COOPER'S 
 GLASS MANUAL 
 
 21 Plates and 9 Wooil-cuts. 
 
FRANKLIN INSTITUTE LIBRARY 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 Class(e.CB.CEL|. Book.CD.3J4: Accession 1. 2..&.J&.. 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2015 
 
 https://archive.org/details/crownglasscutterOOcoop 
 
TIEWOEACR0WN' G-3LAS S MOUSE o 
 
THE 
 
 CROWN GLASS CUTTER 
 
 GLAZIER'S MANUAL. 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLTA.M COOPER, 
 
 GLASS CUTTEIt, GLAZiEL, AND STAINED GLASS-MaKER IN ORDINARY 
 fO THE KING FOa SCOTLAND 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY TWENTY-ONE ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 EDINBURGH : 
 OLIVER & BOYD; AND 
 SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. LONDON. 
 
 1835. 
 
ComS 
 
 C66 
 
 [ENTERED AT STATIONERS' IIAI.L,] 
 
 EDINBURGH: 
 Printed by Andrew Shortrede, Thistle Lane. 
 
 the Gi: rry center 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 Page 114, line 6, for "invoice duty, read 
 " inland duty." 
 
 Page 114, line 10, for "freight of port dues," 
 read " freight and port dues." 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The general diffusion of knowledge, and the im- 
 provements in the modes of its dissemination which 
 have occurred within these few years, have made 
 literature as familiar in the workshop of the artisan 
 as in the closet of the student. There has thus been 
 opened up to the labouring part of the community 
 one of the purest sources of enjoyment, and the 
 means suggested to the enterprising mechanic, 
 whereby he may greatly extend the sphere of his 
 own usefulness. It has likewise not unfrequently 
 inspired him with a laudable ambition to contribute 
 his quota to the general stock of knowledge through 
 the medium of the press — to employ his pen as well 
 as the implements of his trade — to teach as well as 
 to practise. 
 
 This association of literature w 7 ith mechanical skill 
 must have a beneficial effect in two respects. In 
 
 \ a<ot> 
 
v i PREFACE. 
 
 the first place, its tendency is to raise the humblest 
 mechanical trades to the rank of sciences, and im- 
 part to the workman a sense of the worth and 
 importance of his art, and such a knowledge, as 
 well of its theory as its practice, as every craftsman 
 ought to possess. It will elevate his own character 
 by elevating that of his art, and, while it promotes 
 his general intellectual advancement, it will, in the 
 second place, enable him to refine and improve on 
 that art to an extent which must soon be felt in 
 the comforts, elegancies, and conveniencies of life. 
 We cannot but think that the skill and ingenuity of 
 the mechanic, in ordinary things, are not sufficiently 
 prized, and this merely because, from not being 
 sufficiently known, they are accounted ordinary 
 things. We look with indifference on the produce 
 of his intellect and the works of his hands, and say, 
 with an emphasis which is meant to deprive him of 
 all merit, " It is his trade." True, it may be his 
 trade, but what of that ? Has there been no mind 
 at work to regulate, no genius to direct his manual 
 dexterity ? Yes ; in the meanest mechanical art 
 there is much of these qualities displayed. Genius 
 has, indeed, been allowed to the tradesman, and this 
 quality of mind has been denominated mechanical 
 genius. Now, whilst this term is understood merely 
 
PREFACE. v ii 
 
 in a discriminative sense, to distinguish it from the 
 other forms under which genius appears, and when 
 it is not associated with any ideas of inferiority, it 
 is well enough ; but when it is understood as coupled 
 with certain ideas of inferiority, we cannot assent 
 to the propriety of that disparagement of the faculty 
 which is thus implied ; for it cannot be denied, that 
 genius exercised in making a shoe, or in any other 
 piece of workmanship, is as distinctly and purely 
 genius as that faculty developed in writing a book. 
 It is true, that in the former of these works it ap- 
 pears in a less dignified form than in the latter, but 
 is its result less an emanation of genius on that 
 account ? A diamond is a diamond still, whether it 
 be placed on the blue bonnet of the peasant, or the 
 monarch's crown ; and who knows but that the ge- 
 nius which may have discovered itself in the humble 
 and homely form spoken of, might have raised 
 its possessor to a high place amongst men, had his 
 destiny been otherwise ordered ? Or who can say, 
 that what is called mechanical genius, may not 
 often be an accident of the quality, the result of a 
 chance direction of its powers; thus making it 
 possible, that Watt and Bonaparte might have 
 exchanged places, without loss of any of that fame, 
 which we now associate with the names of these 
 
 b 
 
v iii PREFACE. 
 
 extraordinary men. Apart from these considera- 
 tions, however, who does not see, that the discoveries 
 of Watt have been infinitely more valuable to 
 mankind, and are attended with a much purer 
 glory, than the matchless but desolating conquests 
 of Bonaparte ? 
 
 Leaving these speculations, we proceed to speak 
 of the little work which these preliminary observa- 
 tions are meant to introduce to the reader. Some 
 of the reasons which dictated its publication have 
 been already alluded to, but there are others which 
 have been still more influential than any of these. 
 
 It may be held as a maxim, it is presumed, that 
 every man desirous of advancing to excellence in 
 his business, should know something of its past, 
 history, its present circumstances, and its future 
 prospects ; and it was under this impression, com- 
 bined with the idea that he could communicate 
 some useful information to the glazier, that the 
 writer threw together, into the shape in which he 
 now presents it, the result of some experience in 
 his trade, and some reading on the subject of the 
 article in which he deals. 
 
 As the title of the work implies, it has been 
 written chiefly with a view to explain and illustrate 
 the art of glazing. In those parts of it, therefore, 
 
PREFACE. i x 
 
 which do not bear directly upon this subject, only 
 general information has been communicated. Upon 
 glass cutting, however, several hints and observa- 
 tions have been given, which, it is hoped, will be found 
 serviceable to the crown glass-cutter and glazier. 
 In the historical department, and process of manu- 
 facturing, such information has been given, as every 
 glazier, it is conceived, ought to possess.* The 
 writer makes no pretension whatever to the merit of 
 suggesting any thing new, or of adding to the general 
 stock either of chemical or scientific knowledge. 
 In the article on staining and stained glass, though 
 forming a part of the writer's own business, it has 
 not been thought proper to give more than a general 
 outline, because it was believed, that the numbers 
 interested in it as a trade were too few to warrant 
 his entering into details on the subject, in a work 
 intended principally, as already said, for the glazier, 
 to whom these could only be of secondary interest. 
 
 Tables for the measurement of glass might them- 
 selves form a volume. All the calculations neces- 
 sary for ordinary purposes are given in four pages. 
 
 * For a more detailed account of the history and manufacture 
 of glass in all its branches, see article Glass, in the new edition 
 of the Encyclopedia Britannica, by the same writer. 
 
x PREFACE. 
 
 In large quantities, the glazier would do well to 
 go through the calculations himself, according to 
 the plan laid down, which a little practice will 
 enable him to do with ease. 
 
 Edinburgh, January, 1835. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 
 PREFACE, .... .V 
 
 HISTORY OF GLASS, ... 1 
 
 PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING CROWN GLASS, 23 
 
 CROWN GLASS CUTTING, ... 35 
 
 PACKING OF GLASS, .... 54 
 
 GLAZING OF WINDOWS, . . 59 
 
 PUTTY, ... . ib. 
 
 GLAZING, ... . 64 
 
 HOT HOUSE GLAZING, . . .68 
 
 LATTICE, . . . . 71 
 
 THE CUTTING DIAMOND, ... 84 
 
 SETTING DIAMONDS, ... 89 
 LUKEN'S IMPROVED BEAM COMPASS FOR CUTTING 
 
 CIRCLES, . . .93 
 
 STAINED AND PAINTED GLASS, . . 98 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS, .... 107 
 
 TABLES FOR MEASUREMENT OF GLASS, • 116 
 
PLATES. 
 
 PLATES. 
 
 Interior of a Crown Glass House, — Frontispiece 
 View of a Crown Glass House, — Vignette 
 
 II. Cutting Boards . to face page 35 
 
 III. Whiting Kiln — Cutting and Glazing 
 
 Apparatus ... 37 
 
 IV. Cross Cutting Board . 40 
 V. Breaking out Board . . 38 
 
 VI. Sections of Tables . 47 
 
 VII. do. do. ... 48 
 
 VIII. do. and Fan Lights . . 49 
 
 IX. Crown Glass Theodolite . . 52 
 
 X. Table of Boxes . 57 
 
 XI. Hot House Frames . . 69 
 XII. East Window of St Giles Church 126 
 XIII, XIV, XV, XVI. Patterns of Ancient 
 
 Leading . . . ib. 
 
 XVII. Stained Window ib. 
 
 XVIII. Lead Mill, Drawings of . . ib. 
 
 XIX. Diamonds, do. . ib. 
 
HISTORY OF GLASS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 The word Glass has been variously derived, but 
 is still of uncertain origin. The reader may take 
 his choice of the two derivations usually given, 
 and which, of all the others, appear to be the most 
 plausible, namely, glassum^ the name given to amber 
 by the ancient Gauls, and glacies, the Latin name 
 of ice. 
 
 The first discovery of the art of manufacturing 
 glass is of such remote antiquity, as to be altogether 
 beyond the reach of inquiry. It precedes the 
 commencement of history, and is connected with 
 its earliest records, by a tradition which is again 
 lost in the obscurity of time. Glass beads, and 
 other ornaments made of that substance, skilfully 
 manufactured, and beautifully coloured, have been 
 found adorning the bodies of Egyptian mummies, 
 
 A 
 
2 HISTORY OF GLASS. 
 
 which have been ascertained to be upwards of 
 three thousand years old. There are, besides these 
 ancient relics, many other proofs of this art having 
 long preceded the Christian era. 
 
 Glass is distinctly mentioned in the book of Job, 
 and is also spoken of by Aristophanes, in his 
 comedy of the Clouds, four hundred and twenty- 
 three years before the birth of Christ. 
 
 Pliny, the Roman historian, gives a sufficiently 
 plausible account of the first discovery of the art of 
 manufacturing this beautiful and useful commodity, 
 but it has all the appearance of being merely an 
 ingenious fable ; well enough conceived, but 
 undeserving of much credit. He says, that a ship 
 laden with fossil alkali, a component part of glass, 
 having been driven ashore on the coast of Palestine, 
 the sailors accidentally placed their cooking vessels 
 on pieces of the alkali. The river sand on which 
 the operation of preparing their food was performed, 
 being vitrified by its union with the alkali, through 
 the agency of the fire which they used, produced 
 glass ; and hence, according to Pliny, the discovery 
 of the art. 
 
 The story bears evident marks of having been 
 got up, a posteriori, to suit the circumstances of the 
 case, and its artificial adaptation to this purpose is 
 
HISTORY OF GLASS. 3 
 
 so palpable, as to destroy all faith in its credibility. 
 There are, besides, many simple processes by which 
 the art of glass-making might be discovered, such 
 as the burning of bricks, which, after undergoing 
 this operation, are more or less vitrified, or covered 
 with an imperfect glass ; and, indeed, it has been 
 asserted, that the idea of glass-making originated 
 from this very circumstance. 
 
 Whenever, or by whatever means, the art of 
 glass-making was first invented, it is certain that it is 
 of the highest antiquity — of an antiquity so remote, 
 indeed, that it has hitherto defied all research ; and 
 this should be nearly enough to satisfy any reason- 
 able curiosity on the subject. 
 
 Although there is much uncertainty regarding 
 the period when this art was first discovered, there 
 is none as to the quarter of the world in which that 
 discovery took place. This was the East, the original 
 seat of nearly all the arts and sciences. Though 
 first discovered there, however, and practised from 
 time immemorial, the art of glass-making was con- 
 fined for many centuries to the production merely 
 of ornaments, no idea having ever occurred that it 
 might be extended to the manufacture of really 
 useful articles, such as domestic vessels, windows, 
 or mirrors. 
 
4 HISTORY OF GLASS. 
 
 The first glass-houses mentioned in history, were 
 erected in Tyre, an ancient Phoenician city, on the 
 coast of Syria. The towns of Sidon and Alexandria, 
 also, belonging to the same people, became after- 
 wards celebrated for the manufacture of this article. 
 To these places the art was exclusively confined 
 for many centuries, and during this time they alone 
 supplied the world with its produce. 
 
 From the circumstance of coloured glass beads 
 and amulets having been found in Druidical 
 remains in this country, it has been asserted that the 
 art of making glass was known in Britain before the 
 invasion of the Romans ; but this is wholly incredible. 
 It cannot be believed, that a people, who were in a 
 state little, if at all, removed from primitive barbarity, 
 and who, it is known, were entirely unacquainted 
 with any other art, should be found not only versant 
 in the manufacture of glass, a complicated and 
 highly ingenious process, but should excel in it; for 
 the beads and amulets spoken of are of exquisite 
 workmanship, and beautifully coloured in imitation 
 of the rarest and most precious stones. There seems 
 little doubt, therefore, that the ancient Britons pro- 
 cured these in traffic with the Tyrians, who would 
 visit the island as we do those in the South Seas, to 
 drive a trade with its savage inhabitants in toys and 
 
HISTORY OF GLASS. 5 
 
 trinkets, giving them these in exchange for skins, or 
 other natural productions. By whatever means, how- 
 ever, these ornaments found their way into Britain, 
 it is certain that they were in extensive use, though 
 principally for religious purposes, long prior to the 
 Roman invasion, as they are found in barrows and 
 tumuli of a much older date than that period : one 
 of the former, in particular, at Stonehenge, on being 
 opened, was found filled with them. Another 
 remarkable proof of the high antiquity of the art of 
 glass making, and of the early perfection of which 
 it boasts, is exhibited in a large plate of glass which 
 was found in Herculaneum, an ancient city in Italy, 
 which was destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius in 
 the year of our Lord 79. 
 
 From Syria, where, as already mentioned, the 
 manufacture of glass was first established on an 
 extensive scale, or something like system, it gra- 
 dually travelled west : the Greeks acquired it, and 
 from thence it found its way to Rome ; but its 
 march was slow, and for many centuries the Romans 
 were supplied from Alexandria. 
 
 The shape in which it was imported thither, 
 however, still bespoke a limited knowledge of its 
 uses. That shape was principally ornamental, — 
 occasionally, and in rare cases, it extended to 
 
g HISTORY OF GLASS. 
 
 drinking cups, or glasses, but these were deemed 
 fit only for a king; and though an excellence in 
 colouring glass was attained at this early period, 
 and long before, which is not yet surpassed, the 
 art of producing it free from any colour — the 
 most difficult part of the process of glass-making, 
 since it is readily affected by extraneous substances 
 — was scarcely known; for we are told that the 
 emperor Nero paid six thousand sestertia # for two 
 drinking cups, whose value chiefly arose from the 
 circumstance of their being entirely colourless. 
 The poorest and meanest persons of the present 
 day drink out of glasses in which this property is 
 perfect. 
 
 The glass ware imported into Rome from 
 Alexandria, was, as already noticed, principally 
 0 ornamental, and all coloured ; but this colouring 
 was so exquisite, and the workmanship otherwise 
 of these little fragile toys so beautiful, that they 
 were used and valued as jewels, and so employed 
 in adorning the persons of the ancient Roman belles 
 and beaux ; and thus a string of glass beads, which 
 no servant girl would now wear, was considered an 
 ornament to which the daughter of a patrician only 
 could pretend. 
 
 * A sum nearly equal to £50,000 sterling. 
 
HISTORY OF GLASS. 7 
 
 The art of making for themselves that article 
 for which they had hitherto been indebted to the 
 Tyrians, at length found its way to Rome. In the 
 reign of the emperor Tiberius, a company of glass 
 manufacturers established themselves in the city, 
 and had a street assigned them in its first region ; 
 but the produce of their manufacture was very early 
 considered a fit subject of taxation, an impost having 
 been laid upon it by Alexander Severus, in the 
 year 220. 
 
 Pliny, of whose credibility we have already 
 spoken, relates that a glass-maker, who had invented 
 a species of malleable glass, brought a vessel made 
 of that material to Tiberius. To shew the emperor 
 the singular property of his glass, he dashed the 
 vessel on the floor with sufficient force to dimple it, 
 and impair its shape. He then took a hammer, and, 
 in the presence of the emperor, hammered it into 
 its original form, removing the dimples, and restoring 
 the beauty of its shape. Instead of rewarding the 
 ingenious artist for this proof of his extraordinary 
 skill, Tiberius ordered him to be instantly beheaded 
 — alleging that this discovery, if known, would 
 render gold and silver useless. Such is the story of 
 Pliny, but like many of his other stories, it deserves 
 no credit. 
 
8 HISTORY OF GLASS. 
 
 The precise period at which the Romans extended 
 their knowledge of the art of glass-making to 
 window glass, and when they first used it for the 
 purposes for which it is now employed in that 
 form, is not certainly known. Previous to such 
 application of the art, at whatever time it may have 
 first taken place, the Roman windows were filled with 
 a semi-transparent substance called lapis specularis, 
 a fossil of the class of talcs, which readily splits into 
 thin, smooth laminae, or plates. This substance is 
 found in masses of about ten or twelve inches in 
 breadth, and three in thickness ; and when sliced, 
 very much resembles horn, for which it is to this 
 day often employed by lantern makers. The 
 Romans were chiefly supplied with this article from 
 the island of Cyprus, where it abounds ; and so good 
 a substitute is it said to have been for glass ? that 
 besides being applied to the purpose of admitting 
 light into the Roman houses, it was also used by 
 them in the construction of hot-houses, for raising 
 and protecting delicate plants from the inclemency 
 of the weather ; and by being so employed, we are 
 told that the emperor Tiberius had cucumbers at 
 his table throughout the whole year. 
 
 Although the precise period of the introduction 
 of glass into windows is not known, it is yet certain 
 
HISTORY OF GLASS 9 
 
 that it was applied to this purpose as early as the 
 year 422 ; for glass windows are distinctly men- 
 tioned by St Jerome, who flourished about that 
 period. They are again spoken of, and represented 
 as being fastened in with plaster, by Johannes 
 Philippinus, who lived in 630. 
 
 Bede asserts, that glass windows were first intro- 
 duced into England in the year 674, by Abbot 
 Benedict, who brought over artificers skilled in the 
 art of making window-glass, to glaze the church and 
 monastery of Weremouth. 
 
 Another authority attributes the introduction of 
 this luxury to Bishop Wilfred, junior, who died in 
 711. As the periods mentioned by these autho- 
 rities do not differ very widely, it seems probable 
 that glass windows were first introduced into Eng- 
 land either about the end of the seventh or the 
 beginning of the eighth century. The use of 
 window glass, however, w T as then, and for many 
 centuries after, confined entirely to buildings appro- 
 priated to religious purposes ; but, in the fourteenth 
 century, it was so much in demand, though still 
 confined to sacred edifices and ornamental purposes, 
 that glazing had become a regular trade. This 
 appears from a contract entered into by the church 
 authorities of York Cathedral, in 1338, with a 
 
] 0 HISTORY OF GLASS. 
 
 glazier to glaze the west windows of that structure, 
 a piece of work which he undertook to perform at 
 the rate of sixpence per foot for white glass, and 
 one shilling per foot for coloured. Glass windows, 
 however, did not become common in England till 
 the close of the twelfth century. 
 
 Until this period they were rarely to be found in 
 private houses, and were deemed a high refinement 
 in luxury, and a mark of great magnificence. Pre- 
 vious to this era, the windows of houses in Britain 
 were filled with prepared oiled paper, or wooden 
 lattices ; and in cathedrals, the latter and sheets of 
 linen supplied the place of glass till the eighth 
 century. In meaner edifices, lattices continued in 
 use till the eighteenth. These were fixed in frames 
 of wood, called capsamenta, from which is derived 
 the word casement, now applied to the framework 
 of a window. 
 
 We are told that the manufacturing of window 
 glass was first introduced into England in 1557. 
 But it is evident, from a contract, spoken of by 
 Horace Walpole, in his Anecdotes of Painting, 
 between the Countess of Warwick and John Prudde 
 of Westminster, glazier, whom she employed, with 
 other tradesmen, to erect and embellish a magni- 
 ficent tomb for the earl her husband, that window 
 
HISTORY OF GLASS. \ \ 
 
 glass was made in England upwards of a century 
 before that period. In this curious treaty, which 
 is dated 1439, John Prudde is bound to use M no 
 glass of England, but glass from beyond the seas." 
 But it will be observed that the document, besides 
 shewing that the art of making window glass was 
 known and practised in England in the fifteenth 
 century, seems also to shew r that it was of inferior 
 quality to that which could be obtained from 
 abroad. 
 
 The art of manufacturing glass, which we have 
 traced from the Egyptians, as exhibited in the 
 decorations of their mummies, to the Phoenicians, 
 and from them to the Romans, lingered long in 
 Italy, where it was brought to a degree of per- 
 fection wholly unknown before. Some beautiful 
 specimens of this proficiency of the Roman people 
 in the art are found in ancient tumuli, the sepultures 
 of their dead. These are bottles or vessels called 
 lachrymatories, typically represented as containing 
 the tears which were shed for the deceased by his 
 or her surviving and sorrowing friends. These have 
 been found of various shapes and sizes, but all exhi- 
 biting great excellence of workmanship. 
 
 The seat of the art, however, in process of time, 
 changed from Rome to Venice, or rather to Murano ? 
 
]2 HISTORY OF GLASS. 
 
 a little village in the neighbourhood of that city, 
 where extensive works were established; but the 
 produce was always recognized by the name of 
 Venetian glass. We are told by Baron Von Lowhen, 
 in his Analysis of Nobility in its Origin, that " So 
 useful were the glass-makers at one period at Venice, 
 and so considerable the revenue accruing to the 
 republic from their manufacture, that, to encourage 
 the men engaged in it to remain in Murano, the 
 senate made them all burgesses of Venice, and 
 allowed nobles to marry their daughters ; whereas, 
 if a nobleman marries the daughter of any other 
 tradesman, the issue were not reputed noble." 
 
 For many years this glass surpassed any that 
 was made elsewhere, and commanded nearly the 
 whole sale of Europe. 
 
 The ingenuity of the Venetians in glass-making 
 was especially remarkable in the great improvement 
 which they made in the manufacture of mirrors. 
 This new application of glass was first attempted 
 at Sidon, about the thirteenth century; previous to 
 which period, polished plates of metal were used at 
 the toilette, and, in the rudeness of the first ideas 
 which suggested the substitution of glass, the latter 
 was made of a deep black colour to imitate them. 
 This opacity was farther increased by laying black 
 
HISTORY OF GLASS. 13 
 
 foil behind them. Thus it was thought that the 
 nearer they could be brought to resemble plates of 
 dark metal, the nearer they approached perfection. 
 
 The metal mirrors, however, notwithstanding 
 this attempt to imitate them, kept their hold long 
 after the introduction of their fragile rivals; but the 
 latter finally triumphed, and the metallic mirrors at 
 length wholly disappeared, — a result accomplished 
 chiefly by the skill of the Venetians, who effected 
 such improvements in their manufacture, that they 
 speedily acquired a celebrity which secured an 
 immense sale for them throughout Europe and the 
 Indies. Glass mirrors came into general use about 
 the fourteenth century. 
 
