■I THE MACOMBER COLLECTION hi fi / OP HINESE POTTERY WM MUSEUM OP PINE ARTS BOSTON o9 41{\%^ST 57th STREE^ 5?/ NEW YORK, N. Y. ' o> U. S. A' ^ ?^tb St. V ) M.-. ■i V V • . ‘X T’ii St.i ^ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/catalogueofmacomOOgetz CATALOGUE OF THE MACOMBER COLLECTION CHINESE POTTERY BY JOHN GETZ BOSTON : MDCCCCIX Although Chinese porcelain has for some three cen- turies excited the interest and admiration of Western collectors, little attention has been paid to the pottery of China. The present catalogue describes an impor- tant collection of Chinese pottery, which has been loaned to the Museum by Mr. Frank Gair Macomber; Mr. Macomber has also met the expense of preparing this catalogue. Mr. Getz, who has compiled the catalogue, has been known for many years as a student of Orien- tal pottery and porcelain. As the subject has received but little attention outside of China, it is of course not to be expected that a discussion like the present will be free from error. It is published in the confident hope that it will prove useful to students of the collection and will create a more intelligent public interest in the subject. ARTHUR FAIRBANKS, Director of the Museum, March, 1909. W-S§0 ^ &■' ■-■ »J PREFACE The Macomber collection of ancient Chinese and Korean pottery is exhibited as presenting an interesting phase of Eastern ceramic art, in its historical, intel- lectual, and technical development. In the several groups of glazed pottery, well identified and representative types are shown in such abundance that they may be said fairly to cover the history of the potter’s art during those dynasties which are held in particular esteem. These monochrome glazed pot- teries or vitrified stonewares of the Middle Kingdom, as at present exhibited, are quite distinct from porce- lains. They offer an excellent opportunity for the study of special aesthetic features pertaining to this fictile art, which, except to a few ardent searchers after the rare and the beautiful, have until recent years remained least known in Western collections. With regard to pottery, it is evident that the Chinese artists, while thorough masters of the superior kaolin at their command, have for many centuries deliberately chosen to essay combinations of crushed gray felspathic stone and heterogeneous materials in preference to pure white kaolin and the felspath pe’tun, and have by this means achieved superlative effects, especially in their monochromes and variegated glazing. Although ceramics is a secondary art, the annals of pottery making in China are, with the Middle Kingdom 2 PREFACE more than elsewhere, a history of art itself, and as we study its early progress during remote times we are enabled to penetrate to some extent the mysteries of Celestial culture in this ancient terra incognita. A large nation like China, remaining until very recent years so entirely exclusive of the Western world, is both unique and interesting, in that it developed its own type of art as it did its caligraphy and civilization, largely per- haps as a consequence of its geographical isolation. In the compilation of this catalogue, it has been deemed desirable to join a fev/ brief notes on glazed pottery, together with an outline of its early history, in such manner as would tend to bring the subject of this Eastern art accurately before the general visitor to the Museum and the student alike. The text is supple- mented by a number of plates in half-tone, illustrating typical specimens in the collection, which have been classified and grouped according to the most recent research. Each group is prefixed by a brief account of its main characteristics, or special qualities. Chinese names or dates have been harmonized so far as practi- cable, with the later and larger works treating of ceramics ; especially such as are based on native authorities, or reliable contemporary records. J. G. HISTORICAL SKETCH According to Chinese chronological records, the history of ceramics extends far back to a legendary epoch. Reliable history may be said not to extend further than the second millennium before Christ, and such knowledge of this period as is possessed by the Chinese is due largely to Confucius and Mencius, who, with great labor collected for posterity all that could be gathered in regard to the antiquity of their country. The former of these two great philosophers especially gained much of his data from ancient bamboo slips, upon which he found marked the legendary or historical events of remote ages. These were compiled by Con- fucius and published in a classical work called ‘‘Shu- ch’ing” (Shu-king) or ‘‘Ancient Book of History,"' which is the source of much in the following pages. Following the annals of Chinese ceramic art from the earliest times of which we have native historical testi- mony, we reach the semi-legendary epoch of the Wu Ti, or Five Sovereigns (B. C. 2638 ?-2205 It may be con- ceded that the potter’s wheel was known to several great nations of antiquity, including the Egyptians, probably twenty-five centuries before Christ. The Chinese date the contrivance in the same remote era ; their literature ascribes the invention of the wheel to a potter, stated to have been attached to the court of the mythical em- peror Huang-ti (B. C. 2638 ?-2556 i ) — the first and most 3 4 CHINESE POTTERY prominent of the ‘‘Five Sovereigns’’ mentioned above — whose capital was, it is assumed, somewhere near the present Hsi-an fu in Shensi province. It is also re- corded that this sovereign first taught his people the art of kneading clay and forming it into sun-dried vessels, — a record which appears to be the earliest concerning pottery in China. Passing over the less notable rulers, we reach the Emperor Shun, the last of the so-called Five Sovereigns (B. C. 2295-2205), who worked as a potter in his early years; later he was called to rule conjointly with his patron, the Emperor Yao, whom he succeeded. When Shun died, he was succeeded by his able minis- ter, the illustrious Yii, who established the first Chinese dynasty (Hsia dynasty, B. C. 2205-1766). It is re- corded that Emperor Yii had nine tripods cast in copper collected from his nine provinces, to commemorate his labor of nine years in subduing great floods. These objects were treasured as the tutelary guardians of the empire for nearly 2000 years and doubtless often served as models for the potters of later periods. The Hsia dynasty was followed by the Shang dynasty (B. C. 1766-1122). Confucius especially mentions some of the ministers of this era who made great efforts to collect antiquities, and whatever was rare or valuable. This dynasty was especially a period of bronze,^ and it is probable that many of the vessels thus collected served as models for the pottery of later dynasties. The Chou dynasty (B. C. 1 122-255), founded by the ^ In those remote times the custom was for the emperor, when worship- ing, to use nine vessels, a noble seven, a minister of state five, and the literati three. These were usually of bronze. HISTORICAL SKETCH 5 Emperor Wu Wang C^Warring Prince’’)? is memorable chiefly as the feudal