Have received the Highest Awards at Paris Exhibition g bB » 2 3 § 
 
 1878 ; Sydney Exhibition 1880 ; and Melbourne Exhibition g S £ ^ O 
 
 1 SSI . " %. 
 
 oki Araa KiYW m-^oa pt^oj^ jo sja^i^j^ | ^ g g | j 
 
Just Published^ Price \s, 6d. ; Post Free Is. Id, 
 
 THE 
 
 PRACTICAL MANAGER'S 
 
 SLIDE RULE COMPANION. 
 
 BEING 
 
 A TKEATISE ON THE ENGINEERS' SLIDE RULE 
 
 ADAPTED TO 
 
 MILL AND FACTORY CALCULATIONS. 
 
 EMBRACING BOTH SPINDLE AND LEA YARN CHANGES. 
 ALSO A VARIED SELECTION OF IMPORTANT PROBLEMS AND 
 SOLUTIONS. 
 
 BY 
 
 JOSEPH HOVELL, 
 
 DUNDEE. 
 
 OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 Engineer and Iron Trade Advertiser, 4th Nov. 1886.— "Mr Hovell's present 
 production comes at an opportune time, when the necessity for solving work- 
 shop mathematical problems rapidly has become essential to success. We 
 have no hesitation in saying- that it will be found a really useful companion 
 in the hands of mill and factory managers, engineers, and others requiring an 
 aid of the kind." 
 
 Dundee Courier, 16th Nov. 1886. — "The practical application of the Slide 
 Rule is comparatively little known even among those who would be most 
 benefited by it, and it is to show what a multitude of calculations can be easily 
 performed by its aid that Mr Hovell has written this treatise. In addition to 
 the calculations required in the mill, the transmission of speed by belts and by 
 wheels, the power of levers, steam valves, roller pressures, the horse-power of 
 various kinds of stationary engines, the weight of water in column, liquid 
 measure, diameter and teeth of wheels, and a large number of other problems 
 are elucidated, and in such a plain, simple method as to be easily understood." 
 
 Textile Manufacturer, 15th Nov. 1886.— "The writer of this work is already 
 favourably known as the author of an essay on the disc and differential motions. 
 Those who remember his lucid exposition of that subject will feel every con- 
 fidence in his satisfactory treatment of the Slide Rule, and the uses that can 
 be made of it in textile calculations. For those who prefer to make their 
 calculations by this instrument, or who desire to make acquaintance with its 
 capabilities, we can confidently say that we do not know a better source to 
 which they can go to acquire it." 
 
 Journal of Fabrics and Textile Industries, 12th Nov. 1886.— "This work 
 was written specially for reading before the members of the * Dundee Managers' 
 Association,' and to establish its merits we need not say more than that it gave 
 so much satisfaction and pleasure to the listeners that it was decided to publish 
 it, in order that others might reap the benefit of Mr Hovell's experience. We 
 would recommend it to the consideration of all to whom such a work would be 
 a help in their daily avocations." 
 
 DUNDEE : JAMES P. MATHEW & CO., Publishers. 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF 
 
 THE POWEE-LOOM 
 
 AND THE 
 
 AET OF WEAVING 
 
 ALL DESCRIPTIONS OF TEXTURE PRODUCED BY LEAVES 
 OF HEDDLES. 
 
 WITH 
 
 CALCULATIONS AND INSTEUCTIONS 
 
 FOR THE PRODUCTION OF COTTON, WOOLLEN, LINEN, AND JUTE FABRICS. 
 
 '.INT'£f!OBD AS A T£XT 'BOtiK FCR TH(!SE CNCACED IK THE lUK. , 
 
 -> I ^ i y ? ^ ^ i»v' " * » ^ ^ * ' ' 
 
 ^ ' ^ A'L E X; B R O W N. ' ' ' ^ ' 
 
 FOURTH EDITION, REVISED. 
 
 DUNDEE : 
 JAMES P. MATHEW & CO. 
 LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. 
 BURNLEY : J. & A. LUPTON. 
 EDINBURGH : JOHN MENZIES & CO. 
 
V. 
 
 ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL. 
 
 UBRARV 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 When the first edition of this little work was 
 issued in 1875, we could not anticipate the demand 
 it was to create for itself, not only in this country 
 but in every country where the power-loom had 
 been introduced. Since then we have made it 
 our study that every succeeding edition should 
 be brought up to the time of its publication in 
 regard to all the most recent improvements in 
 the art of weaving and the construction of 
 textile machinery. 
 
 The present edition forms practically a new 
 book. At the suggestion of many in the 
 trade, it has been made of a more convenient 
 size for the pocket. Prominence is given to the 
 headings of the subjects treated by the introduc- 
 tion of bold type, and the information is other- 
 wise so arranged that any particular detail can 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 be found at a glance. A concise index to the 
 various divisions has been added, which will also 
 facilitate ready reference. There is no detail in 
 the subject matter that has not been reconsidered, 
 and, in many cases, altered or re-written, in order 
 that the work might be as complete as possible at 
 the time of pubHcation. 
 
 We have to thank the numerous correspondents 
 throughout the world for the valuable suggestions 
 they have thrown out, many of which have been 
 embodied in the work. 
 
 A. BROWN. 
 
 Dundee, May 1883. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Stephenson's remarks on the locomotive applicable to the 
 
 power-loom, - - - - - - 17 
 
 Reasons of the slow development of textile machinery, - 17 
 
 The plan of the present volume, - - - - 18 
 
 Other explanations, - - - - - - 18 
 
 RELATIVE POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL PARTS 
 OF THE LOOM. 
 
 The warp line, - - - - - - 18 
 
 The warp line for open cloth, - - - - 1 9 
 
 The warp line for cloth Vv^here the threads require to be 
 
 spread, - - - - - - - 19 
 
 What takes place amongst the yarn to cause it to spread, - 19 
 
 The strain on the yarn in weaving, - - - - 20 
 
 To reduce the strain to a minimum, - - - - 21 
 
 The height of the warp line, - - - - 21 
 
 How the front and back beams should be made movable, - 22 
 
 The stretch of the yarn, - - - - - 22 
 
 The movements of the lay, - - - - - 23 
 
 The pauses of the crank as adapted to the requirements of 
 
 the power-loom, - - - - - - 23 
 
 The pauses of the crank illustrated, - - - - 24 
 
 How the eccentricity of the lay's movements can be varied 
 
 and adjusted, - - - - - - 24 
 
 The broader the loom the more eccentric its movements, - 25 
 
 The length of stroke to be given to the lay, - - - 26 
 
 The leverage of the swords, - - - - - 26 
 
 The bevel of the lay, 26 
 
 The position of the rocking shaft, - - - - 27 
 
 The upright picking shaft, - - - - - 27 
 
 The wiper shaft, - - - - - - 27 
 
 The momentum of the crank and wiper shaft wheels, - 28 
 
 The end frame, - - - - - - 28 
 
 The strength of the loom, - - - - - 29 
 
vi 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 SHEDDING. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The shedding movement the most important in the loom, - 29 
 
 The most important points to be attended to in shedding, - 30 
 
 The delineation of plain wipers, - - - - 30 
 
 The leverage of the treadles, - - - - 31 
 
 Plain wipers, - - - - - - - 31 
 
 The length of pause necessary to spread the warp, - - 32 
 
 How the curves are obtained, - - - - 32 
 
 A defect in shedding ; how to remedy it, - - - 33 
 How the construction of the wipers affects the spreading of 
 
 the warp, - - - - - - 34 
 
 Experience required to know the proper movement of the 
 
 leaves, - - - - - - - 34 
 
 Equalizing the sheds, - - - - - 35 
 
 How the lease rods affect the size of the shed, - - 35 
 
 The action of the wipers as to time, - - - - 36 
 
 Shedding fine yarn not requiring to be spread, - - 36 
 
 A fallacy about shedding, - - - - - 36 
 
 The movements of the heddle leaves for tweels, diapers, 
 
 &c., the same as those for plain, - - - 37 
 
 In tweels the greatest number of leaves should be up, - 37 
 How the length of pause for the different sorts of wipers 
 
 and tappets is found, - - - - - 38 
 Power gained in shedding by multiplying the number of 
 
 treads, - - - - - - - 39 
 
 A star for a diaper explained, - - - - 40 
 
 The top mounting, - - - - - 41 
 
 To equalize the leverage of the treadles, - - - 41 
 
 Setting the treadles, - - - - - - 42 
 
 The clasps, - - - - - - - 42 
 
 To find the number of teeth required in the wheel and 
 
 pinion to drive the wiper shaft, - - - - 42 
 
 Wheels necessary with a large number of treads, - - 43 
 
 To find any wheel in the train when the others are known, - 44 
 
 The proof that they are correct, - - - - 45 
 
 Skewed bevel wheels ; how tjiey are made, - - - 46 
 
 THE PICK. 
 
 General remarks, - - - - - - 47 
 
 The cone pick —an application of a lever of the first order, - 47 
 
CONTENTS- vii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The action of the picking wiper, - - - - 47 
 
 The direction of the force transmitted by the wiper, - 48 
 
 The true secret of the harshness or smoothness of the pick, 49 
 
 The preceding statement iUustrated, - - - 49 
 
 The verification of the preceding statement, - - 50 
 
 How the direction of the force is regulated, - - 50 
 
 The magnitude of the force, - - - - - 51 
 
 How the proper magnitude may be obtained, - - 51 
 How the picking tappet is proportioned to different 
 
 breadths of loom, - - - - - 53 
 
 The construction of the picking wiper, and the reasons for it, 53 
 
 Re-dressing the tappets — a mistake, - - - 54 
 
 The race course of the shuttle, - - - - 54 
 
 The length of the shuttle -box, - - - - 55 
 The reason that a loom with long shuttle-boxes generally 
 
 works well, - - - - - - 55 
 
 The time of the pick in relation to the movements of the 
 
 lay, - - - - - - - 56 
 
 A suggestion to reduce the tear and wear in connection 
 
 with the picking movement, - - - - 56 
 
 THE SHUTTLE PROTECTOR. 
 
 The automatic movements of the power-loom, - - 57 
 
 The action of the protector, - - - - - 57 
 By reducing the momentum of the working parts of the 
 
 loom, we reduce the force of the protector's stroke, - 57 
 
 The wheels broken by the concussion of their teeth, - 58 
 
 A cause of the swords breaking, - - - - 58 
 
 Where the protector should be fixed, - - - 59 
 
 The length of the protector, - - - - - 59 
 
 The twofold purpose of the protector, - - - 60 
 Advantages obtained with the protector constructed on 
 
 correct principles, - - - - - 60 
 
 The fly reed, 60 
 
 THE TAKE-UP MOTION. 
 
 How it operates, - - - - - - 61 
 
 The drag and positive motions, - - - - 61 
 
viii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 The fabrics for which the drag motion is best adapted, and 
 
 the reasons, - - - - - - 62 
 
 The wheels of the positive motion, - - - - 62 
 
 Eule to find the number of teeth required to produce a 
 
 given number of shots, - - - - - 63 
 
 Explanation of the preceding example, - - - 64 
 
 An example under other conditions, - - - - 64 
 
 To find the number of teeth when changing from one count 
 
 to another, - - - - - - 66 
 
 THE PACE. 
 
 The tension of the yarn, - - - - - 67 
 
 The uniformity of the tension, - - - - 67 
 
 The different methods of pacing, - - - - 67 
 
 An objectionable method of pacing, - - - - 68 
 
 HOW THE WINDING AFFECTS THE WEAVING. 
 
 The diameter of the pirn or cop, - - - - 68 
 
 The length of the pirn or cop, - - - - 69 
 
 The size and momentum of the shuttle, - - - 69 
 
 THE SPEED OF THE LOOM, DRIVING GEAR, &c. 
 
 What determines the speed at which the loom is to be 
 
 driven, - - - - - - - 70 
 
 To increase the speed of hessian looms, - - - 71 
 
 Speed of broad looms, - - - - - 72 
 
 Hints as to how to obtain a uniform speed of the looms in 
 
 small factories, - - - - - - 72 
 
 The strength of the shafting, - - - - 73 
 
 The driving pulleys, - - - - - - 74 
 
 An example to be avoided of a bad construction of friction 
 
 pulleys, - - - - - - - 74 
 
 How the length of the belt affects the motion of the 
 
 loom, - - - - - - - 75 
 
 Examples showing the method of calculating the speed of 
 
 wheels and shafting, - - - - - 76 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 ix 
 
 HOW TO START AND WORK THE LOOM. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 • The preceding chapters a counterpart of this, - - 78 
 A fixed line between the mechanical and tenting depart- 
 ments necessary, - - - - - - 78 
 
 A well considered plan necessary before putting down looms, 79 
 
 How the looms should be arranged to the driving shaft, - 79 
 
 The looms grouped in fours, - - - - - 79 
 
 How to arrange the looms in line with the shaft, - - 80 
 
 The line to which the ends of the looms are set, - - 80 
 
 How the looms are arranged to clear the belts, - - 81 
 
 Fixing the looms to the floor, - - - - 82 
 
 Levelling the loom, - - - - - - 82 
 
 Setting the loom, - - - - - - 82 
 
 How to set the wipers, - - - - - 83 
 
 To find the proper length of picker strap, - - - 83 
 
 How to set the pick, - - - - - - 83 
 
 The check-strap, - - - - - - 84 
 
 Gauging the shuttles, - - - - - 84 
 
 The position the tip or point of the shuttle should occupy, > 85 
 
 The protector, - - - - - - 85 
 
 How to find the length of the belt, and how it should run, - 85 
 
 How to adjust the pick as to strength, - - - 86 
 
 The process of looming the web, - - - - 86 
 
 The position of the lease rods, - - - - 87 
 
 The reactionary nature of the loom, - - - - 88 
 
 The causes of chapping ofi"," classed under three heads : — 88 
 
 When the power is insuflficient, - - - - 89 
 
 When the power is deficient in the pick ; how to find it out, 89 
 
 The eff'ect of the picker strap being too tight, - - 90 
 Obstructions caused by the friction of the shuttle on the 
 
 shed, 91 
 
 Obstructions that throw the shuttle out of the loom, - 91 
 
 The protector, - - - - - - 91 
 
 TO FIND THE NUMBER OF SPLITS (DENTS) AND THE 
 QUANTITY OF WARP AND WEFT IN A WEB. 
 
 Difi'erent scales used in difi'erent localities, - - - 92 
 
 The yarn measures, - - - - - - 93 
 
 What is meant by a thread, - - - - - 93 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Explanation of the cotton table, - - - - 93 
 
 Explanation of the woollen table, - - - - 93 
 
 Explanation of the linen yarn table, - - - 94 
 
 Explanation of the coarse linen and jute yarns table, - 94 
 
 How jute is called linen, - - - - - 94 
 
 The various reed scales, - - - - - 94 
 
 Number of threads in a split, - - - - 95 
 
 The various calculations for a cotton web, - - - 95 
 
 Rule to find the number of splits, - - - - 95 
 
 To find the quantity of warp, - - - - 96 
 
 To find the quantity of weft, - - - - 97 
 
 The various calculations for a woollen web, - - - 98 
 
 To find the number of splits, - - - - 98 
 
 To find the warp, - - - - - - 98 
 
 To find the weft, ...... 99 
 
 The various calculations for a linen web, - - - 99 
 
 To find the number of splits, - - - - 100 
 
 To find the warp, - - - - - - 100 
 
 To find the weft, - - - ' - - - 101 
 
 The various calculations for a jute web, - - - 103 
 
 Another method of calculating the shrinkage on the 
 
 breadth, - - - - - - - 103 
 
 The number of splits, ..... 103 
 
 The amount of warp, - - - - - - 103 
 
 The amount of weft, 104 
 
 Rules to find the splits and warp and weft by proportion, - 105 
 
 THE PREPARATION OF THE YARN FOR THE LOOM. 
 
 General remarks, - - - - - - 108 
 
 How dressing or sizing is necessary, - - - 109 
 
 The effect of dressing on the thread, - - - 109 
 
 How the flour starch is made and used, - - - 109 
 
 Farina as dressing, - - - - - - 110 
 
 Dressing for woollen yarns, - - - - - 110 
 
 How the dressing is put on, - - - - - 110 
 
 Drying the yarn, - - - - - - 111 
 
 Sizing, - - - - - - - 111 
 
 The preparation yarn requires previous to being dressed, - 111 
 
 Weft that requires to be dressed, - - - - 111 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xi 
 
 DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 How the patterns are made, - - - - - 112 
 
 Setting the heddles, - - - - - - 112 
 
 Rules for finding the heddles to be set, - - - 113^ 
 
 Examples when the number will divide without a remainder, 1 13 
 
 When there is an odd half hundred, - - - - 113 
 
 When the number to be set will not measure exactly either 
 
 the camb or the reed, - - - - - 114 
 
 An easy method, - - - - ♦ - 114 
 
 Draughts and treading of a plain web, - - - 115 
 
 The distinction between plain and tweeled cloth, - - 115 
 
 Draughts and treading of a three-leaf tweel, - - 11& 
 
 Of a four and five-leaf, - - - - - 117 
 
 The broken tweel, - - - - - - 117 
 
 The full satin tweel, - - - - - - 11^ 
 
 The herring-bone tweel, - - - - - 118- 
 
 The method of working the leaves that is easiest for the 
 
 yarn, - - - - - - - 119 
 
 The serge tweel, - - - - - - 119 
 
 Ornamental tweels, - - - - - - 120 
 
 Diaper, 121 
 
 The junction of plain and tweeled cloth, - - - 123 
 
 Diced work, 123 
 
 Two and three-ply cloth and two and three-fold cloth and 
 
 tubular cloth wrought on the same principle, - - 125 
 
 Tubular weaving, - - - - - - 12& 
 
 Twofold weaving, - - - - - - 126 
 
 Threefold weaving, - - - - - - 127 
 
 Two and three-fold and tubular tweels, - - - 128 
 
 Two and three-ply cloth, . . - . . 128 
 
 To construct and arrange the wipers or tappets when the 
 
 treading is known, - - - - - 128 
 
 The centre selvage explained, - - - - 129 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Beams, front and back 
 
 PAGE 
 
 22 
 
 Flour starch 
 
 PAGE 
 
 109 
 
 Belt, length of - 
 
 75 
 
 Fly reed - - - . 
 
 60 
 
 Calculations 
 
 92 
 
 Gauging shuttles 
 
 84 
 
 Centre selvaging 
 
 129 
 
 Heddles, rules for setting 
 
 113 
 
 Chapping- off 
 
 88 
 
 Hessian looms - 
 
 71 
 
 Check -strap 
 
 84 
 
 Lay, bevel of - 
 
 26 
 
 Clasps - . - - 
 
 42 
 
 Lay, eccentricity of - 
 
 24 
 
 Cloth, plain 
 
 123 
 
 Lay, length of stroke of - 
 
 26 
 
 Cloth, tubular - 
 
 125 
 
 Lay, movements of - 
 
 23 
 
 Cloth, tweeled - 
 
 123 
 
 Lease rods, effect of, on size 
 
 Cloth, two and three-ply - 
 
 128 
 
 Ui oIlt/(.l - - - - 
 
 oO 
 
 Cone pick 
 
 47 
 
 Lease rods, position of 
 
 o<f 
 
 o7 
 
 Cop or pirn, diameter of - 
 
 68 
 
 Leaves . . - . 
 
 34 
 
 Cop or pirn, length of 
 
 69 
 
 Loom, fixing 
 
 82 
 
 Crank, pauses of 
 
 23 
 
 Loom, movements of 
 
 57 
 
 Crank wheels - 
 
 28 
 
 Loom, speed of 
 
 70 
 
 Curves of wipers 
 
 32 
 
 Loom, speed of broad 
 
 72 
 
 Dents, to find number of - 
 
 95 
 
 Loom, speed of hessian 
 
 71 
 
 Diaper, a star for a - 
 
 40 
 
 Looming web - 
 
 86 
 
 Diced work 
 
 123 
 
 Machinery, textile - 
 
 17 
 
 Drag motion 
 
 61 
 
 Pace . . . . 
 
 67 
 
 Draughts and treading 
 
 112 
 
 Pacing - - . - 
 
 67 
 
 Dressing for woollen yarns 
 
 110 
 
 Patterns - 
 
 112 
 
 Driving gear, speed of 
 
 70 
 
 Pick 
 
 ■ 47 
 
 Drying yarns - 
 
 111 
 
 Pick, cone 
 
 - 47 
 
 Eccentricity of lay - 
 
 24 
 
 Pick, how to set 
 
 - 83 
 
 End frame 
 
 28 
 
 Pick, state of - 
 
 - 49 
 
 Farina starch 
 
 110 
 
 Pick, time of - 
 
 - 56 
 
xiv 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Picker strap, length of 
 
 PAGE 
 
 83 
 
 Sheds, equalizing 
 
 PAGE 
 
 - 35 
 
 Picking movements - 
 
 56 
 
 Shuttle boxes - 
 
 - 55 
 
 Picking shaft, upright 
 
 27 
 
 Shuttle protector 
 
 - 57 
 
 Picking tappet 
 
 53 
 
 Shuttles, friction of - 
 
 - 91 
 
 Picking wiper, action of - 
 
 47 
 
 Shuttles, gauging 
 
 - 84 
 
 Picking wiper, how made 
 
 53 
 
 Shuttles, position of point of 85 
 
 Pirn or cop, diameter of - 
 
 68 
 
 Shuttles, race course of 
 
 54 
 
 Pirn or cop, length of 
 
 69 
 
 Shuttles, size of 
 
 69 
 
 Positive motion 
 
 61 
 
 Sizing 
 
 109 
 
 Positive motion, wheels of 
 
 62 
 
 Speed of broad looms 
 
 - 72 
 
 Power-loom, parts of 
 
 18 
 
 Speed of hessian looms 
 
 - 71 
 
 Power- loom, remarks on - 
 
 17 
 
 Speed, how to obtain 
 
 uni- 
 
 Power-loom, uniform speed of 72 
 
 formity of 
 
 72 
 
 Protector - - - 85, 91 
 
 Starch, flour 
 
 - 109 
 
 Protector, action of - 
 
 57 
 
 Starching weft 
 
 - Ill 
 
 Protector, length of - 
 
 59 
 
 Swords, breaking 
 
 - 58 
 
 Protector, position of 
 
 59 
 
 Swords, leverage of 
 
 26 
 
 Protector, shuttle 
 
 57 
 
 Take-up motion 
 
 - 61 
 
 Protector, twofold purpose of 60 
 
 Tappets, picking, pause 
 
 for 38 
 
 Pulleys, driving 
 
 74 
 
 Tappets, picking 
 
 - 53 
 
 Pulleys, friction 
 
 74 
 
 Threads in a split 
 
 - 95 
 
 Race course of shuttle 
 
 54 
 
 Threefold weaving - 
 
 - 127 
 
 Reed scales 
 
 94 
 
 Teeth, calculations for 
 
 - 63 
 
 Rocking shaft - 
 
 27 
 
 Textile machinery - 
 
 - 17 
 
 Selvaging, centre 
 
 129 
 
 Top mounting - 
 
 - 41 
 
 Shafting - - - - 
 
 73 
 
 Treadles, leverage of 
 
 31, 41 
 
 Shafting, speed of - 
 
 76 
 
 Treadles, setting 
 
 - 42 
 
 Shedding - - - - 
 
 29 
 
 Treading and draughts 
 
 - 112 
 
 Shedding, defect in - 
 
 33 
 
 Treads, multiplying - 
 
 - 39 
 
 Shedding fine yarn - 
 
 36 
 
 Treads, wheels necessary for 43 
 
 Shedding, power in - 
 
 39 
 
 Tubular weaving 
 
 - 126 
 
INDEX. 
 
 XV 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tweel, broken - 
 
 117 
 
 Wheel and pinion 
 
 - 42 
 
 Tweel, diaper - 
 
 121 
 
 Wheels, broken 
 
 - 58 
 
 Tweel, herring-bone - 
 
 118 
 
 Wheels, momentum of 
 
 - 28 
 
 Tweel, ornamental - 
 
 120 
 
 Wheels, rules to find 
 
 44 
 
 Tweel, satin 
 
 118 
 
 Wheels, skewed bevel 
 
 - 46 
 
 Tweel, serge 
 
 119 
 
 Wheels, speed of 
 
 - 76 
 
 Tweels, two and three-fold 
 
 128 
 
 Winding - 
 
 - 68 
 
 Tweels, tubular 
 
 128 
 
 Wiper, picking 
 
 - 47 
 
 Warp — pause of wiper 
 
 32 
 
 Wiper, picking ; how made 58 
 
 Warp and weft, rules to find 105 
 
 Wiper shaft 
 
 
 Warp, spreading 
 
 34 
 
 Wiper shaft wheels - 
 
 
 Warp line 
 
 18 
 
 Wipers, action of 
 
 - 36 
 
 Warp line, height of 
 
 21 
 
 Wipers, arrangement of 
 
 - 128 
 
 Weaving, strain in - 
 
 20 
 
 Wipers, plain - 
 
 - 30 
 
 Weaving, three-fold 
 
 127 
 
 Wipers, setting 
 
 - 83 
 
 Weaving, tubular 
 
 126 
 
 Woollen yarns, dressing 
 
 - 110 
 
 Weaving, two-fold - 
 
 126 
 
 Yarn, fine 
 
 - 36 
 
 Web, cotton 
 
 95 
 
 Yarn measures 
 
 - 93 
 
 Web, jute 
 
 103 
 
 Yarn preparing 
 
 - 108 
 
 Web, linen 
 
 99 
 
 Yarn spreading 
 
 - 19 
 
 Web, looming - 
 
 86 
 
 Yarn, strain in weaving 
 
 - 20 
 
 Web, woollen - 
 
 98 
 
 Yarn, tension of 
 
 - 67 
 
 Weft starching 
 
 111 
 
 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 ON THE 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE POWEE-LOOM 
 
 AND THE 
 
 ART OF WEAVING BY STEAM POWER. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY AND EXPLANATORY. 
 
 Stephenson's remarks on the locomotive applicable 
 to the power-loom. — What Stephenson has said of the 
 locomotive might with equal propriety be said of the 
 power-loom — that it is not the invention of one man, but 
 a race of mechanical engineers. It may be said to repre- 
 sent the growth of the mechanical skill of the last seventy 
 or eighty years. Steam power was first applied to textile 
 manufactures about that time, and has been gradually 
 developed during these years to the advanced state of 
 perfection in which we find the power-loom at the present 
 time. 
 
 Eeasons of the slow development of textile machinery. 
 
