T S ■ '. ^A4i^w > > ' , w*r *tt V ^KJfwHk ■s v • A- .. /'"• , W s , «>%kt ;V v Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from Research Library, The Getty Research Institute http://www.archive.org/details/illustratedrecorOOshaf THE ILLUSTRATED RECORD INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION INDUSTRIAL ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, AND THE FINE ARTS, OF ALL NATIONS, IN 1862 IN A SERIES OF TINTED STEEL ENGRAVINGS, COMPRISING VIEWS OF THE BUILDING, AND OF THE PRINCIPAL OBJECTS EXHIBITED ; ALSO, SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE EXHIBITION OF 1851, FROM DAGUERREOTYPES TAKEN AT THE TIME. FORMING A COMMEMORATIVE WORK OF TIIE TWO GREAT EXHIBITIONS OF THE WORLD'S INDUSTRY IN 1851 AND 1862. WITH HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE LETTERPRESS. BY COLONEL TAL. P. SHAFFNER, F.R.S.A., F.R.G.S, F.R.AS. ; AND THE REV. W. OWEN. THE LONDON PRINTING AND PUBLISHING COMPANY, LIMITED: LONDON AND NEW YORK. I N D E X. Aluminium, specimens of, 39. America, United States of, productions from, 91. American artists, works of art of the, 92, 93. Apparatus, the chiming, 38. Architecture, naval, 61- Architecture, observations on ancient and modern, 290—294. Armstrong gun trophy, the, 54. Arnott, Dr., his ingenious inventions, 51. Art Union, productions of, 28- Bookbinding, stationery, paper, and print- ing, 248—252 Book-printing and illustrating, operations in, 250, 251. Breakwaters, railways, lighthouses, &c, 45—50. Bridges, models of, 42. British and foreign schools of painting, the, 295—298. Candelabrum, crystal, 36. Carpets, 238. Ceramic trophies, 28. Chemical and pharmaceutical products, 159—164. Classification, the commissioners', 40. Clock, the monster, 16. Clothing, articles of, 246, 247. Cotton manufacture, statistics connected with the, 230, 231. Courts and galleries of Great Britain, 111. Cow-iuilker, American, 111. Decorations in furniture and paper- hanging, 256 — 261. Decorative and household purposes, glass for, 273—278. Die-sinking, sculpture, models, and in- taglios, 298—300. Dioptric revolving apparatus, the, 24. Dyeing and printing, specimens of, in woven, spun, felted, and laid fabrics, 239. Electro-metallurgy, works of art in, 27. Electric-light apparatus, the, 219. Emmauuel, Mr. Harry, his trophy, 26. Engineering, civil ; architectural and build- ing contrivances, 201 — -205. Engineering, military, 53. English Channel railway, the, 43. Engraving, various methods of, 300 — 304. Exhibitions, Great, from 1851 to 1862, vii. Fabrics, silk, velvet, woollen, and worsted, 234—238. Fine arts, department of the. 289. Fire-grate, new, diagram of, 86. Food, substances used as, 164 — 171. Fountain, the lapiz lazuli, 26- France, great trophy of, 31. Fuels, coal and mineral, 128. Gates, the Colebrook Dale, 38. Glass, British and foreign, 69 — 71. Gold and silver, British, Colonial, Aus- tralian, Californian, and Spanish, 149 — 151. Gothic pulpit, the, 258. Granite obelisk, the cheesewring, 20. Harbours and docks, models of, 44. Hardware, iron and general, 82. Horological instruments, 223 — 225. Implements, agricultural, 200. Indian productions, collection of, 118 — 120. ^Instruments and machines, agricultural and horticultural, 199—201. Instruments, musical, 226 — 228. Instruments, philosophical, 214. •Iron and steel, French, Austrian, Russian, and Belgian, 144—149. Iron and general hardware, 261 — 263. Jacquard-weaving, electricity applied to, 192. Japan, productions from, 112. Kamptulicon, advantages and manufacture of, 238. Karl Cauer and Kissling, groups of statuary by, 18. Koh-i-Noor, or Mountain of Light, 25. Lace, tapestry, and embroidery, 240. Large trophy, George IV. 's dressing-case in the, 19. Leather, including saddlery and harness, 243—246. Light, lamps and reflectors for improving artificial, 87. Lockets and jewellery, improved cases for, 110. Locks, the letter, or keyless, 88 — 90. Locomotive engines and carriages, 182 — 184. London Stereoscopic Company, interesting views of the, 222. •Machinery, general, 197—199- Machines, American — M'Cormick's reaper; Wood's self-raking reaper ; the single mower, &c, 105 — 108. Machines and tools, manufacturing, 191 — 197. Magneto-alphabetic telegraph, diagrams of the " communicator" and "indicator" of the, 217. Main drainage, metropolitan system of, 47. Maizena, American, its excellence as an ar- ticle of food, 99. Manufactures, cotton, flax, and hemp, 229 —234. Manufactures, art-designs for, 298. Maps, models, &c, 123. Military engineering, &c, 205 — 209. Musical instruments, novelties and curiosi- ties in connection with, 227. Naval architecture and ships' tackle, 209 —214. Nave, a walk through the, 1 6. New model revolver, Colt's, 96. Norwich gates, the, 23. Opening ceremonv, state proceedings at the, 15. Ores, iron, 138. Origin of the International Exhibition in 1862, 1. Parachute light-ball, the, 209. Perfumery, English and foreign samples of, 180, 181. Perseus and Andromeda cup, 26. Photography, and photographic apparatus, 220—223. Poem in silver, the, 27. Pottery, its history, and processes connected with, 278—283. Pottery — porcelain and majolica ware, 74 — 77. Precious metals, works in, 78. Prince and Princess of Prussia, marriage presents of the, 32. Process Court, the, 80, 81. Products, British colonial, 114 — 117. Projectiles, variety of, 56. Quarries, stone and marble, 126, 127. Queensland, valuable products sent from, 115. Rail or tram-roads, carriages not con- nected with, 185 — 190. Reaper, M'Cormick's self-acting, 201. Resurrection, the, 300. Rifles and small arms, display of, 58, 59. Russian trophy, richness of the, 34. Schools of art, foreign, 305, 306. Screen, Hereford cathedral, 35. Sculpture and statuary, works in, 18. Sewing and knitting machines, number and variety of, 193. Sewing machines, American improvements in, and diagrams of, 101 — 104. Shakespeare's monument, 30. Silkworm, Chinese method of dealing with the, 236. Skins, fur, feathers, and hair, 211 — 243. Spanish trophies, the, 31. Spring scale, the compound, 110. " Star of the South," the, 33. Steel, cutlery, and edge-tools, 263 — 269. .Steel manufacture, the Bessemer, 37. St. George's fountain, the, 17. Stone-crushing machine, the, 110. Substances, animal and vegetable, used in manufactures, 172 — 182. Surgical instruments and appliances, 228, 229. Tanning, process of, and materials used in, 244. Telegraph, marine signal, the, 97. Timber trophy, the Tasmanian, 115. Toilet, travelling, and miscellaneous articles, 283 — 285. Trophy clock, the, 29. Undine ewer, the, 26. United Kingdom, mineral wealth of the, 139. Upleatham, iron mines at, 158. Upper Silesia, coal-fields of, 135. Veiled vestal, the, 300. Ventilation, Gurney's system of, 50. Victoria gold trophy, account of the, 17. Whitworth's field gun, 55. Windows, church, stained and enamelled glass for, 71 — 74. Windows, ingenious plan for, 52. Woods, various, for carriage-building, 190. Works and appliances, educational, 252 — 256. Works in precious metals, and their imi- tations — jewellery, 269 — 273. Wringing and washing, machines for, and diagrams of, 109. York, New, crude and refined oils from the springs of, 94. Zealand, New, productions contributed by, 115. Zinc, lead, and copper mines, British and foreign, 152—157. Zollverein, ores from the, 147. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION— Frontispiece. pack OPENING OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION 5 CLOSING OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION «*• THE SOUTH TRANSEPT— GREAT EXHIBITION id. THE TRANSEPT (LOOKING SOUTH)— GREAT EXHIBITION 6 THE TRANSEPT (LOOKING NORTH)— GREAT EXHIBITION ib. THE NORTH TRANSEPT— GREAT EXHIBITION St. MAIN AVENUE (LOOKING EAST)— GREAT EXHIBITION ib. THE TRANSEPT (LOOKING SOUTH) 7 MAIN AVENUE (LOOKING WEST) 8 THE TRANSEPT (LOOKING NORTH) 9 THE NAVE (LOOKING EAST) 10 THE NAVE (LOOKING WEST) ■ 19 THE READING GIRL 21 SHAKESPEARE'S MONUMENT '0 ENTRANCE TO THE HORTICULTURAL GARDENS FROM THE EXHIBITION ib. ARMSTRONG GUN TROPHY 51 SHIP-BUILDING YARD AND CARVING DOCK 62 SEWING MACHINE (WHEELER AND WILSON) 100 REAPING MACHINE (M'CORMICK'S) 106 GRASS-MOWING MACHINE 107 AUSTRALIAN GOLD NUGGET HI PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND AND BRITISH COLUMBIA COURTS 116 FINISHING CARDING ENGINE , 172 ICE-MAKING MACHINE 197 APPLEBY'S PATENT PORTABLE STEAM DERRICK CRANE ib. PORTABLE CRANE TO LIFT AND RADIATE BY STEAM ib. DOUBLE-ACTING STEAM HAMMER 198 HORIZONTAL STAT;ONARY HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM-ENGINE ib. PADDLE ENGINE ib. THE FARMER'S FIRE ENGINE, IRRIGATOR, AND AGRICULTURAL FORCE-PUMP.— IMPROVED HOSE REEL.— MERRYWEATHER'S IMPROVED FIRE ESCAPE 199 COMBINED DRESSING AND THRESHING MACHINE.— STONE MILL FOR GRINDING WHEAT ib. SELF-CLEANING CLOD-CRUSHER AND ROLLER.— LIQUID DISTRIBUTOR, OR WATER CART ib. SUTHERLAND STEAM FIRE ENGINE • ib. CLEVEN ROW, SUFFOLK LEVER CORN AND SEED DRILL.— PATENT HORSE HOE 200 PORTABLE STEAM-ENGINE it. CENTRIFUGAL PUMP 203 LIFE-BOAT OF THE ROYAL NATIONAL LIFE-BOAT ASSOCIATION, AND TACKLE FOR LOWERING BOATS 213 COMPOUND MICROSCOPE ... 218 MAGNETIC LIGHT MACHINE 219 ANTI-VIBRATION STEERING COMPASS ib. POWER-LOOM CALICO MACHINE 230 JACQ.UARD LOOM " 236 CARPET LOOM 238 MARBLE CHIMNEY-PIECE 258 GOTHIC PULPIT ib. LIBRARY CHIMNEY-PIECE ... ib. THE HEREFORD SCREEN ib. CHIMNEY. PIECE '" .'. '" 260 IRON GATES (COLEBROOK DALE COMPANY) ... ... ... ... ... ... 262 STABLE FITTINGS f4 . BELL TROPHY, Etc. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ." ... 2 66 THE FRENCH COURT ..'. "' ... ... ... ... "" "[ " "' '[] 2 72 SWEDEN AND NORWAY COURT „ '„ ," ,,. ... '„ '" ... "] " 273 CARVED IVORY JUNK— JAPANESE COURT '.'.'. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ib. THE RUSSIAN COURT (WESTERN DOME) '.. ' .' ..." ... ' . . ... ,..' 284 ENTRANCE TO THE PICTURE GALLERY, CROMWELL ROAD 300 I.OVE RESTING ON FRIENDSHIP-ITALIAN COURT . . . ib THE VEILED VESTAL (i THE RESURRECTION ... a ' PREFACE. The Great International Exhibition of 1862, was designed to show the progress which the world has made in material prosperity, as evidenced by specimens of its Arts and Manufactures, the Fine Arts, Raw Produce, and articles of Commerce, in the last eleven years. The promoters of the Exhibition of 1851, were aware that, to render such great displays of industrial products of any practical value, they must be held periodically. It was, therefore, no matter of surprise to those who had paid attention to the subject, when, in 1858, the Society of Arts proposed to repeat the important and interesting experiment of 1851 ; and, after contending with various obstacles, it was at last finally settled that the second great International Exhibition should be held in London, in 1862. In the arrangements for the holding of the Exhibition of 1862, a very marked improvement was made in the determination to admit in its programme paintings, drawings, and engravings, which were excluded in 1851 ; and, for the first time in this country, the painting and sculpture of all Em-ope were brought, by selected examples, into juxtaposition with those of England, in the vast galleries which skirted three of the four sides of the great building at Kensington. On the 1st of May, 1862, amid the flourish of trumpets, the roar of artillery, and the applause of thousands, the Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations was declared to be opened ; and after a most successfid career, if was closed on the 1st of November. During the six months of its existence it afforded an interesting spectacle to hundreds of thousands, who, from all quarters of the earth, thronged to view the wonders which it contained. To aid in carrying out the great objects contemplated by the Commissioners, thirty-six foreign countries, thirty-one British Colonies, and every city and town in the United Kingdom, sent in articles to be exhibited, in order that they might take their place in this great industrial competition. In fact, " from each of the great divisions of the globe ; from countries where civilisation may hardly be said to exist ; from empires, states, territories, kingdoms, and republics ; from cities towns, and districts famous for arts and handicrafts, for intelligence, for industry, and for skill; from swarming abodes of industry, where hammers rattle and the loom is busy ; from the gloomy spots where tall chimneys pour forth their ceaseless tribute to the niurky air ; from the dark mine where, amid noisome gases and foul air, the miner extracts the mineral treasures ; from the quiet and lonely haunts where, in the field and in the wood, labour pursues its course, there were sent forth contributions to the second "World's Festival of Art and Industry." The hastiest survey of the treasures thus brought together in this great World's Display, convinced every one of the immense step in human progress which it recorded. In quantity, the number of objects greatly surpassed those in the former iy PKEFACE. Exhibition. The mind was overwhelmed by the extraordinary abundance and richness of the objects exhibited; and it required a considerable time to recover sufficiently from this ovei-whehning impression, to concentrate the attention on details. The improvement in quality, was, however, far more important, and far more remarkable than the vast increase in quantity ; and no one can calculate what advan- tages may still be derived from thus gathering together, on one spot, and at one time, all that can win the eye, or gratify the ear. But in order that this advantage should be fully enjoyed and rendered valuable, it becomes necessary that a full and careful record should be made of all the points of advancement and shortcoming which have shown themselves in this great Exhibi- tion; that those things which are felt to be wanting may be supplied, and those improvements which have been made, may be carried to a still higher degree of excellence. To aid this purpose is the object of the present Work ; and while its Pictorial Illustrations will give exact representations of the objects exhibited, its Letterpress Descriptions will be written with a view to making this great International Display what it ought to be — a School of Instruction on those subjects on which the greatness of this country depends — its Manufacturing Industry. In order to accomplish the objects which we aim at, we shall take frequent oppor- tunities of comparing the articles shown in the Exhibitions of the World's Industries in 1851 and 1862. It was originally proposed by the Royal Commissioners, that, in this later Exhibition, the works selected should be " arranged according to classes, and not countries." This, no doubt, would have afforded a very ready and valuable mode of reference ; but, unhappily, it was not found practicable to carry it out, except to a limited extent, each nation being anxious to have " a local habitation and a name," instead of permitting its individuality to be lost, by mixing the various articles of its produce with those of other countries ; and to this wish, in which our own nation participated, the Royal Commissioners felt themselves compelled to defer. The writer of a pamphlet on this subject, so well expressed, in a few terse sentences, the advantages which would have accrued from a classified, and not a geographical arrangement of the objects exhibited, that we are tempted to make an extract from his brochure. He says : — "It should be a Classified Exhibition ; how entirely distinct must it be, then, from the Exhibition of 1851. Who that had occasion to collect the information contained in that Exhibition, as every member of the press who wrote for the guidance and instruction of the public had. but felt the want of classification ? To have been able to have compared the porcelain of Sevres, Belgium, Austria, Dresden, Berlin, and Prussia, with that of Staffordsliire, Worcestershire, and other parts of the United Kingdom, what an incomparable advantage would it have been ! How important to our Yorkshire woollen trade, had our manufacturers been able, side by side, to have contrasted the productions of France, Belgium, Vienna, Saxony, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Prussia, with the cloth and mixed goods produced at Leeds, Bradford, Stroud, and Dublin. What labour and fatigue would have been saved, had we been able to view the metal- work and jewellery of France, Belgium, Holland, and Spain, with that of England in a court by itself. How will those attending the next Exhibition divide themselves into groups under such an arrangement ? There will be the Swiss side by side with the man of Coventry and Clerkenwell, discussing each the merits of his competitor for the trade in watches ; the silk manufacturers of Lyons, Spitalfields, and Manchester, comparing their silks ; and chemists and dyers, the effects resulting from the discovery of new sources of supply of colour, and new methods of applying those already known. How interesting will it be to juxtapose the wood-carvings of Switzerland and Italy with the productions of Rogers in England, or the results of the application PREFACE. V of machinery in that direction ; the inlaid wood of Austria with that of other countries. A court of the cabinet marqueterie and buhl work of the world, how instructive may it be made ; and the same principle, if applied to the paper-hangings of France, London, and Manchester, the agricultural machines of America and England, the steel of Germany, Sweden, America, and Sheffield, will tend to render the Exhibition of 1862, not merely a monster bazaar, but a book, well digested and arranged for ready reference, affording at once the information so frequently sought for, and oft-times in vain, in its predecessor." In the arrangement of the present Work, the geographical classification will not be strictly adhered to, and thus the reader will be afforded greater facilities for comparing the products of all countries, and the skilled industry of the various exhibitors who have claimed favourable awards, than he could even obtain hi the courts of the Exhibition itself. Considering the vast extent of the Exhibition, and the number as well as variety of the articles exhibited, it will obviously be necessary, in our illustrations and descriptions, to select those objects which are most attractive to the general reader, and of the greatest importance to persons interested in the various branches of the Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. In performing this part of our task, we shall do equal justice to every nation which has entered into friendly competition with our own, and, as far as practicable, allow the whole globe to revolve under the eye of the spectator; showing the peoples of every land applying their skill to the varied produce of each country, and ministering to the wants and wishes, the comfort and refinement of the universal family. It will be gratifying to notice the vast amount of skill and labour, which, during the last eleven years, has been applied to the neces- sities and comfort of the great mass of the people; furnishing proofs that the World's Industry has been moving in a healthy direction, effecting the progress of true civilisation among all classes, rather than providing for the luxury of the few. It will be our object to place the reader in the position of the traveller at home, who, without fatigue, retraces his pilgrimage through many lands, and his voyages to distant shores. We shall bring to his recollection many of the scenes he has visited, and, in some instances, tell him of what he might have seen, had his leisure been greater, or his observant faculties more active. We shall be in attendance in his home-travels through Great Britain and Ireland, and assist to imprhit on his memory what he may have learned as to the products of their workshops and manufactories. As thirty-one British Colonies, and our great Oriental Dependency, have, at much labour and expense, sought to uphold the greatness of the British Empire, in this World's Display, it will be our pleasing duty to claim attention to the valuable products and the skilful manufactures which they exhibited. In the progress of our review of the objects exposed by Exhibitors, we shall have the gratification of noticing the arts and manufactures which have sprung into existence since 1851 ; and others which were beginning their career at that period, and have since been fully developed ; besides the many improvements shown in the methods of production, and the greater cheapness of various products with which the world has long been familiar. yj PREFACE. Electric Telegraphy, winch in 1851 was still in its infancy, has progressed so rapidly throughout the world, that the whole globe may be said to be encircled by its wires ; and the new inventions and contrivances for the more rapid transmission of intelligence by this means, form one of the most interesting courts in the Exhibition. But to give the reader some idea of the rapid strides which have been made within the last ten years, in all that relates to material improvement, we camiot do better than quote the following from the Report of Mr. Hawes, the Registrar-General: — "Most important discoveries have been made in the preparation of colours for printing and dyeing, producing what are called the ' Aniline ' series ; great economy has been effected in the manufacture of glass ; and a process has just been made perfect for transferring photographs to that material. The manufacture of agricultural implements, and especially the application of steam power to them, has been so improved and extended, that it is now a highly important branch of trade. " Photography, hardly known in 1851, has become an important branch of art and industry, used alike by the artist, the engineer, the architect, and the manufacturer. " Marine telegraphy, only just accomplished in 1851 — the public communication with Dublin having been opened in June, and that with Paris in November, 1852 — has now become almost universal, linking together distant countries. The electric telegraph has become universal ; and, in every direction, facilities for communication have been increased. We have repealed the duties on soap and paper, the only manufactures the prosperity of which was then thwarted by Excise restrictions. " We have abolished all taxes on the dissemination of knowledge, and have given increased facilities for the circulation of knowledge by post. We have repealed the Import duties, or very nearly so, on raw materials, the produce of foreign countries. " We have admitted free of duty, confident in our strength, the manufactures of foreign countries to compete with our own. Old industries have been stimulated and improved. New industries have arisen. " In fine art, painting, and sculpture, it is hardly possible, except in very extraordinary periods, that a marked change can be observed in a single ten years ; but this country certainly holds its own as compared with the productions of other countries. " In the manufacture of iron, improvements have also been made ; new bands of ore have been discovered ; and day by day we are economising its production ; and a metal between iron and steel is now produced at one process, which heretofore required two or more processes alike expensive and difficult. " In steam power, especially that applied to railroads and to ocean steam navigation, economical appliances have advanced rapidly. The use of coal for locomotives in place of coke, and super-heating steam and surface con- densing in ocean steamers, tend to increase the power and economise the cost of these powerful engines of civili- sation. " In ship-building, the past ten years have produced great changes. Our navy and mercantile marine have alike advanced in scientific construction and in mechanical arrangements. The ocean steamers which were then employed in the postal service included but one of two thousand tons ; now there are many of nearly double that tonnage, with corresponding power and speed — increasing the facilities, and decreasing the risk of communication with our colonies and foreign countries. "In printing, great advances have been made. By the perfection of chromatic printing, views of distant countries, copies of celebrated pictures, most beautifully coloured, have been brought within the reach of almost every class, displacing works which neither improved the taste nor gave useful information ; and by the application of most expensive and most beautiful machinery to the printing of our daily journals, we have been enabled profitably to meet the increased demand caused by the cheapness of our newspapers. Invention and mechanical contrivance have thus kept pace with the requirements of intellect and the daily increasing love of knowledge." To do full justice to the subjects indicated hi the above extract, would form no uninteresting work; but, in addition to the notice which will be taken of these novelties, our readers will be put in possession of ample details of all improvements, discoveries, and inventions which have had their representative specimens displayed in the great Exhibition of 1862. INTRODUCTION. GREAT EXHIBITIONS FROM 1851 TO 1862. The Palace of Industry, in Hyde Park, closed to the public on Saturday, the 11th of October, 1851. The great financial and general success of the experiment naturally induced other cities, in this kingdom and abroad, to imitate the example we had set, and to reproduce, though in smaller proportions, similar attractions, which would prove of great local and national interest. The city of Cork was the first to follow the example of London; and in 1852 opened its Exhibition, which, assuming an international character, awakened an intense interest in the south of Ireland, and served to stimulate the industries of that important part of the empire, and to educate the public taste. The favour with which it was regarded is evident from the fact, that the gross number of daily admissions reached 74,095 ; while the admissions by season tickets were 54,936. The rich products and the numerous industries which were exhibited, were described as calculated to give an exalted idea of the natural wealth of the country, and the great skill of its people. Among them were to be found specimens of raw materials and manufactured goods: of the latter, the linens, diapers, cambrics, poplins, tabinets, velvets, and laces, maintained the reputation of former days ; whilst some excellent samples of preserved provisions, butter, whisky, fancy biscuits, and confectionery, were also shown. In the Fine Arts Court, the citizens of Cork had great pride in exhibiting several of the works of their distinguished townsman, Hogan, the sculptor ; among which were his colossal "Head of Minerva," "Dead Christ," portions of the " Hibernia," and other works. In 1853, an Exhibition was held in Dublin, which conferred the greatest honour on the Irish metropolis. The favour with which this Exhibition was regarded, is shown by the number of visits paid by the Dublin population as compared with that of London, the proportion being two-and-a-half visits for each person in London, and four for each person in Dublin. In the latter city, the gross number of daily visitors, during the period the Exhibition was open, was 634,523, of which number the season-ticket holders were 366,745. A most advantageous site for the erection of the building was found in the lawn of the Royal Dublin Society, extending from that noble edifice to Merrion Square. In accordance with its title, the great Industrial Exhibition consisted principally of raw materials, machinery and manufactures ; but, as every one who visited that attractive scene well remembers, the Fine Arts also were duly represented. In the Industrial departments were found a plentiful display of mining and mineral products; animal substances; manufactures from minerals; from flax and hemp; woollen, worsted, silk and mixed fabrics; cotton; fms, leathers, saddlery, harness; printing, book-binding, paper and stationery; printed and dyed fabrics; iron and general hardware ; cutlery, china, glass, furniture, chemical and pharma- VU1 INTRODUCTION. ceutical processes ; and other important classes. The relics of ancient art included a general collection of ancient weapons, implements, and ornaments found in different parts of Ireland. Among the machinery exhibited, were machines for utilising the water-power so abundant in Ireland; steam-engines; "electric apparatus; voltaic batteries of various forms, in which chemical action involves electricity; magno- electric machines, in which magnetism was combined with mechanical power ; and induction coils, which, by the intermittence of a feeble cm-rent of electricity, produces one of considerable intensity." The electro-magnetic, the electro-metallurgic, and the photographic apparatus, had their place in this important class. The Fine Arts Court presented valuable examples of the Lombardic, Venetian, Raphaelite, Bolognese, and ancient Flemish schools; and of the schools of France, Belgium, Germany, and Great Britain. There were also good illustrations of Greek and Roman sculpture during the post-Phidian era; as well as those of our own age and kingdom. There was a Mediaeval Court, enriched with sculpture, painting, monumental brasses, corona? lucis, and windows of stained and painted glass; and an Archaeological Court, with a valuable collection of objects of ancient art, principally Irish ; illustrating the art and industry of Ireland during several centuries. In New York, also, an Exhibition was held in 1853. As a commercial enterprise, it is to be regretted that the experiment proved unsuccessful ; but the objects exhibited were of great value, and peculiarly adapted to a country of vast extent with a comparatively thin population. The principal achievements of American inventors were in the department of machinery, more especially in those by which automatic action supplied the more abundant hand-labour of older manufacturing countries. The Munich Exhibition, held in 1854, was not designed to be international. It was not, however, limited to Bavaria, but tin-own open to the whole of Germany. The building was in the form of a cross, and was constructed of iron, glass, and wood. The cost of this structure, which approached 800 feet in length, and 280 feet in the transept, was about £88,000 sterling. About one-third of the whole space was occupied by Bavaria, and the contributions of Austria were considerable; but the produce of Prussia and the Northern States was very inadequately represented. The industries of Vienna, Moravia, and Bohemia were prominent; but there were no adequate specimens of the rich materials of Gallicia, Hungary, Transylvania, and the Lombardo- Venetian territory. The Exhibition may, therefore, be considered as a display of the industrial powers of Southern Germany, rather than of those of the entire country. In 1855, Paris opened its first French International Exhibition, in the permanent structure in the Champs Elysees, which was a decided success. It is not proposed, hi this brief reference to the Paris Exhibition, to give even a summary of the important artistic and industrial phenomena it presented. The official reports form a most valuable record, not simply of those natural products and specimens of skill and industry which were exhibited, but of the judgment of the most competent authorities who were sent from this country, to report on the various departments on whose merits they were most fitted to pronounce. In those reports we have a permanent INTRODUCTION. IX record of the World's Industry in 1855 ; the subjects they embrace being the manufac- tures of linen, cotton, woollen and worsted, and silk ; machinery, and iron manufactures ; general produce ; coachmakers' work, harness, &c. ; prepared and preserved alimentary substances; Birmingham manufactures ; furniture and decoration; printing and printing machines ; military arts ; colonial woods ; mining and metallurgic products ; general metal work ; optical and other instruments ; warming and ventilating ; naval constructions ; ceramic manufactures ; glass ; vegetable products ; Indian and colonial products; civil construction; and the present state of design as applied to manu- factures. When it is mentioned that, among the authors of these reports, we find such names as those of Sir W. Hooker, Dr. Arnott, Mr. Digby Wyatt, Professor Owen, and Sir David Brewster, it will be readily perceived that these documents bear a stamp of the highest value, and that they have greatly augmented the value of the Exposi- tion they are intended to commemorate. The Exhibition of Art Treasures of the United Kingdom, held in Manchester, in 1857, fully realised the conception of Mr. J. C. Deane, that the Art wealth of England would supply examples of equal interest, and an aggregate of greater value than any other country in the world, and that the application for the loan of those treasures, for an object of public utility, would be met with promptness and liberality by their owners. The collection embraced 1,178 ancient, and 689 modern pictures, many of them of the highest value; 386 portraits, 969 water-colour drawings, 10,000 objects of art in the General Museum, 260 sketches and original drawings, 1,475 engravings, 500 miniatures, 597 photographs, 63 architectural drawings, and 160 pieces of sculpture. The favour with which this noble project was received, was shown in the readiness of all ranks, from the Sovereign downwards, to entrust their rich treasures to the executive committee ; in the numbers by whom the building was thronged from day to day; and in the satisfactory fact that the undertaking was successful in a financial aspect. The spirited conductors of this noble work were justified in the hope that their labours have promoted the love of the beautiful in Art, and produced the conviction in the popular mind, "that it is not incompatible with the honest per- formance of the daily duties and hard labours of life, to brighten its course, by the cultivation of the imagination and other more delicate faculties of the mind, by encouraging a love of the Fine Arts." Florence, in 1861, presented to the world the first fruits of Italian unity and freedom in its Italian National Exhibition. Previous to this memorable year, several of the Italian States had held their Exhibitions, which, whatever then- excellence, had never brought under one roof the productions of all Italy, so as to afford the oppor- tunity of comparison and instruction. Italians and their visitors could now, for the first time, form a correct estimate of the products, the industries, and the Fine Arts, as they were found in every portion of the country, extending from the plains of Lombardy to the most distant parts of Calabria. The building occupied by the Exhibition had been a railway terminus ; but, from the admirable taste with which it was decorated*, proved quite suitable to this new purpose. For the first week, the visitors had an opportunity of viewing the cattle of Italy, which were shown hi a building near the Exhibition, the various breeds exciting x INTRODUCTION. much admiration. The agricultural implements presented a remarkable variety, extending, as they did, from a plough, as rude as any used in the time of the ancient Komans, to the most perfect imitations of our own improvements. A very great attraction was the house of a Tuscan peasant, with its living occupants, all the implements of his craft, and his live stock. The horticulture and agriculture of the country were well represented in most beautiful specimens. Among the minerals was the iron of Elba, the copper of Tuscany, the marble of Carrara, and the sulphur of Sicily. The hemp of Italy, which exceeds that of eveiy other country, was shown in the greatest perfection ; as was also the rich silk, both in its raw state and its various manufactures. The straw-plait of Italy Avas found to maintain its former high character, and woollen cloths were shown of very great excellence. Among the productions of iron, were the wrought iron gates, sent over to our own Exhibition; and the excellent surgical instruments of Pistoia displayed the skill of the artist in steel. The Victorian Exhibition, which was opened on the 1st of October, 1861, although confined to the colony after which it was named, deserves a place in our record, on account of its relation to the International Exhibition, for which it was prepared. The building for the Victorian Exhibition had been previously erected for the purpose of receiving the contributions sent to Pans in 1855, and was, after some enlargements, found sufficient for this second great display. Among the prominent features of the Victorian Exhibition, was the collection of indigenous timber, containing eighty varieties, from different localities. There was a set of models of the principal autumnal fruits and vegetables of the colony, made of gypsum, and coloured so as to represent the natural hue and bloom of the plant ; there were, also, specimens of the essential oils distilled from indigenous trees and plants. Wine was exhibited among the new products of the colony ; and from the growths then shown, to which additions were made before sending to London, there is reason to hope that, at no distant period, this produce will be of excellent quality, and large in quantity. " Oil from the olive, with the fruit itself, were seen, for the first time, grown, and made almost within the precincts of the town." Gold, of course, was the principal attraction of the Exhibition ; and, in reference to this precious element, the governor observed at the inauguration, that, "so far from showing symptoms of exhaustion, upwards of