H CENT f(? 4/C, ^vc /^/ueL J~f\~rT 7 AS THE CHEMISTRY OF &C. &C. POTTERY <&*(*?) ydg ts kxkt) TreXsrxi, y.afp'n (asv xugxi 'Peix fxxX } xpyxhiw 5e ^e^e/», yx’Kiit^ v / *A THE CH EMISTRY OF THE SEVERAL NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL HETEROGENEOUS COMPOUNDS, USED IN MANUFACTURING PORCELAIN, GLASS, AND POTTERY. BY SIMEON SHAW, LL. D. AUTHOR OP “ NATURE DISPLAYED,” &C. &C. “ Quid verijm atque utii.itas, curo et rooo, et omnis in hoc sum ; condo, et compono, QU .E MOX DEPRO.MERE POSSIM.”—HORACE. “ In WHAT IS TRUE AND USEFUL, MY WHOLE CARE AND ENQUIRY, I AM SOLELY OCCUPIED, ALWAYS COLLECTING AND DISPOSING, SO THAT THE STORE CAN AT ANY TIME BE IMMEDIATELY" DRAWN FORTH.” Hontion : PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR, BY W. LEWIS AND SON, FINCH-LANE. 1837 CO/US rP 210 G‘7 I S 3.7 A “ Englishmen—a race not slow and dull, but of a quick, ingenious, and discern¬ ing SPIRIT ; ACUTE TO INVENT, SUBTLE AND SINEWY TO DISCOURSE J NOT BENEATH THE REACH OF ANY’ POINT, THE HIGHEST THAT HUMAN CAPACITY' CAN SOAR TO. WHAT WANTS THERE TO SUCH A TOWARDLY AND PROLIFIC STOCK, BUT WISE AND FAITHFUL LABOURERS, TO MAKE A KNOWING PEOPLE, A NATION OF PROPHETS, OF SAGES, AND OF WORTHIES ?”—MlLTON. THE GETTY CENTER LIBRARY Finch-Lane, London, July 28, 1837. We hereby declare , That we have printed Two Hundred and Fifty Copies (only) of “ The Chemistry of the several Natural and Artificial Hetero¬ geneous Compounds used in Manufacturing Porcelain and Pottery” By Simeon Shaw, LL. U. DEDICATORY PREFACE, TO THE SUBSCRIBERS. HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF SUTHERLAND, Stafford-House, London, (2 C.) THE RIGHT HONOURABLE EARL FITZWILLIAM, Grosvenor-Place, London, (2 C.J JOHN DAVENPORT, ESQ. M.P. Westwood. THOMAS MACKENZIE, M.D. Newcastle, U. L. HUGH HENSHALL WILLIAMSON, ESQ. Greenway Bank. JOSIAH SPODE, ESQ... The Mount. WILLIAM TAYLOR COPELAND, ALD. & M.P. ..London. THOMAS THOMSON, M.D., F.R.S.L. & E. Glasgow. ROBERT WILLIAMSON, ESQ. Ramsdell. SPENCER ROGERS, ESQ. Watlands. JOHN AYSHFORD WISE, ESQ. Clayton. Messrs. WILLIAM DAVENPORT & Co. ManufacO turers of China to His Majesty and the >Longport. Royal Family, (2 C.). J Mr. WILLIAM WAINWRIGHT POTTS, Patentee > R . of Continuous Printing and in Colours .. £ UTS em ' SPENSER GARRETT, China and Earthenware? , t . Manufacturer .. \ Stoke u P on Trtvt WILLIAM MACHIN, (3 C.).. Burslem. SAMUEL ALLCOCK . ditto RICHARD DANIEL (2 C.) . Stoke. THOMAS GOODFELLOW. Tunstall. . BENJAMIN SINGLETON BROUGH. Longton. WILLIAM BROOKES.. .Burslem. THOMAS HUXLEY. Tunstall. WILLIAM BOURNE . Burslem. SAMUEL BOURNE. ditto CHARLES COCKSON. Cobridge. FRANCIS EMERY . ditto Messrs. ENOCH WOOD & SONS, (2 C.). Burslem. STEPHEN HUGHES & BROTHERS. ditto RALPH HALL & SON. Tunstall. VI DEDICATORY PREFACE. Mr, JOHN GERRARD, Colour Manufacturer . Hanley. W. H. PANKHURST. Shelton. JOSEPH TWIGG . Burslem. GEORGE SPARKES. Lane End. JOHN BRIDGWOOD . ditto CHARLES JAMES MASON, Patentee of Iron- > p enton WILLIAM ADAMS, Earthenware Manufacturer.. Tunstall. EDWARD ADAMS, China and Earthenware } , Manufacturer. \ Stoke ' BENJAMIN HARRIS, China Manufacturer. Lonyton. JOHN HANCOCK. Tunstall. JOSEPH HEATH. ditto JOHN BOYLE . Stoke. THOMAS ROWLEY. Tunstall. GEORGE HOOD . ditto EDWARD CHALLINOR . ditto HENRY MEIR . ditto GEORGE BRUMM1TT. ditto Messrs. PODMORE, WALKER, BURROWS, & Co. ditto SAMUEL PETTY & SON . Leeds. JOSEPH TWIGG & BROTHERS. Rawmarsh. THOMAS TAYLOR & Co. ditto ROBERT ALEXANDER KIDSTON & Co ..Glasyow. BELL & SMITH. Whitehaven. POUNTNEY & GOULDNEY. Bristol. SAMUEL MAYER, MAWDESLEY & Co. ..Burslem. W. SMITH, JOHN WALLEY, & Co. Stockton. THOMAS & JOHN CAREY. Lonyton. J. & J. GOODWINS . ditto BEARDMORE & BIRKS. ditto Mrs. ELIZABETH HAWLEY . Rawmarsh. Mr. FELIX PRATT. Fenton. JAMES KELSALL, Colour Manufacturer. Burslem. THOMAS HULME . ditto JOHN IRVIN HOLDEN. ditto JOHN RILEY MARSH . Lane-End. JOHN BAKER .. .Fenton. JOHN MARTIN, Clay and Stone Merchant. St. Austle. RICHARD YELLAND. ditto J. & J. NIXON, Earthenware Manufacturers. Cobridye. CHARLES MEIGH . Hanley. GEORGE JOHNSON. ditto SAMUEL KEELING .i. ditto JOSEPH POULSON. Shelton. STEPHEN CHAPPELL (2 C.). Leeds. GEORGE GORDON .. Preston Pans. Messrs. THOMAS DAWSON & Co. Sunderland. DEDICATORY PREFACE Vll Messrs. BARKER, SUTTON, & TILL. Burslem. SAMUEL & JOHN BURTON. Hartley. WALTER CHAMBERLAIN & Co. Porcelain'] Manufacturers to His Majesty and the > Worcester. Royal Family. J JOHN ROSE & Co. Coalport. Mr. WILLIAM COOPER, Patent Glass Manufacturer ) Ed'nburt /, JOHN BIDDLE, Glass Manufacturer. Birminyham. BENJAMIN RICHARDSON. Wnrdsley. SAMUEL SHAKESPEAR . Birmingham. EDWARD LACKLAND . Leith. JOSEPH STEVENS. Dudley. WILLIAM LEIGH . ditto WILLIAM HODGETTS . Worddey. JOHN SHEPHERD. Coalnbourn Brook. HENRY JACKSON . Tutbury. THOMAS GOULTHARD. Gateshead. HENRY CUTLER. Eccleston . WILLIAM DODD, Glass-Stainer . Shrewsbury. Messrs. M. & W. GRAZEBROOK, Glass Manufacturers Audnum. SILVERS & STEVENS. Brierley Hill. WESTWOODS & MOORES. ditto CHANCE, BROTHERS. Birminyham. MORGAN, ROLLASON, & Co. ditto H. RICKETTS & Co. Bristol. MOLINEUX, WEBB, ELLIS & Co. (3 C.). .Manchester. SHEPHERD & WEBB, (2 C.) . Wordsley. BADGER, BROTHERS, & Co. .. ditto JOSHUA WALKER, PARKER, & Co., ) nx . Lead Manufacturers. \\ Chester - RAY & TIDESWELL, China Manufacturers.. Lonyton. Mr. JOHN HILDITCH . Lane End. SAMPSON BRIDGWOOD. Lonyton. MICHAEL TUNNICLIFFE . Tunstall. DANIEL EDGE... Burslem. RICHARD BOOTH . Shelton. GEORGE GRAINGER... Worcester. JAMES RIDDELL . Longton. JOHN CARTER, China Enameller. Hanley. JOHN BETTS SHARPE. London. JOHN FORD. Brownhills. JOHN DAWSON . London. RALPH KEELING, Jun. .. Shelton. THOMAS WOOD . Swansea. RICHARD DAVIES. ditto MARTIN BEVAN & Co. ditto J. S. HINCKLEY . ditto JOHN BAKER ... .. .Burslem, Vlll DEDICATORY PREFACE Mr. SAMUEL TAYLOR . Shelton. JOSEPH HOLT. Burslem. WILLIAM RHEAD. Shelton. JOSEPH SNAPE . Hanley. MATTHEW CONDLIFF, Earthenware Manu- > „ , facturer . J THOMAS MAYER. ditto JOSEPH BOURNE . Denby. WILLIAM RATCLIFF. Shelton. JOHN WILKINSON . Whitehaven. SAMUEL MOORE.. Sunderland. JOHN HAWLEY . Longton. HUGH BARLOW . ditto RICHARD NEWBOLD . ditto WILLIAM WATTS. Ashby Wolds. THOMAS SHARPE. Swadlincote. Messrs. LOWNDES & HILL . Stoke. MASSEY & LEAK. Burslem. JOHN & WILLIAM PRATT. Fenton. C. & W. K. HARVEY. Longton. DIXON, AUSTIN, & Co. (2 C.). Sunderland. SEWELL & DONKIN . Newcastle. ANDREW MUIR & Co. Greenock. SHORTRIDGE, SAWYER, & Co.. South Shields. ANTHONY SCOTT & SONS . Sunderland. REV. W. COOK. Belfast. Mr. E. ATTWOOD, Glass Manufacturer.. . Sunderland. J. BAILEY, Colour Manufacturer. Messrs. MARSH & HAYWOOD, Earthenware Ma¬ nufacturers . Longton. Brownhills. HULSE, JAQUIS & BARLOW. Longton. CHARLES SALT . Hanley. CHARLES HOL'BROOK, Lead Manufacturer.. ..Derby. Messrs. BRAMELD, Rockingham Works . Rotherham. Mr. JAMES MAGUIRE, Artist Stoke. ISAAC SHARPE . St. Helens. RICHARD MULLOCK. Monmouth. JOHN TOMLINSON. Longton. THOMAS SILVESTER . Hanley. RALPH LOVATT. Longton. BENJAMIN LINDOP. Brownhills. WILLIAM WILLOUGHBY SHAW . Manchester. LEVI HANBY RHEAD. Burslem. SAMUEL MEIR. ditto THOMAS BURGESS . Audley. DEDICATORY PREFACE. IX The delightful idea I gratefully cherish, that your distinguished Patronage of this Volume—results from the wish for Science to perfect the Manufactures of Porcelain, Pottery, and Glass. Under your sanction, to equalize the infor¬ mation current, my Researches and Experi¬ ments are published, instead of being deposited with my children, and their usefulness dimi¬ nished. The purpose is not to teach the manipulations of the Plastic Art. To persons practically acquainted therewith, to presume to supply written instructions and directions, would be only to sacrifice time and labour ; while to those ignorant thereof, scarcely can they be so clearly detailed, as by them may be communicated or acquired, the knowledge to reduce them successfully to practice. The Bark bearing the matereil of progressive advancement, may be delayed by that indif¬ ference which declines or withholds the needful supply of stores; or be hindered or prevented by that timidity which imagines the voyage too inauspicious to be attempted ; or for want of a pole-star for its direction, in presuming to breast the billows of the trackless main, may encounter the danger of being stranded by that b X DEDICATORY PREFACE. contumely which measures mental by pecuniary store; and it cannot, without some difficulty, be safely piloted into port;—yet no sufficient reason has been assigned, that there should be longer delay in taking advantage of the current of scientific research, and the tide of general improvement to bring these Manufactures within the safe harbour of immutable certainty. Dr. Priestley very pertinently remarks, “ Those persons are deservedly disappointed, who, for the sake of a little more reputation, delay publishing their discoveries, till they are anticipated by others.” But (except Fourcroy and Brongniart,#) not one philosophical chemist * “ This distinguished cultivator of the Science of Potting, is preparing a History of the Art of Pottery, and making great ex¬ ertions for the formation, at Sfevres, of an extensive and instructive collection of every thing relating to the Art. He has distributed a Circular, which is inserted in different Philosophical Journals, and is a useful model of such letters missive, as evidence of the comprehensive views of the collector, and of the relaxation of the French government with regard to the Customs’ regulations in scientific importations. Both Art and Science have hourly to regret the obstructions and losses produced by the interference of the Custom-house officer. “In a letter, dated March 8, 1836, addressed to the Editor of Silliman’s Journal, is this statement: ‘I am much occupied with a work upon the History of the Plastic Art, or the Art of Pottery; and the requests which I take the liberty to annex, have for their object the enriching of a grand and instructive collection which I have formed at Sevres, of every thing relative to the Art of Pottery.’ DEDICATORY PREFACE. xi of celebrity, continental or native, until Fara¬ day stepped aside from his systematic studies of the characteristics of Atoms, to investigate these Arts; “ Royal Manufactory of Porcelain , and for Painting on Glass. — Sevres, March 8, 1836. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ( Circular.) “Instructions as to the manner of co-operating towards the completion of the Collection relative to the Arts connected with the Manufacture of Porcelain, and with vitrification, founded at the Royal Manufactory at Sevres, near Paris :— “ 1.—What kinds of pottery are used by the different classes of inhabitants of the country; the agriculturists, the mechanics, citizens, and merchants, poor and rich ? “ Is the pottery of native or foreign manufacture? “ If foreign, from what country does it come, and in what way ? “ If of native manufacture, where is it made ? “2. —As to the Native Pottery, (and under this name we include all varieties, from the most common to porcelain,) it is desired to collect and procure specimens of every sort. Common pottery, both with and without glazing. Delftware common, and Delftware fine. Pottery of brown free-stone; crucibles. Varie¬ ties of porcelain. Bricks, both common and those manufactured by particular processes. “ Plate species.—Plates, oval dishes. “ Hollow ware.—Cups, salad-dishes, tea and coffee-cups. “ Round pots, hollow-moulded.—Oval and square pieces, saucers, boxes, &c. “ The largest piece of each sort that is made. “ The name given in the country to each piece. “ The price of each piece upon the spot. “ Whether there is exportation, and to what place. h 2 Xll DEDICATORY PREFACE. and by some interesting elucidation of the most general laws hitherto developed, or practical suggestion for improving the processes, be- “ 3.—Fabrication. “ 1. Materials for the Mass , or Paste. Clays. Marls, or Plastic Earths which may be substituted for them. Sands. Rocks or stones. Limestone. “ For the Glaze , or Enamel .—If stony materials—feldspar- stones. “ If Metallic matters—Metals, their oxides, and metallic glass. “ Exact localities from which these materials are drawn. “ 2. Modelling .—Moulds of plaster, of terra cotta, or other materials, of whatever kind. “ The lathe and other instruments for fabrication. “ Sketches, with exact dimensions of these instruments, if it is supposed that they differ from those used in Europe. “ 3. Baking .—Form of the ovens, sketched, with the dimen¬ sions. “ Combustibles used, indicating them in the clearest manner possible. “ 4. Information peculiar to the country. “1. To designate the principal Manufactures of Pottery, Glass, and Porcelain, in your vicinity. “ 2. Whether there is in North America, ancient pottery; that is to say, pottery fabricated in remote ages, and which has not been made for a long time. This pottery is found, in general, in alluvial soil, in the ruins of towns, and perhaps, as in some parts of Italy—of South America, and—of the oriental countries of the ancient world, in the graves or tumuli. In Europe, these things have often been admitted into Museums as monuments of antiquity, but almost never as in relation to the Art of Pottery and its history. It is in this latter point of view, that I regard them, and that I have collected a great number of the ancient pieces of pottery in the Museum at Sevres. “ To endeavour to collect some pieces of this antique pottery, and to indicate exactly the place and the circumstances in which DEDICATORY PREFACE. Xlll stowed on it some permanent mark of his casual notice. Philosophy claims to direct the most ela¬ borate and minute manipulations of British they have been found, and to endeavour to decide whether it had anciently any celebrity, always however mistrusting the deception of the sellers. “ 3. Whether there is knowledge from traditions, inscriptions, &c., that the natives (aborigines) of North America have ever fabricated or known glass. \ , “ General Instructions in Relation to the Purchase , Packing , and Forwarding of the Objects collected. “ The expences which may be incurred in procuring the Spe¬ cimens and the Information, will be reimbursed by the Adminis¬ tration of the Royal Manufactory at Sevres, upon a reference to the person who shall be designated to receive the amount. “It is expected that these expenses will not rise to a great amount: it is requested, in any event, that they may not exceed, in any one year, the sum granted, i. e. 200 francs for 1836, (<£8); 200 for 1837; at least, without a previous understanding with the Administrator of the Royal Manufactory at Sevres. “ It will be necessary to pack the pieces with great care, and to consign them to a merchant in one of the ports of France, to be forwarded by way of slow transportation to the Administrator of the Royal Manufacture at Sevres; forwarding also the expenses of transportation. “ It will be necessary that the correspondent at the sea-port should write a letter of advice to the Administrator of the Royal Manufactory at Sevres, near Paris, before the forwarding, in order that the latter may obtain from the Director-general of the Customs permission for the box to pass under seal, (sous plomb,) and not be opened until it arrive at Paris: this is very important, to the end that there may be no derangement of labels, nor any breakage. It is equally important that the tickets which may XIV DEDICATORY PREFACE. Manufactures. Their close investigation clearly elucidates the successive improvements consequent on the artizans’ progress in under¬ standing, mental cultivation, correct reasoning, approaches towards perfection in the Arts of Life, and success in supplying ascertained indicate the places where the pieces were made, or those from which they come, should not be separated and mixed during the unpacking. It is desired, therefore, that they may be fastened either with glue, or with good wafers, or with twine. “ Lastly, it is very desirable that there should be attached to the case a separate box, either of lead or of tin, and that there should be sent separately notes previously made of the ob¬ jects collected and forwarded; taking care that a correspondence be established between the objects and notes, by means of a series of numbers, &c. ** Alexander Brogniart.” Magazine of Popular Science, No. XIII. p. 66 , 67 . In pages 374 and 415 of this Work, I have mentioned the Burslem Museum for the Illustration of the Art of Pottery, in Staffordshire; the private property of Enoch Wood, Fountain Manufactory. But I feel it a duty to express my opinion, that except M. Brongniart, no person has taken so much delight in traversing the wide range of this vast and diversified field. The latter gentleman, surpassing many in vigour of understanding, and capacity for profound research, alike eminent for the variety and versatility of talent, and meritorious for zealous, unwearied, and productive employment,—in devoting to this object, (which I am satisfied is both instructive and entertaining,) a large portion of his attention, he only fulfils what he conscienciously regards an important part of his duty, to his country, to posterity, and to the Manufacture he has so greatly advanced. DEDICATORY PREFACE. XV deficiencies; and most interesting is their explanation by a lucid exhibition and skilful arrangement. Many of these Manufactures has the invaluable auxilium of a Society, specially adapted—to collect the series of facts which explain those modifications of arrange¬ ment whence have originated the successive improvements,—to promote mutual intercourse and comparison of information, while stimulat¬ ing essays at excellence among the members generally, — to excite and appropriate the sedulous co-operation of individual researchers, in the utmost possible expansion of the intellect, —the most interesting desideratum in each per¬ son,—and, with resistless potency, to involve in its circuit, those minds desirous of distinc¬ tion, athirst for reputation, or charmed with participating the effulgence of truth. But, In reference to the Potter’s Art, perplexity and incertitude have generally predominated. Little comparison of theory with experiment, and its immediate consequences, has been attempted; neither has the public mind been excited, by reducing complicated results to simple laws, or exhibiting the need of others, new and supplementary, or connecting the general bearing of the important truths eliminated in the progress of discovery, esta- XVI DEDICATORY PREFACE. blished by independent facts and observations, and generalized by the determined connection of parts. Selfishness, which always is short¬ sighted, has hitherto governed its destinies; and disastrous has been its sway, alike to its own interests, and those of the community. By wholly precluding, or delaying to a future time, the general diffusion, the full and clear detail, of that affluence of new facts, involving the characteristics of the materials of the numerous compounds, almost simultaneously observed by several persons, and rapidly accu¬ mulated, during the latter half of the eighteenth century, by Booth, Whieldon, Bird, Yates, Baddeley, Chatterley, Palmer, Warbur- ton, and Wedgwood !—there have not been presented opportunities for deducing tentative approximations for future experience to con¬ firm or correct, circumscribe or enlarge ; or, for successful examination, with resolute and rigid precision, of their ultimate composition, so as to ensure—their perfection, by fixing it on the solid basis of combination developed by the employment of definite and multiple pro¬ portions of components. The detached facts, since that period, belonging to the Art, certainly are very numerous; but, alike in the full records of individual statements, and in those DEDICATORY PREFACE. XVII where the mere formulae indicate the results, and careful estimate made of the arithmetical mean,—only few have been applied practically to elucidate any one theoretical difficulty in the Art; or to supply the elements for the construction of some definite General Laws to connect phenomena, when carefully compared with similar deductions already recorded.—- Neither has any advantage resulted from the details in the Cyclopaedias of Rees, Napier, Curtis, and Lardner, which profess to supply a clear view of the processes and manipulations of the Art. The sanction of a diploma, the magic of a name, prevent determination of the real amount of sterling information supplied; and secure currency, to assertions unsupported by facts or arguments, or to defective and incorrect remarks. From these trammels I had to extricate myself, properly to estimate the weight of authority, and verify the occa¬ sional conclusions, that I might avail myself of whatever was adapted to my purpose ; and very trifling, indeed, is the sum of what I regard as accurate, when compared with the mass presented to the reader; the mere state¬ ments of traditional dogmas. I scarcely need advert to the unavoidable and unconquerable difficulties which rise to XV111 DEDICATORY PREFACE. obstruct the progress of those practical men, whose knowledge has only personal experience without any theory; whose rules are mere happy contrivances, accidentally invented, and found to answer their special purpose; and who see only a series of isolated processes, distinct from any common principle;—while they who regard only theory, see a collection of abstract propositions, associated and beautiful mentally, yet without practically affecting the necessities and Arts of highly-civilized life. Both of the parties admit the importance of Chemistry in the Manufactory, as well as in philosophical science; yet of its details and capabilities, competent and really useful know¬ ledge is possessed by few among the votaries; and in the works mentioned, there is no supply of the kind of information adapted to their daily wants. The expectation seems reasonable, from the advanced state, and increasing rapid strides of Scientific Chemistry, and the light supplied by those new and interesting doctrines which recent researches have raised to an eminent position; and because most to these Manufactures can these researches and discoveries supply useful and important information,—that thence will arise valuable suggestions for systematic DEDICATORY PREFACE. XIX improvement ; that their investigation will attract the energies of every one who feels within himself the vocation of discovery ; that the bright promise of future advancement will engage the attention of both the enquiring and the indifferent; and, that, even in those who have most adequate knowledge of the nature of the acquisitions possible, and the probabilities of further additions, there will be excited a feeling of scientific exultation and gratulation. The more numerous the discoveries of Che¬ mistry, the more distinctly will be observed the avenues for additional supplies. The increasing demand for these, or for improved combinations, incontestably proves the progress of correct information, and the extention of accurate scientific knowledge. The better the Manufacturer comprehends the nature of these discoveries, because of the exhibition of the results in the form supposed best adapted for the purpose,—the more clearly he sees that these useful Arts of Life have not for their basis and object only a practical intimacy with the mixing of Materials, and vague knowledge of products in the wares; heterogeneous groups of facts, of little avail in efficiently promoting any one branch of the Arts, or concerning it to afford precise information; yet, when care- XX DEDICATORY PREFACE. fully investigated severally in connection with others of the like character, supplying the most valuable aid to scientific generalization;—the more is formed an experimental acquaintance with the condition of the different Materials, % *> which, after fritting, or baking of biscuit, consti¬ tute excellence of productions;—the probability will the more readily be admitted, that future researches will suggest methods of improve¬ ment ; but, for which, the opportunity will be lost, unless the discoveries be carefully regis¬ tered, and the results be compared numerically, with special regard that the properties asso¬ ciated with the numbers in the different cases are clearly and precisely the same. By some persons they may be considered as isolated facts; but others, who pursue philosophical enquiries, will find the generality of them connected