly from Amboyna. VANILLA. This flavor is prepared from the pod of a climb¬ ing plant growing in the West Indies, Mexico, and 78 THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. the torrid portions of South America. The pods are gathered before they are quite mature, dried Vanilla plant. “ th ® Shade ’ C0TeIed with a OOat of oil, and then tied in bundles and enveloped in sheet lead, or placed in small metallic boxes, ready for exportation. There are several varieties of the plant, of which the most valuable has pods six or eight inches long, and somewhat flattened. These contain Varieties witllin tlieir tou gh shell a soft black pulp, and uses. which numerous minute, black, glossy seeds are embedded. The entire pod has a peculiar, strong, agreeable odor and taste, but the Pulpy portion is the most aromatic. Vanilla is used to flavor chocolate, ice cream, and various kinds of cookery and confections. It is sometimes used as a medicine, and as a perfume. In its wild state the vanilla vine, which is about as thick as a finger, will climb to the summit of the highest forest trees, but the fruit seldom ripens there, as the monkey commits constant depredations upon it. It is a costly spice, and must remain so while among a thousand of its large and lovely blossoms, on an average but one pod is produced; which is the case under the present mode of cultivation. YEAST. Yeast is a frothy matter thrown off during Yeast. the fermentation of malt liquors. It is used to excite a similar action in other substances, especially in mixtures of flour and meal, for the making of bread. THE MAN TT AL OP COMMERCE. 79 SODA. Bread is also made by combining an alkali and an acid in the mixture; the effervescence taking place in it operates to make the bread, gQda cake, etc., light and spongy when baked. The alkali now in general use is called soda. It is prepared from common salt by a chemical process. CREAM OF TARTAR. The acid commonly used with soda in cookery is called cream of tartar , (sometimes Argol or ArgalsA It comes from the inside of wine casks, where it is deposited from the wine in a hard crust. It is red or white, according to the color of the wine. On being purified, it becomes a fine white substance, of a clear acid taste. It is used very extensively in cooking at the present day. CHAPTER IY. BEVERAGES. The drinks in most extensive use, not contain¬ ing the alcoholic principle, are tea and coffee. Chocolate, with some of its preparations, such as broma, cocoa, shells, etc., are employed as table beverages to a considerable extent, but their use is not universal like that of tea and coffee. We com¬ mence therefore with some account of these. SECTION I.—DRINKS NOT ALCOHOLIC. TEA. The tea plant is a native of China and Japan, and is cultivated very extensively in both countries, particularly in the former. It is an evergreen The tea shrub ’ usua % from four to eight feet plant. high; though in favorable situations it will grow much higher if permitted. It iRs numerous blanches, and the leaves are smooth and shining. The dowers are of considerable size, snow-white, not unlike those of the myrtle in ap¬ pearance, and are either solitary or stand two or three together at the angles of the leaves. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 81 Some writers are of opinion that there is but one species of the tea plant, and that the va- riety ot the teas m appearance and flavor, of the plant . depends on the age and manner of pre¬ paring the leaf. Others insist that there are two species; one producing the green and the other the black teas. In Japan the tea plant often forms hedge-rows around the rice and cornfields. In China, whence enormous quantities are exported, large fields are devoted to its culture. It is propagated from the seed, which is planted in holes, at cer¬ tain distances apart, six or eight seeds t La ting teal" being placed in one hole to ensure the growth of some of them. In three years the plant yields leaves for collection, and in as many more, attains its usual hight of five or six feet. After being cropped a few years, it is cut down in order that new shoots may spring from the stumps. These shoots afford a large product of leaves, and bear for several years. The leaves are picked by hand, a crop being pro¬ duced three times a year in the most favorable sit¬ uations. The first is considered the best, as the leaves are then youngest. They are as- _ 1/0 ^ Preparation sorted according to age, and thus arise of the leaf for many varieties of strength and flavor. market " After having been gathered and assorted, the leaves are dried in shallow iron pans by artificial heat, and while still hot they are rolled by the fingers or in the palm of the hand into the form we see. They are then packed in chests, or boxes of various size 4* 82 THE MANTJAXi OF COMMERCE. for exportation or sale. These chests are lined with thin sheets of lead to exclude the air, which would soon diminish its fine flavor. Commercial teas are of various names designa¬ ting some quality or class. But they are all refer¬ able to the two great divisions of green and black , or else are mixed teas. So many ports are now open for trade between China and Japan and the rest of the globe, that this great staple is of world-wide con- use of tea. sumption. Its gently stimulating quali¬ ties, united to its agreeable flavor, place it in the first rank as a table beverage; and the opinions of physicians and chemists are now almost unanimous that its use in moderation is not only harmless but absolutely beneficial. Like almost all other commercial articles, tea is often adulterated. This is done in a of tea. great variety ot ways. By coloring sub¬ stances, by other leaves mingled with those of the tea plant, by drying and mixing the leaves already used with other fresh ones, etc., etc. Some attempts have been made to introduce the tea plant into this country. In Greenville, South Carolina, the experiment of cultivating it has been tried within a few years, with such success as to induce the belief that the climate and soil of our Southern states would be highly favorable to the production of fair qualities of tea. A colony of Chinese attempted its introduction into Brazil some years ago, but without success. The mate or Paraguay tea , is a substitute for it; and THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 83 this is a very abundant product in the interior and Western parts of South America. The leaves, the only part of the plant aguaytL.^" used, have a pleasant odor and bitterish taste, and are, at first, disagreeable to the palate. These leaves are said to contain principles identical with those of the Chinese tea. COFFEE. The mountainous regions of Abyssinia and Ara¬ bia are thought to be the original home of the coffee-tree , as it has here not only been cultivated from time immemorial, but is everywhere found growing wild in the forests. But the value of its produce has led to its introduction into various other parts of the globe where the climate is sufficiently warm. It is a small tree, fifteen or twenty, and sometimes thirty feet in higlit. The lowest branches are longest, 0 ee rcc ' the higher diminishing towards the top so as to give a pyramidal form to the tree. The leaves are four or five inches long, dark green above and lighter beneath. The flowers are white, with a pleasant fragrance like jasmine. The fruit is a roundish berry, first green, then red, and ultimately of a dark purple color, about as large as a cherry. It contains two seeds, surrounded by a paper-like membrane, and enclosed in a pulpy substance. These seeds, divested of their coverings, constitute the coffee of commerce. The tree is raised from the seeds, which are first 84 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. Cultivation and crops. sown in a soil properly prepared, and at the end of a year the seedlings are large enough to be trans¬ planted into rows at suitable distances. These produce fruit in three or four years. The trees are topped to prevent their reaching an inconvenient hight, and to make them throw out a greater num¬ ber of fruit-bearing branches. They continue to yield for thirty or forty years. There are two principal crops, although the trees are covered with flowers through- O out the year. Various methods are employed to separate the seeds from their coverings; the best is by wooden rollers which remove the pulpy sub¬ stance, leaving the paper-like membrane. They are afterwards divested of this by drying and win¬ nowing. Several varieties of coffee are known to com¬ merce, principally named from the places where they are produced. The Mocha coffee is considered the best. South America and the West Indies ^ contribute large quantities of coffee of very good quality. The East India and other tropical islands, also produce coffee. It is exported in sacks. Coffee culture has undergone a tion within the last half century, countries formerly most noted for it, now occupy an inferior rank; while in others it has rapidly at¬ tained great importance. Brazil, which, at the beginning of the century was hardly known in the coffee trade, now furnishes nearly as much as all the rest of the great revolu- Some of the Changes in. coffee culture THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 85 world beside. It exported in 1855 more than three hundred and fifty millions of pounds, Brazilian and has since added greatly to that coftue - amount; so that it has become the great coffee country of the world. Prof. Agassiz, in his late “Journey in Brazil,” informs us that “ more than half the coffee consumed on the globe is of Brazilian origin. And yet this coffee has, by itself, little reputation, and is even greatly underrated, because a great deal of the best produce of the Brazilian plantations is sold under the name of Java, Mocha, Bourbon,’ etc. The “ so called Mocha,” he says, “ considered the finest of all coffees, is often nothing but the small round beans growing at the summit of the Brazilian plant very carefully selected and prepared.” The island of Java ranks next to Brazil in the production of coffee; and Ceylon stands Othercoffee third in the list. It is, however, cultivated growing coun- largely in some of the West India and other islands besides in its native country of Arabia and Abyssinia. It was here, of course, that the art of preparing a beverage from it was first discovered. Arabic writers relate that this took place about four hundred years ago. They say that a learned mufti (a Moham¬ medan priest or lawyer) of Aden, having tasted it while on a journey to the opposite shore Properties of of Africa, and discovered its virtures, ^rst dis&cmsr- recommended it to the dervishes (Mo- ed. hammedan monks) of his convent, as a means of * Agassiz Journey in Brazil pp. 506, 507. 86 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. keeping them awake during their devotions. The example of these holy men was readily followed and it spread from tribe to tribe and from town to town, till at length its fame reached Constantinople, where the first coffee house was opened in 1554. Commerce with that city soon made it known in Europe and thence it has spread all over the world. Coffee is prepared for use by roasting over a moderate fire till the bean is of a snuff-brown color and then grinding to a coarse powder. CHOCOLATE. Chocolate is a paste prepared from the seeds of the cacao or chocolate tree, a native production of Mexico; though in the West Indies, South America, and even in some parts of Africa, it is now largely cultivated. The tree is small but handsome, from twelve to twenty feet high, resembling a Cacao or cho- , , & coiate tree, cherry tree. The fruit is an oblong cu¬ cumber-shaped berry, six or eight inches in length, with a thick rind enclosing a whitish pulp, in which are embedded numerous seeds, about as large as an almond. These seeds have a thin outer covering or shell, containing a brown, oily kernel. Separated from the substances which envelop them, these seeds or nuts constitute the cacao of commerce, from which chocolate is prepared. Linnaeus gave to the chocolate tree the name of Tkeobroma. " T ^ eo ^ roma C —food for gods—showing how highly he valued the flavor of its seeds; and there are many who consider the prep¬ arations from it the greatest of luxuries. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 87 The trees are purely tropical, and so tender that when young they require some screen from the scorch¬ ing rays of the sun. Bananas, maize, manioc, and other broad leaved plants are therefore cultivated between the rows of cacao seedlings for shade and protection from wind. The flowers are of a pale red, springing from the large branches and even from the trunk and roots. The first fruits appear in the third year, but the tree does not come into full maturity till it is six or seven years old. It will then continue to bear abundant crops for twenty years. When fully ripe the fruit is gathered, cut in slices, the nuts taken out, cleaned and dried in the sun. They are then put in bags and sent to other countries where they are manufactured. Before they are made into chocolate they are roasted and then reduced to a paste by grinding ^Xcoiate. between hot stones ; some spices are ad¬ ded, vanilla, cinnamon, etc., with a certain propor¬ tion of sugar, and then while hot, the paste is put in moulds to cool and harden. In this state it is the chocolate of the shops, and is prepared for table use by pulverizing and boiling in milk and water. Chocolate is extensively used by confectioners and made into a great many fanciful shapes. The cocoa and broma which we obtain in small packages, are preparations of the nut in ^ broma powder but not reduced to paste; often and shells, mingled with other ingredients. The shells of commerce, are the outer covering or shell OO THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. of the nut, and impart-to boiling water a taste simi- lai to the chocolate but weaker. They are sometimes used as a substitute for tea or coffee. SECTION II.—FERMENTED LIQUORS. Alcoholic liquids are divided into those fer¬ mented and distilled. The first class embraces all Division of wines, cider, perry, arrack, etc., with th ° Se ° f ever ^ kiud P^pared from malt, such as ale, beer, porter, etc. The sec¬ ond contains those which have been separated from all such substances as have undergone vinous fermentation, by a process of distillation. Alcohol is the spirituous or intoxicating principle which is generated in vegetable juices by ferment¬ ation. In wines, beer, cider, etc., it exists, largely diluted with water. The object of distillation is to separate it from the water and other impurities, and collect it in a pure or concentrated form. This is done by placing the fermented liquor in an appa- Aicoiioi • how called a still , and subjecting it to a obtained. certain degree of heat. This raises the spirituous particles, which are very light and volatile, into the vapor. This passes off by a tube carried through a large quantity of cold water, to cool and condense it. At the ex¬ tremity of the tube it flows out in a stream of alcoholic liquor. After several repetitions of this THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 89 process, it loses most of its watery particles and becomes pure spirit of wine , as it is called in commerce. The word alcohol is from the Arabic language, and had originally no reference to liquors. ° Derivation of AlJcohl, the word from which it is ae- the name, rived, meant a fine pure powder, used for painting the eyebrows. The present applica¬ tion of the term is supposed to indicate fineness or purity of the spirit which goes under the name of alcohol. WINE. As fermentation must precede distillation, we will commence with fermented liquors used as bev¬ erages, naming wine first among them. Many vegetable substances, especially fruits, may be made to afford wine, such as J „ . , Fruits afford- currants, cherries, and berries oi various lng W j ne . sorts; but that obtained from the grape is by far the most abundant and best known. Though the art of wine-making varies in differ¬ ent countries, yet there are some general rules everywhere observed. When the grapes are ripe they are gathered and crushed in wooden vessels with perforated bottoms, through which the juice, called the must, runs into a vat placed beneath. Here fermentation soon commences and the must is after a while cov¬ ered with a mass of froth called the bead. The liquor becomes sharp and assumes a deep red color, if it be the product of purple or red grapes. After 90 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. the fermenting process has gone on long enough, the liquor having acquired a strong vinous taste and become perfectly clear, the wine is considered as formed, and is drawn off into casks. Wines are made in many countries, and are known in commerce by various names, according to their source. Those most extensively imported to this country are Madeira wine, from the island of that name, north-west of the coast of Africa; port wine from Oporto, a city of Portugal; sherry wines! Pal W ^ ne f rom the vicinity of Xeres, in Spain (if genuine); champagne, bur¬ gundy, and claret wines, from several provinces in France, with other varieties from Germany. Wines are liable to adulteration, and sometimes contain very injurious substances. Mixtures, too, are sold under the name of wine, which contain little or none of the pure article. According to their color, wines are divided into red and white. Red wines are derived from the How wines must of black or P ur P le grapes, fer- are distin- mented with their skins. White wines, gmsiied. from white grapes, or dark ones, fer¬ mented apart from their skins. Dealers also dis¬ tinguish wines according to their taste, and other qualities, into two general descriptions; sweet or luscious wines , and dry wines , or such as are not sweet. Wine is used as a common beverage by all classes of people in most countries where it is made in abundance, as in France, Spain and Italy. Where its importation renders it expensive it is not con- d THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 91 sumed so freely as malt liquors, or even some inferior qualities of distilled spirits. Much attention has been paid to the cultivation of the grape in this country within a few years, and considerable quantities of wine are produced annually in some of our West¬ ern and Southern States, where the climate seems well adapted to produce the choicest varieties of this delicious fruit. California stands foremost in the Union as a wine-producing State. CIDER. This well-known beverage is made from the juice of apples, which are ground in a mill, pressed, and the liquor placed in barrels to undergo fermenta¬ tion. It was formerly considered a nec- ^ essary part of the farmer’s family stores, and as a common drink at his table. But at the present day orchards are much more devoted to the raising of valuable fruit, instead of an inferior quality, which is just as good for cider. It is a slightly intoxicating drink, and is often bottled for table use. Large quantities are annu¬ ally converted into vinegar, and a brandy is pro¬ duced from its distillation. PERRY. Perry is a liquor made from pears by a process similar to the manufacture of cider. It p is a pleasant drink, and has sometimes been made of so excellent a flavor, and a quality 92 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. so sparkling as almost to equal the genuine Cham¬ pagne wine. MALT LIQUORS. BEER,.ALE, PORTER, ETC. Malt is the name given to grain which has been steeped in water till it is ready to germinate and then dried in a kiln, so as suddenly to check the process. It is ground up and used in M a lt. . brewing. Almost any gram can he used for this purpose, but barley is generally employed. Malt is the principal ingredient in all liquors of this class. BEER. Beer is made by mixing malt with a quantity of warm water in what is called the mash-tub , which is a deep open vessel made for the pur- beer. 1110 pose. After being well stirred and stand¬ ing a few hours, it dissolves certain sub¬ stances contained in the malt and becomes what is called wort. This is drawn off and more water added, and drawn off again till the strength of the malt is exhausted. The first solution is the sweetest and strongest. The wort is next heated to boiling, and hops are added, which, besides imparting a peculiar bitter¬ ness and flavor to the liquid, helps to clarify it. It is then drawn into shallow vessels and cooled to a temperature of about 60° ..Farenheit. Yeast is then added and it is allowed to ferment. In a few hours THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. 93 bubbles rise from fill parts of tire liquid, beginning at the edge of the vessel, and gradually increasing and spreading till the entire surface is yeast> covered with white creamy foam or froth. After it has fermented sufficiently it is put into casks in which it is to remain till drawn off for use. Here a second and much slower fermentation takes place. This produces what is called the ripening of the beer , and is essential to its preservation. While it is going on, a brown froth is thrown off which is yeast , and is used largely in raising bread. The beer afterwards becomes clear and sparkling and is closely bunged or bottled, in order to exclude the air from it. The varieties of beer depend upon some slight changes in the materials and their management in the process of brewing. The color of * , Variety and these liquors also depends m some degree colors . upon the color imparted to the malt while drying in the kiln, and also upon certain sub¬ stances used to give a deeper shade. Ale is the strongest of the malt liquors. It dif¬ fers from the others by being made with a smaller quantity of hops, and is of a lighter color and * sweeter taste. The first strength of the woit is used for it. Porter and brown stout are of a darker color, being made of malt highly kiln-dried, or porter ; tinted with liquorice, burnt sugar, etc. It is said to derive its name from having been origi¬ nally made great use of by the London porters. Brown stout is a superior quality of porter. 94 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. Lager-beer is so called from the long time it is laid aside or stored in vats or casks before it is fit for use. In making this beer the wort is fermented very slowly, in large open vessels, and manbe°er Ger " tbe y eas L instead of rising to the top of the liquor, falls to the bottom and is separated so that it becomes as clear as champagne. It may be preserved for years without souring. In German the word lager means to lay, to place, or store away—as well as a place of storage or de¬ posit —such as is required for the casks containing this favorite drink until it is ready for use. “ Lager bier” therefore, in the simplest English means laid away beer. Some changes and improvements are made, from time to time in the methods of brewing and prepar¬ ing malt liquors; but the general principles and processes of the art are such as have been given above. They are made and used very extensively in Ger¬ many, England, and this country. SECTION III.—DISTILLED LIQUORS. All liquors which have undergone fermentation contain more or less alcohol. This is extracted Difference fr° m ^em by the process of distillation in distilled which has been already described. Each liquor, when distilled, yields an ardent spirit characterized by a peculiar flavor, and is dis- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 95 tinguished by a name of its own. Thus the prod¬ uct obtained by the distillation of wine, cider, etc., is called brandy, from fermented molasses, etc., rum. Whiskey is made from corn, rye, or pota¬ toes, by the following process. The grain or potatoes, after being boiled or mashed, are mixed with a portion of water and barley-malt, and allowed to stand for a while at a temperature which will excite fermentation by the addition of yeast. The mass is then placed in a still, and the spirituous principles separated by heat and con¬ densed by passing through a long pipe immersed in cold water. Grin is a name contracted and corrupted from Geneva because originally this liquor was flavored with juniper berries which are called in French, Genevre. It was first manufact- ° an gm ’ ured in Holland and is often termed Hollands, Holland gin, or Schnapps. Arrack is a liquor much used in the East Indies. It is made both from rice and the sap of the cocoa- nut palm. There are also various cordials , such as Noyau, anise seed, Mareschino, etc., which are, to some extent, articles of commerce. But the basis of these liquors is commonly some one of the above spirits, flavored and colored. Brandy and rum are often impregnated with the juice of the wild or black cherry, and then called cherry bounce or cherry btandy. The constant use of spirituous liquors is produc¬ tive of the most injurious effects. The amount of 96 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. misery they have caused in the world is incalculable, used as beverages, while they are of immense utility in medicine and science. They are largely manufactured in the United States, Europe, and indeed almost everywhere. Adulterations are common in them all. CHAPTER V. MATERIALS OF CLOTHING. Next in importance to food and drink comes clothing. In a rigorous climate human life could not be preserved without it; and the skill and ingenuity of the race, ever since its creation, have been employed in procuring and adapting materials to the supply of this need. Of course Importance they have differed greatly, according to and sources climate, situation, and degree of civiliza- of clothing - tion. But in one form or another the various sub¬ stances thus used, with their numerous processes of preparation or manufacture, have long sustained one of the most extensive and interesting depart¬ ments of commerce. The chief sources from which we obtain the ma¬ terials of clothing are the skins of animals , wool, flax , silk, and cotton. In this order they will be briefly examined. SECTION I.—FURS AND SKINS. In a rude state of society, where the arts are un¬ known, and the climate is severe, men have usually clothed themselves at first with the skins of wild 5 98 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. animals which they have captured, or those of the domestic ones which thev have reared. of men 0thmg B y an d by some simple attempts at man¬ ufacture appear, and as knowledge, ex¬ perience, and comfort are gained by these means, improvements are slowly made, till at length com¬ merce comes, bringing the products of foreign skill and science, and very soon the crude appliances of savage life begin to disappear, and barbarism gives way to civilization. Such is the universal range of commerce at the present day, that very few places remain on the globe where the primeval usages of the race in re- sure, like the Greenlanders, Esquimaux, and Lapps, because the rigor of the climate where they dwell requires the warmest kind of clothing in order to preserve life. In milder regions, too, furs are worn as an article of comfort in winter, or of expensive ornament. The finer vari¬ eties are now among the most costly articles of dress, and are becoming more Costliness of furs. and more so as the animals which produce them re¬ treat before the advance of the trapper or settler who is pushing his way even into the inclement solitudes where they choose their abode. Furs are the skins of different animals, covered with thick fine hair, the inner side being converted by a peculiar process into a soft leather. Previous to undergoing this process the skins are called pelts or peltry. THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. 99 The fur-bearing animals mostly belong to cold or arctic regions, and are so relentlessly Principal fur _ pursued by man that some species ar& bearing ani- rapidly disappearing from the earth. The mals ' principal of them are the beaver, fitch, sable, marten, seal, nutria, muskrat, mink, sea otter, fox and bear. The beaver is found almost entirely in North America. Its fur is used so extensively in the hat manufacture that it is a very impor- • BG^v6r tant commercial article. The animal however is becoming more and more scarce. The exportation of fur at present hardly amounts to one- third its former quantity. The habits of the beaver are very interesting and have been often and fully described. It frequents streams and rivers, forming ^er ° f the its habitation beside them with wonder¬ ful skill. It feeds chiefly on the bark of the willow, beech and poplar. The muskrat or musquash which is about the size of a small rabbit, has instincts very similar to the beaver, so that the Indians call it his “younger brother.” It haunts the banks of streams and is never seen very far from the water, where it swims and dives with great facility, being aided by the webs which connect the hinder toes. It builds a hut of curious construction, plastered with great neatness on the inside, and strengthened without by a kind of basket work of rushes care¬ fully interwoven. Many tunnels branch out from it beneath the surface of the water. Here he lives in winter upon the provisions he has laid up, the snow 100 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. generally concealing his hut from view. But when it melts and the huts appear, (for they are usu¬ ally builfr in clusters or villages,) the Indian hunter steals upon them and by driving his four barbed spear through the walls destroys the house and captures its peaceable inmates before they have time to escape through the tunnels into the water. It is also taken with traps. The soft glossy fur of a reddish brown color, is, like that of the beaver, much used in hat-making. It is found in the north¬ ern parts of North America. There are several species of the marten family , found in Canada and all over the northern regions of the country, which afford valuable furs. They are allied to the weasel tribes. The mink The mink. . is one ot them, and yields a beautiful quality of fur. Efforts have been made in the state of New York to breed the mink in a state of con¬ finement. Some of them have proved quite suc¬ cessful. A visit to a “ minkery,” where the habits of these pretty little creatures can be watched, is very interesting. Fitch , or the fur of the polecat , is principally im¬ ported from Germany. It is soft and warm, but has a disagreeable odor. Many species of the marten family eject, when irritated or alarmed, a fluid of fetid odor, Fetid furs. .... which to some extent impairs the value of the fur in certain markets, as the odor can not be entirely removed. Nutria , sometimes called “neuter skins,” are brought from Brazil. The animal is about the size THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 101 and shape of a beaver, having a round tail like a rat instead of a flat one like the beaver. It is found along the streams of Brazil. The more valuable and costly furs, such as the ermine, sable, etc., come principally from Russia, Siberia, and other northern regions of Europe and Asia. The ermine is much less valuable than formerly, when it was thought a fit ornament for robes of state and royalty. The animal which yields it, is considerably larger than the weasel, but resem¬ bles it in general appearance. It attains a length of twelve or fourteen inches when fully . Ermine. grown. The fur, in summer, is a reddish brown, which, in the colder regions of Siberia, be¬ comes snow white in winter, with the exception of the tip of the tail, which always remains black. The habits of the ermine are also much like those of the weasel. It lives on small animals, birds, poultry, rats, mice, and even rabbits; for it will not hesitate to attack a prey larger than itself. Siberia produces the finest skins. The skin of the sable is of very great importance in the fur trade, and its commercial value has led to such an incessant persecution of the poor animal that it has gradually been driven gablo into the most inaccessible localities, while the numbers are greatly and constantly diminishing. Formerly a Kamchatkan trapper could easily catch seventy or eighty sables in one winter; but the whole annual produce of all Siberia is stated to be at present, only about forty-five thousand skins. 102 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. They vary in color as well as in quality. Some have the hair long, close, and of a deep blackish brown, with thick brown underwool. colors ! 18 Such are highly valued in St. Petersburg or Moscow, where they bring enormous prices. Others have long dark hair tipped with white; these are also very valuable; but those which are entirely black are considered most pre¬ cious of all. A recent writer gives some details of the method of capture. “ The chase of the sable is attended with many hardships and dangers. The skins being in the highest perfection at the commencement of winter, the hunters commence their work towards the end of October. In small companies they proceed along the rivers in boats, or travel thTsabie. ^dges to the place appointed for as¬ sembling for the winter campaign, carry¬ ing provisions for three or four months. In the deep and solitary forests they erect their huts, made of branches of trees, banking the snow around them as a protection from the wind and cold. They now roam and seek everywhere for the traces of the sable, and lay traps or snares for his destruction. These are generally pitfalls, with loose boards placed over them baited with fish or flesh. Fire¬ arms are seldom used as they damage the skins. These traps and snares must be often visited at whatever distance apart they may be ; and the hunter often finds that a fox has preceded him and destroyed the game already captured. Some¬ times a snow-storm overtakes him and he must THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 103 retreat to camp to save his own life, abandoning his prey. - Some attention has been paid lately to taming and domesticating the sable. One kept in the palace of the Archb*j*p of Tobolsk was so Atames|lbl0 tame that it was allowed to roam at large in the town. It showed an intense aversion to cats, and would always manifest a strong desire for a fight raising itself furiously on its hind legs as soon as it saw one. The kalan or sea otter is the most valuable of all the Russian fur-bearing animals. The fur is jet black, glossy, soft and thick; and the enormous value set upon it, have induced Russian ^ ottor hunters to follow its traces from Kam¬ chatka to America with such vigor and persistence, that they have nearly extirpated the animal from his haunts on the coasts and islands of Behring’s Sea and the North Pacific, where it formerly abounded. The habits of the sea otter are much like those of the seal. He frequents rocks which Habits _ are washed by the sea, where he loves to lie basking in the sun. His hind feet are webbed, like those of the goose, which assists him in swim¬ ming with great celerity. The love of the sea otter for its young is very remarkable. It risks its own life freely to defend or protect them. A naturalist who had the best op¬ portunity to observe the habits of these animals de¬ clares that when deprived of their off “ Loveofyoung . spring their grief is so great that they soon dwindle to mere skeletons. In flight they carry 104 THE MANUAL OP COMMERCE. their young in their mouths or drive them along before them. If they escape their pursuer, they exhibit their delight by a variety of antics. The sea otter reaches the size of from three to four feet exclusive of the tail. TJjn^ir is exeeed- ingly beautiful. 4 he Aleutian islanders are very skilful in capturing them, both on the rocks where they sleep in the sun, and in the water. They live on small fishes and crustaceous animals. I he seal , black fox , the bear family , the lynx, the Siberian hare and various squirrels , likewise produce fur of different values in commerce, as well as many other animals which can not be mentioned for want of space. Many of the fur-hunters of this country are Indians, who penetrate into the cold regions whither the animals resort. The furs are collected at cer¬ tain stations of the great Fur Companies, and thrown into commerce, either dressed or as peltry. The process of dressing furs, consists in Dressing p l ac i n g them when in a dried state, in tubs where they undergo a treading opera¬ tion with men’s feet, until they are sufficiently soft and pliable. If large, they are sewed up, the fur be¬ ing turned inside. They are greased with butter or lard before treading, which promotes their softening. 1 he fleshy or fatty fragments that adhere are re¬ moved, and they are trampled again in tubs con¬ taining sawdust 5 and afterwards with plaster of Paris or whiting sprinkled between the skins. I hey are finally beaten and combed, which finishes the dressing. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 105 The skins of the bear, wolf, leopard, tiger, buf¬ falo, etc., are used for purposes of warmth or ornament in carriages during winter, and are, like the smaller and more costly varieties, important articles of commerce. Furs are often dyed to adapt them to prevailing fashions. LEATHER. Leather is made of the skins of certain animals, with the hair removed. They have been used for this purpose from remote antiquity, although the best methods of preparing them have been little understood by rude nations. The raw hides which are converted into leather are procured from the domestic cattle of our own and other countries. Immense supplies j- j- Hides are furnished from the wild herds that feed upon the Pampas of South America. They are caught with the lasso, and their skins dried for the market. . It has been discovered that the soaking of skins in liquors which contain certain astringent proper¬ ties, has the effect to give them thickness, firm¬ ness, and toughness. The astringent principle is called tannin , and exists largely in the bark of the oak, hemlock, and some other trees. This bark is peeled off, dried and ground coarsely. After being well steeped in water in pits ^ or vats made for the purpose, the skins, having the hair removed, are plunged in and remain for weeks or months, till they are thoroughly 5 * 106 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. acted upon by the tannin of the bark. This proc¬ ess greatly reduces the size of the skin, but hard¬ ens and thickens it. When sufficiently tanned, it is taken from the vat, dried, stretched and dressed. Sole-leather is made chiefly from the hides of bullocks. Those of the cow and calf are more carefully finished with oil and lampblack as upper leathers for boots and shoes, and for many other purposes. The softer leathers, such as are made from the skins of sheep, goats, etc., are not impregnated with tan; but the thickening effect is produced by repeatedly soaking them in water where salt and alum have been dissolved. These are often dyed brilliant colors. The skins of the lamb, kid, deer, etc., are used in glove-making, as well as for the manufacture of ladies’ boots and shoes. The leather trade in all its branches is enormous. This country furnishes vast quantities of boots and shoes, which not only supply the home Boots and q emanc ^ are sent the West Indies and other places. The business gives employment to innumerable laborers, men, women and children. Our most extensive manufactories are in the New England and Middle States. In Great Britain and France this trade is very large. The nicest leather gloves are obtained from France and Germany. The more common qualities are made in this country. Leather is used in many ways besides in making boots, shoes, gloves, mittens, etc., as articles of THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 107 clothing. For the carriage and harness manufac¬ ture, for military equipments, book-binding, trunk¬ making, etc., nothing could supply its place. Parchment is the skin of the sheep or goat pre¬ pared for writing upon, by soaking in a liquor of lime, salt, alum, etc. It is then stretched on a frame, trimmed, scraped, rubbed, and thinned till almost transparent. It was first made at Pergamos , a city in Asia, and called pergamenta, which has been corrupted into our word parchment. Vellum is the skin of young calves, treated in a similar way. It is very delicate and beautiful, and like parchment, possesses great durability. Some of the most ancient and curious books known, are written upon vellum. All the fragments of skins, the edges and clip¬ pings of vellum and parchment, and other refuse of the hide, are useful in making glue. With long boiling all these parts of animal matter become jelly or gelatine, and when dried, harden into glue. Vellum. Glue. SECTION II.—WOOL. The fleece of the common sheep, llama, alpaca and some species of the goat, furnish in their raw state an article of extensive commerce; the wool trade being carried on very largely both in this and various European countries. Cloth woven of wool for garments and other uses, 108 THE MANUAL OF COMMENCE. is probably of greater antiquity than that prepared from any other material. The wealth of the ancient patriarchs of Bible times, like that of other wandering people, consisted mainly of woven wool, flocks and herds, which were driven from place to place to find pasturage; while the large train of dependents subsisted on the milk and meat afforded by them. The business of the women, both mistress and servant, was to prepare the fleece after shearing, and draw out from it upon the distaff, the thread which was to be woven in some rude way as “ warp and woof,” into cloth. In very early times this art had attained a good degree of perfection. The Hebrews, Egyptians, I henicians, Greeks and Romans all understood it, as we know from history, both sacred and profane. Traffic in wool Til ey trafficked also not only in wool it- and woolen self, but in various textures made from it. The toga of the Romans, was a loose robe or gown of fine white wool, and other gar¬ ments of classic celebrity were of the same material. But the ancient process of cloth making was slow and tedious, and the nice textures too expensive for common use. In modern times wool is manufactured by the aid „ . machinery, and a numberless varietv ufacture. tabrics ot every quality and price, thiown into the market, to be converted into articles of clothing for men, women and chil¬ dren. We can only mention a very few of them. Gieat Biitain and France furnish to commerce an immense quantity of woolen goods, although THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 109 our own country is rapidly improving and perfect¬ ing all branches of this manufacture. Broadcloth is now woven at Lowell and other New Broadcloth _ England mills, equal to any produced in Europe. These cloths are designed especially for men’s garments. They are called by this name on account of their width, which exceeds twenty-nine inches. Those of less breadth are named narrow cloths. The variety of fabrics formed of wool at the present day is so great, that it would be impossible to enumerate or describe them. Large classes of goods also are made of wool mixed with Variety of other articles,—such as cotton, flax or woolen fab- silk. These change frequently in style and texture according to the prevailing mode or taste. Certain kinds of woolen goods however are always in demand such as broadcloths, merinos, flannels, shawls, etc. The first three are too well known to need any description. Shawls are made of various materials, in numer¬ ous styles, sizes and textures, both in this countiy and Europe. Wool, hair, silk, cotton, SLawls< separately or mixed, enter into their con¬ struction ; and the names which designate the goods are very often taken from the places where they are manufactured. The finest and richest shawls in the world are those imported from India, and called India or Cashmere shawls, because the city and province of Cashmere, in the northern part of Hindostan, was the original and principal seat of this manu- 110 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. facture. They are made of the fine wool or hair of the Thibet goat and are of such exquisite fineness, softness, and beauty, as to bring fabulous prices. But a large portion of those which are sold for real India shawls, are actually made in France; for the Thibet goat was introduced into that country more than thirty years ago and the Cashmere patterns are imitated with great skill. The species of goat which furnishes the wool for them inhabits the mountainous regions of Thibet and Tartary. The fleece of this goat consists of two very dif¬ ferent kinds of fibre, one of which is a fine, soft, rich wool, while the other is a stiff, rough, coarse kind of hair, every fibre of which must be removed before rieece of . the fine wool can be used in shawl-mak- thecash- i n g. This separation is done by hand mere goat. , . .. . and is a tedious process. It is feared that the attempts to naturalize this goat in different countries which are now making, will not be com¬ pletely successful, as far as the quality of the wool is concerned, for it is never equal to that produced in its native Thibet. The genuine shawl wool, how¬ ever, has been imported into Europe, and the finest Edinburg and Paisley shawls made of it. But the best imitations of the India shawls can not come into competition with the genuine Cashmeres, which are always preferred. WOOL OF THE LLAMA. This animal, which inhabits the high table-lands and mountainous regions of Peru, is, in many re- THE MANUAL OP COMMERCE. Ill spects, strikingly like the camel, except that the hump is wanting. It has the same peculiarities of toes and stomach, the same callous spots upon the breast and knees. Its size is about that of the deer, and it is often called the Peruvian camel. To the ancient inhabitants of Peru the llama was what the camel is to the Arabs. They fed upon its flesh and milk, clothing themselves with its sldns Thellamaor or with coarse fabrics made from its wool. Peruvian It served also as a beast of burden, being cameL able to traverse the steep crags and hights where no other animal could keep a foothold. Even at the present day, though superseded by the horse and mule, the llama is considered the most sure¬ footed of all quadrupeds. The wool is long, soft, and silky, and is wrought into a great variety of useful and beautiful textures as well as ornamental trimmings, fringes, tassels, etc. ALPACA WOOL. The alpaca is also a native of Peru and other neighboring countries of South America. It is smaller than the llama and bears some The alpaca or resemblance to the sheep, though its neck *»™ian is longer and its head more finely shaped. The wool is long, fine, of a silky lustre, and varies in color from almost white to black. It is much more pliant than that of the common sheep, and is used in many fabrics which are much worn and highly valued at the present day. Attempts have been made within a few years to 112 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. introduce the alpaca and establish its breeding in England, but without much success. In 1808 thirty-six of these animals traveled across the whole breadth of South America, from Lima to Buenos Ayres, and were there shipped ^Europe? f° r Europe as a present to the empress Josephine. But at Cadiz, in Spain, where they were landed, the poor animals were so ill-treated by a rabble that only a few of them survived, which remained in Spain; none of them ever reached the distinguished and unfortunate lady for whom they were designed. Queen Victoria possesses one or two of these animals at Windsor, where are likewise kept a number of Cashmere goats. Fabrics made from this wool are called alpacas , and are very glossy and handsome. It is often mixed, the warp being sometimes of cotton or silk, while the weft is of the alpaca wool. SHODDY. Within a comparatively few years a new branch of woolen manufacture has grown up and become of much importance. The article referred to is called shoddy , and is made either wholly or partly of old woolen refuse and rags, which were once considered as utterly worthless. After being sub¬ jected to various softening processes, they Shoddy - - , • , , , J are torn to pieces by powerful machinery, and reduced to their original state of wool, which after being re-spun , either with or without an ad¬ mixture of fresh wool, is again woven into cloth. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 118 Formerly, shoddy was used only for paddings, etc., but now, blankets, druggets, carpets, table covers, etc., are made of it, as well as cloth for the army and navy, pilot cloth, and other fabrics for over¬ coats ; and indeed in some of its various forms almost everybody wears or uses it. Immense quantities of shoddy cloth are made at Dewsbury, in England, where its manufacture on a large scale was first established. Great improve¬ ments have been made recently, not only in the fabric of the cloth, but in the dyes, ments in The beautiful woolen table covers are shoddy ' made wholly of shoddy, being printed by aqua fortis from designs drawn in London and Manchester and cut on wooden blocks. The analogy between this manufacture and that of paper is very noticeable; the vilest Analogybe _ and most worthless materials being con- t^een shoddy verted in both cases into beautiful and an paper ‘ useful forms; and, though comparatively of recent origin, the business is rapidly extending and im¬ proving. FELT. Felt is a kind of fabric resembling coarse woolen cloth, which is made either of wool, or wool and hair mixed, without weaving. The fur of the hare, rabbit, seal, beaver, and some others, with the wool of the sheep, are the materials chiefly used for making felt. The hair and wool are mixed by an operation called bowing , by which the vibrations of a bowstring throw up the loose fibres and allow 114 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. them to fall on a table as lightly and evenly as possible. The workman covers the first layer of wool and hair (or wool alone) with a M? ing thick cloth slightly moistened, and presses it with his hands moving the hair and wool gently backwards and forwards till the fibres of both are thoroughly interlaced. Another layer is then added and the same process continued till the requisite thickness is obtained. Afterwards it is fulled, dressed, colored, or printed according to the use to be made of it. The nice qualities are much used for hats, the coarser for floor-cloths, etc. It is said that the felting properties of wool and hair were first discovered by a monk of early times, Felting prop- who liad made a lon g pilgrimage, and erties of hair for comfort in traveling, had placed a small quantity of wool in his sandals. By the moisture and pressure of his feet it had been formed into a compact mass not again separ¬ able into fibres. This property depends upon the structure of the fibres of hair and wool; seen under a microscope they appear notched, irregular, and even covered with short spines or projections. These interlace with one another if gently moved and moistened, and thus produce a firm texture, now known as felt . SECTION III.—FLAX AND HEMP. Next to that of wool in antiquity comes the manufacture of vegetable fibres into cloth. We read THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 115 of “ fine twined linen” among the rich and beauti¬ ful fabrics employed in the decoration of the Jewish tabernacle. Egypt was famous for the abundance and fineness of its linen, thousands of years ago; some of which comes down to this very day Antiquity of in the wrappings of mummies taken from linen manu- her catacombs. Enormous quantities must have been used in this process of embalming, for every mummy was enveloped in many folds of cloth comprising a great many yards. Linen was an article of commerce too, the purchasers often being kings and princes. Solomon had linen yarn brought out of Egypt at a high price. The Greeks probably became acquainted with this luxury by their intercourse with the Egyptians, though we do not find any mention made of its use among them in the early ages. The Romans, in conquering the Greeks, learned their arts, Medium of and in their turn scattered them through transmission all the numerous countries subjugated 0U8 ‘ by their arms. The English owe to the Romans therefore its introduction into Britain, both as an article of clothing and manufacture; for they taught the barbarous natives to cultivate and pre¬ pare the flax, to spin it into thread, and to weave it into cloth. Linen (from the French Lin) is made from the fibres of the flax or hemp. The stalks of these plants when fully grown are cut down and placed lengthwise in water where they soften and rot, so that the bark may be readily separated from the rest of the stem. This is done by various processes of 116 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. drying, breaking, hackling, etc., till the fibrous portion is quite detached from the waste, and made up into locks of a convenient size linen. tor spinning. The color of flax is a well- known brown, and a powerful bleaching process is required to impart that snowy whiteness for which table linens are so admirable. This is done either by chloride of lime, which is a very ex¬ peditious method, (though it is thought to impair the strength of the fabric,) or by the slower and safer one of what is called grass bleaching. Linen thread is often mixed with cotton or silk in nice and delicate textures. Russia, Germany, Switzerland, Holland, Scotland, and Ireland, produce linens of various qualities from which our supply is chiefly derived. Flax growing ... . . A / countries. although in some parts of this country flax is still raised and cloth made. The abundance and cheapness of cotton, however, has rendered it unnecessary as well as unprofitable. Hemp makes stronger and more durable cloth than flax. The finer qualities are used for slieet- ings, etc., the coarser for sail-cloths, and other rough purposes. DAMASK. This name was originally given to a fabric of silk, richly ornamented with raised patterns representing flowers, fruit, etc. Such goods were first brought from Damascus. It is now applied to various text¬ ures on which are woven with figures of this kind. Damasks are manufactured in Great Britain and THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 117 other places in Europe. The Irish linen damasks are celebrated for their superior quality. The best are woven in hand looms, though power ( Damask. looms are employed in making the inferior kinds. Table-cloths, napkins, doilies, (from D’Oy- ley, the name of the first maker,) towels, etc., are made of it, while large quantities of similar stuffs in worsted, or in wool mixed with cotton or silk, are used in covering furniture, and for various kinds of drapery. SECTION IV.