A GRAMMAR 
 
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GRAMMAR OP COLOURING 
 
 APPLIED TO 
 
 DECORATIVE PAINTING AND THE ARTS 
 By GEORGE FIELD 
 
 AUTHOR OP “ CHROMATICS J OR, THE ANALOGY, HARMONY, AND PHILOSOPHY OF COLOURS ” 
 
 REVISED, ENLARGED, AND ADAPTED TO THE USE OF THE 
 
 ORNAMENTAL PAINTER AND DESIGNER 
 
 WITH ADDITIONAL SECTIONS ON PAINTING IN SEPIA, WATER-COLOURS 
 AND OILS, AND THE HISTORY AND CHARACTERISTICS OE THE 
 VARIOUS STYLES OF ORNAMENT 
 
 By ELLIS A. DAVIDSON 
 
 AUTHOR OP “THE PRACTICAL MANUAL OF nOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND 
 SIGN WRITING,” “LINEAR DRAWING,” “PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE,” ETC., ETC. 
 
 WITH COLOURED DIAGRAMS AND NUMEROUS WOODCUTS 
 
 fourth. (Ebitiou 
 
 Coin'd. 
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 LONDON 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON 
 
 7, STATIONERS’ HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 
 
 1888 
 
 {All Eights Reserved] 
 
AUTHOR’S PREFACE. 
 
 Wisdom is the presiding attribute of the Divine Architect, 
 and knowledge is the wisdom of man.—“Knowledge,” 
 Lord Bacon has told us, “is power,” which is another of 
 the prime attributes of the Divinity—and the stupendous 
 achievements of knowledge and power since the time of 
 Bacon have made absolute the truth of an aphorism which 
 has been repeated to satiety. But there is yet a third super¬ 
 latively Divine attribute, of infinitely more importance to 
 the progress and well-being of man than either knowledge 
 or power, and that is goodness or well-doing , and there 
 remains only for human attainment the fact that true know¬ 
 ledge and power are coincident with goodness to accomplish 
 the original title of man to the resemblance of his Maker. 
 
 It is this fact that renders goodness so essential to the 
 acquirement of skill, for skill is nothing else than well-doing, 
 which is again coincident with well-being, as goodness is 
 with happiness; and these are the essence and the end of 
 good workmanship, without which human knowledge and 
 power are not merely in vain, but pernicious in every art 
 and practice, and alike fatal to the workman and his work. 
 
 Every good man and artist has thereto re an interest in the 
 conjunction of these prime co-essentials of morals and art; 
 the first requisite condition for which is, that true knowledge 
 must be made accessible ere power can be employed for 
 good. 
 
 Meritorious therefore is the enterprise of those publishers 
 who supply the world with genuine knowledge in cheap 
 books; and the industrious individual who expends his 
 superfluous earnings in the purchase of knowledge will 
 have made a step towards power, and put himself in the 
 way of becoming a wiser, an abler, a better, and a happier 
 man, while administering to the good of others. 
 
 To such ends may be attributed the zeal with which 
 
iv 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 eminent writers have lent their aid to these enterprises for 
 disseminating knowledge and science, in humble emulation 
 of whom we have in the following work attempted to com¬ 
 municate the elements of an art which dresses and decorates 
 with beauty all the works of nature and man—namely, the 
 art of employing colours with taste and effect, herein applied 
 to architectural painting and decorative art; in which 
 attempt it will not be necessary to enter further into the 
 theory of light and colours than may be expedient to the 
 improvement of practice, and a correct understanding of 
 their principles ; or as an alphabet is essential to written 
 language. Without extending inquiry therefore into the 
 details of literature, which often confound more by exube¬ 
 rance than they enlighten by genuine knowledge, we have 
 advanced our elements under no other consideration than 
 their truth and practical utility. 
 
 Practice is the acquisition of the hand and eye under the 
 guidance of a right understanding. Skill in execution 
 belongs to practice, assisted by the precepts of experience. 
 Taste and advancement in art are attributable to refinement 
 of sense and understanding, through correct elements and 
 principles, and these it is the chief office of literature and 
 science to supply. By such means theory and practice 
 concur in advancement, and elevate the aspirant in art. It 
 has been our business to record briefly the best theory in 
 our power, and such practical precepts and information as 
 we have drawn from experience ; for such is the object and 
 end of this attempt, by which we hope to communicate in 
 small compass much useful information applicable to ordinary 
 and decorative painting, &c., whether employed for preser¬ 
 vation or embellishment; with a design also to advance the 
 amateur or workman already acquainted with his tools, and 
 to add such incidental particulars and suggestions as may be 
 useful to the qualified artist. “ If you will have sciences 
 grow,” said the great Yerulam in his “Advancement of 
 Learning,” “ you need not be so solicitous for the bodies ; 
 apply all your care that the roots [Rudiments] may be taken 
 up sound and entire;” and to these we have given our 
 principal attention, avoiding all complication and mystery, 
 neither employing technical terms unnecessarily, nor the 
 cant appellations of labourers, which falsify names and 
 vulgarise art. 
 
PEEFACE TO THE PEESENT 
 EDITION. 
 
 The works of Mr. George Field have been so long known to 
 the public, and their excellence is so generally admitted, that 
 they have become text-books, the authority of which has 
 been universally quoted ; and it was with a certain amount 
 of diffidence that I undertook the revision of the “ Grammar 
 of Colouring.” 
 
 My earliest and soundest lessons on colour were obtained 
 from this book, and I have therefore touched it with an 
 affectionate hand, guided by that feeling of veneration with 
 which a grateful student approaches the work of an excellent 
 master. 
 
 More than twenty years of practical teaching have shown 
 me where the province of the book might be extended, in 
 order that it might more directly touch the class of students 
 who so much need its aid, and I have therefore amplified the 
 work of the author so as to adapt it to the requirements of 
 the government examinations—re-writing for this purpose 
 such portions as seemed to want additional clearness in 
 order to be well understood by those who have not pre¬ 
 viously had the benefit of a scientific education, and whose 
 technical instruction has unfortunately been too long neg¬ 
 lected in this country. 
 
 I have therefore introduced new diagrams of the primary, 
 secondary, and tertiary colours, with their numerical equiva¬ 
 lents, which will, I trust, render the subject more clear than 
 it has hitherto been. I have next developed the hints, on 
 the modes of operation, and have given ample and practical 
 instructions as to the methods of mixing colours, and the 
 manipulation generally adopted in Sepia, Water-coloui, 
 Tempera, Oil, and Fresco Painting, with information as to 
 
VI 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 the materials and implements used—a section which will, I 
 hope, be found practically useful to the student. 
 
 A decorative artist, however, who merely paints a border 
 or a scroll because there 'happens to be a vacant space, 
 without any reference to the appropriateness of his design, 
 or only because he is ordered to do so, becomes a mere 
 living machine, and I have therefore given a sketch of the 
 history of Ornamental Art, showing the growth of the 
 various styles, and giving illustrations of -the leading charac¬ 
 teristic features of each, in order that the student may be 
 awakened to the necessity of adapting his decoration to the 
 character of the building to be ornamented, and that he may 
 be led to further study of the subject. 
 
 The adaptation of the instruction given in this book to the 
 house-painter, grainer, marbler, and sign-writer, is given in 
 a special volume, and I thus cordially dedicate my work to 
 those who are seeking instruction, in the earnest hope that 
 they may be benefited thereby. 
 
 ELLIS A. DAVIDSON. 
 
 London, November, 1874. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART I. 
 
 OF COLOUR GENERALLY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAUB 
 
 Colour, as an element of beauty, not utility, bow produced . 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 The Three Orders of Colours: Primaiy, Secondary, and Tertiary 
 —How the Secondary colours are compounded from the 
 Primary, and the Tertiary from the Secondary . 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 The contrasts and accordances of colours—The complementary 
 
 colours—The scale of equivalents.6 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Illustrations of colouring—Suggestions for studies—The har¬ 
 mony of Blue with Orange, Red with Green, Yellow with 
 Purple—The harmony of succession and contrast; of colour 
 with neutrality—The blue background to sculptures amongst 
 the Greeks—Application of principles necessary in addition 
 to literary knowledge—Colour no less a science than musical 
 sounds...etc . 9 
 
viii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART H. 
 
 PRACTICAL COLOURING. 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 Material Colours : Colours distinguished as inherent and transient i 3 
 
 CHAPTER YI. 
 
 Qualities of Pigments : 1, beauty of colour, including purity, 
 brightness, and depth ; 2, body; 3, transparency, or opacity; 
 
 4, working well; 5, keeping their place; 6, drying well; 
 
 7, durability—In mixing colours, the artist should avoid 
 using a greater number of pigments than necessary—The 
 improvements in the modem manufacture of colours . . 14 
 
 CHAPTER YII. 
 
 Of White and its Pigments : The term colours as distinguished 
 from pigments—White and its qualities—White lead— 
 London and Nottingham whites—Flake white—Blanc 
 d’argent—Roman white—Sulphate of zinc—Zinc white— 
 
 Tin white—Pearl white—Constant white—White chalk— 
 Chinese white.16 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Tints : White the basis of all tints—Paris white—French grey 
 —Silver grey—Carnation—Coquilicot—Blush of flowers— 
 Primrose — Straw-colour — Isabella — Lilac — Lavender— 
 Peach-blossom—Pea-green—Tea-green—Methods of com¬ 
 pounding Lavender tints, Grey tints, Brown tints, Green 
 tints, Yellow tints. 24 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 the Primary Colours : Yellow, nearest in relation to white ; 
 is the ruling colour in citrine; enters largely into buff, 
 bay, tawny, tan, dun, drab, chestnut, roan, sorrel, hazel, 
 auburn, isabella, fawn, feuille-morte; in combination with 
 red produces orange, with blue constitutes green; the 
 powers of colours upon the vision; the eye should be 
 refreshed by the clear light of day ; Yellow contrasts most 
 powerfully with black, excepting white ; the sensible 
 effects of Yellow—Chrome yellow—Patent yellow—Naples 
 yellow—Massicot—Yellow ochre—Roman ochre—Brown 
 ochre—Terra di Sienna—Argillaceous, meaning of the term 
 —Iron yellow—Yellow orpiinent—King’s yellow—Chinese 
 yellow — Arsenic yellow— Cadmium yellow — Gamboge — 
 Gall-stone — Indian yellow — Dutch pink, English and 
 Italian pinks—Stil de Grain. 
 
 26 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 IX 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 PARK 
 
 Red, the second and intermediate colour, stands between yellow 
 and blue; most positive of all colours ; mixed with blue 
 produces purple ; with yellow forms orange ; gives warmth 
 to all colours; is the principal colour in the tertiary russet; 
 enters into the composition of marrone, chocolate, puce, 
 murrey, morello, mordore, pompadour, and more or less into 
 browns, some greys, &c.; Nature uses Red sparingly as com¬ 
 pared with green—Vermilion—Chinese vermilion ; origin 
 of the name—Iodine scarlet—Red lead—Minium red ochre 
 —Indian red—Persian red—Light red—Venetian red— 
 Dragon’s Blood—Lake—Rubric, or Madder lakes—Scarlet 
 lake—Lac lake—Carmine—Madder carmine—Rose pink . 39 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Blue, the third and last of the primary colours, bears the same 
 relation to shade that yellow does to light; is the most 
 retiring of all colours, excepting purple and black; is the 
 coldest colour; with yellow forms green, and with red, 
 purple; characterizes the tertiary blue; is the prime colour 
 in neutral black, the semi-neutral greys, slate, and lead 
 colours, &c.; is discordant in juxtaposition with green ; the 
 paucity of Blue pigments in comparison with the yellow and 
 red ones—Ultramarine—Factitious ultramarine—Cobalt— 
 
 Smalt—Royal blue—Prussian blue—Antwerp blue—Indigo 
 —Blue verditer—Saunders blue—Bice .... 52 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 The Secondary Colours: Orange; how composed; enters into 
 composition of citrine; with purple forms russet; is an 
 advancing colour; Orange is pre-eminently a warm colour; 
 list of Orange pigments very deficient; method of mixing 
 —Chrome orange—Orange ochre—Mars orange—Burnt 
 Sionna earth—Orange lead—Antimony orange—Anotta . 63 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Of Green, the second of the secondary colours ; most perfect in 
 hue when constituted in the proportion of three of yellow to 
 eight of blue; it is the most effective of all compound 
 colours; the general garb of the vegetable creation ; whilst 
 it is universally effective in contrasting other colours, it is 
 the least useful in compounding them; principal discord of 
 Green is blue; its less powerful discord, yellow—Mixed 
 greens: Varley’s green, Hooker’s green—Terre-Verte— 
 Chrome green—Cobalt green—Copper green—Verdigris—■ 
 Green verditer—Emerald green—Mineral green—Mountain 
 green—Scheele’s green—Prussian green—Sap green—In¬ 
 visible green . ...... 68 
 
X 
 
 / 
 
 CONTEXTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Of Purple, the third and last of the secondary colours; com¬ 
 posed of red and blue in proportions of five red to eight blue; 
 the proportions in which it contrasts with other colours; 
 mixed with green produces olive; mixed with orange forms 
 russet; is the coolest of the secondary colours, and nearest 
 to black, or shade; next to green is the most pleasing of the 
 consonant colours ; when inclining to red is a regal or 
 magisterial colour—Mixed purples—Gold purple, or Cassius’s 
 Purple Precipitate — Madder purple (Purple Rubiate, or 
 Field’s purple)—Burnt carmine—Purple lake—Purple ochre 76 
 
 CHAPTER XY. 
 
 Of the Tertiary Colours : Citrine; its composition and properties; 
 original Citrine-coloured pigments not numerous—Mixed 
 citrine—Brown pink—Raw umber.80 
 
 CHAPTER XYI. 
 
 Of Russet; its composition and properties—Mixed russet—Field’s 
 russet, or Madder brown—Prussiate of copper—Russet 
 ochre, &c.84 
 
 CHAPTER XYII. 
 
 Of Olive; its composition and properties—Mixed olive—Olive 
 
 green—Burnt verdigris.87 
 
 CHAPTER XYIII. 
 
 Of Semi-nnutral Colours : May be divided into Brown, Marrone, 
 and Grey — The general qualities of brown — Vandyke 
 brown—Manganese brown—Cappagh brown or Euchrome 
 —Burnt umber—Cassel earth—Cologne earth—Rubens’ 
 brown—Brown ochre—Bone brown—Asphaltum—Mummy 
 —Antwerp brown—Bistre—Sepia—Madder brown—Prus¬ 
 sian brown. S 9 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Of Gray ; composition and qualities of Gray—Mixed grays-- 
 
 Neutral tint—Ultramarine ashes—Phosphate of Iron . . 98 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Of the Neutral: Black ; of the nature and applications of Black; 
 great number of Black pigments—Ivory black—Frankfort 
 black—Blue black—Spanish black—Mineral black—Man¬ 
 ganese black—Black ochre—Black chalk—Indian ink— 
 Black lead. mo 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XI 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 PAQK 
 
 Table I.: Of Pigments, the colours of which suffer different de¬ 
 grees of change by the action of light, oxygen, and pure 
 air—Table II.: Of Pigments, the colours of which are little, 
 or not at all, changed by light, oxygen, and pure air— 
 
 Table III.: Of Pigments, the colours of which are subject 
 to change by the action both of light and oxygen, &c.— 
 Table IV.: Of Pigments which are not at all, or little, liable 
 to change by the action of light, oxygen, and pure air, &c.— 
 
 Table V.: Of Pigments subject to change variously by the 
 action of white lead and other preparations of that metal— 
 
 Table YI.: Of Pigments, the colours of which are subject 
 to change by iron and other ferruginous substances— 
 
 Table VII.: Of Pigments, the colours of which are more or 
 less transparent, and are generally fit to be employed in 
 graining and finishing—Table VIII.: Of Pigments, the 
 colours of which are little or not at all affected by heat or 
 the action of fire—Table IX.: Of Pigments which are little 
 or not at all affected by lime, and in various degrees eligible 
 for fresco, distemper, and crayon painting—Table X.: Of 
 Heraldic Colours.110 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Table XI.: Of the Colours used in water-colour painting, assorted 
 into various sized boxes, whether in cakes or moist in tubes 
 or pans—Table XII.: Of the Powder Colours used in tem¬ 
 pera painting—Table XIII.: Of Colours used in oil-painting 
 —Remarks . . . . ..122 
 
 PART III. 
 
 ON VEHICLES, OILS, AND VARNISHES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 The necessity for vehicles; their various classes—Water vehicles 
 —Mucilages—Gum Senegal, Gum Arabic, Ammonia, Traga- 
 canth—Size—Milk of Lime—Borax—Mediums—Dryers, the 
 various kinds of, and how and when to use them . .127 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 On Oils : Distinguished into Fat, Drying, and Volatile: the two 
 first are called fixed and expressed, and the latter essential 
 oils; the properties of each—Linseed oil—Pale Drying oil— 
 Poppy oil—Megilp—Copaiba—Volatile oils—Oil of turpen¬ 
 tine—Oil of lavender—Naphtha—Spirit of wine . . 135 
 
Xll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXY. 
 
 PA OB 
 
 On Varnishes : Resinous varnishes—Mastic varnish—Copal var¬ 
 nish—White lac varnish—Lac—Cowdie—General remarks 143 
 
 PART IY. 
 
 THE MODES AND OPERATIONS OF PAINTING. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 The pencil as distinguished from the brush—The simplest 
 method : that in which water alone is added to the colours 
 with which a mucilage has been previously mixed—The 
 different qualities of drawing-papers and their sizes—Draw¬ 
 ing-boards ; the various kinds; suggestions in relation to— 
 Method of stretching paper for water-colour painting— 
 Sketching-blocks—Method of commencing to work with 
 cake or moist water-colours—To compound tints—Method 
 of mixing colour for a flat wash—Large brushes preferable 
 to small ones—Instructions as to laying flat washes and 
 painting in monochrome—Systematic practice—Method of 
 graduating tints—To colour and shade cylindrical and 
 spherical surfaces—Excellent lessons to be derived from a 
 bunch of grapes, an orange, a group of apples, &c.—Decora¬ 
 tive artist advised to study and paint flowers from nature, 
 and make careful studies from nature, adapting the forms 
 subsequently to ornamental purposes—General method of 
 painting flowers—Figure-painting . . . .151 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 Painting in Tempera, why so called—The various media used 
 by the Italians, &c.—Scene-painting—Tempera may be 
 considered as opaque water-colour painting, the lights being 
 added with body-colour instead of being caused by the white 
 paper. In this, Tempera agrees with oil-painting, the differ¬ 
 ence being only in the vehicle—Tempera a very important 
 style to the decorative artist—The same facilities for blend¬ 
 ing which exist in water-colour and oil-painting do not be¬ 
 long to Tempera—How thecolours are blended and graduated; 
 hatching; stippling—Painting in flat tints—Set of copies of 
 flowers in this style published under the auspices of the 
 Science and Art Department. 160 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Xlll 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 Painting in Oil: The various oils—Megilp—Varnishes used in 
 oil-painting—The ease with which the colours may now he 
 obtained compared with the difficulties under which the 
 artists of former days laboured—The various brushes gene¬ 
 rally used in oil-painting, and others which may be obtained 
 for special purposes; how to select brushes for work; the 
 qualities of hog-hair brushes; of sable loose hairs; badger 
 softeners described; should be avoided as much as possible; 
 how to clean brushes ; “brush washers ”—Of canvas : plain 
 cloth, Roman, and ticken; the various sizes generally em¬ 
 ployed; origin of the term “Kit-cat”—Panels—Academy 
 boards—Prepared mill-boards—Oil sketching-paper—Of the 
 processes of painting in oil—Dead colouring—Glazing, the 
 colours adapted for—Scumbling contrasted with glazing— 
 Dry touching—Dragging—Impasting, its advantages and 
 disadvantages—The easel—The palette; how new palettes 
 should be prepared for use; how to clean palettes; how 
 colours from the palette may be preserved for future use 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Of Fresco-painting: The art naturally adapted for decorative 
 painting—Coloirrs prepared with water and applied to the 
 surface of wet plaster—As to durability, the compo and 
 cements now so generally used would afford a new and 
 advantageous ground for painting in fresco—Fresco, being 
 executed in wet plaster, must be worked in portions—The 
 cartoon, and how the outline is transferred to the plaster— 
 The colours used are principally mineral ones—The prepara¬ 
 tion of the wall—The rough casting—The method of laying 
 the “ intonaco,” or painting-ground—How the different 
 portions of plaster should be conveniently arranged for 
 painting—If the result is not satisfactory the portion must 
 be cut away. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 Useful Receipts: Cleaning and restoring—Removing varnish 
 Removing paint. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 164 
 
 173 
 
 176 
 
> 
 
 xiv 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART Y. 
 
 THE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF THE 
 VARIOUS STYLES OF ORNAMENT. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 The decorative artist should understand the systematic applica¬ 
 tion of ornament; should he acquainted, with the styles 
 of architecture, and the corresponding systems of ornamenta¬ 
 tion—Ornament divided into symbolic and aesthetic; charac¬ 
 teristics. of each—Style in ornament—Flat ornament com¬ 
 pared with the relieved—The three great periods of ornament: 
 ancient, middle age, and modern. The ancient: Egyptian, 
 Assyrian, Grecian, Roman; the middle age: Byzantine, 
 Saracenic, and Gothic; the modern: the Renaissance, 
 Cinquecento, and Louis Quatorze . . . . .179 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 The elements of Egyptian ornament have each a particular 
 meaning, thus contrasting with modern styles, which aim 
 only at effect; the simple symmetrical arrangement of 
 ornaments; adaptation of natural elements, and 
 conventional mode of treating them: the lotus or water- 
 lily, the fret or labyrinth, the zigzag, the winged globe, 
 the zigzag, the wave scroll; gaudy diapers and gaiety of 
 colour in the Egyptian style—The Assyrian style; chief 
 characteristics ; sculptured records of leading events; human- 
 headed colossi—I he feeling of the ancients which gave 
 origin to sphinxes, and composite animals generally; the 
 relievos of gods; the sacred tree and open flower; the chain 
 ornament ..... 1R , 
 
 CHAPTER XXXm. 
 
 The Grecian style: Ornamental features now adopted for their 
 beauty only; the sculpture in the pediments, the frieze, the 
 metopes, the .triglyphs; the Parthenon frieze, lesson as 
 to the adaptation of ornamentation to the position in which 
 it is to be placed, to he derived from it; the zigzag, and 
 wave scroll, and labyrinth; the echinus, or egg and tongue, 
 moulding; the anthemion or honeysuckle; the Doric’ 
 Corinthian, and Ionic ; the flatness of Greek curves—The 
 Roman style cannot be considered as an original one; chief 
 characteristic; great magnificence; the acanthus scroll 
 fully developed; the Roman acanthus distinct from that 
 used by the Greeks; the Tuscan capital simply an altered 
 form ot the Doric .... 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XV 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 The Byzantine style: Its origin and sentiment of symbolism; 
 the reason why the beautiful Classic forms were rejected; 
 how scrolls and other pagan elements were gradually ad¬ 
 mitted—The chief varieties of the Romanesque : the Byzan¬ 
 tine, Lombard, and Norman—The polychromatic decorations 
 of the Byzantine period: the paintings ; the three kinds of 
 mosaics: the glass mosaics, the glass tesselation, and the 
 
 marble tesselation : the methods of execution of each_The 
 
 Saracenic: how originated, under the stringent conditions of 
 the Mohammedan law; its characteristics; the late Mr. 
 Owen Jones as an exponent of the style; important lessons 
 to he derived from the system; the principles of design; 
 ornamental lines flowing out of, or radiating from, a parent 
 stem, based on natural growth, as in vine-leaf or horse- 
 chestnut ; ornaments specially adapted to the surface to he 
 covered, however irregular its form; the scroll of this 
 period contrasted with that of the ancients; in Saracenic 
 
 ornament the curves are tangential to each other. . . 191 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 The Gothic style: How it developed out of the Byzantine; the 
 divisions of the style: the Norman, Transition, Early Eng¬ 
 lish, Decorated, and Perpendicular—The chief ornaments of 
 the Norman style: the ornamental bands on the recessed 
 edges of the walls,. the chevron or zigzag, the billet, the 
 chain, &c.; the capitals—The characteristics of the transi¬ 
 tion : the “roll and fillet” moulding—The Early English : 
 its lancet-headed windows; several lights gathered under 
 one dripstone; the tympanum pierced; the origin of tracery; 
 plate tracery; the capitals: the “stiff-leaved” foliage, the 
 trefoil, the tooth ornament, wall-diapers, the crocket and 
 finial—The Decorated period: the tracery, geometrical and 
 flowing ; the capitals: the foliage taken from nature: the 
 oak, horse-chestnut, hazel, &c.; also the ball flower and 
 square flower—The Perpendicular style: why so called; 
 the character of the tracery and foliage; the flattened roofs 
 and arches; the panel tracery; the fan tracery—The Tudor, 
 the Debased or After-Gothic . . . . . .198 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI. 
 
 The general term Renaissance : The return to Classic elements; 
 the different periods; the Trecento: its characteristic 
 features—The Quattrocento : its rendering of natural ele¬ 
 ments ; Lore.nzo Ghiberti, his bronze gates of the Baptistry, 
 at Ilorence; the panels representing scriptural subjects, 
 the reliefs on the architrave emblematic of the fulness of 
 the Creation—The Elizabethan style must be considered as 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 an English rendering of the Renaissance: its characteristics 
 —The Cinquecento the full development of the Renais¬ 
 sance; the perfection of its ornamentation; Raffaelle, Julio 
 Romano, the Lombardi, Bramante, Michael Angelo; the 
 arabesque scroll, animals, plants, vases, works of art; strap 
 and shield work wholly excluded ; the style has been con¬ 
 sidered the culmination of ornamental art—The Louis 
 Quatorze: its leading characteristics; the high relief; the 
 stucco work and gilding; dependent on play of light and 
 shade more than on colour—The Louis Quinze: neglect of 
 balancing of parts ; decline in ornamental art; loss of sym¬ 
 metry—Tho Debased style, called the Rococo « . . 207 
 
!9 Citrine 
 
 13 Purple 
 
 R£.7. 
 
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 24 Oli ve 
 
 21 Russet 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 EUxsA DaA.-x.dson. fee 1 
 
 11 Green/ 
 
THE 
 
 GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 OF COLOUR GENERALLY. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF COLOURS. 
 
 If, in this utilitarian age, we are asked, “ What is the 
 use of colour ? ” we are constrained, however reluct¬ 
 antly, to answer : “ Not any.” True, it assists in dis¬ 
 tinguishing forms, but a few hard lines—though mili¬ 
 tating sadly against beauty—would accomplish this 
 purpose, whilst distance could, as far as art is concerned, 
 be indicated by lines of various degrees of depth ; a 
 fact which is proved by the exquisite effects thus ob¬ 
 tained in engravings. 
 
 Nor do we find that even the colours of flowers serve 
 any real purpose beyond charming the eye ; and this 
 same argument might be applied to sounds, for, if 
 judged by the merely utilitarian standard, music must, 
 as far as practical purposes are concerned, be pronounced 
 useless. 
 
 Yet persons over whom music and colour have no 
 influence are happily rarely met with. Can we fancy 
 
2 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 this glorious garden of the world peopled with dumb 
 and colourless birds; our fields deprived of their grate¬ 
 ful verdure ; our hedges and our gardens robbed of their 
 infinite variety of hues ? 
 
 In the colours which pervade creation—as in the 
 music which so gratefully affects our senses—our merci¬ 
 ful Creator has superadded beauty to utility, and we 
 feel that “ man liveth not by bread'alone/’ but that the 
 works of the Almighty are designed so as to surround 
 us with everything that shall make this work-day 
 world one in which the higher faculties of the mind 
 may be exercised, and in which the earth may yield to 
 the man who cultivates it, not only the food for his 
 children, but the flowers to beautify their home. 
 
 It is in this way that Decorative Art has arisen; for 
 the history of the world has shown us that the 
 moment the absolute necessities of shelter have been 
 supplied, the next effort has been to beautify. In the 
 ruder conditions of man, however, this desire has been 
 satisfied by the use of bright and positive colours ; it 
 has been reserved for the cultivated taste of civilisation 
 to define the relative proportions in which the colours 
 should be used to each other, and the means by which 
 they may be contrasted or harmonized with each 
 other. 
 
 The elements or natural powers by which colours are 
 produced are the positive and negative principles of 
 Light and Darkness, and these in painting are repre¬ 
 sented by white and black, which are thence elementary 
 colours ; between the extremes of which exists an in¬ 
 finite gradation of shades or mixtures, which are called 
 greys, affording a scale of neutral colours. 
 
 As by the deflection of a point in space may be gene¬ 
 rated all the elementary and complex figures and forms 
 of geometrical and constructive science, so from a like 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF COLOURS. 
 
 3 
 
 deflection of a spot in place may be generated all the ele¬ 
 mentary and compound hues and colours ; the science 
 of which is called Chromatics. 
 
 Thus a spot of any shade or colour on a ground or 
 medium lighter or darker than itself, being viewed by 
 a Lensic Prism, will be deflected by the ordinary re¬ 
 fraction of light and shade into an orb of three colours. 
 These three colours are the known Blue, Bed, and 
 Yellow, which as they are incapable of being produced 
 by composition, and also of being resolved into other 
 colours by analysis, are simple, original, and primary 
 colours, elicited by the electrical excitement, or con¬ 
 currence of the light and shade of the ground and 
 spot. 
 
 Accordingly, if the ground and spot be varied from 
 light to dark, or from black to white, the same process 
 will afford the same three colours, differing only in the 
 inversion of their arrangement, being the order of the 
 colours in the celestial phenomenon of the rainbow— 
 “ the triple bow ” of the poets—in which the sun 
 supplies the central spot of light, which is deflected or 
 refracted by the rain and atmosphere on the dark screen 
 of the sky. 
 
 This evolution of colours from the positive and nega¬ 
 tive or polar principles of light and darkness is a simple 
 fact of nature, however the colours may be produced by 
 electrical influence, wherewith it accords that a due 
 reunion of the three colours, or their compounds, will 
 discharge the colours excited and restore the colourless 
 spots and grounds; and in like manner the negative 
 or neutral colours may be composed by mixture of the 
 positive material colours, or pigments of the painter. 
 And thus we have educed from nature the first order 
 of colours in the sequence of their relation to black and 
 white. 
 
4 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 In these experimental evolutions of transient colours 
 from light and darkness, a polar influence determines 
 the blue colour, and its allies, towards black or darkness 
 as the negative pole, and the yellow, followed by red 
 and their allies, toward the positive pole of light, or 
 white. And this is a constant law of chromatism, by 
 which all the relations of colours are determined, as well 
 in respect to vision and the requirements of taste and 
 arrangement as to their physical properties and calorific 
 powers. And it coincides also with the electrical 
 affinities by which colours are determined chemically 
 according to an undoubted universal law. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE THREE ORDERS OF COLOURS. 
 
 Colours may be classed under three heads—primary, 
 secondary, and tertiary. 
 
 Any two of the primaries mixed in the proportions 
 to be spoken of presently produce a perfect secondary 
 colour, which harmonizes with the remaining primary. 
 Thus Blue and Yellow form Green, which harmonizes 
 with Red. Yellow and Red produce Orange, which 
 harmonizes with Blue. Red and Blue form Purple, 
 which harmonizes with Yellow. 
 
 Finally, in like manner, by the alternate compound¬ 
 ing or mixing of these secondary colours in pairs, is 
 produced a third order of colours, thence called tertiary 
 colours: thus, if Green be mixed with Orange colour, 
 
THE THREE ORDERS OF COLOURS. 
 
 5 
 
 they will form a Citrine, or citron-colour ; if Orange be 
 mixed with Purple, they form Russet; and if Purple 
 be mixed with Green, they form Olive colour ; and 
 these new denominations of colours, Citrine, Russet , 
 and Olive, constitute the third order of colours, each of 
 which is variously compounded of the three original or 
 primary colours, as the second order is of two; the 
 primary order being single and uncompounded; and 
 lastly by duly mixing or compounding either of the 
 three orders of colours, Black will be produced, termina¬ 
 ting the series in neutrality of colour. 
 
 By the varied and due admixture of these colours is 
 produced the infinity of hues, shades, and tints with 
 which the works of nature are decorated, and which 
 abound in the works of art; and all those individual 
 colours which every season of fashion brings forth 
 under new denominations, but which have been re¬ 
 garded by vulgar, uncultivated sense as individually 
 distinct, without order or dependence, the arbitrary 
 inventions of fancy. 
 
 By an indefinite and disproportionate mixture, how¬ 
 ever, of the three colours of either order, or of the wholo 
 together, will be produced only the hues usually called 
 dirty, or the anomalous colour Brown. The browns 
 are nevertheless a valuable class of colours of predomi¬ 
 nantly warm hues; whence we have Red and Yellow 
 B> 'owns, and browns all hues except Blue, which is 
 especially a cold colour affording in like manner the 
 very useful but anomalous class of Greys, distinguished 
 from the neutral Grey, being also the contrary and 
 contrast of Brown. 
 
 The primary colours themselves may, however, be. 
 materially altered by admixture: thus, by mixing 
 them in varied proportions, all JTues of colour aro 
 produced. These hues being diluted with white form 
 
6 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 tints , or by being toned with black give the different 
 shades of colour. 
 
 Referring to the purity of colours, Mr. R. Redgrave 
 says :—“ It is necessary to remember that pigments, 
 such as are used by the dyer or painter, are but repre¬ 
 sentatives of colours, and that they but very imperfectly 
 represent the primaries. There is no Yellow pigment, 
 for instance, of which it can be safely averred that it 
 is free from any mixture either of Red or Blue ; no Red 
 that is untainted by Yellow or Blue ; nor any Blue so 
 pure as to be without any mixture of Yellow or Red. 
 
 “ If pigments could be obtained truly representing 
 each primary, the laws of colour might be perfectly 
 illustrated; but since this is not possible, either as 
 respects purity of colour or power of mixing, explana¬ 
 tions of the laws of harmony are beset with many 
 difficulties. Even when pigments are obtained which 
 nearly represent the respective primaries ; from various 
 causes, such as differences of transparency or opacity, 
 chemical components, or other qualities, they do not 
 perhaps mix to produce even an approach to a perfect 
 secondary colour.” 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CONTRASTS AND ACCORDANCES OF COLOURS.* 
 
 It has been shown that colours are primarily elicited 
 analytically from the positive and negative principles 
 
 * Painting among the Hindoos, the Egyptians, and still in our days 
 amongst the Chinese, imposes its regulations in the national worship 
 and politic laws; the least alteration in the drawing or colouring 
 
CONTRASTS AND ACCORDANCES OF COLOURS. 
 
 7 
 
 or poles of light and shade, represented by White and 
 Black, which are Neutral as colours, and that conse¬ 
 quently by a due reunion or composition of the colours 
 thus educed they are restored to the neutral state of 
 Black, White, or Grey. 
 
 The production of the secondaries by mixture of the 
 primaries will be understood from the illustration 
 (Fig. 1), in which each primary is placed opposite to 
 the secondary formed by the remaining two. 
 
 Such opposed colours, in adequate proportions, are 
 called complementary, from the equivalence with which 
 they neutralise each other; their powers in which 
 respect we have demonstrated to be according to the 
 following Scale of Chromatic Equivalents. (Fig. 2.) 
 
 In this Scale of Equivalents the fundamental powers 
 of the primary colours in compensating and neutralising, 
 contrasting and harmonizing, their opposed secondary 
 colours are approximately as three Yellow, five Bed, 
 and eight Blue; consequently the secondary Orange, 
 composed of three Yellow and five Bed, is the equiva¬ 
 lent of Blue the power of which is eight: they are 
 accordingly equal powers in contrast, and compensating 
 in mixture, and as such are properly in equal propor¬ 
 tions for harmonizing effect. (Fig. 3.) 
 
 Again Green being composed of Blue the power of 
 which is eight, and Yellow the power of which is 
 three, is equivalent in contrast and mixture as eleven, 
 to Red the power of which is five ; being nearly as two 
 to one. (Fig. 4.) 
 
 And finally Purple composed of Blue as eight, and 
 
 Bed the power of which is five, is equivalent in mixture 
 
 or contrast as thirteen, to Yellow the power of which is 
 
 would incur a serious punishment. Among the Egyptians, writes 
 Synesius, the prophets did not allow metal-founders or statuaries to 
 represent the gods, for fear that they should deviate from the rules. 
 Baron F. Portal on Symbolic Colours. 
 
8 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 three, or nearly as four to one. And such proportions 
 of these opposed colours may be employed in forming 
 agreeable and harmonious contrasts in colouring and 
 decorative painting, either in pairs of contrasts, or 
 several, or all together; and also for subduing each 
 other in mixture. (Fig. 5.) 
 
 The tertiary colour Citrine harmonizes with the 
 secondary colour Purple in the proportion of nineteen 
 Citrine to thirteen Purple. The tertiary colour Olive 
 harmonizes with the secondary Orange in the proportion 
 of twenty-four Olive to eight Orange. The tertiary 
 colour Russet harmonizes with the secondary Green in 
 the proportion of twenty-one Eusset to eleven Green. 
 These proportions are illustrated in Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9. 
 
 And further it is apparent that all compound hues 
 of these colours will partake of their compound num¬ 
 bers, and contrast each other according to a correspond¬ 
 ing compound equivalence. Thus an intermediate Eed- 
 purple will contrast a like opposite Green-yellow with 
 the power of eighteen to fourteen, and so on without 
 limit all round the scale ; and the triple compounds or 
 tertiary colours are subject to like regulation. 
 
 There is no invariable necessity, nevertheless, that 
 this regulation of contrasts should be followed strictly 
 according to their numbers in harmonizing colours, 
 although they denote their principal and most powerful 
 effects ; for every individual colour has its appropriate 
 expression, for which it may be employed predominately 
 as a key; thus affording an infinity of distinct har¬ 
 monies to fertilise taste and invention, by brilliant and 
 delicate or sober and sombre effects according to the 
 purpose of the Artist or Decorator.* 
 
 * After the five colours come the compound hues: rose, purple, 
 hyacinth, violet, grey, tan, &c. These hues receive their significations 
 from the colours which compose them. That which predominates 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS OF COLOURING. 
 
 9 
 
 CHAPTER IY. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS OF COLOURING. 
 
 The exercise of taste, and the demands of novelty and 
 fashion, in decoration, and beautifying with colours, 
 have a boundless field of exertion and production in 
 the application of the foregoing principles, wherein the 
 genius and taste of the Colourist has scope as ample 
 for delighting the eye as that of the Musician in the 
 art of harmonizing sounds ; and to do justice bv 
 examples to these powers in either art would be a vast 
 undertaking, if not a vain attempt. 
 
 As the object of these pages is not merely to enable 
 the student to learn by rote a list of the numerical 
 proportions of colours, hut to assist him in the appre¬ 
 ciation of the principles laid down, it is suggested that 
 he should work out the system inculcated in a series of 
 diagrams, for which the following hints will supply 
 the data. 
 
 1. The harmonizing or contrasting of Blue with 
 Orange , or of cold with warm colours, which are general 
 equal powers or equivalents ; and as such are instanced 
 in nature by the warm sunshine and azure sky. It is 
 in the same relation that Blue is employed effectively 
 with Gold. 
 
 2. This study should be the accordance of Red with 
 Green; the first of which is the extreme of colour, 
 as the latter is the mean or middle colour, and they 
 harmonize as one to two in power or equivalence, and 
 
 gives to the hue its general signification, and that which is subordi¬ 
 nate, the modified. Thus purple, which is of a red azure, signifies 
 the love of truth; and hyacinth, which is of a blue purple, represents 
 the truth of love. These two significations would seem to confound 
 themselves at their source, but the applications will show the differ¬ 
 ence which exists between them .—Baron 2" Mortal on Symbolic Colours. 
 
 B 3 
 
10 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 are remarkable in the roseate blossom with the green 
 foliage throughout nature. 
 
 3. This arrangement should be the general accord¬ 
 ance of Yellow with Purple , which are complementary 
 nearly as one to four; the first as an advancing or 
 light, the second as a retiring or -shade colour; and 
 they are reciprocally employed by nature in giving 
 effect to Purple and Yellow flowers. The above are 
 leading examples only ; but it would be easy, were it 
 expedient, to multiply them to any amount. 
 
 It is a matter of necessary knowledge to the Artist, 
 and of useful information to the Decorator of taste, that 
 in nature the colours of shadows and shadings are always 
 true contrasts to their lights , and affords a rule to har¬ 
 monious art, the neglect of which is a common cause 
 of failure, and dulness of effect. Hence it may merit 
 attention that rooms, &c., lighted from a cold or 
 northern aspect would be of best effect when having 
 their ornamental designs shaded with warm colours; 
 and that, on the contrary, cool shadows are required in 
 rooms of a southern and sunny aspect. The artist, 
 however, who is acquainted with the true relations of 
 light and colours, will be at no loss in adapting his 
 practice to the peculiarity of the case or situation. 
 
 Not only are there the foregoing harmonies of Suc¬ 
 cession and Contrast among positive colours, there also 
 is a like contrast of Colour with Neutrality, or of posi¬ 
 tive Hues with negative Shades. It is hence that 
 coloured backgrounds agreeably relieve sculptures, 
 which are white or neutral; and that Blue does so 
 more effectively than other colours, because sculptures 
 having their own relief, and being powerfully reflective 
 of light, are best contrasted and advanced by that 
 colour which is of nearest affinity with shade, and such 
 is blue. We find accordingly that the Greeks relieved 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS OF COLOURING. 
 
 11 
 
 the sculptures of their temples, &c., by Blue back¬ 
 grounds, which at once harmonized with the sculpture 
 and the sky. 
 
 So again, in contrasting Black objects with coloured 
 grounds, such as engravings, neutral drawings or 
 designs, &c., the colour nearest in relation to light, 
 being a warm Yellow, is for the above reason theore' 
 tically and practically of best effect. And these will 
 be sufficient to suggest the proper practice in the con¬ 
 duct of Colours and Neutrality in other cases. 
 
 It is to be observed that the simple principles we 
 have adduced as a guide to the ordinary employment 
 of colours are but the suggestive elements of a science 
 as boundless as practical geometry, into the intricacy 
 of which the decorator needs not enter, any more than 
 into the subtilities of the latter science ; and the mind 
 delighting in such speculations, or emulating the 
 higher accomplishments of art, will find the inquiry 
 extended in our “ Chromatics; or the Analogy, Har¬ 
 mony, and Philosophy of Colours,” and other works. 
 
 So much then in briefness for the theoretic relations 
 of colours, the knowledge of which is to be regarded 
 as essential to their free and appropriate application in 
 painting; and indispensable for elegance of design in 
 all arts calling for an harmonious and original display 
 of taste, for which some practical hints will appear in 
 our subsequent notes on individual colours and pig¬ 
 ments, further detailed also in our “ Chromatography.” 
 
 Fashion, it is true, governs Operatives and Decora¬ 
 tors in their works and designs, but when these artists 
 are well instructed and masters in principles, they will 
 guide and influence fashion by nature and good taste, 
 —advancing art by purifying it from those barbarous 
 and gaudy obtrusions on chaste design which ever 
 denote art in its infancy or decline. As to the aids of 
 
12 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 literature, it can do little more for the artist and 
 artisan than present them with these principles and 
 precepts, the application of which is an affair of their 
 own skill and faculties, in which they have liberty of 
 action but not equality of powers, for these are divine 
 gifts from nature, or the rewards of acquired skill and 
 industry. 
 
 In the choice, admiration, and display of colours we 
 find crude, natural, and uncultivated taste, as in children 
 and savages, delighting in, and employing, entire and 
 primary colours, and harsh, unbroken, or whole notes 
 in their music; but as taste and sober judgment 
 advance, sense becomes more conciliated by broken 
 colours and half-tones, till, in the end, they refine into 
 the more broken and enharmonic. The same laws still 
 govern them in practice, and the contrasts of which we 
 have given the first crude examples may still be as 
 strictly employed with colours extremely subdued, and 
 with the utmost refinement of broken tints and deli¬ 
 cacy of expression. 
 
 Thus colours are no less a science than musical 
 sounds, to which they are every way analogous ; and as 
 the musician may be thoroughly acquainted with har¬ 
 monic science, and able to detect all the errors of the 
 composer and performer of music without himself being 
 able either to compose or perform,—so also it is with 
 the informed and critical colourist, whether decorative 
 artist or man of taste; for the excellent works of both 
 arts are the productions of science, conducting genius 
 or natural taste, and a practised hand. To this end 
 our rules are offered as a compass to unrestrained fancy, 
 tnat, without a guide, would run into tasteless extra¬ 
 vagance and absurdity. 
 
PAET II. 
 
 PRACTICAL COLOURING. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MATERIAL COLOURS. 
 
 Haying exhibited the sensible principles, relations, and 
 effects of colours sufficiently for general understanding 
 and use in a theoretic view, it is expedient to practice 
 that we briefly advert to their material or physical 
 nature and habits; because upon these depend the 
 durability, fugacity, and changes to which colouring 
 substances and pigments are subject and their works 
 exposed; while it supplies useful experience to the 
 painter and colourist in the practice of their arts. 
 
 Colours we have distinguished into Inherent and 
 Transient. Of the first kind are all material colours, 
 more properly called pigments and dyes ; of the second 
 or transient kind are the colours of light and the eye, 
 such as the rainbow, halos, prismic and ocular spectra, 
 &c. ; all of which, as before shown, are formed by the 
 concurrence of the elements of light and darkness, which 
 elements, in the language of the chemists, are oxygen 
 and hydrogen, both of which enter inherently into the 
 matter of solid pigments, and constitute the transient 
 
14 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 light of our atmosphere and of day. Hence paintings, 
 &c., excluded from light and air in many cases become 
 dark, and in other cases, when exposed to light and air, 
 they bleach and fade, or variously change colour accord¬ 
 ing to their chemical constitutions, as will be further 
 noted of individual pigments. 
 
 ^4 e have enqiloyed the terms Oxygen and Hydrogen 
 to denote the more properly Photogenic and Sciogenic 
 elements of light and shade, not for their fitness, but 
 because they have been adopted in an analogous ele¬ 
 mentary signification in chemistry. It would, however, 
 be beside our purpose here to discuss the elementary 
 doctrine of the physical causes of light and colours, 
 having spoken thereof more at large in other works. 
 
 We proceed, therefore, in the next place, to detail 
 the powers, properties, and preparations of the materials 
 employed in the various practices of painting, among 
 which pigments, or paints, are principal, reminding the 
 student that the variety of lightness and darkness in 
 colours is called Shade ; the varieties of gradations in 
 the mixtures of colours are called Hues, and the various 
 mixtures of hues and colours with white and shades 
 are called Tints. \V e preface these and other distinc¬ 
 tions as necessary to the painter for the better under¬ 
 standing and compounding of his materials, with which 
 it is the object of this part of our work to make him 
 acquainted. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 QUALITIES OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 The general qualities of good Pigments, technically 
 called Colours , are: 1, beauty of colour, which includes 
 
QUALITIES OF PIGMENTS. 
 
 15 
 
 pureness, brightness, and depth ; 2, body; 3, trans¬ 
 parency or opacity ; 4, working well; 5, keeping their 
 place; 6, drying well; and 7, durability; but few 
 pigments possess all these qualities in equal perfection. 
 
 Body, in opaque and white pigments, is the quality 
 of efficiently covering and hiding ground, but in 
 transparent pigments it signifies richness of colour, or 
 tinting power; working well depends much on suffi¬ 
 cient grinding, or fineness of quality ; keeping their 
 places and drying well depend in a great degree on the 
 vehicle, or liquid, with which they are tempered, and 
 chiefly on the oil with which they are employed. 
 
 All substances are positively or negatively coloured, 
 whence the abundance of natural and artificial pigments 
 and dyes with which the painter and colourist in every 
 art are supplied, and the infinity of others that may be 
 added to them. As, however, it is durability that gives 
 value to the beauty and other qualities of colours or 
 pigments, and those of nature being for the most part 
 adapted to temporary or transient purposes, few only 
 are suited to the more lasting intentions of art, and 
 hence a judicious selection is essential to the practice 
 and purposes of artists. 
 
 And as the present inquiry is concerning the employ¬ 
 ment of solid colours in painting, properly called Pig¬ 
 ments, it is our express business to form such selections 
 from those in use as are best adapted to the various 
 requirements of painting in oil or water-colours, in 
 distemper, fresco, &c., and to denote their habits, mix¬ 
 ture, and best modes of manipulation of each, and this 
 we purpose in the order of the colours as delivered in 
 the preceding scales. 
 
 In mixing colours the painter should avoid using a 
 greater number of pigments than necessary to afford 
 the tints required, as such mixtures are usually fouler 
 
16 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 than the colours used, and their drying and other 
 qualities are commonly injured thereby. We by no 
 means counsel the painter to lose his time in the 
 preparation of original pigments, the processes of 
 manufacture having in recent years been carried to 
 such perfection that any attempt to compete either in 
 levigation or admixture with the colours sold at the 
 first-rate houses would be futile. Old pigments are 
 also more to be depended on than new ones for drying, 
 standing, &c. We proceed to speak of colours and 
 pigments individually. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF WHITE AND ITS PIGMENTS.* 
 
 WHITE f 
 
 Is the basis of nearly all opaque painting designed for 
 the laying and covering of grounds, whether they be 
 
 * “Colours” and “Pigments” are commonly confounded, but 
 pigments, or, as they are popularly termed, paints, are those sub¬ 
 stances possessing colouring power in so eminent a degree that they 
 are used on account of that property ; pigments are, so to speak, 
 material colours. “Colours” have a generic signification, including 
 the phenomena of colour, whether considered in the abstract or the 
 concrete — Gullick and Tim bs, Fainting Popularly Explained. 
 
 1" Of white colour. —The Moors designate, by this emblem, puritv, 
 sincerity, innocence, indifference, simplicity, candour; applied to'a 
 woman, it implies chastity; to a young girl, virginity; to a judge, 
 integrity; to a rich man, humility. Heraldry, borrowing this cata¬ 
 logue, ordained that, in coats of arms, argent should denote whiteness, 
 purity, hope, truth, and innocence. Ermine, which was at first all 
 white, was the emblem of purity and of immaculate chastity ; and we 
 hold, shys Lamothe Le Vayer, the whiteness of our lily, of our scarfs, 
 and royal pennant, a symbol of purity as well as of liberty. 'White 
 represents immaculate chastity—it wits consecrated to the Virgin; 
 her altars are white, the ornaments of the officiating priest are white, 
 and likewise, on her festival-day, the clergy are in white.— Baron F. 
 Portal on Symbolic Colours. 
 
OF WHITE AND ITS PIGMENTS. 
 
 17 
 
 of wood-work, metal, stone, plaster, or other substances, 
 and should be as pure and neutral in colour as possible 
 for the better mixing and compounding with other 
 colours without changing their hues, while it renders 
 them of lighter shades, and of the tints required ; it 
 also gives solid body to all colours. 
 
 It is the most advancing of colours; that is, it comes 
 forward and catches the eye before all others, and it 
 assists in giving this quality to other pigments, with 
 which it may be mixed, by rendering their tints lighter 
 and more vivid. Hence it appears to cause colours 
 which are placed near it to recede, and it powerfully 
 contrasts dark colours, and black most so of all. The 
 term colour is however equivocal when attributed to the 
 neutrals , White, Black, and Greys, yet the artist is 
 bound to regard them as colours ; and in philosophic 
 strictness they are such latently, compounded and com¬ 
 pensated ; for a thing cannot but be that of which it is 
 composed, and the neutrals are composed of and com¬ 
 prehend all colours. 
 
 TV hite is the nearest among colours in relation to 
 Yellow, and is in itself a pleasing and cheerful colour, 
 which takes every hue, tint, and shade, and harmonizes 
 with all other colours, and is the contrast of Black, 
 added to which it gives solidity in mixture, and a small 
 quantity of black added to white cools it, and preserves 
 it from its tendency to turn yellow. White mixed with 
 Black forms various Greys and Lead-colour so called. 
 
 From the above qualities of white it is of more 
 extensive use in painting than any other colour, and it 
 is hence of the first importance to the paiuter to have • 
 its pigments of the best quality. These are abundant, 
 of which we shall here notice those only of practical 
 importance to the painter and decorator. 
 
 Notwithstanding white pigments are an exceedingly 
 
18 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 numerous class, an unexceptionable white is still a desi¬ 
 deratum. The white earths are destitute of body in oil 
 and varnish, and metallic whites of the best body are 
 not permanent in water; yet when properly discrimi¬ 
 nated, we have eligible whites for most purposes, of 
 which the following are the principal:— 
 
 WHITE LEAD, 
 
 Or ceruse, and other white oxides of lead, under the 
 various denominations of London and Nottingham 
 
 O 
 
 whites, &c., Flake white, Crems or Cremnitz, Roman 
 and Venetian whites, Blanc d’argent or Silver white, 
 Sulphate of lead, Antwerp white, &c. The heaviest 
 and whitest of these are the best, and in point of colour 
 and body are superior to all other whites. They are 
 all, when pure and properly applied in oil and varnish, 
 safe and durable, and dry well without addition; but 
 excess of oil discolours them, and in water-painting 
 they are changeable even to blackness. They have 
 also a destructive effect upon all vegetable lakes, except 
 the madder lakes and madder carmines; they are 
 equally injurious to red and orange leads or minium, 
 king’s and patent yellow, massicot, gamboge, orpiments, 
 &c.: but ultramarine, red and orange vermilions, 
 yellow and orange chromes, madder colours, sienna 
 earth, Indian red, and all the ochres, compound with 
 these whites with little or no injury. In oil-painting 
 white lead is essential in the ground, in dead colouring, 
 in the formation of tints of all colours, and in scum¬ 
 bling, either alone or mixed with all other pigments. 
 It is also the best local white w T hen neutralized with 
 black, but must not be employed in water-colour paint¬ 
 ing, distemper, crayon painting, or fresco, nor with any 
 pigment having an inflammable basis, or liable to be 
 destroyed by fire: for with all such they occasion 
 
OF WHITE AND ITS PIGMENTS. 
 
 19 
 
 change of colour, either by becoming dark themselves, 
 or by fading the colours they are mixed with. Clean¬ 
 liness in using these pigments is necessary for health; 
 for though not virulently poisonous, they are per¬ 
 nicious when taken into or imbibed by the pores or 
 otherwise, as are all other pigments of which lead is 
 the basis. A fine natural white oxide, or carbonate of 
 lead, would be a valuable acquisition, if found in 
 abundance; and there occur in Cornwall specimens of 
 a very beautiful carbonate of lead, of spicular form, 
 brittle, soft, and purely white, which should be col¬ 
 lected for the artist’s use. 
 
 The following are the true characters of these whites 
 according to our particular experience :— 
 
 LONDON AND NOTTINGHAM WHITES. 
 
 The best of these do not differ from each other in any 
 essential particular, nor from the white leads of other 
 localities. The latter, being prepared from flake white, 
 is generally the greyer of the two. The inferior white 
 leads are adulterated with whitening or sulphate of 
 barytes and other earths, which injure them in body 
 and brightness, dispose them to dry more slowly, 
 to keep their places less firmly, and to discolour the oil 
 with which they are applied. All the above are car¬ 
 bonates of lead, and liable to froth or bubble when used 
 with aqueous, spirituous, or acid preparations. There 
 are no better whites for architectural painting, and for 
 all the purposes of common oil-painting; they are kept 
 in the shops under the names of best and common 
 white leads ready ground in oil, and require only to be 
 duly diluted wfith linseed oil and more or less turpen¬ 
 tine according to the work ; and also for mixing with 
 other colours and producing tints. 
 
20 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 KREMS, CREMS, OR KREMNITZ WHITE, 
 
 Is a white carbonate of lead, wbicb derives its names 
 from Crems, or Krems, in Austria, or Kremnitz in 
 Hungary, and is called also Vienna white, being 
 brought from Vienna in cakes of a cubical form. Though 
 highly reputed, it has no superiority over the best 
 English white leads, and varies like them according to 
 the degrees of care or success with which it has been 
 prepared. 
 
 FLAKE WHITE 
 
 Is an English white lead in form of scales or plates, 
 sometimes grey on the surface. It takes its name from 
 its figure, is equal or sometimes superior to Krems 
 white, and is an oxidized carbonate of lead, not essen¬ 
 tially differing from the best of the above. Other white 
 leads seldom equal it in body, and, when levigated, it 
 is called body-white. 
 
 BLANC D’ARGENT, 
 
 Or Silver white. These are false appellations of a 
 white lead, called also French white. It is brought 
 from Paris in the form of drops, is exquisitely white, 
 but of less body than flake white, and consequently 
 does not cover so well. It has all the properties of the 
 best white leads; but, being liable to the same changes, 
 is unfit for general use as a water-colour, though good 
 in oil or varnish. 
 
 ROMAN WHITE 
 
 Is of the purest white colour, but differs from the 
 former only in the warm flesh-colour of the external 
 surface of the large square masses in which it is usually 
 prepared. 
 
OF WHITE AND ITS PIGMENTS. 
 
 21 
 
 SULPHATE OF LEAD 
 
 Is an exceedingly white precipitate from any solution 
 of lead by sulphuric acid, much resembling the blanc 
 d’argent; and has, when well prepared, quite neutral, 
 and, thoroughly edulcorated or washed, most of the 
 properties of the best white leads, but is rather inferior 
 in body and permanence. 
 
 The above are the principal whites of lead; but 
 there are many other whites used in painting, of which 
 the following are the most worthy of attention :— 
 
 ZINC WHITE 
 
 Is an oxide of zinc, which has been more celebrated as 
 a pigment than used, being perfectly durable in water 
 and oil, but wanting the body and brightness of fiue 
 white leads in oil; while, in water, constant or barytic 
 white is superior to it in colour, and equal in durability. 
 Nevertheless, zinc white is valuable, as far as its powers 
 extend in painting, on account of its durability both in 
 oil and water, and its innocence with regal’d to health. 
 When duly and skilfully prepared, the colour and 
 body of this pigment are sufficient to qualify it for a 
 general use upon the palette, although the pure white 
 of lead must merit a preference in oil. 
 
 TIN WHITE 
 
 Resembles zinc white in many respects, but dries badly, 
 and has even less body and colour in oil, though supe¬ 
 rior to it in water. It is the basis of the best white in 
 enamel painting. 
 
 There are various other metallic whites of great 
 body and beauty,—such are those of bismuth, antimony, 
 quicksilver, and arsenic; but none of them are of any 
 
22 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 value or reputation in painting, on account of their 
 great disposition to change of colour, both by light and 
 foul air, in water and in oil. 
 
 PEARL WHITE. 
 
 There are the two pigments of this denomination: one 
 falsely so called, prepared from bismuth, which turns 
 black in sulphuretted hydrogen gas or any impure air, 
 and is used as a cosmetic ; the other, prepared from the 
 waste of pearls and mother-of-pearl, which is exqui¬ 
 sitely white, and of good body in water, but of little 
 force in oil or varnish : it combines, however, with all 
 other colours without injuring the most delicate, and is 
 itself perfectly permanent and innoxious. 
 
 CONSTANT WHITE, 
 
 Permanent white, or Barytic white, is a sulphate of 
 barytes, and when well prepared and free from acid is 
 one of our best whites for water-painting, being of a 
 superior body in water, but destitute of this quality 
 in oil. 
 
 As it is of a poisonous nature, it must be kept from 
 the mouth ;—in other respects and properties it resem¬ 
 bles the true pearl white. Both these pigments should 
 be employed with as little gum as possible, as it destroys 
 their body, opacity, or whiteness; and solution of gum 
 ammoniac answers better than gum arabic, which is 
 commonly used : but the best way of preparing this 
 pigment, and other terrene whites, so as to preserve 
 their opacity, is to grind them in simple water, and to 
 add toward the end of the grinding sufficient only of 
 size, or clear cold jelly of gum tragacanth to attach 
 them to the ground in painting. Barytic white is 
 seldom well purified from free acid, and, therefore, apt 
 to act injuriously on other pigments. 
 
OF WHITE AND ITS PIGMENTS. 
 
 23 
 
 WHITE CHALK 
 
 Is a well-known native carbonate of lime, used by tbe 
 artist only as a crayon, or for tracing bis designs ; for 
 which purpose it is sawn into lengths suited to the 
 porte-crayon. White crayons, and tracing-chalks, to be 
 good, must work and cut free from grit. From this 
 material, whitening and lime are prepared, and are the 
 basis of many common pigments and colours used in 
 distemper, paper-staining, &c. 
 
 There are many terrene whites under equivocal 
 names, among them are Morat or Modan white, Spanish 
 white or Troys, or Troy white, Rouen white, Bougeval 
 white, Paris white, Blanc de Roi, China white, Satin 
 white, the latter of which is a sulphate of lime and 
 alumine, which dries with a glossy surface, is said 
 to be prepared by mixing equal quantities of lime and 
 alum, the first slacked and the latter dissolved in water. 
 The common oyster-shell contains also a soft white in 
 its thick part, which is good in water; and egg-shells 
 have been prepared for the same purpose ; white has 
 likewise been obtained from an endless variety of 
 native earths. From this unlimited variety of terrene 
 whites we have selected above such only as merit 
 the attention of the artist ; the rest may be variously 
 useful to the paperstainer, plasterer, and painter 
 in distemper; but the whole of them are destitute of 
 body in oil, and, owing to their alkaline nature, are 
 injurious to many colours in water, as they are to all 
 colours which cannot be employed in fresco. 
 
 CHINESE WHITE. 
 
 This exceedingly useful colour is a preparation of white 
 oxide of zinc mixed with mucilage of gum tragacanth, 
 gum arabic, and a small quantity of glycerine ; it is 
 
24 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 generally used in water-colour painting, both in com¬ 
 pounding tints and in high lights: it is sold in bottles 
 and in compressible tubes ; the former are to be pre¬ 
 ferred, though perhaps not so convenient in fitting into 
 sketching-cases as the latter. The colour washes well, 
 and, as now prepared, is a most valuable adjunct to the 
 list of pigments. The use of body-white has in recent 
 years become a fashion in water-colour painting; but 
 the excessive use of this and other body-colours deterio- 
 lates much from the true character of water-colour 
 painting, in which as a rule the lights should be ob¬ 
 tained from the paper itself, otherwise the picture roust 
 be said to be executed in tempera. Besides this, the 
 very best of whites are liable to discolour, and in that 
 case the effect becomes diametrically the opposite to 
 that intended. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 TTNTS. 
 
 White is in every way important in painting, not 
 only as a ground, but as the basis of all tints, as 
 necessary in compounding the endless variety of pale 
 hues which taste and fashion require of the painter and 
 decorator, which every season brings out under new 
 denominations, to give way in turn to others and be for¬ 
 gotten. Thus white tinted with blue, &c., have afforded 
 Paris white, &c., French greys, Silver greys, &c.; 
 while among red tints we have pink, carnation, coqui- 
 licot, and all the blushes of flowers, &c. ; and yellow 
 with white has afforded Primrose, Straw-colour, Isa¬ 
 bella, &c. To the colours compounded more or less 
 
OF TINTS. 
 
 25 
 
 with white, we are indebted for the innumerable tints 
 of Lilac, Lavender, Peach-blossoms, Pea-green, Tea- 
 green, &c. 
 
 In order to afford some instruction in compounding 
 a few useful tints the following list is given. The 
 student is advised to mix each of these tints in different 
 hues, giving in each experiment a predominance to one 
 or other of the component colours. The method of 
 applying these colours will be given in another section. 
 These tints are intended for water-colour painting, but 
 most of them may be mixed for tempera or oil painting 
 by the addition of white in varied proportions. 
 
 Lavender Tints —which may be diluted until they 
 give the palest French greys. 
 
 Lake and Indigo. 
 
 Lake and Cobalt. 
 
 Indian Bed and Cobalt. 
 
 Vermilion and Cobalt. 
 
 Grey Tints —of a brown hue— 
 
 Madder Brown and Cobalt. 
 
 Madder Lake, Cobalt, and Yellow Ochre. 
 
 Indian Bed and Indigo. 
 
 Light Bed and Cobalt. 
 
 Gamboge, Lake, and Indigo. 
 
 Burnt Sienna, Lake, and Indigo. 
 
 Brown Tints— 
 
 Lake Cobalt, and Yellow Ochre. 
 
 Lake, Indigo, and Yellow Ochre. 
 
 Baw Sienna, Madder Lake, and Cobalt, 
 
 Light Bed and Indigo. 
 
 c 
 
26 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 Vandyke Brown, Lake, and Indigo. 
 Burnt Sienna, Gamboge, and Indigo. 
 Vandyke Brown, Gamboge, and Indigo. 
 Vandyke Brown and Lake. 
 
 Burnt Sienna and Lake. 
 
 Green Tints— 
 
 Italian Pink and Antwerp Blue. 
 
 Italian Pink and Lamp Black. 
 
 Yellow Ochre and Indigo. 
 
 Burnt Sienna and Indigo. 
 
 Brown, Pink, and Indigo. 
 
 Paw Umber and Indigo. 
 
 Yellow Tints— 
 
 Yellow Ochre and Lake. 
 
 Yellow Ochre and Light Bed. 
 
 Yellow Ochre and Vandyke Brown. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OF the primary colours. 
 
 YELLOW.* 
 
 Yellow is the first of the primary or simple colours, 
 nearest in relation to, and partaking most of the nature 
 of, the neutral white, mixed with which it affords the 
 
 * This celestial light revealed to men, finds its natural symbol in 
 the light which shines on earth; the heat and the brightness of the 
 sun designate the love cf God which animates the heart, and the 
 wisdom which enlightens the intellect. These two attributes of God, 
 manifest in the creation of the world and the regeneration of mem 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-—YELLOW. 
 
 27 
 
 faint hues called Straw-colour, &c.; it is accordingly a 
 most advancing colour, of great power in reflecting 
 light. Compounded with the primary red, it consti¬ 
 tutes the secondary orange, and its relatives, scarlet, 
 &c., and other warm colours. 
 
 It is the ruling colour of the tertiary citrine;—it 
 characterizes in like manner the endless variety of the 
 semi-neutral colours called brown, and enters largely 
 into the complex colours denominated buff*, bay, tawny, 
 tan, dun, drab, chestnut, roan, sorrel, hazel, auburn, 
 Isabella, fawn, feuillemorte, &c. Yellow is naturally 
 associated with red in transient and prismatic colours, 
 and they comport themselves with similar affinity and 
 glowing accordance in painting, as well in conjunc¬ 
 tion as composition. In combination with the primary 
 blue , yellow constitutes all the variety of the secondary 
 green, and, subordinately, the tertiaries russet and 
 olive. It enters also in a very subdued degree into 
 cool, semi-neutral, and broken colours, and assists in 
 minor proportions with blue and red in the composition 
 of black. 
 
 As a pigment, yellow is a tender, delicate colour, 
 easily defiled, when pure, by other colours. In paint¬ 
 ing it diminishes the power of the eye by its action in 
 a strong light, while itself becomes less distinct as a 
 colour; and, on the contrary, it assists vision and be¬ 
 comes more distinct as a colour in a neutral somewhat 
 declining light. These powers of colours upon vision 
 require the particular attention of the colourist. To 
 remedy the ill effect arising from the eyes having dwelt 
 
 appear inseparable in the signification of the sun, of gold, and yellow. 
 Divine wisdom had white for a symbol, as divine love, red; golden 
 yellow reunites these two significations and forms them into one ; hut 
 with the character of manifestation and revelation. This explains an 
 ancient tradition current in emblazonry; authors on the heraldic art 
 pretend that the yellow colour is a mixture of red and white.— 
 Baron F. Portal on Symbolic Colours. 
 
 c 2 
 
28 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 upon a colour, they should be gradually passed to its 
 opposite colour, and refreshed in the clear light of day. 
 
 In a warm light, yellow becomes totally lost, but is 
 less diminished than all other colours, except white, by 
 distance. The stronger tones of any colour subdue its 
 fainter hues in the same proportion as opposite colours 
 and contrasts exalt them. The contrasting colours of 
 yellow are a purple inclining to blue when the yellow 
 inclines to orange, and a purple inclining to red when 
 the yellow inclines to green, in the mean proportions 
 of thirteen purple to three of yellow, measured in sur¬ 
 face or intensity; and yellow being nearest to the 
 neutral white in the natural scale of colours, it accords 
 with it in conjunction. Of all colours, except white, it 
 contrasts black most powerfully.* 
 
 The sensible effects of yellow are gay, gaudy, 
 glorious, full of lustre, enlivening, and irritating; and 
 its impressions on the mind partake of these characters, 
 and acknowledge also its discordances. 
 
 The substitution of gold, &c., for yellow by the poets 
 may have arisen not less from the great value and 
 splendour of the metal, than from the paucitjr of fine 
 yellows among those ancients who celebrated the Tyrian 
 purple or red, and the no less famed Armenian blue;— 
 so in the beautiful illuminated MSS. of old, and in 
 many ancient paintings, which glowed with vermilion 
 and ultramarine, the place of yellow was supplied by 
 gilding, and in most cases the artist trusts to the gild¬ 
 ing of his frame for some portion of the effect of this 
 colour in his picture: and in every case of decorating 
 with gildings similar allowance should be made. 
 
