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A CONCISE 
 
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS 
 
 USED IN 
 
 GRECIAN, ROMAN, ITALIAN, 
 
 AND 
 
 (Sotbic Hrcbitectuve. 
 
 BY -THE LATE 
 
 JOHN HENRY PARKER, C.B, F.S.A. 
 
 HON. M.A. OXON., ETC. 
 
 lEtJitxon, rcbtscti. 
 
 PARKER AND CO. 
 
 6 SOUTHAMPTON-STREET, STRAND, LONDON ; 
 
 AND BROAD-STREET, OXFORD. 
 
 1888. 
 
Ipvtmefc bv $avbev anfc-Go., Crown ]£ar&, ©rfor^ 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 THIE original intention of the “ Glossary of Architecture ” 
 **“ was to supply a want which had long been felt of 
 a Manual for constant use, either for reference in the 
 study, or to assist the student in examining buildings 
 themselves. The great popularity of the work proves 
 that these objects were in some degree accomplished. 
 But in the absence of any series of engravings generally 
 accessible to which references might be made for ex- 
 amples, it became necessary t<? supply these in the work 
 itself. In this way its extent has been greatly increased 
 in each successive edition, -and, while these additions 
 have added in a proportionate degree to its value, the 
 consequent increase of bulk and of price has caused 
 an Abridgment to be called for. 
 
 Oxford , March , 1840- 
 
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 TN each succeeding Edition a few additions and correc- 
 tions have been made, and a Topographical Index 
 to the Illustrations is also given in the later Editions. 
 
 Oxford , October , 1875 . 
 
A CONCISE 
 
 ©lossarg of &rcfjttectuu. 
 
 Grecian Doric. 
 
 ABACUS (Lat. from Gr. abax= a board). This name 
 is applied in architecture to the uppermost member 
 or division of a capital : it is a very essential feature in 
 the Gkecian and Roman orders. 
 
 In the Grecian Doric 
 the abacus has simply 
 the form of a square 
 tile without either a 
 chamfer ora moulding. 
 
 In the Roman Doric 
 it has the addition of 
 an ogee and fillet round 
 the upper edge. 
 
 In the Tuscan a 
 plain fillet with a sim- 
 ple cavetto under it, is 
 used instead of the ogee 
 and fillet. In all these 
 orders the abacus is 
 of considerable thick- 
 ness; and the mould- 
 ing round the upper 
 edge is called the cima- 
 tium of the abacus. 
 
 In the Grecian Ionic 
 it is worked very much 
 thinner, consisting of 
 
 7 Grecian Ionic. 
 
 an ovolo or ogee , gene- 
 rally without any fillet above it, and is sometimes sculp- 
 tured. 
 
 In the Roman Ionic it consists of an ogee or ovolo, wit.i 
 a fillet above it. 
 
2 
 
 Abacus. 
 
 In all the preceding orders the abacus is worked square, 
 but in the modern Ionic, 
 the Corinthian, and the 
 Composite, the sides are 
 hollowed , and the angles, 
 with some few exceptions 
 in the Corinthian order, 
 truncated. The mouldings used on the modern Ionic 
 vary, but an ogee and fillet like the Roman are the most 
 common. In the Co- 
 rinthian and Composite 
 orders, the mouldings 
 consist of an ovolo on 
 the upper edge, with a 
 fillet madicavetto beneath. composite. 
 
 In the architecture of the Middle Ages, the abacus still 
 remains an important feature, although its form and pro- 
 portions are not regulated by the same arbitrary laws as 
 in the Classical orders : in the earlier styles there is al- 
 most invariably a clear line of separation to mark the 
 abacus as a distinct division of the capital ; but as Gothic 
 architecture advanced, with its accompanying variety of 
 mouldings, the abacus was subject to the same capricious 
 changes as all the other features of the successive styles, 
 and there is often no really distinguisnable line of sepa- 
 ration between it and the rest of the capital. 
 
 It not unfrequently happens that the abacus is nearly 
 or quite the only part of a capital on 
 which mouldings can be found to shew 
 its date ; it is therefore deserving of 
 close attention. 
 
 In early buildings of the style spoken 
 of as being perhaps Saxon , that is, 
 previous to the twelfth century, the 
 abacus is, in general, merely a long 
 flat stone without chamfer or mould- 
 ing; but it sometimes varies, and occasionally bears some 
 resemblance to the Norman form. 
 
 The Norman abacus is flat on the top, and gene- 
 rally square in the earlier part of the style, with a plain 
 
Abacus. 
 
 Whitby Church, c. 1110. 
 
 Great Guild, Lincoln, c. 1160. 
 
 chamfer on the lower edge, or a hollow is used instead. 
 As the style advanced, other 
 mouldings were introduced, and 
 in rich buildings occasionally 
 several are found combined : it is 
 very usual to find the hollow on 
 the lower edge of the abacus sur- 
 mounted by a small channel or 
 a bead. If the top of the abacus 
 is not flat, it is a sign that it is 
 verging to the succeeding style. 
 
 In the j Early English style, the 
 abacus is most commonly cir- 
 cular ; it is, however, sometimes octagonal, and occa- 
 sionally square, but not frequently in England, except 
 early in this style. 
 
 The most characteris- 
 tic mouldings are deep 
 hollows and overhang- 
 ing rounds ; in gene- 
 ral, the mouldings in 
 this style have con- 
 siderable projections with deep and distinct hollows be- 
 tween them. 
 
 In the Decorated style, the form of the abacus is either 
 circular or polygonal, very frequently octagonal . The cir- 
 cular abacus is especially an English feature; the oc- 
 tagonal abacus being most common on the Continent, 
 especially in Erance. Hollows are not so frequently 
 they in general, when used, 
 
 Paul’s Cray, Kent, c. 1220. 
 
 to 
 
 be found, nor are 
 so deeply cut ; the 
 mouldings and the 
 modes of combining 
 them vary consider- 
 ably, but rounds are 
 common, particularly 
 a roll or scroll-mould- 
 ing, the upper half of which projects and overlaps the 
 lower, as in Merton College Chapel; this moulding may 
 be considered as characteristic of the Decorated style, 
 although it is to be met with in late Earlv English work. 
 
 Merton College Chapel, Oxford, a.d. 1280. 
 
4 
 
 Abacus— Slcantijus. 
 
 The round mouldings have often fillets worked on them, 
 and these again are also found in Early English work. 
 
 In the Perpendicular style, the abacus is sometimes 
 circular but generally octagonal, even when the shaft and 
 lower part of the capital are circular; when octagonal, 
 particularly in work of late date, the sides are often 
 slightly hollowed : in this style the mouldings are not 
 generally much undercut, nor are they so much varied as 
 in the Decorated. A very usual form for the abacus con- 
 sists of a waved moulding , (of rounds and hollows united 
 without forming an- 
 gles,) with a bead un- 
 der it, as at Croy- 
 don, Surrey ; the most 
 prominent part of this 
 mouldingis sometimes 
 worked flat, as a fillet, Croydon ’ Surrey ’ c - 1480 ‘ 
 
 which then divides it into two ogees, the upper being 
 reversed : the ogee may be considered as characteristic 
 of the Perpendicular capital : the top of the abacus is 
 sometimes splayed and occasionally hollowed out. [For 
 further illustrations see Capital , Saxon , Norman , Parly 
 English, Decorated and Perpendicular .] 
 
 Abutment, the solid part of a pier or wall, etc., against 
 which an arch abuts, or from which it immediately springs, 
 acting as a support to the thrust or lateral pressure. 
 The abutments of a bridge are the walls adjoining to 
 the land which supports the ends of the road-way, or 
 the arches at the extremities. Also the basement pro- 
 jecting to resist the force 
 of the stream, and on which 
 the piers rest. 
 
 Acanthus (Lat. from 
 Gr.), a plant, the leaves of 
 which are imitated in the 
 capitals of the Corinthian 
 and Composite orders. 
 
 Abacisci (Lat. deriv.), small 
 tesserae for pavements or square 
 tablets. 
 
 Abamurus (Med. Lat.), a but- 
 tress. 
 
 Abbey. See Monastery. 
 Abreuvoir (Fr,), jointing in 
 masonry. 
 
 Absis, Apsis, or Apse* 
 
^croterta— SHmerg. 
 
 Acroteria (Gr.),' pedestals for statues and other orna- 
 ments placed on the apex 
 and the lower angles of 
 a pediment. They are . 
 also sometimes placed ^ 
 upon the gables in Gothic 
 architecture, especially 
 in canopy work. 
 
 Aisle or Aile(Fr,from 
 Lat. ala = a wing) , the lateral division of a church, or its 
 wings, for such are the aisles to the body of every church. 
 They may also be considered as an internal portico. In 
 England there are seldom more than two, one on each 
 side of the nave or 
 choir, and frequent- 
 ly only one, but 
 examples may be 
 found of two aisles 
 on one side, and 
 one on the other, 
 more rarely two oc- 
 cur on either side. In 
 many cases the aisles 
 have had their origin 
 in chantry chapels. 
 
 [See CJiurch.~\ 
 
 Almery (literally 
 a place for the alms), 
 a cupboard ; when 
 by the side of an 
 altar employed to 
 contain the sacred 
 vessels which were 
 locked up, and hence 
 the word Locker . 
 
 Achelor, Acheler, Achlere 
 — Ashlar. 
 
 Acute Arch = Lancet Arch. 
 Adit (Lat.), the approach to 
 a building. 
 
 i Adytum (Gr.), the innermost 
 and secret part of a temple. 
 
 Almery in Lincoln Cathedral, c. 1200. 
 
 Aedes, generally a temple, hut 
 often usedforanypublic building. 
 
 Aillettes. bee illustrations 
 to Brass . 
 
 Alb, part of priests* robes. 
 See illustrations to Brass. 
 Alley, Allye : used for Aisle. 
 
6 
 
 Slmerg— 
 
 It is evident, however, from many passages in ancient 
 writers, that a more extended signification was sometimes 
 given to the word, and that in the larger churches and 
 cathedrals the Almeries were not only recesses in the 
 wall, but were detached pieces of furniture, and were very 
 numerous ; they were placed in various parts of the church, 
 or in the cloisters : they were frequently of wainscot, 
 and sometimes of considerable size, answering to what we 
 should now call closets. The word is also used in do- 
 mestic archite cture in the sense of a cupboard. It is 
 often called the Aumbry. [See locker . ] 
 
 Almonry, (also called Aumbry). This always signified 
 the room where alms were distributed : in monastic esta- 
 blishments it was generally a stone building near the 
 church, sometimes on the north side of the quadrangle, or 
 removed to the gate-house. 
 
 Altar (Lat.), an elevated table, slab, or board in Chris- 
 tian churches, consecrated for the Sacrament of the Holy 
 Eucharist. In the third and fourth centuries, the sar- 
 cophagus or stone coffin of a martyr was frequently used 
 as an Altar, since Pope Eelix [a.d. 269 — 274], according 
 to the Liber Pontificalis, u ordered masses to be celebrated 
 over the sepulchres of the martyrs.” One instance of 
 this, as it is supposed, remains in the catacomb of S. Pris- 
 cilla, with a small platform behind it for the priest to 
 stand upon to officiate over it. [See Cemetery .] That 
 they were frequently of wood during the first four or 
 five centuries of the Christian era, is shewn by the fact 
 that the Council of Epone in Erance, a.d. 517, com- 
 manded that “no altars should be consecrated with the 
 chrism of holy oil, but such as were made of stone only.” 
 And we find this included amongst the Excerptions of 
 Egbriht, Archbishop of York, issued about a.d. 740, in 
 
 Aloring, the parapet wall pro- 
 tecting the Alur. 
 
 Altar. The Latin Altare is 
 derived either from alta ara 
 — high altar, or (more probably) 
 from altus only. In describing 
 the arrangements of an altar its 
 sides_are.termed the Epistle and 
 
 Gospel sides or horns respec- 
 tively. The Epistle side is at 
 the left hand of a person stand- 
 ing with his back to the al- 
 tar, and is therefore south in 
 all churches which look east- 
 ward; the Gospel side is the 
 north or opposite side. . 
 
9Itar. 
 
 / 
 
 this country. Later on, that is, at the Council held at 
 "Winchester, a.d. 1071, the fifth of the Canons related to 
 altars, “ that they be not of stone.” And soon after, i.e. 
 a.d. 1080, Bishop Wulstan (so William of Malmesbury 
 records) demolished throughout his diocese the wooden 
 altars still remaining. 
 
 Throughout the series of benefactions to the Roman 
 churches made by successive Popes during the first seven 
 or eight centuries, Anastasius frequently refers to their 
 gifts of altars, and nearly always they are recorded to be 
 covered with pure silver, and sometimes with gold. From 
 the record of the great weight of the silver, it may be 
 assumed that the altar was chiefly composed of the pre- 
 cious metal, perhaps a wooden framework only being used 
 to keep the plates of metal in place. 
 
 It would be natural that the early Christians of Rome 
 and elsewhere should, when they were enabled to pos- 
 sess or build churches, borrow much from the ancient 
 Jewish ritual, and that the altar should thus be intro- 
 duced ; and it is also to be observed that some of the 
 Basilica or justice- halls, which exercised so important an 
 influence on the plan and design of the Christian Church, 
 had also their altars on the chord of the bema or apse for 
 taking oaths upon. But how far one or other of these 
 circumstances influenced the introduction, use, or position 
 of the altar in the very early churches, is a matter which 
 must be left very much to conjecture, from the scanty 
 references which we possess to ecclesiastical details of this 
 early period. Anastasius records that Pope Sixtus, a.d. 
 260, ordered that altars “ should be built in all the 
 churches, and that the Sacred Mysteries should be cele- 
 brated upon them publicly before the congregation, which 
 used not to be done before.” 
 
 Although amongst the writings of the Fathers of the 
 first four or five centuries we do not discover evidence of 
 more than one altar in any church, it became customary 
 
 Altar, portable. A small slab 
 of stone often incised or inlaid. 
 The earliest existing is that 
 found buried with S. Cuthbert, 
 a.d. 687. It has the five crosses 
 upon it. Bede mentions mis- 
 
 sionaries in 692, carrying with 
 them a slab dedicated for an 
 altar. See engraving of a good 
 example, ‘‘Archaeological Jour- 
 nal,” vol. iv. p. 247. 
 
3 
 
 altar. 
 
 at an early period, say the sixth and seventh centuries, to 
 have others beside the high altar, especially at the east 
 end of the aisles and on the east side of the transepts, each 
 dedicated to a particular saint, as is still the custom on 
 the Continent. For instance, Bede speaks of Acca, Bishop 
 of Hexham (a.d. 730) collecting the relics of saints, and 
 erecting different altars with cells [porticos) for them in 
 his church. In Canterbury, Gervase reckons up twenty- 
 five altars previous to the year 1174. From the period 
 that stone altars were introduced, it was usual to enclose 
 the relics of saints in them, so that they often came to be 
 considered the actual tombs of the saints themselves. 
 The medieval idea of the altar being connected with the 
 departed saint may well have had its origin in Scripture* 
 (Rev. vi. 9.) 
 
 Where the high altar is a pontifical altar, it is generally 
 placed at the western part of the church, the priest stand- 
 ing behind it that he may face the east when performing 
 the Mass. This is the case at St. Peter’s at Rome, and 
 in one or two churches specially privileged. 
 
 The slab forming the altar was sometimes supported on 
 pillars, sometimes on brackets, but usually on solid ma- 
 sonry. It was frequently marked with five crosses cut 
 on the top, in allusion, it is said, to the five wounds 
 of Christ. 
 
 Ancient stone altars are very rare in this country. It 
 is sometimes said that none exist, but this is not true. 
 The influence of the Puritans, exercised on different occa- 
 sions, has nearly swept all away ; but a few of them, and 
 some of the chantry altars in the aisles and chapels, have 
 escaped. 
 
 The high altar of 
 Arundel Church, Sus- 
 sex, appears to be ori- 
 ginal, and was proba- 
 bly in imitation of the 
 early Christian altars 
 at Rome; it was co- 
 vered with wood until * - -tz-6 - 
 
 a recent period, and Arundel * s» ss «, c . m 
 
 this fact probably preserved it from destruction. 
 
altar. 
 
 9 
 
 .'At the Reformation the stone altars were first of all 
 retained, and in the First Prayer-book of Edward YI. 
 (1549), compiled under the direction of Archbishop Cran- 
 mer, the term ‘ altar ’ will be found frequently used ; 
 but in the revision of our English Liturgy in 1552, under 
 the influence of the Continental Reformers, the word 
 6 altar’ was in all cases changed into ‘ table.’ In the 
 restoration of our Liturgy after Queen Mary’s death, 
 (1559,) it was a question whether to adopt Cranmer’s Book 
 of 1549, or the altered Book of 1552, there being strong 
 parties in favour of each. The Book of 1552 was event- 
 ually adopted ; but the Act of Parliament enjoining it 
 contained the Proviso that (while the words of the 1552 
 Book were to be used) the Ornaments of the church 
 authorized by the Book of 1549 were to be retained. 
 
 Queen Elizabeth, in her Injunctions issued at the begin- 
 ning of her reign, makes a special provision for the place 
 of the “ Tables in Churches,” to this effect : — u Whereas 
 in many parts of the realm the Altars of the churches be 
 removed and tables placed, and in some other places the 
 Altars be not yet removed; in the order whereof, saving 
 for an uniformity, there seemeth no matter of great mo- 
 ment, yet for observation of an uniformity through the 
 whole realm, and for the better imitation of the law, it is 
 ordered that no Altar be taken down, but by oversight of 
 the Curate and Churchwarden. And that the Holy Table 
 in every church be set in the place where the Altar stood ; 
 and there commonly covered, as thereto belongeth, and so 
 to stand, saving when the communion of the Sacrament is 
 to be distributed ; at which time the same shall be so 
 placed in good sort within the chancel, as whereby the 
 minister may be more conveniently heard of the com- 
 municants, and the communicants more conveniently com- 
 municate with the said minister. And after the com- 
 munion done, from time to time the same Holy Table to be 
 placed where it stood before.” 
 
 The object of this arrangement was to satisfy, as far as 
 possible, both parties. The strong Puritan party were able 
 to introduce the continental custom, and sit round the 
 table ; and in one or two rare instances the seats and large 
 square tables remained, or were remaining, till a few yeai s 
 
16 
 
 SHtar* 
 
 back (e.g. Deerhurst, Gloucestershire'; Langley Chapel, 
 near Acton Burnel, Shropshire ; Shillingford, Berks, &c.) ; 
 and in Jersey this Puritan position of the table is still 
 very common : the injunctions, however, did not force the 
 other party to move the Holy Table, provided that the 
 communicants could hear, and be accommodated within 
 the chancel* 
 
 Ihe effect was, that the practices were very varied. 
 To save the trouble, and also no doubt to prevent the ir- 
 reverence ensuing from moving the Holy Table backwards 
 and forwards, the law was seldom strictly followed. Most 
 Curates, no doubt, left the Holy Table standing where the 
 Altar stood, as the minister could be as well heard there 
 as elsewhere when the communicants were gathered in 
 the chancel. But the ultra- Puritans took advantage of 
 the injunction to move the Holy Table, even out into the 
 nave in some cases, and to assimilate the rite as far as 
 possible to the Genevan model. 
 
 This practice of moving the Holy Table, may possibly 
 be the explanation of those instances which have been 
 observed, of the Holy Table in churches having the slab 
 detached from the frame, or at least screwed into it, the 
 screws appearing to be a recent addition. 
 
 Although, as has been said, a few instances of the stone 
 altars having been suffered to remain can be found, in 
 most cases the Commissioners ordered them to be removed, 
 and the parish was bound to supply a Communion Table, 
 or as it is more fully expressed in Archbishop Parker’s Ad- 
 vertisements of March 28, 1566, — “ a decent table stand- 
 ing on a frame for the Communion-table.” But the prac- 
 tice of moving it backwards and forwards fell into desue- 
 tude, and though the Injunctions of Queen Elizabeth were 
 not definitely repealed, the Holy Table now stands in all 
 the churches in England “ where the altar stood,” not 
 only before and after, but during the administration of 
 the Holy Communion. The , Communion Tables of the 
 time of Elizabeth; and James I. are frequently found re- 
 maining in churches, though from the plain character of 
 the majority it is difficult to assign dates to these. 
 
 Altar-piece. See Beredos. I Alto-relievo. S eeBasso-relievo. 
 
 AlIar-screen. See Screen. I Ambry, Ambre = Almery. 
 
'Utar.-toml) — Sltrtfca. 
 
 ii 
 
 Altar-tomb, Porlock, Somerset, c. 1500. 
 
 Altar-tomb, a raised monument resembling 
 altar. This appears 
 only to be a modern 
 term, descriptive of 
 the character and shape 
 of the Tomb. It is 
 equivalent to the ex- 
 pression High - tomb, 
 used by Leland. Tombs 
 on the north side ot 
 the altar, used for the 
 ceremonies of the Eas- 
 ter Sepulchre were of this character. 
 
 Alur (Old Eng. alours). This word appears gene- 
 rally to have signified the gutter, 
 passage, or gallery, in which per- 
 sons could walk behind a parapet 
 on the top of a wall, or in other 
 situations, especially in military 
 architecture, where the Alur be- 
 comes of the highest importance. 
 
 The term, however, was sometimes 
 used for passages of various kinds. 
 
 Lydgate used the word for covered 
 walks in the streets. [See Ambu- 
 latory * ,] 
 
 Ambo (Gr. possibly from anabainein = to ascend), a 
 kind of pulpit. Zosi- 
 mus and Socrates the 
 historians inform us, 
 that St. Chrysostom 
 preached from the 
 Ambo , for the greater 
 convenience of the 
 people. St. Augustin 
 also tells us, that for 
 the same reason he 
 preached from the 
 Exedra or Apse of the church behind the altar. It ap- 
 pears from early writers, that the name of Ambo was 
 especially applied to a reading-desk, which was raised 
 
 A. Alur. B. Parapet. M. Machicolation. 
 
 Epistle Ambo, St. Clement’s, Rome, a.d . 1110. 
 
12 
 
 amio^&mpljttijeatre. 
 
 on two steps, and was sometimes situated immediately 
 within the entrance to the choir, at others on one side, as 
 in the church of the Holy Cross at Jerusalem. 
 
 The Arnbo is a prominent feature in the furniture of the 
 churches at Rome, but the earliest now existing there 
 are of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, those in 
 St. Clement’s are of about a.d. 1110. The low marble 
 screen was brought up from the lower church or crypt, 
 which was filled with earth to support the pavement 
 of the upper church 
 when it was rebuilt 
 at that period. The 
 screen itself is of the 
 eighth century, but 
 the arrangement of it 
 has evidently been 
 altered when it was 
 moved, and the Am- 
 bones inserted at that 
 time; they are built 
 partly upon the old 
 screen, but are of 
 a different work, and 
 a different kind of marble. All the Ambones in Rome 
 are made of the same kind of marble, evidently the 
 fashion of the twelfth century. 
 
 Amphitheatre, an oval theatre, with tiers of seats, used 
 chiefly by the Romans to exhibit the combats of gladia- 
 tors or wild beasts. The galleries with the seats were 
 covered with awning. The general taste of that people 
 for these amusements is proverbial, and they appear to 
 have constructed amphitheatres at all their principal settle- 
 ments. There are still considerable remains of them : in 
 this country the earthworks only exist, at Cirencester, Sil- 
 
 Ambulatory, a place to walk 
 in, such as cloisters. Lydgate, in 
 his “ Boke of Troye,” writes — 
 
 “ Freshe Alures with lustye hye pynacles . . 
 . . . that called were deambulatoryes, 
 Men to walke togither twaine and 
 twaine 
 
 To keep them drye when it happed to 
 rayne.” 
 
 Amphipro style, Amphypro- 
 stylos, a temple with a Portico 
 at each end. See Temple. 
 
 Amphithura (Gr.), the curtain 
 hanging like doors between nave 
 and chancel. 
 
 Ancones =r Consoles. 
 
*3 
 
 &mpf)ttfjeatre— 3nt«. 
 
 Chester, and Dorchester : in France, much of the masonry 
 exists at Arles, and at Msmes in Languedoc; in Istria at 
 Pola ; and in Italy, the well-known Colosseum at Lome,, 
 at Yerona, Capua, Pompeii, and many other places, the 
 buildings exist with their masonry very perfect. 
 
 Andirons, a term of frequent occurrence in old inven- 
 tories, &c., and one which is still 
 well known in some parts of the 
 country, for the Fire-dogs : they are 
 generally enumerated as a “pair of 
 andirons,” but occasionally only one 
 is mentioned. In the hall at Pens- 
 hurst, Kent, the hearth still remains 
 in the middle of the rc om, and there 
 stands on it one large fire-dog, con- 
 sisting of an upright standard at 
 each end, and a bar between. Al- 
 though used chiefly for the braziers 
 in the middle of the hall, they were 
 also used in the fireplaces in the 
 chambers. 
 
 Annulet (lit. a ring), a small flat fillet, encircling a 
 column, &c., used either 
 by itself or in conne ction 
 with other mouldings : 
 
 it is used, several times Annulets repeated. 
 
 repeated, under the Ovolo or Echinus of the Doric capital. 
 
 Antae (Lat.), a species of pilasters used 
 in Greek and Homan architecture to termi- 
 nate the pteromata or side walls of temples, 
 when they are prolonged beyond the face of 
 the end walls. The first order of temples, 
 according to Yitruvius, is called “in antis ,” 
 because the pronaos or porch in front of 
 the cell is formed by the projection of 
 the pteromata terminated by antae, with 
 columns between them. They may be said 
 to correspond to the 4 respond ’ in English 
 architt cture. 
 
 AUse, 
 
14 
 
 Mntzztfyupzl— Spse. 
 
 Ante-chapel, a term used in the Universities for the 
 outer part at the west end of a chapel. It would form the 
 transept of a cruciform church were a nave added, as was 
 evidently intended at Merton College, Oxford. The plan 
 was followed by Wykeham in New College, and Wayn- 
 flete in Magdalen, and hence became a common feature 
 in a collegiate chapel, both in Oxford and Cambridge. 
 
 Antefixse, or Antefixes (Lat.), ornamented tiles on the 
 top of the cornice or eaves, at the end of each ridge 
 of tiling, as on the chora gic monument of Lysicrates, at 
 Athens ; sometimes of marble, but generally of terra cotta , 
 and ornamented with a mask, honeysuckle, or other deco- 
 ration moulded on them. Also lions 7 heads carved on the 
 upper mouldings of the cornice, either for ornament, or to 
 serve as spouts to carry off the water, as on the Temple of 
 the Winds at Athens. 
 
 Antepagmenta (Lat.), dressings or architrave of a door- 
 way. This term does not include the frame of the door, 
 which is of wood, but only the stone decorations, or 
 stucco, when that material is used. 
 
 Apophyge (Gr.), the small cuivature given to the top 
 and bottom of the shaft of a column where it expands to 
 meet the edge of the fillet. [See Column , ] 
 
 Apse (Gr.), the semicircular or polygonal termination 
 to the choir or aisles of a Basilica. This form was almost 
 universally adopted in Germany, France, and Italy. A 
 similar termination is sometimes given to the transepts 
 and nave, and is also called by the same name. The use of 
 the word Portions , as a recess for a tomb or an altar, by 
 Bede and other early historians, e.g. Gervase, is thought 
 often to imply the apsidal termination of an aisle. There 
 are a few churches with the semicircular apse at the east 
 end in different parts of England, chiefly in the Norman 
 style, and some in which this form has evidently been 
 
 Antependium, the frontal 
 hangings of the Altar. 
 
 Antistitium = Monastery. 
 Apodyterium, adressing’-room 
 next the bath in Roman villas. 
 
 In Oxford the atrium to the Con- 
 vocation House is so called. 
 
 Apothesis, Apophysis — Apo- 
 phyge. 
 
Slpsc — Hraeostgle. 
 
 15 
 
 altered at a subsequent period. In several cases the crypts 
 beneath have re- 
 tained the old form 
 when the super- 
 structure has been 
 altered. 
 
 On the Continent 
 the apse continued 
 in use much later 
 than in England, 
 where the practice 
 of making the east 
 end of the churches 
 square began early 
 in the Norman pe- 
 riod. In the Gothic 
 style the form of 
 the apse was fre^ 
 quently changed 
 from semicircular to 
 polygonal. 
 
 Apse, Dalmeny, Linlithgowshire, c. 1150. 
 
 
 „ f O' 
 
 Arabesque, a species of ornament used for enriching 
 flat surfaces, either 
 painted, inlaid in \ 
 mosaic, or carved ) 
 in low relief: it ‘ 
 
 was much used by 
 the Arabs, as also y 
 by the Saracens or ) 
 
 Moors in Spain. ^ 
 
 In the domestic ar- Arabesque. 
 
 chitecture of this country in the sixteenth and seventeenth 
 
 centuries, this mode of ornamentation is very frequent. 
 
 Araeostyle, that style of the Grecian temple in which 
 the columns are placed at the distance of four (and oc- 
 casionally five) diameters apart. 
 
 Apteral Temple, Temple 
 without columns on the sides. 
 Arbalisteria. See Loopholes. 
 
 Arca or Ark, a chest; also 
 a coffin. 
 
\j6 
 
 ^Crcatre — 
 
 Arcade, a series of arches, either open, or closed with 
 masonry, supported by columns or piers. The term is 
 more generally applied to the closed arches which are 
 used for the decoration of the 
 walls of churches, both on 
 the exterior an 1 interior: on 
 buildings in the Norman style 
 of the twelfth century, we 
 frequently find them consist- 
 ing of semicircular arches 
 intersecting each other, sup- 
 posed by some to have sug- 
 gested the pointed arch. In 
 later styles they are exces- 
 sively ornamented, as for 
 example at Lichfield, an 
 illustration of which will 
 be found under Canopy; a 
 plainer example from Lin- 
 coln is given under Perpent . 
 
 St. Peter’s, Northampton, c. 1140. 
 
 Aqueduct (Lat.), an artificial channel for conveying 
 water from one place to another, very frequently raised 
 on arches, but sometimes carried underground or on the 
 surface. The Roman aqueducts rank amongst their noblest 
 designs and greatest works. 
 
 Arch. Primarily a construction of bricks, or stones, so 
 arranged as by mutual pressure to support each other, and 
 to become capable of sustaining a superincumbent weight. 
 
 Secondarily, any construction whether of wood, iron, 
 or of other material, although in one piece, assuming the 
 same form as the above. (Lat. Arcus = a bow.) 
 
 "With whatever people the arch may have originated, it 
 is certain that the Romans were the first to bring it into 
 general use. The influence which the arch has had in 
 effecting changes in architecture is much greater than is 
 generally supposed : not only may the deterioration which 
 took place in the Roman be ascribed to it, but even the 
 introduction of Gothic architecture may be said to be 
 
 Arch. The sides of an arch are termed its haunches or flanks , 
 and the highest part th6 crown. 
 
i7 
 
 2rcfr. 
 
 owing to it, for the arch gradually encroached upon the 
 leading principle of Classical architecture, namely, that 
 the horizontal lines should be dominant, until that prin- 
 ciple was entirely abrogated, and the principle of the 
 Gothic, namely, the dominant vertical line , took its place. 
 
 In the early Christian Churches in Rome the arches 
 are usually of brick, resting upon marble columns, and 
 are frequently concealed behind a horizontal entablature. 
 When once the open application of the arch above the 
 columns had been introduced, it appears never to have 
 been abandoned, and the entablature was interrupted to 
 suit the arch, the principal object aimed at being an ap- 
 pearance of height and spaciousness ; and in some instances 
 in late Roman work the entablature is omitted entirely, 
 and the arch rises directly from the capital of the column, 
 as in Gothic architecture. In the filth and sixth centuries, 
 a piece of entablature is preserved over the capital in 
 Byzantine work, as at Ravenna, and in the church of S. 
 Stefano Rotondo in Rome. When, after the dominion of the 
 Romans was destroyed, and the rules governing the true 
 proportions of architecture, from which they had them- 
 selves so widely departed, were entirely lost, the nations 
 of Europe began again to erect 
 large buildings, they would 
 naturally endeavour to copy 
 the structures of the Romans ; 
 but it was not to have been 
 expected, even supposing they 
 were capable of imitating them 
 exactly, that they would have 
 retained the clumsy, and to 
 them unmeaning appendage of 
 a broken entablature, but would 
 have placed the arch at once 
 on the top of the column, as 
 we know they did ; hence arose the various national styles 
 which preceded the introduction of the pointed arch, in- 
 cluding the Norman. 
 
 The earliest Norman arches are semicircular and square- 
 edged, as in the remains of the work of Edward the Confessor 
 at Westminster, not recessed (or divided into orders), and 
 
 c 
 
not moulded. As the Norman style advanced, the arches 
 became much enriched with mouldings and ornaments, and 
 recessed, often doubly or trebly recessed, or what Professor 
 Willis called divided into two or more orders. The form 
 of the arch also by this time begins to vary very much ; a 
 stilted arch is often used, sometimes for greater convenience 
 in vaulting, in other instances, like the horse-shoe arch, 
 apparently from fashion only. The form, however, is of 
 very little use as a guide to the date of a building, either 
 in this or in the later styles ; it is dictated always by con- 
 venience rather than by any rule, and it is probable that 
 the pointed arch came in exceptionally much earlier than 
 has been generally supposed. The mouldings and details, 
 both of the arch itself and of the capitals, are a much 
 better guide to the date than the form of the arch. 
 
 Antiquaries are not agreed upon the origin of the pointed 
 arch , some contending that it is an importation from the 
 East, and others that it is the invention of the countries 
 in which Gothic Architecture prevailed. It is perhaps 
 more true that the Gothic style in which the pointed arch 
 is so chief a feature was gradually developed from the 
 mixture of the Romanesque and Byzantine, and that the 
 origin of the pointed arch was rather constructional than 
 ornamental. But be its origin what it may, the pointed 
 arch was not introduced to general use on this side of 
 Europe till the latter half of the twelfth century, Erom 
 that time it continued, under various modifications, to be 
 the prevailing form in the countries in which Gothic 
 architecture flourished, until the revival of the Classical 
 orders: one of the best -authenticated instances of the 
 earliest use of the pointed arch in England is the circular 
 part of the Temple Church of London, which was dedi- 
 cated in 1185. The choir of Canterbury Cathedral, com- 
 menced in 1175, is usually referred to as the earliest 
 example in England, and none of earlier date has been au- 
 thenticated ; although it seems probable that many pointed 
 arches of the transitional character with Norman details 
 are at least as early as the middle of the twelfth century, 
 if not earlier, as at Malmesbury Abbey, St. Cross, &c. 
 
 The only forms used by the ancients were the semi- 
 circle (fig. 1), the segment (fig. 2, 3), and ellipse (fig. 4), 
 
J 9 
 
 arcTj. 
 
 all which continued prevalent till the pointed arch ap- 
 peared, and even after that period they were occasionally 
 employed in all the styles of Gothic architecture. 
 
 6. Horseshoe. 
 
 9. Equilateral. 
 
 In the Eomanesque and Norman styles, the centre, or 
 point from which the curve of the arch is struck, is not un- 
 frequently found to be above the line of the impost, and the 
 mouldings between these two levels are either continued 
 vertically (to which arrangement the term stilted has been 
 applied, (fig. 5), or they are slightly inclined inwards 
 (fig. 6), or the curve is prolonged till it meets the impost 
 (fig. 7 ) : these two latter forms are called horseshoe 
 
 arches : pointed arches are sometimes elevated in a simi- 
 lar manner, especially in the Early English style, and 
 are called by the same names (fig. 8), but they are prin- 
 cipally used in Moorish architecture. The proportions 
 given to the simple Pointed Arch (Er. Ogive ) are three- 
 fold; viz. the equilateral (fig. 9), which is formed on an 
 equilateral triangle; the lancet (fig. 10), formed on an 
 acute-angled triangle, and the drop arch (fig. 11), formed 
 on an obtuse-angled triangle ; these, together with the 
 segmental pointed arch (fig. 12), are the prevailing forms 
 used in Early English work, although trefoiled arches 
 
20 
 
 &rrfj. 
 
 (figs. 13, 14, 15), cinquefoiled, &c. (figs. 16, 17), of various 
 proportions, are frequently met with, especially towards 
 
 12. Segmental Pointed. 
 
 15. Trefoil. 
 
 18. Ogee. 
 
 the end of the style, hut they are principally used in 
 panellings, niches, and other small openings. 
 
 Simple pointed arches were used in all the styles of 
 Gothic architecture, though not with the same frequency ; 
 the lancet-arch is common in the Early English, and is 
 sometimes found in the Decorated , but is very rarely met 
 with in the Perpendicular ; the drop-arch and the equi- 
 lateral abound in the two first styles, and in the early part 
 of the Perpendicular, but they afterwards in great measure 
 gave way to the four-centred. Plain and pointed seg- 
 mental arches also are frequently used for windows in the 
 Decorated and Perpendicular styles, but not often for 
 other openings. With the Decorated style was introduced 
 the ogee arch, Pr. Arcade en talon (fig. 18), which con- 
 tinued to be used throughout the Perpendicular style, al- 
 though less frequently than in the Decorated ; it is very 
 common over niche?, tombs, and small doorways, and in 
 Northamptonshire over doors or windows, [see pp. 89, 100] 
 
but the difficulty of constructing it securely precluded 
 its general adoption for large openings. About the com- 
 mencement of the Perpendicular style the four - centred 
 
 19. Four-centred. 
 
 20. Four-centred. 
 
 The dotted lines shew the mode of setting 
 out the voussoirs. 
 
 arch (fig. 19) appeared as a general form, and continued 
 in use until the revival of Classical architecture; when 
 first introduced the proportions were bold and effective, 
 but it was gradually more and more depressed until the 
 whole principle, and almost the form, of an arch was 
 lost, for it became so flat as to be frequently cut in a 
 single stone, which was applied as a lintel over the head 
 of an opening. In some instances an arch, having the 
 effect of a four-centred arch, is found, of which the sides 
 are perfectly straight, except at the lower angles next the 
 impost (figc 20) ; it is generally a sign of late and bad 
 work, and prevailed most during the reigns of Henry VIII., 
 Elizabeth, and James I. The four-centred arch appears 
 never to have been brought into general use out of Eng- 
 land, although the Flamboyant style of the Continent, 
 which was contemporary with our Perpendicular, under- 
 went the same gradual debasement ; the depressed arches 
 used in Flamboyant work are flattened ellipses (fig. 21), or 
 sometimes, as in late Perpendicular, ogees, and not unfre- 
 
22 
 
 a«&. 
 
 quently the head of an opening is made straight , with the 
 angles only rounded off (fig. 22) ; this last form and the 
 flattened ellipse are very rarely met with in England. 
 
 There is also the rampant arch (fig. 23), the imposts of 
 which are at different levels ; and what is called a flat 
 arch (fig. 24), which is constructed with stones cut 
 into wedges or other shapes so as to support each other 
 without rising into a curve, and considerable ingenuity 
 is often displayed in the formation of these. This form 
 is commonly used over fire-places. 
 
 Notice must also be taken of a construction which is not 
 unfrequently used as a substitute for an arch, especially in 
 the style which is referred to as perhaps being Saxon, and 
 which produces a very similar ef- 
 fect (fig. 25) ; it consists of two 
 straight stones set upon their 
 edge and leaning against each 
 other at the top, so as to form 
 two sides of a triangle and sup- 
 port a superincumbent weight ; 
 excepting in the style just al- 
 luded to, these are seldom used 
 except in rough work, or in situations in which they 
 would not be seen. It does, however, sometimes occur in 
 good Early English work, as in Hereford Cathedral, and 
 Uffington Church, Berkshire. 
 
 There is one form given to the heads of openings, which 
 is frequently called an arch, although it is not one. It 
 consists of a straight lintel, supported on a corbel in each 
 jamb, projecting into the opening so as to contract its 
 width; the mouldings, or splay of the jambs and head 
 
 being usually continued on the corbels, pro- p — - — j 
 
 ducing an effect something like a flattened a[| |LL 
 
 trefoil (fig. 26) ; the corbels are usually cut l (fc- -2n 
 
 into a hollow curve on the under side, but 
 they occasionally vary in form. This form 
 has been called the shouldered arch, from 
 its resembling a man’s shoulders with the head cut off. 
 These heads are most commonly used for doorways : espe- 
 cially in domestic work, and in the thirteenth and four- 
 teenth centuries. 
 
 25. Triangular. 
 
 26. Shouldered. 
 
Arclj — Architecture. 
 
 2 3 
 
 As the arch forms so important an element in the 
 Gothic style, as distinguished from the entablature of 
 the Greek and Roman styles, it is introduced in every 
 part of the building and receives a great variety of orna- 
 mentation. In the Norman style such ornaments as the 
 zigzag and leak-head are most usual ; in the Early English 
 style the dog’s-tooth in the hollows is very frequent ; 
 in the Decorated style the arches are not usually more 
 rich than in the Early English ; the mouldings are not 
 so bold nor the hollows so deep, and the plain cham- 
 fered arch is very common in this style. When ornament 
 is used, the ball-flower or the four-leaved flower take the 
 place of the dog’s-tooth. The arches of the Perpendicular 
 style are often profusely moulded, but the mouldings less 
 bold and less deep even than in the previous style ; they 
 are sometimes ornamented with the foliage peculiar to 
 that style, and sometimes also quite plain. 
 
 Illustrations of the various forms of arches will be 
 found more or less under Doorway , Window , &c., and the 
 examples of their ornamentation under Mouldings . 
 
 Architecture, (Gr. Archi-tekton = chief builder or archi- 
 tect). The history of Architecture is the history of civi- 
 lization written on stone, in a language easily learned, 
 and which cannot deceive. Every nation has an archi- 
 tecture of its own, just as distinct as its language, and 
 there is a remarkable analogy between the two, as in 
 both cases there are provincialisms also. Each succeeding 
 century has a very distinct character of its own, but modi- 
 fied by the different countries and provinces to which the 
 buildings belong ; it is therefore necessary to know some- 
 thing of the history of the country before we can properly 
 understand its architecture. The Eastern nations have 
 left us many magnificent buildings in a variety of styles, 
 some of which belong to a very early period in the history 
 of the world : the great empires of antiquity, the Assyrian, 
 the Egyptian, the Persian, and the Indian, may all be 
 traced by their buildings. The Greeks have left us their 
 beautilul temples, which the Romans vainly strove to 
 excel. In Western Europe Roman architecture gradually 
 died out along with Roman civilization ; from the fourth 
 to the tenth century there is a gradual decay of art of 
 
24 
 
 Architecture. 
 
 all kinds, with a great struggle to revive it in the ninth 
 century, when numerous buildings were erected under the 
 influence of Charles the Great, in rude imitation of the 
 early Roman buildings ; but this effort did not last more 
 than half a century, and we have scarcely any buildings 
 of the tenth century in any part of Western Europe. 
 
 But during this period the Eastern Empire was far 
 more flourishing and more civilized than the Western; 
 that variety of the Roman style which was established 
 in the East, distinguished especially by the use of the 
 Lome or cupola, and called the Byzantine style [see 
 Byzantine Architecture ] is very superior to the Western 
 style of the same period. When the Crusaders visited 
 Byzantium, Palestine, and Syria, they found buildings 
 there very superior to any they had at home, and they 
 brought home with them drawings, and probably work- 
 men also, to improve their own buildings. 
 
 The revival of civilization, and with it architecture, had 
 indeed begun about the beginning of the eleventh cen- 
 tury, and the distinct architecture of the different countries 
 of Western Europe begins from that period. Previously 
 to that time the Celtic nations were accustomed to build 
 of wood only (with a few rare exceptions). The first 
 stone buildings in England, the church towers called 
 Anglo-Saxon, are in imitation of wooden buildings [see 
 Saxon style], the cut stones are not laid in beds as a 
 mason \a ould place them, but upright at the angles, and 
 horizontally, through the walls of rubble and rough stone, 
 to tie them together, like the wooden frame of a house. 
 
 In the different provinces of Gaul which were then 
 separate kingdoms, now included in the general name of 
 Prance, the Roman buildings which there remained served 
 as models to copy from, and each nation formed a peculiar 
 style of its own, derived originally from the peculiar cha- 
 racteristics of each Roman building which had served as 
 the model for that country. There is a very marked dif- 
 ference in the architecture north of the Loire and that of 
 the south. In Normandy, with which England was more 
 immediately connected, there were few or no Roman build- 
 ings to copy ; but the Normans were a very energetic race, 
 
 Arch-buttress. See Buttress. 
 
Srrijttecture. 25 
 
 and not to be left behind in the general march of civiliza- 
 tion — they were driven to invent for themselves. Their 
 early buildings of the eleventh century were very plain 
 but very substantial, and in many instances the orna- 
 mentation was entirely added in the twelfth century, after 
 the return of the Crusaders, without rebuilding. [See 
 Norman style.] All our rich Norman ornament belongs 
 to the twelfth century, when the arts of building and 
 stone carving had arrived at great perfection, and each suc- 
 ceeding generation has left lasting marks of its progress. 
 
 During the second half of the twelfth century, in 
 the long peaceful reign of Henry II., this progress was 
 particularly rapid, and it was during this period that 
 the Gothic style was developed both in England and 
 France. The movement had been begun by Suger, at 
 St. Denis, about 1140, but the remains of his work there 
 are quite of early transitional character; the new style 
 was not developed until the following generation. The 
 Early English or the early French Gothic style cannot 
 be considered as more than varieties of the same style 
 with certain national distinctions. [See Early English 
 style.] This style continued for about a century, and 
 gradually changed into the Decorated style of the latter 
 part of the thirteenth and early part of the fourteenth 
 centuries. This style, sometimes called the u Perfect 
 Gothic style,” is remarkably alike in both countries, 
 and in Germany also. [See Decorated style.] From this 
 perfection the art soon began to decline, and the later 
 Gothic styles of each country are more distinct and sepa- 
 rate than the earlier ones. The Flamboyant style of 
 France is quite different from the Perpendicular style ot 
 England. The Flamboyant styles of Germany, Belgium, 
 and Holland, all have national or provincial characters of 
 their own. The Gothic of Italy was at first a manifest copy 
 of the Western Gothic, but was developed into a style of 
 its own, which is not without merit. In the fifteenth 
 century the revival of classical literature was naturally 
 accompanied by the revival of Classical or pagan art, and 
 at a time when the Latin language was attempted to be 
 revived as the universal language, the same pedantry was 
 applied to architecture, and the style called The Renais • 
 
26 
 
 ^rrintecture— lar. 
 
 a bad imitation of the Roman, became almost uni- 
 versal, and it was not until the middle of the nineteenth 
 century that the national styles of the different countries 
 of modern Europe were revived. 
 
 Architrave (Gr. and Lat. = chief- beam), the lowest 
 division of the entablature , in Classical architecture, rest- 
 ing immediately on the abacus of the capital: also the 
 ornamental moulding running round the exterior curve 
 of an arch; and hence applied to the mouldings round 
 the openings of doors and windows, &c. [For illustra- 
 tion, see Column and Order .] 
 
 Archivolt (Fr. from Lat. arcus , volutus ), the under curve 
 or surface of an arch, from impost to impost. The ar -hi- 
 volt is sometimes quite plain, with square edges, in which 
 case the term soffit is applicable to it ; this kind of archivolt 
 is used in the Homan and Romanesque styles, including 
 those buildings in this country which are by some con- 
 sidered as Saxon, and in the early Norman. In later 
 Norman work it usually has the edges moulded or cham- 
 fered off; and towards the end of that style, and through- 
 out all the Gothic styles, it is frequently divided into 
 several concentric portions, each projecting beyond that 
 which is beneath (or within) it. 
 
 Arena (Lat.), the floor of an amphitheatre, a wooden 
 floor covered with sand for the athletes to wrestle upon; 
 sometimes applied to the amphitheatre itself; often con- 
 founded with the area or open space, and in that sense 
 applied also to the body of a church. 
 
 Ashlar, Achelor, Ashler, hewn or squared stone used 
 in building, as distinguished from that which is unhewn, 
 or rough as it comes from the quarry: it is called by 
 different names at the present day, according to the way 
 in which it is worked, and is used for the facings of walls. 
 “ Clene hewen” or finely worked ashlar is frequently 
 specified in ancient contracts for building, in contradis- 
 tinction to that which is roughly worked. 
 
 Armarium (Lat.), same as Aum- 
 bry, probably = Fr. Armoire. 
 
 Armature (Fr.), iron bars or 
 framing employed for the con- 
 solidation of a building. 
 
 Arris (Fr. Arete), the edge of 
 a roof, or of a stone, or of a piece 
 of wood. 
 
 Ashler, piece in a roof. See 
 Roof. 
 
Astragal -33 atleg. 
 
 27 
 
 Astragal (Gr. = a 
 knuckle-bone), a small 
 semicircular moulding or 
 bead, either encircling 
 a column, or in other sit- 
 uations. [See Column .] 
 
 Atlantes, male figures used in the place of columns to 
 support entablatures, &c. : so called by the Greeks, but 
 by the Romans Telamones . 
 
 Atrium (Lat.), the entrance court or hall of a Roman 
 dwelling. In a large and complete house it was enclosed 
 on all sides by a series of chambers, which opened into it, 
 and to which it gave access and light. It was roofed so 
 as to leave a large opening ( compluvium ) in the centre to 
 admit light, and consequently rain : the latter was received 
 in a cistern ( impluvium ). There was frequently a colon- 
 nade round it, as in several houses at Pompeii. After- 
 wards an arcade was often substituted for the colonnade. 
 In houses where there were many courts, the word would 
 more properly be applied to the one nearest the entrance, 
 also called the Porticus or Peristyle. 
 
 In the large Early Christian churches an atrium was 
 built before the principal entrance doors, and this practice, 
 as well as the name, was retained to the eleventh century, 
 and in some cases even later. When the practice, how- 
 ever, of constructing such an enclosed court was abandoned, 
 the name was transferred to the churchyard and cemetery. 
 
 Attic, a low story above an entablature, or above a cor- 
 nice, which limits the height of the main part of an eleva- 
 tion : it is chiefly used in the Roman and Italian styles. 
 
 Bailey (Lat. B allium), a name given to the courts or 
 wards of a castle formed by the spaces between the circuits 
 of walls or defences which surrounded the keep : sometimes 
 there were two or three of these courts between the outer 
 wall and the keep, divided from each other by embattled 
 walls. The name is frequently retained long after the 
 castle itself has disappeared ; as the Bailey in Lincoln, the 
 Old Bailey in London, St. Peter’s-in-the-Bailey in Oxford. 
 
 Aspersorium (Lat.), a holy- 
 water basin, used for the stone 
 stoup. 
 
 Aumbry. See Almonry. 
 Auter, Awter = Altar. 
 
 Backs (in carpentry), the prin- 
 cipal rafters of a Roof. The upper 
 side of any piece of timber is also 
 termed the back , the lower side 
 being called the breast . 
 
28 
 
 BalDflofoer. 
 
 Ball-flower, an ornament resembling a ball placed 
 in a globular flower, the three petals of 
 which form a cup round it : this ornament 
 is usually found inserted in a hollow mould- 
 ing, and is generally characteristic of the 
 Decorated style of the fourteenth century; 
 but it sometimes occurs, though rarely, 
 in buildings of the thirteenth century, or Early English 
 style, as in the west front of Salisbury Cathedral, where 
 it is mixed with the tooth ornament : it is, however, 
 rarely found in that style, and is an indication that the 
 work is late. It is the prevailing ornament at Here- 
 ford Cathedral, in the south aisle of the nave of Glou- 
 cester Cathedral, and the west end of Grantham Church ; 
 in all these instances in pure Decorated work. Sometimes 
 it is mixed with foliage, more 
 rarely alone. A flower resem- 
 bling this, except that it has 
 four petals, is occasionally found 
 in very late Norman work, but 
 it is used with other flowers 
 and ornaments, and not repeated 
 in long suits, as in the Deco- 
 rated ityle. A similar ornament 
 is of frequent occurrence in the 
 twelfth century in the west of 
 France, but not in the fourteenth 
 century. As to its origin there 
 are several theories. One that it 
 represented the Pomegranate, and 
 was introduced out of compli- 
 ment to Queen Eleanor of Castile. The probabilities, 
 however, are that it was brought from the East. 
 
 Examples of the use of the ball-flower will be found in 
 the illustrations given under Moulding , Niche , Rib , Win- 
 dow , &c. 
 
 Baguette (Fr.), a small mould- 
 ing. 
 
 Balcony, a projecting gallery 
 in front of a window, supported 
 usually by consoles, brackets, 
 cantalivers, or pillars, and fre- 
 quently surrounded by a Balus- 
 trade . 
 
 Baldachino, Baldequin (Lat. 
 Baldalcinus, Anglice Bawde- 
 kin), 1. a rich embroidered cloth 
 used for copes; 2. The port- 
 able canopy borne over shrines, 
 &c. in procession ; 3. The cibo- 
 rium. 
 
Baluster— 38 ant*. 29 , 
 
 
 Baluster, corruptly banister and ballaster, a small pillar 
 usually made circular, and swelling in 
 the middle or towards the bottom (en- 
 tasis), commonly used in a balustrade. A 
 rude balustre-shaft occurs in the Roman- 
 esque styles of the eleventh and twelfth 
 centuries in England and elsewhere, 
 where it occupies the place of a mid- wall 
 shaft to the tower windows. Some of 
 the examples have evidently been turned 
 in a lathe, and it has been observed that 
 they bear a great resemblance to the 
 spokes of a cart-wheel at the present 
 day, also turned in a lathe in the same 
 manner. Erom the eleventh century it 
 was disused till the revival of Classical 
 architecture in the sixteenth. 
 
 St. Alban’s, c. 1070. 
 
 Balustrade, a range of small balusters supporting a 
 coping or cornice, and forming a parapet or enclosure. 
 
 Band, a flat face or fascia, a square moulding, or a con- 
 tinuous tablet or 
 a series of orna- 
 ments, &c., en- 
 circling a build- 
 ing or continued 
 along the wall. 
 
 Bands of panel- 
 ling on the exter- 
 nal surface of a Band of Paneling, Cranford St.John’s, c. 1420. 
 
 wall are very usual in rich work of the Perpendicular 
 style, especially on the lower part of a tower, and some- 
 times higher up between the stories also, as in the rich 
 Somersetshire towers, and in Northamptonshire and 
 Oxfordshire, and indeed wherever rich churches of this 
 style are found. This kind of ornament is however 
 used in the earlier styles also, though less frequently. 
 See also a good illustration from Yelvertoft Church under 
 Perpendicular . 
 
 Balustraria. See Loop-holes. 
 
 Banker, a cushion or covering for a seat. 
 
30 
 
 iSanb — Barbican. 
 
 Also the moulding, or suite of mouldings which encircles 
 the pillars and small shafts in Gothic 
 architecture, the use of which was most 
 prevalent in the Early English style. 
 
 Bands of this description are not un- 
 frequently met with in very late Nor- 
 man work, while they are occasionally 
 to be found in early Decorated work. 
 
 When the shafts are long they are 
 often encircled by several bands at equal 
 distances apart between the cap and 
 base. [See Tablet. 
 
 Baptistery, sometimes a separate Band 0 f a shaft, whuby Abbey 
 building; sometimes the part of a church 
 in which baptism was performed by immersion. Bap- 
 tisteries are frequently found in Italy, and rare cases oc- 
 cur in Erance and Germany. The name is also applied 
 occasionally to the enclosure containing the font, as at 
 Luton, Bedfordshire, which is an ornamented erection of 
 Decorated work, forming a canopy over the font. 
 
 A separate building was usual with the Early Chris- 
 tians, and there are many fine baptisteries in Italy, some 
 of them as early as the fourth century. In Germany 
 also, especially near Yienna, there are very fine medieval 
 baptisteries. In England the climate was not favourable 
 for baptism by immersion, and instances of it are rare. 
 At Cranbrook, in Kent, the entrance, or approach, to the 
 room over the porch is used as a baptistery for adult 
 persons. 
 
 Barbican, an advanced work before the gate of a castle 
 or fortified town ; or any outwork at a short distance 
 from the main works, generally serving the purpose of 
 a watch-tower. There are barbicans remaining at 
 York, Scarborough, Alnwick, and Carlisle Castles. This 
 term is especially applied to the outwork intended to 
 defend the drawbridge, called in modern fortifications 
 the Tete du Pont . It was frequently constructed of 
 
 timber. It often consists of two walls parallel to each 
 other with an arch or a gate at each end to defend the 
 principal gate, which is midway between them. 
 
3i 
 
 Barge^oartf. 
 
 Barge-board, Verge-board, a board generally used on 
 the verge of gables where the covering of the roof extends 
 over the wall ; it usually projects from the wall, and either 
 covers the rafter, that would otherwise be exposed, or 
 occupies the place of a rafter. On the gables of houses 
 and church 
 porches, and 
 particularly 
 on those of 
 wood, barge- 
 boards are 
 very exten- 
 sively used, 
 but on the 
 gables of the 
 main roofs 
 of churches 
 they occur 
 very rarely. 
 
 The earliest 
 barge-boards 
 known to 
 exist are of 
 the four- 
 teenth cen- 
 tury. 
 
 After that time they were used most abundantly, and 
 were of very various designs, and in later examples they 
 not unfrequently supported a hiplcnob on the point of the 
 gable ; they are usually either feathered, or panelled, or 
 pierced with a series of trefoils, quatrefoils, &c., and the 
 spandrels carved with foliage; when feathered, the cusps 
 or points of the principal featherings have flowers some- 
 times carved on them. As Gothic architecture advanced, 
 the barge-boards continued gradually to lose much of their 
 rich and bold effect. There are few of the old towns 
 where examples do not still occur, but they become fewer 
 and fewer every year. 
 
 Barrel-vault. See Vault, | tinguish the later from the 
 Bar-tracery, a term to dis- | earlier tracery. See Tracery. 
 
32 
 
 Bartijan — Bast. 
 
 Bartizan, Walmgate, York. 
 
 Bartizan, the small overhanging turret which projects 
 from the angles on the top of a tower, or from the 
 parapet or other parts of a build- 
 ing. They are not so common in 
 England as on the Continent. 
 
 Base, the lower part of a pillar, 
 wall, &c. ; the division of a column 
 on which the shaft is placed : the 
 Grecian Doric order has no base, 
 but the other Classical orders have 
 each their appropriate bases, which 
 are divided into plinth and mould- 
 ings, though in some examples the 
 former of these divisions is omitted. 
 
 In middle-age architecture, the 
 forms and proportions of the va 
 rious members not being regu- 
 lated by arbitrary rules, as in the Classical orders, the 
 same capricious varieties are found in the bases, as in 
 all the other features of each of 
 the successive styles. In the Nor- 
 man style the mouldings of the 
 base often bear a resemblance to 
 those of the Tuscan order, with 
 a massive plinth which is most 
 commonly square, even though the 
 shaft of the pillar and the moulded 
 part of the base may be circular or 
 octagonal. There is often a second 
 or sub-plinth, under the Norman base, the projecting 
 angle of which is chamfered off. In the earlier period 
 of this style the bases generally have but few mouldings, 
 but as a rule they increase in numbers, and vary in their 
 arrangement as the style advances. There is a very great 
 variety of bases in the Norman style ; often in the same 
 building scarcely any two are alike : this seems to be 
 especially the case in the earlier division of the style both 
 in Normandy and in England, and the bases in the two 
 countries are often exactly alike. In Gundulph’s crypt, 
 in Kochester Cathedral, this variety of bases is found, and 
 it continues until quite late in the style. 
 
 Door, Haddiscoe, Norfolk. 
 
Base. 
 
 33 
 
 Window Shaft, Stanton Harcourt,Oxon. 
 
 At the commencement of the Early English style the 
 bases differ but little from the Norman, having very fre- 
 quently a single or double plinth, 
 retaining the square form, with 
 leaves springing out of the mould- 
 ings lying on the angles ; at a later 
 period the plinth commonly takes 
 the same form as the mouldings, 
 and is often made so high as to 
 resemble a pedestal, and there is 
 frequently a second moulding below 
 the principal suite of the base, as . 
 at the Temple Church, London : 
 in this style the mouldings of the base sometimes over- 
 hang the face of the plinth. The mouldings of the Early 
 English bases do not vary so much as those of the other 
 styles, and those which are most usual approach very 
 nearly to the Attic base. One of the characteristics of 
 early examples of the transitional Norman and the Early 
 English base is that the moulding will hold water, which 
 is not the case in any other style. 
 
 In the Decorated style there is considerable variety in 
 the bases, although they have not 
 generally many mouldings : the 
 
 plinths, like the mouldings, conform 
 to the shape of the shaft, or they 
 are sometimes made octagonal, while 
 the mouldings are circular, and in 
 this case the mouldings overhang 
 the face of the plinth ; in some ex- 
 amples, where the shaft of the pillar 
 is circular, the upper member only 
 of the base conforms to it, the other 
 mouldings, as well as the plinth, becoming octagonal : 
 the plinths are often double and of considerable height, 
 the projecting angle of the lower one being worked either 
 with a splay, a hollow, or small moulding. A common 
 suite of mouldings for bases in this style consists of a torus 
 and one or two beads above. 
 
 In the Perpendicular style the plinths of the bases are 
 almost invariably octagonal, and of considerable height, 
 
 Dorchester, Oxcm* 
 
34 
 
 Base— Basement. 
 
 and very frequently double, the projection of the lower 
 one being moulded with a reversed ogee or a hollow : 
 when the shaft is circular, the whole of the mouldings of 
 the base sometimes follow the same 
 form, but sometimes the upper member 
 only conforms to it, the others being 
 made octagonal like the plinth : in 
 
 clustered pillars in which there are 
 small shafts of different sizes, their 
 bases are often on different levels, and 
 consist of different mouldings, with 
 one or two members only carried round 
 the pillar, which are commonly those 
 on the upper part of the lower plinth. 
 
 The characteristic moulding of the Per- 
 pendicular base is the reversed ogee, 
 used either singly or double ; when 
 double there is frequently a bead be- 
 tween them ; this moulding when used 
 for the lower and most prominent 
 member of the base, has the upper 
 angle rounded off, which gives it a 
 peculiar wavy appearance : the mould- 
 ings in this style most commonly over- 
 hang the face of the plinth. 
 
 The above descriptions apply only 
 where a single shaft occurs. In com- 
 pound piers, which are made up of 
 groups of single pillars, the bases be- 
 come more complex. 
 
 Pier, Ewelme, Oxon. 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 Basement, the lower story or floor of a building, beneath 
 the principal one. In ordinary houses the lower story is 
 not called a basement unless partly below the surface of 
 the ground. In larger buildings, in which an archi- 
 tectural arrangement is introduced, the lower story, even 
 if above the ground, is called a basement, if in the com- 
 position it serves as a pedestal or substructure for the 
 main order of the architecture. 
 
 Base Court, the first or outer court of a large mansion. 
 
35 
 
 33 as e=mouIli mg — Basilica. 
 
 Base-moulding', or base- table, a projecting moulding or 
 band of mouldings near the bottom of a wall, &c. ; it 
 is sometimes placed immediately upon the top of the 
 plinth, and sometimes a 
 ■short distance above it, 
 
 in which case the inter- ||| ? ^ j 
 
 vening space is frequently 
 panelled in circles, quatre- 
 foils, &c. 
 
 Basilica, the name applied by the Romans to their 
 public halls, either of justice, of exchange, or other busi- 
 ness. The plan was usually a rectangle divided into 
 aisles by rows of columns, that in the middle being the 
 widest, with a semicircular apse at one end in which the 
 tribunal was placed. Many of these buildings were after- 
 wards converted into Christian churches ; and their ground- 
 plan was generally followed in the early churches, which 
 also long retained the name, and it is still applied to some 
 of the churches in Rome by way of honorary distinction. 
 
 This name became synonymous with Church, and was 
 applied by some writers even to the small burial- chapels 
 in the Catacombs at Rome; the original meaning is, how- 
 ever, that above mentioned, and the name is applied in 
 Rome in an especial manner to the seven principal churches 
 founded by Constantine. The usual arrangements of a 
 church on this plan are borrowed from the halls of justice, 
 in which there was an altar on the chord of the apse for 
 administering oaths, separated from the nave by a low 
 screen or cancellus; the seat for the judges was against 
 the wall in the centre of the apse, raised on steps, and 
 these steps were continued round the wall of the apse, 
 with seats upon them. The basilica in the palace of the 
 Caesars at Rome, which was never converted into a church, 
 has remains of the altar and the cancelli . [See Chancel.'] 
 
 In the time of Constantine the apse appears to have been 
 considered a necessary part of a church, as in the church 
 of Santa Croce : when one of the halls of the palace, which 
 had no apse, was converted into a church, an apse was 
 added to it. The Basilica Constantia at Rome on the 
 Telia was originally built by Maxentius as the Temple 
 of Peace, and an apse was added to it by Constantine 
 
Original Plan of tlie Basilica of St. Peter at Home. 
 
Basilica — Battlement. 
 
 37 
 
 when it was made into a Basilica. The apse, therefore, 
 belongs to the earliest idea of a public church ; those pre- 
 viously existing had been either rooms or chapels. The 
 basilican plan almost requires that the altar should stand 
 detached on the chord of the apse, and this was probably 
 the case in the early churches in England, as is shewn 
 in the case of Canterbury, but after the revival of the 
 building art in the eleventh century the apse was soon 
 abandoned, and the custom of placing the altar against 
 the east wall became universal in this country. 
 
 Bas-relief, or Basso-relievo, sculptured work, the figures 
 of which project less than half their true proportions from 
 the wall or surface on which they are carved : when the 
 projection is equal to half the true proportions it is called 
 Mezzo-relievo ; when more than half it is Alto-relievo. 
 
 Batter, a term applied to 
 walls built out of the up- 
 right, or gently sloping in- 
 wards : for example, the 
 towers of the Castle, and of 
 St. Peters Church, Oxford, 
 of Isham Church, Northants, 
 and some others, latter ; 
 that is, they are smaller at 
 the top than at the bottom, 
 the walls all inclining in- 
 wards. Wharf walls, and 
 walls built to support em- 
 bankments and fortifica- 
 tions, generally batter. 
 
 Battlement, an indented 
 parapet originally used only 
 on fortifications and in- 
 tended for service, but after- 
 wards employed on eccle- 
 siastical and other edifices and intended for ornament 
 only. The solid parts of a battlement are called merlons , 
 
 Tower of Oxford Castle, a.d. 1070. 
 
 Basinet. See illustrations to 
 Brass. 
 
 BASTiLE,a castle or tower used 
 as a prison. 
 
 Bastion, a bulwark or tower 
 projecting from the face of a for* 
 tification. 
 
38 
 
 Battlement. 
 
 St. George’s Chapel, Windsor. 
 
 and the intervals between them embrasures , hut these are 
 rather military terms than ecclesiastical. In the earlier 
 battlements the embrasures appear to have been narrow in 
 proportion to the size of the merlons . On ecclesiastical 
 buildings the battlements are often richly panelled, or 
 pierced with circles 
 trefoils, quatrefoils, 
 
 &c., and the coping is 
 frequently continued 
 up the sides of the 
 merlons so as to form 
 a continuous line round 
 them, as at St. George’s, 
 
 "Windsor. On fortifi- 
 cations the battlements are generally quite plain, or pierced 
 only with a very narrow, cruciform, or upright opening, 
 the ends of which often terminate 
 in circles, called loopholes or oillets , 
 through which archers could shoot : 
 sometimes the coping on the top of 
 the merlons is carried over the em- 
 brasures, producing nearly the ap- 
 pearance of a pierced parapet, as 
 at the leaning tower at Caerphilly. 
 
 Occasionally on military stru tun s 
 figures of warriors or animals are 
 carved on the tops of the merlons, as at Alnwick and 
 Chepstow Castles. 
 
 In the fourteenth century, and afterwards, battle- 
 ments are very frequently used in ecclesiastical work as 
 ornaments on cornices, tabernacle work, and other minor 
 features, and in the Perpendicular style are sometimes 
 found on the transoms and bases of windows. It is re- 
 markable that the use of this ornament is almost entirely 
 confined to the English styles of Gothic architecture. In 
 Wales a peculiar battlement is used, as at Swansea and 
 St. David’s, which has a hollow space under it to allow 
 of the free passage of the water from the roof, an in- 
 genious contrivance suitable to the climate : it is used 
 chiefly in the fourteenth century. 
 
 The Irish battlements are also very peculiar, consisting 
 
 Walls of York. 
 
39 
 
 33 attlement— 33 ag=to tttboin . 
 
 of a sort of double battlement, one rising out of the other ; 
 they are very picturesque, but very liable to decay. The 
 idea of them was probably taken from the Venetian battle- 
 ments, which bear some resemblance to them. In Ireland 
 there is frequently a row of holes on a level with the 
 gutter to let off the water, instead of the English gur- 
 goyles or the Welsh openings. 
 
 Bay, a principal compartment or division in the archi- 
 tectural arrangement of a building, marked either by the 
 buttresses or pilasters on the walls, by the disposition of 
 the main ribs of the vaulting of the interior, by the main 
 arches and pillars, the principals of the roof, or by any 
 other leading features that separate it into corresponding 
 portions. The word is also sometimes used for the space 
 between the mullions of a window, properly called a light ; 
 it is occasionally found corrupted into Day . 
 
 Bay-window, a window forming a bay or recess in 
 a room, and projecting outwards from the wall either in 
 a rectangular, polygonal, or semicircular form, often called 
 a Saw-window. Bay-windows do 
 not appear to have been used earlier 
 than the Perpendicular style, but 
 at that period they were very fre- 
 quently employed, particularly in 
 halls, where they are invariably 
 found at one end, and sometimes 
 at both ends, of the dais, and the 
 lights are generally considerably 
 longer than those of the other 
 windows, so as to reach much 
 nearer to the floor. Semicircular 
 bay-windows were not used till 
 Gothic architecture had begun to 
 lose its purity, and were at no 
 period so common as the other 
 forms. Windows of this kind are 
 sometimes used in upper stories, and in such cases are 
 supported on corbels or on projecting suites of mouldings. 
 [See Oriel. ] 
 
40 
 
 Beak=ljeatJ— Bell. 
 
 Beak-head, a term applied to an ornament which is 
 very frequently 
 used in rich 
 Norman door- 
 ways, resem- 
 bling a head 
 with a beak : 
 there are many 
 varieties of this 
 ornament. An- 
 other similar 
 form having a 
 tongue hanging 
 out, instead of 
 a beak, is call- 
 ed th eCatshead. 
 
 Beam, this term appears formerly, as at present, to have 
 been applied generally to the principal horizontal timbers 
 of a building, an additional epithet being used to point 
 out the particular application of such of them as have no 
 other specific names. [See £oof.~\ 
 
 Belfry, a bell-tower, or campanile, usually forming part 
 of a church, but sometimes detached from it, as at Evesham, 
 Berkeley, Chichester Cathedral, Walton, Norfolk, and Led- 
 bury, Herefordshire, &c. At Lap worth, Warwickshire, the 
 belfry is connected with the church by a covered passage. 
 This term is also applied to the room in the tower in 
 which the bells are hung. At 
 Pembridge in Herefordshire, there 
 is a detached belfry built entirely 
 of wood, the frame in which the 
 bells are hung rising at once from 
 the ground, with merely a casing 
 of boards. [See Tower . ] 
 
 Bell. The body of a Corinthian 
 or Composite capital, supposing Beu of a capital, 
 
 the foliage stripped off, is called the bell ; the same name 
 is applied also to the Early English and other capitals in 
 Gothic architecture which in any degree partake of this 
 form. 
 
4i 
 
 Bells— Belhgable. 
 
 Bells. The use of bells in churches for the purpose 
 of assembling the congregation appears to have been in- 
 troduced into England at a very early period, and are 
 supposed to have had their origin at Nola (whence nola , 
 u a bell ”) in Campania (whence campana and campanile). 
 The illumination of St. iEthelwold’s Benedictionai shews 
 that they were in use in the tenth century ; this seems 
 intended to represent five bells hanging in a tower and 
 not in an open turret. And as early as a.d. 674 Beiie 
 mentions the “ hearing the well-known sound of a bell/ ’ 
 
 The inscriptions on 
 bells are mostly pious 
 aspirations, frequent- 
 ly addressed to the 
 patron saint in whose 
 name the bell, or the 
 church containing it, 
 had been consecrated. 
 
 Bell-gable, Bell- 
 turret, or Bell -cot : 
 in small churches and 
 chapels that have no 
 towers, there is very 
 frequently a bell- 
 gable or turret at the 
 west end in which 
 the bells are hung; 
 sometimes these con- 
 tain but one bell, 
 sometimes two, and 
 occasionally three, as 
 at Radipole, near 
 Weymouth : a few 
 
 Of these erections may Bell-gable, Little Casterton, Gloucestershire. 
 
 be of Norman date, but the greater number are later; 
 
 Bead, 1 . Small round mould- 
 ing, same as Astragal; 2. A 
 moulding in Norman work, like 
 a row of beads. 
 
 Beam. Chief names of beam 
 are— -Binding-, Collar-, Dragon-, 
 Girding-, Hammer-, Straining-, 
 Tie-, Somer-. 
 
 Bed, the stratum or direction 
 in which the stone naturally lay 
 in the quarry. 
 
 Bed - mould, in Classical ar- 
 chitecture, mouldings of cor- 
 nice immediately below co- 
 rona. 
 
4 2 
 
 B disable— Boast. 
 
 many of them are Early English, in which style they 
 appear to have been very frequent. Besides the hell- 
 gables above referred to, there is often found a smaller 
 erection, of very similar kind, on the apex of the eastern 
 end of the roof of the nave. This is fox the Sancte-bell , 
 which see. 
 
 Bench-table, or Bench, a low stone seat on the inside 
 of the walls, and sometimes round the bases of the pillars 
 in churches, porches, cloisters, &c. 
 