—SILK. Silk was known among the Greeks from the time of the conquest of Persia, by Alexander the Great; and long afterwards supplies were brought to Rome from the same source. But the rapacity of the silk merchants at length became so great that the Emperor, Justinian, becoming indignant at their extortion, contrived after many unsuccessful at¬ tempts, to obtain some eggs of the silk worm, and introduced the manufacture into Europe, introduction Greece, Sicily, and Italy soon produced ofsiikinto this valuable commodity in large quanti- Europe- ties, and continue to do so, though many other places have lately engaged in its culture and man¬ ufacture. Lyons in France, is a great mart for silk, and produces some of the richest and most beautiful fabrics in the world. Much raw silk comes to us from China, where the art of produc¬ ing it has been known for ages. 118 THE MANUAL OP COMMERCE. The silk-worm, from which this important article is obtained, is a kind of caterpillar about an inch and a half, or two inches in length, of a light color and very voracious. Its natural food is the leaf of the mulberry, so that it can not be reared in any country where the climate is not warm enough for this tree to flourish. The worms are kept upon frames, placed one above another like shelves, in an airy but warm apartment, and supplied with mulberry leaves upon which they feed night and day till they attain their size and maturity. They then cease to eat and begin to spin their cocoon from a substance con- worm. " tained in two compartments of their bodies, each of which sends out a thread. The worm unites these threads by a peculiar mech¬ anism of its mouth, aided by a gummy substance, and with this it encloses itself in a case or cocoon of an egg shape and a yellowish color. Here it has no motion and seems dead unless you press it, when you perceive by a faint movement that life is still present, though its conditions are so greatly altered. In a few days, if nothing is done to prevent it, a winged insect, or moth, will hatch and gnaw its way through the cocoon. This whitish eggs. an g ra y moth is extremely weak and frail, and its single purpose in existence is to lay e gg s for a new generation of worms, Which develop from them, and in their turn go through all the processes and changes just described. But if the cocoon is to produce silk, the moth must by no means be suffered to make its way THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 119 through, as it would naturally do soon after the worm ceases to spin. The hole made by the insect would divide the thread of silk into so many short pieces that it would be utterly useless. After selecting, therefore, the larg¬ est and best cocoons in order to have a sufficient supply of good eggs for the next season, the others, are put into a tolerably hot oven in baskets, and baked gently for about an hour to kill the moth inside. The cocoons are now ready for use. The coarse web on the outside is carefully removed, and then they are thrown into hot water and whisked about to loosen the ends of the thread. Eight or more of these ends are caught and twisted firmly to¬ gether to unite them into one. This thread is drawn through a hole in an iron plate, and attached to a reel, which, in turning, ^ o e C oont th0 draws off the substance of the eight or more cocoons. Care must be taken, if a thread breaks, to join it again, or supply its place with another when expended. The length of the thread varies much in different cocoons. Some of them will measure twelve hundred yards, but in general not more than five or six hundred. In this state it is called raw silk. To make a thread fit for weaving, two or more of the reeled ones are twisted together. This forms the warp or lengthwise thread of the web. That which crosses it is called the woof> tram or woof , and may be more loosely twisted than the warp. The refuse and coarser 120 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. parts of the cocoon are carded, spun and employed for many purposes under the name of floss silk. The textures into which silk is woven are innu¬ merable. Only a few of the principal will be men¬ tioned. Plain silk or lustring , the kind mostly used f Lustring . for dress > is woven like any plain cloth, the warp and woof appearing equally on the face of it, and giving it a lustre, from which its name is derived. These silks are often called by the names of their manufacturer, or the place where manufactured, or the use to which they are devoted. They are of all colors and qualities. Satin is made by the woof passing over several threads of the warp at a time, presenting a very smooth and glossy surface. It is one of the most elegant of silk fabrics. Velvet is made by throwing the threads over a rod of wire. If the wire is simply drawn out leaving an arrangement of loops , it is called uncut velvet. If the loops are cut open before the rod is removed Velvet the ^ rea( ^ s spread outwards and cover the entire surface with a rich, fringy coat, soft, smooth, and glossy. Some of the Italian cities, Florence, Genoa and others are noted for the manufacture of velvets. But those made at Lyons are inferior to none. Ribbons are woven as narrow webs of lustring, satin or velvet;—or these styles are intermingled, in endles^ variety according to prevailing fashions. Much of this ribbon work is done on little hand looms at the homes of the weavers. Basle, in Switzerland, is noted for its home-made ribbons of elegant quality. THE MANUAL OP COMMERCE. 121 Gauze is a silken web so fine and thin as to be almost transparent. It is used for veils, , . . . . . , , Gauze and and trimmings to heavier textures. CI . ape _ Crape is also made of raw silk stiffened and pressed in a peculiar manner. The Chinese are skilful in manufacturing these fabrics. Moire antique is a thick and elegant texture of silk which has been passed between cylinders , of which one has ridges and the other depressions, pro¬ ducing an unequal pressure upon the goods, and imparting an irregular lustre au ° t - q ° ue . to the surface. This effect, called water¬ ing, can be produced on worsted fabrics as well as silk. Sometimes the goods are moistened, some¬ times one roller is heated and the other cold; or both are cold, or both heated, to diversify the im¬ pression. Moire antique goods are frequently very fashion¬ able, and sometimes not much in demand; but the rich silks thus ornamented are very costly, Wher0 made as well as very beautiful. They have been chiefly produced in France; but at Spital- fields in England the art has been so nicely copied as almost to excel the French manufacturers. Brocade is a heavy silk on which are raised orna¬ ments, flowers, foliage, etc. Formerly the word applied to stuffs woven or enriched with gold and silver thread; but at present all fabrics which have figures or patterns raised and ornamented in this way are termed brocades. Silk is a very important article of commerce, and its culture and manufacture are receiving much at- 0 122 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. tention in this country as well as in the old world. The great trade in silk consists of the raw ma- Siik trade. teria1 ’ J ust as ^ is reeled from the cocoon. In this state it is taken by manufac¬ turers and converted into any desirable fabric. Much comes from Persia, China and some of the southern countries of Europe. SECTION V.—COTTON. Cotton is a soft downy substance resembling wool, which grows in the capsules or pods of the cotton plant. It has become one of the most im¬ portant commercial articles in the world. The cotton plant grows spontaneously in many tropical or warm countries, and it is cultivated more or less extensively in almost all quarters of the globe where the climate allows. In the south¬ ern United States of America it is carried to the greatest perfection both in regard to the quality The cotton an d quantity of the staple produced. In phmt. the European countries which lie on the Mediterranean, in China and other parts of Asia, in the West Indies, Brazil, etc., it is grown to a con¬ siderable extent, and is an article of commerce; but this country surpasses all others in the cotton culture, and is second to England alone in its man¬ ufacture. The method of cultivating cotton differs in differ- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 123 ent places, but in the United States the process is substantially as follows. The ground is thrown up by plowing, into beds ranged in long rows five or six feet apart; a drill or furrow is made on the top by a small plow, and into this uvat^n. Ul " drill the cotton seeds are thrown about the last of March or in April, where they germinate very rapidly. When the plants are four or five inches high, they are thinned out and left in single stalks fifteen or twenty inches apart. Here they grow to the general height of from four to six feet, although in the rich bottom lands of Mississippi and Louisi¬ ana they often reach nine or ten feet. The flower is large, of a yellow color, with a purple spot near the base. As the seed ripens the capsule splits open and discloses the snow-white fibers which grad¬ ually push out of it. During the autumn months the cotton is ready for picking. The next process is to clear the fibers from the seed, to which they strongly adhere. This is done by a machine called the cotton gin, a most import¬ ant invention of Eli Whitney of Connecticut. It consists of toothed cylinders revolving in a direction contrary to one another and C0tt011 worked by horse power. The cotton is placed between these cylinders where the interlock¬ ing teeth tear the fibers from the seed. This was formerly done by hand, and was a very slow and tedious process. The invention of the gin created a new era in the history of this valuable staple. After ginning, the cotton is made up into bales weighing several hundred pounds, pressed into an 124 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 'almost solid state by powerful machinery, and in this form thrown into market. When unpacked and loosened it recovers its lightness. The whole process of manufacturing cotton is performed by the most ingenious and wonderful machinery, the operation of which may be seen so readily that it is not worth while to spend time in its description. There is hardly a ufacture! linen hand-spun thread, with a needle instead of bobbins. This thread prepared all ready for the work, is worth from five hundred to six hun¬ dred dollars a pound. Point lace was formerly made in convents, stitch by stitch, and is a very slow and -laborious process. British point lace, tambour and Limericlc laces are chiefly imitations, but often very hand Imitations, some and expensive. The application of ^ machme machinery to some branches of lace-mak¬ ing has produced ii variety of cheap articles some of which are very pretty, and closely imitate the more costly kinds. Lace trimmings are made of silk and cotton thread, as well as linen. Grold and silver lace foi the richest and most elegant decorations, is woven with the warp of silk and the woof covered with 6 * 180 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. gold or silver wire, flattened, and wound around Materials the thread by machinery. It thus be- used in lace- comes a smooth, resplendent cord, which making. . may be employed not only in weaving but for embroidery and other uses where the most magnificent ornamentation is required. Lace is a very extensive article of commerce both in its dearer and cheaper varieties. It comes to us in great quantities from France, commerce. Belgium and England. There are a few places in this country where lace of the ordinary kinds is woven; and quite recently the manufacture of the genuine bone lace has been com¬ menced by experienced workers from France and Belgium. T he light nature of the goods themselves and the heavy duties laid upon them have led to much smuggling of laces between one country Smuggling •, , _ _ . - J of lace. ancl - another. Many ingenious and amus¬ ing modes have been devised for the suc¬ cessful evasion of custom house dues, which add so materially to the cost of these beautiful fabrics. TRIMMINGS. Although lace holds the first place as an orna¬ ment for dress, yet there are many other articles which are used for this purpose from time to time as fashion or taste may dictate. We can barely Embroideries. mention a _ few of them, commencing with embroideries. The nicest embroid¬ ery on muslins, etc., is done with the needle and THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 131 makes the daily labor of great numbers of poor women in the British Islands and other European countries, for which they receive a very small com¬ pensation. The varieties are innumerable, and the styles change constantly as in other devices for or¬ nament. The art is very ancient and has been ap¬ plied to all sorts of materials. Gimps, fringes, tassels, cords, braids, etc., are all well known and too common, as well as ^ er too diverse to need description. Very trimmings, many of them come from France, whose fertile invention, for a long time past, has not only furnished the fashions themselves, but the materials for conforming to them. BeadshnYe figured very conspicuously from time to time either as appendages of use, or as orna¬ ments to certain articles of dress. They are mat e of various shapes, sizes and substances. Those of gold or silver were formerly much valued as decor¬ ations for the neck. By Catholics they are used for devotional purposes, strung into rosaries; and are often made of amber or other precious material. Among savage or barbarous people, like Beads, the American Indians, beads were used not only as ornaments for belts, moccasins, etc., but as money, which they called wampum. They were made of small shells, or of the teeth of ani¬ mals perforated to admit the string. In many of the mounds at the West and South, these beads are still found with the other treasures of the dead war¬ rior, which were buried with him according to the custom of the race. 132 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. But the beads best known to trade, because most frequently in fashion, are made of glass, either ™ v , c °lored or transparent; black being- the and bugles. Rue generally preferred. They are of every size and are used separately, or combined with other materials as trimmings. Bugles are cylinder-shaped beads of various sizes employed for the same purpose. Both are highly ornamental, and are often used together. The market for beads and bugles is mostly sup¬ plied from the centre and south of Europe. Ven¬ ice and some cities in Germany manufacture them on a great scale and furnish them to commerce when¬ ever the fashions demand this species of ornament. Buttons are articles of essential utility to the dress of men, women and children, but they are also used for ornamental purposes. They are made of Buttons. var l° us metals, wood, gutta-percha, horn, porcelain, pearl, glass, and other sub¬ stances. Many are covered with silk, velvet, thread, beads, etc., and are of endless variety in size, shape, and design. Many kinds are made by complicated machinery and in immense quantities, both in this country and Europe. The button manufacture gives employment to great numbers of workmen and women. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 133 SECTION VI.—HATS, CAPS, GLOVES AND HOSE. Hats for men and boys are made of beaver and other furs, felt, silk, cloth, straws of various kinds, the palmetto leaf, chip, cane, bamboo, etc. Beaver hats are the nicest and most expensive. They are made (when genuine) of the fur of the beaver, matted or entangled into a clothy substance which is called felt. The hat goes through many processes and mampuia- felthats . tions before it is brought into the proper shape. It is then dressed, lined, finished, brushed, etc., till ready for sale. Common felt hats composed of cheaper fur and wool, are made in the same manner. &'ilk hats have an outside covering of floss silk over a frame of pasteboard or some stiff substance. They have, when nicely made, a beauti¬ ful lustre. Cloth hats are a cheap variety, made of some thick woolen cloth, and mostly worn by boys. They are flexible and bear crumpling, like the soft felt hats. Cloth hats for summer wear are of lighter materials. The hats of straw, chip, etc., both for men and women, are mostly plaited and sewed into the right shape. They retain the color of the material, or are dyed, as taste and fashion require. The palmetto hats are braided throughout, materials. Some of the finest straws are imported, as the Leghorn and Florence, from those cities in 134 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. Italy, but great numbers are made in this country, of the rye straw cut while the grain is green, and bleached. In many sections of the country, girls and women produce the common braids which are sewed, dyed, and finished by the manufacturers. Ornamental and fancy braids are mostly woven. Caps are made of fur, felt, cloth, etc., and are designed entirely for men and boys. Some of the materials just mentioned are used T A also in making hats for ladies. Beaver Ladies hats. ° riding hats were formerly worn more than at present; but numerous styles in felt and straw demand the same skill and labor to produce them. The shapes and trimmings however differ widely. The trade in artificial flowers is mainly kept up by their use as ornaments to ladies’ hats and head¬ dresses. This exquisite art, now carried to such a degree of perfection, was first practiced flowers! 11 by the Italians; but the French have been most ingenious and successful in it. And there are now scarcely any of the forms and colors of flowers, grass, grains, fruit and leaves, which are not accurately imitated in silk, crape, vel¬ vet, feathers, paper, etc., producing resemblances to nature of extraordinary accuracy and beauty. Gloves are made of various materials according to the use for which they are designed. Leather gloves are made of the skin of the seal, deer, sheep, kid, chamois, and other animals. The skin is pre¬ pared in such a manner as to be soft and pliable without being tanned. Nice gloves are made of THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 135 Gloves and gauntlets. kid and other delicate skins dyed of various colors. There are many places in Europe where gloves of superior quality are made, particularly in France, Germany and Ireland. The names, of certain manufacturers vouch for the excellence and durability of their goods. Gauntlets are gloves with long wrists. Anciently they were worn by knights in armor, composed of jointed steel plates to protect the hand and arm. Throwing down the gauntlet was a challenge to single combat. Taking it up was accepting the challenge. Mittens are made of yarn, knitted, or of buck¬ skin or other leather stitched with a needle. Many ot these are produced m mitts> New England. In very cold places the fur of the skin is turned inside. Mitts are made of silk netting and designed only partially to cover the hand. Hosiery of all kinds is now made by machinery. It is either woven, or knitted in a machine for the pur¬ pose, recently invented. The articles are not so durable as those produced by hand, but their cheapness ensures an immense market. The best hose are of English manufac¬ ture. A similar process produces that fabric called stockinet , of which under garments are made. Hosiery. CHAPTER YI. ARTICLES OF HOUSEHOLD USE AND ORNAMENT. SECTION I.—CARPETS. Carpets of some sort have been in use from very ancient times. In Egypt, India and China, both carpets and rugs were manufactured at a very remote period, and allusion is made to them in Per¬ sian, Grecian, and Roman history. Originally they were designed for sitting or reclining; Ancient use . .... a of carpets, u P on 5 as is still the case in Eastern coun¬ tries, where they constitute the principal furniture of an apartment. In Egypt they were first applied to religious purposes in the temples; afterwards they were employed to garnish the pal¬ aces of the Pharaohs. On the tomb of Cyrus, as we read, was spread a purple Babylonian carpet, and another covered the bed whereon his body was laid. Carpets were not known in Europe to any extent before the twelfth century. Thomas a Becket of England, a celebrated Archbishop of Canterbury, was noted for his splendid style of living, and it is mentioned as an illustration of it, that the sumptuous apartments of his palace were strewn every day THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 137 in winter with fresh straw or hay. This was about A. D. 1160. The art of carpet weaving was introduced into France from Persia in the reign of Henry IV., be¬ tween the years 1589 and 1610, where it flourished extensively, and supplied to the neighboring coun¬ tries some of its richest fabrics. But the oppressions and exactions practiced upon the working classes tended at length to discourage the business. Certain artisans who had become disgusted with their condition in France, went to Eng- of thwart into land and established a carpet manufactory France and in 1740, near London. Since that time improvements have been constantly taking place, until the process seems brought to perfection in the famous Axminster, Wilton, Kidderminster and Brussels varieties, now produced from English looms ; to say nothing of the splendid imitations of Turkey and Persian carpets, and the wonderful tapestries which can only be afforded by those whose revenue is princely. Carpets are composed wholly or partly of wool, woven in a peculiar manner after a pattern so di¬ vided into squares, that the workman can see what color and how many ofcarpets . threads are required at every .step of his labor. The application of machinery to the art, thereby saving an incalculable amount of time and toil, has diminished the cost of these useful fabrics. At the present day we see the floors even of the in¬ dustrious poor covered by some description of carpet. The cheapest and thinnest of commercial carpets 138 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. is the ingrain or two-ply ; which is woven with two Ingrain or we ^ s of different colors, whose threads two-ply car- interlace and form figures according to the pattern; alike on both sides, except that the colors are reversed, so that the figure which is light on one side is dark on the other, and the contrary. They are often very handsome and durable. Those carpets which are composed of three webs , where the threads interchange in the same manner as the ingrain, are called three-ply, and carpTt? 17 are very thick and heavy. In both of these kinds, the warp and weft, or woof, are of wool, except in those of very mean quality, where the warp is of cotton. But in the Brussels and other rich carpets the foundation is of strong linen or hempen cord, and the wool raised above it by inserting a series of wires or rods between the linen foundation and superficial yarn. When these wires are pulled out, it leaves the yarn in loops, like uncut velvet. Brussels carpets were first introduced into Wilton, in England, more than a century ago, from Belgium. Kidderminster is now the chief seat of this manufacture, where upwards of two thousand looms are in operation. Axminster and Wilton , or velvet carpets, are both Velvet car- imitations of Turkey carpets. They are pets, Axmin- woven much like Brussels, and differ etc? Wllton ’ on ly in this, that the loops are cut open into an elastic velvet pile. To effect this, the wires are not circular as in the Brussels Brussels carpets. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 139 fabric, but flat and made with a groove in the upper edge, where the sharp point of a knife is inserted and drawn across the yarn cutting the pile. These carpets are made in many parts of England, Scot¬ land, France and Belgium. They are also manu¬ factured to a considerable extent in New England, particularly in Massachusetts and Connecticut. TAPESTRY. Tapestry is a kind of embroidered or woven fabric, originally designed for hangings, and made of wool or silk, sometimes enriched with gold _ 7 , Tapestry. and silver raised work. The designs represent figures of various kinds, flowers, animals, landscapes, historical events, portraits, etc. The art was introduced into England in the reign of Henry VIII., though there were manufactories in Flanders long before. But in France it has been brought to the highest state of perfection at the famous establishment of the Gobelins, in the city of Paris. It derived its name from certain celebrated dyers who settled and carried on their business in this place about the middle of the fifteenth cen¬ tury. They introduced into Paris that beautiful scarlet color which has since borne their name. Several generations of this family ^pestry. made large fortunes by the art which they understood so well; and from them is named the royal manufactory of the Hotel des Gobelins, which was established by Louis XIV. The rich and costly fabric since known as Grobelin tapestry 140 THE MANUAL of commence. is made here. It has been used for a long time to adorn the palaces of the sovereigns of France. The splendor of the colors, the beauty of the de¬ signs and workmanship are indescribable. They must be seen to be appreciated. Many of the pieces illustrate historical subjects; some are copied from costly paintings while some patterns are de¬ signed specially for the purpose, by celebrated artists. The portraits are astonishing, for perfec¬ tion of features and coloring.* The process of making tapestry is slow and la¬ borious, although less so than formerly; for though siow process ^ ^ species of weaving, it is closely of making allied to needle-work, and is done mostly tapestry. . . , . 1 J by hand m looms of very simple con¬ struction. It sometimes requires the labor of from two to six years to finish a single piece; and the cost of them, which is enormous, is regulated less by the size, than by the beauty and difficulty of the work. Turkey , Persian and India carpets are made by hand among native families and tribes. The work Turkey, is mostly done by knotting into the warp, Persian and tuft after tuft of woolen yarn in patterns India carpets ^ J more or less complicated. Kea] Persian carpets are usually very small, not much larger than *Since the above was written, this ancient and celebrated estab¬ lishment has suffered irreparable injury if not destruction, at the hands of lawless masses of the French population during the cur¬ rent year (1871). Whole workshops with their machinery, inclu¬ ding the valuable collection of tapestries from the time of Louis XIV. to the present day, being lost or destroyed. Many of the pieces were very old and kept for exhibition. THE MANUAL OP COMMEECE. 141 hearth rugs, long and narrow, and for this reason the trade in them is very limited. Many improvements and novelties have been re¬ cently introduced into the manufacture Improve . of carpets, tapestries, etc., and machinery mentsinthe r 1 manufacture. is gradually superseding the slow proc¬ esses of hand work; producing imitations of the Oriental styles which even rival them in beauty and richness. Bugs are small carpets woven with the yarn in long fringes for warmth, or like the velvet car¬ pets, for ornament. They are also made in a variety of styles by hand. Numerous other sorts of carpets might be men¬ tioned, but these are the principal of the commer¬ cial varieties. Many home-made carpets are very pretty, and extremely comforta- ^°“t s made ble and durable; but they are not arti¬ cles of commerce, or only to a very limited ex¬ tent. Druggets , bookings , feltings , etc., are coarse cloths, mostly of wool, for the covering and pro¬ tection of carpets. They are sometimes made m patterns ot various sizes, and bockiugs> e tc. surrounded with a printed border. Others are in lengths, printed in colors on the upper side, and sewed in breadths like carpet¬ ing. Straw matting is used extensively in place of carpets in warm climates, and even in straw colder ones in the warm season. They matting, are cool, neat and agreeable for this purpose. 142 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. FLOOR OR OIL-CLOTH. This useful and ornamental manufacture origi¬ nated in England, about the year 1740. oii-cioth. ^ was a ^ made by sewing narrow canvas together, to which successive coats of paint were applied. But the seams prov¬ ing inconvenient, a canvas was woven for the pur¬ pose varying in breadth. This cloth is stretched upon frames, and first rubbed over with pumice stone, which renders the surface smooth and even. Then it is brushed over with a weak size, to stiffen it. >When this is dry, the first coat of oil color is laid on—not Mode of . , , , . . preparing it. witli a brush, as in painting, but with a kind of trowel, something in the manner of plastering. After this is well dried, a second coat follows, and a third, till seven coats are ap¬ plied, three on the under, and four on the upper surface. It is now of one color, and, when suffi¬ ciently dry, is ready for the pattern. To apply this, the cloth is removed from its frame upon a large roller, and carried to the upper part of the building, where the figure is printed upon it by wooden blocks, on which the patterns are cut. While drying it is suspended so as to hang per¬ fectly free; as rolling or doubling would injure it. It is now ready for market. The value of the finished cloth is mainly esti¬ mated by its weight, compared with the naked can¬ vas. It is an article in constant demand, being used more or less in almost every well-furnished house, office, etc. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 143 In some European and Oriental countries, the floors of fine public or private buildings are not covered, but ornamented with mosaic patterns, laid in marble, porphyry or fl0 ° 0 8 r a s lc other beautiful stones, often producing a very magnificent appearance. Some of less preten¬ sion have floors laid in ornamental woods, present¬ ing very elegant effects. This style is adopted in many private residences in this and other countries at the present day. Other uncovered floors are waxed, painted or varnished. It is said that carpets of some kind are more gen¬ erally in use among the English and Americans than any other people. SECTION II.—FEATHERS. Feathers of different kinds make a considerable article of commerce, particularly those used for beds. These are mostly obtained from the goose, duck, swan and other birds adapted to the water. Those of the goose, however, are chiefly depended on for this purpose. Many parts of Great Britain supply these feathers for ^^| r e ° se commerce. Geese are kept in great numbers, and are deprived of their feathers several times a year, fresh ones growing out in place of those plucked from the poor birds, only to be torn from them again, to supply the demand for live 144 THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. geese feathers. Such as are taken from the dead bird are thought to have a disagreeable odor. EIDEK-DOWN. The soft and valuable article, called eider-down , is procured from the nests of the eider-duck, during the breeding season. In Greenland, Iceland, Nor¬ way, Scotland, and other northern countries, these birds associate in vast flocks, having favorite locali¬ ties, usually on small islands near the Eider-down. . • shore, to which they resort year after year. Here they construct nests so close to each other that in some places it is difficult for a man to walk among them without crushing some of the eggs. The duck pulls the down from her breast to line the nest and cover the eggs. The inhabitants watch them, and visit the nests frequently, to re¬ move the down, which is as often replaced, till the duck has deprived herself entirely of the warm covering of her breast. Her mate, the drake, then contributes his, which is taken away in the same manner. About half a pound of this down is thus obtained from each nest. It combines with a pe¬ culiar lightness, softness, and fineness, so great a degree of elasticity, that a quantity of it which might be compressed and concealed between two hands, will serve to stuff a small coverlet. A very interesting account of the eider-duck is given by Mr. Shepherd among many pleasant de¬ scriptions of travel in Iceland. “This duck,” he says, “holds the very first rank THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 145 among the useful birds of Iceland. Its chief breed¬ ing-places are small flat islands on various shepherd’s parts of the coast, where it is safe from account of the the attacks of the arctic fox. These eid ° r duck ' breeding-places are private property, and have, some of them, descended from generation to generation in the same family and have proved a rare source of wealth.” There are very strict laws for the protection of these birds in Iceland; killing them or stealing the down is punished severely. Proprietors of certain small islands frequented by them, reside alone among their feathered tenants, and during the breeding season allow no visitors to land without special permission. All noise, shouting or loud speaking is prohibited, it being of the first importance not to frighten the ducks, as they will readily forsake a locality where they are frequently disturbed. Ma¬ terials, like hay or straw, supplied for the construction of the nests, will some- e^er-duck . 1 times induce them to leave one island for another. The female lays five or six greenish eggs in a nest lined with her beautiful down which the collectors remove, lifting the duck from her nest, and afterwards replacing her, when she soon begins to lay again though this time only three or four eggs. These and the down are also removed and she has her labor to perform the third time, assisted by the down of the drake, her own having been exhausted. Two or three eggs are now al¬ lowed her to hatch, the rest having been pickled for winter use. 7 146 THE MANUAE OE COMMERCE. The island of Vigr, on the north of Iceland, and one of the head-quarters of the eider-duck is occa¬ sionally visited by travelers. It is represented as affording a most wonderful sight in the breeding season of these birds. “ The ducks and their nests were everywhere,” says Shepherd; “ some even piled in heaps on one another. The solitary farm¬ house occupied by the good woman who owned the Ducks of island was also thronged with ducks. The the island base of wall that surrounded it, and that igr. the building itself was fringed with ducks setting upon their nests. The window-seats were occupied by ducks; on the turf slopes of the roof were ducks; and a duck sat in the scraper at the door. A grassy bank near by had been cut into squares of about eight or ten inches, and a hollow made in each. These were all filled with ducks, as were the out-buildings, mounds, rocks and crevices. Many were so tame as to allow themselves to be stroked on their nests; and the kind woman who had charge of them said that there was scarcely a duck on the island that would not allow her to take its eggs without fear or flight. Her careful guardianship has added largely to the amount of down annually obtained from the island.” These birds are of considerable size; the drake white, or much lighter colored than the duck, which is brown. The down is used largely for making coverlets, the warmth and lightness of which are unequalled. Swan’s down is also valuable in commerce. It is sometimes prepared upon the skin of the bird, and THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 147 used for a trimming. Large supplies of this down, as well as other superior feathers, are obtained from Dantzic. Many kinds of feathers are used entirely for or¬ namental purposes. Those of the ostrich, peacock, heron, bird of paradise, pheasant, etc., are of this class. Ostrich feathers have fearers ? 18 ' 1 been held in the highest estimation from very ancient times, and have furnished decorations for the head-dress of ladies, the helmets of war¬ riors, etc. The ostrich is a native of Africa. It is a very large bird, and incapable of flight, although it runs with great speed. It is hunted wholly for its plum¬ age, which consists of the long, loose feathers on the wings and tail. It is captured with Plumes great care, to prevent injury to them, of the The feathers are sorted into various ostrich ' qualities, cleansed, bleached, scraped, curled, and sometimes dyed to adapt them to various uses. Some of them are naturally white, some black, some gray; but means have been devised to impart brilliant colors to them, even different shades to the same feather; either contrasted, or blending with one another. Besides the ostrich, several other birds afford very beautiful feathers. The marabout , ibis , rhea, egret , and many more, which are not generally known, but whose plumage comes occasionally into fashion. The peacock rivals all other it „ . 1 Other birds. birds for the splendor of its hues. The feathers are sometimes worn for ornament, but oftener made into elegant fly-brushes, fans, etc. 148 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. The ancient Mexicans and Peruvians had an art, now lost, of embroidering with feathers, or apply¬ ing them in some way, so as to produce garments of amazing brilliancy and beauty. SECTION III.—PORCELAIN AND POT¬ TERY. Porcelain or China ware is the finest and most delicate kind of earthen ware. The first specimens of this manufacture were brought to Europe from China and Japan. The Portuguese who brought it, called it porcelain , from porcella, which, in that language, means a cup. It is composed of very pure, white clay, finely pulverized silica or flint, and a little lime. The utmost care is used in mix- ing these ingredients, and removing Materials and ° ° ° manufacture every impurity. When ready for work- 0 f porceiam. t p e m j x ^ ure p as the appearance of dough. It is formed into various articles, upon a peculiar kind of lathe, or shaped in moulds of plaster of Paris. After drying, it is baked in kilns, or ovens, for many hours. The intense heat would vitrify the flint, and make it transparent; but the clay is incapable of fusion, and by being everywhere intermingled with the flint, prevents this effect. Both together make it assume the fine and delicate appearance so much admired. When the ware is removed from the kiln it is called biscuit. It is now compact and solid, but THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 149 still so porous that water will filter through it This is remedied by glazing, which is done Biscuit by dipping the ware into a cream mad§ of materials similar to its substance, only much thinner and more fusible. The ware takes up the glaze, the water sinks into the biscuit, and the pow¬ dered flint of the cream remains spread evenly on the surface. Another heating porcelain^ fuses the powder into a glossy covering over the entire article. In ornamented porcelain, the designs are printed or painted on the surface before glazing, with metallic substances that develop their color after fusion with the glaze. In some cases the various colors in the painting are put on separately, and each color fixed by heat before the next is applied. The gilding Jporana? is done by a solution of gold mixed with quicksilver and ground up with oil, laid on with a camel’s'hair pencil. In the oven the gold fastens to the porcelain, and the quicksilver is evaporated. The gilding at first is dull, but is afterwards bur¬ nished. Other methods and styles of finish are used, and improvements are constantly made in the de¬ tails of this manufacture. Parian , of which statuettes and other orna¬ mental articles are made which resemble fine mar¬ ble, is a carefully prepared variety of porcelain. The various processes in the manufacture of fine porcelain were known only to the Chi- Introduction nese till within a comparatively recent pe- of the art into riod. Early in the last century a French Europe< Jesuit, who had become acquainted with the art 150 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. by a residence in that empire, gave an account of it in a letter to some of his countrymen; and this information, in connection with the chemical inves¬ tigations of certain learned men, led the way to the establishment of the manufacture in Eu- china. rope. It was first commenced at Dres¬ den, in Saxony, which has been famous ever since for the beauty of its productions. Italy, Germany, England and other countries now pro¬ duce beautiful and valuable varieties of porcelain ; but the finest and most magnificent specimens of European china are produced at Sevres in France; in the manufactory carried on at the expense of the French government. In this country there are several establishments and the business is rapidly increasing. Porcelain earth is found in abundance in various parts of the United States. Common stone and earthen ware are made much in the same way as porcelain, only with less pains stone and ^ a ^ eu » both in the materials and their earthen ware. manufacture. The glazing of very coarse articles is sometimes done by throwing salt into the oven where they are baked, which in¬ stantly becomes vapor and fixes in a glossy polish upon the ware. For nicer qualities a glaze much like that for porcelain is used. WEDGWOOD OR QUEEN’S WARE AND POTTERY. The art of making pottery and brick is very an¬ cient. The Egyptians, Chinese, Hebrews, Greeks, THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 151 etc., practiced it from time immemorial. The Greeks probably learned it of the Egyp¬ tians and from them it found its way to ofpoTtery. the European countries, as many other arts did after the conquest of Greece by the Romans. At Etruria, in Tuscany, the art made such ad¬ vances that Etruscan workmanship became famous. Some admirable specimens of this pottery pre¬ served in the British museum, first suggested to Mr. Wedgwood of England, the idea of imitating it. The idea resulted in the invention of a new ware called Wedgwood or Queen's ware , which has had for many years a wide- ^^ wood spread and well-deserved popularity; while its extensive establishments have employed thousands of people and produced vast quantities and varieties of ware which have been exported to every quarter of the globe. The principal materials for pottery, as for por¬ celain, are clay and flint, each finely pulverized. Clay alone will make brick by burning, but it will not work into thin walls for drinking ves¬ sels, etc., without cracking. For coarser poTteTy ' 1 purposes, such as flower pots, jugs, and jars of various kinds, which are made quite thick, it needs little besides the clay and the glazing; but for the nicer vessels, the mixture with flint is in¬ dispensable. When made into a tough paste with water, it is either shaped by the wheel or by press¬ ing into moulds. After the articles are formed, they are dried by a gentle heat before being subjected 152 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. to the higher temperature of the kiln or oven; they are then glazed. Vury rude and barbarous nations have known and piacticed the art of making coarse vessels with baked or sun-dried clay. Fragments, and some en¬ tire articles are found in ancient tombs or other buiial-places, such as urns, vases, etc., which are of very great antiquity and are very interesting and curious objects. dhe led color of bricks and common pottery is n . .... owing to the iron combined with the clay, and pottery. °t which they are composed. Some kinds of clay do not contain it, and then the articles made from it are light colored. Terra cotta is a kind of pottery, made of clay Terracotta. and harclened by heat, which is used for statues, figures, vases, architectural dec¬ orations, and the like. The name in Italian means baked clay or earth. Plaster of Paris or gypsum is a mineral, consist¬ ing mainly of sulphate of lime. Some kinds are transparent, and then they are called selenite. The thicker and more massive varieties constitute alabas¬ ter. When calcined or burnt, it is re- Plaster of „ Paris. aucect to a hne powder, and becomes what is called plaster of Paris, because originally obtained from Montmartre, a village near Paris. When mixed with water it is used for casts, moldings, and various ornamental purposes. The name is often incorrectly given to the stone before calcination. It is then properly gypsum—after calcining, it is plaster of Paris. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 153 SECTION IV.—GLASS-WARE. Glass is made by mixing together some sort of siliceous substance, such as fine sand, or pounded flint, with an alkali, such as soda, potash, etc., and subiecting them to a strong heat. By J ° . Materials this means they are melted into a trans- ofglass . parent, soft, tenacious mass, that may, when hot, be formed into thin plates, or bent and shaped in every possible way. When cool it be¬ comes hard and brittle. The manufacture of glass is one of the very highest beauty and utility ; and it is probable that we are indebted for it to the Phenicians and Egyp¬ tians. The story is told of its accidental 0riginofthe discovery by pirates who landed on a sea- art of giass- beach, and wishing to cook food in their making ' caldron, piled dried sea-weed for fuel, on a collection of flinty pebbles which they found at hand. After their repast they discovered in the ashes lumps of a strange transparent appearance, which proved to be the first specimens of true glass; the sea-weed having furnished .the alkali, and the pebbles, the siliceous or flinty material. The tale no doubt is fabulous like many others which have attempted to account for discovery of the art of glass-making. There is every reason to believe that it had its origin at the same time with the baking of bricks and pot¬ tery, which was practiced by the Egyptians long before the Hebrews were held in bondage by them. The priests of Vulcan at Thebes and Memphis were 7 * 154 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. the greatest chemists of the ancient world; and some authors ascribe the invention to them. The art, at any rate, is very ancient, as is proved by the fact that glass beads and other ornaments, skilfully manufactured, and beautifully colored, have been found upon mummies which are known to he up¬ wards of 3,000 years old. Tyre, Sidon, and Alexandria, were also celebra¬ ted for their glass, and furnished the greater por¬ tion of that used in their traffic. Under the Ro¬ man Empire the Egyptians still preserved their su¬ periority in this art, and it is said that Aurelian compelled them to pay their tribute in of the art. that article. After awhile the manufac¬ ture itself was introduced into Italy, and thence into other parts of Europe. But so rare and costly was it, that for centuries, objects made of glass were used only as articles of luxury, to be displayed on grand occasions, and laid away with other royal or princely treasures. For the urns, drinking-vessels, etc., which were so exquisitely embellished by raised, chased, or other ornamental work, (now quite unknown in many of its elaborate and curious processes) might well be the pride of kings. The celebrated Portland vase , which was found in the tomb of Alexander Severus, and v ase . 1S now ln tJtie possession oi the Duke of Portland, in England, is composed of deep blue glass, with figures of a delicate white substance, raised in relief, and is a splendid speci¬ men of Egyptian art. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 155 Glass utensils have also been found in Hercula¬ neum, a city of Italy, destroyed in the year A. D. 79, by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Beads and amulets of colored glass, and of exquisite work¬ manship, have been found in various Druidical monuments in England, Stone- unensofgiliTs' henge and others, from which some have supposed that the ancient Britons understood the art of glass-working before the conquest of the country by the Homans. But it is more probable that the Britons obtained these ornaments by traffic with the Phenicians or Syrians. They seem to have been used for religious purposes alone, and probably played an important part in the rites and ceremo¬ nies of the Druids. The Venetians were long pre-eminent in the art of glass-making, in Europe. During the thirteenth century they were the only people who could fabricate mirrors of large size, and glass all the European courts were obliged to buy of them. But the art found its way into France and England, and the Venetians lost the monopoly. It long since spread into other Euro¬ pean countries; and at present is in successful operation in many places in the United States. Glass is known in market by different names. Flint-glass is so called because it was made form¬ erly with pulverized flints. It contains an ingre¬ dient of lead oxyd, which gives it a beauti¬ ful transparency. It is employed for glass the lenses of optical instruments, prisms, chandelier drops, and is the basis of the artificial 156 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. gems known as paste, which are colored by metal¬ lic oxyds to resemble various precious stones. Crown-glass , or common white colorless glass, is that which is used for common window- Crown-glass. glass, looking-glasses, tumblers, goblets, and a great variety of articles for the table. The celebrated Bohemian glass, the finest made, is of this kind. Plate-glass is that which is used in making mir¬ rors and for very large window-panes. It is quite expensive, and is made by pouring the melted ma¬ terials upon a flat surface of copper with piato „iass. j e( ^g es a j. s -[ c j es t 0 keep it in. After¬ wards it is made of even thickness by a heavy roller. When it is cold the plate is ground on both sides and then polished with emery and putty, till the surfaces are entirely smooth. It is now ready to be annealed, and to receive a thin coat of quick¬ silver, when it becomes a mirror. To anneal a plate of glass, is to bring it so near the fire as to almost melt it a second time, and then remove it slowly so that it shall cool very gradually. This prevents brittleness; otherwise it uiirroi- Sa would break with the slightest stroke. The silvering of a mirror is done by placing a sheet of tin-foil on a smooth stone table; quicksilver is poured upon it till the foil is com¬ pletely covered; the plate of glass is then placed upon the quicksilver and pressed down with weights. After remaining thus for several days, the quicksilver and foil combine, and the mixture cleaves firmly to the glass. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 157 Bottle-glass is the coarsest and cheapest of all the varieties, and is made of refuse materials. It is often very* dark colored and almost opaque. The whole process of glass manufacture is very curious and interesting, and no longer invested with the mystery which once attached to it. The materi¬ als are mixed in different proportions according to the use for which the glass is designed, and fused, or melted together in a large furnace ^ under an intense heat. This furnace is glass, usually in the form of a truncated cone with the fire at the centre, and around the circum¬ ference melting-pots, from which the workmen sup¬ ply themselves for making articles of infinite va¬ riety. Some blow from an iron pipe the end of which has been dipped in the melted glass, a large bubble, which is flattened out for window-glass or shaped into a vessel; as a goblet, tumbler, or vase. Others with a small quantity bloAV into a mold, making a bottle, of which the neck is shaped with an iron instrument. But the numberless forms of use and beauty into which this material is thrown by the skill and dexterity of workmen, are quite beyond description or imagination. Glass may be colored by adding, while in a melted state, small quantities of metallic substances, called oxyds, which dissolve in it without affecting its transparency. Some of these sub- xr , Colored stances impart one color, and some an- glaS3- other; and if the glass be very hard and fine, many of the precious gems can be closely uni- 158 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. Enamel. tated by it. Thousands of very beautiful orna¬ ments, as well as articles of use, are made of colored glass. Enamel is the name given to glass which is ren¬ dered milk white and opaque by the addition of an oxyd of tin. Watch dials, and what are called porcelain transparencies, are exam¬ ples of such enamels. Colored enamels may also be produced by introducing the different metallic oxyds into the white enamel. Glass, in all forms, is a very extensive and im¬ portant article of commerce, and is manufactured in many places, and on a large scale, both in Eu¬ rope and in this country. The pure. Green moun- , . . , . ^ 1 ’ tain sand. wxute sand which is necessary, is found in many localities, but is by no means common. The finest in the world is said to be ob¬ tained among the Green Mountains of Western Massachusetts, large quantities of which are an¬ nually exported to Europe. We are indebted to this art for a vast amount of household comfort and convenience, as our mirrors, our pictures, our vases, our windows, might con- viueofgUu,,. Stant 'y rem!nd us ; and the fact that some of the commonest substances in na¬ ture can , by skill and science, be converted into a material so useful and ornamental, should excite both wonder and gratitude in every reflecting mind. CHAPTEK VII. USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL WOODS. OAK. Before all the forest trees which yield products of timber to commerce, should be placed the oak; for without its tough sinews to impart strength to our vessels, commerce could scarcely go on; at least with distant countries which are only reached by long and often dangerous voyages. The wood of the oak is the best and most durable Tho oak . known; and therefore is used where great strength and resistance is required. Some kinds of timber are harder than others, some more difficult to rend, and some less capable of being broken across; but none combines all the three qualities in so great and equal proportion as the oak; and thus, for at once supporting a weight, resisting a strain, and not splintering by a cannon- shot, the timber of the oak is superior to every other. The majestic appearance, sturdy growth, and dense leafy crown of this noble tree are so familiar that description would be superfluous. Standing single or in groves the oak adds beauty and at¬ tractiveness to any landscape. 