 Yellow is a colour abundant throughout nature, and 
 its class of pigments abounds in similar proportion. We 
 have arranged them under the following heads, agree- 
 
 * Ruskin’s “Elements of Drawing,” second edition, 1857, p. 7 - 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS—YELLOW. 29 
 
 ably to our plan, according to their definiteness and 
 brilliancy of colour; first the opaque, and then tho 
 transparent, or finishing colours. It may be observed 
 of yellow pigments, that they much resemble whites in 
 their chemical relations in general, and that yellow, 
 being a primary and, therefore, a simple colour, can¬ 
 not be composed by any mixture of other colours. 
 
 CHROME YELLOW 
 
 Is a pigment of modern introduction into general use, 
 and of which there are several varieties, mostly chromates 
 of lead, in which the latter metal more or less abounds. 
 They are distinguished by the pureness, beauty, and 
 brilliancy of their colours, which qualities are great 
 temptations to their use in the hands of the painter; 
 they are notwithstanding far from unexceptionable 
 pigments;—yet they have a good body, and go cor¬ 
 dially into tint with white, both in water and oil; but 
 used alone, or in tint, they after some time lose their 
 pure colour, and may even become black in impure air ; 
 they nevertheless resist the sun’s rays during a long 
 time. Upon several colours they produce serious 
 changes, ultimately destroying Prussian and Antwerp 
 blues, when used therewith in the composition of 
 greens, &c. Chromes may be in three degrees of depth 
 •—pale, medi um, and deep. 
 
 JAUNE MINfiRALE. 
 
 This pigment is also a chromate of lead, prepared in 
 Paris, differing in no essential particular from the 
 above, except in the paleness of its colour. The chrome 
 yellows have also obtained other names from places or 
 persons from whence they have been brought, or by 
 whom they have been prepared, such as Jaune de 
 Cologne; we pass over, however, such as have not been 
 
30 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 generally received. The following pigment passes also 
 under the name of Jaune Minerale :— 
 
 PATENT YELLOW, 
 
 Turner's yellow , or Montpellier yellow , is a submuriate or 
 chloruret of lead, which metal is the basis of most 
 opaque-yellow pigments ; it is a hard, ponderous, 
 sparkling substance, of a crystalline texture and 
 bright yellow colour; hardly inferior, when ground, 
 to chromic yellow. It has an excellent body, and 
 works well either in oil or water, but is soon injured 
 both by the sun’s light and impure air; it is, therefore, 
 little used, except for the commoner purposes of paint¬ 
 ing. 
 
 NAPLES YELLOW 
 
 Is a compound of the oxides of lead and antimony, 
 anciently prepared at Naples under the name of 
 Giallolini; it is supposed also to have been a native 
 production of Vesuvius and other volcanoes, and is a 
 pigment of deservedly considerable reputation. It is 
 not so vivid a colour as either of the above, but is 
 variously of a pleasing light, warm, yellow tint. Like 
 all the preceding yellows, it is opaque, and in this sense 
 is of good body, and covers well. It is not changed 
 by the light of the sun, and may be used safely in oil 
 or varnish under the same management as the whites 
 of lead ; but, like these latter pigments also, it is liable 
 to change even to blackness by damp and impure air 
 when used as a water-colour, or unprotected by oil or 
 varnish. 
 
 Iron is also destructive of the colour of Naples yellow, 
 on which account great care is requisite, in grinding 
 and using it, not to touch it with the common steel 
 palette-knife, but to compound its tints on the palette 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-YELLOW. 
 
 31 
 
 with a spatula of ivory or horn. For the same reason 
 it may be liable to change in composition with the 
 ochres, Prussian and Antwerp blues, and all other pig¬ 
 ments of which iron is an ingredient or principle. 
 Oils, varnishes, and in some measure strong mucilages, 
 are preventive of chemical action, in the compounding 
 of colours, by intervening and clothing the particles of 
 pigments, and also preserve their colours: and hence, 
 in some instances, heterogeneous and injudicious tints 
 and mixtures have stood well, but are not to be relied 
 on in practice. Used pure, or with white lead, its 
 affinity with which gives permanency to their tints, 
 Naples yellow is a valuable and proved colour in oil, in 
 which also it works and dries well. 
 
 It may also be used in enamel painting, as it vitrifies 
 without change, and in this state it was formerly em¬ 
 ployed under the name of Giattolini di fornace , and has 
 been again introduced, under an erroneous conception 
 that vitrification gives permanence to colours, when in 
 truth it only increases the difficulty of levigation, and 
 injures their texture for working. Naples yellow does 
 not appear to have been generally employed by the 
 early painters in oil. Antimony yellows are prepared 
 of various depths. 
 
 MASSICOT, 
 
 Or Masticot, is a protoxide of lead, of a pale yellow 
 colour, exceedingly varying in tint, from the purest 
 and most tender yellow or straw-colour to pale ash- 
 colour or grey. It has in painting all the properties 
 of the white lead, from which it is prepared by gentle 
 calcination in an open furnace, but in tint with which, 
 nevertheless, it soon loses its colour and returns to 
 white : if, however, it be used pure or unmixed, it is a 
 useful delicate colour, permanent in oil under the same 
 
32 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 conditions as white lead, but ought not to be employed 
 in water, on account of its changing in colour even to 
 blackness by the action of damp and impure air. It 
 appears to have been prepared with great care, and 
 successfully employed, by the old masters, and is an 
 admirable dryer, being in its chemical nature nearly 
 the same as litharge, which is also sometimes ground 
 and employed in its stead. 
 
 YELLOW OCHRE, 
 
 Called also Mineral yellow , is a native pigment, found 
 in most countries, and abundantly in our own. It 
 varies considerably in constitution and colour, in which 
 latter particular it is found from a bright but not very 
 vivid yellow to a brown yellow, called spruce ochre , and 
 is always of a warm cast. Its natural variety is much 
 increased by artificial dressing and compounding. The 
 best yellow ochres are not powerful, but as far as they 
 go are valuable pigments, particularly in fresco and 
 distemper, being neither subject to change by ordinary 
 light, nor much affected by impure air or the action of 
 lime; by time, however, and the direct rays of the sun 
 they are somewhat darkened, and by burning are con¬ 
 verted into light reds. They are among the most 
 ancient of pigments, may all be produced artificially 
 in endless variety as they exist in nature, and iron is 
 the principal colouring matter in them all. The follow¬ 
 ing are the principal species, but they are often con¬ 
 founded :— 
 
 OXFORD OCHRE 
 
 Is a native pigment from the neighbourhood of Oxford, 
 semi-opaque, of a warm yellow colour and soft argilla¬ 
 ceous* texture, absorbent of water and oil, in both 
 
 * Argillaceous, of a clayey character. 
 
Oi- THE PRIMARY COLOURS-YELLOW. 
 
 33 
 
 which it may be used with safety according to the 
 general character of yellow ochres, of which it is one of 
 I the best. Similar ochres are found in the Isle of 
 "Wight, in the neighbourhood of Bordeaux, and various 
 other places. 
 
 STONE OCHRE 
 
 , Has been confounded with the above, which it fre¬ 
 quently resembles, as does also Roman ochre. True 
 stone ochres are found in balls or globular masses of 
 various sizes in the solid body of stones, lying near the 
 surface of rocks among the quarries in Gloucestershire 
 and elsewhere. These balls are of a smooth compact 
 texture, in general free from grit, and of a powdery 
 fracture. They vary exceedingly in colour, from yellow 
 to brown, murrey, and grey, but do not differ in other 
 respects from the preceding, and may be safely used in 
 oil or water in the several modes of painting, and for 
 browns and dull reds in enamel. Varieties of ochrous 
 colours are produced by burning and compounding 
 with lighter, brighter, and darker colours, but often 
 very injuriously, and adversely to the certainty of 
 operation, effect, and durability. 
 
 ROMAN OCHRE 
 
 Is rather deeper and more powerful in colour than the 
 above, but in other respects differs not essentially from 
 them;—a remark which applies equally to yellow 
 ochres of other denominations. There are ochres of 
 every country. 
 
 BROWN OCHRE, 
 
 Spruce Oclire, or Ocre de Rue, is a dark-coloured yellow 
 ochre, in no other respects differing from the preceding: 
 -—it is much employed, and affords useful and permanent 
 tints. This and all natural ochres require grinding 
 
 c 3 
 
34 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 and washing over to separate them from extraneous 
 substances, and they acquire depth and redness by 
 burning. They form with Prussian blue a variety of 
 greens, and are of use in mixture of other colours. 
 
 TERRA DI SIENNA, OR RAW SIENNA, 
 
 Is also a ferruginous* native pigment, and appears to 
 be an iron ore, which may be considered as a crude 
 natural yellow lake, firm in substance, of a glossy frac¬ 
 ture, and very absorbent. It is in many respects 
 a valuable pigment, — of rather an impure yellow 
 colour, but has more body and transparency than the 
 ochres ; and being little liable to change by the action 
 of either light, time, or impure air, it may be safely 
 used according to its powers, either in oil or water, and 
 in all the modes of practice. By burning it becomes 
 deeper, orange, and more transparent and drying. See 
 Burnt Sienna Earth (page 66). It is a valuable colour 
 in graining. 
 
 IRON YELLOW, 
 
 Jaune de Fer, or Jaune de Mars , &c., is a bright iron 
 ochre, prepared artificially, of the nature of Sienna 
 earth. In its general qualities it resembles the ochres, 
 with the same eligibilities and exceptions, but is more 
 transparent. The colours of iron exist in endless 
 variety in nature, and are capable of the same variation 
 by art, from sienna yellow, through orange and red, to 
 purple, brown, and black, among which are useful and 
 valuable distinctions, which are brighter and purer 
 than native ochres. They were formerly introduced by 
 the author, and have been lately received under the 
 names of orange de mars, rouge de mars, brun de mars, 
 names which have the merit at least of not misleading 
 
 * Ferruginous (Lat .ferruin, “iron”}. impregnated with iron. 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-YELLOW. 
 
 35 
 
 the judgment. When carefully prepared, these pig¬ 
 ments dry well in proportion to their depth, and have 
 the general habits of sienna earths and ochres 
 
 YELLOW ORPIMENT, 
 
 Or Yellow Arsenic, is a sulphuretted oxide of arsenic, of 
 a beautiful, bright, and pure yellow colour, not ex¬ 
 tremely durable in water, and less so in oil: in tint 
 with white lead it is soon destroyed. It is not subject 
 to discoloration in impure air. This property is not, 
 however, sufficient to redeem it with the artist, as it 
 has a bad effect upon several valuable colours, such as 
 Naples yellow; and upon the Chromates, Masticot, and 
 Red lead, and most other oxides and metallic colours ; 
 but with colours dependent upon sulphur or other 
 inflammables for their hues it may be employed with 
 less danger, and was probably so employed by the old 
 painters, with ultramarine in the composition of their 
 greens; and is well suited to the factitious or French 
 ultramarines. Although this pigment is not so poi¬ 
 sonous as white arsenic, it is dangerous in its effect 
 upon health. Yellow orpiment is of several tints, from 
 bright cool yellow to warm orange, the first of which 
 are most subject to change ; and it has appeared under 
 various forms and denominations :—these seem to have 
 been used by several of the old masters, with especial 
 care to avoid mixture ; and as they dry badly, and the 
 oxides of lead used in rendering oils drying destroy 
 their colour, levigated glass was employed with them 
 as a dryer, or perhaps they were sometimes used in 
 simple varnish. They are found in a native state 
 under the name of zarnic or zarnich, varying in colour 
 from warm yellow to green. But orpiment, in all its 
 varieties, powerfully deprives other substances of their 
 oxygen, and therefore is subject to change, and to be 
 
36 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 changed by, every pigment whose colour depends on 
 that element, and more especially all metallic colours ; 
 if employed, they must there £ re be so in a pure and 
 unmixed state. See Orange Oipimnt (page 67). 
 
 KING’S YELLOW. 
 
 Yellow orpiment has been much celebrated under 
 this name, as it has also under the denomination of— 
 
 CHINESE YELLOW, 
 
 Which is a very bright sulphuret of arsenic, brought 
 from China. 
 
 AESENIC YELLOW, 
 
 Called also Mineral Yelloio, is prepared from arsenic 
 fluxed with litharge, and reduced to powder. It is 
 much like orpiment in colour, dries better, and, not 
 oeing affected by lead, is less liable to change in tint. 
 It must not be forgotten that it is poisonous, nor that 
 all arsenic colours are destructive of every tint of colours 
 mixed w T ith white lead. 
 
 CADMIUM YELLOW, 
 
 Sulphuret of Cadmium. The new metal, cadmium, 
 affords, by precipitation with solution of sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, a bright warm yellow pigment, which passes 
 readily into tints with white lead, appears to endure 
 light, and remains unchanged in impure air; but the 
 metal from which it is prepared being hitherto scarce, 
 it has been little employed as a pigment, and its habits 
 are, therefore, not ascertained. 
 
 GAMBOGE, 
 
 Or Gumhoge , is brought principally from Cambaja in 
 India, and is the produce of several kinds of trees. Is 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-YELLOW. 
 
 37 
 
 a concrete vegetal substance, of a gum-resinous nature, 
 and beautiful yellow colour, bright and transparent, 
 but not of great depth. When properly used, it is 
 more durable than generally reputed both in water and 
 oil; and conduces, when mixed with other colours, to 
 their stability and durability, by means of its gum and 
 resin. It is deepened in some degree by ammoniacal 
 and impure air, and somewhat weakened, but not easily 
 discoloured, by the action of light. Time effects less 
 change on this colour than on other bright vegetal 
 yellows; but white lead and other metalline pigments 
 injure, and terrene and alkaline substances redden it. 
 It works remarkably well in water, with which it forms 
 an opaque solution, without grinding or preparation, 
 by means of its natural gum; but is with difficulty 
 used in oil, &c., in a dry state. In its natural state it 
 however dries well, and lasts in glazing when deprived 
 of its gum. Glazed over other colours in water, its 
 resin acts as a varnish which protects them; and under 
 other colours its gum acts as a preparation which 
 admits varnishing. It is injured by a less degree of 
 heat than other pigments. 
 
 GALL-STONE 
 
 Is an animal calculus formed in the gall-bladder, prin¬ 
 cipally of oxen. This concretion varies a little in 
 colour, but is in general of a beautiful golden yellow, 
 more powerful than gamboge, and is highly reputed as 
 a water-colour; nevertheless, its colour is soon changed- 
 and destroyed by strong light, though not subject to 
 alteration by impure air. 
 
 It is rarely introduced in oil-painting, and is by no 
 means eligible therein. 
 
38 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 INDIAN YELLOW 
 
 Is a pigment long employed in India under the name 
 Puree , but has not many years been introduced gene¬ 
 rally into painting in Europe. It is imported in the 
 form of balls, and is of a fetid odour. However pro¬ 
 duced, it appears to be an urio-phosphate of lime, of a 
 beautiful pure yellow colour, and light powdery tex¬ 
 ture ; of greater body and depth than gamboge, but 
 inferior in these respects to gall-stone. Indian yellow 
 resists the sun’s rays with singular power in water¬ 
 painting ; yet in ordinary light and air, or even in a 
 book or portfolio, the beauty of its colour is not lasting. 
 It is not injured by foul air, and in oil is exceedingly 
 fugitive, both alone and in tint. 
 
 YELLOW LAKE. 
 
 There are several pigments of this denomination 
 varying in colour and appearance according to the 
 colouring substances used, and modes of preparation. 
 They are usually in the form of drops, and their colours 
 are in general bright yellow, very transparent, and not 
 liable to change in an impure atmosphere,—qualities 
 which would render them very valuable pigments, were 
 they not soon discoloured, and even destroyed, by the 
 opposite influence of oxygen and light, both in water 
 and oil; in which latter vehicle, like other lakes in 
 general, they are bad dryers, and do not stand the 
 action of white lead or metallic colours. If used, there¬ 
 fore, it should be as simple as possible. 
 
 AUREOLIN. 
 
 This is a nitrate of Cobalt, and is a very pure and 
 permanent colour. It is as nearly as possible a pure 
 yellow, and is used in water or oil. 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-RED. 
 
 39 
 
 DUTCH FINK, ENGLISH AND ITALIAN PINKS, 
 
 Are sufficiently absurd names of yellow colours pre¬ 
 pared by impregnating whitening, &c., with vegetal 
 yellow tinctures, in the manner of rose pink, from which 
 they borrow their name. 
 
 They are bright yellow colours, extensively used in 
 distemper and for paper-staining, and other ordinary 
 purposes; but are little deserving attention in the 
 higher walks of art, being in every respect inferior even 
 to the yellow lakes, except the best kinds of English 
 and Italian pinks, which are, in fact, yellow lakes, and 
 richer in colour than the pigments generally called 
 yellow lake. 
 
 The pigment called Stil, or 8 til cle Grain , is a similar 
 preparation, and a very fugitive yellow, the darker kind 
 of which is called brown-pink. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 FED. 
 
 Red is the second and intermediate of the primary 
 colours, standing between yellow and blue; and in like 
 intermediate relation also to white and black, or light 
 and shade. Hence it is pre-eminent among colours, as 
 well as the most positive of all, forming with yellow 
 the secondary orange and its near relatives, scarlet, &c.; 
 and with blue, the secondary purple and its allies, 
 crimson, &c. It gives some degree of warmth to all 
 colours, but most to those which partake of yellow. 
 
 It is the archeus, or principal colour, in the tertiary 
 
10 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 russet; enters subordinately into tbe two other tertiaries, 
 citrine and olive ; goes largely into the composition 
 of the various hues and shades of the semi-neutral 
 marrone , or chocolate, and its relatives, puce, murrey, 
 morello, mordore, pompadour, &c.; and more or less 
 into browns, greys, and all broken colours. It is also 
 the second power in harmonizing and contrasting other 
 colours, and in compounding black, and all neutrals, into 
 which it enters in the proportion of five,—to blue, eight, 
 —and yellow, three. 
 
 Red is a colour of double power in this respect also; 
 that in union or connection with yellow it becomes hot 
 and advancing; but mixed or combined with blue, it 
 becomes cool and retiring. It is, however, more congenial 
 with yellow than with blue, and thence partakes more of 
 the character of the former in its effects of warmth, of the 
 influence of light and distance, and of action on the 
 eye, by which the power of vision is diminished upon 
 viewing this colour in a strong light; while, on the 
 other hand, red itself appears to deepen in colour rapidly 
 in a declining light as night comes on, or in shade. 
 These qualities of red give it great importance, render 
 it difficult of management, and require it to be kept in 
 general subordinate in painting; hence it is rarely used 
 unbroken, or as the predominating colour, on which 
 account it will always appear detached or insulated, 
 unless it be repeated and subordinate in a composition. 
 Accordingly, Nature uses red sparingly, and with as 
 great reserve in the decoration of her works as she is 
 profuse in lavishing green upon them; which is of all 
 colours the most soothing to the eye, and the true com¬ 
 pensating colour, or contrasting or harmonizing equiva¬ 
 lent of red, in the proportional quantity of eleven to 
 five of red, according to surface or intensity; and 
 is, when the red inclines to scarlet or orange, a blue - 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-RED. 
 
 41 
 
 green; and when it inclines to crimson or purple, is a 
 yellow-green. 
 
 Red breaks and diffuses with white with peculiar 
 loveliness and beauty ; but it is discordant when stand¬ 
 ing with orange only, and requires to he joined or ac¬ 
 companied by their proper contrast, to resolve or har¬ 
 monize their dissonance. 
 
 In landscapes, &c., abounding with hues allied to 
 green, a red object, properly placed according to such 
 hues in light, shade, or distance, conduces wonderfully 
 to the life, beauty, harmony, and connection of the 
 colouring; and this colouring is the chief element of 
 beauty in floreal nature, the prime contrast and orna¬ 
 ment of the green garb of the vegetal kingdom. 
 
 Red being the most positive of colours, and having the 
 middle station of the primaries, while black and white 
 are the negative powers or neutrals of colours, and the 
 extremes of the scale,—red contrasts and harmonizes 
 these neutrals ; and, as it is more nearly allied to white 
 or light than to black or shade, this harmony is most 
 remarkable in the union or opposition of white and 
 red, and this contrast most powerful in black and red. 
 
 As a colour, red is in itself pre-eminently beautiful, 
 powerful, cheering, splendid and ostentatious, and com¬ 
 municates these qualities to its two secondaries, and 
 their sentiments to the mind. 
 
 Red, being a primary and simple colour, cannot be 
 composed by mixture of other colours ; it is so much 
 the instrument of beauty in nature and art in the colour 
 of flesh, flowers, &c., that good pigments of this genus 
 may of all colours be considered the most indispensable : 
 we have happily, therefore, many of this denomination, 
 of which the following are the principal :—* 
 
 * In China, red colour is consecrated to religion, and the mourning 
 worn by children is hempen sackcloth of a bright red. Love always 
 
42 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 VERMILION 
 
 Is a sulphuret of mercury, which, previous to its being 
 levigated, is called cinnabar. It is an ancient pigment, 
 the Kivvafiapi of the Greeks, and is both found in a 
 native state and produced artificially. The Chinese 
 possess a native cinnabar so pure as to require grinding 
 only to become very perfect vermilion, not at all 
 differing from that imported in large quantities from 
 China. 
 
 Chinese vermilion is of a cooler or more crimson tone 
 than that generally manufactured from factitious cin¬ 
 nabar in England, Holland, and different parts of 
 Europe. The artificial, which was anciently called 
 minium, a term now confined to red lead, does not 
 differ from the natural in any quality essential to its 
 value as a pigment; it varies in tint from dark red to 
 scarlet, and both sorts are perfectly durable and un¬ 
 exceptionable pigments. It is true, nevertheless, that 
 vermilions have obtained the double disrepute of fading 
 in a strong light and of becoming black or dark by 
 time and impure air ; but colours, like characters, suffer 
 contamination and disrepute from bad association : it 
 has happened, accordingly, that vermilion which has 
 been rendered lakey or crimson by mixture with lake 
 or carmine has faded in the light, and that when it 
 has been toned to the scarlet hue by red or orange lead 
 it has afterwards become blackened in impure air, &c., 
 both of which adulterations were formerly practised, 
 and hence the ill-fame of vermilion both with authors 
 and artists. We therefore repeat, that neither light, 
 
 had a red colour for the symbol of infancy. Cupid is a child; 
 celestial love is represented in Christian symbolism by infant angels. 
 A child was initiated into the great mysteries at Eleusis; he performed 
 a character in the last initiation, which was an emblem of death ; he 
 was named the child of the sanctuary; and the boys of the choir are 
 to this day clothed in red .—Baron F. Portal. 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-RED. 
 
 43 
 
 time, nor foul air effects sensible change in true ver¬ 
 milions. and that they may be used safely in either 
 water, oil, or fresco,—being colours of great chemical 
 permanence, unaffected by other pigments, and among 
 the least soluble of chemical substances. 
 
 Good vermilion is a powerful vivid colour, of great 
 body, weight, and opacity; when pure, it will be 
 entirely decomposed and dissipated by fire in a red heat, 
 and is, therefore, in respect to the above mixtures, easily 
 tested. 
 
 The name vermilion—derived from vermiculus (vermis, 
 a worm)—seems to have had its origin in very early 
 days, and would appear to be the scarlet referred to in 
 the Bible (Exod. xxviii. 5), where the colour rendered 
 in the authorised version “ scarlet ” is in the original 
 Hebrew called “ Tolaath Shani,” shining worm. 
 
 The term vermiculus, used by the Moors, referred to 
 the insect they called Hermes, and hence it seems the 
 name Kermesino or Cremesino which has in our time 
 become Crimson. 
 
 The following brilliant pigment from iodine has been 
 improperly called vermilion, and, if it should be used to 
 dress or give unnatural vividness to true vermilion, may 
 again bring it into disrepute. When red or orange 
 lead has been substituted for or used in adulterating 
 vermilion, muriatic acid applied to such pigments will 
 turn them more or less white or grey: but pure ver- 
 milions will not be affected by the acid, nor will they 
 by pure or caustic alkalis, which change the colour of 
 the reds of iodine. By burning more or less, vermilion . 
 may be brought to the colour of most of the red 
 
 ah n rpsj 
 
 IODINE SCARLET 
 
 Is a new pigment of a most vivid and beautiful scarlet 
 colour, exceeding the brilliancy of vermilion. It has 
 
44 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 received several false appellations, but is truly an Iodide 
 or Bi-iodide of mercury, varying in degrees of intense 
 redness. It has the body and opacity of vermilion, but 
 should be used with an ivory palette-knife, as iron and 
 most metals change it to colours varying from yellow 
 to black. Strong light rather deepens and cools it, and 
 impure air soon utterly destroys its scarlet colour, and 
 even metallizes it in substance. The charms of beauty 
 and novelty have recommended it, particularly to ama¬ 
 teurs ; and dazzling brilliancy might render it valuable 
 for high and fiery effects of colour, if any mode of 
 securing it from change should be devised; at any rate 
 it should be used pure or alone. By time alone these 
 colours vanish in a thin wash or glaze without apparent 
 cause, and they attack almost every metallic substance, 
 and some of them even in a dry state. When used in 
 water, gum ammoniac appears to secure it from change; 
 and it has been observed that, when gamboge is glazed 
 over it, it preserves its hue with constancy. 
 
 RED LEAD, 
 
 Minium* or Saturine red, is an ancient pigment, by 
 some old writers confounded with cinnabar, and called 
 Sinoper or Synoper, is a deutoxide of lead, prepared by 
 subjecting massicot to the heat of a furnace with an 
 expanded surface and free accession of air. It is of a 
 scarlet colour and fine hue, warmer than common ver¬ 
 milion; bright, but not so vivid as the bi-iodide of 
 mercury; though it has the body and opacity of both 
 these pigments, and has been confounded, even in name, 
 with vermilion, with which it was formerly customary 
 to mix it. When pure and alone, light does not affect 
 its colour; but white lead, or any oxide or preparation 
 
 * The artificial vermilion used in early manuscripts was termed 
 Minium. The name is now, however, used to designate red lead only. 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-RED. 
 
 45 
 
 of that metal mixed with it, soon deprives it of colour, 
 as acids do also; and impure air will blacken and ulti¬ 
 mately metallize it. 
 
 On account of its extreme fugitiveness when mixed 
 with white lead, it cannot be used in tints; but em¬ 
 ployed, unmixed with other pigments, in simple varnish 
 or oil not rendered drying by any metallic oxide, it 
 may, under favourable circumstances, stand a long time; 
 hence red lead has had a variable character for dura¬ 
 bility. It is in itself, however, an excellent dryer in 
 oil, and has in this view been employed with other pig¬ 
 ments ; but, as regards colour, it cannot be mixed safely 
 with any other pigments than the ochres, earths, and 
 blacks in general. Used alone, it answers, however, as 
 a good red paint for common purposes. 
 
 RED OCHRE 
 
 Is a name proper rather to a class than to an individual 
 pigment, and comprehends Indian red, light red, Vene¬ 
 tian red, scarlet ochre, Indian ochre, redding, ruddle, hole, 
 &c., besides other absurd appellations, such as English 
 vermilion and Spanish brown, or majolica. 
 
 The red ochres are, for the most part, rather hues 
 and tints than definite colours, or more properly classed 
 with the tertiary, semi-neutral, and broken colours ; 
 they are, nevertheless, often very valuable pigments for 
 their tints in dead colouring, and for their permanence, 
 &c., in water, oil, crayons, distempers, and fresco, and 
 in a low tone of colouring have the value of primaries. 
 The greater part of them are native pigments, found in 
 most countries, and very abundantly and fine in our 
 own ; but some are productions of manufacture, and we 
 have produced them in the variety of nature by art. 
 The following are the most important of these pigments, 
 most of which are available in enamel-painting :— 
 
46 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 INDIAN RED, 
 
 According to its name, is brought from Bengal, and is 
 a very rich iron ore, hematite, or peroxide of iron. It 
 is an anomalous red, of a purple-russet hue, of a good 
 body, and valued when fine for the pureness and lakey 
 tone of its tints. In a crude state it is a coarse powder, 
 full of extremely hard and brilliant particles of a dark 
 appearance, sometimes magnetic, and is greatly im¬ 
 proved by grinding and washing over. Its chemical 
 tendency is to deepen, nevertheless it is very perma¬ 
 nent ; neither light, impure air, mixture with other pig¬ 
 ments, time, nor fire, effecting in general any sensible 
 change in it; and, being opaque, it covers well. This 
 pigment varies considerably in its hues; that which is 
 most rosy beiug esteemed the best, and affording the 
 purest tints: inferior red ochres have been formerly 
 substituted for it, and have procured it a variable cha¬ 
 racter, but it is now obtained abundantly, and may be 
 had pure of respectable colourmen. Persian red is 
 another name for this pigment. 
 
 LIGHT RED 
 
 Is an ochre of a russet-orange hue, principally valued 
 for its tints. The common light red is brown ochre 
 burnt, but the principal yellow ochres afford this colour 
 best; and the brighter and better the yellow ochre is 
 from which this pigment is prepared, the brighter will 
 this red be, and the better flesh tints will it afford with 
 white. There are, howmver, native ochres brought from 
 India and other countries which supply its place, some 
 of which become darkened by time and impure air; 
 but in other respects light red has the general good 
 properties of other ochres, dries admirably, and is much 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-RED. 
 
 47 
 
 used both in figure and landscape painting. It affords 
 also an excellent crayon. 
 
 Terra puzzoli and carnagione of the Italians differ 
 from the above only in their hue, in which respect 
 other denominations are produced by dressing and 
 compounding. 
 
 VENETIAN RED, 
 
 Or Scarlet ochre. True Venetian red is said to be a 
 native ochre, but the colours sold under this name are 
 prepared artificially from sulphate of iron, or its re¬ 
 siduum in the manufacturing of acids. They are all of 
 redder and deeper hues than light red, are very perma¬ 
 nent, and have all the properties of good ochres. 
 
 Prussian red, English red, Rouge de Mars, are other 
 names for the same pigment, and Spanish red is an 
 ochre differing little from Venetian red. 
 
 DRAGON’S BLOOD 
 
 Is a resinous substance, brought principally from the 
 East Indies. It is of a warm, semi-transparent, rather 
 dull, red colour, which is deepened by impure air, and 
 darkened by light. There are two or three sorts, but 
 that in drops is the best. White lead soon destroys it, 
 and it dries with extreme difficulty in oil. It is some¬ 
 times used to colour varnishes and lackers, being soluble 
 in oils and alcohol; but, notwithstanding it has been 
 recommended as a pigment, it does not merit the atten¬ 
 tion of the artist. It was anciently called Cinnabar. 
 
 LAKE, 
 
 A name derived from the lac or lacca of India, is the 
 cognomen of a variety of transparent red and other 
 coloured pigments of great beauty, prepared for the 
 most part by precipitating coloured tinctures of dyeing 
 
- 
 
 48 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 drugs upon alumine and other earths, &c. The lakes 
 are hence a numerous class of pigments, both with 
 respect to the variety of their appellations and the 
 substances from which they are prepared. The colour¬ 
 ing matter of common lake is Brazil wood, which 
 affords a very fugitive colour. Superior red lakes are 
 prepared from cochineal, lac, and kermes ; but the best 
 of all are are those prepared from the root of the Rubia 
 tinctoria, or madder plant. Of the various red lakes the 
 following are the principal:— 
 
 All lakes ground in linseed oil are disposed to fatten, 
 or become livery, but ground stiff in poppy oil they 
 keep better for use. 
 
 RUBRIC, OR MADDER LAKES. 
 
 These pigments are of various colours, of which we 
 shall speak at present of the red or rose colours only ; 
 which have obtained, from their material, their hues, or 
 their inventor, the various names of rose rubiate, rose 
 madder, pink madder, and Field’s lakes. 
 
 The pigments formerly called madder lakes were 
 brick-reds of dull ochrous hues; but for many years 
 past these lakes have been prepared perfectly trans¬ 
 parent, and literally as beautiful and pure in colour as 
 the rose; qualities in which they are unrivalled by 
 the lakes and carmine of cochineal. The rose colours 
 of madder have justly been considered as supplying a 
 desideratum, and as the most valuable acquisition of 
 the palette in modern times, since perfectly permanent 
 and transparent reds and rose colours were previously 
 unknown to the art of painting. 
 
 These pigments are of hues warm or cool, from pure 
 pink to the deepest rose colour ;—they afford the purest 
 and truest carnation colours known; form permanent 
 tints with white lead; and their transparency renders 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-—RED. 
 
 49 
 
 them perfect glazing or finishing colours. They are 
 not liable to change by the action of either light or 
 impure air, or by mixture with other pigments; but 
 when not thoroughly edulcorated, they are, in common 
 with all lakes, tardy driers in oil, the best remedy for 
 which is the addition of a small portion of japanner’s 
 gold-size : or, as they are too beautiful and require 
 saddening for the general uses of the painter, the 
 addition of manganese brown, cappagh brown, or of 
 burnt umber, as was the practice of the Venetian 
 painters in the using of lake, adds to their powers and 
 improves their drying in oils. 
 
 Though little known in ordinary painting, they have 
 been established by experience on the palettes of our 
 first masters during nearly half a century. Madder 
 lake may be tested by liquid ammonia in which its 
 colour is not soluble as those of other lakes and carmines 
 are. 
 
 SCAKLET LAKE 
 
 Is prepared in form of drops from cochineal, and is of a 
 beautiful transparent red colour and excellent body, 
 working well both in water and oil, though, like other 
 lakes, it dries slowly. Strong light discolours and 
 destroys it both in water and oil; and its tints with 
 white lead, and its combinations with other pigments, 
 are not permanent; yet when well prepared and judi¬ 
 ciously used in sufficient body, and kept from strong 
 light, it has been known to last many years; but it 
 ought never to be employed in glazing, nor at all in 
 performances that aim at high reputation and dura¬ 
 bility. It is commonly tinted with vermilion, which 
 has probably been mixed with lakes at all times to give 
 them a scarlet hue, and add to their body ; Florentine 
 
 D 
 
50 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 lake, Hamburg lake, Chinese lake, Roman and Venetian 
 lakes, are but varieties of the same pigment. 
 
 m 
 
 LAC LAKE, 
 
 Prepared from the lac or lacca of India, is perhaps the 
 first of the family of lakes, and resembles the former 
 from Cochineal in being the production of similar insects. 
 Its colour is rich, transparent, and deep,—less brilliant 
 and more durable than that of cochineal, but inferior 
 in both these respects to the colours of madder. Used 
 in body or strong glazing, as a shadow colour, it is of 
 great power and much permanence ; but in thin glazing 
 it changes and flies, as it does also in tint with white 
 lead. 
 
 A great variety of lakes, equally beautiful as those 
 of cochineal, have been prepared from this substance 
 in a recent state in India and China, many of which 
 we have tried, and found uniformly less durable in pro¬ 
 portion as they were more beautiful. In the properties 
 of drying, &c., they resemble other lakes. 
 
 This appears to have been the lake which has stood 
 best in old pictures, and was probably used by the 
 Venetians, who had the trade of India when painting 
 flourished at Venice. It is sometimes called Indian 
 lake. 
 
 CARMINE, 
 
 A name originally given only to the fine feculences of 
 the tinctures of kermes and cochineal, denotes gene¬ 
 rally at present any pigment which resembles them in 
 beauty, richness of colour, and fineness of texture: 
 hence we hear of blue and other coloured carmines, 
 though the term is principally confined to the crimson 
 and scarlet colours produced from cochineal, by the 
 agency of tin. These carmines are the brightest and 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-RED. 
 
 51 
 
 most beautiful colours prepared from cochineal,—of a 
 fine powdery texture and velvety richness. They vary 
 from a rose colour to a warm red; work admirably; 
 and are in other respects, except the most essential— 
 the want of durability—excellent pigments in water 
 and oil: they have not, however, any permanence in 
 tint with white lead, and in glazing are soon dis¬ 
 coloured and destroyed by the action of light, but are 
 little affected by impure air, and are in other respects 
 like the lakes of cochineal; all the pigments prepared 
 from which may be tested by their solubility in liquid 
 ammonia, which purples lakes prepared from the wood's, 
 but does not dissolve their colours. 
 
 MADDER CARMINE, 
 
 Or Field's carmine, is, as its name expresses, prepared 
 from madder. It differs from the rose lakes of madder 
 principally in texture, and in the greater richness, 
 depth, and transparency of its colour, which is of various 
 hues, from rose colour to crimson. These in other 
 respects resemble the rubric or madder lakes, and are 
 the only durable carmines for painting either in water 
 or oil; for both which their texture qualifies them 
 without previous grinding or preparation. 
 
 ROSE PINK 
 
 Is a coarse kind of lake, produced by dyeing chalk or 
 whitening with decoction of Brazil wood, &c. It is a 
 pigment much used by paper-stainers, and in the com¬ 
 monest distemper painting, &c., but is too perishable 
 to merit the attention of the artist. 
 
52 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 BLUE. 
 
 The third and last of the primary or simple colours is 
 blue, which bears the same relation to shade that yellow 
 does to light; hence it is the most retiring and diffusive 
 of all colours, except purple and black ; and all colours 
 have the power of throwing it back in painting, in 
 greater or less degree, in proportion to the intimacy of 
 their relations to light ; first white, then yellow, orange, 
 red, &c. 
 
 Blue alone possesses entirely the quality technically 
 called coldness in colouring, and it communicates this 
 property variously to all other colours with which it 
 happens to be compounded. It is most powerful in a 
 strong light, and appears to become neutral and pale 
 in a declining light, owing to its ruling affinity with 
 black or shade, and its power of absorbing light; 
 hence the eye of the artist is liable to be deceived when 
 painting with blue in too low a light, or toward the 
 close of day, to the endangering of the warmth and 
 harmony of his work. 
 
 Blue mixed with yellow forms green, and mixed 
 with red it forms purple; it characterizes the tertiary 
 olive, and is also the prime colour of the neutral black, 
 &c., and also of the semi-neutral greys, slate, lead 
 colours, &c. ; hence blue is changed in hue less than 
 any colour by mixture with black, as it is also by dis¬ 
 tance. It enters also subordinately into all other ter¬ 
 tiary and broken colours, and, as nearest in the scale 
 to black, it breaks and contrasts powerfully and agree¬ 
 ably with white, as in watchet or pale blues, the sky, 
 &c. It is less active than the other primaries in reflect¬ 
 ing light, and therefore sooner disappears by distance. 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-BLUE. 
 
 53 
 
 It is an ancient doctrine that the azure of the sky is a 
 compound of light and darkness, and some have argued 
 hence that blue is not a primary colour, but a compound 
 of black and white; but pure or neutral black and 
 white compound in infinite shades, all of which are 
 neutral also or grey . It is true that a mixture of black 
 and white is of a cool hue, because black is not a 
 primary colour, but a compound of the three primary 
 colours in which blue predominates, and this predo¬ 
 minance is rendered more sensible when black is 
 diluted with white. 
 
 Blue is discordant in juxtaposition with green, and 
 in a less degree so with purple, both which are cool 
 colours, and therefore blue requires its contrast, orange , 
 in equal proportion, either of service or intensity, to 
 compensate or resolve its dissonances and correct its 
 coldness. Botanists remark that blue flowers are much 
 more rare than those of the other primary colours and 
 their compounds, and hence advise the florist to culti¬ 
 vate blue flowers more sedulously. Artists, too, have 
 sometimes acted upon this principle of the botanist 
 in introducing blue flowers into pictures, preferring 
 therein rareness and novelty to truth and harmony: 
 the artist has, however, more command of his materials 
 than the botanist in resolving a discord;—Nature 
 nevertheless, left to herself, is not long in harmonizing 
 the dissonances men put upon her. Florists may fur¬ 
 ther remark, that blue flowers are readily changed by 
 cultivation into red and white, but never into yellow; 
 that yellow flowers are as readily converted into red and 
 white, but never into blue ; and that red flowers are 
 changeable into orange or purple, but never into blue 
 or yellow : the reasons of all which is apparent accord¬ 
 ing to our principles. Nature also regulates the varie¬ 
 gation of flowers by the same law of colouring. 
 
54 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 Of all colours, except black, blue contrasts white 
 most powerfully. In all harmonious combinations of 
 colours, whether of mixture or neighbourhood, blue is 
 the natural, ruling tone, universally agreeable to the 
 eye when in due relation to the composition, and may 
 be more frequently repeated therein, pure or unbroken, 
 than either of the other primaries. These are, how¬ 
 ever, matters of taste, as in music, and subject to 
 artificial rules founded on the laws of chromatic com¬ 
 bination. 
 
 As blue cannot be composed by mixture of other 
 colours, it is an original and primary colour. The pau¬ 
 city of blue pigments, in comparison with those of 
 yellow and red, is amply compensated by their value 
 and perfection ; nor is the palette without novelty, nor 
 deficient in pigments of this colour : of which the fol¬ 
 lowing comprise all that are in any respect of import¬ 
 ance to the painter.* 
 
 ULTRAMARINE, 
 
 Or Azure , is prepared from the lapis lazuli, a precious 
 stone found principally in Persia and Siberia. It is 
 the most celebrated of all modern pigments, and, from 
 its name and attributes, is probably the same as the 
 no less celebrated Armenian blue , or Cyanus, of the 
 ancients. 
 
 Ultramarine has not obtained its reputation upon 
 slight pretensions, being, when skilfully prepared, of 
 the most exquisitely beautiful blue, varying from the 
 
 * The Salisbury Breviary contains several miniatures, in which 
 appear biers covered with a blue mortuary cloth. On some others, 
 but more rarely, the pall is red ; finally, on one only is the pall red, 
 and the dais which covers the catafalque blue. These two colours, one 
 over the other, indicate divine love raising the soul to immortality. 
 The dais is the emblem of heaven ; violet, composed of red and blue, 
 was likewise a mortuary colour. In the same MS. appears a coffin, 
 with a violet pall .—Baron F. Portal. 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-BLUE. 
 
 55 
 
 ! utmost depth of shadow to the highest brilliancy of 
 : light and colour,—transparent in all its shades, and 
 pure in its tints. It is of a true medial blue, when 
 ; perfect, partaking neither of purple, on the one hand, 
 nor of green on the other; it is neither subject to in- 
 : jury by damp and impure air, nor by the intensest 
 action of light; and it is so eminently permanent that 
 , it remains perfectly unchanged in the oldest paintings; 
 and there can be little doubt that it is the same pig¬ 
 ment which still continues with all its original force 
 and beauty, in the temples of Upper Egypt, after an 
 exposure of at least three thousand years. The ancient 
 Egyptians had, however, other blues, of which we have 
 already mentioned their counterfeit Armenian blue, and 
 several vitreous blues, with which they decorated their 
 figures and mummies. 
 
 Ultramarine dries well, works well in oil and fresco, 
 and neither gives nor receives injury from other good 
 pigments. It has so much of the quality of light in it, 
 and of the tint of air,—is so purely a sky colour, and 
 is hence so singularly adapted to the direct and reflex 
 light of the sky, and to become the antagonist of sun¬ 
 shine,—that it is indispensable to the landscape-painter; 
 and it is so pure, so true, and so unchangeable in its 
 tints and glazings, as to be no less essential in imi¬ 
 tating the exquisite colouring of nature in flesh and 
 flowers. 
 
 To this may be added, that it enters so admirably 
 into purples, blacks, greens, greys, and broken colours, 
 that it has justly obtained the reputation of clearing or 
 carrying light and air into all colours both in mixture 
 and glazing, and a sort of claim to universality through¬ 
 out a picture. 
 
 It is true, nevertheless, that ultramarine is not always 
 entitled to the whole of this commendation, being, as a 
 
56 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 precious material, subjected to adulteration; and it has 
 been dyed, damped, and oiled to enrich its appearance : 
 but these attempts of fraud may be easily detected, and 
 the genuine may easily be distinguished from the spu¬ 
 rious by dropping a few particles of the pigment into 
 lemon-juice or any other acid, which almost instantly 
 destroys the colour of the true ultramarine totally, and 
 without effervescence. Ultramarine has been used in 
 the arts from a very early period, and in the middle ages 
 special stipulations were made in regard to its use in 
 pictures; and it was a punishable offence for painters 
 to use colours of an inferior quality—which, owing to 
 the expensiveness of ultramarine in particular, they 
 were likely to do. 
 
 Though unexceptionable as an oil colour, both in 
 solid painting and glazing, it does not work so well as 
 some other blues in water; but when extremely fine in 
 texture, or when a considerable portion of gum, which 
 renders it transparent, can be used with it to give it 
 connection or adhesion while flowing, it becomes a pig¬ 
 ment no less valuable in water painting than in oil; 
 very little gum can however be employed with it when 
 its vivid azure is to be preserved, as in illuminated 
 manuscripts and missals. 
 
 Pure ultramarine varies in shade from light to dark, 
 and in hue from pale warm azure to the deepest cold 
 blue; the former of which, when impure in colour, is 
 called ultramarine ashes. 
 
 FACTITIOUS ULTRAMARINE. 
 
 French and German Ultramarine, a variety of these, 
 English, Erench, and German, have been before the 
 public under various names. They are in general of 
 deep rich blue colours, darker and less azure than fine 
 ultramarine of the same depths, and answer to the same 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-BLUE. 
 
 57 
 
 acid test, but are variously affected by fire and other 
 agents: none of them, however, possess the merits of 
 genuine ultramarine. Fire generally darkens these 
 colours, but the best way of distinguishing factitious 
 ultramarine from the natural is by the violent effer¬ 
 vescence of the former when dropped into nitrous acid. 
 They may be regarded as a great improvement upon 
 the factitious blues of the palette, rivalling in depth, 
 although not equalling in colour, the pure azure of 
 genuine ultramarine, for which in some uses they may 
 be substituted, and are a valuable acquisition in decora¬ 
 tion where brilliancy is required. 
 
 These manufactured colours become darker when 
 mixed with oil, and when used with gum or size as a 
 medium require great care in mixing, for if too much 
 of the medium be used, the colour dries much darker 
 than the original powder, and, if too little, the blue is 
 not fixed, but rubs off. These colours are largely used 
 in printing, but as their hue is much injured by the 
 yellow tinge of the oil with which they are mixed to 
 form printing ink, it is advisable in fine work, and 
 where purity of colour is required, to print in 
 varnish only, and to dust the powder-blue over the 
 sheets. The work is printed on highly glazed paper, 
 and the colour thus adheres to the varnish only, and 
 when dry the superfluous blue is dusted off. 
 
 COBALT BLUE 
 
 Is the name now appropriated to the modern improved 
 blue prepared with metallic cobalt, or its oxides, 
 although it properly belongs to a class of pigments 
 including Saxon blue, Dutch ultramarine, ThenarcV s blue, 
 Roual blue, Hungary blue, Smalt, Zaffire or Enamel blue , 
 and Dumont's blue. These differ principally in the 
 
58 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OE COLOURING. 
 
 degrees of purity, and the nature of the earths with 
 which they are compounded. 
 
 The first is the finest Cobalt blue, and may not im¬ 
 properly be called a blue lake, the colour of which is 
 brought up by fire, in the manner of enamel blues; 
 and it is, when well prepared, of a pure blue colour, 
 tending neither to green nor purple, and approaching 
 in brilliancy to the finest ultramarine. It has not, 
 however, the body, transparency, and depth, nor the 
 natural and modest hue, of the latter ; yet it is superior 
 in beauty to all other blue pigments. Cobalt blue 
 works better in water than ultramarine in general 
 does; and is hence an acquisition to those who have 
 not the management of the latter, and also on account 
 of its cheapness. It resists the action of strong light 
 and acids, but its beauty declines by time and impure 
 air. 
 
 It dries well in oil, does not injure or suffer injury 
 from pigments in general, and may be used with a 
 proper flux in enamel painting, and perhaps also in 
 fresco. 
 
 Various appellations have been given to this pigment 
 from its preparers and venders, and it has been called 
 Vienna blue, Paris blue, azure, and, very improperly, 
 ultramarine. 
 
 SMALT, 
 
 Sometimes called Azure, is an impure vitreous cobalt 
 blue, prepared upon a base of silex, and much used by 
 the laundress for neutralising the tawny or Isabella 
 colour of linen, &c., under the name of Powder-blue. 
 It is in general of a coarse gritty texture, light blue 
 colour, and little body. It does not work so well as 
 the preceding, but dries quickly, and resembles it in 
 other respects ;—it varies, however, exceedingly in its 
 
I 
 
 OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS-BLUE. 59 
 
 | qualities; and the finer sort, called Dumont’s blue, 
 which is employed in water-colour painting, is remark - 
 1 ably rich and beautiful. 
 
 ROYAL BLUE 
 
 Is a deeper coloured and very beautiful smalt, and is 
 also a vitreous pigment, principally used in painting 
 on glass and enamel, in which uses it is very perma¬ 
 nent ; but in water and oil its beauty soon decays, as is 
 no uncommon case with other vitrified pigments ; and 
 it is not in other respects an eligible pigment, being, 
 notwithstanding its beautiful appearance, very inferior 
 to other cobalt blues. 
 
 PRUSSIAN BLUE, 
 
 Otherwise called Berlin blue, Parisian blue, Prussiate of 
 Iron, or Cyanide of Iron, is rather a modern pigment, 
 produced by the combination of the prussic or hydro¬ 
 cyanic acid, iron, and alumina. It is of a deep and 
 powerful blue colour, of vast body and considerable 
 transparency, and forms tints of much beauty with 
 white lead, though they are by no means equal in 
 purity and brilliancy to those of cobalt and ultra- 
 marine, nor have they the perfect durability of the 
 latter. 
 
 Notwithstanding Prussian blue lasts a long time 
 under favourable circumstances, its tints fade by the 
 action of strong light, and it is purpled or darkened by 
 damp or impure air. It becomes greenish also some¬ 
 times by a development of the yellow oxide of iron, 
 and it is therefore desirable to add to it a very small 
 quantity of crimson lake, which in a great degree 
 counteracts this tendency. The colour of this pigment 
 has also the singular property of fluctuating, or of 
 going and coming, under some changes of circum- 
 
60 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 
 stances; which property it owes to the action and 
 reaction by which it acquires and relinquishes oxygen 
 alternately : and time has a neutralising tendency upon 
 its colour. It must be used carefully in mixing, as 
 it is very powerful, and so much of the colour with 
 which it is to be mixed is often required to produce the 
 desired tint, that a greater quantity is compounded than 
 is wanted at the time, and waste is thus caused. The 
 most advisable plan, say in compounding green, is to 
 place the yellow first on the slab or palette, and to add 
 the blue, little by little, until the exact tint is obtained. 
 
 It dries and glazes well in oil, but its great and 
 principal use is in painting deep blues ; in which its 
 body secures its permanence, and its transparency gives 
 force to its depth. It is also valuable in compounding 
 deep purples with lake, and is a powerful neutraliser 
 and component of black, and adds considerably to its 
 intensity. It is a pigment much used when mixed 
 with white lead in the common offices of painting, also 
 in preparing blues for the laundress, in dyeing, and in 
 compounding colours of various denominations. Lime 
 and Alkalis injure or destroy this colour 
 
 ANTWERP BLUE 
 
 Is a lighter-coloured and somewhat brighter Prussian 
 blue, or ferro-prussiate of alumine, having more of the 
 terrene basis, but all the other qualities of that pig¬ 
 ment, except its depth. Haarlem blue is a similar 
 pigment. 
 
 INDIGO, 
 
 Or Indian blue, is a pigment manufactured in the East 
 and West Indies from several plants, but principally 
 from the Anil or Indigofera. It is of various qualities, 
 and has been long known, and of great us^ in dyeing. 
 
OF THE PRIMARY COLOURS—BLUE. 
 
 61 
 
 In painting it is not so bright as Prussian blue, but is 
 extremely powerful and transparent; hence it may be 
 substituted for some of the uses of Prussian blue as the 
 latter now is for indigo. It is of great body, and glazes 
 and works well both in water and oil. Its relative 
 permanence as a dye has obtained it a false character 
 of extreme durability in painting, a quality in which 
 it is nevertheless very inferior even to Prussian blue. 
 
 It is injured by impure air, and, in glazing, some 
 specimens are firmer than others, but not durable; in 
 tint with white lead they are all fugitive : when used, 
 however, in considerable body in shadow, it is more 
 permanent, but in all respects inferior to Prussian blue 
 in painting. Intense blue is indigo refined by solution 
 and precipitation, in which state it is equal in colour to 
 Antwerp blue. By this process indigo also becomes 
 more durable, and much more powerful, transparent, 
 and deep. It washes and works admirably in water : 
 in other respects it has the common properties of 
 indigo. We have been assured by an eminent archi¬ 
 tect, that these blues of indigo have the property of 
 pushing or detaching Indian ink from paper. The 
 same is supposed to belong to other blues ; but as this 
 effect is chemical, it can hardly be an attribute of mere 
 colour. 
 
 BLUE VERDITER 
 
 Is a blue oxide of copper, or precipitate of the nitrate 
 of copper by lime, and is of a beautiful light blue 
 colour. It is little affected by light; but time, damp, 
 and impure air turn it green, and ultimately blacken 
 it,—changes which ensue even more rapidly in oil than 
 water ; it is therefore by no means an eligible pigment 
 in oil, and is principally confined to distemper painting 
 and the uses of the paper-stainer, though it has been 
 
62 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 found to stand well many years in water-colour draw¬ 
 ings and in crayon paintings when preserved dry. It 
 has been improperly substituted for Bice. 
 
 SAUNDERS BLUE, 
 
 A corrupt name, from Cendres Blues, the original deno¬ 
 mination probably of ultramarine ashes, is of two kinds, 
 the natural and the artificial; the artificial is a verditer 
 prepared by lime or an alkali from nitrate or sulphate 
 of copper; the natural is a blue mineral found near 
 copper-mines, and is the same as Mountain blue. A very 
 beautiful substance of this kind, a carbonate of copper , 
 both blue and green, is found in Cumberland. None of 
 these blues of copper are, however, durable : used in oil, 
 they become green, and, as pigments, are precisely of 
 the character of verditers. Schweinfurt blue is a similar 
 pigment. 
 
 C2ERULEUM. 
 
 This is a preparation from cobalt; it is of a much 
 cooler tone than any other permanent blue, and is 
 useful as a water colour. It has a very dense body, 
 and therefore requires some skill in using. It is not 
 adapted for mixing with oils, as the delicacy of its tone 
 is thus injured. 
 
 BICE, 
 
 Blue, Bice, Ins, or Terre Blue, is sometimes confounded 
 with the above copper blues; but the true bice is said 
 to be prepared from the lapis Armenius of Germany 
 and the Tyrol, and is a light bright hue. The true 
 Armenian stone of the ancients was probably the lapis 
 lazuli of later times, and the blue prepared therefrom 
 the same as our ultramarine. Pale ultramarine may 
 well supply the place of this pigment, but copper blues 
 substituted for it are not to be depended on. 
 
OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS-ORANGE. 
 
 63 
 
 Ground smalts, blue verditer, and other pigments 
 have passed under the name of bice ; which has, there¬ 
 fore, become a very equivocal pigment, and its name 
 nearly obsolete : nor is it at present to be found in the 
 shops, although much commended by old writers on 
 the art. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS. 
 
 ORANGE. 
 
 Orange is the first of the secondary colours in relation 
 to light, being in all the variety of its hues composed 
 of yellow and red . A true or perfect orange is such a 
 compound of red and yellow as will neutralise a perfect 
 blue in equal quantity either of surface or intensity, 
 and the proportions of such compound are five of per¬ 
 fect red to three of perfect yellow. "When orange 
 inclines to red, it takes the names of scarlet, poppy, 
 coquilicot, &c. In gold colour, &c., it leans towards 
 yellow. It enters into combination with green in form¬ 
 ing the tertiary citrine, and with purple it constitutes 
 the tertiary russet: it forms also a series of warm semi¬ 
 neutral colours with black, and harmonizes in contact 
 and variety of tints with white. 
 
 Orange is an advancing colour in painting : m 
 nature it is effective at a great distance, acting power- 
 fully on the eye : diminishing its sensibility in propor¬ 
 tion to the strength of the light in which it is viewed ; 
 and it is of the hue and partakes of the vividness of 
 
64 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 sunshine, as it does also of all the powers of its com¬ 
 ponents, red and yellow.* 
 
 This secondary is pre-eminently a warm colour, being 
 the equal contrast or antagonist in this respect, as it is 
 also in colour, to blue, to which the attribute of coolness 
 peculiarly belongs: hence it is discordant when stand¬ 
 ing alone with yellow or with red, unresolved by their 
 proper contrasts. 
 
 In the well-known fruit of the Aurantium, called 
 orange from its golden hue, from which fruit this colour 
 borrows its well-adapted name, nature has associated 
 two primary colours with two primary tastes which 
 seem to be analogous ; a red and yellow compound 
 colour, with a sweet and acid compound flavour. 
 
 The poets confound orange with its ruling colour 
 yellow, and, by a metonymy, use in its place the terms 
 golden, gilding, &c., as gilding sometimes supplies the 
 place of this colour in painting 
 
 The list of original orange pigments is so deficient, 
 that in some treatises orange is not even named as a 
 colour, most of them being called reds or yellows : and 
 orange being a colour compounded of red and yellow, 
 the place of original orange pigments may be supplied 
 by mixture of the two latter colours; by glazing one 
 over the other; by stippling, or other modes of break¬ 
 ing and intermixing them in working, according to the 
 nature of the work and the effect required. For reasons 
 before given, mixed pigments are inferior to the simple 
 or homogeneous in colour, working, and other proper¬ 
 ties: yet some pigments mix and combine more cor¬ 
 dially than others. In oil the compounding of colours 
 is more easily effected. 
 
 * The Oriflamme was the banner of St. Denis, identical with the 
 Grecian Bacchus or Dionysios in sanctifying the soul. Its colour was 
 purple azured and gold ; the two colours producing orange were 
 separated in the Oriflamme, hut reunited in its name .—Baron F. Portal . 
 
OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS-ORANGE. 
 
 65 
 
 In mixing orange for water-colour painting, care 
 must be taken that the colour is well stirred as each 
 brushful is taken, in order that the two colours may 
 not separate. This is particularly liable to be the 
 case where a mineral and a vegetable colour are thus 
 temporarily combined, as, for instance, vermilion and 
 gamboge ; the former of which, being very much heavier 
 than the latter, sinks to the bottom, and the colour on 
 the slab consists as it were of two strata, the lower 
 pure vermilion and the upper simply gamboge. It is 
 better to mix an orange in from two colours having 
 similar bases, as in water colour, from gamboge and 
 lake, &c.; in every case, however, the tint must be 
 constantly stirred. 
 
 CHROME ORANGE 
 
 Is a beautiful orange pigment, and is one of the most 
 durable and least exceptionable chromates of lead, and 
 not of iron, as it is commonly called, or Mars Scarlet — 
 another misnomer of this pigment, which is truly a 
 subchromate of lead. 
 
 It is, when well prepared, of a brij. ht ?r colour than 
 vermilion, but is inferior in durability and body to the 
 latter pigment, being liable to the changes and affini¬ 
 ties of the chrome yellows in a somewhat less degree, 
 but less liable to change than the orange oxide of lead. 
 Laque Mineral is a French pigment, a species of chromic 
 orange, similar to the above. This name is also given 
 to orange oxide of iron, and Chromate of Mercury , which 
 is improperly classed as a red with vermilion; for 
 though it is of a bright ochrous red colour in powder, 
 it is, when ground, of a bright orange ochie colour, 
 and affords, with white, very pure orange-coloured tints. 
 Nevertheless it is a bad pigment, since light soon 
 
H6 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 changes it to a deep russet colour, and foul air reduces 
 it to extreme blackness. 
 
 ORANGE OCHRE, 
 
 Called also Spanish ochre , &c., is a very bright yellow 
 ochre burnt, by which operation it acquires warmth, 
 colour, transparency, and depth. In colour it is mode¬ 
 rately bright, forms good flesh tints with white, dries 
 and works well both in water and oil, and is a very 
 durable and eligible pigment. It may be used in 
 enamel-painting, and has all the properties of its 
 original ochre in other respects. 
 
 MARS ORANGE 
 
 Is an artificial iron ochre, similar to the above, of which 
 we formerly prepared a variety brighter, richer, and 
 more transparent than the above, and in other respects 
 of the same character; but requiring to be employed 
 cautiously with colours affected by iron, being more 
 chemically active than native ochres, several of which 
 and their compounds become orange by burning. 
 
 BURNT SIENNA EARTH 
 
 Is, as its name expresses, the Terra di Sienna burnt, 
 and is of an orange russet colour. What has been said 
 of orange ochre may be repeated of burnt Sienna earth. 
 It is richer in colour, deeper, and more transparent, 
 and works and dries better than raw Sienna earth; but 
 in other respects has all the properties of its parent 
 colour, and is permanent and eligible w T herever it may 
 be useful, and valuable in graining. Light red and 
 Venetian red, before treated of, are also to be considered 
 as impure, but durable orange colours ; and several 
 preparations of iron afford excellent colours of this class. 
 Burnt Sienna is the best colour for shading gold. It 
 
OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS-ORANGE. 67 
 
 works well on gold-leaf, when mixed with a small 
 quantity of prepared ox-gall. 
 
 ORANGE LEAD 
 
 Is an oxide of lead of a more vivid and warmer colour 
 than red lead, but in other respects does not differ 
 essentially from that pigment in its qualification for 
 the palette. 
 
 ORANGE ORPIMENT, 
 
 Or Realgar, improperly called also Red orpiment, since 
 it is of a brilliant orange colour, inclining to yellow. 
 There are two kinds of this pigment; the one native, 
 the other factitious ; the first of which is the sandarac 
 of the ancients, and is of rather a redder colour than 
 the factitious. They are the same in qualities as pig¬ 
 ments, and differ not otherwise than in colour from 
 Yellow orpiment, to which the old painters gave the 
 orange hue by heat, and then called it Alchymy and 
 Burnt orpiment . 
 
 ANTIMONY ORANGE 
 
 Is a hydro-sulphuret of antimony of an orange colour, 
 which is destroyed by the action of strong light. It is 
 a bad dryer in oil, injurious to many colours, and in 
 no respect an eligible pigment either in oil or water. 
 
 ANOTTA, 
 
 Arnotta, Annotto, Camera, Chica, Terra Orleana, 
 Roucou, &c., are names of several vegetable substances 
 of an orange red colour, brought from the West Indies; 
 they are soluble in water and spirits of wine, but very 
 fugitive and changeable, and not fit for painting. 
 Anotta is principally used in dyeing, and in colouring 
 cheese. It is also an ingredient in some lackers. 
 
68 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 OF GREEN. 
 
 Green, which occupies the middle station in the 
 natural scale of colours and in relation to light and 
 shade, is the second of the secondary colours : it is 
 composed of the extreme primaries, yellow and Hue, 
 and is most perfect in hue when constituted in 
 the proportions of three of yellow to eight of blue of 
 equal intensities; because such a green will perfectly 
 neutralise and contrast a perfect red in the proportions 
 of eleven to five either of space or power, as adduced 
 on our scale of Chromatic Equivalents. Of all com¬ 
 pound colours, green is the most effective, distinct, and 
 striking, affecting the mind with surprise and delight, 
 when first produced by the mixture of blue and yellow; 
 so dissimilar in its constituents does it appear to the 
 untutored eye. Green, mixed with orange, converts it 
 into the one extreme tertiary, citrine; and, mixed with 
 purple, it becomes the other extreme tertiary, olive: 
 hence its relations and accordances are more general, 
 and it contrasts more agreeably with all colours, than 
 any other individual colour. It has, accordingly, been 
 adopted with perfect wisdom in nature as the general 
 garb of the vegetable creation. It is, indeed, in every 
 respect a central or middle colour, being the contrast and 
 compensatory of the middle primary, red, on the one hand, 
 and of the middle tertiary, russet, on the other : and, 
 unlike the other secondaries, all its hues, whether tend¬ 
 ing to blue or yellow, are of the same denomination. 
 
 These attributes of green,* which render it so uni¬ 
 versally effective in contrasting of colours, cause it also 
 
 * In heraldry, sinople (the green of blazonry) also signified love, 
 joy, abundance. “ Archbishops,” says Anselm, “ wear a hat of sinople 
 
OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS—GREEN. 
 
 69 
 
 to become the least useful in compounding them, and 
 the most apt to defile other colours in mixture ; never¬ 
 theless it forms valuable semi-neutrals of the olive class 
 with black, for of such subdued tones are the greens, 
 by which the more vivid hues of nature are contrasted; 
 accordingly, the various greens of foliage are always 
 more or less semi-neutral in colour, declining into grey. 
 As green is the most general colour of vegetable nature, 
 and principal in foliage, so red, its harmonizing colour, 
 and compounds of red, are most general and principal 
 in flowers. Purple flowers are commonly contrasted 
 with centres or variegations of bright yellow, as blue 
 flowers are with like relievings of orange; and there 
 is a prevailing hue, or character, in the green colour 
 of the foliage of almost every plant, by which it is 
 harmonized with the colours of its flowers. 
 
 The principal discord of green is blue; and when 
 they approximate or accompany each other, they require 
 to be resolved by the apposition of warm colours ; and 
 it is in this way that the warmth of distance and the 
 horizon reconcile the azure of the sky with the green¬ 
 ness of the landscape. Its less powerful discord is 
 yellow, which requires to be similarly resolved by a 
 purple red, or its principles. In its tones green is 
 cool or warm, sedate or gay, either as it inclines to 
 blue or to yellow ; yet it is in its general effects cool, 
 calm, temperate, and refreshing; and, having little 
 power in reflecting light, is in a mean degree a retiring 
 colour, and readily subdued by distance; for the same 
 reasons it excites the retina less than most colours, and 
 is cool and grateful to the eye. As a colour indivi¬ 
 dually, green is eminently beautiful and agreeable, but 
 it is more particularly so when contrasted with its com- 
 
 with interlaced cords of green silk.Bishops likewise wear a hat 
 
 of sinople .”—Baron F. Portal. 
 
70 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 pensating colour, red, as it often is in nature, and even 
 in the green leaves and the young shoots of plants and 
 trees; and they are the most generally attractive of all 
 colours in this respect. They are hence powerful and 
 effective colours on the feelings and passions, and re¬ 
 quire, therefore, to be subdued or toned to prevent 
 excitement and to preserve the Balance of harmony in 
 painting. 
 
 The number of pigments of any colour is in general 
 proportioned to its importance; hence the variety of 
 greens is very great, though their classes are not very 
 numerous. The following are the principal:— 
 
 MIXED GREENS. 
 
 Green being a compound of blue and yellow, pig¬ 
 ments of these colours may be used to supply the 
 place of green pigments, by compounding them in the 
 several ways of working; by mixing, glazing, hatching, 
 or otherwise blending them in the proportions of the 
 hues and tints required. In compounding colours, it 
 is desirable not only that they should agree chemically, 
 but that they should also have, as much as may be, the 
 same degree of durability; and in these respects Prus¬ 
 sian or Antwerp blue and gamboge form a judicious, 
 though not extremely durable, compound, similar to 
 Variety’s green, Hooker’s green, &c., used in water. In 
 common oil painting greens are formed by mixture of 
 the ordinary blue and yellow pigments with additions 
 of white. But these are less durable than the original 
 green pigments prepared from copper, of which there 
 are a great variety. But the yellow ochres with 
 Prussian blue afford more eligible pigments than the 
 brighter mixtures of chrome yellow afford. Cobalt 
 greens, chrome greens, and Prussian green are names for 
 similar mixtures. 
 
OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS-GREEN. 
 
 71 
 
 TERRE-VERTE. 
 
 True Terre-Yerte is an ochre of a bluish gTeen not 
 very bright, in substance moderately hard, and smooth 
 in texture. It is variously a bluish or grey, coaly clay, 
 combined with yellow oxide of iron or yellow ochre. 
 Although not a bright, it is a very durable pigment, 
 being unaffected by strong light and impure air, and 
 combining with other colours without injury. It has 
 not much body, is semi-transparent, and dries well in 
 oil. There are varieties of this pigment ; but the 
 green earths which have copper for their colouring 
 matter are, although generally of brighter colours, 
 inferior in their other qualities, and are not true terre- 
 vertes. 
 
 It has been called Green Bice, and the greens called 
 Verona green, and Verdetto, or Roily green, are similar 
 native pigments of a warmer colour. These greens are 
 found in the Mendip Hills, France, Italy, and the Island 
 of Cyprus, and have been employed as pigments from 
 the earliest times. 
 
 CHROME GREENS, 
 
 Commonly so called, are compound pigments, of which 
 chrome yellow is the principal colouring substance. 
 These are also called Brunswick green, &c., and are com¬ 
 pounds of chromate of lead with Prussian and other 
 blue colours, constituting fine greens to the eye, suit¬ 
 able to some of the ordinary purposes of mechanic art, 
 but unfit for fine art. 
 