 Bevel, a sloped or canted surface resembling a chamfer 
 or splay, excepting that in strictness this latter term should 
 be applied only to openings which have their sides sloped 
 for the purpose of enlarging them, while a sloped surface 
 in another situation would be a bevel; this distinction, 
 however, is seldom regarded, and the two terms are com- 
 monly used synonymously. [See Splay and Cant .] 
 
 Blind-story, a term sometimes applied to the triforium 
 as opposed to the clear-story. 
 
 Blocking-course, the plain course of 
 stone which surmounts the cornice at 
 the top of a Greek or Roman building : 
 also a course of stone or brick forming 
 a projecting line without mouldings at 
 the base of a building. 
 
 Boast. To boast or block out a piece of stone or wood i 
 to shape it into the simple form which 
 approaches nearest to its ultimate 
 figure, leaving the smaller details to 
 be worked out afterwards. Some- 
 times capitals, corbels, &c., especially 
 of the thirteenth century, are found 
 in this state, never having been fin- 
 ished. A good example occurs in the 
 
 crypt at Canterbury. Crypt, Canterbury. 
 
 Belvedere , a roombuilt above 
 the roof for the purpose of ob- 
 taining a “ fine view.” 
 
 Bema (G-r.), the raised portion 
 at the end of the early Christian 
 Churches with the apse, used 
 
 afterwards to signify the pres- 
 bytery or chancel, q. v. 
 Bench-end. See Pew. 
 Benitier (Fr.), Holy - water 
 basin or stoup. _ 
 
Boss from the Cloisters of Lincoln Cathedral. 
 
Stone (Jhurcli, Kent (No. 1), and Westminst 
 2), and the four half spandrels at the cloister ang 
 filled in with very interesting examples of Early Englis 
 
 rk from the Chapter-house of Salisbury Cathedral. 
 
 No. 1. Noah sending forth the dove from the Ark, i 
 )e if the waters had decreased. 
 
 No. 2. Abraham entertaining the angels. 
 
 No. 3. The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. 
 
 No. 4. Lot’s wife turned into a pillar of salt. 
 
 The first complete arch on the wall over the cloiste 
 Dntinues the series of the Tewkesbury and Lincol 
 i>sses. 
 
 No. 1. The offering of the Magi. 
 
 No. 2. The Last Supper. The lower figure waiting g 
 te table appears to be Judas Iscariot. 
 
 Lincoln boss. A seated winged figure, apparently a 
 igel at the sepulchre. 
 
 Second arch. No. 1. The entry of Christ into Jen 
 lem on an ass’s back. 
 
 No. 2. An angel with cymbals. 
 
 Lincoln boss. A seated female figure, apparently t" 
 irgin, receiving the Annunciation. 
 
 Third arch. No. 1. Christ with the cross, attend 
 
Bonders— Boss, 
 
 43 
 
 Bonders, Bond-stones, Binding -stones, stones which 
 reach a considerable distance into, or entirely through 
 a wall for the purpose of binding it together : they are 
 principally used when the work is faced with ashlar, and 
 are inserted at intervals to tie it more securely to the rough 
 walling or backing. [See PerpenUstone and Through .] 
 
 Boss, a projecting ornament placed at the intersections 
 of the ribs of ceilings, whether vaulted or flat ; also used 
 as a termination to weather-mouldings of doors, windows, 
 &c., called then a Corbel or Dripstone Termination ; and 
 in various other situations, either as an ornamental stop, or 
 finishing, to mouldings, or to cover them where they inter- 
 sect each other ; but their principal application is to vaulted 
 ceilings. In Norman work the vaults are most commonly 
 without bosses until the latter part of the style, and when 
 used they are generally not very prominent nor very richly 
 carved. In the succeeding styles they are used in pro- 
 fusion, though less abundantly in the Early English than 
 in the Decorated and Perpendicular, and are generally 
 elaborately carved. 
 
 The Early English 
 bosses are usually 
 sculptured with fo- 
 liage characteristic 
 of the style, among 
 which small figures 
 and animals are 
 at times introduced, 
 but occasionally a 
 sm allcircle of m ould- 
 ings, in continua- 
 tion of those of the 
 ribs, is used in the 
 place of a carved boss. 
 
 Chapter-house, Oxford Cathedral, c. 1220. 
 
 Bicoca (Low Lat.), a turret or 
 watch-tower. 
 
 Bilection Mouldings, those 
 surrounding the panels and pro- 
 jecting before the face of a 
 door, &c. 
 
 Billet Ornament. S eeMould- 
 ing> 
 
 Blades, the principal rafters 
 or backs of a roof, q. v. 
 
 Boteras = Buttress. 
 
 Bower, the ladies’ chamber or 
 boudoir in ancient castles and 
 mansions. 
 
 Bow, an arch or gateway. % 
 
44 
 
 Boss— Bo&tell. 
 
 In the Decorated style the bosses consist of foliage, heads, 
 animals, &c., or of foliage combined with heads and ani- 
 mals, and sometimes 
 shields charged with 
 armorialbearingsare 
 used. Many of the 
 Perpendicular bosses 
 bear a strong resem- 
 blance to the Deco- 
 rated, but there is 
 generally the same 
 difference in the exe- 
 cution of the foliage 
 that is found in all 
 the other features of 
 the style : shields 
 with armorial bear- 
 ings are used abun- 
 dantly in Perpendicular work, and there is considerably 
 greater variation in the bosses of this style than any 
 other ; sometimes they are made to represent a flat sculp- 
 tured ornament attached to the underside of the ribs ; some- 
 times they resemble small pendants, which are occasionally 
 pierced, as in the south porch of Dursley Church, Glouces- 
 tershire, but it is impossible to enumerate all the varieties. 
 
 Bracket, an ornamental projection from the face of a 
 wall, to support a statue, <fcc. ; they 
 are sometimes nearly plain, or orna- 
 mented only with mouldings, but 
 are generally carved either into 
 heads, foliage, angels, or animals. 
 
 Brackets are very frequently found 
 on the walls in the inside of 
 churches, especially at the east 
 end of the chancel and aisles, where 
 they supported statues which were 
 placed near the altars. 
 
 Bowtell, or Boltell (Old Eng.), 
 term for a round moulding, or 
 bead; also for the small shafts of York cathedral, c. 1350. 
 
 Braces, certain timbers of the Boof. 
 
33ot0tell — Brasses, Sepulchral. 45 
 
 clustered pillars, in window and doorjambs, mullions, &c., 
 probably from its resemblance to the shaft of an arrow or 
 bolt. It is the English term for the torus . 
 
 Brasses, Sepulchral, monumental plates of brass or the 
 
 SIR ROGER DE TRUMPINGTON, 1289, 
 Trumpington Church, Cambridgeshire. 
 
 SIR JOHN DE CREKE, 
 Westley Waterless 1327. 
 
 A. Heaume, or Basinet. On its apex is a staple for 
 appending the Kerchief of Plesaunce, and it is 
 furnished with a chain attached to the girdle, to 
 enable the Knight t > recover his head-piece, if 
 knocked off in the fray. 
 
 B. Coif de Mailles. F. Chausees de Mailles. 
 
 C. Ailettes. G. Genouilleres of Plate. 
 
 D. Hauberk. H. Spur with a single point, 
 
 E. Surcoat. or Prick spur. 
 
 A. Roundels, in the form of lions’ 
 heads, serving as Epaulieres. 
 
 B. Demi - Brassarts over the 
 sleeves of the Hauberk, with 
 vambraces of plate under them 
 to protect the fore-arms. 
 
 C. Cyclas, over the pour-point. 
 
 D. Coutes, or elbow-pieces, orna- 
 mented with lions’ heads. 
 
 E. Gamboison. 
 
 F. Genouilleres. 
 
 G. Greaves, or shin-pieces. 
 
 mixed metal anciently called latten, inlaid on large slabs 
 of stone, which usually form part of the pavement of the 
 church, and representing in their outline, or by the lines 
 
4 6 
 
 3Sr um&, Sepulchral. 
 
 engraved upon them, the figure of the deceased. In 
 many instances in place of a figure there is found an orna- 
 mented or foliated cross, with sacred emblems, or other 
 devices. The fashion of representing on tombs the effigy 
 of the deceased, graven on a plate of brass, appears to 
 have been adopted about the middle of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury ; this was imbedded HENRY DENTON, 
 
 in melted pitch, and ChaplainofChilston,H lg ha m Fer r arsChurch. 
 
 firmly fastened down by 
 rivets leaded into a slab, 
 of some hard material, 
 such as the Sussex or 
 the Purbeck marble. 
 
 These memorials, where 
 circumstances permitted, 
 were often elevated upon 
 altar - tombs, but more 
 commonly they are found 
 on slabs, which form 
 part of the pavement of 
 churches ; so that the 
 area of the church, and 
 especially the choir, was 
 not thereby encumbered, 
 as was the case when 
 effigies in relief were in- 
 troduced. 
 
 The Sepulchral Brass 
 in its original and perfect 
 state was a work rich 
 and beautiful in decora- 
 tion. It is by careful 
 examination sufficiently 
 evident that the incised 
 lines were filled up with some black resinous substance ; 
 the armorial decorations, and, in elaborate specimens, the 
 whole field or background, which was cut out by the chisel 
 or scorper, were filled up with mastic or coarse enamel 
 of various colours, so as to set off the elegant tracery 
 of tabernacle-work, which forms the principal feature of 
 ornament 
 
 A. Apparel or Parura of the Amice. 
 
 B. Stole. D. Chasuble or Chesible. 
 
 C. Maniple, or fanon. E. Alb, with apparel at the feet. 
 
Brasses, Sepulchral— Brtcft. 47 
 
 The earliest specimen of a brass that has been noticed 
 in this country is that at Stoke Dabernon, Surrey, ap- 
 parently the memorial of Sir John d’Aubernoun, who died 
 1277. And next in date that of Sir Eoger de Trump- 
 ington, at Trumpington, Cambridgeshire, who died 1289. 
 
 In speaking of these as the two earliest known ex- 
 amples, it should be added that Jocelyn, Bishop of Wells, 
 who died 1247, is recorded to have had a brass on his 
 tomb ; and on that of Eishop Eingham, who died the same 
 year, the matrix or incision of the stone in which the 
 brass was laid still exists. 
 
 The Brasses afford good illustrations of the armour and 
 costume of the period. The two first given represent 
 knights. That of Sir Henry Denton affords illustrations 
 of the several portions of the priests’ robes. 
 
 Breast-summer (old form Bressumer ), a beam, after the 
 manner of a lintel, but extending beneath the whole super- 
 structure of w r all, &c., instead of only a small portion over 
 an opening. A good example will be found in the illus- 
 tration accompanying Timber -built Houses . 
 
 Brick. The Eomans used brick extensively in this 
 country. Eoman bricks were flat, like tiles, often a foot 
 square, and were chiefly employed in this country in 
 courses between stone or rubble masonry. Though it 
 might seem singular that such an art when once learnt 
 should have been lost, nevertheless, in our numerous 
 twelfth- century buildings no traces of brick occur except 
 in a few instances ; the using them up as old material 
 from buildings left by the Eoman s, as at Colchester and 
 St. Alban’s Abbey suggested making others in imitation. 
 Perhaps the earliest true brick-building existing is that of 
 Little Wenham Hall (c. 1260). A few instances of early 
 fourteenth -century brickwork occur, and towards the close 
 of the style, and in the fifteenth century, it becomes com- 
 mon. The most elaborate mouldings and ornamentation 
 are exhibited in some of the remains of brickwork ; and 
 the numerous and fine sixteenth-century chimneys are 
 for the most part built of brick. 
 
 Brattishing, Brandishing, 
 Bretizment,Bretasyng,Bretin, 
 Bretisement, all various, terms 
 fora crest-battlement or parapet. 
 
 Bursary (Lat.), the exchequer 
 in collegiate and conventual 
 houses. 
 
48 
 
 3Srtck— Buttress. 
 
 It may be said, however, that the use 
 of brick seems to have been confined to 
 civic buildings, and very seldom used in 
 ecclesiastical work. 
 
 Broach, or Broche, an old English 
 term for a spit, and applied to a spire ; 
 still in use in some parts of the country, 
 as in Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, 
 &c., where it is used to denote a spire 
 springing from the tower without any 
 intermediate parapet. [See Spire.] The 
 term “to broche’ ’ seems to be also used in 
 old building accounts, perhaps for cutting 
 the stones in the form of voussoirs. 
 
 Buttress, a projection from a wall to 
 create additional strength and support. 
 Buttresses, properly so called, are not 
 used in Classical architecture, as the pro- 
 jections are formed into pilasters, antae, 
 or some other feature in the general 
 arrangement, so as to disguise or destroy 
 the appearance of strength and support. 
 Norman buttresses, especially in the 
 earlier part of the style, are generally 
 of considerable breadth and very small 
 projection, and add so little to the sub- 
 stance of the wall that it may be sup- 
 posed they were used at least as much 
 for ornament as for support: they are 
 commonly not divided into stages, but 
 continue of the same breadth and thick- 
 ness from the ground to the top, and 
 either die into the wall with a slope 
 immediately below the parapet, or are 
 continued up to the parapet, which fre- 
 quently overhangs the perpendicular face 
 of the wall as much as the buttresses 
 
 Horsley Churchj Derby. 
 
 project in order to receive them, as at Glastonbury Abbey, (Norman), 
 
 Buttery, the place for bottles, 
 the butler s pantry, usually be- 
 
 tween the hall and the kitchen. 
 See Pantry. 
 
Buttress. 
 
 49 
 
 the nave of Southwell Minster. Occasionally small shafts 
 are worked on the angles of Norman buttresses, but 
 these generally indicate that the work is late. 
 
 Early English buttresses have usually considerably less 
 breadth and much greater projection than the Norman, 
 and often stand out very boldly ; they are sometimes con- 
 tinued throughout their whole height without any diminu- 
 tion ; but are oftener broken into stages with a successive 
 
 lrthlingborough (Early English), Higham Ferrers (Early English), 
 
 C. 1220. C. 1250. 
 
 reduction in their projection, and not unfrequently in their 
 width also, in each ; the sets-off dividing the stages are 
 generally sloped at a very acute angle; the buttresses 
 terminate at the top either with a plain slope, dying into 
 the wall, or with a triangular head (or pediment) which 
 
 E 
 
50 Buttress. 
 
 sometimes stands against the parapet, sometimes below it, 
 and sometimes rises above it, producing something of the 
 effect of a pinnacle, as at Salisbury. Actual pinnacles 
 on buttresses in this style are very rare, and are indi- 
 cations that the work is late : the angles of Early English 
 buttresses are very commonly cham- 
 fered off, and are occasionally 
 moulded. With this style flying or 
 arch buttresses seem first to have 
 been used, but they did not become 
 common till a subsequent period. 
 
 In the Decorated style the but- 
 tresses are almost invariably worked 
 in stages, and are often ornamented 
 with niches, with crocheted cano- 
 pies, and other carved decorations ; 
 in large buildings 
 they often termi- 
 nate in pinnacles, 
 which are some- 
 times of open work, 
 forming niches or 
 canopies for sta- 
 tues ; with the in- 
 troduction of this 
 style the angle but- 
 tresses began to be 
 set diagonally. 
 
 In the Perpen- 
 dicular style, the 
 buttresses differ but 
 little in general 
 form and arrangement from the Deco- 
 rated ; but the ornaments of the but- 
 tresses in each of the styles partook of 
 the prevailing character of the archi- 
 tecture, and varied with it; thus in 
 the latter specimens of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury they are more frequently panelled 
 than at any previous period. 
 
 St. Lawrence, Evesham, 
 
 (Perpendicular), c. 1460., , 
 
 St. Mary Magdalene, Oxford, 
 (Decorated), c. 1320. 
 
Ugjantme Srcfjitecture — (Canopg. 5 1 
 
 The style of architecture in- 
 
 St. Nicodeinus, Athens. 
 
 Byzantine Architecture. 
 
 traduced at Byzantium in 
 the fifth century, derived 
 from the Roman, but dis- 
 tinguished from it by the 
 plans of the buildings, and 
 by the general use of the 
 dome or cupola. The plan 
 of the Grecian or Byzan- 
 tine churches was usually 
 that of the Greek cross, 
 with a large cupola rising 
 from the centre, and smaller 
 cupolas crowning the four 
 arms. The arches were 
 generally semicircular, sometimes segmental, 
 horse-shoe form. The capitals of 
 columns were little more than 
 square blocks, tapered downwards, 
 and adorned with foliage or basket- 
 work. The doorways were com- 
 monly square-headed, with a semi- 
 circular, and occasionally, in later 
 specimens, a pointed arch over the 
 flat lintel. The Byzantine style 
 had great influence on subsequent 
 styles, both in this country and on 
 the Continent. The Gothic styles 
 are derived quite as much from this 
 as from the Roman. 
 
 or of the 
 
 Cabling, a round moulding frequently worked in the 
 flutes of columus, pilasters, &c., in Classical architecture, 
 and nearly filling-up the hollow part : they seldom extend 
 higher than the third part of the shaft. 
 
 Canopy, in Gothic architecture an ornamented projec- 
 tion over doors, windows, &c. ; a covering over niches, 
 tombs, &c. Canopies are chiefly used in the Decorated 
 
 Caissons, a French term for 
 sunk panels of ceilings, soffits, &c. 
 Calyon, flint or pebble stone, 
 
 used in chalk districts. 
 
 Campanile, Italian for Belfry, 
 q. v. See also Tower . 
 
52 
 
 danopg. 
 
 and Perpendicular styles, although they are not uncommon 
 in the Early English, and are occasionally found over the 
 heads of figures, &c., in late Norman work. 
 
 Early English canopies over 
 niches and figures are generally 
 simple in their forms, often only 
 trefoil or cinquefoil arches, bow- 
 ing forwards, and surmounted 
 by a plain pediment, as on the 
 west front of the cathedral at 
 Wells : the canopies over tombs 
 are sometimes of great beauty 
 and delicacy, and highly en- 
 riched, as that over the tomb 
 of Archbishop Gray in York 
 Minster. 
 
 In the Decorated style, the 
 canopies are often extremely 
 elaborate, and are so various in 
 their forms that it is impossible 
 to particularize them ; some of 
 the more simple of those over 
 figures, niches, &c., consist of 
 cinquefoiled or trefoiled arches, 
 frequently ogees, bowing for 
 wards, and surmounted with 
 crockets and finials; some are 
 like very steep pediments with 
 crockets and finials on them; 
 others are formed of a series 
 of small feathered arches, pro- 
 jecting from the wall on a 
 polygonal plan, with pinnacles 
 between and subordinate cano- 
 pies over them, supporting a 
 superstructure somewhat re- 
 sembling a small turret, or a small crocketed spire; of 
 this description of canopy good specimens are to be seen 
 at the sides and over the head of the effigy of Queen 
 Philippa in Westminster Abbey. The canopies over tombs, 
 in this style are often of great beauty; some consist nf 
 
 Queen Eleanor’s Cross, Geddington, 
 Northamptonshire, A.D. 1294. 
 
(Eanopg* 
 
 53 
 
 bold and well-proportioned arches with fine pediments 
 over them, which are fre- 
 quently crocheted, with 
 buttresses and pinnacles at 
 the angles; many tombs 
 of this style, when made 
 in a wall, have an ogee 
 arch over them, forming 
 a kind of canopy. 
 
 In the Perpendicular 
 style, the canopies are 
 more va- 
 ried than 
 in the 
 Decorat- 
 ed, but 
 many of 
 them are 
 
 in gene- Lichfield Cathedral, c. 1320. 
 
 ral character nearly alike in both styles ; 
 the high pointed form is not to be met 
 with in Perpendicular work; a very 
 usual kind of canopy over niches, &c., 
 is a projection on a polygonal plan, 
 often three sides of an octagon, with 
 a series of feathered arches at the bot- 
 tom, and terminating at the top either 
 with a battlement, a row of Tudor flowers, 
 or a series of open carved work. 
 
 The canopies of tombs are frequently 
 of the most gorgeous description, en- 
 riched with a profusion of the most 
 minute ornament, which is sometimes 
 so crowded together as to create an 
 appearance of great confusion. Most 
 of our cathedrals and large churches 
 will furnish examples of canopies of 
 this style, not only in stone, but fre- 
 
 Gloucester Cathedral, c. 1430. quentty HI WOOd alS0. 
 
 Cantharus, a vase or cistern in the atrium of the early churches. 
 
54 
 
 Cant— Capital. 
 
 Cant, and Canted, a term in common 
 use among carpenters to express the 
 cutting off the angle of a square. Any 
 part of a building on a polygonal plan 
 is also said to he canted, as a canted win- 
 dow, or oriel, &c. 
 
 Cantaliver, a kind of bracket, 
 whether of stone, wood, or iron, 
 used to support eaves, cornices, 
 balconies, &c., usually of con- 
 siderable projection. 
 
 Capital, or Cap, the head of a column, pilaster, &c. 
 In Classical architecture, the orders have each their re- 
 spective capitals, which differ considerably from each 
 other, but their characteristics are easily distinguished : 
 there are, however, considerable differences to be found 
 in a few of the ancient examples, as in the Corinthian 
 orders of the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, and of the 
 Choragic monument of Lysicrates at Athens ; there are 
 also a few capitals totally unlike those of any of the five 
 orders, as in the Temple of the Winds, at Athens. In 
 English architecture they are endlessly diversified. 
 
 A very common form for plain Norman capitals, espe- 
 cially on small shafts, is one called the cushion capital, 
 resembling a bowl with the sides truncated, so as to reduce 
 the upper part 
 to a square ; 
 there is also 
 another form 
 which is ex- 
 tremely preva- 
 lent, very much 
 like this, but 
 with the under 
 part of the bowl 
 cut into round 
 
 Cassington, Ox.on, c. 1120. lUOUldingS which 
 
 stop upon the top of the necking ; these round mouldings 
 are sometimes ornamented, but more often plain ; this kind 
 of capital continued in use till quite the end of the style. 
 
 Steetley, Derbyshire, c. 1160 . 
 
Capital 
 
 55 
 
 At a later period the capitals are ornamented with con- 
 ventional fo- 
 liage, which 
 gradually ap- 
 proaches to 
 the prevalent 
 
 Easton, Hants, c. 1180. 
 
 Byland Abbey, Yorkshire, c. 1180. 
 
 ornamenta- 
 tion of the 
 next style. 
 
 In the early 
 work of the 
 style they are 
 generally rather short in pro- 
 portion to the height, but 
 they afterwards become more 
 elongated, and the foliage 
 and other decorations became 
 lighter in character, approxi- 
 mating to the Early English. 
 
 Early English capitals are not so much diversified as 
 Norman, although there are many varieties ; they are very 
 frequently entirely devoid of carving, and consist of suites 
 of plain mouldings, not, however, very numerous, which 
 are deeply undercut so as to produce fine bold shadows, 
 and there is usually a consid ral le plain space, of a lell 
 shape, between the upper mouldings and the necking. 
 Occasionally a series 
 of the toothed orna- 
 ment, or some other 
 similar enrichment, 
 is used between the 
 mouldings. When 
 foliage is introduced 
 it is placed upon 
 the bell of the 
 capital, and for the 
 most part, but few 
 if any mouldings beyond the abacus and necking, are 
 used with it; the leaves have generally stiff stems; but 
 almost always stand out very boldly, so as to produce 
 a very striking and beautiful effect, and they are generally 
 
 Hereford Cathedral, c. 1220. 
 
 Rushden, Northants, c. 1250. 
 
56 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Presbytery, Lincoln Cathedral, A.D. 3 
 
 very well carved, and often so much undercut, that the 
 stalks and more prominent 
 parts are entirely detached. 
 
 The character of the foliage 
 varies, hut by far the most 
 common, and that which 
 belongs peculiarly to this 
 style, consists of a trefoil, 
 the two lower lobes of 
 which (and sometimes all 
 three) are worked with a 
 high prominence or swell- 
 ing in the centre, which 
 casts a considerable sha- 
 dow; the middle lobe is 
 frequently much larger 
 than the others, with the 
 main fibre deeply channel! ed 
 in it. Occasionally animals are mixed with the foliage, 
 but they are usually a sign that the work is late. Some 
 of the richest specimens of thirteenth-century foliage are 
 to be found in the presbytery 
 of Lincoln Cathedral. 
 
 In the Decorated style, the 
 capitals very often consist 
 of plain mouldings either 
 with or without ball-flowers 
 or other flowers worked upon 
 the bell, though they are 
 frequently carved with very 
 rich and beautiful foliage; 
 the mouldings usually consist 
 of rounds, ogees, and hol- 
 lows, and are not so deeply 
 undercut as in the Early 
 English style ; the foliage is 
 very different from Early 
 English work, and of a much 
 broader character, many of 
 the leaves being representa- 
 tions of those of particular 
 
 Beverley Mmstei 
 
(Capital. 
 
 57 
 
 Hampton Poyle, c. 1320. 
 
 Sandhurst, c. 1350. 
 
 plants and trees, as the oak, ivy, maple, white-thorn, vine, 
 &c.; whichare 
 often worked 
 so truly to na- 
 ture as to lead 
 to the sup- 
 position that 
 the carver used 
 real leaves for 
 his pattern : 
 they are also 
 generally ex- 
 tremely well arranged, and without 
 the stiffness to be found in Early 
 English foliage. 
 
 Perpendicular capitals are most usually plain, though 
 in very large and 
 ornamented build- 
 ings they are some- 
 times enriched with 
 shallow foliage, espe- 
 cially early in the 
 style, when the shafts 
 are circular ; it is 
 very common for the 
 necldng only, or for 
 the necking, the bell, and the first moulding above it, to 
 follow the same form, the upper mouldings being changed 
 into an octagon ; ogees, beads, and 
 hollows are the prevailing mould- 
 ings; much of the foliage bears 
 considerable resemblance to the 
 Decorated, but it is stiffer and not 
 so well combined, and the leaves 
 in general are of less natural forms 
 and frequently square; towards 
 the latter part of the style there 
 is often a main stalk continued un- 
 interruptedly in a waved line, with 
 the leaves arranged alternately on 
 opposite sides. [See Abacus .] Howden, c . uso. 
 
 Ewelme, c. 1460. 
 
 Christ Church, Oxford, c. 1500. 
 
§8 (Eargattes— (Eatfjetiral. 
 
 Caryatides (Gr.), a name given to statues representing 
 draped female figures, applied instead of columns in 
 Grecian architecture, as at the Erectheum at Athens. 
 
 Casement, (1) a frame enclosing part of the glazing of 
 a window, with hinges to open and shut. (2) An old 
 English name for the deep hollow moulding, similar to 
 the Scotia of Italian architecture, which is extremely 
 prevalent in Gothic architecture, in cornices, door and 
 window jambs, &c., especially in the Perpendicular style, 
 and which is frequently enriched with running patterns 
 of foliage. 
 
 Cathedral (Lat. from Gr.), a church which contains the 
 cathedra or seat of the bishop. In the earliest cathedrals, 
 the basilicas or large churches in Rome, the bishop’s seat 
 was a marble chair attached to the end wall behind the 
 altar, which was at the west end of the church, and he 
 officiated over the altar, looking towards the east. This 
 marble chair is often called the Cardinal’s chair, because 
 when the church was served by a cardinal it was his 
 seat. Some lew examples of the Bishop’s chair remain 
 on the Continent. The best in this country is that behind 
 the altar in Norwich Cathedral. 
 
 Of the foundation of the first cathedral in this country, 
 circa a.d. 600, the Venerable Bede tells us in these words: 
 “ Augustine having his episcopal see granted to him in 
 the royal city [Canterbury], recovered therein a church, 
 which he was informed had been built by the ancient 
 Roman Christians, and consecrated it in the name of our 
 Lord Jesus Christ, and there established a residence for 
 himself and all his successors.” 
 
 We learn, incidentally, that the cathedral church was 
 re-constructed by Archbishop Odo, c . 950, and finally 
 
 Capping, same as Coping. 
 
 Carol, a small closet or en- 
 closure to sit and read in, as in 
 the cloisters at Gloucester. A 
 bay-window may thus be called 
 a Carol. 
 
 Cartouch. 1. French namef or 
 a tablet or stone to receive an 
 inscription, formed like a sheet 
 of paper with the edges folded 
 
 round. 2. Applied to modil- 
 lons under a cornice. 
 
 Catacombs. See Cemetery. 
 
 Catafalque, a hearse ; or the 
 frame of wood used in funeral 
 processions. 
 
 Catapult, a military engine 
 for throwing stones, arrows, and 
 other missiles. 
 
 Cat’s-head. See Beak-head- 
 
Catfjeiral. 59 
 
 rebuilt by Lanfranc. Although no traces of Odo’s church 
 remain, we learn from one of the chroniclers that, as re- 
 gards the apse, it was like that of St. Peter’s at Home, 
 and it is therefore exceedingly probable that the original 
 church of all was of the same character, and that Odo in 
 rebuilding, and possibly enlarging the choir, retained the 
 same principal features. 
 
 Together with the cathedral of Canterbury, the work 
 of Rochester and London went on, and there is little 
 doubt that the same plan was followed. We have also 
 an account of the building of the cathedral at York by 
 Paulinus, c. a d. 630. 
 
 We may, however, take Canterbury as the type of 
 the plan of the English Cathedrals up to the eleventh, 
 century, and also the alterations and extensions there 
 made during that century, as the type of what was done 
 in the other cathedrals. 
 
 Of the new cathedral, begun by Lanfranc, and con- 
 tinued by successive Archbishops, we learn, partly from, 
 what has been recorded by Gervase (who saw the church, 
 of Anselm), and partly from the existing remains, suffi- 
 cient not only to form a tolerable estimate of the plm 
 and extent of the cathedral, but also to gain some idea 
 of the general aspect. This has been worked out by 
 Professor Willis a . 
 
 The original plan of these cathedrals, i.e. those erected 
 by the close of the eleventh or beginning of the twelfth 
 centuries, as most of our cathedrals were, has been much 
 obscured by the frequent alterations, and, as a rule, con- 
 siderable extension, which has taken place either towards 
 the end of that century or in centuries succeeding. The 
 most frequent extension has been eastwards — scarcely 
 ever westwards. This eastward extension, arising from 
 a desire to increase the number of altars, has in most 
 eases assumed the character of a Lady-chapel. In Can- 
 terbury, the small Trinity Chapel which was at the east 
 end of the choir, gave place in a.d. 1180 to a consider- 
 able extension of the choir itself, and this again was 
 made to end in the chapel called “Becket’s Crown,’” 
 
 a “The Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral, by Professor Willis, 
 M.A., F.R.S., &c.” (Oxford, 1845.) 
 
60 GEatljetiral. 
 
 thereby adding in all some eighty feet additional length 
 to the cathedral in this direction. 
 
 At York, the cathedral as completed circa 1150, had 
 the choir more than doubled in length, and tripled in 
 width, circa 1200; while in 1370 the choir was again 
 considerably extended to the eastward, till the site of 
 the original cathedral, as compared with the present one, 
 looks most diminutive in the plan b . 
 
 At Winchester, the cathedral as completed by Bishop 
 Walkelin, c. a.d. 1093, was considerably enlarged at the 
 eastern end, c. a.d. 1200, by Bishop Godfrey de Lucy; 
 while in the fifteenth century, when the nave was so far 
 re-constructed that the aspect was totally different, a still 
 further extension eastward was made. 
 
 Durham choir, the work of Bishop Carileph (a.d. 1093 
 —1104) remains, with the nave and aisles added by his 
 successor, the notorious Bishop Flambard (a.d. 1104 — 33) ; 
 while the western porch, or Galilee, was added by Bishop 
 Pudsey, c . 1190, and the eastern chapel by Bishop Poore, 
 c. 1250. 
 
 Lincoln has preserved the west front as erected by the 
 founder, Bishop Bemigius, a.d. 1087 — 92, while the 
 glorious choir is due to Bishop Hugh, a.d. 1190 — 1200, 
 the nave being the work of Hugh de Wells, c. 1230. 
 
 Exeter has preserved only the two towers (forming 
 the two transepts), of the work of Bishop Warelwast, 
 a.d. 1107 — 36. Under successive bishops, beginning c. a.d. 
 1280, and up to c. 1350, so that the work is wholly of 
 the Decorated style, the choir and nave were completed 
 as we now find them, the western front being added by 
 Bishop Brantingham, c. 1380. 
 
 The above summaries are typical of the general history 
 of nearly all our cathedrals. 
 
 Salisbury is the only example of a cathedral now ex- 
 isting as erected complete from the foundation. It was 
 built between a.d. 1220 and 1258. 
 
 In the mediaeval cathedrals the Laoy-chapel has thus 
 frequently been built on the lines of the original apse, 
 and the Bishop's seat or throne has become a distinct 
 
 b See the series of Comparative Plans given in the “ Architectural History 
 of York Cathedral, by .Robert Willis, M.A.” (Oxford, 1849.) 
 
Catjjebral. 61 
 
 piece of furniture, usually of wood, and placed on the 
 south side of the nave, eastward of the stalls for the 
 canons. The choir is also enclosed in its own solid 
 screen, with a space between the east end of the screen 
 and the Lady-chapel. 
 
 In England, Wells affords the most perfect example of 
 a Cathedral with all its parts and appurtenances. Both 
 nave and choir and presbytery have aisles. There is 
 a second transept eastward of the altar between that and 
 the Lady -chapel. The chapter -house is on the north 
 side of the choir, and joins on to the eastern corner of 
 the north transept, its vestibule being parallel to that 
 transept on the east side of it. This is perhaps the 
 most usual position, though there appears to be no strict 
 rule for the place of the chapter-house. The two tran- 
 septs have each two chapels on the east side, and an 
 aisle on the west; the aisle communicates at the south 
 end with the cloister, which is on the south side of the 
 nave, and has the library over it on the east side, and 
 the singing-school on the west. The nave has aisles on 
 both sides, and another transept at the west end, with 
 towers at the extremities; there is also a central tower 
 and a north porch. 
 
 Wells was a cathedral proper, and independent of any 
 monastic foundation, but with a separate house for each, 
 of its officers, either in the Close or in the Liberty ad- 
 joining to it. The Bishop’s palace was enclosed by a 
 separate moat and fortified, being on the south side of 
 the cloister, from which it is separated by the moat ; the 
 houses for the Dean and for the Archdeacon are on the 
 north side of the Close, with some of the canons’ houses ; 
 the organist’s house is at the west end, adjoining to the 
 singing-school and the cloister ; the precentor’s house is 
 at the east end, near the Lady-chapel. The vicars choral 
 have a close of their own joining to the north-east corner 
 Of the canons’ close, with a bridge across through the 
 gate -house into the north transept; they were a col- 
 legiate body, with their own chapel, library, and hall, 
 but were chiefly laymen. 
 
 A plan of Wells Cathedral is given as the frontispiece 
 to this volume. 
 
6 2 
 
 OTatiltcoIt— Cell. 
 
 Caulicoli, small volutes under the flowers on the sides 
 of the abacus in the Corinthian 
 capital, representing the curled tops 
 of the acanthus stalks. Also, like 
 the large volutes, continued in the 
 Norman style, and may even be 
 traced, though much modified in 
 form, in later styles. 
 
 Cavetto, a concave 
 moulding of one quarter 
 of a circle, used in the 
 Grecian and other styles 
 of architecture. [See 
 Column.'] 
 
 Cavetto, Theatre of Marcellus, Rome. 
 
 Ceiling, the under covering of a roof, floor, See., con- 
 cealing the timbers from the room below; now usually 
 formed of plaster, but formerly most commonly of board- 
 ing; also the under surface of the vaulting in vaulted 
 rooms and buildings. During the middle ages, the ceil- 
 ings were generally enriched with gilding and colouring 
 of the most brilliant kind, traces of which may often 
 still be found in churches, though in a faded and di- 
 lapidated condition; plaster and wood ceilings under 
 roofs are often made flat, as at Peterborough Cathedral 
 and St. Alban’s Abbey, both of which are Norman with 
 old painting, but they frequently follow the line of the 
 timbers of the roof, which are sometimes arranged so as 
 to give the shape of a barrel-vault, especially in Early 
 English and Decorated work. 
 
 In the Perpendicular style they are more common than 
 in any other, and are usually either flat or canted, and 
 divided by ribs into square panels. [See Rib.] 
 
 The ceiling in churches immediately over the altar, and 
 occasionally also that over the roodloft, is sometimes richly 
 ornamented, while the remainder is plain, as at Ilfracombe. 
 
 Cell, (1) the naos or enclosed space within the walls of 
 an ancient temple ; (2) also applied to various apartments 
 in the Roman houses ; (3) to the sleeping apartments in 
 monastic establishments ; and (4) the term is used for 
 a dependency of some larger monastery : e.g. Iffley and 
 Stukeley were cells to Kenilworth. 
 
(Cemeterg— Centering. 63 
 
 Cemetery. The early Christians used the subterraneous 
 quarries or excavations beneath the hills in the neighbour- 
 hood of Rome, chiefly for the purpose of burial. At the 
 entrance, chapels were erected, and hence the cemetery- 
 chapel was spoken of under the name of cemeterium . The 
 vaults containing the coffins were called catacombs , and 
 besides being used as burial-places, were possibly during 
 times of persecution, though rarely, used by the early 
 Christians for worship. In after times, when persecution 
 ceased, access to them was frequent, in consequence of so 
 many saints and martyrs reposing there, and prayers at 
 their tombs were considered more efficacious than else- 
 where. It is most probable that they gave rise to the 
 introduction of crypts beneath our own churches, where 
 saints only were buried, or to which their remains were 
 moved sometimes years after their burial. At their tombs 
 the faithful of all ages have worshipped as at an altar . In 
 mediaeval times the cemetery for the faithful was simply the 
 ground adjoining the church, whichwas enclosed as church- 
 yards are now, and was often called Paradise. At times, as 
 at Canterbury to a.d. 750, it was forbidden to bury within 
 towns, and in that case a cemetery was provided outside 
 the town with its church or chapel, as in our own times. 
 
 Centering, or Centre, the temporary support placed under 
 vaults and arches to sustain them while they are in build- 
 ing, usually a frame of woodwork. 
 
 In Norman architecture, in which 
 the vaulting is constructed with 
 rough unhewn stones, the center- 
 ing was covered with a thick layer 
 of mortar, in which the stones 
 were imbedded, so th at when the Centering of a round-headed arch. 
 
 centering was removed it remained adhering to the under 
 surface of the vault, and exhibiting an exact impression of 
 the boards on which it was spread. In Ireland hurdles 
 were used instead of boards over the centering, and their 
 impression frequently remains on the plaster. 
 
 Cenotaph (Gr.), an empty I Centry • garth, a corruption 
 tomb, or a monument elsewhere of Cemetery, 
 than over the grave. 
 
6 4 
 
 Cljaltce— Cfjamfet. 
 
 Corpus College, Oxford, c. 1500. 
 
 Chalice (Lat. Calix ), the cup used for the wine at the 
 celebration of the Eucharist. In 
 early ages the chalice was some- 
 times made of glass or wood, 
 more often of gold or silver, 
 with a representation frequently 
 of the Good Shepherd carrying 
 the lost sheep on His back. Es- 
 pecial care was taken that the 
 brim of the chalice should not 
 turn down. 
 
 Chamber, a room, or apart- 
 ment, distinguished from the 
 hall, chapel, &c. The great 
 chamber usually adjoined, or 
 was contiguous to the hall, and answered to the modern 
 drawing-room, or withdrawing room. The camera of an 
 abbot or prior means his suite of lodgings in the establish- 
 ment. The guest-chamber in monasteries was sometimes 
 a separate building. The great distinction between the 
 bed-chambers and the reception-chambers did not exist in 
 medieval houses as it does now in England. 
 
 Chamfer, Champfer (Gr .Kampto ) ; an arris 
 or angle which is slightly pared off is said to 
 be chamfered : a chamfer resembles & splay, hut 
 is much smaller, and is usually taken off equally on the 
 two sides; it applies 
 to woodwork as well 
 as stone . In th e Early 
 English and Decorated 
 styles, more especially 
 in the former, cham- 
 fers have frequently 
 ornamental termina- 
 tions of several kinds, 
 some of which are 
 sufficiently marked to 
 be characteristic of the 
 date of the architec- 
 ture, and they are Wanmligton, Northants', c.1250. 
 
 Abbey Barn, Glaston- 
 bury, c. 1410. 
 
ffifjamfer — apel. 6 5 
 
 more varied and produce a stronger effect than might be 
 expected in such minute features. The angles of Early 
 English buttresses are very commonly chamfered. 
 
 Chancel, (from the Latin cancellus = a screen,) the choir 
 or eastern part of a church appropriated to the use of 
 those who officiate in the performance of the services, and 
 separated from the nave and other portions in which the 
 congregation assemble by the screen from which the name 
 is derived. The term is now generally confined to the 
 eastern division of parish churches, and such as have no 
 aisle or chapels round the choir. In some churches, in 
 addition to the principal chancel, there are others at the 
 end of the aisles, &c. [See Choir and Cathedral .] 
 
 Chantry (from the Er. Chanter ), an ecclesiastical bene- 
 fice or endowment to provide for the chanting of masses ; 
 it was very commonly a testamentary bequest, the tes- 
 tator also directing a chapel to be built over the spot 
 where he was buried, in which the masses were to be 
 celebrated for the especial benefit of the souls of himself 
 and others named in his will ; hence the term has come 
 to be sometimes applied to the chapel itself. Many of 
 the aisles to our churches are chantry chapels, one chapel 
 after another having been added. 
 
 Chapel (Lat. Capella). There are many varieties of 
 chapels used for various purposes, partly of a private cha- 
 racter and partly public. The earliest Christian chapels 
 are probably the cubicula , or small burial-chapels in the 
 catacombs at Rome, and the larger burial-chapels at the 
 entrances of the catacombs for families, or for official per- 
 sons such as the bishops and popes; and some of these 
 chapels are in the catacombs themselves, not merely round 
 the entrances. After the time of Constantine, family chapels 
 were attached to the churches, and some remained in the 
 houses where they had been previously established. In 
 France burial- chapels in the cemeteries are very usual 
 throughout the Middle Ages as separate and detached 
 buildings, in addition to the very numerous chapels at- 
 tached to the churches, and dedicated in honour of particu- 
 lar saints : these latter are usually between the buttresses. 
 In England detached chapels are comparatively rare, and 
 
 p 
 
66 
 
 Cfjapel— finest. 
 
 when in churches they are usually built as part of the 
 aisles, or enclosed with screens and called Parcloses. 
 Domestic chapels were also made in rooms of a castle or 
 house, more frequently than erected as separate buildings. 
 In Ireland the ancient Roman practice of having many 
 small family chapels in the same cemetery was continued 
 to quite a late period. 
 
 Chapter-house (Lat. Capitulum ), the place of assembly 
 for the dean and canons in a cathedral body for the trans- 
 action of business. It was customary to ornament them in 
 a very rich manner, especially in England : the sort of in- 
 dependence belonging to the assembled chapter had some- 
 thing congenial to the English character, and our chapter- 
 houses are very superior to those of our neighbours. The 
 usual form in England is polygonal, with a rich vault 
 resting on a central pillar, e.g. at Wells. This form is al- 
 most peculiar to England, but it was never exclusive ; the 
 simple parallelogram is found of all periods : of the twelfth 
 century at Worcester, of the thirteenth at Chester and 
 Oxford, of the fourteenth and fifteenth in several places 
 both in England and on the Continent. 
 
 Chest. Among our ancestors chests appear to have been 
 very import- 
 ant pieces of 
 furniture, serv- 
 ing as recep- 
 tacles for every 
 kind of goods 
 that required 
 to be kept with 
 any degree of 
 care; they were 
 also placed in 
 churches for 
 keeping the 
 
 Champ, the field or ground on 
 which carving is raised. 
 
 Chapiter (of a column), the 
 Capital. 
 
 Char or Chare, to hew or 
 work, e.g. Charred stone = hewn 
 stone. 
 
 Charnel-house, a chamber in 
 the neighbourhood of a church- 
 yard to receive the human bones 
 disinterred by the grave-digger. 
 
 Chasse, Fr. for Reliquary. 
 
 Chasuble (priests* robe). See 
 illustrations to Brass, 
 
Cfjegt— Cfjtmneg* 67 
 
 holy vessels, vestments, &c., and many of them still re- 
 main. Large chests were called standards, and were used 
 for packing the furniture when the family moved from 
 one manor-house to another. The oldest chests known to 
 exist are of Early English date. Some of the old chests 
 found in this country are evidently of foreign workman- 
 ship, and “Elanders chests’’ are frequently mentioned 
 in ancient documents. As Gothic architecture lost its 
 purity, chests gradually degenerated into the plain boxes 
 which are now placed in our churches to receive the 
 registers; however, for a considerable time they continued 
 to retain a certain degree of ornament, and were occa- 
 sionally highly enriched, though in no very chaste style, 
 while in houses they were superseded by more convenient 
 articles of furniture. 
 
 Chimney (Er.) This term was not originally restricted to 
 the shaft of the chimney, but included the fireplace. There 
 does not appear to be any evidence of the use of chimney- 
 shafts in England prior to the twelfth century. In the 
 part of Rochester Castle which is of the date probably of 
 1130, there are complete fireplaces with semicircular backs, 
 and a shaft in each jamb supporting a semicircular arch 
 over the opening, which is enriched 
 with the zigzag moulding ; some of 
 these project slightly from the wall ; the 
 flues, however, go only a few feet up 
 in the thickness of the w r all, and are 
 then turned out at the back, the aper- 
 tures being small oblong holes. A few 
 years later, the improvement of carry- 
 ing the flue up through the whole 
 height of the wall appears. The early 
 chimney - shafts are of considerable 
 height, and circular; afterwards they 
 assumed a great variety of forms, and 
 during the fourteenth century they are 
 frequently very short. Previous to the Burford, o*ou. 
 
 Chevet (Fr.), the apse or east* I Chevron or Zigzag. See 
 ern termination of a church. | Moulding. 
 
68 
 
 (Efjhnneg — Cljoh:, 
 
 sixteenth century the shaft is, often short and not unfre- 
 quently terminated by a spire or pinnacle, usually of rather 
 low proportions, having apertures of various forms under, 
 and sometimes in it, for the escape of the smoke. There 
 are also taller shafts of various forms, square, octangular, 
 or circular, surmounted with a cornice, forming a sort of 
 capital, the smoke issuing from the top. In the fifteenth 
 century the most common form of chimney-shafts is oct- 
 angular, though they are sometimes square : the smoke 
 
 issues from the top, unless, as is sometimes the case, they 
 terminate in a spire. Clustered chimney- shafts do not 
 appear until rather late in the fifteenth century; after- 
 wards they became very common, and were frequently 
 highly ornamented, especially when of brick. 
 
 Choir, or Quire (Lat. chorus ), literally a place for the 
 singers, but usually that part of the church, eastward of the 
 nave, in which the services were celebrated, and which was 
 appropriated to the priest and canons and others assisting in 
 the services : it was separated from the other parts of the 
 building in which the congregation assemble, by a screen, 
 which was usually of open-work. In large churches there 
 are generally aisles at the sides of the choir, sometimes 
 continued across the east end of the building so as to 
 surround it, especially in churches which have polygonal 
 or semicircular terminations, like many of the continental 
 
 Chepstow Castle, c. 1320. 
 
 Sherborne, Dorset, c. 1320. 
 
(fDfjotr — ffldjurrfj. 
 
 69 
 
 cathedrals : it is usually raised at least one step above the 
 nave, and in strictness does not extend further eastward 
 than the steps leading up to the altar where the presby- 
 tery or sanctuary begins, but this distinction is by no 
 means adhered to, and the term choir is very generally 
 applied to the whole space set apart for the celebration 
 of the services of the church, including the presbytery. 
 In parochial churches it forms the Chancel . [See also 
 Basilica , Cathedra and Church .] 
 
 Church; the place for Christians “to assemble them- 
 selves together” for the worship of God according to the 
 apostolic injunction. Churches are built on many differ- 
 ent plans, and have been so at all periods ; one plan has 
 no more authority than another, it is entirely a matter of 
 convenience and decent order. The earliest churches were 
 chambers in the houses of the more wealthy Christians, 
 who allowed their poorer brethren to assemble in their 
 houses, usually in the hall or the largest room ; in the 
 east, in the upper rooms of the house, as mentioned in 
 the book of the Acts of the Apostles : at Rome, in the 
 chambers below the level of the street which were usual 
 in the houses or palaces of the Roman nobility. Several 
 of these subterranean churches remain, as St. Pudentiana, 
 and St. Sylvester. In these cases other chambers appear 
 to have been built above them for churches after the peace 
 of the Church in the time of Constantine. 
 
 The name of basilica was derived from this early use of 
 the hall which was also a Court of Justice, [see Basilica ] ; 
 and in the case of the cathedral of Treves the actual hall 
 of a Roman house remains to this day, converted into 
 a church, while there is another basilica or Law Court 
 near to it also converted into a church in more recent 
 times. At Rome the seven great churches made by Con- 
 stantine, which still retain the name of basilica in an 
 especial manner, were probably all originally law courts, 
 and so preserved their old arrangements, which served 
 as types for others, and came to be considered the usual 
 arrangement of a church. 
 
 The church of Santa Croce was the Praetorium or Law 
 Court of a different kind, in the Sessorium or palace of 
 the Empress Helena, and had an apse added to it by Con- 
 
Cfjutcfj. 
 
 7i 
 
 stantine as a necessary part of the arrangement. That of 
 St. John Lateran, which was the first that he made into 
 a church, was originally one of the halls in the great palace 
 of the Lateran family. Those of St. Lorenzo and St. Agnes 
 were originally two of the small burial -chapels at the 
 entrance of their respective catacombs, and other chapels 
 in the Catacombs are called Basilicas by some writers, 
 though they seldom held more than fifty persons, and the 
 largest not more than eighty; these are evidently burial- 
 chapels only, and afford no guidance for the arrangement 
 of a church. St. Clement’s is usually appealed to as the 
 primitive type; the original church, which now forms 
 a crypt to the present one, is considerably wider. When 
 the upper part of the church was rebuilt in the twelfth 
 century, the old nave of the upper church was found in- 
 conveniently wide, and one of the aisles of this under- 
 ground church is now outside the wall of the upper church, 
 the width of the nave having been divided into a nave 
 and aisle. The marble screen was brought up from the 
 lower church and re-arranged to suit the smaller one. 
 This church therefore affords no certain type of primitive 
 arrangement. That of Torcello, at Yenice, is more perfect 
 and unaltered, but is probably also of the twelfth century. 
 There is no example of primitive airangement remaining, 
 excepting perhaps at St. Agnes outside of the walls of 
 Rome ; but it is certain that the plan of the Roman court 
 of justice was closely followed, and all the names of the 
 different parts were retained. 
 
 When the art of building in stone was revived in 
 Western Europe in the eleventh century, the apse seems 
 at first to have been considered an essential feature, as 
 at Canterbury, which we are told followed the plan 
 of the original church of St. Peter’s at Rome; and in 
 such cases the altar was probably placed on the chord of 
 the apse, as at Rome, but this practice was soon aban- 
 doned, and from the twelfth century in England the 
 square east end became almost universal, and the altar 
 was placed against the east wall, often resting partly upon 
 corbels in the wall. The chorus or choir, which in Italy 
 is sometimes in one part of the church and sometimes 
 another, and in Spain and the south of France is usually 
 
72 
 
 Cjiutri) — ©thorium. 
 
 in the middle, was in England and Erance almost unh 
 versally in the eastern limb of the church, and enclosed 
 by a screen called 
 originally Can cell i , 
 from which the name 
 of chancel and choir 
 became synonymous, 
 but usage now ge- 
 nerally confines the 
 name of choir to the 
 cathedrals or large 
 churches. [See Chan- 
 cel and Choir . ] When 
 there are aisles to the 
 eastern part of a church 
 the central division of 
 it is generally called 
 the choir. Although 
 no general rule can be 
 laid down, the most 
 usual plan of our Eng- 
 lish mediaeval church 
 may be said to be, — 
 
 1. A chancel without 
 aisles; 2. A nave with 
 aisles; 3. A western 
 tower; 4. A south 
 porch. 
 
 Garsington Church, 
 
 Oxfordshire, affords a 
 good example of the 
 simplest plan of aparish 
 church unaltered. 
 
 Plan, Garsington, Oxou. 
 
 Ciborium (Gr. = a cup) is applied in several ways : 
 1. To the portion of ceiling over an altar. 2. To the 
 ceiling of, and so to the whole of the canopy over the 
 altar, which was usually erected on four pillars, also 
 called the Baldaquin. It is used also (3.) in the sense 
 of the arch over the place where the altar stood. 
 
 Chymol, a hinge. j Cimatium. See Cymatium . 
 
 Cill = Sill. I CiMBiA,afillet,band,orCi7zc^re. 
 
Clear^torg. 7;> 
 
 Clear-story, or Clere-story, an upper story, or row of 
 windows in a Gothic church rising well above the ad- 
 
 joining parts of the building (in contradistinction to the 
 j Blindstory, often called the Triforium). In churches it ap- 
 pears td have been adopted as a means of obtaining an in- 
 crease of light in the body of the building; but the win- 
 dows are not unfrequently so small that they serve this 
 purpose very imperfectly. Numerous churches exist both 
 
 Witney, c. 1450. Stanton St.John’s, c. 1350. 
 
 in the Norman and in each of the later stvles of Gothic 
 architecture, in which the clear-story is an original feature ; 
 but many more instances occur in which it is evidently 
 a subsequent addition to the original design, especially 
 when the high-pitched roofs (which frequently included 
 the body and aisles in a single span) have given way to 
 flat ones, the walls having been raised over the arches of 
 the nave to receive the clear-story windows. [See illus- 
 tration under Triforium .] 
 
 Cincture, a ring, or fillet, or I the shaft of a column, 
 band, on the top and bottom of | Cinque-foil. See Foil . 
 
74 
 
 (Eloteter — Coffin. 
 
 Cloister, a covered way round a quadrangle in a mo- 
 nastic or collegiate establishment. Of its four sides one 
 was usually bounded by the church or chapel, and the 
 others by different buildings, or by a high wall. The 
 cloisters were appropriated for the recreation of the in- 
 mates of the establishment, who also sometimes used them 
 as places of study, for which purpose they occasionally had 
 cells or stalls on one side, as at Gloucester and at Durham, 
 called Carols ; the cloisters likewise served as passages of 
 communication between the different buildings, and they 
 appear to have been often used as places of sepulture; 
 they are sometimes covered with rich stone vaulting, and 
 there is frequently a lavatory in them, and a stone bench 
 along the wall opposite to the windows. The term cloister 
 is also sometimes used as a general name for a monastery, 
 
 Cob-wall, a wall built of unburnt clay, mixed with 
 straw. This material is still used in some parts of the 
 country for cottages and outbuildings, and was formerly 
 employed for houses of a better description: it is sup- 
 posed also to be the material of which the domestic edifices 
 of the ancients, including even the Greeks and Homans in 
 their most civilized period, were chiefly built. 
 
 Coffin (prob. from Saxon Cofa — o. cave). The slight 
 wooden case in which bodies are now interred appears to 
 be of comparatively recent origin ; in earlier ages the 
 graves were sometimes lined with slabs of stone, but 
 usually a stone coffin 
 formed of a single 
 block was used, and 
 the body placed in 
 it, either enveloped 
 
 in grave-clothes or Bishop Ralph. 1123, Chichester Cathedral. 
 
 Cippus, a small pillar or column 
 used by the Romans for mile- 
 stones or boundary stones. 
 
 Clamp irons, Cramp irons. 
 
 Classical Orders of Archi- 
 tecture. See Orders. 
 
 Clavis (Lat.), the key-stone of 
 an arch. 
 
 Clicket, a key probably re- 
 sembling a “latch-key.” 
 
 Clocher (Fr.), a bell, hence 
 the bell-tower or steeple. 
 
 Clustered Column, a pier 
 consisting of several shafts clus- 
 tered together. 
 
 Cochlea (Lat.), a small newel 
 staircase. 
 
 Coffer, 1. A deep panel in a 
 ceiling — Caisson ; 2. A small 
 chest. 
 
Coffin— Construction of OTalls. 
 
 75 
 
 clad in some particular dress ; ecclesiastics were generally 
 buried in the habit of the order to which they belonged, the 
 dignitaries of the Church frequently in their official robes 
 and accompanied with the ensigns of their office, and sove- 
 reigns in their robes of state. Numerous stone coffins exist 
 in this country which appear to be as old as the eleventh 
 and twelfth centuries ; they are formed of a single block of 
 stone hollowed out to receive the body, with a small circular 
 cavity at one end to fit the head, and they are usually rather 
 wider at this end than at the other ; there are generally 
 one or more small holes in the bottom to drain off moisture ; 
 these coffins were never buried deeply in the ground; 
 very frequently they were placed close to the surface, 
 so that the lid was visible, and when within a church, 
 ►art 
 
 formed part of the paving; sometimes, in churches, they 
 were placed entirely above the ground. [See Tomb.^\ 
 
 Compass-roof, an open-timber roof: it is more com- 
 monly called a Span-roof, meaning that the roof extends 
 from one wall to the other, with a ridge in the centre, as 
 distinguished from a lean-to , &c. 
 
 Console is strictly the French 
 term for a bracket, or for the an- 
 cones, but it is commonly used by 
 English authors also for a bracket 
 or corbel of any kind in Classical 
 architecture. 
 
 Console, Palace of Diocletian. 
 
 Construction of Walls. There are many different 
 methods of constructing the walls of a building, which 
 vary according to the materials employed, and also ac- 
 cording to the date and the country. At first sight it may 
 be thought that the best and cheapest mode of employing 
 any given material would be soon discovered, and con- 
 
 Coillon or Coin, the angle of 
 a building, Quoin. 
 
 Collarino, the cylindrical 
 part of the column between the 
 annulets and under the ovolo 
 and the astragal. 
 
 Colonnade, in Classical archi- 
 tecture, answers to the arcade in 
 Gothic : the former has an en- 
 tablature, the latter arches. 
 
 Columbaria, Dove-cots, hence 
 also similar places for urns at 
 Borne, and sometimes the holes 
 left in the walls for the tim- 
 bers. 
 
 Colura. See Tester. 
 
 Compass Window, a bay-win- 
 dow or oriel. 
 
 Compluvium. See Atrium . 
 
 Composite. See Order ■ 
 
76 
 
 Construction of OTalls. 
 
 tinued ever after in the same district; and this is true 
 to a certain extent: nevertheless, it is certain that the 
 mode of construction is often a very useful guide to the 
 age of a building. 
 
 The earliest buildings of which we have any record 
 are the Tower of Babel and the walls of Babylon; these 
 were built of sun-dried bricks, cemented with bitumen; 
 they have nothing to correspond with them in Europe. 
 
 The next in order of date are probably the Pyramids 
 of Egypt. These are built of enormous masses of stone 
 in the form of a parallelogram, and the stones are split 
 off the rocks, not cut, and are put together without 
 cement of any kind, arranged in alternate courses, being 
 thrown in cross- wise, and supported by their own enor- 
 mous weight only. This kind of construction is called 
 Cyclopean masonry, and is used in all early buildings in 
 the East, where such rocks are found as admit of the stone 
 being split in this manner, such as tufa and sandstone. The 
 walls of the Etruscan cities are built in the same manner, 
 wherever the same materials are found. The later build- 
 ings have the stones of smaller size, but the change is 
 very gradual, and in the later buildings of this class 
 the stones are cut, not merely split, and the joints are 
 then extremely fine. The early temples of Greece are 
 for the most part built in this manner, as are the temples 
 at Paestum. 
 
 In Borne the wall earliest in character is that of Roma 
 Quadrata, usually called the wall of Romulus, this belongs 
 to the earlier class of Etruscan or Cyclopean masonry. 
 The next class are the walls of the later kings. These 
 are of more regular character than the wall of Romulus, 
 and agree pretty nearly with the temples of Psestum. 
 Simultaneously with these, in other districts, where the 
 material is a hard stone that will not split, and cannot 
 be easily cut into square blocks, such as the hill limestone, 
 basaltic stones, and lava, we find a different kind of con- 
 struction, popularly called Phoenician, and probably used 
 by that people. In this the stones are sometimes much 
 smaller, and often polygonal ; these are closely fitted toge- 
 ther, but without cement, and when the stones cannot be 
 made to fit closely, small chippings of stone are wedged in 
 
Opus Reticulatum. Net-work, 
 Palace of the Caesars, a.d. 10. 
 
 Opus Lateritium. Brick-work, 
 Arches of Nero, a.d. 60. 
 
 Opera Della Decadenza. The Decadence. 
 Circus of Maxentius, a.d. 310. 
 
 Opera Saracenesca. Work of the Saracens. 
 Palace of the Savelli, a.d. 1200. 
 
 MODES OF ANCIENT ROMAN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
78 
 
 Construction of ®5Ealls. 
 
 between the joints to make all firm. This construction 
 being the easiest and cheapest with these materials, is 
 also continued at all periods, even to our own day. 
 
 The next class is where lime mortar is used. The art 
 of burning stone into lime and making mortar does not 
 appear to have been invented, or at least brought into 
 use by the Romans, until about three centuries before 
 the Christian era. It is not found in the temples of 
 Greece, nor at Psestum. The earliest dated example is 
 the Emporium on the bank of the Tiber, about two cen- 
 turies before the Christian era. When men understood 
 the advantages of lime mortar, it was used in profusion 
 and even excess, and from that time forwards the body 
 of a Roman wall was almost universally built of con- 
 crete or rough stone ( rulhle ), well joined together with 
 lime mortar, the lime being always burnt on the spot, and 
 used quite fresh, before the cooling and crystallization 
 had taken place. These massive concrete walls were faced 
 in various ways, at first with small pieces of tufa, diamond- 
 shaped on the surface, and wedge-shaped behind, which 
 were fixed into the concrete mass while it was wet, and 
 held so firmly by the crystallization of the lime that it is 
 almost impossible to separate the ornamental smooth sur- 
 face of a Roman wall, from the mass of rough concrete 
 behind it. This mode of facing the wall occurs first in 
 buildings of the time of Sylla the dictator. 
 
 Bricks burnt in kilns probably came in about that period. 
 In the time of Augustus brick is generally used sparingly 
 in layers of thin bricks, separating the tufa surface, called 
 opus reticulatum , into panels, and this fashion is continued 
 to the time of Hadrian. In the time of Tiberius the walls 
 are frequently faced entirely with the excellent brick- work 
 called opus lateritium y and this style was imitated in Rome 
 for many centuries. In the earlier brick-work, that is, 
 in the first century of the Christian era, the bricks are 
 better than at any other period ; they are large, flat, and 
 thin, commonly two feet square and one inch thick, what 
 we call Roman tiles , but used for building walls, and not 
 merely for roofing or pavement. The facing tiles are com- 
 monly triangular, with the broad side outwards. The 
 bricks gradually became thicker and smaller, until in the 
 
Construction of OTalls. 
 
 79 
 
 fourth century they are often only four to a foot on the 
 surface of the wall, as in modern walls. Simultaneously 
 with these brick walls (that is, walls faced with brick), 
 stone walls continued to be used, and these are frequently 
 built of the large blocks of stone, like the walls of the 
 Kings, but the material is travertine, that of the early 
 walls in Koine is tufa only, and they either have mortar, 
 or are wedged together with wooden wedges, or clamped 
 with metal. In the arcade of the Aqueduct of Claudius the 
 arches are built of very large stones, which extend right 
 through the width of the arcade from one side to the 
 other, about fifteen feet. These large stones are well cut, 
 and fitted closely, and held together by wooden tenons of 
 the dove- tail form, let into hollows cut for them in the 
 surface of each stone. From the first century to the tenth 
 there is a gradual decay in the art of building, until in 
 the tenth century, in the monastery of S, Croce, it is as 
 bad as it well could be to stand at all. 
 
 In the eleventh century the great revival ot the art 
 of building began. The buildings of this century in 
 France and England are generally very massive, and 
 built of large stones where they could be had, with 
 wide joints of mortar, which are generally characteristic 
 of this period. These walls being built with good fresh 
 lime, like those of the earliest K man, are equally last- 
 ing, and were commonly suffered to remain as what is 
 called the gross construction of the building, even when 
 the whole ornamentation of the building was entirely 
 altered according to the fashion of the later periods, when 
 it was required to adapt it to the fashion of the day. 
 This change of outward appearance mainly took place 
 in the twelfth century. In the great abbey church of 
 St. Stephen at Caen the walls are chiefly of the eleventh 
 century, the vaults and the ornamentation of the twelfth. 
 This is also the case at St. Remi at Rheims, at Jumiege 
 in Normandy, in Winchester Cathedral, and in numerous 
 other instances. 
 
 See also Ashlar , Bonders , Brick, Col-wall , Free-mason , 
 Free-stone , Garreting , Herring -lone-work, Bag -stone, Roman 
 Architecture, Romanesque Style , Rullle , Rustic-work, Saxon, 
 Tiles . 
 
So 
 
 Column. 
 
 Column, a round 
 pillar; the term in- 
 cludes the base, shaft, 
 and capital : in Gre- 
 cian and Roman ar- 
 chitecture. Tho co- 
 lumn is so import- 
 ant a feature that the 
 exact proportions of 
 its several parts are 
 settled, and vary ac- 
 cording to the Or- 
 der. 
 
 In the Illustration 
 which is given here 
 the chief features are 
 shewn, with the no- 
 menclature of the de- 
 tails commonly em- 
 ployed. Under the 
 Composite Order 
 [vide Order ] will be 
 found additional no- 
 menclature. [See al- 
 so the words Co- 
 rona and Cymatium , 
 and the illustrations 
 given under Astra- 
 gal , , Cavetto , Cyma , 
 Ogee, Ovolo , Pedes - 
 tal, Portico , Scotia,'] 
 
 The term is also 
 sometimes applied to 
 the pillars or piers in 
 Norman and Gothic 
 architecture. 
 
 Compound Arch, a term ap- 
 plied to signify a 'Recessed arch. 
 
 Compound Pier, a clustered 
 column. 
 
 Concha (Lat.), name applied 
 to the apse from the shell-like 
 
 shape of the vault. 
 
 Conduit, properly a water- 
 course (or Specus ), applied also 
 to the structure forming the 
 reservoir for water . 
 
8i 
 
 Coptnfl — CotfektaMt. 
 
 Coping, or capping, the covering 
 course of a wall or parapet, either 
 flat, or sloping on the upper surface, 
 to throw off water ; it often presents 
 characteristic mouldings attesting 
 the age. The stones also along the 
 ridge of a roof are called coping- 
 stones. 
 
 Corbel (Lat. Corbis = a basket), a term denoting 
 a projecting stone or piece of timber which supports 
 a superincumbent weight. Corbels are used in a great 
 
 variety of situations, and are carved and moulded in 
 various ways according to the taste of the age in which 
 they are executed; the form of a head was very 
 frequently given to them in each of the styles, from 
 Norman to late Perpendicular, especially when used under 
 the ends of the weather-mouldings of doors and windows, 
 and in other similar situations. Sometimes also masks 
 were introduced . 
 
 Corbel-table, a row of corbels supporting a parapet or 
 cornice, usually having small arcs between them. [See 
 Cornice.'] 
 
 G 
 
Carbtc.sgicpg— Cornice 
 
 Corbie-steps, a Scotch terra for the steps up the sides 
 of a gable : they are frequently found on old houses, par- 
 ticularly in Flanders, Holland, and Germany, and produce 
 a very picturesque effect. The top stune is termed the 
 crow- stone. 
 
 Cornice, (from Ital. and that from Lat. Corona ), the 
 horizontal moulded projection encircling the top of a 
 building, or the component parts of a building, and 
 generally beneath the eaves of the roof. In Classic 
 architecture each of the Orders has its peculiar cornice. 
 
 In the Norman style of architecture, a plain face of 
 parapet, slightly projecting from the wall, is frequently 
 used as a cornice, and a row of blocks is often placed 
 under it, some- 
 times plain, some- 
 times moulded or 
 carved into heads 
 and other orna- 
 ments, when it is 
 called a corbel-ta- 
 ble : these blocks 
 very commonly 
 have a range of small arches over them ; a small plain 
 string is also sometimes used as a cornice. 
 
 In the Early English style, the corbel -table continued 
 in use as a cornice, but it is generally more ornamented 
 than in the Norman, and the arches are commonly trefoils 
 and well moulded; the blocks, also, are more delicately 
 carved, either with a head or some other ornament charac- 
 teristic of the style, and if there are no arches above them 
 they often support a suite of horizontal mouldings ; some- 
 times there is a range of horizontal mouldings above the 
 arches of the corbel-table, and sometimes the cornice con- 
 
 Norman Corbel-tabie, St. Peter’s, Oxford. 
 
 Confessio, 1. The C'onfes- 
 sionar?/, i.e. the under part of 
 an altar, or a crypt, or struc- 
 ture under an altar to contain 
 the relics of a martyr, used in 
 this sense chiefly in the early 
 Italian churches. 2. The con- 
 
 fessional, i.e. the recess or seat 
 in which the priest sits to hear 
 the confession of penitents. 
 
 Cops, a name sometimes ap- 
 plied to the Merlons of a battle- 
 ment. 
 
 Corinthian. See Order. 
 
(Cornice. 
 
 83 
 
 The 
 
 Early English Cornice, Stanwlck, Northants. 
 
 sists of mouldings only, without any corbel-table, 
 hollow mouldings 
 of the cornice are 
 generally plain, 
 seldom containing 
 flowers or carv- 
 ings, except the 
 toothed orna- 
 ment. 
 
 In the Deco- 
 rated style, the cornice is usually very regular; and 
 though in some large buildings it has several mouldings, 
 it principally consists of a slope above, and a deep sunk 
 hollow, with an astragal under it; in these hollows, 
 flowers at regu- 
 lar distances are 
 often placed, and 
 in some large 
 buildings, and in 
 towers, &c., there 
 are frequently 
 heads, and the 
 
 cornice almost filled with them ; other varieties of cornice 
 may also be occasionally met with in this style. 
 
 In the Perpendicular style, the cornice is often com- 
 posed of several small mouldings, sometimes divided by 
 one or two considerable hollows, not very deep : in plain 
 buildings, the cornice - mouldings of the preceding style 
 are much adhered to ; 
 but it is more often 
 ornamented in the 
 hollow with flowers, 
 
 &c., and sometimes 
 with figures and gro- 
 tesque animals. In 
 the latter end of this 
 style, something very analogous to an ornamented frieze 
 is perceived, of which the canopies to the niches in various 
 works are examples; and the angels so profusely intro- 
 duced in the later rich works are a sort of cornice or- 
 naments. 
 
 Decorated Cornice, Irchester, c. 1350. 
 
 Perpendicular Cornice. Ensham, c. 1450. 
 
8 4 
 
 Corona— (Crenelle* 
 
 C orona( Lat.)the lower mem- 
 ber, or drip, of the projecting 
 part of a Classic cornice : the 
 horizontal under-surface of it is 
 called the soffit. [See Column,] 
 
 Cymatium 
 
 IS 
 
 Corona 
 
 Course, Cors, a continuous range of stones or bricks 
 of uniform height in the wall of a building. 
 
 Credence (Ital. Credenza , a side table), the small table 
 at the side of the altar, or 
 communion-table, on which 
 the bread and wine were 
 placed before they were 
 consecrated. This was a 
 very early custom in the 
 Church. In many instan- 
 ces in this country the place 
 of the credence - table is 
 found supplied by a shelf 
 across the piscina : this 
 shelf was either of wood 
 or stone. The word in its 
 literal sense signifies simply 
 a buffet or sideboard. 
 
 Crenelle (or old Eng. 
 
 Kernel). This term ap- 
 pears sometimes to signify 
 means the embrasures of a battlement, or loopholes and 
 other openings in the walls of a fortress through which 
 arrows and other missiles might be discharged against 
 assailants ; the adjective ‘ crenellated/ when applied to 
 a building, signified fortified or provided with crenelles 
 as a means of defence. A licence from the Crown ( quod 
 possit kernellare ) was required in mediaeval times before 
 a subject could build a castle or fortify his existing 
 house. 
 
 Woodford, c. 1350. 
 
 a battlement, but it usually 
 
 Corkscrew-stairs. S eeNewel, 
 Step, and Vise. 
 
 Corona (Lat.), 1. Part of a 
 Classic cornice, as above ; 2. The j 
 
 apse, hence the name “Becket’s 
 Crown ” at Canterbury ; 3. A 
 circle of lights or chandelier. 
 
Crest — Crockets. 
 
 85 
 
 Crest (Lat. Crista ), the ornamental finishing which sur- 
 mounts a screen, canopy, or other similar subordinate 
 portion of a building, whether a battlement, open carved 
 work, or other en- 
 richment : a row of 
 Tudor - flowers is 
 very often used 
 in late Perpendicu- 
 lar work. The co- 
 ping stones on the 
 parapet and other 
 similar parts of a 
 Gothic building, 
 likewise called the 
 
 Exeter Cathedral. 
 
 capping or coping. 
 
 The finials of gables and pinnacles are also sometimes 
 called crests. Crest-tiles were formerly sometimes made 
 with a row of ornaments, resembling small battlements 
 or Tudor-flowers, on the t p, and glazed, and still are 
 so occasionally, but in general they are quite plain. 
 Sometimes these ornaments were formed in lead when 
 the ridge of the roof was covered with that material, 
 as at Exeter Cathedral. 
 
 Crockets (Er. Croc = a hook), projecting leaves, flow- 
 ers, or bunches of foliage, used in Gothic architecture to 
 decorate the angles of spires, canopies, pinnacles, &c. ; 
 they are also frequently found on gables, and on the 
 weather- mouldings of doors and windows, and in other 
 similar situations : occasionally they are used among 
 vertical mouldings, as at Lincoln Cathedral, where they 
 run up the mullions of the windows of the tower, and 
 the sides of some of the arches, but they are not em- 
 ployed in horizontal situations. They are used in suites, 
 and are placed at equal distances apart: the varieties 
 are innumerable. The earliest crockets are to be found 
 
 Couple Close. See Roof, 
 Coutes (in armour). See il- 
 lustrations to Brass. 
 