160 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. There are several varieties of the tree common to temperate climates, but the English oak claims precedence of every other. It is re- of oak. markable for the stoutness of its limbs. The color of the wood is a fine brown of different shades, well known to every one; and it is used in the building and finishing of land struct¬ ures as well as for ships. The white oak abounds in the northern sections of the United States, the live oak in the southern. The durability of the latter is said to surpass that of the European oak. Besides its use in house and ship-building, much account is made of its bark by the tanner. The acorns of some species serve for the food of the oak. °* pigs, while the galls or excrescences which others produce are employed in dyeing, and ink-making. Immense quantities of oak timber are exported from the Northern and Middle States. PINE. The pine , or fir tree stands next to the oak in point of utility and value. There are more than twenty species, mostly evergreens; and generally the timber is best in cold and exposed situa¬ tions, where its growth is slow. Norway, Sweden, Russia, Denmark, produce enormous quantities of varefes P* ne ^ m ^ er fr° m their immense forests, of pine. which is exported to various countries, under the name of Scotch fir. In the United States, the white pine , red Canadian pine , THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 161 yellow pine , pitch pine , and the loblolly, or old field pine , occupy the various sections of the coun¬ try, and produce abundant supplies of excellent timber, both for home use, and export. The white pine is the loftiest of all our forest trees, and its timber is used in much greater quantities, te ^ and for a greater variety of purposes, than any other. Besides its unlimited use in build¬ ing, it furnishes for export much timber for masts of ships. Maine produces a large proportion of all the white pine lumber exported from the United States. The long-leaved pine , which flourishes along the coast, is the one which furnishes most of the pitch, tar, and turpentine consumed and exported by the United States. Its timber is-also valuable and en¬ during. Turpentine is the resinous juice of the pine, which is obtained by making incisions, or rather, excavations, in the trunk of the tree, near the ground, which will contahi about a quart. These are made in the winter, when the juice does not flow. Early in the spring it commences, J L ° Turpentine. and continues through the warm season. As the cavities fill, the liquid is removed from them into casks, where it thickens into a soft, solid state. It is now ready for market. Some of the juice hardens before reaching the receptacle for it, and is scraped off, and put in barrels 'for sale, under the name of scrapings. Spirit , or oil of turpentine , is prepared by distill¬ ing the juice, either with alcohol or water. 162 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. After distillation, there is left a brownish, resin- Rosin ous mass ’ brittle, capable of being melted, highly inflammable, and is insoluble in water. This is the common rosin of commerce. Tar is an article of great commercial impor¬ tance. It is a thick, black, ropy substance, chiefly obtained from the pine, and other turpentine trees, by the following process: A cavity is made in the ground, generally in the side of a bank, or sloping hill, and within it pine wood, roots, etc., cut in con¬ venient length, are piled up in a conical shape, and Tar then covered with earth, beaten and stamped down, to render it as firm as possible above the wood, and keep out the air. The pile is then fired, and burns with a slow com¬ bustion, without flame, as in making charcoal. During this combustion, the tar exudes, and falls into a cast iron pan, placed in the bottom of the cavity. This pan has a spout which projects through the side of the bank, and as the tar flows out through it, barrels are placed to receive it, which, when filled, are bunged up, and ready for immediate exportation. Pitch is the substance left after the distillation of tar, an oil passing off called oil of tar , from which a number of curious and important products are derived by chemical processes. One of these is creosote , which possesses such re¬ markable properties for preserving meat. It is also used in medicine. Paraffine , another of them, closely resembles spermaceti in appearance. It is a white, partially THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 163 transparent, crystalline substance, without taste, or odor, obtained by distillation from this oil. It melts at about 118° Fahrenheit, and is much used in making candles. In a liquid state, it is also very serviceable for lubricating machinery, and for other purposes. A species of tar is also obtained from hard wood, and still another from coal. CEDAR. There are many varieties of wood called cedar which grow abundantly in both continents. The cedar of Lebanon , famous in Scripture for its great size, durability and beauty, is the most celebrated. The wood was anciently used in the con¬ struction of temples and other public Lebanon . buildings, in making images, and for va¬ rious useful and ornamental purposes. Very few of these trees remain on the mountains of Lebanon, where they were once so plenty, but these few are of gigantic growth, and though so very old, still in excellent preservation. The red cedar is the species best known in this country, of which it is a native. It thrives in the Southern States and the Red cedar. West India Islands. The wood is of a dark reddish color, has a strong odor, and is not liable to be attacked by worms. It is employed principally in the manufacture of chests, drawers, wardrobes and the like, with a view to prevent the inroads of moths. It is also much used in making lead pen¬ cils. The wood is of a nearly uniform texture, brittle and light. 164 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. Chestnut. CHESTNUT. The American chestnut tree sometimes reaches the hight of seventy or eighty feet. The wood is strong, elastic and durable. It is used much for posts, rails, shingles, and also in making chamber furniture, and as an ornamental wood in interior finishing. It takes a high polish, and in contrast with woods of darker color, like black walnut, it has a very elegant effect. The tree also grows in the south of Europe, where the nuts are much esteemed as an article of food. Rock maple. MAPLE. Rock, maple or sugar maple is the name given to one of the most noble and majestic of American trees. It does not usually exceed fifty or sixty feet in hight, with a diameter of twelve to eighteen inches. The grain is fine and close, and when polished it has a silky lustre. It is much used for cabinet work, chairs, etc. The wood of this tree sometimes exhibits very curious forms in the arrangement of its fibre, of which cabinet-makers take advantage in manufac¬ turing some of the most elegant articles of furni¬ ture, such as bedsteads, secretaries, writing-desks, curled and etc., and for inlaying the mahogany and bird’s-eye black walnut of bureaus, side-boards, piano-fortes, and other ornamental work. That which goes by the name of curled and bird's- eye maple, exhibits beautiful spots and shades THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 165 which greatly increase the value of the wood. This singular appearance is never found in young trees, but in those which are old and sound. Be¬ fore mahogany became so common in the United States, the best and richest furniture was made of the maple, which in lustre often exceeded the im¬ ported woods. Another common use to which the curled maple is applied is the manufacture of the stocks of rifles and fowling-pieces. The sap of the rock maple is much used in mak¬ ing sugar; the peculiar flavor rendering Other prod- it a great favorite, especially in the ™^ fthe spring when it is first made. By age its taste is much impaired. A coloring matter is also obtained from the bark of the tree. WALNUT. There are several varieties of the walnut tree, but the white and black are the principal. The tree is said to be a native of Persia, and the coun¬ tries bordering on the Caspian sea, but it Walnut wood _ is now abundant in both hemispheres. It is a tree with strong, spreading branches, and very extensively used in making furniture; espe¬ cially the black walnut , which is adapted to a great variety of useful and ornamental purposes. Large quantities are converted into the stocks of muskets, as it is superior to every other wood for this object. The common white walnut, or hickory, is a very serviceable wood, and is employed in making agri- 166 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. cultural implements, handles of tools, etc. It is very strong and durable. The nuts of the walnut have always been held in high estimation. They are either gathered when ripe, for eating, or picked when green and pickled, or used in catchup and table sauces, to which they impart an agreeable flavor. TEAK. The tealc, or Indian oaTc, is a large forest tree, that grows in dry and elevated regions in the south of India, and some of the adjacent islands. It is said to have qualities for ship-building almost equal to the oak, and is used for that purpose. Ships built Teak of it are nearly indestructible by ordin¬ ary wear, and instances are frequent of their having lasted eighty or one hundred years. The teak of Malabar is considered the best. At Maul- main, in India, a great number of vessels are annu¬ ally constructed of this timber. It is also ex¬ ported to Calcutta and Madras, for the same purpose. PALM. This order of trees, which contains many varie¬ ties, is found in most tropical countries of the globe. That which produces the cocoa-nut is the most common. Linnaeus calls the palms the “ princes of the vegetable kingdom,” as well for their stately appearance, as for the number and diversity of their products, such as wine, oil, sago, sugar; to THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 167 which might be added, thread, utensils, weapons, food, and habitations. The natives of some Oriental countries, where this valuable tree flour , . Palm. ishes, have enumerated eighty distinct uses to which it is appropriated. The timber of the palm is employed where it grows, for building purposes, in situations where no great strength is required. The leaves serve for thatching, matting, baskets, and many other uses. Those of the pal¬ metto make durable and substantial hats. The common canes , or ratans , are the flexible stems of a curious species of creeping palm, which luxuri¬ ates in the forests of tropical Asia. Sometimes their slender stems, armed at the joints with strong spines, climb to the tops of the highest trees, where their leaves expand in the sunshine. Sometimes they run along the ground, rendering the forest an impenetrable tangle, through which a path must be hewn with the hatchet, ratans. 01 These rope-like plants frequently grow to the length of four or six hundred feet, con¬ sisting of hundreds of joints, each bearing a feath¬ ery leaf with thorns on its lower surface. They may often be seen two hundred feet long, and an inch in diameter, without a single irregularity, and destitute of all appearance of foliage, except a tuft of graceful leaves at the extremity. The natives of Java, and the neighboring islands, cut the canes into fine slips, which they manufacture into mats, baskets, cordage, etc. Divided into convenient length, they are also exported to Europe and America, where they are used for chair seats and 168 THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. backs, carriage sides, and a great variety of work in which strength and lightness are desirable. The bamboo is sometimes confounded with the cane, or ratan, but it belongs to an entirely different order of plants, though used for many similar purposes. The bamboo is, strictly speaking, a gigantic sort of grass with a woody stem. It grows everywhere within the tropics, and often rivals in liight the loftiest trees of the forest. The stems Bamboo. p ,1 ... ,, , ot these gigantic grasses, called culms, grow with an unexampled rapidity, averaging in fa¬ vorable locations an inch in an hour. In New Grenada and Ecuador, a species named guadua ranks next to the sugar-cane and maize, in useful¬ ness to man. The culms attain a thickness of six inches; the joints are twenty inches long, and the leaves of great beauty. A whole hut can be built and thatched with this plant, while water vessels and other articles of household convenience are made from the single joints. But the real bamboo is found chiefly in India, Southern China, and the Eastern Archipelago, where it grows in a variety of genera and species, both on the high and low lands. It forms the impenetrable jungles where lurk wild beasts and deadly serpents. Sometimes a hundred culms spring from a single root, not seldom of the thickness of a man’s body, and towering to the hight of eighty or ninety feet. The variety of uses to which these enormous reeds are applied, almost equal those of the cocoa- nut palm. The Chinese are exceedingly ingenious in adapting them to all sorts of work, either of THE MANUAL OF COMMENCE. 169 utility or beauty. They split the culm through its whole length, into very thin pieces, and twist them into nordage for the towing of their boats or the rigging of their junks, bamboo. ^ They build their houses and construct their furniture of it; mats, screens, chairs, tables, bedsteads, besides many ornamental objects. Of the young shoots, fine writing paper is made. In Mysore and Orizza the seeds of several species are eaten for food, either with or without cooking. In Java the prickly bamboo, which is of such flinty hardness that sparks are emitted when struck with an axe, is used to form impenetrable hedges. MAHOGANY. This is a tree which grows abundantly in the West Indies and Central America. It is one of the most majestic and beautiful of trees; its Tlio tree trunk is often forty feet in length and six in diameter. It divides into so many massive branches, and throws its shade over such an extent of surface, that few more magnificent objects are to be met with in the vegetable world. The wood is imported from Honduras and Cam- peachy and also from the West India islands, in the form of logs varying in length and thickness; these are squared with the axe before shipping, and are cut up into veneers by manufacturers and dealers. Mahogany is a very beautiful and valuable wood. Its prevailing color is a red brown, of different 8 170 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. shades, and various degrees of brightness; some¬ times yellowish brown, veined and mottled with darker shades of the same color. Several names are applied to it, such as plain, veined, watered, fes¬ tooned, etc., designating the variety. It is very hard and strong, takes a beautiful polish, and is admirably adapted to cabinet work. The process of obtaining the trees is one of great labor and difficulty especially if they are at a considerable distance from the coast, the^timber. They are felled and hauled with oxen to some stream if possible, so that at the periodical swell which occurs in the rainy season, they may be floated down to the wharves of the proprietors, whence they can be shipped. The heat is so great that some of the labor is done in the night, as neither men nor beasts are able to endure the burning rays of the sun during the ex¬ cessive toil of transporting the logs to the water. The value of some of these logs may be estima¬ ted from the fact that a firm of piano-forte manu¬ facturers in London paid not long since, the sum of three thousand pounds sterling, (over thir¬ teen thousand dollars) for three logs of mahogany. These logs were the produce of a single tree , and were each about fifteen feet long and value of the thirty-eight inches square. They were cut into veneers of eight to an inch. Another extraordinary specimen of this splendid tree was felled in British Honduras, October, 1823, which weighed more than seven tons, and cost when landed at Liverpool, over £375; here it was sold THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 171 for more than <£500, and the expense of sawing amounted to £750 more; so that the wood of this one tree before passing into the hands of the man¬ ufacturer, was worth more than seven thousand dollars. Much of the wood, however, is not so valuable; the best grows on dry rocky soils, and in exposed places. It is not so much used at the present day as formerly; other ornamental woods having become more fashionable. But very few of them compare with it in solidity, fineness of grain, color, and susceptibility of polish. ROSE-WOOD. This elegant wood derives its name from its fra¬ grance which is thought to resemble the rose. It is a product of several tropical regions—China, Siam, the Canary Isles, etc., but the • • ■, ,. Rose-wood. principal supplies come from Brazil, where it grows abundantly. Its hardness, fine grain, and rich shades adapt it to the nicest cab¬ inet work. The logs average about twenty-two inches square, and are cut into veneers of nine to the inch. It is much used for piano-fortes, and is exceedingly beautiful and brilliant. EBONY. Ebony wood is brought principally from the East. Ceylon, Madagascar, Mauritius, and some other places produce the tree. The wood Ebony - is very hard and heavy, susceptible of a fine polish, 172 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. and is much used in mosaic and inlaid work. There are several kinds; black, red, green, but the black is much preferred to any other. The centre of the tree is the valuable part. Ebony is not so much in demand as it once was, substitutes for it having been obtained by coloring other woods. It is at present but an inconsiderable article of commerce. LIGNUM-VITAS. This tree is a native of the West Indies. It is a very hardy evergreen, and grows to a consid¬ erable size, striking its roots so deeply into the ground as to defy both the hurricane and the drouth. The bark is hard, smooth and Lignum-vitae. k r i tt i e . the wood of yellowish, or olive color. It is the heaviest and most difficult of all the woods to work, as it can scarcely be split, but breaks into pieces like stone. Being full of a res¬ inous juice, it will imbibe neither oil nor water, and is therefore proof against decay. This wood, from its weight and hardness, is adapted to use in various ways where these quali¬ ties are needed. Stampers’ mallets, pulley-blocks, rollers, etc., are made of it. By tapping the living tree a resin is obtained, which is the gum guaicum of commerce, much employed in medicine. It is found in the tropical regions of America. BOX-WOOD. The box tree is a native of the middle and south¬ ern portions of Europe. It grows also abundantly THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 173 in the United States, where it is often called dog¬ wood. This tree was much admired by the ancient Romans, and has been extensively cultivated in modern times on account of the facility with which it is cut into fantastic shapes. The wood is of a yellowish color, hard and heavy, capable of receiving a tine polish, and is very dura¬ ble. It is much used by turners, carvers, engrav¬ ers on wood, and for mathematical and musical instruments. In France it serves for combs, knife- handles, button-moulds, etc. Large supplies are annually sent to that country from Spain. Box is the wood mostly used by the engravers of wood cuts for illustrations in books, etc. By this means the cost of such embellishments is much reduced. The picture to be engraved is first drawn on the box-wood block, and W °° d cuts ‘ then cut into it by suitable instruments, so that the lights and shades shall be properly presented when it is moistened with ink and impressed upon the paper. The wood is so hard that it admits of as fine and sharp finish as any metal, and if care is taken to preserve the blocks from injury, they will print an incredible number of copies. The art has attained great perfection. . SANDAL-WOOD. This is the wood of a tree having somewhat the appearance of a large myrtle. It is of a yellow color and yields a peculiar, but agreeable perfume. It grows in some of the South sea islands, Fiji and 174 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. others; but the chief supplies are from Malabar and some of the neighboring islands, whence it reaches China and Hindostan. In the Sandal-wood. , latter country it is much used as a per¬ fume in funeral ceremonies. But the Chinese are its principal consumers. They manufacture it into fans and other small articles of use or ornament, and sometimes use it powdered, as a cosmetic. It grows chiefly on rocky hills, and if permitted would reach a considerable size, but from its great value is cut down when comparatively small. The tree is beautiful, with regular and tapering branches, a leaf somewhat like that of the willow, but shorter and softer. The blossoms are small, hano-- ing in clusters, and are either red or white, ac¬ cording to the color of the wood. It is one of the most .valuable productions of the Malabar coast. The tree when cut down is usually about nine inches in diameter at the root, but sometimes con¬ siderably more. It is barked and cut up into bil¬ lets, and then buried in a dry place for about two months, during which time the white ofthTwoodu an ^ s ea ^ the outer wood without touching the heart, which is the true sandal. It is then taken up, and when sorted, is ready for market. That which is of the deepest color and nearest the root is considered the best. It is seldom brought to Europe or this country, ex¬ cept by individuals for their own use, or as presents to friends, but is an article of commerce between countries in the East. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 175 CORK TREE. The tree which produces this useful substance is a species of oak which flourishes in •*- Cork-. Spain and the south of Europe generally. The hark of the tree is the valuable part which is obtained by cutting down through it lengthwise, and then stripping it from the tree in sheets. The trees should be ten or fifteen years old be¬ fore .the bark is fit for peeling. This process does not injure the tree, as the new bark which grows every year would push off the old coat if it were not thus removed. These sheets are put under water and made flat by placing ^ f r ^^ al1011 heavy weights upon them while soaking. They are afterwards dried and then are ready for use. The broad flat pieces, four or five feet long and eighteen or twenty inches wide, are cut up by hand or machinery into various ' sized corks. The adaptation of machinery to this business is a very great improvement, as it was long done entirely by hand with sharp knives. Cork was anciently used as floats to nets, soles to shoes, and various domestic purposes quite dif¬ ferent from those to which it is now principally applied; for the Greek, Roman, and other antique vessels had mouths too large to be stopped in this way. It was the invention of glass ves- ^ sels with narrow necks, which brought cork into general use, and. it has now become a ne¬ cessity everywhere. Good cork is very compressi¬ ble and elastic, and fills the space into which it 176 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. is forced so completely that neither water nor air can pass through. The best are called velvet corks. SATIN-WOOD. The satin-wood is among the most valuable of the timber trees of Ceylon for size and durability. The forests in many parts of the island are thickly set with this fine tree, so that the traveler Satin-wood. . , 1 rides under its ample shade for days to- gether. It grows to the hight of a hundred feet, with a ragged gray bark, brilliant green foliage, and small, white flowers with an odor not particu¬ larly agreeable. The weight of the wood is such that it is cut mostly near the banks of rivers or streams, down which it can be floated to the coast, where it is shipped. The richly colored and feathery pieces are used for cabinet work, and the more ordinary logs for building purposes. The floors of the houses in Ceylon and other parts of India are com¬ monly made of this wood. OHAPTEK VIII. METALS. SECTION I.—PRECIOUS METALS. The noble or precious metals are gold , silver , mercury and platinum. There are a few others which are classed with these, but they are obtainable only in such small quantities that they are unknown to commerce, and are practically of no importance. GOLD. Gold, the most precious of all the metals, has been known from the earliest antiquity; and next to iron it is the most widely diffused over the earth. It is found in the oldest rocks, and in sands derived from them, generally in the form of thin scales or grains, sometimes in large nodules, weighing many pounds, and some¬ times as crystals. Native gold is always alloyed with silver in greater or less quantities. Gold is a metal of beautiful appearance, a reddish yellow color, and a high lustre. When pure it is nearly as soft as lead. It is the most malleable of all substances, and may be beaten out into leaves 8 * 178 THE MANUAL OP COMMERCE. which do not exceed 2 a / ouo of an inch in thick¬ ness. It does not rust, and is not corroded by simple acids. Aqua regia , a powerful acid com¬ posed of two others chemically mixed, will dis¬ solve it. This metal is sometimes found in mines, but more frequently in the sands of rivers, which are washed, sifted and worked in various ways to ob¬ tain it. If it is contained in rock, the rock is broken up, ground and sifted. Quicksilver is min- Obtaining §'l ec ^ with the sand thus pulverized, gold from which by its strong affinity for gold, at- oreor sand. ^ ac ] ies and amalgamates with it. The earthy matter is then washed away, leaving the gold and quicksilver combined. By heating, the latter is driven away, and the pure gold re¬ mains. This can then be melted into bars,, or ingots, and becomes a commercial standard of value by which to compare and regulate that of other property. Gold, to some extent, is a product of almost every country of the globe. In Europe there are mines in Hungary, Sweden, Russia and Spain; while the sands of many rivers are rich in precious grains. In Asia, especially in its southern districts, there are many mines, as well as streams, rivers and sand-wastes which contain this met- ces'o/goid' 11 '" a ^’ Japan, Cejdon, Java, Sumatra, the Phillippines, and many other islands afford it. Africa and Spain were the countries whence came most of the gold possessed by the ancients. But while the Spanish mines are now THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 179 scarcely worth working, gold continues to come from Africa, chiefly in the form of dust, brought from interior districts in the quills of the ostrich or vulture. Many places on this continent yield large quanti¬ ties of gold. In South America, Brazil and Chili are renowned for mines and veins of this precious substance, as well as for numerous streams contain¬ ing it. Mexico and other provinces of Central America furnish it, and many portions of the United States, particularly the Carolinas and Geor¬ gia which formerly yielded a considerable quantity. But since the discovery of the g 0 “ OTCan inexhaustible supplies in California and other regions in the western part of the country, the labor of mining and digging has been confined largely to that section ; and immense quantities of Australia. treasure have found their way into the commerce of the world, while towns, cities, and states, have sprung up on our western frontiers like magic, in consequence of the tide of emigration setting toward the gold regions. Australia, too, has still more recently unlocked her golden stores, and thither emigrants and adventurers are flocking by thou¬ sands to secure their share of the treasure so freely lavished on that vast and distant island. The yield of gold from both these latter sources, has been unprecedented, so that the principal sup¬ plies of this metal have lately been derived from . them. The California deposits were discovered in 1848, those of Australia in 1851. Since then gold 180 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. to the amount of many millions of dollars has an¬ nually been obtained from each. New localities are discovered from time to time. Both gold and silver find their way into market in the form of bars or ingots, into which they are b ii . cast when separated from the ore. This is called bullion , and is received at the mint for coining. It is alloyed with about ten per cent, of copper for this purpose. The method of determining the amount of pure gold or silver in a given mass of metal is called assaying. It is done by several chemical processes. Gold leaf is made by first forging the gold into plates, and rolling them into thin ribbons by means of steel rollers. The ribbon is then divided into small squares and placed between leaves or sheets of what is called gold-beater’s skin, Gold leaf. , , . . . . (which is a membrane obtained from the intestines of certain animals,) and beaten with a heavy hammer. As the pieces expand they are divided and sub-divided until the required thinness is obtained. One grain of gold can thus be made to cover fifty-six square inches. Silver is beaten out in the same manner, and both metals can also be drawn into fine wire. This latter property of metals is called ductility. Besides its use in coin among all nations, gold is employed variously in the arts. It is manufactured into ornaments of every description, and Uses of gold. J 1 \ used as a setting for the most precious gems. It is alloyed more or less for these purposes, as it is too soft in a perfectly pure state, and the THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 181 metals mixed with it (silver or copper) give it strength and durability. The quantity of pure gold contained in a given mass is expressed by the word carat , used in refer¬ ence to a certain standard number; which number in the United States is twenty-four. Per- ^ ^ fectly pure gold is said to be twenty-four carats fine. When, therefore, gold is spoken of as eighteen, twenty, or twenty-two carats fine, it is understood how much it lacks of being pure; or in other words, how much alloy it contains. SILVER. This metal, next in value to gold, is of a fine white color, a brilliant lustre, softer than copper, but harder than gold. It is obtained fiom mines which exist in many countries of the Old World, Norway, Sweden, Hungary, Spain and Germany. But the most extensive and productive mines of silver are in Mexico and South America, particu¬ larly those of Potosi, one of the high gilver mine8i ridges of the Andes, in Bolivia. These mines are said to have been accidentally discovered by an Indian while pursuing wild goats upon the mountains. In climbing, he seized a shrub, which gave way and disclosed to his view amass of silver. For more than three hundred years they have yielded a rich reward to the labors of the miner. The supply of silver seems absolutely inexhaustible from this source. The mountain of Potosi, where the mines are 182 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. situated, is about eighteen miles in circumference, Mines of a Shape somewbat conical, and is com- Rotosi. posed of a kind of slate which contains quartz rock in abundance. In this rock the silver ore is intermingled, and is obtained from it by crushing and reducing the quartz to a fine obtaining P nwc ler, and then introducing quick- metai from silver, which unites with the silver con- tlieore. ’ 1 per, and gold diffused m the sand. The quicksilver is afterwards driven off by heat, as in the treatment of gold; the remaining metal is cast into ingots for exportation. The want of proper machinery for clearing the watei from the mines, and the immense waste of quicksilver in the process of amalgamation, or sep¬ arating the metals from the ore, have proved the Difficulties gieatest obstacles to the profitable work- minin ef ing ° f theSe and 0ther milleS ’ both in South America and Mexico. Although some quicksilver mines were known in Peru, and have since been discovered in other localities of the New Woild, the chief supplies of this metal for mining puiposes, came from Spain, and at such a cost as essentially to impair the profits of the business. But skill and science are overcoming these diffi¬ culties, by constructing proper implements of labor, by devising new methods of operation, and by economizing and utilizing time and materials. Silver is sometimes found nearly pure in masses; it is then called native . But more commonly it is mixed with other metals, copper, lead, antimony, etc. Pure silver, on account of its softness, is not THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 183 used to any extent in the arts. It is alloyed with copper in certain proportions, which increases its hardness, without altering its color or brilliancy, and thus renders it less liable to be worn by use. Silver coin in this country, like gold, contains nine-tenths of pure metal, and one-tenth alloy. In England and France the government regulates the purity of silver used in the manufacture of plate, as well as coin, but that is not done in the United States. The numerous uses to which this beautiful metal is appropriated (besides money) need not be speci¬ fied, as they are well known to every one. The process of plating, or coating other metals with silver through the agency of p la ^ g> galvanic electricity, has reached a won¬ derful degree of perfection, and supplies thousands of beautiful articles for domestic use, at a cost greatly reduced from that of solid plate. The par¬ ticulars of this process, both for gold, silver and other metals, belong to the science of chemistry. Silver is dissolved by certain acids, of which ni¬ tric acid is the most powerful. The substance called nitrate of silver , or lunar caustic , Nitrateofsil _ is made by dissolving silver in this acid, ver, or lunar and evaporating the solution to dryness, by which crystals are left behind. These are salts of silver , and are cast, by fusing, into slender sticks, which are much used in medicine and surgery. Nitrate of silver, diluted with water, stains ani¬ mal substances, and others, an indelible black. It is much used in dyes, and otherwise in the arts. 184 THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. MERCURY OR QUICKSILVER. This is a brilliant, silver-white metal, of great Properties of w dich possesses the extraordinary quicksilver, property of remaining in a fluid state at ordinary temperatures. It will freeze however, at 39° below zero, when it becomes mal¬ leable like lead; or will boil at 620°, yielding an invisible vapor. Quicksilver is sometimes found native, in a fluid state, but generally combined with sulphur, having the appearance of a reddish stone. In this state it is called cinnabar , from which the metal is ex- Cinuabarand ^ ® ^ ° f distillation. Cin- vermiiion. uabar can be produced artificially bv _ combining sulphur with quicksilver and A red cake is the result which is cinnabar; and this cake when re¬ duced to powder is known in commerce as the color vermilion. Ihe principal European mines of quicksilver are those of Almaden, near Cordova, in Spain, Idria, a Mines of t0Wn ° f . Carniola in Austria, and cer- quicksiiver. inin localities in Hungary and Italy. In the Hew World it is found in Peru and some other parts of South America, in Mexico and California.. The Austrian mines at Idria, like that of Potosi, is said to have been discovered by a fortunate accident. ^ Quicksilver is imported into this country from Spam, and from Trieste in Austria. It generally comes in iron flasks containing about seventy-six heating the mixture red hot. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 185 pounds. Large quantities are consumed in the ex¬ traction of silver and gold from their ores, as has already been noticed. The preparation ^ of vermilion, the silvering of mirrors, quicksilver, the construction of thermometers and barometers, and its various uses in medicine em¬ ploy this metal in vast amounts and in numerous ways. Since the discovery of its abundance in Califor¬ nia, large quantities are exported to other countries. PLATINUM. Platinum is a metal of comparatively recent discovery and is by no means abundant. It is al¬ ways found native, usually in the form of small flattened grains, but sometimes in larger masses; and is obtained from the sand with which p]atlnum< it is always mingled, by washing. Some of the principal localities where it is procured, are the western slope of the Ural mountains in Rus¬ sia, Brazil, and the island of Borneo. Its color is a grayish white, with less brilliance than silver. It possesses great tenacity, and can be drawn out into wire, or beaten into thin leaves like gold. But the most valuable property of platinum is its power of resisting heat. This is so great that it has been exposed to the intense heat of a glass furnace for several days with- 0 f pla tinum. out undergoing any change. The blow¬ pipe or voltaic battery alone, can produce a temper¬ ature high enough to melt it. This property ren- 186 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. ders it very useful in chemical apparatus which is to be exposed to great heat. Platinum is used by dentists in the construction of artificial teeth, as it is never corroded. In Rus¬ sia an attempt was mado several years of platinum. a g° to com d? but the experiment proved unsatisfactory, and the idea was aban¬ doned. Tho value of crude or unwrought pla¬ tinum is about half that of gold. In a manufac¬ tured state it is worth nearly or quite as much. It is the heaviest of all the metals. SECTION II.—USEFUL METALS. IRON. Iron is the most abundant as well as the most useful of all metals. It enters into the structure iron ^ )0 ^ 1 an imals and vegetables, and is contained in almost all earthy or mineral substances. In fact this metal is so interwoven with the wants of mankind, that the amount of it consumed by a nation may be taken as an index of its advance in civilization. Iron is sometimes found pure, in small quantities, but oftener in combination with other combined, substances, from which it must be sepa¬ rated by heat. Mines of iron are found in most countries of the globe, and the supply seems inexhaustible. This metal appears in market under several forms, THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 187 distinguished by appropriate names, the most im¬ portant of which are cast or pig-iron , wrought or malleable iron , and steel. Cast or pig- iron is obtained by the process called J f a ™^ es smelting. The ore, brought from the mine in reddish stony lumps, is introduced into a furnace called a blast-furnace, in connection with coal, which is to fuse it, and a certain quantity of lime, which is to render the earthy matters fluid, so that they will melt away from the metal. This slag , as it is called, together with the melted iron, flows down to the bot¬ tom of the furnace. But the metal being the heav¬ iest, sinks lower than the slag, which floats upon the surface of the melted mass, and may be raked off through apertures contrived for the purpose. The iron is drawn off at a lower level, and is made to run into rude molds of sand, where it cools. This is crude cast iron , or the pig-iron of commerce. As the contents of the blast-furnace are removed from below, or consumed, fresh materials are sup¬ plied from above, in alternate lajmrs of ore and coal, and the smelting goes on day and night for years sometimes, or until the furnace is out of re¬ pair. Strong currents of air are forced into the furnace through a number of hot blast- blast-pipes at its base, to support the com¬ bustion of the coal, and produce the intense heat necessary to reduce the ore. Formerlv it was the practice to use the air at its natural temperature. This was called cold blast; but more recently it is 188 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. White and gray iron. heated to about 500° Fahrenheit before it is intro¬ duced into the furnace. This is called hot blast , and has a great advantage over the old mode. The pig or cast-iron is very hard and brittle, in¬ capable of being wrought on the anvil or drawn out into bars. There are two commercial varieties of it, known as white and gray iron. White iron has a brilliant, silvery-white lustre, is very brittle, and so hard that it can¬ not be worked with steel tools. It is used with ad¬ vantage in making wrought, or bar iron, and steel. Gray iron has a darker lustre, is less crystalline in structure, much softer, and may be filed, drilled or turned in a lathe. It is adapted to make castings of every kind. Wrought or malleable iron , also called soft and bar iron , is made by subjecting the cast, or crude iron, which is very impure, to repeated fusions, which burn out the foreign particles, and wrought iron. l eave the metal free. It is then taken out of the furnace, and by means of ponderous hammers, or rollers, beaten or pressed together, so as to form one tenacious mass. It is finally drawn out into bars of a convenient size, and in this form constitutes the malleable or wrought iron of commerce. Steel is made by imbedding bars of malleable iron in powdered charcoal and subjecting it to an intense furnace heat for several days in succes¬ sion, when it is found to be converted into steel by a certain chemical effect of the charcoal upon the iron, which is not perfectly Steel. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 189 understood; but the carbon of the coal has com¬ pletely penetrated the iron in order to produce the change. The quality of steel is greatly improved by successive processes of re-heating and re-ham¬ mering. Tilted steel , shear steel , cast steel , are names given to the metal wrought in different ways. The latter is the most perfect variety, and is em¬ ployed for all fine cutlery. A new mode of manufacturing both malleable iron and steel has lately been invented and gained great popularity. It is called the “ Bessemer pro¬ cess” from its originator, Henry Bessemer of Shef¬ field, England, who, several years ago, gave an account of his discovery in a paper read before the British Association at Cheltenham, entitled ‘ The manufacture of malleable iron and steel without fuel.” His method seems almost the reverse of the common process by which iron is made to im¬ bibe the carbon of the fuel; the aim being to decarbonize or withdraw from the metal the carbon which has so long been considered as essential to its perfection in the condition of steel. But the new process has proved a complete success, although received at first, like all remarkable discoveries, with s're at prejudice and distrust. Mr. Bessemer erected steel works tor himbeit steeL in Sheffield, where he not only tested and perfected his invention, but contrived. an. in¬ genious apparatus for its practical application. Over five hundred thousand tons of steel are now produced annually in England by this process; and this country, having adopted it in many 190 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. places, produces from fifty to seventy-five thou¬ sand tons. Damascus steel is a kind prepared anciently at Damascus, of extraordinary beauty and temper. The method of its manufacture is not fully known, Damascus and tlie attem P te d imitations as yet are steel. very inferior to the original. It is used for sword, scimiter and cutlass blades and is in great demand by military men. The surface piesents a variegated appearance of watering or veining. The finest steel known, called, wootz, is pioduced by the natives of India, in a very rude way, and is used in the manufacture of the cele¬ brated sword blades of the East. In working steel, the articles are first finished in a soft state and afterwards hardened and tempered by raising them to such a temperature as is neces- sary to give them the requisite qualities. By heat¬ ing to redness, and cooling suddenly, steel becomes haid, brittle and elastic. By cooling slowly, it be¬ comes nearly as soft as ordinary iron; so that any degree of hardness between these two Tempering . „ steel. extremes is easily obtained. The work- man understands by the color of the film ovei the metal when it is of the proper temper for different purposes. Thus a light straw color indi¬ cates the degree of heat requisite for razors; a deep yellow for scissors, knife-blades, etc.; while s void-blades, watch-springs, and various instru¬ ments requiring great elasticity must be exposed to a much' higher degree of heat, or until their sur¬ faces acquire a deep blue color. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 191 The uses of iron are absolutely innumerable, and science is every year applying it to new or more extended purposes. Steam-power on land or water is dependent upon it, as rvell as thou¬ sands of other mechanical operations. It furnishes material for architecture, for steam-ves- n ... p Uses innu- sels, for cirms &nd other munitions ot merabie. war, for household and agricultural imple¬ ments, for all kinds of cutting instruments. Most of all it supplies the enormous amount demanded for our constantly extended lines of railroad which are likely soon to span the habitable globe; while submarine telegraph lines supply the missing links in the chain of communication. Almost all the countries of Europe produce iron; but the mines of Great Britain, Russia, Sweden and Norway, are most worked. The iron of Sweden is considered superior to any other. In this country the localities are very numerous J 1 i , Distribution where ore is procured, and the vast re- af iron> sources of the West are only just begin¬ ning to be available. Iron Mountain and Pilot Knob, in Missouri, contain incalculable quantities, and of a quality scarcely inferior to the celebrated products of the Swedish mines. Nova Scotia is rich in iron and furnishes it largely to commerce. Penn¬ sylvania yields immense supplies, and in almost every state in the Union it is found in greater or less proportions. The smelting and working of iron in rolling-mills, machine shops, etc., is carried on by means of min¬ eral coal to a great extent, though charcoal and peat are used in some places. 192 THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. COPPER. This well known metal derives its name from that of the island of Cyprus, in the Mediterranean, near the coast of Asia Minor, where the properties. nchest mmes kncgvn to the ancients existed. It is of a red color, brilliant lustre, can be hammered into thin leaves and drawn into wire of great strength. It has a disagreeable smell and taste. Copper is very widely dispersed and yields only to iron in point of usefulness. It is found pure, as well as combined with various mineral substances. Its use long preceded that of iron. Mines of cop¬ per abound in Europe. England and Wales have importance some of the most productive and exten- and distribu- sive. In Sweden, too, are mines which tion of copper. p een wr ought for ages and which still yield immense quantities. That of Fahlun is the most celebrated, and is one of the most aston¬ ishing artificial excavations upon the earth. It is of amazing depth, and requires an hour to reach the bottom. In this country the mines of our Lake Superior region are the most important; and though they have been worked but a few years, topper! 3,11 ak'cady yield metal of such excellent quality, and in such quantity as promises to supply not only our own, but foreign countries, which have hitherto depended mostly upon Eng¬ land. It is found also in numerous other localities, both in North and South America. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 193 Copper is frequently found native; usually in small crystals, but sometimes in immense masses, as in the mines of Lake Supe- f f a *“pp er state rior; generally it is in combination with other substances, from which it is separated by heat. Copper is applied to very many useful purposes. It is formed into thin sheets by being heated in a furnace and subjected to pressure between heavy iron rollers. These sheets are used for the covering of roofs, and domes, the ^ p e p s e ° f sheathing of the bottoms of vessels, for boilers, stills, and numerous articles of domestic need, ornament, and convenience. It is used to alloy gold and silver for coin, etc. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc in certain proportions, generally sixty-six parts copper and thirty-four zinc. By changing these proportions, pinchbeck or Dutch gold and Crerman silver are obtained. Grun metal , used in the manufacture of brass ordnance, is an alloy of copper and tin, and so also, are bell and speculum metal , which contain a larger proportion of tin. Bronze for statuary, and other ornamental purposes, contains copper, tin, zinc, and lead. The brass of the ancients was an alloy of copper and tin. Certain valuable substances are also obtained from copper by chemical processes. Verdigris is a thin green coating which appears upon Chemical copper when moistened with acids. It preparation is prepared on a large scale by the con- 0 coppcr ‘ tact of the metal in plates, with vinegar. This and 9 194 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. several other chemical derivatives of copper, are used in the arts as coloring substances. Blue vitriol , one of the most important salts of copper, is formed by heating metallic copper with sulphuric acid. It appears in large blue Blue vitriol. ° crystals. Large quantities are used in calico printing and in various other ways, one of which is as an agent for exciting the galvanic battery. The salts of copper are all poisonous, and copper vessels are liable, by their rusting, or oxydation, to impart deleterious qualities to liquids or solids which they may contain; so that much caution should be observed in their use, and the surfaces kept perfectly free from any coating of rust. LEAD. Lead is a soft, bluish gray metal, very well known, and very abundant. It is not found pure, but com¬ bined with other ores in the mine. Sometimes it is dug out with the pickaxe, and sometimes blasted Description ou f w ^h gunpowder. It is separated from and proper- impurities by smelting, and is then so ties of lead. ° . , , . „ sott that it maybe cut with a knife. Its malleable and ductile properties are very weak, but it may be rolled out into sheets of various thick¬ ness, and applied to a great many very useful pin- poses, such as the covering of roofs, the lining of sinks, oisterns, drains, etc., and very extensively as tubes to conduct water. Bullets, shot, and a multitude of other articles, are made of lead. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 195 By subjection to great heat, lead is converted into a fine powder, which assumes sev- , . . Colors do- eral colors. These are used m paints, rived from and in glass manufacture. Litharge is a lead - beautiful yellow, much employed in the arts. Red lead is another form, equally brilliant and useful. White lead , so much used asT paint for buildings, is prepared in a very curious way, by what is called the Dutch method. A coil of thin sheet „ , . lead is placed in an earthen vessel in Dutch weak vinegar, and allowed to remain sev- method - eral months, covered with manure, or other decom¬ posing substances. When opened, the lead is found to be entirely converted into a pure white carbon¬ ate, which only needs washing and grinding to be ready for use. Lead is also alloyed with other metals. With tin, it forms pewter , solder , block tin , etc. Mixed with a small quantity of arsenic, which hardens it, it is used very extensively for shot , which is manufactured by being melted at the top of high towers constructed for the purpose, and poured into a vessel perfor¬ ated with numerous small holes. The lead, in run¬ ning through, is separated into drops, which, falling from the hight of the tower, become round and cool before they reach a reservoir of water, placed for their reception at the base of the tower. Lead contains poisonous principles, and those who work in it are liable to a very danger¬ ous and often fatal disease, called the painters’ colic, or lead colic. Sometimes the water Alloys. Shot. Lead a poison. 196 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. conducted by lead pipes contains enough of the metal to produce serious, or even dangerous effects. It is always advisable to allow water thus conveyed, to run for some time before using. Lead is found in all parts of the world, and has been in use from very ancient times. The princi¬ pal mines of the United States are in Missouri, Il¬ linois, Wisconsin, and Mississippi. Those IVXincs ^ in Galena, in Illinois, are considered as rich as any on the globe. Lead is the heaviest of all except the precious metals. TIN. Tin is a well known metal of a fine white color like silver, and when fresh its brilliancy is almost Tin as great. It is very flexible, and when a bar is bent a peculiar crackling noise is produced called the tin cry. Its malleability is such that it can be beaten into leaves, but it is inferior in ductility and tenacity. Tin-foil or leaf, may be made of any required thinness. The ores of tin are found only in a few places ; the most important mines being those of Cornwall in England, Malacca in the south of Asia, China, Mexico, and a few localities in South America. In the United States it has been discovered in only one place (Jackson, New Hampshire) and in very small quantities. The mines of Cornwall have been worked from a very remote period, the Phenicians having traded with the Britons for this metal more than eleven hundred years before Christ. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 197 The ore is usually found in veins or lodes , which penetrate t^e hardest rocks. Masses of many pounds weight are sometimes discovered. The min¬ ers follow these veins wherever they wind through the rocks, often to a great depth. of tL ore. The ore is broken up in stamping mills, then melted in furnaces and run into large blocks in which form they are ready for market. This is the block or bar tin, of commerce; the other form is that of grain tin which has undergone a refining process. The useful applications of this metal are very numerous. Tin plate , of which our tin ware is made, consists of thin sheets of iron coated with tin. These sheets are immersed in the melted metal, which combines at once with the . . iron and produces a brilliant surface on each side. The sheets are cut up into a great va¬ riety of articles of household convenience, used for roofing, tubing, etc. When the coating wears off the dark iron is exposed. It then rusts, and soon becomes worthless. Britannia metal , employed in the manufacture of teapots, syrup cups, cheap spoons, etc., is a mix¬ ture of tin with several other metals. Pewter is composed of four parts tin and one of Othor uses lead. The well known bronze powders , oftin> used in printing and in ornamental pat¬ terns upon paper-hangings, is a chemical prepara¬ tion of tin with sulphur and other substances. From its brilliant gold color is often called mosaic gold. Ordinary brass pins are tinned or whitened by 198 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. boiling them with the metal finely pulverized, in water containing cream of tartar. « ZINC. Zinc is a hard bluish-white metal, very brittle at ordinary temperatures, but when heated between 200° and 800° Fahrenheit, becomes both malleable and ductile, and what is very singular, retains Zinc these properties after cooling. The sheet zinc of commerce is made from the ore at this degree of heat. It is not found native, but is often associated with ores of lead; in another form is called calamine, from which the metal is extracted by a kind of distillation instead of smelt¬ ing, as it flies off into vapor at high temperatures. Zinc is used for a great variety of economic pur¬ poses. It is hammered or rolled into plates, which are not liable to tarnish, except by a thin film upon Uses of zinc ^ ie sur ^ ace * ^ is extensively employed to protect surfaces exposed to heat, about stoves, flues, and furnaces. The zinc of commerce is generally impure. Alloyed with copper it forms brass; and reduced to powder by heat, it is used as an ingredient in paint, as a substitute for white lead. Galvanized iron is sheet iron coated with zinc. It is used in the galvanic battery, and in various electrical experiments. White vitriol is a chemical preparation of zinc. It is used in the arts and in medicine. Zinc is found in various parts of the world, but THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 199 our chief supplies come from Germany. In New Jersey, calamine is procured in large quantities and of remarkable purity. NICKEL. Nickel is a brilliant silver-white metal, softer than iron, and extremely ductile. It is not abundant, and occurs in Europe and elsewhere, associated with other substances. It is almost always found native in meteoric iron. The chief use Nlckel and of nickel is in the manufacture of Ger- its uses, man silver; and also that of pottery and porcelain. It is very difficult to separate from the metals with which it is combined. In this country it has lately been coined. It is found in Connec¬ ticut, Pennsylvania and Maryland. ARSENIC. This metal is generally found in combination with others—especially with iron, nickel, copper or tin. It is of a dark steel color, so brittle that Argenic _ it may be easily reduced to powder. 1 he greater part of the arsenic of commerce is obtained from Silesia, in Germany, by roasting the substan¬ ces which contain it in furnaces. The arsenic is volatilized by the heat, and passes off through the flues of the furnace into chambers, where it is con¬ densed and collected in the form of a white pow¬ der. This is a very powerful poison. The work¬ men who open the chambers to remove the powder are obliged to use great precautions against its dele- 200 THE MANUAL OF COMMENCE. tenons effects. They are completely encased in leather, with glazed apertures for the eyes, and damp cloths over the mouth and nostrils to avoid inhaling the deadly particles. Aisenic is used in medicine and in the arts. It forms beautiful colors, and is applied to the manu¬ facture of glass and porcelain, and in calico print¬ ing. It prevents the decay of organic substances to a considerable extent; and when death is pro¬ duced by this poison, the decomposition of the body is greatly retarded. This circumstance has led to the discovery of the fact of poisoning in properties. instances, even after a long time had elapsed. It should be used with great caution, as in solution it is nearly colorless and tasteless; which favors its employment for crim¬ inal purposes, and often occasions fatal mistakes when used for the destruction of vermin. When heated in the powder, it has a strong and marked odor of garlic, which is considered one of the simplest tests of its presence. ANTIMONY. This metal has some properties in common with arsenic. It is a very brittle, bluish-white substance, and enters into the composition of some important Antimony. a ^°J s ’ such as type metal, Britannia metal, etc. It is used in medicine in many forms. When heated it is converted into white fumes. Antimony is found in many places in both conti- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 201 nents, generally combined with other substances. Much is brought from the south of Asia in the shape of ore, which furnishes ballast to vessels. Germany, Britain, France, Spain, Mexi¬ co, are producers of this metal to some 0 extent, but the greatest quantities come from Singapore, which receives it from Borneo and other eastern islands. MAGNESIUM. This is a metal of a silver-white color, and is al¬ ways found in combination with other mineral sub¬ stances. Associated with lime, it forms a peculiar limestone, called dolomite. With other minerals, it forms soapstone, serpentine, meerschaum clay, etc. Calcined by heating, it forms a valuable pow¬ der used in medicine. MANGANESE. Manganese is a grayish white metal, resembling some varieties of cast iron. It is very brittle and hard, and a fragment properly fixed may be used to cut glass in place of the diamond. No Manganese> practical use has yet been made of this metal, but it is believed that it may prove of great value as an alloy for others. Salts of manganese are used in glass-making, and a violet color is ob¬ tained from it, employed in painting porcelain, enamel, etc. 9 * CHAPTER IX. MINERALS. COAL. This most important and indispensable substance, is known to every one in respect to its appearance, properties and uses. It is the product of coaf m ° f accumulated vegetable matter, which flourished mainly during a particular pe¬ riod of the earth’s history known in geology as the “ Carboniferous Period.” Coal occurs in veins or strata enclosed between layers of limestone, slate or iron ore. Its vegetable origin is proved by the fact that in every coal mine are found leaves, trunks and fruits of trees in im- Proofs of mense numbers, many of them in the vegetable most perfect state of preservation; so that the botany of the coal period can be studied with great accuracy. An additional proof is that a thin layer of coal will exhibit under the microscope, all the pores and vessels of the plant to which it originally belonged. Coal is very exten¬ sively distributed on both continents and is mined to a very great extent. Indeed the procuring and transporting of the coal of commerce, forms one of the most extensive branches of business and employs THE MANUAL. OF COMMERCE. 208 the greatest amount of labor of almost any in the world. The mines often penetrate to Commercial vast depths into the earth, where the coal importations is cut out and brought to the surface with great labor and exposure ; for there are many dan¬ gers and risks which miners are obliged to incur in prosecuting their dreary and darksome work. Sometimes they encounter foul air which suffo¬ cates them; sometimes inflammable gases are set free which take fire and produce “ terrible explosions. Some of these dan¬ gers can be guarded against and some can not. There are several varieties of coal. Anthracite, or hard coal, is one of the most valuable. It is very solid and burns without much flame. Cannel coal is very compact and of so of a ” e al ^ fine a texture that it may be cut into or¬ namental or useful articles of small size. It is chiefly found in England and Scotland. Bituminous coal is much softer and burns with a flame. Brown coal or lignite has some traces of its woody structure, and is thought to be of much more recent forma¬ tion than some of the other varieties. From bituminous coal is made the common illu¬ minating gas of our cities, by subjecting it to great heat in iron tubes where the constituent , , Coal gas elements of the coal are separated.; tne and C oke. gaseous portions passing off for illuminat¬ ing purposes leaving the solid parts behind. This residue is called cohe and burns with great intensity without flame or smoke. In many places this gas is formed naturally in the earth and escapes from 204 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. the surface of the ground. The town of Fredonia in New York is illuminated by such a natural supply. Coal tar is a thick substance formed in the pro¬ duction of illuminating gas from coal. It was form¬ erly thought useless, but within a few Crr years it has been turned to very important uses by distillation, and thus separating its constituents. Benzole , an oily liquid used for dissolving resins, camphor, wax, india rubber, etc., is one of these elements, and there are several others equally valuable. Napthaline , bears some resem¬ blance to camphor in appearance, and others are used to some extent in the manufacture of candles. Oils similar to those obtained by distilling coal are found to issue from the earth in various localities, and often in great abundance. The thin- Petroleum. ner ancl P urer kinds are called Naphtha ; the thicker and more impure Petroleum. Some of the most remarkable localities are in the region of the Caspian Sea in Persia, and in Burmah. In Italy too, and in the United States they occur in various places. Within a few years great attention has been given to the subject in this country, and by boring in various productive regions, immense quantities of petroleum have been thrown into com¬ merce. Kerosene is a form of it in most common use. It has undergone a clarifying process and is often transparent as water. It has superseded in a great degree the use of animal oils for lamps, etc. Oil springs and wells are very abundant in Penn¬ sylvania. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 205 GRAPHITE. Graphite or plumbago , often called black-lead , although there is no trace of lead in its composition, has a metallic leaden lustre, and feels Graphitc greasy to the touch. It is found in many places in England and the United States, never per¬ fectly pure but mixed with a little iron. It can not be fused by the most intense heat. Its principal use is in the manufacture of “ lead pencils,” as they are called, crucibles, or melting-pots, and as a polish for iron surfaces, etc. Most of the ordinary pencils are made with a paste composed of powdered plumbago and some other substances fused together and cast in blocks, from which the “leads” for the pencils Pencils are sawed, and then enclosed in cylinders of cedar wood. The best are made from pure graphite. There is an extensive establishment for the working of graphite near Lake George in the State of New York. It is also abundant in Penn¬ sylvania. CHARCOAL. Charcoal though not a mineral substance may as well be spoken of in this connection. It is prepared by firing wood, piled in mounds or pits, and cov¬ ered with turf or soil in such a way as to exclude the air. When the wood is thoroughly charred, the admission of air is entirely cut off and charcoal the combustion ceases. It is now ready for use. Soot and lamp-black are carbon in a state 206 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. of minute division. Lamp-black is obtained from tar and resinous substances, and is procured by allow¬ ing the fumes to pass into chambers where they settle and are collected. Animal charcoal , bone- black and ivory-black are names given to the prod¬ ucts of bones, ivory shavings, etc., after heating in close vessels where the air is not admitted. LIMESTONE. This important mineral, in some of its varieties, is found in almost every portion of the known world, and serves a great number of useful purposes. It is employed as a building stone in its common forms. Marble, which is composed mostly of lime, Limestono * s use( ^ f° r statuary and other ornamental and its va- work, as well as in architecture. It is of various colors, great hardness, and ad¬ mits of a beautiful polish. The island of Paros, in the Grecian Archipelago, produced some of the most valuable marbles, such as were used by the ancient sculptors of Greece, and considered the finest in the world. It was called Parian marble. Many varieties of marble are found in this country. The term marble is applied to those compact varie¬ ties, which are capable of being worked in all directions, and also of taking a good polish. Ser¬ pentine is a beautiful stone of a mottled green color. When associated with carbonate of lime it constitutes the verde antique marble. The lime of commerce is produced by heating any of the limestones in a kiln or furnace, the THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 207 interior of which is somewhat in the form of a hogshead, and is filled with alternate layers of limestone and fuel. The lime, as it is burned, gradually sinks down and is removed by openings at the base of the furnace, while fresh materials are continually added at the i T ,'™® e a 3 nd top. This is the quicklime or caustic lime of commerce. It is used in building, for mortar, and cement, when mixed with sand ; for a fertilizer of soils; by the tanner in preparing leather; by the soap-maker for treating his oils, etc.; by the sugar-maker in refining his syrups; and in innu¬ merable other ways in the arts and in medicine. Carbonate of lime is one of the most abundantly diffused compounds in nature. It makes the differ¬ ent kinds of limestone, chalk, marl, etc; it is also a principal constituent of corals, shells, spars, and to some extent enters into the composition of the bones of animals. Its most beautiful forms are seen in crystals, such as the stalactites and stalag¬ mites in caves, where the water which trickles through the rocks, contains it in solution, and deposits it with every drop till a mass like an icicle hangs from the roof, and another incrustation rises where the drops fall, till they meet at last, forming a pillar. The part hanging from above is called stalactite, and that which rises from the floor, sta¬ lagmite. The effect of thousands of these crystal¬ line forms under the glare of torch-light is magnificent. Limestone, or marble, ^lime^ 0 is much used for architectural purposes, though all the varieties are not equally valuable. 208 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. Some have little strength and are liable to crumble from exposure to the weather, or to split into flakes. The stone of which the Washington monument at Washington, and some of the public buildings in that city are constructed, is of a defective quality. The term limestone is technically applied to such stones as contain at least half their weight of carbonate of lime. Chloride of lime , or bleaching powder, is made by exposing slaked lime to the action of powder." 8 c ^ or i ne g as * This is of most extensive use in bleaching, and for many other purposes in the arts. It is also a powerful deodor¬ izing and disinfecting substance. GRANITE. Grranite is considered the lowest of the geological formations, and the foundation rock of the globe upon which the others rest when in their natural order. It occurs in masses, which are commonly „ divided by fissures. It is remarkable for Granite. . * m its durability as a material for building. Some of the ancient Egyptian monuments built of this stone, have endured for more than three thou¬ sand years, and show no appearance of decay. Granite is very abundantly distributed over the earth, and is found in several varieties, some much more valuable than others. In New England and other portions of the United States it is of excel¬ lent quality, and exists in enormous quantities. The most celebrated quarries in Massachusetts are THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 209 those of Quincy, which have furnished stone fo? many fine buildings in various parts of the country. Bunker Hill monument, the Custom¬ house, and Court-house in Boston, the Abundance Merchants’ Exchange and Astor House in New York City, the Custom-house in New Or¬ leans, and many other elegant structures of more recent date are examples. It is sometimes quarried in immense masses. The pedestal of the statue of Peter the Great, at St. Petersburg, consists of a single block of granite, from Finland, which weighs 1280 tons. An ancient statue in Egypt, of red granite, has an estimated weight of 887 tons. Granite is one of the most easily recognized of a'M the rocks. Its colors are generally red, gray, or white. It forms the principal mass of most of the great mountain ranges of the globe. As a commercial article it is commonly sold in the rough block, by the ton, or, if dressed, by the foot. It is much used for monuments, as well as buildings, on account of its strength and durability, as well as its beauty. SLATE. Slate is a compact stone that may be split into leaves or plates. Its appearance and color hre well known. It is found in many places in this country, especially in New England and New York. The slate quarries in Maine are buses' 1 very valuable. The principal use of this stone is to furnish roofing for buildings. Cut into 210 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. proper size, and well applied to a roof, these leaves are almost of perpetual duration. Slate is also used for writing and figuring upon, after the sur¬ face is smoothed, and a frame of wood placed upon it. In these forms it is important in commerce. SOAP-STONE. Soap-stone , or steatite, as it is also called, is a stone so soft that it may be cut or sawed with little difficulty. Common steatite occurs in masses or small beds. In Springfield, Massachusetts, and Francistown, New Hampshire, are deposits of it. soap stone ^is s ^ one employed in various ways. On account of its softness, and its prop¬ erty of hardening by heat, it can be shaped into many useful forms. Stoves, the hearths of fur¬ naces and fire-places are made of it, and many small vessels and articles of convenience. The name of soap-stone is given from the slippery or greasy feeling imparted to it by the oxyd of mag¬ nesium which it contains. PORPHYRY. This name, which means purple , was originally applied to a rock of reddish color found in Egypt, and much used for ornamental purposes; but at the present day the term is employed to designate any rock, whatever its color, which contains de¬ tached crystals embedded in a compact base. Such stones are often exceedingly beautiful, and highly valued in the decorative arts. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 211 Malachite. MALACHITE. Malachite is a variety of green carbonate of cop¬ per, found in a few localities, principally in Siberia and South Australia. It is softer but heavier than marble, and much more difficult to work as it breaks very easily. It is rarely ob¬ tained in large masses. There is a deposit in Si¬ beria which lies embedded at a great depth in con¬ nection with copper ore. Malachite is manufac¬ tured into various ornamental articles, which are expensive and elegant; such as clocks, vases, doors, mantels, slabs for tables, etc. It is cut by circular saws into veneers from one-twelfth to one-eighth of an inch in thickness, and applied with cement to surfaces of iron, copper and stone, which are after¬ wards ground and polished. Some doors of mal¬ achite were exhibited at the London exposition in 1856, which employed thirty workmen for a year. CLAY. Clay has a great many uses in the arts which sGfre familiar to every one. There are varieties of it ac¬ cording to the ingredients which predominate, and which adapt it to specific purposes. Clays which are nearly free from iron and lime are used in the manufacture of fire bricks and cruci- ° lays ' bles. They are called fire clays , because they re¬ sist so perfectly the action of heat. Such clays are not very common. Pipe-clay is a pure white va¬ riety, used in making tobacco-pipes. Meerschaum 212 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. clay is so soft when taken from the place of deposit that it makes a lather or foam mixed with water. It is found in various parts of Europe. The name in its German original means “ sea foam ” and describes this peculiarity of the clay. Ochres are clays colored red or yellow by oxyd of iron ; they are used extensively as paints. Fuller's earth has a strong affinity for oily substances. It owes its name to the fact that it is employed to remove the grease applied to wool in spinning. Tiling is made from clay in thin sheets, which are baked like brick. PUMICE-STONE. This is a very light, spongy and porous stone, found generally in the vicinity of active or extinct volcanoes, and believed to have been thrown out during eruptions. The pumice-stone of Pumice-stone. ° . , x . commerce is principally obtained from the island of Lipari, one of the cluster of the same name in the Mediterranean. This island is chiefly formed of pumice-stone, and may be said to be the main source of supply to all Europe and the world. The celebrated volcano of Stromboli is upon one of the islands of this group. Pumice-stone is used for polishing metals and marble, for smoothing the surface of wood and pasteboard, and for various other purposes. EMERY. Emery is a very hard mineral, the powder of which is capable of wearing down all other sub- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 213 stances except the diamond. It is used mostly for rubbing and polishing metals and machinery. Formerly it was regarded as an ore of iron. It is very abundant in the island of Naxos in- the Gre¬ cian Archipelago. It is also found in the islands of Jersey and Guernsey, in its uses, the British Channel and in various other places in Europe, but the chief commercial sup¬ ply comes from Naxos, although other mines pro¬ duce a considerable quantity. Recently it has been found in several localities in this country, especially in Minnesota and Massachusetts. Emery paper and emery cloth are prepared by brushing the paper or cloth with a thin Emery paper) glue and dusting the emery powder over cloth and it from a seive. Emery cake consists of emery mixed with a little beeswax so as to form a lump to be used in polishing and rubbing. Emery stick is wood prepared in a similar way. CHAPTEK X. DRUGS AND MEDICINES. SECTION I.—SUBSTANCES OF VEGETABLE ORIGIN. CAMPHOR. The camphor gum of commerce is the product of a species of laurel, which grows in the East Indies; chiefly in the islands of Borneo, Ceylon, and Sumatra. It is also obtained from China and h w Japan. The gum is deposited in crys- obtamed. tulhne paiticles in the wood of the tree. To extract it, the wood is cut in small pieces and boiled in water, when it rises to the sur¬ face and is taken off. Afterwards it is refined and purified. Another method of extraction is by a process of distillation. When pure, camphor is very white, has an agree¬ able odor, and a bitter aromatic taste. It is soluble in alcohol, but not in water. It is inflammable, and burns with a bright light. Some- of camphor, ti mes it is used for this purpose in the East. Exposed to the air the gum will entirely evaporate, so that much care must be taken in packing and preparing. It is imported in drums, THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 215 chests, and casks. Some species of the laurel fam¬ ily afford this gum of different qualities and val¬ ues. The best is known as Malay camphor, being the product of the Malayan peninsula. Sometimes camphor is found in concrete masses in the heart of the tree. Where it is known to ex¬ ist, by making incisions, the tree is cut ^ ^ down and the trunk divided into sections, camphor, which are split open and the gum removed by sharp-pointed instruments. This is very pure and valuable. Large quantities of camphor are used in medi¬ cine. Administered internally in large doses, it acts as a poison. It is thought to hinder the depre¬ dations of moths and other insects in furs and woolens if strewn freely among them; but its virtue soon ceases on account of a rapid evaporation. The camphor tree is an evergreen of consider- Camphor _ tree> able size, somewhat resembling the linden, with a trunk straight below, but divided into many branches above, which are covered with a smooth greenish bark, shining leaves of a lighter green beneath; small, white clustered flowers, producing a red berry. The tree is a native of Ch&ia, Japan, and other parts of Eastern Asia. Two principal commercial varieties are found in the market; the Chinese and the Japan camphor. OPIUM. This substance is the hardened juice of the white poppy, whidh is probably a native of Asia, though 216 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. now found growing wild in the southern parts of Europe, and even in England. The poppy is an annual .plant with a stalk rising to the poppy. hight of three or four feet. When at its full growth, an incision is made in the green capsule or seed vessel of the plant from which issues a milky juice. This soon hardens, and is scraped off the plants, and worked into cakes which are covered with the petals of the flower to prevent them from sticking together. In this form they are dried and packed in chests for exportation. Opium is chiefly prepared in India, Turkey and Persia; although the white poppy is extensively cultivated in France and other parts of Europe for the useful oil obtained from its seeds. Opium is very extensively used in medicine. It contains some of the most powerfully narcotic prin¬ ciples known. In Turkey, China and the East generally, there is an excessive fondness in the eTs™ f° r if) though in some of these countries its traffic and use are forbidden by the laws. It is smoked, chewed and used in a variety of forms, for its exhilarating and intoxicating effects, the ill consequences of which are far more deplorable than those which result from the intem¬ perate use of alcoholic liquors. The powers of both body and mind are soon completely destroyed. The ancients were familiar with the processes for procuring opium from the poppy, and the modern inhabitants of India and Persia pursue very nearly the same methods described by writers eighteen centuries ago. A few days after the flower falls THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 217 men and women proceed to the poppy fields and make horizontal slits in the capsule, taking care not to penetrate its cavity where the seeds are stored. A white juice soon appears opiumln 8 on the edges of the incisions which grows India and darker colored on being exposed to the air. Persia - The field is left in this state for twenty-four hours after which the hardened juice is scraped off with large, blunt knives. Each poppy head affords opium but once. The mass thus collected has the appear¬ ance of an adhesive and granular jelly. It is placed in smaller vessels and beaten, being at the same time moistened with water. When of proper con¬ sistence it is wrapped in leaves and sent to market. Laudanum and Paregoric are liquid preparations of opium in spirits of wine. Laudanum is often used as a poison. Morphia or morphine is the nar¬ cotic principle, chemically obtained from opium in the form of a white powder of “or^ia. a very bitter taste. In small and safe doses it is an invaluable remedy for allaying pain and soothing nervous irritation. The opium of Turkey is considered the best although consider¬ able quantities of good opium have been obtained in England and France. The quality of the drug has even been thought equal if not superior to that obtained from the East. GUM ARABIC, SENEGAL, TRAGACANTH, ETC. Two of the most useful gums of commerce are gum Arabic and gum Senegal. These are the prod- 10 218 THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. ucts of distinct species of the acacia, growing in Africa, from which country these substances are Gum Arabic obtained. The gum exudes from the and gum trunk and branches of the trees, .and hardens by exposure to the air, or to the heat of the sun. They are both transparent when pure, but gum Senegal is usually in larger masses and of a darker color. It is much used in calico printing, though the artificial gum called Dextrine or British gum , manufactured from starch, has, to a considerable extent, superseded its employment in this business. Cum Tragacanth comes from a shrub not more than two or three feet high, which grows in Syria, Persia, and some other neighboring re- aca^th Tia ° gions. From incisions it flows slowly at night and ceases during the day. The hardened drops have the appearance of horny filaments, with no smell, and very little taste. Our chief supplies come from Turkey. This gum is of great use in medicine and the arts. It is more expensive than some of the others. Mastic is produced by a small tree which thrives in the south of Europe. It is used in varnishes. Copal also exudes from certain trees which grow in the East Indies, Africa, and some localities in this country. It comes in lumps or small flat pieces, without taste or smell, and is a very valuable ingredient in varnish. It is exceedingly hard, and difficult to dissolve. Zac, sometimes called gum lac , is a substance pro¬ duced in Bengal, Assam, Pegu, etc., by an insert Copal. THE MANUAL OP COMMEECE. 219 upon tlie leaves and branches of certain trees, as a protection to its eggs. After being deposited, the egg is covered with a quantity of this lac formed into cells with as much art as a Lac ’ , or gum lac. honey-comb. Lac yields a fine red color, and is employed largely in making sealing-wax. It also yields a color for silk and cotton, and makes a paint and varnish. It is collected twice a year, by breaking down the encrusted leaves and branches. In this form it is called stick lac . Seed lac is what remains after the coloring matter has been ex¬ tracted. Shellac is produced by melting the seed lac in bags of cotton cloth, by which it is strained from many of its impurities, and is formed into thin plates or sheets. The insect which produces gum lac thrives best on certain species of the fig- tree. A cheaper method of separating the coloring- matter from the resinous part having been adopted within a few years, its commercial importance has greatly increased. The celebrated Lacquered ware , manufactured in India, China, etc., is made by ap- plying numerous coatings of lac varnish to the ar¬ ticles with a peculiar skill and care, for which the artizans in this manufacture are famous. BALSAMS. Balsams are mixtures of resin and essential oils. The crude pitch which exudes from the pine, is an example of a true balsam, as it can be separated by distillation into volatile oil (turpentine) and a hard resin. The principal commercial balsams are the 220 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. Peruvian balsam , from a tree of Central America and Pern; the Canada balsam , the product of the silver fir; “ Venice turpentine” from the Principal larclics which grow abundantly upon the Alps and Jura mountains, and was for¬ merly an extensive article of Venetian commerce; Copaiba balsam , and Tolu, from trees of Venezuela and some of the West India islands. There are a few others of less value. BURGUNDY PITCH. This resin is the product of the spruce fir, and is obtained from the tree by removing portions of the bark and laying bare the wood upon which the juice accumulates and hardens. It is pitcb Un(ly separated with iron instruments, and afterwards melted and strained. Great quantities are collected in the neighborhood of Neuf- chatel. It derives its name from the province of Burgundy, in the east of France, whence it comes. It furnishes but a part of the substance sold under the name, by druggists. This pitch is employed chiefly as a plaster. EUPHORBIUM. This is a substance obtained from one or more species of the plant Euphorbia, which somewhat resembles the cactus, having leafless, jointed, angu¬ lar stems, divided into branches of similar struc¬ ture, with strong prickles at the angles. When THE MANUAL OF COMMENCE. 221 wounded they yield an acrid, milky juice, which hardens on the surface, and being removed consti¬ tutes the Euphorbium of commerce. When pow¬ dered, it excites by its dust great irritation, so that those who pulverize it are obliged to v v . guard their nostrils, eyes and mouth. It is not so much used in medicine as formerly, on ac¬ count of its harsh and acrid properties. The plants which produce it grow in the north and west of Africa, the Canary Islands, Arabia, and the East Indies. GAMBOGE. Gramboge is a gum of a firm texture, and a beau¬ tiful yellow or orange color. It is brought chiefly from the East Indies, and is the concrete juice of a tree growing in Siam and Cambodia , whence it de¬ rives its English name. Incisions are ° Gamboge. made, and the juice flows out into vessels placed to receive it, where it hardens; and after being formed into rolls it is ready for market. It is used in medicine, and as a valuable coloring agent. MANNA. Manna is also the hardened juice of several trees of the ash family, growing in the south of Europe. It exudes spontaneously in warm, dry Manna weather, and hardens upon the bark into whitish drops or tears. It is obtained by mak¬ ing incisions in the tree and collecting the juice. It comes in chests, and is of a reddish or brownish 222 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. color, a sweet taste and peculiar smell. It is a mild medicine, and is principally imported from Sicily and Calabria. There are three commercial varieties of manna: flake manna , which is the purest, and is gathered in the hottest and dryest weather of July and August; common manna , collected in Sep¬ tember and the first part of October; fat manna , which exudes when the weather is cool in autumn, and does not readily harden. MYRRH. This is a resinous or gummy substance, the prod- uce of a tree of Arabia and Abyssinia. It has a fragrant odor and a bitter aromatic taste. It is translucent and of a reddish-yellow collor. It is Myrrh onl 7 llse ^ in medicine—although the an¬ cients regarded it as a very precious perfume, and counted it among their most valuable treasures. It was among the costly offerings made by the “ Wise Men of the East ” to the infant Christ. ASAFCETEDA. This is the resinous gum of a large, coarse plant, common in India, Persia, Afghanistan, and neigh¬ boring regions. The leaves spring from the root, and are numerous, large and spreading; of a leath¬ ery texture, light-green above, and pale beneath. The flower-stalk rises from among them, and bears a head of yellow blossoms, and an oval, flat, reddish-brown fruit, which in India is esteemed a valuable medicine. When the THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 223 leaves begin to fade, the earth is removed from about the top of the root, and stem and leaves twisted off near their base. After awhile the sum¬ mit of the root is cut smooth, and the juice begins to exude. It is scraped away and another thin slice of the root taken off to promote the flow of the juice. This process is continued as long as it will yield, and then the plant dies. Asafoetida is brought to this country either di¬ rectly from India, or by way of Great Britain, packed in mats, cases or casks. It is of a reddish color, and in irregular masses. The odor and taste are disgusting, although by constant use per¬ sons can accustom themselves to endure it, from the agreeable effects it often produces as a medi¬ cine. In India, and even in France, it is some¬ times used as a condiment, for its strong savor of garlic. LIQUORICE. The plant which produces this substance is a na¬ tive of the south of Europe, but is cultivated to some extent in England, and has been introduced into the warmer parts of the United States. The stem is usually about four plant™ 6 or five feet in hight, the leaves pale green, and clammy on the under side. Flowers purple, or violet, resembling those of the pea. The root is dug and dried, or ground and pressed when fresh, to extract the juice, which is after¬ wards evaporated by slow boiling till it becomes hard. It is then formed into rolls of considerable 224 THE MANUAL OF COMMEBCE. thickness, and covered with leaves. This is the state in which it is imported. The re- Liquorice. fined liquorice of the shops is prepared by re-dissolving and purifying it, and then casting it into small rolls about the size of a quill. This is done in England and this country. Our chief supplies come from Spain and Sicily. GINSENG. G-inseng is the root of a small plant growing in China, Tartary and several parts of North Amer¬ ica. It was formerly considered a very important medicine, and extravagantly valued by the Chinese, who sought for it with great eagerness, and paid for it an exorbitant price. Since its discovery in abundance in this country, and its export hence to China, which is almost its only market, its estima¬ tion and. price have materially declined. It was fa¬ bled by the Chinese to possess astonishing virtues; to cure all diseases, to preserve health, and prolong Ginseng. ^ e * ^ sa ^ t° have been worth its weight in gold at Pekin; and the first shipments from North America to Canton yielded enormous profits. The root is fleshy, sometimes spindle-shaped, about as thick as a finger. It is often divided into two portions, connected at the upper extremity, and bearing a supposed resemblance to the human form, from which circumstance it is said that the Chinese name ginseng originated, which means the resemblance of a man. It is dried, and then consists of a hard central portion, with a THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 225 wrinkled surface, and a soft, whitish hark. It is little used as a medicine, but some people have a habit of chewing it, having acquired a relish for the taste, which is sweetish, and a little like liquorice. SENNA. There are several plants which produce this well known medicine. They are all small shrubs, grow¬ ing in many places in Asia and Africa, and culti¬ vated in southern Europe and the West Indies. In Egypt the plant yields two crops of leaves, which are stripped off by the natives, together with the pods, which contain the seeds, Senna. and dried in the sun. They are then packed in bales for exportation. Different varie¬ ties are brought from different ports. That pro¬ duced in India is esteemed very highly. Senna was first used as a medicine by the Arabians, their country being favorable to its growth. The prin¬ cipal varieties of this drug known in commerce are the Alexandria, Tripoli, India and Mecca senna. A variety of the India senna, cultivated at Tinne- velly, and other places in Hindostan, is considered the most valuable. SARSAPARILLA. This is the root of several species of the plant Smilax, some of which are abundant in this country; but that most used in medi¬ cine is brought from Mexico, Honduras, and some of the warmest parts of South America. The dried 10 * 226 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. roots are several feet in length, about the thick¬ ness of a goose-quill. It is used both as a medi¬ cine and as a flavor in effervescing drinks. SASSAFRAS. This bark comes from the root of the sassafras tree, which grows almost everywhere in the United States. It is a tree of middling size, growing much larger in the Southern than the Northern States. The bark of the root is the part mostly used, though the pith is some¬ times employed. It is highly fragrant, and the taste warm and pleasant. Besides its medicinal uses it furnishes a very agreeable flavor in confec¬ tionery, beer, etc. RHUBARB. The rhubarb root, well known as a medicine, comes from several places in the East. Tartary, Siberia, Turkey, China, produce it in one or other of the varieties knovn to commerce. ■* In some places it is cultivated, while in others it grows spon¬ taneously. Certain species of the plant Rhubarb. . . , . . . are raised both m Europe and m this country for the sake of its large, fleshy, juicy leaf¬ stalks, which are used while young and tender in cookery. The root is dug twice a year in Tartary, whence the best qualities are derived. After be- of the root. n i n 8 cl eanec b the outer bark is scraped off and the root cut into pieces of conven¬ ient size, and strung on strings to dry. It is then THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 227 assorted and the best sent to Russia, whence it is exported. JALAP. This drug comes from the root of a twining plant or convolvulus, which grows in Mexico, whence it is chiefly imported. It derives its name from the city of Xalapa, in the neighborhood of Jalap which it is very abundant. Its leaves resemble the ivy, and its beautiful red or purple Rowers open only at night. The root, which is a pear-shaped tuber, is dried either whole or cut iu slices, and packed in bags for market. IPECACUANHA. This is also the root of a small shrubby plant growing in Brazil and other portions of South Amer¬ ica, in moist, thick, shady woods. The roots are four or five inches in length, and about the size of a goose-quill. They are chiefly collected Ipecacuanha> by the Indians, who tie them up in small bunches and dry them in the sun. Brazilian mer¬ chants buy of them, and export the drug from Rio Janeiro, Bahia and Pernambuco, in large bags or bales. CARDAMOMS. These are seeds of a tuberous plant, of which there are different species, growing in India, Siam, Ceylon and China. The best are brought from the Malabar coast. The plant grows wild among the 228 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. mountains, springing up in openings, especially where trees have been burned and ashes scattered. The capsules containing the seeds are picked and dried oyer a gentle fire, or in the sun, Cardamoms. T • for market. It is also cultivated by the natives of Malabar; great numbers deriving a livli- hood from this source. The seeds are of a warm and stimulating nature; and often used as a condi¬ ment in the East. They form a universal in¬ gredient in curry powder , and other sorts of Ori¬ ental food. ORRIS ROOT. Orris or Iris root is obtained from a plant of the iris family which grows in Italy. The thick, fleshy root is dug in the spring- the cuticle and Orris root. ° ^ fibres removed and then it is careiully dried. It is brought from Leghorn in casks. In a state of powder it is used in medicine and as a dentifrice on account of its agreeable odor. PERUVIAN BARK. Peruvian or Jesuit's bark is a very important article of commerce as well as a very valuable medicine. It is derived from several species of a tree called in botany cinchona , which obtained, grows principally in South America. It was originally obtained from Peru by the Jesuit priests who early ascertained its medicinal value. Such has been the eagerness to procure the bark that fears have formerly been entertained of an THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 229 entire exhaustion of the supply in consequence of a reckless destruction of the trees. Measures were taken accordingly to introduce them into Java and other localities of the East with success. Some of the cinchona trees are large, others are small, and some mere shrubs. The bark is pro¬ cured mostly by the natives, who fell the trees and remove it, or take it off while the tree is still stand¬ ing. It is then dried quickly as possible & i Preparation. in the sun, when it rolls up or becomes quilled. It is packed in cases of ox-hide lined with coarse cloth, and shipped from many South America ports. Quinine , one of the most important of all medicines, is obtained from this bark by chemical means. STRYCHNIA, ACONITE AND BELLADONNA. Strychnia , one of the most powerful of vegetable poisons, is obtained from the berries of the strychnia) Nux vomica, a small tree growing in India, aconite and . . . , . . ,, ^ belladonna. Aconite is extracted from the root and leaves of the well known plant “ Monk’s Hood.” Belladonna comes from the deadly nightshade, all parts of which are very poisonous. SECTION II.—SUBSTANCES OF MINERAL OR CHEMICAL DERIVATION. SALTS. Many of the drugs and medicines in common use are of a form chemically known as salts. For- 280 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. merly this term was applied to all substances indif¬ ferently, which resembled common salt in appearance and properties. Subsequently it was given to any compound produced by the union of an “ a °i ( l an( i a base; that is, an alkaline or other substance capable of combining with it in such a manner as to destroy or neutralize its properties. With the constant advance of chem¬ ical knowledge the term salt at the present day has a still wider application. But its simplest defini¬ tion, given above, is sufficient for our purpose in describing a few well-known medicines. EPSOM AND GLAUBER SALTS. The first of these is a sulphate of magnesia, (that is, a combination of sulphuric acid with the alkaline substance magnesia,) and is made from Epsom and sea_ water which has been partially evap- Giauber orated. Certain other chemical substances are added, resulting in this familiar med¬ icine. It has a bitter and disagreeable taste. Glau¬ ber salts, (or sulphate of soda) named for the chemist who first produced it, is also found in sea¬ water and many mineral springs. The complete evaporation leaves the salt behind in crystals. SAL AMMONIAC, HARTSHORN, SMELLING SALTS. The substance that often goes by all these names is the crude salt, chemically called muriate of am¬ monia, which is made from the liquor found in the THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 231 condensing vessels of coal gas works; and also from a liquid which results from the preparation of bone charcoal for the use of sugar sai am- refiners. These liquors are evaporated, moniac - and the crystals which form are sal ammoniac or muriate of ammonia. These crystals are used in preparing the liquid and other forms of ammonia. Hartshorn , or volatile alkali, is a name given to some of these preparations, because formerly shavings of the horns of deer were used in their manufacture. Both the salts and the . , . Hartshorn. liquid ammonia are used m many ways. Ammonia occurs naturally in the craters of volca¬ noes. It was formerly imported from Egypt, and from having been originally procured from a dis¬ trict in northern Africa, near the temple of Jupiter Ammon, acquired its name. Many salts of ammo¬ nia may be produced by combining it J J & Sources. with various acids. Most of the sal ammoniac consumed in the United States is obtained from abroad. Its commercial varieties are known under the names of crude and refined. The crude is imported from Calcutta in chests containing sev¬ eral hundred pounds. It is used extensively by artisans in brass and copper to keep the metallic surfaces bright preparatory to brazing. The refined quality comes mostly from England, packed in casks. BORAX. Borax is one of the salts of soda. It is white, transparent, and has an alkaline taste. It has been 232 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. found in small quantities in Thibet and South America, but the principal supply is obtained in Borax. tlie volcanic districts of Tuscany, in Italy, from basins called lagoons, into which jets of steam and boiling water holding this sub¬ stance in solution, are continually entering from fissures in the earth. Here these steam jets are made to deposit their acid. The water is after¬ wards evaporated, leaving the white, scaly crystals of borax. A large part of the borax of commerce is thus obtained. It is a valuable medicine. dliose who visit the lagoons of Tuscany where borax is found, describe them as places of great and singular interest. “As you approach them ” says Dr. Bowring, “ the earth seems to pour out boiling water, as if from volcanoes of various sizes, from a variety of soils, but chiefly of clay and sand. The heat in the immediate neighborhood is intolerable, and you are drenched with vapor of a strong and sulphurous smell. The whole scene is one Lagoons ^ err ^ e violence and confusion; the of Tuscany. noisy outbreak of the boiling water; the rugged and blasted surface; the volumes of steam; the-impregnated atmosphere. The ground burns and shakes beneath your feet, and the whole surface is covered with crystallizations of sulphur and other minerals.” In such localities are constructed the basins for the collection of the boracic acid. They are walled up with masonry, openings being left for the admission of the steam escaping from the earth. Water from adjacent springs is conducted into the THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 283 basin, which absorbs the acid brought up by the ascending vapor, and at the same time is heated to the boiling point. This water, after having ab¬ sorbed the greatest possible amount of the acid, is evaporated in leaden pans by the volcanic steam. The annual production from these sources is about three million pounds. Borax is used as a flux in working metals. , ALUM. Alum is occasionally found as a natural product in the earth, but the greatest proportion of that employed in the arts and in medicine, is manufac¬ tured artificially, by a chemical process. The ma¬ terials, consisting of the sulphates of alumina and potash with a proper proportion of water, are put in large casks and allowed to stand several weeks, when the interior of the cask becomes i Alum. lined with a thick coating of crystals. The staves of the cask are then removed, and an enormous mass of alum crystals of the shape of the cask, are left standing; these, when drained and broken up, constitute the alum of commerce. The best is made at Civita Yecchia in Italy. It is much used to fix colors which would not otherwise adhere to the fabric, and also employed in many ways in medicine. NITRE OR SALTPETRE. This salt exists in a natural state in many places. The chief sources of supply are certain districts of the East Indies, where it is found in the soil, and 234 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. often on the surface of the ground. It is obtained by draining water through the earth, and allowing this, which contains the dissolved salt, to evaporate. In Europe, nitre is formed artificially by mixing animal refuse of all kinds with old mortar, wood ashes, etc., in heaps, exposed to the air, preparation, but sheltered from the rain. These heaps are watered from time to time, with foul and putrid liquors, and after the lapse of two or three years, the mixture is washed and the salt dis¬ solved out. The earth on the floor of many caverns, becomes impregnated with substances, which, when leached with wood ashes or mingled with potash, yield nitre, (chemically called nitrate of potash.) The mammoth cave of Kentucky affords it in large quantities. Aquafortis , (or nitric acid,) one of the most pow¬ erful acids known, is derived from this salt by chemical means. It is used in a great variety of ways in the arts and in medicine. Aqua regia (royal water) is a mixture of nitric . . acid (or aqua fortis) with another acid (hydrochloric), and is remarkable for its power of dissolving gold and platinum. The an¬ cient alchemists called it royal water for that reason. Nitre is one of the most important of substances, and its uses are too many to enumerate. Besides importance ^eing an essential ingredient in gunpow¬ der, it is an antiseptic, and employed in preserving meat. Its value in medicine and sur¬ gery is also very great. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 235 SULPHUR. Sulphur is a substance very widely disseminated throughout the mineral kingdom, and is almost always present in minute quantities in animal and vegetable matter. It occurs in the earth either in a native state or in combination with certain metals, such as iron, lead, mercury, copper and zinc, form- • ing compounds called sulphurets. When native it is found in masses, clear or in a powdery gulpllur * form mixed with various earthy impuri- native and ties. Native sulphur is most abundant combmed - in volcanic countries, and hence is sometimes called volcanic sulphur. The most productive localities are in Sicily and Italy. The celebrated mine at Solfatara (in what was formerly the Kingdom of Naples), is situated in the crater of an extinct vol¬ cano. It has yielded immense quantities of sulphur for many years, but lately seems exhausted, and will not pay for working. A large mine of sulphur has been opened in California, about twenty miles from Santa Barbara and seven from the sea-coast. The sulphur is obtained from the earths which contain it by placing them in earthen pots set in furnaces of brick-work, where they are exposed to such a degree of heat as will separate the sulphur from them, which flows into a vessel containing wa¬ ter. Fire being applied, the sulphur rises in vapor, leaving the impurities behind. This is How obtained called crude sulphur. To purify it fur- InTsuiphu- ther, it is melted in a cast-iron vessel, rets, and the sediment having subsided, it is dipped out, 236 THE MANUAL OP COMMERCE. • and poured into cylindrical, wooden moulds, which give it the form of solid cylinders about an inch in diameter. This is called in commerce roll sulphur , or cane brimstone. The dregs, remaining after this process, are ground to powder, and constitute a very impure kind of sulphur, called horse brimstone. From the native sulphurets (iron and copper pyrites) it is extracted by a kind of distillation. Crude sulphur comes to this country principally, from Messina in Sicily, and the ports of Italy. Roll sulphur , and that in the form of an impalpable pow¬ der called sublimed sulphur , or flowers of sulphur , come from Marseilles. Great quantities of crude sulphur are employed in making sulphuric acid, the most important of all the acids, and a great many other chemical com¬ pounds. It is also used in dyeing, refining the precious metals, etc. Great Britain alone con¬ sumes annually more than twenty millions of pounds. In medicine its modes of employment are numberless. CALOMEL, ETC. This is a preparation of mercury, with other substances, used in medicine, and con- Calomel, etc. . . sidered of great value in certain diseases. Corrosive sublimate is another preparation with sim¬ ilar components. Many other mineral matters are employed for various purposes by physicians and surgeons, which are generally prepared for use by chemical pro¬ cesses. Many of them are deadly poisons, and THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 287 of course require to be used with the greatest skill and caution. The limits of this book do not admit of naming any more of them. Certain chemical preparations, however, used as a means of producing insensibility to pain, called anaesthetics , have come into very extensive use within a comparatively recent period. They may be briefly mentioned. ETHER, CHLOROFORM, ETC. Ether , or sulphuric ether as it is also called, is a colorless, transparent, fragrant liquid, very thin, and evaporating with great rapidity. It is obtained by heating equal weights of strong alcohol and oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) in a retort, to the boil¬ ing point. A highly volatile liquid distils over, which is known as ether. It is very combustible, both in a state of fluid, and ether, of vapor, and on this account should never be brought near a flame. When the vapor of ether, mixed with atmospheric air, is inhaled, it produces at first a species of intoxication, which is soon succeeded by a kind of stupor, during which the system is nearly or quite insensible to pain. Chloroform is made by distilling alcohol with a solution of chloride of lime (bleaching powder). It has an oily appearance, is colorless, chloroform and of a pleasant, ethereal odor, and a a || d chloric sweetish taste. What is called chloric ether , contains an excess of alcohol, and is the liq¬ uid generally sold and used under the name of 238 THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. chloroform. The vapor inhaled with atmospheric air produces effects similar to those of ether. Nitrous oxide is a gas prepared from nitrogen and oxygen, which has a- peculiar, exhilarating effect when inhaled. It is sometimes called laughing , or exhilarating gas. It will also produce an insensibil¬ ity to pain, of a more transient character than ether or chloroform. Dentists frequently use it to give relief from the suffering, incident to operations upon teeth. Its preparation is more expensive than that of the others, and its use is comparatively re¬ stricted. Chloral , or hydrate of chloral , as it is usually chloral, or termed, is a preparation of very recent hydrate of date, designed to produce effects of a sim¬ ilar kind to those mentioned above, al¬ though it is taken into the stomach instead of being inhaled. It is a liquid compound of chlorine, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, chemically obtained. SECTION III.