 — The process of development of the power-loom has been 
 somewhat slow in contrast to other machinery that has 
 been brought into existence and developed to maturity al- 
 most at once. But, considering the complicated nature of 
 the power-loom and the difficulty in managing it, the whole 
 of its movements being intermittent, and all more or less 
 reactionary ; and the widely diverse nature of the manipu- 
 lation of yarn and cloth, and the application of machinery 
 to it ; and how seldom a capacity for both is to be found 
 in the same individual, an association necessary before any 
 B 
 
18 
 
 RELATIVE POSITION OF THE 
 
 advancement can be made, — considering all this, the tardy 
 progress of the development of textile machinery will be 
 more easily accounted for. 
 
 The plan of the present volume. — It is not our pur- 
 pose at present to trace the history either of the art of 
 weaving or the development of the power-loom : however 
 interesting that might be to the general reader, it would be 
 of no practical value to the student of the art of weaving. 
 We propose rather to take the art as we find it practised 
 at the present time, and endeavour to elicit the principles 
 that are involved and that govern the various mechanical 
 movements employed in the production of cloth. It will 
 be necessary to consider these in connection with the treat- 
 ment of the yarn in the loom and its preparation for it 
 before we can arrive at any satisfactory conclusion re- 
 garding either. This we will endeavour to do in as simple 
 and easy a manner as possible. 
 
 Other explanations. — In following out the foregoing 
 plan, we will not tire the reader with any unnecessary 
 descriptions of what may be learned by a mere cursory 
 observation in the factory. But, assuming that those to 
 whom these sketches will be of any service are already in 
 some way engaged in the trade, or at least are acquainted 
 with the names of the different parts of the loom, we will 
 endeavour to bring out those principles that underlie the 
 surface and are not so easily got at without considerable 
 practical experience. 
 
 RELATIVE POSITION OF THE PRINCIPAL 
 PARTS OF THE LOOM. 
 
 The warp line. — In constructing the frame-work of the 
 loom, the first consideration that demands our attention is 
 the line of the yarn — that is, the line the warp threads form 
 
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE LOOM. 
 
 19 
 
 in passing over the back beam and through the heddles to 
 the fell of the cloth. In determining its position we have 
 to consider the two sorts of cloth that are made. The 
 beauty of the one depends on the closeness of the warp 
 threads, and the other on the regularity of their openness. 
 These two kinds of cloth are regulated (although not 
 independently*) by the position of the line of the warp 
 threads. 
 
 The warp line for open cloth. — When the warp threads 
 require to be open the warp should form a horizontal 
 straight line from back to breast beams. The reason of 
 this is obvious; when the shed is opened, the one half of it 
 rises just as far as the other half sinks ; and as the line of 
 the yarn forms a straight line between them, an equal 
 strain is thrown on both, consequently the two threads 
 that pass through the same split will run into the cloth 
 together, leaving a vacancy, caused by the reed, between 
 them and the splits on each side of them. 
 
 The warp line for cloth where the threads require to 
 be spread. — In the description of cloth where the warp 
 requires to be spread, running the threads together in 
 splitfuls must be carefully avoided. Although drawn the 
 same way in the reed, each thread is made to stand out 
 in the cloth equally distant from those on each side of it. 
 To accomplish this the yarn must be sunk out of the 
 straight line at the heddles. To make it clearly under- 
 stood how this causes so marked a difference in the cloth 
 we will explain it with reference to fig. 1, to show what 
 actually takes place amongst the yarn to bring it about. 
 
 What takes place amongst the yarn to cause it to 
 spread. — D fig. 1 represents the yarn passing over the 
 back beam A and the dotted line a continuation of the 
 
 See Shedding. 
 
20 
 
 RELATIVE POSITION OF THE 
 
 same, before the shed is opened. It will be observed that 
 the one half of the shed has risen as far from the centre C 
 as the other half has sunk ; but if we measure the distance 
 E G F and the distance E H F we will find that the 
 latter is considerably longer than the former. What 
 follows from this is, that the upper half (that part of the 
 shed represented by E G F) remains loose, while the under 
 half is held tight ; and instead of the two threads that 
 pass through the same split being crushed together, as in 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 the former example, the one that is loose spreads itself 
 out between those that are held tight on each side of it. 
 Each half of the shed as it comes up repeats the same 
 thing. This is what must take place with all descriptions 
 of cloth where the warp threads require to be spread and 
 a beautiful texture produced. 
 
 The strain on the yarn in weaving. — The various 
 operations in weaving cannot be carried on without 
 causing a considerable strain on the yarn, but by a 
 study of the principles of the art of weaving we are 
 enabled to reduce this strain to the least possible in the 
 circumstances. This leads us to the consideration of how 
 
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE LOOM. 
 
 21 
 
 this sinking of the warp line affects the strain on the yarn. 
 We may remark here at the outset that anything done 
 in the loom to produce this effect, namely, spreading 
 the yarn, will throw a corresponding strain on it. The 
 opposite is also the case : any effort made to save 
 the yarn has a detrimental effect on the cloth. The 
 question now comes, How can this result be obtained 
 with the strain reduced to a minimum ? 
 
 To reduce the strain to a minimum. — The strain on 
 the yarn is caused by the shedding, and in this sort of 
 cloth by the beating up of the shot also, and will be in 
 proportion to the angle the shed forms to the direction 
 of these two forces. In proportion, then, as the heddles 
 are lowered will this strain be increased. To diminish 
 the injurious effects, lower the warp line at the heddles 
 no further than what is necessary, and see that the 
 angles formed by the shed are equal on both sides of 
 the heddles. The warp line is generally thrown out of 
 the straight line by raising the back beam alone : now 
 this increases the angle of the shed very much more 
 behind the heddles than in front of them, and conse- 
 quently the strain is unequally divided over the length of 
 the thread. The proper remedy for this is to raise both 
 breast and back beams, maintaining equal angles, and 
 consequently causing an equal strain on both sides of the 
 camb. With proper shedding the yarn will require to be 
 sunk very little out of the straight line in order to pro- 
 duce the best res'^lts ; but with imperfect shedding the 
 whole effect of this will be marred. We will notice this 
 more particularly under that heading. 
 
 The height of the warp line. — The preceding con- 
 siderations determine the relative height of the breast 
 and back beams, but they must both be placed at a con- 
 venient distance from the ground, so that the yarn may 
 
22 
 
 RELATIVE POSITION OF THE 
 
 be in a handy position for the weaver attending to it. 
 Two feet nine or two feet ten inches has been found to 
 be a very convenient position from the ground to the top 
 of the breast beam. 
 
 How the front and back beams should be made mov- 
 able. — As the distance the heddles are sunk should be 
 varied according to the closeness of the warp threads, the 
 front and back beams ought to be made movable, to allow 
 of their proper adjustment. Most looms are indeed made 
 in this way to some extent, but most of them are so 
 hampered with bolts and fitted so tight that it requires 
 considerable engineering skill to move them, and renders 
 their proper adjustment in many instances almost an 
 impossibility. 
 
 The stretch of the yarn. — The stretch to be given 
 to the yarn in the loom is a matter of no little im- 
 portance. By the stretch, we mean the length of 
 thread that sustains the strain caused by the operations 
 of weaving. Of course that part of it between the fell 
 of the cloth and the lease rods will receive the greatest 
 strain, but the tension is thrown on it from the time 
 it leaves the yarn beam until it has passed into the 
 cloth. Considerable breakage may be caused by the 
 stretch being either too short or too long ; but when we 
 come to consider this point many difficulties present 
 themselves. The proper stretch can only be determined 
 in relation to the fabric of cloth to be produced and the 
 quality, grist, and elasticity of the yarn of which it is to 
 be made. And, moreover, the art of spinning has not yet 
 reached that state of perfection, and probably never will, 
 in which a thread of uniform strength can be produced. 
 Consequently, any mathematical deductions as to a given 
 length of stretch for a particular grist of yarn made of a 
 given fibre are entirely useless, so that we are shut up to 
 
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE LOOM. 
 
 23 
 
 the teachings of experience in this matter. We may state, 
 however, that three feet six inches over the breast and 
 back beams, with the yarn beam as low in the loom as is 
 convenient, is considered to give the best length of stretch 
 for coarse linen fabrics, and from four to six inches less 
 for finer yarns. We are not aware that any very reliable 
 experiments have been made with a view to come to any 
 definite conclusions in the matter, although it is worthy 
 of consideration. 
 
 The movements of the lay. — The line of the yarn will 
 determine the position of the lay and the length of the 
 swords. The purposes of the lay are merely to carry the 
 shuttle through the shed and beat up the shot. A smart 
 stroke of the reed, in other than very light work, is neces- 
 sary for the latter, and a somewhat protracted pause for 
 the former, to give the shuttle time to pass through the 
 shed. This shows us that the movement of the lay, to 
 effect these two purposes, must be eccentric. As it is the 
 crank that imparts the movement to the lay, and its posi- 
 tion in relation to its connection with the swords that 
 determines the kind of movement given, we must direct 
 our attention to it. 
 
 The pauses of the crank as adapted to the require- 
 ments of the power-loom. — In the movements of the 
 crank, when it is connected in a horizontal or perpen- 
 dicular line with its centre, its pauses are equal at both 
 ends of the stroke : as in the steam engine, for example, 
 the piston begins to move slowly from the end of the 
 stroke, and increases in speed until it reaches the centre, 
 then gets slower in the same ratio until the other end of 
 the stroke is reached. This movement, as we have already 
 seen, is quite unsuitable for the power-loom. The pause 
 where the shot is beaten up must be shortened, and the 
 time given at the opposite pause to the shuttle. This is 
 
24 
 
 RELATIVE POSITION OF THE 
 
 accomplished by placing the crank shaft in a lower plane 
 than the pin by which it is connected to the sword. The 
 best position for it is a distance equal to half the diameter 
 of the circle it will describe below the point of its con- 
 nection with the swords. Suppose the circle the crank 
 describes to be six inches, then the centre of the crank 
 should be three inches below the centre of the connecting 
 pin in the sword. 
 
 The pauses of the crank illustrated. — The pauses of 
 the crank are fully illustrated by fig. 2. A B is the arc 
 in which the swords move ; C the rocking shaft ; and D 
 the circle of the crank. The distances between the points 
 1 and 2 and the points 3 and 4 are the same ; and it will 
 be observed that the crank has moved through a larger 
 space in moving the swords backward and forward be- 
 tween the points 3 and 4 than between 1 and 2. The 
 figure also shows that the reed will come up with a 
 smarter stroke when the crank is revolving in the direction 
 of the arrow than in the opposite direction. That accounts 
 for the greater tendency to break the swords w^hen the 
 loom is revolving in that direction ; because, the faster 
 the swords and lay are moving when bringing the reed 
 up to the fell of the cloth, the momentum of the stroke 
 given by the protector when the loom knocks off will be 
 proportionally greater. 
 
 How the eccentricity of the lay's movements can be 
 varied and adjusted. — the amount of eccentricity ob- 
 tained by the lay will be in a direct ratio to the length of 
 the connecting rods and the diameter of the circle described 
 by the crank. The shorter the connecting rod, and the 
 larger the circle of the crank, the greater wall be the 
 eccentricity obtained ; but when this is increased beyond 
 a certain limit, the movement of the lay becomes angular ; 
 a hesitancy takes place when the crank is passing the back 
 
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE LOOM. 
 
 25 
 
 centre, which requires a momentum in another part of the 
 loom to carry it over that point. This must be avoided 
 as far as possible, as the less momentum the loom can be 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 wrought with the less will be the breakage caused by the 
 action of the protectors. 
 
 The broader the loom the more eccentric its move- 
 ments. — The broader the loom is the greater must be the 
 
26 
 
 RELATIVE POSITION OF THE 
 
 eccentricity of the lay's movements, as the shuttle has a 
 greater distance to traverse, and requires more time to it. 
 This is commonly obtained by increasing the throw of the 
 crank in proportion to the breadth of the loom. 
 
 The length of stroke to be given to the lay — In 
 considering the throw of the crank, it must be taken 
 in connection with the length of stroke to be given to 
 the lay ; and in this, as well as in the other movements of 
 the loom, it must be as small as possible. When too long, 
 the yarn gets chafed in the operation of weaving, the threads 
 having to pass each other more frequently than what is 
 necessary, and are subjected to a greater friction from the 
 reed than if the traverse were shorter. But in reality the 
 length of the lay's stroke must be regulated by the size of 
 the shuttle to be used.* The best length of stroke, and 
 that most generally adopted, is for a medium breadth of 
 loom, say f , to be equal to three times the breadth of the 
 shuttle ; for broader looms a little more, and for narrower 
 ones a little less. 
 
 The leverage of the swords. — In considering the length 
 of the lay's stroke, the leverage of the swords, occasioned 
 by their point of connection to the crank being below the 
 line of the race, must be taken into account. The amount 
 of leverage thus gained will be to the distance from the 
 centre of connecting pin to the line of the race, as the 
 distance from centre of connecting pin to the centre of 
 rocking shaft is to twice the throw of the crank. 
 
 The bevel of the lay. — When the lay is thrown back, 
 it is bevelled to suit the shed ; but the reed and the back 
 of the box are brought back to the square. The box of 
 the lay is thus formed into a sort of dovetail, that prevents 
 the shuttle from rising off the race ; and when the front 
 
 *See How the winding affects the weaving. 
 
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE LOOM. 
 
 27 
 
 box is thrown in a little at the head, the dovetail is thus- 
 made complete, and the shuttle moves much steadier. 
 
 The position of the rocking shaft. — To find the place of 
 the rocking shaft, the swords should be in a perpendicular 
 position when the reed is at the fell of the cloth. This 
 allows the swords to work on what is termed the quarter 
 move (in reference to the movements of the pendulum). 
 When the rocking shaft is placed in the centre of motion, 
 the passing and re-passing of the centre of gravity causes a 
 vibration in the swords, that transmits itself to the lay and 
 the crank, as well as the rocking shaft itself. All the best 
 makers of looms place it in the first position we have indi- 
 cated ; but there are others who, either through ignorance 
 or neglect, place it in other positions, with injury to the 
 working of the loom. 
 
 The upright picking shaft. — The only consideration 
 that is necessary in determining the position of the upright 
 picking shaft (when the pick is wrought on that principle) 
 is the length of arm necessary to produce the leverage 
 required. It must be placed at a suitable distance back 
 from the lay for that purpose. It should also be placed 
 on the outside of the end frame, to allow the picking wiper 
 to get closer up to the bearing, to make its action firmer. 
 
 The wiper shaft. — The wiper shaft should be brought 
 close enough to communicate motion to the upright shaft. 
 The exact position in which the two stand to each other 
 will be determined by the diameter of the picking wiper^ 
 the length of the tappet, and the diameter of the cone. 
 Suppose the diameter of the disc to be seven inches, the 
 length of the tappet three inches, and the diameter of the 
 cone two inches, the sum of these will be twelve inches ; 
 then the distance from the centre of the wiper shaft to 
 the centre of the upright shaft will be the half of that 
 sum, deducting from a quarter to half an inch to allow for 
 
^8 
 
 RELATIVE POSITION, ETC. 
 
 the tear and wear of the cone and tappet.* The shedding 
 wipers should also be brought as close as possible under 
 the camb, that their action may be as direct as possible. 
 These are the considerations that determine the transverse 
 position of this shaft. Its height in the loom will be 
 determined by the diameters of the wheel and pinion that 
 <?onnect it with the crank shaft. We say this advisedly, 
 instead of determining the diameters of these wheels by 
 the distance between the two shafts, for the reason that 
 they should be as small in diameter as they can con- 
 veniently be made. The wiper shaft must be brought up 
 in the direction of the crank for that purpose, as the crank 
 shaft cannot be brought down to it, its position being 
 already determined by other considerations. 
 
 The momentum of the crank and wiper shaft wheels. 
 — The reason for making the diameters of the wiper and 
 crank shaft wheels as small as may be convenient is, that 
 their momentum may be reduced as far as possible. It is 
 true that there are few machines that require so much ac- 
 ■cumulated force in their working parts to regulate their 
 movements ; but this affects the power-loom very in- 
 juriously, and causes a great deal of unnecessary breakage. 
 We will explain this more particularly in relation to 
 the protector, as it is in that connection that it most affects 
 the power-loom. 
 
 The end frame. — The foregoing are what may be termed 
 the principal parts of the loom ; and now that their proper 
 places have been ascertained, the end frame of the loom 
 must be constructed so that it will hold them in that 
 position. To make it of sufficient strength, without any 
 unnecessary waste of material, its greatest strength should 
 i)e at those parts that receive most of the strain. Observe 
 
 *For particulars, see The Pick. 
 
SHEDDING. 
 
 2^ 
 
 at what places and in what direction the various move- 
 ments affect it, such as the beating up of the shot, the 
 picking, the shedding, and the knock-off movement, and 
 strengthen these parts with additional feathers. 
 
 The strength of the loom. — The preceding remarks, as 
 well as what are to follow, are applicable to the power- 
 loom for the production of all descriptions of fabrics ; the 
 difference is simply in the strength of the machine suited 
 to the fabric to be produced. In considering the strength 
 of the various parts of the loom, the reactionary nature of 
 the machine must be taken into account. That will be 
 found to be about equal to the power required to work the 
 loom. It should be strong enough to prevent any vibra- 
 tion in any of its parts, a fault sometimes to be met with 
 (frequently caused by the harshness of the pick), which is 
 very detrimental to the working of the loom. When all 
 the movements are divested of any harshness, and made 
 to work quite smoothly (which can easily be done), les^ 
 strength will be required. 
 
 SHEDDING. 
 
 The shedding movement the most important in the 
 
 loom. — The power-loom is composed of a number of 
 quite distinct movements, working in harmony with each 
 other. The most important of these is that which gives 
 the movements to the camb or leaves of heddles — not 
 only as to the order of succession in which they are 
 raised or depressed to form any particular pattern, but 
 more especially as to the manner in which that is accom- 
 plished, — how the shed is formed. Over-shedding and 
 imperfect shedding are the two great causes of nearly 
 all the breakage of yarn that takes place during the pro- 
 
SHEDDING. 
 
 €ess of weaving — that is, if the yarn is of ordinary strength, 
 suitable for the fabric to be produced — as well as a pro- 
 ductive source from which much inferior cloth comes. 
 We will endeavour to point out the manner in which the 
 shedding ought to be performed to produce the best 
 quality of cloth with the least injury to the yarn. 
 
 The most important points to be attended to in 
 shedding. — The most important points to be attended to in 
 shedding are as follows : — That the shed be no larger than 
 what is absolutely necessary to allow the shuttle to pass 
 through it. Except in the case of very heavy work, it is 
 not necessary that it should quite clear the shuttle. The 
 little extra friction thus caused will be a great deal more 
 than compensated for by a diminution of strain on the 
 yarn. Of course these remarks are not applicable to some 
 woollen yarns wrought with the pile on them. The loose 
 fibres choke up the shed, and consequently it requires to 
 be larger for the same size of shuttle. The movement of 
 the heddle leaves in forming the shed should be eccentric 
 — fastest towards the centre of the stroke, and getting 
 gradually slower until they merge into the full pause. 
 When their movement is uniform, as in most cases it is, 
 the strain comes too sudden on the yarn. The pauses 
 must also be regulated as the warp threads require to be 
 spread or wrought open ; and all their movements must 
 be steady, quite free from any surging or jerking move- 
 ment ; and their conjoint action, in connection with the 
 beating up of the shot, be regulated as the warp threads 
 require to be spread or otherwise. It now remains for us 
 to show how these results can best be obtained. Begin- 
 ning with plain shedding, we will pass on to the different 
 sorts of tweels, diapers, &c., noticing as we proceed some 
 objectionable methods that are practised in some places. 
 
 The delineation of plain wipers. — Fig. 3 is the de- 
 
SHEDDING. 
 
 31 
 
 lineation of a plain wiper, constructed to spread the warp ; 
 but before proceeding to draw the outline, we must be very 
 careful to ascertain exactly the two principal dimensions — 
 that is, the distance from the centre of the wiper shaft to 
 the point of contact with the friction rollers of the treadles, 
 and the length of stroke to be given to them. 
 
 The leverage of the treadles. — In determining the 
 length of stroke to be given to the wipers, we must take 
 the leverage of the treadles into consideration as giving 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 the heddle leaves so much more of a traverse. As the 
 distance from the point on which the treadles move to 
 their point of contact with the wipers is to the length 
 of stroke, the whole length of the treadles will be to the 
 distance the heddle leaves will move. 
 
 Plain wipers. — Let us suppose that the distance from 
 the centre of the wiper shaft to the nearest point of 
 the friction roller is 6 inches, and the length of the 
 
82 
 
 SHEDDING. 
 
 wiper's stroke 3 inches. Then, after having drawn the 
 diameter A B (fig. 3), take the 6 inches, with half the 
 length of the stroke added to it, which will be 7^ inches, 
 for radius, and describe the circle C. Then take the G 
 inches again, and subtract half the stroke from it, which 
 will leave 4^ inches for radius, and describe the circle D. 
 
 The length of pause necessary to spread the warp. 
 — As the wiper under consideration is to spread the warp 
 threads, the length of pause to be given to it will be equal 
 to two-thirds of a revolution of the crank — that is, from 
 the time the shot is beaten up until the lay has moved 
 back and the shuttle gone quite through the shed. The 
 reason of this may not be quite obvious at first sight ; but 
 if we recall what has already been said in reference to 
 fig. 1, where the warp line is sunk to cause the upper 
 half of the shed to be a little loose, we will see that the 
 threads must be held in that position, both during the 
 beating up of the shot and the passage of the shuttle 
 through the shed, that these movements may have no in- 
 fluence to disturb or put them out of their position. This 
 is the best length of pause that can be given for that 
 purpose. Then, as the crank shaft makes two revolutions 
 for one of the wiper shaft, the pause will be equal to one- 
 third of the circle described by the wiper ; consequently, 
 set off that distance on the circle C in the points E and 
 F. From these points draw diameters until they cut the 
 circle at G and H. Then that part of the circle D from 
 I to K will form the corresponding pause to E F. 
 
 How the curves are obtained. — What remains to be 
 done now is to join E I and F K with eccentric curves, to 
 open and close the shed in the manner we have already 
 described. (It will be noticed that there is only a third 
 of the circle left for that purpose. This is another exem- 
 plification of the remark we have already made, that any 
 
SHEDDING. 
 
 33 
 
 attempt made in the loom to spread the yarn is attended 
 with a corresponding strain on it. Had the threads not 
 required to be spread a shorter pause would have been 
 sufficient, and more time would have been given to the 
 opening and closing of the shed.) Divide the arcs E G 
 and F H into a certain number of equal parts, say six, 
 by radial lines. Divide one of these radial lines into 
 the same number of parts, but not equal. Where these 
 parts are equal the movements of the heddles will be uni- 
 form, but, in order to give them the eccentric movement 
 required, these divisions must be closer towards the outer 
 and inner circles, and farther apart towards the centre. 
 It is in this way that the eccentric movement is given to 
 them. (The divisions in the figure will be found to give 
 a good movement.) Through these points draw concentric 
 circles, or arcs, and through the points of intersection with 
 the radial lines draw the curve sought. 
 
 A defect in shedding ; how to remedy it. — We have 
 now given the outline of the shedding wiper so far as it 
 can be mathematically obtained, and had the treadles 
 moved up and down in a straight line no more would 
 have been necessary ; but, seeing that the treadles at their 
 point of contact with the wipers describe an arc of a circle, 
 which causes a defect, it must be remedied in some 
 way. We must first make that arc part of as large a 
 circle as can be got, that it may approach as near to a 
 straight line as possible, by making the distance between 
 the friction roller and the centre on which the treadle 
 moves as large as the loom will admit of, and keeping 
 the centre of the friction roller perpendicular with the 
 centre of the wiper shaft. When this is attended to, the 
 defect of the movement will be reduced to a minimum. 
 But in order to make it complete, a model of the wipers 
 in wood should be made and put in their place in the loom, 
 C 
 
34 
 
 SHEDDING. 
 
 when it will at once be seen where the defect is. It is an 
 absolute necessity in good shedding that the treadles be in 
 continuous contact with the wipers throughout the whole 
 revolution. This prevents any surging or jerking move- 
 ments in the leaves of the camb, and goes a far way to 
 produce a good fabric of cloth, as well as to spread and 
 save the yarn. 
 
 How the construction of the wipers affects the 
 spreading of the warp. — How the continuous easy contact 
 of the wipers with the treadles affects the spreading of the 
 warp, and at the same time has a tendency to save the yarn, 
 may require some explanation. A good many shedding 
 wipers are so constructed that, when the shed is open, the 
 treadle leaves the wiper at that part of the circle D from 
 I to K (fig. 3). As most tenters or tacklers insist on 
 tightening the leaves of their cambs, so that their shed 
 will rise quite clear," the treadle springs up to it, and, of 
 course, takes the leaf of the camb with it, and draws the 
 upper half of the shed quite tight. As we have already 
 seen, in reference to fig. 1, that, in order to spread the warp, 
 the upper half of the shed must be held a little loose, now, 
 when this occurs to draw it tight, the effect of lowering the 
 warp line at the heddles is entirely destroyed. And as 
 any surging and jerking movement of the heddle leaves 
 is prevented when the wipers and treadles are in con- 
 tinuous easy contact during the whole revolution, the 
 tendency to break the warp threads is greatly lessened. 
 
 Experience required to know the proper movement 
 of the leaves. — It is one thing to theorize on a subject, and 
 quite another thing to come to actual practice. This is 
 remarkably true in the case before us. One may know 
 all that we have said about shedding, and fail to produce 
 a good movement after all, from the fact that he may not 
 know it when he sees it. It requires an experienced eye 
 
SHEDDING. 
 
 35 
 
 to detect the proper movement of the leaves of the camb 
 when seen in operation. 
 
 Equalizing the sheds. — Various methods are employed 
 to equalize the sheds — that is, to make them both the same 
 size — and just as frequently with disastrous results to the 
 yarn. In the top mounting a cone with two steps is 
 sometimes employed for that purpose, the back leaf being 
 attached to the step of the largest diameter to force it up 
 farther than the front one ; sometimes one leaf of the 
 wipers is made larger than the other for the same purpose. 
 It will be quite evident with very little explanation that any 
 attempt of this sort will overstrain something ; and, in fact, 
 it overstrains the yarn, as well as the cordings and heddles 
 of the camb. If equal shedding be required, it can be much 
 better produced by the treadles, by making their connection 
 with the leaves at a point that would produce the desired 
 result ; but the sheds of a plain web cannot be made 
 exactly equal without making a loose and tight shed 
 alternately. To understand this more clearly, we will 
 consider it in connection with the lease rods. 
 