 Coyie, Covey, a pantry. 
 Cradle-vault. See Cylindri- 
 cal Vault. 
 
 Cramp-iron, iron bent at each 
 end for fastening stones together 
 in a building. 
 
 Cresset, an open frame for a 
 lantern to serve as a beacon. 
 
86 
 
 Crockets. 
 
 in the Early English style; they usually consist either 
 of small leaves or rather long stalks, or hunches of leaves 
 
 curled back something like the head of a bishop’s pastoral 
 crook; but they were not used till late in this style. 
 
 Choir, Lincoln Cathedral, c 1200. Litcham, Norfolk, c. 1450. 
 
Crochets — Cross. 
 
 87 
 
 Decorated crockets vary considerably; the most usual 
 form is that of a broad leaf with 
 the edges attached to the moulding 
 on which it is placed, and the mid- 
 dle part and point raised. 
 
 In the Perpendicular style this is 
 the most prevalent form, but the*’ 
 are not unfrequently made like flat 
 square leaves, which are united with 
 the mouldings by the stalk and one 
 edge only. In a few instances, , 
 animals and figures are used in '§ 
 place of crockets, as in Henry the 
 Seventh’s chapel. 
 
 Southwell iVtiuistei, a.d. 1320. 
 
 Cross (Lat. Crux), the usual symbol of the Christian re- 
 ligion. The difference between the Latin and Greek type 
 is, that in the Koman cross the foot is longer than the 
 upper part or the branches; or, in 
 other words, the shaft or upright por- 
 tion is longer than the horizontal bar 
 which crosses it, giving as it were the 
 form of a man standing with arms ex- 
 tended. In the Eastern form, on the 
 other hand, the limbs or arms are all 
 equal. The Latin cross is supposed 
 to resemble the actual cross of Christ, 
 but the form ofc* the Greek cross is con- 
 sidered ideal. 
 
 As an architectural ornament in 
 churches and religious edifices it was 
 almost always placed upon the points w 
 
 _ V A A Warmington, Nortnauts. a. n. 1250. 
 
 ot the gables, the torm varying con- 
 siderably according to the style of the architecture and 
 the character of the building; many of these crosses are 
 extremely elegant and ornamental, and considering the 
 animosity displayed by the Puritans against the repre- 
 sentations of the sacred symbol, more gable crosses are 
 
 Crook. See Knee . 
 CROPE,oldword usedforafinial. 
 
 Cross of Constantine. 
 Labarum. 
 
 See 
 
88 
 
 Cross* 
 
 remaining tlian might be expected. It was also very fre- 
 quently carved on gravestones, and was introduced in 
 various ways among the decorations of churches. 
 
 A small cross (which was often 
 a crucifix) was placed upon the altar, 
 and was usually of a costly material : 
 crosses were also carried in religious 
 processions upon long staves. 
 
 A large cross with the figure at- 
 tached, called the rood, was placed over 
 the main entrance of the chancel in 
 every church. 
 
 It was formerly the custom in this 
 kingdom, as it still is in foreign coun- M erto. one* a-** a.*. i«o. 
 tries, to erect crosses in cemeteries, by 
 the road- side, and in the market-places and open spaces 
 in towns and villages ; of such, numerous examples remain, 
 though with the exception of the market crosses most of 
 them are greatly defaced: those in cemeteries and by 
 the way-side were generally simple structures, raised on a 
 few steps, consisting of a tall shaft, with sometimes a few 
 mouldings to form a base, and a cross on the top ; in some 
 instances they had small niches or other ornaments round 
 the top of the shaft below the cross : the village crosses ap- 
 pear generally to have been of the same simple description, 
 but sometimes they were more important erections. Market 
 crosses were usually polygonal buildings with an open 
 archway on e «ch of the sides, and vaulted within, large 
 enough to afford shelter to a considerable number of 
 persons; of these good examples remain at Malmesbury, 
 Salisbury, Chichester, Glastonbury, &c. Crosses were 
 
 Crosses. There are several 
 forms, to which technical names 
 have been appliedby the heralds. 
 A cross of Calvary is when it is 
 mounted on steps. Of Jerusa- 
 lem or Cross Potent , when the 
 end of the arms have a bar 
 across like a crutch ȣ. Trefflee , 
 with the arms ending in a tre- 
 foil. Patonce and Fleury , when 
 terminated in three leaves or 
 points, but the latter when the 
 
 leaves are curved, the former 
 when straight. Pattee , when 
 the sides of the arms are curved 
 inwards^. If they nearly meet 
 in the centre, and the ends are 
 notched so as to produce eight 
 prominent points it is a Maltese 
 cross *■ The Tau cross (or St. 
 Antony's ) having three arms 
 only. St. Andrew's cross, when 
 in the form of the letter X. 
 
8 9 
 
 Cross — Crojter, 
 
 also erected in commemoration of remarkable occurrences ; 
 and of them Queen Eleanor’s crosses are beautiful ex- 
 amples, erected as 
 they were as memo- 
 rials wherever the 
 corpse was rested on 
 its journey to West- 
 minster, for inter- 
 ment, [see illustra- 
 tion under Canopy ]. 
 
 Of this type of cross 
 is the one erected at 
 Oxford to commemo- 
 rate the deaths of 
 Cranmer, Ridley, and 
 Latimer. 
 
 The cross was a 
 favourite form for 
 the plan of churches ; 
 while the Western 
 churches mostly fol- 
 lowed the Latin form 
 of cross, the By- 
 zantine churches fol- 
 lowed the Greek 
 
 form i e with the Churchyard Cross, Waterperry, c. 1320. 
 
 chancel, nave, and two transepts all of equal length. 
 
 
 Crozier (Low Lat. Crocia ), the pastoral staff of a bishop 
 or mitred abbot, which has the head curled round some- 
 thing in the manner of a shepherd’s crook. The crozier 
 of an archbishop was surmounted by a cross, after the 
 twelfth century. 
 
 Cross-springers, the trans- 
 verse ribs of a groined roof. 
 
 Crosse, word used to signify 
 the transept. A cross church 
 means a cruciform church. 
 
 Crouds or Shrouds, the crypt 
 of a church. 
 
 Crow* stone. See Corbie Steps. 
 
 Cullis (Fr.), a groove, as in 
 Port cullis, Machi-coulis : also 
 written Killesse. 
 
 Curstable, a course of stones 
 with mouldings cut on them to 
 form a string-course. 
 
'9o Crgpt— Cusps. 
 
 Crypt (Gr. Krupto — to bury), a vault beneath a build- 
 ing, either entirely or partly under ground. Crypts are 
 frequent under churches : they do not in general extend 
 beyond the limits of the choir or chancel and its aisles, 
 and are often of very much smaller dimensions, under the 
 altar only ; they are carefully constructed and well fin- 
 ished, though in a plainer style than the upper parts of the 
 building, and were formerly in this country, as they 
 still are abroad, used as chapels, and provided with altars 
 and other fittings requisite for the celebration of religious 
 services ; they were also used as places of sepulture. [See 
 Cemetery. \ 
 
 Cupola (Ital.), a concave ceiling, either hemispherical or 
 of any other curve, covering a circular or polygonal area; 
 also a roof, the exterior of which is of either of these 
 forms, more usually called a dome, and in Latin tholus. 
 
 Cusps (Lat. = a spear- 
 point), are the projecting 
 points forming the feather- 
 ings or foliations in Gothic 
 tracery, arches, panels, 
 
 &c. ; they came into use 
 during the latter part of 
 the Early English style, 
 at which period ihey 
 were sometimes worked 
 with a small leaf, usually 
 a trefoil, on the end. 
 
 When fhst introduced, the cusps sprang from the flat un- 
 der-surface or soffit of the 
 arch, entirely indepen- 
 dent of the mouldings, 
 and this method was 
 sometimes followed in 
 Decorated structures; but 
 they very soon began to 
 
 Crosby Hall. be formed from the inner Screen, Lincoln Cathedral. 
 
 moulding next the soffit (usually either a splay or a 
 
 Curtain-wall, a wall between two towers, especially in military 
 architecture. 
 
Cusps— Cgtna. 
 
 9 * 
 
 hollow,) and this moulding continued on the cusp. The 
 general practice was to cusp the upper part of the lights 
 of all windows, and this was followed until the expiration 
 of Gothic architecture. Some of the richest examples may 
 he found in Lincoln Cathedral, an illustration from which 
 will he found under Panel . 
 
 In the Decorated and Perpendicular styles, they were 
 frequently ornamented at the ends, either with heads, 
 leaves, or flowers, and occasionally with animals. [See 
 also Foils . J 
 
 Cyma (Gr.), an undulated moulding, of which there 
 are two kinds: cyma 
 recta, whichis hollow 
 intheupperpart, and 
 round in the lower ; 
 and cyma reversa, 
 called also the ogee, 
 which is hollow in 
 the lower part, and 
 round in the upper. 
 
 The term cyma, with- 
 out an adjective, is 
 always considered to 
 mean a cyma recta 
 It is usually the 
 upper member of 
 Grecian and Roman 4 — 
 entablatures, except- Cyma reversa or F °usLu?ZL! f Antoninus and 
 
 ing in the Tuscan 
 
 and Doric orders, and in Classical architecture is very 
 rarely used in any but a horizontal position, except 
 over pediments. In the Norman style this moulding 
 is not very often met with, but in Gothic architecture 
 it is frequent, especially in doorways, windows, arch- 
 ways, &c., but the proportions are generally very dif- 
 ferent from those given to it by the ancients, and it is 
 called an ogee. An example of a quirked cyma is given 
 beneath Ogee . [See also Column '] 
 
 Cyma recta. Theatre of Marcellus. Rome. 
 
 Cyclas (in costume), 
 lustration to Brass . 
 
 See il- 
 
 Cylindrical 
 
 Vault. 
 
 Vault. See 
 
92 
 
 (Cgmatutm — Bat's. 
 
 Cymatium 
 
 Cymatium: this is not easy to define, but it may be 
 called a capping moulding to certain parts and subdivi- 
 sions of the orders in Classic architecture : the projecting 
 mouldings on the upper part of the architrave, (except in 
 the Doric order, where it is denominated tenia,) the cor- 
 responding moulding over the 
 frieze, and the small mould- . 
 ing between the corona and | 
 cyma of the cornice, are each 5 
 called by this name ; the small 
 moulding, also, which runs 
 round the upper part of the i 
 modillons of a cornice is their 73 
 cymatium: and the upper 
 
 moulding of the abacus of the Roman Doric capital is 
 likewise so called; the upper mouldings which serve as 
 a cornice to pedestals, have occasionally the same name. 
 
 Dado, the solid block or cube forming the body of 
 a pedestal in Classical architecture, between the base- 
 mouldings and cornice : an architectural arrangement of 
 mouldings, &c., round the lower part of the walls of a 
 room, resembling a continuous pedestal. [See Pedestal .] 
 
 Dais (Old Fr. = a canopy) is applied first to the chief 
 seat at the “high board/ ’ or principal table, in a baro- 
 nial hall, secondly to the principal table itself, and thirdly 
 to the raised part of the floor on which it was placed ; this 
 raised space extended all across the upper end of the hall, 
 and was usually but one step above the rest of the floor ; 
 at one end was a large bay window; the high table thus 
 stood across the hall, the chief seat being in the middle 
 of it, on the upper side next the wall, which was usually 
 covered with hangings of tapestry or carpeting; but in 
 the hall of the Archbishop of Canterbury’s palace, at 
 Mayfield, Sussex, are the remains of the chief seat in 
 stonework, the back of which is covered with diapering ; 
 these seats generally no doubt had a canopy over them. 
 The hall being the apartment used during the Middle 
 Ages on occasions of state and ceremony, the term dais 
 became general for a seat of dignity or judgment. 
 
©ecotateli ffiotfjtc. 
 
 93 
 
 Decorated Style of Gothic Architecture. This style 
 exhibits the must 
 complete and per- 
 fect development 
 of Gothic architec- 
 ture, which in the 
 Early English style 
 was not fully ma- 
 tured, and in the 
 Perpendicular be- 
 gan to decline. The 
 name was given by 
 Rickman to signify 
 that in this style 
 the decoration or 
 ornament becomes 
 more essentially a 
 part of the style, 
 entering more into 
 the construction, 
 and not merely ap- 
 plied. The most 
 prominent charac- 
 teristic of this style 
 is to be found in 
 the Windows , the 
 tracery of which is always either of geometrical figures, 
 circles, quatrefoils, &c., as in the earlier instances, or 
 flowing in wavy lines, as in the later examples. [See 
 Window and Tracer ]) .] The doorways of this style have 
 frequently a close resemblance in form to those of the 
 Early English, and are chiefly distinguished by the orna- 
 ments and mouldings. A weather-moulding, or drip- 
 stone, is generally used over the heads of doorways, 
 windows, niches, &c., the ends of which are supported on 
 corbel heads, or bosses of foliage, or are returned in various 
 
 Tracery, &c., Higham Ferrers. 
 
 Days, the lights of a window, 
 or spaces between the mullions. 
 
 Dealbator, Daubor (med. 
 Lat.), a whitewasher. 
 
 De ambulatory —Ambulat ory. 
 Dearn or Dern, a door-post 
 or threshold. 
 
94 
 
 Decoratth .S>tgU of ffiot^tc Architecture* 
 
 ways: this is not unfreqnently formed into an ogee and 
 crocketed, and surmounted with a finial so as to become 
 a canopy, [see illustration from Walpole St. Andrew’s,, 
 under Tabernacle \ . The pillars in rich buildings are either 
 of clustered shafts, or moulded; in plainer buildings they 
 are usually either octagonal or circular ; when of clustered 
 shafts the plan of the pillar very frequently partakes of 
 the form of a lozenge: 
 the capitals are either 
 plain or enriched with 
 foliage, which, like most 
 of the ornaments in this 
 style, is usually very 
 well executed. Niches 
 are very freely used, 
 either singly, as on but- 
 tresses, &c., or in ranges, 
 so as to have the effect 
 of a series of deeply 
 sunk panels, and both 
 are usually surmounted 
 by crocketed canopies. 
 
 The Mouldings of the 
 Decorated style gene- 
 rally consist of rounds 
 and hollows separated 
 by small fillets, and are 
 almost always extremely 
 effective, and arranged 
 so as to produce a very 
 
 pleasing contrast of light Yarmouth, Norfolk, c. 1351. 
 
 and shade ; the hollows are frequently enriched with 
 running foliage, or with flowers at intervals, particularly 
 the ball-ft ower, and a flower o t four leaves , which succeeded 
 the toothed ornament of the preceding style. Examples 
 of the four-leaved flower in use will be found under 
 Canopy , Doorway , and Tabernacle . 
 
 The Decorated style prevailed throughout the greater 
 part of the fourteenlh century; it was first introduced in 
 the reign of Edward I., some of the earliest examples 
 being the celebrated crosses erected to the memory of 
 
95 
 
 JBrcoratrt ffiotfjtc— ©mtels* 
 
 Qmen Eleanor, who died in 1290, [see exampie under 
 Canopy ] ; but it was in the reigns of his successors, Ed- 
 ward II. and III., that this style was in general use. 
 
 A few of the chief examples of Decorated work of 
 which the date is tolerably well ascertained may ha men- 
 tioned : — 
 
 Edw. I., 1272—1307. 
 Howden, Yorkshire — Choir. 
 Norwich — St.Ethelbert’s Gate. 
 
 ,, Cathedral Vaulting. 
 
 Hereford— Chapter-house. 
 
 „ Part of Cloisters. 
 
 Stoke Golding, Leicestershire. 
 Merton Chapel, Oxford. 
 
 Exeter Cathedral — Nave. &c. 
 
 „ Part of Choir. 
 
 Acton Burnel, Salop — Castle. 
 
 „ „ Part of Church. 
 
 Dorchester, Oxon. — Choir. 
 Queen Eleanor Crosses at North- 
 ampton, Geddington, Walt- 
 ham. 
 
 Westminster Abbey — Tomb of 
 Queen Eleanor. 
 
 York Cathedral — Nave. 
 Wycombe, Buckinghamshire. 
 
 W ells — Chapter-house. 
 
 Norwich — Cloisters. 
 
 Lichfield — Chapter-house. 
 Tideswell Church, Derbyshire. 
 Oxford, St. Mary’s — Tower and 
 Spire. 
 
 Edw. II., 1307—1327. 
 Bristol Cathedral — Choir. 
 Trinity Church, Hull. 
 
 Gloucester Cath. — South Aisle. 
 
 Oxford, Magdalen Church — 
 South Aisle. 
 
 Ely Cathedral — Lady-chapel. 
 
 „ „ Central Lantern. 
 
 Edw. III., 1327—1377. 
 
 Gloucester Cath. — Tomb of Ed- 
 ward II 
 
 Exeter Cathedral — Nave. 
 
 Shottes broke Church, Berk- 
 shire. 
 
 York Cathedral — Nave. 
 
 „ ,, West Window. 
 
 ,, Parapet of Chapter-house. 
 
 Battle, Sussex — Abbey Gate. 
 
 Durham Cath. — West Window. 
 
 Oxford Cath. — Latin Chapel. 
 
 ,, St. Aldate’s — South Aisle. 
 
 Windsor Castle— King’sCloister. 
 
 „ „ Bound Tower. 
 
 York Cathedral — Presbytery. 
 
 Ely — Holy Cross Church on the 
 north side of cathedral. 
 
 Ely Cathedral — Windows of 
 Presbytery. 
 
 Wells — The Vicar’s Close and 
 part of the Hall 
 
 Westminster Abbey — Tomb of 
 Queen Philippa. 
 
 Dentels (Lat. Denticulus = a little tooth), ornaments 
 resembling teeth, used in the bed- 
 
 moulding of Ionic, Corinthian, and 
 Composite cornices. 
 
 HD 
 
 Decastyle, a portico of ten 
 columns in front. 
 
 Degrees, steps or stairs. 
 Diazomata (Gr.), the passages 
 encircling the seats in a theatre. 
 
 Die (Old Fr. De)~= Ital. Dado. 
 Dipteral (Gr.), a temple hav- 
 ing a double range of columns 
 all round. 
 
9 6 
 
 ©taper^bjorlt— ©iastgle* 
 
 H 
 
 n 
 
 ^1 
 
 M 
 
 w 
 
 
 is 
 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 H 
 
 [f§ 
 
 Diaper-work, or Diapering, an ornament of flowers ap- 
 plied to a plain surface, whether carved or painted ; if 
 carved, the flowers are entirely sunk into the work below 
 the general surface ; they are usually square, and placed 
 close to each other, hut occasionally 
 other forms are used, as in the choir- 
 screen of Canterbury; this kind of 
 decoration was first introduced in th- 
 Early English style, when it was 
 sometimes applied to large spaces, 
 as in Westminster Abbey and Chi- 
 chester Cathedral; in the Decorated 
 style it was also extensively used. 
 
 An example of its use will be seen 
 in the illustration of part of one of 
 the Eleanor Crosses given under 
 Canopy . In the Perpendicular style 
 diapering was used only as a painted 
 ornament, and as no attention has 
 been paid to the preservation of such 
 decorations, but few specimens re- 
 main. The name is derived from a Monument of wm.am de valence, 
 kind of cloth then very commonly 
 used, which was worked in square patterns, and w r hich 
 was called “Dyaper,” i.e. D’Ypres, from the chief manu- 
 factory being at “ Ypres,” in Pelgium. In the later 
 styles, Panelling , Pargetting , and the like, took the place 
 of this class of ornamentation. 
 
 Diastyle, an arrangement of columns in Grecian and 
 Roman architecture in which the inter-columniation or 
 space between them is equal to three, or according to 
 some, four diameters of the shaft. 
 
 Diptychs, shutters or folding- 
 doors, especially over an altar. 
 See Leaves. The Roman dip- 
 tychs were a pair of covers 
 usually handsomely carved in 
 ivory. 
 
 Discharging Arch, called also 
 Relieving Arch, and Arch of 
 Construction; an arch formed 
 
 in the substance of a wall, to 
 relieve the part which is be- 
 low it from the superincumbent 
 weight ; they are frequently 
 used over lintels and flat-headed 
 openings. 
 
 Dog-tooth Moulding. See 
 Moulding and Tooth-ornament . 
 
 Dogs = Andirons. 
 
97 
 
 .39onu— fficmesrtfc ^rdptccture. 
 
 Dome, a cupola ; the term is derived from the Italian, 
 duomo , a cathedral, the custom of erecting cupolas on 
 those buildings having been so prevalent that the name 
 dome has, in the French and English languages, been 
 transferred from the church to this kind of roof. [See 
 Cupola .] 
 
 Domestic Architecture. Beyond the foundations of the 
 walls and the hypocausts under the bath-rooms we have 
 little to guide us as to the chief domestic buildings of the 
 Romans in this country. From their departure to the time 
 of the revival of building in the eleventh and twelfth cen- 
 turies, we have no remains whatever. The habitations 
 were without doubt built mainly of wood, and whatever 
 stone constructions may have existed were of probably so 
 slight and rude a character that they have never been pre- 
 served. In the twelft h century we have several remains of 
 manor houses, and they appear to have been usually of two 
 stories, and built in the form of a parallelogram ; the lower 
 story being vaulted, and the upper approached by a stair- 
 case on the outside. Remains of town houses of this cen- 
 tury are rare, the Jew’s House at Lincoln perhaps being 
 the best. It is, however, difficult if not impossible to dis- 
 tinguish between what is properly the house and what the 
 castle ; all houses of importance being, from the state of 
 the times, necessarily fortified. Thus perhaps the most 
 perfect house of the next century (the thirteenth), shew- 
 ing all the offices, and remaining perfect with its fortifica- 
 tions, is Ay don Castle in North umberland. And in the 
 same or in the fourteenth century Mark enfi eld Hall is 
 a good example, though less fortified. Towards the end 
 of that century the military aspect of the house gave way 
 to the domestic. At Warwick Castle, though the fortifica- 
 tions are most complete, the domestic part assumes a much 
 greater importance both as to extent and number of the 
 rooms, in other cases there is a separate building standing 
 within the fortifications. The great hall dividing the 
 family apartments from the servants’ offices, was the chief 
 feature which remained throughout to the end of the 
 fifteenth century, and indeed, in some cases, to the time 
 of Elizabeth, but our modern arrangement of the house 
 gradually grew up; the bed-chambers were made more 
 
 H 
 
98 JUomesttc Architecture— ©cnjoit. 
 
 numerous, sitting and private rooms also were added, and 
 these generally resulting in the diminution of the size of 
 the hall. 
 
 The several plans of mediaeval houses, which are very 
 numerous, are treated of in a separate work on the 
 subject c . 
 
 The architectural details, it may be added, were the 
 same as in the churches, and the error of the last genera- 
 tion in putting every Gothic window down to a church or 
 chapel has been exploded, The Gothic style was the 
 national style of the country, and it was just the same 
 for cathedrals, castles, churches, monasteries, public build* 
 ings, houses, or the meanest cottage, which could boast of 
 stonework. 
 
 Donjon (Old Fr.), the Keep of a castle: the term is Nor- 
 man-French, but is extensively 
 used by English writers. In 
 the Roman castles there does 
 not appear to have been any 
 principal tower correspond- 
 ing to the keep of a mediaeval 
 castle, which seems rather to 
 have been derived from the \ 
 
 Celtic earthworks, in which 
 there was always a keep. 
 
 These earthworks were ori- 
 ginally occupied by wooden 
 buildings only, and stone 
 castles with keep towers do 
 not appear to have been commonly used during the 
 interval between the fall of the Romans and the eleventh 
 century. The earliest Norman keep known is the tow 7 er 
 called St. Leonard’s tower, at Mailing, in Kent, built by 
 Bishop Gundulph about 1080. No traces of Early Nor- 
 man masonry can be found on the sites of the castles in 
 Normandy of the barons who came over to England with 
 William the Conqueror, although fine earthworks remain 
 in all cases. 
 
 Donjon, Conisborough Castle, Yorkshire, 
 
 c The work is entitled “ Domestic Architecture of the Middle Ages,' 
 Oxford, 4 vols., 8vo. 
 
99 
 
 JBcfur— Btmttoag. 
 
 Door. In the times of the Romans the doors were of 
 wood or metal, and occasionally of marble, panelled, and 
 turning on pivots working in sockets, and this custom 
 continued in some countries to a late period, as in Ire- 
 land. 
 
 In this country a few original Norman doors exist : 
 they are devoid of ornaments 
 except the hinges and iron 
 scrollwork on the front, and 
 large projecting nail-heads. 
 
 In the thirteenth century also 
 they were dependent upon the 
 ironwork for ornamentation, 
 this consisting not only of the 
 ornamental hinges and nail- 
 heads, but also of escutcheons, 
 round the locks and handles. 
 
 Examples occur of the orna- 
 mentation of the door in the 
 inside as well as on the out, 
 but rarely. In the fourteenth 
 century panels were intro- 
 duced on the woodwork and 
 other ornamentation, though 
 the ironwork of the preced- 
 ing century was not lost sight 
 of. In the fifteenth century the panelling was the chief 
 ornamentation of the doors, the panels being cusped and 
 elaborately worked. 
 
 Doorway. The stone framework in which the door 
 hangs, or the entrance into a building, or into an apart- 
 ment of a building. Among the ancients, doorways were 
 usually rectangular in form, though occasionally the open- 
 ing diminished towards the top, until architecture became 
 corrupted in the latter times of the Roman empire, when 
 they were sometimes arched; when not arched they gene- 
 rally had a suite of mouldings, called an architrave, run- 
 ning round them, and there were often additional mould- 
 ings over the top, supported by a large console or truss 
 at each end. 
 
ioo ©ootinag. 
 
 In the architecture of the Middle Ages doorways are 
 striking and important features, and afford in the cha- 
 racter of their mouldings and ornaments clear evidence 
 of the styles to which they belong. In the style men- 
 tioned in this Glossary as perhaps being Saxon , they are 
 always plain, with very little, if any, moulding, except- 
 ing in some instances a rude impost, and even that is 
 frequently a plain stone slightly projecting from the face 
 of the wall : the arches are semicircular, and (like all the 
 rest of the work) rudely constructed, but in some in- 
 stances the head of the opening is formed by two straight 
 pieces of stone placed upon their ends on the impost, 
 and leaning together at the top so as to produce the form 
 of a triangle. 
 
 In the Norman style doorways became more ornamental, 
 though at its com- 
 mencement very lit- 
 tle decoration was 
 used. In the ear- 
 liest examples the 
 jambs and archivolt 
 were merely cut in- 
 to square recesses, 
 or angles without 
 mouldings, with a 
 simple impost at the 
 springing of the arch ; 
 but as the style ad- 
 vanced, mouldings 
 and other enrich- 
 ments were intro- 
 duced, and continued 
 to be applied in in- 
 creasing numbers un- 
 til they sometimes 
 nearly or quite equal- 
 led the breadth of the 
 opening of the doorway, fine examples of which remain at 
 Lincoln Cathedral: the ornaments were used almost entirely 
 on the outside, the inside usually being (as in all the styles 
 of Gothic architecture) perfectly plain. The arch is com-. 
 
©ocrfoag. ioi 
 
 monly semicircular, though occasionally segmental or horse- 
 shoe : the mouldings 
 and enrichments are 
 very various, but are 
 generally bold, and, 
 though not so well 
 worked as those of 
 the later styles, they 
 very often equal and 
 sometimes surpass them 
 in richness and effect. 
 
 The outer moulding of 
 the arch in some cases 
 
 stops upon the impost, Middleton Stoney, c. 1160. 
 
 producing the efft ct 
 
 of a weather-moulding, although it does not project 
 from the face of the wall; weather- mouldings also are 
 very frequently used, and they either stop upon the 
 impost or terminate in carved corbels. Shafts are 
 often, but not always, used in the jambs; they are 
 generally circular, but occasionally octagonal, and are 
 sometimes ornamented with zigzags or spiral mould- 
 ings. The capitals are usually in some degree enriched, 
 and are often carved with figures and a rude kind 
 of foliage. The impost-moulding above the caps gene- 
 rally runs through the whole jamb, and is frequently con- 
 tinued along the wall as a string. Some of the most 
 usual ornaments in Norman doorways are zigzags of vari- 
 ous kinds, several of which will be found engraved under 
 Moulding s, and series of grotesque heads, set in a hollow 
 moulding, with projecting tongues or beaks, (see Beak~ 
 heads ,) overlapping a large torus or bead; small figures 
 and animals are also frequently used, and occasionally the 
 signs of the zodiac. The actual opening cf the door- 
 way is often flat at the top, and rises no higher than 
 the springing of the arch, (see illustration under Tym- 
 panum) ; the tympanum, or space between the top of 
 the opening and the arch, is sometimes left plain, but 
 is generally ornamented, and frequently sculptured with 
 a rude representation of some scriptural or legendary 
 subject. 
 
102 
 
 oj — - 
 Paul’s Cray, Kent, c. 1220. 
 
 JEJoor&jag. 
 
 Early English doorways generally have pointed arches, 
 though a few have semi- 
 circular, and occasionally 
 the top of the opening is 
 flat. In doorways of largo 
 size the mouldings are very 
 numerous, and the jambs 
 contain several small shafts 
 which usually stand quite 
 free, and are often of Pur- 
 beck or Forest marble, or 
 some fine stone of a dif- 
 ferent kind from the rest 
 of the work; the jamb is 
 generally cut into recesses 
 to receive these shafts, with 
 a small suite of mouldings 
 between each of them. In 
 small doorways there is often but one shaft in each jamb, 
 and sometimes none. The capitals are generally enriched 
 with delicate leaves, 
 
 but they often consist 
 of plain mouldings. The 
 archivolt, and the spaces 
 between the shafts in 
 the jambs, are frequent- 
 ly enriched with the 
 toothed - ornament, or 
 with leaves and other 
 decorations characteris- 
 tic of the style, but in 
 some very good ex 
 amples they have only 
 plain mouldings. The 
 opening of the doorway 
 is sometimes divided into 
 two by a single shaft, 
 or a clustered column, 
 with a quatrefoil or other ornament above it, and instances 
 of this are found in the early part of the Decorated style 
 also. There is almost invariably a weather moulding over 
 
 Cloisters, Salisbury Cathedral, c. 1230. 
 
©corfoag. 103 
 
 the arch, which is generally supported on a head at each 
 end. In many instances the inner mouldings of the head 
 are formed into a trefoil or cinquefoil arch, the points of 
 which generally terminate in small flowers or leaves, and 
 in some small doorways the whole of the mouldings follow 
 these forms. 
 
 Decorated doorways 
 are not in general so 
 deeply recessed as 
 those of the last style, 
 but they very much 
 resemble them in the 
 mouldings and shafts 
 in the jambs. There 
 are a lew examples, 
 early in the style, in 
 which the opening is 
 divided into two, as 
 at York Minster and 
 Lichfield, but it is not 
 the usual arrange- 
 ment. The shafts 
 in the jambs are 
 usually of slighter 
 
 proportions than in Dorchester, Oxon., c. 1320. 
 
 the Early English 
 
 style, and instead of being worked separate, form part 
 of the general suite of mouldings; the capitals consist 
 either of plain mouldings, or are enriched with leaves of 
 different kinds characteristic of the style. Many small 
 doorways have no shafts in the jambs, but the mouldings 
 of the arch are continued down to the plinth, where 
 they stopupon a slope. The arch in large doorways is 
 almost invariably pointed; in smaller it is frequently 
 an ogee and rarely segmental. The mouldings are com- 
 monly very rich ; the most prevalent ornament, as usual 
 in all work of the style, being the ball-flower and four- 
 leaved flower : occasionally a series of small niches, with 
 statues in them, like a hollow moulding, are carried up 
 the jambs and round the arch; and sometimes doubly 
 feathered tracery, hanging quite free from some of the 
 
104 Boortoag. 
 
 outer mouldings, is used in the arch, and has a very rich 
 effect : small buttresses or niches are sometimes placed at 
 the sides of the doorways. A weather-moulding is almost 
 universally used ; it is generally supported at each end on 
 a boss of foliage, 
 or a corbel, which 
 is frequently a 
 head, but it some- 
 times terminates 
 in a curl or a short 
 return : for illus- 
 tration see Drip- 
 stone . The wea- 
 ther-mould is sel- 
 dom continuous 
 along the wall ; 
 occasionally it is 
 crocketed and sur- 
 mounted at the top 
 by a finial, espe- 
 cially when in the 
 form of an ogee, 
 or it has a finial 
 and no crockets. 
 
 In rich examples 
 canopies are com- 
 mon over Deco- 
 rated Doorways ; 
 they are either 
 triangular, or ogees 
 with crockets and 
 finials, the space 
 between them and the mouldings of the arch being filled 
 with tracery-panels, foliage, or sculpture. 
 
 In plain buildings the doorways of this style are 
 frequently quite plain, and the head is often of the 
 form called the shoulder- ar ch ; the name of Decorated 
 applies more especially to the window tracery, and 
 although some doorways are much enriched in this style, 
 as a rule they are plain when compared with those of 
 other styles. 
 
©oottoag. 105 
 
 la the Perpendicular style a very considerable change 
 took place in the appearance of the doorways, from the 
 outer mouldings being constantly formed into a square 
 over the arch, with the spandrels feathered, or filled with 
 ornaments, either tracery, foliage, or sculpture; this square 
 head, however, is not uni- 
 versal. Shafts are often, 
 though by no means al- 
 ways, used in the jambs ; 
 they are generally small, 
 and are always worked on 
 the jamb with the other 
 mouldings, and frequently 
 are not clearly defined, 
 except by the capital and 
 base, the other mouldings 
 uniting with them without 
 a fillet, or even an angle 
 to mark the separation; 
 the capitals usually con- 
 sist of plain mouldings, 
 but in some instances they 
 are enriched with foliage 
 or flowers. There are 
 generally one or more large 
 hollows in the jambs, some- 
 times filled with niches 
 for statues, but more often 
 left plain : these large hol- 
 lows are characteristics of 
 the Perpendicular style. St * Erasmus ’ Chapel * Westminster * 
 
 In this style the four-centred arch was brought into 
 general use, and became the most prevalent for doorways 
 as well as other openings ; many, however, have two- 
 centred arches, and in small doorways ogees are sometimes 
 used ; a very few have elliptical arches. 
 
 Doric Order. See Order. 
 
 Dormant-tree, Dormond, a 
 large beam lying across a room : 
 a joist or sleeper. 
 
 Dorser, a cushion, especially 
 for the back of the seat. Dorsers 
 
 and Bankers are frequently men- 
 tioned together in inventories. * 
 Dosel (or Dorsal), the hang- 
 ings on the walls of a hall, espe- 
 cially behind the dais ; or in a 
 church, behind the altar. 
 
1 06 ©ortner— ©rtpston e. 
 
 Dormer, a window pierced through a sloping roof and 
 placed in a small gable which 
 rises on the side of the loof. 
 
 There do not appear to be any 
 dormers now existing of an 
 earlier date than the middle 
 of the fourteenth century. It 
 was usually the window of the 
 sleeping - apartments ; hence- 
 the name Dormer, from 
 
 Dormitory (Lat.), a sleeping 
 apartment; the term is gene- 
 rally used with reference to the 
 sleeping-room of the inmates 
 of monasteries and religious establishments, which was of 
 considerable size, and sometimes had a range of cells parted 
 off on each side, as in the Bede-house at Higham Ferrars, 
 Northants., at St. Mary’s Hospital, Chichester, at Durham, 
 and at Gloucester. 
 
 Dressings, (1.) The mouldings and sculptured decora- 
 tions of all kinds which are used on the walls and ceilings 
 of a building lor the purpose of ornament ; (2.) Applied 
 to a square opening in the stonework or mouldings which 
 surround it like a frame, such as a brick building with 
 stone dressings. 
 
 Dripstone, called also Label, Weather-moulding, Water- 
 table, and Hoodmould ; a projecting tablet or moulding 
 over the heads of doorways, windows, archways, niches, 
 &c., in Norman and Gothic architecture, to throw off the 
 rain, or in some instances for ornament, as it is used both 
 in internal and external work. It is not in general car- 
 ried below the level of the springing of the arch, except 
 over windows in which the tracery extends below that 
 level, when it is usually continued to the bottom of the 
 
 Chapel Cleeve, Somerset, c. 1350. 
 
 Dowels, pieces of wood or 
 iron, used at the edges of boards 
 in laying floors. 
 
 Dragon -piece. See Roof. 
 Drip, the projecting edge of 
 
 a moulding, channelled beneath 
 so that the rain will drip from 
 it: the corona of the Italian 
 architects. 
 
dripstone. 107 
 
 tracery; occasionally it descends the whole length of 
 the jamb. 
 
 In the Norman style the dripstone does not in general 
 project much from the face of the 
 wall, and it usually consists of a 
 few very simple mouldings, often 
 of a flat fillet with a splay or slight 
 hollow on the lower side, and it is 
 in some cases enriched with billets 
 or other small ornaments; some- 
 times it is continued horizontally 
 on the wall as a string, level with 
 the springing of the arch, but it 
 oftener stops upon a corbel or on 
 the impost-moulding, which is pro- 
 longed far enough to receive it. 
 
 In the Early English style, the 
 dripstone is generally rather small, 
 but clearly defined, with a deep hollow on the lower 
 side; it varies however considerably in mouldings and 
 proportion : it usually terminates with a small corbel 
 (called a dripstone termination) consisting of a head, or 
 a boss of foliage, sometimes with a short horizontal return , 
 and sometimes it is carried along the wall as a string. 
 
 In the two preceding styles the dripstone follows the 
 general shape of the arch, but in the Decorated it fre- 
 quently takes the form of an ogee, while the arch is 
 of a simple curve, and in such cases it is very commonly 
 surmounted by a finial and is often 
 crocheted, when it is sometimes 
 called a canop 3 r , (see illustration, 
 p. 1 04) : it is very rarely continued 
 along the wall, but 
 terminates with a 
 short return, or on 
 a corbel- head, a 
 boss of foliage, .or 
 some other sculp- 
 tured ornament ; 
 or the end is turn- 
 ed up or curled in 
 
 Rashdeu, Northants. 
 
 St. Martin’s, Canter- 
 bury. 
 
io8 ©rfpstone — ©arlg ©nglfetfj. 
 
 several ways, which are characteristic of the style, as at 
 Chippenham. 
 
 In the Perpendicular 
 style, whenever the outer 
 mouldings of the doorways 
 and other openings, &c., 
 are arranged in a square 
 over the arch, the drip- 
 stone follows the same 
 
 form ; in other cases it Al1 Souls College * ° xford » c . im. 
 
 follows the curve of the arch or is changed to an 
 and has sometimes a finial and 
 crockets on it, as in the Decorated 
 style ; it is not unfrequently con- 
 tinued horizontally along the wall 
 as a string, but this is not the 
 most usual arrangement; it very 
 commonly terminates with a head, 
 an animal, or other sculptured or- 
 nament, sometimes with a shield 
 or an heraldic device. Several en- 
 gravings illustrating the various 
 dripstones will be found under 
 Doorway . 
 
 Early English, the first of the pointed or Gothic styles 
 of architecture used in this country ; it succeeded the 
 Norman towards the end of the twelfth century and 
 gradually merged into the 
 Decorated at the end of 
 the thirteenth. At its 
 first appearance it par- 
 took somewhat of the 
 heaviness of the preced- 
 ing style, but all resem- 
 blance to the Norman was 
 
 speedily effaced by the West Door, Shere Church, Surrey, c. 1220. 
 
 development of its own peculiar and beautiful character- 
 istics. The mouldings, in general, consist of alternate 
 rounds and deeply-cut hollows, with a small admixture of 
 
 Dungeon. See Donjon. The I for a prison in or beneath any 
 word however came to be used | tower. 
 
 
 
®arlg ©ngltsfj. 
 
 109 
 
 Westminster Abbey, c. 1250. 
 
 fillets, producing a strong effect of light and shadow. The 
 arches are usually equilateral 
 or lancet-shaped, although the 
 drop arches are often met 
 with, and sometimes pointed 
 segmental arches ; trefoil and 
 cinquefoil arches are also often 
 used in small openings and 
 panellings. The doorways of 
 this style, in large buildings, 
 are often divided into two by 
 a single shaft or small pier, 
 with a quatrefoil or other or- 
 nament above it, as the west 
 endofSt.Cross Church, Hants; 
 they are generally very deep- 
 ly recessed, with numerous 
 mouldings in the arch and 
 small shafts in the jambs, 
 which are usually entirely de- 
 tached from the wall ; these 
 shafts are also very freely 
 used in the jambs of windows, 
 niches, pmellings, &c., and 
 are not unfrequently encircled 
 at intervals by continuous 
 bands of mouldings. 
 
 The windows are almost 
 universally of long and narrow 
 proportions, and, except late 
 in the style, are without fea- 
 therings; they are either used 
 singly, or in combinations of 
 two, three, five, and seven; 
 when thus combined the space 
 between them sometimes but 
 little exceeds the width of 
 the mullions of the later 
 styles ; occasionally they arc 
 surmounted by a large arch, embracing the whole group 
 of windows, and the space left between this arch and 
 
 Jesu9 College Chapel, Cambridge, c. 1250. 
 
1 IO 
 
 ®arlg ffimglfefj. 
 
 the tops of the windows is often pierced with circles, 
 trefoils, quatrefoils, &c., thus 
 forming the commencement of 
 tracery. Circular windows were 
 more used in England during the 
 prevalence of this style than in 
 either the Decorated or Perpen- 
 dicular, and fine specimens remain 
 at York and Lincoln Cathedrals, and 
 Beverley Minster. Groined ceil- 
 ings are very common in this style ; 
 in general they have only cross 
 springers and diagonal ribs, with 
 sometimes longitudinal and trans- 
 verse ribs at the apex of the vaults, 
 and good bosses of foliage at the 
 intersections. The 'pillars usually consist of small shafts 
 arranged round a larger circular pier, but others of dif- 
 ferent kinds are to be found, and a plain octagonal or 
 circular pillar is common in country churches. The capitals 
 consist of plain mouldings, or are enriched with foliage 
 and sculpture characteristic of the 
 st}de. The most prevalent base 
 has very close resemblance to 
 the Attic base of the ancients, 
 though the proportions are dif- 
 ferent and the lower torus is 
 worked with a considerably larger 
 projection. The buttresses are 
 often very bold and prominent, 
 and are frequently carried up to chapter House, souths, c. «*o. 
 
 the top of the building with but little diminution, and 
 terminate in acutely-pointed pediments which, when raised 
 above the parapet, produce in some degree the effect of 
 pinnacles. Flying buttresses were first introduced in 
 this style. The roofs appear always to have been high 
 pitched. 
 
 The ornaments used in this style are by no means so 
 various as in either of the others ; occasionally small roses 
 or other flowers, and bunches of foliage, are carved at 
 intervals in the hollow mouldings, but by far the most 
 
 (j) 
 
 Hargrave, c. J260. 
 
lit 
 
 ®atlg ffinglfefr. 
 
 common and characteristic is the dog-tooth ornament, which 
 is often introduced in great profusion, and the hollows 
 entirely filled with it. The foliage is very remarkable for 
 boldness of effect, and it is often so much undercut as to be 
 connected with the mouldings only by the stalks, and edges 
 of the leaves ; there is frequently considerable stiffness in 
 the mode in which it is combined, but the effect is almost 
 always good: the prevailing leaf is a trefoil. Towards 
 the latter part of the style crockets were first introduced. 
 
 The style may be said to begin in the later halt* of 
 Eichard the First’s reign, about which time St. Hugh 
 began his choir at Lincoln. During the reign of King 
 John the style had obtained the complete mastery ; 
 but the reign of Henry III. was the great period of the 
 Early English style, which had now obtained perfection. 
 The most perfect example of the style is undoubtedly 
 Salisbury Cathedral. Towards the end of the reign we 
 have examples, such as the presbytery of Lincoln and the 
 chapter-house of Salisbury, of what may be almost called 
 the Decorated Style, though the mouldings and many of 
 the details are pure Early English. The work is in fact 
 transitional from this style to the next. 
 
 Rich. I., 1189—1199. 
 
 C lee Church, Lin oolnshire — The 
 choir, a.d. 1198. 
 
 Lincoln Cathedral, built by St. 
 Hugh, 1192 — 12.00. 
 
 Oxford, St. Giles’ Church. 
 
 Rochester Cathedral — Parts of 
 the choir and transept. 
 
 Winchester Cath. — Lady-chapel 
 >» „ Presbytery. 
 
 St. Alban’s Abbey — Western 
 part of nave. 
 
 Ely Cathedral— Galilee. 
 
 John, 1199—1216. 
 
 Worcester Cathedral— Choir. 
 
 » # „ Presbytery. 
 
 Beaulieu, Hants. — Refectory. 
 
 Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire. 
 
 Hales Owen Abbey. 
 
 . Hen. III., 1216—1272. 
 
 Salisbury Cathedral. (The spire 
 added a century later.) 
 
 Worcester — Part of cathedral 
 
 Wells Cathedral — West front. 
 
 „ „ Nave and transepts. 
 
 ,, ,, Western part of choir. 
 
 ,, Bishop’s palace. 
 Rochester Cathedral — Parts of 
 choir and transepts. 
 
 Lincoln Cathedral — Nave. 
 
 „ St. Mary-le-Wigford Ch. 
 Ely Cathedral — Presbytery. 
 Ashbourne Church, Derbyshire 
 — Choir and transepts. 
 Abington Church, Northants. 
 Peterborough Cath.— West front. 
 TempleChurch, London— Choir. 
 Durham — Chapel of the Nine 
 Altars. 
 
 Westminster Abbey — Choir and 
 transepts. 
 
 Chetwood, Bucks— Chancel. 
 Skelton Church, Yorkshire. 
 Wells Cathedral — Lady-chapel. 
 York, St. Mary’s Abbey. 
 
 Lincoln Cathedral — Presbytery. 
 Salisbury— Chapter-house. 
 
1 12 (Ecfpnus-- (Smbrotberg anti STapcstrg. 
 
 Echinus (Lat.), the egg-and-anchor, or egg-and tongue 
 ornament, very frequently carved on 
 the ovolo in Classical architecture; MW 
 the term is also applied to the ovolo 
 moulding, but in strictness it belongs 
 to it only when thus enriched. 
 
 Embrasure (Old E r. Elraser = to widen), the crenelles 
 or intervals, between the merlons of a battlement. 
 
 Embroidery (Er. Broder) and Tapestry (which although 
 closely resembling each other in many instances, are not 
 the same, one being the work of the needle the other of the 
 loom), were both extensively used in the Middle Ages, for 
 convenience and lor ornament; the existing remains of the 
 houses, and even of churches of that period, often appear 
 poor and bald for want of the necessary furniture, which 
 the architect always calculated upon being in its proper 
 place. Every doorway had a piece of tapestry or em- 
 broidery hanging over it, (as is still the fashion in Italy) ; 
 the walls were hung with tapestry; the cushions were 
 covered with rich embroidery, both in houses and churches; 
 the back of the high seat in the hall and of the stalls in 
 the churches were hung with embroidery or tapestry. 
 The carved and painted diaper patterns which we so often 
 find are only an imitation of the original tape -dry or 
 embroidery, of which Ypres was the principal seat of 
 manufacture from a period as early as the fourth century, 
 or earlier, as according to the local history the Romans 
 found it established there. Allowing this to be doubtful, 
 it is certain that in the eleventh century Queen Matilda 
 and her maidens, or the nuns of Bayeux on her founda- 
 tion, were employed in working the embroidery which 
 still exists and is now carefully preserved in the museum 
 there. Before that time the English women were cele- 
 brated for their skill in embroidery or needlework, as the men 
 were for working in the precious metals. The Opus An - 
 glicanum , or needlework, was celebrated and eagerly sought 
 for even at Rome and at Byzantium. 
 
 Earth-table =Ground-table. 
 Elbows, the projections on 
 the side of stalls ; also applied 
 
 by joiners to panels or sides of 
 windows. 
 
 Ele, Eling (old Engl.)= Aisle. 
 
ffint ablators— ® scutrf) con. 
 
 1 13 
 
 Entablature (Fr.from Lat An tabula ), the superstructure 
 which lies horizontally upon the columns in Classic archi- 
 tecture : it is divided into architrave , the part immediately 
 above the column ; frieze, the central space ; and cornice , 
 the upper projecting mouldings. Each of the orders has 
 its appropriate entablature, of which both the general 
 height and the subdivisions are regulated by a scale of 
 proportion derived from the diameter of the column. [See 
 Column and Order .] 
 
 Escutcheon or Scutcheon (Fr. Escusson , dim. of escn 
 =Lat. scutum, a shield), (1.) A shield charged with 
 armorial bearings. Escutcheons are abundantly used in 
 Gothic architecture as ornaments to perpetuate the memory 
 of benefactors, or as tokens of the influence of particular 
 families or individuals ; they are frequently carved on the 
 bosses of ceilings and at the ends of weather-mouldings, 
 particularly in the Perpendicular style, and in the span- 
 drels of doorways, panels, &c. The armorial bearings are 
 either cut on the stone or painted on the surface, and 
 sometimes the shields are perfectly plain; when found on 
 tombs they are charged with the arms of the deceased, and 
 often also with those of his family connections. Some- 
 times, instead of armorial bearings, escutcheons have the 
 instruments of the Crucifixion, or other devices, carved on 
 them. More frequent also than in stone, these coats of 
 arms appeared in the windows, very many specimens of 
 which are remaining, as the heraldic devices were less 
 a prey to Puritan zeal, than the figures of Saints. 
 
 (2.) This term is also applied to the iron plate on a 
 door, &c., from the centre of which the handle is sus- 
 
 Entail,iiow obsolete, but ap- 
 plied by old writers to delicate 
 sculpture or ornamentation. 
 
 Entasis, the swelling in the 
 middle of a balustre or shaft of 
 a column. 
 
 Enterclose, the passage be- 
 tween two rooms in a house. 
 
 Entresol (Er.), same as Me- 
 zanine. See Story. 
 
 Epistle side of an altar. See 
 note under Altar . 
 
 Epistylium, the Architrave. 
 
 Epitithydes, upper member 
 of the cornice of an entabla- 
 ture. 
 
 Escape, term used sometimes 
 for the Apophyge. 
 
 Escoinsgn or Scoinson (old 
 Fr.), interior edge of the win- 
 dow side or jamb. In mediae- 
 val windows this is often orna- 
 mented with a shaft carrying 
 an arched rib. 
 
 I 
 
ii4 
 
 (Esnitrijeon— (^xtrabrig* 
 
 pended, and to the plate which surrounds the keyhole : 
 these are made of various shapes, 
 and are sometimes highly orna- 
 mented : the escutcheons of door- 
 handles are sometimes raised in 
 the centre like a boss, and some 
 of these appear to be of Decorated 
 or Early English date. [See Iron - 
 worJc.\ 
 
 (3.) The boss in the centre of 
 a vaulted ceiling appears occa- 
 sionally to have been called by 
 this name, but perhaps only in consequence of its being 
 frequently in the fifteenth century ornamented with an 
 escutcheon. 
 
 Exedra or Exhedra (Gr.), (1.) The portico of the palae- 
 stra or gymnasium, in which disputations of the learned 
 were held among the ancients : also, in private houses, the 
 pastas, or vestibule, used for conversation. (2.) The term 
 also signifies an apse, with ranges of seats for viewing 
 the games in the Circus or Stadium . On the Palatine in 
 Rome are remains of three of them, also a recess or large 
 niche in a wall, and is sometimes applied to a porch or 
 chapel which projects from a larger building. (3.) It is 
 also used as synonymous with Cathedra, for a throne or 
 seat of any kind ; for a small private chamber ; the space 
 within an oriel window; and the small chapels between 
 the buttresses of a large church or cathedral. The word, 
 however, is not frequently met with. 
 
 Extrados (Er. from Lat. Extra , dorsum ), the exterior 
 curve of an arch, measured on the top of the voussoirs, 
 as opposed to the soffit or intrados. 
 
 Estrade (Fi\), a platform rais- 
 ed a few inches above the floor 
 of a chamber, e.g. for a bed, or 
 for the dais. 
 
 Eustyle, the fifth order of 
 temples, according to Vitruvius, 
 who considered it as the most 
 elegant; having a space equal to 
 
 two diameters and a quarter be- 
 tween the columns. 
 
 Ewery, an office or place for 
 keeping the ewers or bowls for 
 washing, as the Scutellerie, or 
 Scullery , was for the plates and 
 dishes. 
 
iFalbstafll— jFascta. 
 
 
 Faldstool (or Folding-stool), a portable seat made to 
 fold up in the manner of a camp-stool: it was made 
 either of metal or wood, and sometimes was covered with 
 rich silk. Formerly, when a bishop was required to 
 officiate in any but his own cathedral church where his 
 throne was erected, a faldstool was placed for him in 
 the choir, and he frequently carried one with him in his 
 journeys. They are not unfrequently represented in the 
 illuminations of early manuscripts. 
 
 This term is also frequently applied to the Litany-stool, 
 or small low desk at which the Litany is enjoined to be 
 sung or said. This is generally placed in the middle of 
 the choir, or near the steps of the altar. 
 
 Fan-tracery Vaulting, a kind of vaulting peculiar to 
 English Gothic, and used chiefly 
 in late Perpendicular work, in 
 which all the ribs that rise from 
 the springing of the vault have the 
 same curve, and diverge equally in 
 every direction, producing an effect 
 something like that of the bones of 
 a fan. This kind of vaulting ad- 
 mits of considerable variety in the 
 subordinate parts, but the general 
 effect of the leading features is 
 more nearly uniform. It is very 
 frequently used over tombs, chantry chapels, and other 
 small erections, and fine examples on a larger scale exist 
 at Henry the Seventh’s Chapel, St. George’s Chapel, Wind- 
 sor, King’s College Chapel, Cambridge, &c. 
 
 Fascia, or Facia (Lat. Facies = a face), a broad fillet, 
 band, or face, used in Classical architecture, sometimes by 
 itself but usually in combination with mouldings. Archi- 
 traves are frequently divided into two or three faciae, each 
 of which projects slightly beyond that which is below it. 
 
 Facade (Fr.), exterior face of 
 a building. 
 
 Fane or Vane, a weathercock. 
 
 The fane is found existing 
 
 throughout the Middle Ages, 
 and assumes a variety of 
 shapes. See Vane. 
 
n6 
 
 Jenestral— JFilIet. 
 
 Fenestral (Lat.), a window-blind, or a casement closed 
 with paper or cloth instead of glass. Perhaps, also, the 
 term was applied to the shutters or leaves with which 
 many, if not most, of the windows in dwellings were 
 closed during the Middle Ages, instead of glass ; these 
 shutters were generally plain, and turned on hinges at the 
 side, and were fastened by a bolt within, but sometimes 
 they were made with panels with delicate tracery on the 
 front, and the panels hung on hinges to open inwards, so 
 that when they were turned back the tracery became 
 a kind of lattice-work. This term appears to be some- 
 times used for the window which is closed with a 
 fenestral. 
 
 Feretory (Lat. Feretrum ), a bier, or coffin ; tomb, or 
 shrine. This term seems more properly to belong to the 
 portable shrines in which the relics of saints were carried 
 about in processions, but was also applied to the fixed 
 shrines , or tombs, in which their bodies were deposited. 
 
 Fillet, or Felet (Fr. Filet , Lat. Filum ), a small flat 
 face or band used principally between mouldings, to sepa- 
 
 Stanton St. John. Stanton, Bucks. Brackley. 
 
 rate them from each other, in Classical architecture; in 
 Gothic architecture it is also employed for the same pur- 
 pose, and in the Early English and Decorated styles it is 
 frequently worked upon larger mouldings and shafts ; in 
 these situations it is not always flat, but is sometimes 
 cut into two or more narrow faces with sharp edges be- 
 tween them. When this appendage is placed upon the 
 front of a moulding, as at a, it has been termed the keel of 
 the moulding by Professor Willis, and when attached to 
 the sides, as at b, its wings . 
 
 Feathering or Foliation. 
 See Foil. 
 
 Femerell or Fumerell. See 
 Louvre. 
 
 Fenestella, same as Piscina. 
 
 Fereter, a bier ; sometimes 
 a tomb or shrine. 
 
 Fish. See Vesica. 
 
 Flag, stone used for paving. 
 
jFmtal— jFtrcpIace. 
 
 117 
 
 Ring’s College, Cambridge. 
 
 Finial (Lat. Finis = the end) : by old writers this term 
 is frequently applied to a pinnacle, 
 but it is now usually confined to the 
 bunch of foliage which terminates 
 pinnacles, canopies, pediments, &c., 
 in Gothic architecture. The intro- 
 duction of finials was contemporary 
 with that of crochets , to which they 
 bear a close affinity, the leaves of 
 which they are composed almost al- 
 ways having a resemblance to them; 
 and sometimes they are formed by 
 uniting four or more crockets to- 
 gether. They were especially used in 
 the Decorated style ; the example from 
 Walpole St. Andrew, given under Tabernacle , shews the ap- 
 plication toaniche in the wall, and that from Crick to a Door- 
 way. Spires when perfect are often surmounted with finials. 
 
 Fireplace. Although the usual custom in houses was to 
 have a brazier in the 
 middle of the hall 
 and the smoke to 
 escape through the 
 louvre at the top, in 
 the other chambers 
 fireplaces were in- 
 troduced. They are 
 not uncommon in 
 the Norman keeps 
 (though most have 
 been altered at some 
 subsequent period), 
 and down to the 
 thirteenth, four- 
 teenth, and fifteenth 
 centuries numerous 
 examples may be 
 found. In the thir- 
 teenth and fourteenth centuries they were usually somewhat 
 plainer, the ornamentation being chiefly the carved corbel 
 on either side of the projecting hood. In the Perpendicular 
 
 Aydon Castle, Northumberland, c. 1270. 
 
1 1 8 Jtreplace — JFlambogant. 
 
 style the system of panelling having been introduced, this 
 was applied profusely to the ornamentation of the fireplace 
 or Chemine . 
 
 Flamboyant (Fr. Flambeau = a torch), a term applied 
 by the antiquaries of France to the style of architecture 
 which was contemporary in that country with the Per- 
 pendicular of England, from the flame-like wavings of 
 its tracery. It ought perhaps to be regarded as a vitiated 
 Decorated rather than a distinct style, though some of its 
 characteristics are peculiar, and 
 it seldom possesses the purity 
 or boldness of earlier ages; in 
 rich works the intricacy and 
 redundancy of the ornaments 
 are sometimes truly surpris- 
 ing. One of the most striking 
 and universal features is the 
 waving arrangement of the 
 tracery of the windows, panels, 
 
 &c. The mouldings are often 
 very ill combined, the suites con- 
 sisting of large hollows sepa- 
 rated by disproportionately small 
 members of other kinds with 
 but a slight admixture of fil- 
 lets ; the mouldings either run- 
 ning into each other without 
 any line of separation, or being 
 divided only by an arris, which produces a very tame ef- 
 fect : there are, however, 
 many examples in which 
 the mouldings are bold 
 and good, but they are 
 the exceptions, not the 
 rule. The centre or prin- 
 cipal moulding in mul- 
 lions of windows, &c., 
 and in ribs of vaulting, 
 is often made to project 
 very prominently, so as to 
 produce an appearance of weakness. In jambs, pillars, &c., 
 
jFIambogant. 119 
 
 the mouldings have frequently bases and no capitals, and 
 these are often arranged at different levels to the dif- 
 ferent members, like those of the Perpendicular style. 
 The pillars sometimes consist of good mouldings, but 
 they are often circular, either perfectly plain or with 
 a few only of the more prominent mouldings of the arches 
 continued down them, and in either of these cases the 
 mouldings of the arches which abut against the pillars 
 die into them without any kind of impost or capital ; 
 this arrangement is very common in Flamboyant work, 
 and although occasionally to be found in buildings of 
 earlier date, it may be considered characteristic of the 
 style. It is by no means uncommon for mouldings that 
 meet each other, instead of one or both of them stopping, 
 to interpenetrate and both to run on and terminate in 
 some more prominent member. The arches are usually 
 two-centred, but sometimes the semicircle is employed, 
 the ellipse, and occasionally, in 
 
 complicated forms. 
 
 The foliage used for 
 enrichments is gene- 
 rally well carved, but 
 its effect is seldom so 
 good as that of the 
 
 Decorated, from its mi- Harfleur, Normandy. 
 
 nuteness and intricacy. 
 
 and late in the style 
 small openings, the 
 ogee ; sometimes also 
 a flat head, with the 
 angles rounded off, is 
 used over doors and 
 windows. The cano- 
 pies in this style, from 
 their size and shapes, 
 are striking ; in the 
 earlier styles they are 
 either simple triangles 
 or ogees, but in Flam- 
 boyant work they are 
 sometimes made of 
 other and far more 
 
120 
 
 jHcfoer, Jrciurdeabeti— jFIutmga. 
 
 Flower, Four-leaved, a very 
 favourite ornament in the Deco - 
 rated and Perpendicular styles. 
 
 Flutings, or Flutes (Lat. Fluo ), 
 the hollows or channels cut per- 
 pendicularly in the shafts of 
 columns, &c., in Classical archi- 
 
 tecture ; 
 
 Grecian Doric, Parthenon 
 
 Grecian Ionic, Erectheum. 
 
 used in all the orders except 
 Tuscan ; in the 
 Doric they are 
 twenty in number, 
 and are separated 
 by a sharp edge 
 or arris ; in the 
 Ionic, Corinthian, 
 and Composite, their number is twenty-four, and they are 
 separated by 
 a small fil- 
 let. They 
 are some- 
 times (except 
 in the Doric 
 order) partly filled with 
 a round convex moulding 
 or bead, when they are 
 said to be called; this 
 does not in general ex- 
 tend higher than one-third 
 of the shaft. Occasionally 
 channellings, in some de- 
 gree resembling flutes, are 
 cut in Norman pillars, 
 a remarkable instance of 
 which occurs in the crypt 
 of Canterbury Cathedral. 
 
 Precisely the same kind of 
 
 ornament occurs frequently in Germany, as in the crypt 
 of Roda Rolduc, near Aix-la-Chapelle, which might be 
 a copy from Canterbury, and it occurs in many buildings 
 of the twelfth century in other parts of the Continent. 
 
 Crypt, Canterbury Cathedral. 
 
1 2 I 
 
 JIuttngs— Jails. 
 
 The flutings are sometimes carried diagonally across the 
 columns, as in the pillars in Durham, Waltham, &c., and 
 later in the style this ornamentation became developed 
 into a rich cable-ornament. 
 
 Foils (Lat. Folium — a leaf). The feathering or folia- 
 tion consists of the cusps , which are the projecting portions, 
 and the foils , which are technically the spaces between the 
 cusps. Most usually the curves of the featherings spring 
 from some one of the mouldings of an arch, &c., but 
 there are numerous instances, especially in the Early 
 English style, in which the whole suite of mouldings 
 follows the same form ; the arch is then said to be foiled . 
 Feathering was first introduced towards the close of the 
 early style, and continued universally prevalent until the 
 revival of Classic architecture. The varieties of foliation 
 
 are very numerous. Sometimes the upper foil (as there 
 are usually either three or five foils) 
 is an ogee, sometimes round, specimens 
 of which are given. When a trefoil , 
 quatrefoil or cinquefoil are spoken of, 
 it generally means an opening pierced 
 with three, four, or five foils respec- 
 tively. These are not only very fre- 
 
 Florid Style, a term used 
 by some writers for the highly 
 enriched work during the four- 
 teenth and fifteenth centuries. 
 Florid Gothic would be the same 
 
 as late Gothic. 
 
 Flush, used by builders to 
 signify that the surfaces are on 
 the same plane. 
 
122 
 
 jFotls — JFant. 
 
 quent in tracery, but are found in several places 
 a means of or- 
 namentation. 
 
 The quatre- 
 foil is espe- 
 cially used for 
 the surfaee or- 
 namentation, 
 or panelling, 
 and is sometimes called a 
 quarter. The cinquefoil 
 rarely used in the French 
 Gothic. [For illus- 
 trations, see under 
 Band , Cusp , Clear - 
 story , Doorway .] 
 
 Font (Lat. Fons 
 — a spring), the 
 vessel which con- 
 tains the conse- 
 crated water to be 
 used in baptism. 
 
 Ancient fonts were 
 always large enough 
 to allow of the im- 
 mersion of infants, 
 the hollow basin 
 usually being about 
 a foot or rather 
 more in depth, and 
 from one and a-half 
 to two feet in dia- 
 meter. There are 
 a few fonts of Nor- 
 man date made of 
 lead, but with these 
 exceptions the com- 
 mon material for 
 them is stone lined 
 with lead, having a 
 hole in the bottom 
 
 St. Mildred’s, Canterbury. 
 
 as 
 
iFont — JJFreentason. 
 
 123 
 
 of the basin through which the water can be allowed 
 to escape. By a constitution of Edmund, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury (a.d. 1236), fonts were required to be covered 
 and locked; at that period the covers are likely, in 
 general, to have been little more than flat moveable lids, 
 but they were afterwards often highly ornamented, and 
 were sometimes carried up to a very considerable height 
 in the form of spires, and enriched with a variety of little 
 buttresses, pinnacles, and other decorations. The forms 
 of fonts varied considerably in different ages, and in the 
 same age in different districts ; in many instances, when 
 the fonts in neighbouring churches are of the same date, 
 there is such close resemblance between them as to lead 
 to the conviction that they are all the work of the 
 same hand. 
 
 Freemason. The term Freemason appears formerly to 
 have signified no more than the present name of mason, 
 a stone-cutter who worked with a chisel, as distinguished 
 from one who could only dress stone with an axe or ham- 
 mer, and build walls, in which sense it is still used in 
 some parts of the kingdom : it is not improbably a con- 
 traction of Freestone-mason. During the Middle Ages 
 the craftsmen of almost every trade formed themselves 
 into societies or guilds, and prescribed rules for their 
 governance which were recognised by the higher powers, 
 who also so netimes conferred particular privileges upon 
 them. The masons in some parts of Europe were early 
 united in an association of this kind, for they are found 
 to have been established as a free guild or corporation in 
 Lombardy in the tenth century ; but whether this society 
 was descended from the Dionysiasts of antiquity, or ori- 
 ginated in a later age, has not been ascertained: in Nor~ 
 
 Footing of a wall, projecting 
 course of stones at base for giv- 
 ing stability. 
 
 Foot-pace, the raised part of 
 a hall for the dais, or in a church 
 for the altar, also the landing- 
 place on a staircase. See Step. 
 
 Footstall, English word for 
 pedestal. 
 
 Foreyn, a drain or cesspool. 
 
 Forma (Lat.), channel for 
 
 water, aqueduct. 
 
 Formpieces or Framepieces, 
 pieces of stone which form the 
 tracery of the window. 
 
 Fosse (Lat.), the artificial 
 trench or ditch round castles. It 
 was, with the mound, the chief 
 defence in the British camps on 
 the hill-tops. In mediaeval times 
 the fosse round the outer wall 
 was usually filled with water. 
 
124 
 
 jFreemason— Jrtt. 
 
 mandy they appear to have become associated in 1145. 
 When, as in the Middle Ages, architects, as distinct prac- 
 titioners, were scarcely known, and but little more than 
 the general forms and arrangement of a building were 
 prescribed by those who superintended its erection, much 
 of its beauty must have depended on the skill of the 
 workmen to whose control the subordinate parts were 
 entrusted ; the masons therefore must have had the power 
 of largely influencing the appearance of the structures on 
 which they were employed : hence it might be expected, 
 that at a time when the greatest architectural splendour 
 was sought for in ecclesiastical edifices, the artificers on 
 whom so much depended should have been especially 
 patronized by the dignitaries and friends of the Church, 
 and this is found to have been the case ; some Popes are 
 recorded to have issued bulls conferring especial privi- 
 leges upon them. Although the guilds of most other 
 trades have been abrogated, the society of Freemasons 
 has preserved its existence, in name at least, to the pre- 
 sent day, and in modern times has been spread over the 
 greater part of the civilized portion of the world; but it 
 has no connection with the practice of the art from which 
 its name is derived, and its laws are recognised only by 
 its own members. 
 
 Freestone, building stone which may be cut into blocks 
 and worked with a chisel. The term is applied to stone 
 of very different qualities in different districts, but always 
 to such as may be worked with freedom in comparison 
 with others of the neighbourhood. 
 
 Fret (Lat. Fretum = a strait), an ornament used in 
 Classical archil ecture, 
 
 formed by small fillets 
 intersecting each other 
 at right angles ; the va- 
 rieties are very numerous. 
 
 fi 
 
 
 it 
 
 IS 
 
 m 
 
 £ 
 
 Fresco (Ital.), a mode of paint- 
 ingin colours on stucco orplaster 
 while it is fresh , and so wet, by 
 which the colour is absorbed. 
 
 Friary (Fr .Frire, Lat. Frater ), 
 
 the community, or the building 
 for the community, of certain 
 orders of religious men. See 
 Monastery . 
 
I2 5 
 
 tfrtejs— iFritfjstool. 
 
 Frieze, or Frize, the middle division of an entablature, 
 which lies between the architrave and the cornice. In 
 the Tuscan order it is always plain : in the Doric it has 
 slight projections at intervals, on which are cut three 
 angular flutes, called triglyphs ; the intervals between 
 these are called metopes, and are frequently enriched with 
 sculpture : in the Ionic it is occasionally enriched with 
 sculpture, and is sometimes made to swell out in the 
 middle, when it is said to be cushioned or pulvinated: 
 in the Corinthian and Composite it is ornamented in 
 a variety of ways, but usually either with figures or 
 foliage. 
 
 Frithstool, or Freedstool, literally ‘the seat of peace.’ 
 A seat or chair placed near the altar in some churches, 
 the last and most sacred refuge for those who claimed the 
 privilege of sanctuary within them, and for the violation 
 of which the severest punishment was decreed. They were 
 frequently, if not always, of stones according to Spelman 
 that at Beverley had this inscription : “ Haec sedes lapidea 
 freedstoll dicitur i.e* pacis 
 endo perveniens omnimo- 
 dam habet secur^tem.” 
 
 Frithstools still exist in the 
 church at Hexham, and 
 Beverley Minster, both in 
 the north aisle of the chan- 
 cel: the former of these 
 has the seat hollowed out 
 in a semicircular form, and 
 is slightly ornamented wuth 
 patterns of Norman cha- 
 racter ; that at Beverley is 
 very rude and plain. 
 
 cathedra, ad quam reus fugi- 
 
 Beverley Miuster. 
 
 Front : with ancient writers 
 this means the facade at the 
 east end of the church; with 
 later writers, the west end. 
 
 Frontal, the hanging with 
 which the front of the altar is 
 covered. 
 
 Fumerell (Lat. Fumus ~ 
 smoke). See Louvre . 
 
 Furrings, short pieces at- 
 tached to the feet of the rafters 
 of a roof for carrying the eaves 
 beyond the line of the wall. 
 
 Fust, Fr. (1) of a column — 
 shaft ; (2) of a house, the ridge 
 of the roof, (a Devonshire ex- 
 pression). 
 
126 
 
 ©able - ©alike. 
 
 Gable. This term was formerly sometimes applied to 
 the entire end wall of a building, the top of which con- 
 forms to the slope of the roof which abuts against it, but 
 is now applied only to the upper part of such a wall, 
 above the level of the eaves. In reference to the former 
 sense, the large end window of a building, such as the 
 east window of a church, was not unfrequently called 
 a gable-window. The term is not used in Classical archi- 
 tecture, as the ends of roofs, when made in this way, are 
 formed into 'pediments . Their proportions are regulated 
 by the slope of the roof, and vary considerably; in the 
 Norman style, the angle of the 
 apex is seldom much more acute 
 than a right angle; in the Early 
 English they are usually about 
 equilateral triangles ; in the 
 Decorated and Perpendicular 
 they have sometimes about the 
 same proportions, but are often 
 much lower. Norman gables 
 appear to have been usually 
 finished with a plain flat cop- 
 ing up the sides and an orna- 
 ment on the top, which bn 
 churches was a cross; Early 
 English gables also, on plain 
 buildings, have often flat cop- 
 ings, but in rich works they 
 are moulded, and have some- 
 times an additional set of 
 
 mouldings below them. In Gable, East End, Stanton Jdarcourt, c. 1250, 
 
 the Perpendicular style, and 
 
 subsequently, gables sometimes have a series of steps up 
 the sides. 
 
 Galilee : a porch or chapel at the entrance of a church ; 
 the term also appears sometimes to be applied to the nave, 
 or at least to the western portion of it, and in some 
 churches there are indications of the west end of the nave 
 having been parted off from the rest, either by a step in 
 
 Gablets, small ornamental gables or canopies formed over but- 
 tresses, niches, &c. 
 
127 
 
 (Kaltlee — ffiallerg. 
 
 the floor, a division in the architecture, or some other line 
 of demarcation : it was considered to be somewhat less 
 sacred than the other portions of the building. The 
 galilee at Lincoln Cathedral is a porch on the west side 
 of the south transept : at Ely Cathedral it is a porch at 
 the west end of the nave : at Durham it is a large chapel 
 at the west end of the nave, which was built for the use 
 of the women, who were not allowed to advance further 
 into the church than the second pillar of the nave, and 
 was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin; it was also used as 
 the Bishop’s consistory court : St. Stephen’s Chapel at 
 Westminster formerly had a galilee, forming a kind of 
 vestibule or ante-chapel, at the west end. 
 