with useful conclusions, tending to further elucidate these truly advantageous branches of National Industry. That many attempts have failed, though made by persons whose experience might be supposed a guarantee for success, I readily acknowledge; also, that many essays, which in the closet or laboratory promised advantages, could not be brought on a large scale into practical operation; yet these very failures DEDICATORY PREFACE. XXI should not dishearten the parties, but lead them forward to correct results, to accurate knowledge, and thus slowly and surely pave the way to certainty and success. On atten¬ tively examining the products of the Plastic Art at the commencement of the present century, there is cause of gratulation at the progress since that period, more than in all previous, made—in the several departments,— in the consideration and extension of theory, and the practical application,—in the improve¬ ment of mechanical processes, and facile mani¬ pulations,—in the willingness to suggest or communicate improvements,—in the additional number of those who are interested in pro¬ moting the excellence of these products;— and there may be confident anticipation that the next twenty years will be distinguished for much greater proportionate advancement of this compact of genius and industry, become so indispensable to the conveniences, and comforts, and general usages of civilized life, among all nations. The general Arrangement of the respective Subjects, in the several Parts and Chapters, will be understood from the Table of Contents; while ready reference to the numerous notices of Particulars, is supplied by a copious Index. Xxii DEDICATORY PREFACE. The First Part presents Chemistry as a refined Science, whose numerous votaries regard solely how most effectually can be accomplished the progressive increase of their controul over the imitations of Nature’s pro¬ ductions, as well as the extension of their dominion over herself. In developing import¬ ant relations of all substances, discovered in all countries. Chemistry now promulgates Facts in the universal language of experiment. To exhibit and classify many relative to the Arts of Potting and Glass Making,—interesting and important, because their ascertained and correct results are adapted to supersede the labour and anxiety of uncertain essays,—is my sole purpose; —not “the most ingenious way (according to Dr. Hooper,) of becoming foolish, by [pro¬ mulgating] a system, [of notions and schemes] ; as the surest way to prevent Truth, is, to set up something in its room.” But, in a manly tone, and with high sober diction, and, where proper, the immutable precision of arithmetic, are presented the reasonings and researches at this day current, of the numerous examiners of the yet more numerous particulars; free from the customary indecisive common-place phraseology, also the unphilosophical though brilliant and poetical terms— affinities , elec - DEDICATORY PREFACE. XX1I1 tions, attractions , repulsions , preferences, aver¬ sions , and similar occult words. Many are the interesting theoretical en¬ quiries concerning the manner in which the Elements exert Combinative Potencies transi¬ tive and receptive, in forming compounds; and these latter again in the formation of substances, natural and artificial. Little could be expected in elucidation of this remarkable fact, from the dissimilar and not seldom con¬ flicting conclusions of different former analysts; and which were only tolerable approximations relative to one and the same subject, and not determinations, whose accuracy is admitted as entitled to confidence. But, the assiduous researches of the most expert recent analysts, while engaged in the most skilful and delicate experiments, and numerous syntheses consequent on the operose analyses of substances by processes the most improved, and whose accuracy pre¬ cluded disputes concerning the components and proportions,—have supplied many probabilities, that it presents a series of multiples of a com¬ mon force, (as stated, page 35-62,) whose clear developement and full comprehension only, can supply ability to precisely determine their limits of error;—like as the atomic weights of the elements themselves, from other facts, are XXIV DEDICATORY PREFACE. regarded as multiples by a whole number of a common weight—that of hydrogen. The mathematical elucidations introduced, I regard as alike pertinent and indispensable; and not because less toilsome than experiment, neither as the subterfuge of human pride to evade the concession of human imperfection. When our Arsenic ditto .. ib. Chromium ditto . 2 Vanadium ditto .. 3 Molybdenum ditto . 4 Tungsten ditto .. 6 Antimony ditto . ib. Tellurium ditto . 8 Tantalum ditto . ib. Titanium ditto . 9 Silicium ditto . 10 Osmium ditto . ib. Gold ditto . 11 Iridium ditto . 12 Rhodium ditto . 13 Platinum ditto • •• • •• • ib. Palladium ditto . 15 Mercury ditto . 16 Silver ditto . 19 Copper ditto .. 22 Uranium ditto .. 26 xliv CONTENTS Page. Bismuth and its Compounds.. 28 Tin ditto 29 Bead ditto 32 Cerium ditto . 36 Cobalt ditto 38 Nickel ditto 39 Iron ditto 41 Cadmium ditto . 48 Page. Zinc and its Compounds. 49 Mangauese ditto . 51 Observations.659—669 Isomorphous Groups .670 Isomeric ditto. 675 Metameric ditto. 676 Polymeric ditto. ib. Index . 677 VI ADDENDA to Page 251. The following Remarks ivere supplied on the 2 8th of June , 1837, hy an esteemed Friend :— “ A pint of slop-flint should weigh 32 oz., and a pint of water weighs 20 oz.—the difference is 12 oz.—so that if the pint be 12 oz. deficient, or short of 32, then clearly, it is entirely without Flint in it, and is all water; and the total deficiency in the tub of Flint will be 40 pecks. Agreeably to this method of determination, the Rule for ascertaining the deficiency in a tub of 40 pecks, by the weight in the pint, will be,— As 12 l are to 40, :: so are the ounces deficient in the pint, : to the pecks deficient in the tub. Problem .—What is the deficiency in the tub of flint, when the pint weighs only 29 oz. Here the pint is 3 oz. short:—therefore 12 : 40 :: 3 3 12 | 120 Answer. 10 pecks. So that when the pint weighs only 29 oz., there will be only 30 pecks of flint in the tub of a proper weight or liquidity ; and the other ten pecks are water only; which may be easily accounted for by the following reasoning :— The deficiency of 1 oz. in the pint equals a pound in a peck, or 40 lbs. in the tub. Then, in the preceding- example, the tub will be deficient in weight 120 lbs., and will weigh only 1,160 lbs. instead of 1,280 lbs. Now, 30 Pecks of Flint weigh 960 lbs. And 10 Pecks of Water weigh 200 1,160 Proving the accuracy of the former result. ADDENDA TO PAGE 251 CONTINUED. A pint of Flint, when carefully evaporated dry, will weigh l&j oz. ; therefore, when slop Flint is charged six- pence per peck, dry Flint is worth £3 Is. 4 \d. per ton, when perfectly dry, besides the expence of drying. A pint of Grauen (China Stone) when evaporated per¬ fectly dry, will weigh 17| oz. Therefore, when slop-stone is charged sixpence per peck, dry stone is worth £3 4s. 11 d. per ton, when perfectly dry, besides the expence of drying.” G. B. ADDENDA to Page 492. Boracic Acid, has potency over lime exceeding any other flux; and hence the employment of Borate of Lead is useful in the manufacture of Glass that has lime present in the pot. Boracic Acid, in the heat of the Potter’s oven, com¬ municates to flint an orange, and to grauen a primrose tint, with intumescent mass, but smooth surface. Soda improves the natural tint of both, with a bluish radiance of the latter. Problem .—What proportions, fusible at 86° Wedg. 12,000 F. will produce an homogeneous white transparent glass, indifferent to atmospheric action ? Boracic Acid improves the colour of Bone earth, and yet injures that of China clay; Soda improves the colour of the clay, yet injures that of the Bone earth. Problem .—What are the proportions which will most use¬ fully combine in a glaze that will not craze ? G. B. THE CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. ^Fusin' ®aa ANALYSIS AND MATERIALS. “The efficacy of Ignorance has long been tried, and has not produced the > consequences expected;—let Knowledge take its turn.”— -Dr. Johnson. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. V The Arts of Life supply instances of periods when the Genius of Invention has been scarcely manifested; and others, when its progress has had accelerated velocity; among which latter the present seems most interesting, because of the amazing va¬ riety and extent of improvements presented to the eye of the intelligent observer. Some natural wants, first supplied by the person in need ; and others, created by the requirements of civilization,—prompted the spirit of invention, and the exercise of dextrous skill, and the subdivision of labour, which distinguish commercial nations. Thus commenced the several Trades and Professions, whose votaries and adepts, only, first practised them as mysteries, and by limiting the knowledge, attempted B 2 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. to monopolize dexterity in the processes and manipu¬ lations. Society, however, claims every person’s endea¬ vours to promote improvements in these Arts; and the attempts to accomplish these, are usually attended by a degree of remuneration, in capacitating the person the better to fulfil the duties of the station occupied in society, and proportionately gratifying that resistless desire for knowledge, inseparable from man’s nature and condition. The advantages are much greater, when liberal-minded men unite to extend information, explore, and clear, the path for pursuing a Science, in the divulging, comparing, and illustrating of ideas; and render useful to all, the successful labours of men of science ; who, with much erudition, unite that talent, and judgment, and application, which distin¬ guished sages of other days,—who have attempted to recommend themselves to society by an original cast of thinking, and have secured the perpetual extension of current knowledge, the effulgent rays of the light of science, and the invaluable capability of unlimited improvement; so that no earthly power can limit the number of those who traverse the path ; nor deter¬ mine the importance of the improvements, and the sum of their additions to the stock of general infor¬ mation. The details most general of the Arts of Life, of extensive import in their applications, and power¬ ful influence in our manufactures, are those of Chemistry ;—one of the most useful, instructive, and curious, of all mental pursuits. This is the science which developes the distinctive characters, peculiar qualities, and combinative potencies, of Elementary INTRODUCTION. 3 Atoms; and the reciprocal action and reaction of the components of substances. When engaged in its pro¬ cesses, the mental powers are delightfully busied in scrutinizing the nature and behaviour of the elements employed, the union and usefulness, the essential dif¬ ferences of the resulting products. This science assumed its modern importance in the hands of Beecher, and Stahl, of Mentz; and during the last sixty years, it has conferred great celebrity on many self-taught men, because of their discoveries how society, in conventional language may compre¬ hend, why the unnumbered substances presented to the perception, are essentially as different in proper¬ ties, as varied in components, and have a certain and never any other manner of existence. Still, so varied are the subtleties of Nature, that a rich harvest is now ripening, to be reaped by the master-minds of this century. Will it be presumption to hope that the diffusion of the knowledge at this day current, how, in accordance with certain principles, substances either combine or separate, and produce results, may awaken the genius of some other Priestley, or Davy, or Dalton, and secure a just appreciation of true talent and perseverance ? The thirst for distinction and wealth, so prevalent among mankind, strengthens the love of liberty, kindles the lamp of invention, and excites to almost every improvement in each of the Arts of Life. Every great and useful discovery has thus resulted; not from chance, but general laws, governing the cir¬ cumstances, and proving that the laws of nature are not more permanent and immutable, than the pro¬ gress of society is certain. This thirst excited that b 2 4 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. beneficent addition to the stock of knowledge, made by the Alchemists—fools in the estimation of some in the present day wise only to amass wealth; but, in reality, a race of steady enquirers, of superior powers of intellect, employing constant reasonings on every process. Every substance, even most offen¬ sive, they examined in their search after that chimera, the philosopher’s stone; and this thirst produced acquaintance with the chemical properties of many substances, towards which the repugnance is so great, that scrupulously would they have been avoided, only for this very powerful motive. Unwilling to seek an object in the dark, or blunder on it unex¬ pectedly, they carefully pursued each glimpse of light along every intricacy of the labyrinth it traversed; and frequently in the ascertained characters of their agents, seeking directors for future processes, they remarked some peculiarity, available for one purpose, yet suggesting another. During more than six hun¬ dred years, their processes —Alchemy in its disproba- tive force, the present approved Chemistry—formed an authorized science; and its votaries and adepts, the Christian priesthood, (also the Physicians and Apothecaries, administering to the physical and mental maladies of their flocks,) only practised their chemical researches in secret, after the peculiar results were indeed so very wonderful to the unin¬ formed, as to be supposed accomplished by infernal agency; and proving the operator’s compact with the prince of darkness. Untutored minds, aware that every effect has a cause, regard as a necessary convic¬ tion, the philosophical sequence, suppose the changes in substances—violent, irregular, anomalous and INTRODUCTION. 5 unaccountable—proofs of particular agency. Such ignorant and credulous minds, in this day, are imposed on by their successors, Charlatans and Quacks; but in former days the most sagacious and intelligent persons were imposed on, or astonished. And, when mere parade of eccentricity was substituted for know¬ ledge, the more obscure were the parties’ perceptions of the phenomena of their experiments, the more symbolical and figurative became their language, the better to conceal their pretended secrets from the uninitiated and the ignorant. # One of this notorious fraternity, De Botscher, (of whom, hereafter, I shall speak more in detail,) at the commencement of the 18th century, developed the transmutation of Rocks into the hitherto-unrivalled Dresden Porcelain—more valuable to his country than could have been the discovery of the philoso¬ pher’s stone. And, our day has been distinguished by the efficient processes of the greatest Alchemist on the page of history, distinguished by Napoleon’s epithet, as “ the philosopher of England,”— Davy. Not content with the metals for his purposes of trans- * The following specimen is modest, compared with some extant:—“ Ye wretched and pitiful medicasters, who full of deceit breathe I know not what Thrasonick brags; infamous men, more mad than Bacchanalian fools, who will neither learn, nor dirty your hands with coals ; you titular doctors, who write long scrolls of receipts; you apothecaries, who with your decoctions fill pots no less than those in princes’ courts, in which meat is boiled for some hundreds of men;—you, I say, who have hitherto been blind, suffer a collyrium to be poured into your eyes, and permit me to anoint them with balsam, that this ignorance may fall from your sight, and that you may behold truth as in a clear glass.”— Basil Valentine. 6 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. mutation, he laid violent hands on the mere Earths , (till that moment in their peculiar characteristics imperfectly known,) he separated them from every extrinsic adherent, subjected them to the energies of the galvanic circuit, watched their behaviour when thereby sollicited, and enjoyed the high gratification of receiving from the respective substances, their elementary bases, as Metals. To him, contempora¬ ries of different nations have awarded the meed of acclamation ; and his name will be remembered while science preserves her records. The Alchemists would have discarded the indif¬ ference or indolence so long prevalent in the manu¬ facturers of the Wares from the Heterogeneous Compounds supplied by Nature and Art. They would have sought to be skilful adepts ,—scientific fabricators of Porcelain and Pottery; products, useful and interesting in the economy of the nation; and by ceaseless researches, and improved processes, would they have advanced, until those had become as per¬ fect as they are important. The manufacturer of this day should proceed in like manner. His prede¬ cessors, ancient and recent, had presented for their acceptance, few of the advantages placed before him; yet they scarcely availed themselves of suggestions from intelligent contemporaries. In general, practical men are known to be the slaves of prejudices; unac¬ customed to read, compare, reason, judge; ignorant that by the three great stepping stones, observation, analogy, and experiment, can they ascend from darkness to light; and that although the foot may accidently be placed on the first, yet only by per¬ sonal efforts can the ascent ever be completed ; INTRODUCTION. 7 acquainted with processes, dexterous in manipulations, and familiar with products, too often they regard, as most presuming, in the thinking portion of the community, any suggestion for improvement in either; although in its favour may be the fullest force of reason, and clear demonstration of the advantage of the change. Restricting the Art to a certain class, and scarcely supplying correct in¬ formation, or clearly explaining all the mystery, during the term of apprenticeship, they do not afford opportunity for extension of principles, nor enable improvement to keep pace with the oppor¬ tunities presented for the exercise of genius, even where celebrated for skill in the manufactures. The bulk of the population being partially ignorant of what constitutes excellence, indifference prevails to an extent inconsistent with public welfare; whereas, a little acquaintance with the qualities inciting to a better, whenever the public mind comprehends the different peculiarities, the most useful will be determined and approved by the general under¬ standing and judgment. Frequently has been repeated the adage—“ He who undertakes to teach himself, has a fool for his scholarand there is probability that its utterance by persons who had passed much time in colleges, may have affected some weak minds, and excited a fear of ridicule. But we live in a day when num¬ bers can be mentioned to completely negative the degrading stigma. However humble the origin of the parties, and however great fools they were, and least likely to supply examples of extraordinary genius, and transcendent talent, when their self- 8 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. teaching commenced ; ere their course was com¬ pleted they supplied indisputable proofs, that although self-taught —they were best taught ; and honorable refutations of the force of the adage. What nonsense ! to allow it longer to influence the public mind, when its foolishness is demonstrated by a host of persons most celebrated as original thinkers,—Priestley, Davy, Dalton, Farady, A. Murray, Herschel, and others in our own and other nations. What has elevated our coun¬ try to its high and proud grade in the scale of nations? —The Arts and Sciences. Through which of her sons? Many of the humble and self-taught, whose industry and talents would do honor to any age and country; who have clearly and fully distinguished between hypothesis and science; and, passing the boundaries of mere scholastic literature, have care¬ fully studied the ample and instructive page of Nature. In each of the processes, the phenomena result when the combinative potencies of the components are affected; and he who most easily accomplishes this, is the most expert analyst. Correct know¬ ledge of the behaviour of Re-agents and Com¬ pounds in union, and dexterity in the use of apparatus, may enable him to dispense with inter¬ mediate processes, yet obtain correct results. On the composition of a substance, the reasoning from the result of its analysis, without opportunity to combine its elements, may be very clear; but only when the synthesis of like quantities and elements supplies results every way similar to those sub¬ mitted to analysis, do we admit the conclusions to possess all the certainty of a mathematical demon- INTRODUCTION. 9 stration, and the practice so far perfect. Such results gratify the analyst, and urge him “ onward” to further investigations and developements. Thus have been urged Beecher and Stahl, who, on pheno¬ mena occurring, first noticed mutual sollicitings of the gases and the general atmosphere. Their observations urged likewise and facilitated the dis¬ coveries of two Swedes, Bergman and Scheele, con¬ temporaries of our Priestley, and the French Lavoisier. And, to the investigations of the science, has arithme¬ tical precision been secured, by another Swede, Ber¬ zelius,—Fourcroy, Berthollet, Gay Lussac in France; and Dalton, Davy, and Thomson, in England. Metallurgical chemistry, important and essential to many of the Arts of Life, is yet, as regards Potting, palpably imperfect. There may be reasons for this. The processes have been inspected by many persons, fully adequate to their correct description ; but, they have declined promulgating the information, either because filling a station in society, regarded as supe¬ rior to such trouble; or fearing lest in giving pub¬ licity to imagined secrets , they should break some seal of confidence. Not so proceed the pioneers of science. Persuaded that there is no reason whatever why the Art should not rank as a science ; and well aware that most subtile and peculiar are the processes of the Laboratory, and the energies for the constant and gradual changes by Analysis and Synthesis, separa¬ tions and combinations; they resolutely in every quarter break up the ground, and throw together by far the greatest number of important facts possible to be aggregated ; that the Manufacturer may under¬ stand fully the true combinative potencies and propor- 10 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. tions of the components, by whose reciprocal qualities they combine in bodies, glazes, and colours; and while for the great variety of these, the same few materials are variously proportioned, the spontaneous workings of the whole are not so obvious; and the traces they leave are so delicate, as afterwards to be scarcely perceptible by the most experienced eye. With an ardour of investigation only now sanc¬ tioned, and a constant addition of products for sub¬ jects, with rapid strides Science advances to solve all important inquiries on the economical appropriation of components; diminishing the expence, yet pro¬ moting the excellence of the products, and of the Art, as suggested by the wants of progressive refinement. Disregarding all impediments, the steady “ March of Intellect,” and the discoveries of Philosophic Re¬ search, will place the Art on an immovable basis; will give publicity to the new application of solidly- established principles, to direct and expedite all attempts at alterations, and all original researches for what useful purposes, different materials may be with advantage employed; will exhibit in a new light experimental facts, supplied by the united efforts of scientific men, expert analysts, occasionally named; and including many interesting enquiries which have exercised the intellect of ardent admirers of nature’s processes; will no longer sanction such important products remaining the mere results of chance and guess-work, but urge to ceaseless efforts to supply data, plain and correct, for readily and certainly determining the employment of materials; will ex¬ plain, if not with absolute certainty, yet satisfactorily to the mind not influenced by the specious reasonings INTRODUCTION. 