 How the lease rods affect the size of the shed. — The 
 lease rods, although they seem somewhat insignificant, play 
 a very important part in power-loom weaving. As their 
 name indicates, their primary purpose is to keep the lease, 
 so that when any of the threads are broken their proper 
 place may be readily found in the web. In order to 
 maintain this lease, the threads from one leaf of the 
 camb are put under, and those from the other above, one 
 of the rods, and reversed on the other. Consequently, 
 when one shed is opened, the threads open out from 
 between the two rods, and when the other is opened the 
 yarn closes round the front one — the one next to the camb. 
 This makes it quite impossible for this shed to rise as far 
 as the other one without putting a greater strain on the 
 
36 
 
 SHEDDING. 
 
 yarn. The difference in the leverage of the treadles ought 
 to be made to suit this. What we see from this arrange- 
 ment is, that the difference of the size of the two sheds will 
 be in exact proportion to the thickness of the lease rod next 
 the camb. Then by reducing it to its smallest dimensions, 
 and making the leverage of the treadles to correspond with 
 it, and the diameter of the roller for the top mounting as 
 small as will bring the leaves close together without 
 touching each other, will make the difference in the size 
 of the sheds almost imperceptible. 
 
 The action of the wipers as to time. — In regard to the 
 action of the wipers as to time in relation to the movement 
 of the lay for spreading the warp, the shed must be full open 
 when the shot is being beaten up. We have already ex- 
 plained why this is necessary when considering the length 
 of pause to be given to the wiper. This is also necessary 
 in heavy work to get on the weft. When the shot is beaten 
 up before the shed has been closed over it, it springs back 
 again ; besides, a much better skin is put on the cloth by 
 shedding at the proper time. By causing the shedding to 
 take place a little later, of course, the yarn may be saved a 
 good deal, especially at the selvages, but an inferior quality 
 of cloth will be produced. 
 
 Shedding fine yarn not requiring to be spread. — When 
 the yarn is not to be spread the shed only requires to be 
 open during the time the shuttle is passing through it. The 
 shot must be beaten up when the heddle leaves are even, 
 before any strain is thrown on the yarn by the shedding. 
 The shed should open to receive the shuttle as the lay 
 moves backward. The pauses of the wiper, of course, 
 will be made to suit this. These remarks apply more parti- 
 cularly to delicate yarn, as the best method of saving it. 
 
 A fallacy about shedding. — We would seek to direct 
 attention to a fallacy that is very tenaciously adhered 
 
SHEDDING. 
 
 37 
 
 to by a great many tenters and managers of power- 
 looms. It is this — that the wipers should be arranged 
 so that the leaf that is pressing down the treadle be 
 nearest to the side from which it is about to pick. It 
 is held that the cloth is much better when the shedding 
 IS performed in this relation to the pick. Some say that 
 it affects the selvages most; but we would ask, What 
 takes place in the loom to cause the difference ? We 
 think a careful consideration of the whole subject will 
 show quite distinctly that the benefit derived from this 
 arrangement is merely imaginary, although it will do 
 no harm. This method is most commonly practised 
 by hand-loom weavers, and is of some benefit to them, 
 ' as it is considerably easier to perform the work in this 
 way. By pressing down the treadle wdth the foot, and 
 throwing the shuttle from the same side, the weaver 
 is exerting himself in opposite directions, and by this 
 means is enabled to maintain the equilibrium of his 
 body much easier than if both forces were exerted in the 
 same direction. This will give a better command of the 
 tools, and through this means may affect the cloth ; but 
 so far as the power-loom is concerned no such consider- 
 ations can affect it. 
 
 The movements of the heddle-leaves for tweels, 
 diapers, &c., the same as those for plain. — The move- 
 ments given to the leaves of heddles for tweels, diapers, and 
 every description of cloth produced by leaves of heddles 
 are the same as those we have already described for plain 
 weaving — they must be eccentric in their movements. But 
 the difference in the number of leaves and the patterns of 
 cloth to be produced causes a slight difference in the shape 
 of the tappets and wipers necessary to produce these move- 
 ments, which we will now consider. 
 
 In tweels the greatest number of leaves should be up. 
 
38 
 
 SHEDDING. 
 
 — In tweels, and some other sorts of weaving, it was the 
 universal practice in shedding some years ago that the 
 greatest number of leaves were always down and the 
 smallest number up — that is, in the case of a four-leaf, for 
 example, it was always wrought with three leaves down 
 and one up ; or in a five-leaf tweel, four were always down 
 and one up when the shed was formed. This practice has 
 been reversed many years ago throughout nearly the whole 
 linen trade ; but the old system is still adhered to in some 
 places. This method of shedding causes a greater break- 
 age of the yarn. The friction of the shuttle passing and 
 re-passing over it causes it to get chafed and less able to 
 bear the strain of weaving; besides, there is a greater 
 proportion of it subject to be torn by any rag " that may 
 be on the shuttle. A greater obstruction is also given to the 
 passage of the shuttle, and the broken threads are not so 
 easily seen in the cloth. But, on the other hand, tweels 
 wrought with the greatest number of the leaves down have 
 generally a better appearance than when they are wrought 
 the opposite way ; in fact, the under side of the cloth has 
 always a better "skin," and is more ''level" than the 
 upper side. But the advantage thus gained will not 
 balance the disadvantages we have pointed out, except 
 perhaps in very light work. 
 
 How the length of pause for the different sorts of 
 wipers and tappets is found. — The only thing we have 
 yet to learn regarding the construction of wipers and 
 tappets for tw^eels, diapers, and other fabrics, beyond 
 what we have already explained in fig. 3, is the proper 
 breadth that will give the exact length of pause the cir- 
 cumstances require, the curves being found as we have 
 already described in fig. 3. We will endeavour to 
 explain very shortly a method by which the exact length 
 of pause of any wiper or tappet can be ascertained : 
 
SHEDDING. 
 
 39 
 
 Multiply the number of treads to be given in one revolu- 
 tion of the shaft on which the wipers are placed by four, 
 and the product will be the number of parts into which 
 the circle is to be divided. Four of these divisions of the 
 circle will represent one revolution of the crank shaft. As 
 the shed in tweels and diapers does not require to be kept 
 open longer than the crank makes half a revolution (except 
 in peculiar circumstances), two of these divisions will form 
 the face of the wiper, and one to close and one to open 
 the shed, and the other parts will form the small circle. 
 Take a four-leaf tweel, for example. As there are four 
 treads in one revolution, then four multiplied by four will 
 give sixteen parts into which to divide the circle, or a five- 
 leaf will require twenty divisions, and so on with any 
 number of treads, always giving two parts of the circle for 
 the pause when the shed is full, and one to open and one to 
 close the shed, and the remaining parts for the small circle. 
 Of course, this sort of wiper will only have one leaf down 
 when the shed is open ; but if it is desired to have one up 
 and all the others down, then it has only to be reversed — 
 two parts for the small circle, the same number for each 
 of the curves, and the remaining parts for the large circle. 
 
 Power gained in shedding by multiplying the num- 
 ber of treads. — In tweels that require considerable power 
 in shedding, such as heavy sacking, for example, the 
 wipers are sometimes made double, and consequently give 
 double the number of treads in one revolution of the shaft. 
 For example, in a four-leaf the circle will be divided into 
 thirty- two parts; for a five-leaf, forty; and so on; four 
 parts always representing one revolution of the crank, 
 because the shaft on which the wipers are placed will 
 require to be driven only at half the speed it would be 
 driven at in ordinary circumstances, and power will thus 
 be gained in direct proportion to the loss of motion. 
 
40 
 
 SHEDDING. 
 
 A star for a diaper explained. — What has ah-eady 
 been said will make it easily enough understood how the 
 ordinary tweel wipers are made. Fig. 4 is an example of a 
 star for a large diaper pattern, wrought with four leaves and 
 sixteen treads. In this case the warp threads are flushed 
 on both sides of the cloth. As it takes sixteen treads to 
 complete the pattern, so sixteen multiplied by four gives 
 sixty-four, the number of parts into which the circle has 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 A 
 
 been divided by the radial lines. The tappet marked 
 A only keeps down the leaf until one shot has been 
 put in, consequently two parts of the circle are all that 
 are necessary for the pause on it. Tappets B and D 
 both keep down the leaf until two shots are put in. 
 Then, after the two parts for the first shot, we must add 
 as many as will represent a complete revolution of the 
 crank for the second shot. This will give six parts for 
 
SHEDDING. 
 
 41 
 
 the face of each of these two tappets. Tappet D will 
 keep the leaf down during three picks, requiring two 
 parts for the first shot, and twice four for the other 
 two, making ten parts of the circle for the face of this 
 one. These are all shown in the figure. We have con- 
 structed these tappets according to rule, but where they 
 are so close together as they are in this example (which 
 is caused by the large number of treads to so few leaves) 
 an allowance must be made to give the friction roller 
 space to work between them, which will depend entirely 
 on its diameter, as well as other considerations. 
 
 The top mounting. — The equalizing of the sheds for 
 tweels, diapers, and similar patterns, as far as possible, 
 can be best accomplished with the treadles. To do it with 
 the top mounting is a very harsh way of working, and ought 
 not to be resorted to except in the case of an odd leaf, such 
 as a three or five-leaf tweel, and even with these great care 
 must always be taken that the ball that brings up this odd 
 leaf be no larger than what is necessary, so that nothing 
 may be overstrained. The best top mounting, where it can 
 possibly be applied, is the common rollers. But in large 
 tweels, and some other patterns, springs and elastic bands 
 are employed with advantage ; and where the number of 
 leaves are very large, or the pattern very intricate, such 
 as dice and damask tweels, wipers and barrels are dispensed 
 with altogether. Several machines have been invented 
 and patented for working the leaves, which we need not 
 describe here. The examples of treading we give in 
 another place will show whether the rollers can be em- 
 ployed, or what sort of top mounting is most suitable for 
 the particular pattern of cloth under consideration. 
 
 To eanalize the leverage of the treadles. — If the 
 treadles for more than two leaves are wrought from 
 the back of the loom — that is, at right angles to the 
 
42 
 
 SHEDDING. 
 
 camb — their leverage ought to be equalized by levers from 
 the side of the loom directly under the leaves of heddles, 
 and at right angles to the treadles. By connecting the 
 treadles to these levers, and the levers in turn to the 
 heddle leaves, the sheds by this means can be equalized ; 
 but by far the best way is to place the treadles themselves 
 right under the camb, and connect them directly with the 
 heddle leaves. 
 
 Setting the treadles. — To bring the treadles close 
 enough at the point, it will be necessary to heat them and 
 set to the required distance ; but, if there are many of them, 
 a separate pattern may be made for each with the required 
 bend, or one half of them may be wrought from one side 
 of the loom, and the other from the opposite side. 
 With this arrangement two shafts are necessary, with the 
 half of the wipers on each. 
 
 The clasps. — The lease rods in other than plain shed- 
 ding should be supplemented by what is termed in the trade 
 a pair of clasps — that is, two lease rods, one above and one 
 below the yarn immediately in front of the lease rods (that 
 is, nearer to the camb) — so that the sheds may all open from 
 the same point. As they are, or ought to be, equalized by 
 the treadles, this prevents any inequalities in the tension 
 of the yarn. 
 
 To find the number of teeth reauired in the wheel 
 and pinion to drive the wiper shaft. — We have now to 
 consider how these tweel shafts are driven. The ordinary 
 wiper shaft of the loom is only available for plain wipers, 
 as it makes a complete revolution for every two picks 
 and, consequently, can only make two sheds, hence the 
 necessity for a separate shaft when more than two treads 
 are required in one repeat of the pattern ; but this is 
 the most convenient shaft from which to drive it. In 
 these circumstances, then, to find the number of teeth 
 
SHEDDING. 
 
 45 
 
 required in the wheel and pinion respectively, we have 
 only to consider the relation in which the number of 
 treads in one revolution of the one shaft stands to the 
 number of picks made in one revolution of the other. 
 Take a five-leaf tw'eel, for example, that will be five 
 treads, and, as the other shaft always makes two picks 
 in one revolution, the number of teeth in the wheel and 
 pinion will be to each other as two are to five ; or one 
 with ten treads, the wheel and pinion will be to each other 
 as two are to ten, or one to five, which is the same thing. 
 This will give the relative proportion of the number of 
 teeth in each. The easiest method of finding the exact 
 number that each should contain is to take any convenient 
 number and multiply both by it. In the case of eight 
 treads, for example, let eight be the number by which we 
 are to multiply, then eight times two (the number of picks 
 in one revolution of the driving shaft) are sixteen, and 
 eight times eight (the number of treads in one revolution 
 of the shaft that is driven) are sixty-four, then sixteen and 
 sixty-four will be the number of teeth in wheel and pinion 
 respectively. Any other number may be used as a multi- 
 plier that will give more convenient dimensions. 
 
 Wheels necessary witli a large number of treads.— 
 When a large number of treads are required to make 
 the pattern, the wheel necessary to produce the proper 
 speed may be too large for the space at our disposal, or 
 otherwise inconvenient. In this case, it must be made of 
 a convenient size, and the speed regulated by an inter- 
 mediate wheel and pinion. When the wipers are driven 
 in this way, the product of the two driving wheels and the 
 product of the two that are driven will stand in the same 
 proportion to each other that the two picks stand ta 
 the number of treads, as we have seen in the previous- 
 example. 
 
44 
 
 SHEDDING. 
 
 To find any wheel in the train when the others are 
 known. — Sometimes when changing from one number of 
 treads to another it is only necessary to alter one of the 
 wheels in the train. The following examples will show 
 how to find any one of them when the others are known. 
 
 To find the number of teeth in the barrel wheel for ten 
 treads, the first driving wheel having twenty teeth, the 
 first driven wheel forty-eight, and the second driving wheel 
 thirty-six, multiply the first driving wheel by 5 — the barrel 
 wheel moving five revolutions for one of the first driving 
 wheel — and by the second driving wheel, and divide by 
 the first driven wheel as follows : — 
 
 20 teeth in first driving wheel. 
 5 
 
 100 
 
 3 6 teeth in second driving wheel. 
 
 "600 
 300 
 
 Teeth in first driven \ 48)3600(75 / teeth required for 
 wheel, J 336 t barrel wheel. 
 
 ^40 
 240 
 
 The following will show how to find the first driven 
 wheel, the others being 20, 36, and 75 respectively: — 
 
 20 teeth in first driving wheel. 
 
 5 
 
 100 
 
 3 6 teeth in second driving wheel. 
 
 "600 
 300 
 
 Teeth in barrel wheel, 75)3600(48 ( teeth required for first 
 
 300 ( driven wheel. 
 
 ~600 
 600 
 
SHEDDING. 
 
 45 
 
 To find the driving wheels, the operation requires to be 
 reversed, as, for example, to find the first driving wheel for 
 ten treads, the intermediate being 36 and 48, and the 
 barrel wheel 75, we have the following : — 
 
 5 ) 75 teeth in barrel wheel. 
 
 48 teeth in first driven wheeL 
 
 120 
 
 60 
 
 Teeth in second driving \ Qf^woQ/OQ -f required for first 
 wheel, / 720 driving wheel. 
 
 We find the second driving wheel in the following 
 manner : — 
 
 5 ) 75 teeth in barrel wheel. 
 
 ~T5~ 
 
 48 teeth in first driven wheel. 
 
 120 
 60 
 
 Teeth in first driving \ 20 720 
 
 wheel, J ^ . 
 
 3 6 teeth in second driving wheel. 
 
 The proof that they are correct. — To prove that the 
 wheels are all correct, multiply the two driving wheels 
 together, and the two that are driven, and divide the larger 
 number by the lesser. If the answer is 5 without a re- 
 mainder, then these are the proper wheels for ten treads. 
 Example — 
 
 75 teeth in barrel wheel. 
 
 48 teeth in first driven wheeL 
 Second driving wheel, 36 600 
 First driving wheel, 20 300 
 
 "720) 3600(5 
 3600 
 
46 
 
 SHEDDING. 
 
 Skewed bevel wheels ; how they are made. — The 
 
 best position for the treadles in other than plain weaving 
 is to work them from the side of the loom directly 
 under the heddle leaves. In that ease, the shaft on 
 which the wipers are placed will be at right angles to 
 the ordinary wiper shaft (the one by which it is driven), 
 and as they cannot both be in the same plane, the wiper 
 shaft will require to be driven by skewed bevel wheels. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 In what they differ from the ordinary bevel wheels 
 is shown at fig. 5. The teeth, instead of running in to 
 the centre, are drawn tangent to a circle, the diameter 
 of which is found by taking the distance between the 
 centres of the two shafts and dividing it proportionally 
 to the mean radii of the wheel and pinion, and each 
 division taken as a radius of a circle, to which the teeth 
 of the wheel and pinion respectively are drawn tangent. 
 
( 47 ) 
 
 THE PICK. 
 
 General remarks. — The pick is generally a very harsh 
 movement, that reacts with injurious effect throughout the 
 whole loom. Why it is so we can only account for by the 
 fact that it is so little understood, because any of these 
 movements can be made to work quite smooth and easy, 
 without any of the harshness that too often accompanies 
 them. From among the various movements employed for 
 that purpose, we will select the cone pick for illustration. 
 It is so named, w^e presume, because the friction roller on 
 which the wiper acts frequently has the shape of a cone. 
 In explaining the action of this movement, we are explain- 
 ing the action of all the other movements that throw the 
 shuttle (as distinguished from those that carry it through 
 the shed). The same principles govern them all. 
 
 The cone pick— an application of a lever of the first 
 order. — The cone pick is simply an application of a lever 
 of the first order. The stud on which the wiper acts and 
 the w^ooden arm to which the picker is attached are its two 
 arms, and the upright shaft is the fulcrum on which it 
 moves. The length of this shaft is a matter of no im- 
 portance, so far as its action is concerned, provided it is 
 strong enough to resist the torsional strain thrown on it. 
 The result would be the same if it was reduced to a point. 
 This aspect of it is explained in the plan, fig. 6, where the 
 upright shaft is not seen ; A is the short arm of the lever, 
 and B is the long arm that moves through a much larger 
 space, dragging the picker behind it, the picker in turn 
 propelling the shuttle across the loom. 
 
 The action of the picking wiper. — The action of the 
 picking wiper imparts a certain amount of force. An 
 impulse is given to the short arm of the lever or stud, 
 that must be proportioned to the amount of work to 
 
48 
 
 THE PICK. 
 
 be accomplished, or resistance to be overcome, within a 
 given time, and in such a manner as will render its action 
 quite smooth and easy. To get at this, then, we have 
 to consider the direction in which this force is applied, 
 its point of contact with the lever, and its magnitude. 
 
 Fio. 6. 
 
 The direction of the force transmitted by the wiper. 
 
 — The point of contact of the tappet of the picking wiper 
 with the friction roller on the stud will determine the 
 direction in which the force is conveyed from the former 
 to the latter. This is owing to the end of the lever (as 
 
THE PICK. 
 
 49 
 
 represented by the friction roller on tlie stud) being cir- 
 cular. The direction of the force thus transmitted will 
 be at right angles to a line drawn tangent to the circum- 
 ference of the friction roller at the point of its contact 
 with the wiper, as shown at A, fig. 7 — the line A ex- 
 tending in the direction of the force. 
 
 The true secret of the harshness or smoothness of 
 the pick. — The harshness or smoothness of the picking 
 movement for the most part depends on the angle the 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 \ rvvi 
 
 \ 
 
 line A (fig. 7) makes with the axis of the upright shaft 
 or fulcrum, on which the lever moves. The best angle, 
 of course, is right angles, but it is not so easy to transmit 
 the force in that line and at the same time maintain its 
 magnitude. The nearer this can be approached, however, 
 the smoother will be the action of the pick. 
 
 The preceding statement illustrated. — We wall here 
 illustrate the previous statement in a way to make it more 
 clearly understood by the action of the common balance. 
 Let A B, fig. 8, be a lever, and C a weight attached to it 
 D 
 
50 
 
 THE PICK. 
 
 at right angles. It will require more weight at D to 
 balance it, owing to the angle at which it is attached, 
 because a portion of the weight is imparted to the support 
 E, and consequently lost to the lever. It is exactly 
 the same thing that takes place with the pick when 
 the force is transmitted at other than right angles. 
 A greater force is required to throw the shuttle, because 
 part of it is sent vibrating through the loom, and never 
 reaches its proper destination. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 0 
 
 (2] 
 
 The verification of the preceding statement. — The 
 
 statement we have already made regarding the harshness 
 of the pick may be verified by any one who may take the 
 trouble to examine a harsh working pick for himself. 
 The tappet strikes the cone beneath (if the loom is 
 revolving in that direction), and jerks its way round, 
 pressing the stud up as well as pushing it back, con- 
 sequently that portion of the force expended on the 
 upward pressure is lost to the pick ; it merely causes a 
 vibration in the loom, and that harshness to the pick so 
 detrimental to the working of the whole machine. 
 
 How the direction of the force is regulated. — The 
 direction of the force of the pick is regulated by the relative 
 
THE PICK. 
 
 51 
 
 positions of the wiper shaft and the picking stud. We 
 have already explained what their distance apart should 
 be,* and we must add here that the stud must be con- 
 siderably lower in the loom than the wiper shaft. But, in 
 order to make a proper adjustment when designing a 
 loom, in the first one that is made the upright shaft 
 should be carried in movable brackets, and the stud made 
 to move either up or down, until their proper position has 
 been ascertained. Of course, the point of contact between 
 the tappet and the cone will be seen, and from this the 
 direction of the force ascertained. 
 
 The magnitude of the force. — To find the magnitude 
 or amount of force necessary for the work to be ac- 
 complished — a certain amount of matter moved through 
 a certain space in a given length of time — is perhaps 
 the most difiicult problem. What makes the difficulty 
 is, that we have no means of measuring it. We would 
 require to ascertain the actual amount of matter con- 
 tained in the shuttle, and the weft in it ; the resistance 
 it has to overcome in its passage across the loom; the 
 space through which it has to move, and the time 
 occupied ; and what amount of force a tappet of a 
 given length and shape revolving at a given speed 
 would transmit. The whole movement partakes rather 
 of the character of a blow. The time is a mere fraction 
 of the unit employed in these calculations, which renders 
 any attempt quite impracticable. It can only be ascer- 
 tained by experiments ; and these must be repeated 
 several times, until the most accurate results have been 
 arrived at. 
 
 How the proper magnitude may be obtained. — Al- 
 though we have no definite rule by which we can cut out 
 
 * See Upright Picking Shaft. 
 
52 
 
 THE PICK. 
 
 the exact picking tappet we require just at once, there are 
 certain things by which we can, to some extent, be 
 guided in this matter. The intensity of the force, then, 
 will depend on the length of the tappet and the part of 
 the circle the working face will occupy. This is illustrated 
 in fig. 9. From A to B is the length of the tappet — let 
 us suppose it to be three inches — and from B to C that 
 part of the revolution the wiper shaft will make during 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 the time the impulse is given. This gives us an idea as 
 to time and space. Experience teaches that the shorter 
 the tappet is its action will require to be more sudden ; 
 and as it is lengthened (of course, within certain limits), 
 more time may be allowed — that is, the working face will 
 occupy a larger part of the circle, as shown at B C. A 
 considerable length of tappet, well timed, makes a smoother 
 pick than if short and sharp. 
 
THE PICK. 
 
 53 
 
 How the picking tappet is proportioned to different 
 breadths of loom. — When the tappet has been properly 
 constructed for one breadth of loom, it will only be 
 necessary to make a slight difference in its length for 
 any other breadth of loom of the same construction. 
 After the proper length has been ascertained for any 
 two different breadths, the length for any other breadth 
 can easily be ascertained. As the difference of the 
 reed space of the two looms is to the difference of 
 the length of their tappets, any other difference in the 
 reed space will require a proportionate difference in the 
 length of tappet ; or, to put it in this way, if an addi- 
 tional ten inches of reed space require an additional one- 
 eighth of an inch to the length of the tappet, any other 
 additional ten inches will require the same, or the reverse 
 will be the case if it is ten inches less. 
 
 The construction of the picking wiper and the 
 reasons for it. — A good deal depends on the proper 
 construction of the whole picking wiper. It ought to 
 be made up in three parts — the socket, the disc, and 
 the tappet. The socket should not be fixed quite close 
 to the end frame of the loom, but made so as it can 
 be easily moved, either one way or the other, for the 
 proper adjustment of the strength of the pick. This is 
 necessary, because the slightest variation of the wiper 
 shaft or the upright shaft from their relative positions 
 affects the strength of the pick ; but after its proper 
 adjustment at the start of the loom, it should not be 
 moved again. The disc should be made to move round 
 on the socket for some distance, to secure the proper 
 adjustment of the pick as to time, otherwise the wheels 
 of the crank and wiper shafts may require to be taken 
 out of gear occasionally for that purpose, with less 
 favourable results. The disc should not be circular, but 
 
54 
 
 THE PICK. 
 
 cam-shaped, as shown at fig. 9, so that it will draw up the 
 slack of the picker strap quite gently before the tappet 
 comes into action and the shuttle begins to move. This 
 prevents the shuttle being thrown with a jerk. The work- 
 ing face of the tappet, from the point where it begins to 
 move the shuttle, ought to be straight, but skewed so that 
 a proper bearing may be obtained between it and the cone, 
 and made broadest towards the point, as it is most liable to 
 wear at its extremity. It should also be well rounded at 
 the point. When made any w^ay sharp, it soon gets worn ; 
 and, of course, the force is weakened and the tappet will 
 require to be replaced sooner than would be otherwise 
 necessary. 
 
 Re-dressing the tappets— a mistake. — A practice pre- 
 vails in almost all power-loom factories of re-dressing 
 the face of the tappets when they get worn. This is, 
 in many instances, a most mischievous practice that 
 cannot be too carefully avoided, as it is the cause of 
 much of the bad working and knocking off of the loom. 
 It may seem somewhat bold to denounce a practice so 
 universally adhered to ; but we have had ample oppor- 
 tunity of testing the truth of what we say. When re- 
 dressed — no matter how skilfully — they cannot be the 
 same as when they were new. Other things often require 
 to be altered to suit the altered condition of the tappet ; 
 and when this is repeated, the wdiole loom very often gets 
 into a perfect muddle. Unless in the hands of experienced 
 men, the result is very bad working looms. When pro- 
 perly made, a tappet should run for years without requiring 
 to be replaced. For proof of this, see actual practice. 
 
 The race course of the shuttle. — We have considered 
 the movement of the pick so far as the wiper and the 
 lever are concerned, and have now to consider the im- 
 pulse given to the shuttle itself. We have to see that 
 
THE PICK. 
 
 55 
 
 the direction of the force is in the proper line, and 
 that no obstruction is in the way to throw the shuttle 
 out of its course. This implies that the lay must 
 be straight, and the reed and back boxes in line, and 
 the front boxes parallel with them ; and that the rod 
 and groove on which the picker moves be parallel with 
 the boxes. 
 