 Gallery, (1.) An apartment of great length in propor- 
 tion to its width, either used as a passage, or serving as 
 a place of resort for dancing or other amusements ; a gal- 
 lery of this kind was always to be found in large houses 
 built during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and very fre- 
 quently in those of earlier date : it was often in the upper 
 story. (2.) Also a raised floor or stage erected within an 
 apartment, either for the purpose of affording additional 
 room, or of accommodating musicians and spectators, fre- 
 quently called a loft; a gallery of this kind was com- 
 monly formed at the lower end of the great hall in the 
 mansions of our forefathers, and called the Minstrels 9 Gal- 
 lery o (3.) Ancient galleries in the sense of lofts are not 
 unfrequently to be met with in churches ; over the en- 
 trances of chancels they were formerly most abundant; 
 in this situation they are constructed of wood, and are 
 called Rood-lofts , from their having supported the large 
 cross or rood which, previous to the Deformation, was 
 always set up over the entrance of the chancel. (4.) In 
 other situations the existing examples are generally of 
 stone, and vaulted beneath : they are to be found of Nor- 
 man date at the end of the north transept of Winchester 
 Cathedral, but are much more common abroad. In many 
 parts of France a western gallery of stone forms part of 
 the original plan and construction of a church: this is 
 still more frequently the case in Germany. The lower 
 triforium gallery over the aisles is also there usually con- 
 
128 
 
 ffiallerg. 
 
 structed so as to be used for service, and is in many places 
 still commonly so used. Such galleries as parts of the 
 original construction are not confined to any one period ; 
 they were perhaps more common in work of the twelfth 
 
 century, but they are used at all periods. There is a very 
 good example of this, and very conveniently arranged, at 
 Frankfort. Several instances occur of a western gallery 
 of the fifteenth century in small churches. 
 
 (5.) Most of the screens between the nave and choir 
 in the cathedrals in this country are surmounted by gal- 
 leries, in which the organs are placed. (6.) A triforium 
 or passage-way in the thickness of a wall, and a passage- 
 
® alletg— ©arreting. 129 
 
 way supported on corbels or other projections from the 
 face of a wall, are sometimes called galleries. (7.) Pro- 
 jections occur also from the triforium, such as the Min- 
 strels’ Gallery in the nave of Exeter Cathedral, of the 
 fourteenth century. The modern style of wooden galleries 
 in churches, cutting off the arches of the nave, was intro- 
 duced subsequently to the Reformation, and appears to 
 have originated with the Puritans ; they were frequently 
 called Scaffolds . 
 
 Gargoyle, or Gurgoyle, a projecting spout used in 
 Gothic architecture to throw the water from the gutter 
 of a building off the 
 wall. Sometimes they 
 are perfectly plain, but 
 are often er carved into 
 figures or animals, which 
 are frequently gro- 
 tesque; these are very 
 commonly represented 
 with open mouths, from 
 which the water is- 
 sues, but in many cases 
 it is conveyed through 
 a leaden spout, either 
 
 above or below the Merton College Chapel, Oxford. 
 
 stone figure. Gargoyles appear to have been first intro- 
 duced with the Early English style, during the preva- 
 lence of which they were usually made with a very 
 considerable projection : subsequently they were often 
 much less prominent. Their most usual situation is in 
 the cornice, but they are sometimes, especially in Early 
 English and Decorated buildings, placed on the fronts of 
 the buttresses. 
 
 Garreting, small splinters of stone, inserted in the 
 joints of coarse masonry; they are stuck in after the work 
 is built. Elint walls are very frequently garreted. 
 
 Gamboison. See Illustrations 
 to Brass. 
 
 Garland. A term used by 
 William of Worcester for the 
 
 band of ornamental work sur- 
 rounding the spire of Bedcliffe 
 Church, Bristol. 
 
 Garnett, a kind of hinge. 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 ©atefoag. 
 
 Gateway. The gatehouses or gateways of the Middle 
 Ages are often large and imposing structures ; they were 
 erected over the prin- 
 cipal entrances of the 
 precincts of religious 
 establishments, col- 
 leges, &c., and some- 
 times also of the courts 
 of houses, as well as 
 castles and other for- 
 tifications. In mili- 
 tary edifices the en- 
 trance usually con sists 
 of a single archway, 
 large enough to ad- 
 mit carriages, with a 
 strong door, port- 
 cullis at each end, 
 and a vaulted ceiling 
 pierced with holes 
 through which mis- 
 siles could be cast 
 upon an enemy : the 
 sides of the gateway 
 are generally flanked 
 with large projecting 
 towers pierced with 
 loopholes, and the up- 
 per part terminates 
 With a series of machi- 
 colations and battle- 
 miented 'parapet. In 
 civil edifices there is 
 much greater diversity in the forms and architectural ar- 
 rangements of gatehouses : sometimes they resemble plain 
 square towers of rather low proportions, with a single turret 
 ‘containing a staircase, or with a turret at each of the front 
 angles/ and occasionally at all the four angles: but in 
 this case those on the front are generally the largest and 
 the most ornamental; sometimes they are extended to a 
 considerable breadth, as at Battle Abbey, Sussex, and the 
 
 Braseriose College, Oxford. 
 
©atebmg— (©taking. 131 
 
 College, Maidstone, Kent; and sometimes they are plain 
 buildings without any particular architectural character. 
 The entrance most commonly consists of a large archway 
 for horses and carriages, and a smaller one by the side 
 of it for foot passengers, with strong doors at one or 
 both ends. The ceiling is commonly vaulted, and some- 
 times pierced with holes like tho-e of military works. 
 When the building is of sufficient height to allow of it, 
 there is generally a room over the archway, with one or 
 more large windows (not unfrequently an oriel window) 
 next the front. The gateways of religious establishments 
 had frequently a chapel attached to them. Examples of 
 ancient gateways are to be met with in most of our cathe- 
 dral towns, bounding the close or cathedral precincts ; at 
 Oxford and Cambridge, as entrances to the colleges ; among 
 the ruins of many of our abbeys and castles, and at nume- 
 rous ancient houses, as at Canterbury, (especially that 
 of St. Augustine’s Abbey). The city gateways are also 
 not to be passed over In many towns traces, if not in 
 actual buildings at least in name, can be found of the gate, 
 e.g. Dishopsgate, Aldersgate, &c., in London, and in other 
 places, -North gate, Southgate, Littlegate, &c. 
 
 Girder, a main beam which sustains the joists of a floor 
 when the distance between the walls renders it necessary 
 to give them additional support. 
 
 Glazirg. During the Middle Ages the use of coloured 
 glass in windows was almost universal. [See Stained 
 Glass .' ] The use of Quarries, i.e. diamond-shaped pieces 
 of glass, with a pattern of a flower or some device lightly 
 burnt upon it, w r ere common at the latter part of the 
 fourteenth century, and during the fifteenth. It is not 
 till very late work that we find any geometrical pattern^ 
 produced by the mere arrangement of the leadwork round 
 plain glass. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 
 very effective patterns are produced by the leading only. 
 
 Genouilleres. See illustra- i Geometrical Stairs. See 
 tions to Brass. Steps. 
 
 Gen ten, a word used by Wil- | Geometrical Tracery. See 
 liam of Worcester for the cusps j Tracery. 
 
 of a doorway. | Gimmer and Gkmell. Ancient 
 
 Getee (Fr.) S ee Jettie. | name for Cliymol or Hinge. 
 
132 ©otfjtc ^CrcTjtttcture — ©rotesque. 
 
 Gothic Architecture. This term was originally applied 
 to the mediaeval styles at the time of the Renaissance of 
 the Pagan orders : some say it was first given by Sir Chris- 
 topher Wren, hut it is now believed to be older than his 
 time. In any case it was given as a term of reproach 
 and contempt at a time when it was also the fashion to 
 write Latin, and to expect it to become the universal 
 language. But the different nations of modern Europe 
 have retained their respective languages in spite of the 
 efforts of the pedants of the sixteenth century, and have 
 now generally returned to their national styles of archi- 
 tecture also. The one seems to follow naturally from the 
 other : if the Roman language could neither be preserved 
 everywhere, nor effectually revived, so also the permanent 
 establishment of the Roman architecture was not to be 
 expected. The marvel is that modern Europe submitted 
 so long to its trammels. 
 
 Groin. The angle formed by an intersection of vaults. 
 Most of the vaulted ceilings of the buildings of the Middle 
 Ages are groined, and therefore called groined vaults, or 
 Groined Ceilings . During the early part of the Norman 
 style the groins were left perfectly plain, but afterwards 
 they were invariably covered with ribs,. 
 
 Grotesque, a name given to the light and fanciful 
 ornaments used by the ancients in the decoration of the 
 walls and some of the subordinate parts of their build- 
 ings : so called from their having been long buried, the 
 Italians calling any subt rranean apartment by the name of 
 Grotto. This kind of ornament is also called Arabesque, 
 and the Spanish writers call it Pluteresque. A very simi- 
 lar kind of decoration is found in Arabian architecture ; 
 it was also used extensively about the period of the Re- 
 naissance. This name is also applied to the ornaments 
 commonly used in grottoes in the seventeenth and eigh- 
 teenth centuries, made to resemble moss or stalactites, or 
 the dripping of water. 
 
 Girder. The main beam sup- 
 porting the joists of the floor. 
 
 Glyphs. The perpendicular 
 flutings or channels under the 
 Doric frieze. 
 
 Gola, or Gula. An Italian 
 
 name for the Cyma . 
 
 Grange. A farming establish- 
 ment, especially such as belonged 
 to a monastery. Many grange 
 houses and barns exist dating 
 from the thirteenth century. 
 
©rdunti4a{)U^t0nes~5^aIpa[ce. 133 
 
 Ground-table-stones, the projecting course of stones in 
 a wall, immediately above the surface of the ground ; now 
 called the plinth, 
 
 Guilloche, an ornament used in Classical architecture, 
 formed by two or more 
 intertwining bands. The 
 term is adopted from the 
 Trench. 
 
 Guttse, small ornaments resembling drops, used in the 
 Doric entablature on the under side 
 of the mutules of the cornice, and be- 
 neath the taenia of the architrave, under 
 the triglyphs. 
 
 Hall. The chief apartment in a mediaeval house, a 
 monastery, or a college, where meals were had. In the 
 large mediaeval houses it also served for other purposes. 
 Justice was administered there, entertainments given, and 
 at night oftentimes the floor was strewed with rushes, 
 and many of the servants slept there. [See Domestic 
 Architecture , Fireplace , 8fc.~\ 
 
 Halpace, or Halfpace (probably Fr. Haute-pace'), a raised 
 floor in a bay window, before a fireplace, or in similar 
 situations: the floors in such places are often a step higher 
 than the rest in old English houses: the dais in a hall: 
 also a raised stage or platform, and a landing in a flight 
 of stairs. [See Footpace and Dais.~\ 
 
 Gravestone. See Tombstone . 
 
 Grecian Architecture. See 
 Boric, Ionic, and Corinthian 
 Orders : also Column. 
 
 Grees = steps, or a staircase. 
 
 Grille. Literally a grating 
 of iron, hut applied to open 
 ironwork generally. 
 
 Grout. Thin semi-liquid mor- 
 tar poured into the internal 
 j oint s of masonry or rubble- work . 
 
 Guest-chamber. See Chamber. 
 
 Gurgoyle. See Gargoyle . 
 
 Gynec^eum. That part of a 
 Greek house appropriated to the 
 women. 
 
 Habitacle, an old word for 
 a dwelling, hut applied also to 
 a niche for a statue. See Taber 
 nacle. 
 
 Hagioscope (Gr.), name given 
 by ecclesiologists to Squint, q.v. 
 
 Half-timber Houses. Vide 
 Timber Houses. 
 
 Hallyngs, the hangings of 
 a hall. 
 
*34 
 
 ^ammer^eam— herringbone OTorfe. 
 
 Hammer-beam, a beam very frequently used in the 
 principals of Gothic roofs to strengthen the framing and 
 to diminish the lateral pressure that falls upon the walls. 
 Each principal has two hammer-beams, which occupy the 
 situation of a tie-beam, and in some 
 degree serve the same purpose, but 
 they do not extend across the whole 
 width of the roof, as a, a . The 
 ends of hammer-beams are often 
 ornamented with heads shields, or 
 foliage, and sometimes with figures ; 
 those of the roof of Westminster 
 Hall are carved with large angels 
 holding shields; sometimes there 
 are pendants under them, as at the 
 halls of Eltham Palace, and Christ 
 Church, Oxford, &c. 
 
 Herring-bone Work, masonry in which the stones are 
 laid aslant instead of 
 being bedded flat ; 
 it is very commonly 
 found in rough wall- 
 ing, and occasionally, 
 in the Norman style, 
 in ashlar work. 
 
 Square tiles are some- 
 times arranged in the 
 same fashion, espe^ 
 cially in the backs 
 of fireplaces, e.g. at 
 Corfe Castle. This 
 masonry is not to be relied upon as evidence of the date 
 of a building, though it is frequently of the eleventh cen- 
 
 Hand-iron Andiron. 
 
 Hanse, or Haunch of an arch : 
 that part between the vertex 
 and the springing. 
 
 Hatch, or Hatched Orna- 
 ment. See Moulding. 
 
 Hauberk. See illustrations 
 to Brass. 
 
 Header, a brick or stone, of 
 which the longest dimension is 
 
 in the thickness of the wall. 
 
 Heaume. See illustrations to 
 Brass. 
 
 Hele == Aisle, Heil } ‘to cover.’ 
 
 Helix and Helices: used to 
 signify the caulicoli, from their 
 snail-like shape. 
 
 Helying, (1) a covering, (2) 
 used corruptly for Aisle. 
 
herringbone TOork— h in fl e * *35 
 
 tury. It is sometimes found introduced in the walls in 
 bands, apparently for ornament, but it has often been 
 manifestly adopted for convenience, in order to enable the 
 workmen to level off the work at each course, which 
 could not well be 
 done in any other 
 way with stones of 
 irregular shapes and 
 sizes : in herring- 
 
 bone work, by vary- 
 ing the inclination 
 of the stones, it is 
 easy to preserve a level. The interior, or backing, of 
 Roman walls, is often of irregular herring-bone work, 
 formed this way. 
 
 Herse, (1.) a portcullis, so called from its resemblance 
 to a framework termed hercia , fashioned like a harrow, 
 whereon lighted candles were placed on the obsequies of 
 distinguished persons. The entrance gateways of many 
 castles were defended by two portcullises, as at Warwick 
 Castle, where one of them is at this time lowered every 
 night, for greater security. (2.) Also a frame set over the 
 coffin of a person deceased, and covered with a pall; it 
 was usually of light woodwork, and appears in ihany 
 instances to have been part of the furniture of the church, 
 to be used when occasion required There is a brass 
 frame of a similar kind 
 over the effigy of Richard, 
 
 Earl of Warwick, in the 
 Reauchamp Chapel at 
 Warwick, which is called 
 a herse in the contract for 
 the tomb ; there is also one of iron over an ancient tomb 
 in Bedell Church, Yorkshire. 
 
 Hinge, the joints on which doors, gates, &c., turn. 
 During the Middle Ages, even at an early period, they 
 were frequently made very conspicuous, and were orna- 
 mented w ith scrolls ; several of the illuminations of Caed- 
 mon’s metrical Paraphrase of Scripture History, which is 
 considered to have been written soon after the year 1000, 
 exhibit doors with ornamental hinges, and another is re«> 
 
136 
 
 fringe. 
 
 Warborough, Oxon. 
 
 presented m an illumination in a Pontifical at Rouen, 
 written at a rather earlier 
 period. 
 
 No existing hinges can 
 be assigned to an earlier 
 date than the close of the 
 twelfth century, and they 
 are not often met with so 
 old ; at this period they 
 have not in general much 
 scrollwork attached to them, 
 and the turns are often very 
 stiff; the principal branches 
 at the head of the hinge 
 frequently represent the letter C. 
 
 In the Early English style, the hinges were often orna- 
 mented with most elaborate scrollwork, nearly covering 
 the door, and this was sometimes further enriched with 
 leaves, and occasionally with animals’ heads; the nails 
 also were made ornamental, and the main bands were 
 stamped with various minute patterns; at other times 
 they were devoid of 
 all ornament, or had 
 the ends terminating 
 in simple curls, with 
 a few small branches 
 on each side of the 
 main band. 
 
 In the Decorated 
 style they continued 
 to be occasionally used 
 of the same elab rate 
 kind, with little if any 
 variation, except occasionally in the character of the leaves 
 on the scrolls ; but were not so common as in the Early 
 English, the increased use of wood panellings and tracery 
 having in great measure superseded such kind of deco- 
 rations. In the Perpendicular style they are rarely orna- 
 mented, except on plain doors, and then have usually 
 only a fleur-de-lis or some similar decoration, at the ends 
 of the strap. 
 
 Faringdon, Berks. 
 
137 
 
 P^tp— f^olgsfoatet Stone. 
 
 Hip. The external angle formed by the meeting of 
 the sloping sides of a roof, which 
 have their wall-plates running in 
 different directions: thus, when 
 a roof has the end sloped back, 
 instead of finishing with a gable, 
 the pieces of timber in these an- 
 gles are called hip-rafters, and 
 the tiles with which they are 
 covered are called hip-tiles. The 
 internal angles formed by the The angle, a.b, bc, are the hi P .. 
 
 meeting of the sides are termed 
 
 the valleys , whether the latter be horizontal or sloping, 
 and the piece of timber that supports a sloping valley is 
 termed the Valley Rafter . 
 
 Hip-Knob : a pinnacle, finial, or other 
 similar ornament, placed on the top of 
 the hips of a roof, or on the point of 
 a gable. On ecclesiastical edifices, pre- 
 vious to the Reformation, crosses were 
 usually fixed in these situations, but 
 on other buildings ornaments of vari- 
 ous kinds were used ; when applied to 
 gables with barge -boards, the lower 
 part of the hip-knob frequently ter- 
 minated in a pendant. They are, how- 
 ever, rather characteristic of sixteenth 
 and seventeenth century work. 
 
 - Friar Gate, Derby.- 
 
 The Holy-water Stone, or Stock, 
 
 was the stone basin for holding the holy water placed 
 near the entrances of churches, so that each person as 
 he came in or went out might sprinkle himself with it. 
 They are generally of very plain workmanship, though 
 sometimes they have a simple moulding carried round 
 them. [See Stoup.^\ 
 
 Hexastyle, a portico having 
 six columns in front. 
 
 High-tomb : used by Leland 
 for Altar-tomb. 
 
 Historia. See Story. 
 Hollow. See Cavetto . 
 
 Hood-moulding. The Label- 
 moulding. See Dripstone. 
 
 Hostrie, Hostelrie (Fr. Ho- 
 tellerie ), an inn, or house of en- 
 tertainment for travellers. See 
 Inn. 
 
i3 8 
 
 ^our--gias0 Stantj— Image. 
 
 Hour-glass Stand. A bracket or frame of iron for 
 receiving the hour-glass, which 
 was often placed near the pul- 
 pit, subsequent to the Reforma- 
 tion, and especially during the 
 Commonwealth. Specimens are 
 not unfrequently met with in 
 country churches, as at Wolver- 
 cot and Beckley, Oxfordshire, 
 and Leigh Church, Kent They 
 are common in some districts,, 
 but rare in others. 
 
 Hourd, Hoard, Hoarding*, 
 
 board ng used for protection : it 
 is a term in common use in Lon- 
 don for the boarding round a 
 scaffolding to keep off the people 
 from the wo kmen. It is also a term in military archi- 
 tecture for the wooden gallery, protected by boarding in 
 front, which was thrown out from the surface of the wall 
 in time of war, to enable the defenders to protect the foot 
 of the wall. There are sometimes corbels provided f r 
 them, more frequently put-log holes in the wall only, in 
 Roman work as well as Mediaeval. 
 
 Image, this term was formerly applied to paintings 
 as well as statues; and a sculptor, and sometimes also 
 a painter, was called an Imageour. Both sculpture and 
 painting were extensively employed in the architecture 
 of the Middle Ages, especially in churches ; and although 
 much was destroyed and more injured in this country 
 at the Reformation, a considerable quantity still remains. 
 Examples of sculpture are too numerous to require to be 
 
 Housing, atabernacle or niche 
 for a statue. 
 
 Hovel, sometimes used in the 
 sense of tabernacles for images. 
 
 Hutch, a chest or locker in 
 which sacred utensils were 
 kept. 
 
 Hypaethral (Hr.), a name 
 given to temples having part 
 of the cell open to the sky. 
 
 Hypertherum (Gr.), project- 
 
 ing cornice forming upper part 
 of the dressings of a door, above 
 the architrave. 
 
 Hypocaust, the heating- flues, 
 &c., beneath the floors of the 
 bath-chambersinHoman houses. 
 
 Hypogeum, any subterranean 
 construction. 
 
 Hypotrachelium, the neck or 
 frieze of the capital in some 
 Classical columns. 
 
Image— Impost. 
 
 139 
 
 pointed out. The image of the Virgin and Child (as at 
 Xing’s Sutton) was 
 the most frequent, 
 though of course the 
 greater number have 
 been destroyed. An- 
 cient paintings exist 
 in various churches, 
 but most of them 
 are in a mutilated 
 condition. The sta- 
 tues in the insides of 
 buildings were pro- 
 bably often painted 
 to imitate life, the 
 costume being paint- 
 ed and gilded very 
 brightly. 
 
 Impost (Lat. Im- 
 positus ), the hori- 
 zontal mouldings or 
 capitals on the top of 
 a pilaster pillar, or pier, or corbel, from which an arch 
 spings ; in Classical architecture the form varies in 
 the several orders; 
 sometimes the en- 
 tablature of an or- 
 der serves for the 
 impost of an arch. 
 
 In Mediaeval ar- 
 chitecture the im- 
 posts vary accord- 
 ing to the style; 
 on pillars and the 
 small shafts in the 
 jambs of doorways, 
 windows, &c.,they 
 are usually com- 
 plete capitals , and 
 will therefore be 
 
 King’s Sutton, Northamptonshire, c. 1400 
 
 Barton Seagravc, c. 116Q. 
 
140 
 
 Empast — Inn, or Pastel. 
 
 found described under that head. When shafts are used 
 in the jambs of archways, it is very usual in the Norman 
 style for the abacus of the capitals to be continued through 
 the whole suite of mouldings, and it is sometimes carried 
 along the walls as a string; this arrangement also is oc- 
 casionally used in the Early English. In the Decorated 
 and Perpendicular styles it is not common to find any 
 impost-mouldings in the jambs of archways, except the 
 capitals of the small shafts. 
 
 Incised or Engraved Slabs: stone or alabaster slabs, 
 with figures engraved on them, used as sepulchral me- 
 morials. It would be difficult to attribute confidently the 
 priority of date to the use of these memorials, or to that 
 of sepulchral brasses, and it is most probable that both 
 were introduced about the same period, namely, in the 
 middle of the thirteenth century, that both were the 
 works of the same artificers, and used indifferently as 
 suited the taste or fortune of individuals; the sepulchral 
 brass being, as it would appear, the more costly, as well 
 as more durable memorial. In England, incised slabs do 
 not appear ever to have existed in great number, the pre- 
 valent fashion being to use the brass, shaped to the form 
 of the figure, and imbedded in a cavity in the slab, 
 whereby the cost of the tomb was much less than that ot 
 the Flemish brasses, which usually were formed of large 
 sheets of metal, covering the entire surface of the slab. 
 In France brasses are very rare, in many districts quite un- 
 known ; but the incised slabs of stone, marble or alabaster 
 are often very fine, much finer than any known in England. 
 
 Inn, or Hostel. These terms were formerly employed 
 as synonymous with any house used as a lodging-house, 
 and not confined to taverns as at present. For example, 
 the inns or halls which were so numerous in Oxford and 
 Cambridge, before the erection of colleges, were merely 
 lodging-houses for the scholars, subject to certain regu- 
 lations; the Inns of court in London were of a similar 
 character for the use of the law- students. There are yet 
 remaining in some old towns, buildings of considerable 
 
 Jmpluvium See Atrium. Romans, similar to our i( ran- 
 
 Incertum opus (Vitruvius), a dom or rubble- work.” 
 term for masonry used by the 
 
* 4 * 
 
 Inn, or hostel — Etonioorfe. 
 
 antiquity originally built for public inns, and some of 
 them are still used for that purpose, though for the most 
 part they have been considerably altered, as at Rochester, 
 Salisbury, Glastonbury, Sherborne, Malmesbury, Fother- 
 inghay, Ludlow, Grantham, York. 
 
 Intercolumniation, the clear space between two co- 
 lumns ; it varies considerably in width, and from its 
 proportions the porticoes of the ancients are divided into 
 the following orders : pycnostyle , in which the inter- 
 columniation is equal to one diameter and a half of the 
 shaft of the column ; systyle , in which the intercolumni- 
 ation is equal to two diameters ; eustyle , two and a quar- 
 ter diameters; diastyle , three diameters; arceostyle , four 
 diameters. 
 
 Ironwork. Of the ironwork of the Middle Ages, con- 
 nected with architecture, we have not 
 very numerous specimens remaining 
 in this country, although sufficient to 
 shew the care that was bestowed upon 
 it : some of the earliest and most orna- 
 mental kind is exhibited in the hinges 
 and scrollwork on doors, illustrations 
 of which will be found described under 
 Hinge and Scroll. In the making of 
 these, considerable skill as well as 
 elegance is displayed, and the junc- 
 tions of the subordinate branches of 
 the patterns with the larger stems are 
 formed with the greatest neatness and 
 precision; the minute ornaments also 
 which are frequently introduced on 
 them, such as animals’ heads, leaves, 
 flowers, &c., are often finished with 
 more care and accuracy than might be Henry V1I/S Chape1, Weslmlnster * 
 expected in such materials ; the heads of the nails (vide 
 Nail-head ) assume a great variety of forms, some projecting 
 
 Insertum: opus (Vitruvius), 
 regular bonded masonry. 
 
 Insula, used by Leland for 
 aisle. 
 
 Interstitium, a name applied 
 
 to the central space beneath the 
 tower in a cruciform church. 
 
 Intrados, the soffit or under 
 surface of an arch,' as opposed to 
 ex tr ados. 
 
142 
 
 Eronfaorfc. 
 
 like a spike, others rounded, others flat. The Handle $ 
 and Knockers on doors are also made ornamental. The 
 former, especially when of simple character, are usually in 
 the shape of rings with a spindle going through the centre 
 of a circular escutcheon, hut sometimes they are of other 
 forms. Those of Early English and Decorated date are 
 almost always rings, and they have seldom any ornament 
 about them beyond occasionally a few spiral lines arising 
 from their being made of a square bar of iron twisted, and 
 sometimes a small flower or animal's head on each side 
 of the end of the spindle to keep them in their places : 
 when not made in the form of rings, the 
 handles are ornamented in various ways, 
 frequently with minute patterns of tra- 
 cery. The Escutcheons are occasionally 
 made with a projecting boss or umbo in 
 the centre, and sometimes have a few 
 branches of foliage under them, but they 
 are more usually ornamented with minute 
 tracery, or with holes pierced through 
 them in various patterns. Sometimes the \ 
 whole escutcheon is cut into leaves : the 
 end of the spindle is not unfrequently 
 formed into a head. Besides these handles, others in the 
 form of a bow are a 1 so 
 used ; they are fre- 
 quently, if not usually, 
 made angular, and are 
 placed upright on the 
 doors ; sometimes they 
 are fixed, but are oftener 
 made to turn in a small 
 eye or staple at each 
 end. The pendant han- 
 dles are in general suf- 
 ficiently ponderous to 
 serve for knockers, and 
 they were evidently often 
 intended to be used as 
 
 such, for there is a large- 
 headed nail fixed in the 
 
 Stogumber, Somersetshire. 
 
Jronfootfe. 
 
 *43 
 
 door for them to strike upon ; but sometimes the knocked 
 is distinct from the handle, and is made equally, if not 
 more ornamental. In the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- 
 turies, Knockers partake very much of the form of a ham- 
 mer; are frequently fixed on an ornamental escutcheon, 
 and usually strike upon a large-headed nail. Locks , espe- 
 cially when placed on the outside of duors, are very com- 
 monly ornamented with patterns of tracery, and studs 
 formed by the heads of nails, and sometimes also with 
 small mouldings; when placed on the inside of the doors 
 there are frequently enriched escutcheons over the key- 
 holes, which are often in the form of shields. 
 
 Throughout the period in which Gothic architecture 
 flourished, the appearance of the ironwork that was ex- 
 posed to view seems to have been duly regarded, and in 
 enriched buildings usually to have been made proportion - 
 ably ornamental : the heads of the stancheons in windows, 
 and in the openings of screens, are often enriched with 
 flowers or other decorations. Monuments are not unfre- 
 
 quently surrounded with iron railings, in the details of 
 which the characteristics of the style of architecture 
 which prevailed at the period of their erection are to be 
 detected. Several ancient doors of iron also remain, con- 
 sisting of small flat bars crossing each other, and riveted 
 together after the fashion of grilles. One of the most 
 elaborate specimens of the ironwork of the Middle Ages is 
 
144 
 
 Eronlnork— 3o$$lz. 
 
 the tomb of Edward IV., in St. George’s Chapel, Windsor ; 
 it consists of rich open screenwork, with a variety of but- 
 tresses, pinnacles, crockets, tabernacles, tracery, and other 
 ornaments, which are introduced in great profusion. [See 
 Escutcheon , Hinge , and Nail-head 
 
 Jamb (Fr.), the side of a window, door, chimney, &c. 
 
 Jesse, or Tree of Jesse, a representation of the gene- 
 alogy of Christ, in which the different persons forming the 
 descent are placed on scrolls of foliage branching out of 
 each other, intended to represent a tree; it was by no 
 means an uncommon subject for sculpture, painting, and 
 ombroidery. At Dorchester Church, Oxfordshire, it is 
 curiously formed in the stonework of one of the chancel 
 windows ; at Christ Church, Hampshire, and in the chapel 
 of All Souls’ College, Oxford, it is cut in stone on the 
 reredos of the altar; it is often made the subject of the 
 stained glass in an eastern window. It was likewise 
 wrought into a branched candlestick, thence called a Jesse, 
 not an unusual piece of furniture in ancient churches. 
 
 Jettie (Fr.), or Jutty, a part of a building that projects 
 beyond the rest, and overhangs the wall below, as the 
 upper stories of timber houses, bay windows, penthouses, 
 small turrets at the corners, &c. (2.) Also used as a pier 
 
 projecting into the water. 
 
 Joggle. A term peculiar to masons, who use it in 
 various senses relating to the 
 fitting of stones together; al- 
 most every sort of jointing, in 
 w'hich one piece of stone is let 
 or fitted into another, is called 
 a joggle; what a carpenter would call a rebate is also 
 a joggle in stone. 
 
 J J. Joggles. 
 
 Xsodomum, masonry in which 
 the courses are of equal thick- 
 ness. 
 
 Jack-rafter, a short rafter 
 fixed to the hips of a roof ; a 
 piece of timber in a frame cut 
 short of its usual length often 
 receives the name of Jack . 
 
 Jawe-piece, an ancient term 
 in carpentry, somewhat obscure, 
 but probably applied to struts 
 and braces in a roof. 
 
 Jkrkin-head Roof, a roof the 
 end of which is fashioned into 
 a shape intermediate between 
 a gable and a hip. 
 
3omt — !&i\\twz. 
 
 M5 
 
 Joint: the interstices between the stones or bricks in 
 masonry and brickwork are called joints. A straight joint, 
 shews an addition made to the work after it was complete. 
 
 Joists (Fr.), the horizontal timbers in a floor, on which 
 the flooring is laid : also the small timbers which sustain 
 a ceiling. In floors constructed without girders there 
 . is usually but one thickness of joists, to the underside of 
 which the ceiling is attached, but when girders are used 
 they are often double, (the upper row carrying the floor- 
 ing, and the lower the ceiling,) with a series of larger 
 timbers between them, called binding joists ; when this 
 kind of construction is used the upper joists are called 
 bridging joists. 
 
 Jube, the Rood-loft, or gallery, over the entrance into 
 the choir, is called in France and sometimes in England 
 the Jube, from the words, Jube, Bornine, benedicere , which 
 were pronounced from it immediately before certain les- 
 sons in the Homan Catholic service, which were sometimes 
 chanted from this gallery, when the dean, abbot, or other 
 superior of the choir, gave his benediction ; a custom still 
 continued in some of the foreign churches, as at Bayeux 
 Cathedral. This name was also applied to the Arnbo for 
 the same reason. 
 
 Key -stone, the central stone, or voussoir, at the top of 
 an arch ; the last which is placed in its position to com- 
 plete the construction of an arch. The Bosses in vaulted 
 ceilings are sometimes called Keys. See Voussoir. 
 
 Killesse, also Cuilis, Coulisse (Fr.), a gutter, groove, or 
 channel; whence the term Port-coulisse or Port-cullie, 
 a gate sliding down in a groove. This term is in some 
 districts corruptly applied to a hipped roof by country 
 carpenters, who speak of a killessed or cullidged roof. 
 A dormer window is also sometimes called a killesse or 
 cullidge window. 
 
 Jopy, probably the same as 
 Jawe-piece. 
 
 Jymewe — a hinge. 
 
 Kage or Cage, sometimes ap- 
 plied to chantry chapels enclosed 
 with lattice- work. 
 
 Keep, the chief tower or don- 
 jon of a castle. 
 
 Kernel. See Crenelle. 
 
 Kirk, a church ; still in use in 
 Scotland, 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 3£mjj.pcst — 3lafmrum. 
 
 King-post, the middle or chief post of a roof, standing 
 on the tie-beam and reaching up to the ridge ; it is often 
 formed into an octagonal column with capital and base, 
 and small struts or braces, which are usually slightly 
 curved, spreading from it above the capital to some of the 
 other timbers. [For illustration, see Roof] 
 
 Kitchen. Although in the Bayeux Tapestry the cook- 
 ing is shewn as taking place in the open air, still there is 
 no doubt that from the earliest Norman times there was 
 a chamber in all large houses set apart for the kitchen. It 
 is mentioned by Necham, and some of the large fireplaces 
 which we find remaining in twelfth-century buildings 
 were no doubt employed for this purpose. In the Middle 
 Ages the kitchen became an important building in all 
 castles, monasteries, and large houses; often it was a 
 building almost detached from the main structure, such 
 as at Glastonbury or Stanton Harcourt. Its usual posi- 
 tion was at the end of the hall, with an entrance to it by 
 a short passage from the screens ; the buttery and pantry 
 were generally on the two sides of the passage. In fact 
 the plan which we still find in many of the collegiate 
 buildings of the Universities is the usual plan which was 
 adopted in the Middle Ages in all large establishments. 
 
 Knee, a term used in some parts of the west of Eng- 
 land for the return of the dripstone at the spring of the 
 arch. (2.) Also a crooked piece of wood or iron fixed in 
 the manner of a corbel under the ends of a beam. 
 
 Labarum, properly the standard bearing the cross of 
 Constantine, as it is called, and not the cross itself. This 
 consists of the combination of the two Greek initial letters 
 of the name of CHBisr, x.p. In the Catacombs it is fre- 
 quently found, and continued in the Eastern Church. In 
 the Western Church it seems to have been eventually sup- 
 planted by the monogram IHS. being the Greek initials of 
 the name of IH20Y2 (Jesus). 
 
 Knee-Bafter, a rafter in the 
 principal truss of a roof, the 
 lower end or foot of which is 
 crooked downwards so that it 
 may rest more firmly on the 
 walls. 
 
 Knee-timber, in carpentry a 
 bent piece of wood formed out of 
 a tree which has grown crooked, 
 so that the fibres of the wood 
 follow the curve. 
 
 Knocker. See Ironwork. 
 
3L acuttar — 3L antern. 
 
 147 
 
 Lacunar, or Lequear, a ceiling, and also sometimes used 
 for panels or coffers in ceilings, or in the soffits of cor- 
 nices, &c. 
 
 Lady-chapel, a chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, 
 called Our Lady, which was attached to large churches. 
 It was usually placed eastward of the high altar, often 
 forming a projection from the main building. 
 
 Lantern, in Italian 
 or modern architec- 
 ture a small structure 
 on the top of a dome, 
 or in other similar 
 situations, for the pur- 
 pose of admitting light, 
 promoting ventilation, 
 or for ornament, of 
 which those on the 
 top of St. Paul’s Ca- 
 thedral, and the Rad- 
 cliffe Library at Ox- 
 ford, may be referred, 
 to as Palladian ex- 
 amples. In Gothic ar- 
 chitecture the term is- 
 applied to louvres on 
 the roofs of halls, &c.-, 
 but it usually signi- 
 fies a tower which has 
 the whole height, or a 
 considerable portion of 
 the interior, open, to- 
 view from the ground,, 
 and is lighted by an 
 upper tier of win- 
 dows: lantern-towers 
 
 St. Helen’s, York. 
 
 Knot, Knop, Knoppe, a bunch 
 of leaves or flowers forming a 
 boss ; or the foliage on a capital. 
 
 Label, or Label-moulding, a 
 square or horizontal dripstone. 
 
 Lancet, a term applied some- 
 times to the form of an arch, 
 and especially to that over win- 
 dows. 
 
148 3Lantern — ilabatorg. 
 
 of this kind are common over the centre of cross churches, 
 as at York Minster, Ely Cathedral, &c. The same name 
 is also given to the light open erections often placed on 
 the tops of towers, as at Boston, Lincolnshire, and Lowick, 
 Northamptonshire ; these sometimes have spires rising 
 from them, but in such cases they are less perforated with 
 windows, as at St. Michael’s Church, Coventry. 
 
 Lanternes des Morts occur in the churchyards on the 
 Continent, chiefly in Poitou; they were simply pillars 
 with a place for a light on the top, similar to small light- 
 houses, and it is not improbable that something of the 
 kind was adopted in the early Roman cemeteries. Some 
 of the Irish round towers have been supposed to be of this 
 nature. 
 
 Lavatory (Lat.), a cistern or trough to wash in. There 
 was usually a lavatory 
 in the cloisters of mo- 
 nastic establishments, 
 at which the inmates 
 washed their hands 
 and faces, also the sur- 
 plices and other vest- 
 ments ; some of these 
 still remain, as at 
 Gloucester and Wor- 
 cester. The name is 
 also given to the pis- 
 cina. In the south of 
 Germany the lavatory 
 is an important fea- 
 ture resembling a bap- 
 tistery ; it is a sepa- 
 rate chamber, square 
 or octagonal, standing 
 on one side of the 
 cloister-court with a Selby, "Yorkshire, 
 
 reservoir of water or 
 
 a fountain in the middle, and water-troughs for washing at, 
 round them. There is a very fine one of the thirteenth 
 century at the royal monastery of Holy Cross, near Vienna. 
 
Hatten— Htctern. 
 
 149 
 
 Latten (Old Eng. spelt Laten, Lattin, Baton), a mixed 
 metal resembling brass, but apparently not considered the 
 same, for Lydgate, in his “Boke of Troye,” uses the ex- 
 pression “of brasse, of coper, and laton. ?? In the will of 
 Henry VII. this kind of metal is spoken of as copper, by 
 which name it is directed to be used about his tomb, but 
 in other ancient documents it is almost invariably called 
 latten, as in the contract for the tomb of Richard, Earl of 
 "Warwick; the monumental brasses so common in our 
 churches are referred to as being of latten. Ho rules can 
 be laid down for its exact composition, as it varies in 
 different examples which have been tested. 
 
 Leaves, a term formerly applied to window- shutters, 
 the folding-doors of closets, &c., especially to those of 
 the almeries and the repositories of reliques, formerly 
 so numerous in churches : some pieces of sacred sculp- 
 ture and paintings also were protected by light folding- 
 doors or leaves, particularly those over altars, and the 
 insides of the leaves themselves were often painted, so 
 that when turned back they formed part of the general 
 subject. These are usually called Diptychs or Triptychs, 
 according to the number of the folds. The term is occa- 
 sionally applied to the folding-doors of buildings. 
 
 Lectern or Lettern (Lat. Lego), the desk or stand on 
 which the larger books used in the services of the Roman 
 Catholic Church are placed. In this country they are usu- 
 ally employed to hold the Bible only. The principal lec- 
 tern stood in the middle of the choir, but there were some- 
 times others in different places. They were occasionally 
 made of stone or marble, and fixed, but were usually of 
 
 Laordose (Fr. La Beredos), a 
 screen at the back of a seat be- 
 hind an altar. 
 
 Larmier (Fr.), the corona. 
 
 Leaning- place of a window, 
 the thin wall frequently placed 
 below the sill of a window on 
 the inside. 
 
 Lean-to. See To -fall. 
 
 Lodgement, a string-course, or 
 horizontal suite of mouldings. 
 
 Ledger, a large flat stone 
 such as is frequently laid over 
 a tomb, &c Some of the hori- 
 zontal timbers of scaffolding 
 are called ledgers. 
 
 LEVECEL,aprojecting roof over 
 a door, the same as Penthouse. 
 
 Levys (Old Eng.) =Leaves ; 
 
 Lewis, a machine for raising 
 large stones by means of a dove- 
 tail. 
 
T 5° 
 
 Ltttern— ILtbrarg. 
 
 wood or brass, and moveable ; they were also often covered 
 with costly hang- 
 ings embroidered 
 in the same man- 
 ner as the hang- 
 ings of the altar. 
 
 At Debtling is one 
 of Decorated date; 
 it is made with a 
 desk for a book on 
 four sides, and is 
 more ornamented 
 than any of the 
 others ; they are 
 usually made with 
 desks on two sides 
 only. The speci- 
 mens of brass lec- 
 terns are not so 
 numerous as those 
 of wood. A com- 
 mon form for brass 
 lecterns, and one 
 which is some- 
 times given to 
 those of wood, is 
 that of an eagle or 
 pelican with the 
 wings expanded to 
 receive the book, 
 but they are also 
 often made with 
 two flat sloping 
 sides, or desks, for 
 books. 
 
 Library, a room or suite of rooms attached to collegiate 
 and monastic establishments for the keeping of the books. 
 No evidence remains of the fittings further than it is pro- 
 bable the few books and rolls possessed were kept in chests. 
 In early wills the books are generally mentioned among 
 the particular bequests. 
 
 Debtling, Kent. 
 
3 Ltct[-gate — 3 Lorft. 151 
 
 Lich-gate, or Corpse-gate (Lick, Ang.-Saxon, = corpse), 
 a shed over the entrance 
 of a churchyard, beneath 
 which the bearers gene- 
 rally paused when bring- 
 ing a corpse for inter- 
 ment. The term is also 
 used in some parts of 
 . the country for the path 
 by which a corpse is J 
 usually conveyed to the 
 church. In Hereford- W 
 shire it is called a Scal- 
 
 lage Garsington, Oxfordshire. 
 
 Lock. Several kinds of locks were formerly used ; that 
 most common on large doors was a stock-lock, the works 
 of which were let into a block of wood which was fixed 
 on the inside of the door ; 
 locks of this kind are now 
 often to be seen on church 
 doors. Another kind was 
 entirely of metal with one 
 side made ornamental, 
 which, when fixed, was 
 exposed to view, the works 
 being let into the door : this 
 sort of lock does not ap- 
 pear to be older than the 
 fifteenth century; various 
 specimens remain, but prin- 
 cipally on internal doors. Winchester Cathedral. 
 
 A lock of very similar de- 
 scription to this last-mentioned is also frequently found 
 
 Lierne-rib, in a vault a cross 
 rib that does not rise from the 
 impost and is not a ridge-rib. 
 
 Lights, the openings between 
 the mullions of a window, 
 screen, &c. 
 
 Linen pattern. Vide Panel. 
 
 Lintel, a piece of timber or 
 
 stone placed horizontally over 
 a doorway, window, or other 
 opening through a wall to 
 support the superincumbent 
 weight. 
 
 List, a fillet. 
 
 Lobe (Fr.), in an arch =foil, 
 i.e. Trilobe = trefoils 
 
* 5 2 
 
 ILocfe— 3Loop=f)ok. 
 
 on chests, but with a hasp which shuts into it t^ receive 
 the holt. Ingenious contrivances were sometimes resorted 
 to in order to add to the security of locks ; a door on the 
 tower staircase at Snodland Church, Kent, has a lock the 
 principal keyhole of which is covered by a plate of iron 
 shutting over it as a hasp, which is secured by a second 
 key. In the sixteenth century they were frequently very 
 elaborate and complicated pieces of mechanism, and when 
 fixed on ornamental works were often very conspicuous. 
 In addition to these kinds, pad-locks or hang -locks were 
 also frequently used. [See further illustrations under 
 Ironwork .] 
 
 Locker, a small closet or cupboard frequently found in 
 churches, especially on the north 
 side of the sites of altars ; they 
 are now usually open, but were 
 formerly closed with doors, and 
 were used to contain the sacred 
 vessels, relics, and other valu- 
 ables belonging to the church. 
 
 The locker is usually considered 
 to be smaller than the Aumbry , 
 but the terms are frequently 
 used synonymously. 
 
 Loft, a room in the roof of 
 a building; a gallery or small 
 chamber, raised within a larger apartment, or in a church, 
 as a music-loft, a singing-loft, a rood-loft, &c. 
 
 Loop-hole, Loop, Loup, nar- 
 row openings, used in the 
 fortifications of the Middle 
 Ages, through which arrows 
 and other missiles might be 
 discharged upon assailants, 
 hence called Balistraria or 
 Arbalisteria ; they were most 
 especially placed in situations 
 to command the approaches, 
 
 Lockband, in masonry, a course of bond-stone. 
 
*53 
 
 Eoop^alc — ILouhtc. 
 
 and sometimes were introduced in the merlons of the 
 battlements. These apertures seem to have come into use 
 in the thirteenth century. They are occasionally in the 
 form of a cross ; and of this last-mentioned shape they are 
 sometimes found as ornaments in the battlements of eccle- 
 siastical buildings. 
 
 Long-and-Short Work, a kind of 
 
 masonry considered by many as a 
 mark of the eleventh -century work, 
 though it occurs in later times. It. 
 consists of the quoins being placed 
 alternately flat and upright, the 
 main wall being of rubble masonry. 
 
 The illustration shews its charac- 
 ter, and others will be found under 
 Saxon . 
 
 Louvre (Fr. X’ Ouverture ), a tur- 
 ret, or small lantern, placed on the 
 roofs of an- 
 cient halls, 
 kitchens, &c., 
 to allow of 
 the escape of 
 
 smoke, or to promote ventilation ; 
 originally they were entirely open 
 at the sides, or closed only with 
 narrow boards, placed horizontally 
 and sloping, and at a little distance 
 apart, so as to exclude rain and 
 snow without impeding the pas- 
 sage of the smoke. When, as was 
 formerly by no means uncommon, 
 fires were made on open hearths, 
 without flues for the conveyance 
 of the smoke, louvres were indis- 
 pensable, and when not required 
 Lincoln college, oxford. for use they were very frequently 
 
 Loggia, a term applied in | vered space of which one or 
 Italian architecture to any co- 1 more sides are open to the air. 
 
154 
 
 SLoubre — JHarftfcoIattong* 
 
 erected for ornament, but in the latter case were usually 
 glazed, and many which, once were open have been glazed 
 in later times; examples may be seen still on some of 
 the college halls at Oxford and Cambridge. Similar in 
 structure to lanterns, they were used only for allowing 
 the smoke to escape (whence the name Furrier ell was 
 applied), while the lantern was especially for admitting 
 light. 
 
 Low-side Windows, a peculiar opening or window, usu- 
 ally on the south side of the chancel and lower than the 
 other windows, for the purpose of affording communica- 
 tion between a person on the outside and a priest within. 
 The best explanation is that they were for lepers, or for 
 any ona- so afflicted as to be inconvenient for him to join 
 the congregation, though several theories have been put 
 forward; one, viz. that a light might be seen burning, 
 suggested the name of Lychnoscope . Most examples have 
 traces of being closed by a shutter. 
 
 Machicolations, and Machicoulis (Fr.), openings formed 
 for the purpose of defence at the 
 tops of castles and fortifications, 
 by setting the parapet out on 
 corbels, so as to project beyond 
 the face of the wall, the in- 
 tervals between the corbels 
 being left open to allow of mis- 
 siles being thrown down on the 
 heads of assailants ; they are 
 more especially found over the 
 gateways and entrances, but are 
 also common in other situations. 
 
 They took the place of the Hourds of an earlier period. 
 Parapets are sometimes set out on projecting corbels, so as 
 to have a similar appearance when there are no machico- 
 lations behind them. [I5ee also illustration given under 
 Alure.~\ 
 
 Lorymer == Larmier. Luffer-boards (i.q. Louvre- 
 
 Loze Roe-Moulding. See boards), the series of sloping 
 Moulding. boards in unglazed windows to 
 
 Lucarne, a dormer or garret keep out the weather ; often 
 window. seen in tower- windows. 
 
iHasfe— fHetope. 155 
 
 Mask, or Notch-head, a kind of corbel, the shadow of 
 which bears a close resemblance 
 to that of the human face; it is 
 common in some districts in work 
 of the thirteenth and fourteenth 
 centuries, and is usually carved 
 under the eaves as a corbel-tulle. 
 
 [See illustration from Stanwick, 
 
 Northants.] A good example oc- 
 curs in Portsmouth Church, where 
 it is mixed with the tooth- orna- 
 ment. It is a favourite ornament 
 in Northamptonshire in the cor- 
 nices of the tower under a broach 
 spire, and under the parapet of 
 the chancel; but it is by no 
 means confined to any particular 
 district. 
 
 Member, a moulding; as a cornice of five members, 
 a base of three members. The term is also sometimes 
 applied to the subordinate parts of a building. 
 
 Metal-work. Besides Ironwork , the Middle Ages have 
 left to us several examples of the great skill of workers in 
 gold and silver, as well as in brass and less costly metal. 
 [See illustration under Chalice , Paten , Pyx , &c.J 
 
 Metope, or Metopse (Gr.), the space between the tri- 
 glyphs in the frieze of the Doric order: in some of 
 
 Mailles, Coif de. See illus- 
 trations to Brass. 
 
 Maniple, part of the priest’s 
 dress. See illustrations to Brass. 
 
 Manse, the parsonage-house; 
 chiefly a north-country word. 
 
 Mantle-tree, i.q. mantel- 
 piece over a fireplace. 
 
 Marquetry (Fr.), a kind of 
 mosaic or inlaid woodwork. 
 
 Masonry. See Construction 
 of Walls. 
 
 Merlon, the solid part of an 
 embattled parapet between the 
 
 embrasures. See Battlement. 
 
 Meros, the plain surface be- 
 tween the channels of a tri- 
 glyph. 
 
 Mestling, Mastlin, yellow 
 metal, brass. Sacred ornaments 
 or utensils are described as made 
 thereof; in the Inventory taken 
 at Wolverhampton, 1541, there 
 are enumerated great basins, 
 censers, vessels, and two great 
 candlesticks of “mastlin,” 
 weighing 120 lbs. It is called 
 also Batten. 
 
1 5 6 fHetope— JHtseme. 
 
 the Greek examples they are quite plain, and in 
 ornamented with sculpture; in 
 Roman buildings they are usu- 
 ally carved with ox-sculls, but 
 sometimes with pateras, shields, 
 or other devices, and are rarely 
 left plain. According to the 
 Roman method of working the 
 Doric order, it is indispensable 
 that the metopes should all be 
 exact squares, but in the Gre- 
 cian Doric this is not necessary. 
 
 others 
 
 Minster, the church of a monastery, or one to which 
 a monastery has been attached : the name is also occa- 
 sionally applied to a cathedral. 
 
 Miserere, the projecting bracket on the under side of 
 the seats of stalls in churches; these, where perfect, are 
 fixed with hinges so that they may be turned up, and 
 when this is done the projection of the miserere is suffi- 
 cient, without actually forming a seat, to afford very con- 
 siderable rest to any one leaning upon it. They were 
 allowed in the Roman Catholic Church as a relief to the 
 infirm during 
 the long ser- 
 vices that were 
 required to be 
 performed by 
 the ecclesiastics 
 in a standing 
 posture. They 
 are always more 
 or less ornamen- 
 ted with carv- 
 
 • n i Henry the Seventh’s Chapel, Westminster. 
 
 mgs of leaves, 
 
 foliage, small figures, animals, &c., which are generally 
 very boldly cut. Examples are to be found in almost all 
 churches which retain any of the ancient stalls ; perhaps 
 the oldest remaining is in Henry the Seventh’s Chapel at 
 Westminster, where there is one in the style of the 
 thirteenth century. 
 
Witn— fHonastetg. i s 7 
 
 Mitre, the line formed by the meeting of mouldings or 
 other surfaces, which intersect 
 or intercept each other at an 
 angle, as a b. 
 
 Module (Lat.), a measure of 
 proportion by which the parts 
 of an order or of a building 
 are regulated in Classical architecture ; it has been gene- 
 rally considered as the diameter, or semi -diameter, of the 
 lower end of the shaft of the column, but different archi- 
 tects have taken it from different parts and subdivided it 
 in various ways. [See also Minute . ] 
 
 Modillion (Fr.), projecting 
 brackets under the corona of 
 the Corinthian and Composite, 
 and occasionally also of the Ro- 
 man Ionic orders. 
 
 Monastery, a habitation for monks, but commonly used 
 for any other religious house: a convent , or nunnery , or 
 friary was considered only as a subdivision of the general 
 term ; an alley was a monastery governed by an abbot, 
 and a 'priory was one governed by a prior, in some cases 
 subordinate to another house ; an alien priory was a cell 
 to a foreign monastery. 
 
 1. The Benedictine order. The most famous and an- 
 cient order of monks followed the rule of St. Benedict, 
 and were established in Rome prior to the sending of 
 Augustine into England by Gregory the Great. The 
 Benedictines were afterwards divided into different orders, 
 but their buildings were arranged on the same plan. All 
 the older monasteries in England belonged to the Bene- 
 dictines, and these were generally the largest and most 
 wealthy. Their usual plan consists of a square cloister 
 
 Mezzanine (Ital.), a low in- 
 termediate storey between two 
 higher ones, = French, Entre- 
 sole. See Storey. 
 
 Mezzo relievo (Ital.) See 
 Bas-relief. 
 
 Minute, a proportionate mea- 
 sure by which the parts of the 
 Classical orders are regulated; 
 the sixtieth part of the lower 
 diameter of the shaft of a co- 
 lumn. 
 
158 Jttonasterg* 
 
 with the buildings grouped round it ; the nave of a cruci- 
 form church forming one side, and this usually had aisles; 
 the transept formed a part of the east side, with the 
 chapter-house beyond, separated from the transept by 
 a narrow passage called the slype : but there is no fixed 
 place for the chapter- house ; it is often on one side of the 
 choir. The refectory is usually parallel with the nave on 
 the opposite side of the cloister, with store-rooms under it, 
 and the dormitory forms the western side with a staircase 
 down from it into the nave of the church for the night 
 services. All the mitred abbeys in England belonged to 
 the Benedictine order, and their head establishment was 
 at Canterbury. 
 
 2. The Cluniac order was founded by Odo, Abbot of 
 Cluny, in 912, but was not introduced into England until 
 1077 ; their first establishment was at Lewes, in Sussex, 
 and this order was much in fashion during the last quarter 
 of the eleventh century, very 7 few being founded after that 
 time. Their plan differs slightly from the Benedictine. 
 
 3. The Cistercians were founded by the Abbot of 
 Cisteaux, in Burgundy 7 , in 1098, and introduced into Eng- 
 land in 1128, at "Waverly Abbey, Surrey ; and during the 
 remainder of the twelfth century they were so much in 
 vogue that there were often two or three establishments 
 founded in a single y T ear, but after the end of that century 
 the fashion again changed, and we have very few founded 
 after 1200. Their plan differs considerably from, the 
 Benedictine : the nave is divided into three parts, either 
 by screens, walls, or steps, and has no aisles; the choir is 
 short and the transepts also short. The other buildings 
 are also arranged in a different order. 
 
 4. The August inian Canons or Canons Regular, were 
 canons who lived according to rule, which the secular 
 canons did not. Their rule differed very little practically 
 from that of the Benedictines : they had a common dor- 
 mitory and refectory, whilst the secular canons lived each 
 in his own house. They 7 were introduced into England 
 by 7 Henry I., in 1105, at Colchester, and their establish- 
 ments were very numerous. 
 
 5. The Premonstratensian order of regular canons, was 
 instituted by 7 Norbert,, Archbishop of Magdeburg, and the 
 
T 59 
 
 fHona^terg. 
 
 head establishment was at Pratum Monstratum or Praemon- 
 stratum (Premontre), in Picardy ; it was introduced into 
 England in 1140, at New-house, in Lincolnshire. Their 
 dress was white ; they were reformed Augustinians. 
 
 6. The Carthusians were another reformed branch of 
 the Benedictines , their founder was St. Bruno, of Cologne, 
 and their head establishment the Grande Chartreuse, in 
 the diocese of Grenoble, founded about 1080. Their 
 monasteries were called Charter-houses ; their first house 
 in England was at Witham, in Somersetshire, founded by 
 Henry II., in 1180, the first prior being St. Hugh, after- 
 wards Bishop of Lincoln, who was brought over from the 
 Grande Chartreuse by the King 0 Their plan is different 
 from the Benedictine abbeys ; instead of having the choir 
 of a large church for the monks and the nave for the 
 people, they built two smaller churches, one for the monks, 
 the other for the people : the latter having become a parish 
 church has often been preserved where the monastery has 
 entirely disappeared, as in the case at Witham. These 
 brethren lived each in a separate cottage of three rooms, 
 with a small garden to it ; this was called his cell ; they 
 were arranged round a cloister. Many of these establish- 
 ments remain unaltered and are still in use in Italy. 
 
 These were the chief divisions of orders of monks, but 
 there were several subordinate ones of minor importance. 
 
 The chief Military orders were the Templars and the 
 Hospitallers. The Templars were established in 1118, for 
 the defence of the Temple at Jerusalem, and of pilgrims 
 to it , the Hospitallers for that of the Hospital of St. John, 
 also at Jerusalem, but after Jerusalem was abandoned by 
 the Crusaders, they settled at Rhodes and afterwards at 
 Malta, and their order is not quite extinct. The Tem- 
 plars were suppressed in the fourteenth century, and 
 their establishments were then given up to other purposes 
 or destroyed. 
 
 At a later period the Friars were more popular than 
 either the Monks or the Knights, and most of the founda- 
 tions of the fifteenth century are of Eriaries : but they had 
 no estates ; their churches are generally plain, and with- 
 out aisles, but often large, and well calculated for preach- 
 ing. There were three principal orders:— 
 
i6o 
 
 iSauasterg— iSKogafefaorfe. 
 
 1. The Dominicans , or Black Priars, called also the 
 Preaching Priars, established by St. Dominic about 1170, 
 first introduced into England in 1221. 
 
 2. The Franciscans , or Grey Priars, called also Minorites, 
 from their head establishment in the Minories, London. 
 Instituted by St. Prancis, at Assisi in Italy, a.d. 1209, es- 
 tablished in England at Canterbury in 1224. 
 
 3. The Carmelites, or White Priars, who were driven 
 out from Mount Carmel by the Saracens, in 1098; esta- 
 blished in England, at Alnwick, in 1240. 
 
 4. The Austin Friars , or Hermits, introduced into Eng- 
 land in 1250. Their usual dress in public was black. 
 
 5. Friars of the Holy Trinity , or Maturines, established 
 for the redemption of captives; instituted by St.John de 
 Matha in 1197. Their head establishment was at St. 
 Maturine’s Chapel, Paris; they were introduced into Eng- 
 land in 1224, at Mottenden, Kent. Dress white, with red 
 and blue crosses on the breast. 
 
 6. Crutched or Crouched Friars , instituted at Bologna 
 in 1169, and established in England, at Colchester, in 
 1244. Their dress was blue with a red cross; originally 
 they carried a cross on a staff, and crouched before it. 
 
 There were seven more orders of friars, but of less 
 importance and with few establishments, and there were 
 nuns of nearly all the orders of which there were monks. 
 
 The Jesuits first came into England in 1538; their object 
 was to crush the Reformation, and they were introduced 
 immediately after the dissolution of the monasteries. 
 
 Mosaic-work (Lat. Opus Musivum ), ornamental work 
 formed by inlaying small pieces, usually cubes, of glass, 
 
 Modinature, the general dis- 
 tribution, profiles, and arrange- 
 ment of the mouldings of an 
 order, a building, or any archi- 
 tectural member. 
 
 Monopteral, a circular form 
 of Temple , consisting of a roof 
 supported on columns without 
 any cell. 
 
 Monostyle, an epithet applied 
 by some French writers to the 
 piers of mediaeval architecture 
 when they consist of a single 
 shaft. 
 
 Monotriglyph, the interco- 
 lumniation in the Doric order 
 which embraces one triglyph and 
 two metopes in the entablature. 
 
 Monstrance, the glass vessel 
 in which the consecrated wafer 
 or Host was placed when the con- 
 gregation were blessed with it. 
 
 Monument. See Tomb. 
 
 Monyal or Monion. See Mul- 
 lion. 
 
 Mortice. See illustration 
 under Tenon. 
 
JHosatc^foork — JHouItitng. 
 
 161 
 
 stone, &c. It was much used by the Romans in floors, 
 and on the walls of houses, and many specimens which 
 have been discovered are exceedingly beautiful from the 
 introduction of different- coloured materials, and represent 
 a variety of subjects with figures of animals, or often 
 simply patterns such as frets, guilloches, foliage, &c. 
 
 In the Middle Ages this kind of work continued to be 
 used in Italy and some other parts of the Continent, and 
 was applied to pictures on the walls and vaults of churches 
 as well as to pavements. The favourite pattern in the 
 mediaeval pavements is called Opus Alexandrinum ; this 
 was used chiefly in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. 
 In England it was never extensively employed, though 
 used in some parts of the shrine of Edward the Confessor, 
 on the tomb of Henry III., and in the paving of the choir 
 at Westminster Abbey, and Becket’s crown at Canterbury, 
 where curious patterns may be seen. Mosaic-work is still 
 executed with great skill by the Italians, and at a distance 
 the work has all the appearance of oil-paintings. 
 
 Mould, or Mold, the model or pattern used by workmen, 
 especially by masons, as a guide in working mouldings, 
 and ornaments : it consists of a thin board or plate of 
 metal cut to represent the exact section of the mouldings, 
 &c., to be worked from it. 
 
 Moulding, or Molding, a term applied to all the varie- 
 ties of outline or contour given to the angles of the various 
 subordinate parts and features of buildings, whether pro- 
 jections or cavities, such as cornices, capitals, bases, door 
 and window jambs and heads, &c. The regular mould- 
 ings of Classical architecture are the Fillet , or list; the 
 Astragal , or lead ; the Cyma reversa , or Ogee ; the Cyma 
 recta , or cyma; the Cavetto ; the Ovolo ; the Scotia , or 
 trochilus ; and the Torus ; each of these admits of some 
 variety of form, and there is considerable difference in the 
 manner of working them between the Greeks and Romans. 
 [See those terms.] The mouldings in Classical architecture 
 are frequently enriched by being cut into leaves, eggs, 
 and tongues, or other ornaments, and sometimes the larger 
 members have running patterns of foliage carved on them 
 in low relief; the upper moulding of cornices is occasion- 
 ally ornamented with a series of projecting lions’ heads. 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 fHouIbiruj. 
 
 Binham, Norfolk. 
 
 Norwich Cathedral. 
 
 Peterborough Cathedral. 
 
 Peterborough Cathedral. 
 
 In mediaeval architecture, the diversities in the propor- 
 tions and arrangements of the mouldings are very great, 
 and it is scarcely possible to do more than point out a few 
 of the leading and most characteristic varieties. 
 
 In the Norman style the plain mouldings consist simply 
 of squares, rounds, and hollows, variously combined, with 
 an admixture of 
 splays, and a few 
 fillets. The rich 
 mouldings, how- 
 ever, are very 
 various, one of 
 the most marked 
 being the con- 
 stant recurrence 
 of the Zigzag or 
 Chevron mould- 
 ing: it has not 
 been very clearly 
 ascertained at what period this kind of decoration was 
 first introduced, but it was certainly not till some con- 
 siderable time after the commencement of the style ; when 
 once adopted, it became more common than any other 
 ornament. A series of grotesque heads placed in a hollow 
 moulding, called Beak-heads , with their tongues or beaks 
 lapping over a large bead or torus, was also very common. 
 The Hatched moulding is 
 also not uncommon, and 
 is found early in the style, 
 as it can be cut conveni- 
 ently without the aid of 
 elaborate tools. 
 
 The Other faVOUrite mOUld- Westminster Hall, a.d. 1097. 
 
 ings of the Norman style are the Billet mouldings, both 
 square and round, the Lozenge , the Nail-head , the Pellet , 
 the Chain, the Cable, and the Rose, of all which illustra- 
 tions are given on the plate in the next page. There may 
 also be mentioned the Star, the Billeted Cable, the Nebule , 
 the Studded , the Indented , the Scolloped , the Fir Cone, the 
 Double Cone , the Dovetail, the Embattled , the Open Heart, 
 and the Antique. 
 
164 
 
 JHouItitwj. 
 
 Salisbury Cathedral. 
 
 In the Early English style, the plain mouldings become 
 lighter, and are more boldly cut than in the Norman ; the 
 varieties are not very great, and in arches, jambs of doors, 
 windows, &c., they are very commonly so arranged that 
 if they are circumscribed by a line drawn to touch, the 
 most prominent points of their contour it will be found 
 to form a succession of rectangular recesses. [See illus- 
 tration under Templet . J They gene- 
 rally consist of alternate rounds and 
 hollows, the latter very deeply cut, 
 and a few small fillets ; sometimes also 
 splays are used: there is considerable 
 inequality in the sizes of the round 
 mouldings, and the larger ones are very usually placed 
 at such a distance apart as to admit of several smaller 
 between them ; these large rounds have frequently one or 
 more narrow fillets worked on them, 
 or are brought to a sharp edge in the 
 middle (as may be seen in the illus- 
 trations from Stanton and Brackley, 
 under Fillet;) the smaller rounds are 
 often undercut with a deep cavity on 
 one side (e e), and the round and hol- 
 low members -constantly unite with 
 each other without any parting fillet 
 or angle. 
 
 The ornamental mouldings in this 
 style are not numerous, and they are 
 almost invariably placed in the hollows ; 
 the commonest and most characteristic 
 is that which is known by the name of 
 the Dog-tooth ornament , which usually 
 consists of four small plain leaves united 
 so as to form a pyramid, (in Trench, vio- 
 let tes ;) these ornaments are commonly 
 placed close together, and sometimes in 
 series: the other enrichments consist 
 chiefly of single leaves and flowers, or 
 of running patterns of the loliage pecu- 
 liar to the style. [See illustrations under 
 
 DoOrWay . Tooth- Ornament, &C.] Peterborough Cathedral. 
 
jlHaultimg. 165 
 
 The plain mouldings in the Decorated style are more 
 diversified than in the Early English, though in large suites 
 rounds and hollows continue for the most part to prevail; 
 the hollows are often very deeply cut, but in many instances, 
 especially towards the end of the style, they become shal- 
 lower and broader; ovolos are not very uncommon and ogees 
 are frequent; splays also 
 are often used, either by 
 themselves or with other 
 mouldings ; fillets placed 
 upon larger members are 
 abundant, especially in the 
 early part of the style, and 
 a round moulding called the 
 Roll-moulding (or Scroll- 
 moulding ), like a roll of 
 parchment, with a sharp 
 
 projecting edge on it, aris- Door, Kiddington, o XO n. 
 
 ing from one half being formed from a smaller curve than 
 the other, is frequently used, and is characteristic of Deco- 
 rated work; when used horizontally the larger curve is 
 placed uppermost : there is also another moulding, convex 
 in the middle and concave at each extrem- 
 ity, which, though sometimes found in the 
 Perpendicular style, may be considered as 
 generally characteristic of the Decorated. 
 
 Fillets are very frequently used to sepa- 
 rate other members, but the rounds and 
 hollows often run together, as in the 
 Early English style. The enrichments consist of leaves 
 and flowers, either set separately or in running patterns, 
 figures, heads, and animals, all of which are generally 
 carved with greater 
 truth than at any other 
 period ; but the ball- 
 flower, which belongs 
 especially to this style, 
 and a variety of the 
 four -leaved flower , are 
 the commonest. [See illustrations under Ball-flower , Niche , 
 R%b, Window , Canopy, Doorway , and Tabernacle i\ 
 
i66 
 
 mg — f&ullt'ott. 
 
 Balliol College, Oxford. 
 
 In the Perpendicular style, the mouldings are generally 
 flatter and less effective than at an earlier period. One 
 of the most striking characteristics is 
 the prevalence of very large, and often 
 shallow hollows ; these sometimes occu- 
 pied so large a space as to leave hut 
 little room for any other mouldings : 
 the hollows and round members not un- 
 frequently unite without any line of separation, but the 
 other members are parted either by quirks or fillets. The 
 most prevalent moulding is the ogee, but rounds, which 
 are often so small as to be only beads, are very abundant, 
 and it is very usual to find two ogees 
 in close contact, with the convex sides 
 next each other. There is also an un- Sill 
 dulating moulding, which 
 is common in the abacus 
 and dripstones, peculiar to 
 the Perpendicular style, especially the lat- 
 ter part of it ; and another indicative of the 
 same date, which is concave in the middle 
 and round at each extremity, is occasionally 
 used in door-jambs, &c. In Perpendicular 
 work, small fillets are not placed upon larger 
 members, as in Decorated and Early English ; splays also 
 are much less frequent. The ornaments used in the 
 mouldings are running patterns of foliage and flowers; 
 detached leaves, flowers, and bunches of foliage; heads, 
 animals, and figures, usually grotesque ; shields, and vari- 
 ous heraldic and fanciful devices : the large hollow mould- 
 ings, when used in arches or the jambs of doors and win- 
 dows, sometimes contain statues with canopies over them. 
 
 Mullion (or Monion y or Monial ), the division between the 
 lights of windows, screens, &c., in Gothic architecture ; the 
 styles, or upright divisions, in wainscoting are also some- 
 times called by the same name. Mullions are scarcely 
 ever found of earlier date than the Early English style, for 
 though windows are not unfrequently used in couplets, 
 and sometimes in triplets, in Norman work, they are 
 almost invariably separated by small shafts, or by piers, 
 too massive to be called mullions ; Early English windows 
 
fHulIton. 
 
 167 
 
 Perpendicular. 
 
 Oxford Cathedral. 
 
 Westminster Hall. 
 
 also are often separated by piers; but in numerous in- 
 stances they are placed so close together, that the divisions 
 become real mullions, and from the date of the introduc- 
 Decorated tion tracery they are 
 universal. In unglazed 
 windows, such as those in 
 belfries, single shafts are 
 sometimes used in place 
 of mullions in the Early 
 English style, and per- 
 haps occasionally in the 
 Decorated; in open screen- 
 work they appear to pre- 
 vail in both these styles, 
 and examples of Decorated 
 date are by no means un- 
 common. The mouldings 
 of mullions are extremely 
 various, but they always 
 partake of the character- 
 istics of the prevailing style of architecture ; in rich Early 
 English and Decorated work they have frequently one or 
 more small shafts attached to them which terminate at the 
 level of the springing of the arch, 
 and the mouldings in the tracery 
 (where tracery is used) over the 
 capitals of the shafts are generally 
 different from those below ; but in 
 very numerous instances, mullions, 
 in both these styles, have plain 
 splays only, and no mouldings, 
 and many of Decorated date have 
 shallow hollows instead of splays at 
 the sides; in Perpendicular work 
 a plain mullion of this last-men- 
 tioned kind is extremely common. 
 
 After the introduction of the Per- 
 pendicular style, shafts are rarely 
 found on mullions, though bases are 
 sometimes worked at the bottoms of the principal mould- 
 ings, an arrangement which is also occasionally found in 
 
 Buffield, 
 
 Derbyshire. 
 
168 fKulltatt — $tabe. 
 
 earlier work, and most abundantly in the Flamboyant 
 style of France. 
 
 Mutule (Lat.), a projecting block worked under the 
 corona of the Doric cornice, in the 
 same situation as the modillions in 
 the Corinthian and Composite orders; 
 it is often made to slope downward 
 towards the most prominent part, 
 and has usually a number of small guttae, or drops, worked 
 on the underside. 
 
 Nail-heads. In middle-age architecture the heads 
 the nails were very frequently 
 made or- 
 namental, 
 and va- 
 ried to 
 
 of 
 
 Nail-heads, Compton, Berks. 
 
 some ex- 
 
 tent during the prevalence of the 
 different styles. They were used 
 not only in fastening the metal- 
 work to the door, but the door was 
 often studded with them. They 
 are sometimes very elaborate, being 
 made of three or four pieces. 
 
 Nail-head on a wooden quatrefoil, 
 Coleshill, "Warwickshire. 
 
 Nave (Lat. Navis — a ship), the part of a church west- 
 ward of the choir, in which the general congregation assem- 
 ble ; in large buildings it consists of a central division, or 
 body, with two or more aisles, and there is sometimes 
 a series of small chapels at the sides beyond the aisles; in 
 smaller buildings it is often without aisles, but has some- 
 times two, or more, and sometimes one. In Cathedral and 
 
 Multifoil, af oil-arch, of which 
 the foils are so numerous that it 
 is thought unnecessary to specify 
 their number. 
 
 MuNTiN(Fr.), any upright piece 
 in a framing. 
 
 Mynchery, Saxon name for 
 nunnery. 
 
 I Naos, the cella or interior part 
 
 | of a temple. 
 
 Narthex, in Early Christian 
 churches an enclosed space near 
 the entrance for catechumens. 
 
 Nerves, a term sometimes ap- 
 plied to the ribs of a vault. 
 