period. The ancient records of this era give an account of bronze casting and of jade carving, of which the latter was widely practiced. It is also evident from the meager accounts that ceramic art did not progress until this time. The Emperor Wu Wang appointed as director of pottery a descend- ant of the Emperor Shun, whom he particularly sought, owing to the great fame of his progenitor. During the Ch’in dynasty (B. C. 221-206) which followed ^ scant attention was paid to ceramic art. HAN DYNASTY, B. C. 206-220 A. D. Beyond what is recorded in Chinese literature concerning ceramic art, very little is known of Chinese pottery prior to the Han dynasty. Native authors describe the ceramic products of remote epochs freely, but the objects, whether in stoneware or porcelain, do not exist. Within recent years, however, Han exam- ples in’ pottery, such as are now exhibited in this col- lection, have been discovered in the northern provinces of China, and especially near Peking. For the most part they have come from burial grounds, as is indicated by the silvery incrustations and iridescence acquired from age by the vitreous green glazing, together with an exfoliation due to action of the soil. Native and other ^ The State of Ch’in, which corresponded to the present province of Shensi, came so prominently to the front at this period that its name reached Persia, Arabia, and even Rome (especially through the overland traffic with India). In all probability ''Ch’in” is the origin of the Western name of China. 6 CHINESE POTTERY experts are supported in attributing these objects to this dynasty by the fact that occasionally such specimens have been found bearing an incised Han date mark. The vases and covered vessels referred to clearly show that, even to the grotesque or archaic molded orna- mentation, they have been inspired by, or copied from, more remote bronze models. The pottery paste is usu- ally dark buff-toned, although in some objects ascribed to this epoch the body shows a terra-cotta color of varying texture and hardness; all are essentially red- dish clay pottery coated with green enamel glazing,^ more or less clouded, and approaching in tint the rind of cucumbers or the color of malachite, with iridescent coating. WEI DYNASTY, A. D. 221-264 The close of the Han dynasty was followed by a period of disunion, and the establishment of the “Three King- doms,’’ — one of the most romantic epochs of China, — following which the King of Wei established the brief dynasty named after his kingdom. Mention is made of two factories as existing during this epoch, and these are among the earliest known. One kiln is said to have been situated at Lo-yang, the capital of this and the preceding Eastern Han dynasty, in modern Honan prov- ince; the second kiln was at Si-an-fu, in the province ^ While the date of the introduction of enameling or glazing is a moot question, in China it goes back at least a century or two before our era, as is indicated by the examples of the Han dynasty. The Han pottery is the earliest glazed ware so far discovered in China, notwithstanding the fact that Chinese have asserted that porcelain was invented during this remote period. HISTORICAL SKETCH 7 of Shensi. Although no special mention of color is made, it may be assumed that this pottery was glazed in green and analogous to the examples of the preced- ing dynasty. It is stated that all the vases of these kilns were destined for the emperor’s use. WESTERN AND EASTERN CHIN DYNASTIES, A. D. 265-419 With the division of the empire between the Tartars in the North, and the Chinese in the South, mention is made under the Eastern Chin dynasty (A. D. 323-419) of pottery called “Tung-ngeu t’ao,” that was produced at Wen-chou-fu in the province now known as Cheh- kiang. The native records vary between green and blue in describing its color, but agree that it was bril- liant.^ Its real color may remain conjectural; if the glaze was not green like that of the Han pottery it may belong to the celadon variety. At the close of this dy- nasty, with the different states fighting for supremacy, all industries including ceramics were neglected. SUI DYNASTY, A. D. 581-617 This brief dynasty was established by Yan Chien (a former general under the Northern Chou), who, having usurped the throne with the title of Wen Ti, gave the name of Sui to his dynasty and located the capital at Ch’ang-nan, Shensi province. Tradition records a spe- cies of green glazed pottery which was famed as ‘‘Lou- ^ Referring to this dynasty (also called Ts’in) a treatise on tea states that the best vessels from which to drink tea were shallow and green, and esteemed for their brilliancy. 8 CHINESE POTTERY tzii’’ (Lu-tzii), and produced by Ho Chou (known also as Ho Kuei-lin), who endeavored to imitate green opaque glass (liu-li), the secret or composition of which had been lost since its introduction from the Indo- Scythian Kingdom two centuries earlier (about A. D. 424-454). It is suggested by some chroniclers that this pottery known as “Lu-tzu"’ was the first celadon, later termed chhng-tz’u (green ware). Ta’o Yii was another expert ceramist during this period; his name, Ta’o Yii, signifying ‘‘pottery jade,^^ was made famous by his work; he was a native of Fou-liang,^ a district near Ch’ang-nan, the capital. Chinese authorities refer to this product as a sort of stoneware, green glazed and “as brilliant as jade,” a stone which when cut and polished is to a native the ne plus ultra of valuable substances. These objects made by Ta’o Yii were known later as “vases of arti- ficial jade” (chia-yii-ki). When offered to the emperor as tribute they added greatly to the reputation of the kilns at Ch’ang-nan,^ so that the ceramic artists at the close of this dynasty were made famous. To their first potter of note, Ta’o Yii, is due the credit of the chefs d' oeuvres in celadon, which are so much esteemed in the East because of the color, which is said to resemble green jade (fei-ts’ui). TANG DYNASTY, A. D. 618-906 When Li Yuan, a former general under Yang Ti (the last emperor of the Sui dynasty), ascended the ^ This name was changed in the seventh century to Hs’in-p’ing. ^ This name was later changed to Ching-te-chen. HISTORICAL SKETCH 9 imperial throne, and established the T’ang dynasty, he took the dynastic title Kao-Tsu (618-627) and made Ch’ang-nan the capital. He encouraged learning and the industrial arts from the start. Among the most successful ceramists mentioned in the records is an artist, contemporaneous with Ta’o Yii and Ho Chou of the preceding dynasty, named Ho Chung-ch’u, a native of Hs’in-p’ing, who had a kiln at Kiang-si, where he produced the celebrated pottery known as Ho-yao, described as “rivaling the Lu-tzu in softness of its lustre,’’ and as “ comparatively thin.” Reliable author- ities assume that this ware was glazed in a grayish white to imitate white, or “mutton fat,” jade. Ts’in yao, made in Chihli province, is described as pure white with incised or molded motives in low relief; the paste is assumed to have been a pottery texture without timbre and coated in either ta-lii, a sort of grass green, or fen-ch’ing, a