 The length of the shuttle box.— To find the proper 
 length of the shuttle box, the length of traverse to be 
 given to the picker must first be ascertained, which will 
 be equal to the space through which the point of the 
 arm will move. Then, suppose the tappet to be three 
 inches long (A B, fig. 9), and that it is situate six inches 
 from the fulcrum, and that the point of the wooden 
 arm measures thirty inches from the fulcrum, it will move 
 through a space of fifteen inches. This resolves itself 
 into a question of direct proportion : as the lengths of the 
 two arms are to each other, the distances through which 
 they move will be in the same ratio ; but to this distance 
 we must add the breadth of the picker, and a little more, 
 that it may move freely. This will be the length of the 
 shuttle box. 
 
 The reason that a loom with long shuttle boxes 
 generally works well. — There is an idea prevalent 
 amongst the uninitated that long shuttle boxes make a 
 smoother pick and in every way a better working loom 
 than when the boxes are short. It is not the boxes that 
 cause this, but long boxes always accompany a good 
 working pick. When they are short, the pick must of 
 necessity be short and sharp, because the picker has but 
 a short space in which to move. It is much better to 
 lengthen the tappet considerably, and give more time for 
 its action ; the shuttle will move steadier, and its chances 
 of being thrown out of the loom will be less. 
 
56 
 
 THE PICK. 
 
 The time of the pick in relation to the movements 
 of the lay. — The movement of the shuttle must be regu- 
 lated to work in conjunction with the other movements 
 of the loom. It should just begin to move when the lay- 
 is in the centre of its stroke. 
 
 A suggestion to reduce the tear and wear in con- 
 nection with the picking movement. — There is a great 
 tear and wear connected with the picking movement. 
 Considerable expense is incurred for shuttles, pickers, 
 straps, and all the other parts connected with it. Great 
 part of this is caused by the harshness of its action. 
 The easier it can be accomplished, it will not only work 
 better, but it will be less expensive to the owner. Even 
 when the utmost has been done that will render the pick 
 easy in its movement, there will still be a considerable 
 drag on the movement of the shuttle, caused by the 
 weight of the protector pressing on the back of the 
 
 swell." This is necessary to prevent the rebound 
 of the shuttle when thrown into the box; but its 
 effects are injurious when it acts on the shuttle at the 
 time of its being thrown out again. A movement of 
 very simple construction might be made to lift this 
 weight off the swell just at the moment the shuttle 
 is being thrown out of the box, and immediately let fall 
 again. It could be accomplished by an eccentric or 
 cam of some sort on the end of the crank shaft, with 
 a connecting rod to the lifter on the back of the 
 shuttle box. We give this suggestion for what it is 
 worth ; but it is at least worthy of the attention of 
 those concerned.* 
 
 * We are glad to be able to state that since this suggestion first 
 appeared we have learned, from various correspondents throughout 
 the country, that it has been acted upon with the best results. 
 
( 57 ) 
 
 THE SHUTTLE PROTECTOR. 
 
 The automatic movements of the power-loom. — The 
 
 three principal movements in all descriptions of textile 
 machinery are the same as those employed in the hand- 
 loom ; shedding, picking, and felling — beating np the 
 shot — must take place before cloth can be made, either 
 by hand or steam power. But there is this difference 
 between hand and power-loom weaving ; in the former, 
 the weaver can regulate the movements of his loom when 
 he sees it necessary, to suit the varied circumstances in 
 which he may be placed, or cope with any emergency that 
 may occur ; but in the power-loom this reasoning and 
 guiding faculty, by which the movements of the hand-loom 
 are regulated, is absent, and hence the necessity of the 
 various automatic movements that form part of the power- 
 loom in addition to the three movements necessary to 
 make the cloth. Perhaps the most important of these is 
 the protector. Its action affects the whole loom in a 
 very important manner. 
 
 The action of the protector. — The action of the pro- 
 tector is very injurious to the loom. The latter is 
 brought to a sudden stand when it chaps off " while 
 all its parts are in full motion, and consequently the 
 united momenta of all the moving parts of the loom 
 are concentrated in the stroke the protector gives. In 
 these circumstances, when the loom is driven beyond a 
 comparatively slow speed, the swords and wheels and all 
 the other parts are broken and disarranged by the in- 
 creased momentum of the stroke. 
 
 By reducing the momentum of the working parts of 
 the loom, we reduce the force of the protector's stroke. 
 — When we reduce the diameters and weight of the wheels 
 
58 
 
 THE SHUTTLE PROTECTOR. 
 
 and pulleys (more especially the fly wheel, which is only 
 required as a hand wheel to turn the loom), the radius of 
 the swords, and the weight of the lay and its mountings, 
 as far as practicable, we reduce the force of the stroke 
 given by tlie protector. This is the main object to be 
 gained, but before it can be accomplished, all the other 
 movements of the loom (on account of their being inter- 
 mittent) must be divested of any reaction that may require 
 an accumulation of force in the moving parts of the loom 
 to make its motion equable. When this is done, we have 
 only to contend with the beating up of the shot, and as 
 the momentum is increased to overcome this, the speed of 
 the loom should be reduced. 
 
 The wheels broken by the concussion of their teeth. 
 — When the loom is knocked off by the protector, the 
 wheels are broken by the concussion of their teeth. This 
 is caused by the crank shaft pinion being brought to a 
 sudden stand, while the wiper shaft wheel has a tendency 
 to go on by the force it will have gained ; consequently, 
 it can only be stopped by the concussion of its teeth with 
 those of the crank shaft pinion. What we see from this 
 is, that the less play there is between the teeth of these 
 two wheels the force of the concussion will be the less, 
 and their tendency to be broken will thus be reduced. 
 
 A cause of the swords breaking. — In some makes of 
 looms, wrought with the protector movement, a consider- 
 able breakage takes place amongst the swords, which is 
 often caused by their own leverage — the vertical distance 
 between A, fig. 10, the connecting pin of the sword, 
 and B, the protector, being too great. This will be 
 easily enough understood when we consider that the 
 force of the stroke is applied at A and is stopped at B. 
 The force at A thus stopped at B will affect the swords 
 in a direct ratio to the distance between these two points ; 
 
THE SHUTTLE PROTECTOR. 
 
 but, of course, the intensity of the stroke has as much to 
 do with the breaking of the swords as this. 
 
 Where the protector should be fixed. — The protector 
 is frequently fixed in a bracket attached to the lay. 
 Nothing could be worse for the loom than this, es- 
 pecially if it is of a heavy make. Its action has a 
 tendency to draw the lay round out of its proper position, 
 
 and the repeated strokes sever the fibres of the wood of 
 which it is made. When the lay gets distorted in this 
 way, the shuttle is interrupted in its passage across the 
 loom, and causes a very harsh movement. The protector 
 should be fixed to the swords below the lay, in some such 
 manner as shown at fig. 10. 
 
 The length of the protector. — The length of the 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 f] 
 
THE SHUTTLE PROTECTOR. 
 
 protector should be such as will keep the shuttle clear of 
 the warp when it is in the shed, but no more. When 
 too long, it has a tendency to catch the buffer before 
 the shuttle has had time to raise it. It should rise about 
 a quarter of an inch clear of the buffer. When raised 
 too high, it gives more work to the shuttle than is 
 necessary. 
 
 The twofold purpose of the protector. — The protector 
 serves a twofold purpose. Besides protecting the warp 
 from being smashed " by the shuttle, it also stops the 
 rebound of the shuttle when thrown into the box of 
 the lay. If it had not the " belly " of the swell to push 
 back, to retard its motion, something else w^ould require 
 to be provided for that purpose. 
 
 Advantages obtained with the protector constructed 
 on correct principles. — We can gather from what has 
 iilready been said on this subject that the principal things 
 to be attended to in the construction of the protector 
 are — to make its stroke as light as possible, by re- 
 ducing to a minimum the momentum of all the working 
 parts of the loom, making the leverage of the stroke on 
 the swords as short as can be, and throwing the stroke 
 on that part of the loom where it will be least felt ; and 
 just as these objects are attained will a higher speed be 
 possible, and much breakage prevented. 
 
 The fly reed. — By the fly reed movement most of the 
 evils attending the common protector are remedied. No 
 stroke is given to knock off the loom and keep back the 
 reed from knocking the shuttle through the warp ; the 
 reed flies back, and this is not necessary. The handle of the 
 loom is put off quite gently, as the lay turns the fore 
 centre, and the loom continues to revolve until the power 
 is withdrawn ; but, unfortunately, the fly reed as it is 
 ,at present is not applicable to heavy or even medium 
 
THE TAKE-UP MOTION. 
 
 61 
 
 work. The reed is not firm enough to give a sufficient 
 stroke when beating up the shot. Under these circum- 
 stances, Ave must continue to use the protector where the 
 fiy reed cannot be applied, until something better has 
 been got to fill its place ; but a knowledge of its action, 
 and the principles that are involved, will enable us to 
 reduce its bad effects to a minimum. 
 
 THE TAKE-UP MOTION. 
 
 How it operates. — This is another of the automatic 
 movements that are necessary in the power-loom. By 
 it the thickness of the cloth is regulated — that is, the 
 closeness of the weft threads — the closeness of the warp 
 being determined by the fineness of the reed. Although 
 it is by this movement that the number of shots on the 
 cloth is regulated, it is not by it that the yarn is drawn 
 from the beam. It takes away what has been brought 
 forward by the action of the reed, and as the warp is 
 drawn tight, the forming of the next shed and the beat- 
 ing up of the shot draw the yarn from the beam, to be 
 taken away in cloth by the take-up motion. 
 
 The drag and positive motions. — There are two de- 
 scriptions of take-up motions — the drag and the positive 
 motions. The drag motion is wrought by a lever, 
 weighted to suit the fabric of cloth to be produced, the 
 weight being changed frequently, to lessen the speed of 
 the cloth roller as its diameter increases by the winding 
 of the cloth on it. The distinctive feature of the 
 ^positive motion is the introduction of the feed roller* 
 
THE TAKE-UP MOTION. 
 
 As it is not affected by any alteration in its diameter, 
 the cloth being wound on a separate one, its move- 
 ment is the same throughout the whole time the same 
 fabric of cloth is being wrought ; consequently, this 
 admits of it being driven by a train of wheels, and it 
 will thus require less attention and produce an evener 
 fabric of cloth. 
 
 The fabrics for which the drag motion is best 
 adapted, and the reasons. — The positive take-up motion 
 is now almost universally adopted ; but there are a few 
 fabrics for which the drag motion is better fitted ; this 
 is owing to the feed roller being a greater distance from 
 the fell of the cloth than the cloth beam of the drag 
 motion. The feed roller requires to be low in the loom, 
 that it may carry the roller on which the cloth is wound 
 above it, its weight keeping it in contact with the feed 
 roller. In the long stretch from the fell of the cloth 
 to the feed roller, the cloth has a tendency to get drawn 
 in passing down to it, and thus alter the fabric of the 
 cloth after it has passed the breast beam. This is 
 more particularly the case in heavy work, the tension of 
 every shed being thrown on it ; the greater the tension 
 the greater tendency will it have to get drawn. This is 
 the principal reason that government canvas and duck is 
 seldom if ever wrought with the positive motion. The 
 hackles required in the feed roller for fabrics of that sort 
 would also be injurious to the cloth. 
 
 The wheels of the positive motion. — The number and 
 pitch of the teeth, and the diameter and even the num- 
 ber of wheels in the train for the positive motion, will 
 depend entirely on the fabrics to be wrought, as well as on 
 the construction of the movement itself; but, in any 
 case, it should be capable of producing considerable 
 variety. What seems to be the only thing requir- 
 
THE TAKE-UP MOTION. 
 
 63 
 
 iug explanation here is the change pinion, to find the 
 number of teeth required to produce any given number 
 of shots. 
 
 Rule to find the number of teeth required to produce 
 a given number of shots. — The rule to find the number 
 of teeth required in the change pinion to produce a given 
 number of shots on the inch of cloth is as follows : — 
 Multiply the number of shots on one inch by the circum- 
 ference of the feed roller in inches ; divide the product 
 by the number of teeth in the ratchet wheel ; and by the 
 quotient thus obtained divide the number of teeth con- 
 tained in the feed roller wheel. The answer will be the 
 number of teeth required in the change pinion. Take 
 the following as an example : — With a ratchet wheel 
 with 120 teeth, and the feed roller wheel with 90, 
 and the circumference of the roller 15 inches ; required 
 the number of teeth in the change pinion to produce 36 
 shots per inch. 
 
 Shots on one inch, ... ... 36 
 
 Circumference of feed roller, ... 15 inches. 
 
 Tso 
 
 36 
 
 Teeth in ratchet wheel, 120 ) 540 ( 4*5 
 
 480 
 600 
 600 
 
 The number of teeth in the feed roller wheel is now 
 divided by 4*5, as follows : — 
 
 4-5 ) 90*0 ( 20 teeth in change pinion. 
 90-0 
 
 There is sometimes a remainder, but the nearest whole 
 number is the pinion required. 
 
64 
 
 THE TAKE-UP MOTION. 
 
 Explanation of the preceding example. — It will be 
 seen from the above calculation that the number of 
 shots on one inch, multiplied by the circumference of 
 the roller in inches, gives the number of shots on one 
 revolution of the roller ; and as the ratchet wheel moves 
 one tooth for every shot put into the web, to divide 
 the number of shots on one revolution of the roller by the 
 ninnber of teeth in the ratchet wheel will give the number 
 of revolutions it will make for one of the roller. The 
 change pinion being attached to the same spindle with the 
 ratchet wheel, it makes the same number of revolutions. 
 This is what we really wish to get at. Now, in the 
 example just shown, the change pinion makes 4*5 revolu- 
 tions for one of the roller wheel, and it will be quite 
 obvious that to divide the number of teeth in the latter 
 by the revolutions of the former will give the number 
 of teeth required in the change pinion. 
 
 An example under other conditions. — Sometimes it 
 is inconvenient to have the feed roller wheel of the 
 dimensions required for the particular fabric to be 
 wrought, but instead one of a convenient size is put 
 on, and a wheel and pinion introduced to regulate its 
 speed. The tenter's glass, too, is sometimes an in- 
 convenient fraction of an inch, and moreover it is also 
 necessary on occasions to move the ratchet wheel more 
 than one tooth for each shot. Perhaps these conditions 
 may not be all combined in one loom at the same time ; 
 but w^e will give an example including them all : — 
 
 Given a take-up motion with a ratchet ^vheel with 
 eighty teeth, moving two teeth for every shot, the roller 
 wheel with eighty-three teeth, and the intermediate wheels 
 with fifty and thirty-three teeth respectively, the roller 
 measuring 14| inches in circumferences ; required the 
 number of teeth in the change pinion to give ten shots on 
 
THE TAKE-UP MOTION. 
 
 65 
 
 the glass, the glass measuring nine -tenths of an inch. 
 Fig. 11 shows the connection of the wheels, which will 
 make it easier understood.* 
 
 First find the number of shots that will be put into the 
 web during one revolution of the roller. Perhaps the 
 best way to state it will be as follows : — If '9 of an inch 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 I I — I u 
 
 contains 10 shots, how many shots will be on 14*5 inches ? 
 Thus— 
 
 •9 : 14-5 : : 10 
 10 
 
 '9 I 145-0 
 
 161*1 shots on circumference of roller. 
 
 To find the number of teeth that will be required iii 
 the roller wheel, with the intermediate wheels omitted. 
 It will be obvious, with a little consideration, that to 
 multiply the number of teeth in the roller wheel by those 
 in the one geared with the change pinion, and divide by 
 
 * The figures we are using are of no importance beyond show- 
 ing the method of calculation. 
 E 
 
66 
 
 THE TAKE-UP MOTION. 
 
 the one geared with itself, will give the number required, 
 We have thus — 
 
 83 
 
 50 
 
 33)4150 ( 126 number required. 
 33 
 
 85 
 66 
 190 
 198 
 
 As the ratchet wheel has 80 teeth, and moves two for 
 every shot, that will be equal to a wheel with 40 teeth. 
 
 We have now what is equivalent to a ratchet wheel 
 with 40 teeth — a roller wheel with 126 teeth, and 161 
 shots on the circumference of the roller. Then divide 
 161 by 40, thus— 
 
 40)161(4 
 160 
 1 
 
 and 126 by 4, as follows : — 
 
 4 )126 
 31-5 
 
 which gives 31 or 32 teeth in the pinion required. 
 
 When changing from one count to another, the pinion 
 can be found by inverse proportion. Thus, if 20 teeth 
 give 36 shots, how many teeth will be required to give 40 
 shots. Example : — 
 
 40 : 36 : : 20 
 36 
 120 
 60 
 
 40)720(18 teeth. 
 40 
 320 
 320 
 
( 67 ) 
 
 THE PACE. 
 
 The tension of the yarn. — By the pace is meant that 
 slow movement by which the warp is drawn from the 
 beam during the operation of weaving. The beauty of 
 the cloth depends very much on the tension at which it is 
 held : when too slack, it presents a very raw, unsightly 
 appearance that no amount of finish can remedy. All 
 descriptions of cloth should be wrought nearly as tight as 
 the strength of the yarn will admit of, but when too 
 tight, besides breaking the yarn, it gives to the cloth a 
 hard corded-like appearance. Yery little observation 
 will enable the tenter to know what pace will give it 
 that " skin " so desirable in all descriptions of cloth. 
 
 The uniformity of the tension. — A uniform tension 
 must be secured throughout the breadth of the web. 
 This implies, that all the beams and rails of the loom 
 over which the yarn and cloth passes must be parallel 
 with each other, and that the yarn be wound on the 
 beam with an equal tension, no tighter at one side than 
 the other. If any of these are neglected, the result is, 
 one part of the web is tight and the other slack, which 
 produces unequal cloth — it also causes the leaves of the 
 camb to " wink," which breaks the yarn, and makes the 
 loom " chap off," and is very detrimental to loom, yarn, 
 and cloth altogether. 
 
 The different methods of pacing. — There are several 
 ways of applying the pace cord according to the tension 
 required. In heavy work, to gain power without having 
 recourse to much weight, several plies of the cord may 
 be taken round the friction pulley on the beam ; but in 
 light work the cord should not be taken round the pulley 
 at all. It has a tendency to cause irregularities in the 
 
68 
 
 Plow THE WINDING AFFECTS THE WEAVING. 
 
 cloth. Two or three ply of it should be hung over the 
 pulleys. Of course the friction of these pulleys will be 
 in proportion to their diameter and size of cord put over 
 them. The greater the friction surface the less weight 
 or leverage will be required. 
 
 An objectionable method of pacing. — A very objection- 
 able method of pacing is sometimes resorted to in some 
 places. An iron strap is thrown over the friction 
 pulleys on the beam, and held in a fixed position by 
 means of a lever secured by screws. This is intended to 
 prevent the weaver altering the pace of the web unknown 
 to the overseer. That it has effected this purpose no 
 overseer who has had the experience of it will affirm. 
 Be that as it may, however, its effects on the cloth are 
 what concern us at present. If the yarn beams and their 
 friction pulleys could be kept perfectly true, this method 
 might do for heavy work ; but a short time often suffices 
 to warp and otherwise distort these beams ; then their un- 
 equal movements are transferred to the cloth in slack and 
 tight places alternately. It is thus rendered almost im- 
 possible to produce an even fabric of cloth. 
 
 HOW THE WINDING AFFECTS THE 
 WEAVING. 
 
 The diameter of the pirn or cop. — The winding affects 
 the weaving in a very material manner, in proportion to 
 the dimensions of the pirns or cops that are used. Many 
 manufacturers and others engaged in power-loom weaving 
 endeavour to make them as large as possible, that the 
 
HOW THE WINDING AFFECTS THE WEAVING. 69 
 
 stoppages of the loom to change the shuttle when the 
 weft runs down be as seldom as possible. There is a 
 certain limit to this, beyond which it is unwise to go. 
 We have already explained in another place that the 
 larger the shed is, the greater is the strain thrown on the 
 yarn. Now, as the shed must be regulated in size by the 
 width and height of the shuttle, and the dimensions of the 
 shuttle in turn determined by the diameter of the pirn or 
 cop to be placed in it, it follows as a matter of course 
 that the diameter of the pirn cannot be increased beyond 
 a certain limit without disastrous consequences to the 
 warp threads. What that limit is must be learned by 
 experience in relation to the yarn to be woven. It is quite 
 evident, however, that the shuttle can be changed several 
 times during the time required to mend one broken thread ; 
 and if by increasing the size of the shed to admit of a 
 larger pirn one thread is broken during the working of a 
 single pirn or cop, instead of saving time a very decided 
 loss has been caused. 
 
 The length of the pirn or cop. — As long shuttle boxes 
 are a necessary accompaniment of a good working pick 
 when cops are wrought with, the full advantage of 
 this should be taken to make them as long as may be 
 practicable. This cannot be said of pirns, because as 
 they get empty the friction of the weft thread on the pirn 
 increases, and, consequently, the tension at which the 
 thread is held. This causes an uneven selvage on the 
 web, and has a tendency to break the selvage threads 
 w^hen the pirn is getting empty. No matter what length 
 the cop is, it produces a uniform selvage throughout, and 
 a very superior one in every respect to that made even 
 by the shortest pirn. 
 
 The size and momentum of the shuttle. — Perhaps 
 the most important aspect in which we can look at 
 
70 
 
 THE SPEED OF THE LOOM, ETC. 
 
 the above subject is the size of the shuttle itself. When 
 we increase the size we increase the weight also, and, 
 consequently, its momentum while moving across the 
 loom. It also requires a broader lay, and heavier mount- 
 ings ; and, as the one movement is so connected with all 
 the others, everything must be proportionally increased in 
 strength. The strength of the pick must also be increased 
 in proportion to the size of the shuttle ; in fact, the 
 strength of the whole loom requires to be regulated as 
 much to the size of the shuttle as to the fabric of cloth to 
 be woven. And, moreover, large shuttles do not work so 
 well as smaller ones ; they are much easier thrown out of 
 the line of their movement, and there is a greater tear 
 and wear in almost all the movements of the loom. All 
 this shows us that we should be very judicious in deter- 
 mining the size of pirns, cops, and shuttles to be used in 
 the power-loom. 
 
 THE SPEED OF THE LOOM, DRIVING 
 GEAR, &c. 
 
 What determines the speed at which the loom is to be 
 driven. — What is the most profitable speed at which the 
 power-loom can be driven ? is a question that does not 
 always get the attention that its importance demands. 
 It is one of considerable consequence to the manufac- 
 turer, and will always be getting more so. As time goes 
 on, the principles of economy will require to be more 
 rigidly investigated, and applied to all branches of in- 
 
THE SPEED OF THE LOOM, ETC. 
 
 71 
 
 dustiy. In the cotton trade, the highest speed attained 
 is 200 picks per minute, the finer linen 180. In the 
 jute trade, and also some woollen fabrics, 125 picks per 
 minute is about the maximum speed yet reached ; but the 
 highest speed that can be wrought at is not always the most 
 profitable. The loom may be driven faster than is com- 
 patible with the strength of the yarn, or than the loom 
 itself will stand. If frequent breakages occur among the 
 yarn or the parts of the loom, caused by an extra 
 speed, then the loss is much greater than the gain. 
 These evils, however, do not arise from the speed at 
 which the shuttle moves across the loom. The cause 
 may either be imperfect shedding, an inferior quality of 
 yarn, or an imperfect construction of the loom itself, or 
 these all combined. We have already explained these 
 points in the previous chapters. When these have been 
 attended to, the loom may be driven as fast as the strength 
 and elasticity of the yarn will admit of. We have also 
 explained how a high speed can only be obtained with the 
 fiy reed ; but when the protector movement is constructed 
 on proper principles, a comparatively fast speed may be 
 obtained. 
 
 To increase the speed of hessian looms. — We believe 
 that many fabrics are still wrought with the old loom, to 
 which the fly reed might be applied with advantage. 
 Common hessians, for instance, require no great stroke of 
 the reed, and the yarn is generally such, with proper 
 shedding, that 160 picks per minute might easily be ob- 
 tained, while the old loom could be constructed to give 140 
 picks. But, judging from the construction of most looms 
 employed in the jute trade^ anything seems good enough 
 for so coarse a fabric. The shed is commonly formed 
 with a jerk, and when the loom knocks off there is 
 frequently something broken. These errors cannot be 
 
72 
 
 THE SPEED OF THE LOOM, ETC. 
 
 too carefully avoided. A little care will always remove 
 them to a great extent. 
 
 Speed of broad looms. — Broad looms are driven slower 
 than narrow ones, but not in proportion to their reed 
 space. The greater breadth of the leaves of the camb 
 makes their movements much steadier, and a comparative 
 high speed less injurious to the yarn. But the loom itself 
 is of necessity much heavier, and the reaction of its move- 
 ments much greater ; and, moreover, the shuttle requires 
 a little more time to pass through the shed, having a 
 greater distance to traverse. 
 
 Hints as to how to obtain a uniform speed of the looms 
 in small factories. — Next to the proper speed of the loom, 
 its uniform motion is of the greatest importance. In large 
 manufactories a steady movement can be obtained ; but 
 in small factories — of which there is a large number — a 
 uniformly steady drive is not so easily got. The loom, 
 unlike spinning and other machinery, requires to be 
 frequently stopped to change the shuttle and tie broken 
 yarn. In small places sometimes they are nearly all off 
 at one time. This allows the engine to run off at a great 
 speed with the looms that are still going. During this 
 time it will be somewhat checked by the action of its 
 valves, or the engineer shutting off the steam, and when 
 the looms are put on again its speed is brought down 
 below what it should be, in consequence of the steam 
 being shut off, and some time must elapse before it can be 
 brought up again. This is what is going on every day 
 in many small establishments. Perhaps it cannot be 
 altogether remedied, but it can in great measure be helped 
 by having a sufficiency of boiler power, and a plentiful 
 supply of steam always ready to prevent the speed being 
 too far or too long reduced, and by driving the engine at 
 a pretty high speed its motion will be more equable. 
 
THE SPEED OF THE LOOM, ETC. 
 
 73 
 
 As engineers are still divided on what speed the engine 
 should be driven at to give the best results, we will 
 not attempt to decide. Another great cause of much of 
 the unsteadiness of the speed of the looms in many of 
 these small places is that of driving a calender or other 
 heavy machinery with the same engines the looms are 
 driven by. The putting on and stopping of these heavy 
 machines affects the speed of the engine for the time 
 being most materially. These and the looms should be 
 driven by separate engines. 
 