 From Venice, the art of glass-making found its 
 way into France, where an attempt was made, in 
 1634, to rival the Venetians in the manufacture of 
 mirrors. The first essay was unsuccessful, but 
 another made in 1665, in which Venetian workmen 
 were employed, had better fortune, though, in a 
 few years afterwards, this establishment, which was 
 situated in the village of Tourlaville, near Cher- 
 bourg, in Lower Normandy, was also threatened 
 with ruin by a discovery, or rather improvement in 
 the art of glass-making, effected by one Abraham 
 Theverat. This improvement consisted in casting 
 
24 HISTORY OF GLASS. 
 
 plates of much larger dimensions than had been 
 hitherto thought practicable. Theverat cast his 
 first plates at Paris, and astonished every artist by 
 their magnitude. These plates were eighty-four 
 inches in height and fifty in breadth, while none 
 before had ever exceeded forty-five or fifty inches 
 in length. Theverat was bound by his patent to 
 make all his plates at least sixty inches in length 
 and forty in breadth. The two companies, The- 
 verat's and that at Tourlaville, united their interest, 
 but were so unsuccessful that, in 1701, they were 
 unable to pay their debts, and were, in consequence, 
 compelled to abandon several of their furnaces. 
 In 1702 a new company was formed, under the 
 management of Antoine d' Agincourt, which realized 
 handsome profits to its proprietors, a circumstance 
 which is attributed wholly to the greater prudence 
 of D' Agincourt. 
 
 We are told that, early in the fourteenth century, 
 the French government made a concession in favour 
 of glass-making, decreeing not only that no dero- 
 gation from nobility should follow the practice of 
 the art, but that none, save gentlemen, or the sons 
 of noblemen, should venture to engage in any of 
 its branches, even as working artisans. 
 
 This restriction was accompanied by the grant of 
 
HISTORY OF GLASS. 15 
 
 a royal charter of incorporation, conveying various 
 important privileges, under which the occupation 
 became eventually a source of great wealth to 
 several families of distinction, whose descendants 
 have, at different times, attained some of the highest 
 dignities of the state. 
 
 The exact period when the art of manufacturing 
 glass was first introduced into England is not easily 
 determined. As already mentioned, it is said to 
 have been brought to this country in 1557; but 
 we have stated a circumstance which, we conceive, 
 leaves little doubt that glass was manufactured there 
 at a much earlier date. In 1557, however, it 
 certainly was manufactured in England. The finer 
 sort of window glass was then made at Crutched 
 Friars, in London. 
 
 The first flint-glass made in England was manu- 
 factured at Savoy House in the Strand, and the first 
 plate-glass, for looking-glasses, coach-windows, &c. 
 was made at Lambeth, in 1673, by Venetian work- 
 men brought over by the Duke of Buckingham. 
 
 The date of the introduction of the art of glass- 
 making into Scotland is more easily determined, 
 because of more recent occurrence. It took place 
 in the reign of James VI. An exclusive right to 
 manufacture glass within the kingdom for the space 
 
IQ HISTORY OF GLASS. 
 
 of thirty-one years, was granted by that monarch to 
 Lord George Hay in the year 1610. This right his 
 Lordship transferred, 1627, for a considerable sum, 
 to Thomas Robinson, merchant tailor in London, 
 who again disposed of it for £250, to Sir Robert 
 Mansell, vice-admiral of England. The first 
 manufactory of glass in Scotland, an extremely rude 
 one, was established at Wemyss in Fife. Regular 
 works were afterwards erected at Prestonpans, 
 and at Leith.* 
 
 Crown-glass is now manufactured at Warrington, 
 St Helens, Eccleston, Old Swan, and Newton, 
 Lancashire ; at Birmingham, Hunslet near Leeds, 
 and Bristol. It is also manufactured of excellent 
 quality on the Tyne and Wear.f Great improve- 
 
 * A bottle was blown at the Leith glass works, January 7, 
 1747-8, of the extraordinary capacity of one hundred and five 
 imperial gallons. A neat pocket pistol for the moors ! 
 
 f A very extensive crown-glass manufactory in the west of 
 Scotland has, on account of the lamented death of some of the prin- 
 cipals, been lately struck from the list of working establishments. 
 A good many years since, one of the partners of this house, in a 
 spirit somewhat similar to that which induced Peter the Great 
 of Russia to leave his state at home and come to England to 
 work as a common carpenter in the naval dock-yards of that 
 kingdom, went to, and wrought as an ordinary journeyman glass- 
 blower in several crown-glass houses* in England. The result of 
 
HISTORY OF GLASS. J 7 
 
 ments have recently been made in the manufacture 
 of crown-glass ; and we believe this article, as now 
 manufactured in England, is superior in point of 
 quality to that of any other nation. 
 
 With regard to the art of staining or painting 
 glass, (an art so blended with the history of the 
 substance itself, that some notice of it becomes 
 indispensable in a sketch of this description,) there 
 is good reason to believe that it is coeval with the 
 art of making glass, since, as has been noticed in 
 another part of this sketch, it is a matter of diffi- 
 culty to make it without colour. Thus the possibility 
 of subjecting this propensity to the will of the manu- 
 facturer must have very easily occurred, although 
 it certainly requires both much art and chemical 
 knowledge to produce perfect specimens of this 
 description of manufacture ; yet this perfection, 
 including, of course, all the necessary art and che- 
 mical knowledge, seems to have been attained at a 
 period as remote as tradition itself. The tradition 
 relating to this subject bears, that the art of tinging 
 glass was the invention of an Egyptian king ; but 
 
 this determined and extraordinary zeal was, that the house in 
 which the gentleman alluded to was interested became unrivalled 
 for the excellence of its crown-glass. The fame of its manufacture 
 spread far and wide, and its prosperity was proportioned to its 
 reputation. 
 
 B 
 
18 HISTORY OF GLASS. 
 
 whether it was so or not, it is certain that the art 
 has been known in Egypt for many thousand years, 
 and the most beautiful imitations of precious stones, 
 blue, green, crimson, &c. of this date are still 
 extant. That the colouring of glass, even when in 
 the shape of domestic vessels, is of high antiquity, 
 appears from the circumstance of the Emperor 
 Adrian having received as a present from an Egyp- 
 tian priest, two glass cups which sparkled with 
 colours of every kind, and which he prized so highly 
 for their singular beauty and magnificence, that he 
 ordered that they should be produced only on great 
 occasions. The art, however, of combining the 
 various colours so as to produce pictures, is of more 
 recent origin. The earlier specimens of this branch 
 of the art discover a factitious joining of different 
 pieces of glass, differently tinged, and so arranged 
 as to produce the figure, or figures, wanted, and 
 are thus little else than a sort of mosaic work. The 
 various pieces are held together generally by a vein 
 of lead, run upon the back of the picture, precisely 
 at their junction. 
 
 Modern ingenuity has superseded this clumsy 
 expedient, and every colour used in painting can 
 now be introduced into one entire sheet. It is 
 asserted that, for a long period, the pictured glass 
 which was used in cathedrals, &c. was merely painted 
 
HISTORY OF GLASS. 19 
 
 on the surface — the art of incorporating the colours 
 with the glass by fusion, the method now practised, 
 being unknown till about the close of the fifteenth 
 century. 
 
 This great and singular improvement is ascribed 
 to a painter of Marseilles, who went to Rome 
 during the pontificate of Julius II; but his discovery 
 went no farther than that of producing different 
 colours on different pieces of glass, and having them 
 afterwards united in the manner spoken of above. 
 This art was, at a later period, greatly improved by 
 Albert Durer, and Lucas of Leyden, the latter of 
 whom brought it nearly to perfection. 
 
 The first painted glass done in England was in 
 the time of King John : previous to this, all stained 
 or painted glass was imported from Italy. The 
 next notice of it occurs in the reign of Henry III. 
 The treasurer of that monarch orders that there 
 be painted, on three glass windows in the chapel 
 of St John, a little Virgin Mary holding the child, 
 and the Trinity, and Saint John the Apostle. 
 At an after period, he issues another mandate for 
 two painted windows in the hall. 
 
 Even at this early period, however, England 
 boasted of eminent native artists in glass painting, 
 amongst the first of whom was John Thornton* 
 
2Q HISTORY OF GLASS. 
 
 glazier of Coventry. This person was employed, 
 in the time of Henry IV, by the Dean and Chapter 
 of York Cathedral, to paint the east window of that 
 splendid edifice ; and for the beautiful and masterly 
 workmanship which he exhibited in this specimen 
 of his skill, he received four shillings per week of 
 regular wages. He was bound to finish the work in 
 less than three years, and to receive, over and above 
 the weekly allowance, one hundred shillings for 
 each year ; and if the work was done to the satis- 
 faction of his employers, he was to receive, on its 
 completion, a farther gratuity of Ten Pounds. 
 
 From this period, downwards, there have been 
 many skilful native artists, although the Reforma- 
 tion greatly impeded the progress of the art, by 
 banishing the ungodly ostentation of ornamented 
 windows from churches : indeed, so serious was this 
 interruption, that the art had nearly altogether 
 disappeared in the time of Elizabeth. Amongst 
 the most eminent glass painters who first appeared 
 on the revival of the art after this period, were 
 Isaac Oliver, born in 1616, and one William Price, 
 who lived about the close of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. This last person was the only glass painter 
 in England for many years. He is said to have 
 discovered, what has ever since been a desideratum 
 
HISTORY OF GLASS. 21 
 
 in the art of glass staining, the secret of producing 
 a rich, clear, bright, and transparent red, the most 
 difficult to strike, and the most expensive of all the 
 colours employed in glass painting. 
 
 Price having died soon after making this disco- 
 very, it is said to have died with him. This artist 
 was succeeded by a person at Birmingham, who, in 
 1757, fitted up a window for Lord Lyttleton in the 
 Church of Hajely. This glass painter was again 
 succeeded by one Peckite, at York, who attained 
 considerable eminence in the art. 
 
 During all this time, however, and, indeed, up to 
 a comparatively recent date, painted glass was con- 
 sidered as too costly and too magnificent an article 
 to be otherwise employed than in decorating religious 
 edifices, or the palaces of nobles ; and even in the 
 latter case it was but sparingly used. 
 
 Modern improvement has now placed this beau- 
 tiful ornament within the reach of very ordinary 
 circumstances, and when this is considered, it must 
 excite a strong feeling of surprise to find how little 
 so elegant and refined a luxury is even yet in 
 demand. On this subject we shall say more here- 
 after under its proper head. 
 
 The consequence of this rarity of painted glass 
 was, that even so lately as 1753 it was considered 
 
29 HISTORY OF GLASS. 
 
 in the light of a curiosity, and never dreamt of as 
 an article which might come into common use for 
 domestic purposes. In the year just mentioned, an 
 Italian, named Asciotti, brought over a parcel of 
 painted glass from Flanders, which he sold at a 
 good price in London. Encouraged by his success, 
 his wife and himself made a regular trade of import- 
 ing the article, and paid stated periodical visits to 
 the Continent for the purpose of procuring fresh 
 parcels. These were mostly bought up by one 
 Palmer, a glazier, who raised the price from one 
 and two to five guineas for a single piece — an 
 enormous increase upon his first charges ; as Horace 
 Walpole, who gives this information, tells us that 
 he had bought from the same man four hundred 
 and fifty pieces, for which he paid only thirty-six 
 guineas, and this specifically included the expense 
 of Asciotti's journey. 
 
 Eight years after this, namely, 1761 3 one Paterson, 
 an auctioneer in the Strand, had a public sale of 
 painted glass, the first time that this article ever 
 appeared in England in such circumstances. 
 
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING. 
 
 23 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING. 
 
 There are various species of glass, each produced 
 by a different process of manufacture, and composed 
 of different materials, and of different proportions of 
 the same material ; but, in a work of this nature, 
 which is chiefly intended for the glass-cutter and 
 glazier, it does not seem necessary to speak of any 
 other description of it than that which their trade 
 leads them almost exclusively to employ. We shall 
 therefore confine ourselves to crown, or window- 
 glass, employing as few technical phrases as pos- 
 sible. 
 
 Crown, or window-glass, is usually composed of 
 only two materials, — these are kelp and fine white 
 sand. The place of the former, however, is some- 
 times supplied by pearl ashes, or by some other 
 alkalis, but of these we consider it foreign to 
 our purpose to speak. Kelp is a substance pro- 
 duced by the burning of what is called, in the 
 learned world, fuel, but which will be better and 
 
24 PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING. 
 
 more generally understood by the familiar name of 
 sea- weed, or wrack. Of this marine vegetable there 
 are various kinds, all designated by different classical 
 names, which we need not enumerate. These are 
 cut from the rocks in the months of May, June, 
 and July. After being so cut and brought to shore, 
 the weed, or wrack, is spread out to dry, that it may 
 burn the more readily, and is then thrown into a 
 pit lined with stones, in which a large fire of 
 peat has been previously kindled. On this fire the 
 weed is heaped from time to time, until a large mass 
 is accumulated, and the whole is reduced to a state 
 of fusion. It is then well mixed and levelled, and 
 allowed gradually to cool. When sufficiently cold, 
 it is taken from the pit, and broken into portable 
 masses for the convenience of transportation. With 
 regard to the other component part of window-glass, 
 namely, sand, the best description for the purposes 
 of the glass-maker is procured from Lynn Regis in 
 Norfolk. The superiority of this sand arises from the 
 circumstance of its containing a greater quantity of 
 minute transparent crystals than is found in the 
 sand of any other place in this country. 
 
 When the two materials of which we have been 
 speaking come into the possession of the glass- 
 maker, for the purposes of his manufacture, they 
 are thus treated, previously to their being employed 
 
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING. 25 
 
 in the formation of glass : The kelp is broken into 
 small pieces, either by the hand or by a machine 
 called a stamper. It is then put into a mill, ground 
 to a fine powder, and afterwards passed through a 
 brass-wire sieve. 
 
 Having undergone this operation, it is removed 
 into the mixing room, the apartment where the pro- 
 portions of material are adjusted, and where, as the 
 name implies, they are mingled together previous 
 to their being fritted^ or calcined. The sand, again, 
 is usually washed in a large vat with boiling or cold 
 water, until the latter runs off quite clear. When 
 not washed, the effect of this operation is produced 
 by the use of nitre during the process of calcining, 
 which consumes any sulphureous matter that may 
 be present, or extraneous substances of an animal 
 or vegetable nature, and reduces them to an earth 
 not injurious to glass. The sand, it may be observed, 
 is sometimes put into an annealing or calcining 
 arch, where it is subjected to a strong heat for 
 twenty-four hours, and kept during that time in a 
 red-hot state, and then plunged into water. This 
 operation has the effect of dividing the particles of 
 sand, and making it unite more readily with the 
 alkali during the process of calcining. When this 
 operation is completed, the sand is also removed 
 into the mixing room. Here the materials, the sand 
 
26 PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING. 
 
 and the kelp powder, are carefully proportioned, 
 generally in the degree of one part of the former 
 to two parts of the latter, and mingled together 
 according to the judgment of the mixer, an opera- 
 tion which requires great care and experience. 
 When thoroughly mixed, the compost is put into 
 a calcining arch, or reverberatory furnace, where it 
 is subjected to a heat so strong as to reduce it to a 
 semi-fluid state. This substance, which is called 
 frit, is now taken from the furnace, spread upon a 
 plate of iron while yet hot, and afterwards, but 
 before it becomes quite cool, divided into large 
 cakes, The last operation consists in throwing the 
 frit into the melting pot, which is of this form : 
 
 This pot is made of the finest clay. The best is 
 got from Stourbridge, and goes through a tedious 
 and exceedingly troublesome process of drying, 
 annealing, or tempering, &c. before it is fit for its 
 ultimate purpose. To the frit thrown into this pot 
 
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING. 27 
 
 there is added a proportion of cullet, or broken 
 crown-glass. In about thirty to thirty-six hours, 
 the whole is reduced, by a powerful heat, to fine 
 liquid glass, and is then ready for the operations of 
 the workman. 
 
 The furnace is then slackened, and the metal 
 being now in a workable state, the first operator 
 who approaches the furnace in which the pot of liquid 
 glass is placed, is the " skimmer," who skims off, 
 or removes all extraneous or crude substances 
 from the surface of the metal. Next follows the 
 " gatherer," who is provided with an iron pipe, or 
 tube, about six or seven feet in length, and of this 
 shape : 
 
 Having previously heated that end of the tube 
 which comes in contact with the glass, he dips it 
 into the pot of metal, and by turning it gently 
 round, gathers about one and a half pounds of 
 liquid glass on the end of it. Having allowed this 
 to cool for a short time, he again dips it into the 
 pot, and gathers an additional quantity, of from two 
 and a half to three pounds. This is also permitted 
 to cool as before, when the operation of dipping is 
 again repeated, and a sufficient quantity of metal, 
 
28 PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING. 
 
 about nine or ten pounds weight, is gathered, to 
 form what is technically called a table, or sheet of 
 glass about to be blown. The rod thus loaded is 
 held for a few seconds in a perpendicular position, 
 that the metal may distribute itself equally on all 
 sides, and that it may, by its own weight, be 
 lengthened out beyond the rod. The operator then 
 moulds the metal into a regular form, by rolling it 
 on a smooth iron plate called the " marver," a cor- 
 ruption of the French word marbre. 
 
 He then blows strongly through the tube, when 
 his breath, penetrating the centre of the red-hot 
 mass of glass, forms it into a hollow vessel of the 
 shape of a pear, thus, — 
 
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING. 29 
 
 The tube, with the elongated sphere of glass at 
 the end of it, is then handed to the blower, who heats 
 it once more, and again at the furnace ; and alter- 
 nately, or between each blowing, he presses the 
 end against the bullion bar, so called from the part 
 thus pressed forming the centre of the sheet, or 
 bull's eye, thus, 
 
 By the dexterous management of this operation, 
 the glass assumes somewhat of a spherical form. 
 
 / 
 
30 PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING. 
 
 The blower heats a third time at the bottoming 
 hole, and blows the glass into a full sized globe, 
 thus, — 
 
 Again applying it to the same furnace, the 
 globe of glass, by the agency of the fire, assumes a 
 circular form, as shewn in the following Figure. 
 
 When this part of the process has been com- 
 pleted, and the glass has been allowed to cool a 
 little, it is rested on the casher box, and an iron 
 rod, called a " pontil, or punty rod," on which a little 
 hot metal has been previously gathered to make it 
 adhere, is attached to the flattened side, exactly 
 
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING. 31 
 
 opposite the hollow tube which is now detached by 
 means of a piece of iron previously dipped in cold 
 water, leaving a circular hole in the glass of about 
 two inches diameter. The following figure repre- 
 sents the operation of attaching the punty. 
 
 Taking hold of the punty rod, the workman now 
 presents the glass to another part of the furnace 
 ealled the " nose hole," where, it must be observed, 
 the aperture made by its separation from the tube is 
 now presented, and at which it is kept until it has 
 become sufficiently ductile to adapt it for the opera- 
 tion of the flashing furnace. Being here turned 
 
32 PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING. 
 
 dexterously round, slowly at first, and afterwards 
 with greater rapidity, the glass yields to the centri- 
 fugal force, and thus necessarily enlarges the 
 aperture above alluded to. 
 
 The workman, taking great care to preserve, by 
 a regular motion, the circular figure of the glass, 
 proceeds to whirl it round with increasing velocity, 
 until the aperture, now diminished to a ring of only 
 a few inches diameter, suddenly flies open with a 
 loud ruffling noise, like the rapid unfurling of a 
 flag in a strong wind, and leaves the glass a circular 
 
PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING. 33 
 
 plane or sheet, of from four to four and a half feet 
 diameter, of equal thickness throughout, except at 
 the point called the bullion, or bull's eye, where it 
 is attached to the iron rod. The following figure 
 will give some idea of this very beautiful part of the 
 process of glass making. 
 
 The sheet of glass, now fully expanded, is moved 
 round with a moderate velocity, until it is sufficiently 
 cool to retain its form. It is carried to the mouth 
 of the kiln, or annealing arch, where it is rested on 
 a bed of sand, and detached from the punty rod. 
 The sheet or table is then lifted on a wide pronged 
 
 c 
 
34 PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING. 
 
 fork, called a faucet, and put into the arch, 
 where it is tempered by being subjected to a 
 
 gradually decreasing heat for about twenty-four 
 hours. When taken from the arch at the end of 
 this period, the glass, after an account has been 
 taken of it by the exciseman, is ready for the glazier's 
 use. It is first, however, removed to the manufac- 
 turer's warehouse, where the circular sheets are cut 
 into halves, and assorted into the different qualities 
 well known to the tradesman by the names of 
 seconds, thirds, and fourths. 
 
CROWN-GLASS CUTTING- 
 
 35 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 
 
 This is by far the most important department of 
 the crown-glass cutter, or glazier's trade, for on its 
 judicious performance depends a very large portion 
 of his profits. The skilful cutter is a gainer, 
 while the unskilful one is a grievous loser. The 
 glass cutter must not only be able to handle his 
 diamond well, but he must learn to cut to advantage ; 
 he must cut methodically and judiciously, that there 
 may be as little waste as possible. 
 
 We shall attempt to describe the best methods of 
 doing so, in as clear and perspicuous a manner as 
 possible. 
 
 In the first place, the glass cutter must provide 
 himself with cutting boards, as delineated in Plate 
 II. a, is a breaking-out board, seven feet long, 
 three feet broad, and two feet nine inches high, that 
 
36 CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 
 
 is, high enough to strike the upper part of the thigh 
 when the glass cutter is at work; and with a slope 
 of from five to six inches towards the operator. 6, 
 is a crib fourteen inches below the level of the table, 
 and fourteen inches wide, on which it will be found 
 exceedingly convenient to lay ranges or corner 
 pieces, and this without the slightest interruption to 
 the work going forward. The cross-cutting board is 
 three feet long, by three feet broad, for cutting up and 
 squaring the ranges and corners ; the top, one foot 
 in breadth, being level to lay squares on when cut, 
 of the same height, and sloped in the same man- 
 ner as the breaking-out board, with a crib, of 
 the same dimensions as that already described to 
 place squares on edge at either side of the crib, for 
 assorting and packing. e 9 is a board running the 
 whole length of the cutting board, and about 
 eighteen inches in height, which forms a convenient 
 place for depositing the cullet or broken glass. 
 Some glass cutters use a flat or level cutting board, 
 and others cover it with a cloth or carpet. The 
 sloped board is preferred by the experienced cutter, 
 as it is easier stretched over ; but probably the flat 
 table with a cloth is best suited to the less prac- 
 tised workman. The cloth, however, should be 
 used when large or fine picture glasses are to be 
 
II' < fcpun E< far del'. 
 
 6 JihruBusaJp? 
 
CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 37 
 
 cut, as they are liable to be scratched by particles 
 of glass or sand, if cut on the uncovered board. 
 