purplish glaze without the lustre of later products. Hs’ung-yao, another type of white glazed bowls, is referred to as having been made at Hs’ung-chou (the present Shun-te-fu) in Chihli province, of fine thin paste glazed in a rice-toned white. These bowls had resonance as clear as a bell, for which reason, it is stated, they have been used in sets of six, or ten, by musicians ; lightly struck with small ebony rods they sounded like chimes. Yiieh yao, produced under the later T’ang dynasty (about 923-936), is attributed to the province of Cheh- kiang and to the kilns at Yiieh-chou (the modern Shao- hsing-fu). The principal products appear to have been bowls glazed in soft rice-toned white; others are men- 10 CHINESE POTTERY tioned as resembling the color of green jade, and possessing a clear timbre. Shou yao, or Tah yao. The records of this product refer chiefly to white bowls made at Tah, in the de- partment of Kung-chou and the present Ssuchuan province. These bowls are referred to as '‘snow-white, thin, and strong,’' translucent, and with clear ring. From this literary evidence it is assumed by some writers that they were of porcelain, but other accounts describe them as having an opaque body substance thickly covered with a white glaze.^ The bowls of Ta’i were eulogized by the Chinese poets of the eighth century for the white color and “low jade-like note.” U-ni yao. Among the pottery products attributed to the kilns at Ch’ien-yang-fu, in Fu-kien province, a coarse-grained dark brown or blackish-toned ware is referred to in native texts as U-ni, or Wu-ni, yao (lit. raven’s wing ware). Though no black glaze is specifically named in the native accounts, it may have been used on some of the pottery from these kilns. A black glaze was certainly produced at Ch’ien-yang-fou under the Sung emperors (see under Ch’ien yao p. 19). The output from these kilns was chiefly bowls, which were soon completely taken up by the tea masters. It may be stated here that the growing popularity of tea drinking brought the use of glass vessels out of fashion, and vitrified pottery into favor with the nobility during this and the following dynasties. Shen-yao. Another pottery product made during ^ The timbre would belong to a thoroughly fired stoneware, especially if thin. HISTORICAL SKETCH II this dynasty at the Chen-chou kilns (formerly Kiang- nan district) in Cheh-kiang province, is described as a dull yellow glazed pottery of inferior quality ; like other products of these early epochs, it was inspired by ancient massive forms in bronze. King yao, a type of pottery similar to Shen-yao is mentioned as coming from Kiang-si, a neighboring province. Pi-seh-yao. Towards the end of this dynasty, and during the first part of the tenth century, ceramic records refer to a product called Pi-seh-yao (hidden color ware) made under the direction of a Prince at Yiieh-chou in Cheh-kiang province for the exclusive use of the emperor, and not to be seen by the lower classes. The peculiarity of this name has given room for conjectural interpretation; whether it was only an improved Yiieh yao, described above (see p. 9), or a distinct and new glaze, is a moot question. Native experts are inclined to believe that it was a soft green glazed pottery showing probably a bluish-green tone. Ting yao. The forerunner of Sung ware of the same name was first made under this dynasty at Ting- chou, corresponding with the present Ching-yang in the province of Shensi. Pai Ting yao. Early ceramic records and tradi- tions of the Ting-Chou potteries in the northern prov- ince of Chihli ascribe the production of two distinct types of pottery to the close of the T’ang dynasty (618-906), one being the white Ting yao which be- came so famous in the Sung period, the other a little known Mo-Ting, or black pottery. The Mo-Ting con- 12 CHINESE POTTERY sists chiefly of bowls heavily coated with a soft-lustred black enamel, the texture of which is likened to fine black lacquer, while the biscuit foot, described as originally very dark brown, shows black from age on the few existing bowls. Usually a small band of copper finishes the upper rim (see No. 78). These potteries in Chihli province were continued under the Sung Emperor, Cheng-ho (1111-1117), and closed with the succeeding ruler, Hui T'sung, about 1125-1126. The Pai Ting yao bowls are referred to in the Ko-ku-yao-lan, a treatise on ceramics, as being mounted at the rim with copper and showing marks in the enamel ^‘like tears,” — probably a form of running granulation in the distinctive blackknown to the Western amateurs as “hareVfur” glaze. In Japan, where they were known as “Temmoku,” these bowls were greatly esteemed by the older collectors, who ascribed them to the T’ang dynasty. Chu yao, an early T^ang ware, is said to be named after Chu Sui, the superintendent of the imperial kilns at Hs’in-p’ing, who according to the annals of Ching- te-chen showed great zeal in obeying an imperial order (issued about 707 A. D.) for certain sacrificial vessels to be used for the imperial tombs.^ A pale purple or violet color which remains to be identified is mentioned in connection with products made under Chu Sui. Such objects in the form of bowls or shallow vessels as are attributed to the T'ang or early Sung epochs, show the paste to be chiefly of a felspathic quartz, or stone substance, heavily coated in enamel glazing, well in- ^ In ancient times such objects were made in bronze. HISTORICAL SKETCH 13 corporated with the body, and giving not only lustre but also a certain resonance.^ In general it may be concluded that before the T’ang era (618-907), pottery was made for the higher classes only — for their com- mon use or for their votive or meat offerings ; and that their vessels of ceremony, like those for their sacrificial offerings, were usually either of bronze, jade, or the prized opaque Indo-Scythian glass, so greatly in vogue at this early epoch. WU TAl OR FIVE POSTERIOR DYNASTIES, A. D. 907-959 During this epoch the record of ceramics is very meager, military despotism holding such sway that five ephemeral dynasties followed one another in quick succession. It is only as we reach the posterior Chou, the last of these dynasties, with Shi-sung on the dragon throne (about 954-959 A. D.), that the emperor is said to have ordered that rather poetical and legendary product ‘‘blue as the sky and clear as a mirror,’’ etc., quoted in every book on ceramics. Ch’ai-yao. The potteries were situated at P’ien- Liang-chou, the present department of K’ai-feng-fu,^ ^ Although the art of the ceramist was beginning to be widely practiced before the close of this dynasty, it may be concluded that the products in general were either glazed pottery or stoneware, vitrified and doubtless with more or less timbre; but white kaolin porcelain, so far as is known, did not exist much before the tenth century. ^ These kilns existed in the eleventh and twelfth centuries under the Sung, until beset by the Tartars (about 1125-1126 A.D.) and driven southward with the last emperor (Hui T’sung) of this dynasty. Under the succeeding dynasty (the Yiian) another factory was established in this