—MEDICINAL OILS. Oils of various kinds are used as medicines; the most common of which are castor-oil , croton-oil and cod-liver oil. Castor-oil is obtained from the seeds of the castor-oil plant (Palma Christi) found native in many tropical countries. The oil is separated from the seeds by boiling them in water, or by pressure. The latter mode is much the best. The castor-oil THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 239 plant is extensively cultivated in many portions of this country, especially in New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, and Illinois. The oil is . Castor-oil. manufactured on a large scale m ot. Louis. Hydraulic and other improved presses have within a few years been adopted, with most favorable re¬ sults, the quantity of oil being much increased, while time and labor are economized. The seeds are about the size of a small bean, of a grayish or ash color, marbled with reddish-brown spots and veins. They are covered with a prickly capsule, which has three cells, each containing one seed. In hot climates the plant becomes a small shrub or tree, in cold ones it is an annual. Croton-oil is derived from the seeds of a shrub growing in Hincloostan and other warm portions of Asia. The fruit of this shrub is about Croton-oil. the size of a hazel-nut, somewhat tri¬ angular in shape, and contains, like the castor-oil plant, three seeds about as large as a pea. These seeds yield the oil by pressure. This medicine has been in use for a long time in India. The oil is often used externally to irritate the skin. It is a very powerful drug. Cod-liver oil is obtained from the livers of codfish by heating them, and also by pressure. The best oil is without color, taste, or smell, and Cod _ liver oil> of a very light color. It is often adul¬ terated with other fish oils, chiefly bleached whale oil. It is considered a valuable remedy in pul¬ monary complaints. There are three varieties known in the market; 240 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. white or pale yellow, brownish yellow, and dark brown. They differ only in the mode of prepara¬ tion ; the pale being made from fresh, sweet livers, the dark brown from livers in a state of putrefac¬ tion, and the brownish yellow from those in an intermediate state. Great quantities are obtained on our coast. Twenty or thirty thousand gallons annually are procured by seamen between Boston and Eastport in Maine, with special reference to the drug market. SECTION IV.—LEECHES AND SUBSTAN¬ CES OF ANIMAL ORIGIN USED IN MEDICINE. The leech is an aquatic worm with a flattened body tapering towards each end and terminating in circular flattened disks, the hinder one being the larger of the two. It swims with an undula¬ ting motion and moves when out of the water by means of these disks or suckers, fastening itself The leech ^ rst by one an( i then by the other and alternately stretching out and contract¬ ing its body. The mouth is in the center of the forward disk, and is furnished with three lens-shaped jaws lined at their edges with fine, sharp teeth. They meet in such a manner as to make a triangu¬ lar incision in the flesh. The leech is from two to four inches in length, and is marked by dark lines along its back, which THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 241 vary in color from a blackish to a grayish green. It inhabits marshes and running streams, ami is abundant throughout Europe. It can be kept a considerable time in certain kinds of moss or moist¬ ened clay, and is frequently transported to great distances by dealers. The frequent use made of leeches in the practice of medicine has caused them to become a consid¬ erable article of commerce. They are T v collected in Spain, Fraiice, Italy and Ger¬ many, and carried to London and Paris. They are also exported to this country, although our own waters furnish them in great numbers. The occupation of the leech-gatherer is a very dreary and uncomfortable one. He goes with naked arms and legs, wading in bogs and streams where these worms are known to abound. Some of them attach themselves to his gathe ri n g. limbs, from which he transfers them to. his pouch. Others are caught by the hand as they swim slowly in the water or hide among the roots and mosses. Others are scooped up in a small vessel. The trader buys the whole lot and after¬ wards assorts them for the market. They are used for the local abstraction of blood. CANTHARIDES. Cantharides or Spanish flies , also called blistering flies, are the dried bodies of a kind of beetle which inhabits the south of Europe, especially Spain, Italy, and the south of France. This insect is over 11 242 THE MANUAL OF COMMENCE. half an inch in length, of a beautiful, shining, gold¬ en-green color, with a large heart-shaped head, bearing two thread-like, black, jointed feelers. The wing-sheaths are long and flexible, covering brown¬ ish membranous wings. When alive the Spanish flies have a strong, penetrating, fetid odor by which swanks'of them may be detected at a considerable distance. At certain times of the year these beetles frequent particular trees, the poplar, elder, ash, etc., to feed upon their foliage, and at these seasons they are collected. The time Cantharides. selected for this purpose is early in the morning, when they are torpid from the cold of the night. Persons with their faces protected by masks, and their hands with gloves, shake the trees or beat them with poles; and the insects are received upon cloths spread underneath for the purpose. They are killed by being plunged into weak vinegar or exposed to its vapor when boiling. After being dried thoroughly, they are put into casks or boxes lined with paper, to exclude the moisture of the air, and sent to foreign countries. Considerable quan¬ tities are also brought from St. Petersburg, derived from the southern provinces of Russia, where the insect is also abundant. Russian flies are distin¬ guished by their greater size, and a color approach¬ ing that of copper. They Sre much used in medi¬ cine, chiefly for raising blisters. CHAPTEK XI. COLORING MATTERS. COCHINEAL. The cochineal is an insect which feeds on certain species of cactus growing in Central America and other warm latitudes in this country and the West Indies. It is small, seldom exceeding the . P . p , , IT Cochineal size ot a gram o± barley, and was tor a Ingect long time believed to be a vegetable grain or seed. These insects are carefully reared in im¬ mense numbers, by making them deposit .their eggs where they can be protected from injury, and where the young insects can be properly nourished by their natural food, the cactus, on which alone they thrive. When they have attained the proper age and size, they are detached from the plant with a blunt knife, put into bags and dipped into hot water to kill them; after which they are dried in the sun. This constitutes their preparation for market. They have the appearance of small, dry, shrivelled ber¬ ries or seeds, of a brown, purple, or silver-white color. They are imported in bags, each containing about two hundred pounds. Cochineal is used in dyeing scarlet, crimson, purple, and other rich shades, by being ground and having the color ex- 244 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. tracted. Carmine is one of its most valuable and beautiful products. The business of rearing this insect is carried on most successfully in Mexico, from which the greatest part of the coch- produced. i nea l of commerce is derived. The In¬ dians engage in it, and produce large sup¬ plies, gathering the crop three times a year. The female insect only is valuable, as it is much larger than the male, and without wings. MADDER. This color is extracted from the root of a plant Madder growing spontaneously in the south of Europe and some parts of Asia. It is extensively cultivated in Holland, from which, as well as other European countries it is imported. It is used in dyeing red, and is a cheap and durable color. The roots vary in size from that Turkey red. . ^ of a quill to that of the finger. The madder of Turkey affords a very bright color, when properly prepared, and gives its name to the beautiful Turkey red , so highly esteemed. BRAZIL WOOD. This wood, which affords a fine red color, grows in Brazil. The tree which produces it is large, crooked and knotty; the leaves are tinged with red, and exhale an agreeable odor. The bark is very thick, and the timber is often used for cabinet work. But its THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 245 principal employment is in dyeing. The best quality has been brought from the region of Per¬ nambuco ; but it is found in many other localities. LOGWOOD. The logwood tree is a native of Central America, and attains its greatest perfection in Campeachy and the West Indies. The wood is hard, com¬ pact and heavy, of a deep red color in- & ternally. Used in cabinet work it takes a fine pol¬ ish, and is very durable. It is imported in logs, that are afterwards chipped or ground to a coarse powder. The color of its dyes is a violet red. or purple. FUSTIC. Fustic is the wood of a species of mulberry, which abounds in many parts of South America, in the United States and the West India Islands. It is a large and handsome tree, the wood rather brittle and easily splintered if used for timber, but still hard and strong. The wood, ground or rasped, is very extensively used in the dyeing of yellow, and is largely imported for that purpose from Mexico, Brazil, Cuba, etc. Tumeric , another yellow dye, comes from the root of an East Indian plant. ANNOTTO. Annotto or Arnatto, as it is sometimes written, is a species of red or buff dye, formed from the pulp 246 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. enveloping the seeds of a plant common in South Annotto. America, and the East and West Indies. The pods containing the seeds are placed in hot water, to which the pulp yields its color. This is allowed to dry away in the shade in shallow vessels. It is made up into cakes or rolls for market. The best annotto comes almost wholly from Cayenne, in South America. It dyes yellow, and is sometimes used to color butter and cheese. INDIGO. This valuable color is obtained from a plant which is cultivated for the purpose in India and other places in the East, as well as in this country, where it has been introduced. In the northern part of South America and other tropical and warm indigo portions of this continent, the plant will flourish, and already produces considera¬ ble quantities. But it has been obtained from a very remote period from the East, and the principal supplies still come from there. The seed is small, resembling gunpowder in ap¬ pearance. It is sown in drills a foot apart, in a light, rich soil. When the plants have attained their maturity, they are cut down and produced, placed in layers in a large vessel, and covered with water. In this situation fermentation takes place, the liquor becomes of a greenish color, and when evaporated leaves a blue sediment which is made up into cakes, and in this form becomes the indigo of commerce. It is brit- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 247 tie, light, and insoluble in water; but sulphuric acid dissolves it without changing its color. It is used in dyeing, in the laundry, and in medicine. CUDBEAR AND LITMUS. Various species of lichen afford, when bruised or pounded and mixed with alkaline liquois, a pui- ple coloring matter, which is much esteemed in dyeing. That which is most used at Cudbear present, is called cudbear , which is pre¬ pared from a lichen growing on limestone rocks in the north of Europe. Litmus is a similar dye¬ stuff made from another species of moss which is found on marine rocks, and is especially abundant in the Canary and Cape Verd islands. Litmus is prepared by coarsely powdering the lichen and fermenting it in close vessels for several weeks, with certain alkaline substances. The col¬ oring matter is thus separated, and after- Litmus wards taken out, dried and cut into small squares for use. It is much employed in practical chemistry as a test for acids. CHEMICAL COLORS. Certain beautiful and valuable colors of recent commercial importance are now produced by chem¬ ical processes from various substances. Most of the greens used in dyeing, are of mineral origin, pre¬ pared from copper, chromium and lead. Quick¬ silver produces the splendid vermilion in the form 248 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. of cinnabar, found native in gome localities, and also artificially made in great abundance, to supply the commercial demand. ULTRAMARINE. For many centuries the beautiful stone called ultramarine has been known and valued, both for its larity and its splendid color, a rich, deep, azure blue, such as no other mineral possessed. This stone was often used in mosaic work, or, if found in masses sufficiently large, made into vases and Lapis-iazuii. other ornam ents, whose beauty was only equalled by their costliness. It was brought from China, Siberia and Persia. Magnifi¬ cent slabs of this stone ornament some of the ca¬ thedrals of Italy. When pulverized and mixed with wax, resin and linseed oil, and worked in water, it deposited a pure powder, oi a blue color, and of extraordinary beauty and permanence. This blue received the name of ultramarine , and was worth its weight in gold! In 1814 a chemist of France, named Vanquelin, discovered in a furnace used for the manufacture ■of soda*, an unknown blue substance, which, when analyzed, proved to be the same in composition with the lapis-lazuli. The constituents of this precious mineral had met by accident, in ultramarine. the proper proportions, and formed it artificially. From this discovery came, some years later, the process of making this most valuable color, at a price which has since brought it within the reach of dyers and painters all over THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 249 the world. A green variety is also produced by similar means. ANILINE DYES. From the distillation of coal tar, among many other interesting and curious products brought to notice within a few years, is obtained a substance called aniline. When pure it is a thin color¬ less fluid of an oily appearance; but as found in the shops, it is generally more or less colored. It has a peculiar odor, and a pungent, aromatic, burning taste. It was first discovered in 1826, among the results of the distillation of indigo , and called aniline from anil , a name of the indigo plant. The identical substance is found by distilling coal tar, and called by the same name. The chief com¬ mercial value of aniline consists in the coloring matters derived from it. Beautiful reds, purples, yellows, blues, and various other tints are obtained from it, some of which are truly magnifi¬ cent. Those known as mauve, magenta, f 0 ™r^° solferino, etc., are examples. The dis¬ covery has already wrought great changes in the art of dyeing, and promises still farther improve¬ ments as science shall make known its wider appli¬ cations. INKS. Ink is made of a variety of ingredients, according to the use for which it is designed. Com¬ mon black writinq ink is generally made Bla ?. k . , by an infusion of nut-galls mingled with dissolved copperas, and some other less important 11 * 250 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. substances. There are many very valuable and well known recipes for making it. Blue ink is made by dissolving the substance called Prussian blue in a certain acid, and thicken¬ ing it with a gum or mucilage. Sympathetic ink is made from a solution of cobalt in an acid. Characters written with it are invisible until exposed to heat, when the letters appear blue. India ink or sepia is a solution used much in water colors. It comes chiefly from China in rolls or square cakes, and is made of fine lamp-black and animal glue. Formerly it was supposed to be derived from a gland of the sepia or India ink. , _ . . . . . x cuttle fish, which contains a dark-colored liquid, and which the animal is said to use for defence and escape from its enemies, by coloring the water so that it can not be seen. Drawings made of this substance are therefore called draw¬ ings in sepia. The name of India ink is applied to it because it was obtained from China through India. It is used by moistening the cake with water and applying it with a brush. Although the cuttle-fish does not produce this substance, as was formerly believed, the contents of the ink-bag which it contains, are sometimes dried and used for a color, to a very Cuttle Ash. p m p. e( j es q en k This fish, which is com¬ mon to the seas of Europe, especially the Mediter¬ ranean, also furnishes a bone from five to ten inches in length, and from one and a half to three inches wide, somewhat convex on both sides, which is THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 251 of some use in the arts, and in medicine. This hone is often found floating in the Meditenanean. It is sometimes used in tooth-powder. Small pieces are also hung in bird-cages. INDELIBLE AND OTHER INKS. The principal ingredient of these inks is nitrate of silver , which, when exposed to the action of light blackens rapidly, if in contact with cloth, paper, or any organic substance. The stain it im¬ parts is permanent, if the ink is properly made and applied. Printing ink is prepared by burning linseed oil in suitable vessels till it becomes thor- priiiting ^ oughly charred, and acquires a viscid consistency. It is then mixed with a certain pro¬ portion of fine lamp-black. Soaps, resin, etc., are added. Various colored inks and writing fluids obtain a brief popularity from time to time. CHAPTER XII. ANIMAL SUBSTANCES OF USE OR ORNAMENT. IVORY. Ivory is the name given to the teeth or tusks of the elephant, and of the walrus or sea-horse. Each male elephant come to maturity, has two tusks Iyory which are hollow at the root, tapering, and of various sizes according to the age of the animal. The best are large, straight, light colored and without flaws. Those most esteemed come from Africa, being of a closer texture and less liable to turn yellow than those from the East Indies. The medium weight of a tusk is about sixty pounds. Large numbers of this noble animal are annually destroyed both in Africa and India to furnish this article to commerce. The eastern and western coasts of Africa, the Cape of and uses. Good Hope, Ceylon and Incua, are the great marts whence the supplies of ivory are derived. Large quantities are consumed in the manufacture of handles for knives, parts of musical and mathematical instruments, chess-men, billiard balls, fans, toys and innumerable other articles. Dieppe is more celebrated for its ivory manufac- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 253 tures than any place in Europe; but the Chinese excel every other people in the working of this beautiful material. The tusks and teeth of certain extinct animals of the elephant kind are also found in a fossil state, and constitute an article of commerce of consider¬ able importance. The bones of these animals are very abundant in the northern, and even ■ Fog8 j liv . ory> polar regions of Asia. Although at the present day the elephant is found native only in the tropics, yet in some former period of the earth s history it is evident he had a far more extensive range. Very interesting particulars of the dis¬ covery of deposits of these remains are given in a work recently published, from which a few para¬ graphs are extracted. * “ There hardly exists a more remarkable article of commerce than these remains of an extinct ani¬ mal. In North Siberia, along the Obi, the Yenisei, the Lena, and their tributaries, from latitude 58° to 70°, or along the shores of the Polar sea, the bones of a species of elephant (or mammoth) are discov¬ ered embedded in the frozen soil, or be- Eemarkablo come exposed by the annual thawing and deposits, crumbling of the river banks. Dozens of tusks are frequently found together. The most astonishing deposit of mammoth bones occurs in the Lachow islands, where, in some localities, they are accumulated in such quantities as to form the chief substance of the soil. Year after year the tusk-hunters work through the short summer at the *Hartwig’s Tolar World. 254 THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. cliffe without producing any sensible diminution of the supply. The solidly frozen stratum in which the bones lie, thaws to a certain extent annually, allowing the tusks to drop out or to be quarried. “The Liichow islands were discovered in 1770, by a merchant of that name, who was engaged in collecting fossil ivory about Cape Sviatoi. He saw, one day, a large herd of reindeer coming over the ice from the north. Resolute and courageous, he at once resolved to follow their tracks, in the be¬ lief that they would conduct him to land not yet known. After a sledge journey of nearly fifty miles over the ice, he came to an island, and some twelve miles farther to another, where, owing to the roughness of the ice, and the difficulty of ad¬ vancing, his excursion terminated. He saw enough, however, of the richness of the two islands in mam¬ moth teeth, to show him that another visit would , be a valuable speculation; and on making Discovery of x ° the Lachow his report to the Russian government, he islands. obtained an exclusive privilege of dig¬ ging for mammoth bones on the islands which he had discovered, and to which his name had been given. In the summer of 1773 he returned, and ascertained the existence of a third island, much larger than the others, mountainous, and having its coasts covered with drift-wood. He then went back to the first island, wintered there, and re¬ turned in the spring with a valuable cargo of mam¬ moth tusks. From these islands immense supplies have since been derived, and the source seems in¬ exhaustible. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 255 “ The ice in which these remains are embedded sometimes preserves the entire body of the animal, notwithstanding the ages that must have elapsed since it inhabited this frozen region. In 1799 the carcass of a mammoth protruded from the cliff, and eventually thawed and fell down upon the ice. It was so fresh that dogs and white bears fed upon the flesh for two summers. The skeleton is preserved at St. Petersburg, and speci- ^“ s ? th mens of the woolly hair with which it was covered, were sent to the principal museums of Europe.” This woolly coat upon the skin is thought to prove that the climate of Siberia, though then, no doubt, much milder than at present, still re¬ quired the protection of such a covering upon the enormous beasts that once were so numerous there. The substance known as Vegetable ivory is the kernel of the ivory nut the fruit of a species of palm, which grows exclusively in South America. It is about the size of a hen’s egg, and Vegetablo when green contains a fluid which grad- ivory, ually hardens into a whitish, close-grained, solid substance, resembling the purest ivory in tex¬ ture and color. It is cut into small ornamental 01 useful articles. The ivory tree grows in damp localities, along the banks of rivers and streams. The nuts are chiefly imported from the Magdalena river into Europe and the United States, dhey are known in commerce as Corosso nuts. 256 THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. TORTOISE-SHELL. Tortoise-shell. This is the shell of a species of tortoise or turtle which is an inhabitant of tropical seas; the finest being obtained on the shores of the Spice islands, and New Guinea. The back of this turtle, which is called the hawk’s-bill turtle, is covered with plates or scales spotted or mottled with brown and yellow, which overlap each other like tiles, or slates upon a roof. These are separated by he^it, and afterwards softened by the same means, preparatory to working. Tortoise-shell is used for inlaying combs, snuff¬ boxes, and a great variety of ornamental work. These turtles yield, on an average, about ten or twelve pounds. They are much smaller than the green turtle used for food. The goodness of tortoise-shell depends on the size and thickness of the plates, and the clearness and brilliancy of the colors. Singapore is the chief mart for this article. The West Indies likewise produce an inferior quality of tortoise-shell. Uses. WHALEBONE. 'Whalebone is a fine elastic substance resembling bone taken from the upper jaw of the Greenland, or right whale. It occurs in long, thin plates, arranged transversely, and fringed at the Whalebone & , and its uses, edges with hairy or thread-like appenda¬ ges. There are about three hundred of these plates in the mouth of a full grown whale, THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 257 varying from ten to fifteen feet in length. Their use is to retain the small marine animals which constitute the food of the whale. It is prepared for use by being softened and dyed black. Whalebone is used in various ways, to stiffen cor¬ sets, dresses, etc., in the manufacture of umbrellas, parasols, sun-shades, whips, and for many other purposes. It is one of the important commercial products of the whale fishery. HORN. Horn is a hard substance growing on the heads of many cloven-footed quadrupeds, and is an arti¬ cle of considerable value in the arts and in manu¬ factures. The horns of bullocks, being softened by heat, slit open and flattened by pressure, Hom serve to make lanterns, buttons, combs, handles for knives, etc. Horn is often colored to resemble tortoise-shell. When in thin layers it is semi-transparent, and has sometimes been used for windows instead of glass. Combs are made of horn by the following process: The solid tip of the horn is sawed off and may be used Making a for a knife handle or some small article, comb of The stump of the horn which is hollow, is then heated till it is as soft as leather. When in this state it is cut open and pressed between two iron plates. It is then plunged into water, from which it is taken out hard and fiat. The comb- maker next divides it into proper lengths, and cuts the teeth with saws and files. The process is much 258 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. the same as in working tortoise shell and ivory into combs, except that the ivory must first be sawed into thin leaves. Besides the supply of horn from a domestic source, immense quantities are obtained from South supply. America, Europe and Africa. The horns of the bison and buffalo, chamois and antelope, are used for the nicer kinds of work. Those of the deer, which are solid and shed annu¬ ally, are employed for many useful purposes. HAIR. Hair of various kinds is an article of considera¬ ble importance in commerce. The most valuable is human hair , especially of late, when it is so gen¬ erally worn by ladies as an adjunct or ornament to their own. It is derived from various sources, some H ^ °f which would not add to its esteem in hair? fh e mind of the wearer. But large quantities are obtained from European countries, particularly Northern France, Belgium and Germany. Hair of the growth of colder coun¬ tries is more valuable than that of warm ones. Ihe lighter colors, which are most prized, are chiefly the production of Germany; the darker shades are imported from France, where a peas¬ ant girl will sell the hair from her head without any sense of degradation. Indeed, so common is the practice in France, that agents are employed to tiaverse certain districts annually for the purpose of collecting the crops of human hair which are THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 259 assiduously cultivated for the money they will bring 1 . Many of these locks weigh more o f _ ,1 . , L . ,1 , Preparation than a pound. In the hands ot the bar- anc j u8e- ber or perruquier, they are formed into switches, frizettes, curls, and many other styles for ladies’ wear; and into wigs, etc., for gentlemen. Certain vegetable fibres which have a resemblance to hair, are largely used in place of it for ladies head-dresses when fashion requires. Jute is the most common. It is from a plant growing Jute> abundantly in the East, where the fibres, which are much like hemp, are employed in making gunny-cloth mats, cordage, etc. When laid in long smooth locks and dyed black, or various shades of brown, it furnishes an appendage to the head, which costs little, and at a distance might be taken for human hair. It is also braided and arranged in various forms for sale. Horse hair comes next in value. The shorter portions are curled by heat, and used much in up¬ holstery, for stuffing various articles of furniture. That employed in weaving the hair-cloth for cover- ering furniture, comes from the tail of Horge hair the animal. Large supplies are procured from South America and from Russia. All the dark shades and the gray, are dyed for the manu¬ facture of black hair-cloth. The white is reserved for brighter colors and fancy work. The weaving is done entirely by hand, with a kind of hook-shuttle, which is put Hair _ cloth through the threads of the warp towards the left hand of the weaver. An assistant places 260 THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. a single hair over the end of the hook which is drawn through the warp. By this tedious proc¬ ess hair-cloth is manufactured. The hairs or bristles of swine are used to make brushes, etc. That of the cow and ox, for strength¬ ening lime mortar for plaster. CHAPTEK XIII. GEMS OR PRECIOUS STONES, AND JEWELRY. The name of gem (from the Latin gemma a bud,) is given to certain stones prized from very ancient times for their brilliant lustre, splendid colors, or perfect transparency. They possess, also, a hardness which renders them susceptible of the highest polish and capable of retaining unimpaired the forms into which they are cut, and the lines or figures which may be engraved upon them. These properties, taken in connection with their rareness, have given to them the highest value of all substances. The richest specimens have been prized above all earthly possessions; they have been consecrated by idolatrous nations to their gods ; and among the civilized, purchased and held at prices which only the wealthiest govern¬ ments could pay. Those commonly called “crown jewels ” comprise diamonds, rubies and emeralds. These stones are usually found in the form of worn pebbles among the sands, derived from rocks in which, doubtless they were originally vrenerai 2tp- embedded. Some, however, appear as pearance of crystals attached to certain rocky sub- ^™^ fore stances; or in the interior of geodes , (stony lumps containing crystals inside,) of whose 262 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. dark cavities, they made with other crystals, a glittering incrustation. But in general, these pre¬ cious pebbles must be submitted to the skill and tools of the lapidary to develop their form and highest lustre. The great value attached to precious stones led to successful attempts to imitate them at a very early date. The Egyptians possessed the art of coloring glass, and among these objects they pro¬ duced excellent imitations of the most beautiful gems, so that, as Pliny states, it was difficult to dis¬ tinguish the false from the real. Artificial emer¬ alds, sapphires, etc., are also spoken of by ancient authors. But in modern times the art gems}> ‘ has attained a perfection which is truly astonishing, chiefly through the experi¬ ments and ingenuity of certain German and French chemists and jewel-workers. A transparent glass of great lustre was invented by a German named Strass, (and called by his name) which is the basis of all the artificial gems. The pure Strass (or paste as it is also called) may be cut into the forms of the diamond and readily pass for it. Emerald, topaz, rub}r, amethyst, garnet, carbuncle, and indeed every other stone of value may be so closely imitated as to be distinguished from the genuine only by the sharp¬ est scrutiny of those experienced in such matters. The greatest establishments for the production of false gems are in Paris, where an immense num¬ ber of workmen are employed in furnishing them to commerce. The greatest difficulty is found in imitating the hardness of true gems as well as their permanence of color. THE MANUAL OF COMMENCE. 263 THE DIAMOND. The Diamond is the most beautiful and valuable of precious stones, and has been known and prized as a gem from the remotest ages, no ° > 0 The diamond. other approaching it in value, except the ruby. Its substance is pure crystallized carbon. It is the hardest body known, being used to cut and polish other gems as well as itself. • Diamonds are found in various parts of India, chiefly at Golconda, although the supply from this source is greatly diminished. These mines were discovered in 1584, and yielded gems to an enor¬ mous value for centuries. At present diamonds are found abundantly in Brazil, Siberia, Southern Africa, etc., from which places the market is chiefly supplied. New localities, however, are -» . • . . • pc * i Sources of discovered irom time to time winch anord gupply# these precious gems to a greater or less extent. Those in South Africa may be mentioned as among the latest. They are obtained by digging in mines, or by washing the sands where they are known to lie, or by searching the beds of streams. They are rarely embedded in rocks, like many valu¬ able metals, but are generally found associated with loose sand and gravel, brought by water from a distance. In their natural state diamonds have usually the appearance of semi-transparent rounded Natura]ap . pebbles, and are covered by a thin opaque pearance of , „ . .. ,, . the diamond. crust. On removing tins crust, their wonderful brilliancy becomes apparent. They are 264 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. commonly colorless, but are sometimes of a pale blue, yellow, green, or rose tint. Being the hardest substance in nature, the dia¬ mond can only be cut and polished by itself. Some¬ times the rough diamonds are made to c!mng f cut one another, but oftener they are wrought upon a horizontal disk of steel covered with diamond dust and oil, which revolves two or three thousand times per minute; the inferior or imperfect stones being broken up to furnish the powder. The gems are pressed against this revolv¬ ing plate or disk, and thus ground to the form desired. Diamonds are generally wrought into the shapes known as the brilliant , and the rose diamond. The brilliant has a flat summit in the centre, diamond an d is surrounded by facets below it, ter¬ minating in a blunt point beneath. The rose is flat on the under side, and covered with tri¬ angular facets on the upper, terminating in a point above. The brilliant shows the gem to the best ad¬ vantage. The weight of diamonds is estimated in carats ; 150 carats being equal to one ounce Troy. The brilliancy is expressed by the term water , the purest being of the first water, the next of the second, „ . t and so on. The rule for calculating the Weight, bril- , ® liancyand value of diamonds is peculiar, and may gem. 0Ofth<3 expressed as being in the squares of their respective weights. Thus, if three diamonds of equal quality, weighed respectively, one, two, and three carats, their separate value THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 265 would be as one, four, and nine—the squares of their weights. This rule, however, only applies to gems of medium size. Some diamonds of large size and immense value have been found, both in the mines of Golconda and Brazil. The very largest are the product of the former, while Brazil furnishes the greatest quantity. The annual produce of the Brazilian mines, at the present time, is estimated from ten to thirteen pounds, but many are unfit for jewelry. The largest known diamond is an uncut gem, be¬ longing to the crown jewels of Portugal. It was found in Brazil, about the j^ear 1808, and weighs 1680 carats, or about eleven ounces. About the mid¬ dle of the sixteenth century a diamond was T n , . „ Large or re- lound m Golconda which had the form markable of half a hen’s-egg, and weighed nearly diamonds - six ounces. This diamond, which was long known as the Great Mogul , from its possessor, has disap¬ peared, and is thought to be broken up; the separate pieces now constituting three of the largest gems in the world; one belonging to the sovereign of Russia, and fixed in the sceptre of that empire; the second being the» celebrated Koh-i-noor , or “mountain of light,’ taken by the British troops at the capture of Lahore, in India, and now in the possession of the Queen of England; the third belonging to the Shah of Persia. The value of the Russian diamond has been estimated at twenty millions of dollars, and that of the Koh-i-noor at from three to ten millions. The other large diamonds most worthy of note, 12 266 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. are a splendid yellow gem belonging to the crown other ceie- Austria, which is said to have been brated dia- 0 nce sold as a bit of colored glass; the Pitt , or Regent diamond, belonging to France, which is of a light blue color, and allowed to be, on the whole, the finest in existence. It was brought from India by Mr. Pitt, and sold to the Regent of France in 1717, for about $700,000, although its value as estimated by a commission of Parisian jewelers, is about $3,000,000. As the diamond is known to be pure carbon, many attempts have been made to fuse or crystal¬ lize some form of carbon less pure, in order to manu¬ facture from it artificially, this precious gem; but they have hitherto failed. A chemist of Paris, in Manufac, 1853, indeed, succeeded, after a long turing dia- continued trial with the voltaic battery, in depositing at one of the poles a quan¬ tity of carbon in the form of minute microscopic grains, which appeared to be crystals, and were capable of cutting and polishing diamonds and rubies. It is possible that these grains were of the nature of diamonds, but farther experiments must confirm the truth of this. The origin of the diamond has been a subject of much curious speculation, although the circum¬ stances under which it is found furnish no clue to the process of its formation. Its struct- (hamoncf ^ ure ’ however, indicates that it is a prod¬ uct in some way of the vegetable king¬ dom. Sir David Brewster, who has given much attention to the subject, is inclined to the opinion THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. 267 that the diamond is a drop or mass of fossilized gum, analogous in some respects to am¬ ber. The ancients called the diamond Adamant ‘ Adamant , which word is still in figurative use to express any thing exceedingly hard. The business of cutting and preparing diamonds and other gems is very extensively carried on by the Dutch Jews at Amsterdam in Hol¬ land. There are many imitations of this beautiful gem which are sometimes almost as bril¬ liant as the genuine. Crystals of quartz like the “ California diamonds ” are very beautiful when handsomely set. Imitations. Ruby. RUBY, SAPPHIRE, TOPAZ, AMETHYST. These gems are sometimes all included in the sci¬ entific term Corundum, the hardest known substance except the diamond. They have little nat¬ ural difference except in color, although they are very unlike as to their beauty and value, the ruby being esteemed almost, or quite as highly as the diamond. Its color when perfect is a deep and splendid red, but it is generally pale or of a pur¬ plish hue. The Oriental ruby is also called red sapphire. The finest rubies are found in India, particularly in Ava. Siam, Pegu, and Ceylon, fur¬ nish those less valuable. The Sapphire is a precious stone, usually of a blue color and the hardest of all except the ruby and diamond. The red variety is the PP ruby. Others are gray, white, green and yellow. 268 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. This gem is found in the same Oriental countries as the ruby, and also in various parts of Europe, Bohemia, Saxony, France, etc. The Topaz varies in color from a deep rich orange yellow, to pale straw color, or greenish white, al¬ though the yellow is much the most Topaz ‘ valuable. Other colors can be imparted to the yellow topaz by artificial means, such as exposure to heat, etc. The Amethyst is a gem of the most perfect violet color, and of extraordinary brilliancy and Amethyst. differs from the ruby and sapphire in color only. It is found in India, Persia, Siam, and other eastern countries. What is called Occidental amethyst is merely colored crystal or quartz. It is found in the AVest Indies and Brazil, while the genuine or oriental, comes from the East Indies. These and many other precious stones, in their natural state, look much like common pebbles, and might readily deceive the uninitiated. • THE EMERALD. The j Emerald is one of the most beautiful of gems. It is of a rich, deep green brilliant, and yet grateful to the eye. Large and perfect Emerald. emera iq g are ver y rare ; so that “ an emerald without a flaw 5 has passed into a proveib. They were formerly obtained from the East Indies, but for the last two centuries or more they have been derived from Peru. THE MANUAL OP COMMERCE. 269 JASPER. This stone enters largely into the formation of certain mountains, especially in India and 1 J Jasper. China. It is of different colors which are often mingled together and give it a variegated ap¬ pearance. It is used for beads, seals, etc. AGATE. This is a semi-transparent gem so called because originally found on the hanks of the river Achates in Italy. It takes a very high polish and its opaque parts usually present the appearance of dots, eyes, veins, zones or bands. Its colors are very various. It is found in irregular rounded nodules, from the size of a pin’s head to more than a foot in diameter. Many very beautiful J J Agate. specimens are found in Great Britain of which the finest are derived from the mountain of Cairngorm in Scotland; whence these stones are sometimes called cairngorms. They are found also in other parts of Europe, and in India. Carnelian is a common name for agate. It is used for seals, beads, crosses, and other ornaments. The largest agates come from Germany but the finest from India. American agates are also very pretty when well wrought, though not of great value. BERYL. This stone is also called aqua marine from its re- 270 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. semblance to green sea water, and is a variety of the emerald. The difference is that while aquamarine. the emerald is always green, the name of beryl is often applied to other colors. This stone is found in India, in several localities of Europe, and in Peru, Brazil, etc., in South America. CARBUNCLE. This is a beautiful gem of a deep red color, with a mixture of scarlet, found in the East Indies. It is generally in a pure state, of an angular form and Carbuncle a dhering to heavy stone containing iron. Its usual size is from one-half to two- thirds of an inch in diameter. When held up to the sun it loses its deep tinge and becomes exactly of the color of a burning coal. The garnet is said to be the same as the carbuncle of the ancients. OPAL. The Opal is a precious stone found in different parts of Europe especially in Hungary and in the East Indies. When first dug from the Opal. . & earth it is soft, but hardens and dimin¬ ishes in size by exposure to the air. Opals some¬ times contain drops of water. Some specimens emit various colored rays with peculiar brilliance. This stone was much esteemed by the ancients. CARNELIAN OR SARD. This stone is a variety of chalcedony, found in the East, of a brownish-yellow color, but when THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. 271 held between the eye and the light appears of a blood-red hue. Sardonyx is a stone of kindred quality, though of a different shade. It is very hard, but can be engraved and wrought with great beauty. Chalcedony is the name given to a class of stones according to their color and markings. It embraces the onyx, sardonyx, sard, chrysoprase, and several others. CAMEO. The Cameo is a precious stone of two or more colors, which are cut in relief. The onyx and agate have been much used for this purpose, hav¬ ing layers of different hues. In the true cameo, this is always the case, and the art * , Cameos. consists in so cutting the stone that the different colors are appropriated to the lights and shades of the picture. The term cameo is fre¬ quently applied to any kind of gem on which figures are sculptured in relief. Shells are also used for cheaper work of the same kind, the subject being wrought pn the outer or white layer of the shell, the pink or brown one beneath, serving for the ground. JET. Jet is a bituminous substance found in coal de¬ posits, and often called pitch coal. It occurs in masses, or plates, is of an intense black color, brittle and shining. It takes a fine polish, and is wrought into a variety of orna- 272 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. mental articles. It is sometimes called black am¬ ber. Jet is obtained from Spain, Great Britain, Prussia, and some localities in the United States. MOSAICS. There are several kinds of mosaic , some suitable for one species of ornamentation, and some for another. But all of them consist in embedding Mosaic fragments of different colored substances, usually stones, or glass imitations, in a cement so as to produce the effect of a picture. Many articles of jewelry are made in this way which are very costly and beautiful, when richly set. Some of the finest are made in Italy. In the chapel of St. Lawrence, in Florence, are many ex¬ quisite ornaments in mosaic which are greatly admired. Mosaic gold, or Ormolu , is a peculiar alloy of copper and zinc. CORAL. Coral is a marine production, the work of a mi¬ nute insect, or polyp, which has the same relation to the coral that a snail bears to its shell, the sub¬ stance being a secretion from the animal to form its habitation. The ancients were well ac- Coral. quainted with the article, but did not know its origin. There are several varieties, of which the most common and least valuable is the white coral. The red and black are much used in making ornaments. THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. 273 Coral is found in great abundance in many trop¬ ical seas. The Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Mediterra¬ nean, and many of the waters on the south and east of Asia, produce it. The structure is fixed upon rocks, at various depths, from which it rises in a shrub-like form, often with many C ° r r e a g strxict " branches. When it reaches the surface the animal ceases to work. Although it is so mi¬ nute, yet in process of time its labors effect great changes in many seas. Some of the most formida¬ ble reefs are of coral, and numerous islands are not only formed of the same substance, but constantly forming. The manner of procuring coral for purposes of art or commerce is curious and interesting. In the Mediterranean and some other seas, the coral fish¬ ers go out in boats, seven or eight in each, and throw out a large cross of wood, to which is at¬ tached hoops, hempen cords and loose netting. The whole is sunk with leads, and becomes en¬ tangled among the branches and masses of coral. The boats then pull away, and drag the cross, breaking off the substance to which it has attached itself. If it gives way suddenly, or if the rope breaks, the fishers are liable to have their boat upset, and be thrown into the sea, at the hazard of their lives. Sometimes it requires the united strength of several boats to detach the mass which has been entangled by the net and its appa¬ ratus. The profits of the venture are divided among the men composing the crews of the boats, the owner having a certain fixed proportion. 12 * Coral fishery. 274 THE MAHUAL OF COMMERCE. PEARLS. Pearls are hard, white, shining concretions usually of a globular form, found in several species of shell fish, particularly the true pearl oyster. Much dif¬ ference of opinion has existed among naturalists in respect to the production of pearls within the shell of the oyster, but it is now generally believed to be the result of disease or injury; as the shells that are crooked or distorted are more likely to contain pearls than the perfect ones. It is sup- pe aris and d that the effort of the animal to tlieir origin. 1 . coat foreign particles which may be in¬ troduced into its shell by disease or other means results in the globule we call the pearl. As an evi¬ dence of the truth of this, it is said that the Chi¬ nese throw into a species of shell fish when it opens, small beads of mother-of-pearl, strung upon a thread. In the course of a year they are taken out coated with a pearly crust, which exactly re¬ sembles the real pearls. The most valuable fishing grounds are on the coasts of Ceylon and Japan and in the Persian Gulf ; though they are found in the Gulf of Mex¬ ico and on the coast of Brazil, and in many other places, of superior quality. The pearl fishing in Ceylon where the finest specimens are obtained, com¬ mences in February and is continued through the month of March. The banks where the Pearl ovsters abound, lie a number of miles out fisiicricSa " at sea, and when the weather is stormy the divers can not pursue their toilsome occupation. THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. 275 These banks are the property of the government, which puts up to sale the right to fish upon a cer¬ tain portion during the season. This right is often purchased by the native merchants who send out a force of experienced men to gather what they can of the harvest of pearls. The fishers set off; in boats at day-break, carry¬ ing, besides the crew, a number of pearl divers. Arrived upon the ground, one-half the divers pre¬ pare to plunge, having their ears and nostrils stopped, and a weight attached to one foot to hasten the descent while a net is fastened to the neck or waist. Holding his breath and seiz¬ ing the rope with one hand he adjusts divers> the net and dives. Having descended sometimes thirty yards, he gathers into his net as many oysters as possible in from one to two min¬ utes, when he jerks the rope, is drawn up, and assisted into the boat faint and exhausted, (fre¬ quently bleeding at the nose and mouth,) to rest while the other half of the divers take their turn. Thus they alternate in favorable weather through the day; sometimes diving a dozen or fifteen times, and bringing up, if skilful and experienced, about a hundred oysters at each trial. It is a laborious and dangerous occupation, and the men who follow it are generally short-lived. When the oysters are brought to shore they are piled in heaps to putrefy, as it would require great force to open them while alive. When they are ready, the shells are easily opened, and the pearls removed. 276 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. The inside of the shell of the pearl oyster, and some others, is lined with a substance much like pearl, which is used for inlaying and many other ornamental purposes. This is called mother-of- pearl , and the shells which produce it pearl are brought in large quantities from the Red sea and many other places. At Jerusalem there is a considerable manufacture of small articles from these pearl shells, which find a ready market and bring a high price. In Paris and other European cities, pearl work is extensively done. The brilliant hues of mother-of-pearl depend on its structure, which is of fine furrows or wrink¬ les. These furrows act on the light reflected from them in such a manner as to produce this effect. This may be proved by the fact that if an impression be taken of these surfaces in fine wax, it presents the same iridescent appearance. Mother-of-pearl is difficult to work, but is cut by the careful use of saws, files, etc. Not only are genuine pearls in constant request, but an important business is done in the manufac¬ ture and sale of artificial pearls. And the imitation is so perfect that it has produced a very sensible de¬ cline in the demand as well as price of real pearls. Artificial pearls are small globules of thin glass perforated with two opposite holes, pearls!^ through which they may be strung for necklaces, etc, They must not only be white and brilliant, but exhibit the rainbow reflec¬ tions of mother-of-pearl. This is done by intro- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 277 ducing into tlie inside of the globule a liquid substance prepared from the scales of certain small fish, which coats the inside surface completely, and gives it a pearly lustre almost as perfect as the genuine. There are several methods of applying this liquid, called oriental essence. The manufacture of pearls is chiefly carried on in France, as the French excel in all branches of imitative art. AMBER. Much interest has attached to this substance from remote antiquity, partly from the obscurity of its origin, and partly from a belief in certain wonder¬ ful properties it was supposed to possess. It is a brittle, resinous substance, found as a fossil in some soils, and also on certain sea-shores, in Amber. small, irregular masses, generally trans¬ lucent, but sometimes quite clear. The color is a light or deep yellow, and occasionally of a reddish, or dark brown. The source of amber was for a long time doubt¬ ful. By some it was supposed to be a mineral; but it is now universally believed to be a fossil resin , the product of an extinct amber.