 For the purpose of ranging tables of glass, 
 which is the first operation, the best instrument 
 is a rule of fir wood, called a gauntling, fifty 
 inches long, one and a half inch broad, and about 
 one-eighth and one-sixteenth of an inch thick, with 
 two pieces or slips of iron eighteen inches long 
 attached to it, and twenty inches asunder, with a 
 moveable catch of the same metal, having a nut and 
 screw to admit of their being shifted at pleasure, so 
 as to cut ranges of various breadths. The instrument 
 alluded to will be better understood, however, from 
 Fig. 6, Plate III. a, is the wood ; bb, are the two 
 pieces of iron attached to it, very slightly made, 
 with a small nut or screw to secure the catch on 
 the opposite side when adjusted, and which may be 
 altered to cut a range from six to sixteen inches 
 broad ; this instrument, though simple, is very 
 useful, and will enable the workman to range with 
 greater confidence, and with more safety and des- 
 patch, than he could do with the common straight 
 edge. The cutter must also be provided with two 
 pieces of cork, in the form of a wedge, one and a half 
 inch thick, tapering to about one quarter of an inch, 
 and one piece of the same size for the cross-cutter. 
 
38 CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 
 
 For cutting up bullion ranges, a small strip of white 
 iron, three-eighths of an inch broad, may be attached 
 to a rule at a still less expense, turned up at the ends, 
 and adjusted to the breadth of the ranges wanted. 
 The glass cutter ought also to be provided with a 
 set of T squares and laths, 24, 30, and 36 inches in 
 length, graduated by feet, inches, and fractional 
 parts, as shewn in Figs. 1 and 2, Plate III. These 
 instructions, with a cross-cutting board, (Plate IV.) 
 for crosscutting, or for cutting up and squaring small 
 or broken pieces expeditiously, are all that are 
 necessary for ordinary purposes ; but, to the exten- 
 sive cutter or exporter, who requires a great variety 
 of sizes, the breaking-out board, also indented with 
 brass, will be found exceedingly useful, and a great 
 saving both of time and materials. 
 
 BREAKING-OUT BOARD.* 
 
 Plate IV. shews the most approved kind at pre- 
 sent in use. a a is the centre line from which the 
 
 * Although the sizes are figured on these reduced scales, 
 (which is in the proportion of one-fourth to one inch,) it is not 
 necessary that it should be so on the indented board, as it might 
 confuse the cutter, — a little practice only is necessary to become 
 accustomed to the lines. The cutting-board, however, should be 
 
CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 39 
 
 lengths or breadths of panes are regulated ; b b also 
 shews the length or breadth of the panes to be cut. 
 Apply a rule, following the lines from b to 6, the 
 extremes being 24x16, and also from the cross 
 centre line, and the two lines will intersect each 
 other at the point where the size of the required 
 pane is given. To reduce this scale to practice, we 
 shall cut up a 50 inch table; see Plate VII. Fig. 1. 
 
 Large Half. — Place the straight part of the 
 table on a line with the lower part of the scale, on 
 the left hand side of the table ; then square a pane 
 15x13, taking your length 15 from the centre 
 line ; and, for greater safety and despatch, be pro- 
 vided with two gauntlings, one set at ]7, and one 
 at 13 inches, and, after squaring the pane to 15 x 13, 
 you have from the same wing, on applying it to the 
 scale, one 11x8, and one 6x4; you then range or 
 rip (technically so called) the table, also applying 
 it to the scale, at 17 inches, squaring the piece off 
 at 23 inches ; also at the left hand side, which make 
 two 17xlli; and from the right hand remaining 
 wing, also applying it to the scale, you have one 
 15x13, one 10x8, and one 6x4; and from the 
 
 indented with brass faintly, with half and quarter inch lines, but 
 this could not well be shewn on the small scale. 
 
40 CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 
 
 remaining end piece you have two 6 x 5 i > at each 
 side of the bullion. 
 
 Small Half. — Place one side of the sheet at 13 
 inches, and, as before described, rip up the table at 
 30 inches, which makes two 15 x 13, leaving a wing 
 to make one 11 X 9 and one 7x5 ; from the back 
 slab you have one 10x7 and two 7x5. 
 
 On cutting by this useful scale, both large and 
 small halves are usually begun to be cut from the 
 left hand ; but this is not always the case, nor can 
 any definite rule be given for so doing, on account 
 of the variety of sizes and different qualities of 
 glass, — this must be left to the judgment and skill 
 of the cutter. 
 
 CROSS-CUTTING BOARD. 
 
 Plate V. represents the cross-cutting board for 
 cross-cutting ranges, cutting up and squaring small 
 pieces and breakage, or for assorting corner pieces 
 to their proper sizes ; this scale, to the extensive 
 cutter or exporter, will also be found exceedingly 
 useful. 
 
 The black line a from 6 to 14 on the left hand 
 side of the board, is what is called a head, a small 
 piece of wood fixed on the board ; and against this 
 
CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 41 
 
 head the glass about to be cut is placed to keep it 
 square ; b b top and bottom figures graduated from 
 4 to 27 inches, are the corresponding lengths or 
 breadths of panes to be cut ; in every other respect 
 it operates in the same manner as the breaking out 
 board described. 
 
 We shall here shew how it is used along with the 
 breaking-out board, in cutting up large quantities 
 with despatch ; and take as an example the 50 inch 
 table before dissected. 
 
 The cutter, after placing the table on the break- 
 ing-out board, cuts from the left hand side of the 
 table a range to make 15x13; he hands this range 
 to the cross-cutter, who cuts from the cross-cutting 
 board to one pane 15 x 13, one 11x8, and one 6 4. 
 The cutter then ranges, or rather rips the table at 
 17 inches, which he squares off at 23 inches; he 
 hands this to the crosscutter, who cuts 2 panes, each 
 17x11^ inches. 
 
 The cutter also hands over the right hand wing, 
 which the cross-cutter squares to one pane 15x15, 
 one 10x8, and one 6x4. The bullion range is also 
 handed to the cross-cutter, who cuts two panes 6 X 5^. 
 See large half, Plate VII ; the cutter at the break- 
 ing-out board proceeds in the same manner with 
 the small half, or for any given number of panes. 
 
42 CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 
 
 The crown-glass cutter will find these scales 
 useful and profitable, a great saving both in time 
 and valuable materials; he at once sees the sizes 
 that can be cut from any sheet, and can do so with 
 a plain straight edge, without loss of time otherwise 
 necessary in adjusting the graduated T squares and 
 laths to the sizes wanted. 
 
 With regard to the selection of glass to be cut 
 up, it may be useful to observe, — 
 
 I. Tables cut at 5 inches from the bullion, are 
 better for country glaziers for jobbing than if cut 
 close. 
 
 II. Tables cut close to the bullion, at 1 J, or 2 
 inches, or thereabouts, are calculated for the cutting 
 of no ranges above 9 or 10 inches wide. Glass of 
 an inferior quality should be close cut and used for 
 smaller sizes. Sheets for large or extra sizes are 
 also cut close. 
 
 III. Tables cut 3 to 4 inches from the bullion, 
 are for ranges not exceeding 12 inches wide. 
 
 IV. Tables cut 5 or 6 inches from the bullion, 
 are for ranges above 12 inches, and not exceeding 
 14 or 14^ inches wide ; all other squares being 
 more properly cut from slabs. 
 
 The following are considered awkward sizes ; but 
 when glass is cut 4, 5, or 6 inches from the 
 
CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 43 
 
 bullion, the slabs will produce the various sizes 
 without waste ; they are principally got from small 
 halves or back slabs from 13 to 17^ inches broad : 
 12X12, 13X12, 14X13, 15x13, 16x14, 17x16, 
 18X16. 
 
 The following, which are considered regular 
 sizes, are found among breakage, and in working 
 up of crates, and are placed in the pigeon holes, that 
 they may be ready when wanted. These sizes 
 ought to be cut rough a quarter of an inch every 
 way, except in executing an order to given dimen- 
 sions, when, of course, they must be cut exact. 
 The sizes alluded to are 10x8, 10^x8^, 11x9, 
 12x10, 14X10, 15x10, 15x11, 16x12, 17x12, 
 18 X 12, 18 X 14, or half an inch more each way. 
 
 All sizes under 10x8, must be cut rough one 
 half inch each way ; all others a quarter of an inch, 
 excepting where a ready sale for corners can be 
 commanded, or when they are used for half panes, 
 or jobbing work, in which form they may be 
 assorted to cut sizes, such as 10x8, 9x7, 8x6, 
 6x4, 6x3, 5X3, 4x3, or half an inch more 
 or less each way. The cross-cutting board will 
 assist in assorting these to their various sizes speedily, 
 and with accuracy. 
 
44 CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 
 
 Although Plate IV. shews at once the size of 
 panes that may be cut from tables or slabs of any 
 size, it may be useful for the less experienced glass 
 cutter to know the sizes most frequently cut from 
 slabs of various dimensions, taking a 49 inch table 
 as an average. 
 
 A 17 inch slab, * or table cut at 8 inches, will cut 
 2 panes 15 x 12, or 
 2 . 16x10, or 
 2 . 17x10 
 These slabs are very useful for jobbing work. 
 
 An 18 inch slab, or table cut at 7 inches, will cut 
 3 panes 12x10, or 
 2 . 15x13, or 
 2 . 16x12 
 These slabs are generally left to cut the sizes 
 they will make, such as 28 X 12, or 26 X 13 inches. 
 
 * A 17 inch slab, &c. means that the slab measures 17 inches 
 across the centre ; and cut at 4, 5, or 6 inches, that the table is 
 slit up or cut at that distance from the bullion, or bull's eye, 
 being the knot or centre of the sheet ; the sizes enumerated, 
 exclusive of corner pieces, may be cut from the various slabs. 
 
CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 45 
 
 A 19 inch slab, or table, cut at 6 inches, will cut 
 
 3 panes 12x10, or 
 
 2 . 14x10, and 1, 11x9, or 
 
 2 , 15X13, or 
 
 2 . 16x12, or 
 
 1 . 16X12, 1, 14x10, and 1, 12x10 
 
 A 20 inch slab, or table, cut at 5 inches, will cut 
 1 pane 13x 12, 1, 16 x 12, and 1, 12 x 12, or 
 
 1 . 14x10, and 2, 12x10, or 
 
 2 . 18x12, or 
 2 . 17x13, or 
 
 I . 18x13, and 1, 16x13 
 
 A 21 inch slab, or table, cut at 4 inches, will cut 
 3 panes 12x12, and 1, 11x9, or 
 
 1 . 
 
 13x12, 2, 12x12, and 1, 12X8, or 
 
 2 . 
 
 14x12, 1, 12x8, and 1, 11x9, or 
 
 1 . 
 
 15x11, 1, 14x31, and 2, 11x9, or 
 
 1 
 
 18 x 13, and 1, 17x13, or 
 
 2 . 
 
 17x14, or 
 
 2 . 
 
 18 X 13, or 
 
 1 
 
 18X14, and 1, 16x14 
 
46 CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 
 
 A 22 inch slab, or table, cut at 3 inches, will cut 
 
 1 pane 13x12, 2, 12x12, and 1, 12x9 
 
 4 . 14x10, or 
 
 3 . 15xH ? or 
 
 1 . 15x13, 2, 14x10, and 1, 12x10, or 
 
 2 . 18x14, or 
 
 1 . 20x14, and 1, 18x12 
 
 A 23 inch slab or table, cut at 2 inches, will cut, 
 3 panes 14x10, and 1, 15x12, or 
 
 1 — 15X12, 2, 14x11, and 1, 14x10, or 
 
 2 — 18X15. 
 
 Crown-glass always cuts best in a warm tempe- 
 rature. When it happens to be hard, which is 
 seldom the case, (a bad diamond, or not knowing 
 how to use a good one, being the usual cause of 
 breakage,) it has been found to cut better after 
 warming the glass before the fire, which has the 
 effect of diminishing the tension of the ill annealed 
 glass. 
 
 The following shew the quantity of saleable 
 glass to be cut from tables of 48, 49, 50, and 51 
 inches diameter, sizes usually found in crates, and 
 exclusive of 5x3, and 4x3. 
 
CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 
 
 47 
 
 48 Inch Table, Plate Vi, Fig. 1. 
 
 Large Half. 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 '2 
 
 panes 16 X 10f 
 
 2 
 
 48 
 
 1 
 
 . 15 Xll 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 . 15 XlOi 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 . H|X8 
 
 1 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 6|x5 
 
 0 
 
 65 
 
 '2 
 
 6 X5 
 
 0 
 
 60 
 
 
 Small Half. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ft 
 
 In. 
 
 2 
 
 panes 14x10 
 
 1 
 
 136 
 
 1 
 
 13x10 
 
 0 
 
 130 
 
 1 
 
 13X 
 
 0 
 
 123 
 
 2 
 
 8X 4 
 
 0 
 
 64 
 
 2 
 
 6X 4 
 
 0 
 
 48 
 
 4 69 
 
 Saleable glass cut from a 48 inch Ft. In. 
 
 table. . . — 11 28 
 
 49 Inch Table, Plate VI, Fig. 2. 
 
 Large Half. 
 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 2 panes 17i 
 
 Xlli 
 
 2 115 
 
 4> • Hi 
 
 X 9i 
 
 3 6 
 
 1 . 9 
 
 X 7 
 
 0 63 
 
 2 . 6 
 
 X 5 
 
 0 60 
 
 2 . 6 
 
 X 4 
 
 0 48 
 
 Small Half. 
 2 panes 15x10 2 12 
 2 . 13x 9 1 90 
 2 . 8x 6 0 96 
 
 4 54 
 
 Saleable glass cut from a 49 inch Ft. In. 
 
 table, . . 11 59 
 
48 
 
 CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 
 
 50 Inch Table, Plate VII, Fig. i. 
 
 Juujffe jjl.OjIj. 
 
 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 2 panes 15x13 
 
 2 
 
 102 
 
 2 . 17 X lli 
 
 2 
 
 103 
 
 1 Hv ft 
 
 l . 11 X o 
 
 0 
 
 88 
 
 1 10 v ft 
 
 0 
 
 80 
 
 4 . OX 4 
 
 0 
 
 48 
 
 z . o x *>2 
 
 0 
 
 66 
 
 Small Half 
 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 2 panes 15 x 13 
 
 2 
 
 102 
 
 1 . llx 9 
 
 0 
 
 99 
 
 2 . 7x5 
 
 0 
 
 70 
 
 2 . 6x 5 
 
 0 
 
 60 
 
 1 . 10x 7 
 
 0 
 
 70 
 
 4 113 
 
 Saleable glass cut from a 50 inch Ft. In. 
 
 table . . 12 24 
 
 51 Inch Table, Plate VII, Fig. 2. 
 Large Half. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 2 panes 22 xl4£ 
 
 4 
 
 102 
 
 1 • 18JX16 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 2 . 11 X 8 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 2 . 6X5 
 
 0 
 
 60 
 
 1 . 6X4 
 
 0 
 
 24 
 
 1 . 8X4 bullion 0 
 
 32 Ft. 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Small Half. 
 2 panes 16^x131 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 2 . 7 X 5J 
 
 0 
 
 77 
 
 2 . 7X5 
 
 0 
 
 70 
 
 4 17 
 
 Saleable glass cut from a 51 inch Ft. In. 
 
 table, . . 12 131 
 
f 
 
CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 
 
 49 
 
 Plate VIII. Fig. 1, shews the largest panes, &c. 
 cut from a Table 50 inches diameter, close cut. 
 
 
 Larqe Half. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 1 
 
 nnne 34 X 16i 
 
 3 
 
 129 
 
 2 
 
 . 15 x 4 
 
 0 
 
 120 
 
 ] 
 
 . 26 x 3 
 
 o 
 
 
 2 
 
 • IHx 6 
 
 0 
 
 138 
 
 2 
 
 . 4x4 
 
 o 
 
 
 1 
 
 . 10 X 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 95 
 
 
 Or, 
 
 
 
 1 pane 26 x 19^ 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 / D 
 
 2 
 
 . 16 x 4 
 
 o 
 
 132 
 
 2 
 
 • nix 6 
 
 n 
 
 \j 
 
 138 
 
 2 
 
 • 4x4 
 
 n 
 
 \J 
 
 
 2 
 
 .15x4 
 
 n 
 u 
 
 1 90 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 . 10 x 3 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 
 Small Half. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 pane 34 x 16^ 
 
 3 
 
 129 
 
 1 
 
 . 24 X 31 
 
 o 
 
 
 2 
 
 . 7iX 6 
 
 o 
 
 90 
 
 2 
 
 . 4x4 
 
 o 
 
 32 
 
 1 
 
 . 9 X 3 
 
 o 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 74 
 
 
 Or, 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 pane 24 x20 
 
 3 
 
 48 
 
 2 
 
 . 16^X 5 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 . 7^X 6 
 
 0 
 
 90 
 
 2 
 
 4X4 
 
 0 
 
 32 
 
 1 
 
 9X3 
 
 0 
 
 27 
 
 5 74 
 
 12 25 
 
 Waste in cutting, . 1 66 
 
 Round contents of a Table 
 
 50 inches diameter, 13 91 
 
5() CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 
 
 The produce of tables of given diameters, will 
 differ in quantity according to the sizes of panes to 
 be cut ; and these are so various, that no fixed 
 number of feet for practical use can be given. 
 
 The following table shews the average quantity 
 of saleable glass to be cut from the various sizes of 
 tables, and exclusive of 5X3, and 4x3: 
 
 Diameter of Contents. Saleable glass to be cut from 
 
 tables. each crate. 
 
 12s. 15s. 18s. 
 
 48 . 12^ 
 
 49 . 13 
 
 50 . 13i 
 
 51 . 14 
 
 JSU 168 201 
 
 140 175 210 
 
 146 182^ 219 
 
 152 190 228 
 
 Plate VIII. Fig. 1. -In reference to this figure, 
 it is not asserted that a 50 inch table will in all 
 cases contain 13 feet 91 inches superficial, as tables 
 are seldom found circular ; but a 50 inch table will 
 contain nearly that quantity, for what is deficient 
 on one side of the table, is usually made up by the 
 other side being so much larger. This figure is 
 meant to shew the largest panes to be cut from a 
 table 50 inches diameter, and the squares to be cut 
 from what remains over. The cutter might have 
 tables drawn in the same manner to various sizes of 
 tables, such as 49, 49^, 50, 50±, 51, 52, &c. 
 
CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 51 
 
 Plate IX, which we shall call the crown-glass 
 Theodolite, shews at one view the largest panes that 
 can be cut from tables of given diameters. The curved 
 lines describe the quadrant of circles of tables, from 
 48 to 64 inches diameter, being the largest size of 
 crown glass now manufactured. 
 
 The top and bottom graduated lines, a a, shew 
 the length, and the end lines, b b, the breadth of 
 the required panes ; and these lines intersect each 
 other at the edge of the table which it takes to cut 
 such panes. To find the largest panes, therefore, 
 to be cut from a full half sheet or table of glass, of 
 course the top and bottom lines are doubled, as 
 they only represent one-half the diameter — the 
 numbers being taken from the centre of the sheet. 
 For example, what size of a table does it take to 
 cut a pane 30 x 20 inches? Look for 15 on the 
 lines a a, (which, being doubled, is 30,) and for 20 
 on the lines b b, and immediately, on the inter- 
 secting lines on the circle, you have 53 inches, size 
 of a table required to cut a pane 30 x 20. It must 
 also be kept in view here, that tables of glass are 
 not always perfectly circular. This diagram is 
 only intended to give an idea of the plan to the 
 practical glass-cutter, who may have the same drawn 
 to the full size, with the intersecting lines at quarter 
 
52 crown-glass cutting. 
 
 and half inches, — to shew which, would confuse so 
 small a scale. It is understood, though the full 
 diameters of tables are marked on the curved lines, 
 that the table or sheet of glass is calculated as being 
 cut or slit at one and one-half inches from the 
 bullion, or, which is the same thing, at two inches 
 from the centre of the bullion. From this diagram 
 we learn, that 
 
 A 50 inch half table 
 
 will make panes 
 
 33 X 17 
 
 51 — 
 
 33 X 18 
 
 52 — 
 
 34 X 18 
 
 53 — 
 
 33 X 19 
 
 54 — 
 
 34 x 19 
 
 55 — 
 
 34X20 
 
 56 — 
 
 35x20 
 
 57 — 
 
 35 X 21 
 
 58 — 
 
 36X21 
 
 59 — 
 
 35 x22 
 
 60 — 
 
 37X22 
 
 31 x 18 28 x 19 25x20 
 30 X 19 27x 20 23x21 
 
 32 x 19 29X20 26X21 
 30X20 28X21 24X22 
 32X20 30X21 27X 22 
 32 X 21 28X22 26X23 
 33x21 30X22 27x23 
 32X22 29X23 26X 24 
 33x22 31 X23 28X24 
 33X23 30X24 27X25 
 35X23 32x24 29X25 
 
 The following theorem may give a pretty good 
 idea of the number of available feet to be cut from 
 a table of glass; although, as has been already 
 observed, tables of given diameters vary in thick- 
 ness and weight. 
 
CROWN-GLASS CUTTING. 53 
 
 Suppose the average weight of a 50 inch table to 
 be 9 lb. 
 
 A crate of 12 tables will weigh 108 lb. 
 
 Take the number of feet which a table of 50 inches 
 
 diameter contains, which is 13^ feet nearly ; 
 A crate of 12 tables will produce 162 feet. 
 The cullet or waste arising from the cutting of 
 
 crates into squares, exclusive of the squares 
 
 4x3 and 5x3, averages nearly 2 lb. per 
 
 table. 
 
 In a crate of 12 tables there will be 24 lb. 
 Well, then, take the average w T eight of 100 feet of 
 glass, 63 lb. 
 
 Then, if 63 lb. produce 100 feet, how many feet 
 will 24 lb. produce ? 
 Ft. lb. lb. 
 As 100 : 63 : : 24 
 24 
 
 100 | 1512 | 15 feet waste in 12 tables. 
 Available glass, . . . . 147 feet* 
 Waste, 15 
 
 Round contents of a 12 table crate, 50 
 
 inches diameter, . ♦ . 162 feet. 
 
 * See Plate VJL Fig. 1, produce of one table X12. 
 
54 
 
 PACKING OF GLASS. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 PACKING OF GLASS. 
 
 In packing panes of crown-glass, care should be 
 taken to have the boxes in which they are to be 
 packed of such a size as that no more space shall be 
 left than is necessary to introduce the hay or other 
 materials with which they are to be secured. 
 
 By attending to this consideration, not only is a 
 saving of wood effected, but a greater degree of 
 safety ensured for the glass during its transit. 
 
 The best material for packing is meadow hay ; 
 and this should be pretty frequently intervened 
 between the naked panes, as placing too many 
 together without the intervention of some soft 
 substance, greatly endangers their safety. Of such 
 panes as 6x4, 7x5, 8x6, 9x7, to 10x8, a dozen 
 may be laid together; and of such as 10x8 to 
 12x10, half a dozen; of 14x12 to 16x12 five; of 
 from 16 x 12, to about 20 x 14, four ; and from 20 X 12 
 to 24 x 16, not more than two or three panes should 
 
PACKING OF GLASS. 55 
 
 be laid together, observing, to ensure safety in the 
 carriage, that in the quantities named, the panes lie 
 close to one another, packing separately such panes 
 as are bent or twisted. 
 