 The strength of the shafting. — The shafting must be 
 strong enough to transmit a uniformly steady movement 
 without any vibration. When any vibration occurs in 
 the shaft it transmits itself to the loom, and the conse- 
 quences to both loom and yarn are not desirable. The 
 following is the usual formula for the strength of wrought 
 iron shafting, remarking that for looms it should be a 
 little stronger on account of the reactionary nature of the 
 machine : — With D equal to diameter of shaft, in inches ; 
 H, the number of nominal horse power to be transmitted ; 
 N, the number of revolutions per minute ; and K, the 
 constant number, we have — 
 
 N 
 
 K, in prime movers is 320 ; in second motion shaft, 200 ; 
 in ordinary shafting, 100. It may be expressed thus 
 Divide the number of horse power transmitted by the 
 number of revolutions of the shaft per minute, multiply 
 the quotient by the constant number — if a prime mover, 
 320, second motion 200, &c. — and extract the cube root, 
 which will be the diameter required, in inches. 
 
74 
 
 THE SPEED OF THE LOOM, ETC. 
 
 The driving pulleys. — There are two sorts of driving 
 pulleys in use — the tight and loose pulleys, where the belt 
 is shifted from one to the other, and the friction pulleys. 
 For light work, perhaps the loose and tight pulleys are 
 the best ; they are least expensive, aud much easier kept 
 up. But for heavy work the friction pulleys are the most 
 effective, for this reason, that when the loom is put on 
 with the loose and tight pulleys, one pick at least must be 
 given before it has reached its full strength. This 
 necessitates a much stronger pick than what in the other 
 case would be necessary. But with the friction pulleys 
 the full power and speed are attained at once. Where 
 the belt is short the friction pulleys are best adapted, 
 because short belts require to be wrought at a much 
 greater tension than long ones, and ia consequence of 
 this they are not so easily moved from one pulley to 
 the other. We have a case in point in the loom sheds^ 
 where the shafting is placed in tunnels below the floor. 
 To place them low enough to give a long belt would 
 incur considerable expense, and render them quite un- 
 manageable. 
 
 An example to be avoided of a bad construction of 
 friction pulleys. — The friction pulleys, although the best 
 for power-looms, on account of their instantaneous action, 
 when imperfectly constructed, are attended with great 
 expense and labour in keeping them in proper repair. In 
 fig. 12 we have given an example to be frequently met 
 with. It will be noticed that the ''boss" is all on one 
 side of the pulley. Now, as the clearance between the 
 tight and loose pulleys does not exceed one-sixteenth part 
 of an inch, as soon as the corner A is worn a sixteenth 
 part of an inch, as indicated by the dotted line, the 
 pulleys are in contact when the loom is off, and sets it 
 a-jerking, so that the weaver cannot get the broken yarn 
 
THE SPEED OF THE LOOM, ETC. 75 
 
 taken in ; consequently the pulleys or the crank, or per- 
 haps both, may requke to be replaced. When the pulley 
 is fairly constructed and a fair clearance given much 
 trouble and expense is saved. The boss of the loose 
 pulley should be, as nearly as possible, equal on both 
 sides, and the tear and wear would take place equally all 
 over. 
 
 How the length of the belt affects the motion of the 
 
 loom. — A medium length of belt is the best, and most 
 effective. When too short it requires to be so tight that 
 the pulleys and crank shaft soon get worn out, besides 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 straining the whole loom. On the other hand, when the 
 belt is too long, it imparts a very irregular movement to 
 the loom. We have seen looms driven from shafts a 
 considerable distance off, with the belts running over 
 guide pulleys ; their surging movement will cause them 
 to run off fast for a minute or two, then slow, and fast 
 again, just as the surge of the belt affects them. This 
 way of working makes uneven cloth, besides bad working 
 looms. 
 
7G THE SPEED OF THE LOOM, ETC. 
 
 Example showing the method of calculating the speed 
 of wheels and shafting. — We will give a few examples 
 showing how to calculate the speed of wheels and 
 shafting. To begin at the first movement : let us sup- 
 pose the engine makes 35 strokes per minute — which can 
 easily be ascertained by counting them — and the wheel 
 on the crank shaft to have 130 teeth, and the pinion in 
 which it gears to have 35 teeth, required the number of 
 revolutions it will make in one minute. To find this, 
 multiply the number of teeth in the driving wheel by 
 the number of revolutions it makes in one minute, and 
 divide by the number of teeth in the pinion, and the 
 answer will be the number of revolutions the pinion will 
 make in one minute. Thus — 
 
 Number of teeth in driving wheel, 130 
 Strokes of engine per minute, 35 
 
 650 
 390 
 
 Teeth in pinion, 35)4550(130 speed of pinion. 
 
 35 
 
 105 
 105 
 
 It is best to bring up the speed at the first motion from 
 the engine, and drive the other shafting by mitre wheels. 
 
 Suppose the drum shaft is revolving at 130 revolutions 
 per minute, we wish to drive the looms at 150 picks per 
 minute, what diameter of drum will be required, the 
 pulleys on the loom being 14 inches diameter? In this 
 case we have to multiply the number of picks, which is 
 equal to the number of revolutions of the crank shaft, by 
 the diameter of the pulleys, and divide by the number of 
 revolutions of the drum shaft. We may remark here, 
 
THE SPEED OF THE LOOM, ETC. 77 
 
 that by the same rule the speed of the large drums that 
 are now substituted on the first motion shafts instead of 
 toothed wheels, and the grooved pulleys for rope gearing, 
 are found. Example : — 
 
 Speed of loom per min., 150 picks. 
 Diameter of pulley, 14 inches. 
 
 ~600 
 150 
 
 Speed of shaft, 130)2100(16-15 diam. of drum in inches. 
 130 
 
 800 
 780 
 
 200 
 130 
 
 700 
 
 650 
 50 
 
 If we know the number of revolutions ^he drum shaft 
 is making, and the respective diameters of drum and 
 pulleys, and wish to know the number of picks the loom 
 is making, we will find them as follows : — 
 
 Diameter of drum in inches, 16*16 
 Speed of shaft per minute, 130 
 
 48480 
 1616 
 
 Dia. of loom pulley in ins., 14)2100*80(150 picks per min. 
 
 14 
 70 
 70 
 
 The fraction here is not worth taking into account. 
 
( 78 ) 
 
 HOW TO START AND WORK THE LOOM. 
 
 The preceding chapters a counterpart of this. — In the 
 
 preceding chapters we have dwelt more particularly on 
 the construction of the loom, and will now consider some 
 of the principal matters that exercise the mental as well 
 as the physical capabilities of the tenter and the mechanic 
 in putting new looms into position and proper working 
 order, and keeping them in that condition after they have 
 been set agoing. But we may remark, that a knowledge 
 of what has already been stated with regard to the con- 
 struction and arrangement of the various parts of the 
 loom is necessary, in order that the following may be 
 rightly understood. Without some such knowledge, we 
 cannot decide what is actually right or wrong, but instead 
 of repeating what we have already said, we merely direct 
 attention to the preceding chapters as the counterpart of 
 this. 
 
 A fixed line between the mechanical and tenting 
 departments necessary. — We would suggest that a proper 
 division of labour be carried out in the factory with 
 regard to the mechanical and tenting departments. In 
 our introductory remarks we have said that it is seldom 
 a knowledge of the intricacies of the art of weaving are 
 to be found associated with a knowledge of the capabilities 
 of machinery. This is strikingly exemplified in the two 
 trades we have just named. It is seldom indeed that we 
 find a tenter with any but the merest idea of the 
 mechanical department of the trade, or a mechanic with 
 anything beyond the merest knowledge of cloth. When 
 the one presumes on the domain of the other the results 
 are not always of the best description. These facts are 
 not always recognized as they should be, but where the 
 
HOW TO START AND WORK THE LOOM. 
 
 79 
 
 work is large enough to keep both a mechanic and tenter, 
 this division of labour should be carried out. It should 
 be the mechanic's business to keep the loom going, and 
 the tenter's to make the cloth. 
 
 A well considered plan necessary before putting down 
 looms. — The first thing that should be done by those 
 about to fix and start looms is to make themselves 
 thoroughly acquainted with the plan of the factory. No 
 one ought to put down machinery anywhere in these days 
 without some well considered plan, with a view to work 
 it with the least expenditure of labour and power, and 
 that every inch of space may be economized. Of course 
 the circumstances of each place will be peculiar to itself, 
 according to the texture to be produced, the locality and 
 position of the factory, &c., but what we have more 
 particularly to do with at present are facts that are 
 common to all. 
 
 How the looms should be arranged to the driving shaft. 
 — In arranging the looms, the broadest, or, if they are all 
 much about the same breadth, those that are adapted for 
 the heaviest fabrics, ought to be driven from that part of 
 the drum shaft nearest its connection with the main or 
 driving shaft, and the lightest ones farther out on the end 
 of it. When the heavier looms are placed towards the 
 end of the shaft, the leverage they exert on.it is in pro- 
 portion to the power they require to drive them, and 
 causes a vibration on the shaft that is detrimental to the 
 proper working of the looms. This vibration, of course, 
 could be prevented by making the shaft much stronger, 
 but there is no necessity for this extra outlay w^hen 
 it can be remedied by the proper arrangement of the 
 machinery. 
 
 The looms grouped in fours. — To economzie space and 
 keep the belts from being spread over the factory as little 
 
80 now TO START AND WORK THE LOOM. 
 
 as possible, the looms ought to be grouped together in 
 fours, with all their belts running beside each other.* 
 
 How to arrange the looms in line with the shaft. — The 
 looms must be arranged in a parallel line with the shaft 
 by which they are driven, otherwise the belts will not 
 work well. They will have a tendency to run off the 
 pulleys or drums, or run on their edge, and consequently 
 part of the power w^ill be lost. The best plan of proce- 
 dure is to draw a line on the floor the whole length of the 
 shaft, and parallel with it. Drop a plummet from the 
 shaft, first at one end and then the other, and making a 
 mark at each place just where the point of it touches the 
 floor. Then take a line rubbed over with chalk, stretch 
 it along the floor, taking these two points in its line ; hold 
 it tight at both ends, then raise it in the centre, and let 
 go, and it will leave a chalk mark along the floor parallel 
 with the shaft. The same should be done with each 
 shaft separately, as much greater accuracy is obtained in 
 this way than by measuring one line from another. If it 
 is necessary to make these lines permanent for a time — 
 as sometimes it is — lay a straight edge along them, and 
 draw them in with a draw-point or some other sharp 
 instrument. Set the rows of looms parallel with these 
 lines, by measuring an equal distance from them to both 
 feet of the loom. 
 
 The line to which the ends of the looms are set. — The 
 ends of the looms must also be in line, that there may be 
 some sort of order ; and to facilitate this another line must 
 be drawn on the floor at right angles to the one we have 
 already got. That we may explain this quite clearly, let 
 us suppose the line A B, fig. 13, to be the line we have 
 already drawn on the floor, and C the point from which 
 
 * See paragraph — '^The line to which the ends of the looms 
 are set." 
 
HOW TO START AND WORK THE LOOM. 81 
 
 we are to set off the line at right angles to it. We may 
 extemporize a pair of beam compasses, by taking a piece 
 of wood, say four or five feet long, and driving a nail or 
 draw-point through each end of it, leaving the points 
 protruding.* Place the point of one of these on the 
 point C on the line we have already made, and with 
 the other mark off the points D and E ; then, with these 
 points as centres, with the same or any other radius large 
 enough to secure accuracy, describe the two arcs till they 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 'D 
 
 cut each other in point F ; then through points C and F 
 draw a line, in the way we have described previously 
 (see page 80), extending it as far as may be necessary. 
 To this line set the ends of the looms. 
 
 How the looms are arranged to clear the belts. — The 
 ends of the looms are not set in a line ; every alternate 
 one must be set at a distance equal to the breadth of the 
 pulleys, and one inch more, to clear the belts, farther 
 
 * Sometimes a piece of cord is used instead of the wood. 
 F 
 
82 HOW TO START AND WORK THE LOOM. 
 
 from the line than the others. This is owing to two 
 looms being driven from the same drum. Some makers 
 of light looms place the pulleys this much farther out on 
 the crank shaft of every alternate one, to get the looms in 
 line ; but this is a very objectionable practice, as it causes 
 a greater strain on the crank that can be avoided by the 
 other method we have named. 
 
 Fixing the looms to the floor. — The looms ought to be 
 firmly fixed to the floor by batts or rag screws ; and in order 
 that a proper bearing may be obtained by the looms on the 
 floor, and also to facilitate the process of ''levelling," 
 pieces of wood should be jfitted below the feet of the end 
 frame. No matter whether the floor be of wood or stone, 
 a much better bearing is obtained in this way. If one part 
 is bearing harder than another, which can easily be ascer- 
 tained by trying the lift on each corner with a short lever, 
 you will feel if you have the whole weight of the loom ; 
 or if there is a rocking movement when it is raised at one 
 point, take out the wood, and plane it down under the 
 place that is bearing hardest, until you have got an equal 
 bearing throughout. 
 
 Levelling the loom. — When we are securing a firm 
 footing for the loom, we must see that it is level, by trying 
 the spirit-level along the lay. If one foot is bearing 
 hard at the side, the level indicates it is highest ; take out 
 the wood, and dress it down until you have got it to a 
 proper bearing and quite level. If the lay is level, we 
 may be sure the other parts are right also. 
 
 Setting the loom. — When the loom has been properly 
 secured in its place, we may proceed to the arrangement 
 of the different parts of it, so that they will work in 
 harmony. Each movement must come into operation at 
 the proper time. First examine the crank and wiper 
 shaft wheels to see if they are properly geared, so that 
 
HOW TO START AND WORK THE LOOM. 
 
 83 
 
 the pick will come in with the proper movement of the 
 lay.* If not, put it right, taking the opportunity to 
 examine the keys of the wheels to see if they are properly 
 fitted. When the wheels get loose when in motion they 
 are in danger of being broken, and perhaps may break 
 something else. 
 
 How to set the wipers. — The shedding wipers must be 
 set (if the warp is to be spread) so that the shed will be 
 fully open when the reed is at the fell of the cloth. To 
 accomplish this, turn round the crank until it has reached 
 the fore centre (if a web had been into the loom, the reed 
 would now have been at the fell of the cloth), then turn 
 round the wipers on the shaft, in the direction in which 
 they will move when the loom is in full operation, until 
 the point presses down one treadle to the full extent, and 
 fix them there. If the yarn does not require to be spread, 
 then the shed will only require to be full open when the 
 lay is half-way back, just in time to let the shuttle pass 
 into it. Turn the crank round to that position, and the 
 wipers on the shaft, until they press down the treadle as 
 in the other case we have named. Of course the wipers 
 will be made to suit this arrangement, f 
 
 To find the proper length of the picker strap. — In 
 putting on the pickers, take care that they move freely in 
 their place. The exact length of the picker strap is 
 ascertained by throwing the lay back as far as it will go, 
 and when in that position the arm must move the picker 
 backwards and forwards quite freely on the spindle without 
 being either too tight or too loose. The arm should be 
 set so that the picker will rest at the end of the box until 
 it is the proper time to begin to pick. 
 
 How to set the pick. — We are now^ in a position to 
 
 * This has already been explained under the heading Pick, 
 t See Shedding. 
 
84 
 
 HOW TO START AND WORK THE LOOM. 
 
 adjust the pick as to time. The shuttle should just begin 
 to move when the lay is half-way back. Hold the picker 
 at the back end of the box wdth one hand, and turn round 
 the crank with the other until the picker begins to move ; 
 at that point the crank should either be on the top or 
 under centre, according to the direction in which the 
 loom is to revolve. 
 
 The check-strap. — The check-strap is considered by 
 many to be of little importance ; but it is a very valu- 
 able part of the loom, and is too often neglected, to 
 the detriment of the whole machine. Its use is to 
 stay the rebound of the shuttle. The action of the 
 swell in some measure secures this ; but when for this 
 purpose the swell is weighted independent of the check- 
 strap, the shuttle gets jammed, and comes out of the 
 box with a jerk. The shuttle must be allowed free 
 play in the boxes, and the length of the check-strap and 
 its traverse regulated to the requirements of each par- 
 ticular case. When the traverse is too long, it may 
 prevent the shuttle going full back into the box; but 
 when too short the shuttle may rebound again, and in 
 either case the power may be lost to throw it across the 
 loom, and the consequence will be that the loom will be 
 knocked off. It should be put on when the picker is 
 being put on, and the spindle will not require to be loosed 
 again for that purpose; but its proper adjustment can 
 only be made when the loom is in motion. 
 
 Gauging the shuttles. — Before fitting the shuttles into 
 the boxes they must be carefully sized with a pair of 
 callipers, to see that they are exactly the same, and gauged 
 to fit the bevel of the lay. They must be fitted to work 
 in the boxes quite easily, the boxes being about a tenth of 
 an inch wider than the shuttle, and both back and front 
 box-sides almost parallel. 
 
HOW TO START AND WORK THE LOOM. 85 
 
 The position the tip or point of the shuttle should 
 occupy. — The position of the point or tip of the shuttle 
 is a matter of considerable importance, and ought to be 
 carefully considered. When it is too low — too near the 
 race of the lay — it has a tendency to dip under the yarn 
 when entering the shed, and makes what is called a 
 "scob"; but when it stands too high the consequences 
 are much worse, — a thread sometimes breaks and gets 
 entangled in the shed, causing an obstruction to the 
 passage of the shuttle ; the shuttle will go over this 
 obstruction, and be thrown out of the loom altogether, 
 the consequences of which may be dangerous to the 
 workers. When the tip gets under these obstructions the 
 loom may be knocked olf, but the shuttle will be kept 
 on the lay. This shows us that these tips should be as 
 low in the shuttle as they can possibly be wrought with. 
 
 The protector. — Ascertain if the protector is working 
 quite freely. If it is inclined to stick, it may cause a 
 smash in the web. When the shuttle is among the yarn, 
 the protector should be in a position to knock off the 
 loom, and when the shuttle is into the box, it should rise 
 about a quarter of an inch clear of the buffer. 
 
 How to find the length of the belt, and how it should 
 run. — To find the proper length of the belt, stretch a 
 cord over the drum and the pulleys of the loom, cut 
 it to the exact length, lay the cord and the belt down 
 on the floor together, and cut the belt from one inch 
 to two inches — according to its length — shorter, as it 
 will stretch a little when put on. When putting it on, 
 it must be seen that all the joinings will run with the 
 pulleys and the drum. When the joinings run against 
 them the belt will very soon get torn up. Beginners 
 should be made aware of this, as they commonly make 
 mistakes with it. 
 
86 HOAV TO STAKT AND WORK THE LOOM. 
 
 How to adjust the pick as to strength. — Put the reed 
 into the lay, and put on the loom, letting it run for some 
 time to ascertain that everything has been properly 
 adjusted. The pick can only now be set to the required 
 strength when we see how the shuttle moves. If a cone 
 pick — as we have already described in another place — it 
 may be regulated by moving the wiper nearer to the 
 upright shaft, to give more strength, or farther out, to 
 reduce it. If any other make of a pick, on the same 
 principle, it must be adjusted to give more or less of a 
 traverse to the point of the wooden arm that propels the 
 shuttle. 
 
 The process of looming the web. — In the preceding 
 notes we have seen the loom fixed, and its parts arranged 
 and set agoing. The tenter now comes with his web. 
 We wall go over the process of starting it in the proper 
 order, that the beginner may see the best method of 
 facilitating the progress of his work. The beam is put 
 into its place in the loom, the heddles hung up as 
 nearly as possible in their proper place, and the reed put 
 loosely into its place in the lay. The treadles are now 
 attached to the camb, as they can be quite easily got at 
 before the web is tied up. They must also be adjusted 
 at this stage as nearly as can be. With a little practice 
 a tenter should be able to make a pretty correct adjust- 
 ment of his camb. The pace cords and weights are put 
 on, or if paced with strings they must be fixed. A piece 
 of cloth, or two cords with a rod fixed to the end of them , 
 is brought up from the cloth roller, and the ends of the 
 warp threads tied on to it. In doing this, it must be seen 
 that all the slack threads are drawn in (when necessary a 
 brush may be used for that purpose, as in the case of 
 woollen yarns), and an equal tension preserved on each 
 tie up. The exact position of the reed can now be ascer- 
 
HOW TO START AND WORK THE LOOM. 87 
 
 tained and fixed into its place. The lease rods are then 
 put in, raising the back leaf of the camb for the first, and 
 the front one for the second, placing them at their proper 
 distance apart from the heddles. The pinion required to 
 give the number of shots wanted may be obtained, in the 
 manner we have described in another place,* and put on 
 its place in the loom. The sheds must now be carefully 
 adjusted, bringing each half down in succession, so that 
 they will touch the race of the lay without pressing on it 
 with an equal tension on each. By this we do not mean 
 that both halves of the shed will bear an equal tension, 
 but that each shed as it is formed will bear an equal 
 tension to the one preceding it. This can be more par- 
 ticularly observed and adjusted after the loom has been 
 set agoing. By placing the hand on the yarn beam, you 
 will feel if both sheds affect it to the same degree ; if 
 not, then readjust the cordings of the camb until they are 
 both brought equal. This is what is called "levelling" 
 the cloth. When wrought with a tight and loose tread, 
 the cloth presents a corded appearance that no amount of 
 finishing can fully remedy. After all has been got right, 
 a few shots should be thrown with the hand to make 
 sure that it is so, then put on the loom. 
 
 The position of the lease rods. — The position of the 
 lease rods is a matter of importance, as their position in 
 the yarn — that is, their distance back from the camb — 
 affects both the strength of the yarn and the quality of 
 the cloth very materially. When they are too far apart 
 from the camb, the yarn is liable to get chafed ; and 
 when too near, a much greater strain is thrown on it, 
 consequently some medium position must be found for 
 them. This will be found, in most instances, to be 
 
 * See Take-up Motion. 
 
88 now TO START AND WORK THE LOOM. 
 
 nearly as far behind the camb as the fell of the cloth is 
 in front of it. With soft yarn, it makes a clearer 
 shed to bring them closer to the camb. To make this 
 clearly understood, we would refer again to fig. 1, 
 where we explained that, when the warp threads require 
 to be spread, the upper half of the shed was loose. Now, 
 when the lease rods are near to the camb, the space is 
 lessened on which the difference of tension on the two 
 halves can be made ; and as they are brought closer to 
 the back of the camb, so will the tension of the two halves 
 of the shed be equalized. This shows us at the same 
 time how it affects the quality of the cloth where the 
 w^arp threads require to be spread. We have already 
 explained that to spread the warp threads the two halves 
 of the shed must be held at unequal tension ; and as we 
 have seen that by bringing the lease rods near to the 
 camb we prevent this, consequently the cloth wrought 
 with them in that position wall be " reed-marked." When 
 this is understood, it will be quite an easy matter to find 
 their proper place ; their position can be changed, and the 
 effect noted both on the yarn and the cloth. 
 
 The reactionary nature of the loom. — When the loom 
 has been fairly set in motion, we may leave it in charge 
 of the weaver, whose duty is merely to change the shuttles 
 and repair broken yarn ; but, owing to the reactionary 
 nature of the machine, it frequently gets out of order and 
 knocks off, or, as it is said in Scotland, " chaps off." It 
 is sometimes a little puzzling to discover the cause of this, 
 and always a difficult matter to describe it. The most 
 that we can do is to lay down some broad general 
 principles that may be of use in that particular branch of 
 the trade. 
 
 The causes of chapping off." — The causes that result 
 in the loom chapping off " may be classed under three 
 
HOW TO START AND WOKK THE LOOM. 89 
 
 heads — First, the power may be insufficient to throw the 
 shuttle across the loom in time to raise the protector 
 before it strikes the buffer ; second, some obstruction may 
 intervene to retard the protector's action, or to obstruct 
 the progress of the shuttle across the loom ; third, some- 
 thing may be wrong with the knock-off movement itself, 
 causing a stoppage of the loom, otherwise all right. It is 
 evident that, if a sufficient force be applied to the shuttle, 
 it will reach the opposite box all right, if it meet with no 
 obstruction by the way ; and with the protector in good 
 working order, little cause will be left for the loom to 
 chap off." We will now go over these three distinctive 
 features separately, and show some of the causes from 
 which they may arise, and the symptoms (if we may so 
 speakj that appear in the loom, by a knowledge of which 
 we may find the proper remedy. 
 
 1st. When the power is insufficient. — This may arise from 
 the belt getting too slack and slipping on the pulleys ; or, 
 if it be a loose and tight pulley, some derangement of the 
 belt fork may prevent the belt from getting full on to the 
 tight pulley. If they are friction pulleys, they may not 
 be pressed tight enough on each other, or some oil may 
 have got between the bearing surfaces, causing them to 
 slip. These defects will show themselves in the loom by 
 a slower speed than usual, or a tendency to get slower at 
 times. In the latter case it may not be so easily noticed ; 
 but, by holding the hand on the end of the lay when the 
 loom is in motion, you will feel when the deficiency takes 
 place. When this occurs just at the time the pick is in 
 action the loom will " chap off." When we make sure 
 of this, we must examine the belt and the pulleys, to see 
 what is actually w^rong and have it put right. 
 
 2d. When the power is deficient in the pick : How to fi^nd 
 it out. — The power may be deficient in the picking 
 
HOW TO START AND WORK THE LOOM. 
 
 wiper by the tappet being worn, or ruts cut in the friction 
 roller on which the tappet acts. When the point of the 
 tappet gets into one of these ruts, it has the same effect as 
 if it were so much shorter ; or the pick may be too late, 
 caused by something getting loose. This makes very 
 harsh work, and causes a loss of power besides. The 
 picker strap may also get stretched until it is too long, 
 which will have the same effect. Supposing the pick to 
 be properly arranged at the start of the loom, what we 
 have pointed out is what is most likely to go wrong in 
 the course of working. By placing the hand on the top 
 of the upright shaft, you will feel the action of the pick, 
 and be able to tell if the defect is there ; and not only 
 that, but, with experience, you will be able to feel from 
 that point the action of nearly all the working parts of 
 the loom. If it will work a few shots without chapping 
 off," you can detect in what part the deficiency lies, and 
 thus be enabled to go to it at once ; but this is one of the 
 points on which we can give no particular instructions. 
 Each must learn it for himself by personal observation 
 and study, but is worth the attention of those engaged 
 in that particular capacity. 
 
 Sd. The effect of the picket' strap being too tight. — The 
 causes that make the loom chap off " when an obstruc- 
 tion occurs are very numerous, perhaps more so than it 
 will be necessary for us to notice. The picking strap, 
 when too tight, is perhaps the most deceptive of these, 
 because, when the loom "chaps off" under these circum- 
 stances, it has all the appearance it has when the power 
 is awanting altogether. The friction of the picker on 
 the spindle absorbs the force communicated to it, and is 
 not transferred to the shuttle at all ; consequently the 
 power is awanting when it comes that length, and the 
 shuttle may not be thrown more than half-way across the 
 
HOAY TO START AND WORK THE LOOM. 
 
 91 
 
 loom. It appears quite natural for a beginner to imagine 
 that the tighter he makes his straps the more power he 
 gets ; but whenever they are tightened beyond what we 
 have already indicated the power is lost. . 
 