district, when products appear under the name of Yii-yao, or ‘Mmperial ware,” 14 CHINESE POTTERY in Honan province. Being under imperial patronage this product became known as Ch’ai-yao (Ch’ai being the family name of the emperor). Native authors state that ‘‘these objects of Phen-chou eclipsed in delicacy all that had preceded it/' and that “it became so rare that even fragments were set in gold and worn for personal adornment." This ceramic marvel so often mentioned was probably made in limited quantity for the palace alone, and its color was either a light bluish-turquoise or of the clair de lune variety. SUNG DYNASTY, A. D. 960-1279 The specimens of pottery attributed by native con- noisseurs to the Sung dynasty, in accordance with con- temporary records, make it clear that considerable progress was made by Chinese potters during this period. This fairly protracted era of over three hundred years is often termed the “Augustan Age" in China, for interest in literature and art then began to spread, not- withstanding the fact that the country was beset on all sides by bordering tribes of Tartars and disturbed by rebellious princes. The more peacefully inclined em- perors gave considerable patronage to ceramics, and kilns were started in several temporary capitals or towns close thereto. The war-like times often forced a removal of the seat of government and of the imperial kilns or potteries ; and the consequent shifting of artists to new localities occasions confusion in the records when, as often happens, essentially the same product is recorded under different names and places. Similar confusion may occur through a change of rulers though the industry was carried on without interruption and HISTORICAL SKETCH 15 the objects were made of the same material, if not by the same artist, as under the preceding regime. For these reasons we may not always be able to note any appreciable difference between the products of two kilns unless, as is seldom the case, one or the other bears a mark. Chiin yao is among the oldest and most widely known of the existing Sung pottery; it was made at Chiin-chou (near the city now called Yii-chou) in the northeast of Honan province. The factory was started about 960 A. D. under Emperor Tai Tsu near the capital which he established at K’ai-feng-fu. While the prod- ucts were chiefly modeled after ancient bronzes, they were also made in grotesque forms, and objects with relief ornaments. Seven or more different colored glazes are mentioned in the annals of this place : man- ganese purple or aubergine (chheh-tz’u) ; a dark plum color (mei-tse-sing) ; clair de lune (yueh-pai) or ‘"moon white’’; onion-green (ts’ung-lii) celadon; a green jade- color (fei-ts’ui), also called pale turquoise blue; pea- cock green (kung-chiio-lii) ; pale yellow (mi-se) like mustard; a variegated, brilliant (yao-pien). Of these the several shades include melting red, pale blue, purple, pale green, and soft grays. Vases and other objects usually show a clair de lune glazed interior; in general the paste is massive, well fired, and with some timbre. Tz’u-chou yao (essentially a pottery) was made during the Sung dynasty at Tz’u-chou, a district an- ciently in the department of Chang-te in Honan, but now belonging to the department of Kuang-p’ing in Chihli province. This pottery gained considerable re- i6 CHINESE POTTERY nown in its time by reproducing the famed Ting yao of the T'ang dynasty. An equal strong white of heavy texture is mentioned as a product of this kiln; and occasionally some examples of Tz’u-chou yao show ornamental work or decoration in simple brown, prob- ably the earliest colored embellishment on record. Kiian yao signifies ‘‘official ware’' and is the name applied to the imperial ware under the Sung. This fine glazed pottery was first produced early in the twelfth century in a town called P’ien-Liang-chou (now^ known as K’ai-feng-fu), in the northeastern part of Honan province. The paste of the original Kiian yao is probably heavier and more gritty than in later prod- ucts made at Hang-chou. The glazes, most remarkable for their time, were usually monochromes of unctuous texture, a quality most notable perhaps on the Kiian yao celadons (also termed ch’ing-tz’u). It should be stated that the K’ai-feng-fu potteries were abandoned (about 1125-1126 A. D.) when the dynasty of the Sung passed to the South and established new kilns with old potters in the precincts of the mayor’s yametiy in Hang- chou-fu near the new capital. The artists followed the same models as formerly, took the forms or orna- ment from earlier products, and preserved certain characteristics which had distinguished their pottery from others. The mode of using a fine vermilion color and fixing it into the crackle (especially on the celadon), was a feature of the products of their kilns. The Kiian yao made at Hang-chou-fu may be de- scribed as a kind of reddish-gray stoneware made vitre- ous by thorough firing and possessing the ferruginous quality; i. e.y the foot in the biscuit shows the iron color HISTORICAL SKETCH 17 to be noted on several old varieties/ The several typical colored glazes as recorded are fen-ch’ing, an aubergine purple; yueh-pai, ‘^moon-white’' or clair de lune shade; ta-lii, gros-vert or strong green; and a celadon called ts’ung-lii or onion green (see No. 104). Kiian yao (a name under which the so-called “ Vases for the Magistrates” are included) has become a rather general term, not limited to the product of any special factory or place. Much of it was later reproduced at the imperial kilns in Ching-te-chen. Ko-yao, or Chang-yao, one of the most celebrated wares of the Southern Sung, was made in the province of Cheh-kiang by Chang Sing-i (the elder of two famous brothers), a native of Ch’ii-chou-fu, whose kiln was at Liu-t’ien in the Lung-chiian dis- trict. The paste of this pottery is described as being reddish-brown and when fired it shows the ferruginous quality referred to as “iron-colored rim and foot” (Tzu-k’ou-tich-tsu). The glaze was distinguished for its rich color as well as for its fine truitee or crackle effect. Of this two varieties are mentioned : pai-chi-sui, the hundred cracks (literally “the hundred dangers”), and yii-tz’u, so named because the crackle is likened to “ fish roe.” The colors of Ko-yao glaze are described as ts’ien-ching, a sort of Chinese kingfisher blue- green (literally a turquoise shade), and fen-ch’ing, a ^ The name Tzu-k’ou-tich-tsu, ‘‘iron foot and rim pottery,” is said to be due to the red-toned material which came from Feng-huang-shou (Phoenix Hill), close to the K’ai-feng capital. The rim of the piece (and wherever else the thickness of the glaze did not suffice to conceal the paste or body completely), turned brown after firing. Later potters have endeavored to reproduce the peculiarity by using a brown glaze or stain on the foot and the rim of their ware. i8 CHINESE POTTERY pale manganese purple. Chang the elder also produced small objects in white of the tint known as rice color; and a fourth glaze is referred to as mi-se, a pale yellow, “millet-colored’’ crackle. Some of these examples of Ko-yao have