 It may not be unnecessary to mention here, that 
 a dozen panes, when in close contact with one 
 another, occupy nearly the space of an inch in 
 thickness. 
 
 The hay, or packing material, whatever it may be, 
 ought to be well and firmly stuffed around the glass, 
 after it is deposited in the box ; and this will be most 
 easily and effectually accomplished by a simple piece 
 of wood of the shape represented in Plate III. Fig, 9. 
 which can be made for the purpose in a few minutes. 
 
 To each end of the box a handle of rope-yarn 
 should be attached, for greater convenience in 
 removing it from place to place ; but care must be 
 taken that the holes perforated in the end of the 
 box through which the rope-yarn is passed, be not 
 on a line with each other, but as represented in 
 Plate X. Fig. 9 ; otherwise, if the boxes be made 
 of fir, as they generally are, the piece between the 
 two holes, placed on a line, would be apt to come 
 away, and the glass be thus broken to pieces by the 
 fall which would necessarily ensue. The two ends 
 of the rope-yarn handles are secured inside by a 
 knot thrown on each ; and these knots must be 
 
56 PACKING OF GLASS. 
 
 provided with a corresponding hollow in the wood, 
 excavated for their reception, to prevent their 
 coming in contact with the glass, which they might 
 break ; or the handles may be spliced outside, and 
 sunk into a hollow cut by a gouge on the end of the 
 box, of a depth sufficient to cover the rope ; which 
 would occupy less space in stowage, and conse- 
 quently be a saving of freight. 
 
 Fifty and a hundred feet are the usual quantities 
 packed into one box ; but of small sizes, two hun- 
 dred feet may be put into one box, the squares 
 being packed on the top of each other. In this 
 case, however, the latter should be provided with a 
 board or support on the top of the first layer. 
 Figures 11, 12, and 14, only are made in this form. 
 
 In calculating the size of the box or boxes 
 required, it is usual to allow about one or one and 
 a half inches each way, over and above the length 
 and breadth of the pane, for the length and depth 
 of the box, and to allow farther one-eighth of an 
 inch on each pane for the breadth of the box ; these 
 allowances are made for hay and inside measure. 
 
 The annexed table shews the proper sizes of 50, 
 100, and 200 feet boxes — the contents of each 
 pane — the number of paries per 100 feet — the 
 proper thickness of wood employed in making 
 boxes, and where the divisions ought to occur. 
 
50 Feet Boxes. 
 
 lOO Feet Boxes . 
 6 
 
 ( — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 End. 
 
 9 
 
 200 Feet Boxes. 
 
 12 
 
 
 1 
 
 ) ( 
 
 
 
 
 
 ) < 
 
 
 
 — ) 
 
 ( — 
 
 1 — 1 — 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TT 
 
 17 
 
 ■ III 
 
 18 
 
 I) ^ 
 
 IB 
 
 20 
 
 tV. Oiop^r.Edxnr.Del 1 : 
 

 Contents 
 
 No. of Panes 
 
 50 Feet Boxes. 
 
 100 Feet Boxes. 
 
 200 Feet Boxe 
 
 
 Sizes 
 
 of 1 Pane. 
 
 in 100 Feet. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 
 Panes. 
 
 1 
 
 V 00 
 
 ill 
 
 c 
 Q 
 
 DO 
 
 4) 
 
 a 
 
 JS 
 a 
 J 
 
 f 
 
 Q 
 
 
 •£ 
 c 
 
 E 
 
 P. 
 Q 
 
 6 
 
 S 1 
 
 QQ 
 
 ■£ 
 
 c 
 
 j 
 
 
 0. 
 Q 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In. 
 
 In- 
 
 In. 
 
 PL 10 
 
 In. 
 
 In. 
 
 In. 
 
 a l. 10 
 
 In. 
 
 In. 
 
 In. 
 
 PI. 10 
 
 3 X * 
 
 0 l 0 
 
 100 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 26 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 
 26 
 
 15 
 
 !Sf 
 
 7 Fig- 
 
 3 x 5 
 
 0 13 
 
 so 
 
 o 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 122 
 
 5 13 
 
 3x6 
 
 0 16 
 
 66 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 231 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 
 23} 
 
 12 
 
 142 
 
 12 
 
 4x6 
 
 0 2 0 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 7 " 
 
 
 26 
 
 1.0 
 
 7 " 
 
 
 27 
 
 14 
 
 10} 
 
 13 
 
 4| x 6 
 
 0 2 3 
 
 44 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 
 25 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 
 25 i 
 
 14 
 
 111 
 
 8 
 
 
 14 
 
 4iX 6} ! 
 
 0 2 5 
 
 41 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 '2 
 
 > • 
 
 24 
 
 11 
 
 71 
 
 
 23 
 
 14 
 
 ] 
 
 4X7 | 
 
 0 2 4 
 
 42 
 
 11 
 
 12} 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 
 241 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 
 31 
 
 15 
 
 
 ■18 
 
 42 X 7 
 
 0 2 7 
 
 38 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 
 24 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 
 28 
 
 16| 
 
 8 
 
 
 5 X o 
 
 0 2 6 
 
 40 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 CO 
 
 23 
 
 14 
 
 J ^ 
 
 20 
 
 5|X 6 1 
 
 0 2 9 
 
 36 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 7 
 
 6| " 
 
 
 21 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 * C5J0 
 
 is* 
 
 36 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 51 X 6| j 
 
 0 2 11 
 
 33 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 71 
 
 6} 
 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 36 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 
 O X / 
 
 0 2 11 
 
 0 3 2 
 
 34 
 31 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 o 2 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 CO 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 5|X 7 I 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 6§ 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 
 35 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 0 3 5 
 
 29 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 8| 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 2* 
 
 
 34 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 6x6 
 
 0 3 0 
 
 33 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 
 22 
 
 14 
 
 14} 
 
 
 E 16 
 
 61 X 6| 
 6X7 
 
 0 3 6 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 71 
 
 7i 
 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 7 2 
 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 *3 
 
 
 0 3 6 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 o 2 
 
 8 
 
 7" 
 
 j 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 8 . 
 
 
 34 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 Quarries 9s 
 
 0 0 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 6x8 
 
 0 4 0 
 
 25 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 61 X 7} 
 
 0 4 0 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 8 i 
 
 71 
 
 o 2 
 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 8} 
 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 82 
 
 
 
 7X9 
 
 0 5 3 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 ! 13 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 
 25 
 
 lo 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 7i X 8| 
 
 0 5 3 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 1 13 
 
 n 
 
 81 
 
 
 25 
 
 i? 1 
 
 8} 
 
 00 
 
 24 
 
 17 
 
 i? 1 
 
 
 
 8 X 10 
 
 0 6 8 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 : 11 
 
 11 
 
 9 ■ 
 
 - 
 
 22 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 
 > 21 
 
 8|X 9| 
 
 0 6 8 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 10| 
 
 11 
 
 9 I 
 
 
 22 
 
 l°i 
 
 9£ 
 
 > C30 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 }2» 
 
 
 9 X 11 
 
 0 8 3 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 10| 
 
 10 
 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 9 X 12 
 
 0 9 0 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 9 X 13 
 
 0 9 9 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 10 X 12 
 
 0 10 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 9} 
 
 11 
 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 10 X 13 
 
 0 10 10 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 
 142 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 X 14 
 
 0 11 8 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 
 151 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 X 15 
 
 10 6 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 164, 
 
 l\ 
 
 11 
 
 
 l 3 
 
 171 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 X 16 
 
 114 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 '2 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 X 13 
 
 0 11 11 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 X ]4 
 
 1 0 10 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 ?! 
 
 12 
 
 
 15i 
 
 141 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 X 15 
 
 119 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 71 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 X ig 
 
 12 8 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 
 VJ 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 X 17 
 
 13 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 13| 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 X 18 
 
 14 6 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 
 191 
 
 131 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 X 14 
 
 12 0 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 
 ] H 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 X15 
 
 1 3 0 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 16| 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 X 16 
 
 14 0 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 17| 
 
 6* 
 
 13 
 
 
 !2* 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 X 17 
 
 15 0 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 }8§ 
 
 6£ 
 
 13 
 
 
 18i 
 
 12| 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 X 18 
 
 16 0 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 19| 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 192 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 X 19 
 
 17 0 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 20* 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 S?^ 
 
 Hi 
 
 13 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 X 20 
 
 18 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 2li 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 
 21} 
 
 Hi 
 
 13 
 
 * si 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 X15 
 13 X 16 
 
 1 4 3 
 15 4 
 
 6 
 5 
 
 2 
 10 
 
 
 7 
 6| 
 
 14 
 14 
 
 
 161 
 lit 
 
 13 
 121 
 
 14 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 X 17 
 
 16 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 
 18| 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IS X 18 
 
 17 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 19| 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 
 191 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 X 19 
 
 18 7 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 s* 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 
 202 
 
 HI 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 X 20 
 
 19 8 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 21| 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 
 Sit 
 
 Hi 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 X 21 
 
 14 Vie 
 14 * 16 
 
 1 10 9 
 16 8 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 221 
 
 m 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 
 22f 
 
 11 
 
 i 12 
 
 14 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 
 172 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 * 18 
 
 19 0 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 19i 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 
 19§ 
 
 li* 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 ><20 
 
 I 11 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 21i 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 
 21} 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 X 21 
 
 2 0 6 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 221 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 
 22} 
 
 in 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 X22 
 
 2 1 8 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 231 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 
 23| 
 
 in 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 X20 
 
 2 1 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 211 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 
 212 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 X22 
 
 2 3 6 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 231 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 
 23| 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 X22 
 
 2 5 4 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 23| 
 i 25i 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 
 23| 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 X24 
 
 2 8 0 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 
 25§ 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 These are the proper sizes when neatly packed with soft meadow hay. One inch, or half an 
 inch more each way may be allowed by the less experienced packer. 
 
53 PACKING OF GLASS. 
 
 The wood for 50 feet boxes to be five-eighth 
 inch at the sides, and three-fourth inch for the ends. 
 For 100 feet boxes three-fourth inch sides, and one 
 inch ends. For 200 feet boxes, one inch wood 
 round and round. 
 
 To find how many squares there are in 100 
 square feet of any given size, 
 
 Multiply 144, number of square inches in a foot, 
 by 100, and divide by the square contents of the 
 pane. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 How many panes in one hundred square feet 
 144 
 100 
 
 Size 22£ X 16 = 360 ) 14400 ( 40 squares in 100 ft. 
 
 14400 22* X 16 
 
GLAZING OF WINDOWS. 
 
 59 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 GLAZING OF WINDOWS. 
 
 In this part of the work, it is meant to be as 
 practical as possible, and we shall therefore, without 
 hesitation, sacrifice niceties of language, and all 
 similar considerations, to brevity and perspicuity. 
 Our great object here, as it has been throughout, is 
 to convey our information in as distinct and intelli- 
 gible a manner as possible. 
 
 Before proceeding to speak of glazing, the order 
 in which its various processes present themselves 
 naturally demands that we should say something of 
 
 PUTTY. 
 
 This important and indispensable article in the 
 glazier's trade, is composed of whiting and linseed 
 oil. Chalk is sometimes used instead of the former, 
 but the expense and labour incurred in preparing it 
 is so much greater, that it can be no object to the 
 glazier to employ it ; for although it is certainly 
 
f$0 GLAZING OF WINDOWS. 
 
 cheaper in the first instance, it will not ultimately 
 be found so. Besides, the glazier will find it 
 almost impossible to free it so completely of the 
 sand and silica, with which it abounds, as to render 
 it fit for making good putty. These will remain in 
 such abundance, as to endanger the safety of the 
 glass in working it in ; neither will the putty work 
 kindly or well. 
 
 Whiting being therefore, in every way, to be 
 preferred, it must be thoroughly dried before the 
 oil is added to it, otherwise the union will not be 
 effected, or at least be very imperfect. 
 
 Figs. 7 and 8, Plate III. represent a kiln for 
 drying and preparing whiting ; and we do not know 
 that any simpler, more economical, or more effective 
 method could be employed. 
 
 This kiln will dry a ton of whiting per day, at a 
 very trifling expense of fuel,* and the kiln itself 
 with all its erections, will probably not cost more 
 than fifty shillings. Every glazier, therefore, whose 
 -business is of any extent, ought to be provided with 
 one of them. 
 
 Fig. 7, Plate III. shews the ground plan of a 
 whiting kiln. The grate room may be twelve by 
 
 * The wood of one empty crate will dry whiting to glaze three 
 18 table crates. 
 
GLAZING OF WINDOWS. (jf 
 
 ten inches, with an ash pit one foot in depth. The 
 flue, as shewn in the plan, branches from the side 
 of the fire place in a circular form, for the purpose 
 of distributing the heat equally on the plate, and 
 discharges itself into the adjoining vent. 
 
 Fig. 8, Plate III. is an elevation of the kiln, 
 about three feet square, on the top of which the 
 cast iron plate, of the same dimensions, and half an 
 inch in thickness, is placed, with raised sides, to 
 keep the whiting from falling over while stirring it 
 occasionally, to prevent its being overheated, or 
 burned ; in which case it will require more oil, and 
 produce less putty. It ought not to be quite cold 
 when wrought into putty ; the oil should be added 
 while the whiting still retains a very slight degree 
 of heat. It will then expand, and consequently 
 saturate a greater quantity of whiting, and with less 
 labour, too, than when cold ; and thus, of course, 
 produce a proportionately greater quantity of putty. 
 
 In cases where the glazier has no such kiln for 
 drying his whiting as that above described, he may 
 produce the desired result on a small scale, by 
 pulverizing newly slacked lime, say in the propor- 
 tion of a piece about the size of an egg, to a hundred 
 weight of whiting, and mixing them together. This 
 method of drying whiting is perfectly effective, and 
 
62 GLAZING OF WINDOWS. 
 
 answers very well where the business is not exten- 
 sive ; but it is a tedious process, and is only adapted 
 for small quantities. 
 
 After the whiting has been thoroughly dried and 
 prepared, it ought to be passed through a very fine 
 sieve, and all the lumps and knots that remain 
 pulverized with a three inch roller on a table ; and 
 then also passed through the sieve. Great care 
 must be taken to keep the whiting free of sand and 
 other extraneous substances ; the former, in particu- 
 lar, is extremely injurious to putty. 
 
 When putty is to be made, put the proper quan- 
 tity of oil into a tub or other open vessel, (the one 
 half of an oil pipe answers extremely well for the 
 purpose,) and gradually add the whiting, at the 
 same time keeping the whole in motion, with a stout 
 stick fashioned like an oar, until it becomes of a 
 sufficient consistency to work by the hand on a 
 board or table. Having been removed thither from 
 the tub, it must be wrought up with dry whiting, 
 until it is converted into a solid compact mass. 
 When brought to this state, it ought to be put into 
 a hollowed stone or mortar, and beat with a wooden 
 mallet till it becomes soft and tenacious, when more 
 whiting must be added, until it has attained a proper 
 consistency. 
 
GLAZING OF WINDOWS. 
 
 It is considered that the putty is improved, if the 
 whiting and oil, after being mixed, are allowed to 
 remain for about twenty hours before being wrought 
 up. After putty has been made, it should be firmly 
 packed in a cask, from which it may be taken from 
 time to time, as it is required. It ought not to be 
 used for ten or twelve days after it is made, when 
 its colour, from having at first been a dull yellow, 
 will have changed to a whitish free stone, which 
 renders it more suitable for most purposes, from its 
 being of a less conspicuous tint. 
 
 After a lapse of six or eight weeks, the putty in 
 the cask will become hard ; but it is easily restored 
 to its original softness, by being beat as before, and 
 it is much improved by this second operation. 
 
 Putty is made in England in large quantities, and 
 is ground in a mill in the same way as white lead ; 
 but this is no improvement, as it is generally over- 
 wrought in this method of preparation, and ren- 
 dered so tough and tenacious, that it does not work 
 well, and is entirely without that degree of pliability 
 which putty ought to possess. 
 
 The glazier, therefore, will himself make a much 
 more workable putty with his mortar and mallet, 
 and fully as cheaply, by employing his apprentices 
 in its manufacture at their leisure hours. 
 
(54 GLAZING OF WINDOWS. 
 
 When putty of a superior degree of fineness, 
 which will dry quickly, is required, add a little 
 sugar of lead, or litharge ; and if an increase of 
 strength be wanted, a little white lead. 
 
 We now proceed to 
 
 GLAZING. 
 
 To glaze well, neatly, and expeditiously, simple 
 as the operation may appear, is an art not to be 
 acquired in a day. On the contrary, several years 
 of practice are necessary, before that degree of 
 proficiency in it, which constitutes an efficient and 
 expert glazier, is acquired. 
 
 When a glazier receives an order to glaze a 
 house, the first thing he must do, of course, is to pro- 
 ceed to measure the work to be done. In doing this, 
 he must take the full size of the panes, that enough 
 may be left for stripping, so as to produce an accu- 
 rate fit into the sashes. This fitting must be 
 performed with great care and nicety, leaving about 
 one thirty-second part of an inch of space on each 
 side and end of the pane, between it and the check. 
 In other words, the pane must fill the space appro- 
 priated for it, to within the thirty-second part of an 
 inch, or thereabouts. 
 
 This space is left to provide for such occurrences 
 
GLAZING OF WINDOWS. (55 
 
 as the wood swelling with moisture, or the building 
 setting, in which cases the panes would be apt to 
 crack. 
 
 When the panes have been fitted into the checks 
 of the sashes in the manner spoken of, they must be 
 removed, and the checks well bedded with beat 
 putty. This done, the panes are again returned to 
 their respective places, and gently pressed or lodged 
 into the bedding, humouring the glass as it were, 
 should it be bent or twisted, and taking care that 
 there is no hard extraneous substance mingled with 
 the putty, which might endanger, if not actually 
 break the glass. 
 
 When a pane is perfectly bedded, it lies quite 
 firm, and does not spring from the putty ; but when, 
 either from a perverse bend or twist in the glass, or 
 any other accidental cause, it happens that it can- 
 not be made to go quite close to the check, the 
 vacant space must be carefully and neatly filled 
 upon the back puttying, otherwise the window will 
 not be impervious to the weather, and w T ill be very 
 apt to fall into decay by the admission of moisture. 
 
 It may not be superfluous to observe here, that 
 the convex, or round side of the pane, where such 
 a shape occurs, should be presented to the outside, 
 and the concave or hollow to the inside. The 
 reasons for recommending this disposition of such 
 
 E 
 
66 GLAZING OF WINDOWS. 
 
 panes are so obvious that they need hardly be 
 enumerated. It may, however, be stated generally, 
 that, when thus placed, they resist the weather 
 better than if the hollow sides were exposed to it. 
 
 After the pane has been bedded, the next process 
 is the outside puttying. This putty should be 
 kept in the fore cheek, about the thirty-second part 
 of an inch below the level of the inside cheek, so as 
 to allow the thin layer of paint which binds these 
 two substances together, to join the putty and glass ; 
 and that it may not offend the eye by being seen 
 from the inside ; and that, when it is painted, the 
 brush may not encroach on any visible part of the 
 pane, leaving those ragged lines or marks which 
 are so often seen from the inside on ill-finished 
 windows, and which are so displeasing to the eye. 
 This operation, and finishing the corners, are two 
 nice points in the art, and therefore, when properly 
 done, discover at once the neat-handed and skilful 
 tradesman. 
 
 It is the opinion of some experienced glaziers, 
 that the inside puttying, which is the next process, 
 ought to be allowed to remain eight days before 
 being finished off, while others, again, say that this 
 should be immediately done. The experience of 
 the writer inclines him to the former opinion. By 
 standing over for some little time, the putty acquires 
 
GLAZING OF WINDOWS. 67 
 
 a hardness which admits of a better and neater 
 finish than when it is in the soft working state, and 
 in this way also, the putty is not liable to shrink. 
 Of course, this is only recommended in cases of 
 extensive jobs. When only a few panes are done, 
 it is better to finish them off at once, than subject 
 the employers to the inconvenience of a second visit 
 from the glazier for so trifling a purpose. 
 
 When the finishing does take place, however, the 
 putty must be cut clean off with the putty knife, 
 and on a level with the style of the astragals. 
 Complete the work by cleaning the glass and. putty 
 with a 000 duster brush, which removes all dust and 
 loose putty from the pane, lightly and effectually. * 
 
 Plate III. Fig. 3, represents a glazier's putty 
 knife ; Fig. 5, a grosing iron, used for grinding or 
 breaking off small corners, &c. when they cannot be 
 easily cut by the diamond. 
 
 * In taking out old glass from windows, the cold putty knife? 
 Fig. 4, Plate III. is used ; but when the putty has been in the 
 windows for ten or twelve years, it becomes nearly as hard as 
 stone, and impenetrable to the knife. In this case there are 
 various means used to extract the glass from the frames. The 
 application of hot iron to the putty is sometimes adopted; but 
 this cannot with safety be applied to the bedding, to which the 
 glass obstinately adheres. Muriatic acid diluted with water is 
 an excellent means of removing putty from glass, its action being 
 
68 
 
 HOT-HOUSE GLAZING. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE GLAZING. 
 
 The frames or sashes of a hot-house ought, before 
 being glazed, to receive two coats of white paint, 
 to which a small portion of red lead has been added 
 to facilitate its drying, and to give increased 
 strength and durability to the paint. 
 
 The panes in the roofs of hot-houses are generally 
 of either of the three forms exhibited in Plate XL 
 Figures 1, 2, and 3. The first is the square pattern, 
 the second is the tapered, the third the semicircular. 
 
 Fig. 1, is the most generally used hitherto, and 
 has a very good effect. 
 
 Fig. 2, is considered an improvement on No. 1, 
 in so far as the tapered point carries off the rain 
 down the centre of the pane, and thereby preserves 
 the astragals ; but there is a loss in shaping the glass 
 to the tapered point. 
 
 assisted by rubbing the putty occasionally with a bit of stick. 
 The most effectual way to remove the glass, when the frames are 
 worthless and the glass valuable, is to put the frames into ahorse 
 dunghill, keeping the whole damp (if the weather is not so) for 
 several weeks, which completely loosens the glass, and rots or 
 destroys the frames. 
 
HOT-HOUSE GLAZING. 59 
 
 Fig*. 3, is decidedly the best pattern of the 
 three — the water is not only drawn to the centre 
 of the pane, and the astragals protected from 
 the rain, but this pattern has a more elegant ap- 
 pearance, when uniformly glazed, than either of 
 the two other shapes. There is no loss in cutting 
 the glass to the curve, and it is therefore not more 
 expensive. 
 
 The dimensions of hot-house panes are generally 
 about six inches, and are made to overlay each 
 other, to an extent regulated by the circumstance 
 of their being puttied at the overlay or not. 
 
 If it is intended to fill in the overlays with putty, 
 they need not be more than a quarter of an inch in 
 depth, but if it is not intended to putty them, they 
 must then be at least five-eighths of an inch. 
 
 The overlays, however, ought always to be 
 puttied, and that for two reasons. First, because 
 it will more certainly secure their being water- 
 tight, and will, in the next place, prevent the 
 breakage to which the panes are liable from the 
 freezing of the water, or moisture, which lodges in 
 the overlay, and which, thereby expanding, instantly 
 shivers the glass in all directions ; when they are 
 filled with putty, such an accident cannot happen. 
 