11 of heory, many questions now controverted; will supply observations and experiments on interesting and remarkable phenomena and their causes, here¬ tofore completely mysterious; the latter often results of others more general—of principles, which, as well as the analogy of their relations, demonstrate the former, and others similar; in a few words, will exhibit the Manipulations and Processes, conducted by the directions of science, as indubitable as are the demonstrations of Euclid ; and supply the details so clear, by generalizing the essential and most impor¬ tant combinations, to the capacity of any person, that the principles may be established, and the Art ad¬ vanced to perfection, by that unrivalled instrument of improvement, which till now it had seemed com¬ pletely to elude—the Mathematics. Not however to deny, that the advancement here contemplated may have a limit, owing to the difference in men’s natural ability, and their avail of opportunity, to scrutinize the subjects presented, (like nature’s processes, sub¬ lime and profound, different though constant and uniform,) leading to the search for powers and causes almost as diversified as the effects, affording the greater satisfaction with the simplicity of the princi¬ ples, and the pertinence of the results. Whoever first publishes these , will be the manufacturer’s friend ; and were several persons thus employed, assuredly would valuable suggestions be made, independent of any possible petty jealousies. The manufacturer usually affects mystery in his recipes, regarding them as cheaper, or better, or both these, than all others; though non-comparison of them with others, in components and quantities, 12 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. causes the useless expence of some which are inno¬ cuous and inefficient. The spirit of jealous exclu¬ siveness causes great difference, as well in components as in proportions of the same component, in the current formulae of even celebrated persons. With some trouble have been completed the comparative Analysis of Recipes, by their owners supposed excel¬ lent ; and which well exhibit the knowledge and reasonings current in the days of guessing at propor¬ tions. Admitting them good and useful when first introduced, yet being altogether devoid of general principles, Ihey are not adapted for an improved state of the Art, or to indicate any advance in the Chemistry of Masses. From the directions given, also, there might be the inference, that intentionally errors have been promulgated, to cause failures, and deter parties busied in research; else, that glaring errors have crept into the numbers and processes; or the parties were deficient in the knowledge and verity for which they have obtained credit. It must, however, be allowed, that, to the manufacturer, caution is indis¬ pensable, and must be observed ; for, by his temerity ? with himself the community would suffer, was he, be¬ cause of the success of one experiment, disregarding the suggestions of prudence against the excitements of speculation, to act as well as argue from particulars to universals, and hastily compound each Body or Glaze proposed. < Of Operatives,—the most prejudiced against any change,—the Potter of the generation last past, seems in the first rank, habituated to regard the frequent and ready performance of a process, as the only pro¬ per Test of its utility and accuracy; recollection INTRODUCTION. 13 enabling him to provide for his support with little exertion, he increased in fondness for the processes, and proportionately became prejudiced against the new, however superior in economy of labour and time. To him the name of an experimenter, on Chemical Principles, was merely a synonym for a fool! and the pity, contempt, or aversion of his less speculative acquaintance, was the only reward of the person who ventured to suggest the application of Theory to Practice,—to ascertain the rationale of processes,—to suggest the alteration of manipulations,—to introduce the employment of a fresh material. Ye*t, has any of the prior Class left proofs that he possessed the least knowledge of Principles, and, by analogy, of their reciprocal relations ? As w'ell might we give him credit for knowledge of Nature’s simple modes of operation, which would suggest imitation, and pre¬ clude erroneous calculations of results, as of the component elements of the several materials; of their peculiar potencies as agents and recipients; whenever, in artificial processes, they silently expand, break, evaporate, radiate, contract, disperse, or combine with others. I am disposed to regard as one principal cause of retarding the progress of this important Art, the implicit adherence to precedents, and rules of days long passed; without testing those precedents by Scientific Principles, and superseding all rules but those which accord with the improved state of Society. But, besides the Operatives, the Friends of Im¬ provement are opposed by others, who have the peculiar taste or disposition not to suffer to be intro¬ duced into practice anything new in place of what themselves know. Until very recently,—jealous of 14 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. all innovations, as needless, even when harmless,— the monopolists of power, and the votaries of avarice and selfishness, sternly and vigilantly obstructed advancement in knowledge, and the extension of useful research; fostering whatever impeded the march of Scientific Discovery, and over-awing all attempts of Intellect to pass the limits prescribed by their opinions and acquirements. They present obstacles often causing an ingenious inventor more trouble, than to surmount physical difficulties insepa¬ rable from new processes ; or to clearly develope and explain whatever facilitates the intended purposes. There have been expressed doubts on the pro¬ priety of giving to the numerous Secrets of this Manufacture, the extension and publicity that are consequent on printing them. Why any should question the utility as far exceeding any possible dis¬ advantage, I profess myself unable to determine. The leading principle of a Manufacturer appears to be, to employ the means best adapted and most cor¬ rect to appropriate to the utmost possible use, whatever materials he employs. For this purpose, there seems a necessity for the processes suggested by his expe¬ rience to be directed by the liberal and accurate details of science. His profits depend on the business being conducted with regularity and judgment; but how the latter must be exercised without available knowledge, is not easily determined; though readily would all be effected, were the manufacturer’s com¬ pounds simplified and regulated by science. The rapid progress recently made, warrants the anticipation of yet much greater, in every department of valuable knowledge, because of the liberal commu- INTRODUCTION. 15 nications of those philosophers and philanthropists who have directed their attention to promote and improve whatever to the public may be indispensable and valuable. Most of those, who, on the European continent, have thus, by the aids of science, improved the Arts of Life, in very recent times, were regularly initiated into her arcana, and either passed their lives in the quiet of the cloisters, or because of well-earned celebrity, were called by their country to take an active part in the drama of public life. Not such has been the fact in our own country. Our great improvers have been men of business; who did not pursue philosophy as a profession, but by mere accident found it, and then pursued it as a recreation; or beneath its extended shelter, enjoyed relaxation from more weighty cares. Hence, while on the continent, of science were taken more systematic or more logical views; England has been distinguished by more useful discoveries:—as by Bergman and Lavoisier,— Cavendish and Davy. Frequently have important discoveries been com¬ pletely accidental; and made by persons scarcely aware, and seldom capable of fully availing them¬ selves, of the extent of improvement of which each was susceptible from the suggestions of science ; and thus the spirit of monopoly has precluded even them¬ selves from consequent advantages of their discoveries, lest some of these should also be enjoyed by others. The vast improvements accomplished in those manu¬ factures to which have been applied the Principles of Chemical investigations, prove the accuracy of the reasonings of Boyle:—“ The excellency of manufac¬ tures, and the facility of labour, would be much 16 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. promoted, if the various expedients and contrivances which lie concealed in private hands, were, by reci¬ procal communications, made generally known ; for there are few operations which are not performed by one or another with some peculiar advantages, which though singly of little importance, would by conjunc¬ tion and concurrence open new inlets to knowledge, and give new powers to diligence.” To discard all mystery and quackery, and clearly to disclose every process, certainly will be to invite the attention of men of science and research, to extend as far as pos¬ sible any advantage, however gained, and to discover greater utility in the numerous and various sub¬ stances employed. And, by the union of varied talent, by unremitted investigation, with perseverance and acuteness in the successive experiments, being connected unto comprehensive and systematic views, we shall have the beau ideal of what it is proper should be our Manufacturers. May they emulate Davy and Dalton in their bold and sedulous attempts to discover what has hitherto been concealed; and Bergman and Berzelius in their close and systematic reasonings from causes to results, and vice versa. How truly applicable is this remark :—“ My intention is, to elucidate clearly the theory, and occasionally the ^philosophical practices, of the manufacture. Those scientific details which now terrify the adult manufac¬ turer, will be mere trifles to his children, when they shall be taught at School,—a little more Mathematics, and a little less Latin,—a little more Chemistry, and a little less Greek.”— Dumas. t 17 ] LABORATORY AND APPARATUS. The Art of Chemical Analysis consists in a most cautious and acute investigation of the structure, and the reciprocal actions and re-actions of substances. Professor Robison justly remarks—“ Every change in the state of things, is considered as an effect, indi¬ cating the agency, characterizing the kind, and measuring the degree of its Cause.” And you are aware, that to closely examine these, and all the other Categorical particulars, of those subjects obvious to the senses, and controlled by the Laws of Nature* there has been successfully employed, numerous illustrative experiments, at the expence of great labour, much scientific application, and extraordinary mental and bodily activity. Hence the utility of a Laboratory and Apparatus. The Laboratory, or apartment in which are pursued chemical investigations, must have a dry floor, and a temperature of 60° Fah. to prevent injury to any of the contents. It must be entirely free from the direct solar rays, and influx of dust, of persons passing through, or any disturbance by shocks of machinery. The window must easily open, and the chimney allow space for compounds while offensive gas escapes. In front of the window must be a strong table, with drawers for utensils, yet allow the person to sit close without inconvenience. In a retired part of the room fix a set of double shelves; the upper of each pair thin and pierced , to receive the phials of acids and re-agents, and preclude acci- c 18 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. dental overturning. In another place fix a set of single shelves. The articles of Apparatus used in the analysis of the different materials of the manufacture, are fewer in number, and less expensive, than for preparing the different kinds of gas. These are indispensable: Phials for acids and re-agents, strong, broad, short, and stop¬ pered,—six each of 8, 4, and 2 oz. and twenty-four 1 oz. Phials with wide mouth for dry re-agents and preparations, six each of 8 and 4 oz., and twelve of 2 and 1 oz. Close-covered earthenware jars, 36s. to 18s., for ores, salts, &c. Plenty of all sizes of corks, and of lengths of glass tubes. Very small funnel, glass, ribbed ; larger of earthenware. Watch glasses, and porcelain capsules ; several sizes. Glass jars for mixtures, and three sizes for precipitation. Graduated half-pint glass measure. Two Woulfe’s bottles, and several oil-flasks. Iron and porcelain mortars, three sizes. Hessian and small porcelain crucibles. Platinum crucible, capsule, spoon, forceps, and foil. Spirit-lamps, large double wick, and small single wick. Blow-pipe and lamp. Platinum, copper, and iron wire. Good scales; cup set, and grains box of weights. Flat files, four sizes and cuts; rat-tail files, four sizes. Four sorts of lead shot, mixed, one pound. The quantities of the respective substances have these propor¬ tions :— Distilled mater , as much as possible, (readily procured from condensing steam at any throttle-valve of a steam-engine.) The purest is thus prepared—into a retort put a pint of clear rain¬ water ; distil over a little, and with it wash the receiver ; then distil two-thirds of the remainder, and preserve for use. Alcohol , 4 oz. very pure, and weaker for the lamp, (unless pyro-acetic spirit be used.) Pure concentrated Sulphuric, Muriatic, and Nitric Acids, 2, 1, and £ lbs. Potash, ± oz., solid, dissolve in dis- tilled-mater, (always to be understood,) let it repose twenty-four hours, then decant into its own phial, and let the stopper be well rubbed with tallow. Always abstract it by the dropping tube,— never pour it out, its action on animal and vegetable substances LABORATORY. 19 being so extremely violent. Liquid Ammonia , 4 oz,, keep well secured from air and warmth. Carb. Potash, 4 oz., ignite the bicarbonate crystals in the platinum crucible over the double lamp, then dissolve the calc in water, filter, and keep for use. Carb. Soda , dissolve in distilled water, filter, evaporate till a pellicle forms, and place aside to crystallize for the blow-pipe pro¬ cesses ; also, dissolve in water, filter, and preserve for use. Car¬ bonate of Ammonia, dissolve in water, filter, and keep cool and well-secured. Nitrate of Silver, J oz., keep in a dark place. An ounce of each of these crystals, Tartaric Acid, Citric Acid, Sul¬ phate of Potash, Sulphate of Soda, Yellow Prussiate of Potash, Nitrate of Potash, Sulphate of Copper, Acetate of Lead, Borate of Soda, Sulphate of Magnesia, Alumine, Iron, Soda, Tartrate of Soda; half an ounce of these crystals, Oxalic and Boracic Acids, Chloride of Barium, Super-oxalate of Potash, Oxalate of Ammonia, Carbonates of Barytes and Magnesia ; and a quarter of an ounce of these, Nitrate and Acetate of Barytes, Phosphate of Soda, and Chromate of Potash. For purposes of amusement, these, as sold hy respectable drug¬ gists, will answer ; but for the researches which require the most scrupulous accuracy, the re-agents must be as pure as possible, and preserved in well-stoppered (not corked ,) phials, else some¬ thing may enter, or escape, and spoil them. The crystals, in small portions, must be pulverized and dissolved, then filtered, and always saturated, transparent, and without deposit, except of its own crystals ; as when used, a drop or two of distilled water will readily dilute. The solutions which separate spontaneously, are to be made at the moment wanted. Test papers. Take two sheets of very thin yellow-wove post paper for each of the three kinds ; and after being immersed and dried, cut into squares of two inches broad, then keep well- secured from light, air, and vapours, and each square cut into six or eight strips for use. In a pint of distilled water, boil 1 pound of red cabbage-leaves in shreds till all the colour is abstracted ; strain through muslin, evaporate to half a pint, pour into a shallow dish, immerse the paper; afterwards with alcohol odourate the liquid, in a well-secured phial. Of Litmus and Turmeric, each \ oz. Logwood 1 oz. and a quarter of a pint of water, boil half an hour in a bowl, strain through muslin, and proceed as directed for the cabbage-leaf paper. c 2 20 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Most chemical preparations are deleterious, and must not be trifled with. Many of them burn whatever they touch, the fingers, or clothes, and only can this be prevented by care in using the phials y —wet the stopper with the liquid, then withdraw it, and make a line on the rim of the phial, to which wet line apply the stopper, and let the liquid escape only in drops till all is obtained. Let every preparation be placed on the shelf, to prevent its injuring any person ; and also be distinguished by its label, and its own place, to save time and diminish the trouble inseparable from the study. The Jars for the Laboratory should be so formed, that the cover can sink down and rest on a ledge in the flange. Whenever any substance is to be kept in such jar, free from air, the only addition needed, is a little hog’s-lard on the ledge round, and more to be applied when the cover is in its place; so that it can be readily removed, and yet will always be air-tight. The preparation of the Re-agents , or Tests , when¬ ever possible by the student, is peculiarly useful and beneficial. Certainly they can be obtained at much less expence than that of preparing them; but I believe very few will estimate the mere purchase and application above the knowledge resulting from their preparation. By conforming to all the directions, examining every appearance and product, remarking the relative active or sluggish energies of the respec¬ tive substances, there are acquired dexterity in using the apparatus, confidence in the genuineness of the re-agents for future researches; and more real infor¬ mation is obtained by observing all the phenomena presented by merely one experiment, than can possi¬ bly result from a partial attention to several. What¬ ever difficulty occurs, the greatest are those of false notions, which have to be superseded by others new and correct; and afterwards the details of processes NAMES OF PROCESSES. 21 are more readily comprehended, and the pursuit of the science in a considerable degree facilitated. » For convenience, the several operations in Analysis and Synthesis,—the separation of some, and the join¬ ing together of other elements or compounds, have distinctive appellations; as Ignition , all its particles being red by heat; Fusion melted by heat, the con¬ trary being infusible; the application of heat in fu¬ sion, chemically changing a solid into a fluid sub¬ stance ; as Metals and Salts, which latter have the aqueous—peculiar, because of water of crystallization present; and the igneous, solely from action of heat. Solution , separation in a liquid; and when not so separable, insoluble. Whenever the combinative po¬ tencies of the elements in the fluid exceed those of the elements in the solid towards each other, solution begins, and continues till amongst these potencies there is equilibrium ; the solvent potency of the fluid is counterbalanced, the solution is saturated, and any excess of the solid remains unaffected. Decomposition , the separation of components by heat and galvanic action; (its unphilosophical application to separation in fluids where fresh compounds result, should be discontinued.) Evaporation , by heat dissipating all the volatile particles of a fluid compound, and pre¬ serving all the fixed, in shallow open vessels, with regulated temperature, and either increased or dimi¬ nished atmospheric pressure, as the volatile and the fixed particles have more or less difference in their tendency to be dissipated. Usually, the elements in the evaporated fluid aggregate in beautiful crystals, with regular and determined form of sides and angles, similar to the masses, and cut in the same figure as 22 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. those by nature; a regularity which proves that the fiat for their formation is—not blind chance, or for¬ tuitous motion, but the will of an omniscient and almighty Creator. Distillation , separating all volatile particles, and collecting and preserving them, at a reduced temperature, as liquids. Precipitation , sepa¬ rating one element of a compound fluid, by changing the condition and circumstances. When this com¬ pound has two components, (as acid and oxide,) besides water, on exhibiting a third, (as an alcali,) which sollicits one of them more potently than they sollicit each other, either the fresh compound, or that component which does not enter into the fresh compound, as they happen to be, relatively, more or less soluble, separates from the menstruum or mother-liquor, and precipitates to the bottom of the vessel. When the proportions of the components of the fresh compound are so adjusted, that, neither is in excess, they are in equivalence; and when the liquid does not alter the tint of the test-papers, it is a neutral salt. Filtration , obtaining what was sepa¬ rated, in a solid state. A speedy process of mechani¬ cally separating the fluid portion of a compound, from the solid, whether accidentally mixed with it, or a precipitate, by a re-agent affecting the fluid compound. It is accomplished several ways, by sponge, tow, wool, cotton, and for corrosive fluids, fine glass powder in an inverted phial; but the general practice is, unsized cap paper, or common blotting paper, at times supported by linen cloth, through which the fluid permeates and escapes, while on the paper remain the solid particles, to be washed, dried, and preserved for examination, or NAMES OF PROCESSES. 