 169 
 
 conventual churches the nave was generally, if not always 
 in this country, separated from the choir by a screen, 
 which in most instances still remains; on the western 
 side of this, next the nave, one or more altars were occa- 
 sionally placed ; one is recorded, for instance, to have 
 stood thus at Canterbury Cathedral, previous to the fire 
 in 1174; the same arrangement appears also to have been 
 formerly common in France, though, with but very few 
 exceptions, the old screens have been removed to make 
 way for light open partitions. Previous to the Reforma- 
 tion the pulpit was always placed in the nave, as it still 
 is at Ely and Chichester, and always in Roman Catholic 
 churches on the Continent; the font also stood there, 
 usually near the west end, sometimes in the middle, and 
 sometimes in an aisle, or adjoining one of the pillars. [See 
 Cathedral , Church, Choir , &c.] 
 
 Neck. The plain part at the bottom of a Roman Doric 
 or other capital, between the mouldings and the top of the 
 shaft. In Gothic architecture the mouldings at the bottom 
 of the capital are frequently called Neck • mouldings . 
 
 Newel (Old Eng. forms, Noel, Nowel, and Nuel), the 
 central column round which the 
 steps of a circular staircase wind; 
 in the northern parts of the 
 kingdom it is sometimes con- 
 tinued above the steps up to the 
 vaulting of the roof, and sup- 
 ports a series of ribs which radi- 
 ate from it, as at Belsay. The 
 term is also used for the princi- 
 pal post at the angles and foot 
 of a staircase. The newel stair- 
 case occurs in all turrets, as no 
 other staircase could be designed 
 to occupy so small a space. It 
 is essentially Gothic in its con- 
 struction, and though it con- 
 stantly occurs in Norman work 
 it is not found in the Classical 
 styles. See also Vise . 
 
 Belsay Castle. 
 
I 7° 
 
 
 Niche (Fr.), a recess in a 
 other erect ornament. Among 
 the ancients they were some- 
 times square, but oftener semi- 
 circular at the back, and ter- 
 minated in a half-dome at the 
 top ; occasionally small pedi- 
 ments were formed over them, 
 which were supported on con- 
 soles, or small columns or 
 pilasters placed at the sides 
 of the niches, but they were 
 frequently left plain, or orna- 
 mented only with a few mould- 
 ings. In middle-age archi- 
 tecture niches (often called 
 Tabernacles ), were extensively 
 used, especially in ecclesiasti- 
 cal buildings, for statues. 
 
 The figures in the Early 
 English style were sometimes 
 set on small pedestals, and 
 canopies w ere n ot unf requently 
 used over the heads; they 
 were often placed in suites 
 or arranged in pairs, under a 
 larger arch ; when in suites 
 they were very commonly 
 separated by single shafts, in 
 other cases the sides were 
 usually mouldt d in a similar 
 way to windows ; the arches 
 oftheheadswere either cinque- 
 foiled, trefoiled, or plain, and 
 when canopies were used they 
 were generally made to pro- 
 ject : good examples of the 
 thirteenth century are to be 
 seen on the west front of the 
 cathedral at Wells. 
 
 In the Decorated style they 
 
 wall for a statue, vase, or 
 
 Gateway of the Bishop’s Palace, 
 Peterborough, c. 1220. 
 
 Coombe Church, Oxon, c. 1350. 
 
fh'rfje. 
 
 171 
 
 very frequently had ogee canopies over them, which were 
 sometimes placed flat against the wall and sometimes 
 bowed out in the form of an ogee ; triangular canopies were 
 also common : several kinds of projecting canopies were 
 likewise used, especially when the niches were placed sepa- 
 rately. In the tops of buttresses niches were sometimes 
 made to occupy the whole breadth of the buttress, so as to 
 be entirely open on three sides, with small piers at the front 
 angles; pedestals were very common, particularly in niches 
 with projecting canopies, and in such cases were either 
 carried on corbels or rose from other projecting supports 
 below ; sometimes corbels were used instead of pedestals. 
 
 In the Perpendicular style the panelling, which was so 
 profusely introduced, was sufficiently recessed to receive 
 
 Magdalen Church, Oxford, c. 1500. Kidlington, Oxfordshire, c.1450. 
 
 figures, and these varied considerably in form, but of the 
 
IJ2 
 
 $irf)e — potman Slrrijitecture. 
 
 more legitimate niches the general character did not differ 
 very materially from those of the preceding style. In 
 plan the canopies were usually half an octagon or hexagon, 
 with small pendants and pinnacles at the angles; and 
 crockets, finials, and other enrichments were often intro- 
 duced in great profusion : buttresses, surmounted with 
 pinnacles, were also very frequently placed at the sides of 
 niches in this style. [See illustrations under Buttress , 
 Canopy y Image , Pinnacle , and Tabernacle .] 
 
 Norman Architecture, or the Anglo-Norman style. This 
 variety of the Romanesque 
 style was first used in this 
 country about the time of 
 the Conquest, the little which 
 we have of the time of Ed- 
 ward the Confessor or earlier 
 is very rude. In the early 
 stages it was plain and mas- 
 sive, with but few mouldings, 
 and those principally confined 
 to small features, such as 
 the string, impost, abacus , 
 and base, the archways being 
 either perfectly plain or form- 
 ed with a succession of square 
 angles, and the capitals of the 
 pillars, &c., were for the most 
 part entirely devoid of orna- 
 ment. Sculpture was very 
 sparingly used before the 
 twelfth century, and was fre- 
 quently added to the earlier 
 
 r *1 t i i , • j Early Norman Arch, WestmiiiSter Hall, a d. 1090. 
 
 buildings at some later period. 
 
 As the style advanced, greater lightness and enrichment 
 were introduced, and some of the later specimens exhibit 
 a profusion of ornaments. The mouldings were but little 
 varied, and consisted principally of rounds and hollows, 
 
 Nigged Ashlar, stone hewn i instead of a chisel; called also 
 with a pick or pointed hammer I Hammer -dressed. 
 
$Uirman Srcfjttecture. 
 
 i73 
 
 with small fillets and sometimes splays intermixed. A 
 very common mode of decorating buildings in this style 
 was with rows of small shallow niches or panels, which 
 were often formed of 
 intersecting arches, 
 and some of them 
 were also frequently 
 pierced to form win- 
 dows. The doorways 
 were often very deep- 
 ly recessed, and had 
 several small shafts 
 in the jambs, wdiich, 
 when first introduced, 
 were cut on the same 
 stones with the other 
 parts of the work and 
 built up in courses, 
 but at the latter end 
 of the style they were 
 frequently set sepa- 
 rately like the Early 
 English, and occa- 
 sionally were also 
 banded ; in many 
 doorways, especially 
 small ones, the open- 
 ing reached no higher 
 the arch, and was terminated flat, the tympanum or space 
 above it being usually filled with sculpture, or other orna- 
 ment. The windows were not usually of large size, and 
 in general appearance resembled small doors ; they had no 
 mullions, but sometimes they were arranged in pairs (not 
 unfrequently under a larger arch), with a single shaft be- 
 tween them; towards the end of the style they were 
 occasionally grouped together in threes, like the Early 
 English. The pillars at first were very massive, but sub- 
 sequently became much lighter; they were sometimes 
 channelled, or moulded in zigzag or spiral lines, as at Dur- 
 ham Cathedral; in plan they differed considerably, though 
 not so much as in some of the later styles ; the commonest 
 
 Late Norman Doorway, Middleton Stoney, Oxon, c. 1160. 
 
 than the level of the springing of 
 
i74 Borman Architecture. 
 
 forms were plain circles, or polygons, sometimes with small 
 shafts attached, and a cluster of four large semicircles with 
 smaller shafts in rectangular recesses between them. The 
 buttresses were most 
 commonly broad, and 
 of small projection, 
 either uniting with the 
 face of the parapet, or 
 terminating just below 
 the cornice ; sometimes 
 they had small shafts 
 worked on the angles, 
 and occasionally half- 
 shafts were used in- 
 stead of buttresses. 
 
 Spires and pinnacles 
 were not used in this 
 style, but there are 
 some turrets, of rather 
 late date, which have 
 conical tops, as at the 
 west end of Rochester 
 Cathedral, and in Nor- 
 mandy several small 
 church towers have 
 
 Steep pyramidal stone Norman Window, St. John’s, Devizes, c. 1160. 
 
 roofs. It was not till 
 
 towards the end of the Norman style that groining on 
 a large scale was practised ; at an early period the aisles 
 of churches were vaulted with plain groining without 
 bosses or diagonal ribs, but the main parts had flat ceilings, 
 or were covered with cylindrical vaults, as at the chapel 
 in the White Tow r er of London. The Norman arch was 
 round, either semicircular or horse-shoe, and sometimes 
 the impost moulding or capital was considerably below the 
 level of the springing, and the mouldings of the arch were 
 prolonged vertically down to it; this arrangement was 
 common in the arches round the semicircular apses of 
 churches, as at St. Bartholomew’s, in West Smithfield, 
 London; it was not till the latter part of the twelfth 
 century, when the Norman style was in a state of transi- 
 
potman Srrijttecture. 
 
 r 75 
 
 tion into Early English, that the pointed arch was com- 
 monly introduced, but some buildings erected at this 
 period retained the Norman characteristics in considerable 
 purity. The best example in the kingdom of an early 
 ecclesiastical structure in this style is the chapel in the 
 White Tower of London ; later specimens are to be found 
 in yery many of our cathedrals and parish churches ; 
 the churches of Iffley, Oxon., and Barfreston, Kent, are 
 striking examples of late date ; the latter of these shews 
 considerable signs of the near approach of the Early 
 English style. 
 
 The earliest dated example of this style in England is 
 probably the portion of the refectory and the substructure 
 of the dormitory of Westminster Abbey usually attributed 
 to the time of Edward the Confessor. The following are 
 other dated examples, arranged in chronological order : — 
 
 William the Conqueror, 
 1066—1087. 
 
 Canterbury Cathedral — Part of 
 the Dormitory. 
 
 St. Alban’s Abbey— Central tower 
 and transepts, begun 1077. 
 
 Bochester Cathedral — Tower on 
 north side. 
 
 Mailing Abbey — West front. 
 
 „ St. Leonard’s Tower, 
 (Gundulph). 
 
 London, Tower of — Keep. 
 
 William II., 1087 — 1100. 
 
 Canterbury Cathedral — Part of 
 the crypt, and walls of the 
 choir aisles. 
 
 Ely Cathedral— Transepts. 
 
 Lincoln Cathedral — Part of West 
 Front. 
 
 Lastringham,Yorkshire-Crypt. 
 
 Thorney Abbey, Cambridgeshire 
 — Walls of the nave. 
 
 Hurley Priory Church — Berk- 
 shire. 
 
 Chichester Cath. — Some parts. 
 
 Worcester Cathedral — Ditto. 
 
 Gloucester Cathedral — Ditto. 
 
 Carlisle Cathedral — South tran- 
 sept and a fragment of the nave. 
 
 Durham Cathedral — Nave and 
 transepts. 
 
 Lin disfarne Priory Ch., Durham. 
 
 Christ Church, Hampshire — 
 Part of nave. 
 
 Norwich Cathedral — Choir and 
 transept, and the lower part 
 of central tower. 
 
 Colchester Castle. 
 
 Bury St. Edmund’s — Abbey 
 Church. 
 
 Winchester Cathedral — Tran- 
 septs. 
 
 [The above were all building 
 during the reign of William 
 Eufus, but some had been com- 
 menced in the previous reign, 
 and many were carried on into 
 the reign following.] 
 
 Henry I., 1100—1135. 
 Canterbury Cathedral — Part of 
 the crypt, and walls of the 
 choir aisles. 
 
 Tewkesbury — Abbey Church. 
 Colchester-St.Botolph’sPriory. 
 Durham Cathedral — Nave. 
 Sherborne Castle, Dorsetshire. 
 Croyland — Abbey Church. 
 PeterboroughCathedral — Choir. 
 Boxgrove Priory, Sussex. 
 Kirkham Priory, Yorkshire. 
 Bury St. Edmund’s— St. James’s 
 Tower. 
 
 Norwich Cathedral — Nave. 
 Castor Church, Northants. 
 
176 
 
 Ikrntan 'xlrcljittcture— ©gee. 
 
 London, St. Bartholomew’s 
 Priory Church, Smithfield — 
 Choir and aisles. 
 
 Leominster Priory, Hereford- 
 shire — The old choir. 
 
 St. Margaret’s- at- Cliffe, Kent. 
 
 Rochester Cathedral — Nave. 
 
 Porchester Church, Hampshire 
 — The west front. 
 
 Stephen, 1135 — 1154. 
 
 St. Cross, Hampshire — Choir. 
 
 Buildwas Abbey, Shropshire. 
 
 ShobdenCliurch, Herefordshire. 
 
 Roche Abbey Church, Yorkshire. 
 
 Hereford Cathedral — Nave. 
 
 Bristol — St. Augustine’s Priory 
 Gateway. 
 
 ,, — Chapter-house. 
 
 BirkenheadPrioryCh., Cheshire. 
 
 Northampton, St. Peter’s. 
 
 Kenilworth Priory Church — 
 Doorway. 
 
 Henry II., 1154—1189. 
 
 Generally late and Transitional. 
 Iffley Church, Oxfordshire. 
 Stewkley Church, Bucks. 
 Jervaulx Abbey, Yorkshire. 
 Peterborough Cathedral — Nave 
 and transepts. 
 
 Oakham Castle, Rutlandshire. 
 Lanercost Priory, Cumberland. 
 Ely Cathedral — Nave. 
 
 C ant erbury Cathedral— Rebuild- 
 ing of choir under William of 
 Sens, 1175—1184. 
 
 Byland Abbey, Yorkshire. 
 Oxford, Christ Church Cath. 
 Durham Cathedral — Galilee. 
 Romsey Abbey Church, Hants. 
 Witham Priory Ch., Somerset. 
 London, Temple Church. 
 Glastonbury — St.Joseph’sChap. 
 Oxford, St. Peter’s — Choir and 
 crypt. 
 
 Ogee, or Ogyve (Old Fr.), a moulding formed by the 
 combination of a round 
 and hollow, part be- 
 ing concave and part 
 convex. In Classical 
 architecture ogees are 
 extensively used, and 
 are always placed with 
 the convex part up- 
 wards, [see Cyma Re- 
 versal : among the 
 
 Greeks they were 
 formed with quirks at the top, but by the Romans these 
 were very frequently omitted. 
 
 In Gothic architecture also ogees are very abundantly 
 employed, but they are, quite as often as not, used with 
 the hollow part upwards, and in such cases might in strict- 
 ness be called cyma recta; they are almost invariably 
 quirked : in Norman work they are very rarely found, and 
 are less common in the Early English than in either of the 
 
 Quirked Ogee, Arch of Constantine, Rome. 
 
 Nosing, the prominent edge of 
 a moulding or drip. A term 
 often applied to the projecting 
 moulding on the edge of a step. 
 
 Octostyle, a portico having 
 eight columns in front. 
 
 Oculus, a round window. 
 Off-set. See Set-off. 
 
©gee— ©tier. 
 
 177 
 
 [See and, 
 
 later styles. This moulding assumed different forms at 
 different periods, and the variations, 
 although not sufficiently constant to 
 afford conclusive evidence of the date 
 of a building, often impart very great 
 assistance towards ascertaining its 
 age : fig. 1 is Early English ; fig. 2 is 
 used at all periods, but less frequently 
 in the Early English than in the other 
 styles ; fig. 3 is Decorated ; fig. 4 is 
 late Perpendicular. 
 
 The term Ogee is also applied to 
 a pointed arch, the sides of which are 
 each formed of two contrasted curves, 
 under Decorated , Higham Eerrars.] 
 
 Order, in Classical architecture, a column entire, con- 
 sisting of base, shaft, and capital, with an entablature. 
 There are usually said to be five orders, the Tuscan, Doric, 
 Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite ; but the first and last, 
 sometimes called the two Roman orders, are little more 
 than varieties of the Doric and Corinthian, and were not 
 used by the Greeks. 
 
 The Tuscan Order , the simplest of the five orders of 
 Classical architecture : it was unknown to the Greeks, and 
 by many is considered only as a Roman variety of the Doric 
 order. The column is usually made six times the diameter 
 of the lower part of the shaft in height ; the entablature 
 is varied both in character and proportion by different 
 authors, but it is always simple and without any enrich- 
 ment ; the capital has a square abacus, with a small pro- 
 jecting fillet on the upper edge ; under the abacus is an 
 ovolo and a fillet, with a neck below ; the base consists of 
 a square plinth and a large torus ; the shaft of the column 
 is never fluted. 
 
 Ogival, French equivalent for 
 Gothic, i.e. from Ogive — a 
 pointed arch. Whence also the 
 terms adopted by some ecelesi- 
 ologists, First Pointed, Second 
 or Middle Pointed, and Third 
 Pointed, meaningEarly English, 
 Decorated, and Perpendicular. 
 
 Oillets. See Loop-holes. 
 
 Opisthodomus, the enclosed 
 space in the rear of a cell in 
 a Greek Temple. 
 
 Oratory, a small private 
 chapel. See Oriel. 
 
 Orb, a blank window or panel. 
 
©rticr. 
 
 178 
 
 Grecian Doric. 
 
 The Doric Order , the oldest and simplest of the three 
 orders used by the Greeks, but it is ranked as the second of 
 the five orders adopted by 
 the Romans. The shaft 
 of the column has twenty 
 flutings, which are sepa- 
 rated by a sharp edge, 
 and not by a fillet, as in 
 the other orders, and 
 they are less than a 
 semicircle in depth : the 
 moulding below the 
 abacus of the capital is 
 an ovolo : the architrave 
 of the entablature is sur- 
 mounted with a plain 
 fillet, called the tenia: 
 the frieze is ornamented 
 by flat projections, with 
 three channels cut in 
 each, which are called 
 triglyphs; the spaces be- 
 tween these are called 
 metopes : under the tri- 
 glyphs and below the 
 tenia of the architrave 
 are placed small drops, 
 or guttae ; along the top 
 of the frieze runs a broad 
 fillet, called the capital 
 of the triglyphs : the 
 soffit of the cornice has 
 broad and shallow blocks 
 worked on it, called mu- 
 tules, one of which is 
 placed over each metope 
 and each triglyph : on 
 the under surface are 
 several rows of guttae or 
 drops. In these respects the order, as worked both by 
 the Greeks and Romans, is identical, but in other points 
 
 Roman Doric. 
 
©rtier. 
 
 179 
 
 there is considerable difference. In the pure Grecian ex- 
 amples the column has no base, and its height rises from 
 about four to six and a-half diameters; the capital has 
 a perfectly plain square abacus, and the ovolo is but little 
 if at all curved in section, except at the top, where it 
 is quirked under the abacus ; under the ovolo are a few 
 plain fillets and small channels, and a short distance below 
 them a deep narrow channel is cut in the shaft ; the flutes 
 of the shaft are continued up to the fillets under the ovolo. 
 In the Roman Doric the shaft is usually seven diameters 
 high, and generally has a base, sometimes the Attic and 
 sometimes that which is peculiar to the order, consisting 
 of a plinth and torus with an astragal above it ; the capital 
 has a small moulding round the top of the abacus, and the 
 ovolo is in section a quarter- circle, and is not quirked; 
 under the ovolo are two or three small fillets, and below 
 them a collarino or neck. According to the Roman 
 method of working this order, the triglyphs at the angles 
 of buildings must be placed over the centre of the column, 
 and the metopes must be exact squares. Sometimes the 
 mutules are omitted, and a row of dentels is worked under 
 the cornice. 
 
 The Ionic Order . The most distinguished feature of 
 this order is the capital, which is ornamented with four 
 spiral projections called vo- 
 lutes ; these are arranged in 
 the Greek examples, and the 
 best of the Roman, so as to 
 exhibit a flat face on the 
 two opposite sides of the ca- 
 pital, but in later works they 
 have been made to spring 
 out of the mouldings under 
 the angles of the abacus, so 
 as to render the four faces 
 of the capital uniform, the Erwheom . 
 
 sides of the abacus being 
 
 worked hollow like the Corinthian ; the principal mould- 
 ing is an ovolo, or echinus, which is overhung by the 
 volutes, and is almost invariably carved ; sometimes also 
 other enrichments are introduced upon the capital: in 
 
i8o 
 
 ©rtier. 
 
 Grecian Ionic. 
 
 some of the Greek examples there is a collarino, or neck- 
 ing, below the echinus, 
 ornamented with leaves 
 and flowers. The shaft 
 varies from eight and a 
 quarter to about nine and 
 a half diameters in height; 
 it is sometimes plain, and 
 sometimes fluted with 
 twenty-four flutes, which 
 are separated from each 
 other by small fillets. The 
 bases used with this order 
 are principally varieties 
 of the Attic base, but an- 
 other of a peculiar cha- 
 racter is found in some of 
 the Asiatic examples, the 
 lower mouldings of which 
 consist of two scotiae, 
 separated by small fillets 
 and beads, above which 
 is a large and prominent 
 torus. The members of 
 the entablature in good 
 ancient examples, are 
 sometimes perfectly plain, 
 and sometimes enriched, 
 especially the bed-mould- 
 ings of the cornice, which 
 are frequently cut with 
 a row of dentels. In mo- 
 dern or Italian architec- 
 ture, the simplicity of the 
 ancient entablature has 
 been considerably departed from, and the cornice is not 
 unfrequently worked, with modillions in addition to 
 dentels. 
 
 The Corinthian Order is the lightest and most ornamental 
 of the three orders used by the Greeks. “ The capital, 
 says Rickman, “ is the great distinction of this order ; its 
 
 Komau Ionic. 
 
c ©rlin:* iBi 
 
 height is more than a diameter, and consists of an astragal, 
 fillet, and apophyges, all 
 of which are measured 
 with the shaft, then a 
 hell and horned abacus. 
 
 The bell is set round with 
 two rows of leaves, eight 
 in each row, and a third 
 row of leaves supports 
 eight small open volutes, 
 four of which are under 
 the four horns of the 
 abacus, and the other 
 four, which are some- 
 times interwoven, are un- 
 der the central recessed 
 part of the abacus, and 
 have over them a flower 
 or other ornament. These 
 volutes spring out of small twisted husks, placed between 
 the leaves of the second row, and which are called cauli- 
 coles. The abacus consists of an ovolo, fillet, and cavetto, 
 like the modern Ionic. There are various modes of indent- 
 ing the leaves, which are called from these variations, 
 acanthus, olive, &c. The column, including the base of 
 half a diameter, and the capital, is about ten diameters 
 high.” 
 
 The base, which is considered to belong to this order, 
 resembles the Attic, with two scotiae between the tori, 
 which are separated by two astragals : the Attic base is 
 also frequently used, and other varieties sometimes occur. 
 
 The entablature of this order is frequently very highly 
 enriched, the flat surfaces, as well as the mouldings, being 
 sculptured with a great variety of delicate ornaments. 
 The architrave is generally formed into two or three faces 
 or faciae ; the frieze in the best examples is flat, and is 
 sometimes united to the upper fillet of the architrave 
 by an apophyges : the cornice has both modillions and 
 dentels. 
 
 t The Composite Order , called also Roman, being invented 
 by that people, and composed of the Ionic, grafted upon 
 
182 
 
 ©rber— ©tgan, 
 
 the Corinthian; it is of the same proportion as the Co- 
 rinthian, and retains the 
 same general character, 
 with the exception of the 
 capital, in which the Ionic 
 volutes and echinus are 
 substituted for the Co- 
 rinthian caulicoli and the 
 scrolls. It is one of the 
 five orders of Classic archi- 
 tecture, when five are ad- 
 mitted, but modern archi- 
 tects allow of only three, 
 considering the Tuscan and 
 the Composite as merely 
 varieties of the Doric and 
 the Corinthian. [See also 
 Column .] 
 
 In Gothic architecture the term Order is applied to the 
 divisions or recesses of an arch. [See p. 16.] 
 
 Organ : originally this term appears to have been ap- 
 plied to almost every kind of musical instrument used in 
 churches, but at an early period it began to be confined to 
 wind instruments formed of a col- 
 lection of pipes; these, however, 
 were very different from the large 
 structure now in use, and of very 
 much smaller size ; they were sup- 
 plied with wind by means of bel- 
 lows at the back, which were 
 worked by an attendant, and not 
 by the player. Besides these large 
 instruments there was also a small 
 portable organ, sometimes called 
 a “pair of Regals ,” formerly in 
 use, and this was occasionally of 
 such a size as to admit of its being carried in the hand 
 and inflated by the player; one of these is represented 
 among the sculptures in the cornice of St. John’s, Ciren- 
 ester, and another on the crozier of William of Wykeham, 
 at Oxford. 
 
©riel — ©&0I0. 
 
 183 
 
 jiiT 
 
 Oriel, or Oriole (Lat. Oratoriolum , or little place for 
 prayer, its original meaning). It 
 was a portion of an apartment set 
 aside for prayer. In mediaeval houses 
 it was not an uncommon practice to 
 arrange the domestic oratory so that 
 the sacrarium was the whole height 
 of the building, while there was an 
 upper floor looking into it for the 
 lord and his guests to attend to the 
 service. This upper part more es- 
 pecially received the name of Oriole. 
 
 Thus any projecting portion of a 
 room, or even of a building, was 
 called an Oriole, such as a pent- 
 house, or such as a closet, bower, or 
 private chamber, an upper story, or 
 a gallery, whether it was used for 
 prayer or not ; and the term became 
 more especially applied to a project- 
 ing window, (in which there was sometimes an altar, as in 
 Linlithgow Palace, Scotland). This name is even given 
 to the Bay-window of a hall for the sideboard. 
 
 Ovolo (Ital.), a con- 
 vex moulding much 
 used in Classical archi- 
 tecture ; in the Roman 
 examples it is usually 
 an exact quarter of a 
 circle, but in the Gre- 
 cian it is flatter, and is 
 most commonly quirked 
 at the top : in middle- 
 age architecture it is 
 not extensively em- 
 ployed ; it is seldom 
 found in any but the 
 
 Vicars’ Close, Wells. 
 
 Grecian Ovolo, quirked. Temple at Corinth, 
 
 Decorated style, and is not very frequent in that, 
 also Column.\ 
 
 Overstory, the clearstory or upper story. 
 
 [See 
 
Pane — Panel. 
 
 ,184 
 
 Pane, an old term formerly used in reference to various 
 parts of buildings, such as the sides of a tower, turret, 
 spire, &e., which were said to be of four, eight, &c., panes, 
 according to the number of their sides ; it was also applied 
 to the lights of windows, the spaces between the timbers 
 in wooden partitions, and other similar subdivisions, and 
 was sometimes synonymous with the term panel: occa* 
 sionally it was applied to a bay of a building. 
 
 Panel: this term is probably only a diminutive of 
 Pane; it was formerly often used for the lights of win- 
 dows, but is now almost exclusively confined to the sunken 
 compartments of wainscoting, ceilings, &c., and the cor- 
 responding features in stone-work, which are so abun- 
 dantly employed in Gothic architecture as ornaments on 
 walls, ceilings, screens, tombs, &c. Of the Norman style 
 no wooden panels remain ; in stone- work, shallow recesses, 
 to which this term may be applied, are frequently to be 
 found; they are sometimes single, but oftener in ranges, 
 and are commonly arched, and not unusually serve as 
 niches to hold statues, &c. 
 
 In the Early Eng- 
 lish style, the panel- 
 lings in stone- work 
 are more varied ; 
 circles, trefoils, qua- 
 trefoils, cinquefoils, 
 
 &c., and the pointed 
 oval called the vesica 
 piscis, are common 
 forms ; they are also 
 frequently used in 
 ranges, like shallow 
 arcades, divided by 
 small shafts or mul- 
 lions, the heads being 
 either plain arches, 
 trefoils, or cinque- 
 foils, and panels similar to these are often used singly ; 
 the backs are sometimes enriched with foliage, diaper- 
 work, or other carvings. 
 
Panel 185 
 
 In the Decorated style wood panelling is frequently 
 enriched with tracery, 
 and sometimes with 
 foliage also, or with 
 shields and heraldic de- 
 vices : stone panelling 
 varies considerably; it 
 is very commonly arch- 
 ed, and filled with tra- 
 cery like windows, or 
 arranged in squares, 
 circles, &c., and fea- 
 thered, or filled with 
 tracery and other orna- 
 ments in different ways ; 
 
 shields are often intro- Monument of Aymer de Valence, Westminster. 
 
 duced, and the backs of 
 
 the panels are sometimes diapered. 
 
 In the Perpendicular style the walls and vaulted ceilings 
 of buildings are sometimes almost entirely covered with 
 panelling, formed 
 by mullions and tra- " 
 eery resembling the 
 windows ; and a 
 variety of other 
 panels of different 
 forms, such as cir- 
 cles, squares, qua- 
 trefoils, &c., are pro- 
 fusely used in the 
 subordinate parts, 
 which are enriched 
 with tracery, fea- 
 therings, foliage, 
 
 shields, &C., m dlf- Monument of John Langston, Esq., Caversfield, Bucks. 
 
 ferent ways : in 
 
 wood panelling the tracery and ornaments are more minute 
 than was usual at an earlier period : and towards the end 
 of the style these enrichments, instead of being fixed on 
 to the panel, are usually carved upon it, and are some- 
 times very small and delicate. There is one kind of orna- 
 
*86 
 
 Panel— Paralyse. 
 
 ment which was introduced towards the end of the Per- 
 pendicular style, and prevailed for a considerable time, 
 which deserves to he particularly mentioned ; it consists 
 of a series of straight mouldings worked upon the panel, 
 so arranged, and with the ends so formed, as to represent 
 the folds of linen : it is usually called the linen pattern. 
 Many churches have wooden ceilings of the Perpendicular 
 style, and some perhaps of earlier date, which are divided 
 into panels, either by the timbers of the roof, or by ribs 
 fixed on the boarding: some of these are highly orna- 
 mented, and probably most have been enriched with 
 painting. After the expiration of Gothic architecture, 
 panelling in great measure ceased to be used in stone- 
 work, but was extensively employed in wainscoting and 
 plaster- work ; it was sometimes formed in complicated 
 geometrical patterns, and was often very highly enriched 
 with a variety of ornaments. 
 
 Paradise, the eastern term for a large garden (and ap- 
 plied to the garden of Eden), was chosen for the open 
 court, or area, in front of the old church of St. Peter’s at 
 Rome, which was surrounded by a colonnade ( quadripor - 
 ticus). Hence it came to be applied to the cloisters of 
 monasteries generally, and more especially to the burial- 
 place within the precincts, wherever it was. Probably 
 a corruption of this is the word Parvise , which is still in 
 use in France for the open space round cathedrals and 
 churches. With us this latter word seems to have been 
 applied by antiquaries of two centuries ago, not only to 
 the western porch, but to any porch, and more especially 
 to the room over it. 
 
 Pace, a broad step, or raised 
 space about a tomb or altar. 
 
 Palestra, a gymnasium. 
 
 Palladian, a name applied to 
 the revived Classical styles. 
 
 Pantry (Fr. Panneterie ), one 
 of the offices in a monastic build- 
 ing, or castle, or manor-house, in 
 which the bread (Fr. Pain) was 
 kept, and with it much of the 
 garniture of the table. It is 
 especially distinguished from 
 the Boiellerie or buttery, where 
 
 the wine and beer, &c. were de- 
 canted, and the flagons, cups, 
 &c., kept. This office is still 
 kept up in our colleges, and in 
 large houses the butler is still 
 retained as the officer, but the 
 pantry has lost its original sig- 
 nification. 
 
 Parament (Fr.) the furniture, 
 ornaments, and hangings of an 
 apartment, especially of a state- 
 room. 
 
Parapet. 
 
 187 
 
 Early English Parapet, Salisbury Cathedral. 
 
 Parapet, a breastwork or low wall used to protect the 
 ramparts of military structures, and the gutters, roofs, 
 &c., of churches, houses, and other buildings. On military 
 works the parapets are either plain walls or battlemented, 
 and they are frequently pierced with loopholes and oillets, 
 through which arrows and other missiles might be dis- 
 charged against assailants. (See Allure , Battlement , ( lop- 
 ing, &c.) On ecclesiastical buildings parapets are of a dif- 
 ferent kind : in the 
 Norman style they are 
 perfectly plain, or oc- 
 casionally have narrow 
 embrasures in them at 
 considerable intervals 
 apart. 
 
 In the Early Eng- 
 lish style a few ex- 
 amples are probably 
 to be found of embattled parapets, but they are gene- 
 rally straight at the top, and are usually perfectly plain, 
 though in rich build- 
 ings they are some- 
 times panelled on the 
 front, and in some 
 instances are pierced 
 with trefoils, quatre- 
 foils, &c. Decorated 
 parapets on plain 
 buildings frequent- 
 ly consist of simple 
 battlements, but on 
 rich structures are 
 ornamented in vari- 
 ous ways ; they are 
 frequently straight 
 at the top and pa- 
 nelled, or, more 
 commonly, pierced with a series of trefoils, quatrefoils, 
 and other geometrical forms, or with running patterns 
 of tracery, especially one peculiar to this style, in which 
 the leading line of the stone-work forms a continuous 
 
 Decorated Parapet, Beverley Minster, c. 1350. 
 
i88 
 
 P araprt— P argetmg. 
 
 undulation; embattled parapets are also panelled and 
 pierced in a similar manner ; the coping also of the battle- 
 ments began to be car- 
 ried up the sides of the 
 merlons so as to form a 
 continuous line round 
 them. In the Perpendi- 
 cular style a plain bat- 
 tlemented parapet was 
 very common, but this 
 was also very frequent- 
 ly panelled or pierced. 
 
 There are many exam- 
 ples which are straight 
 at the top, and these 
 are almost all either 
 panelled or pierced. 
 
 Parclose, or Perclose, 
 an enclosure, screen, or railing, such as may be used to 
 protect a tomb, to separate a chapel from the main body 
 of a church. [See Screen.'] Also to form the front of 
 a gallery, or for other similar purposes; it is either of 
 open-work or close. A distinct chapel is often formed 
 in this manner, e.g. a chantry chapel. [See Chapel.] 
 
 Pargeting, or Pergeting, called also Parge-work : the 
 term appears formerly to have 
 been used in several senses, 
 sometimes for plain plastering 
 on walls, but usually for such 
 as was made ornamental ; this 
 was effected by mouldings, fo- 
 liage, figures, and other en- 
 richments, applied in relief, 
 and by various patterns and 
 ornaments sunk in the surface 
 of the work or formed on it in a smoother material than 
 the rest. Timber houses of the time of Queen Elizabeth 
 
 Banbury, Oxfordshire. 
 
 Parge-board = Barge-board. I (2.) A set of dressings or orna- 
 Parrell(1.) A chimney-piece; | ments for a fireplace. 
 
Pargeting -^ax* 189 
 
 are often to be found with the exterior ornamented with 
 pargeting; in the market-place at Newark is a wooden 
 house with small figures and canopies over them in plas- 
 ter- work, between some of the timbers, of earlier date. 
 This term is now seldom used, except for the coarse 
 plastering applied to the insides of chimney-flues. 
 
 Parlour (Er. Parloir), a private apartment to which per- 
 sons can withdraw for conference or retirement: the room 
 in a convent in which the inmates were allowed to speak 
 with their friends, sometimes called the “ speke-house.’ ’ 
 
 Paten, a small plate or salver for the Bread , used in the 
 celebration of the Eucharist : it was 
 so formed in ancient times as to fit the 
 Chalice, or cup, as a cover ; and was 
 most commonly made of gold or sil- 
 ver, often silver-gilt, and with some 
 sacred device or inscription. The 
 word is still retained in our Prayer- 
 book- 
 
 Patera (Lat. = a bowl), a circular 
 ornament resembling a dish, often Paten ’ Chichester cathedral, 
 worked in relief on friezes, &c. in Classical architecture ; 
 the term has also come to be applied to a great variety of 
 flat ornaments used in all styles of architecture, to many 
 of which it is extremely inappropriate. 
 
 Pax (Lat.), a small tablet, having on it a representation 
 of the Crucifixion, or some other Christian symbol, which 
 was offered to the congregation to be kissed during the 
 celebration of the Mass; it was introduced when the oscu - 
 
 lum pads, or kiss of peace, was abrogated on account of the 
 contusion which it entailed It was usually of silver or 
 other metal, with a handle at the back, but was occasion- 
 ally of other materials ; sometimes it was enamelled and 
 set with precious stones. 
 
 Parvise. See Paradise. 
 
 Paschal, a stand or candle- 
 stick supporting a candle of very 
 large, size used in the early 
 churches at Rome. See illus- 
 tration under Ambo. 
 
 Pastoral staff. See Crozier. 
 
 Patand, the bottom plate or 
 sill of a partition or screen. 
 
 Pavement (Lat. Pavio = to 
 beat, the Roman floor being often 
 of earth beaten hard). The word 
 signifies flooring, whether of Ro- 
 man tesserae, tiles, or stone. 
 
190 
 
 Postal— Pelican. 
 
 Pedestal (Gr. Pous = a foot, and stulos = a column), 
 a substructure frequently placed under 
 columns in Classical architecture. It 
 consists of three divisions : the Base 
 or foot, next the ground ; the Dado 
 or die, forming the main body ; and 
 the Cornice , or surbase mouldings, at 
 the top. 
 
 Pediment (Lat.), the triangular ter- 
 mination used in Classical architecture 
 at the ends of buildings, over porticoes, 
 
 &c., corresponding to a gable in middle- 
 age architecture: it is much less acute at the top than 
 a gable. Most of the porticoes on the fronts of Greek and 
 Roman buildings support pediments ; in Roman work the 
 dressings over doors and windows are sometimes arranged 
 in a similar form, and called by the same name ; in 
 debased Roman work pediments of this last-mentioned 
 kind are occasionally circular instead of angular on the 
 top, a form which is also common in Italian architecture. 
 The term is sometimes applied by modern writers to the 
 small gables and triangular decorations over niches, doors, 
 windows, &c., in Gothic architecture. 
 
 Pelican, the representation of this bird vulning herself, 
 as expressed heraldically, occurs not unfrequently as a sa- 
 cred emblem among the ornaments of churches. A beau- 
 tiful specimen is preserved at Ufford, Suffolk, at the 
 summit of the elaborately carved spire of wood which 
 forms the cover of the font ; and another occurs over the 
 font at North Walsham, Norfolk. The lectern of brass 
 was occasionally made in the form of a pelican, instead 
 of that of an eagle, a specimen of which is to be seen in 
 Norwich Cathedral. It was also used as an heraldic 
 device ; e.g. in the arms of the founder of Corpus Christi 
 College, Oxford. 
 
 Pele-tower. See Pile-tower. 
 Pendant-post, is a short post 
 in a mediaeval roof-truss, placed 
 against the wall, the lower end 
 
 resting on a corbel, the upper 
 end fixed to the tie-beam. 
 
 Pentastyle, a portico of five 
 columns. 
 
Pentoant — Prastgle. 1 9 1 
 
 Pendant (Lat. Pendens = 
 ornament much used in 
 Gothic architecture, par- 
 ticularly in late Perpen- 
 dicular work, on ceilings, 
 roofs, &c. : on stone vault- 
 ing they are frequently 
 made very large, and are 
 generally highly enriched 
 with mouldings and carv- 
 ing; good specimens are 
 to be seen in Henry the 
 Seventh’s Chapel, West- 
 minster; the Divinity School 
 Evesham, &c. In open tim- 
 ber roofs pendants are fre- 
 quently placed under the ends 
 of the hammer-beams, and in 
 other parts where the construc- 
 tion will allow of them. About 
 the period of the expiration of 
 Gothic architecture, and for 
 some time afterwards, pendants 
 were often used on plaster ceil- 
 ings, occasionally of consider- 
 able size, though usually small. 
 (2.) This name was also for- 
 merly used for the spandrels 
 very frequently found in Gothic 
 roofs under the ends of the 
 tie-beams, which are sustained 
 at the bottom by corbels pro- 
 jecting from the walls. 
 
 hanging). (1.) A hanging 
 Til 
 
 Section of a roof shewing a Pendant. 
 
 Oxford ; St. Lawrence, 
 
 Peristyle (Gr.), a court, square, or cloister, in Greek 
 and Roman buildings, with a colonnade round it ; also the 
 colonnade itself surrounding such a space. In mediaeval 
 Latin it is called the Quadriporticus , and was the usual 
 arrangement in Italy in front of the churches as well as 
 in front of houses. We have no examples remaining in 
 England. The nearest approach is our Cloister . [See 
 Atrium and Paradise , ] 
 
192 
 
 $mtfenti&e— Pfcrpmtitcular Stgle. 
 
 Pendentive (Gothic). 
 
 Pendentive, the portion of a groined ceiling supported 
 by one pillar or 
 impost, andbound- 
 ed by the apex 
 of the longitudi- 
 nal and transverse 
 vaults; in Gothic 
 ceilings of this kind 
 the ribs of the 
 vaultsdescendfrom 
 the apex to the im- 
 post of each pen 
 dentive where they 
 become united. Also the portion of a domical vault which 
 descends into the corner of an angular building when 
 a ceiling of this description is placed over a straight- 
 sided area. Pendentives of this kind are common in By- 
 zantine architecture, but not in Gothic. 
 
 Penthouse (old form Pentee), an 
 open shed or projection over a door, 
 window, flight of steps, &c., to form 
 a protection against the weather. A 
 double penthouse forms a convenient 
 design for a Lich-gate . 
 
 Perpendicular Style (Rickman). 
 
 The last of the styles of Gothic archi- 
 tecture which flourished in this coun- 
 try ; it arose gradually from the De- 
 corated during the latter part of the 
 fourteenth century, and continued till 
 the middle of the sixteenth : the name 
 is derived from the arrangement of the tracery, which 
 consists of perpendicular lines, and forms one of its most 
 striking features. At its first appearance the general 
 effect was usually bold, and the mouldings, though not 
 
 Perch, (1.) An old name given 
 to a bracket or corbel ; (2.) The 
 long wax candles used in church- 
 es were also sometimes so called. 
 
 Pergenyng. See Pargeting. 
 
 Peribolus, a wall built round 
 
 ancient temples enclosing the 
 whole of the sacred ground. 
 
 Peripteral, a form of Temple, 
 entirely surrounded with co- 
 lumns. 
 
 Perpender — Perpent-stone. 
 
Perpmtitcular Stgle. 
 
 i93 
 
 equal to the best of the Decorated style, were well de- 
 fined; the enrichments were effective and ample without 
 exuberance ; and the details delicate without extravagant 
 minuteness. Subsequently it underwent a gradual de- 
 basement; the arches became depressed; the mouldings 
 impoverished; the ornaments shallow and crowded, and 
 often coarsely executed ; 
 and the subordinate fea- 
 tures confused, from 
 the smallness and com- 
 plexity of their parts. 
 
 A leading character- 
 istic of the style, and 
 one which prevails 
 throughout its con- 
 tinuance, is the square 
 arrangement of the 
 mouldings over the 
 heads of doorways, 
 creating a spandrel 
 on each side above 
 the arch, which is 
 usually ornamented 
 with tracery, foliage, 
 or a shield ; the jambs 
 of doorways have some- 
 times niches in them, but are generally moulded, fre- 
 quently with one or more small shafts, and sometimes 
 the round mouldings have bases but no capitals. The 
 perpendicular arrangement of the window tracery has been 
 already alluded to; the same principle is also followed 
 in panellings. Another peculiarity of this style is the 
 frequent use of transoms crossing the mullions at right 
 angles, and in large windows these are occasionally re- 
 peated several times ; bands of quatrefoils and other 
 similar ornaments are also more frequently employed than 
 in the earlier styles, and are often carried across the 
 panellings and vertical lines, creating a rectilinear ar- 
 rangement, which also pervades most of the subordinate 
 parts, that gives an air of stiffness which is peculiar. 
 Fanelling is used most abundantly on walls, both inter- 
 
 St. Michael’s, Oxford, c. 1460. 
 
194 
 
 •perpenlitcular Stgle. 
 
 nally and externally, and also on vaulting; some build- 
 ings are al- 
 
 most entirely 
 covered with 
 it, as Henry 
 the Seventh’s 
 Chapel at 
 Westminster. 
 
 Yaulting of 
 fan - tracery, 
 which is gene- 
 rally charac- 
 teristic of this 
 style, is al- 
 most invari- 
 ably covered 
 with panel- 
 ling. 
 
 The arch- 
 es are either 
 two - centred 
 or four - cen- 
 tred ; at the 
 commence- 
 ment of the 
 style of good 
 elevation, but 
 subsequently 
 much flatten- 
 ed : in small openings ogee arches are very often used ; 
 and a few rare examples of elliptical arches are to be 
 found. The timber Roofs of this style are often made orna- 
 mental, having the whole of the framing exposed to view ; 
 many of them are of high pitch, and have a very magnifi- 
 cent effect, the spaces between the timbers being filled with 
 tracery, and the beams arched, moulded, and ornament- 
 ed in various ways; and sometimes pendants, figures of 
 angels, and other carvings, are introduced: the largest 
 roof of this kind is that of Westminster Hall, erected in 
 the reign of Richard II. The flatter roofs are sometimes 
 lined with boards and divided into panels by ribs, or have 
 
 Yelvertolt, c. 1500. 
 
Perpendicular S?t2le— Perpent=0tcinc. 195 
 
 the timbers open, and both are frequently enriched with 
 mouldings, carvings, and other ornaments. [Illustrations 
 of this style will be found under the parts of buildings 
 referred to, e.g. Gateway , Lantern , Niche , Pillar . ] 
 
 The Perpendicular style may be said to commence about 
 the middle of the fourteenth century in some parts of 
 England, as at Gloucester and Windsor; but the Deco- 
 rated and Perpendicular styles overlapped each other for 
 a long period, some districts retaining the older style much 
 longer than others. The following are some of the chief 
 dated examples of the fourteenth century 
 
 Gloucester Cathedral — Choir 
 and transept, 1350 — 1370 (?). 
 
 York Cath.— Choir, 1372 — 1403. 
 
 Warwick — St. Mary’s — Choir, 
 1370—1391. 
 
 Lynn, Norfolk— Chapel of St. 
 Nicolas, 1371—1379. 
 
 Selby Abbey, Yorkshire, 1375. 
 
 Winchester Cathedral — West 
 front, 1360—1366. 
 
 Canterbury Cath. — Nave and 
 western transepts, 1378 — 1411. 
 
 Oxford— New Coll., 1380—1386. 
 
 Howden, Yorkshire — Chapter- 
 house and tower, 1389 — 1407. 
 
 Saltwood Castle, Kent — Gate- 
 house, 1381 — 1396. 
 
 GloucesterCathedral — Cloisters, 
 1381—1412. 
 
 Winchester College, 1387 — 1393. 
 
 „ Cathedral — Nave, 1394 
 
 —1410. 
 
 Westminster Hall — Roof, 1397 — 
 1399. 
 
 Maidstone — CollegeandChurch, 
 1395. 
 
 In the fifteenth century the Perpendicular is the gene- 
 ral style of England for churches, houses, castles, barns, 
 cottages, and buildings of every kind. It would be tedious 
 to attempt to enumerate the various buildings which we 
 know from records to have been built during that and in 
 the early part of the sixteenth century. The Universi- 
 ties of Oxford and Cambridge owe many of their colleges 
 to this period, and there we find vestiges of the style still 
 lingering when in other places it had been lost. There 
 are many good examples as late as the time of James I., 
 and even Ch tries I. to a.d. 1640. 
 
 Perpent-stone (Fr. Perpeigne ), a large stone reaching 
 through a wall so as to appear on both sides of it ; the 
 same as what is now usually called a bonder , bond-stone, 
 or through, except that these are often used in rough - 
 walling, while the teim perpent-stone appears to have 
 been applied to squared stones, or ashlar; bonders also 
 do not always reach through a wall. The term is still 
 used in some districts; in Gloucestershire, ashlar thick 
 
196 
 
 ■p erpmt-stone — P efo . 
 
 a fair 
 
 enough to reach entirely through a wall, and shew 
 face on both sides, is 
 called Parping ashlar. 
 
 This name may perhaps 
 also have been some- 
 times given to a corbel. 
 
 The term Perpent-wall 
 would signify a wall 
 built of perpent ashlar. 
 
 Also a pier, buttress, or 
 other support projecting 
 from a wall to sustain a 
 beam, roof, &c. In Lin- 
 coln Cathedral the dwarf 
 walls separating the 
 chapels in the transepts 
 are also called perpeyn- 
 walls, although they do 
 
 not SUStain a loof. Perpeyn-wall, Lincoln Cathedral. 
 
 Pew, or Pue (probably from the Dutch). It is un- 
 necessary in 
 a work of this 
 kind to say 
 anything ofthe 
 modern style 
 of pews, with 
 which most of 
 our churches 
 had been filled; 
 till within the 
 last few years 
 the ugly pues 
 were intro- 
 duced subse- 
 quently to the 
 Deformation, 
 and the use of 
 
 them was considerably promoted by the Puritans. Up to 
 
 Headington, Oxfordshire. 
 
 Perron, external steps with 
 landings on the first floor. 
 
 Piazza (Ital.), an open area or 
 square, usually with arcades. 
 
197 
 
 Prfn. 
 
 a period some time after the Reformation the naves of 
 churches, which were occupied by the congregation, were 
 usually fitted with fixed seats, as they had been from the 
 fourteenth century or earlier downwards ; these seats 
 varied in height from about two feet and a-half to three 
 feet, and were partially enclosed at the ends next the pas- 
 sages, sometimes with what are called Bench-ends ; some- 
 times these rose considerably above the wainscoting, and 
 were terminated with carved finials, or poppies, but they 
 are more frequently ranged with the rest of the work, and 
 were often straight at the top and finished with the same 
 capping-moulding; these end enclosures occupied about 
 the width of the seat, and the remainder of the space was 
 left entirely open. The partitions sometimes reached down 
 to the floor, and some- 
 times only to a little 
 below the seats ; they 
 were usually perfectly 
 plain, but the wains- 
 coting next the cross 
 passages was generally 
 ornamented with pan- 
 elling, tracery, small 
 buttresses, &c. : op- 
 
 posite to the seat at 
 the back of each divi- 
 sion, or pew, a board 
 was frequently fixed, 
 considerably narro w er, 
 intended to support 
 the arms upon when 
 kneeling. This mode 
 of fitting the naves of 
 churches was certainly 
 very general, but it is 
 difficult to ascertain 
 
 When it WaS first in- Steeple Aston, c. 1500. 
 
 troduced, the great majority of specimens that exist being 
 of the Perpendicular style. A large proportion of these 
 are of the time of Henry VII. and VIII., many of them 
 after the Reformation. [See also Standard .] 
 
igS 
 
 iPter— 0tllar. 
 
 Pier (Sax.): (1.) The solid mass oetween doors, win- 
 dows, and other openings in buildings; (2.) The support 
 of a bridge, on which the arches rest. (3.) This name 
 is constantly given to the Pillar in Norman, and sometimes 
 in Gothic architecture, but not so correctly. Although 
 perhaps the same in their absolute meaning, the word 
 ‘pier’ is more properly applied to large masses in the con- 
 struction of a building. The pillar is the support of an 
 arch, and generally partakes of an ornamental character 
 as well as structural. 
 
 Pilaster (Ital.), a square column or pillar, used in 
 Classical architecture, sometimes disengaged, but gene- 
 rally attached to a wall, from which it projects a third, 
 fourth, fifth, or sixth of its breadth. The Greeks formed 
 their pilasters of the same breadth at the top and bottom, 
 and gave them capitals and bases different from those of 
 the orders with which they were associated ; the Romans 
 usually gave them the same capitals and bases as the 
 columns, and often made them diminish upwards in the 
 same manner. [See Antes . ] 
 
 Pillar (Fr.): the column supporting 
 the arch. In the Norman style the 
 pillars are generally massive, and are 
 frequently circular, with capitals either 
 of the same form, or square ; they are 
 sometimes ornamented with channels, or 
 flutes , in various forms, spiral, zigzag, 
 reticulated, &c. In plain buildings a 
 square or rectangular pillar, or pier, is 
 occasionally found ; a polygonal, usu- 
 ally octagonal, pillar is also used, espe- 
 cially towards the end of the style, and 
 is generally of lighter proportions than 
 most of the other kinds. But, besides 
 these, clustered or compound pillars are 
 extremely numerous and much varied ; 
 the simplest of them consists of a square 
 with one or more rectangular recesses 
 at each corner, but a more common 
 form is one resembling these, with 
 
 St. Peter’s, Northampton, 
 c. 1160. 
 
pillar- 
 
 199 
 
 a small circular shaft in each of the recesses, and a larger 
 one, semicircular, on two (or on each) of the faces : most 
 
 of the compound pillars partake of this arrangement, 
 though other varieties are by no means rare. 
 
 In the Early English 
 style, plain circular or 
 octagonal shafts are fre- 
 quently used, especially 
 in plain buildings, but 
 many other, and more 
 complicated kinds of pil- 
 lars are employed ; the 
 commonest of these con- 
 sists of a large central 
 shaft, which is gener- 
 ally circular, with smal- 
 ler shafts (usually four) 
 round it ; these are fre- 
 quently made of a finer 
 material than the rest, 
 and polished, but they 
 are often worked in 
 courses with the central 
 part of the pillar, and 
 are sometimes filleted ; 
 in this style the pil- 
 lars are very constantly 
 banded. 
 
 In the Decorated style 
 
 the general form of clus- weiford, c . 1220. 
 
200 
 
 Pillar. 
 
 tered pillars changes from a circular to a lozenge-shaped 
 arrangement, or to a square placed diagonally, but many 
 other varieties 
 are at times to 
 he met with ; 
 they some- 
 times consist 
 of small shafts 
 surrounding a 
 larger one, and 
 are sometimes 
 
 moulded ; the small shafts and 
 some of the mouldings are often 
 filleted ; plain octagonal pillars 
 are also very frequently employed 
 in our vill- 
 age churches: 
 towards the 
 end of this 
 style a pillar 
 consisting of 
 four small 
 shafts sepa- 
 rated by a 
 deep hollow 
 and two fil- 
 
 Orton-on-the-Hill, c. 1300. lets is com- 
 
 mon, as it is also in the Perpendicular 
 style, but in that style the hollows 
 are usually shallower, and the dis- 
 position of the fillets is different. 
 
 A plain octagonal pillar continues 
 in use throughout the Perjpendicula/r 
 style, though it is not so frequent as 
 at earlier periods, and its sides are 
 occasionally slightly hollowed. In 
 Decorated work a few of the mould- 
 ings of the piers occasionally run up 
 into the arches and form part of the 
 archivolt, as at Bristol Cathedral, but 
 in Perpendicular buildings this ar- 
 
 Stogumber, c. 1450. 
 
pillar— pinnacle 
 
 201 
 
 rangement is much more common, and in some cases the 
 whole of the mouldings of the pillars are continued in the 
 arches without any capital or impost between them : the 
 forms are various, but in general arrangement they usually 
 partake of a square placed diagonally ; sometimes however 
 they are contracted in breadth so as to become narrower 
 between the archways (from east to west) than in the op- 
 posite direction : the small shafts attached to the pillars 
 in this style are usually plain circles, but are occasionally 
 filleted, and in some instances are hollow-sided polygons. 
 
 Pile-tower, or Pele-tower, or more correctly Pele only : 
 this term is almost peculiar to the northern parts of the 
 kingdom ; it seems to have signified a small Donjon , or 
 fortified dwelling, or tower, capable of being defended 
 against any sudden marauding expedition. Church towers 
 appear to have been sometimes used for the same pur- 
 pose. Some of these towers, which 
 were used for habitations, have had 
 additions made to them subsequent to 
 their erection : Heifer-haw tower, near 
 Alnwick, and a tower in Corbridge 
 churchyard, were probably pele-towers 
 only. Pile, a fortress, occurs only in 
 names of places in the Isle of Man, 
 
 Lancashire, and the neighbouring parts, 
 but it is an archaic term not exclu- 
 sively northern. 
 
 Pinnacle (Low Lat.), a small turret 
 or tall ornament, usually tapering to- 
 wards the top, much used in Gothic 
 architecture as a termination to but- 
 tresses, &c. ; it is also very frequently 
 employed in parapets, especially at the 
 angles, and sometimes on the tops of 
 gables and other elevated situations : 
 it consists of a shaft and top ; this 
 last is generally in the form of a 
 small spire, surmounted with a finial, 
 and often crocketed at the angles, 
 and is then sometimes called a finial. 
 
202 
 
 Pinnacle. 
 
 Pinnacles are not used in the Norman style, though 
 there exist a few small turrets, of late 
 date, with pointed terminations, which ap- 
 pear to be their prototypes, as at the west 
 end of Rochester Cathedral, and the north 
 transept of St. Etienne at Caen. 
 
 In the Early English style they are not 
 very abundant; they are found circular, 
 octagonal, or square ; some are perfectly 
 plain, as at the east end of Battle Church, 
 
 Sussex ; others are surrounded with small 
 shafts, as at Peterborough and Wells; and 
 in some instances the tops are crocketed. 
 
 Towards the latter part of this style the 
 system of surmounting each face of the 
 shaft with a small pediment was intro- 
 duced, and about the same period the shafts 
 began to be occasionally made of open- 
 work, so as to form niches for statues. 
 
 Decorated pinnacles are very numerous ; 
 they have the shafts sometimes formed into 
 niches, and sometimes panelled or quite 
 plain, and each of the sides almost in- 
 variably terminates in a pediment ; the 
 tops are generally crocketed, and always 
 have finials on the points : in form they are most usually 
 square, but are sometimes octagonal, and in 
 a few instances hexagonal and pentagonal; 
 occasionally, in this style, square pinnacles 
 are placed diagonally. [See the illustration 
 from Caythorpe, under Spire.] 
 
 In the Perpendicular style they do not in 
 general differ much from those of the Deco- 
 rated ; polygonal forms are not very fre- 
 quently found, and square pinnacles are very 
 much oftener placed diagonally on buttresses, 
 
 &c. ; they are also in rich buildings, abund- 
 antly used on the offsets of buttresses, as well 
 as at the tops : instead of the small pediments 
 over the sides of the shaft, it is sometimes 
 finished with a complete moulded cornice, or 
 
P mnacle— Piscina* 2 03 
 
 capping, out of which the top of the pinnacle rises, and 
 sometimes in the place of a top of this kind the figure 
 of an animal holding a vane, or some other device, is 
 used : there are a few examples of pinnacles in this style 
 with ogee-shaped tops. In the fine Perpendicular towers 
 the pinnacles are often the most striking feature. Exam- 
 ples are seen on Merton and Magdalen towers in Oxford, 
 and many of the towers in Somersetshire. 
 
 This term is sometimes applied to turrets, and William 
 of Worcester uses it for a spire. 
 
 Piscina (Lat. = a reservoir of water), originally the 
 reservoir and filter connected with the aqueducts of 
 Rome, but long applied to a water-drain formerly placed 
 near to an altar in a church ; this consists of a shallow 
 stone basin, or sink, with a hole in the bottom, to carry 
 
 Crowmarsh, c. 1150. Warmington, c. 1220 
 
 off whatever is poured into it ; it is fixed at a convenient 
 height above the floor, and was used to receive the water 
 in which the priest washed his hands, as well as that with 
 which the chalice was rinsed at the time of the celebration 
 of the mass ; it is placed within a niche, though the basin 
 very frequently projects before the face of the wall, and is 
 
204 
 
 Piscina. 
 
 sometimes supported on a shaft rising from the floor; in 
 many instances, particularly in those of Early English and 
 early Decorated date, there are two basins, and drains, 
 and occasionally three; within the niche there is also 
 often found a wooden or stone shelf, which served the 
 purpose of a credence-table , to receive certain of the sacred 
 vessels that were used in the service of the mass, previous 
 to their being required at the altar; sometimes there is 
 room at the bottom of the niche for these to stand at the 
 side of the basin : in this country the piscina is almost 
 invariably on the south side of the altar, and usually in 
 the south wall (though sometimes in the eastern), but 
 in Normandy it is not uncommon to find it on the north 
 side, when the situation of the altar is such as to render 
 that more convenient than the south. No piscinas are 
 known to exist in this country of earlier date than the 
 middle of the twelfth century, and of that age they are 
 extremely rare : of the thirteenth and succeeding cen- 
 
 Cumnor, c. 1350. Tackley, c. 1450. 
 
 turies, down to the period of the Reformation, they are 
 
205 
 
 Pfectna— Ptntfj* 
 
 very abundant, and are to be found (or at least traces of 
 them) in the chancel of most churches that have not been 
 rebuilt, and very frequently at the eastern ends of the 
 aisles of the nave also * their forms and decorations are 
 very various, but the character of the architectural fea- 
 tures will always decide their date. 
 
 Pix, Pyx (Lat. Pyxis ), the ornamented box, or casket, 
 in which the consecrated Host 
 is preserved in the Roman Ca- 
 tholic Church for the use of the 
 sick, or the wafers previously 
 to consecration ; it was made 
 of the most costly materials, 
 and was placed upon the altar 
 under a tabernacle, or canopy, 
 within which it was sometimes 
 suspended, and sometimes raised 
 upon a stand or foot. In form 
 it was frequently circular, and 
 closed with a cover; occasion- 
 ally, when suspended, it was in 
 the form of a dove. 
 
 Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. 
 
 Plate, Platt, a general term applied to almost all hori- 
 zontal timbers which are laid upon walls, &c., to receive 
 other timber- work : that at the top of a building imme- 
 diately under the roof, is a wall-plate; those also which 
 receive the ends of the joists of the floors above the 
 ground-floor are called by the same name. Plate tracery 
 is the term applied to that kind of solid tracery which 
 appears as if formed by piercing a flat surface with orna- 
 mental patterns. It is used in contradistinction to Bar 
 tracery. [See Tracery .] 
 
 Plinth (Gr.), a square member forming the lower di- 
 vision of the base of a column, &c. : also the plain pro- 
 jecting face at the bottom of a wall immediately above 
 
 Pitch of a roof, the slope of 
 a roof. See Gable. 
 
 ' Planceer, the soffit or under- 
 side of the corona of a cornice 
 in Gothic architecture. 
 
 Plat-band, (1.) a flat fascia, 
 band, or string whose projec- 
 tion is less than its breadth; 
 (2.) the lintel of a door is some- 
 times so called. 
 
206 
 
 pimtfj— Cornel 
 
 the ground. In Classical buildings the plinth is sometimes 
 divided into two or more gradations, which project slightly 
 before each other in succession towards the ground, the 
 tops being either perfectly flat or only sloped sufficiently 
 to prevent the lodgment of wet ; in Gothic buildings the 
 plinth is occasionally divided into two stages, the tops 
 of which are either splayed or finished with a hollow 
 moulding, or covered by the base-mouldings. 
 
 Polychrome, the name applied to the colouring of walls 
 and architectural ornaments. There is no doubt that all 
 mediaeval buildings were intended to be coloured, and the 
 colour formed part of the original design, which in most 
 cases has been lost from the practice of whitewashing 
 them over, which prevailed in the seventeenth and eigh- 
 teenth centuries. Whenever this whitewash is carefully 
 removed the original colouring appears ; but unfortunately, 
 in getting off the whitewash the original thin coat of fine 
 plaster which formed the gesso or ground to paint upon 
 is removed along with it. In some instances the stone 
 itself seems to have been painted upon, and the colour 
 mixed with wax varnish, which is impervious to moisture ; 
 and though these have been whitewashed over again and 
 again, the colouring still re-appears. In some cases also 
 the colouring was executed while the plaster was wet. in 
 what is called fresco painting, and thus becomes part of the 
 plaster itself, and can only be destroyed by destroying 
 the plaster. There is the same change of style in the 
 colouring as in the carved ornament, and a treatise on 
 the succession of styles in mediaeval colouring is still 
 a desideratum. [See Wall-painting .] 
 
 Pom el (Lat. Pomellum , from Pomum = an apple), a knob, 
 knot, or boss ; the term is used in reference to the finial, 
 or ornament on the top of a conical or dome- shaped roof 
 of a turret, the summit of a pavilion, &c , and is especially 
 applied to articles of plate and jewellery. It also denotes 
 generally any ornament of globular form. 
 
 Podium, (1.) a continuous base- 
 ment, or Pedestal , q.v. ; (2.) a 
 dwarfwallusedasasubstructure 
 for the columns of a temple. 
 
 Pole-plate, a small kind 
 of wall-plate used in modern 
 Boofs to receive the feet of the 
 rafters. 
 
or Lat. Puppis = the “ poop” of a 
 ship,) an elevated ornament often 
 nsed on the tops of the upright 
 ends, or elbows, which terminate 
 seats, &c., in churches: they are 
 sometimes merely cut into plain 
 fleurs-de-lis or other simple forms, 
 with the edgeschamferedorslightly 
 hollowed, but are frequently carved 
 with leaves, like finials, and in 
 rich work are sculptured into ani- 
 mals and figures, and are often 
 extremely elaborate. N o examples 
 are known to exist of earlier date 
 than the Decorated style, and but 
 few so early ; of Perpendicular 
 date specimens are to be found in 
 very many churches, especially in 
 the cathedrals and old abbey churches. 
 Standard .] 
 
 Kidlington, 2 . 1450. 
 
 [See Stall and 
 
 Porch (Lat. Portions), an external erection protecting 
 the doorway of a large building. (Compare with the 
 Portico of the Palladian style, which was carried round 
 the whole of the exterior of the building.) In some in- 
 stances the lower story of the tower of a church forms the 
 porch, as at Cranbrook, Kent, and in several instances in 
 Somerset. Porches appear originally not to have had close 
 doors, but there are some wooden ones of Decorated date 
 which have marks about the entrances seeming to indicate 
 that they have been fitted with moveable barricades, suffi- 
 cient to keep out cattle. Porches were used at an early 
 period, and many fine examples of Norman date exist, as 
 at Southwell, Nottinghamshire; Sherborne, Dorsetshire; 
 Malmesbury, Wiltshire; Castle Ashby, Northamptonshire, 
 &c.: these are of stone and rectangular, with a large open 
 doorway in front, and the sides either entirely closed or 
 pierced only with a small window : that at Southwell has 
 a small room over it, a feature which is not very common 
 in this style. Early English porches also remain in consi- 
 
208 
 
 Porcfj. 
 
 derable numbers, as at the cathedrals of Wells, Salisbury, 
 and Lincoln ; St. Alban’s Abbey ; and the churches of 
 Great Tew and Middleton Stoney, Oxfordshire ; Barnack, 
 
 Norman Porch, Great Addington, c. 1180. 
 
 Northamptonshire, &c. At Chevington, Suffolk, is a 
 wooden porch of Early English date, but much impaired 
 by modern work. In the Decorated style wooden porches 
 are not unfrequently found ; they are of one story only 
 in height, sometimes entirely enclosed at the sides, and 
 sometimes with about the upper half of their height 
 formed of open screen -work; the gables have barge- 
 boards, which are almost always feathered, and more 
 or less ornamented: good specimens remain at Warbling- 
 ton, Hampshire; Horsemonden and Brook] and, Kent; 
 Aldham, Essex; Hascombe, Surrey; Northfield, Worces- 
 tershire, &c. Stone porches of this date have, not un- 
 usually, a room over them, as they have also in the 
 
p 
 
210 
 
 Porrfj. 
 
 Perpendicular style. [See next Article.] Of this last- 
 mentioned style there are many wooden porches, which 
 differ but little from those of the preceding, except that 
 the upper half of the sides is almost always formed of 
 open screen-work; examples remain at Halden, Kent; 
 Albury, Surrey, &c. 
 
 It is common to find porches of all ages considerably 
 
 West Porch, Woodstock, Oxfordshire. 
 
 ornamented; those of the Norman style, and perhaps also 
 the Early English, have the decorations principally on the 
 inside and about the doorway; those of later date are 
 often as much enriched externally as internally, and some- 
 times more so. Some porches have the roofs entirely 
 formed of stone, both externally and internally, as at 
 Bamack, Northamptonshire; St. Mary's, Nottingham; 
 Strelly, Nottinghamshire; All Saints, Stamford; Arun- 
 del, Sussex, &c. 
 
 The foregoing observations apply to church porches, but 
 some domestic buildings are also provided with them, of 
 which a fine example, of Decorated date, exists attached 
 to the hall of the Archbishop of Canterbury’s palace at 
 Mayfield, Sussex : they have sometimes rooms over them, 
 and are carried up as many stories in height as the rest 
 
Porcf). 
 
 21 r 
 
 of the building, and this projection is called the porch- 
 tower; in houses of the time of Elizabeth the porch is 
 almost always carried up to the main roof of the building. 
 Small chapels attached to churches are sometimes called 
 porches. [See Galilee .] 
 
 Porch, Rooms over the. Over very many porches, dating 
 from the twelfth up to the fifteenth century, a chamber 
 has been made, and in some few instances even two cham- 
 bers, one above the other. 
 
 Very many theories have been held as to the original 
 purposes of these chambers, but the truth is, that not 
 only were there often different reasons for their erection, 
 but that many have been at subsequent times applied 
 to different uses. One to which they were more fre- 
 quently applied than others, was for the preservation of 
 the books and documents of the church, and of the parish 
 also, providing as they did, a place of safe-keeping, safer 
 from fire or from destruction, than in domestic buildings. 
 Many churches also, and parishes, had libraries of books 
 left for their use, just as all cathedrals have now libraries ; 
 and when books were scarce, such a gift was very valuable. 
 
 Erom the account-books of the parish, long kept there, 
 it was sometimes called the Treasury, as at Hawkhurst, 
 Kent; at Wimborne, the muniment-room. At Bodmin, 
 where there are two chambers, one above the other, the 
 upper was used as the record-room, and the lower for 
 the meetings of the Corporation. And at Great Malvern 
 it was long a depository for wills. In very many, chests 
 are still found, and in some an aumbry, or cupboard, for 
 keeping, no doubt, especially valuable property. At 
 Chelmsford, it was always used as the library for the 
 books granted to the church ; while at Plympton, Devon, 
 it has been only recently fitted up as a parish library, 
 and books placed there : at Loddewell, it is used as the 
 Vicar’s study. 
 
 The presence in a large number of them of a fireplace, 
 has led many to suppose them to be sleeping or dwelling- 
 rooms, but this does not necessarily follow, since where 
 books and documents were kept, it would be found that 
 ta times a fire was necessary to prevent decay from damp. 
 That many also have one of the windows opening into 
 
212 
 
 •Pordj— portcullis* 
 
 the church, has also led to the theory of the room being 
 for the use of recluses; and to another, that they were 
 used for watching chambers. 
 
 In some few cases there are evidences of there having 
 been an altar, with the piscina, &c., as at Fotheringhay. 
 This would imply that some chantry was founded here, 
 and it was chosen by the founder as a convenient place 
 for the altar. 
 
 Access to the room over the porch is as often from the 
 church, as from the porch itself, and sometimes from out- 
 side. 
 
 Portcullis (Fr. Porte-coulisse ), 
 a door sliding up and down in 
 coulisses or gutters, consisting of 
 a massive frame, or grating, of 
 iron or wooden bars, used by the 
 ancient Romans, as at Pompeii 
 and in the walls of Rome, and 
 continued in the Middle Ages to 
 defend gateways. It was made 
 to slide up and down in a groove 
 formed for the purpose in each 
 jhmb, and was usually kept suspended above the gateway, 
 but was let down whenever an attack was apprehended : 
 
 the principal entrances of almost all fortresses were pro- 
 vided with several portcullises in 
 succession, at some little distance 
 apart : the old grooves for them are 
 found in buildings of the Norman 
 style. [See Killesse.'] 
 
 The portcullis will be found con- 
 stantly carved as an ornament upon 
 buildings of the time of Henry VII. 
 and Henry VIII., it being one of the 
 Tudor badges. 
 
 Badge of the Tudors. 
 
 Porticus, in Classical archi- 
 tecture = Peristyle. Used by 
 Bede and other early writers 
 in the sense probably of what 
 we should best term apsidal 
 chapels. Gervase of Canterbury 
 uses the word evidently for such 
 (see Willis, p. 39), though in 
 
 some instances the word may 
 be translated the Aisle. 
 
 Post, an upright timber in a 
 building; e.g. kingposts or queen 
 posts, [ see Hoof ']: the vertical 
 timbers in the walls of wooden 
 houses, with the intervals filled 
 with plastering, were sometimes 
 
Portico— Prcgbgterg. 
 
 
 Portico, a range of columns in the front of a building , 
 when of four columns it is 
 called tetrastyle; when of six, 
 hexastyle ; of eight, octostyle ; 
 of ten, decasUyle. Ihe Latin 
 ‘ portions , however, from which 
 the Italian portico and the 
 French portique , as well as 
 the English porch is derived, 
 
 (e.g. Solomon’s Porch, Acts 
 iii. 11), has a more extended 
 signification in all these lan- 
 guages ; comprehending, in 
 fact, every kind of covered 
 ambulator}" of which one or 
 more sides are opened to the 
 air, by rows of columns or of 
 arches, whether it be attached 
 to the front of a building or 
 to its sides, or to the inner 
 sides of an area, so as to form 
 a cloister. [See Temple.\ 
 
 Presbytery (Gr., the place 
 of the elders or priests), the 
 part of a church in which the 
 high altar is placed ; it forms 
 the eastern termination of the 
 choir, above which it is raised 
 by several steps, and is occu- 
 pied exclusively by those who minister in the services of 
 the altar. The name is not unfrequently used for the 
 space behind the high altar, as at Lincoln, and in a more 
 extended sense to include the whole of the choir. [See 
 Choir , and plan under Basilica .] 
 
 B I 
 
 Temple of Vesta, Tivoli. 
 
 called post and pane . [See 
 Pane.~\ 
 
 Postern, a private or conceal- 
 ed entrance behind or outside 
 of a castle, town, or monastery. 
 
 Poyntell, paving formed into 
 
 small lozenges or squares laid 
 diagonally. 
 
 Preceptory, a subordinate 
 establishment of the Knights 
 Templars, governed by a pre- 
 ceptor. 
 
2 14 
 
 Prt'org— pulpit. 
 