 There is, however, a true chrome green, or Native 
 green, the colouring matter of which is the pure oxide 
 of chrome, and, being free from lead, is durable both 
 against the action of the sun’s light and impure air. 
 It is of various degrees of transparency or opacity, and 
 
72 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 of several hues more or less warm or cool, which are all 
 rather fine than brilliant greens, and afford pure natural 
 and durable tints. True Chrome greens neither give 
 nor receive injury from other pigments, and are eligible 
 for either water or oil painting, in the latter of which 
 they usually dry well. They afford valuable colours 
 also in enamel painting. To this substance it is that 
 the emerald owes its green colour. 
 
 COBALT GREENS. 
 
 There are two pigments of this denomination—the 
 one a compound of cobalt blue and chromic yellow, 
 which partakes of the qualities of those pigments, and 
 may be formed by mixture,—the other, an original 
 pigment prepared immediately from cobalt, with addi¬ 
 tion of oxide of iron, or zinc, which is of a pure but not 
 very powerful green colour, and durable both in water 
 and oil, in the latter of which it dries well. Rinmann's 
 green is of this kind. Its habits are nearly the same 
 as those of cobalt blue. 
 
 COPPER GREEN 
 
 Is the appellation of a class rather than of an individual 
 pigment, under which are comprehended Verdigris, 
 Verditer, Malachite, Mineral green, Green bice, Schee/e’s 
 green, Schweinfurt or Vienna green, Hungary green, 
 Emerald green, true Brunswick green, Green lake, Moun¬ 
 tain green, African green, French green, Saxon green, 
 Persian green, Patent green, Marine green, Olympian 
 green, &c. Old authors mention others under the 
 names of individuals who prepare them, such are Yerde 
 de Barildo, &c. 
 
 The general characteristics of these greens are bright¬ 
 ness of colour, well suited to the purposes of house- 
 painting, but not in general adapted to the modesty of 
 
OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS-GREEN. 
 
 73 
 
 nature in fine art. They Lave considerable permanence, 
 except from tbe action of damp and impure air, which, 
 ultimately blacken them: to which they have also a 
 tendency by time. They have a good body, and dry 
 well in oil, but, like the whites of lead, are all dele¬ 
 terious substances. We will particularise the principal 
 sorts. 
 
 VERDIGRIS, 
 
 Or Viride JEris, is of two kinds, common or impure, 
 and crystallized or Distilled Verdigris, or, more properly, 
 refined verdigris. They are both acetates of copper, of 
 a bright colour inclining to blue. They are the least 
 permanent of the copper greens, soon fading as water¬ 
 colours by the action of light, &c., and becoming fiist 
 white, and ultimately black, by damp and foul air. In 
 oil, verdigris is durable with respect to light and aii, 
 but moist and impure air changes its colour, and causes 
 it to effloresce or rise to the surface through the oil. 
 It dries rapidly, and might be useful as a siccific with 
 other greens or very dark colours. Fresh ground in 
 varnish it stands better; but is not upon the whole a 
 safe or eligible pigment, either alone or compounded. 
 Vinegar dissolves it, and the solution is used for tinting 
 maps, &c. The addition of refined sugar, with gentle 
 boiling, facilitates the solution and improves the 
 colour. 
 
 GREEN VERDITER 
 
 Is the same in substance as blue verditer, which is con¬ 
 verted into green verditer by boiling. This pigment 
 has the common properties of the copper greens above 
 mentioned, and is sometimes called Green bice. 
 
 EMERALD GREEN 
 
 Is the name of a copper green upon a terrene base. It 
 is the most vivid of this tribe of colours, being rather 
 
74 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 * 
 
 opaque, and powerfully reflective of light, and appears 
 to be the most durable pigment of its class. Its hue is 
 not common in nature, but well suited for brilliant 
 works. It works well in water, but with difficulty in 
 oil, and dries badly therein. The only true emerald 
 green is, however, that of chrome, with which metal 
 nature gives the green colour to the emerald. 
 
 MINERAL GREEN 
 
 Is the commercial name of Green lakes, prepared from 
 the sulphate of copper. These vary in hue and shade, 
 have all the properties before ascribed to copper greens, 
 and afford the best common greens; and, not being 
 liable to change of colour by oxygen and light, stand 
 the weather well, and are excellent for the use of the 
 house-painter, &c. : but are less eligible in the nicer 
 works of fine art, having a tendency to darken by time 
 and foul air. 
 
 MOUNTAIN GREEN 
 
 Is a native carbonate of copper, combined with a white 
 earth, and often striated with veins of mountain blue, 
 to which it bears the same relation that green verditer 
 does to blue verditer ; nor does it differ from these and 
 other copper greens in any property essential to the 
 painter. The Malachite, a beautiful copper ore, employed 
 by jewellers, is sometimes called Mountain green, and 
 Green bice is also confounded therewith, being similar 
 substances and of similar use as pigments. It is also 
 called Hungary green, being found in the mountains of 
 Kernhausen, as it is also in Cumberland. 
 
 SCHEELE’S GREEN 
 
 Is a compound oxide of copper and arsenic, or arsenite 
 of copper, named after the justly celebrated chemist 
 
OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS-GREEN. 
 
 75 
 
 who discovered it. It is variously of a beautiful, light, 
 warm, green colour, opaque, permanent in itself and in 
 tint with white lead, but must be used cautiously with 
 Naples yellow, by which it is soon destroyed. Schtvein - 
 furt green and Vienna green are also names of a fine 
 preparation of the same kind as the above. These pig¬ 
 ments are less affected by damp and impure air than 
 the simple copper greens, and are therefore in these 
 respects rather more eligible colours than the ordinary 
 copper greens. 
 
 PRUSSIAN GREEN. 
 
 The pigment celebrated under this name is an imper¬ 
 fect prussiate of iron, or Prussian blue, in which the 
 yellow oxide of iron superabounds, or to which yellow 
 tincture of French berries has been added, and is not 
 in any respect superior as a pigment to the compounds 
 of Prussian blue and yellow ochre. A better sort of 
 Prussian green is formed by precipitating the prussiate 
 of potash with nitrate of cobalt. 
 
 SAP GREEN, 
 
 Or Verde Vessie, is a vegetable pigment prepared from 
 the juice of the berries of the buckthorn, the green 
 leaves of the woad, the blue flowers of the iris, &c. It 
 is usually preserved in bladders, and is thence some¬ 
 times called Bladder green ; when good, it is of a dark 
 colour and glossy fracture, extremely transparent, and 
 of a fine natural green colour. Though much employed 
 as a water-colour without gum, which it contains 
 naturally, it is a very imperfect pigment, disposed to 
 attract the moisture of the atmosphere, and to mildew ; 
 and, having little durability in water-colour painting, 
 and less in oil, it is not eligible in the one, and is totally 
 useless in the other. 
 
 e 2 
 
76 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 Similar pigments, prepared from coffee-berries, and 
 called Venetian and Emerald greens, are of a colder 
 colour, very fugitive, and equally defective as pigments. 
 
 INVISIBLE GREEN. 
 
 A good ordinary green of this denomination, for out- 
 of-door painting and fresco, may be prepared by mixture 
 of the yellow ochres with black in small quantities; or 
 by adding black to any of the ordinary green pigments. 
 
 See Olive Pigments. 
 
 CHAPTER XIY. 
 
 OF PURPLE. 
 
 Purple, the third and last of the secondary colours, 
 is composed of red and blue, in the proportions of five 
 of the former to eight of the latter, which constitute a 
 perfect purple, or one of such a hue as will neutralise 
 and best contrast a perfect yellow in the proportions of 
 thirteen to three, either of surface or intensity. It 
 forms, when mixed with its co-secondary colour, green, 
 the tertiary colour, olive; and, when mixed with the 
 remaining secondary orange, it constitutes in like 
 manner the tertiary colour, russet. It is the coolest of 
 the three secondary colours, and the nearest also in 
 relation to black or shade; in which respect, and in 
 never being a warm colour, it resembles blue. In other 
 respects also purple partakes of the properties, of blue, 
 which is its ruling colour; hence it is to the eye a 
 most retiring colour, which reflects light little, and 
 declines rapidly in power in proportion to the distance 
 
OF TIIE SECONDARY COLOURS-PURPLE. 
 
 77 
 
 at which it is viewed, and also in a declining light. It 
 is the most retiring of positive colours. 
 
 Next to green, purple is the most generally pleasing 
 of the consonant colours; and has been celebrated as a 
 regal or imperial colour, as much perhaps from its rare¬ 
 ness in a pure state, as from its individual beauty. 
 When inclining to the rose, or red, this colour takes 
 the names of crimson , &c., as it does those of violet , 
 lilac, &c., when it inclines toward its other constituent, 
 blue; which latter colour it serves to mellow, or follows 
 well into shade. 
 
 The contrast, or harmonizing colour of purple, is 
 yellow on the side of light and the primaries ; and it is 
 itself the harmonizing contrast of the tertiary citrine 
 on the side of shade, and less perfectly so of the semi' 
 neutral brown. Purple, when inclining towards redness, 
 is a regal, magisterial, and pompous colour. In its 
 effects on the mind it partakes principally, however, of 
 the powers of its archeus or ruling colour, blue. 
 
 As the extreme primaries, blue and yellow, when 
 either compounded or opposed, afford the most pleasing 
 consonance of the primary colours, so the extremes, 
 purple and orange, afford the most pleasing of the 
 secondary consonances; and this analogy extends also 
 to the extreme tertiary and semi-neutral colours, while 
 the mean or middle colours afford the most agreeable 
 contrasts or harmonies. Purple pigments are rare, and 
 lie under a peculiar disadvantage as to apparent dura¬ 
 bility and beauty of colour, owing to the neutralising 
 power of yellowness in the grounds upon which they 
 are laid, as well as to the general warm colour of light, 
 and the yellow tendency of almost all vehicles and 
 varnishes, by which this colour is subdued; for the 
 same reason this colour disappears by candle-light. 
 
78 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 MIXED PURPLES. 
 
 Purple being a secondary colour, composed of blue 
 and red , it follows of course that any blue and red pig¬ 
 ments, wbicb are not chemically at variance, may be 
 used in producing mixed purple pigments of any re¬ 
 quired hue, either by compounding or grinding them 
 together ready for use, or by combining them in the 
 various modes of operation in painting. In such com¬ 
 pounding, the more perfect the original colours are, 
 the better in general will be the purple produced. In 
 these ways, ultramarine and the rose colours of madder 
 constitute excellent and beautiful purples, which are 
 . equally permanent in water and oil, in glazing or in 
 tint, whether under the influence of the oxygenous or 
 the hydrogenous principles of light and impure air, by 
 which colours are subject to change. The blue and red 
 of cobalt and madder afford also good purples. Some 
 of the finest and most delicate purples in ancient paint¬ 
 ings appear to have been similarly compounded of ultra- 
 marine and vermilion, which constitute tints equally per¬ 
 manent, but less transparent than the above. Facility 
 of use, and other advantages, are obtained at too great 
 a sacrifice by the employment of perishable mixtures, 
 such as are the carmines and lakes of cochineal with 
 indigo and other blue colours ; but common purples may 
 be composed of Prussian blue and vermilion with addi¬ 
 tions of white. 
 
 GOLD PURPLE, 
 
 Or Cassius’s Purple Precipitate, is the compound oxide 
 which is precipitated upon mixing the solutions of gold 
 and tin. It is not a bright, but a rich and powerful 
 colour, of great durability, varying in degrees of trans¬ 
 parency, and in hue from deep crimson to a murrey or 
 dark purple, and is principally used in miniature. It 
 
OF THE SECONDARY COLOURS-PURPLE. 
 
 79 
 
 may be employed in enamel-painting, works well in 
 water and is an excellent though expensive pigment, 
 but not much used at present, as the madder purple is 
 cheaper, and perfectly well supplies its place. 
 
 MADDER PURPLE, 
 
 Purple Bubiate, or Field’s Purple, is a very rich and 
 deep carmine, prepared from madder. Though not a 
 brilliant purple, its richness, durability, transparency, 
 and superiority of colour have given it the preference 
 to the purple of gold preceding, and to burnt carmine. 
 It is a pigment of great body and intensity; it works 
 well, dries and glazes well in oil, and is pure and per¬ 
 manent in its tints, neither giving nor sustaining injury 
 from other colours. 
 
 BURNT CARMINE 
 
 Is, according to its name, the carmine of cochineal 
 partially charred till it resembles in colour the purple 
 of gold, for the uses of which in miniature and water¬ 
 painting it is substituted, and has the same properties 
 except its durability; of which quality, like the carmine 
 it is made from, it is deficient, and therefore in this 
 important respect is an ineligible pigment. A durable 
 colour of this kind may, however, be obtained by burn¬ 
 ing madder carmine in a cup over a spirit lamp or 
 otherwise, stirring it till it becomes of the hue or hues 
 required. 
 
 PURPLE LAKE. 
 
 The best purple lake so called is prepared from 
 cochineal, and is of a rich and powerful colour, inclined 
 to crimson. Its character as a pigment is that of the 
 cochineal lakes already described. It is fugitive both 
 in glazing and tint; but, used in considerable body, as 
 in the shadows of draperies, &c., it will last under 
 
80 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 favourable circumstances a long time. Lac lake re¬ 
 sembles it in colour, and may supply its place more 
 durably, although not perfectly so. 
 
 PURPLE OCHRE, 
 
 Or Mineral Purple , is a dark ochre, native of the Forest 
 of Dean in Gloucestershire. It is of a murrey or choco¬ 
 late colour, and forms cool tints of a purple hue with 
 white. It is of a similar body and opacity, and darker 
 colour than Indian red, which has also been classed 
 among purples, but in all other respects it resembles 
 that pigment. It may be prepared artificially, and 
 some natural red ochres burn to this colour, which has 
 been employed under the denomination of Violet de 
 Mars. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 OF THE TERTIARY COLOURS. 
 
 CITRINE. 
 
 Citrine is the first of the tertiary class of colours, 
 or ultimate compounds of the primary triad, yellow, red, 
 and blue ; in which yellow is the predominating colour, 
 and blue the extreme subordinate ; for citrine being an 
 immediate compound of the secondaries, orange and 
 green, of both which yelloiv is a constituent, the latter 
 colour is of double occurrence therein, while the other 
 two primaries enter singly into the composition of 
 citrine,—its mean or middle hue comprehending eight 
 blue, five red, and six yellow, of equal intensities. 
 
 Hence citrine, according to its name, which is the 
 name of a class of colours, and is used commonly for a 
 
OF THE TERTIARY COLOURS. 
 
 81 
 
 I4. ■ : 
 
 dark yellow, partakes in a subdued degree of all the 
 powers of its archeus, yellow ; and, in estimating its 
 properties and effects in painting, it is to be regarded 
 as participating of all the relations of yellow. By some 
 this colour is improperly called brown, as almost all 
 broken colours are. The harmonizing contrast of citrine 
 is a deep purple; and it is the most advancing of the 
 tertiary colours, or nearest in its relation to light. It 
 is variously of a tepid, tender, modest, cheering character, 
 and expressive of these qualities alike in painting and 
 poetic art. In nature, citrine begins to prevail in 
 landscape before the other tertiaries, as the green of 
 summer declines; and as autumn advances it tends 
 towards its orange hues, including the colours called 
 aurora, chamoise, and others before enumerated under 
 the head of Yellow. 
 
 To understand and relish the harmonious relations 
 and expressive powers of the tertiary colours, requires 
 a cultivation of perception and a refinement of taste for 
 which study and practice are requisite. They are at once 
 less definite and less generally evident, but more delight¬ 
 ful,—more frequent in nature, but rarer in common art, 
 than the like relations of the secondaries and primaries; 
 and hence the painter and the poet afford us fewer illus¬ 
 trations of effects less commonly appreciated or under¬ 
 stood. 
 
 Original citrine-coloured pigments are not numerous, 
 unless we include several imperfect yellows, which 
 might not improperly be called citrines : the following 
 are, however, the pigments best entitled to this appella¬ 
 tion :— 
 
 MIXED CITRINE. 
 
 What has been before remarked of the mixed secon¬ 
 dary colours is more particularly applicable to the 
 
 e 3 
 
82 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 tertiary, it being more difficult to select three homo¬ 
 geneous substances, of equal powers as pigments, than 
 two, that may unite and work together cordially. 
 Hence the mixed tertiaries are still less perfect and 
 pure than the secondaries; and as their hues are of 
 extensive use in painting, original pigments of these 
 colours are proportionately estimable to the artist. 
 Nevertheless, there are two evident principles of com¬ 
 bination, of which the artist may avail himself in pro¬ 
 ducing these colours in the various ways of working : 
 the one being that of combining two original secon¬ 
 daries,— e.g., green and orange in producing a citrine; 
 the other, the uniting the three primaries in such a 
 manner that yelloiv predominates in the case of citrine, 
 and blue and red be subordinate in the compound. 
 
 These colours are, however, in many cases produced 
 with best and most permanent effect, not by the inti¬ 
 mate combination of pigments but by intermingling 
 them, in the manner of nature, on the canvas, so as to 
 produce the effect at a proper distance of a uniform 
 colour. Such is the citrine colour of fruit and foliage; 
 on inspecting the individuals of which we distinctly 
 trace the stipplingsof orange and green, or yellow, red, 
 and green. Similar beautiful consonances are observable 
 in the russet hues of foliage in the autumn, in which 
 purple and orange have broken or superseded the 
 uniform green of leaves : and also in the olive foliage of 
 the rose-tree, produced in the individual leaf by the 
 ramification of purple in green. Yet mixed citrines 
 may be compounded safely and simply by slight addi¬ 
 tions, to an original brown pigment, of that primary or 
 secondary tone which is requisite to give it the required 
 hue, and red and yellow ochres mixed form good com¬ 
 mon paints of this colour. 
 
OF THE TERTIARY COLOURS. 
 
 83 
 
 BROWN PINK 
 
 Is a vegetable lake precipitated from the decoction of 
 French berries and dyeing woods, and is sometimes tbe 
 residuum of tbe dyer’s vat. It is of a fine, rich trans¬ 
 parent colour, rarely of a true brown; but being in 
 general of an orange broken by green, it falls into the 
 class of citrine colours, sometimes inclining to greenness, 
 and sometimes toward the warmth of orange. It works 
 well both in water and oil, in the latter of which it is 
 of great depth and transparency, but dries badly. Its 
 tints with white lead are very fugitive, and in thin 
 glazing it does not stand. Upon the whole, it is more 
 beautiful than eligible. 
 
 UMBER, 
 
 Commonly called Raw Timber , is a natural ochre, abound¬ 
 ing with oxide of manganese, said to have been first 
 obtained from ancient Ombria, now Spoleto, in Italy; 
 —it is found also in England, and in most parts of the 
 world ; but that which is brought from Cyprus, under 
 the name of Turkish umber, is the best. It is of a 
 brown-citrine colour, semi-opaque, has all the properties 
 of a good ochre, is perfectly durable both in water and 
 oil, and one of the best drying colours we possess, and 
 injures no other good pigment with which it may be 
 mixed. (See Cappagh Brown, some specimens of which 
 are of a citrine hue.) Although not so much employed 
 as formerly, umber is perfectly eligible according to its 
 colour and uses, in graining, &c. 
 
 Several browns, and other ochrous earths, approach 
 also to the character of citrine ; such are the Terre de 
 Cassel, Bistre, &c. But in the confusion of names, 
 infinity of tones and tints, and variations of individual 
 pigments, it is impossible to attain an unexceptionable 
 or universally satisfactory arrangement. 
 
84 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 
 CHAPTER XYI. 
 
 OF RUSSET. 
 
 The second or middle tertiary colour, Russet, like 
 citrine, is constituted ultimately of the three primaries, 
 red, yellow, and blue; but with this difference, that in¬ 
 stead of yellow as in citrine, red is the predominating 
 colour in russet, to which yellow and blue are subordi¬ 
 nates : for orange and purple being the immediate con¬ 
 stituents of russet, and red being a component part of 
 each of those colours, it enters doubly into their com¬ 
 pound in russet, while yellow and blue enter it only 
 singly; the proportions of its middle hue being eight 
 blue, ten red, and three yellow, of equal intensities. It 
 follows that the russet takes the relations and powers 
 of a subdued red ; and many pigments and dyes of the 
 latter denomination are in strictness of the class of russet 
 colours: in fact, nominal distinction of colours is 
 properly only relative ; the gradation from hue to hue, 
 as from shade to shade, constituting an unlimited series, 
 in which it is literally impossible to pronounce abso¬ 
 lutely where any shade or colour ends and another 
 begins. 
 
 The harmonizing, neutralising, or contrasting colour 
 of russet is a deep green ;— when the russet inclines to 
 orange, it is a grey, or subdued blue. These are often 
 beautifully opposed in nature, being medial accordances, 
 or in equal relation to light, shade, and other colours, 
 and among the most agreeable to sense. 
 
 Russet, we have said, partakes of the relations of red, 
 but moderated in every respect, and qualified for greater 
 breadth of display in the colouring of nature and art; 
 less so, perhaps, than its fellow-tertiaries in proportion 
 
OF THE TERTIARY COLOURS-RUSSET. 
 
 85 
 
 as it is individually more beautiful, the powers of 
 beauty being ever most effective when least obtrusive ; 
 and its presence in colour should be principally evident 
 to the eye that seeks it. This colour is warm, com¬ 
 placent, solid, frank, and soothing. Common accepta¬ 
 tion substitutes the term brown for russet. 
 
 Of the tertiary colours, russet is the most important 
 to the artist; and there are many pigments under the 
 denominations of red purple, &c., which are of russet 
 hues. But there are few true russets, and one only 
 which bears the name : of these are the following :— 
 
 MIXED RUSSET. 
 
 "What has been remarked in the preceding chapter 
 upon the production of mixed citrine colours, is equally 
 applicable in general to the mixed russets: we need 
 not, therefore, repeat it. By the immediate method 
 of producing it materially from its secondaries, orange 
 and purple ochres afford a compound russet pigment of 
 a good and durable colour. Chrome-orange and purple- 
 lake yield a similar but less permanent mixture. 
 
 Many other less eligible duple and triple compounds 
 of russet are obvious upon principle, and it may be 
 produced by adding red in due predominance to some 
 browns ; thus red and brown ochre duly mixed afford a 
 good ordinary russet paint. 
 
 FIELD’S RUSSET, 
 
 Or Madder Brown, is, as its name indicates, prepared 
 from the Rubia tinctoria , or madder-root. It is of a pure, 
 rich, transparent, and deep russet colour, introduced 
 by the author, and is of a true middle hue between 
 orange and purple; not subject to change by the action 
 of light, impure air, time, or mixture of other pigments. 
 It has supplied a great desideratum, and is indispensable 
 
86 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 in water-colour painting, both as a local and auxiliary 
 colour, in compounding and producing with yellow the 
 glowing hues of autumnal foliage, &c., and with blue 
 the beautiful and endless variety of greys in skies, flesh, 
 &c. There are three kinds of this pigment, distin¬ 
 guished by variety of hue—russet, or madder Jbrown, 
 orange russet, and dark russet, or intense madder brown ; 
 which differ not essentially in their qualities as pig¬ 
 ments, but as warm or cool russets, and are all good 
 glazing colours, thin washes of which afford pure flesh- 
 tints in water. The last dries best in oil, the others 
 but indifferently. It is a valuable pigment in the grain¬ 
 ing of mahogany. 
 
 PEUSSIATE OF COPPER 
 
 Differs chemically from Prussian blue only in having 
 copper instead of iron for its basis. It varies in colour 
 from russet to brown, is transparent and deep, but being 
 very liable to change in colour by the action of light 
 and by other pigments, has been very little employed 
 by the artist. 
 
 There are several other pigments which enter imper¬ 
 fectly into, or verge upon, the class of russet, which, 
 having obtained the names of other classes to which 
 they are allied, will be found under other heads ; such 
 are some of the ochres and Indian red. Burnt carmine 
 and Cassius’s precipitate are often of the russet hue, or 
 convertible to it by due additions of yellow or orange; 
 as burnt Sienna earth and various browns are, by like 
 additions of lake or other reds. 
 
 RUSSET OCHRE. 
 
 Although there is no pigment of this name in the 
 shops, many of the native ochres are of this denomina¬ 
 tion of colour, and may be employed accordingly ; and 
 
OF THE TERTIARY COLOURS-OLIVE. 
 
 87 
 
 the red and yellow ochres of commerce ground together 
 and burnt afford excellent russet colours in every mode 
 of painting. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII, 
 
 OF OLIVE. 
 
 Olive is the third and last of the tertiary colours, and 
 nearest in relation to shade. It is constituted, like its 
 co-tertiaries, citrine and russet of the three primaries, 
 blue, red , and yellow , so subordinated, that blue prevails 
 therein; but it is formed more immediately of the 
 secondaries, purple and green : and, since blue enters as 
 a component principle into each of these secondaries, it 
 occurs twice in the latter mode of forming olive, while 
 red and yellow occur therein singly and subordinately. 
 Blue is, therefore, in every instance, the archeus, or 
 predominating colour of olive; its perfect or middle 
 hue comprehending sixteen of blue to five of red, and 
 three of yellow ; and it participates in a proportionate 
 measure of the powers, properties, and relations of blue : 
 accordingly, the antagonist, or harmonizing contrast of 
 olive, is a deep orange ; and, like blue also, it is a retir¬ 
 ing colour, the most so of all the colours, being nearest 
 of all in relation to black, and last of the regular dis¬ 
 tinctions of colours. Hence its importance in nature 
 and painting is almost as great as that of black: it 
 divides the office of clothing and decorating the general 
 face of nature with green and blue ; with both which, 
 as with black and grey, it enters into innumerable com¬ 
 pounds and accordances, changing its name, as either 
 hue predominates, into green, grey, ashen, slate, &c.: 
 
88 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 thus the olive hues of foliage are called green, and the 
 purple hues of clouds are called grey, &c., for language 
 is general only, and inadequate to the infinite particu¬ 
 larity of nature and colours. 
 
 As olive is usually a compound colour both with the 
 artist and mechanic, and as there is no natural pigment 
 in use under this name, or of this colour, in commerce 
 there are few olive pigments. Ter re-vert, already men¬ 
 tioned, is sometimes of this class, and several of the 
 copper greens acquire this hue by burning. The fol¬ 
 lowing need only to be noticed :— 
 
 MIXED OLIVE 
 
 May be compounded in several ways; directly, by 
 uniting green and purple, or by adding to blue a smaller 
 proportion of yellow and red, or by breaking much blue 
 with little orange. Cool black pigments mixed with 
 yellow ochre afford good olives. These hues are called 
 green in landscape, and invisible green in mechanic 
 painting. 
 
 OLIVE GREEN. 
 
 The fine pigment sold under this name, principally as 
 a water-colour, is an arbitrary compound, or mixed 
 green, eligible for its uses. Any ordinary green mixed 
 with black forms this colour for exterior painting in 
 oil, &c. And an olive-green paint maybe economically 
 prepared by the mixing of yellow or brown ochre with 
 black, which may be varied by additions of blue or 
 green. 
 
 BURNT VERDIGRIS 
 
 Is what its name expresses, and is an olive-coloured 
 oxide of copper deprived of acid. It dries remarkably 
 well in oil, and is more durable ; and, in other respects, 
 an improved and more eligible pigment than the 
 
OF SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOURS. 
 
 89 
 
 original verdigris. Scheele’s green affords by burning 
 also a series of similar olive colours, which are as dur¬ 
 able as their original pigment, and most of the copper 
 greens may be subjected to the same process with the 
 same results; indeed, we have remarked in many 
 instances that the action of fire anticipates the effects 
 of long-continued time, and that many of the primary 
 and secondary colours may, by different degrees of burn¬ 
 ing, be converted into their analogous secondary and 
 tertiary, or semi-neutral colours, that come usefully into 
 the graining of rosewood, &c. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 OF SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOURS. 
 
 BROWN. 
 
 As colour, according to the regular scale descending 
 from white , properly ceases with the class of olive, the 
 neutral black would here naturally terminate the series; 
 but as, in a practical view, every coloured pigment, of 
 every class or tribe, combines with black as it exists in 
 pigments, a new series or scale of coloured compounds 
 arises, having black for their basis, which, though they 
 differ not theoretically from the preceding order in¬ 
 verted, are nevertheless practically imperfect or impure; 
 in which view, and as compounds of black, we have 
 distinguished them by the term semi-neutral, and divided 
 them into three classes, Brown, Marrone, and Grey. 
 Inferior as the semi-neutral are in point of colour, they 
 comprehend, nevertheless, a great proportion of our 
 most permanent pigments; and are, with respect to 
 
00 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 black, what tints are with respect to white, i.e., they 
 are, so to call them, black tints, or shades. 
 
 The first of the semi-neutral, and the subject of the 
 present chapter, is brown, which, in its widest accepta¬ 
 tion, has been used to comprehend vulgarly every deno¬ 
 mination of dark broken colour, and, in a more limited 
 sense, is the rather indefinite appellation of a very 
 extensive class of colours of warm or tawny hues. 
 Accordingly we have browns of every denomination of 
 colours except blue; thus we have yellow-brown, red- 
 brown, orange-brown, purple-brown, &c., but it is re¬ 
 markable that we have, in this sense, no blue-brown 
 nor any other coloured-brown, in any but a forced 
 sense, in which blue predominates; such predominance 
 of a cold colour immediately carrying the compound 
 into the class of grey, ashen, or slate-colour. Hence 
 brown comprehends the hues called feuillemort, mort 
 d’ore, dun, hazel, auburn, &c.; several of which we 
 have already enumerated as allied to the tertiary 
 colours. 
 
 The term brown , therefore, properly denotes a warm, 
 broken colour, of which yellow is a principal consti¬ 
 tuent : hence brown is in some measure to shade what 
 yellow is to light, and warm or ruddy browns follow 
 yellows naturally as shading or deepening colours. It 
 is hence also that equal quantities of either of the three 
 primaries, the three secondaries, or the three tertiaries, 
 produce variously a brown mixture, and not the neutral 
 black, &c.; because no colour is essentially single, and 
 warmth belongs to two of the primaries, but coldness 
 to blue alone. Browns contribute to coolness and clear¬ 
 ness by contrast when opposed to pure colours : hence 
 their vast importance in painting and the necessity of 
 keeping them from other colours, to which they give 
 foulness in mixture. 
 
OF SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOURS. 
 
 91 
 
 The tendency in the compounds of colours to run 
 into brownness and warmth is one of the general 
 natural properties of colours, which occasions them to 
 deteriorate or dirt each other in mixture : hence brown 
 is synonymous with foul or defiled, in a sense opposed 
 to fair and pure; and it is hence, also, that brown, 
 which is the nearest of the semi-neutrals in relation to 
 light, is to be avoided in mixture with light colours. 
 
 This tendency will account also for the use of brown 
 in harmonizing and toning, and for the great number 
 of natural and artificial pigments and colours we possess 
 under this denomination : in fact, the failure to produce 
 other colours chemically or by mixture is commonly 
 productive of a brown; yet are fine transparent browns 
 obviously very valuable colours. If red or blue be 
 added to brown predominantly, it falls into the other 
 semi-neutral classes, marrone or grey. 
 
 The wide acceptation of the term brown has occa¬ 
 sioned much confusion in the naming of colours, since 
 broken colours in which red, &c., predominate, have 
 been improperly called brown; and a tendency to red 
 or hotness in browns obtains for them the reproachful 
 appellation of foxiness. This term, brown, should there¬ 
 fore, be confined to the class of semi-neutral colours 
 compounded of, or of the hues of, either the 'primary 
 yellow , the secondary orange , or the tertiary citrine , with 
 a black pigment the general contrast or harmonizing 
 colour of which will consequently be more or less purple 
 or grey; and with reference to black and white, or 
 light and shade, it is of the semi-neutrals the nearest 
 in accordance with white and light. 
 
 Brown is a sober and sedate colour, grave and solemn, 
 but not dismal, and contributes to the expression of 
 strength, stability, and solidity, vigour, and warmth, and 
 in minor degree to the serious, the sombre, and the sad. 
 
92 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 The list of brown pigments is very long, and that of 
 mixed browns literally endless, it being obvious that 
 every warm colour mixed with black will afford a brown, 
 and that equal portions of the primaries, secondaries, or 
 tertiaries will do the same : hence there can be no 
 difficulty in producing them by mixture when required, 
 which is seldom, as there are many browns which are 
 good and permanent pigments; among these are the 
 following:— 
 
 VANDYKE BROWN. 
 
 This pigment, hardly less celebrated than the great 
 painter whose name it bears, is a species of peat or bog 
 earth of a fine, deep, semi-transparent brown colour. 
 The pigment so much esteemed and used by Vandyke 
 is said to have been brought from Cassel; and this 
 seems to be justified by a comparison of Cassel-earth 
 with the browns of his pictures. The Vandyke browns 
 in use at present appear to be terrene pigments of a 
 similar kind, purified by grinding and washing over: 
 they vary sometimes in hue and in degrees of drying 
 in oil, which they in general do tardily, owing to their 
 bituminous nature, but are good browns of powerful 
 body, and are durable both in water and oil. The 
 Campania brown of the old Italian painters was a similar 
 earth. 
 
 MANGANESE BROWN 
 
 Is an oxide of manganese, of a fine, deep, semi-opaque 
 brown of good body, which dries admirably well in oil. 
 It is deficient in transparency, but may be a useful 
 colour for glazing or lowering the tone of white with¬ 
 out tinging it, and as a local colour in draperies, dead 
 colouring, &c. It is a perfectly durable colour both in 
 water and oil. 
 
OF SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOURS. 
 
 93 
 
 OAPPAGH BROWN, 
 
 Or Euchrome, is a Native Manganese Brown , found on 
 the estate of Lord Audley, at Cappagh, near Cork. It 
 is a bog-earth or peat, mixed or mineralized by man¬ 
 ganese in various proportions. The specimens in which 
 the peat earth most abounds are of light weight, friable 
 texture, and dark colour ; those which contain more of 
 the metal are heavy and of a lighter colour. 
 
 As pigments, the peaty Cappagh brown is the most 
 transparent, deep and rich in colour, and dries promptly 
 in oil, during which its surface rivels w r here it lies 
 thick. This may be regarded as a superior Vandyke 
 bi own and Asphaltum. 
 
 The other and metallic sort is a less transparent, 
 lighter, and warmer brown pigment, which dries rapidly 
 and smoothly in a body or thick layer, and is a superior 
 Umber. They do not keep their place wdiile drying in 
 oil by fixing the oil, like the dryers of lead, but run. 
 The two extreme sorts should be distinguished as light 
 and deep Cappagh browns; the first excellent for dead 
 colouring, and grounds, the latter for glazing and 
 graining. These pigments are equally applicable to 
 painting in water, oil, and varnish, working well in 
 each of these vehicles. They have been introduced into 
 commerce for civil and marine painting under the 
 names of Euchrome and Mineral brown, and have been 
 called Caledonian, but are more properly Hibernian, 
 browns, and are fine colours and valuable acquisitions 
 in all their uses, and especially so in the graining of 
 oak, &c. 
 
 BURNT UMBER 
 
 Is the fossil pigment called Umber, burnt, by which it 
 becomes of a deeper and more russet hue. It contains 
 manganese and iron, and is very drying in oil, in which 
 
94 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 it is employed as a dryer. It may be substituted for 
 Vandyke brown, is a perfectly durable and eligible pig- 
 ment in water, oil, and fresco, and may be produced 
 artificially. The old Italians called it falsalo. 
 
 CASSEL EARTH, 
 
 Or, corruptly, Castle earth. The true terre de Cassel is 
 an ochrous pigment similar to the preceding, but of a 
 brown colour, more inclined to the russet hue. In 
 other respects it does not differ essentially from Rubens 
 and Vandyke browns. 
 
 COLOGNE EARTH, 
 
 Incorrectly called Cullen’s earth, is a native pigment, 
 darker than the two last, and in no respect differing 
 from Vandyke brown in its uses and properties as a 
 colour. Similar earths abound in our own country. 
 They are all bituminous ochres. 
 
 RUBENS’ BROWN. 
 
 The pigment still in use in the Netherlands under 
 this appellation is an earth of a lighter colour and more 
 ochrous texture than the Vandyke brown of the 
 London shops; it is also of a warmer or more tawny 
 hue than the latter pigment, and is a beautiful and 
 durable brown, which works well both in water and 
 oil, and much resembles the brown used by Teniers. 
 
 BROWN OCHRE. 
 
 See Yellow Ochre. Iron Brown, Brim de Mars, and 
 B, 'ussian Brown may be regarded as various kinds of 
 brown ochre, of which there is abundance in nature, 
 and all imitable by art. See Spanish Brown, or liver, 
 and Bed Ochre. 
 
OF SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOURS. 
 
 95 
 
 BONE BROWN 
 
 And Ivory Brown are produced by torrefying, or roast- 
 ing, bone and ivory till by partially charring they 
 become of a brown colour throughout. They may 
 be made to resemble the five first browns above by 
 management in the burning; and though much 
 esteemed by some artists, are not perfectly eligible 
 pigments, being bad dryers in oil; and their lighter 
 shades not durable either in oil or water when exposed 
 to the action of strong light, or mixed in tint with 
 white lead. The palest of these colours are also the 
 most opaque: the deepest are more durable, and most 
 so when approaching black. 
 
 ASPHALTUM, 
 
 Called also Bitumen, Mineral Bitch, Jews' Pitch, &c., 
 is a resinous substance rendered brown by the action of 
 fire, natural or artificial. The substances employed in 
 painting under this name are residua of the distillation 
 of various resinous and bituminous matters in prepar¬ 
 ing their essential oils, and are all black and glossy, 
 like common pitch, which differs from them only in 
 having been less acted upon by fire, and in thence being 
 softer. Asphaltum is principally used in oil-painting ; 
 for which purpose it is first dissolved in oil of turpen- 
 tine, by which it is fitted for glazing and shading. Its 
 fine brown colour and perfect transparency are lures to 
 its free use with many artists, notwithstanding the fre¬ 
 quent destruction which awaits the work on w r hich it is 
 much employed, owing to its disposition to contract 
 and crack by changes of temperature and the atmo¬ 
 sphere ; but for which it would be a most beautiful, 
 durable, and eligible pigment. The solution of asphal¬ 
 tum in turpentine, united with drying oil, by heat, or 
 
96 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 the bitumen torrefied and ground in linseed or drying- 
 oil, acquires a firmer texture, but becomes less trans¬ 
 parent, and dries with difficulty. If also common 
 asphaltum, as usually prepared with oil of turpentine, 
 be used with some addition of Vandyke brown, umber, 
 or Cappagh brown ground in drying-oil, it will acquire 
 body and solidity which will render it much less dis¬ 
 posed to crack, and give it the qualities of native 
 asphaltum ; nevertheless, asphaltum is to be regarded 
 in practice rather as a dark varnish than as a solid pig¬ 
 ment, and all the faults of a bad varnish are to be 
 guarded against in employing it. This pigment is now 
 jDrepared in excessive abundance, as a product of the 
 distillation of coal at the gas manufactories. 
 
 The native bitumen, Asphaltum, brought from Persia 
 by Lieutenant Ford, had a powerful scent of garlic 
 when rubbed. In the fire it softened without flowing, 
 and burnt with a lambent flame; did not dissolve by 
 heat in oil of turpentine, but ground easily as a pig¬ 
 ment in pale drying-oil, affording a fine, deep, trans¬ 
 parent brown colour, resembling that of the asphaltum 
 of the shops ; dried firmly, nearly as soon as the drying- 
 oil alone, and worked admirably both in water and oil. 
 Asphaltum may be used as a permanent brown in water, 
 and the native kind is also superior to the artificial for 
 this purpose, and would be useful from its transparent 
 richness in graining. 
 
 MUMMY, 
 
 Or Egyptian brown, is also a bituminous substance 
 combined with animal remains, brought from the cata¬ 
 combs of Egypt, where liquid bitumen was employed 
 three thousand years ago in embalming; in which 
 office it has combined, by a slow chemical change, 
 during so many ages, with substances which give it a 
 
OF SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOURS. 
 
 97 
 
 more solid and lasting texture tlian simple asphaltum : 
 but in this respect it varies exceedingly, even in the 
 same subject. Its other properties and uses as a pig¬ 
 ment are the same as those of asphaltum, for which it 
 is employed as a valuable substitute, being less liable to 
 crack or move on the canvas. This also may be used, 
 when ground, as a water-colour. 
 
 ANTWERP BROWN 
 
 Is a preparation of asphaltum ground in strong drying- 
 oil, by which it becomes less liable to crack. See the 
 two last articles. Ochrous bitumens, bituminous coal, 
 jet, and other bituminous substances, afford similar 
 browns. See also Cappagh Brown. 
 
 BISTRE 
 
 Is a brown pigment extracted by watery solution from 
 the soot of wood-fires, whence it retains a strong pyro¬ 
 ligneous scent. It is of a wax-like texture, and of a 
 citrine-brown colour, perfectly durable. It has been 
 much used as a water-colour, particularly by the old 
 masters in tinting drawings and shading sketches, pre¬ 
 viously to Indian ink coming into general use for such 
 purposes. In oil it dries with the greatest difficulty. 
 
 A substance of this kind collects at the back of fire¬ 
 places in cottages where peat is the constant fuel burnt; 
 which, purified by solution and evaporation, affords a 
 fine bistre. Scotch bistre is of this kind. All kinds of 
 bistre attract moisture from the atmosphere. 
 
 SEPIA, 
 
 Seppia or Animal JEthiops. This pigment is named 
 after the Sepia, or euttle-fisli , which is called also the 
 ink-fish, from its affording a dark liquid, which was 
 used as an ink and pigment by the ancients. From 
 
 F 
 
98 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 this liquid our pigment sepia, which is brought princi¬ 
 pally from the Adriatic, and may be obtained from the 
 fish on our own coasts, is said to be extracted; and it is 
 supposed that it enters into the composition of the 
 Indian ink of the Chinese. Sepia is of a powerful 
 dusky brown colour, of a fine texture, works admirably 
 in water, combines cordially with other pigments, and 
 is very permanent. 
 
 It is much used as a water-colour, and in making 
 drawings in the manner of bistre and Indian ink ; but 
 is not used in oil, in which it dries very reluctantly. 
 
 MADDER BROWN. 
 
 See Field’s Russet (page 85). Brown Pink (page 
 83). 
 
 PRUSSIAN BROWN 
 
 Is a preparation of Prussian blue, from which the blue 
 colouring principle has been expelled by fire, or ex¬ 
 tracted by an alkaline ley ; it is an orange-brown, of 
 the nature and properties of Sienna earth, and d ies 
 well in oil. 
 
 CHAPTER, XIX. 
 
 OF GRAY. 
 
 Of the tribe of semi-neutral colours, Gray is the 
 third and last, being nearest in relation of colour to 
 black. In its common acceptation, and that in which 
 we here use it, gray denotes a class of cool cinereous 
 colours, faint of hue ; whence we have blue grays, olive 
 grays, green grays, purple grays, and grays of all hues, 
 
OF SEMI-NEDTRAL COLOURS-GRAY. 
 
 99 
 
 in which blue predominates; but no yellow or red 
 grays, the predominance of such hues carrying the 
 compounds into the classes of brown and marrone, of 
 which gray is the natural opposite. In this sense the 
 semi-neutral Gray is distinguished from the neutral 
 Grey, which springs in an infinite series from the 
 mixture of the neutral black and white : — between grays 
 and grey, however, there is no intermediate, since where 
 colour ends in the one, neutrality commences in the 
 other, and vice versa; — hence the natural alliance of 
 the semi-neutral gray with black or shade ; an alliance 
 which is strengthened by the latent predominance of 
 blue in black, so that in the tints resulting from the 
 mixture of black and white, so much of that hue is 
 developed as to give apparent colour to the tints. This 
 affords the reason why the tints of black and dark pig¬ 
 ments are colder than their originals, so much so as 
 in some instances to answer the purposes of positive 
 colours. 
 
 The grays are the natural cold correlatives, or con¬ 
 trasts, of the warm semi-neutral browns; and they are 
 degradations of blue and its allies ;—hence blue added 
 to brown throws it into or toward the class of grays, 
 and hence grays are equally abundant in nature and 
 necessary in art; for the grays comprehend in nature 
 and painting a widely diffused and beautiful play of re¬ 
 tiring colours in skies, distances, carnations, and the 
 shadowings and reflections of pure light, &c. 
 
 According to the foregoing relations, grays favour 
 the effects and force of warm colours, which in their 
 turn also give value to grays, and by reconciling oppo¬ 
 sites give repose to the eye. 
 
 A misapplication of colouring, however true—such 
 as looking at nature through a prism and painting its 
 effects—in decorations, is but to produce a fool's 
 
 k 2 
 
10U 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 paradise, and to excite wonder and false admiration, in 
 place of true elfect, sentiment, and repose. 
 
 As blue is tbe ruling power of all the colours which 
 enter into the composition of grays, the latter partake 
 of the relations and affections of blue. Grave sounds, 
 like grey colours, are deep and dull; and there is a 
 similarity of these terms in sound, signification, and 
 sentiment, if even they are not of the same etymology : 
 be this as it may, gray is almost, as common with the 
 poet, and in its colloquial use, as it is in nature and 
 painting. The grays, like the other semi-neutrals, are 
 sober, modest colours, contributing to the expression of 
 cool, gloom, and sadness, bordering in these respects 
 upon the powers of black, but aiding the livelier and 
 more cheering expressions of other colours by connection 
 and contrast. 
 
 MIXED GRAYS 
 
 Are formed not only by the compounding of black and 
 white, which yields neutral greys, and of black and 
 blue, black and purple, black and olive, &c., which 
 yield the semi-neutral grays of clouds, &c., but these 
 may be well imitated by the mixture of russet rubiate, 
 or madder browns, with blues, which form transparent 
 compounds, which are much employed; grays are, 
 however, as above remarked, so easily produced, that 
 the artist will in this respect vary and suit his practice 
 to his purpose. The lead colours of common painting 
 are formed by adding black to white lead in oil. They 
 are very useful grounds and dead colourings for greens, 
 &c. 
 
 NEUTRAL TINT. 
 
 Several mixed pigments of the class of gray colours 
 sold for Neutral tint, variously composed of sepia and 
 indigo or other blues, with madder or other lakes, 
 
OF SEMI-NEUTRAL COLOURS-GRAY. 
 
 101 
 
 are designed for water-colour painting only, in which 
 they are found extremely useful. And here it may be 
 proper to mention those other useful colours, sold 
 under the name of tints, which belong to no particular 
 denomination of pigments; but being compounds, the 
 result of the experience of accredited masters in their 
 peculiar modes of practice, serve to facilitate the progress 
 of their pupils. Such are Payne’s grey, Harding’s and 
 Macpherson’s tints, usually sold ready prepared in cakes 
 and boxes for miniature and water-painting. These are 
 composed of pigments which associate cordially; never¬ 
 theless, the artist will in general prefer a dependence 
 upon his own skill for the production of his tints in 
 painting, both in water and oil. 
 
 ULTRAMARINE ASHES, 
 
 Or Mineral Gray, are the recrement of Lapis lazuli 
 from which ultramarine has been extracted, varying in 
 colour from dull gray to blue. Although not equal in 
 beauty, and inferior in strength of colour, to ultra- 
 marine, they are extremely useful pigments, affording 
 grays much more pure and tender than such as are 
 composed of black and white, or other blues, and better 
 suited to the pearly tints of flesh, foliage, the grays of 
 skies, and the shadows of draperies, but are not neces¬ 
 sary to the ordinary painter, who can form them of 
 cheaper pigments. 
 
 PHOSPHATE OE IRON 
 
 Is a native ochre, which classes in colour with the 
 deeper hues of ultramarine ashes, and is eligible for all 
 their uses. It has received the appellation of blue 
 ochre. 
 
 Slate clays and several native earths class with 
 grays; but the colours of the latter are not durable, 
 
102 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 as they become brown by the oxidation of the iron they 
 contain. 
 
 PLUMBAGO. 
 
 See Black Lead, which forms grey tints of greater 
 permanence and purity than the blacks in general use, 
 and it is now employed for this purpose with approved 
 satisfaction by experienced artists. 
 
 For various grey tints, see page 25. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 OF THE NEUTRAL. 
 
 BLACK. 
 
 Black is the last and lowest in the series or scale of 
 colours descending—the opposite extreme from white 
 —the maximum of colour. To be perfect it must be 
 neutral with respect to colours individually, and abso¬ 
 lutely transparent, or destitute of reflective power in 
 regard to light; its use in painting being to represent 
 shade or depths, of which it is the element in a picture 
 and in colours, as white is of light. 
 
 As there is no perfectly pure and transparent black 
 pigment, black deteriorates all colours in deepening 
 them, as it does warm colours by partially neutralising 
 them, but it combines less injuriously with cold colours. 
 Though it is the antagonist or contrast of white, yet 
 added to it in minute portion it in general renders 
 white more neutral, solid, and local, with less of the 
 character of light. Impure black is brown, but black 
 in its purity is a cold colour, and communicates this 
 
OF THE NEUTRAL. 
 
 103 
 
 property to all light colours ; thus it blues white, greens 
 yellow, purples red, and degrades blue and other co¬ 
 lours ; hence the artist errs who regards black as of 
 nearest affinity to hot and brown colours. 
 
 It is the most retiring of all colours, which pro¬ 
 perty it communicates to other colours in mixture. It 
 heightens the effect of warm as well as of light colours 
 by a double contrast when opposed to them, and in like 
 manner subdues that of cold and deep colours; but in 
 mixture or glazing these effects are reversed, by reason 
 of the predominance of cold colour in the constitution 
 of black: having, therefore, the double office of colour 
 and of shade, black is perhaps the most important of all 
 colours to the artist, both as to its use and avoidance. 
 
 Black is to be considered as a synthesis of the three 
 primary colours, the three secondaries, or the three 
 tertiaries, or of all these together; and, consequently, 
 also of tbe three semi-neutrals, and may accordingly be 
 composed of due proportions of either tribe or triad. 
 All antagonist colours, or contrasts, also afford the 
 neutral black by composition ; but in all the modes of 
 producing black by compounding colours, blue is to be 
 regarded as its predominating colour, and yellow as 
 subordinate to red, in the proportions, when their hues 
 are true, of eight blue, five red, and three yellow. It 
 is owing to this predominance of blue in the constitur 
 tion of black, that it contributes by mixture to the 
 pureness of hue in white colours, which in general 
 incline to warmth, and it produces the cool effect of 
 blueness in glazing and tints, or however otherwise 
 diluted or dilated. It accords with the principle here 
 inculcated that, in glass-founding, the oxide of manga¬ 
 nese, which affords the red hue, and that of cobalt, 
 which affords the. blue , are added to brown or yellou 
 frit to produce a velvety-black glass; and that the 
 
104 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 dyer proceeds to dye black upon a deep blue basis of 
 indigo, with tbe ruddy colour of madder and the yellow 
 of quercitron, galls, sumach, &c.; and experience coin¬ 
 cides with principle in these practices, but if the prin¬ 
 ciple be wanting the artist will often fail in his 
 performances. 
 
 All colours are comprehended in the synthesis of 
 black; consequently the whole sedative power of colour 
 is comprised in black. It is the same in the synthesis 
 of white; and, with like relative consequence, white 
 comprehends all the stimulating powers of colour in 
 painting. It follows that a little black or white is 
 equivalent to much colour, and hence their use as 
 colours requires judgment and caution in painting; 
 and in engraving, black and white supply the place of 
 colours, and hence a true knowledge of the active or 
 sedative power of every colour is of great importance 
 to the engraver. 
 
 By due attention to the synthesis of black it may be 
 rendered a harmonizing medium to all colours, and it 
 gives brilliancy to them all by its sedative effect on the 
 eye, and its powers of contrast; nevertheless, we repeat, 
 as a pigment it must be introduced with caution in 
 painting when hue is of greater importance than shade; 
 and black pigments produced by charring have a dis¬ 
 position to rise and predominate over other hues, and 
 to subdue the more delicate tints by their chemical 
 bleaching power upon other colours, and their own dis¬ 
 position to turn brown or dusky. And for these reasons 
 deep and transparent colours, which have darkness in 
 their constitution, are better adapted in general for 
 producing true natural and permanent effects. 
 
 Black is to be regarded as a compound of all other 
 colours, and the best blacks and neutrals of the painter 
 are those formed with colours of sufficient power and 
 
OF THE NEUTRAL. 
 
 105 
 
 transparency upon the palette; but most of the black 
 pigments in use are produced by charring, and owe 
 their colour to the carbon they contain : such are Ivory 
 and Bone blades, Lamp blade, Blue black, Frankfort 
 black, &c. The three first are most in use, and vary 
 according to their modes of preparation or burning ; 
 yet fine Frankfort black, though principally confined tc 
 the use of the engraver and printer, is often preferable 
 to the others. 
 
 Native or mineral blacks are heavy and opaque, but 
 dry well. 
 
 Black pigments are innumerable : the following are, 
 however, the principal, all of which are permanent 
 colours:— 
 
 IVORY BLACK 
 
 And Bone Black are ivory and bone charred to black¬ 
 ness by strong heat in closed vessels. These pigments 
 vary principally through want of care or skill in pre¬ 
 paring them. When well made, they are fine neutral 
 blacks, perfectly durable, and eligible both for oil and 
 water-painting; but when insufficiently burnt they are 
 brown, and dry badly; and when too much burnt, they 
 are cineritious, opaque, and faint in colour. Of the 
 two, ivory affords the best pigment; but bone black is 
 used for general purposes. 
 
 LAMP BLACK, 
 
 Or Lamblack, is a smoke black, being the soot of resinous 
 woods, obtained in the manufacturing of tar and tur¬ 
 pentine. It is a pure carbonaceous substance, of a fine 
 texture, intensely black, and perfectly durable, which 
 works well, but dries badly in oil. This pigment may 
 be prepared extemporaneously for water-pain ting by 
 holding a plate over the flame of a lamp or candle, and 
 adding gum-water to the colour: the nearer the plate 
 
 f 3 
 
106 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 is held to the wick of the lamp, the more abundant and 
 warm will be the hue of the black obtained; at a greater 
 distance it will be more effectually charred and blacker. 
 This is a good substitute for Indian ink, the colouring 
 basis of which appears to be lamp black. The Nero di 
 foglio of the Italians is prepared from the smoke of 
 burnt paper. 
 
 FRANKFORT BLACK 
 
 Is said to be made of the lees of wine from which the 
 tartar has been washed, by burning, in the manner of 
 ivory black. Similar blacks are prepared of vine twigs 
 and tendrils, which contain tartar; also from peach 
 stones, &c., whence almond black and peach black; and 
 the Indians employ for the same purpose the shell of 
 the cocoa-nut: and inferior Frankfort black is merely 
 the levigated charcoal of woods, of which the hardest, 
 such as box and ebony, afford the best. Fine Frank¬ 
 fort black, though almost confined to copper-plate 
 printing, is one of the best black pigments we possess, 
 being of a fine neutral colour, next in intensity to 
 lamp black, and more powerful than that of ivory. 
 Strong light has the effect of deepening its colour; yet 
 the blacks employed in the printing of engravings have 
 proved of very variable durability. It is probable that 
 this black was used by some of the Flemish painters, 
 and that the pureness of the grays formed therewith is 
 attributable to the property of charred substances to 
 prevent discolourment; although they have not the 
 power of bleaching oils as they have of many other 
 substances. 
 
 BLUE BLACK 
 
 Is also a well-burnt and levigated charcoal, of a cool, 
 neutral colour, and not differing in other respects from 
 the common Frankfort black above mentioned. Blue 
 
OF THE NEUTRAL. 
 
 107 
 
 black was formerly much, employed in painting, and, 
 in common with all carbonaceous blacks, has, when 
 duly mixed with white, a preserving influence upon 
 that colour in two respects; which it owes, chemically, 
 to the bleaching power of carbon, and, chromatically, 
 to the neutralising and contrasting power of black with 
 white. A superior blue black may be prepared by cal¬ 
 cining Prussian blue in a close crucible, in the manner 
 of ivory black; and it has the important property of 
 drying well in oil; innumerable black pigments may 
 be produced in this way by charring. 
 
 SPANISH BLACK 
 
 Is a soft black, prepared by burning cork in the manner 
 of Frankfort and ivory blacks ; and it differs not essen¬ 
 tially from the former, except in being of a lighter and 
 softer texture. It is subject to the variation of the 
 above charred blacks, and eligible for the same uses. 
 Paper black , the Nero di foglio of the Italians, often 
 prepared in the same way, much resembles Spanish 
 black, as does also Prussian black prepared by roasting 
 Prussian blue 
 
 MINERAL BLACK 
 
 Is a native impure oxide of carbon, of a soft texture, 
 found in. Devonshire and Wales. It is blacker than 
 plumbago, and free from its metallic lustre,—is of a 
 neutral colour, greyer and more opaque than ivory 
 black,—forms pure neutral tints,—and being perfectly 
 durable, and drying well in oil, it is valuable in dead¬ 
 colouring on account of its solid body, as a preparation 
 for black and deep colours before glazing. It would 
 also be the most durable and best possible black for 
 frescoes. Russian black is of this class. 
 
108 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 MANGANESE BLACK. 
 
 The common black oxide of manganese answers to the 
 character of the preceding pigment, and is the best ot 
 all blacks for drying in oil without addition, or pre¬ 
 paration of the oil. It is also a colour of much body 
 and tinging power. 
 
 BLACK OCHRE’ 
 
 Is a variety of the mineral black above, combined with 
 iron and alluvial clay. It is found in most countries, 
 and should be washed and exposed to the atmosphere 
 before it is used. Sea-coal, and innumerable black 
 mineral substances, have been, and may be, employed 
 as succedanea for the more perfect blacks, when the 
 latter are not procurable, which rarely happens. 
 
 BLACK CHALK 
 
 Is an indurated black clay, of the texture of white 
 chalk, and is naturally allied to the preceding article. 
 Its principal use is for cutting into crayons, which are 
 employed in sketching and drawing. 
 
 Fine specimens have been found near Bantry in 
 Ireland, and in Wales, but the Italian has the best 
 reputation. Crayons for these uses are also prepared 
 artificially, which are deeper in colour and free from 
 grit. Charcoal of wood is also cut into crayons for the 
 same purpose, and the charcoals of soft woods, such as 
 lime, poplar, &c., are fittest for this use. 
 
 INDIAN INK. 
 
 The pigment well known under this name is prin¬ 
 cipally brought to us from China in oblong cakes, of a 
 musky scent, ready prepared for painting in water; in 
 which use it is so well known, and so generally em- 
 
OF THE NEUTRAL. 
 
 109 
 
 ployed, as hardly to require naming. It varies, how¬ 
 ever, considerably in colour and quality, and is some¬ 
 times, properly, called China ink. Various accounts 
 are given by authors of the mode of preparing this 
 pigment, the principal substance or colouring matter 
 of which is a smoke black, having all the properties of 
 our lamp black ; and the variety of its hues and tex¬ 
 ture seems wholly to depend upon the degree of burning 
 and levigating it receives. The pigment known by the 
 name Sepia is supposed to enter into the composition 
 of the better sort. The colour of Indian Ink is im¬ 
 proved by the addition of a small quantity of Indigo, 
 and a still smaller portion of Lake, by which its ten¬ 
 dency to turn brown is neutralised. 
 
 BLACK LEAD, 
 
 Plumbago, or Graphite , is a native carburet of iron or 
 oxide of carbon, found in many countries, but nowhere 
 more abundantly, or so fine in quality, as at Borrodale 
 in Cumberland, where there are mines of it, from which 
 the best is obtained, and consumed in large quantity in 
 the formation of crayons and the black-lead pencils of 
 the shops, which are in universal use in writing, sketch¬ 
 ing, designing, and drawing; for which the facility 
 with which it may be rubbed out by Indian rubber or 
 caoutchouc, gutta percha, and the crumb of bread 
 admirably adapts it. 
 
 Although not acknowledged as a pigment, its powers 
 in this respect claim a place for it, at least among 
 water-colours ; in which way, levigated in gum-water 
 in the ordinary manner, it may be used effectually with 
 rapidity and freedom in the shading and finishing of 
 pencil-drawings, &c., and as a substitute therein for 
 Indian ink. Even in oil it may be useful occasionally, 
 as it possesses remarkably the property of covering. 
 
no 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 forms very pure grey tints, dries quickly, injures no 
 colour chemically, and endures for ever. These quali¬ 
 ties render it the most eligible black for adding to 
 white in minute quantity to preserve the neutrality of 
 its tint. 
 
 Although plumbago has usurped the name of Black 
 Lead, there is another substance more properly entitled 
 to this appellation, and which may also be safely em¬ 
 ployed in the same manner, and with like effects as a 
 pigment. This substance is the Sulphuret of Lead , 
 either prepared artificially, or as found native in the 
 beautiful lead ore, or Galena , of Derbyshire. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC. 
 
 As there are circumstances under which some pigments 
 may very properly and safely be used, which under 
 others might prove injurious or destructive to the work, 
 the following Lists or Tables are subjoined, in which 
 they are classed according to various general properties, 
 as guides to a judicious selection. These Tables are 
 tne results of direct experiments and observation, and 
 are composed, without regard to the common reputa¬ 
 tion or variable character of pigments, according to the 
 real merits of the various specimens tried. 
 
 As the properties and effects of pigments are much 
 influenced by adventitious circumstances, and are some¬ 
 times varied or altogether changed by the grounds on 
 which they are employed, by the vehicles in which they 
 are used, by the siccatives and colours with which they 
 
TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC. 
 
 Ill 
 
 are mixed, and by the varnishes by which they are 
 covered, these Tables are offered only as approxima¬ 
 tions to the true characters of pigments and as general 
 guides to right practice 
 
 TABLE I. 
 
 Of Pigments, the colours of which suffer different 
 degrees of change by the action of light, oxygen, and 
 pure air; but are little, or not at all, afiected by shade, 
 sulphuretted hydrogen, damp, and foul air:— 
 
 Yellow - 
 
 r Yellow Lake 
 Dutch ) 
 
 English > Pink 
 Italian ) 
 
 Yellow Orpiment 
 King’s Yellow 
 Chinese Yellow 
 Gamboge 
 Gallstone 
 Indian Yellow 
 
 Blue 
 
 ( Indigo 
 Intense Blue 
 Antwerp Blue 
 Prussian Blue 
 
 I Orange Orpiment 
 Orange < Golden Sulphur of An- 
 ( timony 
 
 Green ...Sap Green 
 
 Rose Pink 
 Carmine 1 
 Common I 
 Florence > 
 Scarlet ( 
 Hambro’ ) 
 
 Cochineal 
 
 Lakes 
 
 1 Purple Lake 
 Purple \ Burnt Carmine 
 ( Lac Lake 
 
 -p ( Brown Pink 
 
 rown | LigM Bone Brown, &e. 
 
 Remarks. —None of the pigments in this Table are 
 eminent for permanence. No white or black pigment 
 whatever belongs to this class, nor does any tertiary, 
 and a few only of the original semi-neutrals. Most of 
 those included in the list fade or become lighter by 
 time, and also, in general, less bright. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 Pigments, the colours of which are little, or not at 
 all, changed by light, oxygen, and pure air; but are 
 
112 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 more or less injured by the action of shade, sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, damp, and impure air :— 
 
 White - 
 
 ' Common White Lead j 
 Flake White 
 
 Crems White 
 
 Roman White 
 
 Venetian White 
 
 Blanc d’Argent 
 _ Sulphate of Lead 
 
 ' 
 
 Blue... - 
 
 i 
 
 l 
 
 Yellow - 
 
 ' Massicot 
 
 Patent Yellow 
 
 Jaune Minerale 
 
 Chrome Yellow 
 w Naples Yellow 
 
 Orange * 
 
 Red ... - 
 
 ' Red Lead 
 
 Chrome Red 
 
 Dragon’s Blood 
 
 L Iodine Scarlet 
 
 Green - 
 
 >. 
 
 Blue Yerditer 
 Sanders Blue 
 Mountain Blue 
 Royal Blue 
 Smalt and other Cobal 
 Blues 
 
 Orange Lead 
 Orange Chrome 
 Chromate of Mercury 
 
 Green Yerditer 
 Mountain Green 
 Common Chrome Green 
 Mineral Green 
 Verdigris, and other 
 Copper Greens 
 
 Remarks. —Most of our best white pigments are 
 comprehended in this Table, but no black, tertiary, or 
 semi-neutral colour. 
 
 Many of these colours, when secured by oils, varnish, 
 &c., may be long protected from change. The pig¬ 
 ments of this Table may be considered as more durable 
 than those of the preceding; they are nevertheless 
 ineligible in a water-vehicle, and in fresco; and most 
 of them become darker by time alone in every mode 
 of use. 
 
 This list is the opposite of Table I. 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 Pigments, the colours of which are subject to change 
 by the action both of light and oxygen, and the oppo¬ 
 site powers of sulphuretted hydrogen, damp, and im¬ 
 pure air :— 
 
 TTT, •. 1 Pearl or Bismuth White 
 
 j Antimony White 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Turbith Mineral 
 Patent Yellow 
 
TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC. 
 
 113 
 
 Red .. j 
 
 Iodine Scarlet 
 Dragon’s Blood 
 
 ( Royal Blue 
 Blue .. < Prussian Blue 
 ( Antwerp Blue 
 
 1 Sulphate of Antimony 
 Orange ] Anotta 
 ( Carucru 
 
 Green .. Verdigris 
 Russet .. Prussiate of Copper 
 
 Remarks. —This Table comprehends our most imper¬ 
 fect pigments, and demonstrates how few absolutely 
 bad have obtained currency. Indeed several of them 
 are valuable for some uses, and not liable to sudden or 
 extreme change by the agencies to which they are here 
 subjected. Yet the greater part of them are destroyed 
 by time. 
 
 These pigments unite the bad properties of those in 
 the two preceding Tables. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 Pigments not at all, or little, liable to change by the 
 action of light, oxygen, and pure air; nor by the 
 opposite influences of shade, sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 damp and impure air ; nor by the action of lead or 
 iron :— 
 
 White 
 
 ' Zinc White 
 Constant, or Barytic 
 • White 
 Tin White 
 _ The Pure Earths 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Yellow Ochre 
 Oxford Ochre 
 Roman Ochre 
 Sienna Earlh 
 Stone Ochre 
 Brown Ochre 
 
 Blue .. | 
 
 Ultramarine 
 Blue Ochre 
 
 Orange - 
 
 ' Orange Ochre 
 Jaune de Mars 
 Burnt Sienna E irth 
 Burnt Roman Ochre 
 _ Light Red, &c. 
 
 I Chrome Greens 
 Green < Terre-Yerte 
 ( Cobalt Green 
 
 Red .. 
 
 ' Vermilion 
 Rubiates, or Madder 
 Lakes 
 
 Madder Carmines 
 Red Ochre 
 Light Red 
 Venetian Red 
 Indian Red 
 
 ( Gold Purple 
 Purple ; Madder Purple 
 ( Purple Ochre 
 
 { Russet Rnbiate, or 
 Madder Brown 
 Intense Russet 
 
114 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 Brown 
 
 and 
 
 Semi- 
 
 neutral 
 
 ' Vandyke Brown 
 Bistre 
 
 Raw Umber 
 Burnt Umber 
 Cassel Earth 
 J Cologne Earth 
 ) Aspbaltum 
 Mummy, &c. 
 Ultramarine Ashes 
 Sepia 
 
 Manganese Brown 
 k Cappagh Brown 
 
 Black 
 
 ''Ivory Black 
 Lamp Black 
 Frankfort Black 
 • Mineral Black 
 Black Chalk 
 Indian Ink 
 ^ G-raphite 
 
 Remarks. —This Table comprehends all the best and 
 most permanent pigments, and such as are eligible for 
 water and oil painting. It demonstrates that the best 
 pigments are also the most numerous, and browns the 
 most abundant, and in these respects stands opposed to 
 the three Tables preceding. 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 Pigments subject to change variously by the action 
 of white lead and other pigments, and preparations of 
 that metal:— 
 
 Yellow { 
 
 /'Massicot 
 Yellow Orpiment 
 King’s Yellow 
 Chinese Yellow 
 Gamboge 
 Gall-stone 
 Indian Yellow 
 Yellow Lake 
 Dutch ) 
 
 English > Pink 
 Italian \ 
 
 /'Iodine Scarlet 
 Red Lead 
 Dragon’s Blood 
 Common ^ 
 Cochineal 
 
 Red .. { Florence y Lakos 
 Scarlet 
 Hambro’ 
 
 Lac 
 
 Carmine 
 ^ Rose Pink 
 
 Blue .... Indigo 
 
 Orange 
 
 ( Orange Lead 
 Orange Orpiment 
 Golden Sulphur of An¬ 
 timony 
 
 Anotta, or Roucou 
 Carucru, or Chica 
 
 Green ... Sap Green 
 
 Purple Lake 
 Burnt Carmine 
 
 Citrine .. Brown Pink 
 
TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC. 
 