 In glazing hot-house roofs, it must be observed, 
 
70 HOT-HOUSE GLAZING. 
 
 that the courses ought to run from end to end, and 
 that the smaller panes, when such are used, should 
 be reserved for the top. 
 
 When sashes are glazed, they ought to stand for 
 eight or ten days before taking off the back putty, 
 and they ought not to be painted for about three 
 weeks afterwards, that the putty may consolidate. 
 Great care, too, should be taken, when the sashes 
 are newly glazed, that they be not in any way 
 twisted or bent, as such an accident would almost 
 inevitably start the panes from their beds, and thus 
 render them pervious to water. 
 
 When sashes are of considerable dimensions 
 — say about six feet by three — they should be 
 strengthened by having two iron rods placed across 
 them at equal distances, and screwed to the astragals. 
 This will go far to prevent the accident of twisting, 
 to which such frames are extremely liable, and which 
 is very injurious to them after they have been filled 
 with glass. 
 
 The putty used for glazing hot-houses ought to 
 be of the very best description, as, from the circum- 
 stance of its position, it is necessarily more exposed 
 to the action of the weather, than in the perpendi- 
 cular windows. 
 
 The putty used for filling in the overlays ought 
 
LATTICE, OR LEAD WINDOWS. 7 J 
 
 to be of a black, or lead colour, which, every glazier 
 knows, is imparted to the putty by working lamp 
 black into it ; but as this substance has the effect of 
 weakening the putty, the defect may be remedied 
 by adding two pounds of white lead, ground in oil, 
 to each stone of putty, and in a similar proportion to 
 smaller or greater quantities. Indeed, all putty 
 used in glazing hot-houses ought to have a portion 
 of white lead mixed with it, as it adds greatly to its 
 strength. 
 
 LATTICE, OR LEAD WINDOWS. 
 
 This antique and singularly beautiful style of 
 glazing has unaccountably fallen much into disuse, 
 although in late years it certainly has undergone 
 something like a resuscitation, in consequence of a 
 revival of the public taste for stained glass, and a 
 growing predilection for Gothic architecture in 
 churches, cottages, &c. For these, and for stair- 
 case windows, and, indeed, all windows similarly 
 situated, as in halls, lobbies, or the like, it is pecu- 
 liarly adapted. 
 
 It may be proper to premise, that lead windows 
 require stained or coloured glass for producing their 
 
7*2 LATTICE, OR LEAD WINDOWS. 
 
 fullest and best effects, and it was with stained 
 glass only that they were originally constructed ; 
 but very neat and elegant windows are executed 
 in this style with plain glass, where variety and 
 beauty of figure are made to compensate for the 
 absence of colour. It is thought that the glazier 
 would find it for his advantage to turn more of his 
 attention to this very elegant branch of his art, than 
 he has hitherto done. 
 
 Lead windows may be made to any pattern, and 
 in this there is great scope for the display of a 
 correct taste. In the time of Elizabeth, this branch 
 of the glazier's art w r as carried to great excellence, 
 especially by one Walter Gedde, who was employed 
 in glazing most of the royal and public buildings of 
 that period. This person executed in this style 
 some windows of transcendent beauty, displaying 
 an endless variety of the most elegant and elaborate 
 figures. 
 
 The most useful and most common description of 
 plain glass lead windows, however, are those of the 
 diamond or lozenge shape ; but, as already said, they 
 may be made to any pattern desired. Annexed are 
 various specimens of windows done in this style, 
 including that to which we have just now more 
 particularly alluded. 
 
LATTICE, OR LEAD WINDOWS. 73 
 
 Plate XII. is the east window of St Giles' 
 Church, Edinburgh. * 
 
 Plate XIII. is a very simple pattern, easily cut, 
 and forming a neat, cheap, and durable window for 
 a staircase, if the diamond panes were stained, and 
 the remainder frosted glass. 
 
 Plate XIV. is more ornamental; and although 
 apparently more elaborate, the glass is easily cut, 
 by forming the pattern as directed in a following 
 part of this article. This window has a beautiful 
 effect by introducing stained glass into the long 
 skittle shaped pieces, and in the rosette in the centre. 
 
 Plate VIII. Fig. 2, is well calculated for the 
 bull's-eye of a large Gothic window, or a circular 
 light, in any style of architecture. It has a beauti- 
 ful effect in colours, particularly if a handsome 
 rosette is inserted in the centre. 
 
 Plate VIII. Fig. 3, called St Catherine's Wheel, 
 is a good common pattern, and looks well, if the 
 stained glass is properly contrasted. Both this and 
 the last, when divided in the centre, make good 
 fan-lights. 
 
 * The whole of this splendid Gothic edifice was reconstructed 
 by William Burn, Esq. architect, Edinburgh, in 1832. This 
 window is wrought in the diamond or lozenge shape, which is in 
 most general use at present. 
 
74 LATTICE, OR LEAD WINDOWS. 
 
 Plate XV. Fig. 1. The leading of the flat arch, 
 introduced here, is a better method of leading a 
 window in common glass, than the usual diamond 
 shaped pieces. The small quarries should be filled 
 with stained glass, and thus a very neat window 
 will be formed. 
 
 Plate XV. Fig. 2, is a fan-light, which, if 
 properly varied with stained glass, will have a 
 beautiful effect, either in Grecian or Gothic archi- 
 tecture. 
 
 Plate XVI. is divided into large compartments, 
 but not too large to be held together by leading. 
 This pattern will look very well even in plain glass, 
 but will have a beautiful effect when the small 
 squares are filled with handsome stained glass rosettes 
 — the other part of the window frosted, or, perhaps, 
 stained glass, and the centre of the diamond shape. 
 
 Plate XVII. The architecture of this w r indow 
 is from Oxford Cathedral, which the writer has 
 filled in with stained glass in the Gothic style. 
 
 We have here instanced a few of Walter Gedde's 
 simple patterns. As before observed, an endless 
 variety of figures and shapes might be introduced, 
 and many examples of leading in ancient windows, 
 which are still in existence, might be given. We 
 would recommend to the reader's notice the leading 
 
LATTICE, OR LEAD WINDOWS. 75 
 
 of the windows in York Minster, particularly those 
 in the vestibule and chapter house. There are also 
 beautiful examples of leading in the windows of 
 Christ Church, and New College, Oxford ; as well 
 as of stained glass, executed by Jervaise, from the 
 designs of Sir Joshua Reynolds. 
 
 The lead work can also be adapted with equal 
 ease to any pattern that may be chosen for the 
 glass ; and it can likewise be made to any breadth, 
 from one-eighth to five-eighths of an inch. The 
 one-eighth, however, is only used for fancy work, 
 and is not, as yet, much in demand ; that which is 
 most generally used, is three-eighth lead. This 
 width makes neater and better work than that of 
 any other dimensions. 
 
 The glazier who would include this branch of his 
 art in his business, would do well to provide himself 
 with the necessary tools and apparatus for casting 
 the lead, and act as his own plumber as well as 
 glazier ; all the knowledge of the former art which 
 he would require, being very easily attained. He 
 may purchase prepared leading for windows in any 
 quantity ; but he will produce it himself at half the 
 cost, and probably more to his own satisfaction. The 
 apparatus and tools necessary for doing this, are, a 
 
76 LATTICE, OR LEAD WINDOWS. 
 
 glazier's vice, or lead mill, moulds for casting the 
 lead into slender bars or rods of about eighteen 
 inches in length, which is the first process ; a three- 
 fourth inch chisel ; a hard wood fillet for forcing 
 the glass into the grooves in the lead frame work; 
 and an opener or wedge tool, made also of hard 
 wood, or ebony, for laying open the grooves for the 
 reception of the glass; two copper bolts for soldering, 
 the end formed like an egg. Annexed are correct 
 drawings of the vice or mill alluded to, in describing 
 which, in its various connected parts, the same 
 letters of reference are adapted to the different 
 figures, so far as necessary, which, with, the isome- 
 trical views, will facilitate the comprehension of 
 their parts and properties. 
 
 Plate XVIII. Fig. I. An end view, partly open, 
 of a mould for casting three varieties of patterns, 
 which are thus prepared for being forced through 
 the machine. By an ingenious construction of the 
 handle, it is made to lock and unlock by inclined 
 planes, acting on studs, a a. Fig. II. A side view, 
 also partly open; and Fig. III. an isometrical view 
 of the mould prepared for pouring in the metal. 
 
 The metal, or cast, being removed from the 
 mould, a pair of the dies, (one only of each pair is 
 
LATTICE, OR LEAD WINDOWS. 77 
 
 represented,) according to the pattern required, 
 Figs. 4, 5, 6, 7, are placed in the machine, as 
 seen at cc, Fig. 8, isometrical view. After they 
 are put in, a thin iron cover, (6. Fig. 10) with an 
 oblong hole in the middle, is put on, to guide the 
 metal into the rollers. Figs. 9, 10, and 11, repre- 
 sent three views of the machine as prepared for 
 operating. In Figs. 9 and 11, the metal, dd, is 
 represented passing through the machine, which is 
 accomplished by turning the winch handle, exacting 
 on two equal sized toothed wheels, ff. On the 
 axles of these are two rollers, g slightly serrated, 
 (dotted through in Fig. 8 and 10;) these rollers 
 draw the metal through, while the dies give the 
 desired form. To allow 7 the axles and rollers to be 
 placed in the frame, or body of the machine, A, the 
 cover, A, is removed by unscrewing the bolt i, Figs. 
 8, 10, 11. The toothed wheels ff^ are also taken 
 off, by unscrewing the nuts k k. The tempering 
 screw bolt /, is for adjusting the dies, after they are 
 put in their place. The screw bolts, m m, are for 
 fixing the machine to a table or bench. 
 
 Fig. 12, is an isometrical view of the cover h 
 removed, to shew the ports n through which the 
 axles of the rollers pass. 
 
78 LATTICE, OR LEAD WINDOWS. 
 
 Fig. 13 shews the shape of the bolt used for sol- 
 dering the lead windows, and Fig. 14, the opener 
 already described. 
 
 The lead intended to be employed in window 
 making, must be soft, and of the very best quality ; 
 and preat care must be taken to have the moulds 
 properly tempered, otherwise the lead will not be 
 equally diffused in them, and the castings conse- 
 quently not perfectly solid throughout, as they 
 ought to be. 
 
 If this is not attended to, that is, if the castings 
 are not perfectly solid, they will come out of the 
 mill, to which they are presented, after being taken 
 from the moulds, all fretted on the edges, and thus 
 in a state totally unfit for the purpose for which they 
 were intended. 
 
 The castings are, as already noticed, usually 
 about eighteen inches in length, and are afterwards 
 extended by the mill represented by the figure 
 above, to the length of five or six feet. 
 
 It may not be unnecessary to add, that the mill 
 not only extends the lead, and reduces it at the 
 pleasure of the operator, to the dimensions required, 
 but at the same time forms the grooves into which 
 the edge of the glass is afterwards introduced in 
 forming the window. 
 
LATTICE, OR LEAD WINDOWS. 79 
 
 When the lead has been prepared in the manner 
 described, the glazier ought to proceed to cut out 
 the panes wanted. For this operation he must 
 prepare, by drawing the shapes and sizes of the 
 panes on a board, (and it is here understood that 
 the intelligent glazier is capable of drawing geome- 
 trical figures correctly, when such are required,) 
 and to these he must conform in cutting. 
 
 We will, however, perhaps be better understood, 
 when we say that he must first outline the full 
 dimensions of the window, and then line it off to the 
 pattern required, shaping the panes accordingly. If 
 the window is of a large size, this may of course be 
 done by compartments to be afterwards united, and 
 thus be more conveniently wrought. Great accuracy 
 must be observed in cutting the panes, or a very 
 irregular panel will be produced ; as those lines 
 that ought to be parallel or otherwise, will not be 
 correctly so, which will greatly injure the appear- 
 ance of the work. 
 
 When all the glass has been cut for the window, 
 the next thing to be done, is to open the grooves in 
 the lead with the opener or wedge tool. The panes 
 are then, in order that they may be water tight, fas- 
 tened very firmly into the grooves with the wooden 
 fillet already spoken of, (which may be fixed on the 
 
80 LATTICE, OR LEAD WINDOWS. 
 
 handle of the chisel or cutting tool,) securing the 
 parallel lines of lead in their proper places on the 
 board, when the window is of the diamond shape, by 
 a small nail at either end, until the course is finished, 
 when the work is permanently fastened by running 
 a small quantity of solder gently over the two con- 
 necting pieces of lead at each joint, or angular 
 point. When the window has been completed, it 
 should be removed from the working board to a flat 
 table, where it must be covered with a thick layer 
 of cement, composed of white lead, lamp black, red 
 lead, litharge, and boiled linseed oil, with a half- 
 worn paint brush, and the composition carefully 
 rubbed into every joint. This will render the win- 
 dow completely impervious to the weather, as the 
 cement, if properly laid on, will fill every chink, 
 where it will soon become as hard and durable as 
 any other of the materials of which the window is 
 composed. When this operation has been com- 
 pleted, clean the window with a cloth and whiting. 
 Should the outside be wanted black, omit the black- 
 ing in the first compost; and finish by laying on the 
 lamp black with a polishing brush. 
 
 The window, on being fitted into the frame, that 
 is, on being set in its place in the building for which 
 
 it is intended, ought to be supported with three- 
 
 4 
 
LATTICE, OH LEAD WINDOWS. Q\ 
 
 eighth inch iron rods, extending three-eighths of an 
 inch beyond the breadth of the frame on each side, 
 running across it at the distance of from twelve to 
 fourteen inches from each other, and secured to the 
 lead frame-work at intervals with copper wire or 
 lead bands manufactured by the mill. These rods, 
 for obvious reasons, ought to be so arranged as to 
 intersect the window exactly at the terminating 
 point of a row of the diamonds. For instance, if 
 the diamonds are each six inches in length or 
 height, the first rod ought to intersect the window 
 at the top of the third row, or eighteen inches from 
 the bottom of the frame, and so on, until the 
 window be equally divided in this way throughout 
 its whole length. If the diamond, again, be only 
 three inches in length, then the first rod ought to 
 pass at the top of the fourth row, or twelve inches 
 from the bottom, this proportion of distance being, 
 of course, maintained throughout. The usual 
 distance is fourteen inches, but this must be regu- 
 lated by the breadth of the window between the 
 mullions. If the mullions are of stone, the grooves 
 in which the window is set, ought to be filled up 
 with Roman cement, or mastic. If of wood, with 
 oil putty. 
 
 Such is, in brief, the process of constructing lead 
 
 F 
 
82 LATTICE, OR LEAD WINDOWS. 
 
 or lattice windows, and it is surprising that so little 
 glazing is now done in this way. Whatever may 
 have been the cause of its falling into desuetude, it 
 is almost impossible to conceive that taste should 
 have rejected an ornament at once so beautiful, and 
 so happily combined with utility. 
 
 All who have seen specimens of ancient windows 
 of this description, especially those filled with stained 
 glass — and they can be as well executed at the 
 present day as at any former period— must have 
 felt the highest admiration of their singular beauty, 
 elegance, and splendour. Even drawings of such 
 windows as we allude to, forcibly impress us with a 
 sense of their peculiar fitness for conspicuous situa- 
 tions, where imposing and striking effect is desired. 
 
 For churches they are peculiarly appropriate, 
 being admirably calculated, from the solemn splen- 
 dour of their character, to attune the feelings to the 
 solemnities of devotion ; and it is really singular that 
 they are not oftener employed in this way, in cases 
 where the character of the building would admit 
 of it. 
 
 But it is not to churches alone that their suitable- 
 ness is confined. They might be employed in 
 many ways, either coloured or plain, with great 
 effect, in embellishing private houses, since they 
 
LATTICE, OR LEAD WINDOWS. 33 
 
 form not only a highly ornamental, but a most 
 durable and economical window. They require no 
 paint, nor any of that care which is necessary to 
 protect windows, whose frames are of wood, from 
 premature decay, and have, therefore, more than 
 mere elegance and beauty to recommend them. 
 
84 
 
 THE CUTTING DIAMOND. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE CUTTING DIAMOND. 
 
 Under this head, we mean to confine ourselves 
 chiefly to a few historical and traditional notices of 
 the diamond, and these wholly with reference to its 
 adaptation to the purposes of the crown window 
 glass cutter, adding a few practical remarks, partly 
 the results of our own experience, and partly of that 
 of others. 
 
 Before proceeding to say when diamonds were 
 first used for cutting glass, it may not be amiss to 
 state when the art of cutting diamonds themselves 
 was first discovered. The ancients were ignorant 
 of the art of cutting the diamond, and hence they 
 used it in its natural granular or crystallized state. 
 Though probably known to the artists of Hindostan 
 and China at a very early period, it was unknown to 
 the Europeans during the middle ages ; for the four 
 large diamonds which ornament the clasp of the 
 
THE CUTTING DIAMOND. Q5 
 
 imperial mantle of Charlemagne, which is still pre- 
 served at Paris, are uncut octoedrical crystals. 
 
 In 1456, Robert de Berghen, a native of Bruges, 
 in the Austrian Netherlands, discovered that a 
 diamond might be cut and polished by a powder 
 made from itself, with the aid of certain iron wheels. 
 Hence the well known adage of " diamond cut 
 diamond." 
 
 The earliest mention of the diamond being used 
 for writing on glass occurs in the sixteenth century, 
 when the following lines, which may be considered 
 as the first application of the diamond to this pur- 
 pose, were written by Francis the First of France 
 with his diamond ring on one of the panes of glass 
 in the Castle of Champfort. The king's purpose 
 in writing them was to intimate to Anne de Pisseleu, 
 Duchess of Estampes, that he was jealous of her : 
 
 Souvent femme varie, 
 Mai habit qui s' y fie. 
 
 Woman is changeful as summer's sky, 
 'Tis folly to trust her constancy. 
 
 This new mode of recording ideas was then 
 thought exceedingly ingenious, and the merit of 
 having discovered a new property in the diamond 
 was awarded to his majesty. After this, but still 
 
86 THE CUTTING DIAMOND. 
 
 before it came into the hands of the glazier, the 
 diamond was successfully employed in etching or 
 engraving figures on glass vessels, and some very 
 beautiful specimens of this novel art were produced 
 at Venice as early as 1562; so that little time had 
 been lost in applying the discovery of the French 
 king to useful purposes. 
 
 The first noted professional engraver on glass 
 with the diamond, of whom any thing is known, 
 was George Schwanhard. In later times, John 
 Rost, an artist of Augsburg, obtained great celebrity 
 in this art. Two drinking glasses, curiously and 
 elegantly ornamented by this artist, with his 
 diamond pencil, were purchased by Charles VI. 
 The art of cutting glass with a wheel, a method 
 applicable to crystal only, was invented, in the 
 beginning of the seventeenth century, by Caspar 
 Lehmann, lapidary and glasscutter to the Emperor 
 Rodolphus II. 
 
 A knowledge of the diamond, however, either for 
 use or ornament, is not at all of remote antiquity, 
 if we except a very few instances where it was 
 employed, but very inefficiently, for the latter pur- 
 pose. This is accounted for by the circumstance of 
 its requiring to be cut and polished before it exhibits 
 any degree of that shining quality which so pre- 
 
THE CUTTING DIAMOND. Q7 
 
 eminently distinguishes it from all other minerals. 
 
 Until, therefore, the art of cutting it was discovered, 
 
 and that is not much more than three hundred years 
 
 since, very little use could be made of it ; as, in its 
 
 original rough state, it is in no way attractive, being 
 
 without lustre or beauty of colour. The ancients, 
 
 therefore, though they might be perfectly aware of 
 
 the existence of the diamond — and it is certain they 
 
 were, for mention is made of it in their writings — 
 
 must have been almost entirely ignorant of its 
 
 properties, at least we find no mention of them. 
 
 In the rare instances in which it was used by them 
 
 as an ornament, it was invariably of that description 
 
 of form which presents what is called a natural 
 
 point. This is a piece which has several natural 
 
 sides or faces, and, being transparent, is thus an 
 
 improvement on the ruder masses in which it is 
 
 generally found. It is, in short, an approximation 
 
 to artificial cutting; but the diamond is, even in 
 
 this state, without lustre, and otherwise not at all 
 
 remarkable. It is not, indeed, a century since the 
 
 full value of this precious mineral was ascertained, 
 
 and all its extraordinary properties discovered and 
 
 developed. Before its introduction as an agent in 
 
 cutting glass, that operation was performed by 
 
 means of emery, sharp pointed instruments of the 
 
 4 
 
THE CUTTING DIAMOND. 
 
 hardest steel, and sometimes red-hot iron. These 
 were the only contrivances known and practised by 
 the ancient glaziers. 
 
 In considering the diamond in its relations to the 
 purposes of the window-glass cutter, there occur some 
 circumstances not unworthy of remark. Amongst 
 these, it may be noticed, that the cutting point of 
 the diamond must be a natural one ; an artificial 
 point, however perfectly formed, will only scratch 
 the glass, not cut it. The diamond of a ring, for 
 instance, will not cut a pane, but merely mark it 
 with rough superficial lines, which penetrate but a 
 very little way inwards. Artificial points, corners, 
 or angles, therefore, produced by cutting the 
 diamond are adapted only for writing or for drawing 
 figures on glass, and such were those used by 
 Schwanhard, Rost, and the other artists who orna- 
 mented glass vessels in the manner before alluded 
 to. The cutting diamond does not write so well 
 on glass, from the circumstance of its being apt to 
 enter too deeply, and take too firm a hold of the 
 surface, and thus become intractable. It may farther 
 be noticed, that an accidental point, produced by 
 fracturing the diamond, is as unfit for cutting as an 
 artificial one. Such a point will also merely scratch 
 the glass. No point, in short, that is not given by 
 
THE CUTTING DIAMOND. Q9 
 
 the natural formation of the mineral, will answer 
 the purposes of the window-glass cutter. 
 
 The large sparks, as the diamonds used for cutting 
 glass are called, are generally preferred to the small 
 ones, from the circumstance of their being likely to 
 possess, although this is by no means invariably the 
 case, a number of cutting points ; while the very 
 small sparks, for obvious reasons, are- not always 
 found to possess more than one. Thus, if the point 
 of the latter is worn, or broken off, although the 
 spark be turned, and reset in its socket, it will still 
 be without the power of cutting, and consequently 
 useless, while the former, on undergoing the same 
 operation, will present a new and effective point. 
 
 The large sparks are called mother sparks, and 
 are sometimes cut down into as many smaller frag- 
 ments bearing the same name, as there are natural 
 points in the former. Each of these, therefore, can 
 have only one cutting point, and are consequently 
 only proportionably valuable to the glazier, since 
 they cannot be restored by resetting. 
 
 SETTING DIAMONDS. 
 
 This is a process with which every glazier ought 
 to be acquainted ; nor is it an art of difficult acquire- 
 
90 THE CUTTING DIAMOND. 
 
 ment; like every thing else, it requires some 
 practice, and a little patience, but these are the 
 only really formidable requisites it presents. 
 