a hundred million's worth had been extracted from the alluvial flats and intersecting quartz reefs. It is unnecessary here to refer to the specimens of zoology, and other branches of natural history, or to the display of arts and manu- factures (among which a new method of stereotype-printing deserves mention), as the whole Exhibition was afterwards transported to London, and will come under notice in its proper place. THE ILLUSTRATED RECORD OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF ALL NATIONS, IN 1862. CHAPTER I. THE ORIGIN' OF THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION IN 1SC2. As mentioned in a previous page, the -world is indebted to the Society of Arts for originating the International Exhibition of 1862, as well as for carrying out the great ■work by which it was preceded in 1851. In the earlier undertaking, this venerable Society proceeded under the high patronage and most able conduct of the Prince Consort; and, hi the latter work, it was enabled to persevere, notwithstanding the discouragement and privation produced by his much-lamented death. The initiative of the 1851 undertaking was taken by the Society submitting to the Prince a plan for a National Exhibition, on a more enlarged scale than any which had previously been held in this country. His Royal Highness expanded the idea, by recommending that the Exhibition should comprehend the four divisions of Raw Materials, Machinery and Mechanical Inventions, Manufactures, Sculpture, and Plastic Art ; and the patronage of her majesty's government was obtained in consequence of an address being directed by the Illustrious President of the Society of Arts to the then Home Secretary of State. But as funds were required to set the machinery in motion, and the ordinary resources of the Society were not available for such a purpose, it became necessary to provide for an estimated outlay in building, and preliminary expenses, of £70,000. In this position they were compelled, at the commencement of their proceedings, to make an arrangement with a firin willing to advance the sum likely to be required, in consideration of a share in the contingent profits. The next step taken by the Society of Arts, was to send Mr. Henry Cole and Mr. Francis Fuller to visit the principal towns in England, Ireland, and Scotland, to collect the opinions of agriculturists and manufacturers as to the proposed Exhibition of 1851 : it also, through its commissioners, sought to ascertain what the people of France would do to promote such an undertaking. At a dinner given by the Lord Mayor of London, Prince Albert pronounced his judgment that the proposed Exhibition would give a true test, and a living picture, of the point of development at which the whole of mankind had arrived in this great task, and a new and starting-point from which all nations would be able to direct their future 2 ILLUSTRATED RECORD OF THE exertions. After this, and much more preparatory work had been accomplished, the Royal Commission was issued, providing that "a full and diligent inquiry should be made into the best mode by which the productions of English colonies and foreign countries might be introduced into the kingdom; as to the site for, and the general conduct of, the proposed Exhibition; and as to the best mode of determining the nature of the prizes, and of securing the most impartial distribution of them." In the Exhibition of 1862, the Society of Arts also took the initiative ; and as early as 1858, framed important resolutions, with a view to holding a second Exhibition ; and, at the close of that year, made its appeal to the Royal Commissioners of 1851. The Commissioners not having funds to meet the expenses of the proposed Exhibition, the Society responded to the wish that it should furnish information as to the probable success of the undertaking, and offered to establish a guarantee fund of a quarter of a million sterling. The disturbed state of the continent in 1859, rendered it necessary to postpone the Exhibition for a time ; but the close of the Italian war, and the restoration of European tranquillity, rendered it practicable to hold it in 1862. The Society of Arts, during the inquiries made as to the progress of European and American society since the Exhibition of 1851, and in support of its repetition, collected a number of interesting facts, to which it gave publicity. By the assistance of Mr. William Hawes, the Registrar-General, Mr. C. M. Willich, Colonel Owen, and Sir Cusack P. Roney, it was ascertained that "the population of Great Britain, which was 25,180,555 in 1851, would be about 29,000,000 in 1862, and that London then would contain half a million more people than it did at the period of the first Exhibition. They showed that one-half of this population would consist of persons between the ages of fifteen and fifty, and that one-fourth would consist of persons who were too young to benefit by the Exhibition of 1851. They showed that the length of railways in England alone, would be nearly 11,000 miles in 1862, compared with 6,755 in 1851, and that the general system of railway management would be much improved. The continental managers had learned to appreciate tlirough-booking, return-tickets, and excursion traffic at reduced rates, which they would not look at a few years previously. Many continental Hues had been opened since the year of the Great Exhibition, all more or less converging towards this country, and several others of great importance in shortening existing routes, and putting us in communication with new districts. The steam passages between America and Europe had been more than quadrupled, and the fares lowered at least thirty per centi The chain of railways joining New York, Boston, Portland, and Quebec, had been tripled since 1851 ; the distance between London and India had been decreased twenty-five per cent., and between England and Australia fifty per cent. ; the time taken for passages to and fi-om our West Indian Colonies had been diminished one-third ; and there was a well-organised steam communication with South America and Africa, which did not exist in 1851." Facts of an interesting kind, relative to the progress of Art, were collected, and presented in such an attractive form, as to produce a popular conviction, that the time INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 3 for a second International Exhibition in London had arrived. The Marquis of Chandos, Earl Granville, Mr. C. \V. Dilke, Mr. Thomas Baring, and Mr. Fairbaim, were invited to become trustees for the new Exhibition, and the Commissioners of 1851 were asked to grant a site on the South Kensington estate, on which -the trustees might erect a building suitable for the Exhibition, on the condition that at least one- third of the sum expended by them should be applied to buildings of a permanent character, suitable for decennial Exhibitions, as well as for other purposes tending to the encouragement of arts, manufactures, and commerce. In case of a deficiency, it was agreed that the buildings should be sold ; and if, after their sale, a deficiency still remained, the guarantors were to subscribe pro rata for its supply. The Commissioners of 1851 accordingly granted, rent free, until the end of 1862, the whole land on the main square of their estate — about sixteen acres — on the condition that all the buildings to be erected should be subject to their approval, and that all the temporary buildings should be removed within six months after the close of the Exhibition, if so required by the Commissioners ; and the trustees also were left at liberty to remove the permanent building, if they found the Exhibition a pecuniary failure. In favour of the Society of Arts, the Commissioners also expressed then willingness, as an acknowledgment of long-continued services, in advancing the interests of the arts and manufactures, and for promoting the Exhibition of 1851, to grant a lease for ninety-nine years, at a moderate ground-rent, of the permanent buildings, on condition that not less than £50,000 should be expended on them by the trustees, and that they should not cover more than an acre of ground. Thus was a basis made for the new Exhibition ; and those arrangements were carried out by the trustees, though with some important modifications. The sum to be expended on that portion of the buildings to be leased to the Society, was reduced to £20,000 instead of £50,000, on condition that, if the necessary surplus should exist at the close of the Exhibition, the trustees should lay out as much money in improving the architectural character of the permanent portion of the building, as was at first proposed— viz., £50,000. The new trustees having applied for the loan of an unoccupied portion of land between the western arcades of the Horticultural Gardens and Prince Albert's-road, and also for the loan of the south arcades as refreshment rooms, both these requests were granted by the Commissioners, as was clso a subsequent application for ground on which to erect another annexe. All these important preliminaries arranged, the Society of Arts had completed its share of the work, and the management passed into the hands of the Commissioners for the Exhibition of 1862, who were created by a royal charter, sealed on the 14th of February, 1861. A point of great practical importance was the co-operation of the Bank of England, whose Directors were willing, on the execution of the deed of guarantee, to advance the necessary funds on liberal terms. During the negotiations already described, the Commissioners instituted inquiries as to the best method of fulfilling the important trust committed to them. " The most pressing point was the building required for the Exhibition. In 1850, notwith- standing the possession of considerable funds, and the assistance of the most eminent c 4 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE architects and and engineers, seven months elapsed before a design was adopted.' ' To avoid delay, and increased expense, the Commissioners for 1862 directed their attention to the character of the firoposed building, which they considered should be more substantial than that of 1851, as it was to include pictures, a branch of art not shown on the previous occasion. It was then ascertained that Captain Fowke, R.E., the engineer and architect to the government department of science and art, and who had been secretary to the British department of the Paris Exhibition, was able to furnish the design required without delay. He had, while superintending the southern .arcades of the Royal Horticultural Society's gardens, formed the plan of a building on the Kensington Gore estate, which should fill up the ojien side of the gardens, and serve the purpose of future Industrial and Fine Art Exhibitions. Immediately after then- appointment, the Commissioners were, therefore, in a condition to speak of the plan which had been submitted to them by this gentleman, as " intended to meet the practical defects which experience had shown to exist both in the buildings in Hyde Park and in the Champs Elysees. It appeared well adapted for the required purposes ; and its principal features were of a striking character, and likely to form an attractive part of the Exhibition." The Commissioners " submitted the design to the competition of ten eminent contractors, four of whom took out the quantities. Three tenders (one a joint one from two of the contractors invited) were sent in on the day named in the invitation ; but all were greatly in excess of the amount which the Commissioners could j:>rudently spend, with a due regard to the interest of the guarantors." The Commissioners, therefore, had to direct considerable modifications of this plan, which would reduce its cost without destroying its merits. Before entering on a description of the enormous erection in South Kensington, we propose to revive the public recollection of the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, for the purpose of comparing the merits of the two structures ; and further to assist the reader, we shall give several pictorial representations, taken originally by the Daguerreotype, and now produced by the new process of chromatic printing. It must be remembered that the palace of crystal was the result of a happy conception of Sir Joseph Paxton, after great constructive ingenuity had been expended on the first 233 designs of the building, and the arrangements for its erection had actually been made. The idea of laying aside the use of bricks and mortar first occurred to the famous superintendent of the gardens of the Duke of Devonshire, at Chatsworth and Chiswick. Sir Joseph Paxton, like many other distinguished inventors, was indebted for his discovery to the study of the manner in which the Divine Architect produces the great effects which man has to accomplish in his humble works. The type of the celebrated " Paxton roof" was furnished by the Victoria Regia, the enormous water-lily, brought from South Africa to the gardens, under his superintendence, at Chatsworth. In that large umbrella-shaped leaf, he saw the pattern of those longitudinal and transverse girders and supporters, which were to give to the crystal structure in Hyde Park its principal characteristic. This careful study of the natural method of producing effects, has often led to the most successfid results. The bony structure of the duck gave a model to — • z INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 5 ship-builders ; the egg furnishes the form of greatest strength for the construction of the tunnel ; the triplet achromatic eye-piece of Dollond was produced by studying the structure of the eye; the shield employed successfully in forming the Thames Tunnel, was produced by observing the manner in which the Teredo protects itself from accident while carrying forward its boring operations. By this careful study and imitation of nature, man may hope to make fresh discoveries, and add to the number of his noblest inventions. The Commissioners of 1851, although furnished with no less than 233 plans, could find among them none that would afford the conveniences necessary to their purpose, and had even added another of their own, when it occurred to Sir Joseph Paxton that he could release them from their perplexity. The thought, which afterwards became a reality, was first hinted during a conversation between that gentleman and another member of the House of Commons ; when Sir Joseph Paxton expressed his apprehension that a great blunder would be perpetrated in the proposed building, at the same time intimating that he had an idea in his mind which he was prepared to work out if not too late. The nine days asked for having been granted, Sir Joseph Paxton, in the midst of other important avocations, completed his plans, which immediately commanded the approval of all concerned, and for which the estimates were completed with astonishing rapidity. The description of this marvellous structure was furnished by its author during its progress, and will enable us to employ his own words in recalling its leading peculiarities. " One great feature in the present building is, that no stone, brick, or mortar need be used ; but the whole is composed of dry material, ready at once for the articles to be exhibited. By combination of no other materials but iron, wood, and glass, could this important point be effected ; which, when we consider the limited period allowed for the erection of so stupendous a structure, may almost be deemed the most important object. The absence of any moist material in the construction, together with the provision made for the vapours which must arise and be condensed against the glass, enables the exhibitor at once to place his manufactures in their respective situations, without the probability of articles, even of polished ware, being tarnished by their exposure. " I may state that it is unnecessary to cut down any of the large timber-trees, provision being made, by means of a curvilinear roof over the transept, for their reception within the building ; and, by a proper diffusion of air, they will not suffer by the enclosure. " The dimensions of the building are 1,851 feet in length, and 456 feet in breadth in the widest part. It covers altogether more than 18 acres ; and the whole is supported on cast-iron pillars, united by bolts and nuts, fixed to flanges turned perfectly true, and resting on concrete foundations. The total cubic contents are 33,000,000 feet. " The six longitudinal galleries, 24 feet in width, running the whole length of the building, and the four transverse ones of the same dimensions, afford 25 per cent, additional exhibiting surface to that provided on the ground-floor. This extra space is suited for the display of light manufactured goods ; and from it a complete view of the whole of the articles exhibited, together with an extensive view of the interior of the building, will be obtained. "The roof is built on the ridge-and-furrow principle, and glazed with British sheet-glass, as previously described ; the sheets being 49 inches long — i. e., an inch longer than those of the Great Conservatory at Chatsworth. The rafters are continued in uninterrupted lines the whole length of the building. The transept portion, although covered by a semicircular roof, is also on the angular principle. " All the roof and upright sashes being made by machinery, are put together and glazed with great rapidity ; for, being fitted and finished before they are brought to the ground, little more is required on the spot than to fix them. " The length of sash-bar requisite is 205 miles. The quantity of glass required is about 900,000 feet, weighing upwards of 400 tons. All round the lower tier of the building, however, will be boarded, with fillets planted on in a perpendicular line with the sash-bars above. " The gutters are arranged longitudinally and transversely : the rain-water passes from the longitudinal gutter 6 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE into a transverse gutter over the girders, and is thus conveyed to the hollow columns, and thence to the drains below. As these transverse gutters are placed at every 24 feet apart, and as there is a fall in the longitudinal gutters both ways, the water has only to run a distance of 12 feet before it descends into the transverse gutters, which carry it off to the hollow columns, or down-pipes. The grooves for carrying off the moisture which condenses on the inside of the glass, are cut out of the solid ; in fact, the whole gutter is formed by machinery at one cut. The gutter is cambered up by tension-rods, having screws fixed at the ends, so as to adjust it to the greatest nicety, as is the case with the wrought-iron girders which span the Victoria Lily House. " Floors. — I have tried many experiments in order to find out the most suitable floors for the pathways of horticultural structures. Stone was objectionable, chiefly on account of the moisture and damp which it retained. The difficulty of getting rid of the waste from the watering of plants was also an objection ; but perhaps the greatest is the amount of dust from sweeping. I likewise found that close boarding for pathways was open to many of the same objections as stone ; for although damp and moisture were in part got rid of, yet still there were no means of immediately getting rid of dust. These various objections led me to the adoption of trellised wooden pathways, with spaces between each board, through which, on sweeping, the dust at once disappears, and falls into the vacuity below. " Whilst the accomplishment of this point was most important in plant-houses, it is doubly so with the Indus- trial Building, where there will be such an accumulation of various articles of delicate texture and workmanship. Before sweeping the floors, the whole will be sprinkled with water from a movable hand-engine, which will be immediately followed by a sweeping-niachiue, consisting of many brooms fixed to an apparatus on light wheels, and drawn by a shaft. Thus a large portion of ground will be passed over very quickly. " The boards for the floor will be 9 inches broad and 1| inch thick, laid half an inch apart, on sleeper-joists 9 inches deep and 3 inches thick, placed four feet apart. "This method of flooring, then, possesses the following advantages: — It is very economical; dry, clean, pleasant to walk upon ; admits of the dust falling through the spaces ; and even when it requires to be thoroughly washed, the water at once disappears betwixt the openings, and the boards become almost immediately fit for visitors." In this simple inatter-of-fact style, we learn how the inventor produced the marvellous " temple made of glass," which realised the dream of Chaucer, who had a pre-vision of its "many a pillar of metal," its "images of gold," its "jewels," its "curious portraitures," and its "Right great company withal, And that of sundry regions, Of all kinds of conditions, That dwell on earth, beneath the moon, Poor and rich. " Our views of the Building in its whole extent — of the Main Avenue from three stand-points, of the Transept looking north and south, and of the Opening (all drawn by the unerring pencil of light) — will recall the charming vision to the eyes of those who once were privileged to gaze upon it ; while, from their unerring fidelity, they will impart a faithful representation to those who have never beheld it in its original position, or before the alterations were made which it has undergone at Sydenham. While the Crystal Palace was admirably adapted to the great purposes for which it was designed, there were sufficient reasons why it should not be regarded as the type of its successor. As the new Exhibition was to contain a valuable collection of pictures, sent from other countries as well as our own, it was considered necessary to give it a more substantial character for their safe preservation; and important modifications in the arrangement were required for their effective display. In comparing these two structures, it is necessary that reference should be made to the conditions they were to fulfil, and also to the sites they were to occupy; and, if justice be clone to the Commissioners and their ingenious architects, it will be admitted that there was an equally wise adaptation in each case. The secondary purposes to which the buildings were destined should also be remembered. r"^ ( - -^SBBk 1 ^ * v ~v2^ ^« -/ •^Ula -/-- .^11 \ //:-.. ':^ - i= g = : o W i © 1=1 H w 1=1 W INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 7 When Sir Joseph Paxton described his palace of glass, i.e said — " After the Exhibition is over, I would convert the building into a permanent winter-garden, and would then make carriage-drives and equestrian promenades through it. There would be about two miles of galleries, and two miles of walks upon the ground floor, and sufficient room woidd be left for plants. The whole intermediate spaces between the walks and drives, would be planted with shrubs and climbers from temperate climates. In summer, the upright glass might be removed, so as to give the appearance of continuous park and garden." Captain Fowke, on the other hand, in designing his building, had to adapt it to future International Exhibitions, and, consequently, to impart to it a more permanent character. In an excellent description of the more recent building, Captain Phillpots says — " It differs, therefore, from its predecessor in many essential particulars. It is more commodious, more imposing in its interior, more varied and more suitable for Exhibition purposes; while, from without, its aspect is of impressive magnitude and character." The above extract is taken from a paper read by Captain Phillpots to the Society of Arts, on the Building for the International Exhibition of 1862, which furnishes a very accurate and detailed description of the whole building, and the principles on which it was constructed. The Site on which the main building stands is about sixteen acres in extent. Nearly rectangular in shape, it measmes about 1,200 feet from east to west, by 560 feet from north to south, and lies immediately south of the Royal Horticultural Society's gardens, the southern arcade of which was lent to the Exhibition for refreshment rooms. The whole of this area is covered by permanent buildings ; and two long strips of land have been added for the eastern and western annexes, covering about seven acres, and making the whole extent of the Exhibition twenty-four acres and a-half. The Cromwell-road forms its southern boundary ; on the east it adjoins the Exhibition-road ; and Prince Albert' s-road is on the west. It is important to notice that the general level of the ground is from four to six feet below the adjoining roads, as we shall see that this circumstance has been turned to a valuable account in planning the interior of the building. The total covered area in Hyde Park, occupied 799,000 square feet; that in Brompton is considerably larger, being 988,000 square feet, and contains 35,000 feet more than the area roofed in by the Paris Exhibition. The myriads who had admired the fairy-like palace in Hyde Park, had some feeling of disappointment when, instead of looking on a transparent structure of glass and iron, they saw a huge pile of brickwork, which, but for its enormous glass domes, presented a very utilitarian pile of solid masonry, with less pretension to architectural effect than some of the edifices we have erected for our pauper and criminal population. We must not, however, tax our imagination to add to the exterior an ideal beauty, and conceal the dull reality it is our duty to record. Let us, therefore, take a walk round these unadorned walls, and look first at — The South Front, which is chiefly of plain brickwork, and truly described as having "no more ornament than that work admits of." This frontage is 1,150 feet long, and 55 feet high in brickwork, with two projecting towers at each end, rising 8 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE sixteen feet above the general outline, with a large tower in the centre, forming the principal entrance into the picture gallery. The main entrance on this side is through three arches, fifty feet high, in this central tower, and decorated with terra- cotta columns. Above these arches is the cornice and frieze, surmounted by an ornamental clock-dial. Comparing this length of south frontage with that of the building in 1851, it will be readily perceived why we cannot have the grand perspective effect obtained in the former structure. It is easy to remember the 1,851 feet that measured the length of the Ciystal Palace, whose date is recorded by the same number ; but the nave of the second building is not more than 800 feet long, 85 feet wide, and 100 feet high to the ridge of the roof. Sernicircular-headed panels, separated by pilasters, are built at intervals of twenty-five feet throughout the whole length ; and between the arches are circular niches, at present vacant, but admitting of future decoration. In the lower portion of each panel is a window, to admit light and air to the ground floor, and for ventilation to the picture gallery. To do justice to the south front, and, indeed, to all the frontage of this vast building of brick, it should be observed that the panels are plastered in cement ; and that it is intended to raise a sufficient fund to furnish these spaces with English mosaics, rej:>resenting the arts and manufactures of this kingdom. The East and West Fronts are similar in their general effects, and are especially distinguished by the great domes of glass which form the principal features of the whole building. Each of these domes rises 200 feet in height, and is sur- mounted by a handsome finial 55 feet high. Severe critics, wanting in gratitude for the pains taken to please the public eye, have failed to notice that, to the observer below, the form of each dome appears that of a semicircle — an effect which has been obtained by making the height of the dome eleven feet more than half its diameter, and so compensating for the apparent loss occasioned by the perpendicular perspective. Without following the technical details of those much-admned and much-abused structures, we may observe, that by a plan for which the merit of novelty as well as great ingenuity is claimedj the dome of twelve sides appears to stand on an octagonal base — an arrangement by which an uninterrupted vista is obtained of the nave and transept, at the intersections of which they are placed. Each of the heavy-groined ribs of the dome rests its weight on two columns outside the octagon ; so that the whole structure rests on sixteen points, its pressure on the angles of the octagon being nearly five times as much as on the columns of the nave and transepts. The iron in each dome weighs 120 tons. These domes are larger than those of St. Paul's, in London, and St. Peter's, at Rome. St. Paul's is 112 feet in external diameter, and St. Peter's 157| feet; while each of the Exhibition domes has an external diameter of 160 feet. The domes of Brompton, however, receive less admiration than those of St. Peter and St. Paul, from the circumstance that they nse from a lower base than those solid structures. It was the boast of Buonarotti that he would raise the Pantheon to the summit of the Colliseum ; and the cross of St Peter's is 430 feet above the pavement, and that of St. Paul's Cathedral 340 feet ; while those at Bromp- ton, measured inside from the dais, are not more than 200 feet. These East and West fronts are distinguished further by the large arched recesses, g^ J •? = - o E=9 - != H ■ M n w o IN ^ & 02 p 1=1 i E=| 1=1 © i=f 6=1 m §=< INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, containing the main entrances to the Industrial Courts, above which are the richly- decorated rose windows, each visible from end to end of the building. The North Feont, visible only from the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society, presents a pleasing variety of architectural features. Its ground floor consists of the Southern Arcade of the gardens, composed of twisted columns of terra-cotta of very great beauty, over which is another floor; and the whole treated so as to harmonise with the adjoining arcades. This very pleasing facade presents five divisions, the central portion seventy feet high, and containing the arcade of the gardens, a low floor, called by the Italians a mezzanine, and an upper storey. On each side of this centre are ornamented brick arches, on terra-cotta columns, separated by pilasters ; and the same arrangement applies to the upper lights. This front of the building is by far the most beautiful, combining, as it does, an agreeable blending of general uniformity with much diversity. The whole of the upper and lower floors of this handsome exterior, making an area of 26,800 square feet, were, during the Exhibition, occupied with the gastronomic industry of all nations, of which, it must be confessed, they furnished the most satisfactory proofs. Having travelled round the building, we will now pass within its walls, and carefully perambulate The Interior. — It has been already observed, that the ground covered by the Exhibition is about five feet below the adjoining roads ; and it is due to the architect to admire the ingenuity with which this circumstance has been improved. To raise the ground to a level with the roads would have occasioned a vast expense ; and to have descended at once to the original level, would have greatly marred the effect which the first glance at the interior ought to produce. By the arrangement of Captain Fowke, the visitor, on entering from the east or west front, ascends two steps, when he finds himself standing beneath the dome, on a dais six feet above the floor of the building, into which he may descend by three flights of steps, eighty feet wide. Our spectator is now standing under the eastern dome, whence he may take a glance at the principal features of the building, and look forward and backward on the right hand and the left, above and below. He seeks in vain for the long perspective, and those ethereal and atmospheric effects of colour which imparted a peculiar charm to the roof of the Crystal Palace ; and, instead, he gazes on a nave and transept resembling a magnificent Gothic cathedral, whose pointed roofs are enriched with a gorgeous display of polychromatic colouring. The light, instead of coming through the roof and the walls, as in the Crystal Palace, is admitted through the clerestory windows, preserving the ideal of the Gothic cathedral ; which, however, ceases as the eye of the observer falls on the light-looking iron columns by which the galleries and the roofs are supported. The mass of rich colouring which now greets the eye ; the elaborate rose window that terminates the perspective of the nave ; the portions of the eastern transept that run off to the right and left — all decorated in the same rich style as the nave — produce an effect which has not failed to excite the admiration of all except the most fastidious pretender to taste. 