 115 
 
 Remarks. —-Acetate or sugar of lead, litharge, and 
 oils rendered drying by oxides of lead, are all in some 
 measure destructive of these colours. Light, bright, 
 and tender colours are principally susceptible of change 
 by the action of lead. 
 
 The colours of this Table are very various in their 
 modes of change, and thence do not harmonize well by 
 time: it follows, too, that when any of these pigments 
 are employed, they should be used pure or unmixed ; 
 and, by preference, in varnish: while their tints with 
 white lead ought to be altogether rejected. 
 
 TABLE VI. 
 
 Pigments, the colours of which are subject to 
 change by iron, its pigments, and other ferruginous 
 substances:— 
 
 White { 
 
 Sulphate of Lead 
 Blanc d’Argent 
 
 / Blue Verditer 
 Blue .. < Mountain Blue 
 ( Intense Blue 
 
 Yellow 
 
 ( King’s Yellow 
 Patent Yellow 
 Naples Yellow 
 Chinese Yellow 
 
 ( Iodine Scarlet 
 Bed .. ] Carmine 
 
 ( Scarlet Lake 
 
 f Golden Sulphur of An- 
 
 ran S° 1 tlrnnnv 
 
 Green 
 
 Verdigris 
 Green Verditer 
 
 Russet .. .Prussiate of Copper 
 
 Remarks. —Several other delicate pigments are 
 slightly affected by iron and its preparations ; and with 
 all such, as also with those of the preceding Table, and 
 with all pigments not well freed from acids or salts, the 
 iron palette knife is to be avoided or used with caution, 
 and one of ivory or horn substituted in its place. Nor 
 can the pigments of this Table be in general safely 
 combined with the ochres. Strictly speaking, that 
 degree of friction which abrades the palette knife in 
 rubbing of pigments therewith ia injurious to every 
 bright colour. 
 
116 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 
 TABLE VIL 
 
 Pigments more or less transparent, and generally 
 fit to be employed as graining and finishing colours, 
 if not disqualified according to Tables I., II., and 
 III.:— 
 
 Y ellow < 
 
 Led ., 
 
 ( Sienna Earth 
 Gamboge 
 Indian Yellow 
 Gallstone 
 Italian \ 
 
 English > Pink 
 Dutch ) 
 v Yellow Lake 
 
 Madder Carmine 
 Madder Lakes 
 Lac Lake 
 Carmine 
 Common \ 
 
 Scarlet; 06 I LakeS 
 
 Hambro’ / 
 Dragon’s Blood 
 Rose Pink 
 
 Blue.. ■ 
 
 Ultramarines 
 Cobalt Blue 
 Smalt 
 Royal Blue 
 Prussian Blue 
 Antwerp Blue 
 Intense Blue 
 Indigo 
 
 Orange 
 
 Madder Orange 
 Anotta 
 
 Burnt Sienna Earth 
 Jaune de Mars 
 
 Green 
 
 Chrome Green 
 Sap Green 
 ■ Prussian Green 
 Terre-Yerte 
 _ Verdigris 
 
 Purple 
 
 ( Madder Purple 
 Burnt Carmine 
 Purple Lake 
 Lac Lake 
 
 Citrine 
 
 Brown Pink 
 Citrine Lake 
 
 -p , { Madder Brown 
 tusse | X’russiate of Copper 
 
 Brown • 
 
 Vandyke Brown 
 Cologne Earth 
 Burnt Umber 
 Bone Brown 
 Asphaltum 
 Mummy 
 Brown Pink 
 Antwerp Brown 
 Bistre 
 Sepia 
 
 Prussian Brown 
 
 Gray.... Ultramarine Ashes 
 
 Black 
 
 Ivory Black 
 Bone Black 
 Lamp Black 
 Frankfort Black 
 Blue Black 
 v Spanish Black 
 
 Remarks. —This Table comprehends most of the 
 best water-colours ; and their most powerful effects in 
 oil-painting are attainable by employing them with 
 
TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC. 
 
 117 
 
 resinous varnishes. Pigments not inserted in this 
 Table may of course be considered of an opposite class, 
 or opaque colours; with which, nevertheless, trans¬ 
 parent effects in painting are produced by the skill of 
 the artist in breaking and mingling without mixing 
 them, &c. 
 
 The great importance of transparent pigments is to 
 unite, and give tone and atmosphere generally, with 
 beauty and life, to solid or opaque colours of their own 
 hues ; to convert primary into secondary, and secondary 
 into tertiary colours with brilliancy ; to deepen and 
 enrich dark colours and shadows, and to give force and 
 tone to black itself. 
 
 TABLE YIII. 
 
 Pigments, the colours of which are little or not at all 
 affected by heat or fire :— 
 
 White 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Red, 
 
 Blue.. 
 
 Tin White 
 
 
 Barytic White 
 
 Zinc White 
 
 j 
 
 Orange < 
 
 The Pure Earths 
 
 ( 
 
 Naples Yellow 
 
 Patent Yellow 
 
 Green j 
 
 Antimony Yellow 
 
 
 Red Ochre 
 
 Light Red 
 
 Venetian Red 
 
 Indian Red 
 
 Purple | 
 
 f 
 
 Royal Blue 
 
 Smalt 
 
 Dumont’s Blue and all 
 
 Brown -{ 
 
 l 
 
 Cobalt Blues 
 Ultramarine 
 
 Black j 
 
 Orange Ochre 
 Jaune de Mars 
 Burnt Sienna Earth 
 Burnt Roman Ochre 
 
 True Chrome Green 
 Cobalt Green 
 
 Gold Purple 
 Purple Ochre 
 
 Rubens’ Brown 
 Burnt Umber 
 Cassel Earth 
 Cologne Earth 
 Antwerp Brown 
 Manganese Brown 
 
 Graphite 
 Mineral Black 
 
 Remarks. —Many of the pigments of this Table are 
 available in enamel painting, and most of them are 
 durable in the other modes. 
 
118 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 TABLE IX. 
 
 Pigments which are little or not at all affected by 
 lime, and in various degrees eligible for fresco, distemper, 
 and crayon painting :— 
 
 White 
 
 ( Barytic White 
 Pearl White 
 Gypsum, and all pure 
 Earths 
 
 Yellow 
 
 'Yellow Ochre 
 Oxford Ochre 
 Roman Ochre 
 Sienna Earth 
 Stone Ochre 
 Brown Ochre 
 Indian Yellow 
 Patent Yellow 
 Naples Yellow 
 ^ Massicot 
 
 Red 
 
 'Vermilion 
 Red Lead 
 Red Ochre 
 - Light Red 
 Venetian Red 
 Indian Red 
 ^Madder Reds 
 
 { Ultramarine 
 Smalt, and all Cohalt 
 Blues 
 
 Green 
 
 ' Green Verdi ter 
 Mountain Green 
 Chrome Green 
 Mineral Green 
 ■ Emerald Green 
 Verdigris and other 
 Copper Greens 
 Terre-Verte 
 - Cobalt Green 
 
 ( Gold Purple 
 Purple j Madder Purple 
 ( Purple Ochre 
 
 Brown 
 
 and 
 
 Semi¬ 
 
 neutral 
 
 'Bone Brown 
 Vandyke Brown 
 Ruhens’ Brown 
 Bistre 
 Raw Umber 
 Burnt Umber 
 Cassel Earth 
 Cologne Earth 
 Antwerp Brown 
 Chestnut Brown 
 Asphaltuin 
 Mummy 
 
 Ultramarine Ashes 
 v Manganese Brown 
 
 f 
 
 i 
 
 Orange * 
 
 
 Orange Lead 
 Orange Chrome 
 Laque Minerale 
 Orange Ochre 
 Jaune de Mars 
 Burnt Sienna Earth 
 Light Red, &c. 
 
 Black 
 
 ' Ivory Black 
 Lamp Black 
 Frankfort Black 
 - Mineral Black 
 Black Chalk 
 Indian Ink 
 ^ Graphite 
 
 Remarks.— This Table shows the multitude of pig¬ 
 ments from which the painters in fresco, scagliola, dis¬ 
 temper, and crayons may select their colours; in doing 
 which, however, it will be necessary they should consult 
 the previous Tables respecting other qualities of pig¬ 
 ments essential to their peculiar modes of painting, as 
 
TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC. 
 
 119 
 
 these modes are exciting renewed interest in the world 
 of art, tending to their extension in practice, particu¬ 
 larly the latter of them. 
 
 TABLE X. - 
 
 HERALDIC COLOURS. 
 
120 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOUHING. 
 
 TABLE X. ( continued ). 
 
TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC. 
 
 121 
 
 Remarks.— Heraldry, tlie most arbitrary of the 
 sciences, having no foundation whatever in nature, has 
 nevertheless employed colours with more consistent 
 classification than the more natural and legitimate arts, 
 and being intimately connected with decorative paint¬ 
 ing in the emblazoning of arms and the illuminating 
 of missals, books, deeds, and treaties; and being also 
 of occasional reference to higher art, a brief notice of 
 heraldic colouring and its symbols may be considered 
 as a useful appendage to a work on painting. The 
 present Table may also serve, by the comparison of 
 colours, jewels, &c., to denote the colours themselves, 
 and identify their names according to natural resem¬ 
 blances, and as a guide to the constructing of signals, 
 &c. 
 
 The manner of denoting colours by the scoring and 
 crossing of lines on escutcheons may be usefully em¬ 
 ployed by artists in sketching as memoranda for paint¬ 
 ing the accidental and local colours of objects.* 
 
 * The Cathedral of Chartres offers an example worthy the attention 
 of archaeologists : over the grand entrance door, under the rose window, 
 to the right, a stained glass represents the Indian cosmogony, as it is 
 described in the Bhagavadam. On the window of Chartres, Yischnu, 
 draped in blue and red, reposes on a sea of milk, of a yellowish white ; 
 above him is the red rainbow : from the bosom of Yischnu issues the 
 white lotus. The upper window represents Brahma with his quadruple 
 face and the crown on his head. Brahma is nearly naked, his skin is 
 Listre or dun; he wears sal tire wise a green mantle, which envelopes 
 the lower part of his body ; he reposes on the lotus, and in each hand 
 he holds a stem. The upper windows, separated by iron bars, repre¬ 
 sent corresponding subjects. Finally, on the last and most elevated, 
 Jesus appears, clothed in a blue robe, and wearing a bistre-coloured 
 mantle; above his head descends the Holy Ghost, in the form of a 
 dove. The lotus issuing from the bosom of Vischnu rises up to Jesus 
 Christ, where it appears in full blossom. This window, much anterior 
 to the period of the Benaissance, proves the communication of the 
 Oriental myths at the epoch of the crusades ; it unites the symbols of 
 Christian with those of Indian initiation .—Baron F. Portal. 
 
 G 
 
122 
 
 THE G11AMMAR OF COLOURING, 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 TABLE XI. 
 
 THE PRINCIPAL COLOURS USED IN WATER-COLOUR PAINTING. 
 
 These may be purchased as moist colours in pans 
 collapsible tubes, or in whole, half, or quarter cakes. 
 
 BLUES. 
 
 Prussian Blue 
 
 Indigo 
 
 Antwerp Blue 
 
 French Ultramarine 
 Permanent Blue 
 
 Smalt 
 
 Azure Blue 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 Intense Blue 
 
 Blue Verdi ter 
 Cseruleum 
 
 BEDS. 
 
 Carmine 
 
 Vermilion 
 
 Pure Scarlet 
 
 Scarlet Lake 
 
 Crimson Lake 
 
 Deep Bose 
 
 Magenta 
 
 Light Bed 
 Venetian Bed 
 Indian Bed 
 
 Bed Lead 
 
 Madder Lake 
 
 Pink Madder 
 
 Bose Madder 
 
 YELLOWS. 
 
 King’s Yellow 
 
 Lemon Chrome 
 
 Middle Chrome 
 
 Indian Yellow 
 
 Yellow Ochre 
 
 Orpiment 
 
 Gamboge 
 
 Naples Yellow 
 Baw Sienna 
 Yellow Lake 
 Cadmium Yellow 
 
 PUBPLES. 
 
 Purple 
 
 Mauve 
 
 Burnt Carmine 
 
 Violet Carmine 
 
 Purple Madder 
 Dahlia Carmine 
 Purple Lake 
 
 CHANGES. 
 
 Orange Chrome 
 
 Deep Orange Chrome 
 
 Orange Orpiment 
 
 Orange Vermilion 
 Cadmium Orange 
 Mars Orange 
 
tables of pigments, etc. 
 
 123 
 
 'GREENS. 
 
 Prussian Green 
 
 Hooker’s Green (Nos. 1 & 2) 
 
 Sap Green 
 
 Verdigris 
 
 Green Oxide of Chromium 
 
 Emerald Green 
 Olive Green 
 Terre-Verte 
 Veronese Green 
 
 Cologne Earth 
 Burnt Umber 
 Sepia 
 
 Roman Sepia 
 Warm Sepia 
 Vandyke Brown 
 
 BROWNS. 
 
 Burnt Sienna 
 Brown Madder 
 Brown Pink 
 Raw Umber 
 Brown Ochre 
 
 Indian Ink (in sticks) 
 Ivory Black 
 
 BLACKS. 
 
 Lamp Black 
 Blue Black 
 
 WHITES. 
 
 Chinese White (in Bottles, 
 &c.) 
 
 Flake White 
 Permanent White 
 
 GREYS. 
 
 Neutral Tint I Payne’s Grey 
 
 Ultramarine Ashes 
 
 Remarks. —As the whole of the colours named in 
 this Table would never be required by the same artist, 
 each having his especial taste both as to his style of 
 art, and the materials he employs, we give here the 
 contents of email, medium, and full boxes of colours 
 adapted for landscape or landscape and figure :— 
 
 LANDSCAPE, 6 CAKE BOX (OR THE SAME COLOURS IN 
 
 TUBES OR PANS). 
 
 Gamboge, Yellow Ochre, Light Red, Crimson Lake, Vandyke Brown, 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 LANDSCAPE AND FIGURE, 7 COLOURS 
 
 Gamboge, Raw Sienna, Light Red, Rose Madder, Vandyke Brown, 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 G 2 
 
124 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 LANDSCAPE, 19 COLOURS. 
 
 Gamboge, Yellow Ochre, Lemon Yellow, Pale Cadmium, Deep Cad¬ 
 mium, Chinese Orange, Light Red, Vermilion, Orange Vermilion, 
 Crimson Lake, Rose Madder, Purple Lake, Sepia,"Brown Pink, 
 Cobalt Indigo, Cmruleum, Payne’s Grey, Terre-Verte. 
 
 LANDSCAPE AND FIGURE, 17 COLOURS. 
 
 Raw Sienna, Indian Yellow, Lemon Yellow, Italian Pink, Pale Cad¬ 
 mium, Deep Cadmium, Brown Ochre, Burnt Sienna, Scarlet 
 Vermilion, Madder Lake, Indian Lake, Cologne Earth, Vandyke 
 Brown, French Ultramarine, Ultramarine Ash, Indio-o, Veronese 
 Green. 
 
 LANDSCAPE AND FIGURE, 29 COLOURS. 
 
 Gamboge, Yellow Ochre, Raw Sienna, Lemon Yellow, Italian Pink 
 Indian Yellow, Middle Cadmium, Orange Cadmium, Light Red’ 
 Indian Red, Vermilion, Orange Vermilion, Carmine, Rose Madder* 
 Madder Brown, Brown Ochre, Burnt Umber, Sepia, Cobalt’ 
 French Ultramarine, Indigo, Emerald Green, Lamp Black’ 
 Caaruleum, Ultramarine Ash, Smalt, Purple Madder, Olive 
 Green, Veronese Green. 
 
 TABLE XII. 
 
 LIST OF POWDER COLOURS FOR PAINTING IN TEMPERA. 
 
 Burnt Carmine 
 
 Carmine 
 
 Deep Rose 
 
 Cadmium Yellow 
 
 Chinese White 
 
 Flake White 
 
 Zinc White 
 
 Kremnitz White 
 
 Crimson Lake 
 
 Scarlet Lake 
 
 Ultramarine 
 
 French Ultramarine 
 
 Ultramarine Ash 
 
 Green Oxide of Chromium 
 
 Indian Lake 
 
 Indian Yellow 
 
 Intense Blue 
 
 Lemon Yellow 
 
 Madder Brown 
 
 Madder Lake 
 
 Madder Purple 
 
 Malachite Green 
 
 Mars Orange 
 
 Mars Yellow 
 
 Mineral Grey- 
 
 Pure Scarlet 
 
 Purple Lake 
 
 Platina Yellow 
 
 Rose Madder Carmine 
 
 Rubens’ Madder 
 
 Smalt 
 
 Vermilion 
 
 Violet Carmine 
 
 Yellow Carmine or Gallstona 
 
 Antwerp Blue 
 
 Brown Pink 
 
 Indian Red 
 
 Light Red 
 
 Venetian Red 
 
 Blue Black 
 
 Bone Brown 
 
 Cologne Earth 
 
 Emerald Green 
 
 Ivory Black 
 
 Lamp Black 
 
 Patent Yellow 
 
 Roman Ochre 
 
 Vandyke Brown 
 
TABLES OF PIGMENTS, ETC. 
 
 ±25 
 
 Indigo 
 Mummy 
 Italian Pink 
 Prussian Blue 
 Verdigris 
 Yellow Lake 
 Burnt Sienna 
 Burnt Umber 
 
 Chrome Yellow (pale) 
 dium and deep 
 Naples Yellow 
 Orpiment 
 Raw Sienna 
 Terre-Verte 
 Yellow Ochre 
 
 Gamboge in Lump—Drop Lake. 
 
 me- 
 
 Remarks. —These colours are also used for illumina¬ 
 tion and for herald painting. For the former, they 
 are either mixed with gum-water, or may be obtained 
 in powder with which gum in a dry condition has 
 already been incorporated—requiring only the addi¬ 
 tion of water; and the different technical colours used 
 in the latter may be obtained ready mixed in cups. 
 
 TABLE XIII. 
 
 OIL COLOURS IN METALLIC COLLAPSIBLE TUBES. 
 
 REDS. 
 
 Indian Red 
 
 Burnt Brown Ochre 
 
 Light Red 
 
 Burnt Roman Ochre 
 
 Venetian Red 
 
 Magenta 
 
 Indian Lake 
 
 Paladium Red 
 
 Scarlet Lake 
 
 Paladium Scarle 
 
 Vermilion 
 
 Scarlet Vermilion 
 
 Madder Lake 
 
 Carmine, &c. 
 
 Rose Madder 
 
 BLUES. 
 
 Antwerp Blue 
 
 Chinese Blue 
 
 Permanent Blue 
 
 Prussian Blue 
 
 Indigo 
 
 Cseruleum 
 
 Cobalt 
 
 Ultramarine Ash 
 
 French Ultramarine 
 
 YELLOWS AND ORANGES. 
 
 Chrome, Pale 
 Do., Middle 
 Do., Deep 
 Do., Orange 
 Gamboge 
 Raw Sienna 
 Yellow Ochre 
 Indian Yellow 
 Platina Yellow 
 Mars Orange 
 Cadmium Yellow 
 
 Italian Ochre 
 Italian Pink 
 King’s Yellow 
 Naples Yellow, 1, 2, & 3 
 Orpiment 
 Patent Yellow 
 Roman Ochre 
 Mars Yellow 
 Strontian Yellow 
 Orange Vermilion 
 Cadmium Orange 
 
126 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 PUIiPLES. 
 
 Purple Lake j Violet Carmine 
 
 Purple Madder 
 
 Emerald Green 
 Olive Tint 
 Verdigris 
 
 Oxide of Chromium 
 
 Ivory Black 
 Blue Black 
 
 GREENS. 
 
 Mineral Green, Nos. 1 & 2 
 Terre-Verte 
 Malachite 
 Veronese Green 
 
 BLACKS. 
 
 Lamp Black 
 Black Lead 
 
 WHITES. 
 
 Elake White 
 Permanent White 
 Zinc White 
 
 New White 
 Silver White 
 
 BROWNS. 
 
 Asphaltum 
 Bone Brown 
 Indian Brown 
 Vandyke Brown 
 Brown Ochre 
 Burnt Umber 
 Mummy 
 Madder Brown 
 Burnt Sienna 
 
 Bitumen 
 Cappagh Brown 
 Manganese Brown 
 Verona Brown 
 Brown Pink 
 Cassel Earth 
 Raw Umber 
 Rubens’ Madder 
 
 Mineral Grey, &c., &c. 
 
 Remarks. —These tubes may either be purchased 
 separately or in boxes fitted up for figure-landscape, 
 &c.; or in any way desired by the artist. The student 
 is advised not to purchase a large stock at once, but to 
 obtain just enough for his immediate wants, making 
 additions from time to time according to necessity. 
 
PAET III. 
 
 ON VEHICLES, OILS, AND YAENISHES. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 ON VEHICLES, ETC. 
 
 Since colours and pigments are liable to material in¬ 
 fluence, and changes of effect, from the materials 
 employed in painting for tempering, combining, dis¬ 
 tributing, and securing them on their grounds in the 
 various modes of the art, the powers and properties of 
 oils, vehicles, and varnishes are of hardly less import¬ 
 ance than those of colours themselves; they are, there¬ 
 fore, an essential branch of our subject. Vehicles, 
 which term is borrowed from pharmacy, are, indeed, 
 among the chief materials and indispensable means of 
 painting, and give name to its principal modes under 
 the titles of painting, in Water, Oil, Varnish, Distemper 
 and Fresco : we will consider them, therefore, in these 
 respects. 
 
 It is observable that the colours of pigments bear out 
 with effects differing according to the liquids with 
 which they are combined, and the substances those 
 liquids hold in solut ion, which in some instances obscure 
 or depress, and in others enliven or exalt, the colours ; 
 
128 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 in the first case by the tinge and opacity of the fluid, 
 and in the latter, by its colourless transparency, and 
 sometimes also much more so by a refractive power; 
 as in varnishes made of pure resinous substances, which 
 have a very evident and peculiarly exalting effect upon 
 colours, that continues when they are dry; because 
 resins form a glossy transparent cement, while the 
 media formed by expressed oils become horny, or 
 semi-opaque. This principle applies also to aqueous 
 and spirituous vehicles in water-painting, according to 
 the nature of the substances they may hold in solution. 
 
 WATER VEHICLES. 
 
 The most natural or fit distribution of vehicles is into 
 those of water , oils, and varnishes ; under which heads 
 " e proceed to regard them, and the various substances 
 employed as additions, according to the variety of 
 practice. 
 
 As the action of aqueous liquids and solvents upon 
 colours is stronger and more immediate tha,n that of 
 oils and varnishes, it is of great importance to the 
 water-colour painter that he should attend to the pure¬ 
 ness of his water, as in all hard and impure waters 
 colours are disposed to separate and curdle, so that it 
 is often impossible a clear flowing wash, or gradation 
 of colour, should be obtained with them. 
 
 As water is not sufficient to connect, bear out, and 
 secure colours on their grounds in painting, owing to 
 its entirely evaporating in drying, additions of perma¬ 
 nently adhesive substances soluble therein are neces- 
 sary, such as vegetable gums, mucilages, farinaceous 
 paste, sugar, animal glues and size, glaire or white of 
 eggs, serum of blood, milk, curd, whey, &c., and finally 
 mineral solids, such as quick-lime, alum, borax, &c., 
 
ON vehicles, etc. 
 
 129 
 
 and these variously mixed and compounded : whence a 
 variety of empirical methods of painting. 
 
 Water, as a vehicle compared with oil, is of simple 
 and easy use, drying readily, and being subject to little 
 alteration of colour or effect subsequently; for, notwith 
 standing oils and varnishes are less chemically active 
 upon colours than aqueous fluids, the vehicles of the 
 oil-painter subject him to all the perplexities of their 
 bad drying, change of colour, blooming, and cracking, 
 —to habits varying with a variety of pigments, and to 
 the contrariety of qualities, by which they are required 
 to unite tenuity with strength, and to be fluid without 
 flowing, &c.; to provide for and reconcile all which 
 has continually exercised the ingenuity of the oil- 
 painter. 
 
 MUCILAGES. 
 
 Gum, or some mucilaginous substance, is a necessary 
 addition to water to give pigments their requisite cohe¬ 
 sion, and to attach the colours to the grounds on which 
 they are applied, as well as to give them the property 
 of bearing out to the eye, according to the intention of 
 the artist; upon which, and upon the pigments used, 
 depend the proportions of gum to be employed, gum 
 being a constituent of some pigments, while others are 
 of textures to require it in considerable quantity to give 
 them proper tenacity,—qualities we have adverted to 
 in speaking of individual pigments : as a general rule, 
 however, the proportion of gum, &c., employed with a 
 colour should be sufficient to prevent its abrasion, but 
 not so much as to occasion its scaling or cracking, both 
 of which are easily determined by trial upon paper. 
 
 GUMS. 
 
 Of Gums, Senegal is the strongest and best suited 
 to dark colours, being of a brown hue; but the light- 
 
 g 3 
 
130 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 coloured pieces may be employed for the more delicate 
 pigments. All gums contain an acid, very unfavourable 
 to their preservation in a fluid state ; which acid re¬ 
 quires, therefore, to be neutralised by the addition of 
 some alkaline substance, of which we have found the 
 carbonate of ammonia, being volatile, to be the best; 
 a small portion of which being shaken into the dis¬ 
 solved gum will purify it by precipitating all its foul¬ 
 ness, and preserve it a very long time for use, and very 
 much improve the working of colours without occasion 
 for gall: the gum will rarely require more than one 
 scruple of the powdered carbonate to an ounce of the 
 gum dissolved by maceration in two or three ounces of 
 cold water. Solution of borax will answer the same 
 purpose, but less eligibly. 
 
 Gum Arabic is in general clearer and whiter than 
 Senegal, and hence is better adapted to the brighter 
 and more delicate colours. It should be picked and 
 purified by solution in cold water, straining, and de¬ 
 canting ; and should be used fresh, or preserved by 
 addition of alcohol, or by ammonia in the manner 
 already described. 
 
 Ammonia, or Gam Ammoniac, is a gum-resin, soluble 
 in spirit and in water, in the latter of which it forms a 
 milky fluid that dries transparent: it has many pro¬ 
 perties which render it useful in water-painting. It is 
 avoided by insects, is very tenacious, and affords a 
 middle vehicle between oil and water, with some of the 
 advantages of both. It contributes also, in the manner 
 of a varnish, to protect the more fugitive colours over 
 which it may be glazed, or with which it may be 
 mixed, and on this account it is eligible in water¬ 
 painting. 
 
 Gum Tragacanth is a strong colourless gum, soluble 
 in hot water, and of excellent use when colours are 
 
ON VEHICI.ES, etc. 
 
 131 
 
 required to lie flat, or not bear out with gloss, and also 
 when a gelatinous texture of the vehicle is of use to 
 prevent the flowing of the colours ; starch as prepared 
 by the laundress, water in which rice has been boiled, 
 used by the Chinese, and paste of wheaten flour, are 
 available for the same purpose. Sugar and honey have 
 also been employed, but as they attract flies and mois¬ 
 ture are better avoided. 
 
 SIZE 
 
 Is prepared either by long boiling the shreds of parch¬ 
 ment, &c., or from glue by soaking in cold water, and 
 subsequently dissolving by heat. The quantity to be 
 used depends like that of gums on the quality of the 
 pigments employed, and caution is more necessary than 
 with the gums not to use it in excess on account of its 
 disposition to contract in drying, and occasion the 
 colour to crack and scale off. The lighter-coloured 
 fish-glue and isinglass are substituted for the nicer kinds 
 of painting; albumen or white of egg , and also the yolk, 
 employed by glovers, is used in some cases; oxgall is 
 useful when the surface to be painted is polished, or 
 works greasy. Size is sometimes worked into oil 
 colours instead of mastic varnish to gelatinize and give 
 them crispness. 
 
 MILK OF LIME 
 
 Is commonly employed in distemper painting without 
 size, as a white basis and cement of colours, with or 
 without addition of drying oil, and, when dry, stands 
 weather with considerable firmness. It is prepared by 
 slacking lumps of white quicklime in water. 
 
 BORAS 
 
 Is a mild alkaline salt, useful for neutralising the 
 acidity of gums, and as a substitute for animal gall in 
 
132 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 attaching colours to polished or oily surfaces. It is 
 also valuable as a medium for uniting varnishes and 
 oils with water, in an intermediate mode of painting, 
 which after drying is insoluble in water and may be 
 washed. In small quantity borax promotes the drying 
 of oils. 
 
 MEDIA. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to unite the advan¬ 
 tages of the two modes of painting—of water and oil— 
 either by successive processes, or by the use of a vehicle 
 of a compound or intermediate affinity to both of these 
 fluids, and thence technically denominated a medium; 
 a term otherwise properly applicable to every vehicle. 
 
 With regard to media, all the gelatinous substances 
 before mentioned as additions to water vehicles may be 
 combined with linseed and other oils, and such compounds 
 may be employed as vehicles, and will keep their place 
 as delivered by the brush in painting. Indeed starch, 
 as prepared by the laundress, has been lately recom¬ 
 mended for this purpose. Nevertheless we regard these 
 mixtures as both chemically and mechanically inferior 
 to the combination of lac and borax, which is equally 
 diffusible in water and in oil, and does not contract in 
 drying, or render the painting penetrable by moisture 
 as farinaceous and mucilaginous substances do, nor, in 
 the end, dispose the work to crack. It has accordingly 
 been proposed that artists should adopt the Indian pro¬ 
 cess of painting, in which lac is rendered sapona¬ 
 ceous and miscible in water by the medium of borax; 
 but against this process the foul colour and opacity of 
 the vehicle have been heretofore justly objected. If, 
 however, one part of borax be dissolved in twelve of 
 boiling water, and the solution be added, in equal or 
 other proportions, to white lac varnish, a perfectly 
 
OK VEHICLE?, ETC. 
 
 133 
 
 transparent colourless liquid is formed, which diffuses 
 freely in water, and may be used, with some difficulty, 
 as a quick-drying vehicle for painting instead of oil, 
 and, when dry, is not acted on or removable by water; 
 add to this, that as this lac vehicle is as freely miscible 
 with oil as it is with water, it supplies a true medium, 
 or connecting link, between painting in water and oil, 
 which may, in ingenious hands, unite the advantages 
 of both. 
 
 DRYERS, 
 
 Or Siccatives. "With respect to Desiccation or Drying, 
 the well-known additions of the acetate or sugar of lead, 
 litharge, and sulphate of zinc, called also improperly 
 white copperas and white vitriol, either mechanically 
 ground or in solution, for light colours ; and japanners’ 
 gold size, or oils boiled upon litharge for lakes, or in 
 some cases verdigris and manganese for dark colours, 
 may be resorted to when the colours or vehicles are 
 not sufficiently good dryers alone: but it requires 
 attention, that an excess of dryer renders oils sapona¬ 
 ceous, is inimical to drying, and injurious to the per¬ 
 manent texture of the work. Some colours, however, 
 dry badly from not being sufficiently edulcorated or 
 washed, and many are improved in drying by passing 
 through the fire, or by age. Sulphate of zinc, as a 
 dryer, is less powerful than acetate of lead, but is pre¬ 
 ferable in use with some oolours, upon which it acts 
 less injuriously ; but it is supposed, erroneously, to set 
 the colours running ; which is not positively the case, 
 though it will not retain those disposed to it, because 
 it wants the property the acetate of lead possesses, of 
 gelatinizing the mixture of oil and varnish. These 
 two dryers should not be employed together, as fre¬ 
 quently directed, since they counteract and decompose 
 
134 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 each other by double election,—forming two new sub¬ 
 stances, the acetate of zinc, which is an ill dryer, and 
 the sulphate of lead, which is insoluble and opaque. 
 
 It is not always that ill drying is attributable to the 
 pigments or oils;—the states of the weather and atmo¬ 
 sphere have great influence thereon. The oxygenating 
 power of the direct rays of the sun renders them pecu¬ 
 liarly active in drying oils and colours, and was pro¬ 
 bably resorted to before dryers were added to oils, and 
 the atmosphere is imbued with the active matter of 
 light to which its drying property may be attributed. 
 The ground may also advance or retard drying, because 
 some pigments, united either by mixing or glazing, 
 are either promoted or obstructed in drying by their 
 conjunction: artificial heat also promotes drying. 
 
 The various affinities of pigments occasion each to 
 have its more or less appropriate dryer; and it would 
 be a matter of useful experience if the habits of every 
 pigment in this respect were ascertained; siccatives of 
 less power generally than the above, such as the acetate 
 of copper, massicot, red lead, and the oxides of man¬ 
 ganese, to which amber and the Cappagh browns owe 
 their drying quality, and others, might come into use 
 in particular cases. Many other accidental circum¬ 
 stances may also affect drying. Dryers should be 
 added to pigments only at the time of using them, 
 because they exercise their drying property while 
 chemically combining with the oils employed, during 
 which the latter become thick or fatten, and render 
 additional oil and dryer necessary when again used. 
 A-Cetate of lead, dissolved in water, spirit, or turpentine, 
 may be used as a dryer of oil paints with convenience 
 and advantage in some cases. 
 
 In the employment of dryers attention is necessary 
 —1. Not to add them uselessly to pigments that dry 
 
ON OILS, ETC. 
 
 135 
 
 well in oil alone. 2. Not to employ them in excess, 
 which retards drying. 3. Not to add them to the 
 colour till it is to be used. 4. Not to add several 
 kinds of dryers to the same colour: and—5. To use 
 simple dryers in preference to nostrums recommended 
 and vended for drying of paints. Impurity of the 
 pigment sometimes retards drying, in which case it 
 should be washed. 
 
 Another attention should be, that one coat of paint 
 should be thoroughly dry before another is applied; 
 for if the upper surface of paint dry before the surface 
 beneath it, it will rival by the expansion and contrac¬ 
 tion of the under surface as the oil evaporates and 
 dries; overloading with paint will be attended by the 
 same evil; and if the upper surface be of varnish or 
 brittle, cracking of the paint will ensue. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIY. 
 
 ON OILS, ETC. 
 
 Oils are distinguished into Fat oils, Frying oils, and 
 Volatile oils ; the two first are also called fixed and 
 expressed oils, as the latter are essential oils. All oils 
 become thickened by age, and more rapidly so by con¬ 
 tact of air and combination with its oxygen ; in which 
 case if the oil be fat or unctuous oil, such as olive oil 
 and all animal oils, stearine, or tallow, is produced and 
 separated from the elain, olain, or fluid oil; if it be a 
 drying oil, such as linseed and painter’s oil, caoutchouc 
 or gluten is, in like manner, produced ; and if it be a 
 volatile or essential oil, such as that of turpentine, solid 
 
136 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 resin is formed therein : a third and acid substance is 
 formed in oils when they become rancid, called marga¬ 
 rine, which is inimical to drying. Wax is produced 
 by the action of oxygen on a compound fat and essential 
 oil; wax is therefore a substance between resin and 
 stearine or tallow. All these substances may be re¬ 
 garded as oxides of elain, into which oils are wholly 
 convertible; and, finally, by the action of time, air, 
 and heat, they approach an elementary state, suffer 
 incipient combustion, develop hydrogen, and become 
 ultimately carbonized and darkened ; in all which 
 states oils are deteriorated for working freely and for 
 painting with pureness and permanence, as the fat oils 
 are for burning in lamps. 
 
 All oils are soluble or miscible in water by the 
 medium of alkalis, absorbent earths, or other metallic 
 oxides, and are therefore capable of chemical union with 
 pigments; they are partially soluble also in alcohol, 
 and absorb or take up by agitation small portions of 
 both alcohol and water, which they resign upon being 
 heated. 
 
 LINSEED OIL. 
 
 Of the expressed or drying oils appropriate to painting 
 “ Honest linseed” is by far the strongest, and that which 
 dries best, most tenaciously, and firmest under proper 
 management; which properties it owes to its being at 
 once resinous, glutinous, and oleaginous. Having more 
 of the quality of a resin than a fat oil, it never totally 
 loses its transparency while liquid, in the manner of 
 fat oils by cold, but preserves it during the most in¬ 
 tense frost in the manner of a resin; and, like the resins 
 also, it becomes ultimately fixed, hard, and solid, by 
 combining with the oxygen of the atmosphere : but it 
 lies under the great disadvantage of acquiring, after 
 drying, and by exclusion from light and pure air, a semi- 
 

 ON OILS, ETC. ' 137 
 
 opaque and yellow-brown colour, which darkens by 
 age. To obviate this as much as possible, when paint¬ 
 ing with oil alone, it is best to work the colour as stiff 
 as may be, so as to use as small a portion of the vehicle 
 as may suffice; for it is a fact proved by direct and 
 repeated experiments, that little oil diffused through 
 much colour is subject to little change upon the canvas, 
 and that a thin coating of linseed oil is similarly pre¬ 
 served by light and the action of the atmosphere. 
 
 Linseed oil varies in quality according to the good¬ 
 ness of the seed from which it is expressed; the best is 
 yellow, transparent, comparatively sweet scented, and 
 has a flavour somewhat resembling that of the cucum¬ 
 ber : great consequence has been attributed to the cold¬ 
 drawing of this oil, but it is of little or no importance 
 in painting whether moderate heat be employed or not 
 in expressing it. Several methods have been contrived 
 for bleaching and purifying this oil, so as to render it 
 perfectly colourless and limpid ; but these give it mere 
 beauty to the eye in a liquid state, without communi¬ 
 cating any permanent advantage, since there is not any 
 known process for preventing the discolourment we 
 have spoken of as sequent to its drying : and it is 
 pei haps better upon the whole that this and every 
 vehicle should possess that colour at the time of using 
 to which it subsequently tends, that the artist may de¬ 
 pend upon the continuance of his tints, and use his 
 \ehicle accordingly, than that he should be betrayed 
 by a meretricious and evanescent beauty in his vehicle 
 to use it too freely. Linseed oil that has been long 
 boiled upon litharge in a water-bath, to preserve it 
 from burning, acquires colour; and is, when diluted 
 with oil of turpentine, less disposed to run than pure 
 linseed oil, and affords one of the most eligible vehicles 
 of the oil-painter. 
 
138 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 The most valuable qualities of linseed oil, as a vehicle, 
 consist in its great strength and flexibility; some have 
 preferred it when bleached by exposure to sun and air; 
 others, when new and fresh, or that which is cold-drawn; 
 but that is the best which will temper most colour in 
 painting ; and oil expressed with a heat which does not 
 char or much discolour it, is equal in all respects to the 
 cold-drawn. 
 
 THE DRYING OF OILS 
 
 Appears to depend on the following conditions:—the 
 presence of oxygen which by an incipient combustion 
 of the hydrogenous oils fixes them, whence whatever 
 contributes oxygen to oil dries it, as it is the case with 
 pure air, sunshine, &c. Hence all the perfect oxides of 
 metals, including even pure earths and alkalis in due 
 proportions, dry oils. Hence, imperfect oxides, by ab¬ 
 stracting oxygen from oil, retard drying ; hydrogenous 
 substances are hence ill dryers in oil, hence the best 
 dryers are those which contain oxygen in excess; and 
 such are litharge, sugar of lead, minium, massicot man¬ 
 ganese, umbers, sulphate of zinc or white copperas, and 
 verdigris. 
 
 PALE DRYING OIL. 
 
 The oil should be macerated, two or three days at 
 least, upon about an eighth of its weight of litharge, 
 in a warm place, occasionally shaking the mixture, 
 after which it should be left to settle and clear; or it 
 may be prepared without heat by levigating the litharge 
 in the oil. Acetate of lead may be substituted for 
 litharge, being soluble with less heat, and its acid being 
 volatile escapes during solution and bleaches the oil; 
 to which coarse smalt may be added to clear it by sub¬ 
 sidence, increase its drying, and neutralise its brown 
 colour. This affords pale drying oil for light and bright 
 
ON OILS, ETC. 
 
 139 
 
 colours, which may be preserved for use in the above- 
 described apparatus. 
 
 BOILED OIL. 
 
 The above mixture of oil and litharge, gently and 
 carefully boiled in an open vessel till it thickens, be¬ 
 comes strong drying oil for dark colours. Boiled oil 
 is sometimes set on fire purposely in the making of 
 Printers’ Varnish and Printing Ink, and also for paint¬ 
 ing and the preparation of Japannees’ Gold Size. As 
 dark and transparent colours are in general compara¬ 
 tively ill dryers, japanners’ gold size is sometimes em¬ 
 ployed as a powerful means of drying them. This 
 material is very variously and fancifully prepared, often 
 with needless, if not pernicious, ingredients; but may 
 be simply, and to every useful purpose in painting, 
 prepared as follows: — Powder finely of asphaltum, 
 litharge or red lead, and burnt umber, or manganese, 
 each one ounce; stir them into a pint of linseed oil, 
 and simmer the mixture over a gentle fire, or on a 
 sand-bath, till solution has taken place, scum ceases to 
 rise* and the fluid thickens on cooling; carefully guard¬ 
 ing it from taking fire. If the oil employed be at all 
 acid or rancid, talc, powdered, or a small portion of 
 chalk or magnesia, may be usefully added, and will 
 assist the rising of the scum and the clearing of the 
 oil, by its subsidence; and if it be kept at rest in a 
 warm place, it will clear itself: or it may be strained 
 through cloth and diluted with turpentine for use. Gold 
 size for gilding is commonly made of boiled oil and fine 
 Oxford ochre. 
 
 POPPY OIL 
 
 Is much celebrated in some old books under the appel¬ 
 lations of oil of pinks and oil of carnations , as erroneously 
 
140 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 translated from the French ceillet, or olivet, a local name 
 for the poppy in districts where its oil is employed as a 
 substitute for that of the olive. It is, however, inferior 
 in strength, tenacity, and drying to linseed oil, although 
 next to it in these respects; and though it is of a 
 paler colour, and slower in changing, it becomes ulti¬ 
 mately not so yellow, but nearly as brown and dusky, 
 as linseed oil, and, therefore, is not to be preferred to 
 it. Boiled as above, it is the Oglio Cotto, or the baked 
 oil , of the Italians. 
 
 NUT OILS 
 
 Resemble poppy oil in painting, but with inferior 
 powers; and the fish oils of the seal and cod, though 
 sometimes used with dryers in the coarser painting, are 
 inferior in qualities to them all, and little better than 
 tar similarly employed. 
 
 MEGILP, 
 
 Or English varnish, &c. Half a century ago, the 
 jellied vehicles which received the cant appellations of 
 magilp and gumtion were the favourite nostrums of the 
 initiated painter, and have maintained a preference with 
 many artists to this day. These compounds of one part 
 or more of strong mastic varnish with two of linseed 
 or other oils rendered drying as above and coagulable 
 by the salts and oxides of lead, were, according to the 
 preceding intentions, improvements upon the simple oil 
 vehicle used on impenetrable grounds, by diluting it, 
 and giving it a gelatinous texture, which enables it, 
 while flowing freely from the pencil, to keep its place 
 in painting, glazing, graining, &c. 
 
 GUMTION, 
 
 Composed of not more than an eighth of the acetate or 
 sugar of lead, with simple oil and strong varnish, which 
 
ON OILS, ETC. 
 
 141 
 
 is subject to less change ultimately, particularly when 
 the varnish abounds in the compound. In the using of 
 sugar of lead, if the acid abound, which it does usually 
 in the purer and more crystalline kinds, its power of 
 drying is weakened, and it may have some injurious 
 action upon colours, such as those of ultramarine and 
 lakes. In this case a small addition of some of the 
 pure oxides of lead, such as litharge, ground fine, will 
 increase the drying property of the sugar of lead, and 
 correct its injurious tendency. A similar composition 
 of ground litharge rubbed with twice its quantity of 
 nut or linseed oil, and a sixth of bees’-wax and used 
 with mastic varnish, is called Italian varnish. 
 
 COPAIBA 
 
 Is a natural balsam of "West Indian production in a 
 liquid state, in which it may be employed both as a 
 vehicle and a varnish : it being of tolerable strength in 
 either use, and preserving its naturally pale colour, but 
 it is entirely needless in common painting. 
 
 VOLATILE OILS, 
 
 Procured by distillation from turpentine and other 
 vegetable substances, are almost destitute of the strength 
 of the expressed oils, having hardly more cementing 
 power in painting than water alone, and are principally 
 useful as solvents, and media of resinous and other sub¬ 
 stances introduced into vehicles and varnishes. In 
 drying they partly evaporate, and partly by combina¬ 
 tion with oxygen form resins and become fixed. They 
 are not, however, liable to change colour like expressed 
 oils of a drying nature, and, owing to their extreme 
 fluidness, are useful diluents of the latter; they have 
 also a bleaching quality, whereby they in some degree 
 correct the tendency of drying and expressed oils to 
 
142 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 discolourment. Of essential oils, tlie most volatile, and 
 nearest in this respect to alcohol, is the oil^of sassafras ; 
 but that most used in painting is the 
 
 OIL OF TURPENTINE. 
 
 The rectified oil, improperly called spirit of turpen¬ 
 tine, &c., is preferable only on account of its being 
 thinner and more free from resin: By the action of 
 oxygen upon it, water is either generated or set free, 
 and the oil becomes thickened, but is again rendered 
 liquid by a boiling heat upon water, in which the 
 oxygen and resin are separated from it. When co¬ 
 loured by heat or otherwise, oil of turpentine may be 
 bleached by agitating some lime powder in it, which 
 will carry down the colour. The great use of this oil, 
 under the cant name of turps , is to thin oil paints, and 
 in the larger use thereof to flatten white and other 
 colours, and to remove superfluous colour in graining. 
 It however weakens paint in proportion as it prevents 
 its bearing out, and when used entirely alone it will 
 not fix the paint. 
 
 OIL OF LAVENDER 
 
 Is of two kinds, the fine-scented English oil, and the 
 cheaper foreign oil, called oil of spike ° these are rather 
 more volatile and more powerful solvents than the oil 
 of turpentine, which render them preferable in enamel 
 painting, of which they are the proper vehicles; they 
 have otherwise no advantage over the latter oil, unless 
 they be fancied for their perfume. T^e other essential 
 oils, such as oil of rosemary, thyme, &c., are very 
 numerous; but it has not appeared that they possess 
 any property that gives them superiority in painting 
 over that of turpentine some of them have, however, 
 more power in dissolving resins in the making of 
 
ON VARNISHES, ETC. 
 
 143 
 
 ■varnishes, as is the case also with naphtha or petroleum 
 and the rectified oil of coal tar. 
 
 NAPHTHA 
 
 And the Coal Oil of our gas works are even more power¬ 
 ful solvents than the vegetable essential oils; but on this 
 account, and the usual bad scent of the latter, they are 
 less eligible for the painter’s use as vehicles : the recti¬ 
 fied coal oil may, however, be deprived of its nauseous 
 smell by agitating it during several days with dilute 
 sulphuric acid, and subsequently washing the oil with 
 a little powder or milk of lime. 
 
 SPIRIT OF WINE, 
 
 Or Alcohol, is weaker and more dilute than essential 
 oils, or even than water, and is so volatile as to be of 
 use in vehicles only as a medium for combining oils 
 with resins, &c.—as a powerful solvent in the formation 
 of spirit varnishes, and in some degree as an innocent 
 promoter of drying oils and colours. It affords also 
 powerful means of removing varnishes, &c. 
 
 CHAPTER XX Y. 
 
 ON VARNISHES, ETC. 
 
 The last operation of painting is varnishing, which com¬ 
 pletes the intention of the vehicle, by causing the design 
 and colouring to bear out with their fullest freshness, 
 force, and keeping; supplies, as it were, natural mois¬ 
 ture, and a transparent atmosphere to the whole, while 
 it forms a glazing which secures the work from injury 
 
144 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 and decay. It is especially necessary for graining, and 
 often in ornamental and fancy works of the art. 
 
 Yarnishes are prepared from an immense variety of 
 substances, of which the resins, improperly called gums, 
 afford the best, and those principally used, and a vast 
 number of preparations thereof uselessly compounded 
 of many ingredients and little to be depended on, are 
 recorded in different works, wherein as usual the simplest 
 are the best. Yarnishes are best-classed according to 
 their solvents, as water varnishes, spirit varnishes, 
 essential oil varnishes, and oil varnishes, but more 
 usually distinguished according to the substances from 
 which they are prepared. 
 
 RESINOUS VARNISHES 
 
 Are either spirit varnishes, volatile oil varnishes, fixed oil 
 varnishes, natural balsams, or compounds of these; their 
 usual solvents being either spirit of wine or alcohol, oil 
 of turpentine, or linseed oil. 
 
 The principal varnishes hitherto introduced and to be 
 preferred in painting are the following :— 
 
 MASTIC VARNISH. 
 
 It is true that other soft resins are sometimes substi¬ 
 tuted for that of mastic, and that very elaborate com¬ 
 pounds of them have been recommended and celebrated, 
 but none that possess any evident advantage over the 
 simple solution of mastic in rectified oil of turpentine. 
 Some have used a varnish of Damas, or common white 
 resin mixed with naphtha. Others have employed mastic ' 
 and sandarach dissolved in nut, poppy, or linseed oils, 
 and this is evident from the difficulty of removing 
 varnishes from very old pictures. Mastic varnish is 
 easily prepared, by digesting in a bottle during a few 
 hours, in a warm place, one part of the dry picked resin 
 
ON VARNISHES, ETC. 
 
 145 
 
 with three or four of the oil of turpentine. A quantity 
 of this cleared varnish sufficient to gelatinize or set up 
 either of the before-mentioned drying oils of linseed, 
 constitutes the transparent megilp of the painter, &c. 
 If, instead of drying oil, the simple pure linseed oil be 
 used with about an eighth of acetate of sugar of lead 
 dissolved in water, or ground fine, we obtain variously 
 the opaque mixture called gumtion. 
 
 COPAL VARNISH. 
 
 As other soft resins are sometimes substituted for 
 mastic, so inferior hard resins are sometimes em¬ 
 ployed in the place of copal in the composition of 
 varnishes celebrated as copal varnishes. Copal is 
 of difficult solution in turpentine and linseed oils, 
 both of which enter into the composition of the ordi¬ 
 nary copal varnishes, which are employed by the 
 coach painter and herald painter, and afford the best 
 varnishes used by the house painter and grainer. 
 Combined, however, with linseed oil and oil of turpen¬ 
 tine, copal varnish affords a vehicle superior in texture, 
 strength, and durability to mastic and its megilp, though 
 in its application it is a less attractive instrument, and 
 of more difficult management. As copal swells while 
 dissolving, so its solutions and varnish contract, and 
 consequently crack in drying, and thence linseed oil is 
 essential to prevent its cracking. The mixture of copal 
 varnish and linseed oil is best effected by the medium 
 of oil of turpentine, and for this purpose heat is some¬ 
 times requisite : strong copal varnish and oil of turpen¬ 
 tine in equal portions with one-sixth of drying oil 
 mixed together, hot, afford a good painter’s vehicle : 
 and if about an eighth of pure bees’-wax be melted into 
 it, it will enable the vehicle to keep its place in the 
 manner of magilp. Elemi, anime, and resins of inferior 
 
 H 
 
146 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 hardness are sometimes substituted for copal in prepar¬ 
 ing its varnish. 
 
 WHITE LAC VARNISH 
 
 Is a new varnish introduced by the author. It is pre¬ 
 pared by dissolving in alcohol or spirit of wine the lac 
 resin of India, deprived chemically of all colouring 
 matter, and purified from gluten, wax, and other extra¬ 
 neous substances with which it is naturally combined; 
 without which process the varnish it affords is opaque and 
 of the dark colours of the japans and lackers of the East, 
 but when thus purified, its varnish is brilliant, trans¬ 
 parent, very hard, and nearly colourless. This varnish, 
 being a spirit varnish, requires a warm temperature, 
 which is useful in all varnishing, and it dries rapidly. 
 Its place is usually supplied by the light, hard varnish of 
 the shops, in which softer resins are used with shell- 
 lac. 
 
 LAC 
 
 Is of three principal kinds, namely, Sticlc-lac, Seed-lac , 
 and Shell-lac, of dark or light amber colours, of which 
 the last is the purest, and that of palest colour is the 
 best for varnishes. They are all soluble in pure spirit 
 of wine. Yarious compositions of Lac with less than 
 a fourth of mastic or sandarach, all dissolved, without 
 fire, in spirit of wine, afford the French polishes, which 
 are applied to cabinet work by a roll of woollen list or 
 cloth wound tight, the face of which being dipped into 
 the varnish and covered with a fine linen rag:, having 
 a drop only of linseed oil on the centre, is used cir¬ 
 cularly as a rubber for the varnishing and polishing 
 the plain surfaces of the work by an easy and effica 
 cious process, the carvings and mouldings which the 
 rubber cannot reach requiring to be varnished with the 
 brush. The dipping of the rubber, and supplying the 
 
ON VARNISHES, ETC. 
 
 147 
 
 drop of oil, are to be repeated alternately as the work 
 goes on, till the whole is completed. 
 
 COWDIE, 
 
 Or Fossil Varnish. A new resin which exudes naturally 
 from the Coicdie Pine of New Zealand and Australia 
 into the soil at the foot of the trees, from which being 
 dug, it has obtained the improper name of Fossil Gum , 
 under which it has been imported, and being a fine, 
 transparent resin nearly of the hardness of copal, and of 
 similar habits, may become a valuable substitute for 
 the hard varnishes in decorative painting and fine art. 
 But it has hitherto been rejected by manufacturers of 
 varnishes, first from the want of success in forming a 
 permanent solution, owing to its precipitating from the 
 solvents after being dissolved, and secondly from the 
 danger of ebullition, inflammation, and explosion of 
 gas evolved during its solution. 
 
 This latter defect arises from the water absorbed by 
 the resin in its growth, or in the earth, which renders 
 it opaque, but from which it may be freed by grossly 
 powdering and drying, when the resin becomes trans¬ 
 parent as glass, and may be melted and dissolved with 
 the safety of other resins; and the first-named diffi¬ 
 culty we have effectually remedied by the following 
 simple formula, which yields a strong varnish that dries 
 readily and with a fine surface :— 
 
 Take of broken and dried Coicdie Pesin one part, 
 melt it in the ordinary vessel, with the usual caution, 
 and stir well and gradually into it, over a fire sufficient 
 to boil without burning it, four parts or more of hot 
 oil of turpentine till the solution is completed, finally 
 stir it well and keep it hot off the fire one hour to clear. 
 In this way, strictly followed, the cowdie or fossil resin 
 will afford an excellent varnish applicable to the pur- 
 
 h 2 
 
148 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 poses of the usual copal varnishes, and superior to that 
 of mastic varnish for pictures in not cracking like 
 copal, and being more permanent than mastic, and as 
 easily and safely removed when requisite : but it does 
 not magiip with drying oil, although it may be mixed 
 and employed therewith. 
 
 We are are of opinion also that, from the abundance, 
 cheapness, and excellence of this resin, it is especially 
 applicable to the purposes of civil, military, and naval 
 architecture, in whatever works a varnish may be re¬ 
 quired or can be usefully employed, to which the diffi¬ 
 culty and danger of permanent solution have been 
 hitherto the obstacles with manufacturers of varnishes 
 accustomed to the old resins of elimi, ccpal, sandarach, 
 &c., improperly called gums; but which objections 
 are entirely remedied by the preceding formula. It 
 is, we presume, for the uses here suggested that the 
 American merchants have become great purchasers of 
 the cowdie resin. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS. 
 
 Upon comparing the qualities of the varnishes of 
 mastic, cowdie, copal, and lac, it will appear that the 
 latter are successively harder and more perfect as 
 varnishes, and in proportion to their perfection as 
 varnishes is the difficulty of using them as vehicles; 
 and as it is necessary that before varnishing with any 
 of them the picture should be thoroughly dry, to pre¬ 
 vent subsequent cracking, this is perhaps more essential 
 for the latter than for the former. Notwithstanding this 
 necessity, there is one highly important advantage which 
 seems to attend early varnishing ; namely, that of pre¬ 
 serving the colour of the vehicle used from chansrinsr, 
 which it is observed to do when a permanent varnish is 
 passed over colours and tints newly laid; but this i* 
 
ON VARNISHES, ETC. 
 
 149 
 
 does always at the hazard, and often at the expense, of 
 cracking, and early varnishing with soft varnish dries 
 slowly and is more disposed to bloom. 
 
 This saving grace of early varnishing appears to 
 arise from the circumstance that, while linseed and 
 other oils are in progress of drying, they attract oxygen, 
 by the power of which they entirely lose their colour ; 
 but, after becoming dry, they progressively acquire 
 colour. It is at the mediate period between oils thus 
 losing and acquiring colour, which commences pre¬ 
 viously to the oil becoming perfectly dry, that varnish 
 preserves the colour of the vehicle, probably by pre¬ 
 venting its further drying and oxidation, which latter 
 may in the end amount to that degree which consti¬ 
 tutes combustion and produces colour :—indeed it is 
 an established fact that oils attract oxygen so power¬ 
 fully, as in many cases to have produced spontaneous 
 combustions and destructive fires. 
 
 It is eminently conducive to good varnishing, in all 
 cases, that it should be performed in fair weather, 
 whatever varnish may be employed; and that a current 
 of cold or damp air, which chills and blooms them, 
 should be avoided. To escape the perplexities of var¬ 
 nishing, some have rejected it altogether, contenting 
 themselves with oiling-out, — a practice which, by 
 avoiding one extreme, runs to its opposite, and subjects 
 the work to ultimate irrecoverable dulness and ob¬ 
 scurity. 
 
 The manufacturing processes for the varnishes now 
 generally used have been detailed in the Transactions 
 of the Society of Arts, 8fc., vol. xlix. But with 
 regard to the recipes for compounding varnishes, &c., 
 superabounding in ancient and modern treatises, how¬ 
 ever flatteringly recommended, there are few eligible 
 and yet fewer justifiable to art and good chemistry by 
 
150 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 the simplicity upon which certainty of effect depends, 
 being in general quite of the class of the recipes and 
 formulae of the old cookery-books and dispensatories. 
 
 Presuming the decorator and painter to have ac¬ 
 quainted himself with the principles of colours, &c., so 
 as to apply them with taste and effect, as well as with 
 a due knowledge of his materials, both of which are 
 indispensable, there will yet remain to the complete 
 mastery of his art the various modes and operations of 
 painting, &c., in which they are to be applied, but for 
 which he must rely upon his acquirement of skill and 
 practice. These, therefore, we now proceed finally to 
 describe, with such observations and additions as may 
 appear expedient. 
 
PART IV. 
 
 THE MODES AND OPERATIONS OF 
 PAINTING. 
 
 CHAPTER XXYI. 
 
 OF MATERIALS, AND THE METHOD OF USING THEM. 
 
 AVe must assume that our student has mastered the 
 elementary principles, and has attained some power 
 in the practice of drawing;* we shall therefore 
 proceed with instructions as to working with the 
 brush, as distinct from that done with the pencil. 
 This latter term has been applied to small brushes, 
 such as “camel-hair” and “sable” pencils, and is 
 generally used symbolically in relation to painting: 
 thus Sir Joshua Reynolds says, “ the pencil speaks the 
 tongue of every land.” 
 
 Still, in general terms, a brush is understood to 
 mean the implement with which wet colour is applied, 
 in opposition to the dry point, such as a crayon or lead 
 pencil. 
 
 The simplest method of painting is that in which 
 water alone is used as a medium; and we therefore 
 
 * For a course of elementary drawing, adapted for painters, grainers,. 
 and letter-writers, see the “ Practical Manual for House-Painters, &c.,” 
 of this series. 
 
152 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 make this a starting-point, the pigments haying been 
 previously mixed with a mucilage. 
 
 The paper on which water-colour painting is executed 
 is of various degrees of roughness; for it will of course 
 he understood that it is necessary that there should be 
 some “ tooth ” or grain on the surface; the very 
 smooth being only adapted for a very minute drawing 
 which is to be very highly finished. The following are 
 the sizes of the different drawing-papers, and these 
 may be obtained either hot-pressed, plain, or, as it is 
 called, “ not, meaning not hot-pressed, or possessing 
 a finely grained surface for water-colour painting 
 generally, and rough (in various degrees) for large 
 and bold pictures. 
 
 The following are the names of the various drawing- 
 papers and their sizes :— 
 
 Demy ., 
 
 Medium 
 Royal .. 
 
 Super Royal .. 
 Imperial 
 Elephant 
 Columbier 
 
 Atlas . 
 
 Double Elephant 
 Antiquarian .. 
 
 .. 20 
 
 inches by 15 
 
 .. 22 
 
 >> 17 
 
 .. 24 
 
 „ 19 
 
 .. 27 
 
 „ 19 
 
 .. 30 
 
 „ 21 
 
 .. 23 
 
 „ 23 
 
 .. 34 
 
 „ 23 
 
 ,. 33 
 
 „ 26 
 
 .. 40 
 
 „ 26 
 
 .. 52 
 
 „ 31 
 
 Several of these papers may be had of an extra 
 thick quality. 
 
 The paper most generally used is the Imperial, either 
 full size or in halves, 21 x 15, or in quarters, 15 x 11$. 
 
 The student will no doubt be possessed of a drawing- 
 board ; if not, he is advised to purchase one at a 
 respectable shop, rather than to have one made, as, in 
 the former case, he can select from a stock of boards 
 which have been kept some time, and are therefore 
 likely to be well seasoned, whilst, in the latter, he 
 will run the risk of the newly made board warping 
 
DRAWING-PAPERS AND DRAWING-BOARDS. 153 
 
 twisting, or cracking. Drawing-boards are made in 
 various ways.—1. Clamped : in these, pieces are jilaced 
 across the ends, and are attached by what is called the 
 plough-and-tongue joint ; this is a very generally 
 adopted method, and is only open to the objection that, 
 as the fibres of the end-pieces are in an opposite direc¬ 
 tion to those of the board itself, the latter is liable to 
 shrink in one way, and the former in another, thus, 
 after a while, the ends of the cross-pieces will be found 
 to project beyond the edges of the board. This will 
 not, however, last long, and when it has been once or 
 twice corrected by the plane being run along the edge, 
 it will cause no further inconvenience. 2. The cross¬ 
 piece may be put on by the method called mitre¬ 
 clamping, in which it is cut slantingly at its ends, the 
 board being correspondingly cut to receive it. This is not 
 as a rule advantageous, as, should any shrinking take 
 place, the cross-pieces would be forced out of their 
 mitres, and the board thus thrown out of square. 3. 
 A very good board is made by placing rabbets across 
 the back of the board; these should be fixed edgewise, 
 and should be inserted into grooves, the sides of which 
 are cut so as to slant inward, the rabbets being 
 planed to fit; the grooves and the rabbets should be 
 rather wider at one end than at the other, and they 
 may thus be tightened by a blow from a hammer. 
 They should not be glued, but should be merely 
 attached by one screw near the end of each. Thus, 
 whilst the board is prevented warping or twisting, it 
 is allowed to expand or contract, and splitting or 
 cracking is prevented. We are thus particular in 
 relation to boards in order to avoid the annoyance 
 ensuing from twisting and warping during the pro-, 
 gress of a picture, of which there is the more likelihood 
 from the frequent washes applied to the drawing the 
 
 h 3 
 
154 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 board being thus subjected to constant alternations of 
 wet and dry. 
 
 The paper for water-colour painting should be 
 attached to the board by the method called “ stretch¬ 
 ing.” This is done in the following manner. The 
 paper is cut so as to be slightly smaller than the board, 
 a strip of about three-quarters of an inch being removed 
 all round ; a border of about half an inch is then to be 
 turned up on each side. The sheet is next to be turned 
 face downward, whilst the back is to be covered with 
 water, which must be allowed to soak well in. The 
 moisture should be equalised by means of a sponge, so 
 that one part may not be more wetted than the other. 
 
 The paper is then to be turned—the wetted side 
 towards the board—and paste is to be applied to the 
 upturned edges, which are subsequently to be pressed 
 down, during which operation the paper is to be 
 stretched, the thumbs being placed against the edge of 
 the board and the fingers on the edge of the paper 
 whilst drawing it outward. 
 
 If whilst drying some of the blisters which naturally 
 arise in the damp paper do not seem to decrease with 
 sufficient rapidity they should be pricked with a needle 
 in several places, so as to allow the air to escape ; this will 
 in most cases be found a sufficient remedy, but if not suc¬ 
 cessful the surface of the paper must be again moistened 
 all over, especially towards the edges ; and if this should 
 fail also, the paper must be taken off the board and the 
 operation repeated altogether. The edges should be 
 well rubbed down with the handle of a penknife or 
 some similar article, and the paper should be placed to 
 dry in a horizontal position. 
 
 Sketching-blocks are very convenient, as they serve 
 the purpose of a drawing-board with a quantity of 
 paper ready stretched upon it. They consist of a 
 
WATER-COLOURS. 
 
 155 
 
 number of pieces of paper well pressed and fastened 
 together at their edges, so as to form a compact mass or 
 block, which is then glued down to a piece of very 
 thick millboard. As each drawing is finished it may 
 be removed by inserting the penknife into a small 
 aperture specially left open and running it round the 
 edges, by which means the sheet will become detached 
 and another ready for the next work will be presented. 
 
 The outline having been made, the colouring is to be 
 proceeded with, but at this stage it is necessary to 
 warn the student that no amount of colour will ever 
 convert a bad drawing into a good painting, and that 
 the further the work progresses the more will the effect 
 of incorrect outline become visible, and the more diffi¬ 
 cult will alteration become ; the sketch should, there¬ 
 fore, be most carefully corrected before the process of 
 painting is commenced. 
 
 Moist colours are taken from the pans on the point 
 of the wet brush, and either transferred directly to the 
 paper, or placed on the slab or palette, so that a quan¬ 
 tity may be mixed with water. This is by far the 
 safer plan, where any portion of the drawing is to be 
 evenly covered. The moist colours in tubes are used 
 by pressing on the lower end of the tube, when the 
 colour, which is of some consistency, will be forced from 
 the aperture opened by unscrewing the lid. The little 
 pyramid of colour thus deposited, is then to be mixed 
 with water, by means of a palette-knife, or it may be 
 washed down by a brush. Colour of any degree of 
 depth may thus be obtained. 
 
 Water-colours in cakes are the most old-fashioned 
 form, but still retain their hold in the estimation of 
 perhaps the greater number of artists, as they are for 
 many reasons the most convenient, although for large 
 work the pans and tubes are better, as colour mav be 
 
156 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 mixed in quantities from them with greater rapidity 
 than from the cakes. In rubbing the colour, the cake 
 should not be dipped into the water-glass, as in that 
 way its edges become wetted more than necessary, and 
 cause it to crack and chip. The water should be placed 
 on the slab by means of a brush, and the colour rubbed 
 in it, the cake being afterwards placed on one of the 
 edges at right angles to that which has been rubbed 
 until it has dried, when it is to be restored to its place 
 in the box. 
 
 When it is required to compound a tint from two 
 colours, each of them should be rubbed separately on 
 the slab, a space being left between them on which 
 they should be mixed with a brush ; by this means the 
 cakes are kept unsoiled by other tints. 
 
 When a quantity of colour is required in order to 
 cover any large surface, it should be mixed in a saucer, 
 and having been allowed to stand for an hour or so, 
 the colour should be carefully poured off into another 
 vessel, leaving any sediment or particles of colour 
 which may have broken off in the original saucer, and 
 the rest of the colour will be smooth and clear. 
 
 This cannot, however, be done with all colours ; for 
 some of them, such as vermilion, emerald green, &c., 
 are so heavy, that nearly the whole of the colouring 
 matter sinks to the bottom, and the liquid poured 
 off would be almost pure water. It is, therefore, neces¬ 
 sary to stir such at every brushful taken ; but they are 
 not adapted for flat washes. 
 
 In order that the colour may flow easily, it should, 
 for washing, be thin ; and it must be pointed out that 
 the safest plan which can be adopted by the student is 
 to work in stages, keeping the picture rather too light 
 than the opposite until it is near completion, when the 
 finishing and spirited touches can be put in; for it is 
 
THE USE OF THE BRUSH. 
 
 157 
 
 easy by repetition to darken the work, but always diffi¬ 
 cult and troublesome to lighten it if too dark. 
 
 When the colour has been laid on, it should not be 
 touohed until it has dried; should any spots then 
 appear darker than others, they may be lightened by 
 rubbing them with a moist brush, a piece of Indian- 
 rubber, or bread crumbs; and any part which may be 
 lighter than the rest may be covered with another 
 wash, or may be as it were darned, by stippling, that is, 
 by small dots, or separate touches, done with a brush 
 containing only a very small quantity of colour. 
 
 The student is urged never to employ a small brush 
 where a large one could be used. Small brushes make 
 the work look streaky, and boldness of manipulation, 
 so much to be desired, is only to be attained by the 
 use of large ones. In using large brushes, however, 
 great care is necessary in order to preserve the outline; 
 but very fine points can be made to good brushes by 
 drawing them along a piece of waste paper, and, when 
 held upright, very small work can, when required, be 
 done with them. 
 