relief embellishments under the mono- chrome glaze. It is important to note that the term Ko-yao has also been extended in China to later prod- ucts coated with monochrome glaze and showing a crackle. Chang-yao, a brilliantly glazed pottery, was made by Chang Sheng-erh, the younger brother of Chang Sing-i, whose products made after ancient models were also much esteemed. He became chiefly celebrated through his celadons, known later as Lung-ch’iian yao. The products of the younger brother are said to have been without crackle; some were glazed bril- liantly “as if covered with dew,” and his celadon re- sembling “jade stone” was one of iht chefs d' oeuvres of his kilns. Lung-ch’iian yao was first made by Chang Sheng-erh at Liu-t’ien near Lung-ch’iian-hsien in Cheh-kiang province,^ and was one of the most important pottery products made under this dynasty. Lung-ch’iian cel- adon is that ch’ing-tz’u which is the ne plus ultra of the Chinese amateur, the martibani of Persian and Arab and the seiji of the Japanese. The typical Lung-ch’iian-yao is a celadon of more distinctly green color than either Kuan yao or Jii-yao. Many specimens of this variety were ornamented with relief motives, often copied from archaic bronzes. Occasionally portions of the design ^ The Lung-ch’iian yao was also produced at Ch’ii-chou-fu in the same province (Cheh-kiang) up to the sixteenth century. HISTORICAL SKETCH I9 were left in the biscuit and frequently show Taoist figures, dragons, or chhh-lin (kylin). The paste, being from the district, shows the distin- guishing characteristic, — the iron-colored foot and the brown rim where the glaze was thin or did not suffi- ciently cover the edge. That the paste although fine and hard was not white porcelain may be gathered from the foregoing characteristics. Chfien yao. Several varieties of choice Ch’ien yao are described in the book called Tao-lu^ a work on ancient Chinese potteries. It is named after the town in which the kilns are situated, i. e., Ch’ien-yang-fu in Fu-kien province. The manufactory was started under the preceding dynasty and increased in importance during the first years of the Sung dynasty; it flourished, according to the records, under the Southern Sung up to the succeeding dynasty (Yiian), about 1280; but the Tao-lu also mentions that the kilns ceased making pottery of the fine varieties in the following century. During the earlier years of the Sung dynasty two particular types of Chfien yao are described: the first is similar to the Pai Ting yao of the T’ang dynasty, the second was made at Chihli and is, like the Ch’ien yao, among the rarest potteries extant. Of these the small black bowls, known in China as T’u-hao yao or ‘‘ hare’s fur ware,” are most esteemed. This name is due to the peculiar yellowish flecking carried in the heavy unctuous black glaze, which is described in the native treatise as ‘‘spotted with yellowish pearls,” or “ with a soft silvery sheen as regular as the fur on the leveret.” On another variety of Ch’ien yao, the bril- liant black enamel is made iridescent by a light dappling 20 CHINESE POTTERY which resembles the bluish speckled marking on the breast of gray partridges; hence this variety is known as ‘^partridge bowls. These bowls were mounted with a small copper rim which was often replaced in Japan by one of silver. The biscuit paste, which shows black on all of these types, is left bare at the base with striking effect, for the heavy distinctive glaze is so con- trolled as to terminate in curved lines or tear-like drops before reaching the foot.^ (See Nos. 79, 80, 81, 82.) Jii-yao is recorded as having been made at Ju-chou in Honan province, where the kilns were started by imperial orders. Essentially it is pottery with the vitreous glazing laid on so thickly that masses stop in congealed curves above the base, thus showing the bis- cuit state of the paste. One of the colors of Jii-yao is described as soft blue like the ^‘sky-blue flower’" (an azure-tinted blossom of the Vitex incisa)^ which would indicate an effort, it is assumed, to produce the traditional color of the semi-mythical Ch’ai pottery made under the later Chou emperors. Pale celadon glaze tints were used at these kilns with raised orna- mentation, and the ware generally shows a ferruginous red-toned paste at the foot. (See No. 119.) Ki-chou yao. This product, seldom referred to, is essentially pottery, and was made at Ki-chou, later known as Liu-ling hien in Kiang-si province. There were five kilns in this Southern district producing certain ^ It appears that these bowls have been virtually unknown to some West- ern and even to native experts of Chinese ceramics; they have been most prized in Japan, where they were known as Temmoku, and were rapidly taken up by connoisseurs for tea ceremonials. The most dexterous ceramists of modern times have failed to imitate completely such bowls. HISTORICAL SKETCH 21 Ting yao models. Especially noted among the crafts- men and the artists of the kilns mentioned are the expert named Shu Hung (Chu-ong) and his daughter, Shu Chiao, whose skill in their art is highly lauded, the ‘Tair’" daughter surpassing the ‘‘venerable'" father especially in animals and birds. Their most original work gained renown as Ki-chou yao. The product of these kilns is described as heavy in body, and the glaze chiefly a grayish- white (hui-se) with crackle. A purplish glaze (ch'ieh-tz'u) is also spoken of. Some native authorities attribute the earliest “yao pien" effects in ■flambe to Ki-chou kilns. These effects were presum- ably purple and gray slightly variegated through acci- dental merging of the colored oxides. Ting yao. The widely famed Ting yao, which was first made under the T'ang dynasty at Ting-chou in Chihli province, became during this and the following dynasty a most important factor in the industrial arts of China. Two distinct varieties are mentioned as emanating from these northern kilns, notably the white Pai Ting, termed also Fen Ting or white Ting, in contradistinc- tion to the Nan Ting of the southern kilns which were closed with the removal of the court (about 1125-- 1126 A. D.); and T’u Ting yao, more essentially a pottery paste (see p. 22). In tint, the glaze of Fen Ting yao is likened to flour or meal,^ and the body, especially of bowls, is thin and has resonant timbre. The shallow vessels or bowls of this period, like the later products of the following dynasty, occasionally ^ Later types which are more kaolinic show generally a bluish-tinged white, due to a mixture of lime in the glazing. 