23 future use. The employment of lawns , in the manu¬ facture, is a kind of filtration. In some processes, repose for a length of time is preferable to filtration; as in preparing the Purple of Cassius. In such pro¬ cesses, let a strip of coarse linen rag be made wet, and one end be immersed in the middle of the preci¬ pitate, while the other is carried below the support of the vessel, on the principle of the siphon and capillary re-action, all the water will be gradually conveyed away, and every atom of the powder will be pre¬ served. Calcination , dissipating, by heat, some of the elements of substances, whether incombustible or not, which if present would preclude the chemical combination of the fixed residue with other substances to form fresh compounds; thus the water of crystalli¬ zation is dissipated from borax, alum, gypsum, &c. the volatile components of bones (ammonia) is evolved; and the results are—the cinders of common language, and the calcs , or oxides of chemical nomenclature. Elutriation , washing off lighter particles, leaving the heavier to subside. Eliquation , fusing only the more fusible of two metals. Granulation , subdividing for facile chemical action a melted metal, by pouring it from some height, either into cold water, or a box whose sides are well chalked, and kept in motion, till it congeals, when it becomes a fine powder. Cemen¬ tation , placing a solid body in the powder of another body, and then in a close vessel, subjecting the whole to a temperature just below that at which the con¬ tents would fuse. The baking of biscuit Porcelain in flint powder is a kind of cementation. Trituration , rubbing substances extremely fine in a mortar, porcelain, or agate; but its results are always coarse 24 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. and wasteful, compared with those from Levigation , the scientific name for grinding on a flat stone, hard, polished, and lubricated with water, oil, or turpen¬ tine. The substance is gradually and constantly reduced in the size of its particles, by the motion of a stone moved by the hand, and called the muller. Its face being flat and polished, while the fluid pre¬ vents the particles fleeing around, the action and re¬ action facilitate the comminution. The palette-knife, or bone spatula, readily brings and keeps all the mass together. Sublimation, by heat separating the vola¬ tile particles of solid bodies, and again obtaining them in a solid form; in which restriction to solids, it differs from evaporation. It as well purifies the substance from extraneous or deleterious ingredients, as vapourizes, and in that very comminute state con¬ fines principles which else would not easily have united. All fluids being volatile by heat, and there¬ fore in most instances separable from fixed matters— hence, various solid substances are subjected to a similar process. Fluids distil, solids sublime; and sometimes both are results of one and the same pro¬ cess. Substances not volatile per se, usually can be rendered so by the presence of others; and, often in close vessels the fumes rise only a little, and adhere to the part where they concrete. The result, when powder, is flowers; when solid, a sublimate. [ 25 ] ELEMENTS. All the wonderful diversity of objects, presented by nature, and recognized by the senses, are either— simple Elements, remaining the same, to whatever chemical processes subjected; only fifty-four being at this day known (1836); —or, compound, Bodies or substances, the reciprocal action and recipience of rarely more than seven, and often only three or four , of the former; into which, by such processes, they are separable. Repetition of the processes, not rea¬ soning a-priori , has determined this; although, from knowing all their distinguishing characters, we are precluded by the impossibility of exhibiting even any one of the former to all the others, in every possible variation of temperature and atmospheric pressure. All language consists of words, of a small num¬ ber of letters, variously arranged, to faithfully depict the sounds of the human voice, and only a few some¬ times stand alone. For their analysis human intellect is by some supposed inadequate; yet the solution of this difficult problem, is, the signs for Letters, Sylla¬ bles, and Words, in different languages, and for stenography, and music. The analysis of the Princi¬ ples of the mysterious science —the Black Art — Chemistry, has hitherto been expected on some basis or other, chiefly by those who study the science only because they may not dispense with it; while the secrets hidden in the dark abyss of nature, cause others of superior minds, and intent on understanding what is known, to confess the inefficiency of current 26 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. processes to develope these Principles; and they remain satisfied with the probable composition of Bodies. Each of the fifty-four Elements, or undecomposed substances, has an essential peculiarity for uniting with the others. This, when presented in an abstract or separate form, in the requisite comparison of momenta with ratios of numbers assigned to all, has often been called its Electricity; and when a com¬ pound of any of four (oxygen, chlorine, iodine, and fluorine, which very powerfully sollicit all others,) with any one of the remainder, is subjected to the action of the galvanic circuit, and decomposed, this remarkable difference is observed:—at the positive , or active pole, the oxygen, &c. concentrates; and the hydrogen, metals, &c. at the negative or recipient. Thus are clearly distinguished the agent and patient, as the Elements of the decomposing compound con¬ centrate at the positive and the negative poles. With this restriction to the active or sluggish mo¬ mentum, the qualities of positive and negative are attributed to the respective elements; although only the two extremes of the Series following, (copied from Mr. Griffin’s Chemical Recreations,) are without both kinds of momenta, active, communicative, positive with regard to all below, but, to all above, quiescent, receptive, or negative. The following table shows, 1. The names of all the chemical Elements, arranged in the order of their relative decomposing powers. 2. The weights of the atoms of the Elements, determined by a method described hereafter. 3. Symbols,—and 4. Names, for denoting the atoms of the elements. ELEMENTS 27 c+> Weight of an Atom. Symbol of an Atom. Name of an Atom. Potassium 10 K Kali Sodium 6 N Nati Lithium 1-5 L Liti Barium 17 5 Ba Bari Strontium 11 Sr Stroni Calcium 5 Ca Calci Ammonium 4-5 Am Ammi Magnesium 3 Mg Magi Glucinum 4-5 Be Beri Yttrium 8 Y Yttri Aluminum 2 25 A1 Ali Zirconium 5-5 Zr Ziri Thorium 15 Th Thori Manganese 7 Mn Mani Zinc 8 Zn Zinki Cadmium 14 Cd Cadi Iron 7 Fe Feri Nickel 7 Ni Nicki Cobalt 7 Co Cobi Cerium 11*5 Ce Ceri Lead 26 Pb Plumi Tin 14-5 Sn Stani Bismuth 18 Bi Bisi Uranium 35 U Uri Copper 8 Cu Cupri Silver 27-5 Ag Argi Mercury 25 Mr Meri Palladium 6-5 Pd Palli Platinum 1225 Pt Plati Rhodium 65 R Rhodi Iridium 12-25 Ir Iri Gold 16-5 Au A uri Osmium 12-5 Os Osmi Hydrogen •25 H Hydri Silicium 2 Si Sillij Titanium 3 Ti Titi Tantalum 15 Ta Tani Tellurium 8 Te Teli Antimony 11 Sb Stibi Carbon 3 C Cari Boron 1 B Bori Tungsten 8 W Woli Molybdenum 12 Mo Moli Vanadium 17 V Vani Chromium 7 Cr Cromi Arsenic 9-5 As Arsi Selenium 10 Se Seli Phosphorus 4 P Phosi Fluorine 4-5 F Fluri Iodine 32 I Iodi Bromine 20 Bm Bromi Chlorine 9 Cl Chlori Azote 35 Z Zoti Sulphur 4 s Suli Oxygen 4 0 Oxi (-) Water 4-5 Aq Aqui Numerical exponents, or names denoting any number of atoms up to 12. 1 = mona 2 = dia 3 =. tria 4 = tetra 5 = penta 6 = nexa 7 = hepta 8 = octa 9 = enna 10 = deca 11 = endeca 12 = dodeca p—signifies the positive ele¬ ment in ex- -cess to the extent of 1 atom, if not otherwise mentioned n—signifies the negative element in excess to the extent of 1 atom, if not otherwise mentioned. 28 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. The Numbers indicate the precise arithmetical proportions, or definite relations of the single atoms, by weight, determined by experiment, examination, and analysis, of the mutual, fixed, and resulting quan¬ tities, one to another, in which they ever and only form regular compounds. It must be understood, that, with reference to the real nature of the Elements, all is conjecture. We assume, however, that each kind of atoms, in accord¬ ance with Nature’s general laws, peculiar in shape or form, with orbital space of determined size, invisi¬ ble to us, yet included in the general atmosphere.* The atoms of vulgar regard, whose aggregation in a determined space constitutes density and weight , are * The French mathematician, Poisson, has calculated the man¬ ner in which Electricity , or, in fact, these orbital spaces may exist, and be affected. From his remarks I have selected the fol¬ lowing as most pertinent, adapting my own language:— Around each atom is an orbital space, varying in shape and size with those of the atoms; its thickness at every part depending also upon that shape, yet preserving the equilibrium of the atom. The problem is always reduced—to determining the shape of the atom. The quantity is always proportioned to the surface. The thickness in each point of the surface, to preclude irregular action of the atom, must be greatest at the summit of the longest of the three axes, and smallest at that summit of the shortest; and these also be to each other as the length of the axes. Was the stratum of this orbital space very thin, its distribution round a spheroid will vary little from a sphere. But the varying thipkness can be estimated by current knowledge only in regard of the spheroid and ellipsoid. Suppose the atom a sphere, the orbital space is equally thick over every part of the surface. Suppose it an ellip¬ soid, the orbital space would be relatively thick at the extremities of the longer axis, and thin at those of the shorter, and the whole will assume the form of an ellipsoidal shell, the interior surface ever coinciding with the shape of the atom. ELEMENTS. 29 those parts of substances, which by continued tritura¬ tion may be reduced smaller and finer, yet retain their characters and relative properties. Chemistry presents others to her votaries, the principles which That the reciprocal actions and re-actions of atoms are as the inverse of the square of the distances, is demonstrated by the coincidence of calculation with the phenomena. When the orbital spaces of component atoms in a body are undisturbed by supplied or abstracted motions of heat, such body is in its natural state. On adding a determined quantity of one kind of atoms, these with their orbital spaces distribute motions to those of the body, and the whole are alike affected. When two excited atoms are in con¬ tact, the point of contact is neutral, or without physical energy; and the greatest quantity of orbital space is accumulated at the point most remote therefrom. The quantity for each increases from that to the maximum point, according to the relative dia¬ meters of the two atoms. The thickness being nothing at the point of contact, two spherical atoms, with like momenta in con¬ tact, are at this point without action or re-action. Around it, and even to some distance, the momentum is very weak upon each atom, and the expansion small, and where appreciable, it at first is more powerful in the larger atom, and afterwards increases at the greatest rate on the smaller, so as to be upon the point diame¬ trically opposite that of contact, always greater on the smaller atom than in the corresponding point of the larger. When re¬ moved beyond all reciprocal sollicitation, each separated atom is uniformly surrounded and accompanied by the whole of its orbital space. The formula of the action and re-action of spheroids supply data to calculate those of the orbital space for a point in any part thereof. In proportion to its thickness is its re-action in each point of the surface of a spheroid, little differing from a sphere ; and the like regards the surface of an ellipsoid of revolution, whatever be the ratio of its relative axis. In these two shapes of atoms, the orbital space would most re-act where was the greatest momentum. La Place has, by synthesis, satisfied mathematicians that always is the re-action proportional to the thickness. We are not certain that it varies at the surface of atoms in motion, or is proportional to the square of the thickness. Wherever its expan- 30 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. constitute all other substances, and remain unaffected by current processes of analysis.* Although the word atom precludes the idea of half-atoms as absurd, and indicates the smallest imaginable portion of an ele- sion has momentum greater than that of the other atoms, entry and admission of the orbital spaces, especially from pointed or sharp-edged extremities, combination results. The analysis applies equally to action and re-action affecting the same atom at the same instant. Suppose one atom excited only as much as by the atom presented, then the combinative recipience in re-action to that of the great atom, accumulates nigh the least distant point, while nigh its opposite point accumulates similar combinative recipience. In these points, the reciprocal potencies are almost equal; and the line of separation differs little from the grand circle perpendicular to the line which joins the two centres, and equally divides the little atom. * Dobereiner thus assumes the different sizes of atoms of gases: —In a large glass that had a very minute fissure, hydrogen was left standing over water, and in twenty-four hours the water had risen almost three inches, without any sensible alteration of the barometer and thermometer, and this always occurred whenever the vessel had fissures ; but never when the vessel was covered by a bell-glass, or when filled with atmospheric air, oxygen, or nitro¬ gen. Regarding all gases as consisting of solid atoms of varied size, enveloped by orbital spaces, as atmospheres of heat and likewise very different; hydrogen, with the smallest atom, has the largest orbital space, or atmosphere of heat; and therefore may escape through fissures which retain the other gases; as other fis¬ sures may allow nitrogen to escape, and yet retain oxygen; others similarly allow oxygen to escape, but retain carbonic acid gas.— He mentions also this remarkable probability, that a tube will admit air, yet not admit alcohol:—A thermometer tube, finely drawn out by the lamp, to fill with alcohol, had the point im¬ mersed, and the bulb heated till no air-bubbles escaped; and yet when cooled, no alcohol entered. Being again heated, bubbles passed out through the alcohol; still, when cooled, no alcohol entered. The tube, through a lens appeared open; and when taken out of the alcohol, the air hissed on entering it. ELEMENTS. 31 ment, the fancy associates therewith a portion of universal space in which it exists and is moveable; and whose diminution or enlargement, contraction or expansion, capacitates it for combination or separation. This is the true cause of what is mentioned in many chemical works, as a “natural tendency [in the elements] to approach each other, whatever be the distance at which they are placedalthough these mechanical effects are, confessedly, efficient only “ when [the elements are] placed in apparent contact.” The jE lectricity of the elements is easily explained. Every instance of the mutual action and re-action of The oxy-hydrogen microscope of Brown, demonstrates the existence of circular, or orbital motions, in every substance inves¬ tigated; and M. Muncke exhibits them by this easy method :—On a glass-plate, triturate the size of a pin’s head of gamboge in a large drop of water; in this dip a pin’s head; and in another drop of water, mix well the fluid taken; of this take half the size of a millet-seed, suppose 05 of a line, place it under the magnifier of 500 power, and there will appear brownish-yellow points, round and elongated, similar to fine grains of gunpowder, distant from each other 0’25 to 1 line; but all in constant slower or quicker motions, so that they move through the apparent space of 1 line, in from 0'6 to 2" or 3". When oil of almonds is used, these motions do not appear; but with alcohol they are almost too quick for recognition. Suppose that the magnified side is more than 18 inches of water, with particles moving in it, and the motions being proportionately magnified; and all wonder immediately ceases. These motions are governed by the principle of action and reaction, which re¬ quires, when atoms are sollicited, equal space ever to contain equal momentum. To preserve this, they have equable effect, indifferent to their being orbital, as results of re-action on a rectilinear force— and, to the atoms uniting in one orbit, or moving in concentric cir¬ cles, or continuous rings, or parallel planes, or at right angles. And, however confused the primary motions, orbital motion re¬ sults from rectilinear motion and resistance. 32 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. oxygen and hydrogen, and their combination, pro¬ duces flame and light. Heat presents the excited spheres of light, changes, and decompositions, the union of oxygen with the excited hydrogen of a com¬ bustible, producing fire and flame; and Electricity exhibits the excited atoms with expanded orbital spaces, destructions and dispersions, the oxygen and hydrogen separated, yet in energy again to be re¬ united. The respective excitements thus differ:— the excited hydrogen in flame needs carbon, when oxygen localizes the electrical result; but in the other, the pure oxygen and hydrogen are separated from the circumbounding space, and artificial obstruction is interposed to delay the constantly sollicited combina¬ tion. How remarkable is the fact concerning hydro¬ gen and oxygen, which in our day are known each to sollicit and be sollicited by the other as antagonist principles, that the idea of there being two such prin¬ ciples, whence originate all other substances, was entertained in a period long anterior to the doctrine of there being four Elements. But the simplicity and perfection of nature astonish us. Like every other result of infinite wisdom, the ground-work is plain and simple, the super-structure noble and magnifi¬ cent ; the causes few and efficient, the effects innu¬ merable and complete; the course most easy and direct, the means the fewest possible to accomplish the design; surprisingly varied, constantly uniform; the processes manifest or less obvious, might induce a search for multifarious causes, only for the satisfac¬ tory simplicity of the first principles. Who can with indifference behold the subtlety, the minuteness, and the perfection of the mysterious ELEMENTS. 33 union of the elements into compounds, with Protean figures because of varied proportions. Who, arrived at manhood, imagined in his boyish days, or heard mention that water, light, and heat, are different quantities of only the same two elements; that the substances called Earths are metallic oxides ; that our table-salt and nitre are strictly compounds of soda and muriatic acid, and of potash and aqua-fortis; each so entirely unlike either of the components. That, on the compounds presented by nature, com¬ binative potency confers durability, indestructible by ordinary circumstances; while all devoid of these characteristics are evanescent, accidental, or only the productions of the laboratory. These discoveries, and all others in this interesting science, arise from the principle of separation , or analysis; by motions of the atoms in heat, or by a third, mechanically intro¬ duced, uniting with one of those previously present at the precise instant of separation; the required element being left disconnected, to be investigated and employed. “All the Processes and Manipulations of the Science, (Sir R. Phillips says,) resolve into this law:— The leverage of sharp tools is not sufficiently fine to change, condense, expand, and convert substances; therefore, their atoms are by motion heated, or by heat set in motion; and their relations being dis¬ turbed, they separate, or decompose. The motions may be affected by figures and densities; but the atoms being once affected, heat is evolved“ for,” says Davy, “ the laws of the communication of heat, are precisely those of the communication of motion. •D 34 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. And only does the motion of heat pass through bodies after it has put all their atoms into uniform motion.” The task is not very easy to develope and deter¬ mine the Problem—by the processes of Chemistry to quickly produce results, which, by those of nature need an unknown period of time. Many substances, with external differences apparently complete, present common characters, by which we trace transition from one to the other. The investigation of the pro¬ perties of substances or components is productive of advantage ; every step in the enquiry extends the limits of the prospect, and is rewarded with enlarged ideas. We constantly regard a regular succession of general causes as producing uniform results; and rather than question these, even occasional inter¬ ruptions of the order and continuity of the series, we refer to particular circumstances. We know only few of Nature’s agents, and few principles to explain them; yet their difficulty of comprehension should render us more scrupulously attentive to their inves¬ tigation ; and sound philosophy demands that we admit phenomena we cannot explain. Increasing additional proof of the admirable and truly grand simplicity of Nature, is the most obvious fact that she conducts us most directly to discoveries, when she presents Facts wholly opposed to our opinions. [ 35 ] COMBINATIVE POTENCIES OF ELEMENTS. Each of the Elements respectively has combinative potency, always proportional to the momentum conse¬ quent on change of state, as either agent or recipient. In these states, two Elements always produce a com¬ pound ; the communicative and receptive potencies being ever equal and opposed; one never exceeding the other, because no portion of the property must be unappropriated. No kind of Element, or of substance, per se, has, or can have, active potency. Potency is matter in motion; and, quantity being alike, potency and mo¬ tion are convertible terms; for all potency is transfer, or concentration, in the direction of prior potency; and when we say that an Element has potency, we mean that it has motion, and vice versa; the cessation of motion, or indifference to potency, being quies¬ cence or neutralization. Indeed each of the Elements? as all matter, is essentially inert; without potency, except mechanical, derived and connected, with equal and similar origin, process, and results; and whose complicate, involved, and only efficient mo¬ menta, produce all phenomena. Chemical research hitherto has failed fully to deve- lope the true cause, why, in all matter, however com¬ minute the particles, each of the component Elements has a peculiarity, probably as varied as themselves, to receive and sustain a certain momentum of com¬ binative potency towards each other, causing the che¬ mical formation of compounds or bodies. And yet, d 2 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. 36 apparently to envelope in mystery, ignorance of the general facts, and whether the effects are, or not, re¬ sults of difference in the conformation, have been employed, mere poetical figures of speech, the un- philosophical and occult terms, Attraction , Affinity , and Repulsion. To calculate phenomena and results correctly, we need certain knowledge of the sum of these varied reciprocal momenta. Morveau, Kirwan, and Ber- thollet, failed to solve the problem. Yet the patient exercise of common-sense, the aid of mathematics, and the laws of mechanics, now demonstrate that they all are mechanical effects, in an arithmetical or geometrical series. Motion implies, as well as effects, some alteration of the combinative potencies; but their momentum, communicative or receptive, and much varied in degree, as active or sluggish, always equals that of a single atom of each component Ele¬ ment, multiplied by the sum. The science assumes, that, bodies are compounds of at fewest two kinds of ultimate indivisible atoms, each kind having a different weight, as already ex¬ hibited, page 28; that only do single atoms, and simple multiples of atoms, combine ultimately ; while bodies chemically combine proximately ; that only by the principle of ultimate composition, can be properly arranged and determined the real characters of che¬ mical products; and only by that approximate com¬ position are explicable many phenomena of analysis and synthesis. The fact is truly remarkable, that every chemical experiment and determination of the most expert and accurate analysts, demonstrates this important pheno- POTENCIES OF ELEMENTS. 37 menon, that chemical combination is ever the result only of perfect suitability of components, with combi¬ native potencies that have momenta ever immutable and invariable to form like compounds through all nature, whenever affected by the addition or diminu¬ tion, the more or less, of motion, than previously existed. Every perfect artificial, as well as every na¬ tural body, is composed of various elements having- varied momenta towards each other—necessarily the results of their communicative and receptive potencies being appropriated, with arithmetical precision, and mechanical order; or, of compounds, with these reci¬ procal characters, affected usually by altered tempe¬ rature, and possessing chemical properties different from those of either component alone. Every com¬ pound which has one element in common, and even its smallest particle, when combining with any other substances, so combines, as to contain of this common element certain restricted or Definite Proportions , either equal weights, or one, two, three, four, or more multiples of the primary weight; and only in such proportions. This principle, first developed by a Dublin chemist, Mr. Higgins; by Bergman, Kirwan, and Wenssell; and perfected by Richter, Berthollet, Wollaston, and Dalton; and so followed up by Fourcroy, Chaptal, Davy, and Thomson; has made us intimately ac¬ quainted with the ratios of the weights of the elemen¬ tary components of many hundred compounds. Why these combinations must be thus in multiples, there is only conjecture. Was each elementary atom a solid sphere with an orbital space, compound parti- 38 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. cles might have other shapes, without contact of the solid atoms; while the orbital spaces might be affected by the supply or lack of the motions of heat. Also, was a limited space partially filled with atoms, or par¬ ticles, whose interstices would admit others of various size, figure, and momenta; it is clear, that these atoms must be in only relative numbers with determined though different forces, the compound being governed by their respective sizes. The chief and grand secret of the Analyst, being correct knowledge of Combinative Potencies, in his processes to combine or separate elementary compo¬ nents, I consider that it cannot be too clearly ex¬ plained and elucidated. The poles of the galvanic circuit have fully exhi¬ bited the ratios of the momenta of combinative potency in each element. The difference of the atomic motions, of particles at sensible distances, and of atoms at insensible distances, as communicative and receptive, are the causes of combination being rapid or sluggish. The following have been considered the laws of this potency ; and additional remarks will show how they apply :—1. Combinative potency, is efficient only and ever when dissimilar substances or elements are placed in contact. 