 In laying a flat wash, care should be taken that 
 sufficient colour is prepared for the immediate purpose, 
 as the necessary evenness of the tint will be injured if 
 the progress of the work be interrupted. The brush 
 should contain as much colour as it will hold without 
 allowing it to run down, but the point should be pre¬ 
 served. The work should be commenced at the top, 
 the board being placed in a slightly inclined position. 
 
 Before commencing to work in colours, it is advis¬ 
 able that the student should have some practice in what 
 is called painting in monochrome, or one colour; and 
 for this purpose sepia is generally preferred, from the 
 ease with which it washes. 
 
 It is a good plan to draw several squares, triangles, 
 
158 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 and oblongs, of different sizes, and to commence by lay¬ 
 ing a flat wash over each of the smaller figures, and 
 advancing to the larger ones, for increased practice; 
 for it will at once be understood that the difficulty of 
 laying a flat wash increases with the size of the surface. 
 
 When a certain amount of power in using the brush 
 has thus been attained, figures having a greater number 
 of angles, such as octagons, nonagons, &c., should be 
 drawn and coloured, care being taken not to pass over 
 the outline, but still to carry the colour into all the 
 angles, whilst spreading it evenly over the surface. In 
 doing this, the brush should be held as nearly upright 
 as possible. 
 
 The tints should next be graduated, commencing 
 pale at the top, and becoming darker towards the 
 bottom. This is accomplished in the following man¬ 
 ner. Mix the colour in three degrees of depth, in as 
 many different compartments of the slab. Com¬ 
 mence with the lightest, and when the work has 
 proceeded about one-third of the width of the surface 
 to be covered, remove as much as possible of the colour 
 from the brush, either against the edge of one of the 
 compartments of the slab or on a piece of waste paper, 
 and with the brush in this condition carry on the 
 work a little further, so that there may not be a quan¬ 
 tity of colour at the edge of the strip which has been 
 tinted. Next, take a little of the colour of the second 
 degree of strength, and with it pass over the edge of 
 the strip just coloured whilst the latter is still wet; 
 the two tints will thus be easily blended, and the 
 full brush will then be used to carry the work further; 
 in the same way the gradation from the second to the 
 darkest tint is to be made. 
 
 The next study should be derived from a cylindrical 
 surface, such as a garden-roller, a barrel, a jug, &c. In 
 
SUBJECTS FOE PRACTICE. 
 
 159 
 
 subjects such as these the tone becomes gradually 
 darker as it removes from the highest light; but the 
 darkest portion is relieved near the edge by a reflected 
 light. The student is urged to make several studies 
 from objects, from which he will, by careful observa¬ 
 tion, learn much more than he could from an infinite 
 number of drawing-copies. 
 
 The next subjects for practice should be of the 
 spherical character, commencing with objects such as 
 a cup or basin, which are only partially globular, and 
 subsequently proceeding to complete spheres, such as a 
 large ball, an orange, fruit, &c. ; in fact, a group con¬ 
 sisting of three apples, placed next to each other, with 
 a fourth resting on them, forms an excellent study of 
 form, and of light and shade, whilst a bunch of grapes, 
 as was long ago asserted by Titian, is the best that 
 could be conceived. 
 
 A certain amount of practice in the use of the brush 
 having been thus obtained, and the student having 
 acquired a mastery over the implement and the colour 
 he employs, the same method of proceeding is to be 
 applied to the colours generally. 
 
 As our instructions are intended to lead more to 
 decorative than landscape painting, we refrain from 
 referring to the methods of obtaining the numerous 
 and ever-varying effects visible in nature, but we still 
 urge that observation of these must tend to improve 
 the eye for colour, and to elevate the taste. 
 
 The decorative artist is advised to practise flower¬ 
 painting in water-colour, since flowers, rendered 
 naturally and conventionally, form such an important 
 element in ornamental art. But we must again urge 
 correctness in drawing, and careful study of the 
 natural growth and botanical features of the plant, 
 so that it may, in being adapted to an ornamental 
 
160 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 purpose, retain its natural characteristics. It is this 
 knowledge which enables the designer to convention¬ 
 alise with such admirable effect, as we see in some of 
 the better class of decorations ; it is this knowledge 
 by which a man rises from a mere drudge to the posi¬ 
 tion of an artist; and it is by these means that he 
 acquires the power of pleasing the eye and refining 
 the taste of those around him. 
 
 Having for a short time painted flowers from copies, 
 the student is advised, as soon as possible, to take 
 nature as his model, and to paint first from a single 
 flower or spray, and subsequently from groups. 
 
 The first tints are to be laid on as washes, the petals 
 and leaves being subsequently worked up by stippling; 
 but this must not by any means be overdone, but should 
 be resorted to merely as a finishing process—to give, 
 however inadequately, an idea of the exquisite refine¬ 
 ment of the subject itself. 
 
 The decorative artist should also make the human 
 figure an integral portion of his study; nor should 
 animal forms be neglected, entering as they do into so 
 many branches of ornamentation. 
 
 CHAPTER XXYII. 
 
 PAINTING IN TEMPERA. 
 
 This mode of painting, w r hich is undoubtedly the most 
 ancient, and which, in trade purposes, is called Dis¬ 
 temper painting, derives its name from the fact that 
 the colours are “tempered,” or mixed with some liquid 
 or medium to bind their separate particles to each other 
 and to the surface to which the paint is to be applied. 
 
PAINTING IN TEMPERA. 
 
 161 
 
 The following is quoted from “Painting popularly 
 Explained (Qriillick and Timbs) ;—“The Italian noun 
 tempera admits of the widest application, and would 
 include any medium, even oil; but, in its restricted 
 and proper acceptation, it means a vehicle in which the 
 yolk of egg, beaten sometimes with the white, is the 
 chief ingredient, diluted as required with the milky 
 juice expressed from the shoots of the fig-tree. This is 
 the painting strictly termed a novo by the Italians. 
 Vinegar, probably, replaced the fig-tree juice among 
 the northern artists, from the difficulty of obtaining 
 the latter, and in modern use vinegar is substituted. 
 
 “ Haydon says vinegar should be used to prevent the 
 putrefaction of the yolk of egg; but the early Italian 
 painters preferred the egg-vehicle when it had been 
 suffered to stand until it had become decomposed : hence 
 the phrase d putrido. 
 
 “ The artist is often compelled to have recourse to very 
 offensive media to make known his most refined revela¬ 
 tions. On walls, and for coarser work, such as painting 
 on linen, warm size was occasionally used, but the egg- 
 vehicle, undiluted, was generally preferred for altar- 
 pieces on wood. For various purposes, and at different 
 periods, however, milk, beer, wine, and media composed 
 of water and more or less glutinous ingredients, soluble 
 at first in water, such as gums, &c., have also been 
 used. Such are the media or vehicles described by the 
 chief Italian writers as used in the days of Cimabue, 
 Giotto, and Fra Angelico, and by the early painters 
 before the invention and improvement of oil painting. 
 Pliny also mentions milk and the egg-vehicle as em- 
 ployed tor ancient wall-paintings. The finer egg tem¬ 
 pera, in dry climates, has been found to attain so firm 
 a consistence as to withstand ordinary solvents. The 
 use of wine in diluting these glutinous vehicles was 
 
162 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 common for a long period. Buffalmaceo, of whom 
 so many humorous stories are told by Boccaccio and 
 Vasari, is related to have persuaded some nuns, for 
 whom he painted, to supply him with their choicest 
 wines, ostensibly for the purpose of diluting the colours, 
 but really to be imbibed by the thirsty painter himself. 
 The northern artists were sometimes obliged to content 
 themselves with beer. In the works of the northern 
 tempera painters there are, however, very marked dif¬ 
 ferences observable in their impasti, or body colour. It 
 is certain, therefore, that these painters employed media 
 of different degrees of consistency. In the distemper of 
 scene-painting the medium is weak size of glue (glue 
 dissolved), but plaster of Paris, sufficiently diluted, is 
 worked with the colours. The carbonate of lime, or 
 whitening, is less active as a basis for colours than the 
 pure lime of fresco, but it is entirely destructive of 
 transparency. When the more viscid media were em¬ 
 ployed by the tempera painters the effect must, with 
 their purer use of the colours—some of which, more¬ 
 over, were transparent—have been very lustrous and 
 powerful in comparison with modern scene-painters’ 
 “ distemper; ” and these qualities were heightened by 
 the addition of a strong varnish. Still, however, tem¬ 
 pera fell far short of oil painting in richness and 
 transparency.” 
 
 The carbonate of lime, or whitening, employed as a 
 basis, is; however, less active than the pure lime of 
 fresco. The vehicles of both modes are the same, and 
 their practice is often combined in the same work: 
 water is their common vehicle; and to give adhesion 
 to the tints and colours in distemper painting, and 
 make them keep their place, they are variously mixed 
 with the size of glue (prepared commonly by dissolving 
 about four ounces of glue in a gallon of water). Too 
 
PAINTING IN TEMPERA. 
 
 163 
 
 much of the glue disposes the painting to crack and 
 peel from the ground; while, with too little, it is friable 
 and deficient of strength. In some cases the glue may 
 be abated, or altogether dispensed with, by employing 
 plaster ot Paris sufficiently diluted and worked into the 
 colours ; by which they will acquire the consistency 
 and appearance of oil paints, without destroying jtfieir 
 limpidness, or allowing the colours to separate, while 
 they will acquire a good surface, and keep their place 
 in the dry with the strength of fresco and without 
 being liable to mildew—to which animal glue is dis¬ 
 posed, and to which milk, and other vehicles recom¬ 
 mended in this mode, are also subject. 
 
 Of more difficult introduction in these modes of 
 painting is bees -wax, although it has been employed 
 successfully in each of them, and in the encaustic of 
 the ancients, who finished their work therein by heating 
 the surface of the painting till the wax melted. 
 
 Tempera may be considered as opaque water-colour 
 painting, since water enters more or less into the com¬ 
 position of all the media employed. The fact, however, 
 that the colours thus mixed (with body white) are opaque 
 constitutes the great difference ; and thus whilst, as a 
 rule, the lights in water-colour painting are obtained 
 by leaving the white paper more or less exposed, and 
 by washing transparent colours over it, allowing for 
 the effect resulting from the colour being rendered 
 lighter by the white ground underneath, all these gra¬ 
 dations are accomplished in tempera by means of colours 
 with which white is mixed in various quantities, the 
 high lights being executed in pure white. In all these 
 respects tempera agrees with oil painting, the respective 
 vehicles alone constituting the great distinction. 
 
 This style is very important to the decorative painter, 
 and the student is, therefore, advised to practise it. It 
 
164 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 must be borne in mind that the same facility in blend¬ 
 ing the colours does not exist in tempera as in water¬ 
 colour painting, for if the colour were diluted with 
 water, in order to soften it off, the gelatinous quality 
 of the medium would be exhausted, and the colour 
 would rub off; it is, of course, impossible to pre¬ 
 pare as many gradations as there are tints in nature, 
 and such as are placed next to each other dry by far 
 too quickly to allow of their being blended together. 
 The processes of “hatching” and “stippling” have, 
 therefore, been employed. “ Hatching” is another word 
 for “ etching,” and consists in working lines in different 
 directions so as to give the appearance of relief required. 
 Stippling is done in dots instead of lines. The methods 
 are often seen combined, the dots being placed in the 
 lozenge-like spaces left by the crossings of the lines. 
 
 The method principally used in decorative painting 
 is that by which the effect is obtained by flat tints of 
 different gradations ; and practice will soon enable the 
 artist to blend these very successfully in the ornamental 
 forms of which the design consists. 
 
 A beautiful set of flowers in flat tints, as studies for 
 tempera painting, is published under the auspices of the 
 Department of Science and Art, and may be obtained 
 through Messrs. Chapman and Hall, Piccadilly. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 PAINTING IN OIL. 
 
 The various oils, megilps, varnishes, &c., used in paint¬ 
 ing in oils have already been described. It is not, 
 however, necessary that the student should prepare 
 
PAINTING IN OIL. 
 
 165 
 
 these for himself, as they may all be purchased at most 
 reasonable prices. The information in the body of the 
 book is, however, given in order that the student may 
 be acquainted with the composition of the different 
 vehicles, and be able to manufacture them should cir¬ 
 cumstances at any time require him to do so. 
 
 The colours used in oil painting have been given in 
 Table XIII. The method now adopted of supplying them 
 in collapsible tubes is a great improvement on those of 
 former years. In early days the artist had to grind up 
 his own colours in oil by means of a muller, or piece of 
 stone, on a marble slab; perhaps he had to roast the 
 raw sienna and umber to produce the burnt sienna and 
 burnt umber, and to pound them in a mortar ; the 
 paints were then kept in jars, or gallipots, from which 
 they were taken with thepalette-knife. .At a more modern 
 peiiod the colours, ready ground up in oils, were tied 
 up in pieces of bladder, like so many small puddings, 
 a label outside denoting the contained colour. These 
 were then termed “ bladder colours,” as we now speak 
 of “ tube colours. ’ TV hen the bladders were to be 
 used a hole was pricked, the bladder was squeezed, the 
 contents curled out like a handsomely coloured worm ; 
 a tack or small nail was then placed in the aperture 
 to close it up. 
 
 The brushes used in oil painting are principally 
 those made of hog-hair, sable, and badger—fitch and 
 goats’-hair brushes are also employed. These brushes 
 are made round and flat, and are mounted in tin. Flat 
 hog-hair tools are generally preferred to round ones, 
 as they give that squareness in the outline which con¬ 
 tributes so much to the boldness and crispness in the 
 work. 
 
 It is almost needless to explain that the brushes 
 should not be cut at the ends, but that the natural 
 
166 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 point of each hair should be carefully preserved. If 
 any special form of brush is required, in order to 
 accomplish certain results, they may be purchased 
 under the head of irregular-shaped tools, amongst 
 which are the Short Hair Flat, the Long Hair Flat, 
 the Landseer brush—especially adapted for animal 
 painting, made of extra thin hair; the Short Hair 
 Hound; Extra Long Hair Round.; the Set Brush, in 
 which the hair is gathered into several separate tufts, 
 with spaces between them; the Swallow-tail or Double- 
 pointed brush ; the Straight Angular Edge, in which 
 the hair of the brush, which is a flat one, slants to a 
 point in the middle ; the Angular Brush, in which the 
 hair slants from one side of the point to the other; the 
 Hollow Brush, &c. 
 
 All these are, however, intended for special methods 
 of manipulation; the student is advised to work with 
 the usual forms, only availing himself of the above 
 when he has obtained full mastery over the other, 
 when he wishes to accomplish a particular effect. In 
 decorative painting, however, this contingency is 
 scarcely likely to occur. 
 
 The hog-ludr brushes, although firm, should be soft 
 and elastic, returning to their straight shape imme¬ 
 diately after being pressed against the hand. It is a 
 good plan to soak new brushes for an hour or two in 
 water, thus causing the hair to swell. The ends sub¬ 
 sequently dry, and as they are then immersed in oil- 
 colour, the portion enclosed by the tin still retains, for 
 some time, a certain amount of moisture; and as this 
 dries away its place is taken by particles of paint— 
 thus preventing, in a great degree, the annoyance 
 caused by loose hairs working out during painting. 
 
 Sable brushes .—The hair of these is, of course, softer 
 than the hog, and thus they may be brought to a finer 
 
PAINTING IN OIL. 
 
 167 
 
 point, which is still very firm. Although they go by the 
 name of “ Hed Sable/’ the best hair is of a pale yel¬ 
 lowish cast. The round sables are very useful in 
 working up and finishing details. Some are set in 
 quills and go by the name of “ sable pencils; ” those 
 which bag near their insertion should be avoided. 
 
 Badger tools are differently formed from the others ; 
 they aie so bound that the hairs, instead of combining 
 to form a point, spread outward—something after the 
 fashion of a shaving-brush. This brush enjoys the 
 pleasant name of “softener” or “sweetener,” and is 
 used to blend the freshly laid colours together by 
 sweeping over them. 
 
 We cannot too strongly warn the student against 
 the too frequent use of the softener, as it is apt to pro¬ 
 duce a woolly, feeble, and (if we may use the term) 
 unbusinesslike appearance. A little practice will en¬ 
 able him to blend his colours with the brushes he is 
 using, or at most a larger tool, and he will soon learn 
 to use the softener as a duster only. When the 
 badger tool has been much used a certain amount of 
 colour will adhere to the ends of the hairs, and thus will 
 inflict a series of scratches over the colour it is intended 
 to soften; it is therefore necessary that it should be 
 frequently cleaned. This is done by gathering up the 
 hairs and holding them tightly whilst rubbing them 
 on a dry rag each time the brush has been used; and 
 it should also be occasionally washed with soap and 
 water and well rinsed. The water which remains after 
 the hair has been squeezed may be got rid of by 
 sti iking the brush against the edge of the easel, or 
 against the maul-stick, and it may then be placed 
 to dry. 
 
 All the brushes used in oil painting should be care¬ 
 fully cleansed ; the hair should be dipped in raw lin- 
 
168 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 seed oil, which should be rubbed in by pressing the 
 brush between the fingers, so that all the colour it con¬ 
 tains may be diluted and set free from the hairs. This 
 liquid colour should then be pinched out by drawing 
 the brush between the finger and thumb, and it should 
 afterwards be thoroughly washed with soap and warm 
 water until the frothy matter formed by rubbing the brush 
 in the band is perfectly colourless., The brushes should 
 then be rinsed in clean water, which should be beaten 
 out of them in the manner already described. It is 
 not a good plan to wipe them on a cloth, as the smallest 
 possible piece of fibre adhering to the ends of the hair 
 may prove a very great annoyance; the only rag 
 which may he used for this purpose with perfect safety 
 is an old disused silk handkerchief. Some artists use 
 turpentine instead of linseed-oil; but turpentine is 
 injurious to the brushes, as it renders the hair 
 harsh and stiff; it should only be used when it is re¬ 
 quired to wash out a brush quickly during work, so 
 that the hairs may not be soaked in it. Some painters 
 use a mixture of nut-oil and turpentine in the first 
 instance, and pure nut-oil afterwards, which latter they 
 do not quite wipe out, and thus the brush is kept soft 
 and moist for use—the nut-oil being a very slow drier. 
 When the brushes are to be used in the same colours 
 the next day, they need not be cleaned at night, 
 but may be dipped in nut-oil and laid in a tin slant 
 until wanted again. “ Brush washers ” are small tin 
 cans, in which a still smaller one, the bottom of which 
 is pierced with holes, is placed—in the same way that 
 a glue-pot is placed in the outer pan. This inner 
 vessel does not reach to the bottom of the outer recep¬ 
 tacle, and has a piece of wire placed across the top; 
 the liquid in which the brush is to be cleaned is poured 
 in until it rises about half way in the inner vessel; 
 
PAINTING IN OIL. 
 
 169 
 
 the brush is then washed in it and rubbed off against 
 the wire ; the liquid, containing the colour in suspension, 
 drains through the pierced bottom of the vessel, and 
 sinks by its own weight to the bottom of the outer can, 
 whilst the liquid rises, pure and limpid, in the inner one. 
 
 The surface most generally used for painting upon is 
 canvas. It is sold in rolls of various widths and qua¬ 
 lities—“ plain cloth,” “ Roman,” and “ ticken.” The 
 most general form, however, in which it is purchased 
 is stretched on frames, with wedges at the angles by 
 which it may be tightened up. These are made in 
 ceitain sizes, and in proportions adapted for portraits 
 or landscapes. Thus we have, amongst the rest, the 
 Kit-Cat size—named after the club—the portraits of 
 the members of which were painted by Sir Godfrey 
 Kneller in this size, in order to fit the room in which 
 the pictures were to be placed—this measures 36 X 28 
 inches. The following are some of the sizes used :— 
 
 Head size .. ., 
 
 Whole length ,. 
 
 Half length 
 Bishop’s half length 
 Bishop’s whole length .. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 .. 2 
 
 0 
 
 by 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 .. 7 
 
 10 
 
 >9 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 .. 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 .. 4 
 
 8 
 
 9 ) 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 .. 8 
 
 10 
 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 Many of the painters of old executed some of their finest 
 works on panels of wood, and such, made of well-seasoned 
 mahogany, are still often used: besides which we have 
 prepared millboards, which afford an excellent surface 
 for painting ; the Academy boards, made of a thinner 
 millboard and well adapted for sketching; and also pre¬ 
 pared oil-paper, which is exceedingly useful, whilst it 
 is very economical and portable. If it be desired to 
 preserve the sketch, it may be glued on to a strained 
 canvas. The method of painting in oil may he de¬ 
 scribed as consisting of four processes—Dead Colouring, 
 Glazing, Scumbling, and Impasting. 
 
 i 
 
170 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 Dead colouring is the first, or preparatory, painting: 
 it is so called because the colours are laid on in a dead 
 or cold manner—to form, as it were the ground for the 
 subsequent processes—resembling in some degree the 
 work known amongst house-painters as “priming,” 
 the future effects being rather indicated and provided 
 for than really attained. It is sometimes found con¬ 
 venient to divide the painting of a picture into certain 
 stages, termed first, second, third, and fourth paint¬ 
 
 ings, &c. 
 
 Glazing consists in spreading colour, much diluted, 
 over the picture, or parts of it. 
 
 The, colours which when mixed with the proper 
 vehicles become transparent, are called “ glazing 
 colours.” The purpose of glazing is to deepen sha¬ 
 dows and to give warmth or coldness to their hues, to 
 subdue lights which may appear too strong, and to 
 give force and richness to the picture. 
 
 “ Glazing forms a distinct series of tints, without 
 which it is impossible to represent transparent objects. 
 By it, shadows are strengthened, and warmth or cold¬ 
 ness given to their hue; by it, also, lights that are 
 unduly obtrusive are subdued, or additional colour and 
 tone given to those that are deficient in force and rich- 
 The processes of glazing, we have observed, is 
 
 ness. 
 
 generally effected by the application of diluted trans¬ 
 parent colour ; but occasionally semi-transparent colours 
 are used when rendered sufficiently transparent, by the 
 admixture of a large proportion of vehicle. Such 
 glazings are useful to modify parts of the picture, or 
 produce particular effects, such as representations of 
 smoke, mist, dust, and the like. Glazing, when used 
 injudiciously or in excess, produces that “ horny ” 
 uniform dulness of surface and “ leathery ” discolora¬ 
 tion so offensive to the eye, which, till recently, was 
 
 
PAINTING IN OIL. 
 
 171 
 
 the common characteristic of the modern Continental 
 Schools ”* 
 
 Scumbling resembles glazing, hut the colours used 
 are opaque ones. It is used to give distance to objects 
 which appear too near, and to modify effects which are 
 found to be too strong. The colour thus used, after a 
 time sinks partially into that over which it is passed, 
 producing beautiful effects. Dry-touching, or drag¬ 
 ging, consists in the addition of a few sharp or bold 
 touches or lights: great care should be taken so that 
 this process may not be overdone, so as to produce 
 what is known as a “ mealy ” appearance. 
 
 Impasting (Ital. impasto ) consists in painting the 
 highest lights solidly with opaque colours—that is to 
 say, mixed more or less with white, and laid on thickly 
 —not only with the brush, hut often with the palette- 
 knife. Impasting gives texture and surface. In the 
 foreground, and in parts not intended to retire, “ im¬ 
 pasto ” should be bold; but this loading of masses of 
 colour upon the picture, so as to give actual relief to 
 the high lights, making them project considerably from 
 the surface, has its disadvantages ; for although the 
 parts thus mechanically raised are strongly illuminated 
 by the light impinging on their prominences, these 
 protuberances of paint will, of course, in certain lights, 
 cast a shadow of their own. They also afford lodg¬ 
 ment for dust, and, owing to the quantity of white 
 in them, they are very liable to discolour ; and thus it 
 often occurs that they form dark or dirty patches in 
 the very places where high lights were intended. 
 
 The easel—a ladder-like frame on which the canvas 
 is placed during painting, so made that the picture 
 can be raised or lowered to suit the convenience of the 
 artist—is an important item in the furniture of the 
 * “Painting Popularly Explained,” Gulliek and Timbs. 
 
 I 2 
 
172 
 
 THE GRAMMAK OF COLOURING. 
 
 studio, and, besides the other implements mentioned— 
 Palettes, are indispensable. These are made of maho¬ 
 gany, or of satin or other light woods—the latter are 
 to be preferred for mixing tints, the precise tones of 
 which can be better seen on them than on the darker 
 ones. Palettes should be light in weight, and the oblong 
 ones will be found more useful than those of the ellip¬ 
 tical shape, as they afford more space for colours. New 
 palettes should be prepared for use by rubbing raw 
 linseed-oil repeatedly over them until they will absorb 
 no more, the last coat being allowed to dry in; the 
 palette will not then be stained by the absorption of 
 colour. 
 
 The palette should be carefully cleaned every day on 
 leaving off work, and colour should not by any means 
 be allowed to harden upon it. When all the colour 
 has been scraped off with the palette-knife (carefully 
 observing not to make scratches or indentations), the 
 surface should be cleaned with a piece of silk rag 
 dipped in nut-oil, the edges being also well attended 
 to. We have often observed students merely cleaning 
 off the middle of the palette, whilst round the edges 
 there have been accumulations of hardened colour. 
 The palette should be left each night as clean as when 
 first used. Should it be desired to save any colour 
 which may remain, for next day’s use, it should be 
 scraped off the palette and placed in a little heap in a 
 saucer, and covered with water, which, when poured off, 
 will leave the colour fresh and good, or it should be put 
 on a piece of tinfoil, which may be closely rolled up, 
 thus forming a temporary collapsible tube. 
 
FRESCO* 
 
 173 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 FRESCO. 
 
 The art of painting in Fresco is naturally adapted to 
 decorative painting, and the zealous attention of emi¬ 
 nent artists of the day having been turned to the revival 
 of this grand and important mode of art, a few remarks 
 thereon are deemed desirable. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to inform the reader that 
 fresco painting is performed with pigments prepared in 
 water, and applied upon the surface of fresh-laid plaster 
 ot lime and sand, with which walls are covered; and 
 as it is that mode of painting which is least removed 
 in practice from modelling or sculpture, it might not 
 improperly be called plastic painting ; for which the 
 best lime, perfectly burnt and kept long slacked in a 
 wet state, is most essential. As lime in an active 
 state is the common cementing material of the ground 
 and colours employed in fresco, it is obvious that such 
 colours or pigments only can be used therein, as remain 
 unchanged by lime. This need not, however, be a 
 universal rule for painting in fresco, since other 
 cementing materials as strong or stronger than lime 
 may be employed, which have not the action of lime 
 upon colours—such is calcined gypsum, of which 
 plaster of Paris is a species; which, being neutral sul¬ 
 phates of lime, exceedingly unchangeable, have little or 
 no chemical action upon colours, and would admit even 
 Prussian blue, vegetal lakes, and the most tender 
 colours, to be employed thereon, so as greatly to extend 
 the sphere of colouring in fresco, adapted to its various . 
 design; this basis merits also the attention of the 
 painter in crayons, scagliola, and distemper. 
 
174 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 So far, too, as regards durability and strength of the 
 ground, the compo and cements now so generally em¬ 
 ployed in architectural modellings would afford new 
 and advantageous grounds for painting in fresco ; and 
 as they resist damp and moisture, they would he 
 well adapted, with colours properly chosen, to situa¬ 
 tions in which paintings executed in other modes of 
 the art, or even in ordinary fresco, would not long 
 endure. 
 
 As these materials, and others now in use, were 
 either unknown or unemployed by the ancient painters 
 in fresco, their practice was necessarily limited to the 
 pigments enumerated in the preceding Table IX.; but 
 every art demands such a variation in practice as 
 adapts it to circumstances and the age in which it is 
 exercised, without attention to which it may degenerate, 
 or, at best, remain stationary, but cannot advance. 
 
 Although differing exceedingly in their mechanical 
 execution, the modes of fresco, distemper, and scagliola 
 agree in their chemical relations; so far, therefore, as 
 respects colours and pigments, the foregoing remarks 
 apply to these arts. 
 
 From the fact that fresco is executed on the plaster 
 whilst in a wet condition, it becomes necessary that the 
 portion of the work begun in the morning should be 
 finished before evening. Full-sized drawings are 
 therefore prepared, and the portion which is to be 
 painted in the day is transferred to the plaster, of 
 which just a sufficient quantity has been freshly laid 
 on. This is done either by pricking through the lines 
 and pouncing through the apertures with red or blue 
 dust, or by marking over the lines with a blunt point, 
 so that a slightly indented mark is left on the plaster 
 underneath. 
 
 The outline being thus secured on the wall, the 
 
FRESCO. 
 
 175 
 
 painting is proceeded with, and in this the artist must 
 depend entirely on his experience and knowledge of 
 the result his work will produce ; for the tints when 
 first applied look faint and cold, and sink into the wet 
 plaster, so that it is necessary to go over the work 
 repeatedly before the required effect is attained. 
 
 The colours used are principally mineral, and are 
 ground in pure water, which is also the vehicle em¬ 
 ployed. 
 
 The wall having been previously prepared and 
 covered with plaster made of river sand and best old 
 lime and mixed to about the usual slackness, the 
 intonaco or painting surface is to be floated on. This 
 must be prepared of the very best old lime, perfectly 
 free from grit. The mixture must be made about the 
 consistency of milk, and is then passed through the 
 hair sieve into jars in which it is allowed to settle, 
 when the water is poured off; the sediment is then 
 mixed with fine quartz sand well sifted, in the pro¬ 
 portion of one part lime to two of sand. This plaster 
 is spread by means of wooden or glass implements; 
 but iron trowels may be used if they are perfectly 
 free from rust, and care is taken not to press the iron 
 into the plaster. 
 
 The rough-cast ground is now to be thoroughly 
 wetted, and the intonaco is to be floated on in two 
 coats, the last with rather more sand than the first; 
 the thickness of the two should be about 3 - 16 ths of 
 an inch. The whole is then to be gone over with a 
 roll of wet linen, which will remove the marks of the 
 trowel, and prevent the surface being too smooth. 
 
 When the intonaco has acquired sufficient firmness, 
 which may be tested by pressing it with the finger, the 
 first colouring may be applied. Where possible, the 
 portion of plaster laid on for the day’s work should be 
 
176 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING, 
 
 made to end at some bold outline of the picture, or at 
 the edges of some well-defined object. If the result of 
 the work is not satisfactory, the artist is compelled to 
 cut away the plaster and apply fresh ; the process of 
 fresco-painting thus becomes a slow and difficult one. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 USEFUL RECEIPTS. 
 
 CLEANING AND EESTOEING. 
 
 Of the importance of this minor function of the art 
 of painting a just estimate may be formed by consider¬ 
 ing that there is hardly a limit to the time which works 
 in oil-painting may be preserved by care and attention. 
 These are subject to deterioration and disfigurement 
 simply by dirt,—by the failure of their grounds,—by 
 the obscuration and discolourment of vehicles and var¬ 
 nishes,—by the fading and changing of colours,—by 
 the cracking of the body and surface, — by damp, 
 mildew, and foul air,—and by mechanical violence. 
 The first thing necessary to be done is to restore the 
 ground, if on canvas, by stretching or lining with new 
 canvas. In cases of simple dirt, washing with a sponge 
 or soft leather with soap and water, judiciously used, 
 is sufficient. Yarnishes are removed by friction or 
 solution, or by chemical and mechanical means united, 
 when the varnish is combined, as commonly happens, 
 with oil and a variety of foulness. 
 
 TO EEMOVE VAENISH 
 
 By friction, if it be a soft varnish, such as that of 
 mastic, the simple rubbing of the finger-ends, with or 
 
USEFUL RECEIPTS. 
 
 177 
 
 without water, may be found sufficient; a portion of 
 the resin attaches itself to the fingers, and by con¬ 
 tinued rubbing removes the varnish.' If it be a hard 
 varnish, such as that of copal, which is to be removed, 
 friction with sea or river sand, the particles of which 
 have a rotundity that prevents their scratching, will 
 accomplish the purpose. 
 
 The solvents commonly employed for this purpose 
 are the several alkalies, alcohol, and essential oils, used 
 simply or combined. Of the alkalies, the volatile in its 
 mildest state, or carbonate of ammonia, is the only one 
 which can be safely used in removing dirt, oil, and 
 varnish from a picture, which it does powerfully; it 
 must therefore be much diluted with water, according 
 to the power required, and employed with judgment 
 and caution, stopping its action on the painting at the 
 proper time by the use of pure water and a sponge. 
 
 Many other methods of cleaning have been recom¬ 
 mended and employed, and in particular instances, 
 for sufficient chemical reasons, with success; some of 
 which we will recount, because, in art so uncertain, it 
 is good to be rich in resources. 
 
 A thick coat of icet fuller's earth may be employed 
 with safety, and, after remaining on the paint a suffi¬ 
 cient time to soften the extraneous surface, may be 
 removed by washing, and leave the picture pure ; and 
 an architect of the author’s acquaintance has succeeded 
 in a similar way in restoring both paintings and gild¬ 
 ing to their original beauty by coating them with wet 
 clay. Ox-gall is even more efficacious than soap. 
 
 In filling cracks and replacing portions of the 
 ground, putty formed of white lead, whitening, var¬ 
 nish, and drying oil, tinted somewhat lighter than the 
 local colours require, may be employed, as plaster of 
 Paris may also in some cases ; and, in restoring colours 
 
 i 3 
 
178 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 accidently removed, it should he done with a vehicle 
 of simple varnish, because of the change of tint which 
 takes place after drying in oil. 
 
 REMOVING PAINT, 
 
 Burning, &c. In those cases in which it is requisite 
 to remove painting entirely from its ground, it is 
 usual to resort to mechanical scraping, &c., or to the 
 very dangerous operation of setting fire to the painted 
 surface immediately after washing it over with oil of 
 turpentine, called turps, for burning off the paint from 
 old disfigured work ; an operation that may be safely 
 and more easily accomplished by laying on a thick 
 wash or plaster of fresh-slacked quicklime mixed with 
 soda, which may be washed off with water the following 
 day, carrying with it the paint, grease, and other foul¬ 
 ness, so that when clear and dry, the painting may be 
 renewed as on fresh work. Clear-colling is sometimes 
 resorted to over old painting, for the purpose of re¬ 
 painting, in which case the surface exposed to the sun’s 
 rays or alterations of temperature is liable to become 
 blistered and scale off. 
 
PART Y. 
 
 THE CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF 
 THE VARIOUS STYLES OF ORNAMENT. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 OF ORNAMENT GENERALLY. 
 
 A “ decorative painter” does not mean just one who 
 can paint decoration, but it should imply that the 
 person so termed understands what kind of ornaments 
 should be applied as a system; so as to carry out the 
 admirable rule that construction should be decorated, 
 but that decoration should not be constructed. Fur¬ 
 ther, he must bear in mind that in all decoration the 
 leading idea of the designer should be fitness; for, how¬ 
 ever beautiful an ornament may be in itself, that 
 beauty is sadly deteriorated when it is out of place. 
 
 Again, the decorative artist should make himself 
 acquainted with the styles and orders of architecture, 
 so that his decoration may agree with them. What 
 should we say of a dramatic writer who introduces 
 into a play, the period of which is supposed to be that 
 of William the Conqueror, characters, or even costumes, 
 belonging to the reign of Charles the First ? and yet we 
 see uneducated men painting Gothic ornaments on 
 
180 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 buildings which are Greek in character, and making 
 other blunders of a similar nature ; such as render¬ 
 ing an ornament in the flat which was intended to be 
 in relief, or placing a border on a curved surface when 
 the whole beauty of the form consists in its geometrical 
 and rectilineal character. 
 
 Ornament may, in the first place, be broadly divided 
 into the symbolic and aesthetic; or, such as address our 
 understanding, and those which appeal to our feelings. 
 We may term those styles symbolic* in which the ordi¬ 
 nary elements have been chosen for the sake of their 
 significations as symbols of something not necessarily 
 implied, and irrespective of their effect as works of 
 art or arrangements of forms and colours. Those that 
 are composed of elements derived solely from prin¬ 
 ciples of symmetry of form and harmony of colour, 
 and exclusively for their effect on our perception of 
 the beautiful, without any further extraneous or ulterior 
 aim, may be termed aesthetic. 
 
 Style in ornament is analogous to hand in writing. 
 As every individual has some peculiarity in his mode 
 of writing, as every man has his individual habit of 
 chought and mode of expression, so every age or nation 
 lias been distinguished in its ornamental system, and 
 by a certain individuality of taste, either original or 
 borrowed. 
 
 There are two provinces of ornament—the flat and 
 the relieved. In the relieved we have the contrast of 
 light and shade; in the flat we have the contrast of 
 light and dark : in both a variety of effect for the pure 
 gratification of the sense of vision. Much of the effect 
 is common to both; but in the flat a play of line is the 
 main feature, whilst in the relieved a play of masses, 
 acted upon by light, so as to produce shadows, which 
 
 * Wornum’s Analysis. 
 
THE EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN STYLES. 
 
 181 
 
 materially add to the beauty of form, whilst colour may 
 be an auxiliary to both, but it acts with greater power 
 in the flat, as it is entirely dependent on light. 
 
 Although the varieties of ornamental systems are 
 very numerous, they may be classed under three great 
 periods—ancient, middle-age, and modern. 
 
 To the ancient belong Egyptian, Assyrian, Grecian, 
 Roman ; the middle-age period comprehends the 
 Byzantine, Saracenic, and Gothic ; whilst in the 
 modern are classed the Renaissance, the Cinquecento, 
 and the Louis Quatorze. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 THE EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN STYLES. 
 
 The elements of Egyptian ornament have, as a rule, a 
 particular meaning, being seldom, if ever, chosen for the 
 sake of beauty of effect. The style is, therefore, very 
 simple and limited in its arrangements in comparison 
 with later styles, in which mere symbolism was super¬ 
 seded by the pure principles of art; the artist aiming 
 at effect rather than meaning. 
 
 u Yet,” says Mr. Wornum, “we cannot but admire 
 the ingenuity with which the Egyptian decorator, by a 
 mere symmetrical arrangement, has converted even 
 
182 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 the incomprehensible hieroglyphics into pleasing and 
 tasteful ornaments.” 
 
 A simple symmetrical arrangement, however, is the 
 limit of his artistic scheming, and generally in the 
 shape of a simple progression, whether in horizontal 
 lines, or repeated on the principle of the diaper; that 
 is, row upon row, horizontally or diagonally, as seen in 
 the Tombs of the Kings at Thebes. 
 
 The A\ inged Globe (Fig. 10) is the most important 
 °f Egyptian ornaments ; it is supposed to have been an 
 invocation to the good spirit, Agathodemon, and was 
 used in architecture, costume, and every kind of manu¬ 
 factured fabric. 
 
 In one class of ornament Egypt is eminent, inde¬ 
 pendent of its skilful application of art to manufactures: 
 it is remarkable in its complete adaptation of its own 
 natural productions in the development of a style 
 peculiar to itself; in its conventional treatment of the 
 
 natural types of the locality, as, for 
 instance, the Papyrus-plant (Figs. 
 11 and 12), and the lotus or 
 water-lily of the Kile, the element 
 of so many varieties of ornament. 
 The Egyptian details are not 
 mere crude imitations of nature, 
 but natural objects, selected by symbolism, and 
 fashioned by symmetry into ornamental decoration. 
 So that we have here one great class, and the earliest 
 systematic efforts in design in the world’s history. 
 Many of the details of the Egyptians are still popular 
 ornaments handed down to our own times, such as the 
 fret or key border, &c. 
 
 Next we have the Zigzag which was used as a type 
 of the waters of the Kile, and is still preserved as the 
 symbol of Aquarius, the water-bearer, in the Zodiac. 
 
THE EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN STYLES. 
 
 183 
 
 This has been a favourite ornament in all periods, and 
 we shall again meet with it as the zigzag in the Nor¬ 
 man, and as the dog-tooth in the early English styles. 
 
 Equal in importance to the zigzag is the Wave scroll, 
 (Fig. 13) ; it typified the waves of the rising Nile, from 
 
 which Egypt derived so many benefits. It subsequently 
 became a favourite ornament in Greece, where it no 
 doubt suggested the idea of the scroll proper, in which 
 the wave is alternated on each side of a serpentine line. 
 
 Next we have the lotus or water-lily of the Nile, 
 and the papyrus-plant, both treated—as were indeed 
 all the Egyptian ornaments—in a strictly conven¬ 
 tional manner, as already shown in Figs. 11, 12; the 
 former typified the fruitfulness produced by the in¬ 
 undations of the Nile, and was used not only as a flat, 
 or even relief, ornament, but as a leading decoration 
 on the Egyptian columns, around which it is fre¬ 
 quently given as a frieze or broad band. Many of the 
 columns are themselves founded upon its form, or 
 rather upon the form of a bundle of the stalks banded 
 together, with flowers on the capitals. 
 
 The Fret, or labyrinth, was the type of the Laby¬ 
 rinth of Lake Moeris, with its twelve palaces and 
 three thousand chambers ; representing, in their turn, 
 the twelve signs of the Zodiac, and the three thousand 
 
184 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 years of transmigration the soul was supposed to 
 undergo. We illustrate in the next chapter this orna¬ 
 ment as adopted by the Greeks. 
 
 Gaudy diapers and general gaiety of colour are 
 likewise characteristic of Egyptian taste, but the co¬ 
 lours are generally limited to red, blue, yellow, and 
 green, though the Egyptians were acquainted with 
 nearly all other colours. 
 
 The Assyrian style of ornament may be said to have 
 been contemporaneous with the Egyptian. Its chief 
 characteristics are sculptured records of leading events, 
 
 and the human¬ 
 headed colossi with 
 bodies of either bulls 
 or lions. The As¬ 
 syrian buildings were 
 erected on terraces 
 composed of sun-dried 
 bricks, faced with 
 sculptured slabs of 
 stone, with wooden 
 columns and super¬ 
 structure, which of 
 course decayed as 
 time progressed; this accounts for the circumstance 
 that we have but little data as to the cornices and 
 internal ornamentation, whilst we have large portions 
 of the external sculptures, pavements, &c. 
 
 The Sphinx, or composite animal, with which the 
 Assyrian bulls (Fig. 14) must be classed, were also 
 important objects in Egypt—whole avenues of them, 
 interspersed with obelisks, led to the temples; and we 
 also meet with the sphinx in Greece, and a similar 
 animal, called the chimera, in Rome. It must, how¬ 
 ever, be noted that the Eg' p L ian sphinx (Fig. 15) is 
 
THE EGYPTIAN AND ASSYRIAN STYLES. 
 
 185 
 
 always male and without wings, whilst the Grecian 
 sphinx is female, with wings. It may be that the 
 ancients—the Assyrians, at least—thought that the 
 deities they selected to guard them should possess a 
 combination of attributes which should render them in 
 every way fitted for the position ascribed to them. Thus, 
 for strength, they gave their idol the body of a bull; 
 for wisdom, the head of a man ; whilst, in order to give 
 omnipresence, they added wings. Truly, in the words 
 of Holy Writ, “ they had mouths, but spoke not; they 
 had eyes, but saw not; they had ears, but heard not , 
 they had noses, but smelled not; they had hands, but 
 handled not; they had 
 feet, but walked not; ” 
 and have not all that 
 made them become like 
 unto them? For the 
 nation has passed away, 
 the palaces have crum¬ 
 bled to the dust, and 
 these supposedly wise, 
 powerful, and omni¬ 
 present watchmen have been buried for more than two 
 thousand years. Armies have passed over them without 
 dreaming of their very existence, corn has waved its 
 golden head over them; and only in our own day 
 have these records of the distant past been brought to 
 light and lodged in the museums of Europe. 
 
 In addition to the sculptured histories, we find reliefs 
 of several gods, and a peculiarly formed tree, called the 
 sacred tree. This emblem occurs continually in Assy¬ 
 rian ornamentation. It is supposed to have some 
 reference to the tree of life, so universally recognised 
 as a sacred and mysterious symbol in the religious 
 systems of thi East. Mr. Fergusson has conjectured 
 
186 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 that it may be identified with the “ grove ” so fre¬ 
 quently mentioned in the Bible. It consists of an up¬ 
 right central stem, with branches extending to a kind 
 of border formed by other branches proceeding in an up¬ 
 right form and bending into an arch above, flowers being 
 placed at intervals. These flowers seem to be the 
 “open flower” (Fig. 16) mentioned in the description 
 of Solomon’s temple, and to form the prototype of the 
 Greek honeysuckle, whilst the “ chain ” (Fig. 17) was 
 also used, and seems to have been the original guilloche 
 
 Fig. 16 . 
 
 which afterwards became such a leading ornament in 
 Greece. There are proofs that the ornaments were 
 strongly coloured, and that much gilding was used. 
 
 Grandeur of proportion, simplicity of parts, and 
 costliness of material, were the characteristics of the 
 Egyptian style ; and this love of gorgeousness prevailed 
 in all Asiatic art, in which we find gold, silver, ivory, 
 jewels, and colours profusely used. In the Hindoo art 
 we find the fantastic element prevailing, and though the 
 same jewelled richness is observed as in the Egyptian, 
 the simplicity and grandeur are wanting. 
 
HIE GRECIAN STYLE. 
 
 187 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 THE GRECIAN STYLE. 
 
 Hitherto all tlie ornaments have been symbolic or 
 descriptive; but when we come to Greece we find 
 forms introduced for their own sake, for their beauty 
 alone; and this must he considered as a decided step in 
 advance. Architecture had made rapid strides, and 
 sculpture having advanced with it, the pediments of 
 the temples were filled with beautiful groups, and the 
 frieze on the cella of the Parthenon was sculptured 
 with a procession consisting of horses and men, which 
 
 for grouping and execution has never been surpassed. 
 It was placed in an elevated position in the cloister or 
 covered walk around the building; and as the spec¬ 
 tator was thus debarred from stepping backward to 
 view it from a distance, the sculpture was executed in 
 low relief, whilst full effect was still given to the 
 roundness of the figures—which effect would have 
 been lost from the closeness of the spectator had 
 the work been executed in high relief, for when 
 looking from below, the projecting parts would have 
 
188 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 hidden the others. Portions of this frieze are in the 
 British Museum, and casts, coloured to suit the various 
 theories as to the extent to which the ancients applied 
 colour to sculptures, may be seen in the Crystal Palace 
 (Greek Court). The pediments (or triangular spaces 
 above the columns at each end, corresponding with 
 the gable-ends of a cottage) were filled with magnificent 
 sculptures, the positions of the figures corresponding 
 most gracefully with the form of the space they were to 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 occupy. The frieze outside was filled with metopes or 
 groups of figures and triglyphs, which were supposed 
 to represent the ends of joists resting on the archi¬ 
 traves. These were divided into three compartments 
 by grooves or water-channels, and underneath are 
 pendants, supposed to represent drops of water. 
 
 The first ornaments which we find in the Greek 
 vases are those with which Egypt has already made us 
 acquainted—the Zigzag, the Wave scroll, and the 
 Labyrinth or fret (Fig. 18). The most characteristic 
 
THE GRECIAN STYLE. 
 
 189 
 
 ornaments of the period, however, are the Echinus, or 
 horse-chestnut, popularly called the egg and tongue, 
 and the Anthemion or honeysuckle (Fig. 19), or Pal¬ 
 in ette, both of which it in some degree resembles; it is 
 generally alternated with thelily, or some analogous form. 
 
 The capital forms in the three Greek orders (the 
 Doric, Corinthian, and Ionic) the distinctive architec¬ 
 tural ornament. The Doric capital consists of a circular 
 flat cushion, called the Echinus, from its being inva¬ 
 riably decorated in colour with that ornament, and the 
 order is frequently called the echinus order. In the 
 Greek forms the curves are flat, being portions of 
 ellipses and parabolas, not of circles. This is no doubt 
 owing to the practice of polychromatic decoration 
 which was universally adopted; and it has already 
 been remarked that high relief, as producing shadows, 
 is antagonistic to the effect of colour. 
 
 In the second, or, as it is called, the Alexandrian, 
 period, the ornamental forms were elaborated and the 
 simple scroll added to them : this, in its original de¬ 
 velopment, consisted, as already stated, of a succession 
 of spirals reversed alternately, and the practice of 
 carving, instead of painting, the ornaments began; 
 horns or volutes were added to the capital, a border of 
 the Anthemion was often placed under them, and thus 
 the Ionic capital was formed. 
 
 In the Corinthian capital the volutes are further 
 developed—the body is a graceful bell, clothed with 
 the acanthus leaf. The ordinary scroll and acanthus 
 were only in a slight degree developed in Greece, but 
 became leading features in the Roman system of orna¬ 
 mentation. 
 
 ROMAN. 
 
 The Roman system of ornamentation cannot be 
 considered in any way original, since the only new 
 
190 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 form which appears is that of the shell, which in 
 later periods became such an important feature in cer¬ 
 tain styles of ornament. The Romans, however, en¬ 
 larged, decorated, and developed the Greek elements, 
 which they embellished and amplified until the original 
 refinement was lost in gorgeousness. The Greek origin 
 is no doubt attributable to the fact that most of the 
 artists employed were Greeks. 
 
 The chief characteristic of the Roman style, then, is 
 great magnificence, the Acanthus being largely em¬ 
 
 ployed. The Composite order now appeared, made up of 
 the echinus, the volute, and the acanthus; and the 
 scroll and acanthus, which had both been so sparingly 
 used in Greece, now became leading features, almost 
 every ornamental form, indeed, being enriched with 
 the acanthus. 
 
 The Roman acanthus is, however, distinct from the 
 Grecian; the Greeks used the Acanthus spinosa, or 
 narrow prickly acanthus, whilst the Romans adopted 
 the Acanthus mollis, or soft acanthus, known to us as 
 the Brank Ursine. But they mostly, for capitals, used 
 
BYZANTINE. 
 
 191 
 
 conventional clusters of' olive-leaves, in order to obtain 
 the strong effects required on the pillars of their lofty 
 temples; this modification does not, however, seem 
 to have been adopted in any other situation. Fig. 20 
 is a sketch from a well-known example of a Roman 
 scroll decorated with the acanthus. 
 
 The Tuscan capital is simply an Italian rendering of 
 the Doric, in which the echinus is exchanged for a 
 quarter round—an astragal, or narrow half-round 
 moulding, taking the place of the annulets or zones 
 underneath the Doric capital. 
 
 The Romans, as well as the Egyptians, Assyrians, 
 and Greeks, used monsters and composite animals, 
 such as the triton, the griffin, the chimera, &c., 
 which may be seen on the sculptures of the period 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 BYZANTINE. 
 
 When Constantine, the first Christian emperor of Rome, 
 removed the seat of empire to Constantinople, pre¬ 
 viously called Byzantium (about a.d. 330), he took with 
 him the arts of the former empire—which were then 
 in a most debased condition—and applied them to the 
 enlargement and decoration of the new city. Thence 
 arose that combination of Roman, Greek, and Oriental 
 traditions which distinguish the Byzantine style 
 (Fig. 21). 
 
 Mr. Wornum in his Analysis says: “The peculiar 
 views of the Early Christians in matters of art had, 
 before the establishment of Christianity by the State, 
 
192 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 no material influence in society, though the pagan 
 idolatries found many vigorous opponents long before 
 the time of Constantine. During the first and second 
 centuries Christian arts were limited to symbols, 
 and were then never applied as decoration, but as 
 exhortations to faith and piety. All Christian de¬ 
 coration rests upon this foundation—the same spirit 
 of symbolism prevailing throughout, until the return to 
 
 the heathen principle of beauty (to the aesthetic) in the 
 period of the Renaissance.” 
 
 The early Chi-istian designers, most of them no doubt 
 connected with the Church, seem rather to have avoided 
 than sought beauty in these peculiar forms, from 
 precisely the same feeling by which the Egyptians 
 were animated. The lily (fleur-de-lis), the emblem of 
 the Virgin and of purity, is as common as the lotus 
 
BYZANTINE. 
 
 193 
 
 was in Egypt, though having a very different mean¬ 
 ing, and a peculiarly angular rendering of the Greek 
 acanthus was also used. 
 
 The reason why the beautiful forms of Greece were 
 rejected seems to have been none other than that they 
 were pagan in their origin. Paganism, however, con¬ 
 sisted solely in forms, not in the colours adopted ; still, 
 as paganism itself expired, the scroll and other orna¬ 
 ments were admitted, the foliage being rendered in the 
 peculiarly formal manner already described. 
 
 The chief varieties of the Pomanesque are the 
 Byzantine, the Lombard, and the Norman. Both the 
 Lombard and the Norman may be considered in their 
 main features as mere modifications of the Pomanesque; 
 certainly few examples of the Pomanesque out of Italy 
 were not derived directly or indirectly from Constan¬ 
 tinople. The Norman has by most writers been con¬ 
 sidered as the first of the Gothic styles, and a 3 such 
 we shall class it here. 
 
 Besides the sculptured ornaments of the early 
 Christians, their decorative effects were produced by 
 polychromatic ornamentation, executed by means of 
 painting and by mosaics. 
 
 The earliest paintings after the time of Constantine 
 are to be found in the catacombs of Pome and Naples. 
 The general characteristics of such paintings are, that 
 the outlines are strongly defined by a very fine, 
 firm, brown line, dark and broad; the figures are by 
 no means well drawn; and the colours and shadows 
 are not very forcible, although they are somewhat 
 heavy. Byzantine mosaic work* may be classed under 
 three heads— 
 
 * For much information concerning which we are indebted to the 
 excellent account by Mr. J. B. Waring. 
 
 K 
 
194 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 1. Glass mosaic, called Opus Musivum; used for both 
 
 walls and vaults. 
 
 2. Glass tesselation, called generally Opus Grecanicum, 
 
 conventional; generally inlaid in church furniture. 
 
 3. Marble tesselation, called indifferently Grecanicum 
 
 and Alexandrinum, conventional ; formed into 
 
 pavements. 
 
 In the first division of mosaics we observe as a 
 peculiarity that it was employed only to represent and 
 reproduce the forms of existing objects, such as figures, 
 architectural features, and conventional foliage, which 
 were generally relieved with some slight indications of 
 shading upon a gold ground, the whole being bedded 
 on the cement covering the walls and vaults of the 
 basilicas and churches. 
 
 The pieces of glass employed in the formation of 
 this work are of very irregular shapes and sizes, of all 
 colours and tones of colour, and the ground that 
 almost invariably prevails is gold. The manner of 
 execution is always large and coarse; yet, notwith¬ 
 standing this, the effect of gorgeous, luxurious, and 
 at the same time solemn decoration is unattainable by 
 any other means as yet employed in structural orna¬ 
 mentation. 
 
 The second variety of Christian mosaic, the glass 
 tesselation, or Opus Grecanicum, consisted in the inser¬ 
 tion into grooves, cut in white marble to the depth of 
 about half an inch, of small cubes of variously coloured 
 and gilded “ smalto,” as the Italians called, and still 
 call, the material of which mosaic is composed, and in 
 the arrangement of these simple forms in such geo¬ 
 metrical combinations as to compose the most elaborate 
 patterns. 
 
 These differ from all that were produced by the 
 former system in the essential particular of being purely 
 
SARACENIC. 
 
 195 
 
 conventional in style. These ornamental bands it was 
 customary to combine with large slabs of the most 
 precious materials serpentine, porphyry, pavonazzetto, 
 and other valuable marbles, and apply them to the 
 decoration of the churches and basilicas. 
 
 The third system of mediaeval mosaic, the Opus Alex- 
 andiinum, which formed the ordinary church-paving 
 from the time of Constantine down to the thirteenth 
 centuiy, and has in our own day been most successfully 
 imitated in encaustic tile pavements, may be described 
 generally as tesselated marble-work, that is, an arrange¬ 
 ment of small cubes, usually of porphyry or serpentine, 
 reddish-purple and green coloured, composing geo¬ 
 metrical patterns in grooves cut in the white marble 
 slabs which formed the pavement. The contrast be¬ 
 tween these two colours produces a monotonous but 
 always harmonious effect. 
 
 SARACENIC. 
 
 The Mohammedan law forbidding the introduction 
 of the forms of either animals or plants, a peculiar 
 system of ornamentation was developed, consisting 
 of scroll-work interlaced with a sort of conventional 
 foim appioximating to the lily, mixed with ornamental 
 inscriptions. Closely filled diapers, gorgeously coloured 
 and gilded, form the leading characteristics; the reliefs 
 on these wall-diapers were coloured blue on the back¬ 
 ground, red on the edges of the reliefs, and gold on 
 the surface. 
 
 The late Mr. Owen Jones must be accepted as the 
 modern exponent of this style, and his great work on 
 the Alhambra should be carefully studied by every 
 decorative artist, since from it may be gleaned lessons 
 of the most important character as to the correct dis- ' 
 tribution of form and space, and the principles of 
 
 k 2 
 
196 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 ornamentation. The following remarks are based on 
 Mr. Jones’s description of his reproduction of portions 
 of the Alhambra in the Crystal Palace. 
 
 In surface decoration of the Moors, all lines flow 
 out of a parent stem : every ornament, however dis¬ 
 tant, can be traced to its branch and root; they have 
 the happy art of so adapting the ornament to the sur¬ 
 face de- 
 corated, 
 that the orna¬ 
 ment appears 
 as often to have sug¬ 
 gested the general 
 form as to have been 
 suggested by it. In all cases 
 we find the foliage flowing 
 out of a parent stem (Fig. 22), 
 and we are never offended as in 
 modern practice by the random intro¬ 
 duction of an ornament just dotted down 
 without a reason for its existence. How¬ 
 ever irregular the space the Moors had 
 to fill, they always commenced by divid¬ 
 ing it into equal areas, and round these trunk 
 lines, they filled in the detail, but invariably 
 returned to the parent stem. 
 
 They appear in this to have worked by a 
 process analogous to that of nature, as we see in the 
 vine-leaf; they also followed the principle of radiation, 
 as in the horse-chesnut, &c. (Fig. 23). We see in these 
 examples how beautifully all these lines radiate from the 
 parent stem ; how each leaf diminishes towards the ex¬ 
 tremities ; and how each area is in proportion to the leaf. 
 The Orientals carry out this principle with marvellous 
 perfection; so did the Greeks in their honeysuckle 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
SARACENIC. 
 
 197 
 
 ornament. It may here be remarked that the Greek 
 ornamental forms appear to follow the principle of the 
 cactus tribe, where one leaf grows out of the other. 
 This is generally the case with the Greek ornament; the 
 acanthus leaf-scrolls are a series of leaves growing out 
 of each other in a continuous line, whilst the Arabian 
 ornaments always grow out of a continuous stem. 
 
 Another important principle in ornamentation was 
 carried out by the Moors; namely, that all junctions of 
 
 ' Fig. 23. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 curved lines with curved, or of curved with straight 
 (Fig. 24), should be tangential to each other. This 
 law is found everywhere in nature, and the Oriental 
 practice is in accordance with it. Many of the orna¬ 
 ments are on the principle which we observe in a 
 feather and in the articulations of every leaf; and to 
 this is due that additional charm found in all perfect 
 ornamentation which we call graceful. We shall find 
 these laws of equal distribution, radiation from a 
 parent stem, continuity of line, and tangential curva- 
 tion, ever present in natural leaves. 
 
198 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV. 
 
 GOTHIC. 
 
 This great middle-age period has been variously 
 divided: we adopt the simplest classification. The 
 Saxon style, of which but few examples remain in 
 this country, contained but few ornamental features; 
 and although the first ecclesiastical style was Roman¬ 
 esque in its origin, it is characterized by the small 
 windows with semicircular heads, the lights divided by 
 a baluster instead of a mullion, and semicircular arch¬ 
 ing generally. 
 
 The Gothic grew out of the Byzantine, and flourished 
 chiefly on the Rhine, in the north of France, and in 
 England. If we consider the Norman as the first 
 Gothic (of which it certainly was the forerunner or 
 starting-point), the stjde commenced in England 
 with the Norman invasion ; it was developed in the 
 thirteenth, and was perfected in the fourteenth cen 
 tury; in the fifteenth century it rapidly declined, and 
 became extinct in this country in the sixteenth cen¬ 
 tury ; and has, in recent years, been revived with an 
 amount of vigour which is so characteristic of the age 
 we live in. 
 
 The peculiarly Norman style, such as is best known 
 in this country, was originally developed in Sicily; it 
 contains, of course, many Saracenic features, of which 
 the pointed arch (introduced in the second or transi¬ 
 tion period) and the zigzag are the most prominent; 
 for the Norman, though originally a simple Romanesque 
 style, eventually adopted in the twelfth century the 
 pointed arch of the Mohammedans. 
 
 The periods of Gothic may be briefly stated as 
 follows :— 
 
 The Round Norman, or zigzag style (William I.). 
 
GOTHIC. 
 
 199 
 
 The Pointed Norman, or Transition (Henry II. or 
 first Plantagenet). 
 
 The Early English Gothic (Henry III. or second 
 Plantagenet). 
 
 The Decorated Gothic (The Edwards, the third 
 Plantagenet style). 
 
 The Perpendicular Gothic (Henry VII. or Lancas¬ 
 trian), ending in the Debased Perpendicular or Tudor 
 (Henry VIII.), which scarcely deserves to be separately 
 classed. 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 The Norman .—The chief characteristics of this style 
 are the great solidity of its columns or piers, its semi¬ 
 circular arches, and its numerous ornamental borders 
 or bands, miscalled mouldings. 
 
 The fact is, that the walls were of immense thick¬ 
 ness, and at the soffits of arches this thickness was 
 gradually diminished by being recessed, in order to 
 remove the disagreeable appearance of the very wide 
 intrados of the arch ; on the perpendicular faces of the 
 
200 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 parts so recessed the ornamental bands were carved ; the 
 edges of the projections were in later periods cut away, 
 or chamfered, and were subsequently worked into 
 hollows and rolls, and thus we have the origin of 
 mouldings.* Amongst these ornamental bands we 
 have the Chevron or zigzag (Fig. 25), the Double cone 
 (Fig. 26), the Beak’s head, the Billet, the Chain, the 
 Star, and an infinity of others; the chevron is, how¬ 
 ever, the most general, being found in every Norman 
 building. The capital, called generally the cushion 
 capital, is for the most part a mere block from which 
 the lower angles are chamfered away; in some examples 
 the lower part was fluted and otherwise ornamented. 
 
 In the Transition from the Norman to the Early 
 English, we find the pointed arch, together with 
 mouldings and other features altogether Norman. The 
 most important form, however, introduced in the transi¬ 
 tion period was the “roll and fillet,” a moulding which 
 continued to hold a leading place in the combinations of 
 the succeeding styles. It may be described as a narrow 
 band or fillet set flat upon the face of the common 
 cylindrical roll. In the earlier examples it is mostly 
 set square upon the round member; but it is often 
 found with the joining edges rounded off, so that the 
 fillet merges gradually into the roll. 
 
 Early English. — The windows form very charac¬ 
 teristic features in the Gothic style, but it is not 
 possible here to enter deeply into that interesting 
 subject. We will therefore only briefly mention that, 
 in the period under consideration, the windows are 
 for the most part long and narrow, with acutely 
 pointed heads. These were often gathered together in 
 two, three, five, or seven lights under one dripstone. 
 
 * For full description of mouldings, and of the Gothic style gene¬ 
 rally, see “Gothic Stonework,” by Ellis A. Davidson. 
 
GOTHIC. 
 
 201 
 
 It will be easily understood that when two windows of 
 the lancet form were gathered under a dripstone rising 
 to a point, a blank space, known as the tympanum, was 
 formed. In process of time this was pierced with 
 another light, in the form of a circle, ellipse, trefoil, 
 &c. This feature was subsequently elaborated, and 
 has been termed “plate tracery.” It was the origin 
 of the magnificent tracery which formed the leading 
 characteristic of the next period. The capitals of 
 
 this period are bell-shaped, and are often, especially 
 in the smaller examples, quite plain ; but in the larger 
 and richer specimens as, in Fig. 27—from Stone 
 Church, Kent—the bell is covered with a peculiar ren¬ 
 dering of the trefoil-leaf, springing from the neck and 
 rising in a direct manner until it bends over in clusters ; 
 this has been called the stiff-leaved foliage : the method 
 of thus rendering the trefoil evinces a desire to aim at 
 the representation of natural forms, which was so well 
 
 k 3 
 
202 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 accomplished in the Decorated, and which declined in 
 the Perpendicular period. 
 
 The most characteristic ornament of the Early Eng¬ 
 lish period is the Dog-tooth or “ tooth” ornament (Fig. 
 28). It bears, however, no relation to a tooth, hut is 
 merely a solid rendering of the zigzag, and consists of 
 
 a series of pyramids 
 placed on their bases 
 next to each other, and 
 sometimes pierced with 
 the trefoil ornament. It 
 is also frequently ren¬ 
 dered as a flower with four petals bent backwards. 
 
 A beautiful method of ornamenting flat surfaces, 
 which had originated with the Normans, was preva¬ 
 lent at this and subsequent periods ; this was the 
 manner of covering walls or portions of them with 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 what has been called “diapering.”* The diaper con¬ 
 sisted of a small flower, or geometrical pattern, carved 
 in low relief, the design being repeated in separate 
 
 * The origin of this term has been much discussed. It is supposed 
 to be taken from a kind of cloth worked in small square patterns, and 
 which was then as now much used under the name of Dyaper, origi¬ 
 nally d’Ypres, the chief manufactory being at Ypres, in Belgium. 
 
GOTHIC. 
 
 203 
 
 squares or other figures. Fig. 29, from Westminster 
 Abbey, is an illustration of one of these. 
 
 The crocket and finial were also ornamental features 
 of this and the subse¬ 
 quent periods. The 
 crocket consisted, in the 
 first place, merely of 
 the pastoral crook, but 
 soon became an orna¬ 
 ment formed of the tre¬ 
 foil. Fig. 30 is one of 
 the earliest, and is taken 
 from Lincoln Cathedral. 
 
 The finial consists of a 
 bunch of crockets placed 
 at the apex of the 
 spires. 
 
 In the Decorated 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 period we have two very distinguishing features. First, 
 that the tracery was developed into the most beautiful 
 patterns; and that the leading ornamentation is based 
 on natural forms. The tracery is of two 
 kinds: the geometrical and the flowing. 
 
 In the former, the pattern consists en¬ 
 tirely of geometrical combinations, as 
 trefoils, quatrefoils, cinquefoils, hexa- 
 foils, &c., based on triangles, squares, 
 pentagons, hexagons, &c. In the flow¬ 
 ing tracery these figures, though still 
 employed as the bases, are not com¬ 
 pleted in themselves, so as to stand out 
 individually, but merge into each other: thus pro¬ 
 ducing the most graceful forms, which have been called 
 “ flame-like” compartments. 
 
 In the Decorated period the capitals are either bell- 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
204 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 shaped or octagonal, the foliage being wreathed around 
 it instead of rising perpendicularly from the neck, as 
 in the Early English. The leaves of the oak, maple, 
 Fine, ivy, strawberry, hazel, ferns, &c., are all so beau¬ 
 tifully rendered as to give evidence of their having 
 been taken directly from nature. The oak seems to 
 have been an especial favourite. Fig. 31, which illus¬ 
 trates these remarks, is from York Cathedral; and this 
 system was also carried out in the crockets and finials. 
 One of the latter, from Cherrington, is shown in Fig. 32. 
 
 Fig. 33. Fig. 34. 
 
 The Ball flower (Fig. 33) and Square flower (Fig. 34) 
 were the most prevailing ornaments of the period. 
 
 The Perpendicular style, when fully developed, is 
 characterized by the exuberance and redundancy of its 
 ornaments. In the latter portion of the period it be¬ 
 came so excessive, that the term “Florid” has been 
 applied to it. The term Perpendicular has, however, 
 been adopted in consequence of the peculiar arrange¬ 
 ment of the tracery in the window heads, which form a 
 very marked characteristic of the style. The beautiful 
 flowing contour and curved lines of the tracery whict 
 so adorned the windows of the Decorated period, were 
 superseded by mullions running perpendicularly from 
 bottom to top, with transoms crossing horizontally; 
 the roofs also were lowered, and the arch was 
 flattened, until at last, in the Tudor period, it was 
 drawn from four centres ; and, in the Debased period, 
 it was flattened altogether. 
 
 The capitals were either circular or octagonal, the 
 
GOTHIC. 
 
 205 
 
 bell portion being mostly plain, but often covered with 
 foliage of a harsh and conventional character, without 
 either the freedom and boldness of the Early English 
 
 or the natural grace of 
 the Decorated period. 
 Fig. 35, taken from the 
 west doorway of Bever¬ 
 ley Church, Yorkshire, 
 will illustrate these re¬ 
 marks. 
 
 The leading features 
 in the ornamentation 
 of the Perpendicular 
 period are—panel tra- 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 eery, which corresponds in some degree with the diaper 
 work of the previous period, the patterns being, however, 
 formed of mullions or tracery, quatrefoils, trefoils, &c.; 
 a very rich description of vaulting, composed of pen¬ 
 dant semicones covered with foliated panel work, called 
 
206 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 “ fan tracery.” The Tudor flower, the Portcullis and 
 Pose, both badges of the Tudors, were also constantly 
 used as ornaments; and the Angel bracket is very 
 frequent, especially in the reign of Henry VII., angels 
 being placed at intervals in the string courses. 
 