10 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE The dome, under which our spectator stands, bears the appropriate inscription, in English — "O LORD, BOTH RICHES AND HONOUR COME OF THEE, AND THOU REIGNEST OVER ALL ; AND IN THINE HAND IS POWER AND MIGHT; AND IN THINE HAND IT IS TO MAKE GREAT." While that of the western dome, in the further end of the nave, is in Latin: — ■ " TUA EST DOMINE MAGNIFICENTIA, ET POTENTIA, ET GLORIA, ATQUE VICTORIA : ET TIBI LAUS : CUNCTA ENIM QU^E IN CCELO SUNT, ET IN TERRA TUA SUNT, TUUM DOMINE REGNUM." At the west end of the nave is — "GLORIA IN EXCELSIS DEO, ET IN TERRA PAX." And at the east end — "THE WISE AND THEIR WORKS ARE IN THE HAND OF GOD." Appropriate legends adorn other parts of the edifice. To preserve a correct record of the whole structure, we must again quote from the paper of Captain Phillpots — a very safe guide to follow — and wliich has often been followed, but without due acknowledgment. "The supports on either side consist of square and round cast-iron columns, coupled together ; the former carry the gallery floor, and the latter, advancing into the nave, receive the principals of the roof. These columns are 50 feet high, in two lengths of 25 feet high ; and from their capitals spring the roof-frames, wluch consist of three thick- nesses of plank, from 18 inches to 2 feet 6 inches deep, firmly nailed and bolted together, and so arranged that their ends break joint. The centre plank is four inches thick, and each of the outer ones is three inches ; the lower edges are tangents to an imaginary semicircle, round which they form half a nearly regular polygon. From the springing rise the posts of the clerestory windows, 25 feet high. The principal rafters of the roof-frames rise from the top of these posts, and are carried up, after passing a tangent, to the extrados of the arch to meet at the ridge, in a point 25 feet above the top of the clerestory. The angles over the haunches and crown of the arch are firmly braced together, so as to reduce the thrust as much as possible. " The rib is repeated thirty times in the length of the nave ; and, from its graceful curve and lightness, it pro- duces a fine effect. Between every roof principal is a clerestory light, 25 feet high, consisting of three arches, springing from the intermediate inullions. The roof is covered with felt and zinc, on one-and-a-half inch plank, which is laid diagonally, so as to brace the whole together. The nave is, therefore, entirely dependent on the clerestory windows ; but this arrangement is found to be entirely satisfactory, and a substantial water-tight covering is thus insured, having the advantage of obviating all chances of that unpleasant glare which the experience of 1851 proved to be unavoidable with a glass covering. The rain-water from the roof is conducted, by means of gutters, down the columns supporting the ribs, to drains laid under the ground-floor, which carry it off to the drains under the adjoining roads." A transept runs at right angles with each end of the nave, for a length of 600 feet, being of the same width and height as the nave, and having the ribs of its roof of the same construction. Our spectator must now leave his first post of observation, and traverse various parts of the building, which are not sufficiently seen from beneath the domes. There are three open courts on each side the nave, having glass-covered roofs, on the ridge and valley plan. These roofs are carried on square iron columns, fifty feet apart, carrying on their summits, fifty feet above the ground, wrought-iron trellis girders, parallel to the length of the building. These columns and girders support the principals of the roof, which are all of iron, on the trussed rafter plan, and eight feet apart. These roofs are drained by channels in the valleys, conducting the water down the hollow iron columns. The courts, from then abundance of light, remind the visitor of the Crystal Palace of 1851 ; and from their admission of the rain, towards INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 1 1 the close of the Exhibition, have fully justified the requirement of a more substantial kind of building in 1862. To complete our view of the ground floor of the main building, we must notice the aisles, fifty feet wide, which run on both sides the nave, and the inner sides of the transepts ; and another aisle twenty-five feet wide, carried along the outer sides of the transepts, and along the back wall of the south front. On this ground floor, also, we have to notice the two temporary buildings known as the Eastern and Western Annexes. The western annexe was 975 feet long ; of which, for 720 feet, it was 200 feet wide, the remaining length being only 150 feet in width. It was covered by a ridge and valley roof, and supported on light wooden ribs, placed at intervals of fifteen feet. Its superficial extent was about four-and- a-half acres, or 184,000 square feet. It deserved great praise for its simplicity, ingenuity, and economy ; displaying the most skilful mechanical contrivances of the age. It required no bolting or framing ; and any person of ordinary intelligence, who could drive a nad, could have constructed the ribs, which had nothing in them but nails and sawn planks. The eastern annexe was similar to the western in construction, but somewhat smaller in the area covered in, as it inclosed a large open court of 350 by 100 feet. The vast galleries, twenty-five feet above the ground floor, were commensurate with the whole building, except the glass courts, and occupied a space of 203,000 square feet. These extensive floors were supported on cast-iron girders fixed to the columns, and over them were laid two strong suspended trusses to carry the joists and boarding. The utmost care was taken to impart strength and security to these im- portant portions of the structure. The description already quoted, which is the authority for these statements, says — " Supposing a floor to be loaded with 140 lbs. to the square foot — which, being more than the weight of a dense crowd of people, is heavier than any weight it can have to bear — the greatest load that can be placed on a girder is thirty-four tons. The breaking weight of the girders used is eighty-eight tons, and every one of them is proved in a hydraulic press, specially constructed for the purpose, to a load of thirty-eight tons, to avoid all risks from imperfect castings being used. Over each gallery is a flat roof covered with felt, supported like the floor, but of much lighter construction." Those who are experienced in the construction of large buildings, and know the importance of providing against the effect of excessive thrust and pressure, will be prepared to estimate the following description of the method employed to counteract the thrust of the roof of these galleries. To Mr. Ordish is ascribed the merit of the particular form of bracing-in these galleries, which formed an abutment to the nave and transept roof. From the outward thrust of the roof, tending to throw the columns out of the perpendicular, it was found necessary that strong iron braces should be anchored to the foundation of the inner column, and carried up to the top of the opposite outer column. Another bracing was anchored to the footing of the outer column, and carried tip to the top of the inner column, to secure it against being acted on by the force of the wind. By this arrangement, which occurred at every hundred feet, or every fourth bay, the valuable effect of a horizontal girder was secured to resist the thrust of the three intervening ribs. This arrangement is regarded as " very D 12 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE clever, and an admirable example of the perfect control which the simplest mechanical means, properly applied, give us of dealing with enormous masses." No observant person could fail to notice, also, that " the bracing is all adjusted by connecting screw- links, on a plan very similar to the method of joining railway carriages ;" an arrange- ment by which the bracing could be "adjusted at jneasure, and the position of the columns corrected to the minutest fragment of an inch." The galleries we have thus noticed were appropriated to the industrial portion of the Exhibition. We have now to traverse those specially prepared for the display of the Fine Arts, and which occupied the east, south, and west sides of the whole structure. Perhaps no portion of the building has afforded more satisfaction than these picture galleries ; certainly none has been more free from unfavourable criticism. By a very skilful arrangement they escape a disadvantage which is experienced in many of the finest picture galleries of this country and the continent, and have enabled the visitors really to see the pictures, instead of being annoyed by the glitter produced by the reflection of light. Eveiy one who has attempted to examine pictures in rooms lighted in the ordinary manner, has found great difficulty in placing himself in such a position as to escajie from the " glitter" thus produced ; and in consequence of which man}* of our best pictures are never seen to perfection. The roofs of these galleries have been so constructed as to secure the requisite degree of light, and to diffuse it over the pictures in such a manner as to afford the greatest facilities for their examination. The arrangement for securing this valuable result is thus described: — The light is admitted "at a particular angle from the roof, by means of a skylight extending along its entire length ; and which, in the present case, measures 31 feet in width; that is, 15 feet 6 inches from the ridge on either side. The entire width of the opening, measured on a horizontal plane, is 29 feet 2 inches. Each room is 50 feet wide ; and at a height of 32 feet 9 inches, a cove, springing from a cornice on either side, reaches to the height of the tie-bar of the principals (42 feet 10 inches above the floor), 12 feet 4 inches from the wall ; thus leaving a space 25 feet 4 inches between the coves. In this space, a transparent calico ceiling (hereafter to be replaced by ground glass) is introduced, which, however, is raised 2 feet 4 niches above the highest point of the cove, or 45 feet 7 inches from the floor." These picture galleries furnish 4,600 feet of hanging space, from 17 to 30 feet in height, being equal to 9,500 square yards, or two acres ; the extent for the visitor to travel being half a mile all but thirty yards. One practical result of this department of the Exhibition, will be the improvement in the construction of picture galleries at home and abroad, since the admirable method, which, during the last few years, was successfully adopted in the museum at South Kensington, has now commanded the unqualified approval of visitors from all parts of the civilised world. The Decoration of the entire building having been entrusted to Mr. Grace, was executed with remarkable expedition, admirable taste, and great regard to economy. It is related, that Mr. Crace was asked, on a Saturday, if his designs for the eastern picture gallery were ready; that he decided on his colours on the Monday following; and that at mid-day the work was commenced, and completed on the succeeding INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 13 Saturday. All the picture galleries are painted sage-green, which forms a suitable background for the pictures; the cove is tinted, to correspond; the cornices and soffits being of vellum colour, relieved with maroon lines and ornaments. By means of stencilling and distemper, a very rich colorific effect is produced in the nave and transepts, where the roofs have a warm grey colour, with upright scroll ornaments in maroon-red, rising from the sides to the apex. The main arches have a warm brown colour, with panellings of blue and red, relieved with light lines and ornaments, and separated by medallions in black, on which are stars of gold. In harmony with the design of the building, the artist has inscribed, on the crowns of these arches, the names of the countries by whose contributions the treasures of the Exhibition were supplied. The iron columns supporting the roof of the nave and transepts, are coloured to resemble pale bronze, relieved with light-coloured vertical lines ; the capitals are red and blue alternately ; and the raised ornaments richly gilded. The gallery railings are painted to resemble bronze, and are also richly gilded. The two domes are decorated in a style in keeping with the nave and transepts; the twelve main ribs being painted red and gold, bordered with black and white, and relieved with stars of gold on lozenges of blue. Some portions of the machinery employed in putting this vast structure together, deserve honourable mention, partly from their novelty, and principally from their enormous bulk, and the ingenuity displayed in their construction. The dome scaffolds, as Captain Phillpots correctly states, were "ona greater scale than anything of the kind ever constructed: they are literally forests of timber, occupying nearly the whole interior space of the domes — cross-braced and bolted to- gether in every possible way, so as to give them sufficient strength." There were eight stages in each scaffold ; between which were placed horizontal beams, the central portion being a square of 24 feet, and rising to a height of 200 feet. From the centre a scaffold radiated into each triangle of the dome, to which it was conformed in shape, and nearly in size. These radiating scaffolds had independent vertical bracing ; whde at each stage they were cross-braced horizontally. This chef-d'oeuvre of scaffolding was so skilfully constructed, that very little of the timber was spoiled by cutting ; every portion of it, amounting to 40,627 cubic feet in each scaffold, being afterwards as available for any other work as if it had just come from the builder's yard. The travelling scaffolding, for raising the principals to the roof of the nave, also showed great skill in the design. Although the scaffolding for the nave contained 4,740 cubic feet of timber, and weighed 87 tons, it was moved along the rails by four men working crowbars under the wheels. By the aid of this apparatus, and the steam hoist, one-half of a rib was first hoisted to its place : when in position, the other half was raised; and as soon as both were fixed true, they were joined together by completing the arch, and bracing it over the crown. One rib being thus secured in its place, the purlins and boarding were fixed; the movable scaffold was pushed on to the next bay, and another rib completed in the same manner. A standing scaffold was employed for the transepts, in which 30,336 cubic feet of timber were used. The steam hoist — an ingenious winch invented by Mr. Ashton — performed great 14 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE service among this array of unconscious workers. This machine was described, by Captain Phillpots, as having " two grooved cast-iron barrels, which are made to revolve by means of a system of toothed wheels, connected with a portable steam-engine. On the fall being manned, and the barrels set in motion, the coils of the rope were gathered up, and a great hoisting power obtained. By means of snatch-blocks and pulleys, ropes were led to all parts of the building, and the heaviest materials, such as girders, columns, scaffold beams, &c, were hoisted to their position with the greatest ease and rapidity. As an instance," he states, "that the heavy floor girders, weighing about 1 j tons, were raised in two minutes ; columns in about the same time ; and the ponderous ribs of the nave, weighing 6| tons, required only from ten to twenty minutes to raise them to their foil height." According to the terms of the contract, the building was delivered by the con- tractor, into the hands of Her Majesty's Commissioners, on the 12th of February, 1862, although part of the western dome, many of the minor details, and much of the decoration were incomplete. Two days jireviously, the strength of the galleries and other floors had been put to a severe test ; which is thus described, with its satisfactory results, by Messrs. Fairbairn and Baker : — " They first caused a large body of men, about 400 in number, to be closely packed upon a space, twenty-five feet by twenty-five feet, on one lay of flooring." Their report says — " We then moved them in step, and afterwards made them run over the different galleries and down each staircase ; at the same time, we caused the deflections of the girders carrying the floors to be carefully noted at several places, and had the satisfaction of finding that, in each case, the deflections were very nearly the same, thus exhibiting a remarkable uniformity in the construction. The cast-iron girders, with twenty-five bearings, deflected only one- eighth of an inch at the centre ; and the timber-trussed beams of the same bearing, placed between these girders, deflected half an inch at the centre. In every instance, the girders and trusses recovered their original position immediately on the removal of the load." The report also stated that, when the two large domes were deprived of their temporary support, no observable settlement took place. To perfect the descrijDtion of this enormous edifice, we must add the statistics which have been furnished as to the quantities of materials employed in its construction. There were 7,000,000 of bricks supplied by Messrs. Smeed, of Sittingbourne ; and upwards of 4,000 tons of iron from the Stavely iron-works, in Derbyshire The iron columns were 82,025, equal to four miles in length; and the 1,266 girders, if placed end to end, would measure six miles. To these quantities we have to add the iron for the domes, the groined ribs for the fifty-feet roofs, and the iron trellis- girders which support them, amounting to 1,200 tons. The timber- work was executed partly at the works of Messrs. Lucas, at Lowestoft, and partly at Mr. Kelk's works at Pimlico. The former prepared all the window-sashes, &c, by machinery; and the latter constructed the heavy ribs of the nave and transepts. The flooring extended over 1,300,000 superficial feet. The roofs were covered with 486,000 feet of felt, equal to eleven acres ; and the glass required was 247 tons, making 553,000 superficial feet, or twelve acres and three-quarters. The work of construction gave employment to about 30,000 mechanics, and 50,000 labourers. INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 15 The State Opening of the International Exhibition of 1862 took place on Thursday, the 1st of May. The Queen's Commissioners assembled at Buckingham Palace, and, with his Royal Highness the Crown Prince of Prussia, and his Royal Highness the Prince Oscar of Sweden, escorted by the Life Guards, proceeded through Hyde Park, and arrived about one o'clock at the entrance to the Picture Galleries in Cromwell-road, where a guard of honour of the Grenadier Guards was stationed. The line of road was kept by the Life and Horse Guards. Her Majesty's ministers, the foreign Commissioners, and others who took part in the procession, assembled in the south central court at half-past twelve ; and on the arrival of the Queen's Commissioners, which was announced by a flourish of trumpets, the procession was formed. It started from the south centre of the nave, and proceeded by the south side of the nave to the western dome, where there was a throne and chairs of state. One verse of the National Anthem was sung. When his Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge, and the other Commissioners, had taken their seats, Earl Granville said : — "In the name of the Commissioners of the International Exhibition of 1862, I have the honour to present to your Royal Highness, your Lordships, and Mr. Speaker, our humble address to her Majesty. In it we respectfully offer our condolences on the irreparable loss which her Majesty and the nation have sustained, and we express our gratitude to her Majesty for having appointed your Royal Highness and your colleagues as her Majesty's representatives, and we thank the Crown Prince of Prussia and Prince Oscar of Sweden for their presence on this occasion. In it we describe the rise and progress of the Exhibition, and the manner in which we propose to reward merit. We express our thanks to the Foreign and British Commissioners who have aided us in the work, and we express a humble hope that this undertaking may not be unworthy to take its place among the periodically recurring exhibitions of the world." Earl Granville then handed to the Duke of Cambridge the address, of which his speech was a brief summary. His Royal Highness read the following reply : — ■'' We cannot perform the duty which the Queen has done us the honour to commit to us as her Majesty's representatives on this occasion, without expressing our heart-felt regret that this inaugural ceremony is deprived of her Majesty's presence by the sad bereavement which has overwhelmed the nation with universal sorrow. We share most sincerely your feelings of deep sympathy with her Majesty in the grievous affliction with which the Almighty has seen fit to visit her Majesty and the whole people of this realm. It is impossible to contemplate the spectacle this day presented to our view without being painfully reminded how great a loss we have all sustained in the illustrious Prince with whose name the first Great International Exhibition was so intimately connected, and whose enlarged views and enlightened judgment were conspicuous in his appreciation of the benefits which such under- takings are calculated to confer upon the country. We are commanded by the Queen to assure you of the warm interest which her Majesty canuot fail to take in this Exhibition, and of her Majesty's earnest wishes that its success may amply fulfil the intentions and expectations with which it was projected, and may richly reward the zeal and energy, aided by the cordial co-operation of distinguished men of various countries, by which it has been carried into execution. We heartily join in the prayer that the International Exhibition of 1802, beyond largely conducing to present enjoyment and instruction, will be hereafter recorded as an important link in the chain of International Exhibitions, by which the nations of the world may be drawn together in the noblest rivalry, and from which they may derive the greatest advantages." The procession then passed along the north side of the nave to the eastern dome, where the special musical performances took place. The music, specially composed for this occasion, consisted of a grand overture by Meyerbeer ; a chorale by Dr. Sterndale Bennett (to words by the Poet Laureate) ; and a grand march by Auber. The orchestra, consisting of 2,000 voices and 400 instrumentalists, was presided over by Mr. Costa, except during the performance of Dr. Sterndale Bennett's music, which was conducted by M. Sainton. 16 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE At the conclusion of the special music, a prayer was offered up by the Bishop of London. The Hallelujah Chorus and the National Anthem were then sung; after which, his Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge said, " By command of the Queen, I declare the Exhibition open." This declaration having been made, it was announced to the public by a flourish of trumpets, and the firing of a salute on the site of the Exhibition of 1851. The procession then proceeded to the Picture Galleries, and the barriers were removed. The military bands were those of the Grenadier, the Coldstream, and the Scots Fusilier Guards, conducted by Mr. Godfrey, and were stationed in the centre of the western dome. About 25,000 persons were present. This portion of our record will be incomplete without the Ode prepared for the occasion by our Poet Laureate, and sung by 2,000 voices, to the music of Dr. Sterndale Bennett : — Uplift a thousand voices full and sweet, In this wide hall with earth's invention stored, And praise th' invisible universal Lord, Who lets once more in peace the nations meet, Where Science, Art, and Labour, have outpour'd Their myriad horns of plenty at our feet. O silent father of our Kings to be, Mourn'd in this golden hour of jubilee, For this, for all, we weep our thanks to thee ! The world-compelling plan was thine ; And lo ! the long laborious miles Of palace ! Lo ! the giant aisles, Rich in model and design ; Harvest-tool and husbandry, Loom, and wheel, and engin'ry, Secrets of the sullen mine, Steel and gold, and corn and wine, Fabric rough, or fairy fine, Sunny tokens of the Line ; Polar marvels and a feast Of wonder, out of West and East, And shapes and hues of art divine ! All of beauty, all of use, That one fair planet can produce ; Brought from under every star, Blown from over every main, And mix'd, as life is mix'd with pain, The works of peace, with works of war. And is the goal so far away ? Far, how far, no man can say; Let us have our dream to-day. O ye, the wise who think, the wise who sigh, From growing commerce loose her latest chain, And let the fair white- winged peace-maker fly To happy havens under all the sky, And miv the seasons, and the golden hours, Till each may find his own in all men's good. And all men work in noble brotherhood, Breaking their mailed fleets and armed towers, And ruling by obeying nature's powers, And gathering all the fruits of peace, and crown'd with all her flowers. CHAPTER IL A WALK THKOUGH THE N"AVE. The barriers being removed, and the whole Exhibition thrown open to her Majesty's lieges and the good people of all nations, we invite our friends to a promenade from dome to dome, that we may examine the varied and attractive treasures of the nave, noticing, by the way, the more prominent objects in the tran- septs and the middle avenue. Before commencing their little tour, our friends may take the time from the momtre clock, whose face forms the circular stained-glass window at the eastern end of fs g ^ INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 17 the building. The diameter of this dial is 38 feet 5 inches ; the length of the hour figures, 1 foot 10 inches; the minute-hand is 21 feet 7 inches long, and the hour-hand, 18 feet 10 inches; in both cases including the counterpoises. The great wheel is 3 feet 8 inches in diameter ; and the pendulum, which has a minute and a-half seconds beat, weighs about three hundredweight. This would have been the largest clock-face in the world, but for that in Malines, the diameter of which is 40 feet. This enormous production has done the greatest honour to Messrs. Dent, by whom it was constructed, as, notwithstanding its vast dimensions, its gaining time, since it was fairly set, did not exceed six seconds — a circumstance the more noteworthy, considering the position of the works which were immediately under the clock-face, and close to the eastern entrance, where considerable disturbing forces were in operation throughout the day. The Victoria Gold Trophy, the first claimant of our attention on this dai's, was an obelisk nearly seventy feet in height, an excellent contrivance for representing the enormous quantity of gold sent from our colony of Victoria to this country since the 1st of October, 1851. The amount thus represented was 26,162,432 ounces troy, equal to 1,793,995 lbs. avoirdupois; or 800 tons, 17cwt., 3 qrs., 7 lbs. ; a bulk of 1,492| cubic feet; and a value of £104,649,728. The obelisk, large as it was, will no longer suffice to represent the gold obtained from Victoria, as we learn from a tablet on one of its sides, that, " Since the construction of this pyramid, the quantity of gold shipped from Victoria from Oct. 1st, 1861, to July 17th, 1862, amounts to 1,608,234 ounces, or 49 tons, 4 cwt., 2 qrs., 115 lbs. Value, £6,432,936. Eight such obelisks, composed of the material thus represented, it has been correctly observed, would pay our national debt in full. We had in this attractive object, one of the most skilful applications of simple materials for the production of a very satisfactory result ; those materials being only wooden poles, canvas, and gold leaf; while the effect produced was that of an enormous mass of bullion. The St. George's Fountain, in the centre of the dais, furnished a greater attraction than the golden obelisk. It is said, that the late Mr. Thomas, the eminent sculptor, by whom it was designed, sacrificed health and life in his endeavours to secure the completion of this work in time for the opening of the Exhibition. His designs were admirably executed in terra-cotta by Messrs. Minton, who, under the skilful direction of the lamented artist, have removed from our country the reproach of being unable to prepare a fountain worthy of admiration. Apart from the large basin of perfumed water, occasionally supplied in abundance for public use, the fountain, in its elegant design and beautiful details, proved a great attraction. " St. George for Merrie England and Victory," the motto on the frieze, gives what may be termed the theme of this very poetical and thoroughly English work. Surmounting the whole structure we have our champion, valorously contending with the fabidous, but much-dreaded dragon ; the champion being seven feet high, and the dragon great in proportion. In the four niches in the tall circular shaft, are winged caryatides, crowned with laurel, emblematic of victory, and bearing wreaths of laurel in their outstretched hands. Opposite each of the four niches is a graceful vase, standing on a tripod formed of winged griffins ; and between the vases, but at a lower level, and at the angles of the base, are lions, supporting shields on which the cross of St. George is emblazoned. 18 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE Very tasteful are the trusses projecting from these angles ; and at the end of each truss we have the richest gems in this diadem of British art — the famous bird fountains, in which the stork performs important service, and where nymphs appear amidst the shell basins, on which are flowing plenteously the waters falling from above. We look with the greater interest on these bird fountains, as we remember that they originated under the superintendence of the Prince Consort, to adorn the Queen's dairy at Windsor. As outliers of this great majolica formation, we have to notice, on the large basin which encloses the whole, the eight exquisite tazzae, standing on pedestals ; nor may we fail to register the beautiful wreath of oak-leaves, in their vivid green, and roses in full bloom, by which the edge of the basin is decorated. The admirable structure is thirty-six feet in height, and the diameter of its basin, nearly forty feet, for whose supply 7,000 gallons of water were required every hour. The eastern dais presented several noble specimens of sculpture : the famous " Milo Attacked by a Wolf," of Lough, hi bronze ; " Wedgwood," by E. Davis, also in bronze ; some fine marbles and casts; among which a place was assigned to " Oliver Cromwell," as well as to " Roger Ascham," " Ci'ompton," " Hallam," " Babbington," and other of our great men, who, like Sheldon, have been " the glory of England." This may be the best time in which to refer to the statuary which adorned the nave, as well as the dais at either end, that our attention may not be diverted from the trophies we shall presently have to notice. The south side of the nave presented a beautiful figure of ''Rebecca," by E. Davis. "Armed Science" stood frowning near the class of military engineering, speaking but too faithfully of the sad uses to which so much of the practical science of our age is applied. But next we have " Dr. Isaac Barrow ;" then that " Earl of Pembroke," so distinguished at Runnymede. " Marius in the Ruins of Carthage," by E. Baily, and " Samson Strangling the Lion," by T. Milnes, two noble works, adjoined the centre. In order, follow the "Orphan Flower Girl," by Crittenden; a bust of " Sir Francis Burdett," from a cast of the face, taken after death ; a " Nymph," by Baily. Busts of " Viscount Palmerston," " Lord Brougham,'' the "Earls of Clarendon and Carlisle," by J. E. Jones; "Eva;" "Vice Tempting Virtue;" "Vanity of the Toilet;" "Garibaldi;" the "Venus" of Canova; "La Maddalena;" "A Shepherd;" and Power's "Greek Slave," reproduced in fictile marble, were among the beautiful sculptured works that extended to the western dome. On and near the western da'is, besides the fine busts of the " Queen," and the late " Prince Consort," there were some of the most elaborate productions of the age — " Achilles Plucking the Arrow from his Foot," and a " Victor in the Olympic Games thanking the Gods," both by Karl Cauer. Fine groups are "Jason having overcome the Dragon," by Kaehsmann ; and "Mars and Venus," with Amor, that busy little deity, known best in these parts by the name of " Cupid," officiously carrying the sword of Mars : the group by L. Kissling. Returning along the north side of the nave, were the " Discobolus," in a sitting posture, by Kessel; the "Angel of Evil," by Geefs; the "Nai's of Frison," and " The Youthful Fawn." Then came — The "Mercury" of Thorwaldsen ; and nest, " Thorwaldsen" himself, holding his hammer and chisel. "La Desalazione" is an exquisite work, by Filippo Spaventi. " General Sir Charles Napier," and " Sir W. C. Ross, R.A.,'' s p © 1=4 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 19 were distinguishable among the recently produced busts. The " Moses" of Michael Angelo (perhaps his greatest work) was shown in a cast taken by the new method — the plaster backed with cloth. A Georgian " Lady of the Harem," enclosed in a glass case : on the figure a rich light fell from the roof of yellow glass. Next came ' ' California, " by Hiram Power ; "L'Allegra," by Earle ; the "Duchess of Wellington ;" the late "Catherine Hayes ;" the "Ariel" of Westmacott ; the " Clio" of J. Lawlor ; a bust of the " Duke of Newcastle ;" and the interesting group of "British Youths exhibited as Slaves in the Roman Market" — "Non Angli sed Angeli" — reminding us of the happy contrast of our age with that in which Gregory the Great uttered these complimentary words. And now that we have returned to the eastern da'is, our first attentions are due to the trophy case of Messrs. Hunt and Roskell, who, at the suggestion of the Com- missioners, removed it to this point, from the position it had occupied in the over- crowded nave. Here was a necklace of pearls, each averaging thirty-nine grains — the whole worth £8,000 — being the largest pearl necklace on sale ; a very extraordinary row of black pearls, for which a rage exists just now among the cognoscenti ; the Nassuck and Arcot diamonds, the property of the Marquis of Westminster ; a head ornament, containing a remarkably fine pierre d'echantillon, set with rubies and diamonds. Here, too, were some of the richest specimens of testimonial plate ; the Lawrence plate, intended to have been presented by " his friends of the Punjaub," but which, alas ! he never lived to see ; and the table-plate of the Goldsmiths Company, including the grand candelabrum, illustrating the granting of the royal charter to the company by Richard II. Special mention must be made of the vase of oxydised silver, repre- senting the combat of the Centaurs and the Lipithae, the pedestal of which is enriched by the introduction of cornelian and lapis lazuli ; and another vase of oxydised silver, presenting a marine composition, in which are bassi-relievi, representing Venus and Adonis, and Thetis presenting to Achilles the armour forged by Vulcan. All these, the works of Antoine Vechte, have a melancholy interest, as they are the property of her Majesty, and were produced at the command of the late Prince Consort. Anxious to descend, and begin our walk through the nave, we must yet linger, and admire the trophies of Mechi and Bazin, Leuchin and Asprey, devoted to dressing- cases, and other articles of the toilet — suitable for kings and queens ; and if for subjects, only the richest and most luxurious. Well has it been said by a writer on these expensive productions — " We can easily figure to ourselves the blank amazement which would fill the soul of a woad-dyed ancient Briton, if he could be brought back to the land where, in his day, a dye-pot and brush constituted the entire wardrobe and dressing-case of a dandy ; and informed him that he must now ojjerate upon himself with all these queer-looking little tools, before he could be considered fit to mingle in polite society." We are not to charge upon this year of grace, 1862, all the luxuriousness which these things indicate ; for among them, in the Large Trophy, was placed the dressing-case made for George IV. — perhaps the most magnificent ever seen, and which cost 2,000 guineas. It must be confessed that the toilets of our day are sufficiently rich and rare ; for Mr. Asprey, of Bond-street, showed us a dressing- case, a chef-d'oeuvre of the manufacturing art, the price of which is £1,500. The gold work of the interior is most elaborately chased, and set with the finest carbuncles and pearls — in all, nearly 900 stones. In Mr. Asprey's trophy, we saw, also, a dressing-case made for the Viscountess Lismore, in the Moorish style, after the rich pattern on the 20 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE walls of the Alhambra ; and another, made for Lady Harriet Ashley, in gold and turquoise. Descending now into the British nave, we find it difficult, but quite necessary, to select from among the trophies with which it was unduly crowded. The Cheesewring Granite Obelisk, twenty-seven feet high, is a fine specimen of this beautiful stone, which is obtained about six miles from Liskeard in Cornwall, whose Duke, the Prince of Wales, is its proprietor. It was the wish of the late Prince Consort that a monolith of this granite should form a memorial of the Exhibition in Hyde Park. It is perfect in its classical form and proportions, especially in the gradual swelling of the shaft, and would have formed an excellent model, if the design of such a memorial of his late Royal Highness could have been realised. No such commendation can be given to the granite obelisk from Glasgow, in which a meretricious taste has been employed, to improve on a form which is perfect in its primitive simplicity. As the result of a not very successful attempt to balance the trophies in the nave, there stood, on the corresponding side, the colossal Drinking Fountain of Mr. Earp, enriched with coloured marbles and sculptured groups, but certainly not a model for that most useful class of objects which are gradually supplying a great want in our metropolis and other great towns and cities. Considering the great excellence in Leather displayed in the foreign department, it was patriotic in Messrs. Bevington to erect their magnificent trophy in the British nave. They displayed not only every class of leather manufactured in England, but the implements, the materials, and processes of the leather trade ; adorning their trophy with the heads of the animals subjected to the skill of the tanner. They gave also eight large photographs of men at work in the manufacture of leather ; while the sixteen compartments of their elaborate structure presented the moroccos, roans, and skivers used by cabinet-makers, coach-builders, and book-binders ; the heavy ox-hide for soles and machinery ; the curried leather used by the shoemaker and saddler ; and numerous other varieties ; among which were samples of chamois, or oil-leather, exhibited as an important and distinct branch of this art. On the table was a machine for testing the strength of the manufactured article ; and there was, open to the visitors, a book containing specimens of skins in the various stages of manufacture. A sort of companion trophy was presented in the collection of woollen cloths from Yorkshire ; the staple of whose industry is happily unaffected by the causes which have thrown our Lancashire operatives into the extremes of distress. These fine productions will, hereafter, claim our particular consideration, under the head of Textile Fabrics. The Armstrong gun, and many terrible engines of war, we hold in reserve until it becomes necessary to enter into the vexed question of their relative merits. A passing notice, however, must be given to the Birmingham Trophy of Small Arms, the guns and bayonets, rifles and revolvers, which, from the tasteful designs into which they were formed, gave little indication of the destructive work for which they are intended. Nor may we pass, without notice, the model of the Warrior, the iron-plated frigate, which may be regarded as the type to which our navy is gradually being conformed, CELEBRATE© STATUE OF THE KAMKG '.' NOTTAGE E! INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 21 and by which the wooden walls of the old England of our forefathers are to be superseded. The graceful lines of this terrific vessel, her rigging and equipments, have elicited universal admiration ; while an excellent transverse section has made us pretty well acquainted with the interior arrangements. More gratifying is the task of commemorating the peaceful triumphs gained by the fur-trapper, whose rich spoils adorned the well-filled cases of Messrs. Poland, Bevington, Jeffs, and Morris. The trophy furnished by the combined efforts of these gentlemen, rich as it was in sables and ermines, the fur of the seal, the arctic fox, and other rare products of the north, conferred the highest credit on their taste and enterprise. Messrs. Nicholay and Son maintained the pre-eminence they enjoyed in the last Exhibition, not only for the novelties by which their trophy was adorned, but for their illustrations of the natural history of the animals laid under contribution for their rich patrons. They seem to have aimed at imparting amusement and instruction to the young, while showing the people of all countries how the grey lamb, the grebe, or Swiss duck, from the Lake of Geneva, the silver fox, the leopard, the tiger, the lion and bear, are compelled to minister to the taste and comfort of our genm homo. In our last stroll through the nave, it was our good fortune to find there that great popular favourite, the " Reading Girl" of Pietro Magni, which had been removed from the Italian court. Such has been the