2. This is most rapid, when the substances are extremely comminute. 3. This is promoted when a fluid is present. 4. This may effect two or several elements or substances. 5. This is always accompanied by altered temperature. 6. This produces compounds different from either component. 7. This has momenta exceeding those of the compo- POTENCIES OF ELEMENTS. 39 nents, and causing precipitates. 8. This differs in different substances. 9. This is limited in certain substances.* Water sollicits and separates the elements of more substances than any other fluid, at temperatures be¬ tween 32° and 212° Fahrenheit. Distilled , or pure water, most exerts this property, holding the com¬ ponents separate as little altered as possible. Impure * These are exemplified in the following substances:—1. Mu¬ riatic acid and soda, muriatic acid and mercury, nitric acid and copper, nitric acid 3, water 3, mercury 1 ; lime-water and oxalate of ammonia, solution of muriate of barytes and sulphuric acid, solution of nitrate of lead and sulphuric acid, solutions of muriate of antimony and phosphate of lime in muriatic acid, added to plenty of ammonia and water, acetate of potash 2, sulphuric acid 1. —2. Metals in acids, gums in alcohol, alum in water.—3. Citric acid and carbonate of potash dry and in water, tartaric acid and carbonate of soda similarly, nitrate of potash and sulphuret of an¬ timony, mercury and sulphur.—4. Fusible metals, soda, potash and tartaric acid, sulphuric acid, alumine and soda.—5. Alcohol and water, muriate of ammonia and water, sulphuric acid and water, dilute sulphuric acid on iron, equal weights of nitrate of potash and muriate of ammonia in water.—6. Table salt, of chlo¬ rine and soda, glass of sand and potash, verdigris of acetic acid and copper, vermilion of mercury and sulphur.—7. Solutions of sulphate of iron by that of soda, of nitrate of mercury, or nitric of silver by muriatic acid, of acetate of lead, or muriate of barytes by sulphuric acid, of sulphate of magnesia by that of potash.—8. To solution of nitrate of mercury add fine filings of copper which dissolve as the mercury precipitates, add fine filings of iron which dissolve as the copper precipitates, add zinc filings which dissolve as the iron precipitates, add ammonia and the zinc precipitates, add lime and the ammonia evolves, add oxalic acid and the oxalate of lime precipitates, leaving the liquid very dilute nitric acid.—9. Un¬ determined water and alcohol, or water and sulphuric acid; but only a determined quantity of water and salt, alcohol and resin, nitric acid and lime, and muriatic acid and soda. 40 CHEMISTRY OF /POTTERY. water much affects the substances by admixture of foreign ingredients. Hence the practical utility and importance of humid chemical analysis of substances, which, by the aid of pure water, presents their proxi¬ mate components, and often their ultimate elements. It is best, procured as the intermediate product from rain-water; rejecting the first and the last products. It is beautifully transparent, colourless, without odour or savour, feels soft, and most readily wets the fingers ; and continues clear and limpid when we add the most exquisitely sensible re-agent, as nitrate of silver, solu¬ tion of oxalate of lime, or of muriate of barytes; and in a silver capsule evaporates without residuum. Free from any accidental soluble component, it has least weight, and remains unaltered however long time kept in well-stopped vessels. Under barome¬ trical pressure of 29• 8 inches, and temperature of 60° Fahrenheit, its specific weight being always the same, it is the standard of specific gravity; and freezing at 32°, and boiling at 212°, these degrees are the standard for thermometrical division. Next in \ purity, are rain, snow, and ice-waters; but others may have volatile substances present, as well as soluble solids. The trouble of procuring an adequate supply, may have prevented its employment in washing the co- lourific oxides, and grinding of the biscuit and enamel colours used in the manufacture. Yet, that their brilliance would be promoted thereby, I feel well con¬ vinced ; and its adoption is warranted by its advan¬ tage and indispensable presence in every one of the nicer humid chemical processes. Substances can be either mixed, or combined, into POTENCIES OF ELEMENTS 41 bodies. Their gross union is mixture ; thus sand and potash may be mixed, and when sollicited by water they will separate, without their nature being changed, although that of the solvent is altered ; but, supply motion to the atoms, by heat, and however either sluggish or active in one state, and the contrary in the other, their most minute particles unite, their elements combine into a body with characters entirely distinct and different from those of either substance and their elementary components; and a prolonged high temperature causes the chemical combination of the sand and potash into glass, which water does not separate. The atoms, not merely the gross masses, being combined, more or less readily, and the recog¬ nized characters of the separate components being changed, the compound is inseparable by any mecha¬ nical means; and only can this be effected, by the sollicitings of heat, acids, or other solvents, when all the components have precisely similar circumstances. Because in only few instances solid bodies com¬ bine, always accompanied by fluidity, chemists usually consider fluidity in one component brought into con¬ tact, as indispensable to chemical phenomena: cor¬ pora non agunt nisi smt fluida. Certainly the liquid state, or that of gas, is most favourable, because of the opportunity afforded for the full exercise of the atomic motions, co-extensive in the same plane whether ver¬ tical, concentric, &c., for only in liquids, or gases, have the atoms specific motions, in various degrees opposing the force of mechanical cohesion. Motion is ever opposed to cohesion, and its diminution or absence promotes fixation. Gay Lussac first demonstrated that the gases 42 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. combine by weight, or volume; the components being in either equal number of volumes, or the excess always in some regular multiple, 1, 2, 3, 4, of the primary volume; thus 1 of ammonia and 1 of mu¬ riatic acid form 1 neutral muriate of ammonia; 1 am¬ monia and 1 carbonic acid form 1 neutral carbonate of ammonia; the weights being as those of the sub¬ stances employed to form them; and, consequently, whether combining by weights or volumes, the pro¬ portions are definite; and the numbers for the gases are those for their base. When one of the two substances brought into con¬ tact, at the temperature of the experiment, is a fluid, the combinative potencies of its elements sollicit and separate those of the third substance exhibited. Their momenta differ with the substances, as well as with their elements; and their existence and operation are demonstrated by the solid substances which result from the contact of elements. Such fluid is termed a solvent , or menstruum , the mixed liquor a solution , and the solid body dissolved; and the solution is saturated , when a portion of the solid remains undissolved. Yet this saturated solution is passive to only that substance; and frequently has combinative potency with other substances, much exceeding that of the primary fluid. When an element is exhibited to a compound, its combinative potency, its varied rapid or sluggish atomic motions, will sollicit, or be sollicited by, that of one component, or those of both, and there result separation of the former, and formation of a fresh compound. When to solution of nitrate of lime, we add solution of pure potash, this sollicits and combines POTENCIES OF ELEMENTS. 43 with the nitric acid, leaving the separated lime to precipitate. This has been called simple elective attraction; and also simple affinity; concerning which we may say a few words:—All known elements are termed simple , only with reference to current ability to de¬ compose them. What is then the simplicity of this simple elective attraction ? Daily discoveries of con¬ temporaries enable them to separate substances, sup¬ posed elements only a few years ago. But, inde¬ pendent of this difficulty, there is present in all humid processes, water, whose elements, oxygen and hy¬ drogen, much modify the character of bodies immersed or suspended therein. The variations of temperature, whether by change of form in the substances, mere modification of parts, or communication of the motions of heat, negative the strict application of the designa¬ tion to any experiment whatever. When two binary compounds, or which have each only two elements present, are placed in contact, the separation of each ensues, and they mutually exchange elements, causing the formation of two fresh com¬ pounds, each with a character different from those of the prior compounds, and of their primary elements. Some saline solutions exchange principles, without evident change of properties; yet change of properties always implies chemical combination. Place in contact solutions of nitrate of silver, that is, nitric acid and oxide of silver, also common salt, that is, muriatic acid and soda; the nitric acid will sollicit and combine with the soda, and the muriatic acid similarly with the silver; and two fresh compounds result. Again ; saturate nitric acid 44 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. with oxide of mercury, dilute with pure water, into a dilute solution of nitrate of mercury. Saturate sul¬ phuric acid with potash, into a solution of sulphate of potash. Add mercury alone to the latter solution, it will combine therewith; the acid will sollicit the metal, yet not separate from the alcali by which it is sollicited. In like manner, add nitric acid alone, and, although their reciprocal combinative potencies are great, the alcali continues combined with the acid it had previously appropriated. But, mix the two solutions, and immediately there ensue separa¬ tion and a change of elements; the sulphuric acid, separated from the alcali, combines with the mercury; the nitric acid separated from the mercury, combines with the potash ; and by evaporating and crystalliz¬ ing are obtained separately the two fresh compounds, sulphate of mercury, and nitrate of potash. In the process, the most remarkable phenomenon is, that the united momenta of the combinative potencies of the sulphuric acid and the mercury, and of the nitric acid and the potash, exceed the sum of those of the sulphuric acid and the alcali, and of the nitric acid and mercury; and only because the sum of the two last is less, are separated the primary combinations. Nitrate of Mercury 4075, + Sulphate of Potash 22 = 6275; and Sulphate of Mercury 44 + Nitrate of Potash 25*5 = 69*5. Fluids whose components have combinative poten¬ cies with equal momenta, instantly combine; while others in which they vary, have different times for this purpose, longer or shorter, to separate each other’s components, and constitute fresh compounds. The atomic motions are accelerated, or heat is absorbed, POTENCIES OF ELEMENTS. 45 when fluids result from dissolving solids ; and dimin¬ ished, or heat is abstracted, when the substances solidify. In this reaction, often do the particles form crystals, whose varied shapes demonstrate the pre¬ vious peculiar motive power, and different passiveness to the action, or the elastic pressure of the atmosphere. When two solid bodies are placed in contact, with combinative potencies as those last mentioned, a fresh compound results. When sulphur and sub¬ carbonate of potash are brought into contact by the motions of heat, and form liver of sulphur, the two substances may be imagined so extremely subdivided, as that only one atom of each combine into a particle of the fresh compound ; and chemical sepation would give only the sulphur and the potash. When two substances, with equal but opposite po¬ tencies, communicative and receptive, are placed in contact, indifference, quiescence, or neutralization, might be imagined from the absence of phenomena, except that a fresh compound results, with characters wholly different from those of either primary com¬ ponents, and solely by addition of one of those, or a different potency. From this phenomenon is the inference,—that no results appear, when, to a com¬ pound, is exhibited a third substance, which sollicits, or is sollicited by, different momenta of those Elements, yet superior to that which combines the Elements of each particle in the primary components ; but when the potency in either is greater towards this combi¬ nation, the former two combine, and the other is separated. The change of characters by combination, and of temperature, shape, and colour, ensue; with¬ out the potencies governing the specific gravity of the 46 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. fresh compound, which usually exceeds what would be inferred from those of the primary Elements. The combinative potencies of Elements to form a compound, continue while any of them in contact remain unappropriated ; unless when one is in excess, as in super and sub- salts. But they must be distin¬ guished from atmospheric pressure on the mass, the power which retains in contact the respective particles, or cohesion. Those substances which in all proportions chemi¬ cally combine with others, or to the point of satura¬ tion, have weak potencies, all multiples of the first or least combinative momentum; and often the cha¬ racters of the separate components remain distin¬ guishable ; yet certain relative proportions of water and acid form powerful, permanent, and peculiar compounds. Those Bodies which combine in only one proportion, have more momentum, and strong potencies; the fresh compound is close and deter¬ mined, and the new characters supersede those of the respective primary components. Likewise, in those bodies which combine in several proportions, are these determined, and only these, without any intermediate of the compounds ; and the potencies are multiples of the least momentum. Suppose the least proportion of momentum of B’s combinative potency with A, indicated by 16, and that of A with B by 24, then A can combine with 32, 48, or 64 of B, but with no intermediate momentum. One compound may be a component of another, by a second momentum, and combine in this mul¬ tiple, or equal momentum, of one of its elementary components, because thereby more potent; and this POTENCIES OF ELEMENTS. 47 fresh compound similarly with a third, and possibly this with a fourth. For, when a compound of two elements, communicative and receptive, is brought into contact with other elements, their potencies are energetic, and all become participant. Sometimes a compound of two elements, A B, remains indifferent to the solliciting of the momentum of C’s potency, or of D’s separately; but, on exhi¬ biting their combined momenta, these may exceed those of the former, and cause separation of Elements, until the fresh compounds bear that certain proportion to the elementary components, which they bear to each other. And when a series of compounds have similar character, and also the same elementary com¬ ponent, the distinctive nature is usually, perhaps justly, assigned to the potency of that element. Suppose two or three different substances, A, B, C, were sollicited by another, D, under the same or like circumstances; then A may combine with B, indif¬ ferent or sluggish to C and D; or either C or D may sollicit A to separate from B, or vice versa , and a fresh compound ensue. The united momenta of A and B may exceed those of C, yet circumstances may cause C efficiently to sollicit A + B. And, on exhibiting together the momenta of A + B + C, A, B, in equi¬ valence, often ensue two distinct compounds of B + A, and B + C, agreeably to the proportions present of A and C. When exhibiting C to the compound A B, it may so sollicit a portion of the compound, and the remainder may sollicit an additional portion of B. Or, C exhibited to A B, may sollicit some por¬ tion of A, and the liberated portion of B may sollicit the unappropriated portion of C. The more the 48 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. recompositions, the more of B is liberated, and the greater opposing potency against C sollicking A. When the momenta and the potencies are in equili¬ brium, all phenomena cease of separation and combi¬ nation. The precision of Arithmetic must never be warped for theory; and most especially in applying science to the combination of the Earths in this manufacture ; while the numbers themselves are brought very low, the better to facilitate the perfection of Analysis and Synthesis. I have been most agreeably surprised, that all the Materials, for bodies, glazes, and colours, have combinative potency whose momentum is some multiple of the number 4, and the strict accordance, is not a fancy, or conjecture, but indisputable matter of fact. Silica consists of 2 Silicium 4 + 1 Oxygen 4 = 8 A1 umine Ditto 2 Aluminum 8 + 1 Ditto 4 = 12 Magnesia Ditto 2 Magnesium 6 + 1 Ditto 4 = 10 Lime Ditto 2 Calcium 10 + 1 Ditto 4 = 14 Barytes Ditto 2 Barium 35 + 1 Ditto 4 = 39 Boracic Acid Do. 2 Boron 2 + l Ditto 4 = 6 Manganese Do. 2 Manganesium 14 + 1 Ditto 4 = 18 Chrome Do. 2 Chromium 14 + 1 Ditto 4 = 18 Soda Do. 2 Sodium 12 + 1 Ditto 4 = 16 Potash Do. 2 Potassium 20 + 1 Ditto 4 = 24 Lithia Do. 2 Lithium 2 + 1 Ditto 4 = 6 The principle has never been yet promulgated, and I am ignorant that it has been attempted; although there appears a need for it to be fully investigated, and adopted, to facilitate correct conclusions, and when mistakes occur, to remedy them as soon as de¬ tected. When the above numbers are doubled, as POTENCIES OF ELEMENTS. 49 adopted in Henry, Brande, &c. they are all multi¬ ples of the primary number, determined by repeated and varied experiments. We find Lithia 3x4=12, Silica 4x4=16, Magnesia 5x4= 20, Alumine 6x4 = 24, Lime 7x4 = 28, Soda 8x4 = 32, Man¬ ganese 9x'4= 36, Antimony 11x4 = 44, Potash 12 x 4 = 48, Barytes 19x4 = 76, Lead 26 x 4 = 104, Boracic acid 3 x 4 = 12, Sulphate of Lime, and Phosphate of Soda 15 x 4 ~ 60, Borate of Barytes 23 x 4 = 92. Suppose the indices for Silica, Alumine, Magne¬ sia, Lime, Barytes, and Manganese respectively be «, b, c, d, e, f; and for Lithia, Soda, Potash, Bo¬ racic Acid, a, b\ c, dl'; their combinative potencies are in strict arithmetical ratios ; the number opposite each respectively indicates precisely the momentum of each when solliciting a of the second, and b', d d\ the like when solliciting a. Thus the given sum of grains of the first, will completely saturate, neutra¬ lize, or render inert, the like number of any of the second. Silica 4 X 4 — 16 a Alumine 6 x 4 = 24 b Magnesia 5 X 4 = 20 c Lime 7 X 4 = 28 d Barytes 19 X 4 = 76 e Manganese 8 X 4 = 32 f Lithia 3 x 4 n 12 a' Soda 8 X 4 = 32 V Potash 12 X 4 rr 48 d Bor. Acid 12 x 4 = 48 d' And because each given quantity of the first series, combines with c 48 of the second; its combinative potency is precisely but only the same in that quantity, as in a'; and as each of the second series combines with a = 16 of the first series, that given quantity 50 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. of each Element has precise equivalence of combi¬ native force with the assigned sum of that of each of the others in both series ; consequently, any two are in the precise proportions to combine into a regular compound. Whenever in the compound, these pro¬ portions of the elements, or momenta, are thus strictly supplied, the several combinative potencies are neu¬ tralized. And the numbers for the weight of each component ascertained in any analysis, need only to be regarded, to understand how nearly will be the results of its combinative potencies, to the momenta employed in nature. Also by these numbers can we estimate momenta which would not be exhibited to our observation; like to data in mathematical dis¬ quisitions. By analysis we are presented with the maxima and minima , the limits of error, and degrees beyond which our elucidatory experiments and deter¬ minations cannot be inaccurate; and perfect accuracy is the object towards which all our efforts should constantly approximate. Every substance is formed of one communicative component, and one receptive; each being either an element, or a compound. We may be certain, that the compound A B is formed of the communicative element A, and the receptive element B; the com¬ pound A A B of the comparatively communicative compound A B, and the receptive element B. But these do not determine nor explain, whether, in the compound ABC, the three elements simultaneously combine, or A B sollicit C, or A C sollicit B, or A sollicits B C ; nor whether, in the compound A B C C, the elements combine asA + BCC, orAB + CC, or ABC + C, or AC + BC, or A AC + BBCCC. POTENCIES OF ELEMENTS. 51 We know the elements, and the sum of momenta, ABC, the ultimate composition; and how they are sollicited into proximate composition, science has to develope, for her votaries to understand. This very important problem must be carefully solved, not conjectured. Many deductions of the science have been hastily and only partially drawn, without regard to all the circumstances which modify combinative potencies. And because of this, although the subject is one of very great importance, up to the time of this going to press, there is not published a correct and constant method by which to determine, in any substance, whether an element is present in only one, or in a certain multiple, of its combinative potencies. The remark may not be so palatable as even I might desire; but truth, and duty to my Subscribers, compel me to declare, that, of the several methods promulgated for this purpose, that by Dumas, is a mere guess ; Gmelin, a perplexity , because of inde¬ cision ; Turner, a supposition from an assumption ; Dalton, an assumption , by experiment proved erro¬ neous ; Thomson, a convenient application of the names, neutral salt , atom of acid , and atom of base; and Berzelius, an assumption without proof —atoms of gas, we can measure ; atoms of solids, we can guess. Temperature is a most important circumstance in the action of the combinative potencies. Its varied momenta on different compounds, are remark¬ ably obvious in sometimes promoting, and at others preventing, combination; they always affect, and often reverse the results of combinative potency. e 2 52 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. There is prevalent, a notion, founded on an hypo¬ thesis, but hitherto unconfirmed by direct experi¬ ment, that the effects to which I refer, are conse¬ quences of the materiality of heat. Hereafter it will be demonstrated, (See Temperature,) that it is the supply of motion to the component atoms of the substance. Combinative potencies are always alike at the same temperatures, but alter with change of tempe¬ rature ; for when this is very high, the orbital spaces of the atoms are so expanded, as to destroy the juxtaposition of the solid atoms which existed while the motions of heat were absent, and no longer is each atom sluggish. I am not prepared to deny or affirm, that during these motions from change of temperature, the atoms of the components receive a kind of magnetic polarity to reciprocally sollicit each other: and that they so concentrate, or intermingle, or disperse, as to produce equilibrium, neutralization, or chemical combination, with the supply, or the withdrawal of the motions of heat. Consequently, combination is more facile among similar than dissi¬ milar substances. To a solution of nitrate of potash, add alcohol; at the common temperature, 59° Fahrenheit, it mixes with the water, and the salt is precipitated ; but, raise the temperature to 600°, and the alcohol will be volatilized, and the salt will be re-dissolved. Add sulphuric acid to a compound of phosphoric acid and lime, at the common temperature; the compound will be separated, and the phosphoric acid liberated; but the high temperature of this liquid, the combi¬ native potency of the sulphuric acid, will sollicit that of the lime, and separation again ensues: the latter POTENCIES OF ELEMENTS. 