 The gradual decline of the Gothic style is very 
 evident in the later churches of this period, especially 
 in those begun in the tenth century. It will be easily 
 understood that the Reformation formed a bar to the 
 revival of this style; and the introduction at the same 
 period of the Renaissance style, whilst the elements of 
 the Gothic, though much degraded, were still in exist¬ 
 ence, led to the mixture of features, and that incon¬ 
 gruity of style, which followed, and which has been 
 called the Debased Gothic, in which every real prin¬ 
 ciple of beauty was lost. 
 
 In Italy the Gothic was at once superseded by the 
 classical; but in other countries it waned into what 
 has been termed the “ After-Gothic,” which in its turn 
 gradually merged into the revived Classic, which will 
 presently be described. 
 
 Within recent years a revival of Gothic has taken 
 place in this country, and buildings have been, and are 
 being, erected which will bear comparison with those 
 of the Middle Ages. We have architects, too, who in 
 their scientific principles of construction, and in their 
 enthusiasm, have not been surpassed at any period. 
 Let us hope our artisans will avail themselves of the 
 opportunities now held out to them for acquiring the 
 skill to worthily carry out the works, and that our 
 designers and decorators will make themselves ac¬ 
 quainted with the principles of the architecture of differ¬ 
 ent periods, so that they may understand the application, 
 and enter into the spirit, of the system of ornamentation 
 to be adopted in accordance with the style. 
 
RENAISSANCE. 
 
 207 
 
 CHAPTER XXXYI. 
 
 THE RENAISSANCE. 
 
 This style was the revival and combination of the most 
 beautiful elements of Classic art. The return to these 
 was due to the gradually growing influence of the 
 Saracenic, not as an absolute style, but as affording new 
 elements of beauty, especially in its varied and intricate 
 interlacings, which were so prominent for a while as to 
 constitute the chief characteristic of a new style. 
 
 Fig. 36.—Bronze from Door of St. Maclou, Rouen, 1542 (AVornum). 
 
 The first step of the transition from middle age to 
 modern art is known from its mean time (about 1300) 
 as the Trecento, the great features of which are its 
 intricate tracery or interlacings and delicate scroll¬ 
 work of conventicnal foliage—the style being a com¬ 
 bination of the Byzantine and Saracenic, the symbolism 
 of both being excluded. The foliage and floriage, 
 however, are not exclusively conventional, and it com¬ 
 prises a fair rendering of the classical orders with the 
 restoration of the round arch * 
 
 In the Quattrocento, the next period of this style, 
 
 * For much of the above information the writer is indebted to Mr. 
 AVornum’s admirable lectures (1848,1849, and 1850). Digests of these 
 lectures are now published under the auspices of the Department of 
 Science and Art, and the reader is urged to supplement the sketch here 
 given by further study from that work. 
 
208 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 we have a far more decided revival. The bronze gates 
 of the Baptistry of San Giovanni, by Lorenzo Ghiberti 
 (1425-52), exhibit one feature of this period in perfec¬ 
 tion—the prominence of simple natural imitations, 
 which now almost entirely superseded the conventional 
 representations of previous times. Nature no longer 
 supplied mere suggestions, but afforded directly exact 
 models for imitation, whether fruit or flowers, birds 
 or other animals, all disposed wi.th a view to the pic¬ 
 turesque or ornamental. The selection of the details 
 might still have some typical significance, but this had 
 no influence on the manner of their execution, which 
 was as purely imitative as their arrangement was orna¬ 
 mental. Thus, in the grand border surrounding the 
 gates of Ghiberti, the flowers and fruit are grouped 
 in the most luxurious manner, whilst birds and squir¬ 
 rels seem enjoying themselves according to their 
 natural habits, the whole being evidently emblematic 
 of the fulness of the Creation ; yet, although some of 
 the forms—the egg-plant, the pomegranates, the pears, 
 and the lilies—stand out in full relief, they are so dis¬ 
 posed that their shadows do not hide the objects by 
 which they are surrounded, but merely serve as it were 
 to gather them into one harmonious whole. 
 
 It appears that in the year 1401 the civic trades of 
 Florence were formed into guilds, called “Arti,” repre¬ 
 sented by deputies called “ Consoli.” These patriotic 
 men resolved to open a competition for a bronze gate, 
 to be erected at the Baptistry, that should surpass the 
 old one by Andrea Pisano. Seven of the greatest 
 artists of Italy entered the lists, but the prize was 
 awarded by the competitors themselves to Lorenzo 
 Ghiberti, who was only at the time twenty-two years of 
 age. This great work occupied him twenty-three years; 
 and at the completion, so great was the admiration 
 
RENAISSANCE. 
 
 209 
 
 it excited, that the consuls of the guild of merchants 
 commissioned him to execute another corresponding 
 door, of which, according to his own account, they 
 placed the plan and execution in his own hands. 
 
 “ They gave him full permission/’ says Yasari, “ to 
 proceed with the work as he should think best, and to 
 do whatever might most effectually secure that this 
 third door should be the richest, most highly adorned, 
 most beautiful, and most perfect that he could possibly 
 contrive or that could be imagined. He received more 
 than 13,000 florins for his labour, and gained great 
 fame and honour.” 
 
 Casts of these gates are in the Art Schools of the 
 Department of Science and Art, and may also be seen 
 complete in the Renaissance Court of the Crystal 
 Palace, in the hand-book to which, by Sir M. D. 
 Wyatt and J. B. Waring, Esq., they are fully de¬ 
 scribed. 
 
 The border, already described, surrounds the gates, 
 which are divided into ten panels, representing Scrip¬ 
 ture subjects— 
 
 1. The Creation, up to the expulsion of Adam and 
 Eve from Paradise. 
 
 2. Cain and Abel. 
 
 3. The Flood. 
 
 4. Passages in the history of Abraham. 
 
 5. The history of Esau. 
 
 6. The history of Joseph. 
 
 7. Moses on Mount Sinai. 
 
 8. The passage of the Israelites across the Jordan 
 
 9. A battle between the Hebrews and the Philis¬ 
 tines. 
 
 10. The meeting of the Queen of Sheba and 
 I Solomon. 
 
 “ The love of nature,” savs Mr. Waring, 
 
 * * 0 1 
 
 “ with 
 
210 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 the first Renaissance artists became a passion, and 
 was the basis of their style. It is this which gives 
 such a wonderful charm to the works of that illus¬ 
 trious triad — Ghiberti, Donatello, and Lucca della 
 Robbia, who, imbued with the true spirit of the 
 antique, and an unusual sense of the beautiful, en¬ 
 nobled all, even the commonest subjects, which came 
 from their hands. We are the more desirous that this 
 should be well understood, since it is a fact too often 
 lost sight of; and the ‘ Renaissance ’ implies not the 
 revival of antique art only, but the return to that 
 great school which nature keeps ever open to us.” 
 “ The artist held his place modestly, working for the 
 sake of art and the love of truth, whilst in his pro¬ 
 ductions he sought, not to astonish by his skill or 
 science, but to infuse into others that love of nature 
 and the antique which inspired himself.” 
 
 Our own Elizabethan must be considered as an 
 elaboration of the Renaissance, probably introduced 
 from the Low Countries, the only difference being that 
 the Elizabethan exhibits a very striking preponderance 
 of strap and shield-work ; but this was a gradual 
 result; and what we now term Elizabethan was not 
 thoroughly developed until the time of James I., when 
 the pierced shields even outbalanced the strap work. 
 The pure Elizabethan is much nearer allied to the con¬ 
 tinental styles of the true classical ornaments, but rude 
 in detail, occasionally scroll and arabesque work, and 
 the tracery or strap-work holding a much more promi¬ 
 nent place than the pierced and scrolled shields. Such 
 are the varieties of the Revival distinct from the Cinque- 
 cento, or perfect form. A design containing all the 
 elements of this period is properly called Renaissance. 
 If it contains only the tracery and foliage of the period, 
 it would be more properly called Trecento. If it con- 
 
CINQUECENTO. 
 
 211 
 
 tains, besides these elaborate natural imitations, festoons, 
 scroll-work, and occasional symmetrical arabesques, it 
 is of the Quattrocento , the Italian Renaissance of the 
 fifteenth century; and if it displays a decided pro¬ 
 minence of strap-work and shield-work, it is Eliza¬ 
 bethan. 
 
 The Cinquecento is the full development of the 
 modern styles, and was the most prominent style of 
 the sixteenth century; it is the real goal of the Re- 
 
 Fig. 37-—Chimney-piece, Louvre, by Germain Pilou (Wornum). 
 
 naissance, to which all the efforts of the fifteenth 
 century tended. 
 
 The styles we have described all tended to the 
 ultimate perfection attained in that now under con¬ 
 sideration, which was only achieved by the artists of 
 Italy when the glorious monuments of the ancients 
 were excavated at the close of the fifteenth century ; 
 and, with these examples before them, Raffaelle, Julio 
 Romano, the Lombardi, Bramante, and Michael-Angelo 
 succeeded in developing the style until it surpassed 
 in its beauty the very originals from which it sprang. 
 
 The leading elements of the Cinquecento may be con- 
 
212 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 sidered to be—tbe arabesque scroll (Fig. 37), combining 
 in its elements every other feature of classical art, 
 with animals and plants rendered naturally or con¬ 
 ventionally, the sole guiding idea being beauty of 
 form ; the beautiful variations of ancient standard 
 forms, as the anthemion, the guilloche, the fret, the 
 acanthus scroll, &c. ; absolute works of art introduced 
 into the arabesques, as vases, implements, and in¬ 
 struments of all kinds—strap and shield work being, 
 however, wholly excluded, as not authorised by ancient 
 practice; the admirable play of colour in the arabesques 
 and scrolls—the three secondary colours, orange, green, 
 and purple, are the leading ones—thus affording a con¬ 
 trast to the early periods of ornamentation, in which 
 we have already shown the primary colours were pre¬ 
 ferred. 
 
 “The Cinquecento,” says Mr. Wornum, “may be 
 considered the culminating style in ornamental art, as 
 presenting the most perfect forms and pleasing varieties, 
 nature and art vieing with each other in their efforts 
 to attract and gratify the eye. It appeals only to the 
 sense of beauty. All its efforts are made to attain the 
 most attractive effects, without any intent to lead the 
 mind to an ulterior end, as is the case in the Byzantine 
 and other symbolic styles. The Cinquecento forms are 
 supposed to be symbols of beauty alone; and it is a 
 remarkable concession to the ancients that the moderns 
 to attain this result were compelled to recur to their 
 works; and it is only now, in contemplation of this 
 consummate style, that the term Renaissance becomes 
 quite intelligible. The Renaissance, or re-birth, of 
 ornament is accomplished in the Cinquecento; still the 
 term is not altogether ill appropriated to the earlier 
 styles, because these were really the stepping-stones to 
 the Cinquecento, and, as already explained, in them 
 
LOUIS QUATORZE. 
 
 213 
 
 also the aesthetic was substituted for the symbolic. 
 The principles, therefore, were identical, though, from 
 the imperfect apprehension, elements strange to the 
 classical period were generally admitted: it was a 
 revival of principle, though not of element/’ 
 
 The great characteristic of the Louis Quatorze style 
 (1643-1715) is its gilt stucco work, which almost 
 entirely superseded decorated painting; the ornamental 
 features being rendered in very high relief, depending 
 
 Fig. 38.—Carved Wood, Notre Dame, Paris (Wornum). 
 
 more on the play of light and shade than in the colour¬ 
 ing ; in fact, the favourite ornament, the anthemion, 
 under a treatment which rejected flat surfaces and 
 necessitated hollows and projections, became the 
 hollow shell, which is perhaps the most leading orna¬ 
 ment of this style. 
 
 The Louis Quinze (1715-74), Fig. 38, does not much 
 differ from the Louis Quatorze in its elements, but yet, 
 from a certain manner of treatment, must be considered 
 
214 
 
 THE GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. 
 
 as distinct in a discrimination of styles. It differs in 
 this, that the merely characteristic elements of the 
 Louis Quatorze became paramount in Louis Quinze ; all 
 its details, instead of coming direct from the Cinque- 
 cento or Renaissance, came immediately from the 
 French schemes of the preceding reign, and the diver¬ 
 gence from the original types thus became wider. 
 
 The infinite and fantastic play of light and shade 
 being the great idea of the Louis Quatorze period of 
 ornamentation, exact symmetry in the parts was no 
 longer essential, and accordingly we find, for the first 
 time, symmetry systematically avoided. This feature 
 was gradually increased in the Louis Quinze style, and 
 ultimately led to the debased system of ornamentation 
 (if system it can properly be called) known as the 
 Rococo, in which balance of separate parts, or sym¬ 
 metry of the whole, was entirely set aside. 
 
INDEX 
 
 A CANTHUS Plant, in the Gre¬ 
 cian and Roman Styles, 190 
 Accordance of Colours, 6 
 Alphabet of Colours, 4 
 Analogy of Colours, 10 
 Angel Bracket (Perpendicular 
 Gothic), 206 
 Anomalous Colours, 5 
 Anotta, 67 
 
 Anthemion or Honeysuckle (in 
 Greek Ornament), 188 
 Antimony, Orange, 67 
 White, 31 
 Yellow, 28—30 
 Antwerp Brown, 97 
 Blue, 60 
 
 Arabesque Scrolls (in Cinque- 
 cento Ornament), 212 
 Arabic, Gum, 130 
 Arrangement of Colours, 4 
 Arsenic, Yellow, 36 
 A.shes, Ultramarine, 56 
 Asphaltum (Bitumen), 95 
 Assyrian Style, Chain or Guil- 
 loche, 186 
 
 Human-headed Colossi, 184 
 Open Flower, 186 
 Ornament, 184 
 Aureolin, 38 
 Azure, 54 
 
 B ADGER Tools, 167 
 
 Ball Flower (Decorated Go¬ 
 thic;, 204 
 
 Baptistry at Florence (Ghiberti’s 
 Gates), 209 
 Barytic White, 22 
 
 Beauty, 8 
 Bice, Blue, 62 
 Green, 71 
 
 Bismuth (Pearl), White, 22 
 Bistre, 97 
 
 Bitumen (Asphaltum), 95 
 Black Colour, 7 
 Black, 102 
 Blue, 106 
 Bone, 105 
 Chalk, 108 
 Frankfort, 106 
 Ivory, 105 
 Lamp, 105 
 
 Lead (Plumbago), 109 
 Manganese, 108 
 Mineral, 107 
 Mixed, 103 
 Nero di Foglio, 107 
 Ochre, 108 
 Peach, 106 
 Pigments, 105 
 Spanish, 107 
 Vine, 106 
 Bladder Green, 75 
 Blanc d’Argent, 20 
 Blood, Dragon’s, 47 
 Blooming of Varnishes, 149 
 Blue, Antwerp, 60 
 Armenian, 54 
 Azure, 54 
 Bice, 62 
 Black, 106 
 Cseruleum, 62 
 Cobalt, 57 
 Colour, 3, 52 
 Dumont’s, 57 
 
216 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Bine, 
 
 Enamel (Zaffre), 57 
 Factitious, 56 
 Haarlem, 60 
 Hungary, 57 
 Indigo, 60 
 Intense, 61 
 Mountain, 62 
 
 Ochre (Phosphate of Iron), 
 101 
 
 Pigments, 54 
 Prussian, 60 
 Royal, 59 
 Saunders, 62 
 Saxon, 57 
 Schweinfurt, 62 
 Smalt, 58 
 Thenard’s, 57 
 Ultramarine, 54 
 Verditer, 61 
 Vienna, 58 
 Body, 15 
 Borax, 131 
 Bougeval White, 23 
 Broken Colours, 91 
 Brown, 5, 89 
 Antwerp, 97 
 Bone, 95 
 Cappagh, 93 
 Egyptian (Mummy), 96 
 Euchrome, 93 
 Ivory, 95 
 Bladder, 98 
 Manganese, 92 
 Ochre, 33, 94 
 Pigments, 92 
 Pink, 83 
 Prussian, 98 
 Rubens, 94 
 Spanish, 45 
 Tints, 25 
 Vandyke, 92 
 Brunswick Green, 72 
 Brush, Use of, 157 
 Brushes used in Oil Painting, 166 
 To clean, 16S 
 Burnt Carmine, 79 
 Roman Ochre, 33 
 Sienna Earth, 66 
 Umber, 93 
 Verdigris, 88 
 
 Byzantine Style of Ornament, 191 
 Mosaics, 194 
 Varieties of, 193 
 
 U1ADMIUM Yellow, 36 
 \J Canvas for Oil-painting, 169 
 Various Sizes of, 169 
 Capitals, Composite, 190 
 Corinthian, 189 
 Decorated, 203 
 Doric, 189 
 Early English, 201 
 Ionic, 189 
 Norman, 200 
 Perpendicular, 205 
 Tuscan, 191 
 Cappagh Brown, 93 
 Carmine, 50 
 Burnt, 79 
 Durable, 51 
 Bladder, 51 
 
 Carnations, Oil of, 139 
 Carucru, 67 
 Cassel Earth, 94 
 Cassius’s Precipitate, 86 
 Cendres Blue, 62 
 Chain Ornament (in the Assyrian 
 Style), 186 
 Chalk, Black, 108 
 White, 23 
 
 Characteristic Features of the 
 various Styles of Ornament, 179 
 Chica, 67 
 
 Chilling of Varnishes, 150 
 Chinese Vermilion, 42 
 Yellow, 36 
 
 Chromate of Mercury, 65 
 Chromatic Equivalents, 7 
 Chromatics defined, 3 
 Chrome Green, 71 
 Orange, 65 
 Yellow, 29 
 Cinnabar, 42 
 
 Cinquecento Style of Ornament, 
 211 
 
 Citrine Colour, 5, 80 
 Blixed, 81 
 Pigments, 83 
 Umber, 83 
 
 Cleaning and restoring Paint- . 
 
 ings, 175 
 Cobalt, Blue, 57 
 Green, 72 
 
 Cochineal Lakes, 48 
 Cologne Earth, 94 
 Colour, Hues of, 5 
 Influence of, 2 
 Relation of, 4 
 
INDEX. 
 
 217 
 
 Colour, 
 
 Shades of, 6 
 
 Suggestions for Studies of 
 Harmony of, 9 
 Colouring, Illustrations of, 9 
 Practical, 13 
 Colourists, 9 
 
 Colour Pigments, Qualities of, 15 
 Colours, Complementary, 7 
 Contrasts of, 6 
 Definitive Seals of, 7 
 Discordant, 12 
 Elements of, 1 
 
 Evolved from Light and 
 Shade, 2 
 
 Expression of, 11 
 How generated, 2 
 Harmony of, 4 
 Heraldic, 123 
 
 Inherent and Transient, 13 
 Measured, 7 
 Material, 13 
 Neutral, 7 
 Of Flowers, 1 
 Polar Elements of, 3 
 Powers of, 7 
 Primary, 3, 26 
 Secondary, 4 
 Semi-neutral, 90, 98 
 Studies in Harmony of, 9 
 Tables of Fresco, 118 
 Tables of Heraldic, 119 
 Tables of Oil, 125 
 Tables of Qualities, r lll—117 
 Tables of Tempera, 124 
 Tables of Water, 123, 124 
 Tertiary, 2, 4 
 Three Orders of, 4 
 Colours and Pigments, Difference 
 between the Terms, 16 
 Complementary Colours, 7 
 Composition of Colours, 3 
 Compound Pigments, 15 
 Black, 103 
 Brown, 91 
 Citrine, 81 
 Green, 70 
 Grey, 100 
 Olive, 88 
 Orange, 65 
 Purple, 78 
 Eusset, 85 
 Constant White, 22 
 Contrasts of Colours, 6 
 
 Conventional rendering of Natu¬ 
 ral Elements in Egyptian Or¬ 
 nament, 182 
 Copaiba, 141 
 Copal Varnish, 145 
 Copper Greens, 72 
 Cowdie, or Fossil Varnish, 147 
 Cracking, 135, 149 
 Crayon Colours, 118 
 Crems, or Krems, White, 20 
 Cyanide of Iron, 59 
 
 D AMAS Varnish, 144 
 
 Dead Colouring (in Oil-paint¬ 
 ing), 169 
 
 Debased Gothic, 206 
 Decorated Gothic, Capitals, 203 
 Foliage, 204 
 Ornaments, 204 
 Tracery, 203 
 
 Definitive Scale of Colours, 7 
 Discordant Colours, 12 
 Distemper Colours, 124 
 Painting, 160 
 
 Doctrine of Light and Colours, 3 
 Dog-tooth Ornament (Early Eng¬ 
 lish Gothic), 202 
 Doric Capital, 189 
 Diapers in Egyptian Ornament, 
 184 
 
 In Gothic Ornament, 202 
 Dragon’s Blood, 47 
 Dryers, 133, 138 
 Drying Oils, 138 
 Drawing-board, 153 
 Drawing Papers, Qualities and 
 Sizes of, 152 
 To stretch, 154 
 Dumont’s Blue, 57 
 Durability of Colours, 15 
 Dutch Pink, 39 
 
 E AETH, Cassel, 94 
 Cologne, 94 
 Sienna, 32, 65 
 Early English (Gothic), 20* 
 Capitals, 201 
 Crockets, 202 
 Diapers, 202 
 Finials, 203 
 Foliage, 201 
 Plate Tracery, 201 
 Windows, 200 
 Easel, 171 
 
 L 
 
218 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Echinus, or Horse Chestnut (in j 
 Greek Ornament), 189 
 Egg-shell White, 23 
 Egyptian Brown (Mummy), 96 
 Sphinx, 185 
 Style of Ornament, 181 
 Elements of Colours, 1 
 Elizabethan Style of Ornament, 
 210 
 
 Emerald Green, 73 
 Enamel Blue (Zaffre), 67 
 Colours, 117 
 English Pink, 39 
 Eed, 42 
 
 Equivalents, Scale of, 7 
 Essential Oils, 134, 141 
 Euchrome, 93 
 Expressed Oil, 135 
 Expression of Colours, 8 
 Eye, Effects of Colours on the, 3 
 
 F ADING of Colours, 14 
 Fish Oils, 140 
 Flake White, 20 
 Flat Tints, Flowers in, 164 
 Washes, 157 
 Florentine Lake, 49 
 Flower Painting in Water-co¬ 
 lours, 160 
 
 Foliage, Natural (Decorated 
 Gothic), 202 
 
 Stiff (Early English Gothic), 
 201 
 
 Frankfort Black, 106 
 French Green, 72 
 Gray, 24 
 
 Fresco Painting, Processes of, 173 
 Fundamental Scale of Colours, 2 
 
 G alena, no 
 
 Gall Stone, 37 
 Gamboge, 36 
 
 Ghiberti, Gates of, Baptistry at 
 Florence, 208 
 
 Glass Mosaics (Byzantine), 194 
 Tesselation (Byzantine), 194 
 Glazing in Oil-painting, 170 
 Golden Sulphur of Antimony, 
 67 
 
 Gold Purple, 78 
 
 Size, Japanner’s, 139 
 Gothic Style, Debased, 206 
 Decorated, 203 
 Early English, 200 
 
 Gothic Style, 
 
 General Features of, 198 
 Norman, 199 
 Perpendicular, 204 
 Transition, 200 
 
 Graduating Tints in Water¬ 
 colours, 159 
 Graphite, 109 
 Gray, Anomalous Tint, 5 
 Mixed, 100 
 Neutral Colour, 7, 99 
 Pigments, 101 
 
 Grecian Style of Ornament, 187 
 Green, Bice, 71 
 Brunswick, 72 
 Chrome, 71 
 Cobalt, 72 
 Copper, 72 
 Emerald, 73 
 French, 72 
 Hooker’s, 70 
 Invisible, 76 
 Italian, 71 
 Malachite, 74 
 Marine, 72 
 Mineral, 74 
 Mixed, 70 
 Mountain, 74 
 Olive, 88 
 Olympian, 72 
 Patent, 72 
 Persian, 72 
 Relations of, 4, 68, 69 
 Pigments, 70 
 Prussian, 75 
 Rinmann’s, 72 
 Sap, 75 
 Saxon, 72 
 Scheele’s, 74 
 Schweinfurt’s, 75 
 Terre-verte, 71 
 Varley’s, 70 
 Venetian, 76 
 Verdigris, 73 
 Verditer, 72, 73 
 Verona, 71 
 Tints, 26 
 Grey Tints, 25 
 Grinding Pigments, 14 
 Gum Ammonia, 130 
 Arabic, 130 
 Senegal, 129 
 Tragacanth, 130 
 Gumtion, 140 
 
INDEX. 
 
 219 
 
 H aarlem Blue, 60 
 
 Hamburg Lake, 50 
 Harmony of Colours, 4 
 
 Suggestions for Studies in, 9 
 Hatching, 164 
 
 Heat, Effects of, on Colours, 117 
 Heraldic Colours, &c., Table of, 
 120 
 
 Hog-hair Brushes, 166 
 Hooker’s Green, 70 
 Hue, Tint, and Shade distin¬ 
 guished, 5 
 Hungary Blue, 57 
 
 TLLUSTRATIONS of Colour- 
 1 ing, 9 
 
 Impasting in Oil Painting, 71 
 Impurity of Pigments, 6 
 Indian Blue, 60 
 Ink, 108 
 Lake, 50 
 Red, 46 
 Varnish, 146 
 Yellow, 38 
 Indigo, 60 
 
 Inherent and Transient Colours, 
 13 
 
 Ink, China, 108 
 Indian, 108 
 Intense Blue, 61 
 Brown, 86 
 
 Intonaco (in Fresco Painting), 
 175 
 
 Invisible Green, 76 
 Iodine, Scai’let, 43 
 Ionic Capital, 189 
 Iron, Cyanide of, 59 
 
 Effects of, on Pigments, 115 
 Yellow, 34 
 
 Irregular-shaped Brushes, 166 
 Italian Green, 71 
 Pink, 39 
 
 Ivory Black, 105 
 Brown, 95 
 
 TAPAKNER’S Gold Size, 138 
 U Jaune Minerale, 29 
 
 Jaune de Mars, or Jaune de 
 Fer, 36 
 
 Jews’ Pitch, 95 
 
 K ERMES, Lake, 48 
 King’s Yellow, 36 
 
 L AC Varnish, 146 
 
 Labyrinth, in Egyptian 
 Ornament, or Fret, 182 
 In Greek Ornament, 187 
 Lake, Chinese, 48, 50 
 Cochineal, 49 
 Field’s, 48 
 Florentine, 49 
 Green, 72 
 Hamburg, 50 
 Kermes, 48 
 Lac, 50 
 Madder, 48 
 Purple, 79 
 Red, 47 
 Roman, 50 
 Rubric, 48 
 Scarlet, 49 
 Venetian, 50 
 Yellow, 38 
 Lamp Black, 105 
 Laque Minerale, 65 
 Lavender Oil, 142 
 Tints, 25 
 Lead, Black, 109 
 Chromate of, 29 
 Colour, 17 
 
 Its effects on Colours, 18 
 Orange, 67 
 Red, 44 
 Sulphate of, 21 
 White, 18 
 
 Lensic Prism, its Power, 3 
 Light and Colours, 2 
 Light and Shade, 2, 14 
 Light, Elementary, 2, 14 
 Linseed Oil, 136 
 
 Preserved and Purified, 139 
 Rendered Drying, 139 
 Litharge, 133 
 London White, 19 
 Lotus, or Water Lily (in Egyp¬ 
 tian Ornament), 182 
 Louis Quatorze Style of Orna¬ 
 ment, 213 
 
 Louis Quinze Style of Ornament, 
 213 
 
 ADDER Brown, 98 
 Carmine, 51 
 Lake, 48 
 Purple, 79 
 Russet, 85 
 Malachite, 74 
 
220 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Manganese Brown, 92 
 Maps, Tinting (with Verdigris), 
 73 
 
 Marble Tesselation (Byzantine), 
 194 
 
 Marine Green, 72 
 Marrone, 89 
 Mars Orange, 66 
 Massicot, 31 
 Mastic Varnish, 144 
 Material Colours, 13 
 Maxims in Colouring, 155 
 Media, 132 
 
 In Tempera Painting, 161 
 Megilp, 140 
 Melody of Colours, 12 
 Mercury, Chromate of, 65 
 Iodide of, 43 
 
 Sulphuret of (Vermilion), 42 
 Milk of Lime, 131 
 Mineral Black, 107 
 Green, 74 
 Pitch, 95 
 Purple, 80 
 Yellow, 36 
 Minium, 44 
 Mixed Tints, 24—26 
 Mixing of Colours, 156 
 Modan White, 23 
 Modes and Operations of Paint¬ 
 ing, 151, 156; 160, 164, 173 
 Monochrome, Painting in, 157 
 Subjects for Practice in, 158 
 Moors—their Principles of De¬ 
 sign, 196 
 Morat White, 23 
 Mosaics (Byzantine), 194 
 Mountain Blue, 62 
 Green, 74 
 Mucilage, 129 
 Mummy, 96 
 
 APHTHA, 143 
 Naples, Yellow, 30 
 Natural Scale of Colours, 3 
 Negative Colours, 17 
 Nero di Foglio, 107 
 Neutral Black, 102 
 
 Colours, 2, 3, 17, 102 
 Gray, 98 
 Tint, 100 
 White, 16 
 
 Neutralization of Colours, 5 
 
 Norman Style, 199 
 Capitals, 200 
 Ornamental Bands, 199 
 Pound Arch, 199 
 Nottingham White, 19 
 N umerical Proportion of Coloura, 
 7 
 
 Nut Oils, 140 
 
 O CHRE, Black, 108 
 Brown, 94 
 De Rue, 33 
 Indian, 45 
 Orange, 66 
 Purple, 80 
 Red, 45 
 Roman, 33 
 Scarlet, 45 
 Spnice, 30, 33 
 Stone, 31, 33 
 Yellow, 32 
 Oil, Boiled, 139 
 Drying, 138 
 Expressed, 135 
 Fish, 140 
 Lavender, 142 
 Linseed, 136 
 Nut, 140 
 Of Pinks, 139 
 Of Turpentine, 142 
 Olive, 140 
 Poppy, 139 
 Spike, 142 
 
 Volatile or Essential, 135, 
 141 
 
 Oil Painting, 164 
 Oils, 135 
 Olive Colour, 5 
 Green, 88 
 Mixed, 88 
 
 Olympian Green, 72 
 Opacity, 15 
 
 Open Flower (in Assyrian Orna¬ 
 ment), 186 
 Orange, 4 
 
 Antimony, 67 
 Chrome, 65 
 Compound, 65 
 Lead, 67 
 Mars, 66 
 Ochre, 66 
 
 Ornament, Assyrian, 184 
 Byzantine, 191 
 Cinquecento, 211 
 
INDEX. 
 
 221 
 
 Ornament, 
 
 Egyptian, 181 
 Gothic, 198 
 Grecian, 187 
 Louis Quatorze, 213 
 Of, generally, 179 
 Homan, 190 
 Renaissance, 207 
 Saracenic, 195 
 Orpiment, 35 
 Orange, 67 
 Red, 35 
 Yellow, 35 
 Oxford Ochre, 32 
 Ox-gall, 131 
 Oyster-shell White, 23 
 
 P AINTING, Fresco, 173 
 
 Modes and Operations of, 151 
 Oil, 164 
 Tempera, 160 
 Water-colour, 156 
 Paint, To Remove, 178 
 Palette, 172 
 
 Papyrus-plant in Egyptian Or¬ 
 nament, 182 
 Paris Blue, 58 
 White, 20 
 
 Parthenon Frieze (Grecian Orna¬ 
 ment), 187 
 Patent Green, 72 
 Yellow, 30 
 Peach Black, 106 
 Pearl White, 22 
 Permanence of Colours, 15 
 Permanent White, 22 
 Perpendicular Gothic Capitals, 
 205 
 
 Characteristic Features, 204 
 Foliage, 205 
 Ornaments, 206 
 Windows, 205 
 Persian Green, 72 
 Red, 46 
 
 Phosphate of Iron, 101 
 Photogen and Sciogen, Elements 
 of Light and Colours, 14 
 Picture-cleaning, 176 
 Pigments and Colours, difference 
 between the Terms, 16 
 Pigments, Black, 102 
 Blue, 52 
 Brown, 89 
 Citrine, 80 
 
 Figments, 
 
 Gray, 98 
 Green, 68 
 Mixed, 88 
 Olive, 87 
 Qualities of, 14 
 Plumbago, 102 
 
 Polarity of Light and Colours, 4 
 Polish, French, 146 
 Portcullis (Perpendicular Gothic), 
 206 
 
 Powers of Colours, 7 
 Practical Colouring, 13 
 Primary Colours, 3, 26 
 Contrasts, 7 
 Prism, The Lensic, 3 
 Prussian Blue, 60 
 Brown, 98 
 Green, 75 
 
 Prussiate of Copper, 86 
 Of Iron, 59 
 Purple, 4 
 
 Burnt Carmine, 79 
 Its Relation to other Colours, 
 76, 77 
 Lake, 79 
 Madder, 79 
 Mixed, 78 
 Ochre, 80 
 Of Gold, 78 
 Rubiate, or Field’s, 79 
 
 Q ualities of Pigments, 14 
 Quattrocento Period, 207 
 
 R AW Sienna Earth, 34 
 Umber, 83 
 Red Colours, 3, 39 
 Carmine, 50 
 English, 43 
 Indian, 46 
 Iodine Scarlet, 43 
 Lake, 47 
 Lake Lac, 50 
 Lake Scarlet, 49 
 Lead, 44 
 Light, 46 
 
 Madder Carmine, 51 
 Ochre, 45 
 Pigments, 42 
 Red, Persian, 46 
 Prussian, 47 
 Saturnine, 44 
 Spanish, 47 
 
222 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 Red, 
 
 Venetian, 47 
 Vermilion, 42 
 Refraction of Light, 3 
 Refrangibility of Colours, 4 
 Relations of Colours, 5 
 Renaissance Period of Ornament, 
 207 
 
 Repose, Principles of, 10 
 Retiring Colours, 10 
 Rinmann’s Green, 72 
 Roman Lake, 50 
 Ochre, 33 
 
 Style of Ornament, 189 
 White, 20 
 Rose Pink, 51 
 
 Rubric or Madder Lake, 48 
 Roucou, 67 
 Rouen White, 23 
 Rough Cast Ground in Fresco 
 Painting, 175 
 Royal Blue, 59 
 Rubens’ Brown, 94 
 Rubiate, or Field’s Purple, 79 
 Rubiates, 48 
 Rubric Lake, 48 
 Rue, Ochre de, 33 
 Russet Colour, 5, 84, 85 
 Field’s, 85 
 Mixed, 85 
 Ochre, 86 
 
 S ' ABLE Brushes, 166 
 Sap Green, 75 
 Satin White, 23 
 Saturnine Red, 44 
 Saunders Blue, 62 
 Saxon Blue, 57 
 Green, 72 
 
 Scale of Colours, Primary, 3 
 Contrasts, 6 
 Equivalents, 7 
 Scarlet, Iodine, 43 
 Lake, 49 
 Ochre, 45 
 
 Scene Painting, 162 
 Scheele’s Green, 74 
 Schweinfurt Blue, 62 
 Green, 75 
 
 Science of Colours, 2 
 Sciogen, 14 
 
 Scroll in Grecian Ornament, 189 
 Roman Ornament, 190 
 Scumbling (in Oil Painting), 171 I 
 
 Secondary Colours, 4 
 Semi-neutral Colours, 89 
 Sepia, 97 
 
 Series of Colours, 5 
 Shades, Tints, and Hues, 6 
 Shadow Colours, 10 
 Sky Colours, 53, 55 
 Siccatives (Dryers), 133 
 Sienna Earth, Burnt, 66 
 Raw, 34 
 
 Silver White, 20 
 Size, 131 
 Smalt, 58 
 
 Spanish Black, 107 
 Brown, 45 
 White, 23 
 Spectral Colours, 3 
 Spike, Oil of, 142 
 Spirit of Wine, 143 
 Sphinx, Egyptian, 184 
 Greek, 184 
 Spruce Ochre, 33 
 Square Flower (Decorated 
 Gothic), 204 
 Stil de Grain, 39 
 Stippling, 164 
 Stone Ochre, 33 
 
 Styles of Ornament, Assyrian, 184 
 Byzantine, 191 
 Cinquecento, 211 
 Egyptian, 181 
 Elizabethan, 210 
 Gothic, 198 
 Grecian, 187 
 Louis Quatorze, 213 
 Louis Quinze, 213 
 Renaissance, 207 
 Roman, 190 
 Saracenic, 195 
 Subjects for Study, 158 
 Sugar of Lead, 133 
 Sulphate of Lead, 21 
 Sulphuret of Antimony, 67 
 Arsenic, 35 
 Cadmium, 36 
 
 Mercury or Quicksilver, 42 
 Zinc, 133 
 
 Symbolic Colouring, 121 
 Symbols, Heraldic, 119, 123 
 System, Chromatic, 3 
 
 T ABLES of Colours— 
 
 Fresco Colours, 118 
 1 Heraldic Colours, 119 
 
INDEX, 
 
 223 
 
 Tables of Colours— 
 
 Oil Colours, 125 
 Tempera Colours, 124 
 Various Qualities, 111, 112, 
 113, 114, 115, 116, 117 
 Water-colours, 123, 124 
 Taste, 2, 5 
 
 Tempera Painting, 160 
 Terra Orleans, 67 
 Terre Blue, 62 
 De Cassel, 94 
 Verte, 69, 71 
 Tertiary Colours, 2 
 Tests of Lakes, 49, 51 
 
 Ultramarine, &c., 56, 57 
 Vermilion, 43 
 Thenard’s Blue, 57 
 Theory of Colours, 1, 12 
 Time, Effects of, on Colours, 15 
 Tin White, 21 
 Tints, Brown, 25 
 Green, 26 
 Grey, 25 
 Lavender, 25 
 Mixed, 24, 25, 26 
 Yellow, 26 
 
 Tints, Hues, and Shades, 6 
 Tiver, 94 
 Tragacanth, 130 
 Transient Colours, 13 
 Transition (Gothic), 200 
 Trecento Period, 207 
 Triads of Colours, 3 
 Troy White, 23 
 Tudor Flower, 206 
 Bose, 206 
 
 Turpentine Oil, 142 
 Tuscan Capitals, 191 
 
 U LTRAMARINE, 54 
 Ashes, 56, 101 
 Factitious, 56 
 French, 56 
 Umber, Burnt, 89 
 Raw, 83 
 
 Useful Receipts, 176 
 
 V ANDYKE Brown, 92 
 Varley’s Green, 70 
 Varnishes, 143 
 
 Blooming of, 149 
 Copal, 145 
 
 Cowdie, or Fossil, 147 
 Damas, 144 
 
 Varnishes, 
 
 Indian, 146 
 Lac, 146 
 Lac, White, 146 
 Mastic, 144 
 Resinous, 144 
 To remove, 176 
 Vehicles, 126 
 Egg, 161 
 Oil, 135—143 
 Varnish, 144—149 
 Water, &c., 128—132 
 Venetian Green, 76 
 Red, 43, 45 
 White, IS 
 Verdigris, 73 
 Burnt, 88 
 Verditer, Blue, 61 
 Green, 72, 73 
 Vermilion, 42 
 Verona Green, 71 
 Verte, Terre, 71 
 Vienna Blue, 58 
 Vine Black, 106 
 Viride iEris, 73 
 Vision, Effects of Colour on, 9 
 Volatile Oils, 135, 141 
 
 ATER-COLOURS, 155 
 Painting in, 156 
 Water Vehicles, 128 
 Wave-Scroll in Egyptian Orna¬ 
 ment, 183 
 Wax Painting, 163 
 White, 7, 16 
 Barytic, 22 
 Bismuth (Pearl), 22 
 Bougeval, 23 
 Chinese, 23 
 Colours, 16 
 Constant, 22 
 Copperas, 133 
 Egg-shell, 23 
 Fiake, 20 
 
 Krems, or Kremnitz, 20 
 Lead, 18 
 London, 19 
 Modan, 23 
 Morat, 23 
 Nottingham, 19 
 Oyster-shell, 23 
 Pearl, 22 
 Roman, 20 
 Rouen, 23 
 
224 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 /( 
 
 White, 
 
 Satin, 23 
 Silver, 20 
 Spanish, 23 
 Sulphate of Lead, 21 
 Tin, 21 
 Troy, 23 
 Venetian, 18 
 Vitriol, 131 
 Zinc, 21 
 
 White Chalk, 23 
 Wine, Spirit of, 143 
 Winged Globe, The (in Egyptian 
 Ornament), 181 
 
 Y ELLOW Colour, 3, 27 
 Arsenic, 36 
 Aureolin, 38 
 Brown Ochre, 33 
 Cadmium, 36 
 Chinese, 36 
 Chrome, 29 
 Dutch Pink, 39 
 English Pink, 39 
 Gall-Stone, 37 
 Gamboge, 36 
 Indian, 38 
 Iron, 34 
 
 Yellow, 
 
 Italian Pink, 39 
 Jaune de Mars, or Jaune de 
 Fer, 34 
 
 Jaune Minerale, 29 
 King’s, 36 
 Lake, 38 
 Massicot, 31 
 Mineral (Arsenic), 36 
 Montpellier, 30 
 Naples, 30 
 
 Ochre and Oxford, 32 
 Orpiment, 35 
 Patent, 30 
 Pigments, 27 
 Roman Ochre, 33 
 Stil de Grain, 39 
 Stone Ochre, 33 
 Terra Sienna, 34 
 Tints, 26 
 
 Z AFFRE, 57 ! 
 
 Zarnic, 35 
 
 Zigzag (in Egyptian Ornament), 
 182 
 
 In Norman Ornament, 199 
 Zinc, Sulphate of, 133 
 White, 21 
 
 THE END. 
 
 PRINTED DY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED, CITY ROAD, LONDON. 
 
7, Stationers’ Hall Court, London, E.C. 
 
 January, 1888 . 
 
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 New Manual for Practical Engineers. 
 
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 ploying steam power to possess themselves of the work. —Ryland's Iron Trade Circular. 
 
 Boiler Chimneys. 
 
 BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS; Their Draught-Power 
 
 and Stability. With a Chapter on Lightning Conductors. By Robert 
 Wilson, A.I.C.E., Author of “A Treatise on Steam Boilers,” &c. Second 
 Edition. Crown 8vo, 3 s. 6 d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 Boiler Making. 
 
 THE BOILER-MAKER'S READY RECKONER. With Ex¬ 
 amples of Practical Geometry and Templating, for the Use of Platers, 
 Smiths and Riveters. By John Courtney, Edited by D. K. Clark, M.I.C.E. 
 Second Edition, Revised, with Additions, nmo, 5s. half-bound. 
 
 " A most useful work.No workman or apprentice should be without this book."— 
 
 Iron Trade Circular. 
 
 “ A reliable guide to the working boiler-maker.”— Iron. 
 
 “ Boiler-makers will readily recognise the value of this volume. . . . The tables are clearly 
 printed, and so arranged that they can be referred to with the greatest facility, so that cannot be 
 doubted that they will be generally appreciated and much used .”—Mining Journal. 
 
5 
 
 MECHANICS, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. 
 
 Steam Engine. 
 
 TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE. With a Sup- 
 
 plement on Gas Engines. By T. M. Goodeve, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, 
 Author of “The Elements of Mechanism,” &c. Ninth Edition. With 
 numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 • v.* ^ >ro ^ e . ssor Goodeve has given us a treatise on the steam engine which will bear comparison 
 with anything written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can award it no higher praise.”— Engineer. 
 
 “ Professor Goodcve’s book is ably and clearly written. It is a sound work.”— Athenaum. 
 
 “ Mr. Goodeve’s text-book is a work of which every young engineer should possess himself.” 
 —Mining Journal. 
 
 “ Essentially practical in its aims. The manner of exposition leaves nothing to be desired.”— 
 Scotsman. 
 
 “ A valuable vade tnecum for the student of engineering, and should be in the possession of 
 every scientific reader.”— Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Gas Engines. 
 
 ON GAS-ENGINES. Being a Reprint, with some Additions, of 
 the Supplement to the Text-book on the Steam Engine, by T. M. Goodeve, 
 M.A. Crown 8vo, 2 s. 6d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 “ Like all Mr. Goodeve’s writings, the present is no exception in point of general excellence. 
 It is a valuable little volume."— Mechanical World. 
 
 “ This little book will be useful to those who desire to understand how the gas-engine works. 
 —English Meehan.c. 
 
 Steam. 
 
 THE SAFE USE OF STEAM. Containing Rules for Un¬ 
 
 professional Steam-users. By an Engineer. Fifth Edition. Sewed, 6 d. 
 
 44 If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boiler explosions would become 
 sensations by their rarity.”— English Mechanic. 
 
 Coal and Speed Tables. 
 
 A POCKET BOOK OF COAL AND SPEED TABLES, for 
 
 Engineers and Steam-users. By Nelson Foley, Author of “ Boiler Con¬ 
 struction.” Pocket-size, 3s. 6d. cloth ; 4s. leather. 
 
 "This is a very useful book, containing very useful tables. The results given are well chosen, 
 and the volume contains evidence that the author really understands his subject. We can recom¬ 
 mend the work with pleasure.”— Mechanical World. 
 
 " These tables are designed to meet the requirements of every-day use ; they are of sufficient 
 scope for most practical purposes, and may be commended to engineers and users of steam.”— 
 Iron. 
 
 “ This pocket-book well merits the attention of the practical engineer. Mr. Foley has com¬ 
 piled a very useful set of tables, the information contained in which is frequently required by 
 engineers, coal consumers and users of steam.” —Iron and Coal Trades Review. 
 
 Fire Engineering. 
 
 FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, AND FIRE-BRIGADES. With 
 
 a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Management; Re¬ 
 marks on Fire-Proof Buildings, and the Preservation of Life from Fire; 
 Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English Towns; Foreign Fire Systems; 
 Hints on Fire Brigades, &c. &c. By Charles F. T. Young, C.E. With 
 numerous Illustrations, 544 pp., demy 8vo, £1 4s. cloth. 
 
 44 To such of our readers as are interested in the subject of fires and fire apparatus, we can most 
 heartily commend this book. It is really the only English work we now have upon the subject."— 
 Engineering. 
 
 44 It displays much evidence of careful research; and Mr. Young has put his facts neatly 
 together. It is evident enough that his acquaintance with the practical details of the construction of 
 steam fire engines, old and new, and the conditions with which it is necessary they should comply, 
 is accurate and full."— Engineer . 
 
 Gas Lighting. 
 
 COMMON SENSE FOR GAS-USERS: A Catechism of Gas- 
 Lighting for Householders , Gasfitters } Millowners , Architects , Engineers , etc . 
 By Robert Wilson, C.E., Author of “ A Treatise on Steam Boilers.*' 
 Second Edition, with Folding Plates and Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, 
 price is. in wrapper. 
 
 44 All gas-users will decidedly benefit, both in pocket and comfort, if they will avail themselves 
 of Mr. Wilson’s counsels.”— Engineering. 
 
6 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 THE POPULAR WORKS OF MICHAEL REYNOLDS 
 
 (“The Engine Driver’s Friend’’). 
 
 Locomotive-Engine Driving. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE DRIVING : A Practical Manual for 
 Engineers in charge of Locomotive Engines. By Michael Reynolds, Member 
 of the Society of Engineers, formerly Locomotive Inspector L. B. and S. C. R. 
 Eighth Edition. Including a Key to the Locomotive Engine. With Illus¬ 
 trations and Portrait of Author. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. We can confidently recommend 
 the book, not only to the practical driver, but to everyone who takes an interest in the performance 
 of locomotive engines.” —The Engineer. 
 
 “Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter in the literature of the day. This admirable practical 
 treatise, of the practical utility of which we have to speak in terms of warm commendation."— 
 Atheneeum. 
 
 “ Evidently the work of one who knows his subject thoroughly.”— Railway Service Gazette. 
 
 “ Were the cautions and rules given in the book to become part of the every-day working of 
 our engine-drivers, we might have fewer distressing accidents to deplore. "—Scotsman, 
 
 Stationary Engine Driving. 
 
 STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING : A Practical Manual for 
 Engineers in charge of Stationary Engines. By Michael Reynolds. Third 
 Edition, Enlarged. With Plates and Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ The author is thoroughly acquainted with his subjects, and his advice on the various points 
 treated is clear and practical. . . . He has produced a manual which is an exceedingly useful 
 one for the class for whom it is specially intended.”— Engineering. 
 
 “Our author leaves no stone unturned. Pie is determined that his readers shall not only know 
 something about the stationary engine, but all about it.”— Engineer. 
 
 “An engineman w'ho has mastered the contents of Mr.Reynolds’sbookwill require but little actual 
 experience with boilers and engines before he can be trusted to look after them.”— English Mechanic 
 
 The Engineer, Fireman, and Engine-Boy. 
 
 THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, FIREMAN, and 
 
 ENGINE-BOY. Comprising a Historical Notice of the Pioneer Locomotive 
 Engines and their Inventors. By Michael Reynolds. With numerous Illus¬ 
 trations and a fine Portrait of George Stephenson. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6 d. cloth. 
 “ From the technical knowledge of the author it will appeal to the railway man of to-day more 
 forcibly than anything written by Dr. Smiles. . . . The volume contains information of a tech¬ 
 
 nical kind, and facts that every driver should be familiar with.”— English Mechanic. 
 
 “We should be glad to see this book in the possession of everyone in the kingdom who has 
 ever laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine.”— Iron . 
 
 Continuous Railway Brahes. 
 
 CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES : A Practical Treatise on 
 
 the several Systems in Use in the United Kingdom; their Construction and 
 Performance. With copious Illustrations and numerous Tables. By Michael 
 Reynolds. Large crown 8vo, 9s. cloth. 
 
 “ A popular explanation of the different brakes. It will be of great assistance in forming public 
 opinion, and will be studied with benefit by those who take an interest in the brake.”— English 
 Mechanic. 
 
 “Written with sufficient technical detail to enable the principle and relative connection of the 
 various parts of each particular brake to be readily grasped.”— Mechanical World . 
 
 Engine-Driving Life. 
 
 ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE; or, Stirring Adventures and Inci¬ 
 dents in the Lives of Locomotive-Engine Drivers. By Michael Reynolds. 
 Ninth Thousand. Crown 8vo. 2s. cloth. 
 
 “From first to last is perfectly fascinating-. Wilkie Collins's most thrilling conceptions are thrown 
 into the shade by true incidents, endless in their variety, related in every page."— North British Mai!. 
 
 “Anyone who wishes to get a real insight into railway life cannot do better than read • Engine- 
 Driving Life ’ for himself; and if he once take it up he will find that the author's enthusiasm and real 
 love of the engine-driving profession will carry him on till he has read every page.”— Saturday Review. 
 
 Pocket Companion for Enginemen. 
 
 THE ENGINEMAN’S POCKET COMPANION AND PRAC¬ 
 TICAL EDUCATOR FOR ENGINEMEN, BOILER ATTENDANTS, 
 AND MECHANICS. By Michael Reynolds. With Forty-five Illustra¬ 
 tions and numerous Diagrams. Second Edition, Revised. Royal i8mo, 3s. 6 d., 
 strongly bound for pocket wear. [Just Published. 
 
 “This admirable work is well suited to accomplish its object, being the honest workmanship 01 
 a competent engineer." —Glasgow Herald. 
 
 "A most meritorious work, giving in a succinct and practical form all the information an engine- 
 minder desirous of mastering the scientific principles of his daily calling would require."— Miller. 
 
 “ A boon to those who are striving to become efficient mechanics .”—Daily Chronicle. 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 
 
 7 
 
 French-English Glossary for Engineers , etc. 
 
 A POCKET GLOSSARY of TECHNICAL TERMS: ENGLISH - 
 
 FRENCH, FRENCH-ENGLISH ; with Tables suitable for the Architectural, 
 Engineering, Manufacturing and Nautical Professions. By John James 
 Fletcher, Engineer and Surveyor ; 200 pp. Waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6 d., 
 limp leather. 
 
 “ It ought certainly to be in the waistcoat-pocket of every professional man. — Iron. 
 
 "It is a very great advantage for readers and correspondents in France and England to have 
 so large a number of the words relating to engineering and manufacturers collected in a liliputian 
 volume. The little book will be useful both to students and travellers.”— Architect. 
 
 ... " T ’l e glossary of terms is very complete, and many of the tables are new and well arranged. 
 We cordially commend the book.”— Mechanical l Vo rid. 
 
 Portable Engines. 
 
 THE PORTABLE ENGINE; ITS CONSTRUCTION AND 
 
 MANAGEMENT. A Practical Manual for Owners and Users of Steam 
 Engines generally. By William Dyson Wansbrough. With go Illustra¬ 
 tions. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6 d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 " This is a work of value to those who use steam machinery. . . . Should be read by every¬ 
 one who has a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere.”— Mark Lane Express. 
 
 " We cordially commend this work to buyers and owners of steam engines, and to those who 
 have to do with their construction or use.” —Timber Trades Journal. 
 
 “ Such a general knowledge of the steam engine as Mr. Wansbrough furnishes to the reader 
 should be acquired by all intelligent owners and others who use the steam engine.”— Building News. 
 
 CIVIL ENGINE ERING, S URVEYING, etc. 
 
 MR. HUMBER’S IMPORTANT ENGINEERING BOOKS. 
 
 The Water Supply of Cities and Towns. 
 
 A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE on the WATER-SUPPLY 
 OF CITIES AND TOWNS. By William Humber, A-M. Inst, C.E., and 
 M. Inst. M.E., Author of “Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," 
 &c. &c._ Illustrated with 50 Double Plates, 1 Single Plate, Coloured 
 Frontispiece, and upwards of 250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 pages of 
 Text. Imp. 4to, £6 6s. elegantly and substantially half-bound in morocco. 
 
 List of Contents. 
 
 I. Historical Sketch of some of the means 
 that have been adopted for the Supply of Water 
 to Cities and Towns.—II. Water and the Fo¬ 
 reign Matter usually associated with it.—III. 
 
 Rainfall and Evaporation.—IV. Springs and 
 the water-bearing formations of various dis¬ 
 tricts.—V. Measurement and Estimation of the 
 flow of Water—VI. On the Selection of the 
 Source of Supply.—VII. Wells.—VIII. Reser¬ 
 voirs.—IX. The Purification of Water.—X. 
 
 Pumps. — XI. Pumping Machinery. — XII. 
 
 “The most systematic and valuable work upon water supply hitherto produced in English, or 
 in any other language. . . . Mr. Humber’s work is characterised almost throughout by an 
 exhaustiveness much more distinctive of French and German than of English technical treatises." 
 — Engineer. 
 
 “ We can congratulate Mr. Humber on having been able to give so large an amount of infor¬ 
 mation on a subject so important as the water supply of cities and towns. The plates, fifty in 
 number, are mostly drawings of executed works, and alone would have commanded the attention 
 of every engineer whose practice may lie in this branch of the profession."— Builder. 
 
 Conduits.—XIII. Distribution of Water.—XIV. 
 Meters, Service Pipes, and House Fittings.— 
 
 XV. The Law and Economy of Water Works. 
 
 XVI. Constant and Intermittent Supply.— 
 
 XVII. Description of Plates. — Appendices, 
 giving Tables of Rates of Supply, Velocities, 
 &c. &c., together with Specifications of several 
 Works illustrated, among which will be found : 
 Aberdeen, Bideford, Canterbury, Dundee, 
 Halifax, Lambeth, Rotherham, Dublin, and 
 others. 
 
 Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction. 
 
 A COMPLETE AND PRACTICAL TREATISE ON CAST 
 AND WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, including Iron 
 Foundations. In Three Parts—Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By 
 William Humber, A-M. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E. Third Edition, Re¬ 
 vised and much improved, with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first 
 appear in this edition), and numerous Additions to the Text. In Two Vols., 
 imp. 4to, £6 16s. 6 d. half-bound in morocco. 
 
 " A very valuable contribution to the standard literature of civil engineering. In addition to 
 elevations, plans and sections, large scale details are given which very much enhance the instruc¬ 
 tive worth of these illustrations .”—Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal. 
 
 “Mr. Humber’s stately volumes, lately issued—in which the most important bridges erected 
 during the last five years, under the direction of the late Mr. Brunei, Sir W. Cubitt, Mr. Hawk- 
 shaw, Mr. Page, Mr. Fowler, Mr. Ilemans, and others among our most eminent engineers, are 
 drawn and specified in great detail.”— Engineer. 
 
8 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON’S CATALOGUE, 
 
 MR. HUMBER'S GREAT WORK ON MODERN ENGINEERING. 
 
 Complete in Four Volumes, imperial 4to, price £12 12s., half-morocco. Each 
 Volume sold separately as follows:— 
 
 A RECORD OF THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEER¬ 
 ING. First Series. Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, 
 Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By William Humber, 
 A-M. Inst. C.E., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, 
 Photographic Portrait of John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c., and copious 
 descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c., £3 3s. half-morocco. 
 
 List of the Plates and Diagrams. 
 
 Victoria Station and Roof, L. B. & S. C. R. 
 
 (8 plates); Southport Pier (2 plates); Victoria 
 Station and Roof, L. C. & D. and G. W. R. (6 
 plates); Roof of C remorn e Music Hall; Bridge 
 over G. N. Railway; Roof of Station, Dutch 
 Rhenish Rail (2 plates); Bridge over the 
 
 “ Handsomely lithographed and printed. It will find favour with many who desire to preserve 
 in a permanent form copies of the plans and specifications prepared for the guidance of the con¬ 
 tractors for many important engineering works.”— Engineer. 
 
 Thames, West London Extension Railway (5 
 plates); Armour Plates: Suspension Bridge, 
 Thames (4 plates); The Allen Engine; Sus¬ 
 pension Bridge, Avon (3 plates); Underground 
 Railway (3 plates). 
 
 HUMBER'S RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING. Second 
 Series. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of Robert 
 Stephenson, C.E., M.P., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letterpress, 
 Specifications, &c., £3 3s. half-morocco. 
 
 List of the Plates and Diagrams . 
 
 Birkenhead Docks, Low Water Basin (15 
 plates); Charing Cross Station Roof, C. C. 
 Railway (3 plates); Digswell Viaduct, Great 
 Northern Railway ; Robbery Wood Viaduct, 
 Great Northern Railway; Iron Permanent 
 Way; Clydach Viaduct, Merthyr, Tredegar, 
 
 and Abergavenny Railway; Ebbw Viaduct, 
 Merthyr, Tredegar, and Abergavenny Rail¬ 
 way ; College Wood Viaduct, Cornwall Rail¬ 
 way ; Dublin Winter Palace Roof (3 plates); 
 Bridge over the Thames, L. C. & D. Railway 
 (6 plates); Albert Harbour, Greenock (4 plates). 
 
 “ Mr. Humber has done the profession good and true service, by the fine collection of examples 
 he has here brought before the profession and the public .”—Practical Mechanic's Journal. 
 
 HUMBER’S RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING. Third 
 
 Series. Imp. 4to, with 40 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of J. R. 
 M‘Clean, late Fras. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Speci¬ 
 fications, &c., £3 3s. half-moroccc. 
 
 List of the Platt 
 
 Main Drainage, Metropolis.— North 
 Side. —Map showing Interception of Sewers; 
 Middle Level Sewer (2 plates); Outfall Sewer, 
 Bridge over River Lea (3 plates); Outfall Sewer, 
 Bridge over Marsh Lane, North Woolwich 
 Railway, and Bow and Barking Railway Junc¬ 
 tion ; Outfall Sewer, Bridge over Bow and 
 Barking Railway (3 plates); Outfall Sewer, 
 Bridge over East London Waterworks’ Feeder 
 (2 plates); Outfall Sewer, Reservoir (2 plates); 
 Outfall Sewer, Tumbling Bay and Outlet; Out¬ 
 fall Sewer, Penstocks. South Side.— Outfall 
 Sewer, Bermondsey Branch (2 plates); Outfall 
 
 •* The drawings have a constantly increasing 
 sentations of the two great works carried out by 
 volume.”— Engineer. 
 
 and Diagrams. 
 
 Sewer, Reservoir and Outlet (4 plates); Outfall 
 Sewer, Filth Hoist; Sections of Sewers (North 
 and South Sides). 
 
 Thames Embankment.—S ection of River 
 Wall ; Steamboat Pier, Westminster (2 plates); 
 Landing Stairs between Charing Cross and 
 Waterloo Bridges; York Gate (2 plates); Over¬ 
 flow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer (3 plates); 
 Steamboat Pier, Waterloo Bridge (3 plates) ; 
 Junction of Sewers, Plans and Sections; 
 Gullies, Plans and Sections; Rolling Stock; 
 Granite and Iron Forts. 
 
 due, and whoever desires to possess clear repre- 
 ■xr Metropolitan Board will obtain Mr. Humber's 
 
 HUMBER’S RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING . Fourth 
 Series. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of John 
 Fowler, late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Speci¬ 
 fications, &c., £3 3s. half-morocco. 
 
 List of the Plates and Diagrams. 
 
 Abbey Mills Pumping Station, Main Drain¬ 
 age, Metropolis (4 plates); Barrow Docks (5 
 plates); Manquis Viaduct, Santiago and Val¬ 
 paraiso Railway (2 plates); Adam’s Locomo¬ 
 tive, St. Helen’s Canal Railway (2 plates); 
 
 Cannon Street Station Roof, Charing Cross 
 Railway (3 plates); Road Bridge over the River 
 Moka (2 plates); Telegraphic Apparatus for 
 
 “We gladly welcome another year’s issue of this valuable publication from the able pen of 
 Mr. Humber. The accuracy and general excellence of this work are well known, while its useful¬ 
 ness in giving the measurements and details of some of the latest examples of engineering, as 
 carried out by the most eminent men in the profession, cannot be too highly prized.’ — Artisan. 
 
 Mesopotamia; Viaduct over the River Wye, 
 Midland Railway (3 plates); St. Germans Via¬ 
 duct, Cornwall Railway (2 plates); Wrought- 
 Iron Cylinder for Diving Bell; Millwall Docks 
 (6 plates); Milroy’s Patent Excavator; Metro¬ 
 politan District Railway (6 plates); Harbours, 
 Ports, and Breakwaters (3 plates). 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 
 
 9 
 
 MR. HUMBER'S ENGINEERING BOOKS— continued. 
 
 Strains, Calculation of. 
 
 A HANDY BOOK FOR THE CALCULATION OF STRAINS 
 IN GIRDERS AND SIMILAR STRUCTURES, AND THEIR STRENGTH. 
 Consisting of Formulae and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous details 
 for Practical Application, &c. By William Humber, A-M. Inst. C.E., &c. 
 Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, nearly ioo Woodcuts and 3 Plates, 7s. 6 d. cloth. 
 “ The formulae are neatly expressed, and the diagrams good.*’— Athenaum. 
 
 “ We heartily commend this really handy book to our engineer and architect readers.”— Eng* 
 lish Mechanic. 
 
 Barlow’s Strength of Materials, enlarged by Humber 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS; 
 
 with Rules for Application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension 
 Bridges, Railways, &c. By Peter Barlow, F.R.S. A New Edition, revised 
 by his Sons, P. W. Barlow, F.R.S., and W. H. Barlow, F.R.S.; to which 
 are added, Experiments by Hodgkinson, Fairbairn, and Kirkaldy ; and 
 Formulas for Calculating Girders, &c. Arranged and Edited by W. Humber, 
 A-M. Inst. C.E. Demy 8vo, 400 pp., with 19 large Plates and numerous 
 Woodcuts, 18s. cloth. 
 
 “ Valuable alike to the student, tyro, and the experienced practitioner, it will always rank in 
 future, as it has hithertodone, as the standard treatise on that particular subject."— Engineer. 
 
 " There is no greater authority than Barlow."— Building News. 
 
 " Deserves a foremost place on the bookshelves of every civil engineer."— English Mechanic. 
 
 Trigonometrical Surveying. 
 
 AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A 
 TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation of Geographical and. 
 Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Reconnaissance, Levelling, &c., with 
 Useful Problems, Formula, and Tables. By Lieut.-General Frome, R.E. 
 Fourth Edition, Revised and partly Re-written by Major General Sir Charles 
 Warren, G.C.M.G., R.E. With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, royal 8vo, 16s. 
 cloth. 
 
 “The simple fact that a fourth edition has been called for is the best testimony to its merits. 
 No words of praise from us can strengthen the position so well and so steadily maintained by this 
 work. Sir Charles Warren has revised the entire work, and made such additions as were necessary 
 to bring every portion of the contents up to the present date.”— Broad Arrow. 
 
 Oblique Bridges. 
 
 A PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL ESSAY ON OBLIQUE 
 BRIDGES. With 13 large Plates. By the late George Watson Buc k, 
 M.I.C.E. Third Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. Watson Buck, M.I.C.E.; 
 and with the addition of Description to Diagrams for Facilitating the Con¬ 
 struction of Oblique Bridges, by W. H. Barlow, M.I.C.E. Royal 8vo, 12s. 
 cloth. 
 
 “ The standard text-book for all engineers regarding skew arches is Mr. Buck’s treatise, and it 
 would be impossible to consult a better.”— -Engineer. 
 
 “Mr. Buck’s treatise is recognised as a standard text-book, and his treatment has divested the 
 subject of many of the intricacies supposed to belong to it. As a guide to the engineer and archi¬ 
 tect, on a confessedly difficult subject, Mr. Buck’s work is unsurpassed .”—Building News. 
 
 Bridge Construction. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF BRIDGE AND VIADUCT CONSTRUC¬ 
 TION OF MASONRY, TIMBER, AND IRON. Consisting of 46 Plates from 
 the Contract Drawings or Admeasurement of Select Works. By W. D. 
 Haskoll C.E. Second Edition, with the addition of 554 Estimates, and the 
 Practice of Setting out Works. Illustrated with 6 pages of Diagrams. Imp. 
 4to, £2 12s. 6 d. halt-morocco. 
 
 " A work of the present nature by a man of Mr. Haskoll's experience must prove invaluable. 
 The tables of estimates will considerably enhance its value.”— Engineering. 
 
 Earthwork. 
 
 EARTHWORK TABLES. Showing the Contents in Cubic 
 
 Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c„ of Heights or Depths up to an average 
 of 80 feet. By Joseph Broadbent, C.E., and Francis Campin, C.E. Crown 
 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 “ The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of each cross section into three 
 elements, two in which are constant and one variable, is ingenious .”—A then# urn. 
 
IO CROSBY LOCKWOOD < 5 - SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Statics, Graphic and Analytic. 
 
 GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS, in their Practical Appli¬ 
 cation to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, Solid Girders, Lattice, Bowstring 
 Mid Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron Arches and Piers, and other Frameworks. 
 fj. Hudson Graham, C.E. Containing Diagrams and Plates to Scale. 
 With numerous Examples, many taken from existing Structures. Specially 
 ai ranged for Class-work in Colleges and Universities. Second Edition. Re¬ 
 vised and Enlarged. 8vo, 16s. cloth. 
 
 “Mr. Graham's book will find a place wherever graphic and analytic statics are used or studied. 
 
 — isnsfiueer. 
 
 _ " ™s exhaustive treatise is admirably adapted for the architect and engineer, and will tend 
 t0 w 4 f™ the Profession from a tedious and laboured mode of calculation." -Building Ncivs. 
 m i, . e wo £*5 1S excellent from a practical point of view, and has evidently been prepared with 
 * 1° directions for working are ample, and are illustrated by an abundance of well- 
 
 selected examples. It is an excellent text-book for the practical draughtsman.”— Athcnaum. 
 
 Survey Practice. 
 
 AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE, for Reference in Surveying, Level¬ 
 ling, Setting-out and in Route Surveys of Travellers by Land and Sea. With 
 fables, Illustrations, and Records. By Lowis D’A. Jackson, A.M.I.C.E., 
 Author of Hydraulic Manual,” “Modern Metrology,” &c. Large crown 8vo, 
 i 2 S. 6 d. cloth. & ’ 
 
 .. . , H r ‘ J ackson . h. as produced a valuable vade-mecum for the surveyor. We can recommend 
 Athenaeum contamlng an admirable supplement to the teaching of the accomplished surveyor.”— 
 
 ma r“^ i a ‘f Xt ^ 0Ok sl 5 cn ! ,d a - dv!so a " s ; ,rve y°rs to place it in their libraries, and study well the 
 matured instructions afforded in its pages. —Colliery Guardian. 
 
 , j ■ rhe author bringsto his work a fortunate union of theory and practical experience which, 
 aided by a clear and lucid style of writing, renders the book a very useful one."— Builder. 
 
 Surveying, Land and Marine. 
 
 LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING, in Reference to the Pre¬ 
 paration of Plans for Roads and Railways; Canals, Rivers, Towns’ Water 
 Supplies: Docks and Harbours. With Description and Use of Surveying 
 Instruments. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E., Author of “ Bridge and Viaduct 
 Construction,’ &c. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. Large crown 
 8vo, 9s. cloth. 
 