admiration of this simple and beautiful creation, that, by the second week after the close of the Exhibition, the Stereoscopic Company is said to have realised £3,000 by the sale of its photographs. The success of the sculptor has excited the genius of the poet, who has happily expressed the feelings awakened in many a spectator ; surpassing them all, however, by a happy conceit of the writer, S. C. S., in the closing verse — Who art thou 1 Hast thou not a look. Which thou canst give away, For ever poring o'er thy book, Throughout the livelong day ? Hast thou just stolen from thy nest, As morning gilds the skies ; Or wilt thou shortly seek thy rest. And close thy weary eyes ? What is the page that chains thee down, And rivets thought and sight 1 Art seeking an immortal crown, By Scripture's heavenly light ? Or does some tale, by mortal writ, Bewitch thee with its charm, Of two fond hearts together knit, Whom nialice sought to harm ? May be, thou drinkest in the stream Of poetry divine, Where fancy's rainbow-tinted beam Illuminates each line : Some patriotic strain, inspired By sense of wrong sustained, Yet, with prophetic visions fired, Of future glories gained : A requiem o'er the mighty dead, Slain in their country's cause ; Yielding her sons — whose blood was shed — Their country's just applause. Read on ! read on ! I will not try To rouse thee from thy theme : Thy rush-made chair, thy robe thrown by. Too real for sculpture seem ! I take thee for some living maid, Enthralled by magic art, And hither, o'er the sea, conveyed, To play a cunning part. Ambitious of a prize, beyond All other wonders shown, The Necromancer waved his wand, And turned thee into stone. S. C. S. Anticipating, by a few paces, our further progress through the nave, we may now refer to another highly popular photograph, " The Sleep of Sorrow, and the Dream of 22 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE Joy," in which Monti has happily given solidity and permanent shape to the well- known vicissitudes of diurnal experience. There lies the exhausted sufferer, so sunk and depressed, as to excite our own sorrow, until we look up, and see the gloomy countenance now radiant with delight, and the crouching form, instinct with ethereal life, as it floats along in its joyous course, keeping its holiday of dreams, and speaking to us of the relief which a kind Providence affords the suffering amidst their woes. If art has been compelled, during the last ten years, to minister to the cause of defensive war, she has also proved the handmaid of science. We are now amidst telescopes and other philosophical instruments, exhibited by Dalmeyer and others, on account of important improvements in their lenses and adjustments. Mr. Dalmeyer exhibited an equatorially-mounted telescope of between six and seven feet focal length, the aperture of the object-glass about five inches diameter, which had a magnifying power of 500. This instrument deserves notice from the novel method of its mounting, which consists of the base or pedestal, the steadiest that could well be devised for the weight of metal employed ; its transverse section resembles the letter Y, and affords a convenient descent for the clock- weight, which is brought near the centre of gravity. The upper, or equatorial portion, which carries the telescope, is constructed entirely separate from the pedestal, to admit of its being separated or put together without sending a workman for the purpose. The driving apparatus consists of a powerful clock, and has a self-acting maintaining power, invented by the Astronomer Royal. The hour-circle is loose on the polar axis ; and by means of two verniers, one fixed to the gnomon, and the other to the axis, the rate of the clock is checked by one, and the right ascension is determined by the other. When the hour- circle has been once adjusted, the driving apparatus having been regulated, it continues to move on, so that objects can be formed without readjustment or computation. The tangent-screw of the hour-circle is mounted on a rectangular slide, and, by means of an eccentric, can be thrown in or out of gear at pleasure. There is also a "fetching-up screw," which enables the observer to correct the inequalities of clock-rate, or the eccentricity of eye-pieces, without deranging the previous adjustment of verniers. The declinator axis is made accessible, for the purpose of applying a level direct on its bearings. The telescope and declination circle, with its tangent screw, as fixed to the opjjosite ends of the axis, nearly counterbalance each other. The instruments employed at the Kew Observatory consisted of the most delicate thermometers, barometers, and magnetographs. In this interesting collection were shown the first photographs taken of the sun, and depicting the spots on its face. Here was the Self-registering Anemometer of Dr. Robinson, of Armagh, with an ingenious improvement of Mr. Beckley, for packing the whole in a much smaller compass than when that important apparatus was first invented. Some years ago, it was deemed a great triumph of practical science to register, by a self-recording instrument, from hour to hour, through the day and night, the direction of the wind, and the strength of its pressure on the square foot : much more remarkable is the apparatus now at work at Kew and Greenwich, for recording the variations of the magnet at all periods of the day and night. This apparatus, the Magnetograph, is INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 23 one of the most admirable applications of photography ever imagined. A roll of sensitive paper, set in motion by clock-work, is acted upon by a ray of light reflected from a little semicircular rnirror, which mirror is suspended from a horizontal magnet, so as to record all the variations the magnet undergoes. The mirror receives the ray from a small lamp ; and, the angle of reflection being equal to the angle of incidence, the means of a iDerfect registration are secured. Other instruments are for eye observation, and for the vertical magnet ; and the whole are employed to assist our acquaintance with the subject of magnetism, which, in former years, we were supposed to understand, and are only now learning. The Norwich Gates, designed by Mr. Thomas Jekyll, and executed by Barnard & Co., deserve our notice and admiration for their exquisite beauty ; for they are rich in heraldic figures, in scroll-work and foliage, oak and holly, the vine, the hawthorn, convolvulus, briony, periwinkle, ivy, and double rose. They are the more admired for the manner in which they have been executed, by combining cast and wrought iron, so as to secure solidity by the former, and beauty by the latter process. Well may Mr. Hunt say — " These gates are a fine example of the blacksmith's craft." But his admiration seems, like that of every Englishman who has examined them, to be all the greater from the fact, that "they are made entirely with the hand, with hammer, and pincers, as they would have been 500 years ago." The elegant little structure, designed by Owen Jones, for the display of the monstre glass gems of Messrs. Osier, was almost lost amidst the attractions by which it was surrounded. In a more isolated position, its tall pillars and rich moresque dome would have called forth much admiration, as would also tbe large masses of lapidary- cut glass, in whose honour the pretty fabric was created. In this temple we have, perhaps, the triumph of glass-cutting. Certain it is, that no such work could have been performed until a machine was constructed by Mr. Osier for the purpose. Here are gems of the purest white flint glass, quite as large as the hand can well hold, and, to the uirpractised eye, as brilliant as the Koh-i-Noor, and large enough for the crown of a Brobdignagian emperor. The facets are cut with mathematical accuracy ; and, according to the sizes of the gems, then* numbers increase. The smallest gem, " the small oval," has 282 facets; the next has 440: then we have the '•round-ended," 544 facets ; the " half-round," 740 ; and the greatest gem, the " round." in the centre of the tenrple, has no less than 1,300 facets. The nave presented few objects more deserving attention than those relating to the preservation of vessels at sea from wreck, by the improvement in Light-ships and Lighthouses. The Floating Light-Lantern of Messrs. Wilkins, if not a very sightly and attractive object, was certainly one of the greatest utility. Their machinery for producing the revolution of the light, is secured under the deck of the vessel, instead of being placed on the mast with the light. By means of three silver-plated parabola reflectors, their light shows red, green, and white colours in succession, as the revolutions are performed. The same exhibitors showed a Holophotal Lens Apparatus, constructed of the St. Gobain glass, which is greatly approved for its high powers of refraction, and of producing a flashing light. They exhibited also, as a Direction Light, a lens on the Holophotal principle, for a railway light ; and a silver-plated F 24 ILLUSTRATED HISTOEY OF THE Parabolic Reflector for lighthouses, affording very powerful lights by means of an Argand burner. In close proximity, but a little further west, Messrs. Chance, of Bhmingham, displayed the Dioptric Revolving Light, with its Lantern and accessories. The reader, perhaps, needs not to be reminded, that a dioptrical light is that in which the light shines through the glass, as distinguished from a catoptric light, in which the rays are reflected from a polished surface. The distinction is that of the lens and the mirror. Untfl recently, the highest importance was attached to parabolic reflectors for lighthouses ; but, of late years, lenses and pi-isms, through which the light passes, have grown into higher esteem. Hence we hear now so much of dioptric lights in connexion with lighthouses ; and as it is of the utmost importance to save all the light that can be obtained, we have the most ingenious contrivances for that purpose. As we have a new thing in the Whole Light Distributor, so we have a new word, fiolophotal, to express it. The iron structure, surmounted by a large octagonal lantern, and placed near the Turkish department, was a Dioptric Revolving Appaeatus of the First Order. It is formed, according to the description of the exhibitors, of an eight-sided frame, in the centre of which the flame is placed. Each side comprises a compound lens, and a series of totally reflecting prisms, both above and below the lens ; all these prisms, as well as the rings of the compound lens, being concentric round a horizontal axis, passing through the centre of the lens. By this arrangement, the light proceeding from the central flame is condensed into eight beams of parallel rays, without the aid of unnecessary reflections or refractions, so as to produce the maximum effect at sea. The light-room, made of cast iron, is seven feet high, being cylindrical within, and having, externally, sixteen sides, alternately large and small, to suit the lantern which it supports. It is provided, outside, just beneath the lantern, with a gallery or balcony, on which the keepers can stand to clean the lantern panes ; and also with an inside gallery, for the service of the apparatus. The lantern is formed of sixteen standards, alternately inclosed to the right and left ; made of wrought iron, covered with gun-metal facings ; by which combination, the greatest strength, and the least interception of light are obtained together, with the usual protection from the sea air. It has a double copper dome, supported on iron rafters ; and the whole is surmounted by a revolving copper ball, carrying a wind-vane. The rotatory motion of the lantern is secured by means of clock-work, so constructed as to maintain a uniform speed of rotation, without any check during the winding up. The light is obtained from an oil pressure-lamp, which consists of a metal cylinder, in which the piston that forces the oil into the burner is worked by a weight placed outside the cylinder, instead of inside, as formerly ; and each of the four concentric wicks of the burner is supplied with oil by two independent feed-tubes, communicating with the main pipe. One of these Holophotal revolving lights was placed on Lundy Island, in the British Channel, in 1857; and the following official report affords sufficient proof of its excellence : — " July, 1859. — Saw the light soon after sunset, distant about fifteen miles. It is intended to be seen at thirty ; and one of the mariners has seen it at forty-five, the greatest distance at which any light, at home or abroad, has been seen by any one INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 25 of 814 witnesses." As Messrs. Chance have, within a few years, supplied nearly ninety complete lights for lighthouses, we have given, thus early, a notice of the kind of apparatus which is now employed extensively for the protection of the world's commerce, and for the safety of human life. Toys for children, and food for all ages, had their trophies in this portion of the nave, affording no small delight to the little folks, and reminding man of the great industry employed to minister to the support and enjoyment of his material nature. A very ingenious means of calling attention to the principal article of human food, was employed by Mr. Hallett, of Brighton, who, in letters formed by the large ears of wheat, bespoke the favourable consideration of his method of improving the quality of grain. The "pedigree wheat" will claim our notice hereafter, in the class of substances used as food, to which all the contents of this trophy properly belong— cigars only excepted. Though out of position in the British nave — for it is a foreign subject, and the work of a foreign artist — we must make a place for the well-executed model of the Milan Cathedral. Had the Exhibition not oppressed us with the embarras de richesse, so that we could have bestowed an hour on any object worthy of it, the Milan Cathedral would have well repaid a pilgrimage to West Brompton. How faithful are all the details, within and without ; the sculpture ; the richly-coloured windows ; the side chapels ; the elegant architectural details ; and the spire, over which the artist has thrown a veil of Mechlin lace. No less than £1,200 was the price set on this exquisite work, during the days of sale at the close of the Exhibition. We have now to work our way through the Garrard Straits, to take our time at Elking-ton's, and Harry Emmanuel's ; for here, and in this immediate neighbourhood, we have the greatest wealth in the Exhibition. We have also to admire the porcelain of Alderman Copeland, of Goode & Sons, of Kerr & Co., and the furniture trophies of Jackson & Graham, and other exhibitors. Garrard & Co. claim precedence here as the exhibitors of the Koh-i-Noor, as well as other treasures belonging to her Majesty. The millions who had seen the Mountain of Light in 1851, were gratified in again recognising an old friend with a new face, or rather with many new faces. An excellent opportunity of comparing the former with its present aspect, was afforded by placing, in juxta-position with the diamond, a glass model, to show the appearance the diamond presented in 1851, The admiring crowd, to whom this richest of gems appeared larger than when they last saw it, will be surprised to find that it now weighs only 106 carats, instead of 186|, in its former unshapely state. The work of recutting was regarded by nianjr as a most dangerous experiment, the failure of which was predicted by a very eminent authority. Messrs. Garrard, however, encountered the great risk, assigning to the Iron Duke the honour of cutting the first facet, and carrying the great work to completion in their establishment in London. The case of these exhibitors was enriched by ornaments of the most costly kind, in which were pearls, emeralds, turquoises, and rubies, the richest and rarest on which mortal eyes ever gazed. Among them, a foremost place was assigned to the three large and fine rubies from the treasury at Lahore, mounted as a necklace, in gold and enamel, in the Indian style, 26 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OP THE with large diamonds pendant. There, also, was the centre table ornament, representing a covered fountain, designed in the style of the palace of the Alhambra, executed in silver, silver-gilt, and enamel ; having, round the base, a group of horses, portraits of favourite animals of her Majesty, to whom all the treasures belong. The trophy of Mr. Harry Emmanuel, so worthy of its rich contents, well deserved its prominent position in the nave. It was composed of ebonised wood, ornamented with bronze enrichments, and inlaid with marble. Square in form, it had projecting angles, the plinths of which supported four bronze caryatides, representing the Seasons. Above the carved cornice was a dome, of light and elegant proportions, on which was placed a magnificent bronze copy of the celebrated " Mercury" of John of Bologna. On the summit of the projecting angles, were placed four oxidised silver vases, each three feet in height, copied from the Museo Borbonico. To the praise of Mr. Harry Emmanuel, it should be recorded, that every article in his trophy was made expressly for the Exhibition, two years having been occupied in the work of preparation. Here we had an astonishing display of wealth — for the jewels were estimated at £350,000 in value — and a most gratifying proof of the progress of the jeweller's art since 1851. This exquisite display has fully realised the object of the exhibitor ; which, according to his own statement, was to prove, " that correct drawing, beauty of finish, and general harmony of design, can be obtained, at no greater outlay than has hitherto been required for articles of wretched drawing and shape, and with inharmonious combinations of colour." The exhibitor has laboured successfully to impress the public with the truth, that " a good model costs no more than a bad one ; and that the object of a silversmith or jeweller, should not be to cram as many ounces of silver, or carats of diamonds, into a work, as possible, but to make even the commonest and most ordinaiy articles, of a beautiful form, and no heavier than the strength requires." The contents of this rich trophy, as well as the displays of other exhibitors, have furnished the most gratifying proof that, since the Exhibition of 1851, the taste, both of the j)roducer and consumer, has been improving, and that we have now the jirospect of becoming as successful in works of taste, as in those of a mere utilitarian character. We select a few of the attractive objects which constituted the wealth of this rich collection. The Perseus and Andromeda Cup, a brown topaz or cairngorm, carved in the form of a cup, and mounted into a gold vase. Andromeda is chained to the rocks which form the base of the cup ; whilst the dragon has climbed up to attack Perseus, who, armed with the sword of Vulcan, and the shield of Minerva, is mounted on Pegasus. The gold work is repousse throughout, and partly enamelled. The subject is treated in the style of Cellini, with whose works it bears a favourable comparison. The Undine Ewer is entirely covered with the most delicate chasings, portraying the history of Undine ; while the body is divided into compartments, representing the leading facts of the romance of Lamotte Fouque. This vase, which is twenty-seven inches high, is also a fine specimen of repousse, and therefore remarkable for the comparative smallness of its weight, as, by this method of treatment, the interior of the vessel is the counterpart of the exterior. The Lapk Lazuli Fountain, formed of the material from which it takes its name, INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 27 was unsurpassed, for beauty and execution, by anything in the building. On the square base are children holding urns, from which jets of water gush forth into crystal shells ; while, from beneath a dome supported by lapiz lazuli and silver columns, a fountain sends a stream aloft. On this dome is seated a Venus supporting a vase of flowers. One of the finest beams of ivory procurable has been carved into the figure of a slave-girl, which stands two feet high. Though a captive herself, she is giving freedom to a bird ; and the artist represents her in the act of cutting the thread by which the little captive is secured. The lines on which Mr. Chesneau has based his work, tell a pretty tale — " In gilded cage, like me you pine, And long for home and playmates dear. I cut the chain that makes thee mine : Go, thou art free ; I must stay here !" Among the jewels in this collection, there were five diamonds mounted as stars, and valued at £20,000; and three very large black diamonds, also mounted as stars, as a head ornament. The black diamond, in chemical composition, is the same as the brilliant, but gives out none of its prismatic hues, having no greater lustre than polished steel. It is valued for its rarity, and not for its beauty. There was also a brooch, which had for its centre the splendid emerald which once sparkled on the turban of the Lion of the Punjaub, and, for its pendant, a pearl as large as a plover's egg, and worth £10,000; £9,000 was the price of a suite of opals and diamonds. Electro-metallurgy, one of our most recent arts, has been diligently cultivated during the last eleven years, and was well represented in the magnificent trophy of Messrs. Elkington. The fine British subject, the bronze group of " Boadicea threatening to avenge the insult offered to her daughters by the Romans," formed the appropriate summit of the Elkington trophy ; and, although seven years since in Paris, is but little known in this country. On one side of the trophy was an electrotype copy of a suit of armour, from one belonging to the Tower of London. Here was also an electrotype statue of " General Murray," and another of " Prince Blucher," both belonging to Wellington College, to which the latter was presented by the late Prince Consort. On the same side was an electrotype bronze of " Canmore," son of Duncan I. ; and, at the base, were the " You'ng Naturalist," "A Daughter of Eve," and " A Slave," all in bronze, deposited by electrotype. On the other side of the famous trophy were several of the barons of Magna Charta, models of part of the series of eighteen, prepared also by Messrs. Elkington: among them, "Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury;" the " Earl of Norfolk ;" and " Almeric." A very exquisite work was the table surmounted by a mirror, executed after a model of the Alhambra, and giving, with admirable faithfulness, the rich details of the original. On this table stood the celebrated silver statue of the " Lady Godiva riding through Coventry," by Thomas. We must not pass unnoticed the work on which M. Morel Ladul, a pupil of Vichte, has spent more than three years. We speak of a poem in silver, in which the artist has embodied Iris pleasant ideas in that precious metal. Although passing under the name of a silver table, what a marked contrast it presents to an article of that name, Q 28 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE which was deemed a rare production in the days of George III., in whose castle of Windsor it was an object of special admiration. The artist appears to have dreamed, and then to have given the solidity of metal to his dreams. The labourer, the warrior, and the troubadour, are reclining in sleep at the foot of the stem by which this table is supported ; and their state of slumber is sufficiently described by the aid of the poppy, and other narcotics. The labourer dreams of corn and wine, of fruit and flowers, of peace and plenty ; the minstrel, of love and fortune, and all the poetries that fill up this dreamer's heaven. The soldier is following in Ins victorious career, and enjoying honour and fame ; and taking a place in history, on whose pages the muse is inscribing his name. All these things are told in the three portions into which the upper part of this exquisite work is divided. If we do not now linger over the ceramic trophies of Alderman Copeland, Messrs. Burns and Kerr, of Worcester, Messrs. Goode and Sons, Sir James Duke, and Wedgwood, it is not for want of admiration of the treasures of porcelain and china, of which those trophies are composed, but because they will more particularly claim our attention when viewed in comparison with similar products in the class to which they belong. A porcelain dessert service, of the finest pate tendre, rich with turquoise and gold, and painted with exquisite art, was exhibited by Messrs. Goode ; and some magnificent specimens of the service lately executed for her Majesty, by Burns and Kerr, of Worcester. A part only of this service had been prepared previous to the Exhibition ; but it consisted of eighty plates, each of different design ; as were, also, the grape-baskets, wine-coolers, and compotees. A peculiarity of this fine set, is the method of turning over the edges, by which the rich ornaments of the dishes were seen, although filled with the contents, by which usually the most expensive parts of decorations are concealed. Special admiration was excited by the English porcelain, the modern Palissy ware, the Limoges ware, the Majolica, the Parian statuary, which filled the cases of Wedgwood and Sir J. Duke ; in all of which, the progress of this important branch of art-manufacture, since 1851, has done the highest honour to our countrymen, and demonstrated, in the most satisfactory manner, the great value of our Schools of Design, and to which they have afforded the highest encouragement. Nor may we omit to notice the new material employed by Mr. Battam, in the "Daphne," and the bust of "Her Majesty," and which promises successfully to compete with Parian, if not to supersede it in works of this character, in consequence of its small degree of contraction, producing a finer definition of its lines. The Art Union exhibited, in this part of the nave, in its own trophy, proofs of the value of the stimulus it has afforded to art-design in connection with ceramic manufactures; of which the most beautiful products were presented in Armstead's "Satan Dismayed," Foley's "Youth at a Stream," and " Caractacus ;" Chantry's bust of " Her Majesty," Marshall's " Dancing-Girl Reposing," Lawlor's " Solicitude," Flaxman's " Michael and Satan," and Wyon's " Stepping Stones." The sideboard of Jackson and Graham, composed of pollard oak, and enriched by carvings in brown English oak, well deserved its prominent place in the British nave. How skilfully has the artist designed all the materials, and the pleasant accessories INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 29 of a feast, and the dignity of the great lord by whose hospitality it is dispensed ! The river and the sea, the field and the forest, are made to yield up their treasures ; while sylvan boys are labouring, with hearty good-will, to gather in the grapes and other rich fruits that are to furnish the dessert. As we have reached the Central Avenue, which divides the British from the Foreign departments, we will turn to our left, and go to the south entrance, in the Cromwell- road, whence we can look along this important avenue straight into the Horticultural Gardens, and, en passant, we can observe the more pi'ominent objects that occupied this charming promenade ; leaving, for a later notice, the great attractions on either side, and which belonged to the courts. Beginning, then, at the southern end, we must record the great excellence of Benson's clock, the dial of which, as we have already mentioned, was placed over the Cromwell-road entrance. This Trophy Clock, which is valued at £3,000, is remarkable for the arrangement of the works, and the weights. The former, which were placed at a distance of 300 feet from the dial, and near the celebrated Gibson's tinted " Venus," were regarded as the finest clock-works that were ever produced in this country, the mechanism being adjusted with the accuracy of the finest chronometer. The weights, which amount to two tons, were placed in the eastern corner of the Exhibition ; and it is scarcely necessary to remark, that as the machinery to connect these three elements of the clock — the dial, the wheel-work, and the weights — all had to pass under the floor of the building, the most accurate mechanism was required to secure the admirable performance by which this clock was distinguished. The five bells, recast by Messrs. Mears, besides being remarkable for the sweetness of their tones, had the great excellence of distinguishing each quarter of the hour by the peculiarity of their arrangement ; so that those whose good fortune it is to live within sound of them, may always know the quarter they chime, even if they should forget to count them. It may be well also to add, that the pendulum, which is 15 feet long, vibrates once in two seconds; and, by means of a new double-lever remontoir, diminished the friction, so as to avoid all interference with the most satisfactory performance. Near the entrance, in the Cromwell-road, stood the bronze colossal group of " Her Majesty, the late Prince Consort, and the Royal Children," by Mr. Durham ; the busts being by Mrs. Thornycroft, whose admirable skill has secured a large amount of royal patronage. A peculiar and melancholy interest attaches to this celebrated group, which was designed for a memorial of the Exhibition in Hyde Park, having for its central figure the bronze statue of "Her Majesty;" while the Prince and the royal children were to be represented only in busts. This arrangement was changed by command of the Queen, who desired that the Prince should occupy the central figure. The great attraction of the Central Avenue was the Grecian Temple, of which the tinted statue of the " Venus," was the principal feature, and on whose merits we have no wish to forestal the judgment of our readers. The perfection of the form presented by the triumphant goddess, as she holds her apple of discord in one hand, and the folds of her drapery in the other, admits of no dispute. The question for the public to decide, relates only to the effect of Mr. Gibson's experiment in adding the new element of colour to the sculptor's art. As we often gazed on this exquisite work — 30 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE perhaps the most successful production of our times— we had to listen to no small variety of opinions. Many a fair lady liked it ; many thought it very pretty. As to the gentlemen, they were as much perplexed as Paris on Mount Ida — tot homines tot sententice. One of them, of a witty ton, resolved that the object was marbleous ; a decision in which we are unable to concur, as the purity of the marble has been sacrificed by the tinting process of Mr. Gibson. Our readers must decide for themselves how much has been gained by the addition. The Central Avenue had its other trophies, of a character about whose value there could be no dispute — the Cabinet of Imports into Liverpool, the Belfast Linen Trophy, the group of statuary in freestone, representing "Science and Practice equally Rewarded." Bearing in mind the miserable failure in the stone employed in the Houses of Parliament, we sincerely hope that the expectations formed of this Red Hall Freestone will be fully realised — that it will keep its colour, and prove to be most durable, cere perennius. But we are now in the presence of another great work of the lamented Mr. Thomas — his " Shakspeare's Monument," of which we have given an illustration. If the artist assigned to his immortal subject an enormous bulk of material, it was only to suggest the great and growing space the poet fills in the minds of his countrymen, and of all people in whose language his imperishable works have been produced. There, on the summit of this noble monument, sits the Bard of Avon, having, on either side, the swan, which has become the emblem of his muse. The tragic and comic muses have taken their appropriate stand as the supporters of the monument, on which we have, in relief, a fine group of Shakspearian characters. The legend incised just above the plinth — " One touch of nature makes the whole world kin" — reminds us of one principal source of that ever-during popularity which attaches to the name of William Shakspeare, and will extend his fame to the remotest time We have now arrived at the handsome Grecian vestibule that formed the entrance to the Horticultural Gardens, and of which our artist has preserved a faithful delineation. In this classical structure will be found some of the finest architectural details of a Grecian temple. The style we have employed is seen to great advantage in this illustration, in which the fine lines of the graver can be clearly traced ; while the effects of light and shade are heightened by the neutral tints of chromo-lithography. The roof, divided into panels, highly enriched, is supported by clustered columns, and pilasters surmounted by Corinthian capitals ; the whole forming a grand entrance to the gardens, into which the public passed through the three lofty arches in which the Central Avenue terminated. We may next pursue our course through the foreign portion of the Nave, on our way to the Western Dome. Passing along the south side of the Nave, we had the great gratification, for the first time, to recognise a United Italy as an exhibitor. The great change which has passed over that land since the last Exhibition, has told, in a most remarkable manner, in the International Exhibition of 1862. Besides the statuary already noticed, the Italian portion of the Nave was rich in carved furniture, in glass candelabra, in vases of the purest design, and in Florentine mosaics. It is important to observe the difference between the Florentine and Roman mosaic ; the INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 31 latter being composed of minute tesserae of stone, varied in form, but mostly angular ; by the combination of which, the flowers and fruits, and all other objects are produced; while, in the mosaic of Florence, a figure is formed of one coloured piece, the pietra dura of the Florentine artist. The principal attraction of the Italian portion of the nave, consisted of works thus formed, by Barbensi, Torrini, and Viecchi of Florence. Italian artists indulge in more of romantic fancies than would be quite acceptable among our matter-of-fact countrymen. Candelabra, rich with prisms and stars, have adorned the Exhibition; but an English artist would be regarded as half-crazed if he made a candelabrum whose branches were formed of the bodies of grotesque- looking reptiles, having the sockets for the lights sunk in their heads. Such, however, were the candelabra in the Italian nave. Among the beautiful productions in the Italian portion of the nave, was a mosaic table, exhibited by Dr. Salviati, of Venice, executed in the Venetian style — the price of which was 1,400 guineas — having for its subject the figure of the Redeemer, placed behind the altar-piece of the church of St. Mark, in Venice. The trophies displayed by Spain in the nave, might be regarded as very fair exponents of the resources and characteristics of that kingdom, ranging as they did from the rich mineral treasures beneath the ground, to the models of the amusements to which the people are devoted ; and among them that barbarous institution, the bull- fight, which we hope will be speedily doomed to destruction. The mineral treasures of Spain were displayed in great variety, and could not but excite much attention from the important fact that the railways, now in course of formation, must develop them, and render them sources of wealth, not only to Spain, but to our own, and eveiy country to which they will be exported. Among the specimens of these valuable products, were coal, iron, copper, quicksilver, barytes, galenas, magnetic iron, cinnabar, native sulphur, antimony, nickel, salt in various states, marbles in great variety, and — not now to mention more — kaolin, a material which is being turned to good account in the manufacture of china. The trophy of arms included a rifled brass gun, made at Barcelona, but not remarkable for the high finish of its workmanship. There were saddles of exquisite beauty ; and military accoutrements, on which much skill had been expended. Spain also showed a remarkably rich inkstand, the property of the Queen Isabella, with iron for the base, and inlaid with gold and silver. Various articles of this Damascene manufacture were shown, by no means attractive in appearance, but, at the same time, too costly to come much into use. The staple of cork ajDpeared in some very beautiful models; and the industrial skill of Spain, in watches, pianos, articles of clothing, and very finely carved furniture, among which a rich side- board held a deservedly conspicuous place. The Spanish wood trophy was also rich and varied. The great trophy of France might be described either as a screen, or as the grand gate of entrance into the French court. Messrs. Barbezat, of Val d'Ozne, displayed the finest taste in the design, and skill in the execution of this magnificent work ; 148| feet in length, and 25 feet high ; formed wholly of cast iron, and serving to display the magnificent works of other exhibitors. The. whole work was divided into three principal portions, and the ends were supported by lions on granite pedestals. The 32 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE central portion was filled with a magnificent plate of glass, I65 feet high, and 10| feet broad, manufactured at St. Gobain ; whose productions in plate glass are of the highest character — or key, to speak with technical propriety. The tapestry hung on this magnificent screen displayed the great eminence which France has attained in this favourite art. Messrs. Braquenie, of Aubusson, hung up that exquisite work of "La Belle au Bois Dormant," in which the princess is represented waking up from her sleep, surrounded by a well-arranged group. The greatest praise has been bestowed on the border, which appears as" if enriched by pearls, rubies, sapphires, and gold, all obeying the will of the artist. Few of our readers can have failed to admire the elaborately executed ebony cabinet, placed beneath this tapestry. On the top are the figures of " Peace and Plenty;" the sides are enriched with figures of "Mars and Minerva;" on the upper folding doors are "Apollo and Diana;" and beneath them the "Rape of Proserpine." The whole work is covered with the most elaborate and beautiful carving, the effect of which is heightened by tablets of lapiz lazuli and blood -stone. We must notice, also, the great carved oak mantelpiece, which, as well as the preceding work, was exhibited by M. Fourdinois. In this elaborate work we see how French artists excel in producing a lively effect by the combination of different materials. Here verde antique and ormolu are united with oak, as a sort of base, in producing a work in which we have rarely found more than a single element ; and still greater variety will distinguish this admirable work when the cornice and frieze are adorned with bronze. The " Hunting Scene," the figures of " Night and Morning," and the beautiful " Cupids," on the pediment, will never fail to renew the admiration which this production has excited among the thousands who have gazed upon it. The decorations of satin damask, displayed on the western portion of the great French screen, were most beautiful in design, and rich in colour. Another mantelpiece, in marble and bronze, conceived in pure classical taste, and executed with the utmost artistic skill, formed an admirable counterpart to the work we have already noticed. This production of M. Eugene Piat was one of several, which disjjlayed the taste of this distinguished artist, and the determination of France to give a higher elaboration to her works of industrial art. The remaining portion of the south side of the nave was occupied with the productions of the Zollverein ; a large portion being assigned to Prussia, the grandeur of whose capital was significantly represented by a model of the new Exchange at Berlin. The articles displayed in this portion of the building, will come sufficiently under our notice when we describe the courts and the classes. We, therefore, now ascend the western dais, which was occupied by treasures enough to render it one of the most attractive portions of the whole building The magnificent plate, presented by the city of Berlin to the Crown Prince and Princess of Prussia, on their marriage, could not but afford the liighest pleasure to all who saw it, especially to the English people, who were gratified in witnessing this demonstration of the honour done to a beloved English princess. These splendid presents consist of silver candelabra, a table, a magnificent vase, and the celebrated Rhine shield. The former magnificent group is admirably commemorative of the royal marriage, m INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 33 and in the latter the four Rhenish provinces are historically depicted, offering their congratulations to the royal pair. The arms of all the subscribers to this costly present are figured in enamel round the rim of the shield, and add considerably to the fine effect of this elaborate work. The same exhibitors produced also the wedding presents from twent}--seven departments of Hessia, in the possession of the Grand Duke, and consisting of a dinner-service, in which, besides the table-service, there were four chandeliers with thirteen branches, and other rich silver ornaments. Instead of lingering among the crowds always congregated on this favourite spot, we must be content just to notice the remaining objects it presented, leaving them for as full a description as our space will afford, in the classes to which they belong. It will be enough to enumerate the Prussian Breech-loading Steel Gun ; the Arms' Trophy ; the Telegraph Apparatus ; the rich display of dressing-cases, and lamps of Austria ; the shawls and woollens from Vienna ; the Berlin lace ; the walking-sticks from Hamburg ; the Bohemian woollen manufactures; and the attractive collection of useful and ornamental works in buckhorn ; the grand display of porcelain and china, of all the finest kinds, from Sevres, Dresden, Vienna, and Berlin, to which the king of Prussia liberally contributed — all advanced by the stimulus of 1851 and 1855; and the greatest of all albums, now happily in possession of the city of London. Let us not omit that richly-carved Belgian pulpit, only a specimen of the elaborate carving expended on the pulpits of Belgium ; and from which it is easy to imagine the faithful preacher looking over the costly display, and expounding to his vast congregation that ancient truthful text, "Vanity of vanities, all is vanity." For the present, we need say nothing of the organs, either Hedgland's or Walker's, which have had so many opportunities to speak for themselves. We have yet to complete our survey of the Nave, where there were many things to admire, and others very unworthy of the noble sites they were permitted to occupy. Something approaching to a universal feeling of disgust was excited by the four collections of candles which were allowed to disfigure this important portion of the Nave ; and the feeling was the more just, as the productions displayed were not of the new and beautiful quality — the Paraffine, exhibited in the Eastern Annexe. In one case, the coarse articles were so disposed as to resemble the pipes on the exterior of an organ ; and in various ways they were formed into fantastic devices, but without, in any case, affording the least gratification to the millions before whom they were paraded. From these rude things it is not easy to make a transition to the plate- glass, for which Belgium has long been famous, and still has just cause to be proud ; to the silver and diamonds shown by Holland ; the carved work of Switzerland ; the porcelain and sculptures of Denmark ; the zinc, iron, and granite works of Sweden ; the sledges, anchors, and minerals of Norway; among which was the famous block of silica ; aud the imperial trophies of Russian art. Still, we must notice the noble collection of gems shown by Holland, the glory of which was the brilliant, found in Brazil, since 1851. This " Star of the South" is valued at one million sterling ; and fortunate were they who saw it in the earlier days of the Exhibition, before the fears of the Company, who are its possessors, caused it to be removed, and replaced by a copy in glass. 34 ILLUSTRATED HTST0KY OF THE The " Star of the South" was placed amidst a highly valuable collection of diamonds froni different mines, and showing the various processes of the lapidary, as these most precious of stones pass from the rough state in which they are found, until they are cut and polished. This may, perhaps, be the most suitable place in which to insert a brief description of the various forms into which diamonds are cut. A valuable pamphlet, recently printed for private circulation, says — " The two most common (forms) are the ' brilliant, and the ' rose,' or f rosette.' The latter, so named from its similarity to an unopened rosebud, was one of the earliest forms in use, and is applied generally to the cheaper form of stones. It is a sort of pyramid, with a fiat base and inclined facets, terminating upward in a pointed apex. The flat base is imbedded in the setting ; and, therefore, in the rose diamond, the whole of the stone appears projecting above. The ' brilliant' is the more valuable form ; it may be considered as formed of two pyramids connected at their bases, with the apex of each truncated, or cut off, and the sides worked into facets, as in the case of the rose. The stone is held in the setting, or broadest part, or junction of the pyramids ; one pyramid spreads upwards in sight, the other is hidden below, so that only half the stone, or somewhat less, appears ; but the hidden part is most powerfully effective in adding to the brilliancy. The apex of the upper pyramid is cut off to a considerable extent ; and the large facet, thus formed, is called the table: the corresponding facet below, formed by the truncation of the lower, or hidden pyramid, is much smaller, and is called the collet. The rim, where the setting takes hold, or, as we have described it, the junction of the basis of the pyramids, is called the girdle. There are thirty-two facets cut round the upper slanting of the surface of the stone — i.e., between the girdle and the table ; and twenty-four on the lower jmrt, between the girdle and the collet. All these facets have names by which they are known to the cutters ; and all the dimensions of the stone should, in order to produce the best effect, bear certain definite proportions to each other. The most favourable form of brilliant for exhibiting the lustre of the stone, is considered to be a square, having the corners slightly rounded off; but, of course, many stones will not admit of being cut to this form without loss ; therefore round, oval, pear-shapes, &c, are, perhaps, more common. The stones lose about fifty per cent, in cutting, rnore or less ; so that, to make a brilliant of one carat, a rough stone of two carats is required." It will be remembered that the Koh-i-Noor lost only 80| carats, out of 186|, in its recutting; and it may be here added, that in colour it very far exceeds the " Star of the South." The author of Diamonds also informs us, that " diamond-cutting, in the present day, is almost exclusively done by Jews at Amsterdam, where large diamond mills have been established; and it is calculated that 10,000, out of the 28,000 persons out of the persuasion living in that city, are dejaendent, directly or indirectly, on this branch of industry." The Russian Trophy of 1862, like that of 1851, told of the great wealth and luxury ,of the imperial and the noble, and the absence of a prosperous middle class, to whom the manufacturer devotes his capital and the skill of his employes. Instead of again seeing those malachite doors, which drew forth the world's admiration, we had INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 35 works of less magnitude, but of enormous cost. Russia is rich in porphyry , nephrite, jasper, lapiz lazuli, and many other materials admirably adapted for vases, obelisks, candelabra, busts, and the various objects that may be brought into shape by long years of hard labour ; and the trophy of 1862 served to show how that labour is available for supplying the demands of imperial luxury. There was exhibited a Porphyry Vase, on which was an inscription, stating that it was begun in 1856, and finished at the close of 1861 ; a long time, in our estimation, but moderate in a country where a quarter of a century has not been deemed too long for the production of a single vase. This trophy was rich also in Florentine and Roman mosaics ; and in a species in which Russia excels every other country. The mosaic in relief, copies, in the hardest stones, a variety of natural objects, which are imitated with the most perfect success. Currants, grapes, raspberries, apples and pears, are among the objects which might well deceive the sharpest eye. This magnificent Russian Trophy included a number of well-executed bronzes ; among which was a noble colossal statue of " Catherine II.," by Felix Chopin, imparting a vivid idea of the imperious lady who presided with such energy over the destinies of her vast empire. Russia, so famous for its porcelain vases, exhibited two of the finest of these productions: one containing a copy of Vandyke's painting of " Inigo Jones," and the other, Kneller's portrait of " John Locke ;" and both designed for presentation to the Royal Society. We must not overlook the exquisite Nephrite Vase, five feet in diameter, whose handles are decorated with sculptured faces, most beautifully finished. The Siberian Trophy, of plumbago (blacklead), exhibited this valuable mineral in large blocks, and in a variety of fomis; in its native crudeness, and with the lustrous polish it imparts to other things, and of which it is itself susceptible. It was shown also in its various stages of preparation, until it reaches the point of perfection, in the blacklead pencil. At a time when this necessary product is dying out, in its old sources, in our country, it is gratifying to know that it is found in large quantities in Siberia. The Plumbago Trophy was accompanied by diagrams and drawings, showing the appearance of the country in which the mineral lies, a section of a blacklead mine, and the various uses to which it may be applied. It may yet be a long time before we shall want some inventive genius to give us a substitute for this important mineral, or repeat the natural process by which it is formed. As the Western Transept, on each side of the western dais, was occupied by the Zollverein and Austrian courts, we leave them for the present unexamined, and conclude our Walk through the Nave, by noticing some of the more attractive objects in the Eastern Transept, and which may be regarded as trophies, rather than as belonging to the various classes. Both Annexes will come under the class divisions to which they were appropriated. The " Hereford Cathedral Screen," designed by G. G. Scott, Esq., R.A., and manufactured by Skidmore's Art Manufacture Company, was the principal decoration of the Eastern Transept. It is unnecessary to deduct anything from the praise bestowed on this beautiful production, soon after it was submitted to the public judgment, when every art critic made it the subject of his highest laudation. For H 36 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE the last twenty years, the greatest exertions have been made for the restoration of Hereford Cathedral ; and it must afford the highest gratification to those who have so earnestly carried on the work, to have secured for the venerable edifice this appro- priate decoration. In a most skilful manner, Mr. Scott has so designed his screen, as to blend into a whole his double arcade of five primary, and ten secondary arches, leaving to each part its own individuality. From the lofty centre arch, surmounted by the figure of the Saviour, to those smaller arches of the praying angels, we see one great design well carried out, of which it has been correctly said, that all the figures can be understood at a glance, without the aid of any inscription beneath the feet to set forth who and what they are. The screen claims our admiration for its size, being thirty-six feet long, and thirty-five high; "the largest piece of architectural metal work ever executed." It is admirable, also, for its combination of metals, consisting principally of iron, with brass and copper in the decorative details ; the copper producing a beautiful result in its natural colour ; while the effect of the brass is heightened by its intermixture with glass mosaic, and the addition of colour and gilding. This superb work will not be lost sight of by day or night, as might be learned from the beautiful gas corona which hung over it in the Exhibition, and will shed light upon it in the Cathedral of Hereford. Towards the closing days of the Exhibition, a most valuable addition was made to the Eastern Transept, by Messrs. Defries, who erected there their magnificent Crystal Candelabrum. This noble pile of costal seemed as if built up by fairy hands, which delighted to show all the beautiful effects this transparent material can produce. Based on a concave foot, hexagonal in form, and seven feet in diameter, the candelabrum towers to the height of twenty-two feet, throwing out eighteen crystal arms, for the support of as many gas-lamps. From the base rises a shaft, which is one large cylinder of glass, richly cut in flutes, and rows of diamonds, alternately ; the whole being surmounted with a solid mass of the purest glass, cut like a pine-apple, and supporting a spire. The intermediate stages are so treated as to present nearly eveiy form of beauty which the fragile material can assume, and to impart to it a perfect unity of design. The base of the main structure is composed of four rows of star-cut prisms ; immediately above which are six large panels, tapering upwards, into which are let three large shields of cut-glass. Above is a magnificent dome, formed of cut bent prisms ; over which is a fine tulip-shaped glass, feather-cut, and supporting a large cylinder, fluted and cut in diamond pattern. Another important feature is a great bowl, three feet in diameter — one of the largest pieces of work of its kind ever produced ; and connected with which there is another tier of arms for lights ; while another similar bowl bears the same relation to the upper tier of lights. Surmounting the whole is a cushion in crystal glass, sparkling with diamonds, having four crystal tassels and prisms, so falling as to represent fringe. On this cushion rests the royal crown, enriched with all its royal insignia — the fleur-de-lis, the Maltese cross brilliant with diamonds, the rich cut arches, and the oak-leaves, studded with diamonds and pearls. We may venture to ask that this praiseworthy production may hereafter be submitted to public inspection, as it was taken into the Exhibition too late to elicit the award of the jurors, or the approval of the visitors. INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 37 No one could look without some curiosity on the various specimens of steel manufacture, exhibited by Mr. Bessemer; among which was a portion of a rail, twisted as if it had been a hempen cable ; and a huge bar, bent like a pair of sugar- tongs. These strange forms were impressed on the metal not only when it was perfectly cold, but when the ice lay thick about the ground. We have been accustomed to consider steel nearly as brittle as glass ; but, as Mr. Bessemer tells us, " improvements in its manufacture have from time to time been introduced, and steel of a milder and less brittle character has long been made, capable of welding with facility, and working at a high temperature, without falling to pieces. Its uses have consequently been greatly extended, and the employment of cast steel for the best cutlery and edge-tools has now become universal." To Mr. Bessemer himself we are indebted for a process in the manufacture of steel, which secures some most important improvements in the metal, especially in the quality of softness ; while the method he adopts greatly expedites the work of production, and dispenses with the necessity for many intermediate stages which have formerly been deemed necessary, and are at present in operation. This new process provides us with cast steel without requiring the use of wrought iron as its material, and thus dispenses with the lengthened processes of melting, refining, puddling, hammering, and rolling, which are employed in converting crude pig iron into a bar of malleable iron. Hitherto all these processes have been gone through for the purpose of driving all the carbon out of iron, and then of restoring to the metal a portion of the carbon, which is essential to the production of steel. If we speak of crude iron as containing five per cent, of carbon, we must regard the processes of steel manufacture as employed, first, to drive out the whole of the carbon, and then to restore to it one per cent, of that element. Mr. Bessemer says, instead of driving off these five portions of carbon, and afterwards restoring one, you had better drive off only four, and you gain your result in a more simple, direct, rapid, and, consequently, less expensive manner. This is really the rationale of the Bessemer method, which is silently revolutionising the process of steel manufacture, and must command the ajiproval of every one who will take a little trouble to understand it. To perceive the value of the Bessemer process, it will be necessary, first, to have some acquaintance with the method usually employed in the conversion of wrought iron into steel ; of which Huntsman's process is, to say the least, one of the most approved, and very extensively practised. It should be remembered that the metal has previously passed through prolonged and expensive stages of preparation, to bring it from the condition of crude iron. " In order to convert the wrought iron bars into blister steel, they are packed with powdered charcoal in large firebrick chests, and are exposed to a white heat for several days ; the time required for heating and cooling them extending over a period of fifteen to twenty days. When thus converted into blister steel, they are broken into small pieces, and sorted according to the quality of the steel, which sometimes differs even in the same bar. For melting this material, powerful air furnaces are employed, containing two crucibles, into each of which are put about 40 lbs. of the broken blistered steel. In about three hours the pots are removed from the-furnaces, and the melted steel is poured into iron moulds, and formed into ingots of cast steel, from 3^ to 4 tons of hard coke being consumed for each ton of metal thus melted. When large masses of steel are required, a great many crucibles must be got ready all at the same moment, and a continuous stream of the melted metal from the several crucibles must be kept up until the ingot is completed, since any cessation of the pouring would entirely spoil it : hence, in proportion to the size of the 38 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE inoot, are the cost and risk of its production increased. The ordinary manufacture of cast steel is therefore obviously conducted at a great disadvantage. If cast steel is to supersede wrought iron for engineering purposes, it will be necessary to cease employing wrought iron as a raw material for this otherwise most expensive mode of manufacture." Mr. Bessemer thus describes his own process, which can be sufficiently understood without the diagrams to which he refers in his pamphlet. "Before commencing with the first charge of metal, the interior of the converting vessel is thoroughly heated by coke, with a blast through the tuyeres to urge the fire ; when sufficiently heated it is turned upside down, and all the unburnt coke falls out. The blast now rushes upwards into the fluid metal from each of the forty-nine holes of the tuyeres, producing a most violent agitation of the whole mass. The silicium, always present in greater or less quantities in pig iron, is first attacked, and unites readily with the oxygen of the air, producing silicic acid : at the same time a small portion of the iron undergoes oxidation, and hence a fluid silicate of the oxide of iron is formed, a little carbon being simultaneously burnt off. The heat is thus gradually increased until nearly the whole of the silicium is oxidised, which generally takes place in about twelve minutes from the commencement of the process. The carbon of the pig iron now begins to unite more freely with the oxygen of the air, producing at first a small flame, which rapidly increases ; and in about three minutes from its first appearance a most intense combustion is going on : the metal rises higher and higher in the vessel, some- times occupying more than double its former space ; and in this frothy fluid state it presents an enormous surface to the action of the air, which unites rapidly with the carbon contained in the crude iron, and produces a most intense combustion, the whole mass being in fact a perfect mixture of metal and fire. The carbon is now burnt off so rapidly as to produce a series of harmless explosions, throwing out the fluid slag in great quantities ; while the combustion of the gases is so perfect that a voluminous white flame rushes from the mouth of the vessel, illuminating the whole building, and indicating to the practised eye the precise condition of the metal inside. The blowing may thus be left off whenever the number of minutes from the commencement and the appearance of the flame indicate the required quality of metal. This is' the mode preferred in working the process in Sweden. But at the works in Sheffield it is preferred to continue blowing the metal beyond this stage, until the flame suddenly drops, which it does just on the approach of the metal to the condition of malleable iron : a small measured quantity of charcoal pig iron, containing a known proportion of carbon, is then added, and thus steel is produced of any desired degree of carburation, the process having occupied about twenty-eight minutes altogether from the commencement. The converting vessel is tipped forwards, and the blast shut off for adding this small charge of pig iron, after which the blast is turned on again for a few seconds. "By this process, from one to ten tons of crude iron maybe converted into cast steel in thirty minutes, without employing any fuel except that required for melting the pig iron, and for the preliminary heating of the converting vessel, the process being effected entirely without manipulation. The loss on the weight of crude iron is from 14 to 18 per cent. , with English iron worked in small quantities ; but the result of working with a purer iron in Sweden has been carefully noted for two consecutive weeks, and the loss on the weight of fluid iron tapped from the blast furnace, was ascertained to be only 8J per cent. The largest sized apparatus at present erected is that in use at the Atlas Steel Works, Sheffield, the converting vessel being capable of converting four tons at a time, which it converts into cast steel in twenty-eight minutes. In consequence of the increased size of the converting vessel in this case, no metal is thrown out during conversion ; and the loss of weight has fallen as low as 10 per cent., including the loss in melting the pig iron in the reverberatory furnace." This South-East Transept was the region of gates, great clocks, and bells. We must not forget the Coalbrook Dale Gates, and the Falkirk Iron-work Gates, which are fine specimens of cast iron work, rich in pattern, and faultless in execution : but the bells were so many, so varied in quality of tone, and so sweet in effect, that they seemed to transport us into that Canadian region celebrated by Edgar Poe, where, through the long night, they are heard — "Keeping time, time, time, In a sort of Runic rhyme, To the tintinnabulation of the music as it wells, From the bells, bells, bells, bells, Bells, bells, bells, From the jingling, and the tingling of the bells." Messrs. "Warner have the merit of introducing a new Chiming Apparatus, by which a lad may correctly play a great variety of chimes on peals of six, eight, or more INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 39 bells, though, he inay have no knowledge of musical time. The hammers are so fixed as in no way to prevent the ringing of the bells, by regular bell-ringers, when their services can be obtained. As the good old institution of the bell-ringers' supper will not be damaged by this innovation, we must deprecate any clamour about violated rights on the part of the fraternity ; for this invention " is not intended to take the place of ringing," being recommended " only for parishes where there are no good and steady ringers." Warner & Co. apply the principle of the barrel-organ to bell- ringing, and thus obtain their result by a simple but effective process. The North-East Transept was given up to the British Colonies, whose productions will hereafter come under our notice. There was at one end the famous organ of Foster and Andrews, of Hull, which never failed to attract a large crowd of much- delighted listeners to the elaborate apparatus, the great powers of which will, perhaps, be understood by the following account of its elements : — It has forty-six registers, 2,475 pipes, six composition pedals, two sforzando pedals, and one pneumatic combination pedal. It is 30 feet high, 22 feet wide, and 14 feet deep. The pneumatic movement was applied to the great and pedal organs, and there were four pressures of wind. The bellows were blown by two of Jay's hydraulic engines, having a water pressure of 35 lbs. to the square inch. Passing to the northern end of this Transept, we reach the case in which Messrs. Bell, of Newcastle, exhibited many exquisite specimens of the metal Aluminium, which has become known to the public since the Exhibition of 1851. The following are the properties of Aluminium, which have already commended it to public favour, and will secure its extensive application for useful and ornamental purposes. It is extremely light, its specific gravity being 2 - G — about that of glass ; Avhile that of platinum is 21*5 ; and that of silver 105. It will thus be seen, that in comparing it with silver, the bulk of a given weight of Aluminium is nearly four times as great as that of silver. It is malleable and ductile ; it can be reduced to very thin sheets, or drawn into very fine threads. Its tenacity is superior to that of silver ; and, in a state of purity, it is as hard as that metal. It files readily, and is an excellent conductor of electricity. In air and oxygen it undergoes no sensible alteration. It is not affected by sulphur, or sulphuretted hydrogen, like silver. The vegetable acids have no effect upon it. It forms a variety of alloys, the most striking of which are those with copper; which are very hard, and capable of a fine polish, the colour varying from deep to pale gold. A very important property of this new metal is its sonorousness. An ingot of Aluminium, if suspended by a fine wire, and struck with a smart blow, emits a very clear and sharp sound ; in consequence of which, it is already, and probably will soon be very extensively, applied to musical instruments. The price of Aluminium, which a few years ago was £60 per lb.j is now only as many shillings — i.e., 60s. per lb. As the greatest interest attaches to this newly discovered mineral, the following facts respecting it cannot but prove interesting. First, as to its discovery in 1827, before which time it was unknown as a metallic base : — ' " Aluminium was discovered by Professor Woehler, of Goettingen, m 1827; and Professor Deville, of Paris, was led to the investigation of the characteristics of the new body, and to the discovery of some very curious properties. His first impression on their appearance was, that he had placed his hand ou a metal destined to occupy I 40 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE the intermediate position in the requirements of mankind, as soon as the means were found of removing it from the laboratory of the chemist to the workshops of the manufacturers. This prevision, which appears to realise itself every day, and the present state of the production of Aluminium, confirm entirely the conclusions set forth in his first account of this metal, published in the beginning of 1855. "The following is a literal quotation of the opinions alluded to: — 'From the facts related, I conclude that Aluminium is a metal destined to become one of the useful class, from its curious properties, by its power of under- going no change in colour or lustre by the action of the air, or of air charged with sulphuretted hydrogen ; by its resistance to the action of all acids, save hydrochloric ; by its fusibility ; by its beautiful colour, and its physical properties generally. Its density, so low as to be scarcely equal to that of glass, will insure for this metal special applications. Intermediate between the common and the precious metals, from certain properties it possesses, Aluminium is superior to the first group for domestic purposes, by the absolute inocuousness of its compounds with the feebler acids. When it is further remembered that Aluminium exists in considerable proportions in all clays, amounting in some cases to one-fourth of the weight of a very widely diffused substance, one cannot do "otherwise than hope that, sooner or later, this metal may find a place in the industrial arts." Then, as to the great advantage of its composition with other metals : — "Aluminium, alloyed with 2 percent, of Nickel, becomes less blue in colour, is harder, and rather more difficult to forge than pure Aluminium. For this purpose it must be heated to a dull red ; while pure Aluminium can be hammered with facility at a temperature sufficient to redden paper. "The compound which Aluminium forms with Copper is especially worthy of notice. When these metals are alloyed in the proportions of one of Aluminium to nine of Copper, the bronze so obtained possesses great malleability and strength. Professor Gordon ascertained, that with wires of the same diameter, the strength of copper, iron, and Aluminium Bronze stood in the following relation to each other : — Iron 100 Aluminium Bronze 155 Copper 68 " Three compounds can be formed with Copper, distinct in their colours and properties. " The first contains 5 per cent, of Aluminium, is of a beautiful gold colour, and takes a splendid polish. It is of great malleability ; and by being hammered, when cold, acquires great hardness, and a grain similar to that of copper. " The second contains 7 J per cent. Aluminium ; is of that greenish gold colour which is known to be the result of an alloy of gold with silver ; it is very fibrous and malleable when cold, acquiring, like the bronze of 5 per cent, when hammered cold, great hardness. It is capable of a very beautiful polish. "The third compound of Copper and Aluminium contains 10 per cent. Aluminium. It possesses great malleability and strength. These are much increased by a moderate amount of hammering when cold ; after which, owing to the greatly augmented hardness of the alloy, further action of the hammer becomes useless. " At a red heat it very readily admits of being forged and rolled ; and if, when well heated to redness, it be left to cool down in the air to a didl red, and be then plunged into water, it becomes sufficiently malleable, when cold, to bear, without fracture, every kind of manipulation practised in the industrial arts. "The several kinds of Aluminium Bronze melt at the same temperature as Copper. Plumbago crucibles should be used, and on no account any flux. A small piece of charcoal may be put on the top of the metal in fusion." PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION— DISTRIBUTIONS— THE COURTS AND GALLERIES. As we have already seen, the Commissioners of the Exhibition of 1862, found it altogether impracticable to arrange in classes all the multifarious objects entrusted to their care, so as to afford to visitors the opportunity of entering any particular class, and comparing the products sent to that class from all parts of the world. Each country claimed that its nationality should be represented — we will not assert for the gratification of vanity — but from various motives of a more excusable kind ; and, as the consequence, the whole contents of the Exhibition were distributed so as to effect a sort of compromise between the scientific and geographical principles of arrangement. An important advantage was, by this compromise, secured to the general public, for INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 41 whom these national distinctions had a peculiar charm ; while practical persons were able to pursue their investigations under some difficulties, which, however, could be surmounted by persevering effort. It must be observed, also, that the classification of the Commissioners was not perfect in its character — a defect which does not imply any censure on the intelligence of those gentlemen and their officers; but is referred to, simply to show that it is next to impossible to classify a vast multitude of objects so as always to find the right thing in the right place, and at the same time render the distribution pleasing and satisfactory to the observer. Nothing could appear more simple and systematic than the division into the four sections of — I. Haw Materials ; II. Machinery ; III. Manufactures ; IV. Fine Arts : and yet it is obvious, that this division, in its practical working, proved inaccurate and defective. For instance, we ask why all the beautiful productions of Class XXXII., " Works in Precious Metals, their Imitations, and Jewellery," should be excluded from Section IV. of Fine Arts, and be reckoned only as " Manufactures ?" Why should " The Slave," in ivory, or " The Child of Nature," in bronze, or the repousse silver tazzi of "Night" and "Morning," be regarded only as manufactures, in the same section as "Cotton," "Flax and Hemp;" while works displaying no more taste, or artistic skill, though sculptured in marble, hold their high place in the section of the Fine Arts ? The time has arrived when the boundary lines that separate between Manufactures and the Fine Arts must be revised ; and it may be hoped that such a revision will be expedited by the incongruities to which the present division has, in so many instances, given rise in the late Exhibition. For the present, an engraving on a copper plate belongs to the Fine Arts ; while the poetry of art, if expended on an Apollo, or a Venus, in silver, is a " manufacture," a " work in precious metals." Some feeble attempts were made to invade this order of things, which it would have been quite practicable to revolutionise, at the late World's Exhibition. It will be seen, also, in looking into the contents of the first section of raw materials, that it embraces many manufactures which belong to Section III. The difficulty to which we allude was felt by the Jurors themselves; who state, that "a numerous collection of our most beautiful British marbles were catalogued in Class I., but afterwards handed over for adjudication to another class, from their having been manufactured into vases, inlaid tables, &c." Still we find the Jurors of this class dealing with mill-stones and grindstones, giving medals for " crucibles of graphite," for "Cornish crucibles," and for "a most elaborate piece of Derbyshire inlaid work, showing the great variety of mineral substances which may be employed in this kind of ornamentation, and the delicacy with which they admit of being cut into fine strips, and fitted." We must, however, be content to follow the method laid down by the Com- missioners, without attempting to readjust their plan ; as any advantage that might accrue from a new arrangement, would fail to compensate for facility of reference. We shall therefore preserve the principles of classification adopted by the Commissioners. Having a due respect to the compromise between the geographical and classifi- 42 ILLUSTRATED HISTOEY OF THE cation method which prevailed throughout the Exhibition, we shall, in the further prosecution of our work, first glance at the leading characteristics of each court, and afterwards review the whole collection, in the classes to which the various specimens belonged, having especial reference to the important work of comparison. Thus we shall traverse the Courts and Galleries, British and Foreign, and recall to the mind of the reader the scenes through which he passed, assuming that he was careful to follow a judicious plan, to economise time and strength, and do something like justice to the vast treasures spread out before him. We shall first examine — The Courts and Galleries of Great Britain and her Colonies, beginning with the South Courts. 