53 is again sollicited to combination with the phos¬ phoric acid. Raise mercury to the temperature of 550° Fahrenheit, from the atmosphere it will sollicit and combine with 14 or 15 per cent, of oxygen, and become the red oxide; but raise the temperature to 700°, and the oxygen again will resume its gaseous state, and leave metallic mercury. The acknowledged imperfections of the Science, also cause some difficulties. The character of any compound cannot depend more on the nature, than on the proportions, of its elementary components; for a remarkably small variation in these latter, causes a consequent difference in the estimated and valuable properties. Hence the necessity of discri¬ mination on effects from circumstances like the following :—To a compound of two elements, exhibit a third element; its combinative potency varies with the quantity, and the relative saturation of the com¬ pound, or its being most remote possible from those of its separate components. Adding excess of the element, that is, more than its primary quantity, but some multiple, may separate the compound, and also keep soluble both the elements, and thus prevent any precipitate. Again, the compound may have one element in some multiple of its combinative potency, which may sollicit or be sollicited by the added element, and form a fresh compound; and yet leave a neutral compound, in character much different from the primary compound. Cream of tartar is not very soluble in water, and is a compound of potash with excess of tartaric acid. Dissolve some in water, and add some chalk; the excess of acid will sollicit to combination part of the lime of the chalk, and 54 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. form a scarcely soluble compound. After this ap¬ propriation of part of the acid, the remaining neutral compound is very soluble, and has very different taste and properties from those of the cream of tartar. The state of oxidation, also, of the acids and the metals, much influences resulting phenomena. A determined state of oxidation is needful for the solu¬ tion of metals in acids; and the acids themselves have combinative potency in the ratio of their state of acidification. Nitrous acid is superseded by acids weaker than the nitric; also sulphurous acid by others of inferior combinative potency to sulphuric acid. The presence and the quantity of water is of much importance. Bismuth dissolves in nitric acid, yet on adding water, precipitates. Mix solutions of muriate of lime and carbonate of soda; the two compounds separate, and fresh ones result, of muriate of soda, and carbonate of lime. Mix lime and muriate of soda with only water sufficient to form a paste, which submit to a current of carbonic acid gas; on the surface will be a saline efflorescence of carbonate of soda, and beneath will be muriate of lime in deliquescence. The momenta of combinative potencies are in the ratio, not of the primary multiple, but of those of multiples thereof in the quantity employed; for quantity always compensates for weaker potency. Thus one acid, with combinative potency less than another for a certain base, by additional quantity sollicits and combines with, a part of that base, from the acid with greater combinative potency ; dividing POTENCIES OF ELEMENTS. 55 it between them in the compound ratio of their potency and quantity. This division of one sub¬ stance between two others, always follows the exhibi¬ tion of three such with mutually energetic potencies. Hence, potency has most momentum when elements are first placed in contact; and this gradually dimin¬ ishes in one or other as saturation approaches. Also, the great difficulty of the combinative potency of the added element, completely separating, or freeing a compound from, the last portions of any component. This is, probably, the real cause of difference in Analysis of the native minerals. Those of Vauquelin differ often from those of Rose, and both from those of Berzelius. The different analyses are useful, for two purposes; they teach modesty in determining the precise proportions of components in the second¬ ary compounds ; and also, that to preclude, as far as possible, uncertainty in such researches, there cannot be too great attention given, in separating the com¬ pound, to ascertain, which component had only one multiple of its combinative potency present; also, which had more, and how many more, than the primary multiple. Again, hasty inferences and deductions have been made, from the presence or absence of solubility of compounds at the temperature of the process pursued. Now', in solutions, many separations ensue, without any precipitate, which only results when the fresh compound, or liberated component, is partially or wholly insoluble in the liquid. Potash can be added to a dilute solution of sulphate of soda, without this latter precipitating, because of the great combin- / 56 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. ative potency of potash for water. But, with only a certain quantity of soda, and of water to dissolve it, the fresh compound, sulphate of potash, partially soluble, precipitates, instead of remaining suspended,' therefore, only very careful investigation of the results, can prove the presence or absence of a pre¬ cipitate. Sometimes alf the components remain suspended, at others all precipitate together:—to a solution of sulphate of iron add lime ; this will be sollicited to combination by a portion of the acid, and the resulting partially soluble sulphate of lime preci¬ pitates with the separated and less soluble oxide of iron. Frequently, on exhibiting another substance, there ensue, not separation of components, but equilibrium of momenta, and equivalence of the potencies. In water dissolve cream of tartar, (super¬ tartrate of potash,) add soda, and it will be sollicited to combination by the excess of acid, and form a triple salt;—likewise when to solution of perchloride or muriate of mercury, we add ammonia. For two bodies to chemically combine, their components must have mutual momenta, and their elements reciprocal potencies; yet, to any degree, these may be affected by concomitant circumstances; as by multiples of one of the elements; by exhibiting a third substance; or by absence of the motions of heat, yet they all exist, though rendered sluggish. In the atmosphere, the oxygen and nitrogen can chemically combine, yet their combinative potencies are sluggish, although exceeding the ponderance of their specific gravities; and the circumstances may be modified by the presence of hydrogen, carbonic acid, and other substances. POTENCIES OF ELEMENTS. 57 The combinative potency of a compound, may be communicative, yet, exhibited to another, be minus, sollicited to recipience, and separated; or, be plus , and sollicit as the agent, separating the other, and forming a fresh compound; or be equal, and both remain sluggish, with mere mixture, not chemical results. Hence, a compound, exhibited to an element, plus to each or one of the components, and to that of the active component for the receptive of the sollicited compound, these separate, and two other compounds result,—of the most communicative and least receptive elements,—and of the solvent and the most receptive, the separated component.* * In a new Treatise on “Natural Philosophy,” by Mr. Exley, are some mathematical demonstrations of the momenta and direc¬ tions of Combinative Potencies ; which I have verbally adapted to my own views, and trust I shall not he censured by persons fond of such analytical formulae. To determine the Combinative Potencies, communicative and receptive, of two components A B in a compound, mutually solli- citing each other:— (Exley’s Principles, Sect. II. Prop. 8.) Let us assume, that the two components are precisely equal, (Fig. 1 J in bulk bb', and mo¬ mentum m m', their primary distance a, any other distance x, the space they traverse to combine s, and f the multiple of their potency at the distance x. Then, The combinative potency of A is to that of B as m -2 ’ and that of B is to that of A as m x* m its momentum divided by the square of the multiple at the given distance; and that of B is similar; therefore, the whole potency when both have similar rn rn! momentum, is and when either is communicative and the other receptive, it is, m rn and s — a x. Hence 58 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. fdf = m X mi x 2 ' d s and f 2 — 2 (m + m!) a x a x ’ ox f — C 2 a x ) j \ (m + m') ax ) 2 ’ B = = ( a *» x\ . it )* 5 Also, as m + m! is to m , so is f to the combinative potency of ,2 2m 2 « ( to' 2 —;- 7 * -1 b ; and that of A = \-r—», t + m a x ' TO + wi and consequently the momentum of A is to that of B, as m! is to m ; as by other ways may he easily determined. Hence the space traversed by A, is to that traversed by B, as m' is to m ; allowing for a little variation of the circumstances because of the peculiar characters of the components. While x exceeds b {Fig. 2.) the potency is communicative; hut it is receptive when b ex¬ ceeds x ; in Fig. 4. A is the latter and B the former. With the components as 2, the poten¬ cies are equal; as 3, they vary, and A has more, or similar, or less momentum, as m' exceeds, equals, or fails m , till as 5, when excess of B commences, and continues, opposed, till A B again become as at first. The momentum being active or positive when communicative, and passive or negative when receptive. The momentum of A is constantly to that of B as m is to m ; and consequently each always equals that of the other at the same point, in combinative potency and period of process. 5 ) When A B have equal bulks, placed as Fig. 1, their combinative potencies remain quiescent, by the momentum — ’^ m -; because, only by excess of momentum in either, can they he separated or more intimately combined. When their bulks are un¬ equal, b exceeding b', their potencies remain quies¬ cent when m — to', and A B are as Figs. 3, 4, 5. Any additional momentum will move them either way, as 4; and by the least excess in either they will combine, as 3; but to separate them will re¬ quire excess = m or ; the converse will be as 5, where, in either, the least excess will separate them ; but to combine , , , _ 2 TO them, the excess must — —. POTENCIES OF ELEMENTS. 59 When m exceeds m', the potencies are quiescent only as 3; to separate them, they must be as m to combine them, as —fi— ; when m! exceeds m, they are quiescent only as 5, when they combine, when they are as and separate when as m'-f m V* ‘ When both components are unsolicited, but have momenta through a determined distance, a the greatest, a' the least inter¬ vening distance, r r' their radii with orbital spaces. In approximating, (1.) their momenta traversing from a to r — 1 2 ( m + m ) | J. (2.) The potency gained, or lost, from r to /, = | 2 (»* w') * 1 (3.) The potency lost from r' to a' is | 2 (w + m') r — J■ j |. The second case is one of neutralization, when m — iri, or r = r' ; the potency remaining constant when m = m\ and the spaces being alike when r — r. Also the potency increases when m! exceeds m, and decreases when m exceeds m ; and the third case has the potency communi¬ cative, receptive, or quiescent, as the momentum lost in the second case, fails, or exceeds, or equals, that gained in the first case. And as the potency is indifferent or sluggish at the distance a\ the hypothesis gives < (m + tn 1 ) —h (m' — m) a r r r + m ') r -^r } h = °- Therefore r' r' a r r a a — 2 a', m r 1 m' r r r> 1 an< ^ a ' — 2 a!, mr' + ml r r r ' > m + m' m m r r' a — , , , , —;-> and a' — - -, ; and ’ a' r a! r r r at + a r — r r 60 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. (2.) To demonstrate that two substances with similar combi¬ native potencies, do not chemically combine ; but only when they are different.— [Ibid. Sect. VII. Phen. 84, 85.) Suppose both A and- B combinative in Fig. 7, or receptive in Fig. 8, or mutually communi¬ cative and receptive in Fig. 9. Suppose the short line a repre¬ sents the momentum and direction of A to¬ wards a sollicited sub¬ stance, also similarly _ regarded by B, with q & the momentum b ; and -^ v -^ suppose the potencies would be efficient between a and b, with the direction c, precisely at some point m between the centres AB. The separate mo¬ mentum of each, on the other side, is as a! b', and the combined momenta in the direction e' from n , also between A and B. Therefore the combined momenta of A and B, solliciting any other substance nigh A, will be from points in A B between the centres A and B; and similarly will the combined momenta sollicit a sub¬ stance nigh B. The sum of the potencies is a momentum solli¬ citing substances in the opposite positions precisely between the centres, and at right angles to the line joining those centres, as P Q, and for radii, in every way from that line as a centre. This situation of the patients by the mutual momenta, proves that the compound momentum with the reaction, affects both AB from a plane through P Q, at right angles to A B, and between the centres A and B. When A and B are receptive, (as Fig. 6.) atten¬ tion to the direction of the darts, and repetition of the previous reasoning, will prove, that similarly patients nigh A B are sollicited towards points in A B, between the centres A and B, as before they were from them ; and the requisite momentum with the re-action, directed both ways, from a plane passing at right angles through P Q, affecting the patients, and likewise causing separation. POTENCIES OF ELEMENTS. 61 When A is communicative, and B receptive, as Fig. 9, then, by like reasoning and attention to the darts, the combined potencies of A and B with expanded orbital spaces towards points outside A and B, the reaction being from planes passing through P Q and P' Q' at right angles to A B produced; hence the compound forces impel A B towards each other ; that is, they exhibit combination, on the same principles, as when alike communicative, they exhibit separation. Were potency unappropriated, it must he without the circles, where the action is greatest, because the section of one is diminished by that of the other between them; which will promote the combination. Hence results the accuracy of chemical determinations. Did the elements and their potencies, under the like conditions, ever vary, no two essays to produce the same compound, could be relied on as efficient; whether by chemists of this, or of any other country. But, such is the certainty of the science, that whoever weighs and combines 54 parts of nitric acid, with 48 parts of potash, will obtain a result of precisely 102 parts of nitrate of potash (saltpetre); and every chemist knows that only this and no other result can possibly ensue. But, was a person to properly weigh and combine 50 parts of dry carbonate of lime with 50 parts of acetic acid, and say that the result was 100 parts of acetate of lime,—although in numbers 50 and 50 make 100 ; every chemist would know that the assertion is incorrect; for 50 of carbonate of lime and 50 of acetic acid, form only 78 of acetate of lime, in con¬ sequence of the carbonic acid evolving. Carbonate of lime is a compound of calcium 20 + 8 oxygen, r: 28 lime, or oxide of calcium, combined with 6 carbon +16 oxygen zz 22 carbonic acid, = 50 carbonate of lime; and in combination of the sub¬ stances the acetic acid sollicits the lime, and the 22 of carbonic acid is minus, leaving only 78, not 100, as the result of 50 and 50 chalk and acetic acid. The importance of the subject being well-understood, must be my apology, (if any be deemed needful by my subscribers,) for so fully stating these particulars, and in pursuing our investigations of the almost infinite variety of compounds, from the energies of these potencies, which we can prove, as far as our science goes, to be those only energetic for Nature’s purposes, and in which we learn the wonderful and remarkable fact, that only very few elements occur together ; we are gratified and interested with those 62 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. proceedings which result from our own manipulations; although not the most attentive and skilful of these, and of current pro¬ cesses, suffice to accomplish like products with those which astonish us as produced on the most magnificent scale in the grand and vast laboratory of nature. • I V* k . * . * • V ’ < -% ? •> ’ ■ [ 63 ] MANIPULATIVE PROCESSES FOR ANALYSIS. In the following details great care has been exercised, to fully and clearly particularize all the consecutive steps of the General and the Special Courses of Analysis, adapted to supply the Manufac¬ turer with accurate acquaintance with the behaviour of Re-agents with the components of each Material. This knowledge can be acquired only by experi¬ menting ; and the person who has sedulously regarded every change in the phenomena of a pro¬ cess,—not seldom as sudden and unexpected as the turning of a vane,—will have more correct and adequate ideas thereof, than he possibly can have, who has several times heard them described, or read their description. So faithful is the evidence of which the eyes are made the medium of communica¬ tion ; for although there may be amazement, there cannot be deception. By the manufacturer accustoming himself to manipulation, he will acquire dexterity in using his apparatus, and at pleasure pursue Analysis with facility, economy, and accuracy. Commencing with one experiment, he must practise all its manipu¬ lations in succession, however multifarious, in the best manner allowed by his opportunities and appa¬ ratus, fully to understand the whole. He must not indulge in the practice of some expert chemists, to trust to appearances, and because facts are well- known, be careless and negligent to verify them. He must compare his own observations with what is 64 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. current, and revise any glaring difference by repe¬ tition of the processes. And, the most attentive and minute investigation of his subject may be well compensated, by the great satisfaction that would arise from the discovery of some new combinations, or unknown bodies. He must constantly register every new research; properly label and long keep each portion of the results, which he must often inspect, and notice any change in appearance; thereby the memory will be relieved, yet without incertitude of their nature whenever again inspected. By thus proceeding, scarcely will it be possible for imposing and deceptive half-successes to produce self-deception. Analysis is the general term for the Processes of Chemistry, whether determinative or productive. But it is divided into Analysis , or separation, and Synthesis , or combination; as scarcely ever does the former ensue unaccompanied by the latter. Analysis presents alone and distinct from each other, the component elements of a substance; and determines their kind, nature, weight, combinative potency, and relative quantities or definite propor¬ tions; also the phenomena when separating. And Synthesis exhibits their distinctive characters when becoming components of fresh compounds, in cha¬ racters different from every other, although uniform in the smallest portion. Neither of these, however, developes the nature of the ultimate cause of these effects and results; nor renders obvious the inter¬ vention of the disjoined state which must necessarily have occurred. To be completely successful in pro¬ ducing simplicity of effect and certainty of results, PROCESSES FOR ANALYSIS. 65 we may apply the most particular knowledge of the ascertained properties of bodies; and also employ different pure substances, because of their use called Re-agents. In every instance of the annexed details, there is absolute necessity for unremitted Cleanliness; as thereon often may depend most important results. For this purpose it is proper to keep ready at hand, a towel, ewer of water, two bowls, a sponge, silk and linen rags, tow, rods of whalebone, plain, and capped with sponge. Dirt of any kind is more easily re¬ moved, at first, than when left to attach to an article of apparatus; therefore immediately must be washed every glass vessel, when emptied of its contents,— when there is least danger of breaking them. If phials, shake well in them a few bits of raw potatoes; with the whalebone rod and sponge cleanse the corners, and tubes ; then immerse in pure water , and place away for use. When oil, or resinous fluids, have been used, rinse first with dilute sulphuric acid, or solution of potash, prior to using the potatoes. Hereby will be prevented the unpleasantness of having to cleanse a vessel at the moment when its use might facilitate, perhaps complete, an important process;—and the consequent failure, and possible sacrifice of time, labour, and funds. Although at commencement, when the mind is much engaged, the trouble to cleanse and replace each utensil the instant it is empty, may be irksome, and seem fasti¬ dious ; yet it most amply repays, by freedom from anxiety of its being read}' for use, and by saving time except what is just required for gently wiping off the dust with the silk or linen rag. Every other kind of F 66 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. utensil, as soon as its need ceases, must be cleaned and replaced ; and time will be saved by—“ a place for every thing, and every thing in its place.” To the Re-agents, the name Tests is also applied, and Testing is the exhibition of a Test to a compound, or solution. Each Test, so employed, whenever active, causes a precipitate, white or. coloured; it likewise in a peculiar manner sollicits the components of Salts, which are conjectured and determined from comparing the effects of different Tests on the same solution. Their nature and utility are developed in the Analytic processes. Their Names are the following, in alphabetical succession : Acid Acetic, sollicits to combination, metallic Tin, Iron, Zinc, Copper, Nickel; and the oxides of man)?- other metals, when a solution of the sulphate of any is mixed with a solution of acetate of lead. With magnesia it forms a viscid compound; but it has very trifling combinative potency with alumine. The most ready way of procuring it very strong is, to expose good vinegar to a freezing mixture; to abstract the crystals, cast them on a coarse rag in a funnel for the acid to drain off; and when pure, it is changeless by gallic acid, sulphate of soda, hydro- sulphurets, and sulphuretted hydrogen. Acid Boracic , a compound of Boron and Oxygen (B 2 0 = 6), is of much utility as a flux for •’the Blow-pipe assay; as the highest temperature does not volatilize it; neither do the compounds it forms with minerals sink into the pores of the char¬ coal support. Only the phosphoric acid remains in combination efficiently opposing its sollicking the base; all others separate from bases on Boracic acid PROCESSES FOR ANALYSIS. 67 being present. Silicates are readily fusible with it; and earthy compounds fuse into a limpid paste. Davy first recommended its adoption to discover a fixed alcali in minerals. It oxidates or separates, metallic iron, zinc, and copper; and it sollicits to combination most metallic oxides, also the alcalies, and the earths; the colour of the compound formed with metallic oxides, &c. suggesting the probable nature of the substance under examination. The greater number of its combinations have had only partial attention paid to their properties. (See the Chapters on Acids and Alcalies, also on Glazes. Acid , Muriatic (or hydrochloric , equal volumes of chlorine and hydrogen,) as formerly prepared, (from 1 part common salt and 10 parts dried clay, well ground into a stiff paste, then put into a stone¬ ware retort, and by a reverberatory furnace heat, distilled over, and collected,) presented an excellent example of combinative potency, in the silica of the clay sollicking to combination the alcali of the salt, and forming a clear and durable glass. This might have suggested an explanation of the action of the salt, in the glazing of the Crouch Ware .