 Obstructions caused by the friction of the shuttle on 
 the shed. — An obstruction may be caused by the cordings 
 of the camb stretching, and causing the shed to be too 
 small, or the pick may take place too soon, and throw the 
 shuttle into the shed before it is opened to receive it. 
 This not only retards the movement of the shuttle, but it 
 will break the yarn as well. 
 
 Obstructions that throw the shuttle out of the loom.— 
 The worst class of obstructions are those that throw the 
 shuttle out of its course. That may be occasioned by the 
 lay getting bent or twisted, or thrown off the proper 
 bevel. If the spindle is not in line with the back box 
 and reed, or the shuttle box too wide at the entrance, the 
 same thing may happen. The reed should always be 
 kept straight ; a single split protruding into the course of 
 the shuttle will throw it out of its path. Dust gathered 
 about the box or the race of the lay, or an obstruction in 
 the shed, caused by a broken thread, will bring about the 
 same result. The shuttles themselves in the course of a 
 short time get worn, as also do the swells. Both shuttles 
 and swells should be dressed occasionally to keep them in 
 proper working order. When the pick is too strong, or 
 the shuttle jammed in the box, the least obstruction will 
 throw it out, and sometimes without any obstruction at 
 all. Under these circumstances, when the shuttle is not 
 thrown out altogether, it goes rattling into the box, and 
 is frequently the cause of something being broken. The 
 shuttles themselves are broken, and very soon rendered 
 useless. 
 
 The protector. — The loom may be in good working 
 
CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 ^rder, and still chapping off" from a defect in the pro- 
 tector movement. Under these circumstances, when we 
 •examine the loom working, or feel its movements through 
 the upright shaft or the lay, there is no apparent cause 
 for the "chapping off" at all. The shuttle is going up 
 smartly at both sides with a steady movement, and the 
 loom stops just at a time we least expect it. This is 
 enough in itself to raise a suspicion that the cause is in 
 the protector, which should therefore be examined. The 
 stoppage may be occasioned by the swells getting worn, 
 and not lifting the protector high enough or soon enough ; 
 ^r the boxes may be too wide for the shuttle, which will 
 have the same effect ; or the lifters of the protector may 
 be broken, or worn or bent — that can easily be ascertained 
 on examination. The protectors may be worn or out of 
 order, which would cause a smash in the warp when the 
 shuttle is thrown in amongst it. But prevention is better 
 than cure — these annoyances can be prevented in great 
 measure by keeping the protectors in good repair. 
 
 TO FIND THE NUMBER OF SPLITS (DENTS) 
 AND THE QUANTITY OF WARP AND 
 WEFT IN A WEB. 
 
 Different scales used in different localities. — To find 
 the number of splits, or the quantity of warp and weft 
 yarn to make any given piece of cloth, we must have 
 some recognized standards of measurement for the yarn 
 and the fineness of the reed on which to base our calcula- 
 tions. These are somewhat different in different localities ; 
 but it will be found that the principle with which we have 
 
CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 9a 
 
 to deal is the same in all the varieties of scales or sorts 
 of yarns. 
 
 The yarn measures. — The following are the commonly 
 recognized yarn measures, that for linen alone being 
 determined by Act of Parliament : — 
 
 COTTON AND WOOLLEN YARNS. 
 
 54 inches = 1 thread = 1^ yards. 
 
 80 threads = 1 skein = 120 „ 
 7 skeins = 1 hank = 840 „ 
 18 hanks = 1 spindle = 15,120 
 
 What is meant by a thread. — We may explain that, in 
 the preceding table, as well as in all others that are to 
 follow, the thread is the circumference of the reel on 
 which it is reeled. 80 threads in a skein means that the 
 reel has got 80 turns, and that these threads are tied 
 together to distinguish them, and that so many of these 
 hanks are tied together in turn to make the next higher 
 count, and so on. 
 
 Explanation of the cotton table. — The fineness of 
 cotton yarn is determined by the number of hanks in one 
 pound avoirdupois, and spoken of as No. 18's, or No. 
 20's, as the case may be, meaning that 18 hanks or 20 
 hanks weigh one pound respectively. 
 
 Explanation of the woollen table. — Woollen yarn is 
 sometimes reckoned in the same way as cotton yarn, only 
 that it is one-third heavier. No. 12's in woollen yarn 
 contains only 8 hanks, whereas in cotton it contains 12, 
 but both are the same weight. Woollen yarn is also 
 frequently reckoned by the number of pounds weight in 
 the spindle, and spoken of as two pounds yarn or three 
 pounds yarn, &c., meaning that the spindle weighs two 
 pounds or three pounds, as the case may be.* 
 
 * See the following scales. 
 
CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 LINEN YARN. 
 
 90 inches = 1 thread = 2 J yards. 
 
 120 threads = 1 lea = 300 „ 
 10 leas" = 1 hank = 3,000 
 20 hanks := 1 bundle = 60,000 „ 
 This standard of measurement is used for the finer sorts 
 of linen yarn. It is reckoned by the number of leas in 
 one pound, and spoken of as 50 lea or 30 lea, &;c., imply- 
 ing that 50 leas weigh one pound, or 30 leas weigh one 
 pound, and so on. 
 
 COARSE LINEN AND JUTE YARNS. 
 
 90 inches = 1 thread = 2-^ yards. 
 
 120 threads = 1 cut = 300 ,, 
 2 cuts = 1 heer = 600 „ 
 6 heers = 1 hasp = 3,600 ,, 
 4 hasps = 1 spindle = 14,400 
 It will be seen that the cut in this table measures the 
 same length — namely, 300 yards — as the lea in the pre- 
 ceding table, but this yarn is reckoned by the number of 
 pounds in the spindle, as seven pounds yarn, &c. 
 
 How jute is called linen. — Of course, jute is not linen, 
 but it has taken the place of some sorts of linen yarns, 
 and answers the purposes for which they were applied 
 equally as well, and is classed among the coarser linen 
 goods, and is spoken of as such. 
 
 The various reed scales. — The following are the three 
 principal standards of measurements for the fineness of 
 the reed : — There is the 37-inch standard; 37 inches is 
 the old Scotch ell, and the reed is reckoned by the 
 number of splits contained in it. It is reckoned by 
 hundreds. For example, if 300 splits are contained in 37 
 inches, it is called a three hundred, written thus, 3^^ ; if 
 500, it is called a 5^^, and so on, for every 100 more, 
 one set finer. 
 
CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 95 
 
 In some parts the reed is counted by porters. A porter 
 is 20 splits, and it is reckoned by the number of porters 
 contained in 37 inches. If twenty-five times twenty sph'ts 
 are in 37 inches, it is called a 25 porter reed; and if 
 thirty times twenty, it is called a 30 porter; and for 
 every 20 splits more, 1 porter finer. 
 
 They are reckoned in some places by the number of 
 splits in the inch. It is obvious that this is the best 
 plan. There is no complication whatever in finding the 
 number of splits in any given breadth of web. 
 
 Number of threads in a split. — The fineness of the 
 reed may not at all times determine the fineness of the 
 cloth, as it may be wrought with either 1, 2, 3, 4, or any 
 other number of threads in the split. But 2 threads are 
 always reckoned for the split when not otherwise specially 
 mentioned. 
 
 When we know the standards we have to go by, 
 we may proceed to our calculations. We will give 
 an example of the different calculations required in 
 each of the four different sorts of yarn we have named, 
 which will be sufiicient to show how the whole thing 
 is done. 
 
 The various calculations for a cotton web. — In a 10^^ 
 33-inch cotton shirting, 100 yards long, with 11 shots on 
 the glass, required the number of splits, and the quantity 
 of warp and weft required to make it, allowing about 2 
 inches for shrinkage on the breadth, and 7 per cent, on 
 the length. 
 
 To find the number of splits in any web calculated on 
 the 37-inch scale, multiply the count of the reed by the 
 breadth in inches, and divide by 37, 
 
 In the example we have chosen, the count of the reed 
 is 10^^ ; and if we allow 2 inches for shrinkage, it will 
 measure 35 inches in the reed. Then what we have 
 
96 
 
 CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 to do is to multiply 1000 by 35 and divide by 37, as 
 follows : — ^- 
 
 1000 count of the reed. 
 
 35 breadth in the reed. 
 5000 
 3000 
 
 Scale of reed, 37 ) 35000 ( 946 splits. 
 333 
 170 
 148 
 220 
 222 
 
 To find the quantity of warp yarn that will be required 
 to make the web, multiply the number of splits by the 
 number of threads in each, and by the length in yards, 
 and divide by 840, being the number of yards in a hank, 
 and the answer will be the number of hanks required to 
 make the web. 
 
 In this example we have seen that there are 946 splits ; 
 then if we multiply that number by 2 and 107 — that is 
 allowing 7 per cent, for shrinkage — and divide by 840, 
 we will find the number of hanks required. Thus — 
 946 splits in web. 
 2 threads in split. 
 1892 threads in web. 
 107 length of piece in yards. 
 13244 
 18920 
 
 Yards in hank, 840 ) 20244 ( 241 number of hanks. 
 1680 
 3444 
 3360 
 844 
 840 
 4 
 
CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 97 
 
 To find the amount of weft required in the foregoing 
 example multiply the number of shots on the glass by 
 200 (the glass used in the cotton trade is the 200th part 
 of a yard), and by the length of the piece in yards, and 
 by the breadth in inches. This will give the number of 
 inches of weft thread ; then divide by 36 to bring it to 
 yards, and by 840 for hanks, as follows : — 
 
 11 shots on the glass. 
 200 repeats of glass in yard. 
 
 2200 shots on a yard. 
 107 length of piece in yard.s. 
 
 15400 
 22000 
 
 235400 shots on the piece. 
 
 35 breadth of piece in inches. 
 
 1177000 
 706200 
 
 Inches in a yard, 36 ) 8239000 ( 228861 yards, divided as 
 
 72 follows : — 
 
 103" 
 72 
 
 "319 
 288 
 
 ~3io 
 
 288 
 
 ~220 
 216 
 
 ~To 
 
 36 
 4 
 
98 
 
 CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 Yards in hank, 840 ) 228861 ( 272 hanks. 
 1680 
 6086 
 5880 
 2061 
 1680 
 
 Yards in skein, 120 ) 381 ( 3 skeins. 
 
 360 
 
 21 
 
 The various calculations for a woollen web. — The 
 
 following is an example of a piece of woollen cloth 25 
 inches broad in the reed, 50 yards long, with 5 shots on 
 the glass ; required the number of splits — 10 to the inch 
 — and the quantity of warp and weft. 
 
 In the present instance, to find the number of splits we 
 have merely to multiply the number in one inch by the 
 breadth in inches (being reckoned by the inch scale), 
 which amounts to 250. 
 
 To find the warp proceed as in the preceding example, 
 thus : — 
 
 250 splits in the web. 
 
 2 threads in the split. 
 500 threads in the web. 
 50 length of thread in yards. 
 Yards in spindle, 15120 ) 25000 ( 1 spindle. 
 
 15120 
 
 Yards in hank, 840 ) 9880 ( 11 hanks. 
 
 840 
 1480 
 840 
 
 Yards in skein, 120 ) 640 ( 5 skeins. 
 
 600 
 40 
 
CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 99 
 
 The amount of weft, with 5 shots on the glass, is also 
 found by the method shown in the previous example. 
 
 5 shots on the glass. 
 200 repeats of glass on one yard. 
 
 1000 shots on the yard. 
 50 length of piece in yards. 
 
 50000 shots on the piece. 
 
 25 breadth of piece in inches. 
 
 250000 
 100000 
 
 36 ) 1250000 ( 34722 yards of weft, divided as follows :— 
 108 
 170 
 144 
 ~260 
 252 
 80 
 72_ 
 80 
 
 __8 
 
 15120) 34722(2 spindles. 
 30240 
 840 ) 4482 ( 5 hanks. 
 4200 
 
 120)282(2 skeins. 
 240 
 
 The various calculations for a linen web. — The next 
 example is a 5i-inch 50 p(yrtf^r th^e(^-le^f 'lioen-tv^eel, 100 
 
100 
 
 CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 yards in length, with 35 shots on the inch, allowing 4^ 
 per cent, for shrinkage on the breadth, and 8 per cent, on 
 the length.* 
 
 To find the number of splits in the foregoing example 
 add the 4^ per cent, to the breadth, which will make it 
 about 56 J inches ; then multiply the breadth in inches by 
 30 (the count of the reed), and by 20 (the number of 
 splits in a porter), and divide by 37 (the scale of the 
 reed), as follows : — 
 
 30 count of the reed. 
 
 56^ breadth of piece in inches. 
 
 15 
 180 
 150 
 
 1695 
 
 20 splits in a porter. 
 
 Scale of reed, 37 ) 33900 ( 916 splits. 
 333 
 
 60 
 37 
 
 230 
 222 
 
 8 
 
 The w^arp is found by the same process as the previous 
 
 ■^J" may explain here that we ha.ve based our calculations 
 oil tlie actual nunib'^.r qf^spUts, in t]ie leed. ^oj,iiati;er how inany 
 thre^^ds tiiey contain, 'as being to our mind 'the most reasoaable 
 method. It will at least be much easier understood by beginners 
 than the method adopted by tome of calling t*vo threads a split, 
 no mattei how many thx-eads may bg in the split of the reed. 
 
CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 101 
 
 examples, only the standards of measurement are different. 
 Multiply the 916 splits by 3 (there being three threads in 
 the split), and by 108 (the length of the piece in yards, 
 with the shrinkage added), and divide by 3000 for hanks, 
 and the remainder, if any, by 300 for leas, thus : — 
 
 916 splits in the piece. 
 3 threads in a split. 
 
 2748 threads in the piece. 
 108 length of piece in yards. 
 
 21984 
 27480 
 
 3000)296784(98 hanks. 
 27000 
 
 • 26784 
 24000 
 
 300)2784(9 leas. 
 2700 
 
 84 
 
 To find the weft we have simply to multiply 35 (the 
 number of shots on the inch) by 3 6 (the number of inches 
 in a yard) to give the number of shots on one yard, and 
 the product by 108 (the length of the piece in yards) to 
 give the number of shots on the whole piece, and the 
 product of this again by 56^ (the breadth in inches) to 
 give the number of inches of single weft thread on the 
 whole piece; then divide by 36 to bring it to yards, and 
 
102 
 
 CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 the yards by 3000 for hanks, and the remainder, if any, 
 by 300 for leas. 
 
 35 shots on the inch. 
 
 36 inches in a yard. 
 
 105 
 
 1260 shots on the yard. 
 108 length of piece in yards. 
 10080 
 12600 
 
 136080 shots on the piece. 
 
 56^ breadth of piece in inches. 
 68040 
 816480 
 680400 
 
 36 ) 7688520 ( 213570 yards, divided as 
 72 under : — 
 
 "48" 
 36 
 
 128 
 108 
 205 
 180 
 252 
 252 
 
 3000)213570(71 hanks. 
 21000 
 3570 
 3000 
 300)570(1 lea. 
 300 
 
 270 yards. 
 
CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 103 
 
 The various calculations for a jute web. — Tn a 16 
 
 porter 40-inch jute hessian, 100 yards long, with 18 shots 
 on the inch, required the number of splits and the 
 quantity of warp and weft, the shrinkage on the breadth 
 being in the proportion of 2 inches in the 37, and 10 
 per cent, on the length. 
 
 When the shrinkage on the breadth is reckoned in this 
 way we have merely to subtract 2 from the divisor as 
 used in the previous example, instead of adding a per- 
 centage to the breadth of the web, when making the 
 calculations for the number of splits. 
 
 To find the number of splits in the example under con- 
 sideration multiply the count of the reed (16) by the 
 breadth in inches (40), and by 20 (the number of splits 
 in a porter), and divide by 35, as follows : — 
 
 16 
 40 
 
 640 
 20 
 
 35 ) 12800 (365 or 366 splits. 
 105 
 
 ♦ 230 
 210 
 
 200 
 175 
 
 25 
 
 To find the amount of warp multiply the number 
 of splits by 2 (the number of threads in a split), and 
 the product by 110 (the length of the piece in yards, 
 with the shrinkage added), and divide by 14400 for 
 
104 
 
 CALCULATIONS,- ETC. 
 
 spindles, and the remainder, if any, by 600 for heers, 
 thus :— 366 
 
 2 
 
 732 
 
 110 
 
 7320 
 732 
 
 14400 ) 80520 ( 5 spindles. 
 72000 
 600) 8520 ( 14 heers. 
 600 
 2520 
 2400 
 120 
 
 To find the amount of weft we have to multiply 18 
 (the number of shots on the inch) by 36 to give the 
 number of shots on the yard, and by 110 (the length of 
 the piece in yards) to give the number of shots on the 
 whole piece, and by 42 (the breadth in inches, with the 
 shrinkage added) to get the amount of weft in inches, 
 then divide by 36 for yards, and the product by 14400 
 for spindles, and the remainder, if any, by 600 for heers, 
 as follows : — 18 
 
 36 
 108 
 54 
 
 648 
 110 
 6480 
 648 
 71280 
 
 42 
 
 142560 
 285120 
 2993760 
 
CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 105 
 
 36 )2993760 (83160 yards, divided as follows :— 
 
 288 
 
 113 
 108 
 
 57 
 36 
 
 216 
 216 
 
 0 
 
 14400 ) 83160 ( 5 spindles. 
 72000 
 
 600 ) 11160 ( 18 heers. 
 600 
 
 5160 
 4800 
 
 300 ) 360 ( 1 cut. 
 
 300 
 
 "~60 
 
 Rules to find the splits and warp and weft by pro- 
 portion. — The foregoing rules and examples show the 
 method of finding the number of splits and the quantity 
 of warp and w^eft to make any piece of cloth of a given 
 length and breadth ; but it is not always necessary to go 
 through the whole of these calculations to find them, 
 because all that requires tq^ be known concerning one 
 fabric of cloth may frequently be gathered from another 
 by the rule of proportion. The following are a few 
 examples showing how this is done : — 
 
106 
 
 CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 If 33 inches of a 11^^ reed contain 946 splits, how 
 many splits will 39 inches contain ? 
 
 33 : 39 : : 946 
 
 39 
 
 8514 
 2838 
 
 33 ) 36894 ( 1118 splits. 
 33 
 
 38 
 33 
 
 59 
 33 
 
 264 
 264 
 
 If a 16 porter 40-inch hessian contain 366 splits, how 
 many splits will be in a 20 porter of the same breadth ? 
 thus — 
 
 16 : 20 : : 366 
 20 
 
 16 ) 7320 ( 457 splits. 
 64 
 
 "92" 
 80 
 
 120 
 112 
 
 8 
 
 Suppose a 16 porter 40-inch, 100 yards long, requires 
 
CALCULATIONS, ETC. 
 
 107 
 
 5^ spindles of warp yam, how much will be required to 
 make a 20 porter of the same length and breadth ? 
 16 : 20 : : 5i 
 20 
 10 
 100 
 
 16 ) 110 ( 6 spindles. 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 56 ( 3 hasps. 
 48_ 
 
 8 
 
 48 ( 3 hears. 
 
 If a 16 porter 40-inch hessian, 100 yards long, require 
 5^ spindles of warp yarn, what warp will be required for 
 a 16 porter 40-inch, only measuring^TO yards in length? 
 100 : 70 : : oj ^ 
 5i 
 
 35 
 350 
 
 100 ) 385 ( 3 spindles. 
 
 300 
 
 85 
 4 
 
 340 ( 3 hasps. 
 300 
 
 40 
 
 6_ 
 
 240 ( 2 heers. 
 
 200 
 
 40 
 
108 THE PREPARATION OF THE YARN FOR THE LOOM. 
 
 If a 16 porter 40-inch, 110 yards long, with 18 shots 
 on the inch, require 6 spindles of weft, how much weft 
 will be required for the same sort of web with 16 shots 
 on the inch ? 
 
 18 : 16 : : 6 
 
 6__ 
 
 18 ) 96 ( 5 spindles. 
 
 6 
 4 
 
 24 ( 1 hasp. 
 28 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 36 ( 2 heers. 
 
 36 
 
 THE PREPARATION OF THE YARN FOR 
 THE LOOM. 
 
 General remarks. — The preparation of the yarn for 
 ihe loom is a most important matter. It has engaged 
 the attention of manufacturers and others capable of 
 investigating the subject ever since the introduction of 
 the power-loom, with a view to facilitate the process 
 and lessen the expense attendant on dressing the yarn, 
 in order to meet the demand for machine-made 
 cloth. But to treat this branch of textile manufactures 
 
THE PREPARATION OF THE YARN FOR THE LOOM. 109 
 
 exhaustively would involve a treatise on the chemistry of 
 the subject — a branch of science somewhat out of the 
 way of the present volume — consequently we will only 
 notice some of the more prominent features in connection 
 wdth it. 
 
 How dressing or sizing is necessary. — The reason that 
 some sort of preparation is necessary, more particularly 
 with the finer qualities of warp yarn, before they are fit 
 for the loom, is that the strength of the yarn when it 
 comes from the spinner is quite unequal to the strain of 
 weaving, and the woolly nature of the threads subjects 
 them to a greater friction in weaving than they are 
 capable of sustaining. This is occasioned by the centri- 
 fugal force of the thread, revolving on its axis in the 
 spinning frame, throwing off the ends of the fibres of 
 which it is composed, and weakening it in a corresponding 
 degree. It will be evident that, if woven in this condi- 
 tion, the yarn would have a greater tendency to get 
 chafed, and become still further weakened by the friction 
 it sustains in the process of fabrication. 
 
 The effect of dressing on the thread. — The design of 
 dressing and sizing the warp yarn is simply to lay the 
 ends of the fibres thus thrown off in the process of 
 spinning in a line with the threads, and in some measure 
 combine them, thus adding to their strength, and at the 
 same time rendering the surface of the threads smoother^ 
 and by this means diminishing their friction on each 
 other and on the reed during the process of weaving. 
 
 How the flour starch is made and used. — The material 
 of which- the dressing or paste is made should be that 
 which would give the greatest tenacity and pliability to the 
 thread and be as far as possible colourless. It is commonly 
 made of the best American flour. It is mixed in the 
 proportion of two pounds of flour to one gallon of water, 
 
110 THE PREPARATION OF THE YARN FOR THE LOOM. 
 
 and is allowed to steep for a few days, and then boiled 
 until it reaches a proper consistency, and allowed to stand 
 till it sours before using it. By allowing it to stand for 
 «ome time after it is made, it gets more tenacious and 
 glue-like, and gives greater strength to the yarn than if 
 used immediately after it cools down. 
 
 Farina as dressing. — There is a preparation very ex- 
 tensively used for dressing yarn, termed farina ; it is the 
 •starch taken from potatoes. It has some advantages over 
 flour — it is cheaper, is quite transparent and colourless, 
 iind is not seen on the yarn ; but, on the other hand, its 
 strength is much less, consequently it is not adapted for 
 yarns that depend on the paste for any considerable 
 addition to their tenacity. This sort of paste must be 
 used the same day that it is made ; it will not keep to 
 he of any use beyond that time ; and, if any old stuff is 
 put amongst that newly made, the whole is rendered 
 useless. Those who use it generally make up only as 
 much in the morning as will be required during the day ; 
 and if any is left over at night it should be thrown out. 
 
 Dressing for woollen yarns. — There are various pre- 
 parations used for wool yarn, but the most common is 
 glue. The fibres of wool, being hard and ill to lay, require 
 something stronger than common paste. 
 
 How the dressing is put on. — The dressing is put on 
 €otton and linen yarns with a revolving brush ; but this 
 method is not suitable either for woollen or jute yarns, 
 filthough the former are sometimes dressed in this way. 
 The filaments of these two yarns are much harder than 
 the former ; and, instead of laying them, the brush has a 
 tendency to tear them up. They are run between two 
 rollers, covered with plaiding or other soft substance to 
 take in the dressing and allow the thread to sink in it, so 
 that it will receive a coating all round. 
 
THE PREPARATION OF THE YARN FOR THE LOOM. Ill 
 
 Drying the yarn. — The drying apparatus of the dressing 
 machine should be very carefully attended to, because 
 when the yarn is allowed to run on the beam in a damp 
 state it comes off in a worse condition than if it had not 
 been dressed at all. 
 
 Sizing. — The preceding remarks apply to dressing, that 
 well-known process by which all the strength and smooth- 
 ness that can be imparted to the yarn is given ; but in 
 stronger yarn, where this is not so much required, a less 
 expensive process is adopted, called sizing. The yarn is 
 merely dipped in the paste while in the hank or the 
 chain." When in the chain it is drawn through a box 
 filled with paste — perhaps several times — until it has been 
 brought to a satisfactory condition. But the dressing is 
 frequently put on in a very irregular manner by this 
 process, which neither gives the strength nor smoothness 
 obtained with the dressing machine. 
 
 The preparation yarn reauires previous to being 
 dressed. — Most yarns require some preparation previous 
 to dressing, as they will not take on the paste so well if 
 there is any oily substance in or about them. In cotton 
 there is an essential oil in the plant that perhaps facilitates 
 the spinning to some degree, but which must be taken out 
 by boiling before it is prepared for the loom. Jute is of 
 a dry, hard nature of itself, and requires to be oiled to 
 fit it for being made into yarn, but the oil must be washed 
 out again before the yarn is in a condition for weaving. 
 Woollen yarns require their oily substances and other 
 impurities expunged from them by a process of scouring. 
 
 Weft that requires to be dressed. — There are a few 
 cases in which the weft requires some sort of starching. 
 In ordinary circumstances this would be against the ap- 
 pearance of the cloth. The weft is made with rather less 
 twist on it than the warp, to give a fiUed-up appearance 
 
112 
 
 DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 to the cloth ; but there is a very inferior quality used for 
 some purposes that requires to be starched to hold it 
 together. It is surely not worth much ; but, seeing there 
 is a market for it, the demand will be supplied. 
 
 DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 How the patterns are made. — It is by the order and 
 succession in which the warp threads are raised and 
 depressed, to be interwoven with the weft, that the 
 different patterns of cloth are produced. In these about 
 to be considered, where the threads are raised and de- 
 pressed by leaves of heddles, the patterns that can be 
 produced are of necessity limited to a certain class; but 
 the greatest variety of pattern of that particular class can 
 be made by the order in which the threads are drawn 
 through the heddles, and the order in which the treading 
 is performed, the variety being only limited by the imagi- 
 nation and skill of the operator. To the consideration 
 of this we will now direct our attention ; and in doing 
 so our object is not to give designs for new patterns, 
 but simply to explain the principles by which they are 
 produced. 
 