22 CHINESE POTTERY show a low delicately molded ornamentation embodied in the paste before glazing ; on some examples it appears on the interior or exterior only, while on others the em- bellishment with similar motives appears on both sides. Among the favorite designs are those which convey a meaning, floral motives like the tree peony, the lily or lotus blossom, a flying phoenix (fei-feng), or a pair of fish, all of which are significant. (See No. 140.) Among other Sung pottery coming under the category of Ting yao may be mentioned a variety known to native collectors as Hsian Ting yao, originally made at Yii-chou in the prefecture of K"ai-feng-fu. It appears that the finest types were made under the reign of Cheng-ho (1111-1117 A. D.). The records especially mention white glazed bowls and shallow dishes, usually showing a slightly raised embellishment such as flowers (hua), tree-peony blossoms (hsiian-ts’ao), or the flying phoenix. (See No. 128.) The treatise on pottery records the existence of six potteries or factories during this dynasty in the province of Kiang-nan, of which five were entirely devoted to the white glazed product so much in vogue. The most important was situated at Ssu-chou ; another was situ- ated in Pai-tu chin (village of white clay), where many kilns produced fine types in brilliant white. Celadon tints were also made at these kilns with crackle and modeled or raised ornamentation. Authentic speci- mens show an iron-red foot, imitated by artificial meth- ods in later copies. T’u Ting yao (literally Ting pottery) is assigned by the Chinese either to kilns at Kiang-nan in Kiang-si province, or to those at Kuang Tung. The difference HISTORICAL SKETCH 23 between the varieties thus distinguished is in the paste : ‘ those from Kuang Tung are essentially pottery of mas- sive body with heavy lustrous glaze showing crackle and unctuous quality, while the product from Kiang- nan shows a thin body in a warm or deep cream white or ivory tone, with ornamental motives in low relief. Occasionally a pale creamy enamel without lustre was produced resembling the shell of an egg.^ The thick opaque glaze terminating in curves below leaves the slightly buff-toned biscuit visible at the foot. Among the products of the artists at the Kuang Tung kilns is a variegated and lustrous glaze showing brilliant deep blue with flecking or clouding in white tones inter- mingled with pale green of the flambe variety. From the foregoing details it will be apparent that the range of the so-called Ting yao was extensive,^ and that the name refers especially to white specimens with a soft cream-tinted white glaze and thin body. Jung-yao. Although scarcely known, this pottery was, like Kiian yao, originally produced at P’ien-chou (K’ai-feng-fu) in Honan province, and subsequently made at Hang-chou in Cheh-kiang province. It de- ^ The Kochi-yaki of the Japanese pottery collectors are often Chinese T^u Ting yao. ® In a record of the ceramic industry called Hsiang TzH-ching written in the fifteenth century by the native virtuoso Hsian Yuan-p’ien, it is said that the potters of this dynasty, like those of former epochs, freely used ancient bronze vessels as models, and that not only were forms carefully copied, but also the motives of relief embellishment. While the white glazed objects known as ‘‘Ting yao’^ are especially referred to in this statement, it applies also to other varieties. Probably, also, the then existing carved jade objects were likewise taken as models for libation or sacrificial vessels, censors, and the like. 24 CHINESE POTTERY ' rived its name Jung (‘‘east ”) from the fact that K’ai- feng-fu was the northeastern capital of the Sung. The clay is described as dark toned, well fired with the sin- gular “iron-colored foot and rim,'' but gritty, and heavier than Kiian yao. This pottery often bears floral em- bellishment in relief, under a bright celadon green glazing. Its color served as a tenth century model for the ch'ing-tz'u products, later made at Hang-chou, which was during the twelfth century on the principal trade route between China and the outer world ; and in Marco Polo's time it found its way with other celadons to Persia and Arabia under the general term “ch'ing-tz'u." YUAN DYNASTY, 1280-1367 This dynasty was established by Kublai Khan (A. D. 1280-1294), who when he became the ruler of China decided to call his dynasty “Yiian" (the word means “original"), to indicate that he was inaugurat- ing a new regime. Kublai took the dynastic title of Shih Tsu and established his capital at Cambuluc, the present Peking. This Mongolian dynasty lasting less than a century was not very favorable to the develop- ment of industries, and on the whole the sovereigns of this period did not particularly patronize the ceramic art of the “Middle Kingdom." Nevertheless, when the “Mighty Mongol" (Kublai Khan) held his court at Cambuluc, a taste was developed for the more cele- brated pottery of former periods. Yuan yao, or Yiian tz’u, may be regarded as the most representative pottery of this era ; it was made at the imperial factories in Ching-te-chen, where it was HISTORICAL SKETCH 25 known as “officiar’ or ‘‘Mandarin’’ ware. The exist- ing examples are chiefly small objects. The paste is a kind of stoneware or dense-textured pottery of a gray or reddish-gray tone, opaque and well fired. The glaze, its chief feature, is always admirable, especially the soft light blue termed yueh-pai (moon white) in China, or clair de lune by Western experts. Its pe- culiarity usually consists in the splashes and cloudings of strongly marked red ; or the pale opaque blue enamel may be speckled with small particles of red after the flambe ^ effects in old Chiin yao, which it is said to re- semble rather closely. The glaze, which is usually heavy and lustrous, sometimes with a crackle and sometimes without, carries a wonderful effect of depth. The records also mention another product called Yiian yao which was made at Ssu-chou in Nan-chiang. The Tao-Iu also mentions that quantities of white Ting yao came from these kilns and were quickly absorbed when the real Ting yao made under the Sung became rare. The pieces made for the palace were called Shu-fu yao. Shu-fu yao and Ho-yao. This product made at Ho-chou in Kiang-nan province is chiefly notable for clever reproductions of the earlier Ting yao of the Sung period. The paste is fairly thin, often showing engraved ornamentation in slight relief. Some of the vessels ^ Brilliant splashes of color, due to the unequal oxidization of copper sili- cates in the body of the glaze. At first fortuitous and considered as blem- ishes, these furnace transmutations, or Jiambe effects, were later intentionally caused by means of localized draughts and other devices regulating the pro- toxide and the quantity of air admitted to the furnace. According to the degree of oxygenation these clouds and spots vary from brilliant ruby-red to light purple, turquoise blue, and green. 26 CHINESE POTTERY were covered in celadon glaze. The existing examples are in the main bowls and dishes bearing underneath the characters “Shu-fu’' — “the palace.'*" The celadons from Ho-chou (later they became known as Ho-yao) are attributed to a kiln named P’eng Chiin-pao; hence they are also called P’eng yao in native texts. The author of the treatise called Hsiang Tzu-ching, previously quoted/ refers to the specimens of Shu-fu yao and Ho-yao produced under this dynasty as being “in paste, form, and color of the glaze precisely the same as the earlier Sung Ting yao models."" Continu- ing he states that “there is no appreciable difference, so that when later experts declare a piece to be Sung, it may be Yiian, or vice vers a. In the products of the Ming, when kaolin paste predominated, the matter is more readily determined, except when (as some ex- amples indicate) the potter preferred the softer effect obtained in the glaze by the use of a material that in its composition would be either pottery, stoneware, or the so-called semi-porcelain. Any one of these varieties of paste may be chosen in reproducing an ancient type. Yuan Ting yao. The smaller Ting bowls, generally showing the outer surface fluted or molded to resemble the calyx of a lotus flower, are ascribed by native records to the Yiian dynasty.