 Priory, a monastery governed by a prior. Alien priories 
 were small conventual establishments, or cells, belonging 
 to foreign monasteries. 
 
 Pulpit (Lat.), an elevated stage or desk from which 
 sermons are delivered. 
 
 They were formerly 
 placed not only in 
 churches but also in the 
 Refectories of monas- 
 teries, as at Beverley, 
 
 Shrewsbury, Chester, 
 
 Beaulieu, &c. ; in the 
 Cloisters, as at St. Die, 
 in Trance ; and occa- 
 sionally in public tho- 
 roughfares, as on the 
 north side of the church 
 of Notre Dame, at St. 
 
 Lb in Normandy, and 
 in the outer court of 
 Magdalen College, Ox- 
 ford. In churches the 
 pulpits were formerly 
 always placed in the 
 nave, attached to a wall, 
 pillar, or screen, and the 
 ecclesiastics and others 
 who occupied the choir 
 duringthe massremoved 
 into the nave to hear 
 
 the SermOn : this CUStom Beaulieu, Hants. 
 
 was long continued at Ely, and has of late been revived at 
 Lincoln, and in some other cathedrals. Many ancient 
 
 Prick-posts, an obsolete term 
 for the queen-posts in a roof. 
 
 Print, a plaster cast of a flat 
 ornament. 
 
 Prismatories occurs in one 
 contract = Sedilia, but probably 
 an error of copyist. 
 
 Procession-path, or Proces- 
 sional, the passage or way round 
 
 and behind the presbytery in 
 a large church. 
 
 Pronaos, the vestibule or 
 portico in front of the cell of 
 a temple. 
 
 Propyleum, a portico, court, 
 or vestibule before the gates of 
 a building. 
 
 Prothesis, a credence-table. 
 
215 
 
 fulptt. 
 
 pulpits exist in our churches, particularly in Somerset- 
 shire, and the adjoining counties s some are of wood, others 
 of stone. The wooden ones are usually polygonal, with 
 the panels enriched with featherings, tracery, and other 
 architectural ornaments, and raised upon a single stem; 
 few, if any, of these are earlier than the Perpendicular 
 style: an example exists 
 in the church of Ken- 
 ton, Devonshire, which 
 retains some of its origi- 
 nal painting. Stone pul- 
 pits are sometimes met 
 with of Decorated date, 
 as at Beaulieu, Hamp- 
 shire, already noticed, but 
 by far the greater num- 
 ber are of Perpendicular 
 work. In design they 
 are very various, but 
 their plan is usually 
 polygonal, and in many 
 cases they are formed 
 like niches in the wall, 
 with projecting fronts, 
 and are approached by 
 concealed stairs (espe- 
 cially in the case of those 
 in Refectories), in others 
 the steps are exposed to 
 view ; some of them are 
 veryhighly enriched with 
 architectural ornaments 
 and sculpture, and some 
 
 are nearly plain. It is Fotheringhay, Northamptonshire. 
 
 not unusual to find ancient pulpits, both of wood and 
 
 Propylon (G-r.), a gateway be- 
 fore an Egyptian temple. 
 
 Prostyle, a portico in which 
 the columns stand out quite free 
 from the wall to which it is at- 
 tached. 
 
 Pseudo-dipteral, a temple 
 
 whose general plan is dipteral, 
 hut the inner range of columns 
 omitted. See Temple. 
 
 Pteroma, a space between the 
 walls of the cell of a temple and 
 the column of the peristyle. 
 
 PTEROMATA(Gr.),= Side-walls. 
 
21 6 
 
 Pulpit— ©uatirangle. 
 
 stone, surmounted with ornamental canopies. Numerous 
 wooden pulpits were erected in this country soon after the 
 Reformation in the churches not previously provided with 
 them, in accordance with the injunctions of Edward YI. 
 and subsequent orders ; a number of these still remain : 
 some are considerably ornamented, and have a rich effect, 
 although the majority are poor. Most of these, especially 
 those of Jacobean work, have flat testoons over them, but 
 some have elevated canopies ; a remarkably fine specimen 
 of this kind of pulpit remains at Castle Ashby, Northamp- 
 tonshire. Another example occurs at Eddlesborough, an 
 engraving of which is given under Tabernacle . The pul- 
 pits in the large churches on the Continent are often of 
 very considerable size, capable of holding more than one 
 person, and most elaborately enriched with a profusion of 
 architectural and sculptured ornaments ; a fine specimen, 
 of Elamboyant date, exists in the cathedral at Strasburg. 
 
 Purlins, Perlings, the horizontal pieces of timber which 
 rest on the principals, or main rafters, of a roof, and sup- 
 port the common rafters. In some districts purlins are 
 called ribs , and rafters spars . [See Roof."] 
 
 Putlog-holes, small holes left in walls for the use of the 
 workmen in erecting their scaffolding : the cross pieces of 
 the scaffold, on which the planks forming the floor are 
 laid, are called “ putlogs.” These holes are found in 
 walls of almost every age : they are common in Roman 
 work; Vitruvius calls them “ columbaria,” from their 
 resemblance to pigeon-holes. [See also ITourds.~\ 
 
 Quadrangle (Lat. quatuor = four, angulus = a corner), 
 a square or court surrounded by buildings: the buildings 
 of monasteries were generally arranged in quadrangles, 
 as, for instance, the cloisters; colleges and large houses 
 are also often disposed in the same way. 
 
 Puncheons, small upright tim- 
 bers in wooden partitions, now 
 called studs or quarters. 
 
 Purfled-work (Fr. Pour-filer 
 — to embroider), signifies any 
 delicatelysculptured tracery, &c. 
 
 Pycnostyle, an arrangement 
 of columns in Greek and Eoman 
 architecture in which the inter- 
 
 columniations are equal to one 
 diameter and a half of the lower 
 part of the shaft. 
 
 Pynun - table, probably the 
 coping* stones of a gable, from 
 the French Pignon, 
 
 Pyx. See Pix. 
 QuADRiPORTicus.SeePeWsfo/te. 
 Quatrefoil. See Foil . 
 
©uarrel— Batters, 
 
 217 
 
 Quarrel (Fr. Carre = square) : (1.) A stone quarry; 
 (2.) A diamond- shaped pane of glass, or a square one 
 placed diagonally; (3.) A small piercing in the tracery 
 of a window ; also, (4.) A small square, or diamond- shaped 
 paving-brick or stone. 
 
 Quarter (Cater), a square panel, or a piercing in tra- 
 cery, divided by cusps or featherings into four leaves 
 (: =Quatrefoil ). Bands of small quatrefoils are much used 
 as ornaments in the Perpendicular style, and sometimes in 
 the Decorated ; when placed diagonally they appear for- 
 merly to have been called “cross-quarters.” [See for 
 illustrations Foil , also under Band , Font, Panel , Parapet .] 
 (2.) The pieces of timber used in the construction of 
 wooden partitions are called quarters. 
 
 Quirk, a small acute chaunel or recess, much used 
 between mouldings. In Grecian architecture ovolos and 
 ogees are usually quirked at the top, and sometimes in 
 Roman; in Gothic architecture quirks are abundantly 
 used between mouldings. [See examples under Ogee and 
 Ovolo ; also see Column .] 
 
 Quoin (Fr. Coin), the external angle of a building. 
 In middle-age architecture, when the walls are of rough 
 stonework, or of flints, the quoins are most commonly 
 of ashlar : brick buildings also frequently have the quoins 
 formed in the same manner; and occasionally they are 
 plastered in imitation of stonework, as at Eastbury House, 
 Essex. The name is sometimes used for ashlar-stones with 
 which the quoins are built ; and it appears formerly to 
 have also signified vertical angular projections formed on 
 the face of a wall for ornament. 
 
 Rafters (Saxon), the inclined timbers forming the sides 
 of a roof, which meet in an angle at the top, and on which 
 the laths or boards are fixed to carry the external covering. 
 [See Boo/.] 
 
 Queen-post. See Boof. 
 
 Quibe, Quier, = Choir. 
 
 Rabbit, corruption of Rebate . 
 
 Rails, horizontal pieces of 
 timber between the panels of 
 wainscoting, doors, &c. The 
 upright pieces of such frames 
 are termed Styles . Rails are 
 
 also those pieces which lie over 
 and under balusters in balconies, 
 or extend from post to post in 
 fences. 
 
 Rampabts. See Step. This 
 name is also given to a parapet, 
 the passage behind the parapet, 
 and to the walls of a town. 
 
2l8 
 
 J&ag^tone— JSear-faauIt. 
 
 Rag-stone, or Rag-work, buildings of rough stone in 
 thin layers resembling 
 tiles. It is found only 
 in certain districts, de- 
 pending entirely on 
 the nature of the ma- 
 terials. Some kinds of 
 stone split up naturally 
 or easily into thin lay- 
 ers, which are readily 
 broken to the size re- 
 quired. These thin stones are usually laid flat, with 
 a considerable thickness of mortar between them some- 
 times, in herring-bone fashion. [See Herring-lone and 
 Rubble.'] This kind of masonry is frequently plastered 
 and rough-cast: but in some counties neatly pointed with 
 large joints, and looking very well : in rubble- work the 
 stones are more irregular both in size and shape, and 
 are sometimes larger. 
 
 Rear-vault, the small vault which is interposed between 
 the tracery or glass of a window, and the inner face of the 
 
 wall. It is only employed when the wall is thick, and 
 the glass placed nearer to the outer face of the wall than 
 to the inner ; and it is usually bounded on the inside by 
 a rib, which either abuts against the splay of the jambs, 
 or else rests upon corbels or shafts fixed against the inner 
 edges of the jambs. 
 
debate — Renaissance. 
 
 219 
 
 Rebate (Fr. Relative), a rectangular recess or groove 
 cut longitudinally in a piece of 
 timber, to receive the edge of 
 a plank, or other work required 
 to fit into it. The notch or recess 
 in a door-post, into which the door fits, is a rebate ; board- 
 ing is rebated together when the edges are worked in this 
 manner. Stones fitted together in the same way are said 
 to b e joggled. 
 
 Refectory (Lat.), the dining-hall, or fratery, of a con- 
 vent, college, &c. : the internal arrangements and fittings 
 were very similar to those of the ordinary domestic halls, 
 except that it was usually provided with a raised desk or 
 pulpit, from which, on some occasions, one of the inmates 
 of the establishment read to the others during meal-time. 
 
 Reliquary (Lat ), a small chest, box, or casket, to 
 contain reliques. Depositories of this kind were very 
 common in our churches previous to the Reformation ; 
 they were made of wood, iron, or other metals, and oc- 
 casionally of stone ; they were always more or less orna- 
 mented, frequently with arcades and other architectural 
 ornaments, and sometimes were covered with the most 
 costly embellishments. [See Shrine. \ 
 
 Renaissance (Fr.), the name employed to describe the 
 revival of Classical details in the French Gothic styles. It 
 corresponds, in point of date, to the Elizabethan and 
 Jacobean styles in England, though it commenced rather 
 earlier abroad than in this country. 
 
 Ratchements of a herse, a 
 kind of flying buttresses which 
 spring from the corner princi- 
 pals and meet against the cen- 
 tral or chief principal. 
 
 Recessed arch means anarch 
 divided into two or more por- 
 tions or orders, receding one 
 behind the other. 
 
 Regals. See Organ. 
 
 REGLET(Lat. Regula=SLrule), 
 a flat narrow moulding em- 
 ployed to separate panels or 
 
 other members. 
 
 Re grating or skinning, among 
 masons, is taking off the outer 
 surface of an old hewn stone 
 with the hammer and ripe in 
 order to whiten and make it 
 look fresh again. 
 
 Relieving Arch. See Dis- 
 charging Arch. 
 
 Relievo, Relief, the projec- 
 tion given to carved work. See 
 Bas-relief. 
 
220 
 
 !Eereti00. 
 
 Reredos (written also Lardos, from ~Fr. Z’ Arriere-dos), 
 the wall or screen at the 
 hack of an altar, seat, &c. ; 
 it was usually ornamented 
 with panelling, &c., espe- 
 cially behind an altar, and 
 sometimes was enriched 
 with a profusion of niches, 
 buttresses, pinnacles, sta- 
 tues, and other decorations, 
 which were often paint- 
 ed with brillinnt colours; 
 reredosses of this kind 
 not unfrequently extended 
 across the whole breadth of 
 the church, and were some- 
 times carried up nearly to 
 the ceiling, as at St. Alban’s 
 Abbey, Durham Cathedral, 
 
 Gloucester Cathedral, St. 
 
 Saviour’s Church, South- 
 wark; Christ Church. Hamp- 
 shire, &c. In village churches 
 they were generally simple, 
 and appear very frequently 
 to have had no ornaments 
 formed in the wall, though 
 sometimes corbels or niches 
 were provided to carry im- 
 ages, and sometimes that 
 part of the w r all immedi- 
 ately over the altar was 
 panelled; remains of these, more or less injured, are to be 
 found in many churches, particularly at the east ends of 
 aisles, where chantry-altars have stood, as at St. Michael’s, 
 Oxford, &c. ; and against the east wall of transepts, as in 
 St. Cuthbert’s, Wells. It was not unusual to decorate the 
 wall at the back of an altar with panellings, &c., in wood, 
 or with embroidered hangings of tapestry- work, to which 
 the name of reredos was given ; it was also applied to the 
 screen between the nave and choir of a church. 
 
 Reredos of Altar, Enstone, c. 1420. 
 
^Sitmmnt — Jfoticulateti TOork. 
 
 221 
 
 Ressaunt (probably Fr. Ressentir ), an 
 old English term for an ogee-moulding. It 
 was also applied to other architectural 
 members that had the inflected outline of 
 this moulding. It is a purely technical 
 word, and seldom used. 
 
 Kessaunt, Redcliffe 
 Church, Bristol. 
 
 Respond, a half-pillar or pier, in middle- 
 age architecture, attached to a wall to support an arch, &e. 
 They are very frequently used by 
 themselves, as at the sides of the 
 entrances of chancels, &c., and are 
 also generally employed at the ter- 
 minations of ranges of pillars, such 
 as those between the body and 
 aisles of churches. In these last- 
 mentioned situations they usually 
 correspond in general form with 
 the pillars, when of the same date ; 
 but it often happens they belong 
 to work of another period. The 
 name occurs frequently in me- 
 diaeval contracts, and may have its 
 origin in the notion of the two 
 pilasters responding to each other : 
 thus the breadth of the nave of Eton 
 College Chapel “ between the re- 
 sponders” was directed by the will 
 of King Henry YI. to be thirty- 
 two feet; or else that the shaft ‘re- 
 sponds to,’ i.e., ‘meets’ the arch. 
 
 Reticulated Work (Lat. Opus 
 reticulatum == net- work), masonry 
 
 constructed with small diamond- Respond, Fotheringay, Northants. 
 
 shaped stones, or square stones 
 
 placed diagonally. In the city of Rome this mode of 
 decorating the surface of a wall is generally characteristic 
 of the period of the Early Empire ; it was frequently imi- 
 tated in Romanesque work, especially in the tympanum 
 of a doorway in Norman work. 
 
222 
 
 Return— Etb. 
 
 Return, the terminations of the dripstone 
 or hood-mould of a window or door. Several 
 examples will be found under Dripstone . The 
 term is also sometimes applied to the seats and 
 desks which are set against the screen at the 
 west end of a choir. 
 
 Rib, a projecting band on a ceiling, &c. In middle- 
 age architecture ribs are very extensively employed 
 to ornament ceilings, 
 both flat and vaulted ; 
 more especially the 
 latter, when groined. 
 
 In the earliest Nor - / 
 
 man vaulting the ribs 
 generally consist of 
 mere flat bands cross- 
 ing the vault at right 
 angles, the groins as well as the apex being left perfectly 
 plain. As the style advances the ribs become moulded, 
 and are also applied to the groins, as in Oxford Cathedral, 
 and are sometimes enriched with zigzags and other orna- 
 ments peculiar to the style, with carved bosses at the 
 intersections, as in the churches of Iffley, Oxfordshire, 
 and Elk stone, Gloucestershire. 
 
 In Early English vaulting, and that of all subsequent 
 periods, the groins are in- 
 variably covered by ribs, 
 and the intersections are 
 generally ornamented with 
 bosses or other decorations, 
 as is the case in the chapter- 
 house at Oxford. [See il- 
 lustration under ifoss.] In the Early English style it is 
 
 Westminster Abbey, c. 1220. 
 
 Reredos. Sometimes used for 
 the open fireplace in halls, &c. 
 
 Retable. See Table. 
 
 Reveal (Lat. Bevello ), the side 
 of an opening for a window, 
 doorway, &c. , between theframe- 
 work and the outer surface of 
 the wall. 
 
 Re vestry = vestry. 
 
 Riser, or Raiser. See Step. 
 
 Roman Order,' a name given 
 sometimes to the Composite 
 order. 
 
 Roundel, (1) in Classical ar- 
 chitecture same as Astragal; 
 (2) in armour. See illustrations 
 to Brass. 
 
223 
 
 »a. 
 
 Gloucester Cathedral, c. 1320. 
 
 seldom that more ribs are used than those which cross the 
 vault at right angles (cross-springers) and the (diagonal) 
 ribs upon the groins, with sometimes one at the apex. 
 [See illustration from Westminster Abbey, under Vault .] 
 
 In the Decorated style additional ribs are introduced 
 between the diagonal and cross -springers, following the 
 curve of the vault, and frequently also in other parts, 
 running in different direc- 
 tions, and uniting the whole 
 into a kind of net-work, as 
 at Tewkesbury Abbey, Glou- 
 cestershire : the apex of the 
 vault is almost invariably 
 occupied by a rib, which is 
 often slightly curved up- 
 wards between the bosses. 
 
 When they are numerous 
 it is not unusual to find that the more important ribs 
 are of larger size than the 
 others. In this style the 
 ribs are sometimes orna- 
 mented with the character- 
 istic ornament, the Ball- 
 flower, as in Gloucester Ca- 
 thedral. 
 
 In ordinary Perpendicu- 
 lar vaulting, ribs are ap- 
 plied much in the same 
 way as in the preceding 
 style, but they are some- 
 times employed in greater 
 profusion and in more com- 
 plicated arrangements, by 
 which the effect is by no 
 means always improved, as 
 at St. MaryRedcliffe Church, 
 
 Bristol. Occasionally the 
 mouldings are made to in- 
 tersect each other. In fan- 
 tracery vaulting the ribs 
 radiate from the springing 
 
 Thornton Abbey, Lincolnshire, c. 1420. 
 
224 
 
 m. 
 
 of each pendentive, and generally become multiplied as 
 they rise upwards, so that the whole surface is covered 
 with tracery, which is 
 usually enriched with 
 featherings and other 
 decorations. 
 
 Many churches, and 
 some other ancientbuild- 
 ings, have raised ceil- 
 ings, of wood or plaster, 
 formed on the under- 
 sides of the timbers of 
 the roof; a few of these, which are as old as the Decorated 
 and Early English styles, are sparingly ornamented with 
 small ribs; there is generally one along the top and 
 others crossing it at considerable intervals: in some in- 
 stances the ribs are more numerous in both directions, 
 so as to divide the surface into rectangular compartments 
 or panels. 
 
 In the Perpendicular style ceilings of this kind are 
 divided into squares by small ribs with bosses, shields, or 
 flowers, at the intersections ; flat ceilings also, which are 
 common in this style, are frequently divided into squares, 
 and sometimes into other patterns, by moulded ribs. In 
 
 Divinity School, Oxford, a. d. 1480. 
 
 Wymington, Bedfordshire. 
 
 the time of Queen Elizabeth and James I., ribs were 
 even used on plaster ceilings, and were often arranged 
 with considerable intricacy. 
 
3&tbge— ^oILmoulbmg. 
 
 225 
 
 Ridge, the upper angle of a roof. It has usually 
 though by no means 
 always, a piece of 
 timber running 
 along it, called the 
 ridge - piece, upon 
 which the upper 
 ends of the rafters 
 rest: the tiles with 
 which it is covered 
 are called ridge- 
 tiles ; these are 
 sometimes made ornamental, good instances of which are 
 found at Great Malvern and Lincoln. [See Crest-tiles . ] 
 Not un frequently the ridge along the roof, when co- 
 vered with lead, was made ornamental. 
 
 Ridge-piece, Llan Tysilio. 
 
 Roll -moulding. This 
 
 term has been popularly, 
 but somewhat vaguely, 
 given to a moulding much 
 used in Decorated and late 
 Early English work, espe- 
 cially in strings and drip- 
 stones. The varieties of 
 such mouldings are nu- 
 merous, some of them 
 bearing resemblance to a 
 roll of parchment, others 
 are very different. Where 
 the square fillet is more 
 decidedly marked, it has 
 been called “The Roll 
 and Eillet Moulding,” It 
 appears to have become 
 confused with the Scroll- 
 moulding , so called from 
 resemblance to a scroll of 
 parchment with the edge overlapping. The name of 
 Roll-moulding also is often applied to the common Round 
 or Bowtell. 
 
 String, Dorchester, Oxfordshire. 
 
 Q 
 
226 
 
 <Eomatt Architecture. 
 
 Roman Architecture. Before the conquest of Greece 
 the Romans were gradually developing an architecture 
 of their own, quite distinct from what is now usually 
 called by that name, which is a variation of the Greek 
 style, adopted after the conquest of Greece, when the 
 superior civilization of the conquered race had great in- 
 fluence on the conquerors. In the time of the kings of 
 Rome, the style of architecture was of the same rude 
 and massive character as that of other nations at the 
 same period, not only in the cities of the Latins, such as 
 Tusculum, or the Sabines as at Varia, or the Etrurians as 
 at Fiesole, Volterra, Perugia, and many others ; but also 
 in distant countries, as in Palestine at Jerusalem, and in 
 Africa at Tunis, where we see the same construction of 
 large quadrangular blocks with wide joints, similar to 
 what we have in Rome in the walls of Roma Quadrata, 
 and on the other hills ; and of the time of the later kings 
 in the Capitolium, containing the JErarium, .Tabularium, 
 &c., of which we have considerable remains. In this 
 venerable building we have also a very early example 
 of the use of the Arch in a porticus, or arcade, on the 
 western side. The only other building of any import- 
 ance of the time of the Republic is the Emporium of 
 Commerce near the Port. Here we have arcades as a 
 leading feature, and the face of the wall is of the kind 
 called by Yitruvius “ Opus incertum,” which preceded 
 the “ Opus reticulatum ” of Sylla and the early em- 
 perors ; but there are no columns here. The rude 
 Tuscan or Etruscan columns in front of the Tabularium 
 are, however, quite as early as the Emporium, the exact 
 date of which is not recorded, but it is mentioned about 
 two centuries before the Christian era. This example of 
 the use of the Arch at so early a period has not 
 been observed elsewhere. The vaults of the early 
 Etruscan tombs are cut out of the rock, not built; but 
 they may have given the idea of the arch, though they 
 are sometimes cut in the form of timbers, as at Or- 
 vieto and Yeii. 
 
 The style usually called Roman architecture differs 
 considerably from Grecian, both in general aspect and in 
 the details; it also embraces two additional orders, the 
 
Conran &rcfjttectitr& 
 
 227 
 
 Tuscan and Composite, which were unknown to the 
 Greeks. The mouldings are rounder and often more 
 prominent; the enrichments both in design and exe- 
 cution are bolder, and are frequently used in greater 
 profusion, while figures are comparatively seldom intro- 
 duced ; the Entablatures in many cases are broken over 
 the columns; the pediments are steeper, and the shafts 
 of the columns, instead of diminishing in a straight 
 line from the base to the capital, are very often slightly 
 curved. The arch also, which appears to have been un- 
 known to the Greeks, was brought into general use by the 
 Romans, and greatly affected the character of their archi- 
 tecture ; at its first introduction it was made subordinate 
 to the columns and entablature, but it soon came to be re- 
 garded as a more important principle, and was adopted 
 as one of the leading features. In general appearance 
 Roman architecture is less chaste and simple than the 
 Grecian, but it is bolder, richer, and in many respects 
 more imposing. 
 
 The construction of nearly all the great Roman build- 
 ings in Rome itself is concrete faced with brick, or with 
 small ashlar masonry in diamond-shaped patterns, called 
 reticulated masonry ; the latter is more usual in the two 
 first centuries of the Christian era, the best period of art 
 in Rome, and the brickwork of that period is also superior 
 to that of any other. In the third century there is scarcely 
 a perceptible change, but in the fourth there is a very 
 decided falling off and deterioration of all kinds, and old 
 materials were extensively used again, as in the Arch 
 of Constantine. The vaults are usually one mass of con- 
 crete, with the walls plastered and painted on the inside, 
 and faced with brick or stone on the outside. The walls 
 are of enormous thickness : those of the Pantheon are thirty 
 feet thick, and as the interior is lighted by a large circular 
 opening in the centre of the vault, no windows were re- 
 quired. The brick casing is full of arches, called arches 
 of construction, and the use of them is to bind the brick 
 casing on to the concrete mass securely. The concrete or 
 rubble walls frequently have layers of the flat bricks or tiles 
 at intervals to bind them together, but this fashion seems 
 to have been introduced at rather a later time, or at least it 
 
228 Roman 'Errfjttecture — Romanesque Stgle. 
 
 is not left outside in the earlier work as it is in later times. 
 The construction gets gradually worse, until in the tenth 
 century it is as bad as it well could be to stand at all, and 
 the only dated building of the eleventh century in Rome 
 is of herring-bone work. The revival of the art of build- 
 ing began later in Rome than in the distant provinces of 
 the empire. Trance and England took the lead in this 
 real Renaissance. Germany followed next, and Italy, 
 especially Rome, was the latest. Throughout the Middle 
 Ages the building art at Rome may be said to be a cen- 
 tury behind the rest of Europe. 
 
 Of the buildings constructed by the Romans in this 
 country during their occupation, we have none remaining 
 at all perfect. We can judge of their extent by the 
 traces of foundations, and sometimes of their plan by 
 the finding of hypocausts, baths, &c. The walls of forti- 
 fication are also in part remaining round several places 
 known to have been important Roman towns ; but beyond 
 these we have very little to guide us as to the style 
 and character of the ornamental work of their buildings. 
 It is probable that in many of the Roman villas the 
 lower part of the wall only was of stone, and the super- 
 structure of wood, and there is no reason to suppose that 
 in any of the remains of villas, &c., which have hitherto 
 been discovered in this country, there were upper storeys. 
 The best remains of Roman houses have been excavated 
 at Silchester. 
 
 Romanesque Style, a general term for all the debased 
 styles of architecture which sprang from attempts to imitate 
 the Roman, and which flourished in Europe from the period 
 of the destruction of the Roman power till the introduction 
 of Gothic architecture. It is thus described by Dr.Whewell: 
 “ Its characters are a more or less close imitation of the 
 features of Roman architecture. The arches are round; 
 are supported on pillars retaining traces of the Classical 
 proportions; the pilasters, cornices, and entablatures, have 
 a correspondence and similarity with those of Classical 
 architecture; there is a prevalence of rectangular faces 
 and square-edged projections; the openings inwalls are 
 small, and subordinate to the surfaces in which they occur ; 
 
Romanesque Stgle— Roob^eam. 229 
 
 the members of the architecture are massive and heavy, 
 very limited in kind and repetition, the enrichments being 
 introduced rather by sculpturing surfaces, than by multi- 
 plying and extending the component parts. There is in 
 this style a predominance of horizontal lines, or at least 
 no predominance and prolongation of vertical ones. Por 
 instance, the pillars are not prolonged in corresponding 
 mouldings along the arches; the walls have no promi- 
 nent buttresses, and are generally terminated by a strong 
 horizontal tablet or cornice.” “ This same kind of archi- 
 tecture, or perhaps particular modifications of it, have 
 been by various persons termed Saxon, Norman, Lombard, 
 Byzantine, &c. All these names imply suppositions, with 
 regard to the history of this architecture, which it might 
 be difficult to substantiate ; and would, moreover, in most 
 cases, not be understood to describe the style in that gene- 
 rality which we learn to attribute to it, by finding it, with 
 some variations according to time and place, diffused over 
 the whole face of Europe.” The Pisan style has a very dis- 
 dinct character of its own, the chief feature of which is 
 the number of small arcades with detached shafts or colo- 
 nettes along the upper part of the walls, and especially 
 round the apse; the arches are round, but the work is 
 very light and elegant. It is contemporary with the 
 Early Gothic of England and Prance. In Italy small 
 antique columns are often used again, as in the apse of 
 the cathedral at Pisa. This style is adopted in the 
 Rhine churches in the first half of the thirteenth century. 
 
 Rood-beam, Rood-loft, and Rood-screen. The custom 
 of separating the choir and presbytery from the nave by 
 a high screen appears to have begun in the large monastic 
 churches, and afterwards to have set the fashion for the 
 smaller, and parish churches; for this reason there are 
 no remains of Rood-screens earlier than the thirteenth 
 century, or any account of such. In the earlier churches 
 of Rome, the choir was always separated by a low screen 
 or railing (see Chancel ), and never by a high one, nor was 
 the presbytery even shut in by any lofty structure. But 
 apart from the Rood -screen, the Roo di-beam had its origin, 
 probably, in the ancient trahes or beam, frequently referred 
 
230 
 
 
 to in the earlier writers, e.g., Anastasius. In the Middle 
 Ages the rood-beam became part and parcel of the screen, 
 and with it a rood-loft, which was found convenient for 
 lighting candles, decorating, and other offices required in 
 connection with the images which essentially belonged to 
 it. These Eood-lofts do not appear to have been common 
 in this country before, if so soon as the fourteenth century ; 
 they were approached from the inside of the church, gene- 
 rally by a small stone staircase in the wall, which is often 
 to be found in churches which have lost all traces of the 
 screens themselves. The front was often richly panelled, 
 and the under side formed into a large coved cornice, or orna- 
 mented with small ribs and other decorations, connecting it 
 with the screen below. Although most of the rood-lofts in 
 
 Rood-screen, Charlton-on-Otmoor, Oxfordshire, c. 1500. 
 
 this country have been destroyed, a c nsiderable number of 
 examples (more or less perfect) remain, as at Long Sutton, 
 Kingsbury Episcopi, Barnwell, Dunster, Timberscombe, 
 Minehead, and Winsham, Somersetshire; Newark, Not- 
 tinghamshire; Charlton-on-Otmoor, and Handborough, 
 Oxfordshire; Merevale, Knowle, and Worm-Leighton, 
 Warwickshire; Flam sted, Hertfordshire ; Uffendon, Brad- 
 ninch, Collumpton, Dartmouth, Kenton, Plymptree, and 
 Hartland, Devon, &c. The rood-loft was occasionally 
 placed above the chancel- arch, as at Northleach, Glouces- 
 
3&0oti=&eam — Iftootf. 
 
 231 
 
 tershire. It sometimes extended across the first arch, of 
 the nave, as in Castle Hedingham Church, Essex. There 
 are very fine and rich rood-lofts in Wales, in churches 
 which are in other respects plain and poor. 
 
 The rood-lofts were ordered to be taken down as super- 
 stitious, hut strict injunctions were given by the Commis- 
 sioners of Queen Elizabeth, Oct. 10, 1561, to the effect 
 that only the loft was to be removed down to the beam, 
 that the screen itself was to be left standing, and if re- 
 moved to be replaced. 
 
 Rood (Saxon), a cross or crucifix; the term was more 
 particularly applied to the 
 large cross erected in all . 
 our churches over the en- 
 trance of the chancel or 
 choir; this was often of 
 very large size, and when 
 complete was, like other 
 crucifixes, accompanied by 
 the figures of St. John and 
 the Blessed Virgin, placed 
 one on each side of the 
 foot of the cross : in front 
 of these roods lights were 
 frequently placed, espe- 
 cially on certain festivals 
 of the Church. Of course, 
 all such were destroyed, 
 some probably as early as 
 Henry the Eighth’s reign, t 
 most in that of Edward 
 the Sixth. What remained, 
 or were restored during 
 
 Mary’s reign, were taken down in the early years of that 
 of Elizabeth. Only a few examples of the Crucifix re- 
 main, and those in stone. 
 
 Rood, Sherborne, Dorset. 
 
 Rood -tower, Rood - steeple : 
 this name is sometimes applied 
 to the tower built over the in- 
 tersection of a cruciform church. 
 
 Hood-arch is sometimes applied 
 to the arch between the nave 
 and chancel, from its being im- 
 mediately over the rood-loft. 
 
Roof, the external covering on the top of a building ; 
 sometimes of stone, but usually of wood overlaid with 
 slates, tiles, lead, &c. The form and construction of the 
 timber-work of roofs differ materially according to the 
 nature of the building on which it is to be placed, and 
 any attempt to notice all the varieties would far exceed 
 the limits of this work. The main portions of the framing, 
 which in most cases are placed at regular intervals, are 
 each called a truss, principal, or pair of principals ; these, 
 in ornamental open roofs, are the leading features, and in 
 some ancient roofs are contrived with an especial view to 
 appearance. The accompanying diagrams of two of the 
 simplest kinds of mo- 
 dern roofs will serve 
 to explain the names 
 of the most important 
 timbers: a Icing -post 
 
 roof has one vertical 
 post in each truss, a 
 queen- post roof has 
 two. 
 
 Mediaeval roofs vary 
 so much in their struc- 
 ture, on account of the 
 ornamental disposition 
 of the pieces, that it is 
 not easy to establish 
 a universal nomencla- 
 ture for them. Many 
 names of beams and 
 timbers occur in old 
 
 contracts of which the g£ c « e -b™S. or struts ' rafters, 
 
 original application is t!lfters ' blade "' 
 
 often uncertain. 
 
 The Hammer-beam roofs contain most of the peculiarities 
 of structure that distinguish the mediaeval roofs from the 
 modern roofs, and the following nomenclature may be 
 adopted in describing them : — 
 
 Sometimes one hammer beam is repeated over another, 
 forming, as it were, two storeys. It is then called a double 
 hammer -beam roof, and the nomenclature runs, — Lower 
 
&ooi 
 
 233 
 
 hammer-leam, upper hammer-leam, lower hammer-lrace, 
 upper hammer-brace, lower side-post, upper side-post, <$fc. 
 
 A. Hammer-beam. 
 BB„ Pendant-post. 
 C. Hammer-brace. 
 DD. Rafter. 
 
 E. Collar. 
 
 F. Side-post. 
 
 G. Collar-brace. 
 
 H. Upper collar. 
 
 It must be remembered that all upright pieces may be 
 called posts , with an epithet, if necessary, e.g. Pendant- 
 post. Inclined pieces, if 
 not rafters , are Iraces, and 
 commonly derive their 
 epithet from the piece 
 under which they are 
 placed, or which they 
 principally stiffen, as Col- 
 lar - Irace . Ashlar pieces 
 are fixed to every one of 
 the rafters in most me- 
 diaeval roofs, but they are 
 sometimes concealedbycor- 
 nice-mouldings and frieze- 
 boards. The example 
 from Dorchester shews the 
 hammer-beam construction 
 with collar - Irace , side- 
 post, &c. 
 
 Of the construction of 
 the wooden roofs of the Ancients very little is known, 
 
 Hammer-beam Roof, North Aisle, Dorchester, Oxon. 
 
234 
 
 Boot 
 
 but it was probably of the most inartificial kind, and 
 judging from the form of their pediments, the pitch of 
 them was low : some small buildings still retain their 
 original roofs of marble, as the Tower of the "Winds, and 
 the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates at Athens. The 
 Mausoleum of Theodoric at Ravenna has a domed roof, 
 formed of a single block of stone, nearly thirty- six feet 
 in diameter. 
 
 Saxon roofs were elevated, but to what degree we have 
 no certain account, neither is there satisfactory evidence 
 of their internal appearance; the illuminations in manu- 
 scripts seem to represent them as often covered with slates, 
 tiles, or shingles. 
 
 Norman roofs were also raised, in some cases to a very 
 steep pitch, but in others the elevation was more moderate, 
 the ridge being formed at about a right angle. It does not 
 appear that at this period the construction was made orna- 
 mental, although, doubtless, in many cases the framing 
 was open to view. The covering was certainly sometimes 
 of lead, but was probably oftener of a less costly material. 
 
 Early English roofs were generally, if not always, made 
 with a steep slope, though not universally of the same 
 pitch ; sometimes the section of the roof represented an 
 equilateral triangle, and sometimes the proportions were 
 flatter. A few roofs of this date still exist, as on the nave 
 of Hales Owen Church, Shropshire; this originally had 
 tie-beams across it, and under every rafter additional pieces 
 of timber are fixed, which are cut circular, so that the 
 general appearance is that of a series of parallel ribs 
 forming a barrel-vault. This seems to have been a com- 
 mon mode of improving the appearance of roofs in this 
 style before any important ornaments were applied to 
 them. The additional pieces under the rafters were 
 usually either quite plain or only chamfered on the edges; 
 a moulded rib sometimes ran along the top, and a cornice 
 next the wall-plate, both of which were generally small; 
 the tie-beams also were frequently moulded. 
 
 When first the approach of the Decorated style began 
 to exercise an influence, the roofs, though still of the same 
 construction, became somewhat more ornamental. There 
 are also roofs existing of this date, and some probably 
 
3£fl0f. 
 
 2 35 
 
 earlier, in country churches, the insides of which are 
 formed into a series of flat spaces, or cants; they are 
 usually quite plain, with the exception of the tie-beam 
 and cornice, which are frequently moulded, and the king- 
 post, which is commonly octagonal with a moulded capital 
 or base. Of a later period roofs of this kind are extremely 
 common in some districts, but they are generally to be 
 distinguished from the earlier specimens by being arranged 
 in seven cants instead of six; of the older description good 
 examples remain at Chartham Church, Kent, and on the 
 south aisle of Merrow Church, Surrey. Most of these 
 roofs are now ceiled, but probably many of them were 
 originally open. 
 
 As the Decorated style advanced, the leading timbers 
 of the principals were often 
 formed into an arch by the ad- 
 dition of circular braces under 
 the tie-beams, the beams them- 
 selves being also frequently 
 curved; the spandrels formed 
 by these braces were very usu- 
 ally filled with pierced tracery, 
 and the timbers generally were 
 more moulded and enriched 
 than in the earlier styles. 
 
 "Where the lines of mouldings 
 were interrupted they very 
 commonly terminated in carved leaves or other orna- 
 ments: sometimes the tie-beams were omitted in roofs 
 of high pitch, but the principals were generally arched. 
 The roofs of domestic halls, in the Decorated style, ap- 
 pear to have been more enriched than those of churches ; 
 that of Malvern Priory had a variety of cross -braces 
 above the tie-beams cut into ornamental featherings ; 
 that of the Archbishop of Canterbury’s palace at May- 
 field, Sussex, was supported on stone arches spanning 
 the whole breadth of the room (about forty feet) : this 
 construction is also partially used in the hall at the 
 Mote, Ightham, Kent. This kind of construction, a 
 wooden roof supported on stone arches instead of the 
 large timbers necessary for the principals, seems to have 
 
 South Aisle, Kidlington, Oxon. 
 
236 t 
 
 been more common than is generally supposed, and at all 
 periods d . 
 
 In the Perpendicular style hammer -learn roofs were 
 introduced, (one of the finest specimens of which is that 
 on Westminster Hall,) and, together with them, most 
 numerous varieties of construction for the sake of orna- 
 
 ment. These are far too manifold to be enumerated ; many 
 specimens exist in churches and halls, some of which are 
 extremely magnificent, and are enriched with tracery, 
 featherings, pendants, and carvings of various kinds, in 
 the greatest profusion. Many roofs in this style were 
 nearly or quite flat; these, when plain, had the timbers 
 often exposed to view, and moulded ; in other cases they 
 
 d Besides those mentioned in the text, there is one over the hall and chapel 
 of Conway Castle, and there is reason to believe to at the old roof of the Guild- 
 hall in London had stone principals, some portions of them having- been found 
 during the repairs m 1864. Such roofs are common in some parts of France, 
 especially over the aisles of churches, a3 at Montmartre in Paris, and many 
 churches in the Isle de France, and remains of them have been found in 
 Normandy in work of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. 
 
Eoof— bubble. 
 
 237 
 
 were ceiled with, oak and formed into panels, and were 
 usually enriched with bosses and other ornaments of simi- 
 lar description to those of the higher roofs ; good examples 
 remain at Cirencester Church, Gloucestershire. On halls 
 hammer-beam roofs were principally used, but on churches 
 other kinds of construction were more prevalent. There 
 are some mediaeval buildings, principally vestries, apses, 
 and portions of churches, which are entirely roofed with 
 stone. They are generally of high elevation, and often 
 have ribs answering to the rafters in a wooden roof. They 
 occur at all periods, and in some cases may have been 
 erected for protection against fire ; in other cases, when 
 the material was suitable, perhaps from economy. 
 
 The name of roof is often applied to what are in fact 
 ceilings having an external covering, or outer roof, distinct 
 from that which is seen. Yaulted roofs are also frequently 
 spoken of, but a vault usually has an outer roof over it, 
 and is more properly a vaulted ceiling. 
 
 Rose. A kind of rose was sometimes used as an orna- 
 ment on the face of the abacus on 
 Corinthian capitals. It also occurs 
 in ornamental mouldings during the 
 Norman style; but the full rose, as 
 in the accompanying illustration, was 
 a badge of the Tudors, and during 
 their reigns it is often found carved 
 on buildings in conjunction with the 
 Portcullis . 
 
 Rubble, Rubble-work, Rough- walling : coarse walling 
 constructed of rough stones, not large but of great ir- 
 regularity both in size and shape, and not so flat- bedded 
 as in rag- work : in some districts it is often formed of 
 
 Badge of the Tudors. 
 
 Bose Window, a name some- 
 times given to a circular win- 
 dow. See Window. 
 
 Bough-cast, coarse plaster- 
 work, used on the outsides of 
 buildings. 
 
 Bough-setter, Bough- mason: 
 an old term for a mason who 
 
 only built coarse walling, as dis- 
 tinguished from a free-mason, 
 who worked with mallet and 
 chisel. 
 
 Bound, a name for the Torus. 
 
 Boundel, a bead or astragal 
 moulding. 
 
238 
 
 bubble— Sacrfetg. 
 
 flints : in large buildings, in neighbourhoods where better 
 materials can be obtained for the outer face of the walls, 
 it is in general only 
 used for the insides, 
 or backing, but in other 
 districts the whole sub- 
 stance of the walls is 
 not unfrequentlv of 
 this construction ; it 
 is often found to have 
 been plastered on both 
 sides, but sometimes 
 it was only pointed externally. 
 
 Rustic-work, ashlar masonry, the joints of which are 
 worked with grooves, or 
 channels, to render them 
 conspicuous ; sometimes 
 the whole of the joints 
 are worked in this way, 
 and sometimes only the 
 horizontal ones ; the 
 grooves are either mould- 
 ed or plain, and are 
 
 formed in several dif- 1 
 
 ferent ways ; the surface 
 
 of the work is sometimes left, or purposely made rough, 
 but at the present day it is usually made even. Rustic- 
 work was never employed in mediaeval buildings, but it is 
 said to have had its origin in the buildings of Augustus 
 and Claudius at Rome. 
 
 Sacristy (Fr., from Lat. Sacer , but written also Secre - 
 tarium ), a room attached to a church, in which the sacred 
 vessels, vestments, and other valuables connected with the 
 religious services of the building, were preserved, and in 
 which the priest put on his robes; sometimes included 
 within the main walls of the fabric, and sometimes an 
 adjunct. In England this name does not appear to have 
 been so common as Yestry, but on the Continent it still 
 prevails. [See Vestry.'] 
 
239 
 
 Sacrfetg— Sanctefoll. 
 
 Sancte-bell, Sanctus-bell, Saints’ -bell, Mass-bell, (old 
 English forms, Sacring-bell, Saunce-bell,) a small bell 
 used in the Roman Catholic Church to call attention to 
 the more solemn parts of 
 the service of the Mass, as 
 at the conclusion of the 
 ordinary, when the words 
 “ Sanctus, Sanctns, Sanc- 
 tus, Deus Sabaoth,” are 
 pronounced by the priest, 
 and on the elevation of the 
 Host and chalice after con- 
 secration; it is now usu- 
 ally, if not always, a small 
 hand-bell carried by an at- 
 tendant, and was generally 
 of this kind in England 
 previous to the Reforma- 
 tion, made sometimes of 
 silver; but in some in- 
 stances a larger bell was 
 used, and was suspended 
 on the outside of the church 
 in a small turret, made to 
 receive it, over the arch- 
 way leading from the nave 
 into the chancel, and rung 
 by a rope from within ; 
 many of these turrets still exist, as at Isham, Roth- 
 well, and Desborough, Northamptonshire; Boston, Lin- 
 colnshire ; Bloxham, Brize-norton, Swalcliffe, and Coombe, 
 Oxfordshire, &c. ; a few still retain the bell, as at Long 
 
 Long Compton, Warwickshire. 
 
 Sacrament-house. See Taber- 
 nacle. 
 
 Sacrynge- bell, or Saunce- 
 bell — Sancte-bell. 
 
 Saddle-bars, in casement or 
 quarry glazing the small iron 
 bars to which the lead panels 
 are tied. 
 
 Saddle-roof of a tower, so 
 called where the roof has two 
 gables, sometimes termed a 
 
 Tack-saddle .Boo/ and a Saddle- 
 back Boof. 
 
 Sally-port, a postern gate or 
 passage underground from the 
 inner to the outer works of a 
 fortification, intended as a pas- 
 sage for the garrison to sally 
 from, or pass through. 
 
 Sarcophagus. See Tomb. 
 
 Sarraime = a portcullis. 
 
240 Sanctfcbell— Saxon Architecture. 
 
 Compton, Warwickshire. Occasionally also a number 
 of “ little bells were hung in the middle of the church, 
 which the pulling of one wheel made all to ring, which 
 was done at the elevation of the hoste.” 
 
 Sanctuary (Lat.), the presbytery, or eastern part of the 
 choir of a church, in which the altar is placed. [See Choir 
 and Presbytery .] 
 
 Saxon Architecture. This name was given to the style 
 of building supposed to be erected by the English in this 
 country before the Norman Conquest. But the word was 
 at first wrongly applied, and arches of twelfth- century 
 date were frequently called Saxon. In later years it was 
 applied in a more restricted sense to the architecture of 
 buildings which were either before the Conquest or of 
 the eleventh century : certain towers -which were known 
 to have been built after the Conquest being of a style 
 which was earlier than Norman. 
 
 The buildings of the English, after their arrival here, 
 were perhaps, at first, usually of wood ; but the writings 
 of historians, such as Bede, as well as incidental mention 
 in the early Chronicles, shew that as early as the seventh 
 and eighth century stone buildings, especially those for 
 ecclesiastical purposes, were as frequent as those in wood. 
 
 The scant and uncertain references to special buildings, 
 leaves it very difficult to apply definite dates to the few 
 existing remains which we have of buildings before the 
 Conquest. Even in the cases of Jarrow and Monks’ 
 Wearmouth, where we have more historical data than 
 usual, there is some difficulty in saying what part of the 
 work should be assigned to Benedic Biscop. At both 
 the churches there are considerable remains of moulded 
 balusters, which probably fulfils the description by Bede, 
 that the churches were built “more Bomano.” How 
 far, and how much of the walls were restored after the 
 fire, and desertion on account of the ravages of the 
 Danes, leaves it difficult to lay down any laws as to the 
 character of the masonry itself of this period. But for 
 the most part, all that can possibly belong to this date 
 is of very coarse and irregular rubble- work, with rather 
 irregular ashlar stones used for the coins, and in the 
 
Saxon Srtfjttecturr. 
 
 241 
 
 case in point, the stone of the neighbourhood, and the 
 circumstances attending their history,, have to be taken 
 into account before referring to them as a type of the 
 usual building of that time. Of nearly the same age, 
 that is before the close of the seventh century, are pro- 
 bably the crypts of Hexham and Ripon, all that remain 
 of the churches founded there, at that time. 
 
 But while the rough masonry may be characteristic of 
 those buildings in the north, we have, in the south, ad- 
 joining the tine stone quarries of Bradford-on- Avon,, the re- 
 mains of a church of very good masonry ; it is close to the 
 large twelfth-century church, and as William of Malmes- 
 bury implies that the smaller church is of Aldhelm’s' 
 foundation, we may fairly attribute it to the early part of 
 the eighth century. It is very complete, with its con- 
 tinuous arcade and external pilasters, and may be said 
 to possess certain characteristics, especially the use of pi- 
 lasters, which are found in other churches which there 
 is reason for assigning to a period before the Conquest. 
 A characteristic example of the style occurs at Deerhurst,- 
 when, from the in- 
 
 H&iH 
 
 scription of Duke 
 Odda being pre- 
 served, we know 
 that it was built 
 either in, or soon _ 
 after 1053, and here 1 
 there is richer orna- 
 ment than in early 
 Norman work. 
 
 Again, some of 
 the work of Ed- 
 ward the Confes- 
 sor, at Westmin- 
 ster, is very rude, 
 while the masonry 
 
 * i • o i Doorway in Vaults under the Dormitory, Westminster, a. D. 1066. 
 
 m places is of ash- 
 lar work, which might be thought to be of Henry the First’s 
 reign, or even later. But here, again, we have no very 
 certain data for differentiating the building actually com- 
 pleted before the Conquest, and that completed afterwards. 
 
242 
 
 Saxon Architecture. 
 
 After the Conquest, we have the two towers at Oxford, 
 namely, that of St. Mi- 
 chael’ s Church, and that 
 in the Castle. Both these 
 there is good reason to as- 
 sign to Robert D’Oili, and 
 the date of about 1 070 - 80; 
 though, as far as masonry 
 is concerned, they belong 
 to a class ruderthan Deer- 
 hurst. The Castle tower 
 lays no claim to any spe- 
 cial feature, but the tow- 
 er of St. Michael’s, be- 
 sides the quoins forming 
 long-and-short work, has 
 also central baluster or 
 mid-wall shafts, as they 
 may be also called, to the 
 three windows. These 
 have only of late years 
 been opened out. 
 
 -r, x i Tower, St. Michael s, Oxford. 
 
 ±roui such examples — 
 
 and as regards ascertained dates, it is not easy to add 
 many more — it might be thought that there was not suffi- 
 cient evidence on which to base any theories as to the style. 
 
 Still, there is a distinct character belonging to portions 
 of very many churches, and especially to a large number 
 of towers which may well be called Saxon, in the sense 
 in which the word has been accustomed to be used, 
 namely, the English style before the arrival of the Nor- 
 mans, since that is ruder and earlier than Norman, while 
 the germs of Norman are plainly visible. But in the classi- 
 fication of these towers, we have equally to include the 
 Lincoln towers, which were erected by the inhabitants 
 after the Norman Bishop, Remigius, had driven them 
 down from their habitations on the hill to the plain 
 below, and the towers which they built after the Con- 
 queror had arrived. 
 
 The following may be said to be the marked features 
 belonging to this class : — 
 
Saxon ^rdptrcture. 
 
 243 
 
 The execution is rude and coarse : the walls are built 
 either of rag or rubble, some- 
 times partly of herring - bone 
 work, without buttresses, and 
 in many cases, if not always, 
 have been plastered on the out- 
 side ; the quoins are usually of 
 hewn stones placed alternately 
 flat and on end, a kind of con- 
 struction to which the name 
 “ long and short ” has been 
 given: an example of this is 
 
 shewn very clearly in the tower 
 of St. Michael’s Church, Oxford. 
 
 But perhaps one of the most sin- 
 gular and marked features in the 
 ornamentation of towers of this 
 style, and so presumably of this 
 date, is, that the walls are often 
 ornamented externally with flat 
 vertical strips of stone project- 
 ing slightly from the surface, 
 resembling wooden framing, " 
 generally of the same “long 
 and short” construction as the 
 quoins: on towers there are sometimes several tiers of 
 these, divided from each other by plain strings, or bands : 
 semicircular arches and triangles, formed of similar strips 
 of stone, are also sometimes used as ornaments ; and plain 
 projecting blocks are frequently associated with these, 
 either as imposts, or as bases for the vertical strips which 
 often stand above them. Barnack, Northants, is a re- 
 markable example of this kind of work, which covers all 
 the lower part of the tower, and on the inside of this 
 a recess for a seat, apparently for a schoolmaster, of dis- 
 tinctly Norman character, has been made, not going 
 through the wall, but only part of the way, and the 
 pilaster strips continue to the ground on the exte- 
 rior. Within the tower also, the original level of the 
 floor is two feet below the present one, so that the 
 seat looks like a doorway now ; the tower - arch oppo- 
 
 Barton-on-the-Humber, Lincolnshire. 
 
244 
 
 Saxon Architecture. 
 
 Earl s Barton, Northamptonshire*. 
 
 site to this doorway is also a fine example of the Saxon 
 style. 
 
 The jamhs of doorways 
 and other openings are very 
 commonly of “long and 
 short” work, and when im- 
 posts are used, as they gene- 
 rally are, they are usually 
 rude, and often extremely 
 massive, sometimes consist- 
 ing of plain blocks and 
 sometimes moulded. Round 
 the arch there is very often 
 a projecting course, occupy- 
 ing the situation of a hood- 
 moulding, which sometimes 
 stops upon the imposts, but 
 more frequently runs down 
 the jambs to the ground, 
 forming a kind of pilaster 
 on each side of the opening ; 
 it is usually flat, but is sometimes rounded and occa- 
 sionally notched on the edges, 
 as at Dunham Magna, Norfolk; 
 in some instances the impost is 
 arranged so as to form a capital 
 to each of these projections on the 
 jambs, and they are sometimes pro- 
 vided with bases either formed of 
 plain blocks or rudely moulded. 
 
 The arches are generally plain, 
 but are occasionally worked with 
 rude and massive mouldings, as 
 the cliancel-arch at Wittering 
 Church, Northamptonshire; some * 
 arches are constructed with brick, 
 as at Brixworth, where probably 
 all of them were taken from some 
 Roman building, as at St. Michael’s Church, Colchester, 
 or thin stones, and these usually have a course of stones 
 or bricks laid upon the top of the arch, as at Britford 
 
 Barnack, Northamptonshire. 
 
Saxon Srcfjttecture. 
 
 245 
 
 Church, Wiltshire : the arches are always semicircular, 
 but some small openings, such as doors 
 and windows, have pointed or triangular 
 heads formed of two straight stones placed 
 on end upon the imposts, and resting 
 against each other at the top, as at Bar- 
 nack. The windows are not large, and, 
 when splayed, have often nearly or quite 
 as much splay externally us internally; in 
 belfries and other situations where they 
 do not require to be glazed, they are 
 frequently of two or more lights, divided 
 by small shafts or pillars, which are very 
 usually made like balusters, and encir- 
 cled with bands of rude mouldings. 
 
 Balusters of the time of Benedict Bis- 
 cop, c. 680 , remain in large numbers 
 at Jarrow and Monks’ Wearmouth ; and 
 in the old portion of St. Alban’s Abbey, 
 erected in the latter half of the eleventh 
 century, specimens are seen, one of which 
 is engraved under Baluster . These gene- 
 rally have capitals, or imposts, formed 
 of long stones reaching entirely through 
 the wall; in some instances the balus- 
 ters are oblong in plan, and in others two are placed to- 
 gether, one behind the other, in order to 
 give better support to these long capitals. 
 
 Perhaps, after all, the rude tower 
 with the windows containing the mid- 
 wall shaft is the typical characteristic 
 of the style, and this moreover is im- 
 portant, as shewing the place which this 
 style has in the general history of the 
 architecture of Europe. It is the style 
 of all countries in the eleventh century, 
 but it lingered on in Germany, and still 
 lingers in Italy, and became a style of 
 its own fully developed ; while in Eng- 
 land and in Normandy also it gave way 
 before the soecial characteristics which make up the Nor- 
 man style. 
 
 Oorhampton, Hants. 
 
 Belfry window, with section. 
 Towei, Sompting, Sussex. 
 
246 
 
 Saxon Architecture* 
 
 The whole of these peculiarities are not to be met with 
 in any one building, and in some churches, in which seve- 
 ral of them are to be found, they are associated with 
 other features, evidently original, which so clearly belong 
 to the Norman style as to prove that these buildings are 
 not of pne- Conquest date, as at the churches of Dag- 
 lingworth, Gloucestershire, and Syston, Lincolnshire. In 
 other instances the lower parts of buildings consist ex- 
 clusively of this peculiar kind of construction, and are 
 surmounted by pure Not man work, which has been raised 
 upon it subsequently to the first erection, as at the tower 
 of Clapham Church, Bedfordshire, and Woodstone, near 
 Peterborough. Such instances afford strong evidence of the 
 buildings with such characteristics as have been described, 
 being anterior to the Conquest, certainly anterior to the 
 time of Henry I.; for some of the churches in which the 
 peculiarities under consideration are found, are clearly 
 Norman (and not early in the style), but it may reason- 
 ably be supposed that in many parts of the country the 
 Saxon style would have lingered for a considerable time 
 after the Norman invasion, and would have continued 
 to be employed (with an increasing admixture of Norman 
 features) in buildings erected by native workmen. Brix- 
 worth, Northants, is a very remarkable example, the 
 arches being all built of Homan bricks, but these may 
 have been brought from a Homan villa near at hand. An 
 excavation by the side of the choir shews that the ori- 
 ginal level of the floor was several feet below the present 
 one, and yet the Norman doorways are at the more 
 recent level ; the original parts of the church were built 
 not later than the eighth century. 
 
 The following is a tolerably complete list of examples 
 of this so-called Anglo-Saxon style : — 
 
 Bedfordshire — Knotting ; Clap- 
 ham, tower. 
 
 Berkshire — Wickham, tower ; 
 Cholsey, tower. 
 
 Buckinghamshire — Caversfield, 
 tower; Iver; Lavendon, tower, 
 nave, and chancel. 
 
 Cambridgeshire— St.Benet’sand 
 St. Giles’s, Cambridge. 
 
 Cornwall — Tintagel. 
 
 Derbyshire — Bepton, east end, 
 and crypt. 
 
 Durham — Monks’ Wearmouth, 
 tower; Jarrow, walls of church 
 and chancel. 
 
 Essex— Boreham, church; Col- 
 chester, Trinity Church, part 
 of the tower, &c.; Felstead, 
 
Saiott Architecture — Scant tilt. 
 
 church; Great Maplestead, 
 north door. 
 
 Gloucestershire — Daglingworth 
 church, except the tower ; 
 Deerhurst, tower; Miserden, 
 church ; Stretton, north door- 
 way; Upleaden, chancel-arch. 
 
 Hampshire — Boarhunt ; Cor- 
 hampton ; Headbourne Wor- 
 thy; Hinton Ampner; Little 
 Sombourn; Kilmeston; Tich- 
 borne. 
 
 Hertfordshire — St. Michael’s, at 
 St. Alban’s, and part of the 
 Abbey church. 
 
 Kent — Dover, part of the ruined 
 church in the Castle ; Swans- 
 combe, tower. 
 
 Leicestershire — Barrow on Soar. 
 
 Lincolnshire — Aukborough ; 
 Barton on the Humber, St. 
 Peter’s, tower; Branston; Ca- 
 burn; Clee, tower; Holton- 
 le-Clay, tower and chancel- 
 arch; Heapham; Lincoln, St. 
 Peter’s at Gowt’s ; St. Mary - 
 le-Wigford; Nettleton; Rops- 
 ley, part of the west end; 
 Rothwell ; Scartho ; Skelling- 
 thorpe ; Skillington, part of 
 the church ; Springthorpe ; 
 Stow, transepts ; Swallow ; 
 Syston, tower; Waith, tower 
 and chancel- arch; Winterton. 
 
 Middlesex — Kingsbury, part of 
 church (now hid by plaster- 
 ing). 
 
 Norfolk — Norwich, St. Julien’s; 
 Beeston St. Lawrence ; Dun- 
 ham Magna, church ; Elm- 
 ham, ruins of bishop’s palace; 
 Howe ; Newton, tower. 
 
 Northamptonshire — Barnack, 
 tower ; Brigstock, church ; 
 Brixworth, church; Earl’s 
 Barton, tower; Green’s Nor- 
 ton, west end; Pattishall; 
 
 247 
 
 Stow-nine-churches ; Witter- 
 ing, chancel. 
 
 Northumberland— Bolam, tower; 
 Bywell, St. Andrew; By well, 
 St. Peter; Corbridge; Hex- 
 ham, crypt; Ovingham; Whit- 
 tingham. 
 
 Oxfordshire — St. Michael’s, Ox- 
 ford, tower; Oxford Castle, 
 tower; Northleigh, tower. 
 
 Shropshire — Barrow, chancel- 
 arch ; Church Stretton ; Clee; 
 Stanton Lacey, nave and tran- 
 sept; Stottesdon. 
 
 Somersetshire — Cranmore, door- 
 head ; Milbourne Port. 
 
 Suffolk — Barham, part of ch. ; 
 Debenham ; Claydon, part of 
 church ; Elixton ; Gosbeck, 
 part of church; Hemingstone; 
 Ilketshall; Leiston. 
 
 Surrey — Albury; Stoke d’Aber- 
 non, some portions. 
 
 Sussex — Bishopstone, church ; 
 Bosham, tower; St.Botolph, 
 chancel - arch ; Burwash ; 
 Sompting, tower ; Worth ; 
 Yapton. 
 
 Warwic kshire-W oott enW awen, 
 substructure of tower. 
 
 Wiltshire — Bradford - on - Avon ; 
 North Burcombe, east end ; 
 Brytford, north and south 
 doors; Bremhill, west end; 
 Somerford Keynes. 
 
 Worcestershire — Wyre Piddle, 
 cbancel-arch. 
 
 Yorkshire — Bardsey ; Kirkdale, 
 west end and chancel-arch; 
 Kirk Hamerton; Laughton- 
 en-le-Morthen, north door- 
 way ; Maltby ; Ripon min- 
 ster, crypt, called Wilfred’s 
 Needle; York Cathedral, por- 
 tion of crypt (Bloxham) ; York, 
 church of St. Mary, Bishop- 
 hill Junior. 
 
 Scamilli, plain blocks or sub "plinths, placed under 
 columns, statues, &c., to elevate them: they differ from 
 ordinary pedestals in having no mouldings about them, 
 and in being usually of smaller size. 
 
24 § 
 
 Scfltm — Screen. 
 
 Scotia (Gr.), or Trochilus , a hollow moulding constantly 
 used in the bases of 
 columns, &c„, in Clas- 
 sical architecture : the 
 .old English name for 
 a -corresponding mould- 
 ing very frequently em- 
 ployed in Gothic archi- 
 tecture is Casement. [See 
 Column. J 
 
 Scotia, Trochilus, or Casement; Baths -of Diocletian, (Rome. 
 
 Screen, a partition, enclosure, or parclose separating 
 a portion of a room, -or of a church, from the rest. In 
 the domestic halls of the Middle Ages a screen was 
 almost invariably fixed across the lower end, so as to 
 part off a small space, which became a lobby (with a 
 gallery above it) within the main entrance doors, the 
 approach to the body of the hall being by one or more 
 -doorways through the screen ; these were of wood, with 
 
 Scaffold, a temporary -erec- 
 tion of poles,, planks, &c., for the 
 use of the workmen in building 
 walls, or -executing .any work 
 which they cannot otherwise 
 Reach. A gallery in a church 
 is sometimes called a scaffold. 
 
 Scallage, 'Scallenge, a ^pro- 
 vincial word used in Hereford- 
 shire for the detached covered 
 porch at the entrance of the 
 churchyard, commonly called a 
 Lich-gate.. 
 
 Scantling, in carpentry the 
 dimensions of a piece of timber 
 in breadth and thickness., hut 
 not including length. In ma- 
 sonry, on the other hand, it is 
 the size of a stone in length, 
 breadth, and thickness. Scant- 
 ling is also the name of any 
 piece of timber under five inches 
 square. 
 
 Scapple. To scapple a stone 
 is to reduce it to a straight sur- 
 face without working it smooth ; 
 usually done by chopping imme- 
 
 diately it is dug in the quarry ; 
 the term is now used exclusively 
 (or nearly so) in reference to 
 stone., but was formerly applied 
 to timber also, and must have 
 signified the barking of a tree, 
 or, more probably, squaring it 
 with the axe. 
 
 Scapus, Scape, the shaft of 
 a column; also the apophyges 
 of the shaft. 
 
 Scarcement, a plain flat set- 
 off in a wall; the term is but 
 little used at the present day. 
 
 Scheme, the crown of an arch. 
 
 Scheme-arch (Ttal. Arco see - 
 mo), a segmental arch. 
 
 Scoinson. See Escoinson. 
 
 Sconce^— Sguinch. Also used 
 for a candlestick. 
 
 Scouchon, Skouchon, in some 
 instances Scutcheon , in others 
 Sguinch. 
 
 Scrinium (Lat.) : (1.) a small 
 circular box in which documents 
 w^ere deposited; (2.) a Shrine or 
 chest containing relics. 
 
Screen* 
 
 249 
 
 the lower part, to the height of a few feet, formed of 
 close panceiling,, and the upper part of open-work. The 
 passage behind the screen for the use of the servants was 
 called “the Screens.” 
 
 In churches, screens were used in various situations, to 
 enclose the choir, to separate subordinate chapels, to pro- 
 tect tombs, &c. The chief was at the west end of the 
 choir, or chancel, and was called the Rood-screen, from the 
 Kood having been placed over it; these were formed 
 either of wood or stone, and were enriched not only with 
 mouldings and carvings, but also with most brilliant co- 
 louring and gilding. The screens at the west end and 
 sides of the choir in cathedrals and large churches w r ere 
 usually close throughout 
 their whole height, as 
 they also occasionally 
 were in other situations ; 
 but in general the lower 
 part only, to the height 
 ■of about four feet from 
 the ground, was close, 
 and the remainder was of 
 open-work. The oldest 
 piece of wooden screen- 
 work that has been no- 
 ticed is at Compton 
 Church, Surrey ; it is of 
 transition character from 
 
 small octagonal shafts 
 with carved capitals sup- 
 porting plain semicircu- 
 lar arches, and forms the 
 front of an upper chapel 
 over the eastern part of 
 
 the chanCel Stanton Harcourt, Oxon., c. 1260. 
 
 Of the Early English style the existing examples are 
 almost invariably of stone ; some are close walls, more or 
 less ornamented with panelling, arcades, and other deco- 
 rations, and some are close only at the bottom, and have 
 
 Horman to Early English 
 consisting of a series 0 
 
250 
 
 Screen. 
 
 the upper part formed of a series of open arches. That 
 at Stanton Harcourt is of wood, but is late in the style. 
 Specimens of wooden screens of Decorated date remain at 
 Sparsholt, Berks., and in the north aisle of the choir of 
 Chester Cathedral; these have the lower part of plain 
 boarding, and the upper of small feathered arches sup- 
 ported on circular banded shafts. Stone screens of this 
 date are variously, and often very highly, enriched ; some 
 have the upper part of open-work, similar to those of 
 wood, and others are entirely close, and are enriched with 
 arcades, panels, niches, pinnacles, diapering, and other 
 decorations characteristic of the style: specimens remain 
 
 at Lincoln and 
 several other ca- 
 thedrals and large 
 churches. Per - 
 'pendicular screens 
 exist in great va- 
 riety in very many 
 churches, both of 
 wood and stone ; 
 some of them are 
 profusely orna- | 
 mented with pa- |j 
 nellings, niches, 
 statues, pinnacles, H 
 tabernacle - work, R 
 carvings, and other (I 
 enrichments : the 
 lower part usually |Hjl 
 consists of close 
 panels, and the 
 upper part of >= 
 openwork divided 
 by mullions sup- 
 porting tracery, 
 but sometimes the 
 whole is close, with 
 
 the same general arrangement of panelling. The illus- 
 tration given from Ey field Church Berkshire, is an exam- 
 ple of a Parclose. 
 
 Parclose Screen, Fyfield, Berks., c. 1480. 
 
Scroll— Settle. 
 
 2 5 r 
 
 Scroll. A name given to a numerous class of orna- 
 ments, which in 
 general character 
 resemble a band 
 arranged in un- 
 dulations or con- 
 volutions 
 
 Scroll-moulding, a term applied to a particular kind 
 of moulding, used much for string- 
 courses in work of Edward I. and Ed- |||j|| 
 ward II. ’s reign. It is called the scroll |ji 
 or Roll - moulding , from the resem- M 
 blance to a roll of parchment, the 
 lost fold overlapping. 
 
 Chacombe, Northants. 
 
 Scutcheon (old form Scouchon; Lat. Scutum = a shield): 
 the explanation of this term when signifying an Escut- 
 cheon has been already given. It is also an old name 
 for the angles of buildings or parts of buildings, such as 
 window- jambs, &c., but apparently for those only which 
 are more obtuse than right angles. 
 
 Section, the representation of a 
 building cut asunder vertically so 
 as to shew the interior; also of a 
 moulding or other member in archi- 
 tecture cut asunder so as to shew 
 its profile. 
 
 Sedile, or Sedilia, the Latin name for a seat, which 
 in modern times has come to be pretty generally applied 
 by way of distinction to the seats on the south side 
 of the choir near the altar in churches, used in the 
 ancient service by the Priest and his attendants, the 
 deacon and subdeacon, during certain parts of the Mass: 
 they were sometimes moveable, but more usually in this 
 country were formed of masonry and recessed in the wall 
 
 Scullery = Scutellerie (Lat. 
 Scutellum = a dish), the office 
 in a mediaeval mansion or mo- 
 nastery where the plates and 
 dishes were kept. 
 
 Scutable, a term occurring 
 
 in the Westminster accounts, 
 probably = escutcheon. 
 
 See, a seat: the term is some- 
 times applied particularly to the 
 seat of dignity, or dais, in a do- 
 mestic hall, &c. 
 
252 
 
 Setitl z. 
 
 like niches. Yery numerous examples remain in our 
 churches, a few of which are of as early date as the latter 
 part of the twelfth century, but the majority are later, 
 
 Chesterton, Oxon. 
 
 extending to the end of the Perpendicular style. In gene- 
 ral they contain three separate seats, but occasionally two, 
 or only one, and in a few rare instances four, as at Roth- 
 well Church, Northamptonshire, and Furness Abbey ; or 
 five, as at Southwell Minster; sometimes a single seat 
 under one arch, or formed on the back of a window, is 
 found, long enough for two or three persons. They are 
 very commonly placed at different levels, the eastern seat 
 being a step the highest and the western the lowest; 
 but sometimes, when three are used, the two western 
 seats are on the same level, a step below the other, and 
 sometimes the two eastern are level and the western 
 a step below them. The decorations used about them 
 are various, and in enriched buildings they are occa- 
 sionally highly ornamented, and sometimes surmounted 
 
Srtrik— Sepulchre. 253 
 
 with tabernacle- work, pinnacles, &c. Some ancient sedilia 
 
 consist of plain benches 
 formed of masses of ma- 
 sonry projecting from the 
 wall, and it is not impro- 
 bable that such may have 
 once existed in some of the 
 churches in which no traces 
 of these seats are now to be 
 found. At Lenham Church, 
 Kent, is a single seat pro- 
 jecting considerably from 
 the wall (though the back 
 is slightly recessed) with 
 stone elbows resembling an 
 arm-chair: this is popularly 
 called the confessional ; at 
 Beckley Church, Oxford- 
 shire, is also a single stone 
 seat with one elbow. 
 
 Sepulchre, The Easter, a representation of the entomb- 
 ment of our 
 Saviour, set 
 up in our 
 churches at 
 Easter, on 
 the north 
 side of the 
 chancel, near 
 the altar: in 
 this country 
 previous to 
 the Refor- 
 mation, it j 
 was most 
 commonly 
 a wooden 
 erection, and 
 
 placed With- Easter Sepulchre. Stanton St.John’s, Oxon. 
 
 in a recess 
 
 in the w T all or upon a tomb, but several churches still 
 
254 
 
 Sepulchre— Sfjaft. 
 
 contain permanent stone structures that were built for 
 the purpose, some of which are very elaborate, and are 
 ornamented with a variety of decorations, as at Navenby 
 and Heckingion, Lincolnshire, and Hawton, Nottingham- 
 shire, all of which are beautiful specimens of the Deco- 
 rated style: sepulchres of this kind also remain in the 
 churches at Northwold, Norfolk; Holcombe Burnell, 
 Devonshire, and several others The Host consecrated 
 on Maundy Thursday was placed in the sepulchre with 
 great solemnity on Good Friday, and continually watched 
 from that time till Easter-day, when it was taken out 
 and replaced upon the altar with especial ceremony. 
 Altar-tombs in this position are often mistaken for Easter 
 sepulchres. 
 
 Set-off, or Off-set: the part of a wall, 
 
 &c., which is exposed horizontally when 
 the portion above it is reduced in thick- 
 ness. Set-offs are not unfrequently covered, 
 and in great measure concealed, by cor- 
 nices or projecting mouldings, but are more 
 usually plain ; in the latter case, in Classi- 
 cal architecture, they are generally nearly 
 or quite flat on the top, but in Gothic 
 architecture are sloped, and in most in- 
 stances have a projecting drip on the lower 
 edge to prevent the wet from running 
 down the walls; this is especially ob- 
 servable in the set-offs of buttresses. coodngton, Devon. 
 
 Shaft, the body of a column or pillar ; the part between 
 the capital and base. It is particularly applied to the 
 small columns which are clustered round pillars, or used 
 in the jambs of doors, in arcades and various other situa- 
 
 SEELiNG=Ceiling and Wain- 
 scot. 
 
 Segmental. See Arch. 
 
 Seler. See Tester. 
 
 Sell. See Cell. It is also ap- 
 plied to a small retired habita- 
 tion for an anchorite or other 
 religions recluse, and to a sub- 
 ordinate establishment of monks 
 dependent on one of the larger 
 
 monasteries. 
 
 Sept (Lat. Septum ), a railing. 
 
 Serges, the great wax candles 
 burnt before the altars in Roman 
 Catholic churches. 
 