° f species of pine. Wherever found in its natural location, it is associated with carbonized wood or coal. The chief supplies of amber come from the shores of the Baltic sea, where it is apparently washed up by the waves. The largest mass known is in the royal museum at Berlin, in Prussia, and 278 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCES. weighs thirteen pounds. Amber is susceptible of a fine polish, and is often made into or- Supplies and , , 1 uses of amber. SUCll ciS DGcLClS} CrOSSGS^ IlGck - laces, mouth-pieces of pipes, etc. The transparent specimens sometimes contain insects so perfectly and delicately preserved that they could only have become incorporated in it when in a semi-fluid state. Amber becomes electric by friction; and it was from the Greek word elektron , which means amber, that the important science of electricity derived its name. Six hundred years before the Christian era, Electrical ^ ia, l es Miletus, one of the “Seven properties wise men of Greece,” knew that after of amber. y e p ow am b er p ac [ been ru bbed briskly with wool, it would attract light bodies, straws, etc. This was considered its power of suction, and served to invest the substance with a superstitious interest. Many centuries later, Pliny, the celebra¬ ted naturalist, mentions the same fact about elek¬ tron, or amber. But it is now well known that am¬ ber possesses the property of becoming negatively electric only in common with other resinous sub¬ stances. FILIGREE. This is a kind of ornamental work of gold and silver wire or threads. It is of Eastern origin and manufacture, and was formerly much admired. The most beautiful specimens are made in Sumatra, where the art is understood in the greatest degree of perfection. Bracelets, ear-rings, brooches, chains, THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 279 groups of flowers, small caskets, and boxes, are made of it in the most elegant manner, Fi]igreework> although the tools used by the native art¬ ists are exceedingly coarse and clumsy. The Chi¬ nese also make filigree, mostly of silver, but it lacks the extraordinary delicacy of the Malay work. It was introduced into Europe by the Italians. CHAPTER XIY. PAPER AND BOOKS. PAPER. The word paper comes from papyrus , the name of a reed or rush found along the banks of the Nile, or rather in the pools and ditches which com¬ municate with the river. The ancients applied this useful plant to an immense variety of pur¬ poses, among others to produce a flat, smooth sur¬ face to write upon. The inner bark was divided Papyrus. Wltla a shar P instrument into very thin layers, which were placed side by side longitudinally and glued together at the ends, another layer being glued crosswise above the first, to give the page strength and substance. This was called Charta JEgyptiaca , (paper of Egypt,) from the place of its manufacture, and became a most important article of trade as well as use, among many nations of the East. Linen cloth was also extensively used to write Ancient arts u P on * Rolls of it, as well as of papyrus, making"" lmve bcen found upon the Egyptian mummies in a good state of preserva¬ tion, with the inscriptions still legible. It is also THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 281 known that the Chinese fabricated a kind of paper much like that now in use, from cotton and other vegetable substances, and even of silk at a very remote period. Other nations claim a similar art, but none pretend to have fabricated paper out of the “odds and ends” of cloth once woven. To whom the world is indebted for the idea of transforming the worthless fragments of waste cotton into an article so beautiful and valuable as paper, no one knows. Perhaps the Artofmak _ discovery, like so many others, was the * n g P a P er result of accident; perhaps some intel- romrags- ligent observer studied the operations of that marvellous old paper-maker, the wasp. But it is singular that we have no positive informa¬ tion either as to the country where, or the epoch when, paper from rags began to be manufactured in Europe. It is believed that the discovery does not date back farther than the tenth or twelfth century. It was in common use before the art of printing was discovered. This great invention would have been of little avail had not a material, cheap, neat and plentiful, been adapted to it. The rags of which modern paper is made are collected by peddlers and transferred to the paper- maker. They are sorted, cleansed and bleached by exposure to the action of chlorine which dis¬ charges all color. To reduce them to very fine fibres, they are placed in a machine fitted with knives which cut and tear them into downy parti¬ cles ; water is then added, making of it a pulpy mix- 282 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. ture. Portions of this are poured upon moulds or Process of sieves of fine wire, where the water paper-mak- drains away, leaving the fibers on the bottom in a layer, which being consolida¬ ted by pressure, and dried, becomes a sheet of pa¬ per ; its strength and goodness depending, of course, on the quality of the material of which it is made. That designed for writing paper is sized by being dipped into a hot weak glue containing a proportion of alum in solution. The sheets are then dried again, and afterwards pressed with great force to make them smooth. The sheets are laid in piles of twenty-four each, called a quire ; twenty quires, which make a ream, or half that number, are enveloped in papers . 3 wrappers for sale. Writing paper is made of various sizes according to the use for which it is designed; as note paper, letter paper, foolscap, etc. Fashions in the style of paper vary as in everything else. Besides paper for writing there is a great variety for other purposes; for printing, drawing, blotting, tracing, etc., for wrapping, of different sizes, quali¬ ties and colors, the coarser kinds being made of coarse materials, old ropes, sacking, straw and other substances. Wall paper (or paper hangings) is printed much in the same way as calico and other cottons. Old worn out paper, printed or Other papers. . r 1 7 r written upon, and almost all other kinds, may be restored or made over into new which is just as valuable as at first. The cheapness of paper, however, renders it quite unnecessary except THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 283 when there may be a great scarcity of materials for a constant supply. Paper, like cloth, may be col¬ ored any desirable shade. Marbled paper is made by a peculiar process. A trough or bath is provided of the size of the sheet to be marbled, filled with a mucilage of Marbled gum and water. Different colors are paper . sprinkled from brushes, on the surface of the bath where they spread of themselves. A sheet of paper is laid on the surface of the liquid and ab¬ sorbs the colors just as they lie. It is then carefully taken off, dried, and afterwards polished for use. Almost all civilized nations have varieties of paper peculiar to themselves, in character and manufacture. The Chinese use many substances for making paper; the bamboo, the inner bark of the mulberry, the outer case of the Chinese and silk-worm’s cocoon, etc. The celebrated Japanese rice paper is a Chinese manufacture, used much in their printing, and also for wrapping. The Japanese make paper from the mulberry, which is strong enough for cordage. They use it for tents, umbrellas, gowns, cloaks, etc., and it so closely imitates silk and other rich stuffs, that it is often mistaken for them. It is rendered water-tight by painting and varnishing, and in this form supplies innumerable wants. Pasteboard is a stiff, thick kind of paper-board formed of several single sheets of paper pasted one upon another, or by macerating paper and casting it in moulds. It is used for a great variety of purposes, the most important of which is the 284 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. making of boxes. Papier-maclie is made of pulp Pasteboard ^ rom ra g s an( A paper mixed with size or m a d ch6 Pier ~ ^ lue ’ anc ^ f° rme( * i nto any desired shape by moulds. Sometimes pasteboard, treat¬ ed with glue and varnish, is called by this name. It is used lately in a great many ways, and is a very durable material. PARCHMENT PAPER. Parchment paper , or artificial parchment, is a new chemical discovery by which common paper dipped for an instant in a mixture of sulphuric acid and water, is immediately converted into a strong, tough, skin-like substance, to which the above names are applied, as it has in many cases superseded the use of the true parchment. By this treatment, in little more than a second of time, a piece of weak, porous, unsized paper™ 61 ^ P a P er i s rendered firm and stout, while the chemical composition and weight of the paper remains unaltered, though the dimensions of the sheet are somewhat contracted. The na¬ ture of this change is not yet well understood. It is not affected by water like common paper, nor decomposed by heat and moisture. These quali¬ ties will render it a most useful and popular article, as it is much less expensive than common parch¬ ment prepared from skins. BOOKS. Printed boohs are, in all civilized nations, an article of commerce. Among people where the THE MANUAL OE COMMEECE. 285 masses are intelligent, and educated to some degree, the sale of books is enormous. Our English word book comes from the German buche , which means beech , the ancient Saxons and Germans from whom the English are descended, having been accustomed to use thin beechen boards as tablets t-o write upon. Liber , the Latin word for book, means bark , refer¬ ring to the fibrous matter obtained from the bark of certain trees, which was prepared for writing upon by the early Romans. Our word library is derived from it. Volume comes from a word meaning to roll , as the literature of most ancient na¬ tions was kept in the form of rolls of parchment, papyrus, linen, etc. Before the discovery of the art of printing, the only method of multiplying copies of any valuable writ¬ ing, was by the slow and laborious process of re¬ writing with the pen. This was the business of a certain class of men, who attained great perfection as well as rapidity in their work. Many copies of the entire Bible have been produced in this way, some of which now constitute objects of value, in¬ terest and curiosity in celebrated libraries and mu¬ seums. Books are classed according to the mode in which the sheet is folded. If it only makes two leaves the book is called a folio; if folded into four leaves it is a quarto; if eight, it is octavo; twelve, duodec¬ imo. No reference is made to the size of the sheet. Copyright is the right which authors or compil¬ ers of books, musical compositions, engravings, etc., claim to the exclusive privilege of printing and 286 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. publishing their works. This copyright may be purchased of the author or owner, and then the publications are the exclusive property of the Copyright. k u y er * Publications are sent to other countries, translated into other languages, and sold in vast numbers, for which the authors, or copyright holders can legally claim no benefit. A law regulating this matter, and securing a fair pro¬ portion of the avails of these foreign sales to the author, or the holder of the copyright, has long been urgently demanded. Books of some kind are printed in all the large, and many of the small cities of the United States. The business of publication is conducted in some of them on an enormous scale, to supply the home and foreign market. The principal European cities are also noted for immense trade in books. The demand is universal. CHAPTER XY. PERFUMERY. SECTION I.—ANIMAL ODORS. Much value was attached from very ancient times to those substances which afforded a pleasing odor. The oldest of books, the Bible, contains re¬ peated allusions to this fact, and gives us Antiquity some idea of the materials used for the and value of purpose. Oriental nations have always peifumes- been famous for their admiration and lavish use of perfumes. At the present day they are also con¬ sidered as among the necessaries of the toilet, so that the commercial importance of various articles of perfumery is very great, and the business of the perfumer a very extensive one. The perfumes of commerce are derived from an¬ imal substances, as musk, civet, ambergris, etc.; from woods, as cedar, sandal-wood, and Whence others; from gums or concreted juices, perfumes are n -i . , . , P P derived. as frankincense, benzoin, etc.; trom fra¬ grant flowers, leaves and fruit, as the rose, orange, etc.; and from certain chemical sources and opera¬ tions, as the derivatives of fusel-oil , by distillation, called “ extracts.” 288 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. Only a few of the numerous articles which com¬ pose the list of perfumes, can be mentioned. We commence with those of animal origin. MUSK. Musk is obtained from a species of deer inhabit¬ ing the mountains of Thibet and Central Asia gen¬ erally. It is an active and timid animal of the deer kind, about three feet high, springing from rock to rock with astonishing agility to escape its pur¬ suers, who hunt it for the hide as well as the per¬ fume. This substance is contained in a small bag or sac under the body of the male. As soon as it is killed, the sac is cut off and dried, with its con¬ tents, and in this state is sent to market. It is of a Mugk dark-brown color, slightly oily, and ad¬ heres in grains. It has a peculiar and extremely powerful and durable odor, so pene¬ trating and diffusive, that one part will communi¬ cate its smell to many thousand parts of inodorous powder, thereby making it easy to adulterate the true substance. This is done very extensively; dried blood or other matters resembling it, being strongly scented with musk, are often sold for the gen¬ uine which always commands a high price. Hunt¬ ers are constantly employed in the mountain ranges of China and Thibet to procure this valuable prod¬ uct of the musk-deer. It has so powerful an odor when freshly cut from the animal, they are obliged to muffle their mouths and nostrils with folds of cloth to prevent the most injurious effect. Death THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 289 has sometimes been the result when these precau¬ tions were neglected. The best musk is imported from China. CIVET. Civet is an odorous substance, obtained from the civet-cat, a native of Africa, and from another sim¬ ilar animal, which inhabits the East Indies. It is also brought from Africa and Brazil. The perfume, which resembles musk, is also secreted in sacs, which the animal carries behind. It is t offensive unless greatly diluted, but in combination with other perfumes, adds to their en¬ ergy. The civet-cat is a carnivorous animal, be¬ tween the fox and weasel, from two to three feet in length, and only a few inches in hight. Num¬ bers of them are kept for the purpose of produc¬ ing the perfume, which is removed from the place of deposit periodically. The beaver also produces a powerful odor, called castor , which is used in medicine , . . . Castor. more than m perfumery. It is not very unlike musk or civet, and as it is very scarce, is often counterfeited. AMBERGRIS. This substance, which is found floating on the sea, or thrown by the waves on the shores of va¬ rious countries, particularly near the coasts of In¬ dia, Africa and Brazil, is now generally believed to be produced in the stomach or intestines of the 13 290 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. sperm whale, and perhaps in those of other fish. It is found usually in small masses, but sometimes of fifty or one hundred pounds weight. It is of a gray, or ash color, with dark brown, or Ambergris. 0 J ’ black spots within, giving it a variegated appearance, like marble. Ambergris is opaque, lighter than water, and of the consistence of wax. It has a peculiar, aromatic, agreeable odor. The Asiatics sometimes use it as a flavor for certain dishes, but its chief and almost its only value is as a perfume. It has been found in the body of the sperm whale, as well as floating in the sea, which fact gave the clue to its origin. By itself the odor of ambergris is much less agreeable than when blended with others. SECTION II.—FRAGRANT WOODS AND GUMS. SANDAL-WOOD. Among the fragrant woods the sandal-wood stands highest as an article of perfumery. The part of the tree used is the heart, which is often employed to make into small objects of ornament or convenience, sometimes ground into Sandal-wood. , . , powder as a cosmetic, and sometimes distilled to obtain the oil. The tree grows most abundantly in Malabar and some of the islands of the South seas or Polynesia. It has been men¬ tioned before among ornamental woods. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 291 RED CEDAR. This wood has a very agreeable odor, and is much in request for trunks, wardrobes, or other articles designed for the storage of clothing. It is considered, also, as a safeguard against moths and some other troublesome insects. FRAGRANT GUMS. Frankincense is perhaps the most important of these, and was anciently- considered of great value. It is produced by a tree which grows in central India, and is called the Olibanum. It is a lofty tree, with the foliage crowded at the extremity of the branches. The gum exudes from incisions made in the bark, in the form Frankin - of semi-transparent tears, of a pale yel¬ low or pink color, solid, hard and brittle. When heated, the gum burns brilliantly and diffuses an agreeable odor. In ancient times it was much used as incense in religious rites, and in modern days the Greek and Roman churches still retain the use of it in their ceremonies. It was among the most precious substances known to the Orientals. Sandarach is another gum from the north of Africa, often used for the same purpose. gandarach Benzoin comes from Sumatra, Java, and ben- Borneo, etc. It is procured from the tree in the same way as the others. It is used in medicine, and as a cosmetic. The Hindoos burn it as a perfume in their temples. 292 THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. SECTION III.—EXTRACTS FROM FLOW¬ ERS, LEAVES AND FRUIT. The most delicate and exquisite odors are those obtained from flowers, leaves and fruit, of various kinds. This is done mostly by distillation, by which process the particles of fragrant volatile oil, which these substances contain, are separated by the steam of the apparatus and afterwards collected at the other extremity of the still. From the petals of the rose is produced in this way the attar or oil of roses so costly that very few can enjoy its sweet¬ ness. The flowers from which it is obtained are cultivated in the East Indies, Egypt, etc., for this purpose, as those growing in colder latitudes yield such a minute quantity of oil that they are of little value. The petals are carefully distilled over and over, and this oil is -then found on the surface of the water. Sometimes they are steeped, and the water allowed to stand in the sun, when the oil rises to the surface and is removed by Attar of roses. ^ ]pq e w ] S p 0 f cotton, from which it is squeezed into a small vial and closely stopped. It is said that one hundred thousand roses yield only a few grains of the attar. The oil is greenish at first, but becomes darker by keeping. The water distilled from rose leaves is also valued as a per¬ fume. It contains less of the flavor of the flower, but is very delicate and inexpensive. The dried petals, pulverized, also give fragrance to sachets. In a similar manner the volatile oils are derived THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 293 from other fragrant flowers and leaves. The or¬ ange, jasmine, violet, lily, tuberose, lavender, gera¬ nium, the mints, etc., etc., are thus made to yield their perfumes. Many of the flowers that produce them are cultivated in large plantations for the pur¬ pose. Orange blossoms are procured from Sicily, Calabria, and the south of France; violets from the gardens of Nice; tuberoses from the environs of Genoa; jonquil and narcissus from southern Europe and northern Africa, etc. These oils are all soluble in alcohol, and the art of the perfumer blends them into compounds to which many fanciful names are applied. The well-known Eau de cologne is a mixture compounds of many volatile oils and essences in and fancy pure spirit. The numerous counterfeits perfumcs ‘ of this once delightful perfume have impaired its popularity and given precedence to various other mixtures. CHEMICAL ODORS AND EXTRACTS. But while the delicate odors were formerly de¬ rived entirely from fruits, flowers and leaves by the processes described, the chemistry of modern times has taught us how to obtain them odorschem- from other sources; and at the present icaiiypro¬ day many of the most agreeable and pop- duced ' ular of them all are produced by chemical means, from substances, some of which are loathsome and disgusting. But it is the highest triumph of sci¬ ence and art to convert what is useless and odious, into materials at once valuable and desirable. 294 THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. In the process of distilling whiskey from grain or potatoes, there is generated a peculiar oily liquid of a pungent and most disagreeable odor, called Fusel-oil or Amylic alcohol. By distilling this loath¬ some oil, under proper circumstances, with various acids, certain odoriferous compounds are Odors from obtained, which, during the last few years, have been familiarly known as “fruit extracts ” or essences, and “ liquor-flavoring materials .” The odor of the pear, apple, orange, banana, and many others are so perfectly repro¬ duced that these preparations have come into pop¬ ular use. The oil of pine-apples is produced from sugar and putrid cheese. Certain others are derived from coal oil or gas tar. Some of the daintiest odors for the toilet have an origin still more disgusting. But in all these cases there is not the same kind of fraud which is practiced in ordinary adulterations; for though the Not adui- perfumes are not actually produced from terations. 1 . J . the flowers and fruit which give them their names, yet they are considered identical in chemical composition with the original perfumes which nature elaborates in the fruits and flowers themselves; nature mixing the ingredients in one case, and art in the other—the ingredients being the same. The passion for perfumes is constantly increas- ~ irn?, and the revenue derived from foreign from per- importations is very considerable. The fumes. i ar gest income from some estates on the borders of the Mediterranean is derived from the THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 295 sale of orange flowers and violets, certain noted per¬ fumers of Paris paying a large annual sum for the entire crop. The art is carried to the greatest per¬ fection in France, many of whose manufacturers, as Lubin, Faguer, and others, have a world-wide popularity. CHAPTER XVI. EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCES. GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is by many writers ascribed to Berthold Schwartz, a monk and alche¬ mist, of Freiburg, in Germany, in the fourteenth invention of centuI > 0t bers believe it to have gunpowder, been known to the Chinese at a much earlier period. Neither is it certain when or by whom it was first applied to the purposes of war, but at the end of the fourteenth century it had come into use to some extent. Anciently, when men fought hand to hand with swords, spears, axes and clubs, or at greater dis¬ tances with arrows, javelins, or other pointed missives, the destruction of human life was fear¬ ful. The use of gunpowder with artillery has changed the whole nature of warfare, in war. and by interposing distance between the combatants, has greatly diminished the number of its victims, not one discharge in hundreds taking fatal effect; so that dreadful as its mission may be as a destructive agent in battle, it has THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 297 probably preserved many lives that would have been sacrificed by the use of the primitive weapons. Gunpowder is composed of three ingredients, nitre (or saltpetre), sulphur and charcoal. These are pulverized separately, and then mixed in the proper proportions, which are one part . _ . , , Composition nitre, one part sulphur, and three parts ofgunpowder. charcoal. They are then slightly moist¬ ened and further ground and blended together, be¬ fore being subjected to an immense hydraulic pres¬ sure. This operation forms the mixture into a thin, hard cake, which is afterwards broken up into small fragments, or granulated. The grains are sorted by means of sieves of different fineness? 1 ' and then thoroughly dried for use. Each ingredient of gunpowder has its special of¬ fice. The sulphur easily takes fire; the charcoal retains and makes it fiercer, while the nitre explodes with such force as to carry everything before it. Gunpowder is also used in immense quantities for blasting purposes. Great care is required in its manufacture and storage. The operations at pow¬ der-works are distributed as much as possible in numbers of isolated buildings, on account of the danger of explosion. Gunpowder is made by most civilized nations of the present day, and its use has become nearly universal. GUN-COTTON. This is another highly explosive material dis¬ covered within a few years. It is made by soaking 13 * 298 THE MAISTUAL OF COMMERCE. perfectly clean cotton for a few minutes in a mix- „ ture of nitric and sulphuric acid. The cot- Gun-cotton. # A ton is then washed and dried hy exposure to the air. It still retains the appearance of cotton hut has gained in weight, become harsh to the touch, and electric. It can be used in fire-arms like gun-powder, only as its explosive force is four times as great it must be employed with caution. There is so much danger of bursting the gun and of acci¬ dental explosions, that it is rejected for most prac¬ tical purposes. When dissolved in a mixture of ether and alcohol, gun-cotton forms a powerfully adhesive b 1 f . Collodion. sfabstance, called collodion which is used as a plaster in surgery. Collodion is employed also in photography. NITRO-GLYCERINE. This is also a recently discovered chemical combi¬ nation of glycerine (an oily sweetish fluid existing in fats) with nitric acid. It is often called “ blast¬ ing oil” and has been used to some extent for blast¬ ing purposes instead of gunpowder, as it possesses terribly explosive properties. It is a pale glycerine, yellow, oily liquid, heavier than water, and soluble in alcohol and ether. Per¬ haps it may prove a very useful substitute for gun¬ powder when its characteristics are better under¬ stood. But as it has frequently exploded without known cause, doing immense damage to life and property, it is not considered a safe article of trans¬ port or of general use. THE MANUAL OF COMMEKCE. 299 Greek fire is a combustible and explosive com¬ position which burns under water, the eonstituents of which are supposed to be nitre, sulphur and asphaltum. Other explosive compounds known as fulminat¬ ing powders , are used in the manufacture of percus¬ sion caps. They are of so dangerous a character that the chemists who make them and understand their nature, are often severely injured and some¬ times killed in experimenting with them. CHAPTER XVII. ELASTIC GUMS. CAOUTCHOUC, GUM-ELASTIC OR INDIA RUBBER. The substance known by these names is the hardened juice of a large tree growing in Brazil, Guiana and some parts of Central America. Sev¬ eral trees produce this gum, but none of the quality or in the quantity of the zatropha elastica, as it is named in botany. It is obtained by wounding the tree, when the milky juice flows out, and hardens by exposure to the air. The dark color is im¬ parted by the smoke of the fires over which the fresh product is dried. When pure it is of a light color, and trans¬ parent, in thin slices. It comes to us in large, flat pieces, or moulded into various shapes, which are formed by applying successive, layers of the juice to moulds of clay. These moulds are removed by being broken up when the coating is sufficiently thick. Most of the caoutchouc at present used in manufactures, is obtained from the country lying upon the Amazon, in South America. The juice is sometimes brought in its natural condition, in Derivation of this gum. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 301 tightly corked bottles, mixed with a little ammonia, which prevents its hardening. The properties of this substance are well known. Its great elasticity adapts it to many very useful purposes. Boots and overshoes, covers, cushions and pillows filled with air, surgical bandages and instruments, and numberless other arti¬ cles. It is also cut into threads, and woven into various elastic fabrics, braces, cord, tape, etc. It is dissolved in naphtha, ben¬ zole, oil of turpentine, ether, and may then be applied in thin coatings to cloth or other surfaces, rendering them water-proof. That most useful fabric called Macintosh cloth , after its inventor, is made by cementing two layers of cotton or linen with India rubber, reduced to a paste-like condition. The two pieces after being separately coated, are placed face to face with great care, to prevent creasing or cloth> wrinkling. They are then pressed so thoroughly as to make them unite permanently into a firm and durable water-proof cloth, which can be shaped into garments of any size or pattern. They are exceedingly neat, convenient, and service¬ able during exposure to wet weather. When caoutchouc is heated with sulphur it undergoes a remarkable change, becoming what is called vulcanized rubber. In this condition it is less liable to be hardened by cold or softened by heat. From this form of the material J u u bb ^_ rzed almost all India rubber goods are now fab¬ ricated. Mixed with a proportion of bituminous 302 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. or pitchy matter, and some other ingredients, it is converted into a hard, black, shining substance which works like ivory, and is extensively used for the manufacture of combs, pencil-cases, knife- handles, etc. GUTTA-PERCHA. This valuable substance has. only been known within the last few years, the first specimen of it having been sent to England in 1843. It*is the juice of a large tree which flourishes in certain parts of the Malayan Archipelago and is chiefly obtained from Singapore. The name belongs to cha tree, the IV!a]ay language \ c/uttci meaning the gum itself, and percha the tree from which it is procured. This tree rises to the hight of sixty or seventy feet with a trunk three or four feet in diameter. The foliage is of a pale green on the upper surface, and covered with reddish brown hairs beneath. The milky juice which exudes from the tree hardens on coming to the air and is of a dirty white color. This substance has some properties in coipmon with india rubber, but possesses others of its own which render it invaluable in the arts. The Malays have long used it for fabricating various articles, whips, jugs, basins, shoes, etc., which Native use p of the gum. have liiom time to time attracted the at¬ tention of travelers, and brought to notice the native mode of manufacture. This was to soften the gum in hot water and then mould it into any de¬ sired form which it permanently retains on cooling. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. ,303 This property of gutta-percha adapts it to a great variety of uses and imparts to it a value equal, if not superior to that of caoutchouc. It comes in lumps or blocks of several pounds weight, often containing impurities, stones, earth, etc., introduced by the Malays for the purpose ^ th^gum. of increasing the weight. After these are extracted by cutting up the lumps under rota¬ ting wheels, armed with knives and teeth, it is ready for working, being kneaded into a paste in hot water, and afterwards rolled out into sheets be¬ tween steel rollers, or made to pass through heated iron cylinders. The uses of gutta-percha are too numerous to specify. Only a few of the most important can be mentioned. It resists the action of water, and is at the same time a bad conductor of electricity; it is therefore employed for enclosing the metallic wires used in the electric telegraph. The efficiency of the submarine telegraph is largely due to this valuable substance. Buoys, life-boat apparatus, etc., are made of it, as well as bands and straps for ma¬ chinery, tubes, buckets and many other articles valuable to the manufacturer, architect, and surgeon. The speaking tubes of gutta-percha, gutta-percha used on railways, in mines and other situations where distance intervenes, are very valuable, on account of its property of con¬ ducting sounds. Stereotype plates have o± late been made of gutta-percha. A mold is taken by pressing a page of type with woodcuts into it while in a softened state; a cast is thus obtained from 304 THE MANUAL OF COMMENCE. which the printing is done. The dentist employs this substance as a plate for artificial teeth; the chemist, physician and surgeon use it in various ways; it is also extensively manufactured into mini , berless articles of use or ornament. Certain other plants yield a substance similar to gutta-percha in some respects, but none combine all its valuable properties. CHAPTER XYIII. OILS, CANDLES AND SOAPS. OILS. Oils are of two classes: fixed oils and volatile oils. Fixed oil, otherwise called fat or expressed oil, is derived both from animal and vegetable sub¬ stances by heat or pressure. Whale or train oil comes from the blubber of the whale, seal, and other fish; lard from the swine, and tallow from cattle and sheep. Many fruits , nuts , and seeds yield oil by simple pressure. The olive, the almond, the palm, the seeds of the poppy, flax, hemp, sun-flower, and a great many others produce it in large quantities. From certain oils of this class, the drying oils for the use of the painter and printer are prepared, by heating till they lose much of their greasy property. Linseed or flaxseed oil is much employed in paint for buildings. Nut oil is preferable to all others for printing ink. Fixed oils are generally liquid, or very easily be¬ come so by gentle heat. They have a bland taste, little odor, if pure, are insoluble in water, and 306 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. nearly so in alcohol, and leave a greasy stain upon paper. Many of the fixed oils are used for burning in lamps, and other illuminating purposes, though the use of kerosene has superseded them L fixed oils. m man 7 places in this country. The oil of the palm and olive are largely used as food. The first is obtained from various species of palm where they flourish naturally, growing in tropical countries; the second from the olive tree, which abounds in the south of Europe. Volatile oils are derived entirely from vegetable sources; from the root, bark, leaves, wood, flowers or fruit of a great variety of plants. These oils are distinguished from fixed oils by their greater Properties liquidity, their strong taste, powerful and uses of odor and their property of evaporating the volatile . i , . 1 & oils. so as l eave n o stain or grease spot. They are soluble in alcohol, and are used in medicine, perfumery, cookery, etc. Sometimes the oil is obtained by pressure, as from the peel of the orange, lemon, bergamot, etc., but generally by distillation of the parts of the plant containing the oil. All the fragrance of the vegetable world re¬ sides in these volatile oils, which are numerous and various beyond description. CANDLES. Candles are artificial lights made of tallow, sperm, wax, (and other materials discovered by modern science,) over a wick of linen or cotton threads. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 30T twisted or plaited loosely together. They are an article of considerable commercial importance. Tallow candles are sometimes dipped, that is, im¬ mersed repeatedly in melted tallow till they are of sufficient size. These serve candles . for fa mil y use; but the better sort are made in molds; these being filled with tallow, which cools and hardens round the wick, which occupies the centre of the mold. Spermaceti is a fatty substance found in the head of the sperm whale. The head of this animal is enormously large in proportion to the rest of its body, and will often yield ten or twelve barrels of crude spermaceti. Being dug out from the cavity of the head, the oil is separated from it, bp6riI13iC6tli and the residue is a white, crystallized, brittle, semi-transparent substance, which bears this name, and is manufactured into candles, as well as used in medicine and cosmetics. The real nature of spermaceti was not known for a long time ; but it is now considered the brain of the whale. Candles are also made of wax. Several plants contain wax in such abundance that it is extracted for various uses. The Chinese make candles from some of these, which burn brilliantly, and have a very agreeable odor. But the wax of commerce is the product of the bee. The honey is first pressed from the comb, and the wax of which it is composed is then cleansed and melted into cakes. Wax has a slight odor of honey, and is of a yellow color, but may be bleached by being exposed in thin slices to light, air, and moisture. 308 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. It can also be decolorized by the action of chlorine, but in this case it does not answer for the manufac¬ ture of candles, which is one of its principal appli¬ cations. Wax candles are made by suspending the wicks upon a hoop over the caldron of melted wax, which is repeatedly poured over them from a ladle wax ^ ^ey * iaVe ac( l u i re d their proper size ; candies, the upper end is then shaped, and the lower cut off. If cast in moulds they burn irregularly. The wax is often adulterated with spermaceti and other substances. It is the most expensive of illuminating materials. Wax is also used in medicine, soap-making, and other ways ; some ornamental and some useful. The celebrated French chemist Chevreul dis¬ covered that fat was composed of three highly in¬ flammable elements which have been named stearine , margarine and oleine. The first two are solids, the last a liquid, with which the solids are combined. Another principle has also been found in oils by chemical analysis, called glycerine , or the sweet prin- stear- °^ s ‘ ^ iese ma y be separated candles. and the solids (margarine and stearine) made into candles, leaving the liquid con¬ stituents (oleine and glycerine) for other purposes. This application of scientific and chemical research has created great changes in the candle manufacture ; and very beautiful and valuable candles are now commonly produced from these substances, at a very moderate price. Stearine is obtained mainly from tallow and lard. THE MANUAL OF COMMEKCE. 309 Paraffine is a substance obtained from oil of tar, by distillation. It resembles sperma- paraffiue ceti and is also used for candles. In a liquid form it is useful for lubricating machinery. Glycerine is a sweet, syrupy liquid, readily solu¬ ble in water and alcohol. It has been in use only a few years, and is now considered a very valuable substance, having remarkable solvent and Glycerine antiseptic properties which surpass those of alcohol. It also possesses much value in medicine. It may be obtained from tallow by heating it with lime, and by other processes. SOAPS. Soap may be reckoned at the present day almost as one of the necessaries of life though it was im¬ perfectly known to the ancients, and its consumption is chiefly confined to civil- of soap, ized life. Pliny informs us that it was first invented by the Gauls and was composed of ashes and tallow. Soap is of two kinds, hard and soft. Hard soap is made of tallow or oil, with soda for its alkaline constituent. It has a whitish color, and is some¬ times called white soap. Rosin is often Hardgoap introduced, and this mixture forms the yellow soap of this country. Castile soap , if genu¬ ine, is made of olive oil and soda, its mottled appear¬ ance being produced by the addition of oxyd of iron. The fancy soaps are made of these materials in 310 ♦ THE MANUAL OF COMMENCE. general, with the addition of perfumes of various kinds and certain coloring matters. Soft soap is made of oil or soft grease with potash for an alkali. Whale or train oil is much used for this purpose as well as other cheap oils, and retuse grease. It never becomes hard and solid like the soap made with soda. Its properties for cleansing are much the same, but it is cheaper, and generally made by families in the country from their own materials and for their own use. CHAPTER XIX. PINS, PENS, PENCILS, FANS AND MATCHES. PINS. Pins are made of brass drawn out into wire. To do this the bar of metal is forced through a hole in an iron plate, which is a little too small for it, and which of course reduces its size, but adds to its length. It is then drawn through another hole still smaller, and so on till the wire is of the required fineness. It is next made perfectly straight, and then cut into lengths, each sufficient to make six pins. These are ground to a point at Proceg3 of both ends by boys, who have two grind- making stones before them, one coarse and the blasspms - other fine. They take up a handful at a time, and keep them moving in their fingers till the points of all are applied to the stones. The length of a pin is then cut from each end, and the blunt ends of the remainder sharpened as before, and cut again, till the six pin lengths are taken off. The heading of the pins is the next process. Formerly, the heads were of wire coiled for the purpose ; they are now generally solid, and do bet- 312 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. ter service than the wire heads which often came off. But the mode of applying the wire to the head was curious. A straight wire was of pins . 8 use d twist another wire upon, and this twist was cut up into bits, each just large enough for the head of a pin. The straight wire being drawn out, these bits were now all pre¬ pared for the head, having a hollow ready to insert the blunt end of the pin into. The pin-maker (generally a child) thrusts the end into a coil, and then on a small anvil before him, hammers the head to fasten it in its place. All this is done with great precision and dexterity. The pins are now made, but are of the color of the brass wire. To give them whiteness they are placed in a solution of tin mingled with certain other substances, where they remain awhile, till whitening the tin fastens upon the brass. When and polishing taken out they are dull, and must be pol- of pins. . , . . L isned. Ihis is done by putting them in¬ to a vessel of bran, which is made to revolve with great velocity. This scours them till they are suf¬ ficiently bright, when the bran is winnowed out and the pins left ready to be arranged in papers for sale. The modern processes of pin-making are all accomplished by machinery. To make pins black for mourning dress, and many other purposes, they are often coated with a black Black pins varn i s h Japan. Made of steel wire, and headed with a globule of black glass, they are very pretty and useful. They are not liable to bend, on account of the temper of the steel, THE MANUAL OF COMMEBCE. 313 which also takes a much sharper point than copper wire. Pins are manufactured very extensively in Eng¬ land, France, and other European, coun¬ tries. In this country they are also ^ e b ®^ d P c ' ns made, of good quality, in various places. Many boys and girls are employed in this business, as the work is light and easy. The uses of this neat little implement are too well known to need even an allusion. It is difficult to understand how people ever managed to do without pins. Improvements in the manufacture are made from time to time. PENS. The pens used for writing with ink were, till within a few years, made from the quills of the goose, swan, and other large birds. It is said they came into use as long ago as A. D. 553. Those most used are plucked with great cru¬ elty from living geese. But recently, metallic pens, of steel, copper, silver, or gold, have been in popular use, and are manufactured in im¬ mense quantities both in Europe and this country. But it is difficult to impart to metal the elasticity of the quill, and many people still prefer to use it. For the manufacture of steel pens the best metal is selected, made into thin leaves of the thickness which will give the requisite flexibility to the pens. These thin slips are then subjected to the action of a stamping press, which shapes the pens. The 14 314 THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. point destined for the nib is next introduced into a hole of a small machine where it is How made' P resse ^ i n t° the proper curve, and pierced with the middle slit. Pens are after¬ wards cleaned by being tossed about among each other in a revolving cylinder, where the mutual friction imparts a polish. Steel pens are some¬ times punched out of the softened sheet of steel, and then tempered by being heated in an oil bath. PENCILS. The word pencil is used in two senses. It signi¬ fies either a small brush of hair employed by paint¬ ers in oil and water colors, or a slender piece of black lead (or plumbago), used either naked or en¬ veloped in a wooden case. The best are made by sawing the plumbago, which has been crayons ^ Previously prepared by heating, into the * proper form, and encasing in cedar wood. The plumbago is also used alone in cases of gold, silver, gutta perclia, etc., provided with a mechan¬ ism to protrude a minute portion. These are called ever pointed pencils, and are often elegant and ex¬ pensive. The term crayon is often applied, not only to the common pencils, but to larger articles for sketching and drawing; some black, and others of different colored chalk. Slate pencils are cut from fine pieces of slate, and rounded into a convenient form for the scholar’s use in ciphering, writing, drawing, etc. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 815 FANS. Fans are well known implements to produce coolness by agitating the air. They are a very an¬ cient invention, being found painted on the walls of tombs at Thebes, in Egypt, showing their use more than 3,000 years ago. Old writers, too, mention them in describing the customs, or illus¬ trating the usages of antiquity. The forms were different, but some were very beau¬ tiful. Catharine de Medicis, introduced the fan in France, where it has long been an article of manu¬ facture and commerce. The Chinese are the only great rivals of the French, and the two nations have in a good degree, the monopoly of the busi¬ ness. In China, the manufacture is chiefly confined to Canton and a few other towns. In France, Paris is the chief center of the cMne^Sns. fan business, which gives employment to a great number of men, women, and children. Some of the fans are exquisite works of art and skill, and command very high prices. The Chinese and Japanese, produce the lacquer¬ ed, bamboo and palm-leaf fans, sometimes of large size to serve for parasols. The palmetto, with the natural stem for a handle, is a very durable, cheap, and convenient fan. MATCHES. As an article of universal use and indispensable convenience, there i& scarcely anything which equals 316 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. the friction match. It lias superseded all the old, clumsy, and uncertain methods of producing the, which have been employed for ages, giving in their •place a neat, reliable, safe, and cheap ar- Importance -t . . of friction tide, always at hand, and always ready matches. f or servdce> The flint and steel, the tin¬ der-box, the phosphorus bottle, and many other im¬ perfect inventions of former days have all disap¬ peared, or are only preserved as curiosities. Many improvements have been made in the manu¬ facture of matches since they first came into use, and doubtless others will follow. The matches Lucifer matches , as they were called, were the first that operated entirely by friction. They were tipped with a paste of chlorate of pot¬ ash, and sulphuret of antimony, mixed with starch, and were ignited by drawing the match between surfaces of sand paper. In the year 1834, phos¬ phorus was substituted in place of antimony; and afterward, nitre, or saltpetre, took the place of chlorate of potash, which produced quiet ignition instead of detonation. The common method of making matches at pres¬ ent, is the following: The splints are of pine, Method of sawed by machinery into the proper form, making com- The ends of these splints are just im- mon matches. mersed in melted su l p h ur , a thill Coating of which adheres to each. After being well dried they are dipped in a composition made of phos¬ phorous, saltpetre, and some coloring material mixed in a hot solution of gum or glue. If the tips THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 317 are to be red, vermilion is used; if blue, the color is given by Prussian blue. In firing a match, the phosphorus is first ignited by the friction of rubbing on any rough surface ; the heat occasioned by it decom- ma t C h. a poses the saltpetre and increases the heat so that it ignites the sulphur, which in turn inflames the wood. Phosphorus , one of the most important ingredi¬ ents in the match manufacture, is obtained Pnospliorus. from bones, by burning and subjecting the ashes (called bone-ash) to certain chemical processes, which separate the phosphorus from the lime of the bones. Matches are put up in various ways for market, in boxes and packages of many sizes. They are a very important article of commerce, and are sent all over the civilized world. CHAPTER XX. CLOCKS AND WATCHES. CLOCKS. The origin of clock-work and of clocks is very- obscure ; and although learned men have investi¬ gated the subject carefully, it is not certainly known when or by whom they were first invented or used. The clepsydra or water clock, used by the ancient Romans, was perhaps one of the first instruments for measuring time aside from wate/ciock! sun-dial. These are supposed to have been vessels of water with a small aperture in the bottom through which the water ran out in a certain time, after which the vessel was again filled to be emptied as before. The hour¬ glass was another means of measuring time which with other instruments constructed on a similar principle were long in use. Alfred the Great adopted the burning of a taper to mark the lapse of the hours ; so much length consumed, indicating so much time. Some of the very rude tribes of Africa and of the South Sea islands, burn an oily nut to show a certain length of time. A number THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 319 of these nuts strung together and successively burned, afford not only light when needed, but a means of calculating the advance of day or night. What were called clocks in the ninth or tenth centuries do not appear to have borne much resem¬ blance to the instruments known by that name for the last five or six hundred years; the ac-. Ancient and tion of these being produced by weights modem or springs operating upon a train of wheels. The earliest complete clock of which we have any certain record was made by a Saracen mechanic in the thirteenth century. There is one now in existence at Dover Castle in England, bear¬ ing the date 1348, which is perhaps the oldest known. Clocks at the present day are made of a great va¬ riety of models, to suit different tastes, and to be applied to different purposes. The Germans, Dutch and Americans are particularly skilled in this manufacture. The English, French factura^ and Genevese have carried the art of making brass clocks to great perfection. In this country an immense number of small wooden clocks have been made and sold at a low price, some of them doing excellent service for years. The cases of clocks are of wood, marble, mala¬ chite, metal, papier-mache and other ornamental materials, some extremely costly and elegant, especially those designed for the mantel. „ 1 J ° . . , i ciock- Some run many days, others require to be caseaj etc> wound up every day. Some are depend¬ ent on weights, others upon spiral springs. Many 820 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. of the tall old-fashioned eight day clocks, after going' for a hundred years, are still among the most accu¬ rate of time-keepers. Clocks, from their great convenience are a very considerable article of commerce; but not a profit¬ able one to many manufacturers, as the cost in numerous instances has exceeded the profits. The number of clock-making establishments has conse¬ quently diminished of late years, especially those which have constructed the cheaper kinds. WATCHES. When constructed on the most approved princi¬ ples, and executed in the best manner, a watch is not only an exceedingly useful, but a most admira¬ ble piece of mechanism. And considering its small size, its capacity of being carried about the watch. uninjured in every variety of position, the number and complexity of its move¬ ments, and the accuracy with which it measures time, it may very justly be considered one of the most striking specimens of human ingenuity. The motions of a watch are generally regulated by a spiral spring, and the mechanism constructed on much the same principle as pendulum clocks, the spring taking the place of the pendulum. The invention of spring watches dates from about the invention m iddle of the 16th century, and is gen- of spring erally ascribed to Huyghens, a celebrated mathematician of Holland. Improve¬ ments have been going on ever since, and owing to THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 321 the facility with which longitude may be determin¬ ed by accurately going watches, it is of great im¬ portance to have them made as perfect as possible. Rewards and prizes, therefore, have often been of¬ fered to stimulate effort in that direction. And these efforts have been successful; for to such per¬ fection has the manufacture attained, that some of the chronometers employed by naviga- Accuracy tors, though carried into the most oppo- of ckro- site climates, have not varied to the ex- m tent of two seconds in their mean rate of going throughout the year. Watch-making is largely carried on in London ; where artists in the business have attained a high degree of excellence. Liver¬ pool, Coventry, and Edinburg, also furnish many excellent watches. On the Continent some of the most extensive manufactories are in Paris, Geneva, and Neufchatel. Paris and Geneva watches are largely imported to foreign countries, and are in high estimation among the ladies. Many of them are very small and exceedingly beautiful in style and finish, and withal good time-keepers. Great num- Parig and bers of European watches are sent to Geneva China; and it might be mentioned as a watclies - curious instance of the diversity of tastes, that the Chinese, and other Orientals who can afford it, uniformly prefer to wear watches in pairs. This sort of extravagance, however, is not confined to watches, but extends to a variety of other articles. In this country the watch manufacture has re¬ cently commenced, but promises in time to rival 14* 322 THE MANUAL OP COMMERCE. many of the old world productions. In Waltham, Massachusetts, an extensive establish- watch. ment is m operation tor making watches of a new style, and much more simple and durable construction than those of foreign manu¬ facture ; the different parts of the mechanism being made by machinery. These watches are already iii extensive use, and are highly valued as time-keep¬ ers. Other manufactories in New England and elsewhere, are in successful operation. CHAPTER XXL TOBACCO, HASHEESH, BETEL, ETC. TOBACCO AND PIPES. The tobacco plant is a native of America, but is cultivated in many other countries. It grows to the hight of five or six feet, with a hairy and clammy stem. The leaves are large, the lowest being; of the least value. When Tobacco ° plant. fresh they possess little odor or taste. When ripe the plants are cut off above their roots, and dried under cover. The odor now becomes strong and the taste bitter and acrid. The leaves are stripped off, sorted and packed in hogsheads for export. When well cured they are of a yel¬ lowish green color. Tobacco is used in various ways. The leaves, rolled up in a peculiar form, constitute cigars for smoking. Ground to a powder, they Formg of uge are used as snuff , while for chewing, the leaves are pressed into cakes and masses, or reduced to small fragments for the pipe. This plant contains principles which are among the most virulent poisons known. By various proc- 324 . THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. esses these may be extracted. To the most important of them the name of nicotin is given, from that of Jean Nicot , who, in 1560, sent seeds of the plant from Portugal, where he was at that time the French ambassador, to Catharine de Me- dicis, thus introducing it into France. The botani¬ cal name Nicotiana Tabacum , is also derived from the same source. Tobacco was discovered by the Spaniards in St. Domingo in 1496. It was first carried to England in 1565 by Sir John Hawkins, or Sir Walter Raleigh, and has ever since been growing in import¬ ance as an article of commerce, having origin ana q een introduced more or less into every importance. part of the world. The taste tor this substance, therefore, though only apparently to minister to a frivolous gratification, has given rise to one of the most extensive branches of commerce, and has been a powerful spur to various forms of industry. The name is thought by some to have been given in consequence of its early importation from Tobago , one of the Caribbee islands. Others think it re¬ ceived its name from Tabaco, a province of Yucatan; still others, that it was so called from Tobasco , in the Gulf of Florida. But Humboldt has shown that Tobacco was the term employed in the Haytian language to designate the pipe used by the natives in smoking ; the name having been transferred by the Spaniards to the plant itself, and adopted by other nations. Tobacco is at present cultivated in the tropical climates of the manual of commerce. 