 .. „ ^ m °r St n usef H|‘ an( * W 5 U arranged book for the aid of a student. We can strongly recommend 
 
 l —luthier written anc * valuable text-book. It enjoys a well-deserved repute among surveyors.” 
 
 “ This volume cannot fail to prove of the utmost practical utility. It may be safely recommended 
 to all students who aspire to become clean and expert surveyors ."—Mining yournal. 
 
 Levelling . 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF 
 
 LEVELLIR G. Showing its Application to purposes of Railway and Civil 
 Engineering, in the Construction of Roads; with Mr.T elford’sR ulesfor the 
 same By PREDERtCK W. Simms, F.G.S., M. Inst. C.E. Seventh Edition, with 
 the addition of Law’s Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and 
 1 rautwine s Field Practice of Laying-out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates 
 and numerous Woodcuts, 8vo, 8s. 6 d. cloth. *** Trautwine on Curves 
 may be had separate, 5s. 
 
 ‘‘ text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and colleges."— Engineer. 
 The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to the younger 
 members, by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Simms's useful vox\n."—Engineering. 
 
 Tunnelling. 
 
 PRACTICAL TUNNELLING. Explaining in detail the Setting- 
 
 out of the works, Shaft-sinking and Heading-driving, Ranging the Lines and 
 Levelling underground, Sub-Excavating, Timbering, and the Construction 
 of the Brickwork of Tunnels, with the amount of Labour required for, and the 
 Cost of, the various portions of the work. By Frederick W. Simms F G S 
 M. Inst. C.E. Third Edition, Revised and Extended by D. Kinnear Clark,’ 
 M. Inst.C.E. Imp. 8vo, with 21 Folding Plates and numerous Wood Engrav¬ 
 ings, 30s. cloth. 
 
 1 lie estimation in which Mr. Simms's book has been held for over thirty years cannot be more 
 truly expressed than in the words of the late Prof. Rankine The best source of information 
 on the subject of tunnels is Mr. F. W. Simms's work on Practical Tunnelling.’ "—Architect 
 “ Mr- Clark has added immensely to the value of the book."— Engineer. 
 
 '.The additional chapters by Mr. Clark, containing as they do numerous examples of modern 
 practice, bring the book well up to date. —Engineering. v 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 
 
 ii 
 
 Heat, Expansion by. 
 
 EXPANSION OF STRUCTURES BY HEAT. By John 
 
 Keily, C.E., late of the Indian Public Works and Victorian Railway Depart¬ 
 ments. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6 d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 Summary of Contents. 
 
 Section I. Formulas and Data. 
 Section II. Metal Bars. 
 
 Section III. Simple Frames. 
 
 Section IV. Complex Frames] and 
 Plates. 
 
 Section V. Thermal Conductivity. 
 
 Section VI. Mechanical Force of 
 Heat. 
 
 Section VII. Work of Expansion 
 and Contraction. 
 Section VIII. Suspension Bridges. 
 Section IX. Masonry Structures. 
 
 “ The aim the author has set before him, viz., to show the effects of heat upon metallic and 
 other structures, is a laudable one, for this is a branch of physics upon which the engineer or archi¬ 
 tect can find but little reliable and comprehensive data in books."— Builder. 
 
 “ Whoever is concerned to know the effect of changes of temperature on such structures as 
 suspension bridges and the like, could not do better than consult Mr. Keily's valuable and handy 
 exposition of the geometrical principles involved in these changes."— Scotsman. 
 
 I*radical Mathematics . 
 
 MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN: Being a Common- 
 place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly for the use 
 of Civil Engineers, Architects and Surveyors. By Olinthus Gregory, 
 LL.D., F.R.A.S., Enlarged by Henry Law, C.E. 4th Edition, carefully 
 Revised by J. R. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics, Belfast College, 
 With 13 Plates, 8vo, £1 is., cloth. 
 
 “ The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand rules for solving nearly every mathe* 
 matical difficulty that may arise in his practice. The rules are in all cases explained by means of 
 examples, in which every step of the process is clearly worked out.”— Builder. 
 
 “ One of the most serviceable books for practical mechanics. . . . It is an instructive book 
 
 for the student, and a text-book for him who, having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs 
 occasionally to refresh his memory upon them.”— Building News. 
 
 Hydraulic Tables. 
 
 HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS,and FORMULAE 
 
 for finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and 
 Rivers. With New Formulae, Tables, and General Information on Rainfall, 
 Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and Mill 
 Power. By John Neville, Civil Engineer, M.R.I.A. Third Edition, care¬ 
 fully revised, with considerable Additions. Numerous Illustrations. Ctowd 
 8vo, 14s. cloth. 
 
 “ It is, of all English books on the subject, the one nearest to completeness. . . . From the 
 good arrangement of the matter, tile clear explanations, and abundance of formulae, the carefully 
 calculated tables, and, above all, the thorough acquaintance with both theory and construction, 
 which is displayed from first to last, the book will be found to be an acquisition l —Architect. 
 
 River Engineering. 
 
 RIVER BARS : The Causes of their Formation, and their Treatment 
 by “Induced Tidal Scour." With a Description of the Successful Reduction 
 by this Method of the Bar at Dublin. By I. J. Mann, Assist. Eng. to the 
 Dublin Port and Docks Board. Royal 8vo, ys. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “We recommend all interested in harbour works—and, indeed, those concerned in the improve¬ 
 ments of rivers generally—to read Mr. Mann’s interesting work.”— Engineer. 
 
 “ A most valuable contribution to the history of this branch of engineering.”— Engineering 
 and Mining Journal. 
 
 Hydraulics. 
 
 HYDRAULIC MANUAL. Consisting of Working Tables and 
 
 Explanatory Text. Intended as a Guide in Hydraulic Calculations and Field 
 Operations. By Lowis D’A. Jackson, Author of “ Aid to Survey Practice,” 
 “ Modern Metrology,’’ &c. Fourth Edition. Rewritten and Enlarged. 
 Large crown 8vo, 16s. cloth. 
 
 “ The author has been a careful observer of the facts which have come under his notice, as 
 well as a painstaking collector and critic of the results of the experiments of others, and from the 
 great mass of material at his command he has constructed a manual which may be accepted as a 
 trustworthy guide to this branch of the engineer’s profession.”— Engineering. 
 
 “ The standard work in this department of mechanics. The present edition has been brought 
 abreast of the most recent practice.”— Scotsman. 
 
 “The most useful feature of this work is its freedom from what is superannuated, and its 
 thorough adoption of recent experiments ; the text is, in fact, in great part a short account of the 
 great modern experiments.”— Nature. 
 
r -2 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &■ SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Drainage. 
 
 ON THE DRAINAGE OF LANDS, TOWNS AND BUILD¬ 
 INGS. By G. D. Dempsey, C.E., Author of “ The Practical Railway En¬ 
 gineer,” &c. Revised, with large Additions on Recent Practice in 
 Drainage Engineering, by D. Kinnear Clark, M.Inst. C.E. Author of 
 “Tramways : their Construction and Working,” “A Manual of Rules, Tables, 
 and Data for Mechanical Engineers,” &c. &c. Crown 8vo, js. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 [Just Published. 
 
 “ The new matter added to Mr. Dempsey's excellent work is characterised by the comprehen¬ 
 sive grasp and accuracy of detail for which the name of Mr. L). K. Clark is a sufhcient voucher.”— 
 Athenaum. 
 
 “ As a work on recent practice in drainage engineering, the book is to be commended to all 
 who are making that branch of engineering science their special study.”— Iron. 
 
 “ A comprehensive manual on drainage engineering, and a useful introduction to the student.” 
 Building News. 
 
 Tramways and their Working. 
 
 TRAMWAYS : THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING. 
 
 Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System ; with an exhaustive 
 Analysis of the various Modes of Traction, including Horse-Power, Steam, 
 Heated Water, and Compressed Air ; a Description of the Varieties of Rolling 
 Stock; and ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses: the Progress 
 recently made in Tramway Construction, &c* &c. By D. Kinnear Clark, 
 M. Inst. C.E. With over 200 Wood Engravings, and 13 Folding Plates. Two 
 Vols., large crown 8vo, 30s. cloth. 
 
 “ All interested in tramvyays must refer to it, as all railway engineers have turned to the author’s 
 work ‘ Railway Machinery.’ "—Engineer. 
 
 “ An exhaustive and practical work on tramways, in which the history of this kind of locomo¬ 
 tion, and a description and cost of the various modes of laying tramways, are to be found.’’— 
 Building News. 
 
 “ The best form of rails, the best mode of construction, and the best mechanical appliances 
 are so fairly indicated in the work under review, that any engineer about to construct a tramway 
 will be enabled at once to obtain the practical information which will be of most service to him.”— 
 Athenceum. 
 
 Oblique Arches. 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF 
 OBLIQUE ARCHES. By John PIart. Third Edition, with Plates. Im¬ 
 perial 8vo, 8s. cloth. 
 
 Curves, Tables for Setting-out. 
 
 TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES AND MULTIPLES 
 
 for Setting-out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By Alexander Beazeley, 
 M. Inst. C.E. Third Edition. Printed on 48 Cards, and sold in a cloth box, 
 waistcoat-pocket size, 3s. 6d. 
 
 " Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands 
 free to manipulate the instrument—no small advantage as regards the rapidity of work."— Engineer. 
 
 " Very handy ; a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these cards, which 
 he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind."— Athenaum. 
 
 Engineering Fieldtvork. 
 
 THE PRACTICE OF ENGINEERING FIELDWORK, applied 
 
 to Land and Hydraulic, Hydrographic, and Submarine Surveying and Levelling. 
 Second Edition, Revised, with considerable Additions, and a Supplement on 
 Waterworks, Sewers, Sewage, and Irrigation. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. 
 Numerous Folding Plates. In One Volume, demy 8vo, £1 5 s. cloth. 
 
 Tunnel Shafts. 
 
 THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS: A 
 
 Practical and Theoretical Essay. By J. H. Watson Buck, M. Inst. C.E , 
 Resident Engineer, London and North-Western Railway. Illustrated with 
 Folding Plates, royal 8vo, 12s. cloth. 
 
 •• Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason : and the observations 
 on the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, and the construction of tile templates will be 
 found of considerable use. We commend the book to the engineering profession.”— Building News. 
 
 “ Will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost value, and calculated to save much time 
 and obviate many mistakes."— Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Girders, Strength of. 
 
 GRAPHIC TABLE FOR FACILITATING THE COMPUTA¬ 
 TION OF THE WEIGHTS OF WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL 
 GIRDERS, etc., for Parliamentary and other Estimates. By J. H. Watson 
 Buck, M. Inst. C.E On a Sheet, 2s.6d. 
 
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 
 
 13 
 
 Trusses. 
 
 TRUSSES OF WOOD AND IRON. Practical Applications of 
 Science in Determining the Stresses, Breaking Weights, Safe Loads, Scantlings, 
 and Details of Construction, with Complete Working Drawings. By William 
 Griffiths, Surveyor, Assistant Master, Tranmere School of Science and 
 Art. Oblong 8vo, 4s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ This handy little book enters so minutely into every detail connected with the construction of 
 roof trusses, that no student need be ignorant of these matters for want of an easy source to come 
 at the knowledge."— Practical Engineer. 
 
 “From the manner of treating the subject, Mr. Griffiths' book is clear enough to .enable a 
 student to be his own teacher. It will be useful in the science school and in workshops."— Architect. 
 
 Railway Working. 
 
 SAFE RAILWAY WORKING. A Treatise on Railway Acci¬ 
 dents: Their Cause and Prevention; with a Description of Modern Appliances 
 and Systems. By Clement E. Stretton, C.E., Vice-President and Con¬ 
 sulting Engineer, Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants. With Illus¬ 
 trations and Coloured Plates, crown 8vo, 4s. 6 d. strongly bound. 
 
 Outline cf Contents. 
 
 Chapter I. Summary of Accidents, 1885. — II. Permanent Way.— III. Sig¬ 
 nalling; Block System. —IV. Continuous Brakes.— V. Breaking of Rail¬ 
 way Axles. —VI. Railway Couplings.— VII. Railway Servants and the Law 
 of Manslaughter. —Appendix I. Railway Traffic Returns.— II. Railway 
 Signal Returns. —III. Continuous Brakes Returns.— IV. Mixed Trains. 
 
 *** Opinions oe the Press. 
 
 “ A book for the engineer, the directors, the managers ; and, in short, all who wish for informa¬ 
 tion on railway matters will find a perfect encyclopaedia in 'Safe Railway Working.' "— Railway 
 Review. 
 
 “ Mr. Clement E. Stretton. the energetic Vice-President of the Amalgamated Society of Rail¬ 
 way Servants, may be congratulated on having collected, in a very convenient form, much valuable 
 information on the principal questions affecting the safe working of railways."— Railway Engineer. 
 
 “ We commend the remarks on railway signalling to all railway managers, especially where a 
 uniform code and practice is advocated."— Herepath's Railway Journal. 
 
 Field-Book for Engineers. 
 
 THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, AND CON¬ 
 TRACTOR’S FIELD-BOOK. Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, 
 Explanations of Systems, and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and 
 Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set 
 Square only ; Levelling with the Theodolite, Casting-out and Reducing 
 Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner; setting-out 
 Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples, with Right 
 and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument: Setting-out Curves without 
 Theodolite, on the System of Tangential Angles by sets of Tangents and Off¬ 
 sets : and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 inches in 
 depth. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. With numerous Woodcuts. Fourth 
 Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 12s. cloth. 
 
 “The book is very handy, and the author might have added that the separate tables of sines 
 and tangents to every minute will make it useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse 
 tables existing all the same."— Athenceum. 
 
 “ Every person engaged in engineering field operations will estimate the importance of such a 
 work and the amount of valuable time which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable tables 
 prepared with the accuracy and fulness of those given in this volume."— Railway News. 
 
 Earthwork, Measurement of. 
 
 A MANUAL ON EARTHWORK. By Alex. J. S. Graham, 
 
 C.E. With numerous Diagrams. i8mo, 2 s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “ A great amount of practical information, very admirably arranged, and available for rou^h 
 estimates, as well as for the more exact calculations required in the engineers and contractor’s 
 offices. ”— A rtizan. 
 
 Strains in Ironwork. 
 
 THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK; with 
 
 Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Sheilds, M. Inst. C.E. 
 Second Edition, with 5 Plates. Royal 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 “The student cannot find a better little book on this subject."— Engineer. 
 
 Cast Iron and other Metals, Strength of. 
 
 A PRACTICAL ESSAY ON THE STRENGTH OF CAST 
 IRON AND OTHER METALS. By Thomas Tredgold, C.E. Fifth 
 Edition, including Hodgkinson’s Experimental Researches. 8vo, 12s. cloth. 
 
CROSBY LOCKWOOD <S* SON’S CATALOGUE, 
 
 r 4 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, etc. 
 
 Construction. 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF BUILDING : An Elementary Treatise on 
 the Principles of Construction. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Architect. 
 Second Edition, Revised, with 58 Engravings. Crown 8vo, ys. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students."— Builder. 
 
 “ No architectural student should be without this handbook of constructional knowledge.”— 
 Architect. 
 
 Villa Architecture. 
 
 A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE : Being a 
 
 Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With Outline 
 Specifications and Estimates. By C. Wickes, Architect, Author of “The 
 Spires and Towers of England,” &c. 61 Plates, 4to, £1 ns. 6 d. half-morocco, 
 gilt edges. 
 
 “ The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being: the work of an artistic architect, and 
 they will prove very valuable and suggestive.”— Building News. 
 
 Text-Book for Architects. 
 
 THE ARCHITECT’S GUIDE: Being a Text-Book of Useful 
 
 Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, Clerks of 
 Works, &c. &c. By Frederick Rogers, Architect, Author of “ Specifica¬ 
 tions for Practical Architecture,” &c. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 
 With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 “ As a text-book of useful information for architects, engineers, surveyors, &c., it would be 
 hard to find a handier or more complete little volume.”— Standard. 
 
 “A young architect could hardly have a better guide-book."— Timber Trades Journal. 
 
 Taylor and Cresy’s Rome. 
 
 THE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. By 
 the late G. L. Taylor, Esq., F.R.I.B.A., and Edward Cresy, Esq. New 
 Edition, thoroughly revised by the Rev. Alexander Taylor, M.A. (son of 
 the late G. L. Taylor, Esq.), Fellow of Queen’s College, Oxford, and Chap¬ 
 lain of Gray’s Inn. Large folio, with 130 Plates, half-bound, £3 3s. 
 N.B.—This is the only book which gives on a large scale, and with the precision 
 of architectural measurement, the principal Monuments of Ancient Rome in plan, 
 elevation , and detail . 
 
 “Taylor and Cresy’s work has from its first publication been ranked among those professional 
 books which cannot be bettered. . . . It would be difficult to find examples of drawings, even 
 among those of the most painstaking: students of Gothic, more tkoroug:hly worked out than are the 
 one hundred and thirty plates in this volume."— Architect. 
 
 Architectural Drawing. 
 
 PRACTICAL RULES ON DR A WING, for the Operative Builder 
 and Young Student in Architecture. By George Pyne. With 14 Plates 4to 
 7s. 6 d. boards. 
 
 Civil Architecture. 
 
 THE DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 By Sir William Chambers, F.R.S. With Illustrations, Notes, and an 
 Examination of Grecian Architecture, by Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A. Edited by 
 W. H. Leeds. 66 Plates, 4to, 21s. cloth. 
 
 House Building and Repairing. 
 
 THE HOUSE-OWNER’S ESTIMATOR ; or, What will it Cost 
 
 to Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price Book adapted to the Use of Unpro¬ 
 fessional People, as well as for the Architectural Surveyor and Builder By 
 the late James D. Simon, A.R.I.B.A. Edited and Revised by Francis T W 
 Miller, A.R.I.B.A. With numerous Illustrations. Third Edition Revised' 
 Crown 8vo, 3s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “In two years it will repay its cost a hundred times over '— Field. 
 
 “ A very handy book ."—English Mechanic. 
 
ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, etc. 
 
 i5 
 
 Designing, Measuring, and Valuing. 
 
 THE STUDENT’S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEASUR- 
 IN , GAI f D VALUING ARTIFICERS’ WORKS. Containing Directions for 
 taking Dimensions Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into 
 Dill, with Tables of Constants, and copious Memoranda for the Valuation of 
 Labour and Materials in the respective Trades of Bricklayer and Slater 
 Carpenter and Joiner, Painter and Glazier, Paperhanger, &c. With 8 Plates 
 and 63 Woodcuts. Originally edited by Edward Dobson, Architect. Fifth 
 Edition, Revised, with considerable Additions on Mensuration and Construc¬ 
 tion, and a New Chapter on Dilapidations, Repairs, and Contracts bv E. 
 Wyndham Tarn, M.A. Crown 8vo, 9s. cloth. 
 
 Well fulfils the promise of its title-page, and we can thoroughly recommend it to the class 
 for whose use it has been compiled. Mr. Tarn’s additions and revisions have much increased the 
 usefulness of the work, and have especially augmented its value to students.”— Engineering. 
 
 “The work has been carefully revised and edited by Mr. E. Wyndham Tarn, M A and com¬ 
 prises several valuable additions on construction, mensuration, dilapidations and repairs and other 
 matters. . This edition will be found the most complete treatise on the principles’ of measur¬ 
 
 ing and valuing artificers' work that has yet been published.''— Building-News. V 
 
 JPocket Estimator and Technical Guide. 
 
 THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE, MEASURER AND 
 ESTIMATOR FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS. Containing Tech¬ 
 nical Directions for Measuring Work in all the Building Trades with a 
 Treatise on the Measurement of Timber and Complete Specifications for 
 Houses, Roads, and Drains, and an easy Method of Estimating the various 
 parts of a Building collectively. By A. C. Beaton, Author of “ Quantities 
 and Measurements,” &c. Fourth Edition, carefully Revised and Priced 
 according to the Present Value of Materials and Labour, with 53 Woodcuts 
 leather, waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6 d. gilt edges. 
 
 “No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his ‘ Beaton’s Guide”'— 
 Building News. 
 
 “ Contains an extraordinary amount of information in daily requisition in measuring and 
 estimating. Its presence in the pocket will save valuable time and trouble."— Building World. 
 
 “ An exceedingly handy pocket companion, thoroughly reliable.''— Builder's Weekly Reporter. 
 
 “This neat little compendium contains all that is requisite in carrying out contracts for 
 excavating, tiling, bricklaying, paving. &c.''— British Trade 'Journal. 
 
 Donaldson on Specifications. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS; or, Practical 
 
 Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing up 
 Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions. Illustrated bv 
 Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent Architects and En¬ 
 gineers. By Professor T. L. Donaldson, P.R.I.B.A., &c. New Edition in 
 One large Vol., 8vo, with upwards of 1,000 pages of Text, and 33 Plates 
 £1 ns. 6 d. cloth. ’ 
 
 “In this work forty-four specifications of executed works are given, including the soecifica 
 tions for parts of the new Houses of Parliament, by Sir Charles Barry, and for the new Roval 
 Exchange, by Mr. Tite, M.P. The latter, in particular, is a very complete and remarkable 
 document. It embodies, to a great extent, as Mr. Donaldson mentions, ‘the bill of quantities 
 with the description of the works.’ ... It is valuable as a record, and more valuable still as a 
 book of precedents. . . . Suffice it to say that Donaldson's ‘Handbook of Specifications' 
 must be bought by ail architects. — Builder. 
 
 Bartholomew and Rogers’ Specifications. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE 
 
 A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder. With an Essay 
 on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. Upon the Basis of the 
 Work by Alfred Bartholomew, thoroughly Revised, Corrected, and greatly 
 added to by Frederick Rogers, Architect. Second Edition, Revised with 
 Additions. With numerous Blasts., medium 8vo, 15s. cloth. 
 
 “ The collection of specifications prepared by Mr. Rogers on the basis of Bartholomew's work 
 is too well known to need any recommendation from us. It is one of the books with which eveiw 
 young architect must be equipped ; for time has shown that the specifications cannot be set aside 
 through any defect in them."— Architect. 
 
 “ Good forms for specifications are of considerable value, and it was an excellent idea to com 
 pile a work 011 the subject upon the basis of the late Alfred Bartholomew's valuable work The 
 second edition of Mr. Rogers's book is evidence of tile want of a book dealing with modern re 
 quirements and materials.”— Building News. c ' 
 
i6 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD <S- SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Geometry for the Architect, Engineer, etc. 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY , for the Architect , Engineer and 
 Mechanic. Giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of various 
 Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By E. W. Tarn, M.A., Architect, 
 Author of “The Science of Building,” &c. Second Edition. With Appen¬ 
 dices on Diagrams of Strains and Isometrical Projection. With 172 Illus¬ 
 trations, demy 8vo, 9s. cloth. 
 
 “No book with the same objects in view has ever been published in which the clearness of the 
 rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satisfactory.”— Scotsman. 
 
 “This is a manual for the practical man, whether architect, engineer, or mechanic. . . . The 
 object of the author being to avoid all abstruse formulae or complicated methods, and to enable 
 persons with but a moderate knowledge of geometry to work out the problems required.”— English 
 Mechanic. 
 
 The Science of Geometry. 
 
 THE GEOMETRY OF COMPASSES; or, Problems Resolved 
 
 by the mere Description of Circles, and. the use of Coloured Diagrams and 
 Symbols. By Oliver Byrne. Coloured Plates. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ The treatise is a good one, and remarkable—like all Mr. Byrne’s contributions to the science 
 of geometry—for the lucid character of its teaching.”— Building News. 
 
 DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. 
 
 Woods and Marbles (Imitation of). 
 
 SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS 
 
 AND MARBLES, as Taught and Practised by A. R. Van der Burg and P. 
 Van der Burg, Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, 
 185 by 12^ in., Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates; also 12 plain 
 Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Second and Cheaper Edition. Price £1 ns. 6 d. 
 
 List of Plates. 
 
 1. Various Tools required for Wood Painting 
 —2, 3. Walnut: Preliminary Stages of Graining 
 and Finished Specimen — 4. Tools used for 
 Marble Painting and Method of Manipulation— 
 5, 6. St. Remi Marble: Earlier Operations and 
 Finished Specimen—7. Methods of Sketching 
 different Grains, Knots, A r c.—8. 9. Ash: Pre¬ 
 liminary Stages and Finished Specimen —10. 
 Methods of Sketching Marble Grains—11, 12. 
 Breche Marble : Preliminary Stages of Working 
 and Finished Specimen—13. Maple: Methods 
 of Producing the different Grains—14, 15. Bird’s- 
 eye Maple: Preliminary Stages and Finished 
 Specimen—16. Methods of Sketching the dif¬ 
 ferent Species of White Marble—17, 18. White 
 Marble: Preliminary Stages of Process and 
 
 Finished Specimen—19. Mahogany: Specimens 
 of various Grains and Methods of Manipulation 
 —20, 21. Mahogany: Earlier Stages and Finished 
 Specimen—22,23, 24. Sienna Marble: Varieties 
 of Grain, Preliminary Stages and Finished 
 Specimen—25, 26, 27. Juniper Wood : Methods 
 of producing Grain, &c.: Preliminary Stages 
 and Finished Specimen—28, 29, 30. Vert de 
 Mer Marble: Varieties of Grain and Methods 
 of Working Unfinished and Finished Speci¬ 
 mens—31. 32. 33. Oak : Varieties of Grain, Tools 
 Employed, and Methods of Manipulation, Pre¬ 
 liminary Stages and Finished Specimen—34, 35, 
 36. Waulsort Marble: Varieties of Grain, Un¬ 
 finished and Finished Specimens. 
 
 *** Opinions of the Press. 
 
 “ Those who desire to attain skill in the art of painting woods and marbles will find advantage 
 in consulting this book. . . . Some of the Working Men's Clubs should give tiieir young men 
 the opportunity to study it.”— Builder. 
 
 “ A comprehensive guide to the art. The explanations of the processes, the manipulation and 
 management of the colours, and the beautifully executed plates will not be the least valuable to the 
 student who aims at making his work a faithful transcript of nature .”—Building News. 
 
 “Students and novices are fortunate who are able to become the possessors of so noble a 
 work. ”—A rchitect. 
 
 House Decoration. 
 
 ELEMENTARY DECORATION. A Guide to the Simpler 
 
 Forms of Everyday Art, as applied to the Interior and Exterior Decoration of 
 Dwelling Houses, &c. By James W. Facey, Jun. With 68 Cuts. i2mo, 2s. 
 cloth limp. 
 
 “Asa technical guide-book to the decorative painter it will be found reliable ."—Building News. 
 
 PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION : A Guide to the Art of 
 
 Ornamental Painting, the Arrangement of Colours in Apartments, and the 
 principles of Decorative Design. With some Remarks upon the Nature and 
 Properties of Pigments. By James William Facey, Author of “ Elementary 
 Decoration,’’ &c. With numerous Illustrations. i2mo, 2s. 6 d. cloth limp. 
 N.B.—The above Two I For As together in One Vol., strongly half-bound, 5s. 
 
DECORATIVE ARTS, etc. 
 
 i7 
 
 Of 
 so full 
 
 Colour. 
 
 A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. Applied to Decorative 
 
 Painting and the Arts. By George Field. New Edition, Revised, Enlarged, 
 and adapted to the use of the Ornamental Painter and Designer. By Ellis 
 ^othboards 1 * With New Coloured Diagrams and Engravings. i2mo, 3s. 6 d. 
 
 The book is a most useful resume of the properties of pigments.”— Builder . 
 
 Mouse Painting, Graining, etc. 
 
 HOUSE PAINTING. GRAINING, MARBLING, AND SIGN 
 ^l T J N , G ' A ,Practical Manual of. By Ellis A. Davidson. Fifth Edition. 
 With Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings. i2mo, 6s. cloth boards. 
 
 Meek ^,™ aSS ° f information » of use t0 the amateur and of value to the practical man ."—English 
 
 i l S VI? pIy mval , uat ? le to the youngster entering upon this particular calling, and highly service- 
 able to the man who is practising it.."—Furniture Gazette. 
 
 Decorators, lleceipts for. 
 
 THE DECORATOR'S ASSISTANT: A Modern Guide to De¬ 
 corative Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, Gilders, &c. Containing 
 upwards of 6oo Receipts, Rules and Instructions ; with a variety of Informa¬ 
 tion for General Work connected with every Class of Interior and Exterior 
 Decorations, &c. 152 pp., crown 8vo, is. in wrapper. 
 
 “ Full of receipts of value to decorators, painters, gilders, &c. The book contains the gist 
 larger treatises on colour, and technical processes. It would be difficult to meet with a work so f 
 ot varied information on the painter's art.”- Building News. 
 
 . • »• 7 recommend the work to all who, whether for pleasure or profit, require a guide to decora¬ 
 
 tion. —Plumber and Decorator. 
 
 Moijr Smith on Interior Decoration. 
 
 ORNAMENTAL INTERIORS, ANCIENT AND MODERN. 
 
 By J Moyr Smith. Super-royal 8vo, with 32 full-page Plates and numerous 
 smaller Illusts., handsomely bound in cloth, gilt top, price 18s. [Just published. 
 
 •^ In “Ornamental Interiors” the designs of more than thirty artist- 
 decorators and architects of high standing have been illustrated. The book may 
 therefore fairly claim to give a good general view of the works of the modern school 
 of decoration, besides giving characteristic examples of earlier decorative arrange¬ 
 ments. 
 
 ‘‘Ornamental Interiors" gives a short account of the styles of Interior 
 Decoration as practised by the A ncients in Egypt, Greece, Assyria, Rome and Byzan¬ 
 tium. This part is illustrated by characteristic designs. The main body of the 
 work, however, is devoted to the illustration of the modern styles of Decorative Art, 
 and many examples are given of decorative designs suitable for modern Dining- 
 Rooms, Drawing-Rooms, Libraries, Staircases and Halls, Parlours, Studies and 
 Smoking-Rooms. The Decoration of Public Buildings is illustrated by views of the 
 chief State Apartments in Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle, the Salle de 
 Leys at Antwerp, the Salle de Manages at Brussels, and of other works which have 
 distinctive features suitable for the purpose. 
 
 *** Opinions of the Press. 
 
 ‘‘The book is well illustrated and handsomely got up, and contains some true criticism and a 
 good many good examples of decorative treatment.”— The Builder. 
 
 "We can greatly commend Mr. Moyr Smith's book, for it is the production of one professedly 
 capable in decorative work, and abounds with useful hints and descriptions of executed modern 
 work, together with a well-put resume of ancient styles. ... As much a book for the drawing¬ 
 room as for the manufacturer."— The British Architect. 
 
 “ Well fitted for the dilettante, amateur, and professional designer."— Decoration. 
 
 “ This is the most elaborate, and beautiful work on the artistic decoration of interiors that we 
 have seen. . . . The scrolls, panels and other designs from the author's own pen are very 
 beautiful and chaste ; but he takes care that the designs of other men shall figure even more than 
 his own ."—Liverpool Albion. 
 
 "To all who take an interest in elaborate domestic ornament this handsome volume will be 
 welcome."— Graphic. 
 
 “ Mr. Moyr Smith deserves the thanks of art workers for having placed within their reach a 
 book that seems eminently adapted to afford, by example and precept, that guidance of which 
 most craftsmen stand in need .''—Furniture Gazette. 
 
 British and Foreign Marbles. 
 
 MARBLE DECORATION and the Terminology of British and 
 Foreign Marbles. A Handbook for Students. By George H. Blagrove, 
 Author of “ Shoring and its Application,” &c. With 28 Illustrations. Crown 
 8vo, 3 s. 6 d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
i8 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 DELAMOTTE’S WORKS ON ILLUMINATION AND ALPHABETS. 
 
 A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION, for the Use of 
 
 Beginners : with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical Directions for 
 its exercise, and Examples taken from Illuminated MSS., printed in Gold and 
 Colours. By F. Delamotte. New and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, 6s. orna¬ 
 mental boards. 
 
 “ The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, with much good sense, 
 the author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and knowledge, 
 as well as taste.”— Athenceum. 
 
 ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, Ancient and Medieval, from the 
 
 Eighth Century, with Numerals; including Gothic, Church-Text, large and 
 small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illumination, Monograms, 
 Crosses, &c. &c., for the use of Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen, 
 Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, 
 Carvers, &c. &c. Collected and Engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in 
 Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, 2 s. 6 d. ornamental 
 boards. 
 
 “For those who insert enamelled sentences round gilded chalices, who blazon shop legends over 
 shop-doors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book will be use¬ 
 ful. ”—A thenaum . 
 
 EXAMPLES OF MODERN ALPHABETS, Plain and Ornamental; 
 including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew, 
 Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque; 
 with several Original Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English 
 Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen, Sur¬ 
 veyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. 
 Collected and Engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. New 
 and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, 2s. 6 d. ornamental boards. 
 
 “There is comprised in it every possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and 
 numerals can be formed, and the talent which has been expended in the conception of the various 
 plain and ornamental letters is wonderful."— Standard. 
 
 MEDIAEVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS FOR ILLUMI¬ 
 NATORS. By F. G. Delamotte. Containing 21 Plates and Illuminated 
 Title, printed in Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by I. Willis 
 Brooks. Fourth and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, 4s. ornamental boards. 
 
 “ A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified in gilding and all the colours 
 of the prism interwoven and intertwined ana intermingled."— Sun. 
 
 THE EMBROIDERER’S BOOK OF DESIGN. Containing 
 
 Initials, Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesiastical 
 Devices, Mediasval and Modern Alphabets, and National Emblems. Col¬ 
 lected by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Oblong royal 8vo, is. 6 d. 
 ornamental wrapper. 
 
 “The book will be of great assistance to ladies and young children who are endowed with the 
 art of plying the needle in this most ornamental and useful pretty work ."—East Anglian Timet. 
 
 Wood Carving. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS IN WOOD-CARVING, for Amateurs ; with 
 Hints on Design. By A Lady. With Ten large Plates, 2s. 6 d. in emblematic 
 wrapper. 
 
 “ The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can impart it, may be learnt from • A 
 Lady’s ’ publication.”— Athenceum . 
 
 " The directions given are plain and easily understood .”—English Mechanic . 
 
 Glass Painting. 
 
 GLASS STAINING AND THE ART OF PAINTING ON 
 GLASS. From the German of Dr. Gessert and Emanubl Otto Fromberg. 
 With an Appendix on The Art of Enamelling, umo, 2S. 6 d. cloth limp. 
 
 Letter Painting. 
 
 THE ART OF LETTER PAINTING MADE EASY. By 
 T ames Greig Badenoch. With 12 full-page Engravings of Examples, is. cloth 
 limp. 
 
 “ The system is a simple one, but quite original, and well worth the careful attention of letter- 
 painters. It can be easily mastered and remembered ."—Building News. 
 
CARPENTRY, TIMBER , etc. 
 
 19 
 
 CARPENTRY, TIMBER, etc. 
 
 Tvedgold’s Carpentry, Enlarged by Tarn . 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY. 
 
 A Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resist¬ 
 ance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roofs, 
 Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added an Essay 
 on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c., with Descriptions of the kinds 
 of Wood used in Building; also numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Tim¬ 
 ber for different purposes, the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By Thomas 
 Tredgold, C.E. With an Appendix of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron 
 and Stone, Illustrated. Seventh Edition, thoroughly revised and considerably 
 enlarged by E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Author of “The Science of Build¬ 
 ing,” &c. With 61 Plates, Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In 
 one large vol., 4to, price £1 5s. cloth. 
 
 "Ought to be in every architect's and every builder’s library."— Builder. 
 
 “ A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever skilful carpentry is con¬ 
 cerned. The author’s principles are rather confirmed than impaired by time. The additional 
 plates are of great intrinsic value.”— Building News, 
 
 Woodworking Machinery. 
 
 WOODWORKING MACHINERY: Its Rise, Progress, and Con¬ 
 struction. With Hints on the Management of Saw Mills and the Economical 
 Conversion of Timber. Illustrated with Examples of Recent Designs by 
 leading English, French, and American Engineers. By M. Powis Bale, 
 A.M. Inst. C.E., M.I.M.E. Large crown 8vo, 12s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ Mr. Bale is evidently an expert on the subject, and he has collected so much information that 
 his book is all-sufficient for builders and others engaged in the conversion of timber.”— A rchitect. 
 
 “The most comprehensive compendium of wood-working machinery we have seen. The 
 author is a thorough master of his subject.”— Building News. 
 
 “ Th e appearance of this book at the present time will, we should think, give a considerable 
 impetus to the onward march of the machinist engaged in the designing and manufacture of 
 wood-working machines. It should be in the office of every wood-working factory.”— English 
 Mechanic, 
 
 Saw Mills. 
 
 SAW MILLS: Their Arrangement and Management, and the 
 Economical Conversion of Timber. (Being a Companion Volume to “ Wood¬ 
 working Machinery.”) By M. Powis Bale, A.M. Inst. C.E., M.I.M.E. 
 With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 10s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 " The administration of a large sawing establishment is discussed, and the subject examined 
 from a financial standpoint. Hence the size, shape, order, and disposition of saw-mills and the 
 like are gone into in. detail, and the course of the timber is traced from its reception to its 
 
 delivery in its converted state. We could not desire a more complete or practical treatise.”_ 
 
 Builder. 
 
 “We highly recommend Mr. Bale’s work to the attention and perusal of all those who are en¬ 
 gaged in the art of wood conversion, or who are about building or remodelling saw-mills on im¬ 
 proved principles.”— Building News, 
 
 Carpentering. 
 
 THE CA RPENTER'S NE W G VIDE ; or, Book of Lines for Car¬ 
 penters ; comprising all the Elementary Principles essential for acquiring a 
 knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late Peter Nicholson’s Standard 
 Work. A New Edition, revised by Arthur Ashpitel, F.S.A. Together 
 with Practical Rules on Drawing, by George Pyne. With 74 Plates, 
 4to, £1 is. cloth. 
 
 Handrailing. 
 
 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILING : Showing 
 
 New and Simple Methods for Finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing the 
 Moulds, Bevelling, Jointing-up, and Squaring the Wreath. By George 
 Collings. Illustrated with Plates and Diagrams. i2mo, is. 6 d. cloth limp. 
 “ ' v '" be found of practical utility in the execution of this difficult branch of joinery ."—Bu ilder. 
 
 ” Almost every difficult phase of this somewhat intricate branch of joinery s elucidated by the 
 aid of plates and explanatory letterpress."— Furniture Gazette. 
 
 Circular Work. 
 
 CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY: A 
 
 Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. By 
 George Collings, Author of “ A Practical Treatise on Handrailing.” Illus¬ 
 trated with numerous Diagrams. i2mo, as. 6 d. cloth limp, [jtttsf published. 
 
 * An excellent example of what a book of this kind should be. Cheap in price, clear in defini¬ 
 tion, and practical in the examples selected.”— Builder. 
 
20 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD S- SON ’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Timber Merchant’s Companion. 
 
 THE TIMBER MERCHANTS AND BUILDER'S COM¬ 
 PANION. Containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and 
 Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from One to a Thousand 
 Pieces, and the relative Price that each size bears per Lineal Foot to any 
 given Price per Petersburg Standard Hundred ; the Price per Cube Foot of 
 Square Timber to any given Price per Load of 50 Feet; the proportionate 
 Value of Deals and Battens by the Standard, to Square Timber by the Load 
 of 50 Feet; the readiest mode of ascertaining the Price of Scantling per 
 Lineal Foot of any size, to any given Figure per Cube Foot, &c. &c. By 
 William Dowsing. Fourth Edition, Revised and Corrected. Cr. 8vo, 3s. cl. 
 
 “Every timber merchant and builder ought to possess it."— Hull Advertiser. 
 
 “We are glad to see a fourth edition of these admirable tables, which for correctness and 
 simplicity of arrangement leave nothing to be desired.”— Timber Trades Journal. 
 
 " An exceedingly well-arranged, clear, and concise manual of tables for the use of all who buy 
 or sell timber." —Journal 0/ Forestry. 
 
 Practical Timber Merchant. 
 
 THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT. Being a Guide 
 
 for the use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c., comprising 
 useful Tables for all purposes connected with the Timber Trade, Marks of 
 Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the Growth of Timber, 
 &c. By W. Richardson. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 "This handy manual contains much valuable information for the use of timber merchants, 
 
 builders, foresters, and all others connected with the growth, sale, and manufacture of timber.'_ 
 
 Journal 0/ Forestry. 
 
 Timber Freight Booh. 
 
 THE TIMBER MERCHANT’S. SAW MILLER'S, AND 
 IMPORTER’S FREIGHT BOOK AND ASSISTANT. Comprising Rules, 
 Tables, and Memoranda relating to the Timber Trade. By William 
 Richardson Timber Broker; together with a Chapter on “Speeds of Saw 
 Mill Machinery,’’ by M. Powis Bale, M.I.M.E.. &c. i2mo, 3s. 6 d. cl. boards. 
 "A very useful manual of rules, tables, and memoranda, relating to the timber trade. We re¬ 
 commend it as a compendium of calculation to all timber measurers and merchants, and as supply¬ 
 ing a real want in the trade."— Building News. 
 
 Packing-Case Makers, Tables for. 
 
 PACKING-CASE TABLES; showing the number of Super¬ 
 ficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and upwards. 
 By W. Richardson, Timber Broker. Second Edition. Oblong ato. 3s. 6 d. cl. 
 “Invaluable labour-saving tables."— Ironmonger. “Will save much labour.”— Grocer. 
 
 Superficial Measurement. 
 
 THE TRADESMAN’S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEA¬ 
 SUREMENT. Tables calculated from 1 to 200 inches in length, by 1 to 108 
 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber 
 Merchants, Builders, &c. By James Hawkings. Third Edition. Fcap., 
 3s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ A useful collection of tables to facilitate rapid calculation of surfaces. The exact area of any 
 curface of which the limits have been ascertained can be instantly determined. The book will be 
 found of the greatest utility to all engaged in building operations."— Scotsman. 
 
 Forestry. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY. Designed to afford In¬ 
 formation concerning the Planting and Care of Forest Trees for Ornament or 
 Profit, with Suggestions upon the Creation and Care of Woodlands. By F.B. 
 Hough. Large crown 8vo, 10s. cloth. 
 
 Timber Importer’s Guide. 
 
 THE TIMBER IMPORTER’S. TIMBER MERCHANT’S AND 
 
 BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By Richard E. Grandy. Compris¬ 
 ing an Analysis of Deal Standards, Home and Foreign, with Comparative 
 Values and Tabular Arrangements for fixing Nett Landed Cost on Baltic 
 and North American Deals, including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, 
 ' Insurance, &c. &c. Together with copious Information for the Retailer and 
 Builder. Third Edition, Revised. i2mo, 2s. 6 d. cloth boards. 
 
 “Everything it pretends to be: built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, and 
 
 throws in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, &c." _ English 
 
 Mechanic. 
 
NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, NAVIGATION, etc. 
 
 21 
 
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, NAVIGATION, etc. 
 
 Chain Cables. - 
 
 CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS. Comprising Sizes and 
 
 Curves of Links, Studs, &c., Iron for Cables and Chains, Chain Cable and 
 Chain Making, Forming and Welding Links, Strength of Cables and Chains, 
 Certificates f or Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain Cables and Chains, 
 Historical Notes, Acts of Parliament, Statutory Tests, Charges for Testing, 
 List of Manufacturers of Cables, &c. &c. By Thomas W. Traill, F.E.R.N., 
 M. Inst. C.E., Engineer Surveyor in Chief, Board of Trade, the Inspector 
 of Chain Cable and Anchor Proving Establishments, and General Superin¬ 
 tendent, Lloyd’s Committee on Proving Establishments. With numerous 
 Tables, Illustrations and Lithographic Drawings. Folio, £2 2s. cloth, 
 bevelled boards. 
 
 " The author writes not only with a full acquaintance with scientific formulas and details, but 
 also with a profound and fully-instructed sense of the importance to the safety of our ships and 
 sailors of fidelity in the manufacture of cables.”— Athenceum. 
 
 “ The business of chain cable making is well explained and illustrated. We can safely recom¬ 
 mend this work to all in any way connected with the manufacture of chain cables and chains, as a 
 good book.”— Nature. 
 
 “ It contains a vast amount of valuable information. Nothing seems to be wanting to make it 
 a complete and standard work of reference on the subject.”— Nautical Magazine. 
 
 Pocket-Book for Naval Architects and Shipbuilders. 
 THE NAVAL ARCHITECT’S AND SHIPBUILDER’S 
 POCKET-BOOK of Formula, Rules, and Tables,and MARINE ENGINEER’S 
 AND SURVEYOR'S Handy Book of Reference. By Clement Mackrow, 
 Member of the Institution of Naval Architects, Naval Draughtsman. Third 
 Edition, Revised. With numerous Diagrams, &c. Fcap., 12 s. 6 d. strongly 
 bound in leather. 
 
 “Should be used by all who are engaged in the construction or design of vessels. . . . Will 
 be found to contain the most useful tables and formulas required by shipbuilders, carefully collected 
 from the best authorities, and put together in a popular and simple form.”— Engineer. 
 
 “The professional shipbuilder has now, in a convenient and accessible form, reliable data for 
 solving many of the numerous problems that present themselves in the course of his work.”— Iron. 
 
 “There is scarcely a subject on which a naval architect or shipbuilder can require to refresh 
 his memory which will not be found within the covers of Mr. Mackrow's book.”— English Mechanic. 
 
 Pocket-Book for Marine Engineers. 
 
 A POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL TABLES AND FOR¬ 
 MULA 1 FOR MARINE ENGINEERS. By Frank Proctor, A.I.N.A. 
 Third Edition. Royal 32010, leather, gilt edges, with strap, 4s. 
 
 “We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a long-felt want.”— Naval Science. 
 
 “A most useful companion to all marine engineers.”— United Service Gazette. 
 
 Lighthouses. 
 
 EUROPEAN LIGHTHOUSE SYSTEMS. Being a Report of 
 a Tour of Inspection made in 1873. By Major George H. Elliot, Corps of 
 Engineers, U.S.A. Illustrated by 51 Engravings and 31 Woodcuts. 8vo, 
 21s. cloth. 
 
 *** The following are published in We ale's Rudimentary Series. 
 
 MASTING, MAST-MAKING, AND RIGGING OF SHIPS. By 
 
 Robert Kipping, N.A. Fifteenth Edition. i2mo, 2s. 6 d. cloth boards. 
 SAILS AND SAIL-MAKING. Eleventh Edition, Enlarged, with 
 an Appendix. By Robert Kipping, N.A. Illustrated. i2ino, 3s. cloth boards. 
 NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. By James Peake. Fifth Edition, 
 with Plates and Diagrams. i2mo, 4s. cloth boards. 
 
 MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS (A Treatise on). 
 
 By Robert Murray, C.E., Principal Officer to the Board of Trade for the 
 East Coast of ScotlancPDistrict. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with 
 considerable Additions, by the Author and by George Carlisle, C.E., 
 Senior Surveyor to the Board of Trade at Liverpool. i2mo, 5s. cloth boards. 
 
 PRACTICAL NAVIGATION. Consisting of The Sailor’s Sea- 
 Book, by Jas. Greenwood and W. H. Rosser ; together with the requisite 
 Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems, by 
 Henry Law, C.E. and Prof. J. R. Young. Illustrated i2mo,7s. half-bound. 
 
22 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &- SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 MINING AND MINING INDUSTRIES. 
 
 Metalliferous Mining. 
 
 BRITISH MINING : A Treatise on the History , Discovery, Practical 
 Development , and Future Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in the United King¬ 
 dom. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records; Editor of 
 “ Ure’s Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines,” &c. Upwards of 950 
 pp., with 230 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Super-royal 8vo, £2 2 s. 
 cloth. [Just published . 
 
 *** Opinions of the Press. 
 
 “ One of the most valuable works of reference of modern times. Mr. Hunt, as keeper of mining 
 records of the United Kingdom, has had opportunities for such a task not enjoyed by anyone else, 
 and has evidently made the most of them. . . . The language and style adopted are good, and 
 the treatment of the various subjects laborious, conscientious, and scientific.”— Engineering. 
 
 “Probably no one in this country was better qualified than Mr. Hunt for undertaking such a 
 work. Brought into frequent and close association during a long life-time with the principal guar¬ 
 dians of our mineral and metallurgical industries, he enjoyed a position exceptionally favourable 
 for collecting the necessary information. The use which he has made of his opportunities is suffi¬ 
 ciently attested by the dense mass of information crowded into the handsome volume which has 
 just been published. ... In placing before the reader a sketch of the present position of 
 British Mining, Mr. Hunt treats his subject so fully and illustrates it so amply that this section really 
 forms a little treatise on practical mining. . . . The book is, in fact, a treasure-house of statistical 
 information on mining subjects, and we know of no other work embodying so great a mass of matter 
 of this kind. Were this the only merit of Mr. Hunt’s volume it would De sufficient to render it 
 indispensable in the library of everyone interested in the development of the mining and metallur¬ 
 gical industries of this country.”— Athenceum. 
 
 “A mass of information not elsewhere available, and of the greatest value to those who may 
 be interested in our great mineral industries."— Engineer . 
 
 “A sound, business-like collection of interesting facts. . . . The amount of information 
 
 Mr. Hunt has brought together is enormous. . . . The volume appears likely to convey more 
 instruction upon the subject than any work hitherto published ."—Muting Journal. 
 
 “The work will be for the mining industry what Dr. Percy’s celebrated treatise has been for the 
 metallurgical—a book that cannot with advantage be omitted from the library ."—Iron and Coal 
 Trades Review. 
 
 “The literature of mining has hitherto possessed no work approaching in importance to that 
 which has just been published. There is much in Mr. Hunt’s valuable work that every shareholder 
 in a mine should read with close attention. The entire subject of practical mining—from the first 
 search for the lode to the latest stages of dressing the ore—is dealt with in a masterly manner.” 
 — Academy . 
 
 Coal and Iron. 
 
 THE COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED 
 
 KINGDOM. Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields, and of the Princi¬ 
 pal Seams of Coal, with Returns of their Produce and its Distribution, and 
 Analyses of Special Varieties. Also an Account of the occurrence of Iron 
 Ores in Veins or Seams; Analyses of each Variety; and a History of the 
 Rise and Progress of Pig Iron Manufacture since the year 1740, exhibiting the 
 Economies introduced in the Blast Furnaces for its Production and Improve¬ 
 ment. By Richard Meade, Assistant Keeper of Mining Records. With 
 Maps of the Coal Fields and Ironstone Deposits of the United Kingdom. 
 8vo, £1 8s. cloth. 
 
 "The book is one which must find a place on the shelves of all interested in coal and iron 
 production, and in the iron, steel, and other metallurgical industries."— Engineer. 
 
 " Of this book we may unreservedly say that it is the best of its class which we have ever met. 
 ... A book of reference which no one engaged in the iron or coal trades should omit from his 
 library."— Iron and Coal Trades Review. 
 
 "An exhaustive treatise and a valuable work of reference ."—Mining Journal. 
 
 Prospecting for Gold and other Metals. 
 
 THE PROSPECTOR’S HANDBOOK: A Guide for the Pro¬ 
 spector and Traveller in Search of Metal-Bearing or other Valuable Minerals. 
 By J. W. Anderson, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S., Author of "Fiji and New 
 Caledonia.” Third Edition, Revised, with Additions. Small crown 8vo, 
 3s. 6 d. cloth. , published. 
 
 " Will supply a much felt want, especially among Colonists, in whose way are so often thrown 
 many rnineralogical specimens the value of which it is difficult for anyone, not a specialist, to 
 determine. The author has placed his instructions before his readers in the plainest possible 
 terms, and his book is the best of its kind.”— Engineer. 
 
 “Howto find commercial minerals, and how to identify them when they are found, are the 
 leading points to which attention is directed. The author has manag-ed-to pack as much practical 
 detail into his pages as would supply material for a book three times its size .”—Mining Journal. 
 
 “Those toilers who explore the trodden or untrodden tracks on the face of the globe will find 
 much that is useful to them in this book.”— Athenceum. 
 
MINING AND MINING INDUSTRIES. 
 
 23 
 
 Mining Notes and Formtilce. 
 
 NOTES AND FORMULAE FOR MINING STUDENTS. By 
 
 John Herman Merivale, M.A., Certificated Colliery Manager, Professor of 
 Mining in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Second 
 Edition, carefully Revised. Small crown 8vo, cloth, price 2s. 6 d. 
 
 [Just published. 
 
 This book consists of a collection of notes and formula drawn from various 
 sources, the authority being quoted in most instances. It is hoped that the work will 
 be useful not only to students but to the prof ession. 
 
 The principal sources of information upon mining matters are the Transactions 
 of the various Engineering Societies to which the student, in most of our large towns, 
 has access. A great many references to the most familiar of them are given, so that 
 the student who wishes to follow up a subject may be in a position to acquaint himself 
 with details which could not be included in a work like this. 
 
 The examples of the use of the formula!, at the end of the book, are merely given 
 to assist students working without a teacher. 
 
 “ Invaluable to anyone who is working up for an examination on mining subjects."— Coal and 
 Iron Trades Review. 
 
 “ The author has done his work in an exceedingly creditable manner, and has produced a book 
 that will be of service to students, and those who are practically engaged in mining operations."— 
 Engineer. 
 
 “ A vast amount of technical matter of the utmost value to mining engineers, and of consider¬ 
 able interest to students."— Schoolmaster. 
 
 Mineral Surveying and Valuing, 
 
 THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COMPLETE 
 
 GUIDE, comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying and the Valua¬ 
 tion of Mining Properties, with New Traverse Tables. By Wm. Lintern, 
 Mining and Civil Engineer. Second Edition, with an Appendix on “ Mag¬ 
 netic and Angular Surveying,” with Records of the Peculiarities of Needle 
 Disturbances. With Four Plates of Diagrams, Plans, &c. i2ino, 4s. cloth. 
 
 [Just published. 
 
 “ An enormous fund of information of great valne.”— Mining Journal. 
 
 “ Mr. Lintern’s book forms a valuable and thoroughly trustworthy guide.’’— Iron and Coal 
 Trades Review. 
 
 “This new edition must be of the highest value to colliery surveyors,, proprietors and mana¬ 
 gers.”— Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Metalliferous Minerals and Mining, 
 
 TREATISE ON METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND 
 MINING. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S., Mining Engineer, &c., Author of “A 
 Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying.” Illustrated with numerous Wood 
 Engravings. Fourth Edition. Crown 8 vo, 125. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “Neither the practical miner nor the general reader interested in mines, can have a better book 
 for his companion and his guide.”— Mining Journal. 
 
 “The volume is one which no student of mineralogy should be without.”— Colliery Guardian , 
 “ We are doing our readers a service in calling their attention to this valuable work.”— Mining 
 World. 
 
 “ A book that will not only be useful to the geologist, the practical miner, and the metallurgist, 
 but also very interesting to the general public.”— Iron. 
 
 “ As a history of the present state of mining throughout the world this book has a real value, 
 and it supplies an actual want, for no such information has hitherto been brought together within 
 such limited space.”— Athenceum. 
 
 Earthy Minerals and Mining. 
 
 A TREATISE ON EARTHY AND OTHER MINERALS 
 AND MINING. By D. C. Davies, F.G.S. Uniform with, arid forming a 
 Companion Volume to, the same Author’s “ Metalliferous Minerals and 
 Mining.” With 76 Wood Engravings. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6 d. 
 cloth. 
 
 “It is essentially a practical work, intended primarily for the use of practical men. . . .We 
 
 do not remember to have met with any English work on mining matters that contains the same 
 amount of information packed in equally convenient form."— Academy. 
 
 The book is clearly the result of many years’ careful work and thought, and we should be 
 inclined to rank it as among the very best of the handy technical and trades manuals which have 
 recently appeared."— British Quarterly Review. 
 
 "The volume contains a great mass of practical information, carefully methodised and pre¬ 
 sented in a very intelligible shape.’’— Scotsman. 
 
 "The subject matter of the volume will be found of high value by all—and they are a numer¬ 
 ous class—who trade in earthy minerals."— At/ienccum. 
 
24 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &■ SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Underground Pumping Machinery. 
 
 MINE DRAINAGE. Being a Complete and Practical Treatise 
 
 on Direct-Acting Underground Steam Pumping Machinery, with a Descrip- 
 tion of a large number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and 
 the Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and 
 their merits compared with other forms of Pumping Machinery. By Stephen 
 michell. 8vo, 15s. cloth. 
 
 V e h,grh ! y est ? emed by colliery owners and lessees, mining: engineers, and students 
 fs a inost^t^uabTe wnrk 0 a nd a f qi ^ mt f d Wlth , the *? est means of securing the drainage of mines. It 
 Colliery Guardian. ^ d stanas allnost 310116 ln the literature of steam pumping machinery.' - 
 
 valuable information is given, so that the book is thoroughly worthy of an extensive 
 circulation amongst practical men and purchasers of machinery. '—Mining Journal. 
 
 Mining Tools. 
 
 A MANUAL OF MINING TOOLS. For the Use of Mine 
 
 Ag ®"f S| Students, ? c ', By WlLLIAM Morgans, Lecturer on Prac¬ 
 tical Mining at the Bristol School of Mines. i2mo, 3s. cloth boards. 
 
 ATLAS OF ENGRAVINGS to Illustrate the above, contain- 
 
 ing 235 Illustrations of Mining Tools, drawn to scale, ato, 4s. 6 d. cloth 
 Indents 111 the science of mining, and overmen, captains, managers, and viewers mav gain 
 practical knowledge and useful hints by the studv of Mr. Morgans' manual ."—Colliery Guardian 
 Journal. ] W k ' wluch wlU tend “aterially to improve our mining literature."— Mining 
 
 Coal Mining. 
 
 COAL AND COAL MINING : A Rudimentary Treatise on By 
 
 Sir Warington W Smyth M.A., F.R.S., &c., Chief Inspector of the Mines of 
 the Crown. New Edition, Revised and Corrected. With numerous Illustra¬ 
 tions. i2mo, 4 s. cloth boards. 
 
 nrinHnn S i^ ?h tI H ne c giv ?" of e u eI 7 kl J own coaI - field ^ this and other countries, as well as of the 
 Mi^imfJournal^ WOrkm& 1116 ° ook wl11 doubtless interest a very large number of readers. ”- 
 
 Subterraneous Surveying. 
 
 SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, Elementary and Practical 
 Treatise on; with and without the Magnetic Needle. By Thomas Fenwick, 
 boards ° r °* ^ meS| and l HOMAS Baker. C.E. Illustrated, nmo, 3s. cloth 
 
 NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE. 
 
 Text Book of Electricity. 
 
 THE STUDENTS TEXTBOOK OF ELECTRICITY By 
 
 Henry M Noad Ph.D, F R.S., F.C.S. New Edition, carefully Revised. 
 With an Introduction and Additional Chapters, by W H Prkece MICE 
 Vice-President of the Society of Telegraph Engineers, &c. With 470 Illustra- 
 tions. Crown 8vo, 12 s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 • l- The . or! ^? a ! plan °f th ! s book bas been carefully adhered to so as to make it a reflex of the 
 existing state of electrical science, adapted for students. . . . Discovery seems to have Dr£ 
 pressed with marvellous strides ; nevertheless it has now apparently ceased, and prac ical appfic£ 
 ti?.i?? have commenced their career ; and it is to give a faithful account of these that hTs besh 
 Pre'ece Esf*' Noad s valuablc text-book is launched forth ."-Extractfrom Introduction by IV?H. 
 
 "We can recommend Dr. Noad's book for clear stvle pro.it ramre of cm.,. - 
 and a plethora of woodcuts Such collections as the present are indispensable }~Athf^tm. 
 
 1 s text-book h as earned for itself the reputation of a truly scientific manual for the 
 
 student of electricity, and we gladly hail this new amended edition, which brings it once more to 
 the front. Mr Preece as reviser, with the assistance of Mr. H. R. Kempe and Mr. 1 . P. Edwards 
 has added all the practical results of recent invention and research to the admirable theoretical 
 expositions of the author, so that the book is about as complete and advancedas ?t is possible fmr 
 any book to be within the hmits of a text-book.”— Telegraphic Journal. possiuie ior 
 
 Electricity. 
 
 A MANUAL OF ELECTRICITY: Including Galvanism, Mag- 
 
 rlllaram m ' A n Sn cf HSm ' E ™ Ct ™~ DynC ?a. ic £' Nagno-Electricity, and the Electric 
 
 F RS " Fcs - M “»-• 
 
 It is worthy of a place in the library of every public institution.”— Minin? yournal. 
 
NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE. 
 
 2-5 
 
 Electric Light. 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT : Its Production and Use. Embodying Plain 
 Directions for the Treatment of Voltaic Batteries, Electric Lamps, and 
 Dynamo-Electric Machines. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E., Author of “ Electro¬ 
 plating.” Second Edition, with large Additions and 128 Illusts. 7s. 6 d. cloth. 
 “ The book is by far the best that we have yet met with on the subject."— Athenaum. 
 
 “ It is the only work at present available which gives, in language intelligible for the most part 
 to the ordinary reader, a general but concise history of the means which have been adopted up to 
 the present time in producing the electric light."— Metropolitan. 
 
 “The book contains a general account of the means adopted in producing the electric light, 
 not only as obtained from voltaic or galvanic batteries, but treats at length of the dynamo-electric 
 machine in several of its forms.”— Colliery Guardian. 
 
 Electric Lighting. 
 
 THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC LIGHT . 
 
 ING. By Alan A. Campbell Swinton, Associate S.T.E. Crown 8vo, 
 is. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “Anyone who desires a short and thoroughly clear exposition of the elementary principles o I 
 electric-lighting cannot do better than read this little work ."—Bradford Observer. 
 
 Dr. Lardner’s School Handbooks. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner. 
 
 328 Illustrations. Sixth Edition. One Vol., 3s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ A very convenient class-book for junior students in private schools. It is intended to convey, 
 In clear and precise terms, general notions of all the principal divisions of Physical Science."— 
 British Quarterly Review. 
 
 ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner. 
 
 With 190 Illustrations. Second Edition. One Vol., 3s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently illustrated."— Gardener's Chronicle. 
 
 Dr. Lardner’s Electric Telegraph. 
 
 THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. By Dr. Lardner. Re¬ 
 vised and Re-written by E. B. Bright, F.R.A.S. 140 Illustrations. Small 
 8vo, 25 . 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ One of the most readable books extant on the Electric Telegraph."— English Mechanic. 
 
 Storms. 
 
 STORMS : Their Nature, Classification, and Laws; with the Means 
 of Predicting them by their Embodiments, the Clouds. By Wm. Blasius. 
 With Coloured Plates and Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 10s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ A very readable book. . . . The fresh facts contained in its pages', collected with evident 
 care, form a useful repository for meteorologists in the study of atmospherical disturbances. . . . 
 The book will pay perusal as being the production of one who gives evidence of acute obsen a- 
 tion."— Nature. 
 
 The Bloivpipe. 
 
 THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, AND 
 
 GEOLOGY. Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, many 
 Working Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut.- 
 Colonel W. A. Ross, R.A. With 120 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, 3s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “The student who goes conscientiously through the course of experimentation here laid down 
 will gain a better insight into inorganic chemistry and mineralogy than if he had ‘got up’ any of 
 the best text-books ot the day, and passed any number of examinations in their contents."— Chemi¬ 
 cal News. 
 
 The Military Sciences. 
 
 AIDE-MEMOIRE TO THE MILITARY SCIENCES. Framed 
 
 from Contributions of Officers and others connected with the different Ser¬ 
 vices. Originally edited by a Committee of the Corps of Royal Engineers. 
 Second Edition, most carefully revised by an Officer of the Corps, with many 
 Additions; containing nearly 350 Engravings and many hundred Woodcuts. 
 Three Vols., royal 8vo, extra cloth boards, and lettered, £4 10s. 
 
 “A compendious encyclopaedia of military knowledge, to which we are greatly indebted.’’— 
 Edinburgh Review. 
 
 Field Fortification. 
 
 A TREATISE ON FIELD FORTIFICATION, THE ATTACK 
 OF FORTRESSES, MILITARY MINING, AND RECONNOITRING. By 
 Colonel I. S. Macaulay, late Professor of Fortification in the R.M.A., Wool¬ 
 wich. Sixth Edition, crown 8vo, cloth, with separate Atlas of 12 Plates, 123. 
 
26 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD <S* SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Temperaments. 
 
 OUR TEMPERAMENTS, THEIR STUDY AND THEIR 
 
 TEACHING. A Popular Outline. By Alexander Stewart, F.R.C.S. 
 Edin. In one large 8vo volume, with 30 Illustrations, including A Selection 
 from Lodge’s “ Historical Portraits,” showing the Chief Forms of Faces. 
 Price 15s. cloth, gilt top. 
 
 “The book is exceedingly interesting, even for those who are not systematic students of an¬ 
 thropology. ... To those who think the proper study of mankind is man, it will be full of attrac¬ 
 tion.”— uaxly Telegraph. 
 
 “The author’s object is to enable a student to read a man’s temperament in his aspect. The 
 work is well adapted to its end. It is worthy of the attention of students of human nature."— 
 Scotsman. 
 
 “ The volume is heavy to hold, but light to read. Though the author has treated his subject 
 exhaustively, he writes in a popular and pleasant manner that renders it attractive to the general 
 reader.”— Punch. 
 
 Pneumatics and Acoustics. 
 
 PNEUMATICS : including Acoustics and the Phenomena of Wind 
 Currents, for the Use of Beginners. By Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S., 
 F.C.S., &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. With numerous Illustrations. 
 i2mo, is. 6 d. cloth. {Just published. 
 
 “ Beginners in the study of this important application of .science could not have a better manual." 
 —Scotsman. 
 
 “A valuable and suitable text-book for students of Acoustics and the Phenomena of Wind 
 Cu rrents." —Sch 00 l?n as ter. 
 
 Conchology. 
 
 A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA : Being a Treatise on Recent 
 and Fossil Shells. By S. P. Woodward, A.L.S., F.G.S., late Assistant 
 Palaeontologist in the British Museum. Fifth Edition. With an Appendix 
 on Recent and Fossil Conchological Discoveries, by Ralph Tate, A.L.S , 
 F.G.S. Illustrated by A. N. Waterhouse and Joseph Wilson Lowry. 
 With 23 Plates and upwards of 300 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6 d. cloth 
 boards. 
 
 " A most valuable storehouse of conchological and geological informa'ion."— Science Gossip. 
 
 Astronomy. 
 
 ASTRONOMY. By the late Rev. Robert Main, M.A., F.R.S., 
 formerly Radcliffe Observer at Oxford. Third Edition, Revised and Cor¬ 
 rected to the present time, by William Thynne Lynn, B. A., F.R.A.S., formerly 
 of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. i2mo, 2s. cloth limp. 
 
 “A sound and simple treatise, very carefully edited, and a capital book for beginners."— 
 Knowledge. 
 
 “Accurately brought down to the requirements of the present time by Mr. Lynn.."— Edu¬ 
 cational Times, 
 
 Geology. 
 
 RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON GEOLOGY, PHYSICAL 
 
 AND HISTORICAL. Consisting of “Physical Geology, 1 ’which sets forth 
 the leading Principles of the Science; and “Historical Geology,” which 
 treats of the Mineral and Organic Conditions of the Earth at each successive 
 epoch, especial reference being made to the British Series of Rocks. By 
 Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S., &c., &c. With 250 Illustrations. 121110, 5 s. 
 cloth boards. 
 
 “ The fulness of the matter has elevated the book into a manual. Its information is exhaustive 
 and well arranged."— School Board Chronicle. 
 
 Geology and Genesis. 
 
 THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION ; or. Geology and 
 Genesis: their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord . By George VV, 
 Victor le Vaux. Numerous Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 "A valuable contribution to the evidences of Revelation, and disposes very conclusively of the 
 arguments of those who would set God’s Works against God's Word. No real difficulty is shirked, 
 and no sophistry is left unexposed."— The Rock . 
 
 “ The remarkable peculiarity of this author is that he combines an unbounded admiration of 
 science with an unbounded admiration of the Written record. The two impulses are balanced to 
 a nicety ; and the consequence is that difficulties, which to minds less evenly poised would be seri¬ 
 ous, find immediate solutions of the happiest kinds. '—London Rezinc. 
 
NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE 
 
 27 
 
 DR. LARDNER'S HANDBOOKS OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Enlarged and almost re- 
 written by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. With 378 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 
 6s. cloth. 
 
 “ The perspicuity of the original has been retained, and chapters which had become obsolete 
 have been replaced by others of more modern character. The explanations throughout are 
 studiously popular, and care has been taken to show the application of the various branches of 
 physics to the industrial arts, and to the practical business of liie.”— Mining Journal. 
 
 “Mr. Loewy has carefully revised the book, and brought it up to modern requirements.”— 
 Nature. 
 
 “ Natural philosophy has had few exponents more able or better skilled in the art of popu¬ 
 larising the subject than Dr. Lardner ; and Mr. Loewy is doing good service in fitting this treatise, 
 and the others of the series, for use at the present time.”— Scotsman. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS. 
 New Edition, Revised and Enlarged, by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. With 
 236 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 “For those ‘who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science without the pro¬ 
 found methods of mathematical investigation,’ this work is not merely intended, but well adapted.'* 
 —Chemical News. 
 