 Severans, an old term not 
 now in use ; it seems to have 
 signified a kind of cornice, or 
 string-course. 
 
255 
 
 Sfjatt-Slitngle. 
 
 tions ; they are sometimes cut on the same stones as the 
 main body of the work to which they are attached, and some- 
 times of separate pieces *, in the latter case they are very 
 commonly of a different material 
 from the rest of the work, and are 
 not unfrequently polished: this 
 mode of construction appears to 
 have been first introduced towards 
 the end of the Norman style. In 
 early Norman work they are cir- 
 cular, but later in the style they 
 are occasionally octagonal, and are 
 sometimes ornamented with zig- 
 zags, spiral mouldings, &c. In 
 the Early English style they are 
 almost always circular, generally 
 in separate stones from the other 
 work to which they are attached, 
 and very often banded , in some 
 instances they have a narrow fillet 
 running up them. In the De- 
 corated style they are commonly 
 not set separate, and are frequently 
 so small as to be no more than 
 vertical mouldings with capitals 
 and bases ; they are usually round, 
 and filleted, but are sometimes 
 of other forms. In the Perpen- 
 dicular style they are cut on the 
 same stones with the rest of the work ; they are most 
 generally round, and are sometimes filleted; in some 
 cases they are polygonal, with each side slightly hollowed. 
 The part of a chimney-stack between the base and cornice 
 is called the shaft. 
 
 Shingle, a wooden tile for covering roofs, spires, &c., 
 made of cleft oak. Shingles were formerly very exten- 
 sively employed in some districts, but their use has, for 
 
 Severey, a bay, division, or 
 compartment, of a vaulted ceil- 
 ing. 
 
 Sextry — Sacristy. 
 
 Shanks, Legs : a name some- 
 times applied to the plain spaces 
 between the channels of the tri- 
 glyphs in the Doric frieze. 
 
256 
 
 Sfjtngle— %i\L 
 
 the most part, been superseded by more durable kinds of 
 covering ; they are, however, still to be found on some 
 church roofs, and on many timber spires,, especially in 
 the counties of Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Essex. 
 
 Shrine (Lat.. Scrinium), a feretory or repository for 
 relics, whether fixed, such 
 as a tomb, or moveable 
 the term is also sometimes 
 applied to the tomb of a per- 
 son not canonized. Shrines 
 were often made of the most 
 splendid and costly mate- 
 rials, and enriched with 
 jewellery in profusion, as 
 that of St. Taurin, at Ev- 
 reux, in Kormandy ; those 
 which were moveable were 
 on certain occasions carried 
 in religious processions ; 
 others were substantial erections, generally the tombs of 
 saints, as that of Edward the Confessor, in Westminster 
 Abbey, and that of St. Cuthbert, formerly in Durham 
 Cathedral, &c. ; these were not unfrequently rebuilt 
 (with additional splendour) subsequently to their first 
 erection. 
 
 Ely Cathedral. 
 
 Sill, Cill, or Sole (Er. Semi, from Lat. Solum). (1.) The 
 horizontal piece of 
 timber or stone form- 
 ing the bottom of a 
 window, doorway, or 
 other similar open- 
 ing. (2.) Also the 
 
 horizontal piece of 
 timber, or plate, at 
 the bottom of a 
 w r ooden partition. 
 
 (3.) Also the hori- Window-sole, Fotheringhay. 
 
 zontal piece of timber near the base of houses which are 
 built partly of timber and partly of brick. [See illus- 
 tration under Timber-built house.'] 
 
Sfeto— Swim. 
 
 ?57 
 
 Skew, Askew-table : the term skew is still used' in the 
 
 north for a stone built into 
 the bottom of a gable or other 
 similar situations to support 
 the coping above (a) ; it ap- 
 pears formerly to have been 
 applied to the stones forming 
 the slopes of the set-offs of 
 buttresses and other projec- 
 tions. Skew- table was pro- 
 bably the course of stone 
 weathered, or sloped, on the 
 top, placed over a continuous 
 set-off in a wall. 
 
 Soffit, a ceiling : the word is 
 seldom used except in refer- 
 ence to the subordinate parts 
 and members of buildings, such 
 as staircases, entablatures, arch- 
 ways, cornict s, &c., the under 
 sides of which are called the 
 soffit. 
 
 Solar, Soller (Lat .Solarium),, 
 a loft, garret, or upper cham- ss> Soffi * 
 
 ber. In a mediaeval house it was usually situated, behind 
 the dais, separated from it by the end of the hall, and 
 
 Screw stairs* Seo Newel , 
 Vise, and Step. 
 
 Shoar, a sloping piece of tim- 
 ber acting as a temporary but- 
 tress to support a structure that 
 threatens ruin, or that needs 
 such help during repairs. 
 
 Shouldering • piece, in car- 
 pentry called also Bragger , is 
 an obsolete term, probably the 
 same as Bracket: “pieces of 
 timber in building called Br ag- 
 gers, or shouldering-pieces {mu- 
 tuli), in mason’s work they be 
 called corbells. ” 
 
 Shrouds, the crypt of a 
 church. 
 
 Side -posts in a roof-truss are 
 posts placed in pairs at an equal 
 
 distance from the middle. See 
 Boof. 
 
 Sima = Cyma. 
 
 Sleeper, a piece of timber, or 
 plate, laid under the ground - 
 floor of a building, on which the 
 joists rest. The walls which 
 support these timbers are called 
 sleeper- walls. 
 
 Socle,, Zocle : a plain block 
 or plinth forming a low pe- 
 destal to- a statue, column, &c. ; 
 also a plain face, or plinth, at 
 the lower part of a wall; the 
 term is used only in reference 
 to Classical architecture. 
 
 Sole = Sill. 
 
 Soudlets, Sowdels = Saddle- 
 bars. 
 
 S 
 
258 
 
 Solar — Spantirrl. 
 
 had a cellar under it; these two storeys together were 
 frequently not so high as the hall, leaving the gable of 
 the lofry roof with the window in it free above them. It 
 was usually the lord’s chamber, and there was sometimes 
 a small opening from the solar into the hall, from which 
 the lord could overlook the proceedings, and hear all that 
 passed. The term is also occasionally applied to the rood- 
 loft in a church, as in an inscription to the memory of 
 John Spicer in Burford Church, Oxfordshire, bearing the 
 date of a.d. 1437 : and in some mediaeval writers it is 
 applied to the triforium. 
 
 Sommer, Summer, Sommer-beam : a main beam, or 
 girder, in a floor, &c. ; the name is now seldom used ex- 
 cept in the compound term Breast- summer. 
 
 Spandrel, the triangular spaces included between the 
 arch of a doorway, &c., and a rectangle formed by the 
 outer mouldings 
 over it : the term 
 is also applied 
 to other similar 
 spaces included 
 between arches, 
 
 &c., and straight- 
 sided figures sur- at. Alban’s Abbey Church, c. 1400. 
 
 rounding them ; 
 
 they are usually ornamented with tracery, 
 foliage, shields or other enrichments. In 
 the Perpendicular style the doorways most 
 commonly have the outer mouldings arranged 
 in a square over the head so as to form span- 
 drels above the arch. In the earlier styles, this arrange- 
 
 Sound-hole, the small orna- 
 mental openings often seen in 
 towers : probably intended for 
 giving passage to the sound of 
 the bells. 
 
 Sounding, or Sound - board, 
 the wooden projection often 
 seen over pulpits, and supposed 
 to diffuse the sound of the 
 preacher’s voice over the church. 
 
 Sowdels, or Soudlets = sad- 
 dle tar s. 
 
 Span of an arch, the breadth 
 
 of the opening between the im- 
 posts. 
 
 Span-piece, the name given 
 to the Collar-beam of a roof in 
 some districts. 
 
 Span-roof, a roof consisting 
 of two inclined sides, in con- 
 tradistinction to a shed-roof or 
 penthouse, which consists of one 
 only. Thus the body of a church 
 is span - roofed, and its aisles 
 shed-roofed. 
 
 Sparver. See Tester. 
 
Spandrel— Spire, 259 
 
 ment is very seldom found in the doorways, but spandrels 
 are sometimes used in other parts of buildings, especially in 
 .Decorated work, in which they are frequent, as at Ely. In 
 the west door of the 
 chapel of Magdalen 
 College, Oxford, the 
 spandrels of the 
 outer arch (which 
 stands considerably 
 in front of the ac- 
 tual doorway, so as flPfj 
 to form a shallow 
 porch) are cut quite 
 through and left 
 open. The spandrels 
 of a d oor were some- Ely CathedraL 
 
 times termed the hanse or haunch of a door. 
 
 Sper, Spur, Spar, a name applied by old writers to pieces 
 of timber of various kinds, such as quarters, rafters, wooden 
 bars for securing doors, &c. ; 
 the term is still used in some 
 districts for rafters : sper-batten 
 is not an unusual name with 
 middle-age authors for a rafter; 
 they also frequently speak of 
 spering a door, meaning the 
 securing it with a wooden bar, 
 or fastening it with a bolt. 
 
 Another sense of the word spur 
 is for the ornamented wooden 
 brackets which support the 
 sommer-beam by the sides of 
 doorways at York , this usage 
 is believed to be quite local. 
 
 [See Bracket and Haunch . ] 
 
 Spire (Lat.), an acutely pointed termination given to 
 towers and turrets, forming the roof, and usually carried 
 
 Walmgate, York 
 
 Speke-house; i.q. Parlour. 
 Speke, the screen across the 
 lower end of the hall in domes- 
 tic buildings. 
 
 Sperveb, the wooden frame 
 
 at the top of a bed or canopy; 
 the term sometimes includes 
 the tester, or head-piece. 
 
 Spital, a hospital. The term 
 usually denotes one for lepers. 
 
26 o 
 
 Spire* 
 
 up to a great height. It is doubtful whether any very 
 decided approach towards a spire was made till a con- 
 siderable time after the in- 
 troduction of the Norman 
 style : at this period spires 
 were sometimes adopted 
 both on turrets and towers, 
 and were generally made 
 to correspond with them in 
 their plan. Thus the cir- 
 cular turrets at the east end 
 of the church of St. Peter, 
 at Oxford, terminate in 
 small circular spires ; an 
 octagonal turret at the 
 west end of Rochester Ca- 
 thedral has an octagonal 
 spire; and the square tow- 
 ers of several churches in 
 Normandy are surmounted 
 with pyramids or square 
 spires : they were at first of very low proportions compared 
 with later structures, and in truth were little more than 
 pyramidal roofs. The whole 
 of the existing specimens 
 of this date are of stone, 
 and rise from the outer 
 surface of the walls, so as 
 to have no parapet or gutter 
 round the base. These 
 pyramids become gradually 
 more elongated as they are 
 later in date, and clearly 
 led the way to the spire 
 As the Early English 
 style arose, considerably 
 greater elevation was given 
 to spires, although they 
 were still very frequently 
 less acute than they after- 
 
 t -i . -r-, 5. Almondsbury Church, Gloucestershire, c. a.d. ' 
 
 Wards became, as at xty- 6. Salisbury Cathedral, c. A.D 1350. 
 
 " 7. St. Mary’s Church, Cheltenham, c. a.d. 1300. 
 
 1. Turret, St. Peter’s Church, Oxford, c. A.D. 1160. 
 
 2. Turret, Rochester Cathedral, c. a.d. 1160. 
 
 3. Pinnacle, Bishop’s Cleeve Church, Gloucestershire, 
 
 c. a.d. 1180. 
 
 4. Than Church, near Caen, Normandy, c. a.d. 1080. 
 
26 i 
 
 Spire. 
 
 Hall, Rutland; Barnack and Ringstead, Northampton- 
 shire; and Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford. With the 
 exception of a few rare examples, spires at this period 
 were always octagonal, and 
 when placed on square 
 towers, the angles of the 
 tower not covered by the 
 base of the spire were oc- 
 cupied by pinnacles or by 
 masses of masonry made to 
 slope back against the spire. 
 
 At the bottom of each of the 
 four cardinal sides was usu- 
 ally a large opening with 
 the jambs built perpendicu- 
 larly, so that the head stood 
 out from the spire and was 
 usually finished with a steep 
 pediment. Above these, at 
 some considerable distance, 
 smaller openings of a similar 
 kind were generally intro- 
 duced on the alternate sides ; 
 these openings are called 
 spire-lights : the top of the 
 spire terminated with a finial 
 and a cross or vane . Spires 
 were still usually made to 
 rise from the exterior of the 
 tower walls without a para- 
 pet, a mode of construction 
 
 which is distinguished in some districts by the term 
 Broach , the name of Spire being confined to such struc- 
 tures as have gutters and parapets round their bases. 
 Fine examples of spires of this date exist in Normandy, 
 and at Bampton and Witney, Oxfordshire, and various 
 other places. 
 
 During the prevalence of the Decorated style spires 
 were almost always very acute ; they generally had para- 
 pets and gutters round them, though the Broach spires 
 are by no means uncommon at this date, as at Stamford 
 
 
 Ringstead, c. 1300. 
 
26 2 
 
 Spite. 
 
 and Crick, Northamptonshire. Decorated spires did not 
 differ materially from Early 
 English spires, except in 
 the character of the details 
 and the amount of enrich- 
 ments, which now began to 
 be introduced in profusion : 
 crockets were often carved 
 on the angles, as at Caythorpe, 
 and small bands of panelling 
 or other ornaments formed 
 round them at different 
 heights ; the openings also 
 were more enriched, and the 
 pinnacles on the angles of 
 the tower were enlarged, and 
 were not un frequently con- 
 nected with the spire by 
 small flying buttresses. Fine 
 examples of this style are 
 the spires of Salisbury Ca- 
 thedral and of St. Mary’s, Ox- 
 ford. 
 
 In the Perpendicular style 
 the same general arrange- 
 ment was continued, although 
 the character of the details 
 and enrichments was altered 
 in common with those of the 
 other features of Gothic archi- 
 tecture : at this period broach 
 spires appear to have been 
 abandoned — at least no example of one of this date can 
 be referred to. The foregoing observations refer to spires 
 of stone, but they were often also made of timber and 
 covered either with lead or shingles ; the greater part 
 of these were broaches, but they were sometimes sur- 
 rounded by a parapet at the base : many specimens of 
 timber spires, covered with shingles, are to be met with 
 in the counties of Surrey, Sussex, Kent, and Essex, and 
 in some other places. 
 
 Spire, Caythorpe, c. 1320. 
 
Splag— j&qmncfj. 
 
 263 
 
 Splay, (old Fr. Disployer ), the expansion given to door- 
 ways, windows, and other openings 
 in walls, &c., by slanting the sides. 
 
 This mode of construction prevails 
 in Gothic architecture, especially on 
 the insides of windows, but is very 
 rarely, if ever, used in Classical 
 architecture. The term is also applied to other slanted 
 or sloped surfaces, such as cants, levels , &c. 
 
 Spout. The usual 
 
 contrivance for throw- j|iu 
 
 ing off the water from 1 
 
 the roofs of mediae- 
 val buildings was by 
 means of a carved 
 stone spout called a 
 gargoyle , or gurgoyle . 
 
 It is quite possible 
 some were of lead, 
 but none are found 
 remaining till the six- 
 teenth century. 
 
 Springing, Springer, the impost or point at which an 
 arch unites with its support. The bottom stone of an arch, 
 which lies immediately upon the impost, is sometimes 
 called a springer or springing- stone. Also the bottom 
 stone of the coping of a gable. [See Voussoir and Skew . ] 
 
 Squinch, or Sconce, small 
 arches or projecting courses 
 of stone formed across the 
 angles of towers, &c., in 
 Gothic architecture, to sup- 
 port the alternate sides 
 of octagonal spires, lan- 
 terns, &c., above. Some- 
 times the overhanging side 
 of the spire or octagon, w T hen 
 rising from a square tower, 
 is supported by a series 
 of projecting courses ot‘ 
 stone (as at Tong), which 
 
 Leaden Spout, Woodford Chnrch, Northamptonshire. 
 
 Squinch, Canon’s Ashby, Northamptonshire. 
 
264 
 
 Sqmncfj — Squint 
 
 Tong Church, Salop. 
 
 aaswer the same purpose as the 
 arches., but are more substantial 
 because they have no tendency 
 to expand the walls, which is 
 .always to be fean d when the 
 arched squinch is used. The 
 straight squinch is often em- 
 ployed externally, as at St. Cross, 
 where it is used to carry the 
 alure , or parapet walk, across the 
 angle at the junction of the choir 
 and transept with the tower. The 
 construction of the arched squinch 
 or tromp was a favourite exercise 
 with the French professors of the 
 art of stone-cutting. 
 
 Squint: an opening through the wall of a church in 
 an oblique direction, for the purpose of enabling persons 
 in the transepts or aisle 
 to see the elevation of 
 the Host at the high 
 altar. The usual situa- 
 tion of these openings 
 is on one or both sides 
 of the chancel-arch, and 
 there is frequently a pro- 
 jection, like a low but- 
 tress, on the outside 
 across the angle to cover 
 this opening : these pro- 
 jections are more com- 
 mon in some districts 
 than in others ; they 
 are particularly abund- 
 ant in the neighbour- 
 hood of Tenby, in South Wales; but the openings them- 
 selves are to be found everywhere, though they have com- 
 monly been plastered over, or sometimes boarded at the 
 two ends, in other cases filled up with bricks. In some 
 
 Squints, Haseley, Oxon. 
 
 Splandrel- 
 
 = Spandrel. Spur. See Sper, 
 
 Squillerie = Scullery. 
 
Squint. 
 
 265 
 
 instances they are small narrow arches by the side 
 of the chancel-arch, 
 extending from the 
 ground to the height 
 of ten or twelve feet, 
 as at Minster Lovell, 
 
 Oxon : usually they 
 are not above a yard 
 high and about two 
 feet wide, often wider 
 at the west end than 
 at the east. They are 
 commonly plain, but 
 sometimes ornament- 
 ed like niches, and 
 sometimes have light 
 open panelling across 
 them ; this is par- 
 ticularly the case in 
 Somersetshire and 
 Devonshire. There 
 are many instances 
 of these openings in 
 other situations be- 
 sides the usual one, 
 but always in the 
 direction of the high altar, or at 
 least of an altar : sometimes the 
 opening is from a chapel by the 
 side of the chancel, as at Chipping- 
 iShrton, Oxon. In Bridgewater 
 Church, Somerset, there is a series 
 of these openings through three 
 successive walls, following the 
 same oblique line, to enable a per- 
 son standing in the porch to see 
 the high altar : in this and some 
 other instances, as at Bui ford, it 
 seems to have been for the use 
 of the attendant who had to ring 
 
 the sanctus-bell at the time of Squint, Mayor’s Chapel, Bristol. 
 
 - v V- 
 
 O ft Cia.'tei ' ng] \ 
 
 Crawley, Hampshire. 
 
266 
 
 Squint — Stamrtiqjlasg, 
 
 the elevation of the Host. While there seems to be no 
 good or ancient authority for the name of Squint applied 
 to these openings, it has been long in use, and has a pri- 
 ority to the name of Hagioscope , which has of late been 
 applied to them. It is true that they, as a rule, are 
 directed towards the altar, and the name is, therefore, 
 more fortunate than that given to the Low-side window, 
 by those who prefer Greek names to English ; still it is 
 a question whether there is any reason tor the disuse of 
 the older and more simple word. 
 
 Stage, a step, floor, or storey; the term is particu- 
 larly applied to the spaces or divisions between the set- 
 offs of buttresses in Gothic architecture, and to the hori- 
 zontal divisions of windows which are intersected by 
 transoms. 
 
 Stained-glass, or Painted-glass windows were in use 
 at all periods, or as early as white glass, both in houses 
 and in churches : those of houses were in moveable case- 
 ments, which were articles of furniture for a long period, 
 and were carried from one manor-house to another. In 
 churches the windows were fixtures, and often very richly 
 coloured, the style changing along with that of the archi- 
 tecture, and requiring a separate treatise, which has been 
 admirably supplied by the late Mr. Winston in his u Hints 
 on Glass-Painting, by an Amateur.” 
 
 The earliest examples known in this country are of 
 the end of the twelfth century, as in the clear-story of 
 Canterbury. In Prance there is a small portion of painted 
 glass believed to be of the eleventh century, at Le Mans. 
 The greater part of our glass belongs to the fifteenth 
 century, though small portions of earlier date may gene- 
 rally be found in our country churches, especially in the 
 smaller openings of the tracery, where it has escaped 
 notice, and so destruction, by the Puritans. As in Gothic 
 architecture generally, so especially in glass, has the re- 
 vival of taste and knowledge shewn itself during the last 
 few years, so that now no restoration of a church is con- 
 sidered complete without stained-glass windows, if not 
 in the body of the church at least in the chancel. 
 
Stall 
 
 267 
 
 Stall (Lat.), a fixed seat enclosed, either wholly or 
 partially, at the hack and sides. All large churches and 
 most small ones previous to the Reformation had a range 
 of wooden stalls on each side and at the west end of the 
 choir, which were separated from each other by large pro- 
 jecting elbows, with desks fixed before them. In cathe- 
 drals and other large buildings they were enclosed at the 
 back with panelling, and were surmounted by overhanging 
 canopies of open tabernacle- work, which were often carried 
 up to a great height, and enriched with numerous pin- 
 nacles, crockets, pierced 
 tracery, and other orna- 
 ments : examples of stalls 
 of this kind remain in 
 most of our cathedrals and 
 in many other churches. 
 
 In some cases two rows 
 were used, the outer one 
 only being surm »unted 
 by canopies ; it was also 
 raised a step or two higher 
 than the other, as in 
 Henry the Seventh’s 
 Chapel, Westminster. In 
 ordinary parish churches 
 the stalls were without 
 canopies, and frequently 
 had no panelling at the 
 back above the level of 
 the elbows, but in many 
 instances the walls over 
 them were lined with 
 wooden panels, with a 
 cornice above, corre- 
 sponding with the screen 
 under the rood-loft, of 
 which a very good specie 
 
 Oxford Cathedral, c. 1450. 
 
 Stay-bab, the horizontal iron 
 bar which extends in one piece 
 along the top of the mullions of 
 a traceried window; the smaller 
 
 bars, or transoms , extend only 
 from mullion to mullion, and 
 serve to support the vertical 
 bars or stanchions. 
 
268 
 
 Stall— Steeple. 
 
 men remains at Etchingham, Sussex: when the chancel 
 had aisles behind the stalls, the backs were formed by the 
 side screens, which were sometimes close and sometimes 
 of open-work. The chief seat on the dais in a domestic 
 hall was sometimes a stall, as in (the ruins of) the palace 
 of the Archbishop of Canterbury at Mayfield, Sussex, 
 where it is of stone c 
 
 Standard. (1.) This name seems to have been applied 
 formerly to various arti- 
 cles of furniture which 
 were too ponderous to 
 be easily removed, as to 
 large chests , or the mas- 
 sive candlesticks placed 
 before altars in churches, 
 
 &c. (2.) Also the vertical 
 poles of a scaffold ; and 
 the vertical iron bars in 
 a window, or Stanchions . 
 
 (3.) It was also applied 
 to the ends of the oak 
 benches in churches, and 
 that is the common use 
 of the term now. They 
 were often very hand- 
 somely carved, some- 
 times having poppy- 
 heads and sometimes 
 without. A good illus- 
 tration is taken from 
 Dorchester, but others 
 will be found under Pew 
 and Stall . 
 
 Steeple, Stepull, the tower of a church, &c., including 
 any superstructure, such as a spire or lantern, stand- 
 ing upon it. In some districts small churches have 
 the steeples formed of massive wooden framing, standing 
 on the floor, and carried up some little distance above the 
 roof; these are usually at the west end, parted off from 
 the nave by a wooden partition, as at Ipsden and Tets- 
 worth, Oxfordshire. 
 
 Dorchester, Oxfordshire. 
 
Stanchion — Step* 
 
 Stanchion (old Fr. Estangon ), the 
 between the mullions of a window, 
 screen, &c.; they were frequently orna- 
 mented at the top with fleurs-de-lis, 
 leaves, &c. The upright bars or railings 
 round tombs may be called stanchions, 
 and these were often very elaborately 
 ornamented at the top. [See illustra- 
 tions under Ironwork .] The name is 
 also sometimes applied to the quarters 
 or studs of wooden partitions, and is 
 used in the north of England for the 
 stone mullions also. 
 
 Step or Stair. It may be convenient in this place to 
 give the nomenclature of the different parts of a stair. 
 The vertical surface is called the riser (or raiser ), the 
 horizontal surface the tread. If the edge have a mould- 
 ing, it is called the nosing : this never appears in mediaeval 
 steps. When the tread is wider at one end than the other, 
 it is called a winder , but if of equal breadth a flyer. When 
 the tread is so broad as to require more than one step of 
 the passenger, it is called a landing or landing-place , some 
 times a resting-place or foot-pace. A number of successive 
 steps uninterrupted by landings is a flight , or simply stairs; 
 the part of the building which contains them is the stair- 
 case. A flight of winders of which the narrow ends of the 
 steps terminate in one solid column was called a vyse , screw 
 stairs , sometimes a turngresse , now often termed corkscrew 
 stairs ; the central column is the newel , whence the term 
 newel staircase is often used. Sometimes the newel is 
 omitted, and in its place we have a well-hole. Stairs that 
 have the lowermost step supported by the floor, and every 
 succeeding step supported jointly by the step below it 
 and the wall of the staircase at one end only, are termed 
 geometrical stairs. Stairs constructed in the form nearly 
 of an inclined plane, of which the treads are inclined and 
 broad, and the risers small, so that horses may ascend and 
 descend them, are called marches rampantes , or girons ram - 
 pantes (as at the Mausoleum of Hadrian at Rome, St. 
 Mark’s at Venice, and in Italy commonly). Large ex- 
 ternal stairs are called perrons. 
 
 269 
 
 upright iron bar 
 
270 
 
 Stilted arrfj — <£toup. 
 
 Stilted-arch, a name proposed by Professor Willis for 
 an arch which has the capital, or impost mouldings, of the 
 jambs below the level of the springing of the curve, the 
 mouldings of the archivolt being continued, vertically, 
 down to the impost mouldings. This mode of construc- 
 tion was frequently employed at the latter end of the 
 Norman style, especially as a means of maintaining an 
 uniform height, when arches of different widths were 
 used in the same range. [See Arch , fig. 5.] 
 
 Story, Storey : one of the divisions of a building, in the 
 vertical direction ; the space between two contiguous floors, 
 or between tw r o contiguous entablatures, or other architec- 
 tural dividing lines that indicate floors or separations of 
 the building. In English mediaeval documents it is often 
 Latinized into historia. In domestic and palatial architec- 
 ture the storeys are thus enumerated, from the lowest 
 upwards : basement or underground storey ; ground-storey 
 or ground-floor, at about the level of the ground ; first- 
 storey, usually the principal floor or storey. Then follow 
 second, third, and so on, the upper being the garrets. 
 Entresols or mezzanini are considered as intermediate 
 storeys not interfering with the enumeration of the prin- 
 cipal ones. The word is applied also to a window where the 
 lights appear one above the other, as a “'storied window.” 
 
 Strut, or Strutting-piece. In carpentry, any piece that 
 keeps two others from approaching, and is therefore itself 
 in a state of compi'ession ; in contradistinction to a tie, 
 which keeps the two points of the frame to which its ex- 
 tremities are attached from receding, and is therefore in 
 a state of tension. [See RoofJ\ 
 
 Stoup, Stope, a vessel to contain consecrated water, 
 such as is placed near the entrance of a Roman Catholic 
 church, into which all who enter dip their fingers and 
 cross themselves. In this country a small niche with 
 a stone basin was formed in the wall, either in the porch 
 or within the church, close to the door, or in one of the 
 
 STAYKFALD-HOLE=Putlog-hole. Stereobate (Gr.), base of a wall. 
 Stoa (Gr.) = Latin Porticus . 
 
271 
 
 Stoup— String. 
 
 pillars nearest to the door, as a receptacle for holy-water, 
 but sometimes a vessel placed on a stand or pedestal was 
 used ; the niches resemble piscinas, except that they differ 
 
 lii l.'il’i , ii.iVn 
 
 Pylle Church, Somerset. Romsey, Hants. 
 
 in situation, are smaller and plainer, and very rarely have 
 any hole in the bottom : examples in a mutilated condition 
 remain in various churches, as in the south porch of Coton 
 Church, Cambridgeshire ; in the north porch of Thornham 
 Church, Kent, is one in a perfect state. It is also called 
 Holy -water Stone , and answers to the French Benitier. 
 
 String or Stringcourse, a projecting horizontal band or 
 line of mould- 
 ings in a build- 
 ing. Round the 
 exterior of a 
 building the 
 string is car- 
 ried across the 
 buttresses, and 
 sometimes over 
 
 the windows, forming the dripstone. 
 
 Studs, the intermediate posts 
 in partitions of wood-work. 
 They are also termed Uprights 
 and Quarters. 
 
 Styles, in joining, are the 
 
 upright pieces of a frame, as of 
 a door, shutter, screen, or other 
 panel-work, of which the hori- 
 zontal pieces are termed rails. 
 
272 
 
 QtahzxmtU. 
 
 Tabernacle. The Latin tabernaculum signifies a booth 
 or small taberna of boards capable of being put together or 
 taken asunder, as a tent is pitched. In the Vulgate it is 
 thus employed for the portable temple of the Jews, the 
 “ Tabernacle of the Wilderness.” Hence the word came 
 to signify any small cell or other place in which some holy 
 or precious thing was deposited, and thus was applied to 
 the ornamental receptacle for the pix over the altar. It 
 was similarly extended to the niches for images, at first 
 of saints, and next for any images. Lastly, sepulchral 
 monuments, and the stalls of a choir, and the sedilia, being 
 surmounted by rich canopy -work 
 of the same kind as that which 
 was employed over the heads of 
 niches, such work was called taber- 
 nacle-work, and the seat with its 
 canopy, a tabernacle ; and not only' 
 over the seats of the choir, but 
 over the pulpit also, the same de- 
 sign was employed. Tabernacles 
 weie also called liaisons, Habita- 
 cles , Hovels, and Housings in old 
 contracts, all reverting to the 
 original derivation of the word. 
 
 It is worth remarking that Inigo 
 Jones applies it to the niches of 
 Roman architecture,, The taber- 
 nacle was sometimes in the form 
 of a tower. The Sacrament - 
 Hauslein , in the church of St. 
 
 Laurence, Nuremberg, constructed 
 by Adam Kraft, 1496 — 1500, is 
 sixty-four feet high, arid tapers 
 upwards in the form of a spire 
 until it reaches the roof. In the 
 early ages of Christianity the name 
 of tabernacle was s -metimes ap- 
 plied to a church, as well as to the 
 ciborium or canopy of the altar. 
 
 The forms and arrangements of Can °py Ediesborough, Bucks, 
 tabernacles for images have been varied at different times, 
 
(Eabernacle* 
 
 2 73 
 
 but at first they consist of little else than an ornamental 
 arch of the period, recessed so as to form a niche of suf- 
 ficient depth for the reception of the statue. Various 
 kinds of hoods or canopies over the head of the figure are 
 soon introduced, and projecting corbels or other pedestals 
 for its support beneath. 
 
 In the Norman style the tabernacles are generally 
 shallow square recesses, often plain, and in many eases 
 the figures in them carved on the backs in alto-relievo, 
 and built into the wall. They were not unfrequently 
 placed in ranges, sometimes under a series of intersecting- 
 arches, but were also used singly, especially over door- 
 ways, as at Hadiscoe. 
 
 In the Early English style tabernacles became more 
 enriched and their niches more deeply recessed ; the figures 
 were sometimes set on small pedestals, and canopies were 
 not unfrequently used over the heads. They were often 
 placed in suites, or arranged in pairs, under a larger arch ; 
 when in suites they were very commonly separated by 
 single shafts,, in other cases the sides were usually moulded 
 in a similar way to windows. The arches of the heads 
 were either cinquefoiled, trefoiled, or plain, and when 
 hoodmoulds were used they were generally made to pro- 
 ject. Good examples are to be seen on the west front 
 of the cathedral at Wells. 
 
 Decorated tabernacles were more varied than those of 
 
 Stylobate, Stereobate, the 
 basement or substructure of a 
 temple below the columns, re- 
 sembling a continuous pedestal. 
 See Podium. 
 
 Subsellum = Miserere. 
 
 Summer, a horizontal beam 
 or girder, usually called Breast- 
 summer. 
 
 Super Altare. (1.) A small 
 portable stone altar, (see an ex- 
 ample engraved in Archaeologi- 
 cal Journal, vol. iv. p. 245). (2.) 
 Commonly but erroneously ap- 
 plied to the shelf or raised por- 
 tion at the back of the altar, 
 on which the candlesticks, &c., 
 are placed. 
 
 Surbase, the upper mouldings 
 
 of a cornice of a Pedestal. 
 
 Surbased Arch,. an arch which 
 rises less than half the breadth 
 of the opening above the level 
 of the springing. 
 
 Syle, or Sule. See Sill. 
 
 SYSTYLE,oneof the five species 
 of intercolumniation defined by 
 Vitruvius. In this the columns 
 are set at a distance equal to 
 twice the diameter of the shaft 
 measured at its lower part just 
 above the apophyge, or (which 
 is the same thing according to 
 the Vitruvian proportions) the 
 distance between the plinths is 
 exactly equal to the diameter of 
 the plinths. 
 
 T 
 
274 
 
 Cafarnacle. 
 
 the earlier styles. Their niches were usually of consider- 
 able depth, in the form either of a semi-octagon or semi- 
 hexagon, with the top cut into a regular vault with ribs 
 and bosses, but sometimes they were made shallower and 
 plainer ; they were placed either singly or in ranges, and 
 they very frequently had ogee crocketed hoodmouids over 
 them, which were sometimes placed flat against the wall, 
 and sometimes bowed out in the form of an ogee ; trian- 
 gular hoodmouids were also common. Several kinds of 
 projecting canopies were likewise used, especially when 
 the niches were placed separately ; some of these were 
 conical, like spires, with a series of flat triangular, or 
 ogee, subordinate canopies round the base ; others re^ 
 sembled these without the central spire, and some were 
 flat at the top, partaking some- 
 what of the form of turrets; 
 m the tops of buttresses taber- 
 nacles were sometimes made to 
 occupy the whole breadth of the 
 buttress, so as to be entirely 
 open on three sides, with small 
 piers at the front angles. The 
 arches of tabernacles in this style 
 were either plain or feathered ; 
 the sides, in addition to the 
 mouldings, were very frequently 
 ornamented with small buttresses 
 and pinnacles ; crockets, finials, 
 md pinnacles, were also abun- 
 dantly used on the canopies ; 
 pedestals were very common, par- 
 ticularly in niches with project- 
 ing canopies, and in such cases 
 were either carried on corbels or 
 rose from other projecting sup- 
 ports below ; sometimes corbels 
 were used instead of pedestals. 
 
 Queen Eleanor’s crosses furnish 
 excellent examples of enriched 
 Decorated tabernacles. 
 
 In the Perpendicular style the numerous kinds of 
 
 r; ' { ^mm 
 
 "Walpole St. Andrew’s, Norfolk. 
 
2EafarnacIe. 
 
 2 75 
 
 panelling, which were so profusely introduced, were 
 sometimes deeply recessed and made to receive figures, 
 and these varied considerably in form, but of the more 
 legitimate tabernacles the general character did not differ 
 very materially, although 
 there was often considerable 
 variety in the details ; they 
 were usually recessed in the 
 form of a semi-hexagon or 
 semi- octagon, with a vaulted 
 top carved with ribs and 
 bosses ; the canopies pro - 
 jected, and were sometimes 
 flat on the top, sometimes 
 conical like spires, and oc- 
 casionally were carried up 
 a considerable height with 
 a variety of light open-work, 
 with buttresses and pinna- 
 cles ; in plan the canopies 
 were usually half an octa- 
 gon, or hexagon, with small 
 pendants and pinnacles at 
 the angles ; and crockets, 
 finials, and other enrich- 
 ments were often introduced 
 with great profusion. But- 
 tresses, surmounted with pin- 
 nacles, were also very fre- 
 quently placed at the sides st. Michael’s, o^rd. 
 
 of the niches in this style; 
 
 the arches were sometimes plain and sometimes feathered. 
 
 In early French work tabernacles are frequently formed 
 at the tops and at the set-offs of buttresses, &c., with three 
 sides open, the front of the canopy being supported on 
 small shafts; the canopies are sometimes triangular, and 
 sometimes in the form of small spires. [See Canopy 
 and Niche. ~\ 
 
 Tabernacle -work, ornament- [ Table, Holy Table, the Lord’s 
 ed open-work, such as is used Table. See Altar. 
 over niches, stalls, &c. I 
 
27 6 
 
 STafcle. 
 
 Great Addington, c. 1350. 
 
 Table, Tablet, a mediaeval term applied generally to all 
 horizontal bands of mouldings, such as base -mouldings, 
 strings, cornices, &c. The word table, when used separately 
 without any ad- 
 junctive term to 
 point out its po- 
 sition, appears to 
 have signified the 
 cornice, but it is 
 very usually asso- 
 ciated with other 
 epithets which de- 
 fine its situation, 
 as base-table , earth- 
 table, or g round-table, bench-table , corbel-table , &c. 
 
 The word Table also, according to its ancient significa- 
 tion, denoted a level expanded surface, as a flat piece of 
 board : a picture was termed a table as late as the seven- 
 teenth century : the folding boards used for the game of 
 chess were called tables. In like manner any construc- 
 tion adapted for superficial decoration was termed tabula , 
 or tablementum , such as the decorative front of an altar, 
 when formed of solid workmanship, enriched with orna- 
 ments of gold or silver, with gems, ivory, or other costly 
 substances. Occasionally the term tabula denotes the deco- 
 rative work which more correctly should be called post- 
 tabula, or retro-tabula , in French retable , which in common 
 parlance would be termed the altar-piece, being affixed over 
 the altar to the wall or screen against which the altar is 
 placed. A remarkable example of the tabula , destined for 
 the front of the altar, is preserved in Westminster Abbey ; it 
 is formed of wood, elaborately carved, painted, and enriched 
 with a kind of mosaic work of coloured glass superficially 
 inlaid — a species of decoration which appears to have been 
 of Italian origin. Amongst the benefactions of the abbots 
 to the church of St. Alban’s, as recorded by Matthew Paris, 
 several instances may be found, which shew the extra- 
 ordinary richness of such decorations, as used in England ; 
 William of Malmesbury, in the “ Antiquities of the Churcli 
 of Glastonbury,” describes the rich tabula given by Abbot 
 Brithwy, 1017, formed of gold, silver, and ivory. 
 
277 
 
 JEempI z. 
 
 Temple, (1.) a building set apart for the services of 
 religious worship, and generally dedicated to some heathen 
 deity; (2.) a building erected by the Jews for worship. 
 The temples of the ancients were generally oblong in 
 their plan, and consisted of a body, or cell, with a portico 
 at one or both of the ends supporting a pediment, and 
 were often entirely surrounded by a colonnade, but oc- 
 casionally they were circular : of this latter form there 
 were but two kinds, the monopteral , which was merely 
 an open circle of columns supporting a roof or entab- 
 lature, and the peripteral , which had a circular cell 
 surrounded by a colonnade. Of the oblong temples there 
 were several varieties, the simplest of which was called 
 in antis; this consisted of a plain cell, the side walls of 
 which projected at one end, or front of the building, and 
 were terminated with antse, between which were two 
 columns. The prostylos temple differed from the preced- 
 ing in having a portico of four columns standing in front 
 of the antae, the columns between the antse being omitted. 
 The amphiprostylos had a portico of this last-mentioned 
 kind at each end, or front, of the cell. The peripteral 
 temple had a portico of six columns on each front, and 
 a detached colonnade of eleven at each side of the cell, 
 the columns at the angles being included in both com- 
 putations. The pseudo' peripteral was like the peripteral, 
 with the breadth of the cell increased, so that the side 
 walls became united with the columns of the lateral co- 
 lonnades. The dipteral had porticoes of eight columns on 
 the fronts and a double colonnade at the sides, the outer 
 one consisting of fifteen columns. The pseudo- dipteral 
 was precisely the same as the dipteral, with the inner 
 range of columns omitted throughout. Some large temples 
 had the cells left open at the top, without any roof, and 
 when so constructed were called hypcethral . Temples 
 were also classified according to the number of columns 
 in the front porticoes ; tetrastyle had four columns ; hexa- 
 style , six; octastyle , eight; decastyle , ten. The width of 
 the spaces between the columns varied considerably, and 
 the porticoes were designated accordingly arceostyle , dia- 
 style , eustyle , systyle , and pycnostyle . 
 
 Taenia, or Tenia, the fillet or band on the top of a Doric frieze. 
 
27S templet— tester. 
 
 Templet, Template : a 
 pattern or mould used by 
 workmen, especially by ma- 
 sons and bricklayers, as a 
 guide for the shape of their 
 work ; it is usually formed 
 of a thin board, or sheet of 
 metal. Also a short piece 
 of timber sometimes laid in 
 a wall under the end of 
 a girder or other beam. 
 
 Tenon, Tenant : a common 
 term in carpentry, used to 
 signify the projection left at 
 the end of a piece of timber 
 to be inserted into a sock- 
 et, or mortise, made to re- 
 ceive it. 
 
 Terrace, a raised space or platform adjoining to a build- 
 ing, frequently encompassed with a balustrade or steps, as 
 at Versailles, where there are a succession of terraces one 
 above the other. A level area on the side of a sloping 
 bank or other situation overlooking lower scenery in a 
 garden, pleasure-ground, &c. Terraces were very exten- 
 sively employed about houses in the time of Queen Eliza- 
 beth and King James I. 
 
 Tessellated Pavement, pavement formed of small pieces 
 of brick, stone, marble, &c., which are called tessellce or 
 tessera, much used by the Romans ; the rudest description 
 was formed of small cubes of brick about an inch square, 
 but the better kinds were of finer materials and in smaller 
 pieces, and were generally very ornamental, represent- 
 ing architectural patterns, or animals and figures. [See 
 Mosaic.'] 
 
 Tester (old French, Teste or Tete ), a flat canopy over 
 a pulpit, tomb, bed, &c. According to Ducange, (voc. 
 Testerium ,) the Italian testiera is that side of the bed 
 which is next the bolster, or as we now call it, the head of 
 the bed ; and not the tester in its modern sense. It may 
 be, however, that the tester was drapery drawn upwards 
 
279 
 
 tester— J^rougfj. 
 
 ipto the form of a kind of dome or canopy which crowned 
 the sparver, while the celura or seler was the horizontal 
 lining below it, and therefore immediately over the bed. 
 The canopy over Queen Eleanor’s tomb at Westminster is 
 called a tester in old documents. 
 
 Thatch, a covering for roofs, formed of reeds, flags, 
 straw, heath, or other similar materials. Thatch was for- 
 merly used more generally and on more important build- 
 ings than is usual in the present day, though in some 
 districts it is still employed to a considerable extent ; the 
 best kind is made of reeds, a material which was employed 
 at an early period. The old word to thack , theak, or 
 thatch, frequently signifies no more than to cover, and is 
 used in reference to tiles, lead, or other materials, e.g. 
 thach-tiles are tiles or slates for covering a roof. 
 
 Through Carved- work* carved work in which the 
 spaces between the ornamental parts are pierced entirely 
 through the substance of the material on which it is cut 
 and left open : this is the way in which wooden taber- 
 nacle-work is usually formed, and also the foliage of 
 Decorated capitals. 
 
 Through, a stone in a wall which reaches entirely 
 through it, and shews itself on both sides; called also 
 a Bonder , Bond - stone , and Berpent - stone , The name 
 Through or Through - stone, sometimes spelt Trough, is 
 also applied to a flat gravestone, and is still common 
 in some of the northern parts of the kingdom. 
 
 Telamones, statues of men 
 employed as columns or pilas- 
 ters in Classical architecture ; 
 sometimes called also Atlantes 
 or Caryatides. 
 
 Tepid arium, or tepid bath, also 
 the vessel used for heating the 
 water for the bath; and the room 
 in which the warm -bath was 
 placed. 
 
 Tetrastoon (Gr.), a court-yard 
 having porticoes on each of its 
 four sides. 
 
 Tetrastyle (Gr.), a portico 
 having four columns in front. 
 
 Tewel, a term which seems 
 
 to imply the louvre, or flue for 
 smoke. It is derived from the 
 old French word Tuiel , 1 a pipe 
 or conduit.’ 
 
 Thermae, public institutions 
 of the ancient Romans, of which 
 the Baths were an important 
 part. 
 
 Tholobate, the substructure 
 on which a dome or cupola rest. 
 
 Throating, the undercutting 
 of a projecting moulding be- 
 neath, so as to prevent rain- 
 water from dripping down the 
 surface of the wall. 
 
28 o 
 
 STfjurible— 
 
 Thurible (Lat.), a vessel in which to burn incense, 
 which was used in some 
 of the services of the 
 Church. It was made 
 of metal commonly, 
 and in the form of 
 a vase, with a cover 
 perforated to allow the 
 scented fumes of the 
 burning incense to es- 
 cape; it is carried by 
 three chains, which are 
 attached to three points 
 around the lower por- 
 tion of the censer, 
 whilst a fourth, con- 
 nected with them above, 
 being united to the ring 
 or handle, which serves 
 for carrying the censer, 
 is used to raise at inter- 
 vals the upper portion 
 
 . A 7, , A Thurible, Sixteenth century. 
 
 or covering 01 theoenser, 
 
 and allows the smoke of the incense to escape. 
 
 Tiles, (l.) Thin plates of baked clay used to cover 
 roofs. In this country there are but two kinds of tiles 
 in ordinary use, plain tiles and pan-tiles : the former of 
 these, which are by 
 far the commonest, are 
 perfectly flat, the latter 
 are curved, so that 
 when laid upon a roof pauTiies. 
 
 each tile overlaps the 
 
 edge of the next to it, and protects the joint from the 
 wet. The Romans used flat tiles turned up at the edges, 
 with a row of inverted semi-cylindrical ones over the 
 joint to keep out the wet. In the Middle Ages tiles were 
 
 Tie-beam. In a roof-truss, a 
 beam which rests on the walls 
 and extends completely across. 
 It was anciently termed roof- 
 
 beam , chamber-beam , binding - 
 beam , footing-beam , and foot- 
 ing-dormant. 
 
Cries, 
 
 281 
 
 extensively employed in this country for covering build- 
 ings, though they seem always to have been considered 
 
 Roman Tiles, Wheatley. 
 
 an inferior material to lead. It does not appear that any 
 but flat plain tiles, with such 
 others as were requisite for 
 the ridges, hips, and valleys, c /0/M 
 were .used; the ridge-tiles, 
 or crest, formerly also called 
 roof-tiles , were sometimes 
 made ornamental. [See A - IloQf - tlles - B c-wwt-tnes. c. Pam-tiies. 
 
 Crest.~\ It is not unusual to find the backs of fireplaces 
 formed of tiles, and in such situations they are sometimes 
 laid in herring-bone courses, as in the great hall, Kenil- 
 worth ; most of the fireplaces in Bodiam Castle, Sussex, 
 are constructed in this manner, and the oven by the side 
 of the larger fireplace in the hall is also built of tiles. 
 
 (2.) Glazed decorative tiles were anciently much used 
 for paving sacred edifices ; they are sometimes called Nor- 
 man tiles, possibly from the supposition that they were 
 originally made in Normandy ; and, considering the age 
 and variety of specimens that exist in northern Prance, 
 this idea may not be wholly erroneous. It is doubtful, 
 however, whether any tiles have been discovered in Eng- 
 land that present the features of the Norman style of 
 architectural decoration, the most ancient being apparently 
 of the thirteenth century. The name of encaustic has 
 also been given to these tiles, and it would not be inap- 
 propriate, were it not applied already to denote an antique 
 process of art, of a perfectly different nature; whereas 
 a method wholly distinct, and peculiar to the glazed tiles 
 of the Middle Ages, was commonly adopted in northern 
 Europe. The process of manufacture which, as it is sup- 
 posed, was most commonly employed, may be thus de- 
 
282 
 
 
 scribed. The thin squares of well-compacted clay haying 
 been fashioned, and probably dried in the snn to the 
 requisite degree, their ordinary dimension being from 
 four to six inches, with a thickness of one inch, a stamp 
 which bore a design in relief was impressed upon them, 
 so as to leave the ornamental pattern in cavetto ; into the 
 hollows thus left on the face of the tile, clay of another 
 colour, most commonly white, or pipe-clay, was then in- 
 laid or impressed; nothing remained except to give a 
 richer effect, and, at the same time, ensure the perma- 
 nence of the work by covering the whole in the furnace 
 with a thin surface of metallic glaze, which, being of 
 a slightly yellow colour, tinged the white clay beneath 
 it, and imparted to the red a more full and rich tone of 
 colour. In the success of this simple operation, much de- 
 pended upon this, that the quality of the two kinds of 
 clay that were used should be as nearly similar as possible, 
 or else, if the white was liable to shrink in the furnace more 
 than the red, the whole work would be full of cracks; in 
 the other case, the design would bulge and be thrown up- 
 wards; imperfections, of which examples are not wanting. 
 To facilitate the equal drying of the tile, deep scorings or 
 hollows were sometimes made on the reverse, and by this 
 means, when laid in cement, the pavement was more 
 firmly held together. Occasionally, either from the de- 
 ficiency of white clay of good quality, or perhaps for the 
 sake of variety, glazed tiles occur which have the design 
 left hollow, and not filled in, according to the usual pro- 
 cess, with clay of a different colour ; a careful examination 
 
 however of the 
 disposition of the 
 ornament will fre- 
 quently shew that 
 the original inten- 
 tion was to fill these 
 cavities, as in other 
 specimens, but in- 
 stances also present 
 themselves where 
 the ornamental design evidently was intended to remain 
 in relief, the field, and not the pattern, being found in 
 
 Westleigh, Devon. 
 
283 
 
 EHzq 
 
 cavetto. It must be observed, that instances are very fre- 
 quent. where the protecting glaze having been worn away, 
 the white clay, which is of a less compact quality than 
 the red, has fallen out, and left the design hollow, so that 
 an impression or rubbing may readily be taken. It ap- 
 pears probable that the origin of the fabrication of decora- 
 tive pavements, by the process which has been described, 
 is to be sought in 
 the mediaeval imi- 
 tations of the Ro- 
 man mosaic-work, 
 by means of co- 
 loured substances 
 inlaid upon stone 
 or marble. Of this 
 kind of marqueterie 
 in stone, few ex- 
 amples have es- 
 caped the injuries 
 of time; specimens 
 
 may be Seen On the Canterbury Cathedral. 
 
 eastern side of the 
 
 altar-screen in Canterbury Cathedral, and at the abbey 
 church of St. Denis, and the cathedral of St. Omer. 
 
 Amongst the earliest specimens of glazed tiles may be 
 mentioned the pavement discovered in the ruined priory 
 church at Castle Acre, Norfolk, a portion of which is 
 in the Britism Museum. These tiles are ornamented with 
 scutcheons of arms, and on some apnears the name Thomas ; 
 they are coarsely executed, the cavities are left, and not 
 filled-in with any clay of different colour. 
 
 A profusion of good examples still exists of single tiles, 
 and sets of four, nine, sixteen, or a greater number of 
 tiles, forming by their combination a complete design, and 
 presenting, for the most part, the characteristic style of 
 ornament which was in vogue at each successive period; 
 but examples of general arrangement are very rare and 
 imperfect. To this deficiency of authorities it seems to 
 be due, that modern imitations of these ancient pavements 
 have generally proved unsatisfactory, in the resemblance 
 which they present to oil-cloth, or carpeting; and the 
 
284 
 
 Sties. 
 
 intention of producing richness of effect by carrying the 
 ornamental design throughout the pavement, without any 
 intervening spaces, has been wholly frustrated. Sufficient 
 care has not been given to ascertain the ancient system of 
 arrangement : it is, however, certain that a large propor- 
 tion of plain tiles, black, white, or red, were introduced, 
 and served to divide the various portions which composed 
 the general design. Plain 
 diagonal bands, for in- 
 stance, arranged fret- 
 wise, intervened be- 
 tween the compart- 
 ments, or panels, of 
 tiles ornamented with 
 designs ; the plain and 
 the decorated quarries 
 Avere laid alternately, 
 or in some instances wood P err y , o xon . 
 
 longitudinal bands were introduced in order to break that 
 continuity of ornament which being uniformly spread over 
 a large surface, as in some modern pavements, produces 
 a confused rather than a rich effect. It has been sup- 
 posed, with much probability, that the more elaborate 
 pavements were reserved for the decoration of the choir, 
 the chancel, or immediate vicinity of an altar, whilst in 
 the aisles, or other parts of the church, more simple pave- 
 ments of plain tiles, black, white, or red, were usually 
 employed. It may also deserve notice, that in almost 
 every instance when the ornamented tiles have been ac- 
 cidentally discovered, or dug up on the site of a castle or 
 mansion, there has been reason to suppose a consecrated 
 fabric had there existed, or that the tiles had belonged to 
 that portion of the structure which had been devoted 
 to religious services. We meet often with the item 
 “Handers tiles” in building accounts of castles, but these 
 were for the fireplace only. The lower rooms were usually 
 “earthed,” the upper rooms boarded. 
 
 Tinning of ironwork was prac- 
 tised in the Middle Ages to pre- 
 serve it from rust, and perhaps 
 for ornament sake. Thus the 
 
 iron gate which enclosed the 
 shrine of St. Erkenvald was 
 tinned over. 
 
Cttnber^mtlt p?au&e. 
 
 285 
 
 Timber-built House, or Half- timber House. Timber- 
 houses were in use at all periods, from the earliest known 
 records to the present time, though stone and brick houses 
 have gradually become more common. From the perish- 
 able nature of the material we have probably no timber- 
 work remaining earlier than the thirteenth century, and 
 of that period it is rare ; although several roofs and beams 
 
 Newgate, York, c. 1380. 
 
 with the mouldings and ornaments of that style are judged 
 to be of that time, no perfect timber-house is known either 
 of the thirteenth or fourteenth century. A house in the 
 Newgate at York, of this description,^ believed to be of the 
 fourteenth century in its main construction, as the details 
 
286 
 
 ©imtoimtU P^ouse, 
 
 of the stone-work are of that period, and the timber- work 
 appears to belong to the same construction. The upper 
 part of this house 
 is carried on a 
 massive breast - 
 summer , with up- 
 right posts from 
 it to the tie-beam 
 of the roof, from 
 which there is a 
 king-post to the 
 wind-beam , and 
 braces to the 
 principal timber. 
 
 Other timber- 
 houses are called 
 sile-built , when 
 
 the lower beam 
 is close to the 
 ground, forming 
 a site or cill, in- 
 stead of being 
 raised as a breast - 
 summer over the 
 
 grOUnd-floOr. King Richard’s House, Leicester, c. 1450. 
 
 Tnose of the 
 
 fifteenth and sixteenth centuries are very numerous, and 
 belong generally to the class called Half-timber houses, in 
 which the ground-floor is of stone or brick and the upper 
 part only of wood, which usually over-hangs, or is corbelled 
 out very boldly, sometimes on stone corbels, but more 
 often on wood only. 
 
 A very common practice was to build, so to speak, the 
 skeleton of the house with timber, and fill up the inter- 
 stices with brick, many examples of which are very pictur- 
 esque, particularly in midland towns, such as Shrewsbury, 
 Coventry, &c. The space between the timbers in other 
 examples was filled with plaster- work, but in them the 
 woodwork was always left prominent. The Barge-board 
 also was a striking feature in timber-built houses, and 
 frequently very richly carved. 
 
2Tom6. 
 
 287 
 
 Tomb and Tombstone (Gr. Tumbos). In its first sig- 
 nification a grave of any kind, but in the second a mark 
 of a grave, or a monument , to remind the passer-by that 
 a person is buried beneath. In the earliest ages a heap 
 of stones, or a single upright stone, such as the Menhir , 
 seems to have marked the resting-place of the dead. 
 Amongst the early Britons the cromlech — that is, two or 
 three stones standing upright, with one or more across 
 them on the top — was a common form of tomb. But 
 contemporary with them was the simplest of ail struc- 
 tures, the mound of earth. 
 
 When the Romans came, they brought over with them, 
 amongst other customs, their inodes of burial. Consider- 
 ing the time of their occupation, the remains of their 
 tombs belonging to this period are not so numerous as 
 might be expected ; but still there are several, and in most 
 cases they consisted of a single stone, with an inscription 
 commonly ad- 
 dressed to one 
 or more of the 
 heathen gods. 
 
 A few instan- 
 ces of stone cof- 
 fins of this pe- 
 riod have been 
 found, as at 
 York. To this 
 kind of tomb, 
 or rather stone 
 
 Roman Coffin, York. 
 
 coffin, the name of Sarcophagus is usually applied; and 
 we find that in some cases, e.g., at Westminster, the 
 tomb has been used over again in some later times. 
 
 The marks of interment adopted by the heathen in- 
 vaders of this country, in the fifth century, were probably 
 mounds of earth only ; and it is only by the nature of 
 the pottery or other implements and articles of dress 
 found in the graves that these burial-places can be dis- 
 tinguished from those of the Britons. Of course amongst 
 
 To-fall, Too-fall : ashed or 
 building annexed to the wall of 
 a larger one, the roof of which is 
 formed in a single slope with the 
 
 top resting against the wall of 
 the principal building. A term 
 retained in use in the north. 
 Sometimes called a Lean-to , 
 
288 
 
 2Com&. 
 
 the later Saxons, when Christianity prevailed, and they 
 were buried in the churchyard, more lasting memorials 
 were erected. 
 
 The sepulchral monuments throughout the Middle Ages 
 were of great importance from an architectural point of 
 view ; and while we find them following the prevailing 
 style, we frequently find also that on them was lavished 
 the most elaborate work possible. The examples which 
 remain to us are those which were placed within the 
 church. No doubt there were many tombs of no mean 
 design or work placed in the churchyard, but they have 
 for the most part, perished. 
 
 Of the former we have many of the twelfth century 
 (some perhaps of the eleventh). The covers of these were 
 at first simply coped, afterwards frequently ornamented 
 
 with crosses of various kinds, and other devices, and some- 
 times had inscriptions on them : subsequently they were 
 sculptured with recumbent figures in high relief ; but still 
 generally diminishing in width from the head to the feet, 
 to fit the coffins of which they formed the lids. Many 
 of the figures of this period represent knights in armour 
 with their legs crossed ; these are supposed to have been 
 either Templars, or such, as had joined, or vowed to join, 
 in a crusade to the Holy Land. The figures usually had 
 canopies, which were often richly carved over the heads, 
 supported on small shafts, which ran along each side of 
 the effigy, the whole worked in the same block of stone. 
 This kind of tomb was sometimes placed beneath a low 
 arch or recess formed within the substance of the church 
 wall, usually about seven feet in length, and not more 
 than three feet above the coffin, even in the centre : these 
 
GComti. 
 
 289 
 
 arches were at first semicircular or segmental at the top, 
 afterwards obtusely pointed , they often remain when the 
 figure or brass, and perhaps the coffin itself, has long dis- 
 appeared and been forgotten. On many tombs of the 
 thirteenth century there are plain pediment-shaped cano- 
 pies over the heads of the recumbent effigies, the earliest 
 of which contain a pointed trefoil-arched recess: towards 
 the end of the century, these canopies became gradually 
 enriched with crockets, finials, and other architectural 
 details. 
 
 In the reign of Edward I. the tombs of persons of rank 
 began to be ornamented on the sides with armorial bear- 
 ings and small sculptured statues, within pedimental cano- 
 pied recesses ; and from these we may progressively trace 
 the peculiar minutice and enrichments of every style of 
 Gothic architecture up to the Reformation, 
 
 Altar, or table-tombs, called by Leland “high tombs, 
 with recumbent effigies, are common during the whole of 
 the fourteenth century; these sometimes appear beneath 
 splendid pyramidical canopies, as the tomb of Edward II. 
 in Gloucester Cathedral, Hugh le Despenser and Sir Guy 
 de Rrian, at Tewkesbury ; or flat testoons, as the tombs 
 of Edward III. and Richard II. at Westminster, and 
 Edward the Black Prince at Canterbury. Towards the 
 middle of the thirteenth century the custom commenced, 
 and in the earlier part of the fourteenth prevailed, of 
 inlaying flat stone with brasses; and sepulchral inscrip- 
 tions, though they had not yet become general, are more 
 frequently to be met with. The sides of these tombs are 
 sometimes relieved with niches, surmounted by decorated 
 pediments, each containing a small sculptured figure, some- 
 times with arched panels filled with tracery. Other tombs 
 about the same period, but more frequently in the fifteenth 
 century, were decorated along the sides with large square 
 panelled compartments, richly foliated or quatrefoiled, and 
 containing shields. 
 
 Many of the tombs of the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- 
 turies appear beneath arched recesses, fixed in or project- 
 ing from the wall, and inclosing the tomb on three sides; 
 these w r ere constructed so as to form canopies, which are 
 often of the most elaborate and costly workmanship ; they 
 
 u 
 
290 
 
 Qlmb. 
 
 are frequently flat at the top, particularly in the later 
 period. These cano- 
 pies were sometimes 
 of carved wood, of 
 very elaborate work- 
 manship ; and some- 
 times the altar- 
 tomb of an earlier 
 date was at a later ' 
 period enclosed i||j 
 within a screen of: 1-1 
 open-work, with a 
 groined stone cano- 
 py, and in a few 
 instances an upper 
 storey of wood, form- 
 ing a mortuary jl 
 
 •'Vinrifr-vr !/ ! 
 
 chapel or chantry. 
 
 In the early part 
 of the sixteenth cen- 
 tury the monuments 
 were generally of 
 a similar character 
 to those of the pre- 
 ceding age ; but 
 alabaster slabs with 
 figures on them, cut 
 in outline, were fre- 
 quently used. Trie 
 altar - tombs with 
 figures in niches, carved in bold relief, were also fre- 
 quently of alabaster, which was extensively quarried in 
 Derbyshire. Towards the middle of this century the 
 Italian style of architecture had come into general use; 
 Wade’s monument, in St. Michael’s Church, Coventry, 
 1556, is a good example of the mixture of the two styles 
 which then prevailed. 
 
 In the two following centuries every sort of barbarism 
 was introduced on funeral monuments ; but the ancient 
 style lingered longer in some places than in others. The 
 tomb of Sir Thomas Pope, founder of Trinity College, 
 
 Tomb, Waterperry, Oxon., c. 1400. 
 
JEoittb— ©rnammt. 
 
 291 
 
 
 > f"* * ~t X£^IMM.U{»*£^ " w ... ' J 
 •> e ir 
 
 Oxford, who died in 1558, in the chapel of that society, 
 shews the altar- tomb in its debased form, after the true 
 era of Gothic 
 architecture 
 had passed 
 away. 
 
 Of remains 
 of square 
 tombs in our 
 churchyards, 1 
 but few are ! 
 found, and in 1 
 all cases are | 
 decayed by 
 the weather. 
 
 There is ai 
 kind of stone 
 
 known as a Bredon, Worcestershire. 
 
 Head -stone, 
 
 which is chiefly used in modern times, but while there 
 are few mediaeval ex- 
 amples remaining, 
 there is no reason to 
 suppose but that they 
 were very numerous. 
 
 One at Temple Bruer 
 is probably of the 
 twelfth century ; an- 
 other at Lincoln is 
 probably of the thir- 
 teenth. Avery simple 
 example from Hand- 
 borough churchyard 
 is possibly of the 
 fifteenth century. 
 
 Tooth Ornament (called also Dog-tooth 
 ornament). This name is given to an orna- 
 ment very extensively used in the Early 
 English style of architecture, consisting of 
 a square four-leaved flower, the centre of 
 which projects in a point. This form is 
 
 Handborough, Oxon. 
 
? 9 2 
 
 SCootl) ©rnament— 2Toru0. 
 
 called by the French violette , and often bears a very close 
 resemblance to that flower. There are minute differences 
 in the manner of cutting it, and sometimes the sides are 
 so perfectly flat, and it 
 is formed with so much 
 stiffness, as to resemble a 
 pierced pyramid rather 
 than a flower. It is cha- 
 racteristic of the Early 
 English style, in which 
 it is often used in great 
 profusion, though occa- 
 sionally met with in late 
 Norman work, as at the 
 west window of the south 
 aisle of the nave of Ro- 
 chester Cathedral ; it is 
 generally placed in a deep 
 hollow moulding, with 
 the flowers in close con- 
 tact with each other, 
 though they are not un- 
 frequently placed a short 
 distance apart, and in 
 rich suites of mouldings 
 are often repeated several 
 times. In some parts of 
 France it is commonly 
 used in work of the 
 twelfth century. 
 
 Torus (Lat.), a large round moulding commonly used 
 in the bases of columns, &c. : 
 called also a Round. It 
 occurs by itself chiefly in 
 the Classical style, but it 
 is not uncommon in the 
 Norman, and is used thus 
 sometimes in the Gothic styles. 
 
 West Door, St. Cross, Hants. 
 
 Tongue, the name given to 
 the ornament in the Echinus 
 moulding which alternates with 
 
 the egg-shaped figure ; hence 
 the name Egg - and - Tongue 
 moulding. 
 
JEoitcfpstone — STofaer. 
 
 2 93 
 
 Touch-stone, a name sometimes applied to compact 
 dark-coloured stones, such as Purbeck and Petworth 
 marble, and others of similar kind, which are frequently 
 used for fine work in Gothic architecture; some of these 
 are capable of receiving a high polish : the term does not 
 appear to have been in common use lor any very long 
 period. It is believed to have been so called from its 
 supposed identity with, or resemblance to, the lapis Lydius , 
 or Touch-stone, used by goldsmiths in assaying the quality 
 of gold by the test of aquafortis. There is a fine effigy in 
 the church at St. Denis, near Paris, of Catherine de 
 Courtenai, who died in 1307, sculptured in limestone, 
 nearly as black as the real touch- stone, and erroneously 
 supposed to be of that material. 
 
 Tower. Any attempt to particularize the various kinds 
 of towers which have been adopted by different nations in 
 former ages, would far exceed the scope of this work : the 
 following observations, therefore, are chiefly confined to 
 those which were in use in the Middle Ages in England 
 and the adjacent parts of Europe, and more especially to 
 the towers of churches. Among the Greeks and Homans, 
 towers were employed of various forms and for different 
 purposes, but by no means so abundantly as in after ages, 
 and in general they appear not to have been so lofty as 
 those of mediaeval date; the tower of Andronicus Cyr- 
 rhestes, called also the Temple of the Winds, at Athens, 
 is octagonal; at Autun, in France, a considerable part of 
 a large and lofty square tower of late Roman work exists. 
 The tower for the use of bells is supposed not to have been 
 introduced till the fifth century, and hence the term Cam - 
 panile , applied to the Italian towers. 
 
 In the Middle Ages the towers of castles were numerous 
 and of striking character. During the prevalence of the 
 Norman style the Keep often consisted of a large rect- 
 angular tower, with others of smaller size, or turrets, at- 
 tached to the angles, and these last-mentioned generally 
 rose higher than the main building, as at the White 
 Tower of London, and the casiles of Rochester and Guild- 
 ford; the keep tower of Conisburgh Castle in Yorkshire, 
 which is of the latest Norman work, is circular, with large 
 buttresses on the outside; in other examples, especially 
 
294 
 
 ®ofoer. 
 
 in those of later date, the keep towers are of various 
 forms, often irregular, apparently so constructed as being 
 considered best adapted to the peculiarities of the sites, 
 and the systems of defence in use at the periods of their 
 erection. Besides these main towers, many others, which, 
 though of less magnitude than the keep, were often of 
 very considerable size, were employed in different parts 
 of fortifications, especially at the entrances, where the 
 gateways were generally flanked by towers projecting 
 considerably before the main walls; these were pierced 
 with loop-holes and oillets, and were commonly sur- 
 mounted with machicolations. The round towers of 
 Ireland have been the subject of so much controversy 
 that it is impossible to notice the different theories re- 
 specting them in a work like the present. 
 
 Church towers of all dates are greatly diversified, not 
 only in their details but also in general proportions and 
 form ; they are occasionally detached from the building to 
 which they belong, but are usually annexed to it, and are 
 to be found placed in almost every possible situation ex- 
 cept about the east end of the chancel ; the most frequent 
 position is at the west end. In all later cases their use 
 was for hanging the bells, and hence the name Belfry ; 
 though at first it is not impossible that they served for 
 defensive purposes also, especially when near the walls 
 of towns, e.g. St. Michael's, Oxford. Large churches 
 have often several towers, especially when the plan is 
 cruciform, and in this case there are generally two at 
 the west end, and one, of larger dimensions, at the in- 
 tersection of the transepts, as at the cathedrals of Canter- 
 bury, York, and Lincoln. Ordinary parish churches have 
 usually but one tower. In some examples, where there 
 is an entrance to the church through the lower storey of 
 a tower, it is made to form a porch with an open archway 
 on one side, as at Cranbrook, and many other churches in 
 Kent; or on three sides, as at Newnham, Northampton- 
 shire : in towns, towers are sometimes placed over public 
 thoroughfares, and in such situations are built on open 
 archways. It is not unusual to find church towers which 
 batter, or diminish upwards ; these are generally of Nor- 
 man or Early English date, but in some districts, as in 
 
JEofoer. 
 
 295 
 
 Northamptonshire, this mode of construction was con- 
 tinued to a later period. 
 
 The towers belonging to the style described in the 
 article on Saxon architecture are square and massive, not 
 of lofty proportions, and apparently never were provided 
 with stone staircases ; some of them are considerably orna- 
 mented, while others are very plain: the tower of the 
 church of Sompting, Sussex, 
 which belongs to this style, 
 terminates with a gable on 
 each of the four sides, and is 
 surmounted by a wooden spire, 
 but whether or not this was 
 the original form may be 
 doubted. 
 
 In some parts of the king- 
 dom circular church-towers 
 are to be found; these have 
 been sometimes assumed to be 
 of very high antiquity, but 
 the character of their architec- 
 ture shews that they commonly 
 belong to the Norman and 
 Early English styles ; they are 
 built of rough flints, generally 
 of coarse workmanship, with 
 very little ornament of any 
 kind, and that little, for the 
 most part, about the upper 
 storey ; one of the best exam- 
 ples is that of Little Saxham 
 Church, Suffolk. Plain round towers in the counties of 
 Norfolk and Suffolk are of all periods : the only ma- 
 terials readily accessible being flints, and these not ad- 
 mitting of square corners, the towers were built round, 
 and this practice is continued even to the present day. 
 
 Norman towers are generally square, and of rather 
 low proportions, seldom rising much more than their own 
 breadth above the roof of the church, and sometimes not 
 so much ; they generally have broad flat buttresses at the 
 angles, and are usually provided with a stone staircase 
 
{Eofoer. 
 
 ? 9 6 
 
 carried up in a projecting turret attached to one of the 
 angles ; this is very commonly rectangular externally, but 
 the form is not unfrequently changed towards the top, 
 especially if the turret is carried up the whole height 
 of the tower; occasionally polygonal Norman towers are 
 to he met with, as at Ely Cathedral. In Normandy a few 
 examples of village church towers of this style exist, 
 which are capped with pyramidal stone roofs, like low 
 square spires, but in general the roofs and parapets are 
 additions of later date. Many Norman towers are very 
 considerably ornamented, the upper storeys being usually 
 the richest, while others are very plain : good specimens 
 remain at St. Alban’s Abbey, the cathedrals of Norwich, 
 Exeter, and Winchester; Tewkesbury Abbey; Southwell 
 Minster; the churches of Castor, Northamptonshire; St. 
 Clement, Sand- 
 wich; Iffley, Ox- 
 fordshire; Stewk- 
 ley, Buckingham- 
 shire, &c. 
 
 In Early Eng- 
 lish towers much 
 greater vaiiety of 
 design and pro- 
 portion is found 
 than in those of 
 prior date. The 
 prevailing plan is 
 square, but some 
 examples aie oc- 
 tagonal, and oc- 
 casionally the 
 upper part of a 
 square tower is 
 changed to an 
 octagon. Project- 
 ing stair- turrets 
 are almost uni- 
 versal, though 
 they are frequently so much masked by buttresses as to 
 be in great measure concealed. Many towers in this 
 
 
 Middleton Stoney, Oxon., c. 1220. 
 
Cotoer. 
 
 297 
 
 style are of lofty proportions, while others are low and 
 massive. The best examples are generally more or less 
 ornamented, and some are very highly enriched. The 
 belfry windows are often large, and deeply recessed, 
 with numerous bold mouldings in the jambs, and appear 
 sometimes to have been 
 originallyleft quite open. 
 
 Considerable variety of 
 outline is produced by 
 the different arrange- 
 ment, sizes, and forms 
 of the buttresses at the 
 angles of towers in this, 
 as well as in the later 
 styles of Gothic archi- 
 tecture, and sometimes, 
 instead of buttresses, 
 small turrets are used, 
 which rise from the 
 ground and generally 
 
 are finished at the top 
 with parapets, some of 
 them with pinnacles at 
 the angles, a few with 
 two gables, called pack- 
 saddle roofs, as Brook- 
 thorpe, Northampton- 
 shire, and many are 
 surmounted with spires, 
 which, although perhaps 
 in the majority of cases 
 they are of later date 
 than the towers, appear to have been originally contem- 
 plated. Examples remain at the cathedrals of Oxford 
 and Peterborough, the churches of St. Mary, Stamford ; 
 Ketton and Ryhall, Rutland; Loddington and Raunds, 
 Northamptonshire; Middleton Stonev, Oxfordshire, &c. 
 
 In the Decorated and Perpendicular styles towers differ 
 very considerably, both in proportions and amount of en- 
 richment, and considerable diversity of outline and effect 
 
 terminate in pinnacles. 
 Many towers of this date 
 
 "R'ru) 
 
 Brookthorpe, Northamptonshire, c. 1260. 
 