 Setting the heddles. — The following is the method 
 of "setting" the heddles. The camb is reckoned in the 
 same way as the reed, by the number of heddles or porters 
 contained in 37 inches. The reed is fitted to the fabric 
 of cloth to be woven, but it is not necessary that the 
 camb should be so. Any fabric of a less count than the 
 camb can be wrought in it by leaving out (at regular 
 intervals) the extra heddles. For example, a 30 porter 
 web can be wrought in a 36 porter camb by leaving the 
 
DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 113 
 
 extra 6 porter of heddles empty, dividing them in such a 
 way that they will not interfere with the threads. 
 
 Rules for finding the heddles to be set. — Subtract the 
 number of the reed from the number of the camb, and 
 the difference will be the number of heddles to be set ; 
 and by dividing the number of the reed by it, the quotient 
 will be the number of heddles to be filled before setting ; 
 or by dividing the number of the heddles by the same 
 divisor, we get the heddle that is to be set, as in the 
 following example : — 
 
 Examples when the number will divide without a re- 
 mainder. — Suppose a 12^^ camb to be set to a 10^^ reed. 
 
 1200 heddles. 
 
 1000 reed. 
 
 Difference, 200) 1000(5 draughts to be filled and I set. 
 1000 
 
 Or 200) 1200 ( 6, every sixth heddle to be set. 
 1200 
 
 For another example, suppose a 36 porter camb is to be 
 set to a 30 porter reed. 
 
 36 porter camb. 
 
 30 porter reed. 
 Difference, 6)30(5 draughts to be filled and 1 set. 
 
 12 
 
 Or 6)36(6, every sixth heddle to be set. 
 _36 
 
 When there is an odd half hundred, either in the camb 
 or reed, the whole must be reduced to half hundreds. 
 Suppose a 1200 camb to be set to a 1050 reed. 
 
 24 half hundreds in the camb. 
 21 half hundreds in the reed. 
 Difference, 3)21(7 draughts to be filled and 1 set. 
 _21 
 
 H 
 
114 
 
 DRAUGPITS AND TREADING. 
 
 When the number to be set will not measure exactly 
 either the camb or the reed. — It sometimes occurs that 
 the number of heddles to be set will not measure exactly 
 either the count of the camb or the reed, but leaves a 
 remainder. The following example will explain the mode 
 of procedure in these circumstances. Suppose a 40 
 porter camb to be set to a 31 porter reed. 
 
 40 porter camb. 
 31 porter reed. 
 
 Difference, 9)31 (3 draughts to be filled and 1 set three 
 27 times in succession, and 4 draughts 
 ^ to be filled and 1 set four timesin 
 — succession, and repeat. 
 
 In the preceding example, we have 9 in 31 three times 
 and 4 of a remainder. We fill three draughts and set one 
 three times in succession, and then add one of the re- 
 mainder to it, which makes four ; we then fill four 
 draughts and set as many times in succession as the re- 
 mainder indicates in the example under consideration. 
 The remainder is four, consequently it will be four 
 times. 
 
 An easy method. — There is quite a simple method of 
 finding the heddles to be set that requires no arithmetic 
 whatever. It is as follows : — Find the difference between 
 the count of the camb and the reed in hundreds, half 
 hundreds, or porters, as we have done in the preceding 
 examples, then for every hundred, half hundred, or porter 
 of difference, draw a line and mark off on these lines a 
 point for every hundred, half hundred, or porter in the 
 reed, beginning at the right hand and counting down, 
 which will show the number of draughts to be filled 
 before setting. Suppose, for an example, a 34 porter 
 camb to be set to a 30 porter reed : draw four lines as 
 
DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 115 
 
 shown in fig. 14, because the difference between the 
 count of the reed and camb is four porter. Then 
 begin at A and count down the lines until 30 points 
 are made (30 being the count of the reed), which will 
 show that eight draughts are to be filled and one set 
 
 Fig. 14 
 
 A 
 
 1— M-H-H-4-4-1- 
 
 M i ll M H- 
 
 IH-4H-H-HH- 
 
 h-Hi 1 I 1 — 1- 
 
 twice in succession, and seven draughts filled and one set 
 twice in succession, and repeat. 
 
 Draughts and treading of a plain web. — Four leaves of 
 heddles are generally employed in plain weaving, to pre- 
 vent overcrowding of the heddles on the shafts, but two 
 are fixed together, and raised and sunk as one. Fig. 15 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 S{ . 4 ■ ! 
 
 explains the draughts and treading of a plain web ; the 
 lines marked 1, 2, 3, 4, on the right hand, represent the 
 leaves of heddles, 1 being the leaf next to the lay. The 
 order of the draughts is indicated by the figures on the 
 lines, — the fourth leaf is drawn first, the second is second, 
 the third is third, and the first fourth. R and S indicate 
 the leaves that rise and sink together. 
 
 The distinction between plain and tweeled cloth.— 
 Tweeling differs from plain weaving in this, that in plain 
 
116 
 
 DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 work the warp and weft threads are interlaced with 
 each other every shot ; but in what may be called 
 regular tweeling, they are only interwoven with each 
 other at intervals according to the number of leaves 
 employed. In a three-leaf tweel the warp is interwoven 
 with the weft every third shot, in a four-leaf every 
 fourth, and so on. 
 
 Draughts and treading of a three-leaf tweel. — Fig. 16 
 shows the draughts and treading of a three-leaf tweel. 
 The letters A, B, C, between the lines, represent the 
 leaves of heddles. C is the front leaf, or the one next to 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 
 
 
 1 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 C 
 
 the lay. The figures 1, 2, 3, are the order of the draught ; 
 the first thread is drawn through a heddle on the back 
 leaf, the second on the mid leaf, and the third on the front 
 leaf. The squares on the left represent the warp and 
 weft threads as they are interwoven with each other. If 
 we suppose the weft to be black and the warp white — the 
 first thread being drawn on the leaf A, and it being the 
 first to be sunk, the black weft is shown over it, then the 
 other two in succession. This shows that the treading is 
 performed in the same order that the web is drawn in the 
 camb ; all regular tweels are the same. If these remarks 
 are properly considered the principles of regular tweeling 
 will be easily enough understood ; no matter what 
 number of leaves are employed, the principle is the 
 same. 
 
DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 117 
 
 Draughts and treading of four and five-leaf tweels.— 
 Fig. 17 is the draughts and treading of a four-leaf, and 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 4- 
 
 fig. 18 is that of a five-leaf tweel, the draughts and 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 P. 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 treading of both beginning on the back leaf, then each 
 succeeding one in regular rotation until they have all 
 been gone over. 
 
 The broken tweel. — In large tweels the draughts and 
 treading seldom follow each other in the same order. 
 It gives to the cloth rather a flimsy-like appearance, the 
 threads being so much and so regularly flushed. This 
 is remedied by altering either the order of the draughts or 
 the treading, and producing what is called a broken tweel. 
 Fig. 19 is an eight-leaf broken tweel; the draught is 
 straight across the leaves, as shown in the figure. The 
 squares on the left show the order of treading. A tweel 
 should not be broken unless the number of the leaves will 
 
118 
 
 DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 admit of its being broken at regular intervals. It will be 
 noticed in fig. 19 that between every tread two leaves 
 are passed over. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 The full satin tweel.— Fig. 20 is a sixteen-leaf tweel — 
 the draughts and treading are shown. This is what is 
 called a full satin tweel. It will be seen that four leaves 
 are passed over between each tread. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m. 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m. 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 The herring-bone tweel.— There is a kind of ornamental 
 tweel produced by reversing the draughts, which is called the 
 herring-bone tweel, on account of its resemblance in the 
 
DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 119 
 
 cloth to the backbone of that native of the deep. The tweel 
 runs first in one direction and then in the opposite direction. 
 Fig. 21 shows this draught in a four-leaf tweel — the tread- 
 
 FiG. 21. 
 
 ' =8^ € 2 ' B 
 
 $ f=S== ^ ' 0 
 
 I © 4— 
 
 ing is performed in the same way as shown in fig. 17. It 
 will be noticed that there is only one thread drawn on A 
 and D leaves for two on the others. This is the best way 
 of turning the draught, and makes the neatest pattern. 
 
 The method of working the leaves that is easiest for 
 the yarn. — In the preceding examples we have assumed 
 that one leaf is sunk and all the others up when the shot 
 is put in. We have explained, under the head Shedding, 
 how this is a better method of weaving tweels than the 
 reverse, with one up and all the others down. The warp 
 is flushed on the one side and the weft on the other, and 
 you can make the tweel to run in any direction by the 
 order either of your draughts or treading. 
 
 The serge tweel. — We now come to a sort of orna- 
 mental tweel where the warp and weft are equally flushed 
 on both sides of the cloth. It is commonly called 
 serge, and can only be wrought with the leaves of 
 an even number, such as 4, 6, 8, &c. Fig. 22 shows the 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 ± 
 2 
 
 4j 
 
 draughts and treading of a four-leaf of this sort, commonly 
 
120 
 
 DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 known as the blanket tweel, and fig. 23 is the draughts 
 and treading of an eight-leaf of the same description of 
 tweel. It will be seen that the draught begins on the 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 back leaf, and is continued on every alternate one until 
 half the number has been gone over, then returning to 
 the second back one, and proceeding on every alternate 
 leaf until a thread has been drawn on each. The treading 
 is performed in the same order, the leaves remaining down 
 during half the number of treads and up during the same 
 time, one moving down and another up every tread. 
 
 Ornamental tweels. — There is another description of 
 fancy twill somewhat analogous to the preceding one, 
 but differing in this, that the threads are not always 
 equally flushed on both sides of the cloth. Fig. 24 is the 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 
 
 
 m. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 'm 
 
 2 
 
 
 m. 
 
 
 m. 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 ■m 
 
 6 
 
 draughts and treading of a six-leaf tweel of this descrip- 
 tion. There is absolutely no limit to the number of 
 patterns that can be produced in this way, simply by 
 
DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 121 
 
 altering the order of the draughts or treading, or both. 
 The greater the number of leaves, the greater is the scope 
 for the imagination of the operator. 
 
 Diaper. — The diaper is produced simply by reversing 
 the draughts and treading. This can best be explained by 
 figures. Let us suppose we have a piece of cloth wrought 
 with the same draughts and treading we have given 
 at fig. 24 ; supposing the warp to be white and the weft 
 black, it would have the appearance shown in fig. 25. 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 iiH~mnTfrt liTiWi imrm 
 
 Now, if we reverse the draught in the manner we have 
 described in a previous example, the pattern is altered to 
 that shown at fig. 26. Then, if we reverse the treading 
 
 Fig. 26. 
 
 Mil l iirifi fj^^- '^■-■^ 
 
 .,.„._ , ^ ^ . iiiH una . 
 
 mil iiiiiirwi .1 i m Lf'^'|Jjj|,|,''''j-,„^ 
 
 iTlTC llli illlilTiTii mil i i. iiiiii ■,. ■ . . 
 
 , linr~iWii~ niiiiiTiTi lliii ili iiiiiini i initiiiii jifi fl 
 IZll! Lj [Oii iiiii mill pHFi nBn ^ 
 
 iiiipn iMU iNiMiriiiEi I 
 1 li n 1^1 III n f ii^iiii I iiriii 
 
 1 1 f[iil~nTfi r~nTiii i rini i fiirmin iin 
 
 lii liMiii n iiii^ n i^i iniliiiiiiilii 
 
 liiTrfiFMriiiniiiiii ■ — 
 
 iM Ml iiiiiiiiiiir 
 
 iiiii "mill fill!! , 
 •RigiTiiini n ill 
 
 liiiiiiiiii iiiiiiiliii ililii iilllf fflT 
 
 (that is, go over all the leaves in the order we have 
 
122 
 
 DRAUGHTS A^D TREADING. 
 
 arranged, no matter what that order may be, then go 
 over them again, but in exactly the opposite way), and 
 do not reverse the draught, we have the pattern shown at 
 fig. 27. By reversing both the draught and treading 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 they combine and form a diamond, as shown at fig. 28. 
 This is what is called diaper. This is a six-leaf, and it 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 will be observed that it takes ten treads to complete the 
 pattern, beginning, say, at one, and going straight over 
 them till we come to six, then beginning at five and going 
 back to two — this will make ten treads in all. As the 
 
DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 12^ 
 
 pattern is turned on the first and sixth tread, they can 
 only be counted once in one repeat of the pattern. These 
 patterns can be increased or diminished almost to any 
 size by increasing or diminishing the number of treads 
 and reversing the draughts at a point to suit them, always 
 allowing that it can be counted an equal number of times 
 across the web, that the edges of the cloth may join 
 without spoiling the pattern. 
 
 The junction of plain and tweeled cloth. — We will 
 now consider those patterns that are produced by two or 
 more sets of leaves of heddles. The junction of plain 
 and tweeled cloth is effected by two sets of leaves. This 
 description of texture is frequently made striped, the body 
 of the cloth plain, and the stripes tweeled, that the colours 
 may show^ better. The plain parts are in one set and the 
 tweeled parts in another, each of them being spaced to 
 allow the threads of the other to pass. The one set of 
 leaves is mounted to work a tweel, quite independently of 
 the other that is mounted for plain work, but their action 
 is simultaneous, and they are drawn through the same 
 reed, and thus their junction is complete. Fig. 29 shows 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 the treading of a plain web with stripes of a four-leaf 
 tweel. The draughts are the same as in ordinary plain or 
 tweeled fabrics. 
 
 Diced work. — Diced work is the most complicated of 
 all the patterns produced by leaves of heddles ; two, and 
 sometimes three, sets of leaves are employed. They are 
 
124 
 
 DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 not wrought with tappets, however, the same as diaper 
 and other patterns are wrought. Various machines have 
 been introduced for working the heddles, which it is not 
 our present purpose to describe. It will suffice that we 
 show the principle on which the various dice patterns are 
 produced. We have already shown that to produce a 
 diamond pattern we have but to reverse the draught and 
 treading; but in the case before us, where the pattern 
 forms a square — square with the edge of the cloth — it is 
 brought out by reversing the tweel, — that is, the warp is 
 flushed in one square, and the weft in the next. The 
 simplest of these is what is called the draught-board 
 pattern. Fig. 30 is a sketch of it on the smallest scale 
 that can be produced by a four-leaf regular tweel — that 
 is, one draught over the leaves and one tread over the 
 leaves ; but it can be extended to any size by which the 
 breadth of the web can be equally divided, up to half the 
 breadth of the web. Each set of leaves is spaced to the 
 size of the pattern ; and when the one set is flushing the 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 warp on the one side, the other is flushing the weft. 
 This is continued until the pattern is wrought square, then 
 their action is reversed. The set that was throwing up the 
 warp now throws up the weft, and the one that was 
 throwing up the weft now throws up the warp. Fig. 30 
 
DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 125 
 
 fully explains this. When the warp and weft are of 
 different colours, the squares stand out in bold relief. 
 These squares can be broken up in a great variety of 
 ways, or surrounded by other smaller ones or stripes, by 
 a slight variation in the draughts or treading, or the 
 addition of another set of leaves. 
 
 Two and three-ply cloth and two and three-fold cloth 
 and tubular cloth wrought on the same principle. — There 
 are yet other three sorts of weaving to describe, which will 
 be easier explained and better understood if we consider 
 them as but three grades of the same style of weaving, 
 which in reality they are. We mean two and three-ply 
 cloth, the principle on which two and three-ply carpets 
 are woven (but we may mention here that but very 
 simple patterns can be produced by leaves of heddles 
 alone) ; and two and three-fold weaving (that is, the 
 principle on which, say, cloth four or six yards wide can 
 be wrought in a two-yard- wide loom) ; and tubular 
 weaving. These three sorts of cloth are widely different, 
 although they can all be produced in the same sets of 
 leaves, with the draughts and treading slightly altered. 
 They may either be wrought plain or tweeled. Although 
 the leaves are spoken of as in sets, they are not spaced in 
 any way as the dice or the plain and tweeled cloth ; but 
 the yarn is drawn in the heddles as one web, all the yarn 
 being on one beam, and in every way treated as a single 
 piece of cloth. It is the draughts and treading alone that 
 make the difference. The heddle leaves are commonly 
 wrought with the double barrel from the side of the loom, 
 with levers attached to raise and depress the leaves. But 
 we believe most of them could be much easier wrought 
 with the ordinary tappets or wipers and the spring-top 
 mounting. Plain cloth can at least be wrought with 
 little trouble in this way. 
 
126 
 
 DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 Tubular weaving. — We will now consider the draughts 
 and treading of a plain tube for bagging. Fig. 31 repre- 
 sents the four leaves. Suppose A and B to work the 
 under half of the tube, and C D the upper half. The' 
 shuttle passing from one side of the loom puts a shot into 
 the under half, and when passing from the opposite side 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 a shot is put into the upper half, and repeat. To accom- 
 plish this, we may sink A, and raise B, C, D, for the first 
 shot ; and sink A, B, C, and raise D, for the second ; 
 then sink B, and raise A, C, D, for the third ; and sink 
 A, B, D, and raise C, for the fourth, and repeat. It will 
 be seen that there are three leaves up and one down, and 
 three down and one up, alternately. This is obvious from 
 the fact that when a shot is being put into the under half 
 of the tube, one of the leaves of it and both the leaves of 
 the upper half must be up ; and while a shot is being put 
 into the upper half, one of the leaves of it and both leaves 
 of the lower half must be down. With this treading, 
 and the draughts as shown by the figures at fig. 31, we 
 produce double cloth joined at the selvages. That the 
 treading of this may be clearly understood, we append the 
 following table : — 
 
 Sunk. Raised. 
 First shot, - A. B, C, D. 
 
 Second shot, - A, B, C. D. 
 Third shot, - B. A, C, D. 
 
 Fourth shot, - A, B, D. C. 
 
 Two-fold weaving. — Two-fold cloth is the same as 
 
DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 127 
 
 tubular, only joined at one selvage. All that is necessary 
 to produce this is but a slight alteration in the treading. 
 In tubular cloth the shuttle passes through the under and 
 the upper half alternately, but in this two shots are put 
 into each in succession. Thus, if we wish to join the 
 cloth at the left-hand side of the loom, we may throw the 
 first shot from the right in the under fold, and the second 
 from the left in the upper fold ; and then reverse the 
 next two, throwing the third shot from the right in the 
 upper fold, and the fourth from the left in the under fold, 
 and repeat. It will be seen that four treads complete this 
 pattern. The following table shows the order of the 
 treading, with reference again to fig. 31. The draught is 
 the same as that for the tube : — 
 
 Sunk. Raised. 
 
 First shot, - A. B, C, D. 
 
 Second shot, - A, B, C. D. 
 Third shot, - A, B, D. C. 
 
 Fourth shot, - B. A, C, D. 
 
 Three-fold weaving — For three-fold cloth we require 
 three sets of leaves. Fig. 32 represents them, and the 
 figures indicate the order of the draught. Then suppose 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 -B ^ 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 we join the under to the centre fold at the left hand, 
 and the centre to the upper fold at the right, the first 
 pick will go into the under fold from the right, and the 
 second into the centre fold from the left, and the third 
 
128 
 
 DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 into the upper fold from the right, and reverse the order 
 of the next three, thus making six treads in the pattern. 
 The following table will show the order of treading more 
 clearly, A B representing the under, C D the centre, and 
 E F the upper folds : — 
 
 Sunk. Raised. 
 
 First shot, - A. B, C, D, E, F. 
 
 Second shot, - A, B, C. D, E, F. 
 
 Third shot, - A, B, C, D, E. F. 
 
 Fourth shot, - A, B, C, D, F. E. 
 
 Fifth shot, - A, B, D. C, E, F. 
 
 Sixth shot, - B. A, C, D, E, F. 
 
 Two and three-fold and tubular tweels. — These ex- 
 amples we have given are for plain cloth ; but they can 
 be wrought in any sort of tweel, simply by substituting 
 sets of tweel leaves for that of the plain, and putting a 
 shot into each fold in the same order we have observed 
 with the plain fabrics. 
 
 Two and three-ply cloth. — The difference between the 
 two and three-fold and tubular weaving we have just 
 been describing, and two and three-ply cloth, is, that the 
 latter two are always joined at both selvages, and the 
 plys interwoven with each other at intervals, or change 
 places with each other. When each is of a different 
 colour, they can be displayed in succession on both sides 
 of the cloth. This style of weaving is most commonly 
 employed for throwing up flowers of a quite distinct 
 colour from the ground of the cloth ; but the harness is 
 required for that. It is only in extremely simple patterns 
 that leaves of h eddies alone are or can be employed. The 
 method of doing so may easily be gathered from what has 
 been stated concerning the two and three-fold weaving. 
 
 To construct and arrange the wipers or tappets when 
 the treading is known. — After what has already been 
 
DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 129 
 
 said in another chapter on shedding, and in this on 
 draughts and treading, little more is required to enable 
 any one with a little experience to construct and put 
 up the camb mounting for any pattern of cloth that 
 can be wrought with leaves of heddles. To find the 
 number, shape, and arrangement of the wipers, or 
 tappets, we must first know the pattern of cloth to 
 be made, and make a drawing of it in some such way 
 as is shown in the preceding figures. To do this we 
 must be able to design the pattern for ourselves, or 
 " read " the pattern that may be given us ; but we may 
 remark that it requires experience to be able to do 
 either. After the figure showing the treading has been 
 got, the length of the pause of the wipers, or tappets, 
 will be found from the number of black squares in 
 succession, counting from top to bottom ; as in fig. 
 16, for example, there is only one, consequently the 
 pause will require to be for one pick. In fig. 22 
 there are two dark squares in succession, requiring the 
 leaf to be kept down during two picks ; and in fig. 23 the 
 pause will require to be made for four. How this is done 
 is explained with reference to fig. 4. Then, as to their 
 arrangement — they follow each other in the order also 
 indicated in the figure. Take fig. 19, for example, where 
 two leaves are passed over between each tread, we have 
 1, 4, 7, 2, 5, 8, 3, 6, as the order of the treading. The 
 arrangement of the wipers will also show what sort of top 
 mounting will be required. 
 
 The centre selvage explained. — By the method of 
 centre selvaging, two or three breadths of narrow 
 cloth can be wrought in a broad loom. This selvage is 
 much inferior to the ordinary one mada by the turning of 
 tho weft threHd; but wherd.gre-^t s^ttengtli is rot required 
 it makes a very good substitute. It is formed by a very 
 
130 
 
 DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 simple process, illustrated by figs. 33 and 34. They show 
 the shed formed by the leaves of heddles A and B and 
 the looping heddle C. One thread is drawn on the back 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 A 
 
 leaf and another on the front leaf ; the looping thread 
 that binds them together with the weft threads is drawn 
 through a heddle on the back leaf, and also through the 
 flying heddle which is attached to the front leaf. Fig. 33 
 shows the position of these threads when the front leaf is 
 sunk, and fig. 34 when the back leaf is sunk. Fig. 35 
 is an enlarged view of the selvage itself, showing how the 
 threads are bound together. By a careful examination of 
 how the threads pass each other, and the heddle leaves in 
 these figures, the whole process will be easily understood. 
 
 It will be noticed that the looping thread just rises to 
 about the middle of the slied. The re^ison of thi^ will be 
 *4uite ^tident' on examining its position in the' two figures ; 
 
DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 131 
 
 it is always above the weft threads, and under the other 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 two selvage threads, as shown at fig. 35. The length of 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i — ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 the flying heddle must be adjusted to make the most of 
 
132 
 
 DRAUGHTS AND TREADING. 
 
 both sheds. This is the only difficulty connected with it, 
 and real difficulty it is with beginners. When the heddle 
 is not of the proper length, an unequal tension is thrown 
 on the thread, and the selvage spoiled, or the thread or 
 heddle itself broken. Of course a little experience will 
 put this all right. The mail or ring through which the 
 thread passes on the fly heddle should be as small as can 
 be wrought with, at the same time large enough to pre- 
 vent its being entangled in the splits of the reed. It will 
 also be seen from the figures that the looping thread does 
 not pass over the lease rods, but comes directly to the 
 heddles from the bobbin on which it is wound, and which 
 is paced by weights to keep the threads at the required 
 tension. The tighter the thread is, the stronger will be 
 the selvage. 
 
 Various machines have been brought into use for this 
 purpose which make very good work, the threads being 
 interwoven in the same way. But when it can be easily 
 enough done without them, their expense may be saved. 
 
 PRINTED BY JAMES P. MATHEW AND CO., COWGATE, DUNDEE. 
 
INDEX TO ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Blezard, James, & Sons, Makers of Self -Acting Loom Temples, 12 
 Borissow, C, Machine Agent, .... 4 
 
 Bryce, A. S., Glenpark Oil and Chemical Works, Glasgow, - 17 
 Dugdale, John, & Sons, Machinists, Soho Foundry, Blackburn, 10 
 Fleming, Thomas, Son, & Co., Manufacturers of Card Coverings, 
 
 &c., - - - - . opposite Front board 
 
 Hacking & Co., Patent Shuttle Motion and Patent Pirn Winder 
 
 Manufacturers, - - - - • - 16 
 
 Halley Brothers, Merchants and Manufacturers of Card Clothing 
 
 in Wood and Leather, - - - - - 4 
 
 Howorth, James, F.S.A., Consulting and Ventilating Engineer, 11 
 Kenyon, James, & Son, Manufacturers of Roller Cloths, &c. , - 8 
 Kirk, Walter S., & Co., Woollen and Finishing Machinery, - 18 
 Langlands, George, Shuttle and Buffallo Picker Maker, - 13 
 Livesej'^, Henry, Limited, Makers of Looms, &c., - - 9 
 
 Mathew, James P., & Co., Publishers, - 6, and end papers 
 
 McLean, Wm., Engineer and Machine Maker, opposite Back board 
 North British Rubber Co., Limited, - - - - 20 
 
 Parker, William W., Leather Belting, &c., - - - 15 
 
 Rickards, C. A., Spinner of Silk Yarns, &c., - - - 7 
 
 Robertson & Orchar, Machine Makers and Founders - 5 
 
2 
 
 INDEX TO ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 Stephenson, Geo. J., & Co., Prepared Neatsfoot Oil for Machinery, 13 
 TuUis, John, & Son, - - - - on Front board 
 
 TurnbuU, Alex., & Co., Engineers, Glasgow, - - - 19 
 
 Urquhart, Lindsay, & Co. , Engineers, Dundee, - - 3 
 
 Wade, J. L.J & Co., Manufacturing and Analytical Chemists, 7 
 Walker, Robert, Manufacturer of Non- Conducting Composition, 10 
 White & Sons, Tanners, Curriers, and Leather Merchants, 
 
 Bingley, Yorks, - - - - - - 18 
 
 Willan & Mills, Makers of Looms, &c. , Blackburn, - - 14 
 
o 
 
 LU 
 LU 
 Q 
 
 3 
 O 
 11- 
 
 co 
 
 CO 
 LlJ 
 
 P < 
 
 a? 
 