^ Some of these bowls show an interior floral embellishment delicately cut into the paste, so that the pattern is slightly raised. This variety is at- tributed to the potters at Kiang-nan. While they closely ^ Page 23, note 2, 2 None of these bowls, and none of the Ming copies, is marked with date or period. HISTORICAL SKETCH 27 resemble the older Ting yao, the glaze is somewhat more lustrous and of the darker “mutton fat'’ tinge. Kuang-yao. This pottery was produced near the close of the Yuan dynasty at Yang-Ch’ing in the south- ern province of Kuang Tung. Described as a dense and hard stoneware of refractory texture, ranging in color from dark gray and red-toned brown to nearly black, it is distinguished for brilliant qualities in the colored glaze. The commonest glaze is a variegated flambe (yao-pien),^ the dominating color being a deep rich blue with cloudings of pale green passing into the darker shades with streaks of buff. The other colors occurring in monochrome glaze include manganese purples, lus- trous reds, “camellia-leaf" green, and crackled grayish- whites, the latter being the most esteemed. Some examples made at these kilns show the surfaces only partly coated vAth the glaze which the skilful artist has controlled so that it ends in thick irregular curves and leaves the biscuit visible at the base. Hu-t’ien-yao (Ou-t’ien) was made under this dynasty in the neighborhood of Ching-te-chen at Hu-t’ien-shi. It is noted for its durability or strength rather than for any other qualities, for which reason examples were not rare in later periods. A yellow “muddy tone" is as- signed to it, and usually the surface of the paste is molded or deeply incised with archaic relief ornamen- tation. It may be also assumed that some of the Hu- t'ien-yao output reproduced the older types that were in vogue at this period. ^ This pottery, especially the blue flambe variety, was most esteemed in Japan. 28 CHINESE POTTERY MING DYNASTY, A. D. 1368-1643 Emperor Hung-wu (1368-1398), the founder of this dynasty, built a new factory at the foot of Mount Ch’ou- chan in Ching-te-chen in the present Kiang-si province (formerly Fou-Liang), where all the products intended for the palace were made. During this period the em- peror decreed that all objects made for the palace should be inscribed with the date marked in four or six characters, the former giving the dynastic name “Hung-wu’’ and the latter including the name of his dynasty “Ta Ming.” From this time the manu- facture of ceramics was concentrated in this one town under the direct patronage of the emperors. Owing to the length of this dynasty and the peaceful conditions which prevailed, ceramic art received its greatest devel- opment; kilns were increased, and the number of workers whose achievements in their art are especially eulogized was multiplied. Quantities of fine mono- chromes as well as decorated wares were produced and distributed from these kilns over the empire and to the Western nations. The reproduction of older pieces, which was frequent, appears to have been chiefly for native collectors and was often undertaken by artists to show their masterly skill. The records of kilns other than those of the imperial factories — except- ing those of Te-hua in Fu-kien ^ province and the Lung-chiian yao made at Ch’ii-chou-fu — are very scanty. It is assumed that some became disused ^ The Te-hua product of Fu-kien of this era is the white Ch’ien tz’ii or Ch’ien yao, known to French amateurs as blanc de Chine, HISTORICAL SKETCH 2Q altogether or provided only the coarser ware for local use. The distinctive products of this dynasty are strongly marked in their characteristics: in general they are so massive and sonorous that the various types may be readily distinguished; moreover, the best products of this epoch bear marks, except when they are repro- ductions of Sung or Yuan specimens. The advent of the so-called blue and white porcelain may be attributed to this dynasty; for a fine cobalt blue for decorative painting under the glaze appears to have been first used in the Yung-lo reign (A. D. 1403-1424). In the annals of the Fou-liang kilns mention is made of the famed Mohammedan blue (su-ma-ni)^ as being used in the fifteenth century, especially during the reign of Hsiian-te (A. D. 1426-1435), with much success, and later again in the period of Cheng-te (A. D. 1 506-1 521). Noteworthy also are the early polychrome decorations made under the Ming, especially the ‘Three colored’" decorations first produced under Ch’eng-hua (A. D. 1465-1487) and called “San-ts’ai” by native ex- perts, and the other type known as “Wu ts’ai” or “five colored” decoration, chiefly made in the reign of Wan-li (A. D. 1573-1619). During the Ming period many ceramists practiced their arts quite independently. Among them is men- tioned one who retired to a secret studio where he worked leisurely on objects “of charming elegance” and took the name of “ Ou-yin-tao-j en ” (“old man who lives in retreat”). Yi-hsing yao, a reddish-brown pottery known to ^ A cobalt mineral known also as wu ming yi.” 30 CHINESE POTTERY collectors by the Portuguese name boccaro, was made at Yi-hsing/ a small town situated near Tai- yi-hsiang-wu, a lake in Kiang-su province. The best and rarest types are of the Ming dynasty and espe- cially those said to come from the kilns of Kung Ch’un, who fashioned small objects and teapots with the soft brownish (unglazed) texture of old felt. More recent products show a dark terra-cotta body, often embel- lished with enamel decorations; but they are less in- teresting than those of the Ming artists and inferior to them. CHTNG DYNASTY, 1644 TO THE PRESENT This dynasty was inaugurated by the Manchu Regent, Durgan, who placed his nephew, a child of six years, upon the throne under the dynastic name of Shih Tsu Chang, though he is generally known under the title of his reign ^ as Shun Chih (1644-1661). The imperial factories at Ching-te-chen, which had been closed during the later turbulent years of the pre- ceding dynasty, were re-opened under the young em- peror after he found himself firm upon the dragon throne. Dying very young, this first emperor of the Ch’ing dynasty appointed his second son, then a child ^ The Yi-hsing kilns were founded by the celebrated potter Kung Ch’un in the reign of Cheng-te (1506-1521). The famous potter *'Ou” worked here during the Wan-li period (1573—1619) and reproduced the “crackled Ko-yao*^; he also made the local brownish-red stoneware with variegated and monochrome glazes. * The name adopted by an emperor on ascending the throne to indicate the