325 both hemispheres, although it thrives well in tem¬ perate regions. Its growth is exceedingly rank, and it exhausts a soil in a short time. Its market, in various forms of preparation, is literally every¬ where. Pipes for smoking tobacco are of various forms and made of various materials, dlie Calumet _ Calumet of the Indians was composed of a bowl formed of a soft red stone for containing the tobacco, and a long hollow reed ornamented with feathers. The cheapest and most common pipe in use at present, is made of pipe clay . It is formed like other articles of earthen ware, and then Claypipeai baked in a furnace. Such pipes are not durable on account of the brittleness of the stem, but as they are very cheap they can readily be re¬ placed when broken. MEERSCHAUMS. The clay of which these pipes are made, is pro¬ cured chiefly in Turkey, in Asia, in southern Europe, especially at Natolia, and in certain localities in England. It is a white, earthy substance, soft, but dry to the touch, and adhering, if applied to the tongue. It occurs in kidney-shaped nodules, and when first dug up it has a greasy appearance, and lathers like soap. It is sometimes used in place of soap by the inhabitants of countries where it is found. The well known Turkey tobacco pipes called meerschaums, (the word means sea foam,) are 326 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. made from this clay by a process similar to that for making pottery ware. They are after- Meerschaums. ^ ^ ** wards soaked in a liquid composition of wax, oil and fat, the absorption of which occasions the rich coloring they acquire by smoking. Carv¬ ing and polishing is a part of the finish. The frag¬ ments and parings are reduced to powder, boiled and moulded into blocks, from which bowls of less value are cut, called massa bowls. Mouth-pieces of amber are often attached to the meerschaums, especially in Turkey where amber is greatly prized as a substance incapable of transmit¬ ting infection; to which those Orientals are liable who deem it a mark of politeness to pass of amber. tiie P!P e to a stranger. The hookah, whose long, flexible stem is made to pass through water to cool and render the smoke more agreeable, is also furnished with an amber or silver mouth-piece. These pipes and mouth¬ pieces are manufactured to a great extent in Prus¬ sia, and are often costly and elegant. HASHEESH. In India and other Eastern countries, a certain species of hemp is used in a manner similar to to¬ bacco. The dried leaves are smoked for the pecu¬ liar properties they contain. A gummy substance is also obtained by boiling both leaves and flowers Hasheesh a ^tle fresh butter, which has long been employed to produce exhilarating or stimulant effects. This is called Hasheesh in the THE MANUAL OF COMMEHCE. 827 language of the country ; and in large quantities, or very frequent doses, it brings on a kind of delirium not unlike the effects of opium. BETEL. Another substance is also largely and almost uni¬ versally used in the East for chewing. This is the betel leaf which grows on a climbing plant of the pepper family, and somewhat resembles the ivy. This leaf is used to wrap up a nut called the areca nut (which is the fruit of a species of palm,) with some other ingredients, the whole form- Bcte) ing a small mass called betel , which al¬ most every man, woman and child is accustomed from infancy to chew. It is very astringent, red¬ dens the saliva, and blackens the teeth. Betel is a very important article of Eastern traf¬ fic. In the gardens of Ceylon the areca palm is planted near the wells and fountains while the betel vine, which immemorial custom has associated with it, is frequently seen twining about its trunk. This palm bears a strong resemblance to the cocoa-nut tree, but is of a still more graceful form, rising to the hight of forty or fifty feet, without any irregu¬ larity upon its polished stem, which sustains the crown of feathery foliage; and clustered within the graceful leaves are the astringent nuts for which it is so carefully cultivated. COCA. The explorations of modern travelers have brought to notice another plant containing proper- 828 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. ties which should rank it with those we have just described. Although it is at present little known in commerce, yet it will doubtless become so, and at no distant day assume a conspicuous place in the markets of the world. Coca , as it is called, (to be carefully distinguished from cocoa and cacao) is a shrubby tree growing on the eastern slopes of the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes in South America. It bears glossy green foliage and white blossoms ripening into small scar¬ let berries. But it is the leaves which piant!° Ca constitute the valuable part of the plant. They are stripped from it when brittle enough to break on being bent, dried in the sun and closely packed in sacks. New foliage soon appears for a second crop. The coca is cultivated in plan¬ tations which require to be renewed once in eight or ten years. It flourishes best in damp situations protected from the scorching rays of the sun. For this purpose maize is often sown between the rows of coca shrubs, to shelter them by its rapid growth, during the hottest part of the season. The natives of Peru and the adjoining countries esteem coca one of the prime necessaries of life; and among them its use is habitual and universal. A recent traveler says, “No Peruvian native is even seen without his leathern pouch filled with a provision of the leaves and containing a small box of powdered unslaked lime. ■ He rests from his work at least three times a day to chew his indis¬ pensable coca. Carefully taking a few leaves from his bag, and .removing their midribs, he first masti- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 329 cates them into the shape of a small ball which is called an acullico ; then repeatedly insert- Use by the ing a thin piece of moistened wood into Peruvian the box of lime he applies the powder which adheres to it to the acullico, until the latter has acquired the requisite flavor. The saliva, which is abundantly secreted while chewing the pungent mixture, is mostly swallowed with the juice of the plant. When one acullico is exhausted another is prepared, for one seldom suffices. The taste is slightly bitter and aromatic, but the addition of lime renders it less disagreeable even to the pal¬ ate of a foreigner, who tries it for the first time.” Another traveler states that the Indians who regularly use this substance, require but little food, and that when the dose is increased they are able to undergo the greatest fatigues and privations. Some of them reach a very advanced age using it freely every day of their lives. It is even thought to obviate, by its tonic effects, the cause of their principal maladies. As an illustra- f f r ^ ties tion of the strengthening properties of coca, the case is mentioned of an Indian employed by Tschudi (a traveler in Peru) in certain most laborious excavations, for five • successive days and nights, who ate nothing during the time, and slept only a little at night. But every three hours he chewed about half an ounce of the leaves, and constantly kept his acullico in his mouth. When the work was done this Indian accompanied Tschudi during a journey of twenty-three leagues over the high mountains and plains, running beside his mule 330 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. and nevei: resting except to prepare an acullico. He was sixty-two years old, and had never been sick in his life. He assured his employer that he would willingly perform the same labor again provided he could have a plentiful supply of coca. The same traveler, Tschudi, often used it him¬ self, and found it to prevent the difficulty of breath¬ ing experienced in ascending to great hights above the level of the sea. It also supplied to him the place of food by imparting a sense of fulness or satiety; his appetite returning after a considerable interval. These are the effects of a moderate use of the plant. Its abuse and excess are attended with the same deplorable consequences as are observed in Oriental opium eaters, smokers and drunkards. They are thus described: “ The confirm- Effects of ex- -i . , . . cessive use. ecl or intemperate coca-chewer is known by his uncertain step, sickly complexion, hollow, dull, black-rimmed eyes, trembling lips, in¬ coherent speech, and helpless apathy. He is irreso¬ lute, suspicious and false; in the prime of life he has all the appearance of old age, and in later years sinks into complete idiocy. Avoiding the society of man, he seeks the dark forest, or some solitary ruin, and there for days together indulges his per¬ nicious habit. While under the influence of coca (and the same is true of the hasheesh eater) his ex¬ cited fancy riots in the strangest visions of ideal beauty, and is next haunted by dreadful appari¬ tions. ’ Our traveler, Tschudi, was never able to find out how the miserable devotee finally awakens THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 331 to sober sense again. Probably not till the exhaus¬ tion of his supply of the leaves compels him to re¬ turn to the ordinary affairs of life once more, either to procure means for renewed indulgence, or to re¬ cover from the effects of his excess, as the drunk¬ ard recovers from his debauch. No history informs us when, or how this plant became known to the Peruvians, or who first dis¬ covered the virtues possessed by its leaves. Pizarro found it playing an important part in the religious ceremonies of the Incas; being used on all public occasions, either for fumigation or as an offering to their deities. The priests chewed coca while per¬ forming their rites, and the favor of the . , , ,. , . , , Superstitions invisible powers was believed to be ob- of the Peru v i- tained only by a present of these valua- ans 111 regard J J ± _ to coca. ble leaves. No work, began without coca, could come to a happy termination; and divine honors were paid to the shrub itself. The Spaniards at first endeavored by every means in their power to abolish the use of coca; hoping thus to break up the superstitions connected with it in the minds of the natives. But it was found too thoroughly interwoven with all their national char¬ acteristics and usages, to be eradicated Prohibitionof by laws or penalties. The Indians, ac- its use by the customed to its use all their lives, could Spamards - not, or would not work without it; and as the miners and planters required their aid in all depart¬ ments of labor, the point of contention was at length given up ; and the Indian is now at liberty to use all the coca he can afford. 332 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. “ When the remarkable properties of this plant are considered,” says Hartwig, “ it is indeed aston¬ ishing that it has been so long unnoticed. Were it concealed in the interior of Africa, or where it was difficult to procure, this fact could be more easily accounted for; but hundreds of vessels annually frequent the harbors of Peru and Bolivia, where it may be obtained in large quantities. And yet it has only been rarely, and in small amounts, import¬ ed into Europe, and is almost or quite unknown in the United States.” When it becomes known, however, it is sure to constitute a valuable article of commerce ; perhaps as much so as tobacco and opium. CHAPTER XXII. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES. SPONGE. Sponge is a very porous, compressible substance, found adhering to rocks, shells and other surfaces, particularly in the Mediterranean sea, merefound> among the islands of the Archipelago. Good sponges are also found in the Red sea, on the Florida coast, and that of the Bahama islands. Those from the Greek islands, however, are con¬ sidered the finest sponges of commerce. Sponge was formerly supposed to be a vegetable production, but is now classed among the lowest orders of the animal kingdom, as it yields, when analyzed, the same principles as animal substances in general, though never ex- ^ge.° f hibiting the least sign of sensation. It is light and soft, usually containing embedded fragments of mineral matter and small shells, especially in those of coarse texture, and large size. It is traversed by innumerable pores, the micro¬ scope showing the whole net-work of the sponge to be composed of fine tubes. If examined while 334 THE MANUAL OF COMMEKCE. in the water, currents are seen passing out of the larger openings, the water probably en- Se C 8ponge nin terin g through the smaller pores, thus giving rise to an obscure motion or cir¬ culation. As an animal, it lives on the water and what the water holds in solution, and there¬ fore it is probably necessary that water should be constantly passing through it. The bottle sponge curiously exhibits this motion. It is so sponge culled from its shape, being much like that of a bottle. Its absorbing pores are all on the outside, and its vents, or larger openings within; so that there is all the time a strong current pouring from the mouth of the bottle. In some of the Greek islands the inhabitants make it a business to obtain sponges by diving, having been trained to it from them infancy. Other methods are sometimes resorted to, such as spear¬ ing or grappling, but they injure the sponges, which adhere firmly to the bottom, and are not de¬ tached without difficulty. When first taken from the water they are covered with a slippery gelatinous substance, which is removed by washing. They are placed in heaps under piles of stones, which Preparation P ress them closely together, so that they of the become hard and flat when dry. The mineral particles are taken out by beat¬ ing the sponge till they are reduced to powder, which passes off in the water when washed. After this process is finished, the sponge is ready for use, or market. It is a very curious fact that after re- THE MANUAL OF COMMEKCE. 335 moving impurities, the sponge weighs more than when first taken from the water. Sponges serve a great variety of useful purposes both in the arts and medicine, and contribute in many well-known ways to cleanliness and comfort. They are of very unequal the value, the texture of some being fine and soft, while others are coarse and rough. Smyrna is the great market for sponges. The latest use to which sponge has been ap¬ plied is said to be that of making it into cloth. A Frenchman has lately obtained a patent for this manufacture in this country. The sponge employed is chiefly that found upon the rocks of the Bahama islands, and the coast of Florida, which is an ex¬ cellent quality, and inexhaustible in quantity. This sponge when torn from the rocks to which it ad¬ heres, appears at first as a heavy black looking mass, having a strong and often- manufacture, sive odor. In order to cleanse and purify it, the sponge is buried in the earth for some weeks, at the end of which all the organic matter will be decomposed, only the fibrous tissue remaining. In this state it is liable to become hard and unfit for the manufacturing process. To obviate this diffi¬ culty, the sponge is immersed in water containing from ten to twenty per cent, of glycerine, and then squeezed dry ; after which it will be entirely soft and elastic. It is then cut into small pieces, sub¬ jected to a carding process, and afterwards felted. Only certain qualities of sponge are capable of be¬ ing spun into yarn for weaving. One of them is 336 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. the kind known as “ chipoul ,” which has compara¬ tively a long fibre. The felted sponge may be used for hat bodies, carpets, etc.; the sponge cloth for clothing is made in the same manner as andootu!^ shoddy. Sponge may be used in textile fabrics, either with or without the ad¬ mixture of other fibres, such as wool, hair, etc. Sponge is employed of late as a material for stuffing furniture, mattresses, cushions, etc. The surgeon, physician and chemist, also find innumerable uses for this valuable article. GUANO. This substance is found in vast quantities on certain small islands off the coast of Peru and Bolivia, and also on some parts of the shore or main-land ; and no doubt it exists in many other places which have been for ages the resort of sea- fowls. It is an accumulation of the excrement of these birds, and is considered very valuable as a Nature and fertilizer for soils. It has been known to use of commerce but a few years. Guano is the Peruvian term for manure , and it has long been used for this purpose by the natives. It is of a powdery consistence, of a dull red or dirty white color, a greasy feeling, and a strong disagreeable odor. It is now brought by ship¬ loads, and used extensively for fertilizing. The principal deposits are upon the Chincha and Lobos Islands, though it is found in many others. The supply at the Chinchas, whence it is chiefly im- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 337 ported to the United States, cannot he exhausted for a long time. Humboldt was the first, or one of the first by whom this substance was introduced to notice in Europe ; though it had been discovered and des¬ cribed by earlier travelers, some of whom considered it a peculiar mineral or earth. But its real nature was soon determined. The prodigious swarms of sea-birds which have frequented these Formation islands and shores for ages, have pro- and composi- . . tion of guano. duced these enormous accumulations. Many of the birds only visit the island to lay their eggs, which they deposit in hollows scooped out of the guano. Their numbers are incalculable. The localities where it most abounds are comparatively rainless, and the masses increase with a rapidity of which we can form little idea. The substance is very valuable for enriching land, and has been employed for that purpose in the re¬ gions where it is found from the time of the Incas, and no one knows how long before. It contains ammonia, phosphate of lime and other principles ; but the salts of ammonia, which predominate, give it its principal value. ICE. The trade in ice has within a few years become so extensive that this product of cold climates is now very generally distributed in those latitudes where it is never formed; carrying with it an unspeakable amount of comfort and refreshment. The sale of 15 338 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. ice and snow preserved in the caverns of Vesu¬ vius and the more elevated parts of Etna, Ice trade. A 7 has long been a branch of trade at Na¬ ples, Catania and the neighboring towns; but the foreign commerce in ice originated in New Eng¬ land, whence the greatest proportion of it is still derived. The ice business was commenced in 1805 by Frederic Tudor of Boston. He loaded a vessel from a pond in Saugus, and sent it to the incitement, island of Martinique. The first ship¬ ment of ice to the East Indies was in 1833, for Calcutta, and it has since been sent to almost every foreign port where the climate does not allow of its production. After the ice upon numerous fresh ponds and rivers, especially in the neighborhood of Boston, has been formed of sufficient thickness, it is cut into blocks of uniform size, usually about twenty- two inches square, by an instrument called an ice- Method of cutter constructed with a series of cutting cutting and chisels, one succeeding the other and storing ice. ^he g roove . This is drawn by a horse, and cuts about two inches deep at each passage. When the parallel grooves have been made in one direction, others at right angles with them are cut in the same manner. Wedges are introduced into the grooves, and thus the ice is split into square blocks, which are piled in ice-houses on the shore to await shipment. It is placed in regular courses, every block ex¬ actly covering the one below it. When a compart- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 339 ment has been filled, it is immediately covered with wood shavings or sawdust. The receiving doors are fitted up to prevent waste till the ice is sent abroad or consumed at home. Shipments of ice are principally made from Boston. A method of producing ice in any climate by ar¬ tificial means, is reported as a very late invention. Whether it proves a successful one, time must de¬ termine. HOPS. The hop is a perennial-rooted plant, of which there are several varieties. It has an annual twin¬ ing stem, which, when supported on poles or trees, will reach the higlit of twenty feet or more. It is a native of Britain and most European countries, where it is cultivated, as well as in our own. The flowers, when dried, are used largely in the manu¬ facture of malt liquors. They are col- Protluction lected in the autumn, carefully dried and use of and packed in bags ready for market. ll0IS ’ They will keep for several years, if well cured. Hops have a very bitter principle, which is thought to preserve and improve the flavor of beer. The finest qualities are used in brewing ales, the more common for porter, etc. Hops are used also in home-made beer and yeast; also in medicine, for the sedative properties they contain. The use of hops in the manufacture of ale and beer seems to have been a German invention. They were used in the breweries of the Nether¬ lands in the beginning of the fourteenth century, 340 THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. but were not introduced into England till the sixteenth, or two hundred years later. In 1530 Henry VIII. enjoined upon the brewers of his kingdom not to put hops into their ale. But plan¬ tations for their culture were formed, notwithstand¬ ing’, and they were soon in general use. They are thought to render ale more palatable, by giving it an agreeable bitter flavor, and at the same time make it keep longer without injury. HAY. Any kind of grass cut and dried for the food of cattle or horses, is called hay. Its culture for commercial purposes is confined chiefly to the Eastern, Middle and Western States in this country, from which the southern market and others are mainly supplied. It is sent in the form of pressed packages or bales. GRASS-CLOTH. There are several plants which produce fibrous materials capable of being woven into cloth with¬ out the process of spinning, as in flax and cotton. One of these, the China grass-cloth plant , (other¬ wise named the Rhee of Assam) is perhaps the most valuable, and produces the strongest and most delicate fibre, which is woven into articles of cloth¬ ing, delightfully cool for warm climates, and into many other convenient forms for domes- Grass-clotli. tic or commercial purposes. It lias been introduced successfully into some of the West THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 341 India islands, where it thrives admirably. In France it has attracted much interest, since a new method of preparing the grass for use has been adopted. A hot solution of carbonate of soda ap¬ plied to it, makes it assume to a great degree the softness and lustre of silk; and, in fact, it is em¬ ployed considerably in the manufacture of certain kinds of French silk. COMMERCIAL FIBRES. There are many other plants besides those al¬ ready mentioned which produce fibres fit for vari¬ ous uses, and occupy a higher or lower rank among commercial articles. A few will be named among our miscellaneous subjects. The Lily tribe furnishes several species which afford fibres of great strength; such as the Yuccas of our South¬ ern States, which flourish upon the poorest soils from the Potomac to Texas, and will Different yield filaments from six inches to two plants pro- feet in length. The leaves of the com- ducmg tlbres - mon pine-apple , with whose delicious fruit every one is familiar, furnish fibres from which very fine muslin has been manufactured. The Agaves , growing in Mexico and Central America, with their pulpy leaves varying from one to twenty feet in length, have fibres which are ob¬ tained by simple scraping, and are of remarkable strength. The well known and valuable Sisal hemp is a product of these plants. Several species of them have been successfully introduced into the United States. 342 THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. The bales of the Sisal hemp, which come from the vicinity of Merida, in Yucatan, contain, how¬ ever, fibres of different materials, though sold under this general name. The Banana tribe also furnishes, from its gigan¬ tic leaves, valuable fibres for bagging, cordage, mats, etc. The Manilla hemp exported in such large quantities from the Phillippine islands, is ob¬ tained from plants of this order. It resembles the Sisal hemp very closely, and it is thought by many that they are almost equally valuable. The Sun hemp , and the varieties of Jute are, like the Manilla hemp, imported from the East Indies. Sun hemp is the prepared fibre of the bark of a well known Indian plant, and is univer¬ sally employed over nearly the whole of Southern Asia as a material for cordage, especially for bale ropes. The fibres known as Jute , are derived from the bark of a tree which is of the Linden family. It is cleansed by soaking in water and subsequent scraping. It resembles the Sun hemp in many re¬ spects, but is finer and of less strength. The gunny- cloth, of which vast quantities are annually import¬ ed into the United States, is often woven andbaga. 0 ^ with the warp of Sun hemp, and the fill¬ ing, or woof, of jute. Gunny is import¬ ed both in the cloth, and also made up into bags called gunny-bags. It forms envelopes likewise for other articles sent from India; saltpetre, Java coffee, etc. Owing to the cheapness of gunny- cloth, the bags are rarely used more than once be- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 343 fore they fall into the hands of the paper-makers. The paper made from them is of the cheaper and poorer qualities, as it is impossible to bleach the fibres sufficiently to render them serviceable for white paper. The true hemp and flax are not cultivated in the East Indies to any great extent for the fibres, but mainly for the seed, from which a valuable oil is obtained. CORDAGE. The name of Cordage is given to all lines larger and stronger than those used for ordinary packing purposes. It embraces all the sorts used in rigging vessels, from the cable and hawser down to the whip-cord and fishing-line. The manufacture of cordage is a very important business, upon which many departments of com¬ merce depend ; and it is carried on more or less in everv country on the globe. Cables, J i p Cables, ropes, ropes, cind. cords, cire mostly mcide oi an( j CO rds. hemp, spun into what is called rope-yarn. This is doubled and twisted together in many or few strands, according to the size required. Rope yarn is spun upon a level, covered way, called a rope-walk. The spinner throws a wisp of the prepared hemp around his body, and from the two ends coming from either side, draws out a coarse thread, walking backward and twisting as he goes to the end of the walk. This length being twisted and reeled up, he draws out another in the 844 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. same way. From this yarn many times doubled, the largest ropes are made. Tli e most singular vegetable fibre of the East Indies, convertible into cordage, is the product of the leaf of the sago palm. It is called Ejoa, and 1 esembles black horse-hair. Each tree has six leaves in a year, and each leaf yields about ten ounces of the fibre. Some of the ^finest trees, how¬ ever, produce a full pound to each leaf. These fibres grow from the base of the foot-stalk of Kopes of sago * he , lea ?*’ ^ com P Ietel y embrace the palm fibres, tiunk ot the tree where the leaves spring forth; which, in the palm, is always at the summit of the trunk. Both fibres and leaves can be removed without injuring the tree. Cables are made from this singular material. The cordage known as Coir , is produced from the shoit, woody, husky fibres of the outer envel¬ ope of the cocoa-nut. I hey are prepared by soaking in water for a long time, or until they become soft; coir. sometimes for six months or more. The husks are dried and beaten, when the woody par^ falls out like sawdust, leaving only the fibrous portion. The cordage made from it thus prepared, is said to be the finest and best that can be produced from any vegetable material. MATS AND MATTING. Mats are composed of a great variety of sub¬ stances according to the use they are to serve. Flags, reeds, bark, hemp, ratans, bamboo and other fibres THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 345 are used for this purpose. The coarser textures are employed in packing goods and furni- ture, enveloping boxes and bales ot mer- of matg chandise, or for covering the floors of pas¬ sages, vestibules, churches or offices. The finer are used for nicer purposes. Some are very rich and handsome. Matting woven of rushes, either plain or ornamented, makes a very cool and delightful covering for floors in hot climates, or for warm weather in colder ones. The peasants of Russia manufacture immense quantities of mats from hemp and from the hark of the linden tree. In Spain and Portugal, reed mats are made with much skill. Rush floor mats, and bamboo and ratan table mats of a super¬ ior quality, are brought from China. The ^factured 1 "" mats of the Japanese are soft and elastic, being made of a peculiar species of rush cultivated for the purpose, and serve both for carpets and beds. The rude tribes inhabiting Africa and other bar¬ barous countries are skilled in this manufacture, which is very ancient; doubtless it was the first kind of woven fabric ever fabricated by man. The Russian mats of linden bark are called bast mats, and are of more commercial importance than any other. The demand for them, both in home and foreign use, is immense. They are ^ ** ^5 ing a dangerous anchorage into a safe and commodious harbor for ships of war, merchant, or other vessels. Some of the most extensive are those of Cherbourg in France, Plymouth in Eng¬ land, Delaware, etc., in this country. Dikes are embankments of stone, timber, etc., raised upon low lands to prevent their overflow by the waters of the sea, rivers or lakes. Those of Holland are very numerous. The original meaning of the word is a ditch or drain for carry- ing off water. It is now generally used in the former sense, meaning a sea-bank or wall. Many low coasts are thus protected from the inroads of the sea. Along the lands of the lower Mississippi similar embankments are termed levees. LIGHT-HOUSES AND SEA SIGNALS. A light-house is a tower or building with a pow¬ erful light at the top, erected at the entrance of a port, or at some important point on a coast to serve as a guide to mariners at night. Various means are used to produce the light and make 1 Liglit-houses. it so intense as to be visible at a dis¬ tance. Modern science has aided greatly in ef¬ fecting this object, and at the present day these most useful structures are built with a solidity, 1 . 6 * 3T0 THE MAHUAL OF COMMERCE. and. illuminated with a brilliancy never before at¬ tained. Light-houses are of ancient date. The Colossus of Rhodes , a celebrated brazen statue more than a hundred feet in hight, which stood at the en¬ trance of the harbor, is believed to have Rhodes. 3 ° f served the purposes of a light-house. It was built about three hundred years be¬ fore Christ, and was partially destroyed by an earthquake about eighty years after its completion. As late as 672 of our era, the metal of which it was composed, was sold by the Saracens to a Jewish merchant of Edessa, Tor a great sum of money. The Pharos of Alexandria, built about the same time as the Colossus, was a tower of im- Pharos of . , . . _ Alexandria. S1ZG cUld lligllt. Oil th.6 top of which a fire was kept constantly burning by night, visible to seamen at a distance of forty miles. From this tower the modern light-house is often called a Pharos. Both the Colossus of Rhodes and the Pharos of Alexandria were included by the ancients among the “Seven Wonders of the World.” Among the most noted of modern structures of this kind, is the Eddystone light-house, on the coast of Cornwall, England. It is built upon one of the Eddystone rocks which lie in the English channel, about fourteen miles south-west of Plym¬ outh. These rocks are not much elevated above the sea at low water, and at high tide, or in a the manual of commence. 371 storm, are entirely hidden, forming a very danger¬ ous obstacle to navigation. It was not till many vessels had been wrecked here that the attempt was made to erect a light¬ house upon them ; an enterprise of peculiar diffi¬ culty and danger. But in 1696 a structure was commenced which required four years to 7 n Eddystone complete. The architect was so conn- ug^t-house. dent of its strength that he is said to have frequently expressed a desire to be in it during some tremendous storm, that he might witness its effect upon the building. In November 1703, he was superintending some repairs in the light-house, which had stood for three years, when there came on one of the most terrific tempests ever known upon the coast of England. Next morning not a vestige of the light-house remained! It had been swept into the deep with its builder, leaving no trace even of its foundations, upon the fatal rock. After the destruction of this first Eddystone light-house, the necessity of another was shown in the renewed casualties which befel shipping upon this dangerous spot; and in 1 1 09, another building was completed, which stood for more than forty years, encountering some very severe storms, when, being constructed of timber, it was accidentally de¬ stroyed by fire. In 1759 the present structure was erected by a celebrated engineer named Smeaton, which has already weathered the storms of more than a century. It is a round tower built of stone, gradually dimin¬ ishing in circumference from the base up to a cer- 872 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. tain tight, like the trunk of an oak, from which the architect states that he derived his idea. No one can estimate the number of lives, nor the amount of property this admirable light-house has been the means of preserving. And many others, placed in perilous points, have also constantly contributed to the protection of seamen and the security of the vessels they navigate from one port to another, and the cargoes they convey. Other means are also employed to point out sunken rocks or other impediments in the path of the seaman. Floating lights, light-boats, beacons, buoys, signals with the bell, gong, gun, or fog- whistle, warn the mariner in numberless places of hidden dangers beneath, or of others unseen around him. Great improvements have been made in methods of illumination for light-houses, as well as in the accuracy and efficiency of sea signals. Many very interesting events have occurred at various dates and places, in connection with light- houses, and other means devised to avoid Bell Bock. the perils of the sea. Bell Rock, a lonely reef opposite the FirtK of Fay, on the east coast of Scotland, twelve or fifteen miles from land, has been celebrated for many centuries as a place of peculiar hazard to vessels, and from its situation it was long found difficult to establish any adequate method of warning to vessels in its vicinity. It derives its name from the fact that the humane monks of a neighboring abbey, devised a floating bell, tolled by the moving waves, and rung with THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 616 appalling energy tire higher the storm rose. But with the decay of the abbey, went also the bell, and accidents were the frequent result. Thrice afterwards private beneficence provided a wooden beacon, which speedily gave way to the winds and waves. About the beginning of the present cent¬ ury, however, Robert Stevenson, after four years of the severest labor, completed a noble structure of stone, which, besides its brilliant and far reach¬ ing light, has revived the old tradition of the bell. It is still heard booming amidst the crash of the breakers, being moved by the revolving machinery of the lamps; and furnishes a most valuable signal in foggy weather. POSTS AND MAILS. The establishment of posts , by which letters and packets may be regularly conveyed from place to place, has been one of the most efficient instruments of civilization, as well as one of the most impor¬ tant adjuncts of commerce, by diffusing intelligence and information, and facilitating business operations between parties at a distance. The name of post is said to be derived from the Latin positus, which means placed , because horses were anciently placed at certain distances p ost:3 _ apart, for the purpose of transporting messengers or letters. These messengers, who traveled on horseback were generally in the service of the government. The first posts date back to the time of Darius I. 374 THE MANUAL OP COMMERCE. of Persia, B. C. 522, who, we read, caused couri¬ ers with saddle-horses to stand ready at different stations, a day’s distance apart throughout the em¬ pire, in order to receive reports from the provinces without delay. In some of the Eastern countries carrier-pigeons were used in early times to convey information but never to any great extent. A pigeon post was es¬ tablished and sustained at great expense for half a century or more by some of the Caliphs of Bagdad and other Mohammedan princes, but at length the birds fell into the hands of enemies and the system was destroyed. It was occasionally revived again by wealthy individuals, as it requires much time and patience to train the birds. The principle acted upon in this system was the attachment posts°. n °f these birds to their home and mate. When young they are made as tame as possible and the mates kept together, as they are nat¬ urally inclined to do. They are then sent in an open cage to the place whither they are to carry messages, and treated with great kindness, still being kept constantly together. If now one of these birds is car¬ ried away, even to a very distant place, and set at liberty, it will certainly return to its mate. This beautiful instinct is turned to account by fastening a small letter written on the finest and lightest pa¬ per to the feathers beneath the wing. In its anxiety to reach home the pigeon will sometimes fly many hundred miles in a day. It is said that certain merchants in Paris and Amsterdam have sometimes employed carrier-pig- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 375 eons in order that the prices of stocks and merchan¬ dise in Paris might be known in advance of the posts at Amsterdam; a service much better, and more speedily accomplished at the present day by the telegraph. During the late terrible conflict between the French and Prussians, which has just come to an end, the pigeon post was again brought into ser¬ vice. In ancient times the despatch borne by the bird was necessarily short, as the slightest weight was an impediment to its flight. But modern sci¬ ence and skill have remedied this difficulty by ap¬ plying to it the photographic art. A regular line of post pigeons was established between Tours and Paris during the siege of the latter city, the birds being brought from the capital by bal¬ loons. No less than 3500 despatches, of re vivJdatthe twenty words each, in all 70,000 words , nte siege of could be carried by one of these winged messengers. Those who have examined the micro¬ scopic photographs of the Lord’s Prayer, or the Ten Commandments, know that though to the naked eye the words appear as mere grains of dust, they are perfectly plain and legible under a good lens. In this manner these despatches were pre¬ pared upon the lightest of paper, the whole being of scarcely appreciable weight, and proving no bur¬ den at all to the pigeons. At the end of the route the despatches were read with the utmost facility. A page of the London Times has been compressed into the space of less than an inch. When commerce began to flourish in modern 376 THE MANUAL OP COMMERCE. times, post coaches or stages were employed, and Post or mail P reseil t ti me > where the railroad is coaches. available for the service, letters and other mail matter are thus conveyed; the government forming a contract with the own¬ ers of coaches and other public vehicles to this ef¬ fect. In England a guard accompanies the mail for its protection. The first regular post-office was established in England, in 1654, by Cromwell. The office of Postmaster- General in England was first conferred by Queen Elizabeth upon Thomas Randolph, a gentleman who had aided essentially in the estab¬ lishment of the mail system in Great Britain. In this country the first post-office Was established by an act of Parliament in 1710. After the Revolution this department came under the control of the new government, and was placed by the Constitution in Post-offices cliar £ e of Con gress, with power to estab- etc. ’ lish post-offices and post-roads, and pro¬ vide for the safe transmission of mail matter all over the country. The entire business is under the particular direction of the Postmaster- General, at Washington. Robbery of the mail is punishable by heavy penalties; but since its trans¬ portation by railway, or by steam-vessels, the cases of this crime are comparatively few. Letters which are not claimed are sent to the Bead Letter office , at Washington, where they are examined and returned to the owners or writers if they can be found. The greatly reduced rates of postage,-and the security and rapidity with which mail matter is con- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. oil veyed by steam, on land and water, have increased and extended correspondence all over the globe, as well as furnished a ready method of cir- Postage culating newspapers, books, and other articles of importance ; thus operating to the mani¬ fold advantage of commerce, and scattering world¬ wide intelligence, civilization and refinement, which are sure to create a demand for her innumerable commodities. The word mail as applied to our postal system, comes from the French malle^ a trunk, or a similar word in several other mod- mail> ern languages having the signification of sack, bag, budget, etc. Hence the contents of such a bag or sack have come to bear the mean¬ ing of the original word. PNEUMATIC RAILWAY. Experiments are in progress at the present time to test the practicability of employing atmospheric air as a motive power in place of steam. The elastic properties of air admit of great compression. By the effort to expand after such compression, when made under favorable circumstances, a force is generated, which, if properly applied, may in future become, in certain situations, a substitute for steam. The operation of this principle may be seen in the Pneumatic Bailway in the city of New York, a section having just been constructed. Whether it is adapted to great distances, or to popular use, or to subserve the grand interests of commerce, remains to be proved. 378 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. TELEGRAPHS. The word telegraph means writing afar off, or at a distance; expressing the fact common to all kinds, that what is communicated at one point is re¬ ceived and understood at a distance. A telegraph then, is an apparatus or a process for communicating intelligence rapidly between dis¬ tant points. It is done either by means of visible signals representing words or ideas, or by means of words and signs transmitted by electro-magnetism. The first method, with many variations, altera¬ tions, and improvements has long been in use ; from the beacon, lighted from hill to hill, to convey tidings of victory or disaster, to the more compli¬ cated system of modern signals by land or sea. The second is of recent date, and is one of the sublimest achievements of modern science. The signal telegraph is one in which precon¬ certed signals made at one place with an instrument or otherwise, are seen and interpreted at another. This may be done by an apparatus of arms and pointers, elevated upon a post or mast, which can be moved so as to occupy many different positions. These positions all have specific meanings, which are duly explained in books, similar in design to a dictionary. This telegraph dictionary only differs Land or in- hom any other in having a list of numer- dicator tei- a ls instead of words under each letter of egraph. . , . 1 the alphabet, with the meanings following the numerals. Now the arms of the telegraph be- ing placed in certain positions express particular THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 379 numbers ; and the observer looks for the number in his dictionary, where he finds the word signified by it. This is the land or indicator telegraph. There is another kind used at sea in conveying intelligence from one vessel to another. It is called the marine telegraph , and is operated by means of flags. Ships can thus communicate with each other at the distance of several ^graph. miles. These forms of the signal tele¬ graph are used much less than formerly, especially the land instrument, which has been superseded by the electric telegraph. ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH. For this great invention, the crowning triumph of science and human ingenuity which Inventorof enables us with the rapidity of thought theeiectro- to communicate with distant points over thousand of miles of intervening land or sea, the world is mainly indebted to an American— Samuel F. B. Morse. Electro-magnetism is that species of magnetic force which is developed by the passage of electric cur¬ rents. It was first discovered and described by Prof. Oersted of Copenhagen in the year 1819. He found that a wire along which an electric current was passing, was rendered magnetic by the current which it transmitted. Numerous experiments were made and various batteries constructed for produc¬ ing the electrical current in greater intensity. These experiments developed other and interesting facts. 380 THE MANUAL OE COMMERCE. It was seen that if a wire, or many wires together were insulated and wound into a coil called a helix, Electro- and c0Imected with a battery, any piece magnetism. of soft iron or steel would become highly magnetic if placed within the coil. The steel would permanently retain its magnetism, while the soft iron would lose it the moment the current ceased. This fact with others of more or less impor¬ tance suggested the possibility of its being turned to practical account in the telegraph. In 1837 Morse produced his apparatus for transmitting and re¬ cording communications. The first line was established between Baltimore and Washington a distance of forty miles. This was done in 1844 by an appropriation from Con- First trial greSS,t0 test the invention. The enter- and success, prise succeeded perfectly; and since then the wires have been stretching farther and farther over the earth and under the oceans ; linking continent to continent, island to island, sea to sea, and will in a very few years no doubt, encircle the entire globe. r Ihe value of such a system of communication to commerce, to trade, to literature, science, re¬ ligion, and every other department of human knowl¬ edge and effort, is not to be comprehended or con¬ ceived ! Some varieties exist in the machinery of electro¬ telegraphs. Many systems have been contrived m this and other countries to supersede that of Moise. But not one has succeeded in doing so. It is at the present moment employed on more THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 381 than nine-tenths of all the existing telegraphic lines. The printing or House telegraph , which ^ a n Printing produces the messages printed on slips ox telegraph, paper, in plain Roman letters, possesses decided advantages over many of the others. The characters employed by the Morse telegraph, are dots and lines. Many separate telegraphic organizations have been formed in this country, but they are now mostly consolidated into one great company, having its head-quarters in New York city, and its wires thrown out in all directions over the length and breadth of the continent. For the terri- tory now occupied by the lines of the graph com- Western Union Telegraph Company em- braces almost the entire civilized portion of North America. The present number of telegraphing stations (1871) is four thousand, two hundred; its miles of line nearly fifty-six thousand; its gross earnings for the last year (1870) seven and a half millions of dollars! Let us for a moment allow ourselves fiom this point of its growth and prosperity to look back upon the day of small things of this grand enter¬ prise. In the year 1842, Samuel F. B. Morse, confident that he had made a valuable discovery, invited a number of his friends to see the experiment of sending messages through a wire, in an upper room of the New York Umvers- ment ity. A coil of isolated wire was placed in the middle of the room, wound round a cyl- 382 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. inder, the mass of which contained some five miles of wire between the two projecting ends. Mr. i Morse operated at one end, and the recording proc¬ ess was seen by everybody to be simultaneous in its action with the movements of his fingers. “What do you think of it?” was the question addressed to one of the most intelligent observers : of the exhibition, when its perfect success was established. “A very ingenious contrivance,” was the reply; “ but it can never be made practically useful /” It was only after much delay and great efforts that a line of poles and wires was constructed along the railroad between Baltimore and Wash¬ ington, in 1844,- and curiously enough, one of the first achievements of this new and strange system, was the causing of »the arrest of a criminal who An early llad escaped from Washington by rail- achievement road. He was telegraphed for to Balti- of the system. more. I he police officers of that city having received the dispatch, stood at the Balti¬ more depot on the arrival of the train, and quietly took charge of the culprit as he stepped from the car. It was but the first of many thousand similar offices the telegraph has been called on to perform. Many a rogue has had occasion to regret the discovery of Professor Morse, and many more will doubtless do so. But, though like all grand inventions of world¬ wide advantage, it has had to contend with distrust and prejudice, it has at length taken its proper place at the head of this majestic catalogue; and > THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 38B the name of its inventor has become one which nations delight to honor, and which is a pride and boast to his countrymen. It is not often that a great genius survives to wit¬ ness the complete success of his invention, and its universal appreciation. The honors and rewards of such men have too often come long after they have finished a life of care, perplexity and disap¬ pointment, while those of another generation, per¬ haps, have reaped all the advantages and emolu¬ ments. It has, however, been the privilege of Professor Morse to live to see his work perfected and honor¬ ably acknowledged the world over. While these pages are in press, the venerable man, still unbent by his burden of more than eighty years, has participated in the cere- statue of monv of unveiling; a statue in bronze, bronze in J ° rpntrnl PnrV erected to his honor, in Central Park, in the city of New York. It took place on the 10th of June, 1871, and as the whole subject of tele¬ graphy is so intimately and completely identified with the interests and operations of commerce, we insert a few brief particulars of this memorable oc¬ casion. “ The unveiling of the Morse statue was a great tribute to a great achievement, and a deserved recognition of a great man. Ten thousand persons gathered in the vicinity to witness it, among them some of the most distinguished men of the age. The sentiments of appreciation expressed and ap¬ plauded, not only did justice to the grandeur of the 384 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. theme, but rendered deserved honor to the Inventor of Telegraphy , whose hoary hairs were assuredly, in this instance, a crown of glory.” One of the speakers gave some account of the value of the in¬ vention in time of war. The first practical use of the telegraph in war was during the Austro- Italian conflict, in which the French were the al¬ lies of the Italians; and the advantages tawar. e ^ raph gained by them were mainly due to the telegraph and railway. In the late Franco-German war, just terminated, every impor¬ tant event, from the declaration of war to the dec¬ laration of peace, was announced by the telegraph, and all the combinations and movements of the victorious Germans were directed by the same means. It may, therefore, be truly said that the genius of our great countryman (in an important sense) enabled the victors to accomplish the grand results of the struggle. Mitrailleuses * and chasse- pots , and breechloaders are dangerous instruments, but the telegraph is the most effective weapon of all!” Professor Morse addressed a few words to the assembly, which was mostly composed of those per¬ sonally and practically interested in the business of telegraphy. “ Friends and children of the Tele¬ graph,” he said, “ you have chosen to impersonate in my humble effigy, an invention, which, cradled upon the ocean, had its birth in an American ship. It was nursed and cherished not so much from per- *Guns of recent invention, used in the late war between France and Prussia. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 385 sonal as from patriotic pride. Foreseeing its future, my most powerful stimulus to perseverance through all the perils and trials of its early days, was the conviction that it must become world- . , . ., ,. -i Address of wide m its application; and moreover Prof . Morse . that it would be hailed everywhere as an American gift to the nations! ” He then nar¬ rates the stages of its progress, the obstacles it had to surmount, the discouragement and poverty which protracted the struggle ; gratefully naming the men who at that time came forward to aid the weak enter¬ prise with their influence, counsel and money ; and of its final triumph at the present moment “ when this vast country, from the northern boundaries of Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the shores of the Atlantic to the Pacific, are webbed with telegraphic wires! ” A happy allusion to the first idea of a submarine telegraph, was made in these words of Prof. Morse : “ Another grand stride was to be taken be¬ fore international communication could be estab¬ lished. In October, 1862, the first submarine tele¬ graph cable (to test the possibility) was laid by me one moonlight night, in the harbor of this city, the perfect success of which proved the practicability of the thing. From this result, I ventured to pre¬ dict the certainty of an Atlantic telegraph. It was then regarded as a visionary dream. But at this crisis another mind was touched with Firstideaof the necessary enthusiasm to undertake submarine ,, , . • i telegraphy. so marvellous an enterprise ; a mind ad¬ mirably fitted in every particular, by indomitable 17 386 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. energy, perseverance, and foresight. To Cyrus W. Field, more than to any other individual, be¬ longs the honor of carrying to completion this gi¬ gantic task. Associating with himself on both sides of the Atlantic, men of his own stamp, who were never daunted by temporary failures and unfore¬ seen accidents, he rested not till the Old and New World were in instantaneous communication !” The occasion was made still more memorable by the sending from the spot the following dispatch : “ Professor Morse sends greeting to the telegraphic fraternity throughout the world; ‘ Glory to God in the highest, peace on earth and good will to men! ’ ” The instrument used was the first battery the world? t0 employed upon the first telegraphic line, that between Washington and Baltimore, which has been preserved as a memento. The first message transmitted, “ What hath God wrought ?” is in sublime and admirable keeping with the last. SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHS. The original transatlantic telegraph , laid in 185T, though at first a failure, has been followed by two others, which are in constant and successful operation at the present time. They have been laid also beneath various other bodies of water; so that at this day the communication is com- Present ex - * ^ tent of teie- plete with the opposite side of the globe, graphic com- an( j nations scattered over it in all direc- mumcation. tions. The “ miracle” as it was once re¬ garded is achieved, by which we can speak to and THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. 387 receive a reply in a few seconds of time from our antipodes in China ! Well might the honored father of the system exclaim through the wires, “ What hath God wrought! ” No doubt the future will witness vast changes and improvements in this art as in others; but it is difficult to conjecture what may be their nature or extent. They will only add to the great sum-total of its advantages to the human race. CHAPTER XXIY. COMMON COMMERCIAL TERMS, FORMS, USAGES, AND OPERATIONS. Commercial transactions among civilized nations require certain forms to ensure their validity. Cer¬ tain mercantile terms and usages, common among buyers and sellers everywhere, it is desirable to understand. A few explanations in regard to those which occur most frequently in business matters will here be given. BOOK-KEEPING. Book-keeping is the art of recording mercantile transactions in a regular and systematic manner; so that a man may know the state of his affairs and property by an inspection of his keeping. books. It so disposes the accounts of business that the true state of every part, and of the whole, can be easily and distinctly shown. Merchants books are kept either by double or single entry; the former method generally used by wholesale dealers, and the latter by retailers. It is called also the Italian method , because it was first practiced in Venice, Genoa and other towns in THE MANUAL OP COMMERCE. 389 Italy, where trade was conducted on an extensive scale at a much earlier date than in England, France, or other parts of Europe. Various books are used in the records of business, the mv , accounts being transferred from one to another. Of these the ledger is the principal where the several particulars of each account that lie scattered in other books according to their dates, are collected and placed together in such a manner that the opposite parts of each account are set against each other. The left hand page contains the debt , marked Dr., and the right the credit marked Or. The person who owes anything is the debtor, and the one to whom something is owed, is the creditor. The balance is the overplus or difference between the accounts. INSURANCE. Insurance is a contract by which one party en¬ gages, for a stipulated sum, to insure another against a risk to which he is exposed. The party who takes upon himself the risk, is called the in¬ surer, assurer, or underwriter; the party protected by the insurance is called the insured, or assured; the sum paid is called the premium; and the paper containing the contract of insurance is 7 . T £ Insurance of called the policy. Insurance maybe et- varlougkinds> fected on almost every kind of property; on life, health, etc.; against accidents by fire, water, or those incurred in traveling. The busi¬ ness in all its departments is of vast magnitude and 390 THE manual of commerce. extent. It is one of those safeguards to which commerce has constant and continual recourse. Marine insurance is that by which vessels of every kind, with or without their cargoes, are secured against the dangers of the sea, and is a special branch of the business. The underwriters who at¬ tend to this kind of insurance, ascertain as far as possible what the risks are in every voyage, by every species of vessel, and charge rates accord¬ ingly. The business of life insurance is already carried on to an immense extent, both in England and this country, and is annually increasing in importance. BROKERAGE AND BROKERS. Brokerage is the commission or percentage paid to brokers on the sale or purchase of bills, funds, goods, or property of any kind. A broker is an agent or intermediate person who transacts special business on account of another. The term is supposed to be derived from uame!° f th ° the Latin abrocator or brocarius , which both mean a negotiator. The old Norman- French word broggour , the old English, brocour , and the modern French brocanteur, have about the same signification. The kind of business indicated by these terms is of considerable antiquity. The province of a broker is to find buyers and sellers, and to bring them together to make their own bargains, or to transact for them the business of buying or selling. The class is confined chiefly THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 391 to large towns and cities; as in small places where only a very limited amount of trading is done, the buyers and sellers usually piw ™ C e! S know each other, and need not be at the expense of employing a third party. But where both are very numerous and strangers to one another, there is a necessity for a distinct class whose office it is to act as a negotiator or agent be¬ tween them. Brokers are divided into different classes depend¬ ent upon the kinds of property in which they chiefly deal. A bill broker is one who buys and sells notes and bills of exchange. An exchange broker buys and sells uncurrent money, and deals in exchanges relating to money between different countries. An insurance broker effects insurances on lives or prop¬ erty. A stock broker negotiates transactions in the public funds, and deals in stocks of moneyed cor¬ porations and other securities. A real estate broker buys and sells houses and lands, and obtains loans of money upon mortgage. A merchandise broker buys and sells goods. A ship broker deals in the purchase and sale of vessels, procuring freight, etc. A pawnbroker advances money on vari- Different ous kinds of goods taken in pledge, kinds of on condition of being allowed to sell them if the sum advanced is not repaid with in¬ terest after a specified time. Brokers , simply so called, are often understood to be those who ap¬ praise or sell household furniture, etc., held for rent. Brokers, both in money and merchandise, were early known in England, and their dealings regu- 392 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. lated by law. The rise of such a class of agents in any department of business, is an indication of its increase and prosperity. BANKS AND BANKING. Banks are establishments intended to serve for the safe custody and issue of money, for facilitating its payment by one individual to another, and some¬ times for the accommodation of the public with loans. The first bank of which we have any reliable record was established in Italy, A. D. 808, by the Lombard Jews, of whom many afterwards settled in Lombard street, London, where many bankers still reside. The name is derived from banco , a bench, which was usually erected in the market-place for the exchange of money. The English merchants, lacking a safe place to deposit their cash, first used the Mint in the Tower of London, for this purpose, origin of crec ^I °f the mint was destroyed banks in when King Charles I. laid his hands upon England. £p e mone y and appropriated it to his own use in 1640. The traders were thus driven to seek some other place of security for their gold, not daring to keep it in their own possession, as their clerks and apprentices frequently absconded with it. In 1645, therefore, they were induced to lodge it with the goldsmiths of Lombard street, who were provided with strong chests for their own valuable wares; and this became the origin of banks in England. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 393 Banks are commonly divided into two great classes, banks of deposit and banks of issue. Banks of deposit are those designed for the keeping and employment of money deposited with them or en¬ trusted to their care by their customers, or by the public. Savings banks , where ^posit^ small sums may be placed on interest, and readily withdrawn, are of this kind. Banks of issue are those which besides employing or issu¬ ing the money entrusted to them by others, issue money of their own, or notes payable on demand. A bank of discount is one where attention is principally given to the discounting of promissory notes and bills of exchange, and the loaning of money on security. If a note is presented at the proper time, and the payment made, the paper , or note, is said to be honored. If, for any adequate reason, the payment is refused, the note is said to be dishonored. The convenience of these institutions in facilita¬ ting commercial transactions, has caused them to be established in almost all the important places in Europe as well as in this country. The buildings or apartments where banking business is carried on, are also called banks. They are often very splen¬ did edifices. Bankruptcy (or insolvency) means the inability of an individual or corporation to pay debts. PROMISSORY NOTES. Promissory notes, or notes of hand , as they are often called, are written promises to pay within a 17 * 394 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. Notes of hand. certain time the sums therein mentioned, either to a particular person or to any one who may be the bearer of the note. If the form used in writing the note is such that it may be transferred from one to another, it is called a negotiable note. Endorsement is writing the name of some person who must be responsible for its pay¬ ment upon the back of the note- BILLS OF EXCHANGE. A bill of exchange or draft, as it is often called, is a written order or request from one person to another desiring him to pay a sum of money therein named to a third person mentioned, on his account. Like a note of hand it must be made payable to order or bearer , in order to be negotiable or trans¬ ferable. It was a method originally devised among merchants in different countries for the more ready remittance of money from one to another. By this means at the present day, a man in any part of the civilized world may receive money from any trading country, instead of being obliged to carry from home all over the earth the money he requires. Transactions of this kind are generally managed by persons called exchange brokers , who are acquainted with different mer¬ chants in various places at home and abroad. The buildings called exchanges are those places in large cities, where merchants, agents, bankers, bro¬ kers, and other persons concerned in commerce, meet at certain times to confer on matters of busi- Bills of exchange. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 895 ness. They are often very fine buildings, erected at great cost. A bourse signifies a place for similar purposes. STOCKS AND PUBLIC DEBT. The term stock is used under several significa¬ tions, among others it expresses the capital , or money invested in business, by individuals or firms; and also that of a banking or other money estab¬ lishment. The word stocks , however, is the general name by which the 'public debt or debt of a govern¬ ment is known. The public debt is one contracted by the govern¬ ment of a country. In the United States it is done by an act of Congress authorizing the Secre¬ tary of the Treasury, or any other person whom the act may designate, to borrow money and issue certificates for the sum bor- ^ebt P etc" rowed. The act states the whole sum to be borrowed, the rate of interest, and the time when the principal is to be paid. Books of sub¬ scription are opened in the large cities, and any per¬ son who chooses to lend, subscribes. Each lender receives a certificate that he is a creditor of the United States for the sum by him loaned. These certificates are registered at some national bank. Any one holding or owning one, can sell it and assign his certificate to the purchaser. These stocks , or portions of the public debt, al¬ ways have a market value, sometimes above and sometimes below the nominal value. They are the subject of speculation, being bought or sold, with 896 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. the expectation of profit. Stock-jobbing is a traffic or dealing in stocks. It is often carried stock-jobbing. on p ersons w p 0 have little or no prop¬ erty in them, but who hope to realize gain by con¬ tracting for, and transferring them. The terms bulls and bears originated in the Lon¬ don stock-exchange, but as they are often heard, it is well to understand what they mean. They refer to persons engaged in the gambling transactions of the stock-exchange. The bulls are the Bulls and p uyers an( l the bears the sellers. The bears. J ’ bears contract to deliver at a specified f u¬ ture time stocks that they do not own; the bulls contract to take them. These stocks, however, are never delivered; but there may be a difference in their value between the sale and the time agreed upon for delivery ; the losing party has this differ¬ ence to pay. Most of the European nations have a public debt, and therefore stocks of the kind above explained are daily bought and sold in the stock market. To give security to these public loans, and thereby strengthen the public credit, modern governments have had recourse to what is called the funding system. This provides that on the creation of a public loan, funds shall immediately be formed and secured by law for the payment of the The un S. ca p ital This gradual redeeming of the capital is called the sinking of the debt, and the fund appropriated for this purpose, the sinking fund. These public funds vary in their market value, and many persons make buying and selling THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 397 shares in them a regular business. This is called trading in the funds. The chief part of the public funds in England consists of annuities of various kinds; that is, debts on which a stipulated rate of interest is to be paid, unless the principal is re¬ deemed. If that is never required, it is called a perpetual annuity. Others consist of annuities foi a certain number of years, or for a life, etc. These annuities are distinguished by different Consolg _ titles, according to the rate of interest they pay, or the time and purpose of their creation; and when the government by a new loan contracts an additional debt, bearing a certain fixed interest, it is usual to add the capital thus created to the amount of that part of the public debt which bears # the same interest. A fund formed by the con¬ solidation of these different annuities, called consols, (a contraction of the French consolides, or the English consolidated annuities ), is now the leading English funded government security. This is the stock in which there is most speculation, and hence the value at which it stands generally regulates the rise or fall of other securities. The word scrip , often heard, means a certificate of stock, subscribed to a bank or other company. It is also applied to the forms of certificate given in exchange for a loan; as consol scrip , etc. When all the installments of the loan are paid, the term is no longer applicable. A coupon , from the French couper , to cut, is a certificate of interest due, printed at the bottom of transferable bonds (government, state, railroad, etc.,) 398 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. given for a term of years, designed to be cut off and presented for payment when the interest is due. Ihe practice of appending coupons to bonds is now generally adopted, as they facilitate the col¬ lection of the interest, which is usually due semi¬ annually. THE MINT. A. mint is a place where money is coined by the authoiity of the government. Gfold and silver un¬ coined, or reckoned by weight, in the mass, is called bullion. The word coin is from the French, mean¬ ing a stamp. In this country the treasury of the United States, buys the metal and causes it to be tried or assayed at the mint, and prepared in circu¬ lar forms of given size and weight. These pieces are subjected to the action of powerful coinage. machinery to be coined or stamped. This money, called specie , is paid out by the treasury, and thus gets into circulation. Banks or individuals may have bullion coined at the mint of the United States in any of its branches. Congress establishes the proportion of pure metal and of alloy, and also the weight of the mixture, which shall constitute a piece of money. Several of the leading commercial nations have recently agreed upon a system of uniformity in re¬ gard to their gold coins, in order that they may be of equal value, and used interchangeably. Counterfeiting is the imitation or copying of coin 01 bank-notes, with a view to deceive or defraud by passing the false note or coin for the genuine. THE MANUAL OE COMMEECE. 399 The lousiness is often carried on with amazing skill and success. Legal tender is that money or property which the law prescribes to be offered in payment of debt. It differs in different countries. In the absence of any special agreement, the only payment known to the law is by cash. PUBLIC EEVENUE, TAEIFF, CUSTOMS, ETC. The annual produce of taxes, excise, customs, duties, etc., which a nation collects and 77 .Revenue. receives into its treasury for public use, is called its revenue ; and this depends largely upon commerce. Tariff properly signifies at the present day a list or table of goods, with the duties to be paid for the same, either on importation or exportation, whether such duties are imposed by the govern¬ ment of a country, or agreed on by the governments of two countries holding commercial re- Tariff lations with each other. The word is by some supposed to be derived from Tarifa , a town in Spain, at the entrance of the Straits of Gfibralter, where duties were formerly collected. Others think it comes from the Italian tariffa , tariff or tax, and still more remotely, from an Arabic or Persian word meaning knowledge, information or explanation. This sense of the word is now obsolete. Customs , imposts or duties are the taxes paid to government upon the merchandise brought in¬ to the country or sent out of it. In this country 400 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. these vary according to the right given by acts of Congress to demand more or less upon Customs or x1 . .. . p 1 duties. the various articles of commerce. When goods are brought into the country, they are said to be imported; when sent away, they are exported, and the duties are paid where the mer¬ chandise is landed. In every port where vessels come in to unload their cargoes, there is a Custom-house at which these duties or customs are collected by officers appointed for the purpose. As soon as a vessel enters the harbor from abroad, it is visited by a custom-house officer, who remains on board till it has Louse. reached its moorings. His business is to see that no commodities are sent ashore till all has been properly entered at the custom¬ house, where the duties are to be paid on the goods. Such houses are also established on the inland fron¬ tiers of many countries. Excise is an inland duty or impost laid upon certain articles. Smuggling is the introduction of goods into a country in a secret manner without paying the law¬ ful duty upon them. Such goods are called contra¬ band, and are often landed on some desolate and solitary coast. To prevent such frauds Smuggling. - 1 - upon the revenue, great numbers of men are obliged to be constantly on the lookout, and to have at their disposal fast-sailing vessels or cutters, to aid in this service, which is sometimes called the preventive service. Vessels suspected of containing contraband goods are pursued by these revenue cutters, and sharp collisions frequently occur be- THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 401 tween the officers of the lawful customs and.the smugglers. This illegal traffic, however, has greatly diminished, as the facilities for honest commerce have increased. BOARD OF TRADE. A Board of trade or Chamber of commerce , as it is also called, is a voluntary association of merchants and traders in any city to discuss matters pertaining to commerce, and to promote its interests. The first idea of such an assembly seems to be due 0ri(Tin to Cromwell, who in 1655 appointed his son Richard with many other distinguished “ lords, judges and gentlemen,” and about twenty noted merchants of London, and other cities of England to “ meet and consider by what means the trade and navigation of the republic might be best pro¬ moted.” Such associations are productive of incalculable benefit to commercial interests in general. They are established in almost all cities of any size. A FEW COMMERCIAL TERMS AND PHRASES DEFINED. A drawback in commerce is an allowance made to merchants on the re-exportation of Drawbacki certain goods, which in some cases con¬ sists of the whole, and in others of a part of the duties which had been paid upon the importation. A debenture is a certificate delivered at the cus¬ tom-house when the exporter of any goods or mer¬ chandise has complied with the regulations, in conse- 402 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. quence of which he is entitled to a bounty on the exportation. This certificate is signed Debenture. ° by the officer of the customs, when the goods are regularly entered and shipped, and the vessel cleared for her intended voyage. A certifi¬ cate of clearance gives her permission to sail. A bill of credit among merchants, is a letter sent by an agent, or other person to a merchant, desiring him to give credit to the bearer for goods or money. A bill of entry is a written account of goods en¬ tered at the custom-house, whether imported or in¬ tended for exportation. A bill of exchange is a written order or request from one person to another, desiring the latter to pay to some third person a designated sum of money th’erein named. The one who draws the bill is called the drawer , and the person on whom it is drawn, the drawee. The person to whom the money is directed to be paid, is called the payee. The bill itself, is frequently called a draft. A bill of lading is a written account of goods shipped by any person on board of a vessel, signed by the master of the vessel, who acknowledges the receipt of the goods, and promises to deliver them safely at the place directed, dangers of the sea ex¬ cepted. It is usual for the master to sign two, three or four copies of the bill; one of which he keeps in his possession, one is kept by the shipper, and another is sent to the consignee, or the one who is to receive the goods at the end of the voyage. A bill of store is a license granted at the cus¬ tom house to merchants, to carry such stores and THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 408 provisions as are necessary for a voyage, free of duty. An invoice is an account of goods shipped by merchants for their purchasers or agents abroad, in which the peculiar marks, with the value, prices, and other particulars are given. The duties and charges of every kind upon them are recorded, and a hook is kept where they are duly copied. A foreign agent or factor is a person in some for¬ eign country employed by a merchant to transact business for him; for which he receives a commis¬ sion of so much per cent, on all the sales effected. He may buy and sell in his own name, and is en¬ trusted with the possession and control of the goods. In these respects he differs from a broker. An embargo is an order from the government prohibiting the departure of ships or _ r ° 1 A Embargo, merchandise from some, or all of the ports within its dominions. Such detentions gener¬ ally occur in time of actual war, or when one na¬ tion is in a hostile attitude towards another. QUARANTINE, PRIVATEERING, ETC. Quarantine is the period of time during which a vessel, suspected of having contagious or malignant sickness on board, or coming from a port known to be affected by such disease, is forbidden f ' Quarantine. to have any intercourse with the shore or place where she arrives. The term is derived from the Italian word quaranta, meaning forty, because forty days was formerly the usual period prescribed 404 THE MANUAL OF COMMEKCE. for all vessels under such circumstances. The time of detention varies at the present day according to the exigencies of the case. Vessels are required to carry bills of health, which are certificates signed by the Consul or other competent authority, in the place which the ship has left, describing its state of health at the time of clearance. What is called a clean bill, imports that at the time of sailing, no in¬ fectious disorder was known to exist. A suspected, or as it is more commonly called a touched bill, im- plies that rumors were afloat of con- health. tagious disease, but that it had not actu- ally appeared. A foul bill, or the absence of clean bills, aie evidence that the place was in¬ fected when the vessel sailed. The duration of the quarantine is regulated by the nature of these docu¬ ments. They seem to have been first issued in the IVIediterranean ports, and are obviously of very great importance. The belief that the plague, a dreadful disease which originated in the East, was brought into Europe by ships coming from those ports, was the ground of this institution. The Venetians, who weie eaily distinguished for their commercial and maritime pursuits, were the first who endeavored to guard against its introduction from abroad, by oblig¬ ing ships and individuals from suspected places to First institu- perform quarantine. Regulations for this system. the P ur P ose were probably issued by them for the fiist time in 1484. They have since been adopted in every other country. In England, their introduction was comparatively late. & For THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 405 though various laws had been previously enacted there, quarantine was not systematically enforced till after the alarm occasioned by the dreadful plague at Marseilles in 1720. Lazarettos are establishments to facilitate the performance of quarantine, and particularly the purification of goods. When properly fitted up they are provided with lodgings for the crews and pas¬ sengers, where the sick may be separated Lazarettog from the healthy; and warehouses where the goods may be deposited; all intercourse be¬ tween the lazaretto and the surrounding country being of course interdicted except by permission of the authorities. The lazarettos of Leghorn, Genoa and Marseilles are the most complete of any in Europe. Privateering is the fitting out in time of war of armed vessels by private individuals or companies for the purpose of plundering the commerce of an enemy. They attack chiefly merchant ships, con¬ fiscating both vessel and cargo. A portion of the value of their prizes is paid to the government they belong to, and the remainder divided among the proprietors and managers of the privateering vessels. They must have a commission from their government, and conform to all the rules of war and the laws of nations. When peace is Priyateers restored, the difficulties that grow out of and priva- . . • teering. this system are adjusted m one way or another. The “Alabama claims ” of which every American child has read or heard, are claims for commercial losses incurred by individuals of this 406 THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. country during the late war between the Northern and Southern United States. These claims are made upon the English government on account of its having permitted the fitting out of the Alabama as a privateering vessel in one of her harbors (Liverpool) and allowing it to go to sea with a knowledge of its design to plunder the commerce of the United States; England being at the time a neutral and friendly power, and bound to give no aid to the enemies of the United States. The complications thus instituted have been very dif¬ ficult to settle satisfactorily. But a recent Com¬ mission formed of able and honest men from both nations have, at this date (August, 1871,) just com¬ pleted arrangements for their settlement by arbi¬ tration, or the decision of other disinterested na¬ tions. We can not perhaps more fitly bring this Manual to a close, than by quoting a few paragraphs just written by one of our own most distinguished scholars and statesmen, Hon. Schuyler Colfax, at the present time Vice-President of the United States, in relation to the commercial future of our republic , and the means by which we are to become a great and powerful people. Especially do his words have reference to the vast facilities opened to commerce upon our Western or Pacific coast, the unprecedented rapidity of its increase, and its brilliant prospects for the future. THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 407 “ Within the last twenty years,” he says, “ the Pacific slope, to which the eyes of the world are now turned, has furnished to commerce over one thousand millions of the precious metals, one-tenth of which has come from the wonderful Comstock Lode of Nevada! But while ten years ago, out of the forty-three millions exported from California, forty-one millions were in gold , she now, out of her fifty-one millions of annual exports, furnishes nine millions in wheat, four millions in wool, thirty-three millions in gold and silver, and five millions of other products. San Francisco has al- Export9and readymade such progress in manufactures manufactures that her capital employed in them has of Callforma - reached seventeen millions, the material consumed twenty-three millions, with an annual production of forty-five millions. Already Australia consumes several millions per year of her manufactures, and China and Japan have embarked in the same traf¬ fic. Not only are the finest blankets in the world made at her mills, but wool-growing on the Pacific slope has increased with a rapidity unparalleled in the history of our other States, or of the world. In 1855 the yearly product was less than half a million pounds; the aggregate is now twenty mill¬ ions, with only a very small proportion of the land suitable for sheep-raising yet in use. “The few details here given, only present a glimpse of the capacities of the region, and the possibilities of its future. “ One railroad line already connects this interest¬ ing portion of our country with the East. Two 408 THE MANUAL OF COMMEECE. others are quickly to follow, striking the coast at San Diego on the south, and Puget sound roads. 0 ^" an< l the Columbia river on the north, with the intervening region bound together by the interior system of railroads now being rapidly pushed forward, and hastening the good work of development. “Around the vast ocean which washes its shores, dwell over one-tliird of the whole human race! Excepting the British colony of Australia, ours is the only nation both civilized and maritime, whose possessions border on this great sea. “In every age of the world’s history the trade of Asia has enriched all people who possessed it, even value of while carried on by the rude methods of Asiatic com- the caravan. In turn Nineveh, Palmyra and Alexandria achieved their grand his¬ torical positions by this commerce. The capital of Great Britain is now enjoying the greatest share of this traffic in consequence of her naval resources and strength. Wealth has poured in not only from her Indian possessions but from all countries of the East. “ But this golden tide is already turning toward our Pacific slope. A single steamer in May last brought over five thousand packages of tea, a thous¬ and bales of hemp, seven hundred bags of rice, for San Francisco; eight hundred and fifty pack¬ ages of tea, and three hundred of silk turning 6 for "New York; eight hundred and eighty packages of tea for Chicago, etc., etc.; while the July steamer of the same Pacific Mail THE MANUAL OF COMMERCE. 409 Company brought to San Francisco from China the most valuable cargo ever landed in the United States from any quarter of the globe, valued at two and a half millions of dollars! And this is but the beginning; the statistics of coming years will no doubt astonish the most credulous. They are but the first drops of the showers of finan¬ cial prosperity which our republic, from her west¬ ern border, seems destined to receive. American flour, lumber, provisions, tools, furniture, etc., now called for and used in Australia and other Pa¬ cific islands, already indicate some of the exports for which the Asiatic dwellers of* the „ Demand for Old World 2LP6 looking to the Now. American With American ship-building revived ma ” nfactures t in tne Jhast. and flourishing, our flag will be foremost in the waters of the Pacific, not by the bloody tri¬ umphs of war, but by the peaceful victories of commerce ; and then shall we, as a nation, realize the famous, but truthful saying of Raleigh: “ Those who command the sea, command the trade of the world; those who command the trade of the world, command the riches of the world, and thus command the world itself! ’ ” 18 INDEX A. PAGE. Aconite,.229 Acullico,.329 Adamant,.267 Agates,.269 Alabaster,.152 “Alabama Claims,”.405 Almonds,.32 Alcohol,.88 Ale, .93 Alloy,.181 Allspice,.72 Alpaca,.Ill Alum,.233 Amber,.277 Ambergris,.289 Amethyst,.208 Anchovies, . . . . . 59 Anaesthetics, ..237 Aniline.249 Aniline Colors, .249 Annotto,. 245 Antimony,.200 Apples. 31 Aqua Regia,. 234, 178 Aqua Fortis,.234 Aqua Marine,.269 Arrack,.95, 34 Arrowroot,.30 Arsenic,. 199 Areca Nut,.327 Artificial Flowers,.. . .134 Asafcetida,.222 Asiatic Commerce with California, .... 408 Assaying,.180 Atacama Desert,.358 Attar of Roses,.292 412 INDEX. B. PAGE. Baggage,.360 Baggage-wagons, . 360 Balsams, .......... 219 Balsam, Canadian,.220 Balsam, Copaiba.220 Balsam, Peruvian,.220 Balsam, Tolu,.220 Bamboo,.168 Banana,.42 Banyan Tree,. .36 Banks and Banking,.392 Bankruptcy,.393 Barilla, ..348 Barley,.20 Beans,.25 Beads.131 Beasts of Burden,.355 Beaver,.99 Beef, .......... 51 Beef, Jerked, ..51 Beer,. 92 Beled el Jerid,.34 Belladonna, ..229 Bell Rock,.372 Benzole,. 204 Benzoin,.291 Beryl,. 269 Betel,. 327 Beverages,.80 Bills of Exchange, . . . • .394 Bills of Health,.404 Biscuit,.148 Black Fox,.104 Blast Furnace, ... ..... 187 Blasting Oil, ......... 298 Bleaching, ......... 116 Block-tin, ......... 195 Board of Trade,.401 Booking,.141 Bone-black, ......... 206 Bone Lace, ..128 Books, .......... 284 Book-keeping,.388 AJBoraX,.231 Bottle Glass,.107 Box-wood, . ....... 172 Brandy,.95 Brass, .......... 143 Brazil-wood,.244 INDEX. 413 PAGE. Brazil-nuts,. - . . .48 Bread-fruit,.43 Breakwater, . 369 Bricks,.152 Britannia, ......... 197 British Gum,.218 Brimstone, ..236 Bristles, .......... 260 Brilliants,.263 Broma,.87 Brown Stout, ... ...... 93 Broadcloths, . . . ..109 Brocade,.121 Bronze, ..193 Brokerage and Brokers,.390 Brooms,.346 Broom Corn, ..346 Broom Plant, ..346 Brussels Lace,.128 Brushes, .346 Buckwheat,.21 Buffalo Skins,.105 Bugles, ..132 Bullion, ..398 Bulls and Bears, . 396 Burgundy Pitch,.220 Butter,x.53 Buttons, ... . ..132 a Cables,.343 Cacao.86 Cairngorms,. 269 California Commerce,.407 Caoutchouc,.300 Calomel,.236 Calico, .... ...... 125 Camel, .......... 355 Cameo, .......... 271 Camphor, ..214 Camphor Tree,.214 Canned Meats,.52 Canned Eruits, ..31 Canals, .......... 263 Canes, . 167 Cantharides, ......... 241 Candles, ..306 Candles, Spermaceti, ....... 307 Candles, Wax,.307 Candles, Stearine, . 308 Caps, boys’,.134 414 INDEX, Carpets,. Carats, .... Carbonate of Lime, Carbuncle, Carnelian, Cards, .... Carmine, Cardamoms, Caravans, Caravanserais, Cashew Nut, . . • . Cashmere Goat, Cassia, .... Cassia Buds, Castor, . . . Castor Oil, Cayenne, Cedar, .... Chalcedony, Chamber of Commerce, . Champagne, Charcoal, Chemical Colors, Chestnut, Cheese, .... Cherry Bounce, or Brandy, Chintz, .... Chipoul, .... Chloral, .... Chloric Ether, . Chloroform, Chloride of Lime, . Chirimoya, Chocolate, Cider, .... Cigars, .... Cinnamon, Cinchona, Cinnabar, Citrons, .... Civet, .... Claret, .... Clay, .... Clay, Pipe, Clay, Meerschaum, . Clepsydra, Cloves, . . ... Clocks, .... Cluny Lace, Coal, .... Coal Mines, Coal Tar, PAGE. . 176 . 181 . 207 . 270 . 270 . 217 . 244 . 227 . 353 . 354 . 48 . 110 . 76 . 76 . 289 . 238 . 70 . 163 . 271 . 404 . 90 . 205 . 247 . 164 . 53 . 95 . 126 . 336 . 238 . 237 . 237 . 208 . 44 . 86 . 91 . 233 . 75 . 228 . 184 , 39 . 289 . 90 . 211 . 211 . 211 . 318 . 77 . 318 . 129 . 202 . 202 . 204 INDEX. 415 page. Coca, (Peruvian,).328 Cocoa-nut Palm,.49 Cocoa-nuts,.49 Cochineal,.243 Cocoons,.119 Cod-fish,.,54 Cod-fishing,.55 Cod-liver Oil,. 239 j Coffee,.83 Coke, . .203 Collodion,.298 Combs,.257 Coral,.272 Corundum,.267 Cordials, .95 Corn-starch,.22 Cork,.175 Copper,.192 Copper Mines,.193 Copal,.218 Copyright,.286 Corrosive Sublimate,.236 Cotton Plant,.122 Cotton Gin.123 Cotton Cloths,.125 Cordage,.343 Coir,.364 Colossus of Rhodes,.370 Colfax, Schuyler,.406 Comstock Lode,.407 Consols,.397 Commercial Terms,.101 Counterfeiting,.398 Coupons,.397 Crape,.121 Creosote, .162 Croton Oil,.239 Crown Jewels,.261 “ Cubbeer-burr,”.36 Cudbear,. 247 Curry Powder,.228 Currants,.38 Customs, (or Duties,).399 Custom Houses,.400 Cuttle Fish,.250 D. Damask,.116. Dates,.33 Date Palm, ..33 Dead Letter Office, „ .377 Deer-skin,.106 416 INDEX. PAGE. Dextrine,.218 Diamonds,.263 Diamonds, California.217 Diamond, Great Mogul,.264 Diamond, Koh-i-noor,.265 Diamond, Pitt or Regent,.266 Diamonds, Rose,.2.67 Dikes,.369 Distilled Spirits,.94 Docks, ..368 Docks, Wet and Dry, . •.368 Dog, Arctic,.358 Dolls,.351 Dolls, Dutch,.351 Dressing Purs, . . . . . . . 104 Dromedary,.356 Dry Wines,.90 Druggets,.141 Durion, . 46 Dutch Gold,.193 Dyed Furs,.105 E. Earthen Ware,.150 Eau de Cologne,.293 Ebony,.171 Eddystone Light-house, . . . ... . . 370 Eider Down,.144 Eider Ducks,.145 Ejoa,.344 Elastic Gums,.306 Elektron,.278 Elephant,.357 Embroideries,.130 Emerald,.368 Emery,.212 Emery Cloth, ......... 213 Emery Paper,.213 Enamel,.158 Epsom Salts,.230 Ermine,.101 Ether,.237 Euphorbium,.220 Explosive Substances,.296 Expresses,.366 Express Routes, ? . 361 Express Service,.360 F. Fancy Perfumes, Fans, Fans, Chinese, 293 315 315 LNDEX. 417 PAGE. Fans, French,. 315 Fans, Japanese,. 315 Farina,. 22 Feathers,.143 Feathers, Live Geese,.143 Feathers, Ornamental,.147 Feather Work,.148 Feltings,.141 Felt,.113 Fermented Liquors,.88 Fibres, Commercial,.341 Fig Trees,.36 Figs,.35 Figs, Smyrna,.37 Filigree,.279 Fish,.56 Fitch,.100 Flax,.114 Florence Flasks,.69 Frankincense, ........ 291 Fringes,.131 Fruit Extracts,.294 Fuller's Earth,.212 Fulton, Robert,.363 Fulminating Powders,.299 Funds,.396 Furs, .......... 97 Fur Companies,.104: Fusel Oil, . 298 Fustic,.245 G. Gamboge,.222 Gauntlets, . .135 Gauze,.121 Gelatine,.63 Gems,.261 Gems, Artificial,.262 Geodes,.261 German Silver,.193 Gin,.95 Ginger Plant, ...... ... 71 Ginger, Jamaica,.72 Gimps,.131 Gingham, ......... 126 Ginseng,.224 Glass,.153 . Glass, Flint,.155 Glass, Crown,.156 Glass, Plate, ......... 156 Glass, Bottle, ......... 157 Glass, Colored, ......... 157 18 * 418 INDEX. Glauber Salts, PAGE. . 230 Gloves, . ' 134 Glue, . 53 Glycerine, . 309 Gobelin Tapestry, . . 131 Gold, . 178 Gold Mines, . 178 Gold, American, . 179 Gold of California, . . 179 Gold of Australia, . . 179 Gold Leaf, . 180 Gold and Silver Lace, . 129 Granite, . . 208 Graphite, . . 205 Grapes, , 37 Grass Cloth, . 340 Greek Eire, . 299 Guano, . 336 Gum Arabic, . . 217 Gum Senegal, . . 217 Gunpowder, . 296 Gun Cotton, . 297 Gun Metal,. . 193 Gunny, . 342 Gunny Cloth, . . 342 Gunny Bags, . . 342 Gutta Percha, . . 302 Gypsum, . . 152 Hair, H. . 258 Hair, Horse, . 259 Hair, Human, . . 258 Halibut, . . 57 Hams, . 51 Harnden, William F., . 306 Hartshorn, . 236 Hasheesh, . 326 Hats, . 133 Hay, - . 340 Hemp, . 341 Hemp, Manilla, . 342 Hemp, Sisal, . 341 Hemp, Sun, . 342 Herrings, . . 57 Hickory, . . 165 Hides, . 105 Highways, . 358 Holland Gin, . . 95 Honey, . 67 Honiton Lace, . . 128 Hookah, . . 326 INDEX. 419 PAGE. Hops, Horn, Horse, Hosiery, . Hydrate of Chloral, . 337 . 257 . 357 22, 135 . 238 I. Ice, . Iceland Moss, Incense, . India Hemp, India Muslin, India Rubber, Indigo, Ink, . Ink, Black, Ink, Blue, Ink, India, Ink, Indelible, Ink, Printing, Ink, Sympathetic, Insurance, Iron, Iron, Bar, Iron, Cast, Iron, Galvanized, Iron, Pig, Iron, Soft, Iron, White and Gray, Iron, Wrought, Iron Mines, Isinglass, . Ivory, Ivory, Fossil, . Ivory, Vegetable, Ivory Black, 337 29 291 326 124 300 246 249 249 256 250 251 251 256 389 186 188 187 198 187 188 188 187 186 54 252 253 255 206 J. Jalap,.227 Jamaica Ginger, . .72 Jamaica Pepper,.72 Jasper.269 Jean Nicot,.324 Jet,.271 Junks, Chinese,.362 Jute,.342 K. Kelp,.349 Kerosene, ,.204 Kid-skins, ..106 420 INDEX. L. Lac,. Lac, Stick, .... Lac, Seed, .... Lace, Web, .... Lace, Ornamental, . Lace Thread, .... Lace Trimmings, Laehow Islands, Lacquered Ware, Ladies’ Hats, .... Lagoons of Tuscany, Lager Bier, .... Lamb-skins, .... Lampblack, .... Laudanum, .... Lapis-lazuli, .... Leeches,. Leech-gathering, Lead,. Lead, Red .... Lead, White ... Lead Colic, .... Lead Mines, .... Leather, ..... Leather Gloves, Legal Tender, .... Lemons, ..... Leopard-skins, Levees,. Library, ..... Light-houses, .... Lignum-vitce, .... Lignite, ..... Limerick Lace, Limes,. Lime, ..... Limestone, .... Linden Bark, .... Linen. Liquorice, .... Lisle Lace, .... Litharge, ..... Litmus, ..... Litchi, ..... Llama. Loblolly, ..... Lobsters, . .' . Locomotives, .... Log-wood, .... PAGE. . 218 . 219 . 219 . 126 . 128 . 128 . 128 . 254 . 219 . 134 . 232 . 94 . 106 . 203 . 217 . 248 . 240 . 241 . 195 . 195 . 195 . 195 . 196 . 105 . 106 . 399 . 39 . 105 . 369 . 285 . 369 . 172 . 203 . 129 . 39 . 206 . 206 . 345 . 115 . 223 . 129 . 195 . 187 . 45 110, 357 . 161 . 60 . 359 . 245 INDEX. Lunar Caustic, Lustring,. Lynx,. M. Macaroni, .... Mace,. Mackerel,. Macintosh Cloth, ... Madeira Wine, .... Madder,. Magnesium, .... Magnetism, Electro, Mahogany, .... Mails,. Maize, ..... Malt, ..... Malachite, .... Mammoth Bones, . Mangosteen, .... Manganese, .... Manna,. Manna, Common, Manna, Flake, .... Manna, Fat, Maple, .. Maple, Bock, or Sugar, . Maple, Curled, .... Maple, Birdseye, Marten,. Marble,. Mariner’s Compass, . Massa Bowls, .... Mastic,. Mate,. Matches,. Match Manufacture, Matting, . . . . . Mats, ..... Mats, Bast, .... Marking Nut, . Mead, ..... Meat-biscuit, .... Mechlin Lace, Medicinal Oils, Meerschaums, .... Merchant Vessels, . Mercury, .... Milk, Condensed, Mink,. Minerals,. 421 PAGE. . 183 . 120 . 204 . 22 . 74 . 56 . 301 . 90 . 244 . 201 . 379 . 169 . 377 . 19 . 92 . 211 . 255 . 46 . 201 . 222 . 222 . 222 . 222 . 164 . 164 . 164 . 164 . 100 . 206 . 366 . 326 . 218 . 81 . 315 . 316 . 141 . 344 . 345 . 48 . 68 . 52 . 129 . 238 . 325 . 362 . 184 . 53 . 100 . 202 422 INDEX, Mint and Coinage, . Mirrors, . Mittens and Mitts, . Mocha, Moire Antique, Molasses, Morse, Samuel E. B., Morse Statue, . Morphine, Mosaic Floors, . Mosaic Gold, . Mosaics,. . Mother-of-pearl, Mouth-pieces, Amber, Mules, Musk, Musk Deer, Myrrh, PAGE. . 364 . 156 . 135 . 83 . 121 . 67 . 379 . 383 . 217 . 143 272, 197 . 272 • . 276 . 334 . 357 . 288 . 288 . 222 Naphtha,. Naphthaline, .... Narrow Cloths, . Nickel,. Nitre,.^ Nitro-glycerine, Nitrous Oxide, .... Nuts,. Nutmeg, . . Nutria Skins, .... 204 204 109 199 233 . - jm L 238 56 74 100 O. Oak,. Oak, White, .... Oak, Live, .... Oasis, ..... Oats,. Ochres,. Oils,. Oils, Fixed, .... Oils, Volatile, .... Oil, Train, .... Oil, Nut,. Oil, Olive, .... Oilcloths, .... Olive Tree, .... Opal, . . ‘ . Opium, ..... Orange Tree, .... Oranges, ..... Oriental Essence, . 159 . 160 . 160 . 355 . 20 . 212 . 305 . 305 . 305 . 305 . 305 . 369 . 142 . 69 . 270 . 215 . 38 . 39 . 277 INDEX. Ormolu,. Orris Root, .... Oysters,. P. Pacific Railroads, Pack Animals, .... Palm, . . • Paper,. Paper Making,.... Paper, Marbled, Paper, Writing, Paper, Chinese, Paper, Japanese, Paper Hangings, Paper, Parchment, . Papier-mache, .... Papyrus,. Paraffine,. Paraguay Tea, . Parchment, . . , . Paregoric, .... Parian,. Parian Marble, Paste,. Peach Brandy, Pearls,. Pearls, Artificial, Pearl Divers, .... Pearl Pishing, .... Pearl Oyster, .... Pearl Barley, .... Pearl Sago, .... Pears,. Peas, ..... Pelts, ..... Pemmican, .... Pencils,. Pencils, Lead, .... Pencils, Slate, .... Pens,. Pens, Metallic, .... Pepper,. Pepper, Black, .... Pepper, Cayenne, Pepper, White, Perfumery, . . . . Perry,. Peruvian Bark, Petroleum, . . . . Pewter,. Pharos of Alexandria, 423 PAGE. . 272 . 228 . 59 . 408 . 357 . 166 . 280 . 282 . 283 . 282 . 283 . 283 . 282 . 284 . 284 . 280 . 162 . ' 81 . 107 . 217 . 149 . 206 . 262 . 32 . 276 . 276 . 275 . 274 . 274 . 21 . 28 . . 32 . 25 . 98 . 52 314, 205 . 314 . 314 . 313 . 314 . 70 . 70 . 70 . 71 . 287 32, 91 . 228 . 204 . 197 . 370 424 INDEX. Phosphorus, . Photographic Dispatches, Pigeons, Carrier, Pigeon Posts, . Pig Iron, . Pimento, .... Pine-apple, Pine, .... Pine, White, Pine, Canadian, Pine, Yellow, . Pine, Pitch, Pitch, .... Pins, .... Pins, Brass, Pins, Steel, Pipes, Tobacco, Plantain, .... Plaster of Paris, Platinum, Point Lace, Polecat, .... Pomegranate, . Poppy, .... Porcelain, .... Porter, .... Port Wine, Porphyry, Portland Yase, Postage, .... Posts and Mails, Post or Mail Coaches or Stage Post Offices, Pot and Pearl Ashes, Potatoes, Common, . Potatoes, Sweet, Pottery, .... Prints, .... Privateering, . Promissory Notes, . Prunes or Plums, Public Debt, Public lfevenue, Pumice Stone, PAGE. . 317 . 375 ... 374 . 374 . 187 . 72 . 40 . 160 . 160 . 160 . 161 . 161 . 162 . 311 . 312 . 312 . 325 . 42 . 152 . 185 . 129 . 100 . 40 . 216 . 148 . 93 . 90 . 210 . 154 , 377 . 373 . 317 . 376 . 348 . 22 . 24 . 152 . 126 . 403 . 393 . 32 . 395 . 299 . 212 Quarantine, Quicklime, Quicksilver, Quicksilver Mines, Quills, , Q. 403 206 184 184 813 INDEX, 425 Quinine,. Quincy Granite, B. Rafts of Timber, Railroads, .... Raisins, ..... Ratans,. Raw Silk, .... Red Wines, .... Reindeer,. Rhubarb,. Ribbons, . . , Rice,. Roads, Common, Roads, Military, Ropes,. Rope-walk, .... Rope-yarn, .... Rosin,. Rose-wood, .... Ruby,. Ruby, Oriental, . Rugs,. Rum,. Rye,. PAGE. . 227 . 209 . 306 . 359 . 37 . 1C7 . 119 . 90 . 358 . 226 . 120 . 14 . 358 . 359 . 343 . 343 . 343 . 162 . 171 . 267 . 267 . 141 . 95 . 20 S. Sable, ..... Sago,. Salmon,. Salt, .. Saltpetre,. Sal Ammoniac, Saleratus, .... Sahara,. Sandarach, .... Sandal Wood and Oil, Sapphire. Sardines,. Sard,. Sardonyx, .... Sarsaparilla, .... Sassafras,. Satin-wood, .... Satin,. Schnapps, .... Scotch Fir, .... Scrapings, .... Seal.. , . Sea Otter, .... . 101 . 26 . 56 . 62 . 233 . 221 - 2 3 ^ . 348 . 355 . 291 173, 290 . 267 . 58 . 270 . 271 . 285 . 226 . 176 . 122 . 95 . 160 . 161 . 104 . 103 426 INDEX, Sea Signals, Senna, Sepia, Shad, Shawls, . Sheep-skin, Shellac, . Shells, . Sherry Wine, . Ship Canals, Shoddy, . Shot, Shrimps, . Siberian Hare,. Silk, Silk, Raw, Silk-worm, j Silver, Silver Mines, . Silver, Native, Silver Plating, Silver, Nitrate of. Skins, . . Slag,.... Slate, Slips, .... Smeaton, John, Smelting,. Smuggling, Snuff, Soap, Soap, White, . Soap, Yellow, . Soap, Castile, . Soap, Fancy, . Soap, Soft, Soapstone, Soda. Sole Leather, . Solder, Spanish Flies, . Specie, Speculum-metal, Spinning-jenny, Spirits, Distilled, Spirits of Turpentine, Spirit of Wine, Sponge, . Sponge, Manufactured, Squirrel, Siberian, . Stalactites, Stalagmites, PAGE. . . 372 . 225 . 250 . 57 . 109 . 106 . 219 . 87 . 90 . 364 . 112 . 195 . 59 . 104 . 117 . 119 . 118 . 182 . 182 . 182 . 183 . 183 . 98 . 187 . 209 . 368 . 371 . 187 . 400 . 323 . 309 . 309 . ' .309 . , . 309 . ' .309 . 310 . . 210 . 348, 74 . 106 . 195 . 261 . 398 . 193 . 125 . 94 . 161 . .. 90 . 333 . 336 . 104 . 207 . 207 INDEX, 42T Steam, Steam-boats, Steam-ships, Steamers, Lines of, Steatite, . Steel, Steel, Tilted, . Steel, Shear, . Steel, Cast, Steel, Bessemer’s, Steel, Damascus, Stevenson, Robert, Stockinet, Stocks, Stock-jobbing,. Strass, or Paste, Suez Canal, Sugar-cane, Sugar, Sugar-maple, . Sugar-beet, Sulphur, . Sulphur, Crude, Sulphur, Roll, . Sulphurets, Sweet Wines, . Syrups, . PAGE. . 362 . 362 . 362 . 363 . 210 . 188 . 189 . 189 . 189 . 189 . 190 . 373 . 135 . 395 . 396 . 262 . 364 . 63 . 64 . 66 . 66 . 235 . 235 . 236 . 235 . 90 . 65 T. Tamarind Tree, .... Tamarinds. Tambour Work. Tanning Leather, .... Tapestry,. Tapestry, Gobelin, .... Tapioca,. Tar,. Tariff,. Tassels,. Tea-plant,. Teas,. Teak,. Telegraphs,. Telegraphs, Signal. Telegraphs, Marine, Telegraphs, Submarine, . Telegraphs, Transatlantic, Telegraphs, Electro Magnetic, Telegraphs, Printing, or House, Telegraph Dictionary, . ... Telegraph Company, Western Union, 41 41 129 105 139 139 28 162 239 131 80 81 106 378 378 379 386 386 385 381 378 381 428 INDEX, Telegraphy, Inventor of, . Tempering Steel, Terra Cotta, Theobroma Thibet, or Cashmere Goat, Thomas k Becket, . Thread, .... Tiger Skins, . Tiles, .... Tin. Tin Mines, Tin Veins, Tin, Bar, Tinfoil, .... Tin-plate, Tin, Grain, Tobacco Plant, Toga, Roman, . Tongues and Sounds, Topaz, .... Tortoise Shell, . Toys, .... Toys, Sonneberg, Toys, Nuremberg, . Tragacanth, Turbot, .... Turtle, .... Turtle, Hawk’s-bill, . Turpentine, Turkey-red, Turmeric, Turnpikes, Ultramarine, Valenciennes Lace, . Vanilla, . Vellum, . Velvet, Venison, . Venetian Glass, Venice Turpentine, Verde Antique, Vermilion, Vermicelli, Verdigris, Vinegar, . Vitriol, Blue, . Vitriol, White, PAGE. . 384 . 190 . 152 . 86 . 110 . 136 . 127 . 105 . 212 . 196 . 196 . 197 . 197 . 196 . 197 . 197 . 323 . 108 . 56 . 368 . 256 . 349 . 350 . 351 . 218 . 58 . 60 . 60 . 161 . 244 . 245 . 359 u. . 248 Y. . 129 . 77 . 107 . 120 . 61 . 155 . 220 . 206 . 184 . 22 . , . 193 . 68 . 194 . 198 INDEX. 429 Volcanic Sulphur, . Volume, . Vulcanized Rubber, Walnut, . Warp and Woof, Wedgwood, Watches,. Whalebone, Wharfage, Wharves, Wheat, . Wheat Grits, . Whiskey, Wine, Wine, Claret, . Wine, Champagne, Wine, Dry, Wine, Madeira, Wine, Port, Wine Red, . Wine, Sweet, . Wine, Sherry, . Wine, White, . Wolf-skins, Wool, Woods, Wood Cuts, W ootz, Wort, Writing Fluids, Yams, Yeast, PAGE. . 235 . 285 . 301 w. 165 119 151 320 356 369 368 18 22 95 89 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 105 107 159 173 190 92 251 Y. .24 ... . . 78, 93 z. Zinc, 198