1 . Civil Engineering ; Architectural and Building Contrivances. Supposing the visitor again to start from the dai's beneath the Eastern Dome, he will have to traverse the space enclosed by the Exhibition-road to the south-east corner, and the Cromwell-road as far as the Central Tower, and by the South Central Avenue as far as the Nave, which will bring him back to his original stand-point. If we send him also into the Galleries included in this space, he will have seen the principal objects exhibited by Great Britain. Let him make a second tour, tlnough the corresponding portion of the edifice, being on the northern side, including the Eastern Annexe, and he would find himself among the Colonies and Dependencies of Great Britain, the mother country stdl holding place among her children in the large space devoted to furniture on the ground floor, as well as in the Galleries. Passing first into the South Court, from the eastern dai's, the visitor would be surrounded by objects relating to civil engineering, architectural and building contrivances, all belonging to Class X. ; and embracing the sub-class A, the sub-class B (sanitary improvements and construction), and sub-class C (objects shown for architectural beauty). The exhibitors in this class were lQi, to whom a space was allotted of 13,962 square feet. Bridges, displaying the greatest skill in their contrivance and execution, were here represented by several well-executed models, which, while assisting the engineer to perceive the principles of their construction, had a very pleasing effect for the general observer. There were models of the bridges at Chepstow and at Saltash, exhibited by Mr. Brunei ; of the Clifton Bridge, by Messrs. Hawkshaw ; the Boyne Viaduct, by Sir John Macneill ; Mr. Bouch's bridge over the Valley of the Beelah, in Westmor- land ; of the bridges on the Central Indian Railway, by Colonel Kennedy ; of the Viaduct across the Lune, by Mr. J. C. Errington ; and a wrought iron girder bridge, supported on rollers, adapted for carrying railways or roads at a low level over navigable watercourses. In all the structures represented by these models, we have satisfactory proof of the progress of engineering science in our times, and of the ability of our countrymen successfully to compete with other countries in meeting the re- quirements of our railway age. The late Mr. I. K. Brunei had to deal with a great difficulty in bridging over the Tamar, at Saltash, as it was necessary, in erecting the central deep-water pier, to sink to the depth of 82 feet, passing tlnough a depth of soft mud to reach the underlying INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 43 rock. This was accomplished by the aid of a wrought iron cylinder of 37 feet diameter, and 90 feet in height, which was forced down to the rock by the joint forces of gravitation and atmospheric pressure. To sink this cylinder, construct the founda- tion of masonry, to erect upon it the iron columns, and lift the tubes into position, were operations requiring no small skill ; but they were successfully performed by Mr. Brereton, the able assistant of Mr. Brunei. The importance of this achievement, and of a similar success at Chepstow, will be seen from the fact that they were mentioned among the claims of the late Mr. Brunei to the medal awarded to his son as his representative. Both these bridges combine wrought and cast iron in then materials ; the former in their superstructure, and the latter in their columns ; while they combine the insistent and suspension principles in each work — a union which, however, was not deemed essential in either case. The model of the Viaduct over the Boyne, near Drogheda, on the line of the Dublin and Belfast Radway, is the finest illustration of the lattice principle in the United Kingdom, and confers the highest credit on Sir John Macneill, by whom it was designed, and under whose direction it was constructed. Its total length is 1,750 feet, crossing the Boyne at a height of 90 feet from the water, in what is termed a " skeleton tube," through which the trains pass. Structures on this principle have been for some time employed in America, where they have been formed of wood ; but it is the merit of Sir John Macneill that he has applied this principle in wrought iron, by which he has successfully combined the elements of lightness and strength with a due regard to economy. The total weight of iron work in the girders, and the line of rails, does not exceed 700 tons ; although, in addition to the length already mentioned, we may add, that the span of the central opening is 264 feet, and the two side ones 138 feet 8 inches each. The iron trellis principle is shown in the model of Mr. Bouch's bridge over the valley of the Beelah river, in Westmorland, on the South Durham and Lancashire Union Railway. This bridge, which is 1,000 feet long, and 200 feet high in the centre, affords a remarkable illustration of the rapidity with which a great work on this principle may be carried out, being completed in only four months. A further application of this lattice principle was shown by Lieutenant-Colonel Kennedy, in a model of the bridges on the Bombay, Baroda, and Central Indian railways; In these bridges the piers are formed of cast iron columns, resting on screw pdes firmly fixed hi the bed of the river. For the extensive application of this method, a medal was awarded to Colonel Kennedy. It is somewhat satisfactory to find that the long-delayed project of bridging over the Avon, at Clifton, is at last about to be realised, of which we have a promise in the model shown by Mr. Hawkshaw. The suspension bridge at the late Hungerford Market, is to span the distance of 703 feet over this chasm ; and the work, when completed, may justly be regarded as a great triumph of our engineering skill. As we have heard much of a proposal for uniting England with France, by means of a submarine railway, we must here notice a large sectional drawing of " The English Channel Railway," and also a model of the Metal Tunnel, by which it is proposed that this profound scheme shall be realised. The model represents an 44 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE elliptical section of the tubular structure — clever enough as a model ; and the drawing, by Mr. James Chalmers, shows how the rails are to be laid in a circular wrought iron tube. Nervous persons, who now dread the Box Tunnel, and can hardly breathe freely at the idea of being pent up in a tube running under the sea from England to France, will learn, for then- comfort, that there is to be "a central ventilating shaft, rising above the surface of the water in mid-channel." As seen in the drawing and model, the arrangements for security and comfort are of the most satisfactory- kind, and dreamy persons need ask for no more than the daring projectors of this undertaking venture to promise. Harbours and Graving Docks were represented by a number of models, exhibited by eminent civil engineers ; among whom, the first place in this department must be assigned to Mr. Edwin Clark, for the skilful manner in which he has employed the principle of the hydraulic lift for the use of the Thames Graving Dock ComjDany. Instead of floating a vessel into a dock, and then punning out the water, or allowing it to float out with the tide, the inventor of the hydraulic lift employs a series of hydraulic presses for the purpose of lifting the vessel out of the water, on to a pontoon, on which it can be conveyed to the place where it has to be repaired. The presses employed for lifting the vessel are placed in iron columns, sunk into the ground, at such distances as to admit of its passage between the long rows. Several of these pontoons, varying from 160 to 320 feet in length, and capable of carrying vessels of from 500 to 3,000 tons, are now in use in the Thames Graving Docks; and the hydraulic lifts employed are sufficient to raise a dead weight of 6,000 tons. The operation of this system will, perhaps, be best understood by the following description in the Jury Report : — "A space of water is enclosed, sufficient for the required pontoon, or floating dock, around which, are firmly fixed a sufficient number of hollow iron columns, iu each of which is an hydraulic press and piston, having chains attached to them ; these chains are attached at the other end to transverse wrought iron girders, at the bottom of the enclosed water-space ; the wrought iron pontoon which is to carry the vessel is then floated between the columns, and sunk on the girders, by admitting water into the compartments, until it rests upon the bottom of the enclosed water-space ; the vessel intended to be repaired is then floated over the pontoon, and is placed accurately above it by meaus of girders ; the girders and pontoon, with the vessel upon it, are then raised by the hydraulic presses, worked by the steam-engine and pumps, which act upon the pistons and the chains, attaching them to the cross girders ; and as the pontoon rises with the vessel upon it, the water runs freely out of the compartments of the pontoon, and when the whole is clear, the valves are screwed down from the inside, and the pontoon is floated away into a basin, and another pontoon is placed in readiness for another similar operation, which generally occupies, for a very large ship, about forty-five minutes. Thus, one hydraulic apparatus, with its necessary upright columns, cradle, and basin, or deck space, will answer the purpose of as many dry docks as there are pontoons." It is stated that the Thames Graving Dock Company, during the three years of their practical working, have most successfully docked upwards of 400 vessels, Aveighing 220,000 tons, by means of this apparatus, which, it may interest our readers to know, may be seen in constant operation at the works of the company, near the Victoria Docks. In close proximity with Mr. Clark's model, were several models of improvements in Harbours and Graving Docks ; one by Cory & Sons, of a float, designed for rapidly unloading screw colliers and other vessels, screening the coals, and depositing them in the barges without breakage ; another, by Tod & Macgregor, representing the dock built by them on the Clyde, near Glasgow, the entry gates of which weigh more INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 45 than sixty tons ; and a model, also, of a Canal Sluice, so constructed (by Laurence Brothers), that the pressure of the water opens and closes the sluice-valve. In this sluice, a piston is placed above the sluice-valve ; and the column of water, in the upper reservoir, is made to act, either on the uj)per or lower face of the piston, by a pair of small side-valves on the face of the sluice. We may here notice another model — which, although exhibited among the Naval models, Class XII., ought to have its place in the locality under consideration — that of Rennie & Sons, representing the large wrought iron floating dock they are constructing for the Spanish government. It is 350 feet long, 150 feet wide, and 37| high, and will draw, when the largest vessels are in it, about 10 feet of water. The dock is divided into compartments, and is emptied by means of pumps, worked by a steam-engine placed on the floating dock, which can be lowered or raised, as may be required, by admitting or pumping out the water. Breakwaters were duly represented among the models in this Court. "When Mr. Canning went to see the celebrated Breakwater at Plymouth, he was so delighted with the works then in progress, that he said to his friends, "We must now make use of our eyes" — a piece of advice which was well worth following in the place our visitor has now reached ; for, to quote the Jurors' Report, there were, " in this department, several works particularly worthy of notice." From that Report an extract deserves here to be introduced, for its obvious truthfulness, and the necessity that it should be duly regarded in the construction of this important description of public works. The Report says : — "The breakwaters of the Carthaginians at T_vre and Sidon, of the Greeks at Athens, Halicarnassus, iEgina, aud in numerous other places .... show that the simplest and most economical mode of constructing barriers, or break- waters, to resist the violence of ocean storms, was by throwing down and depositing rough undressed blocks of stone, as raised from the quarries, and allowing them to form their own slope, or inclination, by the action of the waves, until, finally, the masses thus thrown down became settled, when their permanence was further augmented by the growth of sea- weed, and the drift of sand into the crevices ; so that these works have remained unaltered unto the present day." The Jurors, when they add, that " the experience derived from these works, does not appear to have been taken advantage of until within a comparatively recent period," have lost sight of the excellent harbour of Kingstown (Dublin), which was formed on the principle they so justly commend. It is not always, however, that the best materials are within reach ; and in their absence, every encouragement should be given to those who succeed in providing a valuable substitute. Notice ought therefore to have been taken of the models of Mr. Scott, showing a plan for construct- ing breakwaters of timber and stone, by a succession of frames, which, having been constructed on shore, are floated to their places, and then sunk ; after which they are filled with stones. This timber is treated with creosote, and will protect the stones for many years. We must notice the Gridiron Breakwater, which consisted of a series of cast iron girders, laid on the top of a wall of rubble and concrete, with spaces tln-ough which the water might pass without battering the structure with all its force. A very valuable contrivance, placed near this model, is worthy of special attention, as it showed how, by means of brick cylinders, to construct a movable barrier for the defence of ports and harbours, by floating it to its place, and sinking it on the 40 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE approach of the enemy. The model, although found in Class X., has its place in the Catalogue, Class XI., asa" sunken, but movable barrier, to exclude enemies' ships from ports." This model appears to have escaped the notice of the Jurors, but deserves the serious attention of the authorities to whom our national defences are intrusted. Railways, though not belonging to the class of objects now under consideration, were represented, in one important instance, by the Tudela and Bilbao Railway, the beautiful and accurate model of which was executed by Mr. Stephen Salter, and for which he received a medal. This great work represents the line running between Bilbao to Tudela, and thence to Pampeluna. It crosses the range of the Cantabrian Pyrenees, passing through the Basque Provinces, at an elevation of 2,163 feet above the sea-level, with an inclination of one in seventy, for nearly twelve miles. The whole length of the line is nearly 1 60 miles, extending from Bilbao to a point between Alfaro and Tudela, whence other lines run to Madrid, to Barcelona, and Pampeluna. The model, which is 20J feet in length, by 12 feet in breadth, furnishes an area of nearly 250 feet, showing 30 miles of railway ; and traces all the circuitous windings of the line, as it skirts the mountain sides, traverses artificial galleries, and runs over deep ravines, many of which are very steep, spanning, in one place, 700 feet of perpendicular rock. While this work properly found its model in our British Courts — where it stood as a proud trophy of English engineering skill — it also, much to the honour of the merchants and citizens of Bilbao, and the inhabitants of the towns on the line of railway, is aided by their friends and countrymen in the Havana and England ; and they are, probably, the only subscribers to tins most spirited under- taking. Lighthouses were represented in the models of Mr. James Walker, displaying great boldness of design, and success in the construction of the Bishop's Rock and Small's Lighthouses ; of Mr. Allen Stevenson, showing the Skerry Vore Lighthouse ; and of Mr. George Halpin, showing the lighthouse on the Fastnet Rock, off Cape Clear, on the south-west coast of Ireland. A new era has been inaugurated by the introduction of cast iron and wrought iron, in the construction of lighthouses, which have become essential where stone was not found, and suitable native labour could not be procured. There ought to have been a more extensive display of models, showing structures of this class, which have been executed during the last eleven years, and must have proved of the greatest public service. Diving Apparatus, whether bells or dresses, and all the important gear necessary for the safety of the divers, and the efficient working of the machinery, have been so L >ng and so successfully employed, as to admit of very little improvement during the last few years. Still, these most valuable contrivances can never be viewed without much interest, as they show how man, instead of being the creature of circumstances, can overcome great natural difficulties, and quietly conduct his operations in the bed of the sea, instead of dreading the advance of its waves. While the principles of the diving-bell, as first employed by Mr. Rennie, in 1813, and of the diving-dress invented by Mr. John Bethel, can undergo no improvement, there have been recently some important additions to this kind of apparatus, of which the Exhibition furnished satisfactory illustration. INTERNATIONAL, EXHIBITION. 47 Messrs. Laurence exhibited the model of the diving-bell employed at Dover Harbour, for setting the stones in the foundations under water. The safety-valves and signal-apparatus, attached to the diving-bell, prevent it from filling with water, in case the air-tube should break. The aerostatic tubular diving-bell of Maillefert, exhibited by Fairfax & Co., shows the application of a large air-chamber to the bell, by means of which it could, in any emergency, be inflated like a balloon, and sent up to the surface. Mr. Scott showed an additional means of safety in the indicating cylinder he has added to the air-pump, which tells when any leakage or obstruction has taken place, and provides a remedy by having two air-tubes, one of which answers the purpose of a signal-line. Also, lest the glass window of the helmet should break, it is provided with india-rubber flaps, which would at once form a water-tight joint. Heinke, Brothers, also showed an arrangement for providing against a similar accident. Much interest was shown in the figure of a diver, in a complete diving- dress, with air-pumps and connecting-pipes; the helmet being provided with a segmental neck-screw, by means of which the head can be removed by one-eighth of a turn, and the cylinders of the air-pump surrounded by a water-casing, to prevent them from being unduly treated by the rapid compression of the air when at work. The Metropolitan Maln Drainage system was illustrated by the drawings and models exhibited by Mr. J. "W. Bazalgette, the engineer to these important works. The method in which these vast substructures are to intercept the sewage, and carry it across the Eastern Counties Railway, and the Lea river, could be easily understood by the diagrams and models, to which were added a portion of one of the arches in brickwork, of the full size. To the inhabitants of London, it was very satisfactory to observe the admirable manner in which this great work is being carried out, the advantages of which are very soon to be realised, as it is rapidly approaching to completion. Building Materials, natural and artificial, were represented among the numerous objects in this portion of the South Court. The former were shown chiefly as worked for ornamental purposes; and the latter consisted of artificial stone, and valuable cements used in architectural works. Among the objects shown for architectural beauty, were articles in terra-cotta ; Italian and French marbles, in chimney-pieces ; scagliola imitation of Florentine mosaics ; Caen stone, in chimney-pieces ; the model of a font in Maltese stone ; a model of an inlaid pavement for Chichester Cathedral ; enamelled slate, and marbled glass. The terra-cotta productions have recently undergone much improvement, so that they now greatly assist the architect in the work of ornamentation; and among the specimens exhibited, the Jurors have, with much justice, referred to the ornamental columns, with bases, shafts, and capitals, well burned, and preserving the forms into which they were moulded. The value of terra-cotta, for architectural decoration, is now shown in the arcades of the Horticultural Gardens, where they drew forth the admiration of the public during the Exhibition. It is unnecessary to describe the beauty of Minton's encaustic tiles, of which it is not too much to say, that " they rival those of the Moors in the Alhambra of Spain." In the friendly rivalry for excellence in these beautiful productions, the fimi of Maw holds a distinguished place, K 48 LLLUSTXIATED HISTORY OF THE directed as they Lave been by the skill of Mr. Digby "Wyatt. Both these firms have shown specimens of mosaic pavement, which are unsurpassed in character by the best specimens preserved in some of our cathedrals. Mr. Blanchard's application of terra- cotta to the steps of a staircase, has probably suggested an application of this material which may be very extensively adopted. As there is likely to be a growing application of this material for decorative purposes, so we hope there will be greater care to secure the taste and experience of gentlemen, who wdl in future prevent the errors which manufacturers have, in several cases, committed, froni their unacquaintance with the harmony of colours, and the essential principles of design. The manufacturer of this material has left nothing to be desired in his department ; it is only required that he shall not act without the direction of the accomplished artist, and this branch of art will hold an important place among the industries of England. The granite, serpentine, and marble in this Court, deserve notice only as valuable accessories to architectural purposes, in the form of fonts, pedestals, fomitains, vases, and tombs ; and even in such forms they betray that want of method to which we have already had occasion to refer. Vases, fonts, tables, and tombs, for example, are no essential parts of architecture, or architectonic ornamentation, although these items have obtained adjudication in Class X. We may, however, refer to the sj)ecimens of granite and serpentine, both of which show greater success in working the quarries, and securing a high polish. As materials, they belong properly to Class I., as shown in the Eastern Annexe, in which they wdl come under our notice. Coloured Marbles, which are now being employed, with very fine effect, in English architectural embellishment, were properly shown in this portion of the British Courts, of which we had a very beautiful dlustration in the shafts of the Norman window intended for the Digby mortuary chapel, and which are composed of a variety of beautifully coloured marbles. A medal was very justly awarded to Mr. W. Slater for his admirable mosaic pavement for Chichester Cathedral, distinguished as it was for high merit as to design, arrangement of the coloured marbles, and the execution. It is important to notice that, in this case, the committee felt they would be unjust if they did not award a medal to the mason as well as to the architect. It is unnecessary to remark on the value of marble as a material for chimney- pieces, of which several beautiful specimens were exhibited. We cannot, however, pass over the exquisite work of the late Mr. John Thomas, enriched as it is with the lively dramatis persona? of the Midsummer -Night's Dream ; and showing, as has been correctly observed, how " ornamental designs for furniture and general articles of luxury are so closely allied to Fine Art, that they may be said to incorporate or blend into each other by inseparable gradations." Artificial Stone, although not comparable with natural building materials, especially in durability, has its value as a substitute where stone cannot be provided. The best of such substitutes is, perhaps, the siliceous stone prepared by Mr. F. Ransome, who exhibited a block produced by his process, for which he received a medal in this class. Artificial Cements are of such importance in building operations, as to have called into exercise a great amount of scientific skill in then production, and the satisfactory INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 49 result is, that they are now produced where the manufacture was fomierly unknown ; in many cases, of improved quality, and generally so reduced in price as to encourage their extensive use. Enamelled Slate, as produced by the Llangollen Slate Company, properly holds its jalace among the recent valuable accessories to architecture. Having all due respect for the Lamp of Truth in architecture, we cannot, in all circumstances, oppose the notion that, "if a Serpentine chimney-piece is too costly, the next best thing a man can do is to indulge his taste in the most perfect imitation," especially in this material, which is remarkable for hardness and strength, and will endure a heat of more than twice that of boiling water, and, if gradually and fairly treated, may pro- bably bear a temperature of 600° of Fahrenheit. Certainly these imitations are as perfect as can be desired, ' ' as the practised eye, at a little distance, cannot distin- guish them from the originals ;" and, as far as they have been tested, they give great promise of durability. As our great architectural and engineering works call for large supplies of artificial cements in great variety, we have had the satisfaction of finding, that, in the recent Exhibition — to quote the language of the Jurors — " the great scientific and practical skill which has been applied to this valuable department of materials, has already brought them to great perfection, and has materially reduced their price ; so that they can now be generally made and applied with great economy and advantage in building operations." The Jurors make honourable mention of many firms, and, besides, speak of others, whose works do them gi'eat credit. Captain Scott received a gold medal for " a good and cheap cement," which is remarkably well-manufactured by Messrs. Lee, Son, & Smith, to whom honourable mention was awarded for the process of manufacture of this article, the excellence of which the Jury were enabled to judge of in the construction of the building at the South Kensington Museum, where some instances of great strength were shown ; also to Messrs. White, Brothers, a medal for the great excellence, and extensive production of their Portland Cement, which, as in the previous case, the Jury were enabled to examine in the general construction of the building of the Exhibition, and more especially in the bases of the columns supporting the domes, and in the basin of the Majolica Fountain, where its power of hardening, and of impermeability, were satisfactorily tested by watching the progress of the construction, and the subsequent introduction of the water. Sanitary economy having recently occupied a large share of public attention, it was by a very judicious arrangement that, in the section of the South Court (now supposed to be under examination), space was allotted to " Sanitary Improve- ments and Constructions," in which were included draining, sewering, making of earthenware for these, and cognate purposes; filtering of water, making of gas and water-pipes, baths and closets, gas apparatus, stoves, ovens, and various heating apparatus, as well as shoemakers' work-tables, and methods of window-making and cleaning. Filters were exhibited in great variety ; and if they did not show improvements on the principles which have long been well known, they at least gave satisfactory proof that the necessity of filtration is increasingly acknowledged by the public. .We may 50 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE here notice the filter of Mr. Dauchell, which filters upwards, and through charcoal ; the filters of the Silicated Carbon Company, who use the refuse of Boghead coal ; and the carbon-moulded filter of Atkins & Son, the moulding being assisted by melted pitch. The Jurors also speak of globular vessels of charcoal manufactured by the same firm ; the action of which is thus described : — " When this vessel is dipped in water, and the tube exhausted of air by pumping it, or by suction, the water rushes into the inside of the charcoal vessel, and becomes purified. If laid in a vessel of water while the tube hangs down by its side, the tube will act as a syphon, and a perpetual stream of filtered water be attained. "When the pores are choked up — an occurrence, the frequency of which depends on the quantity of the water — they are readily cleared by a brush, until finally the smallest particles enter the very centre of the mass. The apparatus is not then finished, as it only requires to be made red-hot, and it is fresh again. This heating, however, must not be performed in a current of air, or the filter will burn and disappear." The necessity of Ventilation is now so well understood, that attention is readily given to every arrangement by which it may be promoted. Much importance is justly attached to the increased application of wire-gauze and perforated zinc, for the admission of fresh air, and, at the same time, for preventing the admission of dust; but a special interest attaches to the Glass-Louvred Ventilator of Mr. Moor, which is remarkable for simplicity and usefulness ; and to the arrangement of Mr. M'Kinnell, for the ventilation of closed apartments in houses, and in the holds of ships, by means of concentric tubes. The method of this inventor is to place one tube within another; and its advantages are, perhaps, greater in the holds of ships than in any other circumstances. The method can be regarded only as a modification of the arrange- ment of Mr. Watson, of Leeds, who invented a double tube, or tube with a diaphragm, which, in favourable circumstances, will produce an upward and a downward current ; an effect which is materially aided by having a square tube crossed twice diagonally, according to the method of Mr. Muir, of Glasgow. Warming is very closely connected with ventilation, and will, it may be expected, be treated together before a perfect result can be obtained. The Jurors refer to various arrangements for warming part of the fresh ah - admitted into dwelling-houses, by means of the waste heat behind the fire-places. A very important principle, brought into action in the Houses of Parliament, by Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney, is deserving the careful consideration of all who are desirous of applying a good system of warming, especially in large buildings. The Jurors, who visited oxu - Houses of Parliament to see Mr. Gurney's system in operation, thus report on his method : — " Mr. Gumey has shown the value of the vapour of water for conveying heat, which it does moi'e thoroughly than warm air. He finds that air, loaded with vapour, mixes with other air more readily than it would do did it not contain vapour : heated dry, air rises, and its heat is lost to those below; but, when loaded with vapour, its tendency to diffuse produces an equalisation, which he makes use of. The Houses ot Parliament have their air supplied from the central courts ; it passes into the cellars, through a coarse gauze ; it then passes over these Gumey stoves, rises up through gauze into a second apartment to make it equable, and thence into the Houses through INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 51 the iron-grated floor. The House of Commons is kept, by this means, at a constant temperature of 62°— 63° F. ; the House of Lords, from 63°— 64° F." Gurney's stove cannot be more correctly and briefly described than, in the words of Mr. Robert Hunt, " as consisting of a plain interior cylinder, with an external series of perpendicular radiating wings. The stove is placed in a pan of water, the evaporation of which is regulated so as to produce the amount of vapour required for the due saturation of the heated air; the air, thus moistened, is passed over the external surface of the stove rising between the wings, and thus the air of the apartment is prevented from being ' burnt,' or over dried ; for no air is allowed to come in contact with the heated metal without receiving an intermixture of water vapour." An important move in the right direction has been made by different exhibitors, who provide for drawing air into the fire from the outside of the room, and heating it behind the grate. Edwards & Son bring it into the room below the fender, after being thus warmed. This warm air, being brought from the stove, does not rush towards the fire, having been already sufficiently rarefied. Mr. Woodcock conveys the air into the room through a space between the grate and the chimney-piece, covered with ornamental open work. Here, again, there is scope for improvement ; for, as the Jurors' Report observes, " the air might be passed into the room above, near the floor, with great advantage, when it would rise and fill the room with that pleasant warmth which we find in lobbies heated with warm ah' from a cellar fire, or from an Arnott stove. The waste heat of one room would thus be economised by being used in the room above. It will well reward inventors to contrive the best and safest methods by which th« heat we now waste in our chimnies may be utilised for the purpose of wanning our bed-rooms." There is too much truth in the statement of Dr. Angus Smith, in reference to the inventions shown in this department, that "the mechanical contrivance is behind our scientific knowledge." It is a remarkable fact, that while the Commissioners were over- whelmed with applications for space in almost every other part of the Exhibition, the Jury of Section B, Class X., should have to state, that " they have not been over- whelmed, as some have been, with the number of applicants." Very significantly they observe, that "they see the direction from which many contrivances must come;" and add, that " society is waiting for them." Ingenious inventions are still wanting to give effect to the important discoveiy, long since published by Dr. Arnott, in his Elements of Physic, and which he thus describes : — " Any given quantity of water (it may be boiling), and an equal quantity of cold water (it may be freezing), can be caused to run past each other in separate channels, and shall not, thereby, become a double quantity, having a middle temperature, but the boiling water shall immediately be cooled to very near the freezing point, and the freezing water shall be heated to near the boiling point ; in other words, the two shall wholly exchange temperatures." Dr. Arnott also found that the same interchange can be effected between quantities of air, so that foul air issuing from a breathing crowd, can be made to give pure warmth to an equal quantity of fresh air entering. It is certainly remarkable that, among the practical and inventive L 52 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE men of our country, " there should not yet have been found more than three who have taken patents for approximations to it (a good heat transferrer), and that those approximations should be very imperfect." Our readers who possess an inventive genius, will find a wide, and, it may be, a profitable scope for their talents in this department. Windows, on a new plan, were exhibited by