years of reign. The reign dates from the beginning of the new year after his accession and includes the whole of the year in which an emperor dies. HISTORICAL SKETCH 31 of eight as his successor, known by the title of his reign as K"ang-hsi (1662-1722). It is agreed by connois- seurs that the culminating epoch of ceramic art in China began in his reign and continued through the reigns of his son, Yung-ch’eng, and grandson, Chhen- lung. These three reigns and particularly that of K’ang- hsi may be denominated the Chinese renaissance period. The most suitable men were appointed to direct in- dustries and education generally, and able men were put in charge of the imperial factories at Ching-te-chen. Single colored glazes were essayed which have never been equaled or excelled, while the painted decoration known as famille verte (the so-called ‘'seven colors’’ of modern collectors) is preeminent in its own class. Among names that rank foremost in the annals of Ching-te-chen may be mentioned Lang T’ing-tso, a viceroy or governor of the united provinces of Kiang-si and Kiang-nan, whose name was identified with two particular products, viz.^ “Lang-yao,” a wonderful monochrome claret-like red glaze known as sang de bcBuf, and “Lu Lang-yao,” the famed “apple green” with crackle. (See No. 50.) The other specially distinguished potter of this period was Ts’ang Ying-hsuan, an officer of the Board of Public Works, who became superintendent of the im- perial kilns at Ching-te-chen. Under his direction the wonderful soft-toned “peach-red” glaze was made in its greatest perfection and applied to exceedingly grace- ful forms. The succeeding emperor, Yung-ch’eng (1723-1735), like his father, appears to have taken keen interest in 32 CHINESE POTTERY the new products from the Ching-te-chen kilns, express- ing gratification and approval for many discoveries in the art of glazing and decoration. The most impor- tant innovations were new varieties in half tones or blended glazes, more or less opaque. Especially to be noted is the rose-carmine glaze derived from oxide of gold which is commonly known as famille rose decoration. Emperor Ch’ien-lung (1736-1795) also patronized the ceramic industry with munificence during his pro- longed reign. While many wonderful objects were pro- duced, foreign influence began to affect the decoration as well as the forms of this period, and with it came the desire to imitate other substances, such as metals (gold, silver, iron, bronze), cloisonne, lacquer, shells, horn, wood, marble, carnelian, agate, jade, Venetian glass, and even Limoges enamels. All were copied with such wonderful closeness in color and form that this epoch is distinguished for the mastery of technique over material. Floral painting on porcelain was carried to a perfection never attained before, as may be seen in ex- amples only recently known to Western collectors. Among the imitations of older wares, the white glazed productions copied from bronze or jade ceremonial vessels are noteworthy, as are also the specimens of flamhe. The latter are, however, chiefly made of kao- linic porcelain and are thus distinct from the older prod- ucts in which the paste or body is usually ferruginous pottery. In general the products of these two later reigns show a gradual change from the clear transparent or vitreous glazes of the era of K'ang-hsi to opaque half- HISTORICAL SKETCH 33 toned enamels, and from the vigorously rendered deco- rations of earlier Ming periods to a more labored finish and stencil-like exactness. Masterly paintings and drawings of Sung and Yiian artists were copied by the ceramists, but the vital decorative force of such work was weakened by superabundant detail and elaborate finish. The more modern period, which dates from about 1796, does not demand attention here. TERMINOLOGY In a broad sense, the generic word ‘‘pottery” com- prehends all kinds of fired earthenware, whether soft (faience) or hard (stoneware, sometimes called semi- porcelain). Although the white kaolinic product, the last achievement in ceramic art, is called “porcelain,” that term is often wrongly employed in connection with gray, hard paste pottery or stoneware,^ which may have through thorough firing a palpable or incipient vitrifi- cation and also a certain timbre. While the Chinese authors of ancient times described the various products as “tz’u” or “yao” with some enthusiasm, they have not accurately differentiated between these particular substances. The ceramic product of the Han dynasty was de- ^ The distinction between fine stoneware and porcelain, especially when heavily covered with enamel glass, is not always clearly evident. Chinese porcelain proper has a pure white body, is sonorous and imperme- able to water ; it is distinguishable also by vitrification or hardness, and its translucency is enhanced by the pure siliceous glaze. The component paste consists essentially of two materials, kaolin, the white clay element of plas- ticity, and pe’tun, a fusible felspathic quartz which gives transparency. In briquette form for potters it is called pe’tun-tse. Pottery therefore as dis- tinct from porcelain is softer, and unless glazed is too porous to hold water. 3 34 CHINESE POTTERY fined by the character “tz’u/" as appears from tran- scripts of the early history. This character continued to designate pottery of one type or another until the Sui dynasty, when the character “t’ao’’ appears for the first time. Within the dynasty of the T'ang, the char- acter was again changed for another word ‘‘yao,"’ and this word has continued in use ever since, although it may be applied to any object of clay baked in a kiln, whether pottery or porcelain. The character “tz’u'’ appears to have been used to define a stoneware that was glazed and thoroughly vitrified by firing. In tran- scripts from early Chinese works on ceramics a “certain kind of ware or yao,'’ is referred to as made from crushed stone found in the district of Tz’u-chou, namely, a felspathic stone slightly gray or reddish in color ac- cording to the locality from which it came. Pottery exists in varying forms, is of soft or hard sub- stance, and is often composed of heterogeneous mate- rials, yellow, red, brown, or gray. It may be covered with a stratum of white composition like pe’tun and kaolin, or with a heavy layer of plumbean enamel fixed by a first firing; in a second firing another coating of colored glazes may be added to give more brilliancy. It appears that unglazed earthenware was distin- guished in ancient Chinese literature by a round char- acter “wa”; later glazed earthenware was probably indicated by the joined characters, “Liu-li wa."’ CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF DYNASTIES Mythical Epoch. Began Ended San Huang or Three Fabulous Rulers about B. C. 3300 about B. C. 2852 Quasi-Legendary Epoch. Wu Ti or so-called Five Rulers (< (( 2852 it 2205 SaN Tai or Three Early Dynasties. Hsia, first dynasty (< (t 2205 ti 1766 Shang, or Yin ^ u /-;V ■ ' , ^ «• ‘ ' ’ ' , ' r' M >'j. ' ’'' i' f , , ?w5*v, ' "■ p-’' . 'jii% iiiiiliteilfii^^ V . » “ ' ' k.,.1 i' * ' 1 a “it <’'''■( f* > " 1 . , 'I ^ ‘■f 1 V ,' f ,