 The first thing to be done is, of course, to select 
 a stone, which must be chosen as clear and pellucid 
 as possible, resembling a drop of water, and of an 
 octoedrical shape, or as near to that form as possible. 
 
 Having procured such a stone, let the workman 
 next proceed to ascertain which is its cutting point, 
 or, if it has more than one, which is the best. This 
 will be found to be that point which has the cutting 
 edges of the crystal placed exactly at right angles 
 to each other, and passing precisely through a point 
 of intersection made by the crossing of the edges. 
 (See Plate XIX, and explanations.) 
 
 The next thing to be done is, to provide a piece 
 of copper or brass wire, a quarter of an inch in 
 diameter. In one of the ends of the wire, a hole 
 must be drilled large enough to contain three- 
 fourths of the diamond to be set, which being 
 temporarily secured, the setter again proceeds to 
 ascertain the cutting point, by trying it on a piece of 
 glass; and when he has discovered it, he must mark 
 its position by making a slight notch in the wire 
 with a file or otherwise, exactly opposite to the 
 cutting point, as a guide to him in his operations, 
 
THE CUTTING DIAMOND. 91 
 
 when he comes to fix it permanently in the socket 
 head of the handle. When doing this, care must 
 be taken to keep it exactly parallel with the inclined 
 plane of the socket head. 
 
 The cutting point having been ascertained, and 
 the diamond fixed into its place, the wire is then 
 cut off about a quarter of an inch below the diamond, 
 and filed down to fit exactly into the aperture in the 
 socket head into which it must be soldered. Let 
 the rough or superfluous metal around the stone be 
 removed with a file, and finished by polishing it 
 with emery or sand paper. Such is the most 
 approved method of setting new diamonds, and it 
 applies equally to the resetting of old ones. But in 
 the latter case, the first process, that of detaching 
 the stone from its bed, is accomplished either by 
 means of a knife, or by applying the blow-pipe. 
 
 It may not be altogether superfluous to add, that 
 from the extremely diminutive size of the stone, 
 it is very apt to be lost during the operation of 
 setting ; great care must therefore be taken to guard 
 against this accident. Those who are much in the 
 practice of setting diamonds, are provided with a 
 small table covered with green cloth, and surrounded 
 with a raised edging to catch the sparks, should 
 they happen to fall ; but for temporary purposes, 
 
92 THE CUTTING DIAMOND. 
 
 the glass-cutter will readily fall on some expedient 
 to secure him against an accident of this kind. 
 
 We now proceed to the explanation of the 
 figures alluded to in another part of the article. See 
 Plate XIX. 
 
 The annexed figures of a diamond drawn upon a 
 large scale, are pointed agreeably to the above con- 
 ditions ; fig. 1 being a side and end elevation, and 
 fig. 2, the plan of it. A B represent the leading 
 curved part of the cutting edge of the diamond ; and 
 D, the line of intersection, crossing the line A B 
 at right angles : E, being the following part of the 
 cutting edge. 
 
 The general figure of the stone is farther indicated 
 in all the figures by dotted lines. Its position in a 
 hole formed in the metal block in which it is first 
 adjusted, and afterwards secured as before described, 
 is likewise shewn. 
 
 Figure 3 is a side, figure 4 a front, and figure 5 
 an end view of a glazier's patent diamond, mounted 
 with a swivel adjustment, for the block F, when 
 connected with the handle G, by means of the 
 screw H entering into a gap filed half way through, 
 and across the metal stem I. By this means, the 
 cut of the diamond is much easier obtained, than 
 when the diamond is mounted fixedly into the stem 
 or pencil diamond. 
 
THE CUTTING DIAMOND. 
 
 93 
 
 LUKEN'S IMPROVED BEAM COMPASS FOR 
 CUTTING CIRCLES. 
 
 This will be found a very convenient, though 
 simple instrument, for cutting circles. Plate XIX. 
 Fig. 6, is a perspective view or elevation of such 
 parts of this useful instrument, as are necessary for 
 understanding its construction, of their real size. 
 O O is part of a square bar of brass, ten inches 
 long, and graduated into half inches as radii, and 
 answering to inches of the diameters of the circles, 
 to be drawn with the instrument, and these half 
 inches are again sub-divided into parts, and regu- 
 larly numbered. Upon this bar the sliding centre, 
 P, moves, and can be secured at any required 
 situation by its binding screw Q. R is a cylindri- 
 cal part fixed firmly upon an end of the bar ; and 
 having a conical hole made through it in a vertical 
 direction, to receive the tapering socket of a glazier's 
 cutting diamond, S, within it, and which can be 
 retained in a proper direction, when the cut of the 
 diamond is found by trial, by the binding screw T. 
 U is a brass wire firmly fixed into the cylinder R, 
 having its foot, V, rounded, and turned up at its 
 end. This foot is carried evenly along, in contact 
 with the surface of the glass to be cut, and regulates 
 
94 THE CUTTING DIAMOND. 
 
 the inclination of the diamond, as must be likewise 
 found by trial, and bending the wire U more or less 
 until the proper degree is ascertained. The other, 
 or opposite side of the bar, O O, is terminated by a 
 brass ball affixed upon it, and the point, P, of the 
 sliding centre is supported by, and turns in a small 
 conical hole made in a plate of metal, the back of 
 which is coated with a thin layer of bee's wax, which, 
 upon being pressed into contact with the surface of 
 the glass to be cut, readily adheres to it, with a 
 degree of firmness quite sufficient for the purpose. 
 
 The art of managing the diamond in glass-cutting, 
 so as to produce effective results, can only be 
 attained by considerable experience. The diamond 
 must be held in a particular position, and with a 
 particular inclination, otherwise it will not cut, and 
 the slightest deviation from either renders an attempt 
 to do so abortive. In the hands of an inexperienced 
 person, it merely scratches the glass, leaving a long 
 rough furrow, but no fissure. The glazier judges by 
 his ear of the cut made. When the cut is a clean 
 and effective one, the diamond produces, in the act 
 of being drawn along, a sharp, keen, and equal 
 sound. When the cut is not a good one, this sound 
 is harsh, grating, and irregular. On perceiving 
 this, the operator alters the inclination and position 
 
THE CUTTING DIAMOND. 95 
 
 of his diamond, until the proper sound is emitted, 
 when he proceeds with his cut. 
 
 Although the diamond cuts glass of an ordinary 
 thickness with facility, it does not so easily cut that 
 which is of more than a medium thickness. In such 
 cases, the desired division is effected by the appli- 
 cation of a hot iron, which being brought in contact 
 with the glass at certain points, produces a fissure 
 in the direction required. 
 
 The diamonds employed in glass-cutting, are of 
 the description known by the technical name of 
 bort, a classification which includes all such pieces 
 as are too small to be cut, or are of a bad colour, 
 and consequently unfit for ornamental purposes. 
 These are accordingly selected from the better sort, 
 and sold separately, at an inferior price. 
 
 The properties of the diamond for cutting hard 
 substances — for it is employed by seal engravers, 
 and by engravers on copper and steel, as well as by 
 glass-cutters — are very singular, and form, perhaps, 
 the most remarkable feature of this remarkable 
 mineral. The lines which it cuts on glass, in par- 
 ticular, when performed with a natural point, are 
 found, even when examined by the microscope, to 
 be exceedingly clear, smooth, and regular, and 
 presenting such finely burnished surfaces, that, 
 when a number of them are drawn close together, 
 
96 THE CUTTING DIAMOND. 
 
 they decompose the rays of light, and exhibit the 
 most beautiful prismatic appearances. In this there 
 is a remarkable difference between the cuts of a 
 natural and artificial point; for, while the former 
 produces the effects described, the cuts made by the 
 latter, when examined by the microscope, present 
 exceedingly ragged edges, as if the glass was 
 splintered into minute fragments alongst the whole 
 line of the fissure. It may be added, also, that so 
 delicate are the lines produced by the diamond, 
 that two thousand of them have been drawn within 
 the space of one inch, on plates of polished steel, 
 which it cuts as readily as glass. It is therefore 
 peculiarly adapted for forming the minute sub- 
 divisions on micrometers, and other nice pieces of 
 mechanism, for which it is often employed. Yet 
 with the knowledge of all these facts, and a daily 
 experience of all these effects, it is not certainly 
 known how the diamond acts upon the glass. We 
 know very well that it produces a cut, but, in the 
 language of Dr Woolaston, the conditions on which 
 the effect depends have not yet been duly inves- 
 tigated. 
 
 Though there are many substances that will 
 scratch glass, the diamond was thought to be the 
 only one that would cut it ; but some experiments 
 of Dr Woolaston have shewn that this is not strictly 
 
THE CUTTING DIAMOND. 97 
 
 correct. That eminent philosopher gave to pieces 
 of sapphire, ruby, spinel ruby, rock crystal, and 
 some other substances, that peculiar curvilinear 
 edge which forms the cutting point in the diamond, 
 and in which, and in its hardness, its singular 
 property of cutting entirely lies, and with these 
 succeeded in cutting glass with a perfectly clear 
 fissure. They lasted, however, but for a very short 
 time, soon losing their edge, although prepared at a 
 great expense of labour and care ; while the diamond 
 comes ready formed from the hand of Nature, and 
 will last for many years. 
 
 Diamonds are found only in the East Indies, and 
 in Brazil in South America. They are met with 
 only in the provinces of Golconda, Visapour, 
 Bengal, and the island of Borneo. In Clour, in 
 Golconda, there were, at one period, no less than 
 sixty thousand persons, men, women, and children, 
 employed in collecting them. The finest diamonds 
 are those that resemble a drop of pure water. 
 
 Although the history of the diamond is exceed- 
 ingly curious and interesting, and a great deal has 
 been written regarding it, we conceive that every 
 thing has now been said which could, with any 
 propriety, be introduced into a work of this nature. 
 
 G 
 
98 
 
 STAINED AND 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 STAINED AND PAINTED GLASS. 
 
 The invention of the art of colouring glass — 
 that is, imbuing it throughout with any particular 
 tint — seems to be nearly coeval with the discovery 
 of the art of making the substance itself. Egyptian 
 ornaments, and Druidical beads, of the highest 
 antiquity, as already noticed in the historical depart- 
 ment of this work, are found, of many and sur- 
 passingly beautiful colours ; but the art of staining 
 and painting glass, so as to form pictorial represen- 
 tations of objects, is of comparatively recent date, 
 although the precise period of its introduction is 
 unknown. It is certain, however, that it has existed 
 for many centuries, but in different stages of excel- 
 lence, and, like every other art, has been gradually 
 advancing in improvement. A pretty general, but 
 very erroneous, idea exists, with regard to the 
 superiority of the colours employed in ancient glass 
 
PAINTED GLASS. 99 
 
 painting over those in use at the present day. It is 
 believed by many, and taken for granted by others, 
 that not only is the brilliancy of the former unat- 
 tainable by modern skill, but that the art of producing 
 them is itself entirely lost. This is a very mistaken 
 notion, for not only are the colours now employed 
 as brilliant and durable as those of the ancients, but 
 others have been added, which they most probably 
 did not know how to produce, or at least did not 
 use. Amongst these are pink, straw colour, and 
 other compound tints. That indiscriminating vene- 
 ration for every thing ancient, which has so often, 
 so unjustly, and so seriously interfered with the 
 claims of modern merit to the encouragement to 
 which it is justly entitled, has operated against 
 glass painting and staining with perhaps fully more 
 force than against any other art. It has induced a 
 belief, that excellence in the art is confined to the 
 ancients — that nothing can be now done to equal 
 their triumphs in it — and that all the productions 
 of the modern glass stainer and painter are mere 
 flimsy imitations of those of the artists of the four- 
 teenth and fifteenth centuries. Than this there 
 never was any notion more unjust or more absurd ; 
 and the writer feels assured, that nothing farther 
 is necessary to convince any one of that injustice 
 
100 STAINED AND 
 
 and absurdity, than a visit to the warehouse or 
 workshop of any respectable glass painter and 
 stainer of the present day. 
 
 But glass painting and staining labours under 
 other, and perhaps greater, disadvantages than that 
 of being reckoned a decayed art. Some of these 
 are inherent in itself, others are contingent, and 
 others are the result of prejudice, or spring from a 
 deficiency of due encouragement. Not the least of 
 these disadvantages is the circumstance of its being 
 considered a luxury of too presumptuous a character, 
 and of too expensive a nature, to be employed in 
 the embellishment of the houses of persons of 
 moderate income. This is the result of impressions 
 derived from the uses to which painted and stained 
 glass was of old exclusively applied, — the adornment 
 of stupendous cathedrals, magnificent palaces, and 
 baronial mansions — a circumstance which has had 
 the effect of associating it with ideas of gorgeous 
 splendour and vast expense — ideas which are yet in 
 full operation, although the exciting cause has long 
 since disappeared. Most people, as already 
 remarked, are under an impression that painted or 
 stained glass is much too expensive, and too fine a 
 thing for them to think of indulging in as an article 
 of luxury, and they are at no pains to correct the 
 
PAINTED GLASS. \Q\ 
 
 error, either by reflection or inquiry. Were they to 
 make proper investigation, they would find that 
 modern improvement has brought this elegant 
 ornament within the reach of very moderate cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 It may be remarked, too, as something singular, 
 that while almost every other art has been called on 
 to contribute in some way or other to our domestic 
 comforts, or to the adornment of our dwellings, that 
 of glass painting and staining, though its produc- 
 tions are not more expensive than some of these, 
 and are certainly not inferior in elegance to many of 
 them, should yet be but rarely applied to domestic 
 purposes, where it could be employed with such 
 delightful effect. When stained glass has been 
 used in the embellishment of the mansions of the 
 middling, or even of the upper classes, it has been 
 hitherto in a great measure confined to hall and 
 staircase windows, and to windows placed in similar 
 situations, but its use might be much extended, 
 with great advantage in point of ornamental effect. 
 
 If the windows, for instance, of a drawing-room, 
 were filled with stained glass, whose prevailing tints 
 should harmonize with the predominating colour in 
 the apartment, an effect would be produced at once 
 
J02 STAINED AND 
 
 novel, striking, and singularly pleasing.* Where 
 the expense, or any other objection, might be urged 
 against figured glass, in which masses of brilliant 
 colour are employed, that description which is plain, 
 and of one tint, — such as brown, ruby, pale yellow, 
 &c. — might be substituted; and, if selected with 
 reference to the prevailing colour of the interior, 
 with the view of either heightening or deepening its 
 complexion, a delightful warmth and richness of tint 
 would be thrown around the apartment, such as no 
 other contrivance of art can communicate. And 
 where both of these descriptions of coloured glass 
 might be found unsuitable — a circumstance for 
 which, it is apprehended, there could be only two 
 reasons, namely, the expense, or the too great exclu- 
 sion of light — there* is still a third description of 
 ornamental glass, which might be employed, and 
 which is free from both of these objections. This is a 
 pale tracery, resembling lacework, which, when 
 
 * In connection with this part of the subject, the author has 
 much pleasure in recommending to the reader a very excellent 
 Treatise upon the Harmony of Colours by Mr Hay, painter, 
 Edinburgh. The work is replete with acute observation, and 
 displays all that exquisite taste, sound judgment, and skill, for 
 which Mr Hay is distinguished in his profession. 
 
PAINTED GLASS. \QQ 
 
 properly executed, is exceedingly beautiful, and 
 imparts to a room an appearance of singular light- 
 ness and elegance. 
 
 It would not, perhaps, be altogether accurate to 
 say, that a want of taste is the cause of the neglect 
 with which glass painting has been treated, and of 
 the very little demand that there is for it ; neither 
 do we think that it does entirely proceed from this 
 cause. It is one of those things of which it would 
 be, probably, more correct to say, that it has rather 
 been overlooked than neglected, and that, therefore, 
 little more is wanting than to call the public attention 
 to it, to procure for it a share of that popularity and 
 encouragement, which some more fortunate, but 
 certainly not more deserving arts enjoy. 
 
 Except in the name, painting on glass has no 
 resemblance to any other department of the pictorial 
 art but that of porcelain. Both the colours, and 
 the process of their application throughout, are 
 entirely different. While animal and vegetable 
 substances are freely used as colouring matter in 
 every other department of the art, they are wholly 
 excluded in that of glass painting, where all the 
 pigments used are subjected, after being laid on, to 
 the operation of fire, to make them penetrate the 
 
104 STAINED AND 
 
 body of the glass, or become fused on its surface — 
 a process which would wholly destroy the colouring 
 properties of such substances. All the colours 
 employed in glass painting and staining are oxides 
 of metals or minerals, as gold, silver, cobalt, which 
 not only stand the fire, but require the powerful 
 interference of that agent to bring out their bril- 
 liancy and transparency. Some colours, with the 
 application of heat, penetrate the body of the 
 glass, and, from this circumstance, are called 
 stains; while others, being mixed with a vitreous 
 substance called flux, become fused or vitrified on 
 the surface. The former produces a variety of 
 colours, and all of them are perfectly transparent. 
 The produce of the latter are only semi-transpa- 
 rent, but they may be made to yield any colour or 
 tint required. 
 
 In preparing these colours, the most important 
 point to be attended to is, to have all those that are 
 to be used at the same time of an equal degree of 
 softness. To attain this, those that are hard, and 
 require a great degree of heat to make them effec- 
 tive, must be fixed first ; leaving the soft colours, 
 for which a slight heat only is necessary, to the 
 last. If used promiscuously, and without regard to 
 
PAINTED GLASS. 105 
 
 this precaution, some of the colours would be ren- 
 dered too fluid, while others would be insufficiently 
 fused, and the work in consequence spoiled. 
 
 It is likewise of great importance to make a 
 proper selection of glass for the purposes of staining 
 and painting, as one kind will assimilate more freely 
 with one colour than with another. The description 
 of glass generally chosen for painting or staining is 
 the best crown glass. 
 
 It is not thought advisable to enter at greater 
 length here into the details of the process of glass 
 painting and staining; because, in the first place, 
 this work is intended, by the author, for the use of 
 the glass-cutter and glazier chiefly, to whom such 
 information is unnecessary, and which, therefore, 
 were it introduced here, would swell the volume to 
 too great a size. In the next place, all such details 
 would be nearly useless for any practical purpose, 
 there being scarcely a possibility of either commu- 
 nicating or acquiring such a knowledge of the art 
 of glass painting or staining as would enable any 
 person to practise it successfully. Nothing but 
 personal observation and long experience can do 
 so. And thus it is, that all the printed directions 
 and instructions for the prosecution of the art, of 
 
IQ(5 STAINED GLASS. 
 
 which there is no lack, are found to be almost wholly- 
 useless when attempts are made to act upon them. 
 In short, to those who have no knowledge of the 
 art, no written instructions could be of any avail ; 
 and to those who have, the writer has nothing new 
 regarding it to communicate. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 107 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 Under this title we propose to throw together 
 such desultory remarks, and odd pieces of information, 
 as could not well be incorporated with any preceding 
 part of this work, and which have been thought not 
 unworthy of some place in a book compiled for the 
 use of the glass-cutter and glazier. As these remarks 
 and stray fragments of information, however, can 
 neither be classified, nor reduced to any kind of 
 regular order, they shall just be set down as they 
 present themselves, without any attempt to give 
 them the consistency of a narrative. 
 
 We begin with one of the most important and 
 prominent considerations connected with the glass 
 trade, — the window tax; and as we think every 
 glazier should know upon what principle it pro- 
 ceeds, we subjoin the scheme according to which it 
 is at present levied, remarking, that it was reduced 
 about one-half in 1823. 
 
108 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 DUTIES ON WINDOWS. 
 
 Number 
 of Win- 
 dows. 
 
 Duty per 
 
 House 
 per Year. 
 
 Number 
 of Win- 
 dows. 
 
 Duty per 
 
 House 
 per Year. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 
 Windows. 
 
 Duty per 
 
 House 
 per Year. 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 Windows. 
 
 Duty per 
 per Year, 
 
 
 L. 
 
 s. 
 
 A 
 
 
 L. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 
 L. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 8 0 
 
 
 35 
 
 11 
 
 17 3 
 
 80 
 
 to 84 24 6 6 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 16 6 
 
 
 36 
 
 12 
 
 5 9 
 
 85 
 
 89 25 9 0 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 4 9 
 
 
 37 
 
 12 
 
 14 3 
 
 90 
 
 94 26 11 3 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 13 3 
 
 
 38 
 
 13 
 
 2 6 
 
 95 
 
 99 27 13 9 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 1 9 
 
 
 39 
 
 13 
 
 11 0 
 
 100 
 
 109 29 7 6 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 10 0 
 
 40 to 44 
 
 14 
 
 7 9 
 
 110 
 
 11931 12 3 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 18 6 
 
 45 
 
 49 
 
 15 
 
 15 9 120 
 
 129 33 17 3 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 7 0 
 
 50 
 
 54 
 
 17 
 
 4 0 
 
 130 
 
 139 36 2 0 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 15 3 
 
 55 
 
 59 
 
 18 
 
 12 0 
 
 140 
 
 149 38 7 0 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 3 9 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 19 
 
 16 9 
 
 150 
 
 159 40 11 9 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 12 3 
 
 65 
 
 69 
 
 20 
 
 19 3 
 
 160 
 
 169|42 16 9 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 33 
 
 J 1 
 
 0 6 
 
 70 
 
 74 
 
 22 
 
 1 6 
 
 170 
 
 179 
 
 45 1 6 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 11 
 
 9 0 
 
 75 
 
 79,23 
 
 4 0 
 
 180 
 
 
 46 10 3 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Above 180, Is. 6d. each, in addition to £46, 10s. 3d. 
 
 Exemptions. — Farm houses occupied by a tenant at a rack-rent less 
 than £200 per year, or in any dwelling house, being a farm house, 
 occupied and used as aforesaid by the owner, or by any tenant of a farm 
 or estate not at rack-rent, the value of which shall be under £100 
 a-year, provided he does not derive an income exceeding £100 a-year 
 from any other source ; hospitals, charity-schcols, and poor-houses, 
 (excepting the apartments for officers or servants;) places for divine 
 worship ; dairies and cheese-rooms, if " Dairy and Cheese-room" is 
 over the door. Three windows in the shop or warehouse, if on the 
 basement story. The windows of a room used solely for a manufac- 
 tory, if not communicating with the dwelling-house. 
 
 All windows, of whatever description and wherever 
 situated in a house, whether garrets, cellars, or 
 staircases, and even those in outhouses, with the 
 above exemptions, fall under this tax. Whenever 
 the division or partition of a window amounts to or 
 exceeds twelve inches in breadth, both sides are 
 charged as two separate and distinct windows, and 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. 1 09 
 
 if a window, measuring the outer aperture, exceeds 
 twelve feet in height, and four feet nine inches in 
 breadth, it is charged as two windows. But the 
 whole watchful ingenuity of the spirit of taxation 
 seems to have been reserved for the following 
 clause: — "That every window so contrived, or 
 so situated, as to light more apartments, or other 
 interior spaces, than one, shall be charged as so 
 many distinct windows." Thus one window may 
 be charged at the rate of a dozen, if it shall appear 
 that it affords light to so many chambers, staircases, 
 or recesses, — the purposes which it serves being 
 taxed rather than the window itself. 
 