Mr. Askew, so constructed as to present either side for cleaning in the room. By this plan, which the Jurors describe as "ingenious, and, perhaps, valuable," the sashes can be completely turned round, by simply lifting the brass knobs placed at the sides of the bars. The Jurors withhold from this invention the praise to which it seems entitled, because " one is afraid, on seeing it rapidly move round, lest, by leaning on it in an unguarded moment, it would give way, and leave you to fall." Ordinary care and prudence would prevent the danger thus apprehended; and, further to quote the Jurors, "it is a pity that such an objection should exist against a window which is the most convenient of all for persons who sit occasionally before a window, and prefer to modify the amount of air according to their pleasure, and not to be compelled to move then- seats whenever the window is to be opened or shut." A much greater advantage to be gained by this mode of construction, is the removal of a most fertile source of accidents from persons cleaning windows in the ordinary way, and who are constantly tempted to break the law, and jeopardise their lives, by standing or sitting on the window-sill to do their work. Gas AjDparatus of various kinds, to assist in its manufacture, and to regulate and register its consumption, were shown in connection with the Court we have just examined. The exhibitors, in their different departments, all display much skill hi design and execution. There was Mr. Bower's apparatus for the manufacture of gas, with the greatest regard to the economising of space ; Edmundson & Co.'s portable gas apparatus, with the furnace so arranged as to make part of the heat available for cooking ; Cookey & Son's regulating valve, as used in a large number of English gas- works; Simmons' arrangement, called the Gas and Water Connector, to prevent accidents in connecting service-pipes with gas-mains, by preventing the escape of gas during the change of the tools : but the most attractive of these objects was the copy of the Standard Gas-holder, manufactured by Messrs. Glover for the Exchequer. This apparatus, for which the manufacturer obtained a medal and the highest com- mendations, is remarkable for the great precision with which it registers the consump- tion of gas. The cylinder, or bell, is composed of an alloy of tin and antimony, which effectually resists the action of rust, being unaffected either by gas or water ; and the finer subdivisions of the register are read off by an eye-piece affixed to the frame of the cistern. The Jury state that they have given him their warmest recommendations, and that, "no doubt, much ought besides to be given for the enthusiastic manner in which he has done his work, and the constant determination not to lose the smallest opportunity of making even the slightest improvement." We shall not do justice to the public, nor to Messrs. Dauchell, if we leave this Court without noticing their Water-testing Apparatus, which is well adapted for domestic and manufacturing uses, as well as for the traveller and the emigrant. The INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 53 patentees observe, with the greatest truth, that all natural water, from whatever source obtained, is more or less impregnated with impurity of some kind ; and it cannot be too well understood, that water which has been esteemed as the best, is sometimes the most impure. This Water-testing Apparatus consists of seven small glass-stoppered bottles, containing readily-prepared chemicals, with test-tubes to hold the water ; the whole being sufficiently compact to be carried in the pocket. South Courts. — Military Engineering. — Class XI. — The Court adjoining that through which we have passed was occupied with Military Engineering, Armour and Accoutrements, Ordnance, and Small Arms. Without repeating the regrets which we have already expressed, as to the causes which have produced a display such as was happily wanting in our First International Exhibition, we scarcely need confirm the statement that, "in no period of the same duration has so wonderful a progress been made in everything connected with the art of war, as that which has marked the course of the last ten years." It would, in some degree, have mitigated the uneasy feelings with which this display was contemplated, if all nations had agreed to a full and unreserved exhibition of the weapons with which they proposed to conduct the work of mutual destruction, as such a representation might tend to the settlement of inter- national disputes by the exercise of reason, and a better application of skill than for forging weapons of war. We had not, however, the satisfaction of so regarding the array of Arms and Ordnance made by various countries, inasmuch as (to quote the Jurors' Report) " the British Government is the only one which has attempted anything approaching a full and complete exhibition of its implements of war. In the Foreign Courts, the few specimens which have been produced are, with but rare exceptions, the contributions of private individuals ; but few of the governments of Europe having forwarded any examples of their artillery." The Jurors ascribe this fact to the circumstance, "that more or less of mystery is still maintained, in almost all countries, on the subject of military armament ; . . . . whilst the implements of war are, as at present, in a state of transition ; whilst new trials and experiments are taking place daily, and new hopes are perpetually arising of attaining to a perfection not yet realised." Sections A and B were devoted to Military Clothing, Accoutrements, Tents, Camp Equipage, and Military Engineering, and were supplied by but few exhibitors ; but, in Section C — Arms and Ordnance — these were numerous, as the whole number amounted to 315. Our attention is claimed, not only by these individual exhibitors, but by important companies, and the highest governmental authorities. We had to examine the terrible engines of Sir William Armstrong and Mr. Whitworth ; of Mr. Lancaster ; of the Mersey Steel and Iron Company ; the London Armoury Company ; the Elswick Ordnance Company ; and of the Royal Departments, under the control of the Secretary at War. As the Whitworth and Armstrong guns were, at the time of the Exhibition, and still are, rival claimants for public favour, it may be well to state the peculiarities of each, leaving to others the responsibility of deciding on their claims. It is scarcely necessary to observe, that all the specimens shown in the Exhibition, were remarkable for the perfection of their workmanship, leaving nothing to be desired in exactness of measurement and finish of execution. 54 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE The Whitworth Gun, made of homogeneous iron, in character like hammered steel, and remarkable for toughness, is forged in a solid mass, and afterwards bored ; and, to increase its strength, fortified with "jackets" of wrought iron, forced on by pressure. It is rifled on the hexagonal bore system ; the projectile it has to discharge having also six sides to correspond with the chamber of the gun. In the official description, we are informed, that " the bore of the gun is really twelve-sided, one-half of each of the sides of the hexagon being cut away, to facilitate the passage of the projectile into the gun." The charge of powder required is one-sixth of the weight of the shot. It should be noticed, also, that " no special fuse is required when firing the shell, as the flash of the explosion ignites the fuse in the front, placed, and used like the ordinary time fuse." Mr. Whitworth exhibited a 1 -pounder muzzle-loading rifle cannon; and a 6-pounder breech-loading rifled cannon — the breech action on the screw principle; a 12-pounder brass rifled field-piece; a 32-pounder rifled naval gun; a 70-pounder rifled naval gun ; also, projectiles of various calibres, solid shot and shell, ranging from 1 to 70-pound ers. " The Armstrong Gun Trophy," of which we have preserved a faithful illustration, gives not only the weapon in its completeness, but in its various parts, and in the projectiles it has to discharge. The " coiled system," noticed in our illustration, is the most important and distinctive feature in the Armstrong ordnance, and cannot be more correctly stated than in the words of the Jurors, when they tell us that this " gun is made of wrought iron bars, coiled into hoops, which are then welded together, bored, and turned in a lathe, and built up into a gun, by shrinking one over the other, and arranged so as to give the proper amount of strength to the various parts, throughout the length of the gun." The object sought by this peculiar arrangement, is to secure the utmost advantage possible from the fibre of the iron, so that its greatest power of resistance shall be in constant use. The rifling has a number of small grooves, the number varying in different guns ; and the " twist," or curvature of the grooves, ranging from one turn in thirty-eight calibres, to one in thirty. This gun is loaded at the breech, by means of a slot cut froin the upper side into the bore, of sufficient length to admit the projectile and a charge of powder, and of a 'breadth a little larger than the diameter of the bore. A movable vent-piece fits into the space formed by the slot, and, being furnished with handles, can be easily lifted out of the space, or dropped into it. An efficient arrangement, also, is made for the escape of gas at the moment of explosion, by means of a circular plate of copper, which enters the bore behind the charge. We need not describe the arrangement by which the detonating cap is struck, the discharging cartridge fired, and its fire communicated to the main cartridge in the bore of the gun. There is an important difference, also, between the outward form of the projectile for the Whitworth and Armstrong guns, which, in the latter case, is surrounded by a leaden envelope, attached, by a zinc medium, to the iron shell it encloses. The Whitworth projectile, as we have seen, cor- responds in shape to the chamber of the gun ; but the Armstrong projectile has a larger diameter than the bore of the gun, from which it receives its size and shape by being forced in. It should be noticed, also, that the charge of powder required is only one- eighth the weight of the shot, instead of one-sixth, as in Whitworth's. Each ot the INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 55 Armstrong guns is fitted with a set of sights for short ranges, and another set of side or tangent sights, for long ranges. This famous trophy contained tiers of coils, varying from twelve to thirty inches in diameter ; they were shown in their different stages — coiled, welded, finish-bored, and turned. As " the workman is known by his chips," the great skill displayed in this manufacture was shown by a shaving of metal, which, if opened out, would extend to 1,200 feet in length. To prove that the relative merits of these guns have yet to be decided, we may remark, that when we had written the above description, we observed the announce- ment that a committee had been appointed to test the merits of the Armstrong and Whitworth guns. By order of the War Department, six 110-pounders, on the Armstrong breech-loading principle, are immediately to be constructed, at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich; and in then* manufacture, steel coils are to be used. It has also been announced, that Mr. Whitworth is busily engaged at Southport in carrying out experiments, with a view of perfecting his gun, which is to be tested against one of Sir William Armstrong's, of similar weight. The following tabular statements will serve as a record of the results these terrible pieces of ordnance have accomplished : it will be seen, however, that except in one case, that of a 12-pounder, charged with 1 lb. 8 oz. of powder, and at an elevation of 5°, they do not furnish the proper means of comparison, as in all other cases there are some important differences in the circumstances in which the guns were placed. The work of the Armstrong guns is thus recorded : — lOQ-pounder — charge 12 lbs 20-pounder — charge 2 lbs. 10 o. Elevation. Bange. 'Time of Flight. Elevation. Bange. Time of Flight. Point-blank . . . 345 yards 0"8 seconds. Point-blank . . . 250 yards . . •8 seconds. 1° . . 680 „ . . 2 >> 1 D . . . 510 „ 20 „ 5° . . 1970 „ • 6-8 >) 5° . . . 1850 „ . . 64 „ 10° . . 3470 „ 40-_po unde r — charge 5 /6s. 12-3 91 10° . . . 3250 „ . . 12-pounder — charge 1 lb. 8 o: 11-9 ., Elevation. Range. Time of Flight. Elevation. Range. Time of Flight. Point-blank . . . 360 yards . 1-0 seconds. Point-blank . . . 330 yards . . 1 '2 seconds. 1 J . • 730 „ . 2-2 >J 1° . . . 680 „ 21 „ 5° . . 2160 „ . 6 25 5° . . . 1940 „ . . 5-9 „ 10° • . o'6-jo ,, . . 12 6 10° . . . 3108 „ . . 11-6 „ Whitworth's 12-pounder field gun, in competition with a 12-pounder Armstrong at Shoeburyness, on the 2nd and 3rd of April, 1861, gained the following results : — Number Mean Mean of Charge. Elevation. time of range of Greatest deflection. Rounds. flight. first graze. lbs. Degrees. Seconds. Yards. 5 If 2 3 5 1290 Left — \ yard. Right — 3 yards. 5 n 2 3 5 1198 Left — nil. Right — 2^ yards. 5 if 5 6 9 2368 Left — lj yards. Right — 2 yards. 5 11 5 71 2471 Left — 2^ yards. Right — nil. (Wind increasing). 5 10 13 1 4400 Left — 10 yards. Right — nil. (Wind changed and increasing, squally). 5 ij 10 .12 7 4223 Left — 4 yards. Right — nil. The Mersey Steel and Iron Company, famous for its Horsfall monster gun, forged 56 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE in 1856, exhibited another of its enormous productions — the " Prince Alfred" Gun, weighing 10 tons 15 cwt. 2 qrs. 14 lbs. This celebrated piece of ordnance was in all respects the great gun of the Exhibition, and never failed, in its peaceful state of repose, to attract large crowds ; and we may feel assured that it was well prepared, if excited, to destroy them, as it can propel a projectile of from 500 to 600 lbs. The experience of the exhibitors has taught them, that in forging such large masses of iron, much injury is done to the weapon by forging it in a solid mass, as, in cooling, the metal contracts unequally, thereby causing cracks and flaws in the interior of the gun. These guns are therefore now forged hollow, and, in consequence, the metal cools, and contracts equally. The Mersey Steel and Iron Company, em- ploying a patent of Mr. Clay, claim for their guns the merit of reduced cost, rapidity of fire (as they can give nineteen rounds in a minute), freedom of the screw from liability to foul (as it is completely covered), and great strength in the gun. Of this latter quality they have afforded a most satisfactory proof in the experiment they made with one of their 2-pounders. This gun was charged with an iron cylinder, 5 feet 7 inches long, weighing 88 lbs., and projecting eighteen inches out of the muzzle. This projectile was fixed without injury to the gun, but only to be followed by a more hazardous experiment ; for the gun was then loaded with eighteen shot, and a six-foot cylinder, projecting five feet out of the muzzle. The projecting end was placed against the solid rock; and instead of the gun firing the shot, the shot discharged the gun, which it threw back ; and although this experiment was made twice (the second time with 2 lbs. of powder), and the trial on the gun was calculated to be equal to firing 465 lbs. of powder, the gun was uninjured. The power of all this terrific artillery, and the strength of materials by which their force is resisted, were shown by many remarkable illustrations sent to this department of the Exhibition. There was a wrought iron plate, 4| inches thick, broken by a spherical shot of 282 lbs., projected by a charge of 25 lbs. of powder, from the Horsfall monster gun, being the first armour plate ever broken. As we are now in the age of armour-clad ships, it has become necessary to create weapons sufficiently strong to penetrate, and to smash this formidable encasement ; and hence the various specimens of ship armour broken by our guns. There was shown another plate, 41 inches thick, backed by a foot and a-half of solid teak, destroyed by a shot from the "Prince Alfred," by charges of 20 and 30 lbs. of powder. The Lancaster guns have also displayed most terrific power in dealing with the mailed coating of ships. A target, representing the side of a corvette, was completely penetrated at a range of 4,800 yards, by a shot from one of these guns. The gun by which this result was obtained was a 1 00-pound er, of cast iron, the gun weighing 95 cwt. The shells fired are of wrought iron, weighing 82 lbs., in one solid piece. The Lancaster gun gives a rotation to the projectile by the twist in the oval boring. Projectiles were exhibited in great variety as to size, purpose, and modes of operation. Sir William Armstrong's segment shells, and fuzees of different kinds, display the greatest inventive skill. The segment shell obtains its name from the numerous small segmental blocks in its interior, held together by a coating of lead. INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 57 wliicli forms the receptacle for the bursting charge. On explosion, the shell disperses its contents into a vast number of fragments — as many as 112 of these segments being employed in the 110-pounder. The Armstrong fuzees are properly described as beautiful pieces of mechanism. It may be well to understand that, owing to the improved method of charging our guns, new conditions had to be met. The old smooth bore caused sufficient windage to admit of the flame of the powder passing round the projectile, whieh is not possible with Armstrong's gun. In that gentleman's time fuze, the composition is placed in a ring, round the outer portion of the fuze, communicating, at a point in its circumference, with the exploding charge in the centre. A small detonating charge communicates, by means of a movable passage, with the fuze composition, and can be set so as to form a connexion with it, at any point of the circumference. The time at which the shell will explode can be regulated by the distance between these two points of connexion. The ignition is produced by a needle pellet, fastened to the head of the fuze by a pin. This pin is broken by the shock of the discharge, and the pellet driven into the detonating composition, which explodes. There is great ingenuity in the concussion fuze, which is thus described: — It "consists of a needle pellet, suspended in the chamber of the fuze, by two brass wires. The shock of the explosion snaps these wires, and fires the pellet, which, during the flight of the shell, rests against the bottom of the fuze. On concussion, however, the pellet flies forward, into a small mass of detonating compo- sition at the head of the fuze, which it ignites, thus causing the explosion of the shell." One of the most astonishing of the missiles exhibited was " Mallet's" monster shell, which weighed about a ton and two hundredweight, its diameter being 36 inches. One of these shells, discharged at Woolwich, described a circle of about three-quarters of a mile in height, and penetrated the ground to a depth of eighteen feet. The Parachute Light-Ball, of Colonel Boxer, is an object of great interest. It is designed to show the enemy's movements by night ; and this it effects by throwing into the air a parachute, containing a composition which ignites, and throws a light on the surrounding country for a considerable distance. In these days of target practice, attention is due to the arrangements for record- ing the hits at a target, without employing the time, and risking the safety, of the markers during the period spent in practice by a squad of men. Captain M'Neill exhibited his patent Self-indicating Targets, very ingeniously constructed. The face is made of half-inch wrought iron plates, firmly bolted to a strong iron or wooden framing. In a Regulation Target, six feet high by four feet wide, of Captain M'Neill's construction, the front or face is divided into four compartments, consisting of upper, lower, centre, and bull's-eye. Upon a bullet striking either of the plates, the blow will cause a hammer, placed behind, and in contact with the back of the plate, to rebound, and force back a lever to which it is connected. The motion of this lever will relieve a pin or crank attached to a shaft, which, being acted on by a heavy weight, will immediately begin to rotate ; and, in so doing, will act upon another lever, and throw up a semaphore arm, which, by appearing above the top of the target, will indicate that the plate has been struck by a bullet. All the plates of which the target is composed, are provided with a similar arrangement of hammers, levers, and semaphore 58 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE arms — the latter, however, being of different form or colours, to indicate the several plates. The Electric Target of Mr. Gisbome is designed to secure the same advantage — that of preserving a complete and correct diagram of a day's practice without the aid of a marker. It is divided into seventeen portions, each being of a different level, by which the evil of a double record, when the shot strikes the intersections between two plates, is avoided. Small Arms were shown by a large number of exhibitors, displaying many improvements and great excellence of workmanship. All the small arms in use in the British Army and Navy, were shown by the Birmingham Small Arms Trade Associa- tion, by whom they are manufactured in large numbers for the Government, and whose trophy sustained the high character Birmingham has hitherto possessed in this department. The Enfield Rifle, which may be purchased at £2 5s., and is manufactured at the rate of from 1,500 to 1,800 a-week, is an object of much interest ; and the following description of the process of its manufacture may prove acceptable : — " The materials for the barrels of the arms made at the Government works, are brought to the factory in slabs half an inch thick, twelve inches long, and four inches broad. Those slabs of iron are carefully forged to insure the crossing of the fibres of the iron. They are heated, and first bent into a tubular form ; they are then heated again, and, while white-hot, passed between iron rollers, which weld the joining down the middle, and, at the same time, lengthen the tube nearly three inches. This heating is several times repeated, and the process of rolling continued until the barrel assumes the form of a barrel about four feet long, having a bore down the centre, about a quarter of an inch in diameter. The muzzles are then cut off; the "butts" made up, and the process of welding on the nipple lump is begun. This operation requires much care, and is executed with great quickness and skill by trained workmen. The barrels pass from the smithy to the boring department: they are arranged horizontally; and the first-sized bore is drawn upwards from the breech to the muzzle. The second boring is effected with rapidity, but the third slowly ; and after the fourth boring, the barrel is finished to within the twj of an inch of its proper diameter. The outside is ground down to its service size, and the barrel is straightened ; it is then tested by a proof charge of one ounce of powder and one ball. The next step is to fix the nipple-screw, nipple, and breech-pin. The barrel is then bored for the fifth time, and it passes to the finishing shop. In rifling the Enfield, each groove is cut separately, the bit being drawn from the muzzle to the breech. The depth of the rifling is 0-5 at the muzzle, and 0-13 at the breech; and the width of each groove is -ft- of an inch. After rifling, the barrel is again proved with half an ounce of powder and a single ball. It is then sighted, trimmed off, milled, levelled, browned, gauged, and at last finished so perfectly, that the steel gauge of "577 of an inch passes freely through, while that of -588 will not enter the muzzle." We must here refer to the great improvement which has been recently effected in the tools and apparatus employed in rifled gunnery. Sir William Armstrong pre- sented a remarkable assortment of the principal tools and gauges used in the manu- facture of his guns. The gauges are properly described as models of workmanship, INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 59 being constructed for dimensions, some of which consist of inches in three places ot decimals ; or, in other words, the one-thousandth part of an inch. Exquisitely perfect, indeed, must be the tools for work of such minute measurements. The fame of the Whitworth Rifle will give an interest also to the description of its manufacture. "The length of the barrel is thirty-nine inches; it is uniformly tapering, being 1" at the breech and 7" at the muzzle ; the weight of the barrel is 4 lbs. 7 1 oz. ; the bore is hexagonal, measuring across the angles 49" ; and, across the sides, the spiral is one turn in 20, being uniform throughout. The cartridges contain the powder-charge, lubricating wad, and projectile, arranged in proper order, so as to be pushed down into the barrel by the ramrod in one operation, without reversing the cartridge." The number of exhibitors of double guns and rifles was no less than forty-eight ; and it should be observed, that the introduction of the breech-loading principle is the great novelty since 1851. The pieces shown were double guns and rifles, both breech and muzzle-loading, for sporting purposes ; and single breech and muzzle-loading rifles for target practice. Gruns of a cheap kind, for commercial purposes, were shown in great variety. Mr. Storm's Breech-loading Rifle, which attracted much attention, and is regarded as one of the best rifles invented, has some very important advantages ; not the least being the certainty that it will not fire accidentally, as the chamber must always be perfectly closed before firing. The principle may be applied to every description of fire-arms, as the connection between the barrel and the stock is not weakened : it is adapted to the use of the bayonet; and, what is most important, it cannot catch in the dress or the accoutrements. It is unnecessary to commend this advantage to those who have any idea of the numerous fatal accidents which have been occasioned by the lever catching in the dress of the sportsman. After inspecting all this apparatus for the destruction of life, it affords some relief to notice the appliances invented for the comfort and restoration of the sick and wounded. Never before was so much skill and science applied to these benevolent ends ; and it is due to a lady, whose name it is scarcely necessary to record — Miss Florence Nightingale — to the late Lord Herbert, and their associates — to acknowledge the benevolent aids they have recently afforded to the British army, by the attention they have devoted to the men who are disabled in our service. We may notice the model of a Wing Hospital, for use in the tropics, constructed by Major Moffat in India. This building, which allows 2,000 cubic feet space for each man, is raised three feet from the ground ; slopes off to a distance of fifty feet on all sides, the roof being so pitched as to present the smallest area to the sun's rays, and, consequently, to secure a lower temperature than is obtained by any other arrangement. This important effect is, to a great degree, promoted by covering the main roof with two layers of one-inch bricks, and tiles three-fourths of an inch thick. The great benefit of a thorough ventilation is secured by flues, covered with large slabs, which, being heated by the tropical sun, tend to exhaust the air. Umballa, in which this hospital is erected, is intensely hot ; but, by these combined arrangements, a great reduction of temperature is effected, not only in the interior of the building, but also in the verandah, where the M 60 ILLUSTEATED HISTORY OF THE men take their meals. The models of field ambulances also showed the great care which has been recently bestowed on the comfort of our sick and wounded soldiers. There were carriages of all kinds, from the small ambulance, to be wheeled by one man, to the large waggon, manufactured at the Royal Carriage Department, for the safe conveyance of a large number. The models showed how these carriages were to be drawn by horses, mules, or bullocks ; and, in their variety of forms, displayed the application of the greatest ingenuity to the good work of mitigating suffering, and securing relief with the utmost despatch. It is, however, somewhat humbling to find, after the skill displayed in all these inventions, that, as the Jurors assert, " Amidst these varieties, the simple dhoolie, which has been in use for more than a century in Hindostan, would appear to be the most comfortable conveyance for a sick or wounded man, and would be universally adopted were it not for the number of porters required for it." "We regard with the same feelings of satisfaction the contrivances for fmTiisliing to the soldier the best mode of suspending his knapsack. Colonel Trowbridge exhibited his plan of a metal yoke, passing behind the neck, curving under the arms, and bringing the load fairly on the shoulders. Colonel O'Halloran uses two small plates of soft iron, covered with leather, bent to the form of the soldier's chest, and affording points whence the straps pass over the shoulders ; these plates being kept in position by small thongs of leather, proceeding from the bottom of the knapsack. The advantage of ventilation is secured by attaching a leather strap between the two arms of iron, by which arrangement, also, greater stability is given to the load. Volunteers and tourists may derive advantage from these inventions. Works of defence have engrossed much attention during the last few years, in which so many minds at home have been haunted with the fear of invasion ; and the introduction of the rifled musket, and rifled cannon, has produced a transition period in the history of British fortification. We had a rnllitary model of London and adjacent country, showing a hue of defences, consisting of nine forts connected by redoubts and earthworks, and enclosing an area of twenty-two miles by fourteen miles. These forts and lines would mount 2,151 guns ; and the forts would occujDy Telegraph Hill, Forest Hill, Tooting Common, the Ridgeway, Richmond Park, Mortlake, Ealing, Hanger Hill, and Whernbley. Harbours and river mouths have also received attention ; and among the methods proposed for then defence, Is a battery, resembling a round tower, with a conical roof, rising a short distance above the water. This tower is enclosed In another, resembling a gigantic circular tank, completely hidden below the water-line, kept in position by rollers at the sides, and revolving on an axis in the centre. " From this tower a continual fire is supposed to be kept up at the enemy — the tower revolving as fast as the guns are fired.' Fortifications, in which we could repose confidence before the introduction of rifled cannon, cannot now be regarded as equal to the wants of time. The experiments on the martello tower at Eastbourne, have shown that, "before such ordnance as will henceforth take the field, exposed masonry is little better than cardboard for the purpose of fortification." Hence the Importance of the iron forts, of which a model INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 61 was exhibited by Captain Du Cane. The parapet is constructed of two thicknesses of iron slabs, forming a wall of iron sixteen inches thick, by means of an ingenious method of interlacing. The same system is proposed to be applied to bomb-proof batteries, towers, and forts. It is stated that this mode of construction may effect such a saving as to counterbalance the higher cost of the material. It is to be regretted that the strength gained by tliis method was not properly tested before opinion was invited, as we can now speak of it only in the uncertain terms employed by the Jurors ; who say — " If this iron wall be found strong enough to resist the heaviest guns likely to be used in field sieges, it can be readily applied to existing fortifications, for the purpose of protecting vital parts. In detached works, it might form an impregnable keep ; and it might be used alone, in the shape of isolated towers, to occupy advanced posts of ground." Naval Architecture. — Class XI., including ships' tackle, is our next department of the South Courts, and includes sub-class A — ships for purposes of war and commerce ; B — boats, barges, and vessels for amusement ; and C — ships' tackle and rigging. Here, as in the Courts from which we have just passed, we were surrounded with proofs of the great revolution which has been effected in the British Navy and our mercantile marine since the Exhibition of 1851. "In that year," as the Jurors in this class state, " there was but one steam line-of-battle ship, the Napoleon ; there are now, in this country and in France, extensive fleets of such ships, comprising both two and three- deckers. Not only have line-of-battle ships, of three and two decks, been designed and built especially as steam-ships, but many, indeed almost all, of our useful sailing line- of-battle ships have been adapted for the reception of engine and screw-propellers. Some of them have been lengthened, to give the additional displacement correspond- ing to the weight of the machinery and coals intended to be put into them. Thus," say the Jurors, "this country has, between the years 1851 and 1862, witnessed the mighty transformation of her sailing fleet into a steam navy of unrivalled power and magnitude." An opportunity was given, by inspecting the series of models exhibited by the Lords of the Admiralty, to study the progress of our naval architecture from the time of Henry VII. down to the present day, including the royal and mercantile navies, sailing vessels and steamers, paddles and screws, mail-clad iron vessels, and those wooden walls which are rapidly losing their former glories. Our space does not afford the opportunity to give more than a passing reference to the Great Harry, launched in the time of Henry VIII., carrying 50 guns, and of 1,000 tons' burden; or to the Sovereign of the Seas, with 100 guns, and built for Charles I. ; or to the Royal William, launched ten years after the restoration in 1 670 ; or to the Royal George, of 100 guns, built in 1756, and which foundered off Spithead in 1782, with the admiral and a crew of 800 men on board; or to the Victory, 121 guns, Nelson's flag-ship at Trafalgar; or to the Queen, 116 guns, built in 1838; or the Howe, 121 guns, the last three-decker built for the British navy. We must come to the non-clad vessels of our own times, of which the first is the Erebus, 16 guns, and 1,054 tons' burden, launched in 1856. The Warrior, launched the same year as La Gloire of France, 1861, was our first armour-cased man-of-war, and its 62 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE models attracted great admiration. By means of a transverse sectional model, and by the beautiful model of the whole vessel, shown in the Nave, the structure and interior arrangements of the Warrior could be well understood; but, much as she was admired, we are obliged to acknowledge the truth of the judgment, that, " though a ship of great dimensions and tonnage, and probably unequalled, certainly unsurpassed, in speed and general sea-going efficiency, by any ship of war afloat, (she) is still but a highly successful example of that series of unavoidable compromises with which all naval constructors are familiar." Nautical men perceived, in this mailed Warrior, the want of complete protection fore and aft, and of other sea-going qualities which were essential to perfection. Hence it has been resolved to construct three more of these armed vessels, of greater length, breadth, and steam-power ; and a model of one of them, the Northumberland, had its place in the British Courts. This vessel, a model of which was exhibited by Messrs. C. J. Mare & Co., its builders, has the following dimensions: — 400 feet in length, 59 feet in breadth, 21 feet depth in the hold, and a draught of 25 feet of water fore, and 26 feet aft. Her stern is coated with 5 \ -inch armour-plates, backed by 9 inches of solid teak. The weight of her armour-plates is 5,320 tons, and her whole tonnage is 6,620 tons. Few visitors failed to admire her wrought iron crank-shaft, weighing 25 tons, and exhibited by the Mersey Steel and Iron Company in Class I. Our mercantile navy was well represented by a number of excellent models, from which it was gratifying to mark the great progress that has been made, since 1851, in the science as well as the art of naval architecture. The degree of perfection to which our commercial navy has now attained, is shown by the fact, "that the very hour of arrival of our mail steamers, from continents thousands of miles from our shores, is now confidently looked forward to with expectations which are rarely disappointed. No language could express so forcibly as this fact, to people whose memory will carry them back a few years, the immense advance that has been made in naval architecture and marine engineering." Not only have our first-class vessels been increased in dimensions, they have also been improved greatly in their proportions. The proper ratio of length to breadth is now much better understood than in former years. The dimensions of the Great Britain, built in 1851, the largest merchant vessel then afloat, are: — Length of keel, 289 feet; extreme breadth, 50 feet 6 inches; tonnage, 3,444. The dimensions of the Himalaya, built in 1853, are: — Length of keel, 