298 
 
 
 is produced by varying the arrangement and form of the 
 subordinate parts, such as windows, buttresses, pinnacles, 
 &c., but in general composition they do not differ very 
 materially from Early English towers. Many are very 
 lofty, and others of low proportions, some highly en- 
 riched, and some perfect- 
 ly plain; a large, and 
 probably the greater 
 number, are crowned 
 with parapets, usually 
 with a pinnacle at each 
 corner, and sometimes 
 with one or two others, 
 commonly of rather 
 smaller size, on each 
 of the sides ; many also 
 terminate with spires, or, 
 especially in the Perpen- 
 dicular style, with lan- 
 terns. Decorated towers 
 remain at Lincoln Cathe- 
 dral, the churches of 
 Heckington and Cay- 
 thorpe, Lincolnshire; 
 
 Newark, Nottingham- 
 shire; Finedon, North- 
 amptonshire; St. Mary’s, 
 
 Oxford, &c. Perpendi- 
 cular towers are very 
 numerous in all parts of 
 the kingdom, especially 
 
 . ^ 07 . . . x ^ Bnslington, Somersetshire. 
 
 m Somersetshire: among 
 
 such as are best deserving of attention may be mentioned 
 those at Canterbury, York, and Gloucester Cathedrals, 
 and the churches at Boston and Louth, Lincolnshire; 
 Kettering, Northamptonshire; Taunton, Somersetshire; 
 Cirencester, Gloucestershire; Great Malvern, Worcester- 
 shire ; and those of St. Mary Magdalen College, and Mer- 
 ton College, Oxford. 
 
 Trabs (Lat. Trabes ), a beam, 
 but especially applied to the 
 Wall-plate. 
 
 Trachelium (Gr.), the neck ; 
 
 applied to part of the space be- 
 neath the more solid portion of 
 the capital in an Ionic or Doric 1 
 column. 
 
SCracerg. 
 
 2 99 
 
 Tracery (? Old Fr. Tracer ), the ornamental stonework 
 in the upper part of Gothic windows, formed by the 
 ramifications of the mullions ; also the decorations of cor- 
 responding character which are abundantly used in Gothic 
 architecture on panellings, ceilings, &c. The term is not 
 ancient. Tracery has been very satisfactorily divided by 
 Professor Willis into two classes, the early kind, called 
 Plate-tracery , consisting merely of openings cut through a 
 flat plate of stone, and the later kind resembling bars of 
 iron twisted into the forms required. Plate tracery begins 
 in the late Norman period, when small circular openings 
 are pierced through the spandrel between two round-headed 
 arches under one circum- 
 scribing arch. The earliest 
 example that has been no- 
 ticed is in the triforium of 
 the choir of Peterborough 
 Cathedral, a.d. 1145. Seve- 
 ral windows of the same 
 figure occur in the later 
 Norman buildings and in 
 the period of transition, and 
 plate- tracery continues in 
 use in the earlier part of 
 the Early English style, by 
 piercing the spaces between 
 or above the heads of the 
 windows when two or more 
 were grouped together un- 
 der one arch. These pierc- 
 ings seldom followed the 
 figure of the space pierced, 
 and very often, if not gene- 
 rally, had different mould- 
 ings from them; but the 
 system of making the mul- 
 lions branch off into circles, quatrefoils, and other geo- 
 metrical figures above the springing of the arches, speedily 
 superseded this expedient, and established the use of 
 tracery : its character, at first, was often rather heavy, 
 and the larger openings only were feathered, but this 
 
 Charlton-on-Otmoor, Oxon. 
 
3 °° 
 
 JEracerg. 
 
 defect was rapidly corrected, and it became one of the 
 most marked and beautiful characteristics of the Deco- 
 rated style. 
 
 j Bar -tracery begins in the later part of that style, and 
 at first consists of foliated circles only, as in the cloisters 
 and other parts of Salisbury Cathedral. Soon afterwards 
 trefoils and quatrefoils, not enclosed in circles, and their 
 other forms, came in. 
 
 The heads of the win- 
 dows were at first tre- 
 foiled only, and cut 
 out of the solid, but 
 afterwards w ere pier- 
 ced, and became part 
 of the tracery. 
 
 The early Deco- 
 rated tracery is ar- 
 ranged principally in 
 circles, quatrefoils, 
 and other regular 
 figures, with the 
 featheiings for the 
 most part confined 
 to the larger pierc- 
 ings ; this is usually 
 called geometrical 
 tracery : in the ma- 
 tured examples of 
 the style it is gene- 
 rally more compli- 
 cated, and the pat- 
 terns are designed 
 with greater freedom and elegance. Many windows of 
 this date have the heads fill* d with most elaborate tra- 
 cery, branching off into a variety of graceful curves, 
 without any admixture of geometrical forms, though 
 very commonly portions of flowing and geometrical tra- 
 cery are combined in the same window. Two of the 
 Decorated windows most celebrated for their tracery 
 are the west window of York Minster, and the east 
 window of Carlisle Cathedral. Some idea of the great 
 
 Meopham, Keut, c. 1260. 
 
SEraccrg. 
 
 301 
 
 variety of design in the tracery of English windows may 
 be found in the work on the subject by Mr. E. A. Ereeman. 
 
 One of the earliest indications of the approach of the 
 Perpendicular style is 
 perceived in the intro- 
 duction of straight lines 
 in the tracery, some- 
 times horizontal, but 
 more frequently verti- 
 cal ; these, on their first 
 appearance, are not nu- 
 merous, and in general 
 not very striking, but 
 they are found rapidly 
 to increase as tho style 
 becomes developed, until 
 the flowing lines of the 
 Decorated tracery are 
 exploded. There are 
 very great varieties in 
 the window-tracery of 
 the Perpendicular style; 
 occasionally transoms 
 are introduced in it, par- 
 ticularly in some dis- 
 tricts, and an effect very 
 similar to that of a transom produced by arching the small 
 lights at a uniform level across 
 a considerable part, or the 
 whole breadth of the window, 
 is common. Although the 
 leading lines are vertical, it 
 is very usual to find some of 
 the piercings formed of curved 
 pat e ms, and the principal 
 mullions are frequently arched 
 and carried through the win- 
 dow-head, so as to divide the 
 tracery into several distinct 
 portions 
 
 In addition to its use in 
 
 King’s Sutton, Northants. 
 
302 CracEtg. 
 
 windows, tracery is also extensively employed as a de- 
 coration in Gothic architecture in various other ways. 
 In general character it always more or less resembles that 
 of the windows, though the patterns are often necessarily 
 modified to suit the spaces to which it is applied. Panels 
 are sometimes entirely covered with it, and present, in fact, 
 epitomes of blank windows ; parapets often, especially on 
 the Continent, consist of a range of tracery ; ceilings, both 
 vaulted and flat, are very commonly ornamented with it ; 
 in screens it is almost invariably introduced; it is also 
 made to decorate a variety of small objects, such as locks, 
 door-handles, &c. The use of the word tracery (as well 
 as mullion ) by modern writers is derived from Sir Chris- 
 topher Wren, who employs them habitually in his reports, 
 and it may be supposed therefore that the word was used 
 by the workmen of that day. His cotemporaries, Dr. Plot 
 and Handle Holmes, both use it, and from these autho- 
 rities it derives its present universal employment. “ Tra- 
 cery is the working of the top part of a window into seve- 
 ral forms and fashions,” says Holmes (Acad, of Armory, 
 p. 112, pt. iii.) ; and Wren, describing Salisbury Cathe- 
 dral windows, admires them because the light is not ob- 
 structed “with many mullions and transoms of tracery - 
 work .” (Parentalia, 302, 304, 307.) But in mediaeval 
 contracts the term does not appear, and instead of it we 
 find form-pieces and forms. 
 
 There were different kinds of pierced work in metal 
 plate largely introduced into the goldsmith’s work, and 
 into other brass and ironwork ; as, for example, the lock- 
 plates which are often seen upon doors, which are formed 
 of thin iron plate, upon which ornamental patterns are 
 traced, and the ground pierced through and coloured cloth 
 placed behind it. It is in them that it is thought we 
 may look for the origin of the name, if not of the 
 design. Often the patterns are the same as those of the 
 stone tracery, and the subordination of the mouldings 
 is produced by placing two or more plates upon each 
 other. 
 
 Trail, a running enrichment of leaves, flowers, tendrils, &c. 
 [See Vignette.'] 
 
transept— ^Transition. 303 
 
 Transept: any part of a church that projects at right 
 angles from the body (that is, the high central portion 
 either of nave or choir), and is of equal or nearly equal 
 height to it, is termed the transept. The transept gives 
 to the church its cruciform arrangement, but its position 
 varies in different ages and styles. Large churches also 
 have several transepts. The transept is always so ar- 
 ranged that the projection southward is accompanied by 
 a corresponding projection northward, and although from 
 delays in building and alterations the two are frequently 
 dissimilar in style and plan, as at Chester, it must always 
 be supposed that the two are contemplated. Hence, 
 while the word transept includes both the north and the 
 south branches, it is frequently used to designate one 
 only, and when both are meant, it is used in the plural 
 number. In the basilican churches of Home, and others 
 of that class but not so early, the transept is at the altar 
 extremity of the building, and tne head of the cross is only 
 marked by an apse. Gradually, however, the eastern 
 limb of the cross became elongated in successive structures, 
 until, as at York, it is made equal to the western limb. 
 This western limb, in describing the building, is usually 
 termed the nave, and the eastern the choir, without re- 
 ference to the actual position or extent of the real choir 
 considered with respect to its liturgical meaning, for the 
 latter is often placed west of the Transept, as at Norwich 
 and Westminster. Often a small secondary transept is 
 placed east of the principal transept, as at Oluny, Canter- 
 bury, Salisbury, Lincoln, and several other examples. 
 Occasionally the western front is developed into a transept, 
 as at Ely, or a transept is placed at the extreme east end, 
 as at Durham, Fountains, and Peterborough. The tran- 
 septs were sometimes called “ cross isles,” (transversae 
 insulae.) [See Aide.’] In Latin more usually the Cross 
 (Crux.) [See Cathedral .] 
 
 Transition : this term is employed in reference to medi- 
 aeval architecture, while it is in progress of changing from 
 one style to another. There are three periods of transition, 
 viz. from the Romanesque or Norman style to the Early 
 English ; from the Early English to the Decorated ; and 
 from the Decorated to the Perpendicular : buildings erected 
 
Etamsitton— transom. 
 
 | 3°4 
 
 at these particular times frequently have the features of 
 two styles so blended together that they cannot be pro- 
 perly considered to belong to either ; sometimes the details 
 of the later style are associated with the general forms and 
 arrangements of the earlier, and vice versa . 
 
 Mediaeval architecture was at all times undergoing 
 a gradual progressive change, as is evident from the dif- 
 ference between early and late work in each of the styles, 
 but these alterations are, for the most part, only modifica- 
 tions of the distinguishing characteristics, though many 
 of them indicate the more important changes to which 
 they eventually led. This term is more usually applied 
 to the first great period of transition, from the Romanesque 
 to the Gothic. 
 
 Transom (Transommer, or cross-beam), a horizontal 
 muliion or cross-bar in a window, &c. The most ancient 
 examples of transoms are found in the Early English 
 style : of this date they are extremely 
 rare, and appear only to have been used 
 occasionally in glazed windows which 
 were provided with casements, and in the 
 unglazed openings of belfries, turrets, &c., 
 for the sake of strength. At this period 
 they were mere straight bars of stone, and 
 except in unglazed windows of very great 
 length, were introduced but once in the 
 height of the opening : as church windows 
 were seldom made to open, specimens of 
 the first-mentioned kind are to b * sought 
 for in domestic buildings; they exist at 
 Battle Abbey, Sussex, and at Woodcroft 
 and Longthorpe, Northamptonshire. In 
 the Decorated style the use of transoms 
 increased, and examples of them in the 
 unglazed openings of towers and spires are by no means 
 uncommon, as in the churches of Exton, Rutland ; St. 
 Mary, Stamford; King’s Sutton, Northamptonshire, and 
 St. Mary, Oxford. In glazed church windows they were 
 still very rarely employed, though they may be seen in 
 the cathedral at Bristol, and in the churches of Albrigh- 
 ton, Shropshire, and Dodford, Northamptonshire; but in 
 
 Bampton, Oxon. 
 
transom. 
 
 3°5 
 
 domestic buildings they were very generally adopted, 
 
 doubtless from the conve- _ 
 
 nience which they afforded 
 for the application of case- 
 ments. At this period they 
 were introduced only once 
 in the height of the win- 
 dow, and the lights were 
 usually arched and fea- 
 thered beneath them. In the 
 Perpendicular style the use 
 of transoms was very gene- 
 ral in windows of all kinds, 
 and they were often re- 
 peated several times in the 
 height; they were also 
 sometimes introduced in 
 the tracery : the lights 
 
 were almost always arched 
 aiid feathered under them. 
 
 They also occur in Low - 
 side windows, in which 
 probably the lower divi- 
 sion of the window was 
 provided with a shutter. 
 
 During the reigns of Eliza- 
 beth and James I., and even later,, transoms continued 
 to be frequently used, but they were seldom more thau 
 plain bars, like horizontal mullions. In continental Gothic 
 transoms were much less employed than in this country. 
 
 Headcoru, Kent. 
 
 Traverse, a kind of screen 
 with curtains used in halls, 
 chapels, and other large rooms 
 to give privacy to dignified per- 
 sons. 
 
 Trellis, Trellice, an open 
 grating or lattice-work, either of 
 metal or wood; the name is 
 usually confined to such as are 
 formed of straight bars crossing 
 each other. 
 
 Tresaunte, a passage in a 
 house, &c. (? that between the 
 screen at the lower end of the 
 
 j hall and the offices),, or a narrow 
 ! passage in a wall. In monastic 
 rules the trisantia is often men- 
 tioned, and appearsto have been 1 
 near the chapter-house and a 
 part of the cloister. In large 
 monasteries there were several 
 trisantice r as there were several 
 j cloisters. Amongst others it is 
 probable that the- covered pas- 
 sage which so usually lies be- 
 tween the transept gable and 
 the chapter-house, usually called 
 the Slype , was a trisantia. 
 
 X 
 
306 
 
 trefoil — STttforium. 
 
 Trefoil (Lat. Tres = three, folium = 
 a leaf), ornamental feathering or folia- 
 tion used in Gothic architecture in the 
 heads of window-lights, tracery, panel- 
 lings, &c., in which the spaces between 
 the cusps represent the form of a three- 
 lobed leaf. [See Foil.'] 
 
 Tribune, or Tribunal. A word in its first signification 
 used to denote the seat of the Ruler or Judge ( tribunus ) 
 in the Apse of a Basilica, where justice was administered. 
 Afterwards, when the basilican arrangement was applied 
 to churches (see Basilica ), it signified the seat of the 
 bishop, or that of the bishop and clergy, which was usu- 
 ally round the apse. 
 
 That at Torcello is 
 perhaps as good an 
 example as can be 
 given. The word at 
 a later date came to 
 signify any elevated 
 part of a church 
 or public building; 
 hence the French 
 use it to this day 
 for any gallery; or 
 for the triforium 
 in a church. It is 
 also used for the 
 Pulpit, although in 
 this sense it retains more of the primary idea as the place 
 of authority; also for the President’s seat in French As- 
 semblies. In Norwich Cathedral the bishop’s throne still 
 exists, on the east end of the choir wall ; though built 
 round and hidden, it shews that before the twelfth century 
 the basilican arrangement was adopted in this country. 
 
 Tribune, Torcello. 
 
 Triforium, The Triforium, whether it be a corrupt 
 reading of the last word ( Tribunum ) or not, means very 
 much the same thing, namely, a gallery in a church. We 
 are indebted for the word to Gervase, a writer of the 
 
®rifortunt. 
 
 3 ° 7 
 
 twelfth century, and in describing the rebuilding of Can- 
 terbury Cathedral he applies the word to the space formed 
 between the sloping roof of the aisle and 
 the vaulting beneath it, which then being 
 open, formed a sort of gallery or tribune to 
 the church. To this space, which is often 
 very capacious, and occurs in most of the 
 cathedrals both in England and on the 
 Continent, the name is now usually ap- 
 plied. But Gervase says, in distinguish- 
 ing between the old work and the new, 
 that in the latter the architect made “ ano- 
 ther triforium ” above the lower one, and 
 this now exists at Canterbury also, but 
 would in an ordinary way be called the 
 clerestory passage ; the word may, there- 
 fore, be legitimately applied to both. 
 
 The lower, or chief triforium (or blind- 
 story, as it is sometimes called), although in 
 the first instance merely an architectural 
 necessity arising from the construction of 
 the aisle-roof, came to be used for various 
 purposes. The blank wall above the nave- 
 arches was, as we gather from Gervase, in 
 Anselm's church, covered with arcading, 
 and pierced with only small openings. In the new work 
 we find the elegant series of arches, amounting practically 
 to arcading, occupying and adorning the whole of the 
 wall- space. In several cases we find the spaces, or long 
 galleries, to be used for purposes of worship, as altars 
 exist in them ; and we know from documentary evidence 
 it was used as such, as in the history of Charles the Good, 
 where it is called the solarium, or upper chamber of the 
 church. We also know that it was sometimes used as 
 a gallery for women, answering to the actual galleries in 
 the Boman basilicas. At times it is now used in some 
 cathedrals abroad by the congregation when any great 
 function is going on, and seats are placed there. Besides 
 this, it always afforded easy means of reaching the upper 
 part of the wall, for placing or removing hangings and 
 such like. 
 
 Triforium, Winchester. 
 C. Clere-story. 
 
 1. Tuforium. 
 
 P. Pillars. 
 
3°S 
 
 Criforiutn. 
 
 The ornamental arrangement of the lower triforinm 
 differs considerably. In the Norman style it is often 
 formed of one arch occupying an entire bay of the build- 
 ing, or of one arch subdivided into smaller ones supported 
 on small shafts, as at Malmesbury Abbey. In the Early 
 English style a range of small arches is not uncommon, 
 and sometimes two 
 or more larger ar- 
 ches subdivided are 
 used. In the De- 
 corated and Perpen- 
 dicular styles, in 
 which the aisle- 
 roofs are frequently 
 flatter than is usual 
 at earlier periods, 
 the space occupied 
 by the triforium 
 
 is often much re- 
 
 , .. , . Triforium, St. Cross, Hampshire, c. 1200. 
 
 duced, and in some 
 
 buildings, especially in the latter style, it is altogether 
 abolished. 
 
 In some instances, even in parish churches, a passage or 
 gallery is carried round the nave or chancel in the thick- 
 ness of the walls, where there are no aisles, as e.g. Nun 
 Monkton, Yorkshire, and in the church of St. Peter-in-the 
 East in Oxford. In large churches, too, and in cathedrals, 
 passages in the thickness of the wall, more or less open 
 to the church, occur. To all these the name triforium 
 may properly be applied. "When, however, the back of 
 the passage is open, so to speak, to the sky, by means of 
 the windows behind, the name clearstory or clearstory- 
 passage, is perhaps more appropriate. 
 
 The theory deriving the word triforium from tres-fores, 
 or three openings or doors, is not probable, as the general 
 rule was for a Norman triforium arcade to have two or 
 four openings, as was the case where the name is first 
 applied. Nor is the Latinization of thoroughfare a more 
 probable derivation; nor yet that of turri-forium , or 
 tower-passage, though nearly all the upper passages lead 
 to and from the towers. 
 
2CrttjIspfj — 9 Tutioc Stgle. 309 
 
 Trigylph: an ornament used in the Doric frieze, con- 
 sisting of three vertical angular chan- 
 nels, or flutes, separated by narrow 
 flat spaces. They are not worked ex- 
 actly in the same manner in the Gre- 
 cian and Roman examples; and in 
 the latter, when placed over columns, 
 are invariably over the centre of them, 
 but in the former, at the angle of an 
 entablature, are placed close up to the 
 angle, and not over the centre of the column. 
 
 Truss: (1.) The collection of timbers forming one of 
 the principal supports in a roof, framed together so as to 
 give mutual support to each other, and to prevent any 
 straining or distortion from the superincumbent weight; 
 they are usually placed at regular intervals, and are formed 
 in various ways, according to the size and nature of the 
 roof with which they are connected ; diagrams of two, 
 of the simplest kind, are given in the article on Roof. 
 (2.) AVooden partitions and other works in carpentry are 
 sometimes strengthened with framed trusses of similar 
 kinds. ( 3 .) Ancones , brackets , and consoles are sometimes 
 called trusses. 
 
 Tudor Style: this name is used by some writers on 
 Gothic architecture, but they do not agree in the appli- 
 cation of it. It is variously employed to designate the 
 Perpendicular style throughout its continuance — -the latter 
 period of this style — and the mixed style which sprang 
 
 Triclinium, the room in 
 which the Romans ate their 
 principal meals ; also the couch 
 on which they reclined at their 
 meals. 
 
 Trimmer: this is an ancient 
 term in carpentry, but it is 
 doubtful whether it was for- 
 merly used in precisely the same 
 sense as at present ; it now sig- 
 nifies a piece of timber inserted 
 in a roof, floor, wooden partition, 
 &c., to support the ends of any 
 of the joists, rafters, &c., which 
 cannot, from particular circum- 
 stances, be made to bear upon 
 the walls or upon any of the 
 
 I main timbers: thus floors are 
 trimmed at the fire-places and 
 for the passage of stairs. The 
 joists, rafters, &c., into which 
 the ends of the trimmers are 
 framed, are called trimming- 
 joists, and trimming-rafters. 
 
 Triptic, a sort of tablet, in 
 three divisions, to open and 
 shut, the two outer folding over 
 the centre when closed, as con- 
 trasted with Diptych. See 
 Leaves. 
 
 Trochylus, a hollow mould- 
 ing frequent in the bases of Clas- 
 sical orders. Same as Scotia . 
 
3io 
 
 iEutiat Stgle— turret. 
 
 up on the decline of Gothic architecture usually called 
 Elizabethan. The term is not very extensively used, and 
 is most commonly understood to mean late Perpendicular 
 work, and Henry VII.’s 
 Chapel at Westminster is 
 looked upon as the most 
 perfect specimen in this 
 style. The Tudor Flower 
 is a flat flower, or leaf, 
 placed upright on its 
 stalk, much used in Per- 
 pendicular work, espe- 
 cially late in the style, in long suites as a crest, or orna- 
 mental finishing, on cornices, &c. ; the examples differ 
 considerably in detail, but the general effect does not 
 varv much. 
 
 Turret, Touret, Turette, 
 a small tower: the name is 
 also sometimes given to a 
 large pinnacle. Turrets arc 
 employed in Gothic architec- 
 ture for various purposes, and 
 are applied in various ways ; 
 they also differ very greatly 
 in their forms, proportions, 
 and decorations. In many 
 cases they are used solely for 
 ornament ; they are also often 
 placed at the angles of build- 
 ings, especially castles, to in- 
 crease their strength, serv- 
 ing practically as corner but- 
 tresses. Occasionally they 
 carry bells, or a clock, but 
 one of the most common uses 
 to which they are applied is 
 to contain a newel , or spiral 
 staircase ; for this purpose 
 they are usually found at- 
 tached to church towers, form- 
 ing an external projection, 
 
 Beckley, Oxon. 
 
([Turret* 
 
 3 ” 
 
 which very frequently terminates considerably below 
 the top of the tower, but in 
 some districts turrets of this 
 kind generally rise above the 
 tower, and are finished with 
 a parapet or small spire. Tur- 
 rets of all dates are sometimes 
 perfectly plain, and others va- 
 riously ornamented, accord- 
 ing to the character of the pre- 
 vailing style of architecture, 
 the upper part being the most 
 enriched, and not unfrequently 
 formed of open-work. In the 
 Norman style, the lower part 
 is usually square, and this form 
 is continued to the top, but 
 the upper part is sometimes 
 changed to a polygon or circle; 
 few turrets of this date retain 
 their original terminations, 
 but they appear to have been 
 often finished with low spires, 
 either square, polygonal, or 
 circular, according to the 
 shape of the turret. In the 
 Early English and later styles 
 they are most usually polygo- 
 nal, but are sometimes square, 
 and occasionally circular. The upper terminations are very 
 various ; in the Early English style spires prevail, but in 
 the Decorated and Perpendicular not only spires but para- 
 pets, either plain, battlemented, panelled, or pierced, and 
 pinnacles are used. The peculiar kind of turrets often 
 found attached to small churches and chapels, which have 
 no tower to receive the bells, are described under the 
 term Bell-gable . 
 
 Tun, a term used in some times applied to a spiral stair- 
 parts of the west of England ! case or Vise. See also Newel . 
 for the shaft of a chimney. I Turngrece, also a winding 
 
 Turnpike-stair, a name some- I stair. See Step. 
 
 St. Mary’s, Beverley. 
 
3 t 2 SCufa— SCgntpatxum. 
 
 Tufa, Tufo, Tuff, a porous stone either deposited by 
 calcareous waters, or formed by successive layers of vol- 
 canic dust* as in Rome and the Campagna around it. 
 Much of it is exceedingly light, and resembles petrified 
 sponge; it is extremely durable, and was extensively used 
 by the Romans for the external facing of buildings, as at 
 the theatre at Lillebone, in Normandy, and the Pharos in 
 Dover Castle. In the Middle Ages it was sometimes used 
 in walls in localities where it could be easily procured, 
 but it was principally employed in vaulting, for which, 
 from its lightness, it was peculiarly suited. Gervase, in 
 his account of the rebuilding of the choir of Canterbury 
 Cathedral, after the fire in 1174, describes the vault to 
 be “ ex lapide et tofo levi .” It is used in the vaulting 
 of the late Norman porch on the north side of the nave 
 of Bredon Church, Worcestershire, and in many other 
 buildings. 
 
 Tympanum (Lat.), the triangular space between the 
 horizontal and sloping cornices on the front of a pediment 
 in Classical architecture ; it is often left plain, but is some- 
 times covered with sculpture. This name is also given to 
 
 Tympanum of Doorway, Essendine, c. 1130. 
 
 the space immediately above the opening of a doorway, &c., 
 in mediaeval architecture, when the top of the opening is 
 square and has an arch over it; this arrangement is not 
 uncommon in this country in Norman work, and on the 
 
Cgmpanunt— Falleg. 3 r 3 
 
 Continent is to be found in each of the styles ; tympanums 
 of this kind are occasionally perfectly plain, but are gene- 
 rally ornamented with carving or sculpture; in conti- 
 nental work the subjects are usually arranged in tiers 
 one above another, and often embrace a great number of 
 figures. Also when an arch is surmounted by a gable- 
 moulding or triangular hoodmould, the space included 
 between the arch and the triangular hoodmould is termed 
 the tympanum of the gable. 
 
 Type, or Tippe : the canopy over a pulpit, according to 
 Nicholson’s Dictionary. It seems to have been also em- 
 ployed for the capping or cupola roof of a turret, which 
 resembles the usual form of the pulpit canopy, although 
 this term is seldom used. A very beautiful example is 
 given under the article Tabernacle. The term seems to be 
 applied also to other structures of the same form. In 
 the account, for instance, of the repairs of the White 
 Tower, 23 Hen. VIII., there are particulars of the re- 
 pair and construction of “ four types on the top of the 
 White Tower with their ordenances about them,” which 
 are manifestly the roofs of the four corner turrets, which 
 upon this occasion were “hythened with brycke work 
 every type a yarde hye,” plastered, roughcast, the wood- 
 work re-constructed, and the lead re-cast. 
 
 Valley. In a roof where there is more than one ridge, 
 the internal angles formed by the meeting of the sides are 
 termed Valleys , and the timbers supporting these sides 
 are termed Valley Rafters. Also the intervals in a vault, 
 the space between the ridges of the vault as seen from 
 above. 
 
 Tusses, projecting stones left 
 in a wall to which another build- 
 ing is intended to be added, in 
 order to connect them securely 
 together. The term is not in 
 general use at the present day. 
 They are sometimes called 
 Too thin g -stones. 
 
 Tylle-thakkers, tile-thatch- 
 ers or tilers. 
 
 Tymbre, a herald’s term for 
 the crest, which in an achieve- 
 
 ment stands on the top of the 
 helmet, or on the top of a fu- 
 merell or lantern, on the roof of 
 a hall, &c., or on the finial of a 
 turret. The Vane from Stanton 
 Harcourt, on the next page, af- 
 fords an illustration. 
 
 Undercroft, a subterranean 
 chapel or apartment. At Here- 
 ford, in the cloisters, there is a 
 place called the Mary-croft. 
 
Fane-Uault. 
 
 314 
 
 Vane (written also Pane, Lat. Vannus), a plate of metal 
 turning on a vertical spindle so as to shew the direction of 
 the wind, frequently fixed on the tops 
 of spires and pinnacles, and other ele- 
 vated situations ; it is often in the form 
 of a cock, and from this circumstance is 
 very commonly called a weather- cock. 
 
 Vanes were in use in the times of 
 the Saxons, and in after ages were 
 very extensively employed. They 
 were sometimes perfectly plain, and 
 sometimes cut into ornamental forms, 
 which were not unfrequently heraldic 
 devices. During the prevalence of 
 the Perpendicular and Elizabethan 
 styles, figures supporting vanes were 
 often placed on the tops of pinnacles, 
 and in other elevated situations; these 
 were usually in the form of small 
 flags, and were sometimes pierced with 
 a representation of some armorial bearing. Occasionally 
 the vane was shaped like an heraldic device. 
 
 Vault (Fr. Voute , and Lat. Volutus). The simplest 
 and most ancient kind used over 
 a rectangular area is the Cylin- 
 drical , called also a larrel , and 
 sometimes wagon - vault ; this 
 springs from the two opposite 
 walls, and presents a uniform 
 concave surface throughout its 
 whole length. The term ‘ cylin- 
 drical’ properly implies the form 
 of a segment of a cylinder, 
 but it is applied to pointed 
 vaults of the same description. 
 
 Vaults of this description were used by the Romans, and 
 also by the builders in this country, to the end of the 
 Borman style. The Romans also first introduced groin- 
 ing, formed by the intersection of vaults crossing each 
 other at right angles, and some of their constructions of 
 
 Cylindrical Vault. 
 
 Stanton Harcourt, Oxon. 
 
Vault. 3 1 5 
 
 this kind were of very large size. In groined vaults the 
 arches which cross each 
 other do not always cor- 
 respond in width ; in 
 such cases they some- 
 times spring from the 
 same level, and conse- 
 quently are of unequal 
 heights ; and sometimes 
 the springing of the nar- 
 rower vault is raised so 
 that the tops are on the 
 same level. Domical, or hemispherical vaulting over a 
 circular area was likewise practised by the Romans, of 
 which the Pantheon at Rome exhibits a magnificent ex- 
 ample of 142 ft. in diameter. The decorations employed 
 on Roman vaulting consist chiefly of panels, and flat bands 
 of ornament following the curve of the arch : the applica- 
 tion of ribs at that period was unknown. 
 
 In the Norman style cylindrical or barrel vaulting, as 
 well as groined vaulting, is used ; the former of these is 
 either perfectly devoid of ornament, as in the chapel in 
 the White Tower of London, or has plain and massive ribs 
 at intervals, following the direction of the curve of the 
 arch. In groined vaulting the cross-vaults are not un- 
 frequently surmounted, or stilted, when they are of nar- 
 rower span than the main vault, though sometimes, in such 
 cases, they are both made to spring from the same level ; 
 but in general the parts of the building are so arranged 
 that both vaults are of nearly or quite the same breadth. 
 
 In the Early English style, when the use of the pointed 
 arch was permanently established, the same form was also 
 given to the vaulting ; and groined vaults at this period 
 were universally adopted. In buildings of this date ribs 
 are invariably employed, especially on the groins : the 
 simplest arrangement of them consists of the diagonal or 
 groin ribs, cross-springers, and the longitudinal and trans- 
 verse ribs at the apex of the main and cross-vaults ; but 
 these two last, in some examples, are omitted. Additional 
 ribs are sometimes introduced between the diagonals and 
 cross-springers. In some buildings in this country, and 
 
3x6 
 
 Fault. 
 
 in many on the Continent, the vaulting is constructed with 
 the main vault double the width of the cross- vaults, with 
 
 Westminster Abbey, e. 1260 
 
 the diagonal ribs embracing two bavs or compartments of 
 the cross- vaults, as in the choir of Canterbury Cathedral. 
 
 Decorated vaults for the most part differ but little from 
 those of the preceding style : the longitudinal and trans- 
 verse ribs are occasionally, but not often, omitted, and the 
 number of those on the surface of the vaulting is sometimes 
 increased ; and in some examples ribs are introduced cross- 
 ing the vaults in directions opposite to their curves, so as 
 to form in some degree an appearance of net- work upon 
 them. The short ribs which connect the bosses and inter- 
 sections of the principal rib and ridge-ribs, but which do 
 not themselves either spring from an impost or occupy the 
 ridge, are termed Hemes , and the vaults in which they 
 occur, lierne vaults. 
 
3 T 7 
 
 Fault— ilestca piscts. 
 
 In the Perpendicular style the general construction is 
 much the same as in the Decorated, but the ribs are often 
 more numerous, and pendants are not uncommon. To- 
 wards the latter part of this style fan-tracery vaulting was 
 commonly introduced : this has no groins, hut the penden- 
 tives are circular on the plan, and have the same curve in 
 every direction, resembling inverted curvilinear conoids, 
 and are generally covered with ribs and tracery branching 
 out equally all round them. The middle of the upper part 
 of the vault, between the pendentives, is usually domical 
 in construction, and frequently has a pendant in the centre 
 of each compartment. A fine ex- 
 ample of this is found in Henry 
 the Seventh’s Chapel, Westmin- 
 ster. 
 
 Vaulting-shaft: a term pro- 
 posed by Professor Willis for a 
 shaft, small column, or pillar, 
 which supports the ribs of a vault. 
 
 Shafts of this kind sometimes 
 rise from the floor, and this is 
 specially the case in most Nor- 
 man, and some Early English 
 work; at other times from the 
 capital of a larger pillar, or from 
 a corbel or other projection, and 
 this is become more common in 
 the fourteenth century. The 
 most usual arrangement is that 
 shewn in the example here given, 
 where the shaft rises between the 
 sp ringings of the arches of the 
 nave. 
 
 Vesica Piscis (Lat.) : a name 
 applied to a pointed oval figure, vauiting-shaft, Neti ey Abbey, c.isoo. 
 
 formed by two equal circles, cutting each other in their 
 centres, which is a very common form given to the aureole , 
 
 Vent in an embattled wall is 
 either the Crenel or the Loop- 
 hole , for its exact meaning is 
 somewhat ambiguous. 
 
 Verge, a mediaeval termsome- 
 
 times applied to the shaft of a 
 column, or to a small ornamental 
 shaft in Gothic architecture. 
 Verge board = Barge-board. 
 
3 j 8 
 
 Uest'ca p tact's— ' Ut'gnette. 
 
 Vesica Piscis, Ely Cathedral. 
 
 or glory , by which the representations of each of the three 
 Persons of the Holy Trinity and 
 the Blessed Virgin are surrounded 
 in the paintings or sculptures of 
 the Middle Ages. It has been 
 conjectured (though without much 
 probability) that it was adopted 
 from the idea that this figure is 
 symbolical, and significant of the 
 Greek word ’l^Ovs (a fish), which 
 contains the initial letters of the 
 name and titles of the Saviour. 
 
 This form is sometimes found in 
 panels and other architectural fea- 
 tures, and is extremely common 
 in mediaeval seals, especially those 
 of bishops and monastic establish- 
 ments. 
 
 Vestibule, a hall or ante-chamber next to the entrance, 
 from which doors open to the various rooms or passages of 
 a house. This is the Vitruvian and the modern sense, but 
 the latter includes any lobby, porch, or ante-room, through 
 which a larger apartment or a house, &c. is entered. 
 Vestibulum in mediaeval Latin is also used for the vestiarium 
 or vestry , and sometimes for the nave, the ecclesia being 
 strictly the choir only. The origin of the word is dis- 
 puted, but it is probable that it first signified the en- 
 trance-chamber to the baths, where the clothes of the 
 bather were laid aside ; and hence the entrance to a house 
 or any public edifice. 
 
 Vignette (Pr.), a running ornament consisting of leaves 
 and tendrils, such as is fre- 
 quently carved in the hol- 
 low mouldings in Gothic 
 architecture, especially in 
 the Decorated and Perpen- 
 dicular styles; called also 
 Trail . 
 
 Vethym, or Fethym, a fathom; 
 a measure of six feet. 
 Vomitoria (Lat.), the princi- 
 
 pal exits of an amphitheatre. 
 Voussure (Fr.), a vault. 
 Vyse. See Vise and Step. 
 
Ucstrg — Folute. 
 
 3*9 
 
 Vestry, or Revestry : a room attached to the choir of 
 a church, sometimes called the sacristy , in which the 
 sacred vessels and vestments were kept, and where the 
 priest put on his robes. In ordinary parish churches it 
 was usually an adjunct on one side of the choir, but was 
 sometimes at the east end, behind the altar, either within 
 the main walls of the building, as at Crewkerne, Somerset- 
 shire, and Arundel, Sussex, or forming a projection beyond 
 them, as at Hawkhurst, Kent, and in several churches in 
 the city of York. 
 
 Vise (old form Vys = a screw), a spiral staircase, the 
 steps of which wind round a perpendicular shaft or pillar 
 called the newel. The majority of ancient church towers 
 are provided with staircases of this kind, and they are to 
 be found in various situations in most middle-age build- 
 ings. During the prevalence of the Norman style, the 
 steps were formed of small stones supported on a con- 
 tinuous spiral vault, reaching the whole height of the 
 stairs, one side of 'which rested on the newel, and the 
 other on the main wall ; subsequently to this period the 
 steps were each made of a single stone, one end of which 
 was inserted into the main wall, and the other rested upon 
 and formed part of the newel. See also Newel . 
 
 Vitruvian Scroll, a peculiar pattern of scroll-work, 
 consisting of convolved undula- 
 tions, used in Classical architec- 
 ture. The name given after the 
 great architectural writerYitruvius. 
 
 Volute (Lat. Vo lutus = turned), 
 a spiral scroll forming the princi- 
 pal characteristic of the Ionic capi- 
 tal. Volutes are also used on the 
 capitals of the Corinthian and 
 Composite orders. Examples will 
 be found in the illustrations ac- 
 companying the article Order . At 
 the same time, in the pattern of 
 
 the Norman capitals, the volute seems to be frequently 
 retained; in the thirteenth century it takes the form of 
 foliage, and is practically lost. 
 
 Vitruvian Scroll. 
 
320 Uoussoit — fflJEalUpamttng. 
 
 Voussoir, a name adopted from the French for the 
 wedge-shaped stones (or other ma- 
 terial) with which an arch is con- 
 structed, as marked in the en- 
 graving, a, a , a ; the upper one, 
 namely i, at the crown of the 
 arch, is termed the Key -done. The 
 lowest voussoir, or that which is 
 placed immediately above the im- 
 post, is termed the springing-stone, 
 or springer . 
 
 Wainscot, this term originally 
 seems to have implied rough planks of oak timber, and 
 subsequently to have been given to wooden panelling, to 
 which they were converted, for lining the inner walls of 
 houses and churches. It was very extensively employed 
 during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth and James I., and for 
 a long period afterwards. The name has long ceased to be 
 confined to oak panelling. It is also called Seeling -work. 
 
 Wall-painting, the large spaces which are sometimes 
 left without any ornamentation in our churches, and which, 
 
 when whitewashed, appear so cold and unsightly, were 
 originally covered with colour, either in the shape of floral 
 
321 
 
 ®HaII^a£itt(ng— TOtnbo&j. 
 
 or geometrical patterns, or of figures and emblems. The 
 painted glass when treated in conjunction with the wall, 
 as may be seen at the Sainte Chapelle, has a beautiful 
 effect. The bands of colour on the wall were no doubt 
 in continuation of the transoms, or the sill, or a continu- 
 ation of a band carried round the arches, and taking the 
 place of a dripstone and string. Examples are frequently 
 discovered on removal of whitewash from our old churches, 
 but they are seldom in such a state as to admit of pre- 
 servation. [See Polychrome .] 
 
 Window: the windows employed in Classical archi- 
 tecture are usually rectangular openings without any in- 
 ternal splay, with architraves and other ornaments on the 
 exterior, very similar to those of the doorways, but some- 
 times they have arched heads ; and occasionally small 
 circular and semicircular windows are used. In modern 
 buildings, windows called Yenetian windows are sometimes 
 introduced ; they are of large size, divided by columns, or 
 piers resembling pilasters,, into three lights, the middle one 
 of which is usually wider than the others, and is some- 
 times arched ; in the arrangement and character of their 
 ornaments they resemble the windows used in Classical 
 architecture. 
 
 In mediaeval architecture the windows vary most ma- 
 terially in the several styles. In the class of buildings 
 spoken of in the article on Saxon architecture they are 
 generally small, and when in situations to require glazing 
 have often a large splay both externally and internally ; 
 but sometimes the inside only is splayed, and the external 
 angle of the jamb merely chamfered. In church towers, 
 and situations where glazing is not necessary, they are fre- 
 quently of two or more lights, divided by small pillars, or 
 piers, usually resembling balusters, with the jambs con- 
 structed without any splay either internally or externally. 
 The heads of the windows in this style are formed of 
 semicircular arches, or of long stones placed on end upon 
 the imposts, and leaning against each other at the top, so 
 as to form a triangle. 
 
 Wag on -vault. See Vault. 
 Wall-plate. See Plate and 
 Roof. 
 
 Well -hole of a staircase. 
 
 See Step. 
 
 Winders in winding stairs. 
 See Newel and Step. 
 
 Y 
 
3 22 
 
 In buildings of tbe early Norman style the windows 
 are generally of rather small proportions, but in those 
 of later date they are often of considerable size; the 
 most ancient examples are 
 usually very little orna- 
 mented, having only a 
 small chamfer or a plain 
 shallow recess round them 
 externally, and a large 
 splay within, but some- 
 times there is a small shaft 
 on each side in the exter- 
 nal recess, and a label- 
 moulding over the arch; 
 this mode of decoration 
 prevails throughout the 
 style, and is made to pro- 
 duce a bold and rich effect 
 by the introduction of 
 mouldings and other orna- 
 ments in the arch, and Cassington, Oxfordshire, c. 1150. 
 
 sometimes in the jambs ; the number of shafts also is some- 
 times increased. The rich- 
 est examples are met with 
 in buildings of late date, 
 although numerous speci- 
 mens remain of all periods, 
 up to the very end' of the 
 style, which are perfectly 
 plain, or have only a few 
 simple mouldings on the 
 outside. There are some 
 Norman windows divided 
 by shafts, or small piers, 
 into two or more lights; 
 these are often placed in 
 shallow recesseswith arched 
 heads, embracing the whole 
 breadth of the window ; 
 they are found principally Buckneii,o x <m.,c.ii6o. 
 
 in towers, and in situations where glazing is not required. 
 
Jffimticito. 
 
 323 
 
 
 Lambourne, Berks., c. 1160. 
 
 A few examples of circular windows of this style remain ; 
 some are without mullions or tracery of any kind, but 
 other specimens are divided 
 by small shafts, or mul- 
 lions, arranged like the 
 spokes of a wheel. The 
 insides of the windows of 
 this period, except those in 
 belfries and in other situa- 
 tions where they are not 
 intended to be glazed, are 
 almost invariably splayed, 
 and are frequently without 
 any kind of ornament; when 
 decorations are used, they 
 are similar both in character and mode of application 
 to those of the exterior, though generally inferior to them 
 in richness and amount. The proportions of the openings 
 are very various throughout the existence of the Norman 
 style, but the most elongated specimens are usually late. 
 They are sometimes placed in pairs, and occasionally 
 in triplets, towards the end of the style, so close to 
 each other that the space between the internal splays is 
 not more than sufficient to receive the decorations with 
 which the windows are surrounded. 
 
 In the Early English style the proportions of windows 
 vary very greatly, but the majority of 
 them are long and narrow; they are 
 used singly, or combined in groups of 
 two, three, five, and seven. When 
 grouped in this manner, they are not 
 unfrequently placed so near to each 
 other that the stonework between them 
 is reduced to a real mullion, and in 
 such cases they are generally sur- 
 mounted by a large arch embracing 
 the whole number of lights ; but in the 
 majority of examples the spaces be- 
 tween the windows are more consider- 
 able, except in those of late date, 
 many of which are separated by mul- 
 lions, and have the space between the Burwa.h,su.s«. 
 
3 2 4 
 
 OTmbobj. 
 
 heads of the lights and the arch over them pierced 
 with circles, quatrefoils, or 
 other openings, producing 
 very much the effect of 
 the windows of the suc- 
 ceeding style. In belfries, 
 spires, &c., where glazing 
 is unnecessary, two or more 
 openings, separated by small 
 shafts, placed under one 
 arch, are not uncommon. 
 
 A very prevalent mode of 
 ornamenting the windows 
 of this style, especially on 
 the insides, is with small 
 shafts, which are usually 
 detached from the other 
 stonework, and stand quite 
 free; they are often made 
 of a finer material than the 
 rest of the window, 
 and polished. The 
 amount of decora- 
 tion employed is 
 very various: many 
 examples are per- 
 fectly plain with- 
 in, and have only 
 a single or double 
 chamfer, or small 
 splay, externally ; 
 others, w^hen equal- 
 ly plain on the ex- 
 terior, have shafts 
 and mouldings with- 
 in ; some again 
 have the inteiior 
 andexteriorequally 
 enriched, and some 
 have the greatest 
 amount of decora- 
 
 tion externally, but Shipton 0Ulffe> Glouce „ ershire , c . 1220 . 
 

 325 
 
 in general, when there is any difference, the inside 
 is the most highly ornamented. 
 
 The jambs are always splayed on 
 the inside, and the inner arch 
 is most commonly unconformable 
 to that over the actual opening 
 of the window, springing usually 
 from a lower level; this arch, 
 even when the jambs are per- 
 fectly plain, has a chamfer on the 
 inner edge, or a small suite of 
 mouldings, which generally project ^ 
 below the soffit, and either die into 
 the jambs, or rest upon a corbel on Luddenham, Kent, 
 
 each side. A few examples have the heads of the open- 
 ings formed of trefoil or cinque- 
 foil arches; and occasionally, in 
 those of late date, they are feather- 
 ed. There are various beautiful 
 specimens remaining of circular 
 windows of this style. Triangular 
 windows are also occasionally to 
 be met with, but they are usu- 
 ally small, and in the subordi- 
 nate parts of buildings. 
 
 In the Decorated style the win- 
 dows are enlarged, and divided by 
 muilions into separate lights, and 
 have the heads filled with tracery. 
 
 [See Tracery .] Occasionally win- 
 dows are met with of this date with 
 transoms, but they are very rare 
 except in domestic work, and in spires and towers where 
 not intended to be glazed. The heads of the windows in 
 this style are of various forms ; the most prevalent are 
 two-centred pointed arches of different proportions, but 
 besides these, segmental arches, both plain and pointed, 
 are used, and ogees ; square heads are also common. The 
 inner arches are very frequently of different shapes and 
 proportions from those over the tracery, and, even when 
 the inner jambs are perfectly plain, are generally cham- 
 
 Stanton St.John’s, Oxon. 
 
3 2 6 
 
 TOmbofo. 
 
 fered or moulded in the same manner as the correspond- 
 ing arches in the Early 
 English style. Many 
 Decorated windows 
 which have elaborate 
 tracery are almost des- 
 titute of mouldings : 
 the mull ions are often 
 only splayed, and the 
 jambs provided with . 
 one or two additional 
 mouldings of the sim- 
 plest character : but 
 
 in enriched buildings 
 there are generally se- 
 veral subordinations of 
 mul lions, and the j ambs 
 are filled with a vari- 
 ety of mouldings; in 
 common with those of 
 the preceding and fol- 
 lowing styles, they are 
 always splayed in the 
 inside. The rich ball- 
 flower moulding of the 
 period is very common- 
 ly used, and in some 
 cases the ornament is 
 carried along the mul- 
 lions and the tracery, 
 as at Leominster and 
 Gloucester, though ge- 
 nerally only along the 
 outside. There are 
 some circular window's 
 of this date, of which 
 a magnificent example 
 remains at Lincoln Ca- 
 thedral ; squares, tri- 
 angles, and other un- 
 usual forms, are also , n , , 
 
 Ashby-Folville, Leicestershire, c. 1340. 
 
TOmticifo. 
 
 327 
 
 occasionally to be met with, but they are generally 
 small. 
 
 The principal differences between the windows of the 
 Perpendicular and the preceding style consist in the altered 
 arrangement of the 
 tracery, the frequent 
 introduction of tran- 
 soms, and the shapes of 
 the heads, which are 
 very often formed of 
 four-centred arches, 
 and ogees are nearly or 
 quite disused; in other 
 respects they do not 
 differ materially, al- 
 though the character 
 of the mouldings be- 75 
 comes changed, and | 
 some of the subordi- 
 nate parts are modi- 
 fied, as the style gra- ! 
 dually emerges from 
 the Decorated. Small ]j;|j| 
 circles, quatrefoils, and - 
 squares, are not very 
 unusual. Sometimes 
 the transoms and sills 
 of the windows are 
 ornamented with 
 small battlements, a 
 feature peculiar to England, 
 
 St. Mary’s, Devizes, "Wilts., c. 1450. 
 
 As the Perpendicular style 
 
 Ward, a court of a castle, sur- 
 rounding the keep ; called also 
 a Bailey . 
 
 Water-table, ahorizontal set- 
 off in a wall, sloped on the top, 
 to throw off the wet. 
 
 Weathercock, a vane made 
 in the shape of a cock. 
 
 Weathering : (1.) a slight in- 
 clination given to horizontal sur- 
 faces, especially in masonry, to 
 
 prevent water from lodging on 
 them ; (2.) the surface of stones 
 when decayed by the action of 
 the weather upon them are said 
 to be Weathered. 
 
 Weepers, also called Mourners. 
 Statues in attitudes of mourn- 
 ing, often placed in niches round 
 altar-tombs, as on that of Ri- 
 chard, Earl of Warwick, in the 
 Beauchamp Chapel at Warwick. 
 
3^8 
 
 OTmbofo. 
 
 becomes debased;, the heads of the windows grow gradually 
 flatter, until they cease to be arched, and the opening is 
 divided by the mullions into plain rectangular lights ; this 
 kind of window prevails in buildings of the time of Queen 
 Elizabeth and King James I., and is found in work of the 
 time of James II. and even later, until superseded by the 
 modern sash-window. 
 
 There is a very remarkable window 
 found in a great number of churches: 
 it is of small size, below the level of 
 the other windows, and at a convenient 
 height from the floor for a person to 
 look out through it ; the usual situation 
 is at the western end of the south side 
 of the chancel, but it is sometimes on 
 the north, and is occasionally found on 
 both sides. It is called a low side win- 
 dow . The purpose of it has been much 
 disputed, but it is now generally con- 
 sidered to have been for the administra- 
 tion of the Sacrament to lepers, or to 
 sick persons during time of plague : they 
 are sometimes called lepers’ windows. 
 
 In many cases, instead of a small win- 
 dow of this description, the large window 
 over the place which it would occupy 
 is elongated, and the additional portion 
 at the bottom is parted off by a transom.. 
 
 No example of these windows has been 
 noticed of a date prior to the Early Slde o Y 0 i " d ® w i 3 ^ rsingt0n ’ 
 English style, and the majority are 
 later, though they are found inserted in Norman churches. 
 The theory adopted by some Ecclesiologists was that a 
 light was burnt on the altar which might be seen from 
 
 Wicket, a small door formed 
 in a larger one, to admit of in- 
 gress and egress, without open- 
 ing the whole. 
 
 Wind-beam, a cross-beam used 
 in the principals of many ancient 
 roofs, occupying the situation of 
 
 the collar in modern king-post 
 roofs. See Hoof, 
 
 Wings of a moulding. See 
 Fillet. 
 
 Withdrawing - room. See 
 Chamber 
 
OTmboto— Et'sjatf. 
 
 329 
 
 1 '-I 
 
 the outside through these windows, whence they gave 
 to them the name of Lychnoscope . 
 
 A very elegant form of 
 window, not uncommon 
 in cathedrals and large 
 churches in the Middle 
 Ages, is called by the 
 name of a Rose Window .. 
 
 It is a circular window, 
 and the mullions con- 
 verge towards the cen- 
 tre something like the 
 spokes of a wheel ; hence 
 the name Catherine win- 
 dows, or Wheel windows., 
 is sometimes given to 
 them. 
 
 Zig-zag, a decoration 
 peculiar to the Norman 
 style of architecture, 
 consisting of mould- 
 ings running in zig-zag 
 lines : very consider- 
 able variety is given to 
 this class of ornaments 
 by changing the arrangement 
 of the different suites of 
 mouldings, and by turning 
 the points of the zig-zags 
 in different directions; in 
 some examples the prominent Iffley> 0xon> c . 1160> 
 
 parts stand out quite free, 
 
 and are entirely detached from the wall, as at Cuddesdon 
 
 Peterborough Cathedral, c. 1175. 
 
 Xenodo.chium (G-r.), a room in 
 a monastery for strangers. The 
 house of the abbot near the en- 
 trance seems to have been fre- 
 quently used for this purpose, as 
 at Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire. 
 
 Xystus = Ambulatory. 
 
 Yard, Yerde : this name was 
 sometimes given formerly to 
 
 long pieces of timber, such as 
 rafters, &c. 
 
 Yle = aisle. 
 
 Ymage = Image. 
 
 Zocle = Socle. 
 
 Zophorus, the Yitruvian name 
 for the frieze in Classical archi- 
 tecture. 
 
33° 
 
 2 tgjag. 
 
 Church, Oxfordshire, and St. Joseph’s Chapel, Glaston- 
 bury Abbey. This kind of decoration is not found in 
 buildings of the earliest Norman work, but in the more 
 advanced specimens ; it is most abundantly employed about 
 the doorways, windows, arches, &c. Examples are to be 
 found in most churches of the Norman style. It is more 
 commonly used in the arch-mouldings of doorways than 
 in any other part of the building, and in rich examples 
 there are sometimes three courses of zig-zag mouldings, 
 as in the Norman doorway at Middleton Stoney, p. 173. 
 In that instance they are continued down the sides of 
 the doorway also, but that is not equally common. The 
 arch of a Norman window is also sometimes enriched in 
 the same manner, as at St. John’s, Devizes, p. 174. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL INHEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Addington, Great, Porch, 208; 
 Tablet, 276. 
 
 Alban’s, St., Baluster, 29 ; Boss, 
 44 ; Four-leaved Flower, 120 ; 
 Spandrel, 258. 
 
 Aldham, Porch, 209. 
 Almondsbury, Spire, 260. 
 Arundel, Sussex, Altar, 8. 
 Ashby Folville, Window, 326. 
 Athens, St. Nicodemus, 51. 
 Aydon Castle, Fireplace, 117. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bampton, Window, 304. 
 Banbury, Pargeting, 188. 
 Barnack, Window, 244. 
 
 Barton* on-the- Humber, Tower, 
 243 
 
 Barton Seagrave, Impost, 139. 
 Battle, Pinnacle, 201. 
 
 Beaulieu, Pulpit, 214. 
 
 Beckley, Turret, 310. 
 Bedfordshire, vide Eyworth, 
 Wymington. 
 
 Belsay Castle, Newel, 169 
 Berkshire, vide Compton, Cum- 
 nor, Drayton, Faringdon, Fy- 
 field, Lambourne, TJffington, 
 Windsor. 
 
 Beverley, Capital, 56; Foils, 121; 
 Frithstool, 125; Parapet, 187; 
 Turret, 311. 
 
 Binham, Moulding, 162, 163. 
 Bishop’s Cleeve, Turret, 260; 
 
 Pinnacle, 260. 
 
 Brackley, Fillet, 116. 
 
 Bredon, Tomb, 291. 
 
 Bridlington, Foils, 121. 
 Brislington, Tower, 298. 
 
 Bristol, Redcliffe Church, Res- 
 saunt, 221. 
 
 Mayor’s Chapel, Squint, 
 
 265. 
 
 Brixworth, Roman Arch, 17. 
 
 Broadwater, Corbel, 81. 
 
 Brookthorpe, Tower, 297. 
 
 Buckinghamshire, vide Cavers- 
 field, Ediesborough, Stanton. 
 
 Bucknell, Window, 322. 
 
 Burford, Chimney, 67. 
 
 Burwash, Window, 323. 
 
 Byland, Capital, 55 
 
 C. 
 
 Cambridge, Jesus College, Win- 
 dow, 109. 
 
 King’s College, Finial, 
 
 117 ; Panelling, 122. 
 
 Cambridgeshire, vide Cam- 
 bridge, Ely, Trumpington, 
 Westley Waterless. 
 
 Canon’s Ashby, Squinch, 263. 
 
 Canterbury, Saxon Cathedral, 
 Plan, 70. 
 
 Cathedral, Pillar 
 
 120; Tiles, 283; Tooth-orna- 
 ment Moulding, 292. 
 
 Crypt, Capital, 42. 
 
 St. Martin’s, Drip- 
 stone, 107. 
 
 • St. Mildred’s, Font, 
 
 122 . 
 
 St. Augustine’s 
 
 Moulding, 163. 
 
 Cassington, Capital, 54; Win, 
 dow, 322. 
 
 Casterton, Little, Bell -gable 
 41. 
 
 Caversfield, Panel, 185. 
 
 Caythorpe, Spire, 262. 
 
 Chacombe, Moulding, 251. 
 
 Chapel Cleeve, Dormer, 106. 
 
 Charlton - on - Otmoor, Rood- 
 screen, 230; Window, 299. 
 
 Cheltenham, Spire, 260. 
 
 Chepstow Castle, Chimney, 68. 
 
 Cheshire, vide Hargrave. 
 
 Chesterton, Sedile, 252. 
 
 Chichester Cathedral, Coffin-lid 
 
 74; Paten, 189. ’ 
 
332 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Chippenham, Dripstone, 108. 
 Clandon, West, Corbel, 155. 
 Cockington, Set-off, 254. 
 Coleshill, Nail-head, 168. 
 Compton, Nail-heads, 168. 
 Compton, Long, Bell-turret, 239. 
 Compton Winyates, Bay Win- 
 dow, 39. 
 
 Conisborough, Donjon, 98. 
 Coombe, Niche, 170. 
 Corhampton Church, Pillar, 245. 
 Corinth, Ovolo, 183. 
 
 Cranford St.John’s, Panel, 29. 
 Crawley, Squint, 265. 
 
 Crick, Doorway, 104 ; Ironwork, 
 143. 
 
 Crosby Hall, Cusp, 90. 
 Crowmarsh, Piscina, 203. 
 Croydon, Abacus, 4. 
 
 Cumnor, Piscina, 204. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dalmeny, Linlithgowshire, 
 Apse, 15. 
 
 Debtling, Lectern, 150. 
 Deddington, Moulding, 166. 
 Denbighshire, vide Llan Ty- 
 silio. 
 
 Derby, Hip-knob, 137. 
 Derbyshire, vide Derby, Duf- 
 tield, Horsley, Steetley. 
 Devizes, Window, 174, 327 ; 
 Hoof, 236. 
 
 Devonshire, vide Cockington, 
 Exeter, Westleigh. 
 Dorchester, Base of Pier, 33 ; 
 Doorway, 103; Moulding, 225; 
 Hammer - beam Roof, 233 ; 
 Bench-end, 268. 
 
 Dorsetshire, vide Sherborne. 
 Drayton, Locker, 152. 
 
 Duffield, Foils* 121; Mullion, 
 167. 
 
 Durham, vide Jarrow. 
 
 E. 
 
 Earl’s Barton, Tower, 244. 
 Easton, Capital, 55. 
 Edlesborough, Pulpit, 272. 
 
 Ely* Moulding, 163 ; Shrine, 256; 
 
 Arch, 259; Vesica Piscis, 318. 
 Ensham, Cornice, 83. 
 
 Enstone, Reredos, 220. 
 Erectheum, Fluting, 120, 179. 
 Essendine, Tympanum, 312. 
 
 Essex, vide Aldham. 
 
 Evesham, St. Lawrence, But- 
 tress, 50. 
 
 Ewelme, Base of Pier, 34; Ca- 
 pital, 57. 
 
 Exeter Cathedral, Crest -tiles, 
 85 ; Foils, 121 ; Gallery, 128. 
 
 Eyworth, Ironwork, 143. 
 
 F. 
 
 Faringdon, Hinge, 136. 
 
 Ferrington, Foils, 121. 
 
 Fotheringhay, Pulpit, 215 ; Re- 
 spond, 221; Window Sole, 256. 
 
 Fyfield, Screen, 250. 
 
 G. 
 
 Garsington,Plan,72 ; Lich-Gate, 
 151 ; Window, 328. 
 
 Geddington, Eleanor’s Cross, 52. 
 
 Glastonbury Abbey, Buttress, 
 48. 
 
 Barn, Cham- 
 fer, 64. 
 
 Gloucester Cathedral, Buttress, 
 53 ; Rib, 223 
 
 Gloucestershire, vide Al- 
 mondsbury, Bishop’s Cleeve, 
 Bristol, Brookthorpe, Chelt- 
 enham, Gloucester, Little Cas- 
 terton, Shipton Oliffe. 
 
 Graveney, Chest, 66. 
 
 H. 
 
 Haddiscoe, Base, 32. 
 
 Hampton Poyle, Capital, 57. 
 
 Handborough, Head-stone, 291. 
 
 Hants, vide Beaulieu, Corhamp- 
 ton, Crawley, Easton, Netley, 
 Romsey, St. Cross, Winchester. 
 
 Harfleur, Doorway, 119. 
 
 Hargrave, Window, 110. 
 
 Haseley, Great, Plan, shewing 
 Squints, 264; Window, 326. 
 
 Headcorn, Window, 305. 
 
 Headington, Escutcheon, 114 ; 
 Foils, 121 ; Mullion, 167 ; Pew, 
 196. 
 
 Hereford, Capital, 55 ; Crocket, 
 
 86 . 
 
 Herefordshire, vide Hereford. 
 
 Herts, vide St. Alban’s. 
 
 BighamFerrars, Brass, 46; But- 
 tress, 49 ; Window, 93. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 333 
 
 Horsley, Spire, 48. 
 
 Howdeu, Capital, 57. 
 
 i,j. 
 
 Iffley, Beak-head Moulding, 40; 
 other Mouldings, 163; Zig-zag 
 Moulding, 329. 
 
 Irchester, Cornice, 83. 
 
 Irthlingborough, Buttress, 49. 
 
 J arrow, Abacus, 2. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kent, vide Canterbury, Debt- 
 ling, Graveney, Headcorn, 
 Leigh, Lenham, Luddenham, 
 Meopham, Paul’s Cray, Ro- 
 chester. 
 
 Kiddington, Moulding, 165. 
 
 Kidlington, Crocket, 86 ; Niche, 
 171 ; Poppie, 207 ; Roof, 235. 
 
 King’s Sutton, Image of Virgin 
 and Child, 139 ; Window, 301. 
 
 L. 
 
 Lambourne, Window, 323. 
 
 Leicester, King Richard’sHouse, 
 286. 
 
 Leicestershire, vide Ashby 
 Folville, Leicester, Orton-on- 
 th e-Hill. 
 
 Leigh, Hour-glass Stand, 138. 
 
 Lenham, Sedile, 253. 
 
 Lichfield Cathedral, Arcade, 53, 
 
 Lincoln Cathedral, Almery, 5; 
 Capital, 56; Crocket, 86; Cusp, 
 90 ; Panel, 184 ; Perpeyn-wall, 
 196; Pinnacle, 202; String- 
 course, 271 ; Window, 324. 
 
 St. Benedict, Corbel, 81. 
 
 Great Guild, Abacus, 3. 
 
 Lincolnshire, vide Barton-on- 
 the-Humber, Caythorpe, Lin- 
 coln, Thornton. 
 
 Linlithgowshire, vide Dal- 
 meny. 
 
 Litcham, Crocket, 86. 
 
 Llan Tysilio, Ridge, 225. 
 
 Luddenham, Window, 325. 
 
 M. 
 
 Malmesbury Abbey, Dripstone, 
 107. 
 
 Meopham, Window, 300. 
 
 Middlesex, vide Westminster. 
 
 Mid dletonStoney, Doorway, 101, 
 173 ; Tower, 296. 
 
 Milton, Great, Gravestone, 288. 
 
 Monmouthshire, mdeChepstow. 
 
 N. 
 
 Netley, Vaulting Shaft, 317. 
 
 Norfolk, vzdeBinham, Haddis- 
 coe, Litcham, Norwich, Wal- 
 pole St. Andrew, Yarmouth. 
 
 Northampton, St. Peter’s, Ar- 
 cade, 16 ; Pillar, 198. 
 
 Northamptonshire, vide Ad- 
 dington,. Barton Seagrave 
 Barnack,Brackley,Brixworth, 
 Brookthorpe, Canon’s Ashby, 
 Chacombe, Cranford St. John, 
 Crick,. Earl’s Barton, Fother- 
 inghay,. Geddington, Higham 
 Ferrars, Irchester, Irthling- 
 borough,, King’s Sutton, 
 Northampton, Peterborough, 
 Ringstead, Rushden, Stan- 
 wick, Warmington, Welford, 
 Weston Favell, Woodford, 
 Yelvertoft. 
 
 Northumberland, vide Ay don. 
 
 Norwich, Moulding, 162. 
 
 Nottinghamshire, vide South- 
 well. 
 
 O. 
 
 Orton-on-the-Hill, Pillar, 200. 
 
 Oxford, Ashmolean Museum, 
 Pix, 205. 
 
 Divinity School, Rib, 224. 
 
 Castle, Tower, 37. 
 
 Cathedral, Boss, 43 ; mul- 
 
 lion, 167; Rib, 222; Stalls, 267. 
 
 — The Colleges — All Souls’, 
 
 Dripstone, 108; Balliol, Mould- 
 ing, 166; Brasenose, Gateway, 
 130; Christ Church, Capital, 
 57 ; Corpus, Chalice, 64 ; Lin- 
 coln, Louvre, 153 : Merton 
 Chapel, Abacus, 3 ; Cross, 88 ; 
 Gargoyle, 129 ; Parapet, 188. 
 
 The Churches — Magda- 
 len, Buttress, 50; Niche, 171; 
 St. Michael’s, Window, 193 ; 
 Window-head, 218 ; Tower, 
 242 ; Tabernacle, 275 ; St. 
 Peter’s, Corbel Table, 82 ; 
 Turret, 260. 
 
 Oxfordshire, vide Bampton, 
 Banbury, Beckley, Burford, 
 
334 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Cassington, Charlton -on- Ot- 
 moor, Chesterton, Coombe, 
 Crowmarsh, Deddington, Dor- 
 chester, Ensham,Enstone,E w- 
 elme, Garsington, Hampton 
 Poyle, Handborough, Hase- 
 ley, Headington, Iffley, Kid- 
 dington, Kidlington, Middle- 
 ton Stoney, Milton, Oxford, 
 Stanton Harcourt, Stanton St. 
 John’s, Steeple Aston, Tack- 
 ley , War borough, W aterperry, 
 Wheatley, Witney, Wood- 
 perry, Woodstock. 
 
 P. 
 
 Parthenon, Fluting, 120. 
 
 Paul’s Cray, Abacus, 3 ; Door- 
 way, 102. 
 
 Peterborough, Moulding, 162, 
 164; Niche, 170; Pinnacle, 
 202 ; Zig-zag Moulding, 329. 
 
 Porlock, Altar-tomb, 11. 
 
 Pylle, Stoup, 271. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eingstead, Spire, 261 ; Wall- 
 painting, 320. 
 
 Eochester, Turret, 260. 
 
 Eome, St. Clement’s, Ambo, 11, 
 
 12 . 
 
 Plan of the original Ba- 
 silica of St. Peter, 36. 
 
 Plan of the Presbytery, 
 
 &c. a.d. 330, 70. 
 
 Theatre of Marcellus, 
 
 Moulding, 62 ; Cyma recta, 91 ; 
 Ovolo, 183. 
 
 — - Trajan’s Basilica, Plan, 
 
 70. 
 
 Temple of Antoninus, 
 
 Moulding, 91. 
 
 Arch of Constantine, 
 
 Ogee, 176. 
 
 Theatre of Marcellus, 
 
 Ovolo, 183. 
 
 Baths of Diocletian, 
 
 Scotia, 248. 
 
 Modes of Construction, 77. 
 
 Eomsey, Moulding, 163 ; Stoup, 
 271. 
 
 Eouen, St. Ouen, Window, 118. 
 
 Eushden, Capital, 55; Drip- 
 stone, 107. 
 
 Eutlandshire, vide Casterton, 
 Essendine, Tickencote. 
 
 S. 
 
 Salisbury Cathedral, Spire, 28 ; 
 Doorway, 102 ; Moulding, 164; 
 Parapet, 187 ; Shaft, 255 ; 
 Spire, 260. 
 
 — George Inn, Barge- 
 
 board, 31. 
 
 Salop, vide Bucknell, Tong. 
 
 Sandhurst, Capital, 57. 
 
 Saxham, Little, Tower, 295. 
 
 Selby, Lavatory, 148. 
 
 Sheere, Moulding, 108. 
 
 Sherborne, Chimney, 68 ; Eood 
 231. 
 
 Shipton Oliffe, Window, 324. 
 
 Skelton, Porch, 209. 
 
 Somersetshire, vide Brisling- 
 ton, Chapel Cleeve, Glaston- 
 bury, Porlock, Pylle, Stogum- 
 ber, Wells. 
 
 Sompting, Window, 247. 
 
 Southwell Minster, Crocket, 87; 
 Capital, 110. 
 
 Spalato, Console from Diocle- 
 tian’s Palace, 75. 
 
 Staffordshire, vide Lichfield. 
 
 Stanton, Fillet, 116. 
 
 Stanton Harcourt, Base of Shaft, 
 33 ; Gable, 126 ; Screen, 249 ; 
 Vane, 314. 
 
 Stanton St. John’s, Window, 73; 
 Fillet, 116 ; Easter Sepulchre, 
 253 ; Window, 325. 
 
 Stanwick, Cornice, 83. 
 
 St. Cross, Tooth Ornament 
 Moulding, 292 ; Triforium, 
 308. 
 
 St. David’s, Window, 329. 
 
 Steeple Aston, Pew, 197. 
 
 Steetley, Capital, 54. 
 
 Stogumber, Ironwork, 142 ; Pil- 
 lar, 200. 
 
 Suffolk, vide Saxham. 
 
 Surrey, vide Clandon, Croyden, 
 Shere. 
 
 Sussex, vide Arundel, Battle, 
 Broadwater, Burwash, Chi- 
 chester, Sompting. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tackley, Piscina, 204. 
 
 Tamworth, Masonry, 134. 
 
 Than, (Normandy), 260. 
 
TOPOGRAPHICAL INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 335 
 
 Thornton Abbey, Ribs, 223. 
 
 Tickencote, Moulding, 163. 
 
 Tivoli, Portico, 213. 
 
 Tong, Squinch, 264. 
 
 Torcello, Tribune, 306. 
 
 Trumpington, Brass, 45. 
 
 U. 
 
 Uffington, Door, 99. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Villiquier, Rib, 118. 
 
 W. 
 
 Walpole St. Andrew, Taberna- 
 cle, 274. 
 
 Warborough, Hinge, 136; Stan- 
 chion, 269. 
 
 Warmington, Chamfer, 64 ; 
 Cross, 87 ; Piscina, 203. 
 
 Warwickshire, vide Coleshill, 
 Compton - Winyates, Long 
 Compton, Tamworth. 
 
 Waterperry, Cross, 89; Tomb, 
 290. 
 
 Welford, Pillar, 199. 
 
 Wells, Window, 183. 
 
 Westleigh, Tiles, 282. 
 
 Westley Waterless, Brass, 45. 
 
 Westminster, Diaper Work, 96; 
 Doorway, S. Erasmus’ Chapel, 
 105 ; Arch, 109, 172, Ironwork, 
 141 ; Miserere, 156 ; Moulding, 
 162; Mullion, 167; Panel, 185; 
 Pendant, 191; Rib, 222; Door- 
 way, 241 ; Roof, 316. 
 
 Weston Favel, Doorway, 100. 
 
 Wheatley, Tiles, 281. 
 
 Whitby, Abacus, 3; Band of 
 Shaft, 30. 
 
 Wiltshire, vide Chippenham, 
 Devizes, Malmesbury, (Salis- 
 bury. 
 
 Winchester, Lock, 151 ; Section 
 shewing Triforium, 307. 
 
 Windsor, St. George’s Chapel, 
 Parapet, 38. 
 
 Witney, Window, 73. 
 
 Woodford, Credence, 84 ; Spout, 
 263. 
 
 Woodperry, Tiles, 284. 
 
 Woodstock, Porch, 210. 
 
 Worcestershire, vide Bredon, 
 Evesham. 
 
 Wymington, Roof, 224. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yarmouth, Mouldings and Ca- 
 pital, 94. 
 
 Yelvertoft, Window, 194. 
 
 York Cathedral, Bracket, 44. 
 
 City Wall, Battlement, 38. 
 
 St. Helen’s, Lantern Tower, 
 
 147. 
 
 St. William’s Chapel, 
 
 Moulding, 163. 
 
 Walmgate, Bartizan, 32 ; 
 
 Spur, 259. 
 
 House, 285 ; Roman Coffin, 
 
 287. 
 
 Yorkshire, vide Beverley, Brid- 
 lington, Byland, Conisbo- 
 rough, Howden, Selby, Skel- 
 ton, Wlritby, York. 
 
 jlrmteb bg Darker Ettfr (£0., Cro&ru #*forb. 
 

 
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