 The principle on which the window tax is levied, 
 laying aside any consideration of its propriety, 
 expediency, or equity, is not perhaps very faulty, 
 but its operation will be found of a different cha- 
 racter. The lower rates are too high, and the 
 higher too low, or rather the scale descends farther 
 down than it ought to do. The whole bearing of the 
 tax is evidently directed, or meant to be directed, 
 against the wealthy, or at least against those who 
 are in comparatively easy circumstances ; but this 
 principle cannot be recognized in the tax, when it 
 affects such low numbers as eight, nine, ten, or 
 even eleven and twelve windows. Besides, its 
 
} 1 0 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 progressive rise is not proportioned to what may be 
 supposed to be the circumstances of the different 
 individuals exposed to its operation. The person 
 who occupies a house, or rather palace, of one hun- 
 dred and eighty windows, pays only about twenty 
 times more in the shape of window duty than he 
 who occupies a moderate mansion of twelve; and 
 is thus, in all probability, taxed only to the extent 
 of about one-hundredth part of his income, while 
 the latter,' w T ith a similar probability, pays at least 
 one-fortieth. 
 
 But the greatest error which the tax involves, is 
 that of its having the effect of lessening, in place of 
 adding to the revenue. This may seem paradoxical, 
 but it is true. It is the creating of one source of 
 revenue at the expense of another, by taking from 
 that other exactly the amount which it produces. 
 This is proved by the simple circumstance of its 
 limiting the manufacture of glass, on which a high 
 duty is paid by the manufacturer, since it is plain, 
 that if windows were not taxed, there would be 
 more of them, and, as a matter of course, a greater 
 consumption of glass. This effect of the window 
 tax upon the revenue arising from glass, as paid by 
 the manufacturer, is made sufficiently evident by 
 the fact, that, for the three years ending 1828, the 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. \ \ \ 
 
 increase in the home consumption of window glass, 
 over that of the three years ending with 1791, was 
 only two per cent, although the number of build- 
 ings in many towns and cities in Great Britain has, 
 in that time, been in some cases nearly, and in others 
 more than doubled, as appears from the increase on 
 bricks and tiles during the same period, an increase 
 amounting to ninety per cent. 
 
 But the evils of the window tax are not yet 
 exhausted. It is in the last degree prejudicial to a 
 valuable branch of the national trade, — the glass 
 trade, and, of consequence, to all the various 
 interests connected with it, some of which are of 
 vital importance to the state itself, particularly that 
 of shipping, and the manufacture of kelp, the latter 
 of which involves not only the comfort, but the very 
 existence of thousands of the indigent inhabitants 
 of the Orkneys, and Western Isles, and main land 
 of Scotland. 
 
 The window tax has the most prejudicial effects 
 on our domestic architecture. One of these has 
 been the introduction of a mode of building, by 
 which the size and number of windows have been 
 diminished, at the expense of taste, symmetry, 
 elegance, comfort, and even health. Surely a tax, 
 which is attended with such prejudicial conse- 
 
1 12 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 quences as this, ought to be abolished, the more 
 especially when it is considered, that such abolition 
 would not be followed by any diminution of 
 revenue, since, as has been already shewn, a pro- 
 portional increase would undoubtedly take place in 
 the duties levied on the manufacturers. 
 
 It will not have escaped the reader, amongst 
 other considerations which this discussion will have 
 suggested, that glass is more unfortunately situated 
 than any other subject of taxation, inasmuch as it is 
 not once taxed, like other things, but twice, — first 
 as glass, and again as a window. 
 
 How this unoffending and most useful article 
 should have provoked such an extraordinary mea- 
 sure of persecution, we believe no one can explain. 
 Considering the present state of our national 
 finances, we do not pretend to assert, that the duty 
 on window glass should be taken off ; but the 
 window tax, for reasons already named, ought in 
 justice to be abolished. It is so apt to be consi- 
 dered under the obnoxious aspect of being a tax 
 on the light of heaven, and the vital air, that it 
 were well if some adequate, and less generally 
 objectionable substitute for it could be discovered 
 by the legislature. As it is, it must be allowed to 
 be one of the best specimens of the art of imposing 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. ] J3 
 
 taxes, which even this land, so celebrated for its 
 taxation, can exhibit. 
 
 DUTIES, DRAWBACKS, &c. 
 The first duties granted on glass, were imposed 
 by Statute 6 and 7, of William III. These duties 
 were ordained by a subsequent Act to be perma- 
 nent, but were afterwards taken off. By Statute 19, 
 Geo. II. c. 12, an excise duty is laid upon glass 
 of 8d. per lb. upon all crown, plate, and flint glass 
 imported. Other and higher duties were imposed 
 by subsequent Acts. The duty now levied on 
 crown glass, is 73s. 6d. per cwt. A drawback to 
 the same amount is allowed on crown glass in tables 
 or half tables, exported from Great Britain and 
 Ireland ; and on crown glass cut into panes, none 
 less than 6x4 inches, 98s. per cwt. except in the 
 cases of exportation to the isle of Wight, Jersey, 
 Guernsey, Alderney, and Man, when the drawback 
 is 73s. 6d. per cwt. on tables or half tables, and 
 no drawback on panes. No drawback is allowed 
 upon yolks or bullions, when exported. It may be 
 worth while to remark, that though a greater allow- 
 ance is made upon squares than sheets, when 
 exported, there is little advantage in cutting up 
 glass for a foreign market, since the bullion and 
 
 H 
 
1 14 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 waste in cutting, on which no drawback is allowed 
 in any case, is just about equal to the difference. 
 
 Crown-glass must be entered and shipped within 
 twelve months after being packed and sealed ; but 
 the commissioners of excise may permit glass to be 
 repacked, provided the invoice duty has been paid 
 on the article within the last three years. 
 
 To those who import their glass coast-ways, it 
 may be of some consequence to know, that a barrel 
 bulk, the standard by which the freight of port dues 
 of crates, and almost all other things brought by sea 
 is charged, is five cubic feet, and that a twelve 
 table crate is about three barrel bulk. Let the 
 purchaser look to this, when settling his freight 
 accounts. 
 
 The duties levied on crown glass and foreign 
 timber, are returned to the heritors or builders of 
 churches, belonging to the establishments in Eng- 
 land, Scotland, and Ireland. The form for obtaining 
 this drawback of duty on crown glass, is to get the 
 measurements of the glass used, attested by the 
 excise officer and supervisor of the district. The 
 heritors also give attestation as to the purposes to 
 which the glass has been applied ; and the manu- 
 facturer of the glass attaches his affidavit of having* 
 paid the duty. This document is forwarded to the 
 
MISCELLANEOUS. \ \ 5 
 
 Board of Excise, London, who transmit orders to 
 the collector of the district for payment, at the rate 
 of 73s. 6d. per cwt. 
 
 In our account of the manufacture, we omitted 
 to mention, that the use of kelp in the manufacture 
 of glass, is now generally declining. Of late, the 
 improvements in the manufacture of carbonate of 
 soda have been very great, while it has also fallen 
 considerably in price. Instead, therefore, of using 
 such an impure alkali as kelp with sand, pure 
 carbonate of soda with sand and lime are now 
 employed. These materials produce glass of as 
 good a colour as plate, besides possessing many 
 other advantages over the old ingredients. The 
 preparation of the carbonate of soda for this pur- 
 pose, is carried on within their own premises, by 
 some of the most extensive manufacturers. 
 
116 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF GLASS. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 MEASUREMENT OF GLASS. 
 
 To shew the contents of any given number of panes 
 would occupy a volume of itself. The following 
 instructions and Tables, are all that are necessary 
 for the glazier's use : 
 
 No. I. shews the contents of panes from 10 in. X 7 in. to 
 28 in. x 20 in., increasing by 1 inch each way. 
 
 in. in. in. in. 
 
 II. . . 10^X7 to 28^x20 
 
 III. . . . 1<Hx7| to 28ix20£ 
 
 IV. . . 10| x 7 to 281x20 
 V. . . J 0lx7| to 28^x201 
 
 VI. . . 10fx7 to28fx20 
 
 VII. . . . 10|x7| to 28|x20| 
 
 VIII. . . 4 x3 to 9|x 6| 
 
 To find the contents of any given square, — say 
 24| inches x 14 inches. 
 
 In page 120, Table No. II. look for the lengtli 
 24£, and on the angular line for the width 14 ; in 
 the same column, and opposite to 24|, you have 28 
 
MEASUREMENT OF GLASS. jjy 
 
 inches and three parts, or 339 square inches =z 2 sq. 
 ft. 51 sq. in. — Contents of the square of glass, 24£ 
 in.x 14 in. 
 
 Fractional parts of an inch for rinding the contents 
 in square measure. 
 
 pis. or 2ds. 3ds. 
 
 ^ inch 
 
 
 r 
 
 6'" 
 
 i do. 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 do. 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 h do. 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 1 do. 
 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 | do. 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 i do. 
 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 12 fourths 
 
 
 1 third. 
 
 
 12 thirds 
 
 
 1 part or se 
 
 12 seconds 
 
 
 1 inch. 
 
 
 12 inches 
 
 
 1 foot. 
 
 
 RULE. 
 
 To find the contents of a pane of glass. 
 
 I. Place feet under feet, inches under inches, 
 seconds under seconds, &c. 
 
 II. Multiply each denomination of the length by 
 the feet of the breadth, beginning at the lowest, and 
 place each product directly under the corresponding 
 denomination from which it arises, and carry one 
 for every 12. 
 
118 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF GLASS. 
 
 III. Multiply by the inches, and set each product 
 one place farther to the right hand, then multiply by 
 the parts or seconds, and set each product another 
 place farther toward the right hand. 
 
 IV. Proceed in the same manner with all the rest 
 
 of the denominations, namely, 3ds, 4ths, &c, and 
 
 their sum will be the contents. 
 
 NOTE. 
 Feet X by feet give feet. 
 Feet X by inches give inches. 
 Feet x by seconds give seconds or parts, 
 Inches x by inches give seconds. 
 Inches x by seconds give thirds. 
 Inches x by thirds give fourths. 
 Seconds X by seconds give fourths. 
 Seconds x by thirds give fifths. 
 Seconds x by fourths give sixths. 
 Thirds X by thirds give sixths. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 pts. 
 
 3ds. 
 
 4ths. 
 
 5ths. 
 
 £x 
 
 * 
 
 = 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 fx 
 
 t 
 
 = 0 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 fx 
 
 f 
 
 = 0 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 fx 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 = 0 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Ex. 1st. 14£ in. x 12£ in. 2d. 14f in. X 12§ in. 
 
 ft. in. 2ds. 3ds. ft. in. pts. 3ds. 
 
 12 16 12 4 6 
 
 10 16 10 4 6 
 
 12 16 12 4 6 
 
 1 2 1 6 4 9 6 
 
 7 0 9 7 2 3 
 
 1 2 3 3 2 3 
 
 I 2 9 10 8 3 
 
MEASUREMENT OF GLASS. 
 
 119 
 
 3d. 14£ in. X 12£ in. 
 
 ft. in. 2ds. 3ds. 
 
 1 2 3 
 1 0 3 
 
 1 2 3 
 
 3 6 0 
 
 4th. U^in.x 12^ in. 
 
 ft. in. pts. 3ds. 
 
 1 2 6 
 1 0 6 
 
 1 2 6 
 
 7 3 
 
 1 2 6 6 9 
 
 13 13 
 
 5th. 14| in. x 13| in. 
 
 ft. in. pts. 3ds. 
 
 12 7 6 
 117 6 
 
 12 7 6 
 
 12 7 6 
 
 8 6 4 6 
 
 7 3 9 
 
 1 4 7 3 2 3 
 
 6th. 14f in. X 13f in. 
 
 in. pts. 
 
 2 9 
 1 9 
 
 1 2 9 
 
 1 2 9 
 
 11 0 9 
 
 1 4 10 9 9 
 
 7th. 14| in. x 13§ in. 
 
 ft. in. 2ds. 3ds. 
 
 1 2 10 6 
 1 1 10 6 
 
 1 2 10 6 
 
 1 2 10 6 
 
 10 4 9 
 
 7 5 3 
 
 1 5 2 4 8 3 
 
 Note. — The feet in the product are square feet, and the inches 
 are twelfth parts of a square foot, or each of them is equal to 
 twelve square inches, and the parts are square inches. The lower 
 denominations are generally expressed in fractions of a square inch ; 
 thus, 4 parts are ^ of a square inch, 10 parts are ^ &c. 
 
 The following Tables are expressed in Duodecimal Inches and 
 Parts ; and may, if necessary, be easily converted into square 
 inches, by multiplying the inches by 12, and adding the parts to 
 the product. „ ■ /. ; , , ■ % 1 , 
 
120 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF GLASS. 
 
 INCHES BROAD. 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 5.10 
 
 6.5 
 
 7.0 
 
 7.7 
 
 82 
 
 8.9 
 
 9.4 
 
 9.11 
 
 10.6 
 
 8 I 9 
 
 10 
 
 6.8 1 7.6 
 7.4 | 8.3 
 8.0 9.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 10.8 
 
 11.4 
 
 12.0 
 
 8.4 
 
 9.2 
 
 10.0 
 
 8.8 9.9 
 
 9.4 ilO.6 
 
 11.3 
 12.0 
 12.9 
 
 isuT 
 
 10.1011.11 
 
 11.8 
 
 12.6 
 
 13 4 
 
 14.2 
 
 15.0 
 
 11 
 
 10.1 
 
 11.0 
 
 12.10 
 
 13.9 
 
 14.8 
 
 12 
 
 12.0 
 
 13 0 
 
 14.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 16.0 
 
 15.7 
 
 16.6 
 
 17.5 
 
 18.4 
 
 19.3 
 
 20.2 
 
 21.1 
 
 22.0 
 
 22.11 
 
 17.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 13 
 
 14.1 
 
 15.2 
 
 16.3 
 
 17.4 
 
 18 5 
 
 19 6 
 
 19.0 20.7 
 
 21.0 
 
 22.2 
 
 20.0 21.8 
 
 21.0 22.9 
 
 22.0 23.10 25.8 
 
 23.0 24.11 
 
 24.0 26.0 
 
 23.10 26.0 
 
 24.9 
 
 25.; 
 
 25.0 27 1 
 
 28.2 
 
 27.0 29.3 
 
 28.0 30.4 
 
 14 
 
 16.4 
 
 17.6 
 
 18.8 
 
 1.4 
 
 24.6 
 
 28.0 
 
 29.2 
 
 30.4 
 
 32.8 
 
 15 
 
 189 
 
 16 
 
 20.0 21.4 
 
 19.10 21.3 22.8 24.1 
 22^2470 25^6 
 23.9:2574 26Tl 
 25.0 26.8 2874 
 26.3:28.0 
 
 27.6 29.4 31.2 
 
 26.10 28.9 30.8 32.7 
 
 30.0 32.0 34.0 
 
 31.3 33.4 35.5 
 
 35.0 37.4 39.8 
 
 17 
 
 27.0 
 
 30.0 31.8 
 
 29 9 
 
 31.6 33.3 
 
 32.6 34.8 36.10 39.0 41.2 
 
 33.9 36.0 38.3 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 28.6 30.1 
 
 33.0 34.10 36.8 
 34.6 36.5 3871 
 
 36.0 38 0 
 
 37.6 39.7 
 
 40.6 42.9 
 
 42.0 44.4 
 
 20 
 
 33.4 
 35.0 
 
 40.0 
 
 41.8 
 43.4 
 457o 
 46.8 
 
 No. I. From 10 in.X7 in. to 28 in. by 20 in. 
 
 INCHES BROAD. 
 
 In 
 
 u 
 
 13} 
 15} 
 
 16} 
 
 in 
 
 20} 
 
 2H 
 
 22} 
 
 23} 
 
 24} 
 
 25} 
 26} 
 27} 
 
 28} 
 
 5.11 
 
 6.6 
 
 7.1 
 
 7.8 
 
 8.3 
 
 8.10 
 
 9.5 
 
 10.0 
 
 18} 10.7 
 19} 
 
 11.2 
 
 11.9 
 
 6.10 
 
 7.6 
 
 8.2 
 
 8.10 
 
 9.6 
 
 10.2 
 
 10.10 12.2 
 
 11.6 
 
 12.2 
 
 7.8 
 
 8.5 
 
 9.2 
 
 10.3 
 
 9.11 
 
 10.8 
 
 11.5 
 
 12.11 
 
 13.8 
 
 12.1014.5 
 
 13.6 
 
 15.2 
 
 77 
 
 10 
 
 9.4 
 
 11.0 
 
 11 
 
 i. p. 12 
 
 10.3 i. p. 
 
 11.2 
 12.1 
 
 12.3 
 
 13.2 
 
 11.10 
 
 12.8 
 
 13.6 
 
 14.4 
 
 15.2 
 
 16.0 
 
 13.0 | 14.3 
 
 13.11 15.3 
 
 14.1016.3 
 
 15.9 
 
 16.8 
 
 17.7 
 
 17 3 
 
 18.3 
 
 16.10 
 
 20.4 
 
 21.3 
 
 18.6 
 
 19.6 
 
 21.3 23.0 
 
 22.3 24.1 
 
 23.3 25.2 
 
 22.2 
 
 23.1 
 
 24.0 
 
 24.11 
 
 25.102.S.3 
 
 13 
 
 14.4 
 
 15.5 
 
 14 
 
 16.7 
 
 16.6 17.9 
 
 17.7 
 18.8 
 
 18.11 
 
 19.9 
 
 20.1 
 21.3 
 
 19.3 20.10 22.5 
 
 20.3 21.11 
 
 23.7 
 
 24.9 
 
 25.11 
 
 27.1 
 
 24.3 26.3 
 
 27.4 
 
 25.J 
 
 26.3 28 -5 
 
 27.3 29.6 
 
 SO. 7 
 
 28.3 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 19.0 
 
 20.3I21.9 
 
 17 
 
 - !- 
 
 I. P. 
 
 21.6,23.0 24.5 
 
 22.9 24.4 25.10 27.4 
 24.025.827.3 
 
 28.10 30.5 
 
 25.3127.0^8.0 
 26.6|28.4 | 30.1 
 
 30.4 
 
 31.10 33.7 
 
 27.9 , 29.8 , 31.6 
 29.0; 3l7o | 32.11 
 30.3 : 32.4 , 34.4 
 29.5 '3).6[33.8: 35.9 
 gQ 7 32.9 35J0 37.2 
 31.9 34.0 36.6 38.7 
 
 3%U 
 
 35.3 37.8 40.0 
 
 18 
 
 33.4 
 
 34.10 36.9 
 
 36.4 
 
 39.4 
 
 41.0 
 
 40.10 43.1 
 
 42.4 
 
 19 
 
 1. p. 
 
 32.0 
 
 35.2 
 
 38.4 
 
 37.10 39.11 
 
 44.8 
 
 20 
 1. p. 
 3379 
 35.5 
 3777 
 38.9 
 40.5 
 
 42.1 
 43.9 
 45.5 
 47.1 
 
 No. II. Fiou. lOf ia.X 7 in to 28| in.x20 in. 
 
MEASUREMENT OF GLASS. 
 
 121 
 
 INCHES BROAD. 
 
 IN 
 
 I04 
 
 in 
 
 254 
 
 14 
 
 154 
 
 m 
 
 in 
 
 m 
 
 n 1 8* 
 
 i. p. 1 1. p. 
 
 6.2 7.0 
 
 6.9 , 
 7.4 
 8.0 ," 
 
 8.7;' 
 
 7.8 
 
 8.5 
 9.1 
 
 9.9 
 
 9.2 10.6 
 
 9.9 11.2 
 
 10.5 
 
 lEo 
 
 11.9 
 
 12.6 
 
 11.7 13.2 
 
 204 12.2 13.11 
 21 
 
 224 
 234 
 24J 
 254 
 264 
 274 
 28J 
 
 94 
 
 7.10 
 
 8.8 
 
 9.5 
 
 10.2 
 
 10.11 
 
 11.9 
 
 12.6 
 
 13.3 
 
 14.0 
 
 14,10 
 
 15.7 
 
 104 
 
 8.9 
 
 9.7 
 
 10.5 
 
 11.3 
 
 12.2 
 13.0 
 
 13.10 
 
 14.8 
 
 15.7 
 
 16.5 
 
 17.3 
 
 lit 
 I. p. 
 
 10.6 
 
 11.5 
 
 12.5 
 
 13.4 
 
 14.3 
 
 15.2 
 
 16.2 
 
 17.1 
 
 18.0 
 
 20.10 
 
 21.8 
 
 22.9 
 
 23.8 
 
 24.7 
 
 25.6 
 
 26.5 
 
 m 
 
 i. p. 
 
 134 
 
 12.6 
 
 13.6 14.7 1 i. p. I 15\ 
 
 14.6 15.8 116.11! i. p. 
 
 15.6 16.10 18.1 jl9.4 
 
 16.7 17.11 19.3 j20.8 
 
 17.7 19.0 20.5 121.11 
 
 22.0 
 
 23?4 
 
 18.7 20.1 21.8 |23.2 
 19.7 21^" 22.10 24.5 
 
 18.1120.8 22.4 24.0 125.8 
 
 19.1121.8 23.5 25.2 |27.0 
 
 22.8 24.6 26.5 |28.3 
 
 23.8 25.8 27.7 !29.7 
 
 24.9 26.9 |28.9 |30.9 
 
 25.9 27.1029.1132.1 
 
 26.9 28^131.2 \33A_ 
 27^9~ 30.ri32.4 I84T7 
 
 28.10 31.2 133.5 |35.10 38.3 
 
 164 
 
 24.8 
 
 26.1 
 
 i7.5 
 
 28.9 
 30.1 
 
 31.5 
 
 34.2 
 
 35.6 
 
 36.10 39.2 
 
 184 
 
 24.9 
 
 26.3 
 
 27.9 
 
 27.8 
 29.1 
 
 i29.3 
 
 30.9 
 80.6 !32.3 
 
 194 
 
 1. p. ! 204 
 
 80.10 : 1. p. 
 
 32.6 1 34.2 
 
 34.1 35.10 
 
 31.11 33.10 35.8 137.6 
 
 -I- 
 
 33.5 |35.4 37.3 39.2 
 
 32.10 34.10 86.10 38.10 40.11 
 36.3 | 38.4 40.6 ; 42.7 
 ~ 89.11 42.1 | 44.3 
 41.5 I 43.8 1 45.11 
 42.11 455" 47.8 
 
 37.8 
 
 40.7 
 
 No. III. From 10£ in.x7£ in., to 28^ in.x20£ in. 
 
 INCHES BROAD. 
 
 No. IV. From 10| in.X7 in. to 28J in.x20 in. 
 
122 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF GLASS. 
 
 INCHES BROAD. 
 
 
 74 
 
 84 
 
 94 
 
 104 
 
 
 IN. 
 
 1. p. 
 
 1. p. 
 
 I. p. 
 
 1. p. 
 
 Hi 
 
 
 104 
 
 6.6 
 
 7.5 
 
 8.3 
 
 9.2 
 
 1. p. ! 124 
 
 Hi 
 
 7.2 
 
 8.1 
 
 9.1 
 
 10.0 
 
 11.0 1. p. 
 