 “The volume before us has been carefully edited, augmented to nearly twice the bulk of the 
 former edition, and all the most recent matter has been added. . . . It is a valuable text-book.” 
 — Nature. 
 
 “Candidates for pass examinations will find it, we think, specially suited to their requirements.” 
 English Mechanic. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and almost entirely re¬ 
 written by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S., &c. 117 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6s. 
 cloth. 
 
 “ The style is always clear and precise, and conveys instruction without leaving any cloudiness 
 or lurking doubts behind.”— Engineering. 
 
 “A most exhaustive book on the subject on which it treats, and is so arranged that it can be 
 
 understood by all who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science.Mr. 
 
 Loewy has included all the latest discoveries in the varied law-s and effects of heat.”— Standard. 
 
 “A complete and handy text-book for the use of students and general readers.”— English 
 Mechanic. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. By Dionysius Lardner,D.C.L., 
 
 formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University 
 College, London. New Edition. Edited by T. Olver Harding, B.A. Lond., 
 of University College, London. With 298 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 448 
 pages, 5s. cloth. 
 
 “Written by one of the ablest English scientific writers, beautifully and elaborately illustrated.” 
 Mechanic s Magazine. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND 
 
 ACOUSTICS. By Dr. Lardner. Ninth Thousand. Edit, by George Carey 
 Foster, B.A., F.C S. With 400 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 “ The book could not have been entrusted to anyone better calculated to preserve the terse and 
 lucid style of Lardner, while correcting his errors and bringing up his work to the present state of 
 scientific knowledge.”— Popular Science Review. 
 
 V* The above Five Volumes, though each is Complete in itself, form A Com¬ 
 plete Course of Natural Philosophy. 
 
 Dr. Lardner’s Handbook of Astronomy. 
 
 THE HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. Forming a Companion 
 to the “ Handbook of Natural Philosophy. ’’ By Dionysius Lardner, D.C.L., 
 formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University 
 College, London. Fourth Edition. Revised and Edited by Edwin Dunkin, 
 F\R.A.S., Royal Observatory, Greenwich. With 38 Plates and upwards of 
 100 Woodcuts. In One Vol., small 8vo, 550 pages, 9s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ Probably no other book contains the same amount of information in so compendious and well- 
 arranged a form—certainly none at the price at which this is offered to the public.”— Athetueum. 
 
 “We can do no other than pronounce this work a most valuable manual of astronomy, and we 
 strongly recommend it to all who wish to acquire a general—but at the same time correct—acquaint¬ 
 ance with this sublime science.”— Quarterly Journal 0/ Science. 
 
 “One of the most deservedly popular books on the subject . . . We would recommend not 
 only the student of the elementary principles of the science, but he who aims at mastering the 
 higher and mathematical branches of astronomy, not to be without this work beside him.”— Practi - 
 cal Magazine. 
 
28 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD <S- SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 DR. LARDNER’S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. 
 
 THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. Edited by 
 Dionysius Lardner, D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and 
 Astronomy in University College, London. With upwards of 1,200 Engrav¬ 
 ings on Wood. In 6 Double Volumes, £1 is., in a new and elegant cloth bind¬ 
 ing ; or handsomely bound in half-morocco, 31s. 6 d. 
 
 Contents: 
 
 The Planets: Are they Inhabited Worlds?— 
 Weather Prognostics — Popular Fallacies in 
 Questions of Physical Science—Latitudes and 
 Longitudes — Lunar Influences — Meteoric 
 Stones and Shooting Stars—Railway Accidents 
 —Light-Common Things : Air—Locomotion 
 m the United States—Cometary Influences— | 
 Common Things: Water—The Potter’s Art— 1 
 Common Things: Fire — Locomotion and i 
 i ransport, their Influence and Progress—The 
 Moon — Common Things: The Earth — The 
 Electric Telegraph — Terrestrial Heat —The 
 Sun—Earthquakes and Volcanoes—Barometer, 
 Safety Lamp, and Whitworth's Micrometric 
 Apparatus—Steam—The Steam Engine—The 
 Lye —The Atmosphere — Time — Common 
 Things: Pumps—Common Things : Spectacles, 
 the Kaleidoscope — Clocks and Watches — 
 Microscopic Drawing and Engraving—Loco- i 
 
 motive — Thermometer — New Planets: Le- 
 verrier and Adams's Planet—Magnitude and 
 Minuteness—Common Things: The Almanack 
 —Optical Images—How to observe the Heavens 
 — Common Things : The Looking-glass — 
 Stellar Universe—The Tides—Colour—Cora- 
 mon Things: Man—Magnifying Glasses—In¬ 
 stinct and Intelligence—The Solar Microscope 
 —The Camera Lucida—The Magic Lantern— 
 The Camera Obscura—The Microscope—The 
 White Ants: Their Manners and Habits—The 
 Surface of the Earth, or First Notions of 
 Geography—Science and Poetry—The Bee— 
 Steam Navigation — Electro-Motive Power — 
 Thunder, Lightning, and the Aurora Borealis 
 —The Printing Press—The Crust of the Earth 
 —Comets—The Stereoscope—The Pre-Adam¬ 
 ite Earth—Eclipses—Sound. 
 
 *** Opinions of the Press, 
 
 This series, besides affording popular but sound instruction on scientific subjects, with which 
 the humblest man in the country ought to be acquainted, also undertakes that teaching of ‘ Com¬ 
 mon i flings which every well-wisher of his kind is anxious to promote. Many thousand copies of 
 this serviceable publication have been printed, in the belief and hope that the desire for instruction 
 and improvement widely prevails ; and we have no fear that such enlightened faith will meet with 
 disappointment. — Tunes. 
 
 “A cheap and interesting publication, alike informing and attractive. The papers combine 
 subjects of importance and great scientific knowledge, considerable inductive powers and a 
 popular style of treatment.’’— Spectator. ^ ’ 
 
 "The'Museum of Science and Art’ is the most valuable contribution that has ever been 
 , e Instruction of every class of society.’’—Sir David Brewster, in the 
 
 ort/i tintisn Review. 
 
 " Whether we consider the liberality and beauty of the illustrations, the charm of the writing 
 or the durable interest of the matter, we must express our belief that there is hardly to be found 
 among: the new books one that would be welcomed by people of so many ages and classes as a 
 valuable present . —Examiner. 
 
 *** Separate books formed from the above, suitable for Workmen's Libraries, 
 
 Science Classes, etc. 
 
 Common Things Explained. Containing Air, Earth, Fire, Water, Time, 
 Man, the Eye, Locomotion, Colour, Clocks and Watches, &c. 233 Illus¬ 
 trations, cloth gilt, 5s. 
 
 The Microscope. Containing Optical Images, Magnifying Glasses, Origin 
 and Description of the Microscope, Microscopic Objects, the Solar Micro¬ 
 scope, Microscopic Drawing and Engraving, &c. 147 Illustrations, cloth 
 
 gilt, 2 s. 
 
 Pojmlar Geology. Containing Earthquakes and Volcanoes, the Crust of 
 the Earth, See. 201 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s. 6 d. 
 
 Popular Physics. Containing Magnitude and Minuteness, the Atmo¬ 
 sphere, Meteoric Stones, Popular Fallacies, Weather Prognostics, the 
 Thermometer, the barometer, Sound, See. 85 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s. 6 d. 
 
 Steam and its Uses. Including the Steam Engine, the Locomotive, and 
 Steam Navigation. 89 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 23. 
 
 Popidar Astronomy. Containing How to observe the Heavens—The 
 Earth, Sun, Moon, Planets, Light, Comets, Eclipses, Astronomical Influ¬ 
 ences, &c. 182 Illustrations, 4s. 6 d. 
 
 The Bee and White Ants : Their Manners and Habits. With Illustra¬ 
 tions of Animal Instinct and Intelligence. 135 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 25. 
 
 The Electric Telegraph Popularized. To render intelligible to all who 
 can Read, irrespective of any previous Scientific Acquirements, the various 
 forms of Telegraphy in Actual Operation. 100 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 
 is. 6 d. 
 
COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES, CALCULATORS, etc. 29 
 
 COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES, etc. 
 
 Accounts for Manufacturers. 
 
 FACTORY ACCOUNTS: Their Principles and Practice. A 
 
 Handbook for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on the No¬ 
 menclature of Machine Details; the Income Tax Acts; the Rating of Fac¬ 
 tories; Fire and Boiler Insurance; the Factory and Workshop Acts, &c., 
 including also a Glossary of Terms and a large number of Specimen Rulings. 
 By Emile Garcke and J. M. Fells. Second Edition. Demy 8vo, 250 pages, 
 price 10s. 6 d. strongly bound. [.Jwst published. 
 
 “One of the most important works ever published dealing with these matters. The authors 
 have treated the subject from the standpoint of the factory, as practical men speaking to practical 
 men, and not, as has been too often the case, as schoolmasters to schoolboys."— Electrician. 
 
 " A very interesting description of the requirements of Factory Accounts. . . . the principle 
 
 of assimilating the Factory Accounts to the general commercial books is one which we thoroughly 
 agree with — Accountants' Journal. 
 
 "Characterised by extreme thoroughness. There are few owners of Factories who would 
 not derive great benefit from the perusal of this most admirable work .”—Local Government 
 Chronicle. 
 
 Foreign Commercial Correspondence. 
 
 THE FOREIGN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT: Being 
 
 Aids to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages—English, French, 
 German, Italian and Spanish. By Charles E. Baker. Crown 8vo, price 
 about 5s. Un preparation. 
 
 Intuitive Calculations. 
 
 THE COMPENDIOUS CALCULATOR; or, Easy and Con¬ 
 cise Methods of Performing the various Arithmetical Operations required in 
 Commercial and Business Transactions, together with Useful Tables. By 
 Daniel O'Gorman. Corrected and Extended by J. R. Young, formerly 
 Professor of Mathematics at Belfast College. Twenty-sixth Edition, care¬ 
 fully Revised by C. Norris. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6 d . strongly half-bound in leather. 
 “ It would be difficult to exaggerate the usefulness of a book like this to everyone engaged in 
 commerce or manufacturing industry. It is crammed full of rules and formulae for shortening ancl 
 
 employing calculations.”— Knowledge. . , , , . „. .,. 
 
 " Supplies special and rapid methods for all kinds of calculations. Of great utility to persons 
 engaged in any kind of commercial transactions.”— Scotsman. 
 
 Modern Metrical Units and Systems. 
 
 MODERN METROLOGY: A Manual of the Metrical Units 
 ami Systems of the Present Century. With an Appendix containing a proposed 
 English System. By Lowis D’A. Jackson, A.M. Inst. C.E., Author of “ Aid 
 to Survey Practice,” &c. Large crown 8vo, 12s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 "The author has brought together much valuable and interesting information. . . . We 
 cannot but recommend the work to the consideration of all interested in the practical reform of our 
 weights and measures."— Nature. , „ . , , , , 
 
 “ For exhaustive tables of equivalent weights and measures of all sorts, and lor clear demonstra¬ 
 tions of the effects of the various systems that have been proposed or adopted, Mr. Jackson's 
 treatise is without a rival.”— Academy. 
 
 The Metric System and the British Standards. 
 
 A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in which the British Stand¬ 
 ard Measures and Weights are compared with thbse of the Metric System at present 
 in Use on the Continent. By C. H. Dowling, C.E. 8vo, ios. 6 d. strongly bound. 
 “ Their accuracy has been certified by Professor Airy, the Astronomer-Royal .”—Bu tlder. 
 
 ••Mr. Dowling's Tables are well put together as a ready-reckoner for the conversion of one 
 system into the other.”— Athenaum. 
 
 Iron and Metal Trades’ Calculator. 
 
 THE IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION. Fcr 
 
 expeditiously ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by Weight, 
 from is per cwt to 112s. per cwt., and from one farthing per pound to one 
 shilling'per pound. Each Table extends from one pound to 100 tons. To 
 which are appended Rules on Decimals, Square and Cube Root, Mensuration 
 of Superficies and Solids, &c.; Tables of Weights of Materials and other 
 Useful Memoranda. By Thos. Downie. 396 PP-, 9 *- Strongly bound in leather. 
 ** A most useful set of tables, and will supply a want, for nothing like them before existed. — 
 
 ^"'^AlfhouTh specially adapted to the iron and metal trader the tables will be found useful in 
 every' other business in which merchandise is bought and sold by weight. —Railway News. 
 
3 ° 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6- SON'S CATALOGUE, 
 
 Calculator for Numbers and Weights Combined. 
 THE COMBINED NUMBER AND WEIGHT CALCU- 
 
 LA TOR. Containing upwards of 250,000 Separate Calculations, showing at 
 a glance the value at 421 different rates, ranging from ^th of a Penny to 20s. 
 each, or per cwt., and £20 per ton, ot any number of articles consecutively, 
 from 1 to 470.—Any number of cwts., qrs., and lbs., from 1 cwt. to 470 cwts.— 
 Any number of tons, cwts., qrs., and lbs., from 1 to 23$ tons. By William 
 Chadwick, Public Accountant. Imp. 8vo, 30s. strongly bound for Office wear 
 and tear. 
 
 «as* This comprehensive and entirely unique and original Calculator is adapted 
 for the use of Accountants and Auditors, Railway Companies, Canal Companies 
 Shippers, Shipping Agents, General Carriers, etc. Ironfounders, Brassfounders, 
 Metal Merchants, Iron Manufacturers, Ironmongers, Engineers, Machinists, Boiler 
 Makers, Millwrights, Roofing, Bridge and Girder Makers, Colliery Proprietors, etc. 
 Timber Merchants, Builders, Contractors, Architects, Surveyors, Auctioneers, 
 Valuers, Brokers , Mill Owners and Manufacturers, Mill Furnishers, Merchants and 
 General Wholesale Tradesmen. 
 
 *** Opinions of the Press. 
 
 The book contains the answers to questions, and not simply a set of ingenious puzzle 
 methods of arriving at results. 11 is as easy of reference for any answer or any number of answers 
 as a dictionary, and the references are even more quickly made. For making up accounts or esti¬ 
 mates, the book must prove invaluable to all who have anjr considerable quantity of calculations 
 involving price and measure in any combination to do.”— Engineer. 
 
 r • most com P lete and practical ready reckoner which it has been our fortune yet to see 
 
 It is difficult to imagine a trade or occupation in which it could not be of the greatest use, either 
 in saving human labour or in checking work."— The Miller. 
 
 " The most perfect work of the kind yet prepared."— Glasgow Herald. 
 
 Comprehensive Weight Calculator. 
 
 THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR. Being a Series of Tables 
 
 upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at One Reference the exact 
 Value of any Weight from 1 lb. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive Rates, from id. 
 to 168s. per cwt., and containing 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with their 
 Combinations, consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed at 
 sight), will afiord an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers; the whole being calcu¬ 
 lated and designed to ensure correctness and promote despatch. By Henry 
 Harben, Accountant. Fourth Edition, carefully Corrected. Royal 8vo 
 strongly half-bound, £1 5 s [j ust p ub i ish ed. 
 
 A practical and useful work of reference for men of business generally ; it is the best of the 
 kind we have seen . —Ironmonger. 
 
 “Of priceless value to business men. Its accuracy and completeness have secured for it a 
 reputation which renders it quite unnecessary for us to say one word in its praise. It is a necessary 
 book in all mercantile offices.’ —Sheffield Independent. J 
 
 Comprehensive Discount Guide. 
 
 THE DISCOUNT GUIDE. Comprising several Series of 
 Tables for the use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and others 
 by which may be ascertained the exact Profit arising from any mode of using 
 Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and the method of either 
 Altering a Rate of Discount or Advancing a Price, so as to produce, by one 
 operation, a sum that will realise any required profit after allowing one or 
 more Discounts : to which are added Tables of Profit or Advance from 1} to 
 go per cent., Tables of Discount from i£ to g8f per cent., and Tables of Com- 
 mission, &c., from % to io per cent. By Henry Harben, Accountant Author 
 of “ The Weight Calculator.” New Edition, carefully Revised and Corrected 
 Demy 8vo, 544 pp. half-bound, £1 5s. 
 
 “ A b ° ok sach as this “ n only be appreciated by business men, to whom the saving of time 
 means saving of money. We have the high authority of Prcfessor I. R. Young that the tables 
 throughout the work are constructed upon strictly accurate principles. The work must prove 
 of great value to merchants, manufacturers, and general traders."— British Trade Journal. 
 
 Iron Shipbuilders’ and Merchants’ Weight Tables. 
 IRON-PLATE WEIGHT TABLES: For Iron Shipbuilders, 
 
 Engineers and Iron Merchants. Containing the Calculated Weights of up¬ 
 wards of 150,000 different sizes of Iron Plates, from 1 foot by 6 in by i in to 
 10 feet by 5 feet by 1 in. Worked out on the basis of 40 lbs. to the square 
 foot of Iron of 1 inch in thickness. Carefully compiled and thoroughly Re¬ 
 vised by H. Burlinson and W. H. Simpson. Oblong 4 to, 25s. half-bound 
 ••This work will be found of great utility The authors have had much practical experience 
 of what is wanting in making estimates; and the use of the book lull save much time iu making 
 elaborate calculations .—English Mechanic. B 
 
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS , 
 
 3i 
 
 INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 
 
 Soap-making. 
 
 THE ART OF SOAP-MAKING : A Practical Handbook of the 
 
 Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, etc. Including many New 
 Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. 
 By Alexander Watt, Author of “ Electro-Metallurgy Practically Treated,” 
 &c. With numerous Illustrations. Third Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 
 7s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “The work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, but to the practical 
 soap-boiler who wishes to understand the theory of his art.”— Chemical News. 
 
 “Really an excellent example of a technical manual, entering, as it does, thoroughly and 
 exhaustively both into the theory and practice of soap manufacture. The book is well and honestly 
 done, and deserves the considerable circulation with which it will doubtless meet.”— Knowledge. 
 
 “Mr. Watt's book is a thoroughly practical treatise on an art which has almost no literature in 
 our language. We congratulate the author on the success of his endeavour to fill a void in English 
 technical literature."— Nature. 
 
 Leather Manufacture. 
 
 THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE. Being a 
 
 Practical Handbook, in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and 
 Leather Dressing are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning Ex¬ 
 plained, and many Recent Processes introduced; as also Methods for the 
 Estimation of Tannin, and a Description of the Arts of Glue Boiling, Gul 
 Dressing, &c. By Alexander Watt, Author of “ Soap-Making,” “ Electro- 
 Metallurgy,” &c. With numerous Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown 
 8vo, 9 s. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 “A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and its accessories. The book is an eminently 
 valuable production, which redounds to the credit ot both author and publishers.”— Chemical 
 Review. 
 
 “This volume is technical without being-tedious, comprehensive and complete without being 
 prosy, and it bears on every page the impress of a master hand. We have never come across a 
 better trade treatise, nor one that so thoroughly supplied an absolute want.”— Shoe and Leather 
 Trades' Chronicle . 
 
 Boot and Shoe Making. 
 
 THE ART OF BOOT AND SHOE-MAKING. A Practical 
 
 Handbook, including Measurement, Last-Fitting, Cutting-Out, Closing and 
 Making, with a Description of the most approved Machinery employed. 
 By John B. Leno, late Editor of St. Crispin, and The Boot and Shoe-Maker. 
 With numerous Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, zs. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 [Just published. 
 
 “This excellent treatise is by far the best work ever written on the subject. A new work, 
 embracing all modem improvements, was much wanted. This want is now satisfied. The chapter 
 on clicking, which shows how waste may be prevented, will save fifty times the price of the book.” 
 —Scottish Leather Trader. 
 
 “ This volume is replete with matter well worthy the perusal of boot and shoe manufacturers 
 and experienced craftsmen, and instructive and valuable in the highest degree to all young 
 beginners and craftsmen in the trade of which it treats.”— Leather Trades' Circular. 
 
 Dentistry. 
 
 MECHANICAL DENTISTRY : A Practical Treatise on the 
 Construction of the various kinds of Artificial Dentures. Comprising also Use¬ 
 ful Formulae, Tables and Receipts for Gold Plate, Clasps, Solders, &c. &c. 
 By Charles Hunter. Third Edition, Revised. With upwards of 100 
 Wood Engravings. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6 d. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 “ The work is very practical.”— Monthly Review of Dental Surgery. 
 
 “We can strongly recommend Mr. Hunter’s treatise to all students preparing for the profession 
 of dentistry, as well as to every mechanical dentist.”— Dublin Journal of Medical Science. 
 
 Wood Engraving. 
 
 A PRACTICAL MANUAL OF WOOD ENGRAVING. With 
 
 a Brief Account of the History of the Art. By William Norman Brown. 
 With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. 
 
 “ The author deals with the subject in a thoroughly practical and easy series of representative 
 lessons.”— Pater and Printing Trades Journal. 
 
 “ The book is clear and complete, and will be useful to anyone wanting to understand the first 
 elements of the beautiful art of wood engraving.’’— Graphic. 
 
 Paper Making. 
 
 A TREATISE ON PAPER; with an Outline of its Manufacture, 
 
 Complete Tables of Sizes, etc. For Printers and Stationers. By Richardson 
 Parkinson. 8 vo, 3j. cloth ; 2 s . 6 d . paper wrapper. 
 
 “ An admirable handbook by a man who understands his subject."— Printers' Register. 
 
CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6- SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 
 LOCKWOOD'S HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS. 
 
 13 " These Handy books are written to supply Handicraftsmen with informa¬ 
 tion on workshop practice, and are intended to convey, in plain language , technical 
 knowledge of the several crafts. Workshop terms are used, and workshop practice 
 described, the text being freely illustrated with drawings of modern tools, appliances 
 and processes, useful alike to the young beginner and to the old hand, whose range 
 of experience has been narrowed under a system of divided labour, as well as to 
 amateurs. 
 
 The following Volumes are already published. 
 
 Metal Turning. 
 
 THE METAL TURNER’S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual 
 
 for Workers at the Foot-Lathe: Embracing Information on the Tools, 
 Appliances and Processes employed in Metal Turning. By Paul N. Has- 
 luck, A.I.M.E., Author of “ Lathe-Work.” With upwards of One Hundred 
 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Cr. 8vo, zs. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 “ Altogether admirably adapted to initiate students into the art of turning."— Leicester Post. 
 
 “ Clearly and concisely written, excellent in every way, we heartily commend it to all interested 
 in metal turning. —Mechanical World. 
 
 " With the assistance of a clever master, a clear and vivid expounder, and an abundance of 
 illustrations, the work lets handicraftsmen know what are the resources of the turning-lathe and how 
 these may be developed.' —Dundee Advertiser. 
 
 Wood Turning. 
 
 THE WOOD TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual 
 
 for Workers at the Lathe: Embracing Information on the Tools, Appliances 
 and Processes Employed in Wood Turning. By Paul N. Hasluck, A. I M E 
 Author of “ Lathe-Work,” ‘‘The Metal Turner’s Handybook,” &c. With 
 upwards of One Hundred Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2s, cloth. published. 
 
 “ The volume is well and clearly written in a lucid style, and all the instructions are fully given 
 It will be found of great value to workmen and amateurs, and forms a safe and reliable guide to 
 every branch of the lathe manipulation/’ —Carpenter and Builder. 
 
 “An excellent manual for workers at the lathe.”— Glasgow Herald. 
 
 “We recommend the book to young turners and amateurs. A multitude of workmen have 
 hitherto sought in vain for a manual of this special industry.”— Mechanical World. 
 
 Watch liepairing. 
 
 THE WATCH JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual 
 
 on Cleaning, Repairing and Adjusting. Embracing Information on the Tools, 
 Materials, Appliances and Processes Employed in Watchwork. By Paul N 
 Hasluck, A.I.M.E., Author of “ Lathe-Work,” “The Metal Turner’s Handy- 
 Book,” “The Wood Turner’s Handybook,” &c. With upwards of One 
 Hundred Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. [Just published. 
 
 “ Written in a clear style exactly suited to beginners and amateurs. We heartily recommend 
 it.” —Practical Lngineer. 
 
 " We recommend it to craftsmen in watchmaking as a useful and well-written grammar of their 
 art.”— Scotsman, 
 
 “ All young persons connected with the trade should acquire and study this excellent and at 
 Che same time, inexpensive work." —Clerkenwell Cnronicle. 
 
 Pattern Making. 
 
 THE PATTERN MAKER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical 
 
 Manual, embracing Information on the Tools, Materials and Appliances em¬ 
 ployed in Constructing Patterns for Founders. By Paul N. Hasluck 
 A.I.M.E. With One Hundred Illustrations. Cr. 8vo,2s. cloth. [Just published’. 
 
 “ Mr. Hasluck's ‘ Lathe Work ’ and kindred productions have acquired a high reputation 
 His new volume, ‘ Pattern Making,' contains invaluable advice, and furnishes tile studious workman 
 with a very large amount of practical information." —Lloyds News. 
 
 “Especially useful to the beginner. We commend it to all who are interested in the counsels 
 it so ably gives."— Colliery Guardian. 
 
 “This handy volume contains sound information of considerable value to students and 
 artificers.”— Hardware Trade Journal. 
 
 Mechanical Manipulation. 
 
 THE MECHANICS WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK. A Practical 
 
 Manual on Mechanical Manipulation. Embracing Information on various 
 Handicraft Processes, with Useful Notes and Miscellaneous Memoranda. 
 By Paul N. Hasluck, A.I.M.E. Author of “ Lathe-Work,” “The Metal" 
 Turner’s Handybook,” “ The Wood Turner’s Handybook.’’ &c. Crown 8vo, 
 2S. cloth. [Just ready. 
 
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 
 
 33 
 
 Electrolysis of Gold, Silver, Copper, etc. 
 
 ELECTRO-DEPOSITION : A Practical Treatise on the Electrolysis 
 of Gold, Silver, Copper, Nickel, and other Metals and Alloys. With descrip¬ 
 tions of Voltaic Batteries, Magnet and Dynamo-Electric Machines, Ther¬ 
 mopiles, and of the Materials and Processes used in every Department ot 
 the Art, and several Chapters on ELECTRO-METALLURGY. By Alex¬ 
 ander Watt, Author of “Electro-Metallurgy,” &c. With numerous Illus¬ 
 trations. Second Edition, Revised and Corrected. Crown 8vo, gs. cloth. 
 
 . . [Just published. 
 
 ' Evidently written by a practical man who has spent a long period of time in electro-plate 
 workshops. The information given respecting the details of workshop manipulation is remarkably 
 complete. . . . Mr. Watt’s book will prove of great value to electro.depositors, jewellers, and 
 various other workers in metal.”— Nature. 
 
 “Eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition. It contains minute and 
 practical descriptions of methods, processes and materials as actually pursued and used in the 
 workshop. Mr. Watt's book recommends itself to all interested in its subjects.”— Engineer, 
 
 Electro-Metallurgy. 
 
 ELECTRO-METALLURGY; Practically Treated. By Alexander 
 
 Watt, F.R.S.S.A. Eighth Edition, Revised, with Additional Matter and 
 Illustrations, including the most recent Processes. i2mo, 3s. 6 d. cloth boards. 
 “From this book both amateur and artisan may learn everything necessary for the successful 
 prosecution of electroplating.”— Iron. 
 
 Electroplating. 
 
 ELECTROPLATING : A Practical Handbook. By J. W. Urqu- 
 
 hart, C.E. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 5 s. cloth. 
 
 “ The information given appears to be based on direct personal knowledge. . . Its science 
 s sound and the style is always clear.”— Athenceum . 
 
 Electrotyping. 
 
 ELECTROTYPING : The Reproduction and Multiplication of Print¬ 
 ing Surfaces and Works of Art by the Electro-deposition of Metals. By J. W. 
 Urquhart, C.E. Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 "The book is thoroughly practical. The reader is, therefore, conducted through the leading 
 laws of electricity, then through the metals used by electrotjmers, the apparatus, and the depositing 
 processes, up to the final preparation of the work." —Art Journal. 
 
 "We can recommend this treatise, not merely to amateurs, but to those actually engaged in the 
 trade.”— Chemical News. 
 
 Goldsmiths’ Work. 
 
 THE GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK. By George E. Gee, 
 
 Jeweller, &c. Third Edition, considerably Enlarged. i2tno, 3s. 6 d. cloth 
 boards. 
 
 “A good, sound, technical educator, and will be generally accepted as an authority. It exactly 
 fulfils the purpose intended.” —Horological Journal. 
 
 “Will speedily become a standard book which few will care to be without.”— Jeweller a 7 id 
 Metalworker. 
 
 Silversmiths’ Work. 
 
 THE SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK. By George E. Gee, 
 
 Jeweller, &c. Second Edition, Revised, with numerous Illustrations. i2mo, 
 3s. 6 d. cloth boards. 
 
 “ The chief merit of the work is its practical character. . . . The workers in the trade will 
 speedily discover its merits when they sit down to study it.”— English Mechanic. 
 
 “This work forms a valuable sequel to the author’s ‘Goldsmiths Handbook .’”—Silversmiths 
 Trade Journal. 
 
 *** The above two works together , strongly half-bound, price ys. 
 
 . Textile Manufacturers’ Tables. 
 
 UNIVERSAL TABLES OF TEXTILE STRUCTURE. 
 
 For the use of Manufacturers in every branch of Textile Trade. By Joseph 
 Edmondson. Oblong folio, strongly bound in cloth, price ys. 6 d. 
 
 The principle on which the tables are founded is well known, and much 
 used in the muslin manufacture, but the intricacy of the calculations hitherto 
 required (especially where warp and weft differ in counts and in the closeness of the 
 threads) has prevented its general application. By these tables all the adjustments 
 may be made without calculation. Mere references to the proper places bring out 
 the required information. 
 
 “ Immense labour has been bestowed on the work by the author. The tables are adapted to 
 every mode of numbering yarns and setts, and apply to all the branches of textile manufacture.’ — 
 Textile Recorder. 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 CROSBY LOCKIVOOD cS* SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Horology. 
 
 A TREATISE ON MODERN HOROLOGY, in Theory and Prac¬ 
 tice. Translated from the French of Claudius Saunier, ex-Director of the 
 School of Horology at Macon, by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., Besancon 
 Watch Manufacturer, and Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. 
 With Seventy-eight Woodcuts and Twenty-two Coloured Copper Plates. 
 Second Edition. Super-royal 8vo, £2 2s. cloth, £2 10s. half-calf. 
 
 . ' s 1 ° i' 0 f oI °fc rica > W0r ^ H the English language at all to be compared to this produc¬ 
 
 tion of M. Saunier s for clearness and completeness. It is alike good as a guide for the student and 
 3S N.% e ™ ce for the ex Porienced horologist and skilled workman. "—Horolcgical journal. 
 
 i he latest, the most complete, and the most reliable of those literary productions to which 
 continental watchmakers are indebted for the mechanical superiority over their English brethren 
 m «« tm!* 6 ^ 00 -^ Books, is M. Saunier’s ‘ Treatise.”’— Watchmaker, Jeweller ana.Silversmith. 
 * " 1S niagnincent treatise is one of the most valuable and comprehensive contributions to the 
 literature of horological art and science ever produced, and cannot be too highly commended. It 
 is a perfect cyclopaedia of watch and clockmaking.”-- The Coventry JFateh and Clockmaker. 
 
 Watchmaki n g. 
 
 THE WA ICHMAKER'S HANDBOOK. Intended as a Work¬ 
 shop Companion for those engaged in Watchmaking and the Allied Mechani- 
 cal Arts. Tianslated from the French of Claudius Saunier, and consider¬ 
 ably Enlarged by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., yice-President of the Horologi¬ 
 cal Institute, and Edward Rigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. With 
 Numerous Woodcuts and Fourteen Copper Plates. Second Edition, Revised. 
 With Appendix. Crown 8vo, 9s. cloth. [ Just published. 
 
 Each part is truly a treatise in itself. The arrangement is good and the language is clear and 
 concise. . It is an admirable guide for the young watchmaker.”— Engineering. 
 
 It is impossible to speak too highly of its excellence. It fulfils every requirement in a hand¬ 
 book intended for the use of a workman. Should be found in every workshop.”— IVatch and 
 Clockmaker. * 
 
 “ This book contains an immense number of practical details bearing on the daily occupation 
 of a watchmaker, and it will be found of great use to an army of workers.”— Watchmaker and 
 Metalworker (Chicago). 
 
 CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES & COMMERCE. 
 
 The Alkali Trade, Sulphuric Acid, etc. 
 
 A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE, including the 
 
 Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching Powder. 
 
 By John Lomas, Alkali Manufacturer, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and London. 
 
 With 232 Illustrations and Working Drawings, and containing 390 pages of 
 
 Text. Second Edition, with Additions. Super-royal 8vo, £1 10s. cloth. 
 
 "This book is written by a manufacturer for manufacturers. The working details of the most 
 approved forms of apparatus are given, and these are accompanied by no less than 232 wood en¬ 
 gravings, all of which may be used for the purposes of construction. Every step in the manufac¬ 
 ture is very fully described in this manual, and each improvement explained.”— Athenaeum. 
 
 Tho author is not one of those clever compilers who, on short notice, will ‘read up ’ any conceiv¬ 
 able subject, but a practical man in the best sense 01 the word. We find here not merely a sound 
 and luminous explanation ol the chemical principles of the trade, but a notice of numerous matters 
 which have a most important bearing on the successful conduct of alkali works, but which are 
 generally overlooked by even the most experienced technological authors.”— Chemical Review . 
 
 Brewing. 
 
 A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG BREWERS. 
 Edwards Wright, B.A. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6 d . cloth. 
 
 By Herbert 
 
 “ This httle volume, containing such a large amount of good sense in so small a compass, ought 
 to recommend itself to every brewery pupil.”— Brewers' Guardian. 
 
 Commercial Chemical Analysis. 
 
 THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL ANA¬ 
 LYSIS; or, Practical Instructions for the determination of the Intrinsic or 
 Commercial Value oi Substances used in Manufactures, in Trades, and in the 
 Arts. By A. Normandy, Editor of Rose’s “Treatise on Chemical Analysis. M 
 New Edition, to a great extent Re-written by Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., 
 F.R.S. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “We strongly recommend this book to our readers as a guide, alike indispensable to the house¬ 
 wife as to the pharmaceutical practitioner.”— Medical Times. 
 
 “ Essential to the analysts appointed under the new Act. The most recent results are given, 
 and the work is well edited and carefully written."— Nature. 
 
AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. 
 
 35 
 
 Dye-Wares and Colours. 
 
 THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE-WARES : Theiv 
 Properties, Applications, Valuation, Impurities, and Sophistications. For the 
 use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. Slater. Second 
 ^Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. Crown 8vo, ys. 5 d. cloth. 
 
 “ A complete encyclopaedia of the materia tinctoria. The information given respecting each 
 article is full and precise, and the methods of determining the value of articles such as these, so 
 liable to sophistication, are given with clearness, and are practical as well as valuable.” —Chemist 
 afia Druggist. 
 
 “ There is no other work which covers precisely the same ground. To students preparing 
 for examinations in dyeing and printing it will prove exceedingly useful."— Chemical News. 
 
 Figments. 
 
 THE ARTIST’S MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. Showing 
 
 their Composition, Conditions of Permanency, Non-Permanency, and Adul¬ 
 terations; Effects in Combination with Each Other and with Vehicles ; and 
 the most Reliable Tests of Purity. Together with the Science and’ Arts 
 Department’s Examination Questions on Painting. By H. C. Standage. 
 Second Edition, Revised. Small crown 8vo, 2s. 6 d. cloth. [Just published. 
 ’’This work is indeed multictn-in-parvo, and we can, with good conscience, recommend it to 
 all who come in contact with pigments, whether as makers, dealers or users ."—Chemical Review. 
 
 “This manual cannot fail to be a very valuable aid to all painters who wish their work to 
 endure and be of a sound character ; it is complete and comprehensive.'’— Spectator. 
 
 “ The author supplies a great deal of very valuable information and memoranda as to the 
 chemical qualities and artistic effect of the principal pigments used by painters.”— Builder. 
 
 Gauging. Tables and Hides for Revenue Officers, 
 
 Brewers, etc. 
 
 A POCKET BOOK OF MENSURATION AND GAUGING : 
 
 Containing Tables, Rules and Memoranda for Revenue Officers, Brewers, 
 Spirit Merchants, &c. By J. B. Mant (Inland Revenue). Oblong i8mo, 4s. 
 leather, with elastic band. [Just published. 
 
 “ This handy and useful book is adapted to the requirements of the Inland Revenue Depart¬ 
 ment, and will be a favourite book of reference. The range of subjects is comprehensive, and the 
 arrangement simple and clear.”— Civilian. 
 
 “ A most useful book. It should be in the hands of every practical brewer ."—Brewers' 
 Journal. 
 
 AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. 
 
 Agricultural Facts and Figures. 
 
 NOTE-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL FACTS AND FIGURES 
 FOR FARMERS AND FARM STUDENTS. By Primrose McConnell, 
 Fellow of the Highland and Agricultural Society ; late Professor of Agricul¬ 
 ture, Glasgow Veterinary College. Third Edition. Royal 32mo, full roan, 
 gilt edges, with elastic band, 4s. 
 
 “ The most complete and comprehensive Note-book for Farmers and Farm Students that w 
 have seen. It literally teems with information, and we can cordially recommend it to all connected 
 with agriculture.”— North British Agriculturist. 
 
 Youatt and Burn’s Complete Grazier. 
 
 THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER’S and CATTLE- 
 
 BREEDER'S ASSISTANT. A Compendium of Husbandry; especially in 
 the departments connected with the Breeding, Rearing, Feeding, and General 
 Management of Stock; the Management of the Dairy, &c. With Directions 
 for the Culture and Management of Grass Land, of Grain and Root Crops, 
 the Arrangement of Farm Offices, the use of Implements and Machines, and 
 on Draining, Irrigation, Warping, &c.; and the Application and Relative 
 Value of Manures. By William Youatt, Esq., V.S. Twelfth Edition, En¬ 
 larged by Robert Scott Burn, Author of “ Outlines of Modern Farming,” 
 “ Systematic Small Farming,” &c. One large 8vo volume, 860 pp., with 244 
 Illustrations, £1 is. half-bound. 
 
 “The standard and text-book with the farmer and grazier.”— Fanners Magazine. 
 
 “A treatise which will remain a standard work on the subject as long as British agriculture 
 endures.”— Mark Lane Express (First Notice). 
 
 “ The book deals with all departments of agriculture, and contains an immense amount of 
 valuable information. It is, in fact, an encyclopaedia of agriculture put into readable form, and it 
 is the only work equally comprehensive brought down to present date. It is excellently printed on 
 thick paper, and strongly bound, and deserves a place in the library of every agriculturist.”— Mark 
 Lane Express (Second Notice). 
 
36 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &• SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 Flour Manufacture, Milling, etc. 
 
 FLOUR MANUFACTURE: A Treatise on Milling Science 
 and Practice. By Friedrich Kick, Imperial Regierungsrath, Professor of 
 Mechanical Technology in the Imperial German Polytechnic Institute, 
 Prague. Translated from the Second Enlarged and Revised Edition with 
 Supplement. By H. H. P. Powles, Assoc. Memb. Institution of Civil En¬ 
 gineers. Nearly 400 pp. Illustrated with 28 Folding Plates, and 167 Wood- 
 cuts. Royal 8vo, 25s. cloth. \j ust published. 
 
 _. “ TJ? ,S valuable work is, and will remain, the standard authority on the science of milling. . . 
 1 he miller who has read and digested this work will have laid the foundation, so to speak, of a suc¬ 
 cessful career; he will have acquired a number of general principles which he can proceed to 
 a PP y* Hi this handsome volume we at last have the accepted text-book of modem millingin good, 
 sound English, which has little, if any, trace of the German idiom.”— The Miller . 
 
 .. rofessor Kick treats the subject so thoroughly both on its theoretical and practical sides that 
 " IS 1S we * sulte d to be a text-book of technical education anywhere.”— Scotsman. 
 
 1 he appearance of this celebrated work in English is very opportune, and British millers 
 will, we are sure, not be slow in availing themselves of its pages.”— Millers' Gazette. 
 
 Small Farming. 
 
 SYSTEMATIC SMALL FARMING; or, The Lessons of my 
 Farm. Being an Introduction to Modern Farm Practice for Small Farmers 
 in the Culture of Crops ; The Feeding of Cattle ; The Management of the 
 Dairy, Poultry and Pigs; The Keeping of Farm Work Records; The Ensilage 
 oystern, Construction of Silos, and other Farm Buildings; The Improve¬ 
 ment of Neglected Farms, &c. By Robert Scott Burn, Author of “ Out¬ 
 lines of Landed Estates* Management,*’ and “ Outlines of Farm Manage¬ 
 ment, and Editor of “ The Complete Grazier.” With numerous Illustrations, 
 crown 8vo, 6s. cloth. 
 
 ... .* s ,completest book of its class we have seen, and one which every amateur farmer 
 
 will read with pleasure and accept as a guide.”— Field. 
 
 ' ^ r ‘ ? CO i t u B ^ rn ’? pages are severel y practical, and the tone of the practical man is felt 
 throughout. I he book can only prove a treasure of aid and suggestion to the small farmer of 
 intelligence and energy.”— British Quarterly Review , 
 
 ‘‘I hevoJume contains a vast amount of useful information. No branch of farming is left 
 untouched, from the labour to be done to the results achieved.”— Glasgow Herald. 
 
 Modern Farming. 
 
 OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. Scott Burn. 
 Soils, Munurcs, and Crops—Farming and Farming Economy—Cattle, Sheep, 
 and Horses—Management of the Dairy, Pigs and Poultry—Utilisation of 
 I own-Sewage, Irrigation, &c. Sixth Edition. In One Vol., 1,250 pp., half¬ 
 bound, profusely Illustrated, 12s. 
 
 -inrt has been to make his work at once comprehensive and trustworthy, 
 
 m he has succeeded to a degree which entitles him to much credit "—Morning 
 
 wliichftTrM?^n‘if I h Ulate v e , n , li ? ht , en ‘ he agricultural community on the varied subjects of 
 c 3 t J^ eats » an d hence it should hnd a place in every farmer’s library .’’—City Press . 
 
 No farmer should be without this book.”— Banbury Guardian . 
 
 Agricultural Engineer in g. 
 
 FARM ENGINEERING, THE COMPLETE TEXT-BOOK OF. 
 
 Comprising Draining and Embanking; Irrigation and Water Supply ; Farm 
 Roads, Fences, and Gates ; Farm Buildings, their Arrangement and Con¬ 
 struction, with Plans and Estimates; Barn Implements and Machines; Field 
 Implements and Machines; Agricultural Surveying, Levelling, &c. By Prof. 
 0 j N n^ CO i T 5 Editor of the Farmers' Gazette, late Professor of Agriculture 
 u !:t Economy at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, &c. &c. 
 In.One Vol., 1,150 pages, halt-bound, with over Coo Illustrations, 12s. 
 
 “Written with great care, as well as with knowledge and ability. The author has done his 
 work well; we have found him a very trustworthy guide wherever we have tested his statements. 
 The volume will be of great value to agricultural students .”—Mark Lane Express. 
 
 _" e * cnow °f no bandy volume so likely to be more usefully studied.'' 
 
 English Agriculture. 
 
 THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN: A Text-Book of 
 
 Agriculture, adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and Art Department. 
 For Elementary and Advanced Students. By Hugh Clements (Board of 
 Trade). i8mo, 2 s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 I! £ l' 1051 : comprehensive volume, giving a mass of information .”—Agricultural Economist. 
 
 such a "A h , ave , seen „ a book which has pleased us more, or which contains 
 
 such a vast and useful fund of knowledge, —hducational Fifties, 
 
AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. 
 
 37 
 
 Farm and Estate Book-keepin < 7 . 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING FOR FARMERS & ESTATE OWNERS. 
 
 A Practical Treatise, presenting, in Three Plans, a System adapted to all 
 Classes of Farms. By Johnson M. Woodman, Chartered Accountant. Crown 
 8vo, 3s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ Will be found of great assistance by those who intend to commence a system of book-keep¬ 
 ing, the author’s examples being clear and explicit, and his explanations, while full and accurate, 
 being to a large extent free from technicalities.”— Live Stock. Journal . 
 
 Farm Account Boole. 
 
 WOODMAN'S YEARLY FARM ACCOUNT BOOK. Giving 
 
 a Weekly Labour Account and Diary, and showing the Income and Expen¬ 
 diture under each Department of Crops, Live Stock, Dairy, &c. &c. With 
 Valuation, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet at the end of the 
 Year, and an Appendix of Forms. Ruled and Headed for Entering a Com¬ 
 plete Record of the Farming Operations. By Johnson M. Woodman, 
 Chartered Accountant, Author of “Book-keeping for Farmers.’ 1 Folio, 
 ys. 6 d. half-bound. 
 
 “Contains every requisite form for keeping farm accounts readily and accurately."— Agri¬ 
 culture. 
 
 Early Fruits, Flowers and Vegetables. 
 
 THE FORCING GARDEN; or, How to Grow Early Fruits, 
 Flowers, and Vegetables. With Plans, and Estimates for Building Glass¬ 
 houses, Pits and Frames. Containing also Original Plansfor Double Glazing, 
 a New Method of Growing the Gooseberry under Glass, See. &c., and on Venti¬ 
 lation, Protecting Vine Borders, &c. With Illustrations. By Samuel Wood. 
 Crown 8vo, 3s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “ Mr. Wood’s book is an original and exhaustive answer to the question ‘ IIow to Grow Early 
 Fruits, Flowers and Vegetables ? ’ "—Land and Water . 
 
 Good Gardening. 
 
 A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING ; or, Howto Grow 
 
 Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers. With Practical Notes on Soils, Manures, 
 Seeds, Planting, Laying-out of Gardens and Grounds, &c. By S. Wood. 
 Third Edition, with considerable Additions, &c., and numerous Illustrations. 
 Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 “A very good book, and one to be highly recommended as a practical guide.”— Athenaum. 
 
 “ May be recommended to young gardeners, cottagers, and specially to amateurs, for the plain 
 and trustworthy information it gives on common matters.”— Gardeners' Chronicle . 
 
 Gainful Gardening. 
 
 MULTUM-IN-PARVO GARDENING ; or, How to make One 
 
 Acre of Land produce £620 a-year by the Cultivation of Fruits and Vegetables; 
 also, How to Grow Flowers in Three Glass Houses, so as to realise £176 per 
 annum clear Profit. By Samuel Wood, Author of “ Good Gardening,” &c. 
 Fourth and cheaper Edition, Revised, with Additions. Crown 8vo, is. sewed. 
 “We are bound to recommend it as not only suited to the case of the amateur and gentleman's 
 gardener, but to the market grower.”— Gardeners' Magazine. 
 
 Gardening for Ladies. 
 
 THE LADIES' MULTUM-IN-PARVO FLOWER GARDEN, 
 
 and Amateurs’ Complete Guide. With Illustrations. By Samuel Wood. 
 Crown 8vo, 3s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 “Full of shrewd hints and useful instructions, based on a lifetime of experience.”— Scotsman. 
 
 Receipts for Gardeners. 
 
 GARDEN RECEIPTS. Edited by Charles W. Quin; iamo, 
 
 is. 6 d. cloth limp. 
 
 “A useful and handy book, containing a good deal of valuable information.”— Athenceum. 
 
 Kitchen Gardening. 
 
 THE KITCHEN A ND MA RKET GA RDEN. By Contributors 
 
 to “The Garden.’* Compiled by C. W. Shaw. i2mo, 3s. 6 d. cloth boards. 
 
 “ The most valuable compendium of kitchen and market-garden work published.”— Farmer . 
 
 Cottage Gardening. 
 
 COTTAGE GARDENING; or, Flowers, Fruits, and. Vegetables for 
 
 Small Gardens. By E. Hobday. i2ino, is. 6 d. cloth limp. 
 
 “Contains much useful information at a small charge.”— Glasgow Herald . 
 
38 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. 
 
 ESTATE MANAGEMENT, AUCTIONEERING, LAW, etc. 
 
 Hudson’s Land Valuer’s Pocket-Book. 
 
 THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT: Being Tables 
 
 on a very much Improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of Estates. With 
 Tables for reducing Scotch, Irish, and Provincial Customary Acres to Statute 
 Measure, &c. By R. Hudson, C.E. New Edition. Royal 32010, leather, 
 elastic band, 4s. 
 
 “This new edition includes tables for ascertaining the value of leases for any term of years; 
 and for showing - how to lay out plots of ground of certain acres in forms, square, round, &c., with 
 valuable rules for ascertaining the probable worth of standing timber to any amount; and is of 
 incalculable value to the country gentleman and professional man.”— Farmers' Journal. 
 
 Ewart’s Land Improver’s Pocket-Book. 
 
 THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK OF FORMULAE, 
 
 TABLES and MEMORANDA required in any Computation relating to the 
 Permanent Improvement of Landed Property. By John Ewart, Land Surveyor 
 and Agricultural Engineer. Second Edition, Revised. Royal 32mo, oblong, 
 leather, gilt edges, with elastic band, 4s. 
 
 “ A compendious and handy little volume.”— Spectator. 
 
 Complete Agricultural Surveyor’s Pocket-Book. 
 THE LAND VALUER'S AND LAND IMPROVER'S COM¬ 
 PLETE POCKET-BOOK. Consisting of the above Two Works bound to¬ 
 gether. Leather, gilt edges, with strap, ys. 6 d. 
 
 "Hudson's book is the best ready-reckoner on matters relating to the valuation of land and 
 crops, and its combination with Mr. Ewart's work greatly enhances die value and usefulness of the 
 latter-mentioned. ... It is most useful as a manual for reference."— North of England Farmer. 
 
 Auctioneer’s Assistant. 
 
 THE APPRAISER , A UCTIONEER, BROKER , HOUSEAND 
 ESTATE AGENT AND VALUER'S POCKET ASSISTANT, fortheValua- 
 tion for Purchase, Sale, or Renewal of Leases, Annuities and Reversions, and 
 of property generally; with Prices for Inventories, &c. By John Wheeler, 
 Valuer, &c. Fifth Edition, re-written and greatly extended by C. Norris' 
 Surveyor, Valuer, &c. Royal 32mo, 5s. cloth. 
 
 “ A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable and clearly-arranged list of 
 prices for inventories, and a very practical guide to determine the value of furniture, &c."—Standard. 
 
 Contains a large quantity of varied and useful information as to the valuation for purchase 
 sale, or renewal of leases, annuities and reversions, and of property generally, with prices for 
 inventories, and a guide to determine the value of interior fittings and other effects."_ Builder. 
 
 Auctioneering. 
 
 AUCTIONEERS: Their Duties and Liabilities. By Robert 
 
 Squibbs, Auctioneer, Demy 8vo, 10s. 6d. cloth. 
 
 “The position and duties of auctioneers treated compendiously and clearly."_ Builder. 
 
 "Every auctioneer ought to possess a copy of this excellent work."— Ironmonger. 
 
 “ Of great value to the profession. . . . We readily welcome this book from the fact that it 
 treats the subject in a manner somewhat new to the profession.' 1 — Estates Gazette. 
 
 Legal Guide for Pawnbrokers. 
 
 THE PAWNBROKERS', FACTORS' AND MERCHANTS' 
 GUIDE TO THE LAW OF LOANS AND PLEDGES. With the 
 Statutes and a Digest of Cases on Rights and Liabilities, Civil and Criminal, 
 as to Loans and Pledges of Goods, Debentures, Mercantile and other Se¬ 
 curities. By H. C. Folkard, Esq., Barrister-at-Law, Author of “ The Law 
 of Slander and Libel,” &c. With Additions and Corrections to 1876. Fcap 
 8vo, 3s. 6 d. cloth. 
 
 " This work contains simply everything that requires to be known concerning the department 
 of the law of which it treats. We can safely commend the book as unique and very nearly perfect 
 —Iron. 
 
 “ The task undertaken by Mr. Folkard has been very satisfactorily performed. . . . Such ex 
 planations as are needful have been supplied with great clearness and with due regard to brevitv 
 City Press. 3 
 
ESTATE MANAGEMENT, AUCTIONEERING, LAW, etc. 39 
 
 How to Invest. 
 
 HINTS FOR INVESTORS : Being an Explanation of the Mode 
 of Transacting Business on the Stock Exchange. To which are added Com¬ 
 ments on the Fluctuations and Table of Quarterly Average prices of Consols 
 since 1759. Also a Copy of the London Daily Stock and Share List. By 
 Walter M. Playford, Sworn Broker. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. 
 
 “ An invaluable guide to investors and speculators.”— Bullionist 
 
 Metropolitan Mating Appeals. 
 
 REPORTS OF APPEALS HEARD BEFORE THE COURT 
 OF GENERAL ASSESSMENT SESSIONS, from the Year 1871 to 1885 
 By Edward Ryde and Arthur Lyon Ryde. Fourth Edition, brought down 
 to the Present Date, with an Introduction to the Valuation (Metropolis) Act, 
 1869, and an Appendix by Walter C. Ryde, of the Inner Temple, Barrister- 
 at-Law. 8vo, 16s. cloth. 
 
 “ A useful work, occupying a place mid-way between a handbook for a lawyer and a guide to 
 the surveyor. It is compiled by a gentleman eminent in his profession as a land agent, whose spe¬ 
 cialty, it is acknowledged, lies in the direction of assessing property for rating purposes.”— Land 
 Agents' Record. 
 
 House Properly. 
 
 HANDBOOK OF HOUSE PROPERTY. A Popular and Practical 
 Guide to the Purchase, Mortgage, Tenancy, and Compulsory Sale of Houses and 
 Land, including the Law of Dilapidations and Fixtures; with Examples of 
 all kinds of Valuations, Useful Information on Buildings, and Suggestive 
 Elucidations of Fine Art. By E. L. Tarbuck, Architect and Surveyor. 
 Fourth Edition, i2mo, 5s. cloth. [_Just published. 
 
 “The advice is thoroughly practical.”— Law Journal. 
 
 “This is a well-written and thoughtful work. We commend the work to the careful study of all 
 interested in questions affecting houses and land.”— Land Agents' Record (First Notice). 
 
 “Carefully brought up to date, and much improved by the addition of a division on fine art. - 
 — Land Agents' Record (Second Notice) 
 
 Inwood’s Estate Tables. 
 
 TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING OF ESTATES, Freehold, 
 
 Copyhold, or Leasehold; Annuities, Advowsons, etc., and for the Renewing of 
 Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or other Corporate bodies 
 for Terms of Years certain, and for Lives ; also for Valuing Reversionary- 
 Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next Presentations, &c.; together with Smart’s 
 Five Tables of Compound Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower 
 and Intermediate Rates. By W. In wood. 22nd Edition, with considerable 
 Additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult 
 Computations of the Interest of Money, Discount, Annuities, See ., by M. Fedor 
 Thoman, of the Societe Credit Mobilier of Paris. i2mo, 8s. cloth. 
 
 “Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation 
 cases, as well as in transactions in annuities, life insurances, &c., will find the present edition of 
 eminent service. ”— Engineering. 
 
 “ ‘Inwood's Tables’ still maintain a most enviable reputation. The new issue has been enriched 
 by large additional contributions by M. Fedor Thoman, whose carefully arranged Taoies cannot 
 fail to oe of the utmost utility.”— Mining Journal . 
 
 Agricultural and Tenant-Might Valuation. 
 
 THE AGRICULTURAL AND TENANT-RIGHT-VALUER'S 
 
 ASSISTANT. A Practical Handbook on Measuring and Estimating the 
 Contents, Weights and Values of Agricultural Produce and Timber, the 
 Values of Estates and Agricultural Labour, Forms of Tenant-Right-Valua¬ 
 tions, Scales of Compensation under the Agricultural Holdings Act, 1883, 
 &c. &c. By Tom Bright, Agricultural Surveyor, Author of “The Live 
 Stock of North Devon," &c. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6 d. cloth. [ Just publishea. 
 
 “ Full of tables and examples in connection with the valuation of tenant-right, estates, labour 
 contents, and weights of timber, and farm produce of all kinds. The book is well calculated to 
 assist the valuer in the discharge of his duty."— Agricultural Gazette. 
 
 An eminently practical handbook, full of practical tables and data of undoubted interest and 
 value to surveyors and auctioneers in preparing valuations ot all kinds."— Partner. 
 
 “ Shows at a glance the value of land, crops, and the cost of seeding, harvesting, &c. &c. It 
 
 is a really practical and useful handbook, for which we anticipate a very large sale.”_ Reading 
 
 Merctiry. s 
 
40 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON’S CATALOGUE. 
 
 A Complete Epitome of the Laws of this Country. 
 EVERY MAN’S OWN LAWYER : A Handy-book of the 
 Principles of Law and Equity. By A Barrister. Twenty-fifth Edition. 
 Reconstructed, Thoroughly Revised, and much Enlarged. Brought down to 
 the end of last Session, and including careful Digests of —Coroners Act, 1887 ; 
 Probation of First Offenders Act, 1887; Margarine Act, 1887; Agricultural 
 Holdings ( England) Act, 1883 ; Cottage Gardens (Compensation for Crops) Act, 
 1887; Bankruptcy Act, 1883; Allotments Act, 1887; Merchandise Trade Marks 
 Act, 1887; Truck Amendment Act, 1887; Water Companies (Regulation of 
 Powers) Act, 1887 ; Registration of Deeds of Arrangements Act, 1887. Crown 
 8vo, 684 pp., price 6s. 8 d. (saved at every consultation 1), strongly bound in 
 cloth. [Just published. 
 
 * v * THE BOOK WILL BE FOUND TO COMPRISE (AMONGST 
 OTHER MATTER)— 
 
 the Rights and wrongs of Individuals—Mercantile and Commercial Law 
 —Partnerships, Contracts and agreements — guarantees, Principals and 
 Agents—Criminal Law—Parish Law—County Court Law—Game and Fishery 
 Laws—Poor Men's Lawsuits—Laws of bankruptcy—Wagers—Cheques, Bills 
 and Notes—Copyright—Elections and Registration—Insurance—Libel and 
 Slander—Marriage and Divorce —Merchant Shipping—Mortgages —Settle¬ 
 ments—Stock Exchange Practice—Trade Marks and patents—Trespass—Nui¬ 
 sances—Transfer of Land—wills, &c. &c. Also Law for Landlord and Tenant 
 —master and Servant—Heirs—Devisees and Legatees—Husband and Wife- 
 Executors and Trustees—Guardian and Ward—Married Women and Infants 
 —Lender, Borrower and Sureties—Debtor and Creditor—Purchaser and 
 Vendor—Companies—Friendly Societies—Clergymen-Churchwardens—Medi¬ 
 cal practitioners—Bankers—Farmers—Contractors—Stock Brokers—Sports¬ 
 men—Gamekeepers—Farriers—Horse dealers—Auctioneers—House Agents— 
 Innkeepers-Bakers—Millers—pawnbrokers—Surveyors—Railways and Car¬ 
 riers—Constables—Seamen—Soldiers, & c. & c. 
 
 The following subjects may be mentioned as some of those which have re¬ 
 ceived special 'attention during the present revision :—Marriage of British Subjects 
 Abroad; Police Constables; Pawnbrokers; Intoxicating Liquors Licensing; 
 Domestic Servants; Landlord and Tenant; Vendors and Purchasers; Parlia¬ 
 mentary Elections; Municipal Elections; Local Elections; Corrupt Practices at 
 all Elections ; Public Health and Local Government and Nuisances ; Highways ; 
 Churchwardens ; Vestry Meetings ; Rates. 
 
 It is believed that the extensions and amplificat : ons of the present edition, 
 while intended to meet the requirements of the 010inary Englishman, will also 
 have the effect of rendering the book useful to the legal practitioner in the 
 country. 
 
 One result of the reconstruction and revision, with the extensive additions 
 thereby necessitated, has been the enlargement of the book by nearly a hundred and 
 fifty pages, wnile the price remains as before. 
 
 *** Opinions of the Press. 
 
 "It is a complete code of English Law, written in plain language, which all can understand. 
 
 . . . Should be in the hands of every business man, and all who wish to abolish lawyers’ bills." | 
 Weekly Times. 
 
 "A useful and concise epitome of the law, compiled with considerable care.” — I.a-w Magazine. 
 " A concise, cheap and complete epitome of the English law. So plainly written that he who 
 runs may read, and he who reads may understand."— Figaro. 
 
 •• A dictionary of legal facts well put together. The book is a very useful one.” -Spectator. 
 
 " A work which has long been wanted, which is thoroughly well done, and which we most 
 cordially recommend. ’—Sunday Times. 
 
 Private Bill Legislation and Provisional Orders. 
 
 HANDBOOK FOR THE USE OF SOLICITORS AND EN- 
 GINEERS Engaged in Promoting Private Acts of Parliament and Provi¬ 
 sional Orders, for the Authorization of Railways, Tramways, Works for the 
 Supply of Gas and Water, and other undertakings of a like character. By 
 L. Livingston Macassey, of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law, and 
 Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers; Author of “ Hints on Water 
 Supply.’’ Demy 8vo, 956 pp., price 25s. cloth. [Jt/s* published . 
 
 “ The volume is a desideratum on a subject which can be only acquired by practical experi 
 cnce, and the order of procedure in Private Bill Legislation and Provisional Orders is followed. 
 The author’s suggestions and notes will be found of great value to engineers and others profession¬ 
 ally engaged in this class of practice.”— Building Nnvs. 
 
 “ The author’s double experience as an engineer and barrister has eminently qualified him for 
 the task, and enabled him to approach the subject alike from an engineering and legal point 01 
 view. The volume will be found a great help both to engineers and lawyers engaged in promoting 
 Private Acts of Parliament and Provisional Orders.’’— Local Government Chronicle. 
 
 J. OGDEN AND CO. LIMITED, PRINTERS, GREAT SAFFRON HILL, E.C. 
 
r 
 
 OTeale’js IXutumentai'jj gems:. 
 
 
 LONDON, 1862. 
 THE PRIZE MEDAL 
 
 Was awarded to the Publishers of 
 
 “ WEALE’S SERIES.” 
 
 A NEW LIST OF 
 
 WEALE’S SERIES 
 
 RUDIMENTARY SCIENTIFIC,EDUCATIONAL, 
 AND CLASSICAL. 
 
 Comprising nearly Three Hundred and Fifty distinct works in almost every 
 department of Science, A rt, and Education, recommended to the notice of Engineers, 
 Architects, Builders, Artisans, and Students generally, as well as to those interested 
 in Workmen's Libra?ies, Literary a nd Scientific Institutions, Colleges, School s, 
 
 Science Classes, Snc., &-c. 
 
 “ WEALE’S SERIES includes Text-Books on almost every branch of 
 Science and Industry, comprising such subjects as Agriculture, Architecture 
 and Building, Civil Engineering, Fine Arts, Mechanics and Mechanical 
 Engineering, Physical and Chemical Science, and many miscellaneous 
 Treatises. The whole are constantly undergoing revision, and new editions, 
 brought up to the latest discoveries in scientific research, are constantly 
 issued. The prices at which they are sold are as low as their excellence is 
 assured.”— American Literary Gazette. 
 
 “ Amongst the literature of technical education, Weale’s Series has ever 
 enjoyed a high reputation, and the additions being made by Messrs. Crosby 
 Lockwood & Co. render the series even more complete, and bring the infor¬ 
 mation upon the several subjects down to the present time.”— Mining 
 Journal. 
 
 “ It is not too much to say that no books have ever proved more popular 
 with, or more useful to, young engineers and others than the excellent 
 treatises comprised in Weale’s Series.” — Engineer. 
 
 “The excellence of Weale’s Series is now so well appreciated, that it 
 would be wasting our space to enlarge upon their general usefulness and 
 value.”— Builder. 
 
 “ WEALE’S SERIES has become a standard as well as an unrivalled 
 collection of treatises in all branches of art and science.”— Public Opinion. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, 1876. 
 
 THE PRIZE MEDAL 
 
 Was awarded to the Publishers for 
 
 Books: Rudimentary, Scientific, 
 
 “WEALE’S SERIES,” ETC. 
 
 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON, 
 
 7 , STATIONERS’ HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL, LONDON, E.G. 
 
WEALE’S RUDIMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 WEALE’S RUDIMENTARY SCIENTIFIC SERIES. 
 
 *„* The volumes of this Series are freely Illustrated witn 
 Woodcuts, or otherwise, where requisite. Throughout the fol¬ 
 lowing List it must be understood that the books are bound in 
 limp cloth, unless otherwise stated ; but the volumes marked 
 with a t may also be had strongly bound in cloth boards for 6 d. 
 extra. 
 
 N.B. —In ordering from this List it is recommended, as a 
 means of facilitating business and obviating error, to quote the 
 numbers affixed to the volumes, as well as the titles and prices. 
 
 CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC. 
 
 No. 
 
 31. WELLS AND WELL-SLNKLNG. By John Geo. Swindell, 
 A.R.I.B.A., and G. R. Burnell, C.E. Revised Edition. With a New 
 Appendix on the Qualities of Water. Illustrated. 2s. 
 
 35. THE BLASTING AND QUARRYLNG OF STONE, for 
 
 Building and other Purposes. With Remarks on the Blowing up of Bridges. 
 By Gen. Sir John Burgovne, Bart., K.C.B. Illustrated, is. 6d. 
 
 43. TUBULAR, AND OTHER IRON GIRDER BRIDGES, par¬ 
 
 ticularly describing the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges. By G. 
 Drysdale Dempsey, C.E. Fourth Edition. 2s. 
 
 44. FOUNDATIONS AND CONCRETE WORKS, with Practical 
 
 Remarks' on Footings, Sand, Concrete, Beton, Pile-driving, Caissons, and 
 Cofferdams, &c. By E. Dobson. Fifth Edition, is. 6d. 
 
 60. LAND AND ENGINEERING SUR VEYING. By T. Baker, 
 
 C.E. Fourteenth Edition, revised by Professor J. R. Young. 2S.t 
 
 80*. EMBANKING LANDS FROM THE SEA. With examples 
 
 and Particulars of actual Embankments, &c. By J. Wiggins, F.G.S. 2s. 
 8i. WATER WORKS, for the Supply of Cities and Towns. With 
 a Description of the Principal Geological Formations of England as in¬ 
 fluencing Supplies of Water; and Details of Engines and Pumping Machinery 
 for raising Water. By Samuel Hughes, F.G.S., C.E. New Edition. 4s.t 
 
 u8, CIVIL ENGINEERING IN NORTH AMERICA, a Sketch 
 
 of. By David Stevenson, F.R.S.E., &c. Plates and Diagrams. 3s. 
 
 167. IRON BRIDGES, GIRDERS, ROOFS, AND OTHER 
 
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 197. ROADS AND STREETS (THE CONSTRUCTION OF). 
 
 By Henry Law, C.E., revised and enlarged by D. K. Clark, C.E., including 
 pavements of Stone, Wood, Asphalte, &c. 4s. 6d.t 
 
 203. SANITARY WORK IN THE SMALLER TOWNS AND IN 
 
 VILLAGES. By C. Slagg, A.M.I.C.E. Revised Edition, is.t 
 
 212. GAS-WORKS, THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND ARRANGE¬ 
 
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 written by Samuel Hughes, C.E. Re-written and enlarged by William 
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 213. PIONEER ENGINEERING. A Treatise on the Engineering 
 
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 216. MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION; A Theoretical and 
 
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 219. CIVIL ENGINEERING. By Henry Law, M.Inst. C.E. 
 Including Hydraulic Engineering by Geo. R. Burnell, M.Inst. C.E. 
 Seventh Edition, revised, with large additions by D. Kinnear Clark, 
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 The i indicates that these vols, may be had strongly bound at 6 d. extra. 
 
 LONDON : CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON, 
 
WEALE 7 S rudimentary series. 
 
 3 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, ETC. 
 
 33 - 
 
 CRANES, the Construction of, and other Machinery for Raising 
 
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 THE STEAM ENGINE. By Dr. Lardner. Illustrated, is. 6d. 
 
 STEAM BOILERS : their Construction and Management. Bv 
 
 R. Armstrong, C.E. Illustrated, is. 6d. 3 
 
 82. THE POWER OF WATER, as applied to drive Flour Mills, 
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 MODERN WORKSHOP PRACTICE, as applied to Steam 
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 165. IRON AND HEAT, exhibiting the Principles concerned in the 
 
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 166. POWER IN MOTION : Horse-Power, Toothed-Wheel Gearing, 
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 STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, Stationary and 
 
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 FUEL, its Combustion and Economy. By C. W. Williams, 
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 Practical Boiler Maker. Edited by D. K. Clark, C.E. 100 Illustrations. 2s. 
 
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GETTY CENTER LIBRARY CONS 
 
 ND 1488 F455 1888 BKS 
 
 c. 1 Field. George. 1777? 
 
 A granular of colouring : applied to deco 
 
 3 3125 00354 2442