—This acid is of general use as a solvent, besides its value as a Re-agent. It causes a dense cloud whenever ammonia is present. It precipitates silver and lead, white, in aciduline solutions; but that of silver soon becomes black in the solar ray, is soluble in am¬ monia, but insoluble in water ; that of lead continues white, is soluble in 22 parts water at 60° Fahrenheit, and in dilute nitric acid. It also discovers man¬ ganese in minerals, thus—“ the powder investigated, f 2 68 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. moisten with muriatic acid, gently heat, and chlorine evolves when manganese is present; in a platinum spoon melt soda or borax, add the powder, keep it melted in the inner flame of the lamp, the red colour will gradually diminish, but will reappear in the outer flame, or on adding nitre, when it is manga¬ nese.”— (Ann. Phil. 1814.J When in company with metallic tin, zinc, or potassium, by them is its chlorine sollicited to combination, a chloride of each being the result, and liberating the hydrogen. Acid , Nitric , (equal volumes of hydrogen and nitrogen, and three of oxygen,) is much employed as a solvent, because of the facility with which the oxygen is separated, and the oxidated metals dis¬ solved. In its concentrated state, it is employed to determine whether tin is pure, or alloyed with copper; and much diluted, to distinguish steel by a black spot, from iron by one greyish. It detects nitrogen in animal substances, resin and starch in vegetable substances, and uric acid in urine. Acid , Oxalic , because of its greater combinative potency with lime than with any of the other bases, and separating it from all the other acids, (unless present in excess,) is the most ready detector of the presence of lime in liquids, forming a pulverulent insoluble salt, only by fire decomposable. In like manner, it dissolves alumine, and when again by fire the acid evolves, intumescence ensues. Its com¬ binative potency is less with metallic iron, lead, tin, zinc, and antimony, than in forming triple salts with most of the metallic oxides, also ammonia, soda, barytes, and magnesia. In solutions, it separates PROCESSES FOR ANALYSIS. 69 iron oxide from that of titanium ; and in a boiling solution of it, the oxide of iron dissolves, and that of cerium remains as a white powder. The crystals of this acid, and the Salts also employed, must be carefully purified by this process: In distilled water dissolve the crystals, then filter the liquid; the water present keeps the particles asunder ;—by suitable gentle heat evaporate a portion of the water, till the particles appear to commence solidifying, as by the pellicle or film seen on the surface; place the vessel on some folded paper, to repose twenty-four hours; remove the crystals, and carefully preserve from air between blotting-paper; repeat the evaporation, and crystallization, until all readily procurable are obtained. The solution, for testing, should always be pre¬ pared in a vessel with much larger capacity than the mere quantity needed, to preclude loss from effer¬ vescence, or expansion of the mass by chemical action ; and it should resist the action of the solution, whether aciduline, alcaline, or aqueous. In this vessel agitate the fine powder of the salt among the liquid, with an earthenware or glass rod ; and when all is mixed, (as the solution is needed, saturated or holding, at a known temperature, all it possibly can ; or diluted with only a portion present;) place a filter in a funnel with the neck entering the phial, and carefully decant the liquid, and closely stop when filtered.—The solution may require heat, or cold, yet without chemical action, the characters and proper¬ ties of the components remaining after evaporation ; but with chemical action, it is a fresh substance, 70 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. wholly different from those of either component separate, or of both merely mixed. Acid , Sulphuric , is so combinative, that a single drop in a very large bowl of water, will give a red tinge to litmus paper. In its concentrated state, sp. gr. 1*845, it has an oily consistence without colour or odour. It determines the presence of other acids, also of lead, mercury, barytes, strontia, and also lime with certain bases. When accompanied by several of the metals, at a high temperature, they sollicit a portion of the oxygen to form oxides, which combine with the remainder of the acid, during the evolving of the sulphurous acid gas. Acid, Tartaric , sollicits to combination, alcaline, earthy, and metallic bases, as Tartrates; and is employed to ascertain whether the alcali present in a liquid, is potash, or soda ; as the salt, formed with the former is very soluble, with the latter insoluble in water.—The solution is first concentrated, and then excess of solution of tartaric acid is added ; when the alcali present, is potash, there is a crystal¬ line precipitate; when it is soda, the mixture continues clear, and seems unaffected. The crystals should be dissolved only when to be instantly employed. Ammonia , liquid caustic , is of general use to neutralize aciduline solutions of bases, when potash or soda would be improper. It is a compound of 3 volumes hydrogen, and 1 volume nitrogen ; with a sp. gr. of 0*590, air being T000. The only metal which it sollicits to combination, is zinc, which is first oxidated and then dissolved; but it is equally PROCESSES FOR ANALYSIS. 71 potent on the protoxide and peroxide of copper, the oxide of silver, the third and fourth oxides of antimony; very rapidly; but sluggishly on the oxide of tellurium, protoxides of nickel, cobalt, iron, and peroxides of tin, mercury, gold, and platinum; the three last, with silver, being fulminative. With the salts of the earths and metallic oxides, it forms triple salts; thus:—when the compound is sulphates of magnesia, lime, and iron; with ammonia neu¬ tralize any excess of acid; add succinate of ammonia, and any peroxide of iron present will precipitate, leaving the earths in solution. Or, the solution evaporate dry, just incandesce 60 to 80 minutes, which will decompose the sulphate of iron, leaving the sulphate of lime insoluble, and the sulphate of magnesia soluble in the water employed to digest the calc. Of course, when only the first and the last are present, whatever is insoluble will be oxide of iron. When copper or nickel is present in a solution, ammonia produces a clear sapphire blue colour. In the liquid immerse a bar of zinc, or clean knife-blade, and copper, but not nickel, will precipitate. With a little ammonia, zinc precipitates, white; but this is re-dissolved by plus of the alcali. When the solution has the alcaline earths present, with alumine, all of them precipitate on adding ammonia; when only lime and magnesia are present, it partially precipi¬ tates the latter, but not the lime. When carbonic acid is present, free, or united with magnesia, ammonia sollicits to combination, part of the excess of carbonic acid from the magnesia, and the fresh- formed carbonate of ammonia precipitates carbonate of lime, and also salts of alumine. Ammonia sepa- 72 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. rates iron from manganese, thus:—Dissolve the pulverized mineral in muriatic acid, dilute much with pure water, add ammonia till the litmus-paper, just red by vinegar, becomes blue, leave to repose 24 hours; filter out the oxide of iron; the solution evaporate dry, by incandescence expel the muriate of ammonia; throw on a filter the oxide of man¬ ganese, and wash well. Ammonia, Benzoate of. —In pure water dissolve carbonate of ammonia, and add Benzoic acid till the solution is neutral ;—or, to this solution, boiling, add excess of gum benzoin ;—next, filter, evaporate, and crystallize.—This re-agent separates iron from all earthy salts, also from nickel, cobalt, zinc, and many other metals, thus—by ammonia neutralize the aciduline solution, add much pure water, then drop in the solution of the test while there is any preci¬ pitate ; this filter out, wash well with cold water, dry at 212°, digest in ammonia 12 hours, filter out, and then wash well the red oxide of iron; the solution evaporate, to recover the benzoate remaining.—It separates iron from manganese in solution, thus—by any alcali neutralize the aciduline solution, then gradually add this re-agent while there is any preci¬ pitate ; all the iron falls; all the manganese remains in solution. When earths also are present, again acidulate the solution, and boil, to render inert any benzoic acid present. Ammonia, Carbonate of, —(like other carbonates of the alcalies,) precipitates most earthy, and all metallic salts in solutions, the respective colours suggesting the bases. When copper is present, the solution has a blue colour. With phosphate of soda, PROCESSES FOR ANALYSIS. 73 this re-agent detects and separates magnesia from the other earths present; and dissolves yttria, glucina, and zirconia, whenever present in the solution. Ammonia, Ferrocyanate of ,—is used solely with solutions of salts. When they are of the metals, or (neutral) of the alcalies, ferrocyanate of potash would separate the former, yet not determine the previous presence or absence of the latter ;—but this re-agent precludes incertitude, by precipitating the former; and the carbonate of ammonia the latter; (the solu¬ tion being raised to a temperature above 180° to separate the magnesian salts.) Filter, evaporate dry, incandesce to expel the ammoniacal salts, and leave free the yttria, glucina, and zirconia possibly present. The calc boil in pure water, filter, and evaporate for the alcaline salts. To determine whether ammonia be (or not) present prior to solu¬ tion, add a little potash to the powder or salt, and ammonia will evolve if present. Ammonia, Muriate of ,—will detect alcalies, and alcaline earths, by which it is separated; or, when the salt is dry, by a moderate heat decomposed, and the ammonia rendered sensitive. But, because in this state, it is decomposed by many metals and metallic oxides; by other re-agents we determine the pre¬ sence or absence of alcali or alcaline earth. When alumine is present in alcaline solutions, on exhibiting this re-agent, the alcali is sollicited to combination, by the muriatic acid, the sp. gr. of the liquid is altered, by the free ammonia, and the alumine preci¬ pitates, and must be filtered out, well washed, and dried at 350°, then be preserved for occasional use. It detects platinum, by a precipitate, bright yellow. 74 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. when pure; orange, when irridium is present; the compound, (of oxide of platinum, ammonia, and muriatic acid,) subjected to very high temperature, is decomposed; chlorine and muriate of ammonia evolve, leaving spongy metallic platinum. The hydrostatic test, or specific gravity, fails to verify when gold has been adulterated by platinum; but the aciduline solution treat with green sulphate of iron in solution, to precipitate the gold ; and by this re-agent find the platinum. Ammonia, Oxalate of, —detects the most minute portion of lime present, even to the twenty-four thousandth part in water;—when the solution has its mineral acid accurately neutralized by an alcali, (proved by restoring to blue the litmus paper made red by vinegar;) or is freed from barytes or strontia b}'- sulphuric acid. This re-agent also precipitates magnesia during twenty-four hours repose. Ammonia , Succinate of —(also, of Soda,) care¬ fully dropped into a solution, detects (not protoxide but) peroxide of iron; separates the oxides of iron and manganese; and in slightly aciduline solutions, precipitates alumine, glucina, and zirconia. Ammoniacal Sulphate of Copper. —With blue vitriol (or sulphate of copper) saturate liquid am¬ monia ; and employ the compound to discover arsenic in any solution or liquid. The yellowish green pre¬ cipitate is soluble in ammonia, and most acids, but not in water; and must be dried, and reduced with the black flux, to determine the presence of metallic arsenic. The charcoal of the black flux (nitre 1 + supertartrate of potash 2, detonated,) sollicits to combination the oxygen of the white oxide, and, as PROCESSES FOR ANALYSIS. 75 carbonic acid gas evolves, while the further separa¬ tion is promoted by the alcali, and excited com¬ bustion, leaving the arsenic in its metallic state. The process, carefully conducted, alleviates the weariness of persevering attention, by the suitable and pleasant manner in which the mind acquires correct information, how substances either combine or separate, and reciprocally produce results, in accordance with certain Principles. Arsenious Acid (or white arsenic,) will detect lime in solution by a white precipitate, which is soluble in excess of the re-agent. And when present in only one hundred thousandth part of the solution, will form with sulphuretted hydrogen, or hydrosul- phuretted solutions, a beautiful golden yellow pre¬ cipitate of sulphuret of arsenic. This, filter out, wash, dry, and place in a test-tube with a bit of caustic potash, in the flame of the blow-pipe lamp decomposition ensues, the sulphuret of potash is at the bottom, and on the sides sublimes the metallic arsenic, with steel-bright lustre.—This acid sollicits to combination, all the pure alcalies, and alcaline earths: the arsenites of potash, soda, and ammonia are soluble, and not crystallizable; but scarely solu¬ ble are those of lime, barytes, strontia, and magnesia. The golden yellow precipitate by the hydrosulphurets of alcalies, results readily when the arsenious solution is previously treated with a drop or two of nitric or muriatic acid. The peculiar yellow precipitate by nitrate of silver, would be re-dissolved by nitric acid, if this be left unsollicited by a few drops of ammonia; yet only a few must be used, else the like result will ensue. A beautiful and very distinctive grass-green 76 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. precipitate is formed with diluted ammoniacal-sulphate of copper; which, well washed, is rendered brownish red by sulphuretted hydrogen water, blood-red by ferrocyanate of potash, and yellow arsenite by nitrate of silver. Barytes-water. —By very high temperature decompose the nitrate of barytes; or, with like tem¬ perature decompose a mixture of sulphate of barytes with carbonate of potash, and incandesce the resulting carbonate. The caustic barytes thus obtained, dis¬ solve in pure water to saturation. This readily detects either carbonic or sulphuric acid, however present; the precipitate of the former being soluble, that of the latter insoluble, in dilute nitric or muriatic acid. Barytes , Acetate of ,—is very useful to deter¬ mine which, and how much, alcali or alcaline sulphate is present in a solution. Barytes , Muriate of, —detects sulphuric acid, combined or free ; the precipitate being soluble in con¬ centrated acids, but scarcely in pure water ; hence can be fully obtained. When alcaline carbonates are present, a few drops of muriatic acid is exhibited, to prevent this re-agent being inert. And, when the muriatic acid of this test might embarrass the deter¬ minations of the analysis, we use Nitrate of Barytes. Cobalt, Nitrate of. —In nitric acid dissolve cobalt, metal, or oxide, then evaporate to the needed strength. With a concentrated solution, just moisten the mineral fine powder, and on platinum foil submit it to the white flame of the blow-pipe; and when alumine is more plentiful than iron or other colorific oxide, soon is seen a blue assay, more or less brilliant PROCESSES FOR ANALYSIS. 77 and intense, as the alumine is pure and in excess. Gahn says—this is infallible. Copper , Sulphate of —by a bright yellowish- green precipitate, also detects arsenic in solutions treated with a small portion of alcaline carbonate; also sulphuretted hydrogen, by a dark brown pre¬ cipitate of sulphuret of copper. Gold , Muriate of— detects the presence of Tin, at its minimum of oxidation. Iron ,—polished, as wire, bar, or plate, sollicits to combination, or separates from aciduline solutions, copper, antimony, and tellurium, in the metallic state. Iron , Protosulphate of —sollicits the oxygen from gold, and palladium, in aciduline solutions, leaving the metals to precipitate. It also detects oxygen in any water where it is present, by a brownish precipitate; and gallic acid, by one which becomes black when exposed to the atmosphere. Lead , Acetate of —a most useful detector of sulphuretted hydrogen, or hydrosulphurets, by a black precipitate. It also detects muriatic and sul¬ phuric acids, by a white precipitate; the former soluble, the latter not, in dilute nitric, and acetic acids; and by a white precipitate likewise phosphoric acid; proved by the blow-pipe. Lime , Muriate of —is occasionally employed to detect alcaline carbonates, by which it is separated, and left as carbonate of lime. This is also used, when its water is dissipated, as chloride of calcium, to abstract water where its presence would be dele¬ terious. Mercury, (also Silver-leaf) by losing the 78 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. previous brilliance, detects the presence of the most minute portions of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, or hydrosulphurets of the alcalies, (in mineral waters especially.) Mercury, Protonitrate of, —detects, the one thirty thousandth part of free ammonia in water, by a blackish-yellow tint; and when in plenty, by dark grey or black precipitate ;—sulphuric acid by a white crystalline precipitate, which repeated affusion with boiling-water renders yellow;—also muriatic acid, and phosphoric acid (when neither alcali nor alcaline earth is present,) by a white precipitate ; the former soluble, the latter not, in nitric acid. It gives, with muriate of gold, a dense bluish black precipitate; and orange coloured, with muriate of platinum. Mercury, Cyanuret of, —detects palladium by a yellowish-white precipitate, fulminative by raised temperature. Mercury, Perchloride of, —(always kept in a covered phial) detects alcalies, and alcaline earths, and ammoniacal salts; the caustic alcalies by a yellow, the carbonated alcalies, by an orange-coloured precipitate. Platinum, Muriate of, —by a yellow precipitate (of bichloride of platinum, and chloride of potassium,) distinguishes salts of potash from those of soda which it does not affect,—in solutions concentrated but without excess of acid. It also detects the presence of lime. Potash, Ferrocyanate (triple Prussiate) of, —by the colours of the precipitates detects the presence of certain metallic oxides. With the protoxide of iron the precipitate is white, but soon becomes blue in the PROCESSES FOR ANALYSIS. 79 air; and with peroxide it is Prussian blue. The earths are very sluggish to its action. Silver, Acetate of, —is used to determine nitrates and muriates, whenever employing nitrate of silver might embarrass the analysis by additional nitric acid. Also more readily to discriminate the alcali of a muriate, by evaporating dry the liquid treated with acetate of silver; then re-dissolving the dry mass in alcohol, and again evaporating dry; a deliquescent salt will indicate potash ; and an efflorescent salt will indicate soda. The test must be kept in a covered phial. Silver , Nitrate of. —To pure water 50 parts, and concentrated nitric acid 25 parts, add 25 parts of grain silver, or silver-leaf, and keep in a sand-heat till dissolved, then by more heat evaporate to the needed concentration for use, and preserve in a covered phial. This re-agent, by a white curdy pre¬ cipitate, rendered black by the solar rays, soluble in ammonia, but not in water or nitric acid, readily detects chlorine and muriatic acid, whether free or combined; and a grain of common salt in 42,250 grains (more than 5 pounds) of pure water, is reco¬ vered in white clouds, yet only is the muriatic acid the io 3 ^j P 91 ^ °f water. The presence of sulphu¬ retted hydrogen, and hydrosulphurets, is indicated by a black precipitate of sulphuret of silver; chromic acid by a red carmine precipitate of chromate; arsenic by a yellow arsenite; nitrate or acetate of barytes being previously introduced to remove sul¬ phuric and sulphurous acids; and nitric acid to saturate any carbonated alcali. The precipitated carbonate of silver, by using alcaline carbonates, is 80 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. soluble with effervescence in dilute nitric acid, but not that by using muriatic acid. Silver, Sulphate of. —Solution of nitrate of Silver treat with plus of sulphuric acid, filter out the precipitate, wash, till the litmus-paper is not altered; in distilled water boil the precipitate, cool, filter, con¬ centrate to the required strength, and preserve in a covered and well-stoppered phial. It best detects muriatic acid, where nitrate of silver might suffer from the presence of sulphurous or sulphuric acid. Soda, Borate of, (or Borax). —In its native state, called Tincal, is found in the East Indies, and in South America; and is purified by long boiling in plenty of water, which after being filtered, is left to crystallize. Boiling-water dissolves one-sixth, cold one-eighteenth, of its weight. In this state it is called Common Borax. When heated, it intumesces, loses its water of crystallization, becomes white, porous, opaque, or calcined borax; and by a stronger heat, it fuses into a greenish-yellow vitreous and transparent substance, or Glass of borax, soluble in water, and efflorescent in air. Some have supposed the alcali more than triple the quantity needed to saturate the boracic acid ; others, that it is—Sodium 1, + B. A. 5, + Ox. 3. In the analysis of minerals, glass of borax readily causes fusion of those which are sluggish with alcalies; and borax in its several states is an excellent flux for earthy substances, and metallic oxides. Soda, Phosphate of, —is used with bicarbonate of ammonia to separate magnesia in solutions ; also, when free from the water of crystallization, as a flux in the blow-pipe assays, being more easily managed PROCESSES FOR ANALYSIS. 