 13£ 
 
 
 12i 
 
 7.9 
 
 8.10 
 
 9.10 
 
 10.11 
 
 11.11 13.0 
 12.11 14.0 
 13.10 15.1 
 
 1. p. 
 
 144 
 
 
 134 
 
 85 
 
 9.6 
 
 10.8 
 
 11.9 
 
 15.2 
 
 1. p. 
 
 154 
 
 
 I4i 
 
 9.0 
 
 10.3 
 10.11 
 
 11.5 
 12.3 
 
 12.8 
 
 16.3 
 
 17.6 
 
 1. p. 
 
 164 
 
 
 154 
 
 9.8 
 
 13.6 
 
 14.10 16.1 
 
 15.9 1 IT .2 
 
 17.5 
 
 18.8 
 
 20.0 
 
 1. p. 
 
 174 
 
 
 16* 
 
 10.3 
 
 11.8 
 
 13.0 
 
 14.5 
 
 18.6 
 
 19.1lj21.3 
 
 22.8 
 
 1. p. 
 
 184 
 
 
 
 10. 11 
 
 12.4 
 
 13. 10 
 
 15.3 
 
 16.9 [18.2 
 
 19.8 
 
 21.1 [22.7 
 
 24.0 
 
 25.6 
 
 1. p. 
 
 194 
 
 184 
 
 11.6 
 
 13.1 
 
 14.7 
 
 16. 2 
 
 17.8 19.3 
 
 20 9 
 
 22.4 23.10 
 
 25.5 
 
 26.11 
 
 28.6 
 
 1. P 
 
 204 
 
 194 
 
 12.2 
 
 13.9 
 
 15.5 
 
 17.0 
 
 18.8 20 3 
 
 21.11 
 
 23.6 
 24.9 
 
 25.2 
 
 26.9 
 
 28.5 
 
 30.0 
 
 31.8 
 
 1. p. 
 
 204 
 
 12.9 
 
 14.6 
 
 162 
 
 17.11 
 
 19.7 21.4 
 20.7 |22.4 
 
 23.0 
 
 2o.5 
 
 28 2 
 
 29.10 
 
 31.7 
 
 33.3 
 
 85.0 
 
 214 
 
 
 
 
 
 24.2 
 
 25.11 27.9 
 
 29.6 
 
 81.4 
 
 33*1 
 
 34.11 
 
 36.8 
 
 224 
 
 
 
 
 
 21.6 23 5 
 
 25.3 
 
 27.2 29.0 
 
 30.11 
 
 32.9 
 
 34.8 
 
 36.6 
 
 38.5 
 
 234 
 
 
 
 
 
 22.6 124.5 
 23.5 125.6 
 
 265 
 27.6 
 
 28.4 80.4 
 
 32.3 
 
 34.3 
 
 36.2 
 
 38.2 
 
 40.1 
 
 244 
 
 
 
 
 
 29.7 31.7 
 
 33.8 
 
 85.8 
 
 37.9 
 
 39.9 
 
 41.10 
 
 254 
 
 
 . . ! . . 
 
 
 24.5 26.6 
 
 28.8 30.9 32.11 
 
 85.0 
 
 37.2 
 
 39.3 
 
 41 .5 
 
 43.6 
 
 264 
 
 
 
 25.4 27.7 
 
 29.9 32 0 34.2 
 
 36.5 
 
 38.7 
 
 40.10 
 
 43.0 
 
 45.3 
 
 274 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 26 4 : 28 7 
 
 30.11 33.2 35.6 
 
 37.9 
 
 40.1 
 
 42.4 
 
 44.8 
 
 46.11 
 
 284 
 
 
 
 
 27.3 29.8 
 
 32.0 34.5 36.9 
 
 39.2 
 
 41.6 
 
 43.11 
 
 46.3 
 
 48.8 
 
 No. V. From 10J in.x74 in. to 28| in.X^OJ in. 
 
 I 7 
 
 lOf 
 
 111 
 
 12| 
 
 13§ 
 14| 
 
 154 
 
 16| 
 
 17^ 
 
 lgj 
 J9| 
 20^ 
 
 6.3 
 
 6VL0 
 775 
 
 8.0 
 
 8.7 
 
 9.2 
 
 9.9 
 
 10.4 
 
 10.11 
 
 11.6 
 
 12.1 
 
 21| 
 
 22| 
 23f 
 24| 
 25# 
 26| 
 27-| 
 28| 
 
 7.2 
 
 7.10 
 
 8.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 9.10 
 
 ]0.< 
 
 112 
 
 11.10 
 
 12.6 
 
 13.2 
 
 1310 
 
 1. p. 
 
 ao_ 
 
 8^ 
 
 9.6 
 10.3 
 11.0 
 1T9 
 
 INCHES BROAD. 
 
 12.6 
 
 raff 
 
 14.0 
 14.9 
 15.6 
 
 10 
 
 811 
 
 9 9 
 
 10.7 
 
 11.5 
 
 12.3 
 
 13.1 
 
 1 3.11 
 149" 
 
 15.7 
 
 16.5 
 
 17.3 
 
 11 
 
 
 I. p. 
 
 12 
 
 10.9 
 
 1. p. 
 
 11.8 
 
 12.9 
 
 12.7 
 
 13.9 
 
 13. (T 
 
 14.9 
 
 14.5 
 
 1579 
 
 15.4 
 
 16.9 
 
 16.3 17.9 
 
 17.2 
 18.T 
 
 18 9 
 1979 
 
 13 
 
 1. p. I 14 
 U.ioj i7pTI J^5 
 1 
 
 p. 
 
 16 
 
 15.11 17.2 
 
 17.0 18.4 119.8 k p. 
 
 18.1 19.6 20.1122.4 
 
 19.2 20.8 22.2 23.825.1 
 
 20.3 121.1023.5 |25.026.6 
 
 21 4"!23 0 24.1126.427.11 
 
 17 
 
 19.0 20.9 22.5 24.2 25.11 27.829.4 
 l9TTl 2179 23.6 25T27.2 29^03079" 
 
 31 132.10 34.7 
 
 32?7 3475" 367s 
 
 20.10 22.9 24.7 1 26.6 28 5 80.432.2 
 21.9 23~9 25.8 ;2 7.8 2^ 81783377" 
 22 7 24.926.9 &. 1030. 1 1 33^035^" 
 
 23.7 25.9 27.10 ^0.0 32.2 34.436.5 
 
 246~ 2&9 287n 31.2 8375~ 357837. 10 4( 
 
 25.5 27 9 30~O~l32.4 34.8 3775 3973^ 
 
 26.4 28.9 SlT 837(5 35 1 1 38 4 408" 
 
 18 
 
 28.1 
 
 29.7 
 
 34.1 
 
 48.1 
 
 19 
 
 31.3 
 
 20 
 
 36.0 
 
 85.7 37.7 
 
 37.1 39.2 
 
 37. 1 1 
 
 39.7 
 
 41.3 
 
 38.7 40.9 142.11 
 
 42.4 44.7 
 
 41,7 43 11 46.3 
 
 45.6 47.11 
 
 No. VI. From lOf in.X7 In. to 28J in-X20 in. 
 
MEASUREMENT OF GLASS. 
 
 123 
 
 INCHES BROAD. 
 
 IN. 
 
 To! 
 
 11^ 
 _12f 
 
 m 
 
 6.1 1 
 
 7.7~ 
 8.2 
 
 8.10 
 
 Jit 
 
 15! 
 l6| 
 
 m 
 
 9.6 
 
 lo.e 
 
 10.9 
 11.5 
 12.1 
 
 19| 
 
 12.9 
 
 _20| 
 "2T| 
 22| 
 23| 
 
 13.4 
 
 24! 
 25! 
 26| 
 27! 
 28| 
 
 8| 
 
 9! 10! 
 
 1. r, 
 
 TTo 
 
 8.8 
 
 8.6 
 9.3 
 
 9.6 
 10.4 
 
 10.0 11.2 
 
 10.9 
 
 115 
 
 12.2 
 12.10 
 
 11.11 
 12.9 
 13.7 
 14.5 
 
 13.8 15.2 
 
 9.7 
 
 10.6 
 1L5~ 
 
 12.3 
 
 13.2 
 14,1 
 
 15.0 
 
 Hi 
 
 1. p. 
 TlT6 
 12.5 
 1375 
 14.5 
 15.5 
 
 12! 
 
 I. P. 
 
 13S 
 
 14 7 
 
 15 H 
 
 16.4 
 
 15.10 
 
 16.8 
 
 17.9 
 
 16.9 
 
 14.3 16.0 |17.8 
 
 15.1 
 
 16.10 18.6 
 
 17.4 18.10 20.4 |21.9 
 
 18.4 1 19.11 
 1974 20.11 
 
 21.5 ;23.0 
 
 22.7 124.3 
 
 20.3 22 0 
 2lT3 23. 1 
 22T3 | 24.2 
 23.3:25.2 
 24~0 26A 
 
 I 
 
 25.0 27. 4 
 27T2 29T5~ 
 
 IS. 
 
 30.6 
 
 13! 
 
 14! 
 
 15.9 
 
 16.10 
 
 18.0 
 
 19.2 
 
 18.1 
 19.4" 
 
 20.7 
 
 23.9 ,25.6 
 
 24.1126.8 
 
 15! 
 
 20.8 
 
 2 1.11 
 
 2:3~3~ 
 
 16! 
 1. p. 
 
 23.4 
 
 24.9 
 
 24.7 
 
 25.11 
 
 27.3 
 
 26.2 j 27.8 29.3 
 27.6 , 29.2 30.10 
 28. 11 1 30. 8 32. 5 
 
 28.6 
 
 30.4 
 
 26.0 27.11 29.10 31.9 
 
 27.2 129.2 31.2 
 
 28.4 30.5 132.5 
 
 29.6 !31 7 
 
 30.7 32.10 35.1 
 
 31.9 34.1 
 
 32. 11 35.4 
 
 36.5 
 
 37.8 
 
 iZi 
 
 1. r. 18! 
 
 26.3 1. p. 
 
 34.2 35.10 
 
 3U 
 34.6 
 
 32.233.11 
 33.7 35.6 
 35.137.1 
 36.7 38.8 
 
 35.11 
 
 38.1 '40.2 
 
 ■S7.4 
 38.8 
 40.1 
 
 1 39.6 , 41.9 
 | 41.0 | 43.4 
 142. 6144.11 
 
 19! 
 
 32.6 
 
 35.9 37.7 
 
 37.5 
 
 39.4 
 
 39.1 
 
 42.4 
 
 20! 
 
 1. p. 
 
 41.0 
 
 40.8 42.9 
 
 44.6 
 
 44.0 46.3 
 
 45.8 47.3 
 
 47.3 49.8 
 
 No. VII. From 10f in.X7f in. to 28f in.x20§ in. 
 
 INCHES BROAD. 
 
 3 
 
 j3£_ 
 
 4 
 
 
 5 
 
 51 
 
 6 | 6£ 
 
 In. 
 
 1. p. 
 
 1. p. 
 
 1. p. 
 
 [. p. 
 
 1. p. 
 
 1. p. 
 
 i. pJi. p. 
 
 In. 
 
 1.0 
 
 1 2 
 
 1.4 
 
 
 1.8 
 
 iTio 
 
 sTo ! 272~ 
 
 4 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.6 
 
 TIT 
 
 TTi 
 
 2 1 
 
 2^3 2 5 
 
 4* 
 
 1.3 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.112.1 
 
 2.4 
 
 
 5 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.10 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.9 37o~ 
 
 sj 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.9 
 
 3.0 as" 
 
 6 
 
 
 1.11 
 
 2.2 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.9 
 
 3.0 
 
 3.3 ae~ 
 
 
 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.7 
 
 2.11 
 
 3.3 
 
 "a6 3.10 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 2.9 
 
 3.2 
 
 3.5 
 
 iT 
 
 
 
 
 
 13. 4 
 
 3.8 
 
 Xo 4.4 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3.11 
 
 473 47T 
 
 8i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4.6 4.11 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 577T 
 
 9k 
 
 No. VIII. Small or box sizes, from 4 in.X^ in. to 9£ m.XGJ in. 
 
3 24 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF GLASS. 
 
 TABLE SHEWING THE VALUE OF ANY SQUARE OF GLASS FROM FIVE 
 TO FOIITY-EIGHT INCHES, AT VARIOUS PRICES. 
 
 Squares 
 
 
 @ 1/3 @ 1/4 
 
 @l/5 
 
 @l/6 
 
 © 1/9 I ® 2/ 
 
 @2/S 
 
 @ 2/6 
 
 @2/9 
 
 @3/ 
 
 containing 
 
 
 ^foot^tp foot 
 
 foot 
 
 •ty> fool 
 
 ^ foo 
 
 ; ^ foo 
 
 t^J foo 
 
 t t^foot 
 
 tpjfoot 
 
 t^foot 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 S. (1. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 8. d. 
 
 <1 
 
 s. d. 
 
 , , 
 
 s. d. 
 
 $. d t 
 
 
 5 
 
 0 6f 
 
 0 6f 
 
 0 7 
 
 0 71 
 
 0 8f 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 llf 
 
 1 Of 
 
 1 If 
 
 1 3 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 0 
 
 0 8 
 
 0 8| 
 
 0 9 
 
 0 101 
 
 1 0 
 
 1 n 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 41 
 
 1 6 
 
 
 7 
 
 0 8f 
 
 0 9f 
 
 0 9f 
 
 0 10| 
 
 1 Of 
 
 1 2 
 
 1 3f 
 
 1 51 
 
 1 7i 
 
 1 9 
 
 
 8 
 
 0 10 
 
 (\ 101 
 
 i llJ 2 
 
 0 11| 
 
 1 0 
 
 1 2 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 8 
 
 1 10 
 
 2 0 
 
 
 9 
 
 0 llf 
 
 1 0 
 
 1 Of 
 
 1 H 
 
 1 3f 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 8f 
 
 1 101 
 
 2 Of 
 
 2 3 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 Of 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 1 2 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 H 
 
 1 8 
 
 1 101 
 
 2 1 
 
 2 31 
 
 2 6 
 
 
 11 
 
 1 If 
 
 1 01 
 
 1 3f 
 
 1 41 
 
 1 7i 
 
 1 10 
 
 2 Of 
 
 2 31 
 
 2 61 
 
 2 9 
 
 1 Foot or 
 
 12 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 5 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 9 
 
 2 0 
 
 2 3 
 
 2 6 
 
 2 9 
 
 3 0 
 
 
 13 
 
 1 4f 
 
 1 ^1 
 
 1 6| 
 
 1 71 
 
 1 I0f 
 
 2 2 
 
 2 51 
 
 2 81 
 
 2 llf 
 
 3 3 
 
 
 14 
 
 1 5 £ 
 
 1 Of 
 
 1 7f 
 
 1 9 
 
 2 01 
 
 2 4 
 
 2 71 
 
 2 11 
 
 3 21 
 
 3 6 
 
 
 15 
 
 1 6f 
 
 1 Q 
 
 1 9f 
 
 1 101 
 
 2 2i 
 
 2 6 
 
 2 9f 
 
 3 H 
 
 3 5i 
 
 3 9 
 
 
 16 
 
 1 8 
 
 1 Ol 
 
 1 lOf 
 
 2 0 
 
 2 4 
 
 2 8 
 
 3 0 
 
 3 4 
 
 3 8 
 
 4 0 
 
 
 17 
 
 1 94 
 
 1 101 
 
 2 0 
 
 2 If 
 
 2 5f 
 
 2 10 
 
 3 2i 
 
 3 61 
 
 3 lOf 
 
 4 3 
 
 U Feet or 18 
 
 1 10| 
 
 2 0 
 
 2 11 
 
 2 3 
 
 2 71 
 
 3 0 
 
 3 4f 
 
 3 9 
 
 4 If 
 
 4 6 
 
 
 19 
 
 1 llf 
 
 9 11 
 
 2 3 
 
 2 41 
 
 2 9i 
 
 3 2 
 
 3 6f 
 
 3 llf 
 
 4 41 
 
 4 9 
 
 
 20 
 
 2 1 
 
 9 91 
 
 2 4f 
 
 2 6 
 
 2 11 
 
 3 4 
 
 3 9 
 
 4 2 
 
 4 7 
 
 5 0 
 
 
 21 
 
 2 2f 
 
 2 4 
 
 2 5f 
 
 2 71 
 
 3 Of 
 
 3 6 
 
 3 Hi 
 
 4 4f 
 
 4 9f 
 
 5 3 
 
 
 22 
 
 2 3f 
 
 9 f;i 
 
 2 7 
 
 2 9 
 
 3 21 
 
 3 8 
 
 4 !| 
 
 4 7 
 
 5 Of 
 
 5 6 
 
 
 23 
 
 2 4f 
 
 2 6| 
 
 2 8| 
 
 2 101 
 
 3 41 
 
 3 10 
 
 4 3f 
 
 4 91 
 
 5 3f 
 
 5 9 
 
 2 Feet or 
 
 24 
 
 — 
 
 2 8 
 
 2 10 
 
 3 0 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 0 
 
 4 6 
 
 5 0 
 
 5 6 
 
 6 0 
 
 
 25 
 
 — 
 
 O Qi 
 
 2 11| 
 
 3 u 
 
 3 7f 
 
 4 2 
 
 4 8i 
 
 5 2f 
 
 5 8f 
 
 6 3 
 
 
 26 
 
 — 
 
 9 10* 
 
 3 Of 
 
 3 3 
 
 3 91 
 
 4 4 
 
 4 101 
 
 5 5 
 
 5 Hi 
 
 6 6 
 
 
 27 
 
 — 
 
 3 0 
 
 3 21 
 
 3 41 
 
 3 Hi 
 
 4 6 
 
 5 Of 
 
 5 7f 
 
 6 2i 
 
 « 0 
 0 y 
 
 
 28 
 
 — 
 
 Q 1 
 
 3 31 
 
 3 6 
 
 4 1 
 
 4 8 
 
 5 3 
 
 5 10 
 
 6 5 
 
 7 0 
 
 
 29 
 
 — 
 
 3 2f 
 
 3 5 
 
 3 71 
 
 4 2| 
 
 4 10 
 
 5 5f 
 
 6 Of 
 
 6 7f 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 — 
 
 Q A 
 
 3 61 
 
 3 9 
 
 4 4i 
 
 5 0 
 
 5 71 
 
 6 3 
 
 6 101 
 
 7 6 
 
 
 31 
 
 — 
 
 3 5f 
 
 3 7f 
 
 3 10 t 
 
 4 6i 
 
 5 2 
 
 5 9f 
 
 6 5i 
 
 7 If 
 
 7 9 
 
 
 32 
 
 — 
 
 3 61 
 
 3 9i 
 
 4 0 
 
 4 8 
 
 5 4 
 
 6 0 
 
 6 8 
 
 7 4 
 
 8 0 
 
 
 33 
 
 — 
 
 3 8 
 
 3 lOf 
 
 4 li 
 
 4 9f 
 
 5 6 
 
 6 21 
 
 6 lOf 
 
 7 6f 
 
 8 3 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 Q Q 
 
 0 y 
 
 4 0 
 
 4 3 
 
 4 111 
 
 5 8 
 
 6 41 
 
 7 1 
 
 7 91 
 
 8 6 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 3 10 t 
 
 4 If 
 
 4 4i 
 
 5 If 
 
 5 10 
 
 6 6f 
 
 7 3f 
 
 8 Of 
 
 Q O 
 
 3 Feet or 
 
 30 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 4 3 
 
 4 6 
 
 5 3 
 
 6 0 
 
 6 9 
 
 7 6 
 
 8 3 
 
 9 0 
 
 
 37 
 
 — 
 
 
 4 41 
 
 4 7i 
 
 5 4f 
 
 6 2 
 
 6 Hi 
 
 7 81 
 
 8 5f 
 
 9 3 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 4 5f 
 
 4 9 
 
 5 6f 
 
 6 4 
 
 7 If 
 
 7 11 
 
 8 81 
 
 9 6 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 — 
 
 4 71 
 
 4 101 
 
 5 81 
 
 6 6 
 
 7 3f 
 
 « 1| 
 
 8 llf 
 
 9 9 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 4 81 
 
 5 0 
 
 5 10 
 
 6 8 
 
 7 6 
 
 8 4 
 
 9 2 
 
 10 0 
 1U u 
 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 4 10 
 
 5 !§ 
 
 5 Hi 
 
 6 10 
 
 7 81 
 
 8 6f 
 
 9 4f 
 
 10 3 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 4 111 
 
 5 3 
 
 e i| 
 
 7 0 
 
 7 101 
 
 8 9 
 
 9 71 
 
 10 6 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 5 Of 
 
 5 41 
 
 6 3f 
 
 7 2 
 
 8 Cf 
 
 8 llf 
 
 9 lOf 
 
 10 9 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 5 2 
 
 5 6 
 
 6 5 
 
 7 4 
 
 8 3 
 
 9 2 
 
 10 1 
 
 11 0 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 5 3f 
 
 5 7* 
 
 6 6i 
 
 7 6 
 
 8 5i 
 
 9 41 
 
 10 3f 
 
 11 3 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 5 5 
 
 5 9 
 
 6 81 
 
 7 8 
 
 8 71 
 
 9 7 
 
 10 6i 
 
 11 6 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 
 5 61 
 
 5 101 
 
 6 101 
 
 7 10 
 
 8 9f 
 
 9 91 
 
 10 91 
 
 11 9 
 
 4 Feet or 
 
 48 
 
 
 
 5 8 
 
 6 0 
 
 7 0 
 
 8 0 
 
 9 0 
 
 10 0 
 
 11 0 
 
 12 0 
 
 [3 parts or f 
 
 in. 
 
 
 
 0 Of 
 
 0 01 
 
 0 Of 
 
 0 Of 
 
 0 Of 
 
 0 01 
 
 0 Of 
 
 0 Of 
 
 [6 parts or f in. 
 
 
 
 0 Of 
 
 0 Of 
 
 0 Of 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 11 
 
 0 If 
 
 0 If 
 
 0 H 
 
 \9 parts or f 
 
 in. 
 
 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 14 
 
 0 li 
 
 0 If 
 
 0 If 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 2* 
 
 0 2i 
 
MEASUREMENT OF GLASS. 
 
 125 
 
 Square J 
 containing g 
 
 ®. , 
 
 tpfoot 
 
 
 @ 
 
 spfoot 
 
 @ 
 
 tpfoot 
 
 @ 
 
 foot 
 
 s^foot 
 
 @root 
 
 @, , 
 qpfoot 
 
 foot qp< foot 
 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 11 
 
 1 Foot or 12 
 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 
 If Feet or 18 
 19 
 
 20 
 21 
 
 22 
 23 
 
 2 Feet or 24 
 
 25 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 34 
 35 
 
 3 Feet or 36 
 
 37 
 38 
 39 
 40 
 41 
 42 
 43 
 44 
 45 
 46 
 47 
 
 4 Feet or 48 
 
 8 parts or |in. 
 6 parts or § in. 
 
 9 parts or f in. 
 
 8% d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 d. 
 
 *. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. A 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 a d. 
 
GETTY CENTER LIBRARY 
 
 3 3125 00712 5459