322 feet; extreme breadth, 46 feet; tonnage, 3,542. On comparing these numbers, it will be seen that the changes thus indicated, relate as much to the relative proportions of the vessel as to the increase of bulk, and by which the conditions for an increase of speed are secured, those conditions being, "fine lines, and a small area of mid-ship section." Mr\ Scott Russell, who exhibited a number of vessels he had built on the " wave- line" principle, is entitled to a greater amount of honour than could be conferred by the Jurors, for the great service he has rendered to our naval architecture. The laborious, scientific researches of that gentleman, in connection with Dr. Whewell and other members of the British Association, led to the discovery of the great principle which he is now canying into effect, and of which our navy is reaping the Vj. = a INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 63 advantage. It is now well known that tliis principle admits of universal applica- tion, being adapted to ships of entirely opposite character, and intended for very different uses. In our hasty survey, we regret that we cannot attempt anything like justice to the Great Eastern, the building of which has been properly described as forming an epoch in the history of naval architecture, and producing a monument of the mechanical skill and commercial enterprise of the nineteenth century. We need now scarcely state that she was designed by the late Mr. Brunei and Mr. J. S. Russell, and shows how well the wave-line principle may be applied to the largest vessels. This enormous mass of floating iron has a tonnage of 22,927, and 2,500 horse-power — 1,000 for the paddle-wheels, and 1,500 for the screws. The Orleans and Lyons have been particularly noticed, as showing how the wave-line principle assists to secure the best qualities a vessel can possess. Both these vessels have, for five years, run between Diejjpe and Newhaven without any interruption from the weather, maintaining a high speed, and displaying the best sea-going qualities. The same principle is shown in the Donna Maria Anna, the Bann, and Brune, vessels of war; one being a deep, sharp-bottomed, capacious vessel, and the others flat, shallow-water, paddle-wheel gun-boats, designed for service in the Baltic. The great attention now directed to the improvement of the lines on which vessels are constructed, was illustrated by a variety of exhibitors ; among whom was Mr. Tovell, whose models claim the merit of a new invention, as every section of his ships, both longitudinal and transverse, forms part of a new circle. The Margaret, one of his vessels of 108 tons, beat the yachts Phantom and Thought, in running from Erith round the Nore light-ship and back, a distance which she is said to have 'performed, on another occasion, in four hours and twenty minutes. One of the facts of which this part of the Exhibition furnished abundant proof, was the rapid substitution of iron for wood in our mercantile navy. Ship-builders are now training their hands to meet the requirements of the times ; and it is gratifying to learn that they are readily overcoming the difficulties in the transfer of their labour from wood to iron. There can now be but little doubt, that, in a very few years, iron will be almost universally substituted for wood, as the material for ship-building. In favour of iron it is maintained, that a well-built iron vessel is practically indestructible, the decks being the only portions subject to early deterioration, and these jxrobably not more than decks laid on beams of wood. Then it is stated, that, " with the same weight of material judiciously disposed and properly fastened, it is possible to make a much stronger fabric of iron, than could be made by any mechanical combination of wood." These discoveries have an enhanced value, from the difficulty now experienced in obtaining English timber for ship-building at a moderate price. Our ship-builders are therefore, to a great extent, dependent on foreign markets, which might be suddenly closed against them ; and the failure of the material would create a calamity much greater than the cotton famine has caused among the operatives of Lancashire. It should be stated, however, that we are still in want of the inventive genius who can discover the means of preventing the oxidation of the bottoms of iron ships, and the N 64 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE adhesion of sea-weeds and shells. The latter of these evils is found to be greater than the former, as it retards the progress of the vessel, and necessitates an increase in the consumption of fuel. An obvious change in the manner of propelling steam- vessels, since 1851, is in substituting the screw for the paddle-wheel. Nearly all the models of 1851 had paddle-wheels ; and in 1862, nearly all had the screw-propeller. There were, however, some important excejitions in the Persia and Scotia — the former 360 feet long, 45 broad, and of 3,580 tons ; the latter, 370 feet long, 47 feet 6 inches broad, and of 4,050 tons. Both these vessels are famous for the most regular and rapid passages across the Atlantic. The Leinster has the merit of making, as the average of four runs, 17 - 797 knots; but the Connaugkt, built for the Dublin Steam-Packet Company, has gained a higher speed, on her trial trip, than any vessel yet built. Her length is 350 feet; breadth, 35; her power, 700 horses; and her average speed, 1 8*097. Life-boats have greatly improved in their form and equipments, and consequently in their efficiency, since 1851. None of those then exhibited, although they had done good service, combined all the qualities now deemed essential in a perfect life- boat ; and which are — extra buoyancy, lateral stability, self-discharge of water, power of self-righting, small internal capacity for water, yet sufficient space for wrecked persons, and for the crew to use their oars ; speed, and moderate, yet sufficient weight, with facility of transport along shore. We have the satisfaction of finding that there are 120 such boats, completely and efficiently equipped, stationed at all the prominent and most exposed points along the shores of Great Britain and Ireland. The Life- boat Institution exhibited the model of a row-boat, in which all these desiderata are combined, and which is very generally employed under its direction. A full-sized boat, with all its equipments, was shown in the gardens of the Horticultural Society.' The Institution received a prize for models, and the important accessories of life-belts, boats, liquid compass, heaving-lines, and life-buoys. Other exhibitors — Sir. H. Twyman, Mr. A. Hawkesworth, and Mr. H. T. Richardson — sent life-saving apparatus, having several interesting peculiarities in their design and construction. The model shown by Hawkesworth and Annesley, represented the life-boat used at Hartlepool. It is a boat of excellent quality, has done much service, and is very popular among the seamen to whom it belongs. It has great stability, and maintains a high speed at sea ; rights itself by partially filling with water the side air-cases ; has a self- discharge of water, through an opening with two holes, and large valves ; and weighs between four and five tons. The boat of Mr. Richardson, employed at Rhyl, consists of two parallel tubes of iron, two feet diameter, connected by a grating, or open-work deck, and thwarts above for rowers to sit upon. It draws only ten inches of water, and is therefore adapted for a flat beach. The activity and the great value of the Royal Life-boat Institution, cannot be demonstrated better than by the following account of a meeting held on the first day of the present year, 1863, at its house in the Adelphi ; from whose proceedings our limited space will allow us to give only the following brief extract : — "A reward of £6 10s. was voted to the crew of the Institution's life-boat, stationed at Lytham, for saving, on Friday last, during a gale of wind, the crew of thirteen persons of the barque Brazil, of .Liverpool, which, at INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 65 daylight, was observed on Salthouse Bank. The poor men had hurriedly abandoned the ship in their boat, as the seas were rolling in fearful violence over the wreck. The life-boat came up just in time to save them from a watery grave ; for in a few minutes afterwards the seas filled the ship'3 boat, and instantly sunk her. This valuable life-boat has this winter saved thirty-two shipwrecked persons. Amongst the number was a Liverpool pilot. On his relating to his co-pilots the narrow escape he had had of his life, and the noble exertions of the life-boat's crew, they voluntarily subscribed £14 amongst themselves, and handed the amount to the life-boat's crew, in gratitude for their services in rescuing him, and thirteen others, from the American ship Annie E. Hooper. — £6 9s. was also voted to pay the expenses of the Porthcawl life-boat, in saving, during a fearful gale of wind, ten persons from the schooner Champion, of Liverpool, which, on the dawn of the 20th ult. was observed, water-logged, on the Scarwether Sands, near Swansea. The cost of this valuable life-boat was presented to the Institution by a lady resident in Staffordshire ; and her satisfaction must indeed be great that she has thus contributed to the saving of ten persons from an impending death. — A reward of £4 was also given to the crew of the Thurso life-boat, belonging to the Institution, for saving, on the 19th ult., during a gale of wind, the crew of three men of the schooner Sisters, of Wick. The vessel soon afterwards became a total wreck. The cost of this life-boat was presented to the Institution by A. W. Jafl'ray, Esq., of St. Mildred's-court. — Also a reward of £5 9s. to the Institution's life-boat at Plymouth, for assisting, in conjunction with a government steam-tug, in bringing to a place of safety the Dutch galliot Aremana, which was observed to be rapidly drifting on shore in a heavy sea. This valuable life-boat was the gift of Miss Burdett Coutts to the National Life-boat Institution. — A contribution of 2s. Gd., in aid of the funds of the Institution, was received from the wife of an old Scotch sailor. She was said to be a good sailor herself, and thought that everybody should give something to the life-boat fund." Life-belts deserve to be mentioned in connection with life-boats. Some are formed on the principle of inflation, which, as we learn on inspection of the Assyrian monuments, is between three and four thousand years old, when inflated skins were used, as they are at this day, by persons crossing the Euphrates and the Tigris. Others are filled with cork shavings, or horse-hair. The best are considered to be those filled with cork cut in small pieces, and strung together, so as to be perfectly flexible. Captain Ward exhibited Life-jackets of this description, sufficient to support a man in the water with his clothes on, keeping his shoulders and chest above water, and so fastened on as not to interfere with his freedom while rowing. Four thousand of these excellent life-belts are distributed among the men employed on the stations of the National Life-boat Institution. The Royal Humane Society deserves honourable mention in our pages for the models of its apparatus, such as Ice-ladders, and Drags for rescuing persons from drowning in lakes, harbours, and rivers, and for the means it adopts for restoring animation. The Society has 260 stations, chiefly in and about London ; the principal being at the Serpentine, Hyde Park. It has been the means of restoring animation to 30,000 persons since its establishment ; and of these cases, 222 occurred during the past year (1862). When it is known that about 300 lives are saved each year on our coasts, by means of rockets communicating with the vessel in danger, it will be readily con- ceded that these instrumentalities deserve the greatest encouragement. Rockets and mortars for this purpose are supplied, by the Board of Trade, to the coast-guard around the coasts of the United Kingdom, under whose direction they are found to work admirably. The whole process of firing the fine, and carrying the skip wrecked to the shore, was perfectly represented in the models. These rockets now attain a range of 350 yards in fine weather, and about 300 yards against a strong wind. We most cordially join in the recommendation, that every vessel should provide itself with the means of communicating with the land, instead of being dependent on assistance from those ashore. Lieutenant Nares has shown how this may be done by 66 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE means of a kite. Mr. W. Rich exhibited a well-made kite, admirably adapted for this purpose ; and the efficiency of this simple apparatus will be at once perceived, when it is remembered that the stranded vessel is generally on the lee shore, to which the wind would carry the kite ; while the rocket sent from the shore has frequently to go against it. In the interest of humanity, we claim particular attention to the method of reefing topsails exhibited by Mr. H. D. C. Cunningham, the inventor. The practice of sending men aloft to reef the sails in a gale of wind, has long been regarded as an unfair and unnecessary exposure of the lives of our seamen, and, under control of tyrannical masters, has proved the cause of fatal calamities at sea. A wish to remove the source of these frequent evils, has led to several inventions for operating on the sails without leaving the deck of the vessel ; a design which is commended, not only by its humanity, but also by its economy of human labour — an object which ought to be desired in shipping as well as in every other kind of machinery. Mr. Cunningham's method of reefing sails from the deck, was invented and introduced in 1852, and has commanded the unanimous approbation of the Jurors of Class XII. in the late Exhibition. By this admirable method, the topsails are so fitted that they can be reefed and unreefed by the men of the watch on deck ; and not only are the men and boys relieved froni the danger and exposure attending the operation of reefing, but the vessel is saved from a loss of speed which attended the old method. The advantage thus secured has a sensible effect in shortening the time of a long sea voyage, and is felt particularly in working in narrow seas in unsettled weather. It is an additional and veiy important advantage of this humane contrivance, that it is attended by much economy, durability, and efficiency, and a considerable reduction of the quantity of ropes to be worked aloft. Of the efficiency of the principle, we have a most satisfactory proof in the fact, that the ship Champion of the Seas, whose maintop- sail-yard is upwards of eighty feet long by twenty-one inches in diameter, and weigh- ing about five tons, has been fitted up and worked under its direction, for upwards of four years, with perfect success. It is stated that above 3,000 vessels belonging to this country, are now worked by this method ; and that it is employed by other countries, from the clipper ships of 2,000 tons, to the coasting schooner of 50 tons. We cannot too strongly recommend the universal adoption of this great improvement, the claims of which ought to be recognised by her Majesty's navy as well as by our commercial marine ; and, it niay be hoped, will be importunately urged by those philanthropists who are earnestly endeavouring to remove unnecessary causes of suffering and a high mortality. Our navy has, within the last five years, adopted an improved method of reefing topsails, in imitation of the example set by the imperial navy of France ; the object being to secure a saving of material and labour, by the abandonment of the cumbrous method of reefing topsails with reef-points. Our wish is now, that the naval authorities may lose no time in recognising that imjDrovement, which can be urged, not only on the ground of humanity, but of justice to our seamen, whose lives are unnecessarily, and too often from mere caprice, exposed to peril. Compasses for nautical purposes must be mentioned among the omissions which INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 67 the jealous apprehensions of inventors failed to supply ; for, although Mr. J. Taylor exhibited a good Liquid Compass, fitted in a low binnacle, and well adapted for yachts- men ; and Mr. Gowland exhibited the introduction of the Vertical Card, for placing in elevated positions in iron ships, where the ordinary card compass cannot be seen ; and the Lords of the Admiralty exhibited the model of a Binnacle, designed originally for the main-deck of the Warrior; also another arrangement in winch magnets are introduced in the bottom of the compass bowl, and adjustments made for different latitudes by magnets of different powers ; and other inventions were shown of very questionable claims to praise — there was a failure to display the most efficient compasses for supplying the want which has grown up in this " iron age" of ship- building. The use of iron in the construction of ships, has occasioned a want, the importance of which is literally immense. The fear has been created that the magnetic attraction which had swayed the needle in our wooden ships, would lose its power in our iron vessels, and that we should have to abandon all the advantages offered by this new material, in consequence of the sacrifice of the indispensable compass. So recently as 1851, to quote the Jurors' Report, " the laws and general principles affecting the compass in iron ships, were professionally unknown. They had seriously engaged the attention of a few leading men of science; and so far back as 1839, the present Astronomer-Eoyal of England had made an extended series of experiments in the iron merchant ship Rainbotu. A tentative mode of adjusting the compass, published in 1840, by Mr. Airy, became the basis of a system of compensation since generally adopted in the mercantile marine." A most melancholy proof of the importance of this subject, was furnished in the fate of the emigrant ship Tayleur, built of iron, and which, with a great number of the crew and passengers, was lost off the east coast of Ireland early in 1854, through "changes in the ship's magnetism," or "the imperfect action of the conrpasses." Since that period, scientific men have been engaged in the investigation of the subject ; and it is now very satisfactory to find, that "a secure foundation of the theory and practice of compass management in iron ships is laid," which the intelligent seaman will understand. Recent improvements in the mariner's compass have been effected by the introduction of compound needles, and in the manufacture and fitting of liquid compasses, which have now become indispensable in any excessive motion of a ship. Many patents have been taken out for obviating entirely the effect of iron in the ship's compass; but the inventors are justly charged with overlooking the fundamental laws of magnetism, by dreaming that the interposition of a body between the magnet and the needle on which it acts, can intercept the action of the magnet. As it has been observed, it might as well be imagined that the interposition of a body between the earth and any other body, would intercept the action of the gravitation of the earth. We may, however, anticipate rapid progress in the practical application of discoveries which have been made during the last few years, by the scientific men who have investigated this most important subject. Inventors, however, will find that this desideratum, which our new circumstances require, will be obtained as the result of the growth of scientific discovery, and not of mechanical contrivance. In the meantime, 68 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE it is most important to remember, that, "in every vessel with iron beams, every compass should be at least three feet six inches from the deck." Lowering boats at sea from the vessel's side, has always been a dangerous and uncertain operation, and a fruitful source of accident. It was, therefore, gratifying to find in this department, several inventions for preventing accidents from this source, of more or less efficiency, but all well calculated to mitigate the evil. Mr. Clifford's method, which has been in use for several years, and to which a medal was awarded, affords the crew a sufficient degree of control in lowering a boat to the water, and setting it free at the right time. This method cannot be more correctly described than in the language of Mr. Robert Hunt: — "By Clifford's system, the boat is suspended from four points in the bow and stern, instead of from the keel, as hitherto, whereby the possibility of the boat's ' canting' is done away with. In the centre of the boat is a block, round which the lowering-line is wound, which is slackened out when the boat is being lowered. This line controls the movements of a roller round which the boat is suspended. The pendants run through two three-sheave blocks, which serve the purpose of a turn and a-half, and prevent the motion of the boat becoming too sudden. On the boat touching the water, the ' nip' is taken off the rope by the removal of the weight ; the pendants run themselves out, and the boat is free." Mr. Watson employs slip-hooks, operated upon by a rolling bar running along the keelson, and moved by a lever, each end of the bar being furnished with a bayonet socket-link receptacle for the disengaging bolts, which are released by the turning of the bar allowing them to escape from slots in the socket. Honourable mention was well bestowed on a method invented by the late Caj^tain Kynaston, the principal feature of which consists in the disengaging action being lodged in the hooks, while the slip action is produced by lines worked by the crew in the boat. It is a great recommendation of this method that its use is extending in the Royal Navy ; and it should be remembered, that the test of experience must be applied specially to apparatus for this purpose, which may look well in a model, but fail when brought into use, in the difficult circumstances in which it has to be employed. Under the simple designation of "Appliances connected with Ships" (2681), exhibited by J. W. Gray & Son, the exhibitors presented a model showing the method of applying tubular conductors in iron vessels and large mail steamers, for the purpose of preventing the destruction or the fatal damage of these vessels by lightning. They have been produced hi consequence of the recommendation of Sir W. Snow Harris, to lessen the violence of the electrical discharge on the general mass. To this gentleman the country is indebted for his scientific researches in relation to the influence of metals on electrical discharges. It is due to him to assert, that he has carried out "a permanent system of lightning conductors in her Majesty's ships and in buildings on shore, the result of which has been the complete preservation of the Royal Navy from lightning." The conclusion to which his scientific investigations have led him is, that " supposing the ship's masts, rigging, sails, and hull, to be metallic throughout, no damage could arise in such a case, because, from the moment the explosive lightning-flash struck on any point, that form of action would vanish, and the discharge easily find its way in all directions to the sea." His object has been, INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 69 therefore, to render the whole ship a Hghtning-conductor, by not allowing it to have any of those " explosive intervals" by which the natural discharge of the electric fluid is prevented. It has been his study, not to avoid the presence of metal, but to prevent any interruption in the passage of the lightning by a break in the application of this kind of conductor. His arrangements are all made in accordance with his own discovery, that "the lightning, when forcing a path through bodies which resist its progress, such as atmospheric air, glass, &c, violent expansive and explosive action results, attended with great evolutions of light and heat." The contrivances of Sir W. Snow Harris would, according to his well-established theory, have been unnecessary if our ships had been entirely of metal ; but where the course of the metal has been interrupted — where the masts are of wood while the ship is of iron, or the iron-rope rigging has been occasionally covered with tarred yarn, or, from its construction, has not proved favourable to the transmission of heavy discharges of electricity, metallic tubular conductors are recommended, that the electricity might be conducted over the ship's sides to the sea. Hence the great value of the tubular conductors, already noticed, by which the continuous line of conduction can be pre- served from the highest points of the vessel to the sea. We must not, however, allow our readers to conclude that all danger, from magnetic sources, connected with the use of iron instead of wood in ships, has been removed. The words of the Jurors on this point have a very serious significancy. They say — " We have, in fact, yet to learn all the possible effects of heavy strokes of lightning upon vast masses of metal, more especially in cases in which fittings of wood, and other bad conducting material of an inflammable kind, are interposed between iron plates. It is quite certain that the whole ship, under the influence of a thunder- cloud, will have its natural electrical condition greatly damaged, and the conducting power of the iron mass may become interfered with." They also remind us of the remarkable instance of the magnetising influence of heavy strokes of lightning upon iron masses, which occurred in the brig Tiveedside, of London, in April 1857, on the coast of Africa, when every compass in the ship was ruined, the magnetism of the needles being either destroyed, or so deranged, as to render them useless, while a cor- responding damage was inflicted on all the steel parts of the chronometers. Even the after-part of the ship, although built of wood, was so influenced, that compasses placed on two portions of the deck, varied eight points at a distance of ten feet apart, and the vessel was with difficulty safely navigated to England. Glass was placed in the Court immediately on the east of the Naval Architecture, and had seventy-nine exhibitors. The repeal of the duty on this most valuable article of our manufacture, has led, as might have been expected, to considerable improvement, by assisting our country successfully to compete with others. It is the deliberate judgment of the Jurors in Class XXXIV., that the glass exhibited in 1862, shows progress, as compared with 1851 ; and this satisfactory judgment is expressed both as to " quality and manipulation." The favourable decision is thus given : — " The Jurors have great pleasure in stating, from their knowledge of the goods produced for several years past, in their various localities, and from their recollection of the goods exhibited in 1851, that laudable progress has been made in all branches of this Class." 70 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE Progress in the manufacture of glass may be regarded as one of the most satisfactory proofs of the advance of true civilisation. Our estimate of the civilisation of the Assyrians is considerably increased by the remains we have seen of their glass manufactures, among which we have evidence that they understood the structure of the lens, and the art of turning glass in a lathe. We could not walk through the Glass Court of the late Exhibition without a high degree of satisfaction, in contemplating the varied uses to which this material is now applied. Like many of the best inventions of man, glass is an imitation of a natural product — -the crystal whose name it still bears ; and whether we regard it as an accidental discovery, or as a scientific invention, or as both, we must always estimate it at once as the index and the instrument of civilisation. The Exhibition contained glass for optical purposes — to aid the eye of the microscopist, of the astronomer, and of the ordinary observer ; and now we find it often under our feet, sending light into the sub-structures of our crowded streets, and of sufficient strength to resist the heaviest foot-fall. Painted and stained glass may be regarded as among the arts once well known — then to some extent neglected, but now happily restored, and affording the most valuable aid to the designs of the architect. For all the ordinary purposes of life — for the table in the form of decanters and glasses, and other articles for use and ornament — for mirrors, for manufacturing and com- mercial jDurposes, we have this most valuable product, in improved forms, of higher quality, and, in many cases, at prices greatly reduced ; while we see it applied to new uses, for which, a few years since, it was not supposed to be adapted. As we are now attending only to the productions of our own country, we abstain from a comparison of British with foreign glass. We may, however, observe, that British glass ought to hold, as it does, a high place in its class, because the quality of our fuel, and the materials employed, generally speaking, are superior to those afforded by other countries. In the words of the Jurors — " The first enables the manufacturer to use a greater proportion of silica in his glass, thereby producing a closer and stronger texture of body, preventing what is technically known as ' sweating' in plate-glass ; and, by the second, the greater purity and brilliancy of colour in flint-glass is obtained. Another advantage secured by the country pos- sessing fuel of the greatest power is, that, in superior qualities of glass, the manu- facturer is enabled to fuse his materials in covered and larger crucibles, entirely protected from the action of the fuel ; and this is a great advantage, inasmuch as the colour of the glass is very much deteriorated by the carbon of the fuel passing over the fluxed materials, the carbon absorbing oxygen, and rendering the glass of a green tint. The same cause (the presence of carbon) prevents the use, in uncovered crucibles, of the oxide of lead, except to a small extent, the deoxidation of the metal resulting in the formations of metallic lead, winch, by its own density, falls to the bottom of the crucible." Mr. Apsley Pellatt, the talented reporter on the Glass Section, informs us, that the masters of his craft divide glass into simple and compound. The former contains only silica and flux, this flux being either soda, potash, lime, magnesia, alumina, or mixtures of some of them : in which case, the glass is simply a silicate of an alkali. To INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 71 this "simple" glass belong plate, window, and bottle glass of every description. " Compound glass," besides these simple elements of silica and alkali, contains also the oxide of a metal ; and it is known among us as flint-glass, and on the continent as crystal. It is employed for articles of luxury and domestic use. The oxide is introduced to give more refractive power to the glass, by not allowing the rays to pass through so freely as in simple glass, and the result is much greater brilliancy in the metal. This flint-glass, wdiich is employed for achromatic purposes, and for articles of luxury, requires the utmost attention of the manufacturer, as its quality is of the highest importance. There is some difficulty in procuring the materials in a state of perfect purity, and, perhaps, a greater difficulty in regulating the escape of oxygen, while the elements are in a state of fusion. We are told, that " deoxidation alone, supposing all the materials to be perfectly pure, will affect the colour of flint- glass ;" and that "if oxygen be not supplied, the materials, when fused, will produce, not a white, but a green tinted glass." It is for the purpose of retaining the requisite amount of oxygen, that the black oxide of manganese is employed in the manufac- ture of flint, as this substance has a strong affinity for oxygen, parting with it very slowly, and not until it has escaped from the other ingredients of the metal. A danger exists, on the other hand, of the glass being injured by the excess of oxygen, in which case it receives a light-purple tint, and acquires a more frangible character. The " Stained Glass, and Glass used in Buildings and Decorations" were shown, not so much in the Court now under inspection, as in various parts of the building where it could be best seen to effect. It will be more convenient that we should here refer to these productions, that they may have their place in Section A of the Class to which they belong. No visitor could fail to observe how much the effect of the whole costly display was enhanced by stained glass windows, which adorned the edifices in various places; sometimes serving the purpose of windows to the building; and, in other cases, placed in favourable positions for being seen, and enhancing the general effect. Eight exhibitors of the United Kingdom obtained medals, and seven received "honourable mention" for "stained glass windows," for "painted glass windows," and "enamelled window-glass;" the awards being given "for excellence of ornamental work in cinque-cento style;" "for general excellence of design;" "for general excellence of production ;" " for general excellence of design, colour, and execution;" "for general merit;" and "for general executive merit." The justice of these awards will be readily admitted by all who had the opportunity of looking at these noble specimens of the taste and artistic skill of our countrymen. A com- parison of these modem productions with those of the archaic periods, which adorn our cathedrals, will confirm the statement of the Jurors, that the modern glass window is of " a brighter and higher key than the ancient ; while it has less tone and richness, which, like the paintings of Titian and the old masters, may be viewed for any length of time without fatigue to the eye." It is remarked, also, that continental glass, being thinner, and of a higher key than the English, a fictitious surface and tone is obtained by enamel painting, which, while it reduces the glare of the modern work, produces too much dulness, instead of the subdued tone of the antique. We o 72 ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THE must fully concur with Mr. Apsley Pellatt in his judgment, that " modern windows, of inferior materials, being charged with bright colour at a higher key, transmit too readily, through the glass, bright rays of different colours antagonistic to each other, which fatigue the eye, and form an unpleasant contrast to ancient glass." This consideration is the more important, from the fact that paintings on glass are not toned down by time, like paintings in oil; although, as is justly stated by the authority whose words we have quoted, window-glass, whether coloured or of a greenish white, when long exposed to the action of the atmosphere, is liable to partial surface decomposition. Although glass, thus superficially acted upon, becomes less dazzling and more subdued, the effect obtained cannot be compared to that produced by time on oil paintings. That effect which time cannot produce on coloured glass, can be secured in a manner described by Mr. Pellatt, who says, that "to succeed in making striated and bubbly-coloured glass, having' a horny or gelatinous appearance similar to the ancient, the fining process must be arrested diu'ing the latter part of the fusion, by reducing the heat of the metal to a sufficient consistency for working, before the bubbles and the stripe are fully driven off: great attention is necessary, on the part of the manufacturer, to reduce the temperature of the furnace just at the right time to prevent the metal becoming too clear. This imitation of the ancients constitutes the chief improvement since 1851, as regards the vitrified material." A careful inspection of the stained glass shown by our British exhibitors, discovered the characteristic tendency of our artists and manufacturers to seek for eminence in some particular branch, instead of being satisfied with mediocrity in every department — a circumstance which is sufficient to account for their j)resent success, and gives promise of future progress. The antique glass produced by the process already described, was exhibited by Messrs. Hartley, of Sunderland, and Lloyd, of Bh-mingham, to the great admiration of those who were prepared to appreciate its excellence. The early archaic style was well imitated by Clayton & Bell; also by Ward & Hughes, in their fine window for St. Ann's Church, Westminster, in which there is a happy combination of modem taste with the style of the thirteenth century. Several other exhibitors have also been successful in producing a material which rivals the antique in rich colour and low tone, showing richness and beauty, without the glare which it must be the study of our window-glass painters to avoid. Although these beautiful art-treasures are all dispersed, yet many of them will be within reach of such of our readers as love the " Storied window richly dight, Casting a dim religious light." As we have stated, Messrs. Ward's window is for St. Ann's, Westminster. Messrs. O'Conner's window, portraying " The Fall and Restoration of Man," " The Passage of the Red Sea," and various scenes in the history of the Israelites, is for the parish church of Aylesbury. The figures of " Isaiah," " David," and " Noah," are for a church in Stoke Newington. Messrs. Bal- lantine & Sons' figures of "St. John" and "The Poor Widow," will decorate INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. 7