 03 
 
 0 
 
 02 
 
 0 
 H 
 
 0) 
 
 M 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 1^ 
 
 H 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 I— I 
 
 c3 
 
 o 
 
 I § 
 8 
 
 .S § 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 o? o 
 
 a i 
 
 o OS 
 
 <D 
 
 S=! 
 ce 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 *S 
 
 % 
 
 o 
 
 QQ 
 
 0 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 M 
 
 W 
 o 
 
 o ffi 
 
 Eh 
 
 < 
 
 0 ^ 
 
 b 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 g 
 
 CO 
 
4 
 
 ESTABLISHED OVER TWENTY YEARS. 
 
 C. BORISSOW, 
 
 X.II.I.E, FRANCE. 
 
 English, French, and Belgium References of the very Highest Order. 
 Maison etdblie depuis 20 ans. 
 
 C. BORISSOW, 
 
 LILLE. 
 
 DEPOT ET REPRESENTATION DE MAISONS ANGLAISES 
 
 POUR 
 
 MACHINES ET ACCESSOIRES DE PEIGNAGES, FILATURES, 
 TISSAGES, &c. 
 
 HALLEY BROTHERS, 
 
 MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 CARD CLOTHUJG in Wood and Leather, 
 
 HACKLES and GILLS of every description, 
 
 AND ALL SOETS OF 
 
 HACKLE, GILL, and CARD PINS, RIVETS, dc. 
 
 SOUTH. w^Rx> i«,o^r>, 
 
 DUNDEE. 
 
5 
 
 ROBERTSON & ORCHAR, 
 
 WALLACE FOUNDRY, 
 
 r> U IV D E E, 
 
 ENGINEERS, MILLWRIGHTS, 
 
 MACHINE MAKERS & FOUNDERS, 
 STEAM ENGINES, GEARING, 
 
 AND EVERY DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 MILLWRIGHT AND GENERAL WORK 
 
 EXECUTED UPON THE MOST IMPROVED PRINCIPLES. 
 
 Patentees and Makers of Improved Power Looms for Weaving all 
 Classes of Linen, Hemp, Tow, and Jute Fabrics. 
 
 Patentees and Makers of Warp Winding Machines, with Unvarying 
 Surface Take-up, adapted for all Classes of Yarns. 
 
 Patentees and Makers of Weft Winding Machines, with 
 Variable Spindle Movement, adapted for Yarns ranging from 40 
 lbs. per spindle to the finest description. 
 
 Patentees and Makers of Improved Roller Mangles, Calenders, 
 
 and all Finishing Machinery on the Newest principles. 
 
 DRAWINGS, SPECIFICATIONS, AND ESTIMATES 
 
 CAREFULLY PREPARED FOR 
 Spinning Mills, Power Loom Factories, Com and Flour Mills, &c. 
 
Just Published. Post Free 5s. 3d. 
 
 SECOND EDITION— ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 FLAX, TOW, & JUTE SPINNING. 
 
 By peter sharp. 
 
 Extracts from Opinions of the Press on First Edition. 
 
 *^Mr Peter Sharp's work . . . cannot fail to commend 
 itself to those interested in the spinning ' end ' of our staple in- 
 dustry." — Northern Whig, February 6, 1882. 
 
 That we have not had a first-rate handbook on flax and jute 
 spinning long ago is because few men possess all the requisite^ 
 necessary for writing such a book. The long-felt want has now 
 been supplied. . . . By the publication of such a work the 
 author has conferred a boon on all engaged in the spinning trade, 
 and we cordially recommend it to them and to the public." — 
 Courier and Argus, February 8, 1882. 
 
 '*This book is worthy of a place in the library of every fore- 
 man, mechanic, overseer, manager, and machine maker interested 
 in the jute and flax trade ; ... is rich with information, the 
 results of practice and observation." — Dundee Advertiser, Feb- 
 ruary U,\S%2. 
 
 Mr Sharp's book will be valued by all practical spinners. . 
 No better reading could be had for a young mechanic. It is re- 
 plete not only with facts, but is suggestive, and being the work 
 of a practical flaxspinner, it is not full of laboured theories, but 
 of proved and indeed of approved methods. " — People's Journal, 
 February 
 
 The author has evidently given much attention to the subjects 
 iie deals with ; while a knowledge of his rules, calculations, and 
 tables, which are of an exhaustive character, cannot fail to be of 
 advantage to all managers, overseers, foremen, and mechanics 
 connected with the spinning industry. " — Evening Telegraph, Feb- 
 ruary 14, 1882. 
 
 " Such a volume as the present is a valuable contribution to 
 that literature of technical education, the deficiencies of which 
 have been so frequently commented on in recent years. " — A berdeen 
 Journal, February 16, 1882. 
 
 " Artizans engaged in the trade to which it refers will find 
 ' Flax, Tow, and Jute Spinning ' a very valuable handbook, and 
 one that in all probability they have long wished for." — Leeds 
 Mercury, April 12, 1882. 
 
 ' * The book is a thoroughly practical and reliable one, giving 
 rules, tables, and calculations that are sure to be of great value 
 to all engaged in these branches of industry." — Englishman, Cal- 
 cutta, June 10, 1882. 
 
 "Flax, tow, and jute manufacturers and managers, and fore- 
 men in these different establishments, will find it a useful book 
 of reference." — Textile Manufacturer, August 15, 1882. 
 
 JAMES P. MATHEW & CO., Printers and Publishers, Dundee. 
 
C.A.RICKARD$, 
 
 BELL BUSK, 
 
 Via LEEDS, 
 
 SPINNER OF 
 
 silk: YA.I^3>TS 
 
 for velvets, mixed fabrics, lace, hosiery, 
 
 EMBROIDERY, TRIMMINGS, etc. 
 
 MANUFACTURER OF 
 
 FOR USING IN SEWING MACHINES 
 FOR CLOTHING, LEATHER WORK, etc. 
 
 J. L. WADE & CO., 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 The Patent Liquid Boiler Scale Remover, 
 
 Which is Specially Prepared to suit the Impurities contained in 
 
 ALL KINDS OF WaTER. 
 
 J. L. WADE & CO., 
 
 MANUFACTURING & ANALYTICAL CHEMISTS, 
 
 Malcerfi of Belting Syrup, Lubricating Cream, Patent Wheel and 
 Water Wheel Grease, 
 180 GALLOWGATE and 143 SOUTH YORK STREET, 
 G- IL. ^ S a- O "W. 
 
DERBY STREET MILLS, 
 
 BURY, near Manchester, 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 ROLLER CLOTHS, CLEARER CLOTHS, 
 
 WASHER CLOTHS, 
 Slasher and Sizing Flannels, 
 
 FOR 
 
 COTTON SPINNERS. 
 
 FELTS FOR PAPERMAKERS, 
 BLANKETS and LAPPINGS for Calico Printers, 
 CARD CLOTHS for Card Manufacturers, 
 
 And every description of 
 WOOLLEN, LINEN, AND COTTON CLOTHS 
 
 FOR MACHINERY. 
 
SILVER MEDAL AND DIPLOMA, 
 
 MANCHESTER EXCHANGE 
 
 10 Pillar, from 1 to 2 o'clock on 
 Tuesdays and Fridays. 
 
 PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE IN 
 
 Weaving and Loom Making 
 for 30 years. 
 
 PARIS EXHIBITION, 1878. 
 
 HENRY LIVESEY, Limited, 
 
 BLACKBURN, 
 
 PLAITING 
 
 MAKERS OF THE 
 Improved Cast-iron 
 Taking-up Beam, 
 
 Covered with Filleting-. 
 
 "SLASHER" 
 SIZING AND 
 WARPING 
 MACHINES. 
 
 MACHINES. 
 
 LOOMING & DRAWING-IN 
 
 FRAMES, &c. &c. 
 
 MAKERS ALSO OF 
 
 Bobbins, Tubes, 
 SHUTTLES, 
 
 Pickers, dc. dc. 
 
 MAKERS OF LOOMS 
 
 For Weaving Printers, Shirtings, T Cloths, Domestics, Linen and Sail Cloths. 
 
 COP AND THROSTIE 
 
 Winding Machines 
 
 DRUM WINDING 
 
 AND 
 
 Spooling' Maohines 
 
 FOR 
 
 LINEN AND COLOURED 
 
 HYDRAULIC 
 
 CLOTH PRESSES. 
 
 Loom Sides Planed 
 and Cross Rails Cut 
 to exact length by 
 Special Tools. 
 
 Illustrated Catalogues on application. 
 
 DOUBLE-LIFT DOBBIES UP TO 40 SHAFTS. 
 
 Estimates furnished for every description of 
 Weaving Machinery. 
 
10 
 
 ROBERT WALKER, 
 
 MANUFACTURER OF 
 
 Improved Non-Conducling Composition, 
 
 AND 
 
 STEAM BOILER COVEREB, 
 
 CANDLE LANE, DUNDEE. 
 
 WALKER'S 
 IMPROVED NON-CONDUCTING COMPOSITION 
 
 Is the most effective and reliable Covering for 
 BOILERS, STEAM PIPES, CYLINDERS, and other Highly 
 Heated Surfaces, to prevent the radiation of heat. 
 
 Steam Pipes ^ ^c?., also covered with Hair Felt and Canvas if desired, 
 
 PRICES AND SAMPLES ON APPLICATION. 
 
 JOHN DUGDALE & SONS, 
 
 MACHINISTS, Soho Foundry, BLACKBURN 
 
 (A^id Successors to J, HARBISON cC- SONS, Bank Foundry), 
 
 L O O B- 
 
 For Weaving all kinds of Cotton, Linen, Silk, and Woollen Goods, 
 plain and fancy, with one or more Shuttles, Rising or Revolving 
 Boxes, Twills, Lobbies, or Jacquards. 
 
 Winding Machines, to wind from 
 
 Cops, Bobbins, or Hanks, on 
 
 to Bobbins or Pirns. 
 Warping Machines, with Falling 
 
 Rods, or Patent Self-stopping 
 
 Motion. 
 
 Slasher Sizing Machines, on the 
 most approved system. 
 
 Dressing Machines. 
 
 Size Mixing and Boiling Ap- 
 paratus. 
 
 Folding and Measuring Ma- 
 chines. 
 
 Hydraulic or Geared Cloth 
 
 Presses. 
 Circular Warping Mills. 
 Beaming Machines for Balled 
 
 Warps. 
 
 Looming and Drawing - in 
 
 Frames. 
 Heald Knitting Machines. 
 Heald Varnishing and Sizing 
 
 Machines. 
 Reeling Frames, Wrap Reels, 
 
 ETC. 
 
 Accessories and Mill Furnishings of every description; Mill Gearing, etc. 
 
11 
 
 JAMES HOWORTH'S 
 
 PATENT REVOLVING 
 
 Archimedean Screw Ventilators 
 
 (Self- Acting or Driven hy Motive Power). 
 
 ESTABLISHED 
 1858. 
 
 By Special 
 Appointment 
 to the 
 Roj^al Commission 
 Paris Exhibition, 
 1878. 
 
 Awarded 
 Gold Medal, 
 Sydney, 1879. 
 
 ESTABLISHED 
 1858. 
 
 Awarded 56 Gold 
 and Silver Medals 
 and Diplomas. 
 
 Only Prize Medal 
 and Diploma for 
 Revolving- 
 Archimedean 
 Screw Ventilatoi-s, 
 Paris, 1878. 
 
 No Goods Genuine without Trade Mark affixed. 
 
 Croft Flax Mill, Stockport 
 Mr J Howorth,- I'ear Sir,— I bave very great pleasure in bear- 
 ing' testimony to the efficacy of your No. 2 Ventilators. I have now 
 twenty-six 2-l-in. at work in various parts of ray works, more par- 
 ticularly in the Card-room in my Flax Mill. Before putting in 
 your Ventilators my people suffered very much from the thick 
 heavy dust that is present in all hemp and flax fibres, and before 
 trying your Ventilators I tried various other methods of clearing 
 my rooms with very little success. I am now glad to say my rooms 
 are almost free from dust, and have great pleasure in bearing 
 testimony to their efficiency, and recommending them to others. 
 
 I am, yours respectfully, 
 pro HENRY HANSON. JoiIN Hanson 
 
 JAMES HOWORTH'S 
 
 New Patent Radial Screw Ventilator, 
 
 For Driving by Power, 
 
 For the Ventilation of Mills, Weaving' Sheds, Spinning 
 Rooms, &c. &c. 
 
 FORTY THOUSAND TESTIMONIALS AND REFERENCES 
 For the successful Ventilation of Houses, Public Buildings, Sewers, the Abstraction of 
 Hot and Vitiated Air, Sulphurous Gases, Dust, Steam, and Smoke from all Descriptions of 
 Manufactories and Works, and for the Cure of Smoky Chimneys. 
 
 For a scientific and successful application of the Revolving Archimedean Screw 
 Ventilators, qualified by 24 years' study and practical exp>erience in their ap)plication 
 to evei'y kind of Buildings, Wo7'ks, and Sewers, apply to the Sole Maker, 
 
 JAMES HOWORTH, F.S.A , 
 
 CONSULTING AND VENTILATING ENGINEER, 
 VICTORIA WORKS, FARNWORTH 
 
 CNear BOLTON and MANCHESTER), 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
GEORGE LANGLANDS," 
 
 WOOD MERCHANT, 
 
 SHUTTLE AND BUFFALO PICKER MAKER, 
 
 161 HILLTOWN, 
 
 DUNDEE. 
 
 SHUTTLE MOUNTINGS of Every Description kept in 
 Stock or made to Order. 
 
 WOOD, suitable for IMill and Factory purposes, 
 always on hand. 
 
 MAXWELLTOWN SAWMILLS— 50 JAMES STEEET. 
 
 STEPHENSON'S 
 
 PREPARED NEATSFOOT OIL 
 
 For Machinery. 
 
 The finest Oil in England for all kinds of Machinery, being 
 superior to Lard, Oil, etc., and equal to pure Sperm Oil as a 
 lubricant. 
 
 PRICE 2s. 9d. PEE GALLON. 
 
 GEO. J. STEPHENSON & CO., 
 
 Office : 2 NORTH WALLS, HULL. 
 
 We shall be glad to send you 12 gallons at the above price, 
 you paying carriage. 
 
'WILLAN & MILLS, 
 
 ROSE HILL FOUNDRY, 
 
 MAKERS OF 
 
 LOOMS for Weaving Light, Medium, and Heavy Plain or Fancy Cotton, 
 Silk, or Linen and Jute Goods. 
 
 SPECIAL LOOMS, suitable for the Glasgow Cotton and Dundee and 
 district Linen Trades. 
 
 WINDING MACHINES, to Wind from Cops, Hanks, Throstle, or Rabbeth 
 Bobbins on to Warpers' Bobbins, or from Hanks on to Pirns 
 for the Shuttle ; also Single and Double Drum Winding. 
 
 WARPING and BEAMING MACHINES, from entirely New Patterns, on 
 the Falling-rod or Stop -motion principle ; also our Improved 
 SINGLETON'S SELF-STOPPING MACHINES. 
 
 SIZING MACHINES, any width, any number and size of Cylinders, with 
 all latest improvements ; Slow Motion, Presser, &c. &c. 
 Special Machine suitable for the Scotch Trade. 
 
 DRESSING MACHINES, all sizes, and suitable for all Counts of Yam. 
 
 DOBBIES of every description, Single and Double Lifts from 6 to 35 
 Shafts. Our Improved Keighley Shedding Machine, up to 
 40 Shafts. 
 
 JACQUARDS, with or without Fixings, any number of Hooks. 
 
 DHOOTIE MOTIONS, HANDKERCHIEF MOTIONS, SELVAGE MOTIONS for 
 
 Split Cloths. 
 
 FOLDING and MEASURING MACHINES, for any width of Cloth. 
 
 CLOTH PRESSES, all sizes, with Single Bam or Double Pumps. 
 
 HEALD KNITTING MACHINES, Single or Double, Hand or Self-acting. 
 
 LOOMING FPvAMES, DRAWING-IN FRAMES, 
 BEAM FLANGING FRAMES, BEAM RACKS, SIZE MIXING 
 APPARATUS, any dimension. 
 
 Sole Makers of 
 
 ALMOND'S PATENT POSITIVE TAKING-UP ROLLER. 
 MILL FURNISHINGS of every description. 
 
 Prices^ full particulars^ and Drawings on application, 
 
 WILLAN & MILLS, 
 
 ROSE HILL FOUNDRY, 
 
16 
 
 THE ATTENTION OF 
 
 MANUFACTURERS 
 
 OF FA.HTCi'^ a-OOIDS 
 
 IS SPECIALLY REQUESTED TO THE FOLLOWING IMPROVEMENTS : — 
 
 PATENT SHUTTLE MOTION, comMnin^ allthe advantages of the 
 ordinary Motion, with the following additional ones : — 
 
 1st. Higher rate of speed, e.g., 160 picks per minute with three 
 shuttles. 
 
 2d. Regularity in the lift of the boxes, which are always brought 
 
 level with slay bottom. 
 3d. Will skip any number of boxes up or down with perfect steadiness. 
 4th. The motion is controlled by cards, and long or difficult patterns 
 
 are easily laid or changed. 
 5th. The boxes are balanced, and less driving power is required to 
 
 drive the loom. 
 
 6th. When Jacquards or Dobbies are used, they can be employed to 
 control the change of boxes. 
 
 By a small additional apparatus. Handkerchiefs, Towels, and other Cross- 
 border Goods can be woven with comparatively few cards. 
 
 PATENT PIRN WINDER for Paper or Bohhins, emhraeing all the 
 advantag'es to he found in the ordinary Cup Machine, with 
 these additional ones : — 
 
 1st. Does away with friction on the yarn, and consequent shading of 
 colours. 
 
 2d Puts 20 per cent, more length on the paper tube or bobbin. 
 
 3d. Does away with the use of tallow or grease for harsh dyes. 
 
 4th. Gives a uniform speed to the Ryce by means of a differential 
 motion, thereby saving a large proportion of breakages. 
 
 5th. Will work at a higher rate of speed than the cup frame and pro- 
 duce more. 
 
 6th. No spindle banding to renew, nor tin drums and wharves to 
 repair. 
 
 FOR FURTHER PARTICULARS, AND TO SEE THE ABOVE IMPROVEMENTS AT WORK, APPLY TO 
 
 HACKING & CO., 
 
 BURY, near MANCHESTER, 
 
 F^TEISTTEES -A-KTID SOLE IvI-A-KIERS. 
 
< 
 
 o 
 
 0 
 
 hi 
 
 
 
 
 
 cd 
 
 
 "o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 *QJO 
 
 
 oj 
 
 
 s- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "o 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 
 -QJO 
 
 
 SI 
 
 
 IE 
 
 s. 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 "S 
 
 g— 
 
 LLJ 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 Vm/ 
 
 1 ' 
 
 
 
 "O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - — 
 
 Ll- 
 
 
 •4— • 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iT" 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 s- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H— • 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 =5 
 
 
 SZ 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 H- ( 
 
 <! § 
 
 U I 
 
 •-1 I 
 
 pq § 
 )-( 
 
 O 
 W 
 
 a ^ 
 
 CD 
 
 A 
 +=> 
 
 CD 
 
 t5 
 O 
 
 ?H 
 ?H 
 O 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 <D 
 
 w 
 w 
 
 ft 
 
 CD O 
 ^ CQ 
 
 H 
 
 o 
 <1 
 
 H 
 
 Eh 
 O 
 O 
 
 l=H 
 CO 
 
 EH 
 
 o 
 
 <i3 
 Eh 
 
 CS3 
 t-q 
 O 
 
 CD 
 h-H 
 
 CO 
 
 :^ 
 
 I — I 
 
 o 
 PQ 
 
 p4 
 
 Ph 
 CO 
 
 ct-i 
 o 
 
 CQ 
 CD 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 ^£ 
 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 < 
 o 
 
 
 1 
 
 Q. 
 
 
 Q- 
 
 
 < 
 
 z 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 -J 
 
 LU 
 
 o 
 
 □Z 
 
 QC 
 
 
 UJ 
 
 
 I 
 H 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 Q 
 
 z 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LU 
 1 
 
 
 CD 
 
Leeds, 1875. 
 
 f Manufacturers of 
 Superior Belting 
 for Machinery and 
 Electric Dynamo 
 Machines. Endless 
 Belts for Portable 
 Engines. Oak- 
 Tanned and Green 
 Picking Bands. 
 Hard and Soft 
 Holler Hides. 
 
 18 
 
 MAIN LEATHER DRIVING BELTS. 
 
 Bradford Technical School 
 Exhibition 1882. 
 
 Paris, 1878. 
 
 White Ox and 
 Horse Hide Laces, 
 Pump and Bucket 
 Leathers of ex- 
 tra strength and 
 quality. Every 
 description of Me- 
 chanicalLeathers, 
 and General Mill 
 Furnishers. 
 
 JOHN WHITE & SONS. 
 
 Tanners, Curriers, and Leather Merchants, 
 PARK ROAD TANNERY and LEATHER WORKS, 
 BINGLEY, YORKS. 
 
 CHEAP (Save 35 to 60 per cent.) MODERN 
 
 mmm m mimm 
 
 MACHINERY; 
 
 SECOND-HAND AND NEW— ALL KINDS. 
 
 O -A. ID S- 
 PATENT MILL FURNISHINGS. 
 
 LARGE STOCK. 
 
 WALTER S. KIRK & CO., 
 
 HUDDERSFIELD 
 
 2 Geo Street and Newtown Mills. 
 
MANUFACTURERS to the ADMIRALTY. 
 
 Extract from " Engineering." — "We have, as we have said, heard favour- 
 able reports of the action of Messrs Turnbull & Co.'s Valves, and we understand 
 that they give good results, both as regards their great discharging power and 
 prompt closing power when the pressure falls again, whilst they are certainly 
 very simple in construction." 
 
 From " Iron." — " The Turnbull Valve meets both theoretically and practi- 
 cally the requirements of a perfect safety valve." 
 
 From " Colliery Guardian." — " Nothing further need be said in this place 
 than that the valve referred to is the manufacture of Messrs A. Turnbull & Co., 
 Engineers, Glasgow, and is already in use in some of the largest mechanical 
 works in the country," &c. 
 
 From "The Textile Manufacturer."— The Turnbull Valves give all 
 the results in working that can be expected from a thoroughly efficient valve. 
 This was demonstrated to us at a mill in Bradford, where several of the valves 
 were at work, and also by some experiments at Messrs Turnbull's works. . . . 
 The sensitiveness of the valve under notice was shown to us by the fact that, 
 when blowing of, the additional weight of a piece of coal about the size of the 
 fist was sufficient to close it." 
 
 From "Iron and Coal Trades Review."— " The Turnbull Valves are of 
 remarkably simple construction, and we can therefore confidently recommend 
 them as a safety valve worthy of the name, and to be relied upon." 
 
 From " The Machinery List."— " Messrs Turnbull & Co. have introduced 
 a valve which, if only applied, would act as a great preventive against Boiler 
 explosions." 
 
 ALEX. TURNBULL & CO., 
 
 ENGINEERS, 
 C3I- ^ S G- O 
 
FURNISHINGS AND SPECIALITIES 
 
 FOR THE USE OF 
 
 Shipbuilders, Engineers, Textile Manufacturers, Dyers, 
 Electricians, Chemical Manufacturers, Paper Makers, 
 Millers, Contractors, &c. Also for Steam Ships, Rail- 
 ways, Collieries, Ironworks, and for Agricultural and 
 General Technical Purposes, including Boots, Shoes, 
 Waterproof Cloth and Garments, Air-Goods, &c. 
 
 Manufactory, - CASTLE MILLS, EDINBURGH. 
 
 !57 MOORGATE STREET, LONDON. 
 6 CHARLOTTE STREET, MANCHESTER. 
 13 & 17 OSWALD STREET, GLASGOW. 
 
Crown 8vo, Price 5s, ; Post Free, 5s. 3d. 
 
 FLAX, TOW, AND JUTE 
 
 SPINNING: 
 
 A HANDBOOK, 
 
 Containing Information on the Various Branches of 
 THESE Trades. 
 
 WITH 
 
 RULES, CALCULATIONS, AND TABLES. 
 By peter sharp. 
 
 SECOND EDITION— ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 Recommended as a Work of Reference by the City and Guilds of 
 London Institute for the advancement of Technical Education, 
 Gresham College, London, B.C. 
 
 DUNDEE: JAMES P. MATHEW & CO., PubUshers. 
 
WORKS PUBLISHED BY 
 
 JAMES P. MATHEW & CO. 
 
 17 AND 19 COWGATE, DUNDEE. 
 
 Flax, Tow, and Jute Spinning: A Handbook, containing informa- 
 mation on the Various Branches of these Trades, with Rules, 
 Calculations, and Tables. Second Edition. Illustrated. By 
 Peter Sharp. Recommended as a Work of Reference by the 
 City and Guilds of London Technical Institute. Post Free 5s. 3d. 
 
 The Power-Loom and Art of Weaving: A Practical Treatise. 
 By Alex. Brown. Illustrated. Calculations and Instructions for/ 
 the Production ' Cotton, Woollen, Linen, and Jute Fabri^^ 
 Fourth Edition. ,t Free 3s. 8d. / 
 
 Free Is. 7d. 
 
 Disc and Differential Motions, as applied to Fairbairn, Kenned 
 & Naylor's P'-'-'ng ^.ruv. Rules, Calculations, ai 
 
 Diagrams. By v oseph . i 
 
 The Practical Manager'' le 
 
 the Engineers' Slide R\ a,da 
 tions ; embraci*^-- '^oth Spindj 
 varied sele^ iportan 
 Joseph Ho Free ij 
 
 Jompanion : A Treatise 
 Mill and ctory Calcu} 
 " "^arr * ;iianges ; also 
 •utions. B 
 
 Proportionate 
 
 expressed in 
 Pence per \ 
 Pocket. Po?t . 
 
 'ty-l 
 ons 
 
 to 120 inches, 
 Jd up to 6U 
 andy Size for 
 
 Reference Ta s for Flax, Tow, ana .-pi us. Showing 
 the Twist i r Wet and J^^^^ ^i->nn " ariu ; the Weight in 10' 
 Spindles or 3r and ^ : with various 
 
 Waste Perce' y Peo rp. 3. 
 
 Mad Dogs a' 
 Is. Id. 
 
 lobia. By Hugh Dalzx^^l. Post Free 
 
 Poultry Ailments and their Treatment. By D. J. Thomson 
 Gray. Post Free Is. Id. 
 
 Our Fancy Pigeons, and Rambling Notes of a Naturalist. By 
 George Ure. Fine Engravings ; most valuable information. 
 Post Free 6s. 6d. 
 
 Hood in Scotland : Reminiscences, Letters and Poems hitherto 
 --'^"blished. By Alexander Elliot. Post Free 5s. 6d. 
 
 Library Bureau U35337A