81 than the microcosmic salt, (phosphate of soda and ammonia,) and promoting the fusion of earthy sub¬ stances and metallic oxides. Soda, Sulphate of, (or of Potash), —is the best re-agent to detect the presence of lead. The white precipitate is soluble in warm diluted nitric acid, but not in water or ammonia; and is rendered black by sulphuretted hydrogen-water; thus distinguishing- lead from barytes. Tin, Protomuriate of —detects the presence of gold, by a fine purple precipitate;— (the Purple of Cassius ;)—of platinum, by one orange-coloured ; of perchloride of mercury (corrosive sublimate) by a dark brown ; of palladium, by one similar, but by excess of the test, the solution has a fine emerald- green transparency. Zinc, may be employed to separate, in solutions which have scarcely any excess of free acid present, metallic copper, lead, tin, silver, and tellurium; and also lead, tin, copper, and tungsten, from their alca- line solutions. But care is needed to prevent a portion of the zinc precipitating as an oxide, or an alloy. Zinc, Hydriodate of —In distilled water digest equal weights of scales of iodine and zinc filings, twenty-four hours; filter, and keep well-covered. This fresh re-agent gives to the salts of most metals by it precipitated from neutral solutions, distinctive colours, equally with sulphuretted hydrogen, hydro- sulphurets, and ferrocyanate of potash. The preci¬ pitate of nitrate of silver is yellowish-white ; muriate of platinum deep brown-red ; nitrate of mercury, dull orange; muriate of mercury, dull brown; G 82 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. nitrate of lead, bright lemon; muriate of bismuth, grey; nitrate of bismuth, chocolate; muriate of anti¬ mony, black; nitrate of antimony, first orange; well- mixed, black; muriate of nickel, black; nitrate of nickel, light yellowish-brown ; muriate of copper, greenish-cream colour; acetate of copper, dirty light olive-green; muriate of tellurium, rhubarb colour. The following has been announced as a Pre¬ cipitant of all metals: —In pure water dissolve sulphuret of lime; filter free from atmospheric air, concentrate the solution, and keep well-secured from the air. The solution may be evaporated and crys¬ tallized till all is obtained ; and the crystals must be kept secured from the action of the atmosphere. The solutions, or supernatant liquids, and some of the results, may seem of trifling value; but it may always be worth while to carefully decant into small covered jars, all sorts, and place each aside; wipe clean the outside, label the contents, numbered to agree with the registered details; and frequently inspect, during all the time they are preserved, and carefully register whatever changes appear. Many grand discoveries of the science were suggested by phenomena of long-retained results: which would not have rewarded the perseverance of those to whom we owe them, had the label been neglected, or the different phenomena disregarded, or the liquids hastily cast away as valueless. " * i - » * ’ » I • * » . i *» 4 ». - [ 83 ] PULVERIZATION. When a substance is submitted for analysis, it is proper to notice, its induration, or pulverulence, specific gravity, hardness, texture, scintillation with steel, result under the nail, crystal or hard stone, permeate ✓by light, homogeneous, or heterogeneous character. Next prove, First, its accession or dimi¬ nution of weight, also its being soluble or not in water, by boiling or digesting ; Second, whether en masse , or in powder, it yields to acids, effervescing, or to solution of caustic potash; Third, whether it detonates or not with nitre; Fourth, what results when distilled with sulphuric acid, or potash; Fifth, what phenomena appear under the blow-pipe, alone, or with soda, borax, or mic. salt, on charcoal, or platinum foil;—also whether it decrepitates on gradual rise of temperature. When a stone that scintillates with steel, fuses alone , we know that there are present, Lime, or calca¬ reous earth, and silica; with another, either Alumine or Magnesia (by a few supposed a modification of lime); and probably a metallic oxide, iron, manga¬ nese, nickel, copper, and chrome. When the mineral is hard, and requires to be pulverized, it is proper to weigh a small portion, place in a covered platinum crucible, raise to a white heat or bright incandescence, and weigh to determine its loss or gain by the heating; then throw it into cold water, to render it brittle and easily pulverized; again weigh, and register any difference should g 2 84 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. volatile elements evolve. Wrap in paper, and with a hammer and a smart hard stroke, crush or break it. When not needed to be very comminute, in a Wedgwood’s mortar, .(No. 2, 3 inches wide, and H deep,) by a dexterous motion of the pestle round the sides, triturate or rub the mineral, till its primary colour is entirely changed, from being dry appears moist, retains any impression of the spatula, and is not gritty rubbed between the thumb and finger, (this however causes loss,) and can be readily taken out by a spatula of glazed card. For small quan¬ tities of salts, this mortar and process will be found most useful. When not restricted to the exact quan¬ tity, the soluble fine powders may be passed through a lawn sieve, and the insoluble washed over, as subsequently directed. When the powder must be very fine; on a porphyry slab, with a muller; or in a flint or agate mortar with a pestle, rub or levigate in water, till proper for the purpose; keeping the mass in the centre of the slab, by means of a clean cut card, bone folder, or palette knife. Powders of different com¬ minution, are obtained thus—mix the substance in water, let it repose two minutes, and decant into a bowl; add more water to the first mass, agitate well, wait a minute, and decant into another bowl; repeat the process twice or thrice more; the finer the powder, the longer will it remain suspended in the water; and to obtain this for qualitative analysis, evaporate the water slowly. After the powder is dried, and weighed, any increase of weight will be from abrasion of the mortar, and must be taken into the account. [ 85 ] THE BLOW-PIPE ANALYSIS. The Blow-pipe is now become indispensable to Analytic Chemistry; and its use cannot be too soon carefully acquired and steadily practised. Its advan¬ tages are numerous and in¬ calculable in the detection of fixed Bases; and in the formation of useful glass articles of apparatus. The Figure in the margin shews how it must be used; and also the method of holding it properly. The word Base, strictly signifies that elementary component of a compound, whether alcali, earth, or metal, which sollicits, or is sollicited, to combination with the other elementary component; and from whose combinative potency there are definite results, in accordance wfith the nature of the components, and the condition of their combination. But it has been extended, not philosophically, to indicate those substances, which, when in atmospheric air are united to oxygen, &c. form compounds; as though it supplied the distinctive properties, which, in fact, result from the combination ; and the qualities, which depend as much on the state of combination, as on the nature of the component. The blow-pipe employed for chemical and mineralogical purposes, whether formed of brass, tin- 86 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. plate, silver, platinum, or glass, is varied in length according to the sight of the operator, as it must allow the substance (usually called the assay,) when subjected to the flame, to be only at that distance, most distinctly and clearly perceptible by the eye, and which is from six to eight inches. The mouth-piece is flattened or oval, and frequently formed of ivory; at some part of the tube is a bowl, or enlargement, wherein the vapour of the breath condenses, and remains in moisture; and moveable nozzles for a stronger or finer blast, with each aper¬ ture truly round and smooth, and in different sizes. There are several compound blow-pipes, con¬ structed to be supplied with air from bladders, or reservoirs, filled by the mouth at intervals; others are supplied by a pair of double-bellows fixed beneath a table, or by equivalent contrivances; and others are adapted to consume mixed gases from gas-holders, bladders, or reservoirs, or only mixed before effluxion at the fine jet, to preclude explosion. Each of the compound blow-pipes, called Gurney’s, Brooke’s, Tilley’s, Clarke’s, and Toft’s, (cheapest,) has its peculiar advantages in using, but is expensive to a person of limited income. That which I employ cost very little, because the more expensive parts, taps , are useful in other processes. I have a piece which by a screw is fixed to a table. The piece is perforated, and tapped for screws, on its upper and under surfaces; likewise on the outer and two sides. Into the top I screw a cock-spur gas tap, to which I have three jets of different-sized perfora¬ tions, also an extra piece filled with fine loose iron filings, for insertion betwixt the pipe and jet, when BLOW-PIPE ANALYSIS. 87 consuming gas. Into the lowest aperture I screw my tap, connected with a reservoir, (bladder, or elastic gum cloth ;) and likewise screw taps into the two sides. The outer hole admits to have screwed into it an angular piece with a valve at the end inserted, and into the other end of this screws a blow-pipe, by which I can fill my reservoir at convenience. Thus either one or more bladders can be attached, with distinct or mixed gases, at pleasure; or only common air can be used, as the occasion may require. At present, I have not had the disaster of an explosion ; neither do I expect it, as each gas mixes with the other only just when expelled from the pipe. But instead of bladders, we can employ Indian rubber bottles, prepared thus :—Very black, large, even bottles, first are immersed fifteen to twenty minutes in boiling-water, then cooled; on the flanged end of the tap the neck of the bottle is carefully tied by a waxed string; the air (or the gas) is condensed into the bottle. At first a blister appears, and gra¬ dually enlarges, till the bottle has all like thickness ; then the condensation ceases, the tap is stopped, and can be affixed to the table-piece. Two of these bottles of atmospheric air, will serve an hour; and of gas much longer. And by using the double (or T) connecter of gas fittings, the supply may be continued, ad libitum , without disturbing the process. And not the least surprising part of the affair is the fact, that when oxygen and hydrogen are condensed together in the exact proportions which when de¬ tonated form water, and the mixture is through a pipe and fine jet directed upon the flame of a lamp, (forming the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe,) we readily 88 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. obtain, not previously imagined degrees of heat, whose potency has subdued the most refractory substances. When the simple blow-pipe is used, a candle of tallow, or of wax, with a thicker wick than common, is employed to supply the flame. Convenience is the first object, and this is so; but the radiant heat of the assay so soon melts the wax or tallow, and causes the wick to consume so quickly, that even the trouble of snuffing is a drawback in important pro¬ cesses. I find, a lamp, made with a beak into which the wick is held by a wire collar, and over which a hood can be readily placed, very useful; the wick is of soft cotton roving, clean, dry, and scarcely twisted, and olive-oil is best; but purified rape-oil, and hog’s- lard, will be found the only proper substitutes. The oils should be kept corked up when not in the lamp, and the wick must be destroyed. This lamp will answer all purposes of the operator, with the com¬ pound blow-pipe, when gas is not used ; and the bright clear flame, devoid of smoke, can be managed most advantageously. With the blow-pipe and lamp, or candle, the operator may effect an assay, with heat more ardent than that of a furnace. In a few minutes he can ascertain the general nature and properties of even the most valuable mineral, or chemical compound, by the minutest portion thereof, in reference to fire; and, free from the uncertain conjecture of what occurs in the centre of a furnace, wherein such an experiment might be made on a large scale, he can witness the commencement and the conclusion of all the appearances, and their proximate causes ; the BLOW-PIPE ANALYSIS. 89 chemical, or the mechanical mixture, or conglomera¬ tion of the components ; and ascertain and determine results, which else would require large furnaces, great quantities of substances, cumbrous apparatus, and many hours of attentive investigation. The only drawback on its excellence is, its not deter¬ mining the proportions of the components. With the simple blow-pipe, most readily, and with least fatigue to blow , so that the stream of air may flow uninterruptedly against the flame during the continuance of the experiment, even when that is occasionally several minutes; the operator must attend to these particulars :—First acquire the prac¬ tice of breathing through the nose, while the tongue touches the roof of the mouth, and the lips are closed; this will probably be effected in from ten to forty minutes. The muscles of the mouth will soon con¬ form to this fresh kind of exertion. Next, breathe through the nostrils, and yet keep the cheeks dis¬ tended with air all the time; afterwards inspire several supplies of air while the cheeks are filled; and at length, with the cheeks full, easily compress them, and let the air flow through the pipe, even while inhaling a supply by the nostrils, keeping the tongue to the roof, unless when instantly supplying air from the lungs. The lips will be subject to lassitude on the first trials; but determined perse¬ verance is requisite, and with this the operator will successfully blow for any length of time with only little inconvenience. The next important remark, is, that wherever the operator wishes to most readily effect his object, he must be secure from any current or draught of 90 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. air, that his exertions may not be unnecessarily lengthened. And also, that there is no subject he may possess, but will be worse for violent blowing; and rarely is any refractory to continued moderate exertions. Let the wick of the lamp, or candle, be a little bent, or the candle oblique. Direct the stream of air from the pipe along the wick, but without striking the flame, and notice that when the aperture is too large an irregular cone will be formed ; and when it is not round and smooth, the cone will be ragged or rough. But when the orifice is proper, the cone will have an inner portion, light-blue, pointed, and an inch long; this point has the most intense power; and an outer portion, vague, brown, varied in length, and with diminished power. By the former, carried brilliantly and equally on all parts of the assay, which never needs to be larger than a grain of mustard-seed , the operator can reduce or de-oxidate; and by the outer, all the combustible particles will quickly be saturated with oxygen, and the substance be oxidated , not acidified. A small bit of grain tin is useful to ascertain the reducing flame, and the degree of exertion needful to keep it reddish-white on charcoal. Dr. Farrady says, the aperture of a blow-pipe should be the fortieth or fiftieth of an inch diameter. The jet end may be platinum. The mouth and cheeks should act independently of respiration by the nos¬ trils, so as to maintain a constant current. Success depends on knack and practice. For ordinary pur¬ poses a tallow or wax candle, or lamp wick are sufficient, but for great heats broad flat wicks are BLOW-PIPE ANALYSIS. 91 used. The blast should be directed a little above the wick, and from a candle inclined a little upwards to prevent guttering. The greatest of the blow-pipe flame is at the extremity of the blue cone, where the combustion is complete, that is, where the hydrogen and carbon of the wick are in equilibrium with the oxygen, and fix its maximum quantity. There should be neither flame nor smoke at the extremity. When oxygen gas, from a caoutchouc bag, or vessel, is urged through the pipe, the heat is the greatest known to art. Sometimes condensed oxygen is forced into vessels, and a strain produced by opening a cock. Hydrogen, too, has been used with oxygen, instead of lamps, and the effect is more powerful, but attended with danger of explosion. The sub¬ stance should be fixed on sound charcoal, or in a platina spoon, or on white clay. With oxygen and hydrogen platinum runs in drops, and palladium melts like lead ; every substance yields. The student will find this indispensable, to ascertain their nature and habitudes; and as they are often connected, the following notices of the many and varying appearances of the assay, alone, or com¬ bined with fluxes, on supports of charcoal, metal, or glass, under the effect of the outer or inner flame, will direct his conclusions in reference to the results. When expense is disregarded, a series of ticketed mineralogical specimens are useful. He must also understand, that the practical difference between the assay and the analysis, of a mineral, is—the assay determines the presence of a particular base ; and the analysis demonstrates, from a definite weight, the 92 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. nature and precise quantities of all the valuable or worthless components. The assay cannot be too thin, as only the point of the flame acts on it; and olive-oil or water is used to form powders into a paste. The assay is tried on supports, which do not chemically combine with it. Small pieces of Alder charcoal , four to six inches long, are useful for oxides and metallic minerals ; as a perforation upwards will retain the whole assay, and also the oxygen which facilitates the process.— Small slips of platinum foil enfold an assay, and unwrap after the process. Hooked platinum wires , two to three inches long, bear the flux to fuse into a globule, in which the assay is fixed by moisture, and all changes are very obvious. A small glass matrass , and an open tube of glass, three inches long, and one-eighth diameter, will receive an assay, when volatile components not permanently gaseous are to be sublimed. A useful implement is a pair of forceps, with platinum points like ear-picks. Roasting the assay in the glass tube, by heat, expels all the sulphur and arsenic; known when Brazil wood test-paper does not bleach, neither is there an odour like that of garlic. Decrepitation is prevented, by first heating the charcoal and introducing the assay gradually from the upper end, bringing the flame on it till red-hot. Or, place the assay either in a groove between two slips of charcoal, or in melted borax, platinum tube, or foil, matrass, or tube, on which direct the flame. Reduction. —Metallic oxides, fused into a glass bead, the metallic particles form a globule, soda is BLOW-PIPE ANALYSIS. 93 added ; the heat is continued, and in the inner flame all is absorbed by the charcoal; next cool by a drop of water. The assay is abstracted, ground fine in agate mortar, and by the dropping bottle carefully are washed away the soda and the charcoal. The following appearances are constant:—The assay, alone , either does or does not in the matrass evolve water—(to be tested)—change colour—decre¬ pitate—give off* volatile matter, odourant of garlic, (by arsenic) or brimstone (by sulphur) or horse-radish (by selenium) or by mercury. And on charcoal , in outer, then in inner flame, evolve volatile matter, (as above) decrepitate—when roasted, be magnetic, melt intumesce, or bubble—effervesce, or sputter— volatilize—colour the flame-—-burn—change colour— be absorbed by the support—fuse, and supply a bead, ash, globule, or enamel. And on charcoal, with a flux , fuse intumesce—effervesce—change transpa¬ rence colour the flux—detonate—be absorbed— colour the flame—fuse, and yield a result as above. \ A Flux added to the assay, assists its fusion; and in the dry way , or with fire, has similar use to an acid, or an alcali, in the humid way. It acts chemi¬ cally, in separating the acid of a metallic oxide from the base ; in also dissipating the oxygen, and leaving the base pure. But mechanically when by it the compound agglomerates into a button. The three Fluxes , for mineralogical chemistry, are thus prepared :—The borax, is common borax boiled a long time, evaporated, and in small crystals preserved, to be applied to hits of the assay (seldom to powder) by the moistened point of the knife. 94 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Soda (indispensable to discover minute portions of reducible metals,) is common subcarbonate in solu¬ tion, and excess of nitric acid; by nitrate of barytes, separating sulphuric acid, and the muriatic, by nitrate of silver. The fluid evaporate, fuse, decom¬ pose with charcoal; wash the residue, crystallize the solution, and preserve the crystals. Or, dissolve subcarbonate in water, filter, slowly evaporate, skim off the small crystals, cool, crystallize, and preserve the crystals, to be used in fine powder, but in different proportions with silecious minerals, as a part may be absorbed by the charcoal support. Micro- cosmic (or Mic.) salt, (Salt of phosphorus, or phosphate of soda and ammonia.) Crystallize a solution of phosphates of soda, and (excess) of ammonia; (or, 16 parts sal ammoniac, and 100 phosphate of soda,) heat, filter, and preserve the resulting crystals. When the assay is opaque, decrepitates long violently, the globule is unchanged on platinum foil, but on charcoal expands, crackles, and is absorbed; or, when on the platinum wire the bead fused by the inner flame gives a violet colour to the outer, the assay is potass. But when this is yellow, like that of a candle, soda. And when at a red heat, the platinum foil is corroded, a dull trace of yellow left, and the flame is a beautiful carmine red, the assay is lithia (red with only potass; yellow with only soda.) Ammonia entirely volatilizes. Also, put the red-hot fragments of alcaline minerals on test-paper, and round where they lie will be a blue stain. When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, is not altered; but with borax effervesces, and fuses BLOW-PIPE ANALYSIS. 95 into a glass clear, but opaque, by flaming rendered milk white; also intumescing, with mic. salt, and with soda, absorbed; or a bit, held by platinum forceps, at the point of inner flame, after some time gives a carmine-red colour to the outer; it is strontian ; when the flame is not red, it is barytes. The globule, with solution of pure nitrate of cobalt, red-brown while hot, colourless cold, indicates barytes; but black, not melted, strontian. This in chloride, on platinum wire, at the point of the inner flame, causes the carmine colour, which ceases with fusion ; (thereby distinguished from chloride of lithia , which is constant.) When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, supplies an intensely-brilliant light, yet is unaltered; and, with borax forms a clear glass, opaque by flaming; or crystallize, when the base is in excess ; less milky than with barytes or strontia; with soda, infusible; and with mic. salt easily fused into a transparent glass; or with solution of cobalt dark grey, infusible, the base is lime. But when, with soda, no action ensues; with mic. salt the glass is clear but opaque, or milk white; and with solution of cobalt, a flesh-red colour, cold by day-light; then it is MAGNESIA. When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, is infusible, yet contracts; also, with borax, effer¬ vescing much, slowly fuses into a transparent glass, not opaque by flaming or cooling; or with soda, merely effervescing, expands, infusible; or with mic. salt violently effervescing, fuses into a clear glass, not opaque by saturation ; or with solution of cobalt, dried, and in inner flame long heated, becomes a fine 96 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. bright-blue, cold by day-light; hot, or by other light, a dirty-violet, and which becomes only more beautiful in proportion to the quantity of cobalt—the base is alumine. When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, is infusible, but with borax slowly melts, uneffer- vescent, into clear glass not easily fused, nor opaque by flaming; or, with soda (or charcoal) effervescing fuses into a clear glass, or with mic. salt, and by long heat slowly and only partially dissolves, uneffer¬ vescing, a portion swimming in the flux, a trans¬ parent inflated mass, the remainder semi-transparent, the glass permanently transparent; or with little cobalt pale blue, with much black, (thus known from alumine) the base is silica. When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, is splendidly brilliant, yet infusible, and with borax or mic. salt dissolves, or fuses into a clear or trans¬ parent glass, milk white by flaming, or excess, not affected by soda, but with solution of cobalt becomes dark grey, or black, the base is either glucina, thorina, YTTRiA,'or zirconia, (proved by tests, on a precipitate, by a solution of potass, not re-soluble in excess.) When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, is brown-red, infusible, but, in inner flame, with little borax fuses to glass, yellow-green hot, colourless cold, with much borax, when cold, crystalline enamel, white; in outer flame orange, or beautiful red-hot; pale-yellow cold, or with mic. salt, the glass a fine red-hot in outer flame, wholly disappearing in the inner, and colourless and clear cold, or not affected by soda, which is absorbed, and there BLOW-PIPE ANALYSIS. 97 remains (on the charcoal) a grey-white powder, the base is cerium. When the assay, treated as in the preceding process, in the outer flame bubbles, gaseous, and forms a glass of clear amethystine colour, in inner flame without bubbling lost, yet in outer reappearing, or with soda, on charcoal, is not reduced, but on platinum foil fuses into glass, clear-green hot, blue- green cold; the base is manganese. When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, fuses, ignites in blue-green flame and white vapour, or with borax enlarges, then lessens, the flux spreads on the charcoal, or with mic. salt flashes, crackles, and detonates, or as oxide, alone, on charcoal, yellow, then white, infusible, brilliantly ignited, and in inner flame white fumes, or with borax, or mic. salt a clear glass, by flaming milky, or a white enamel, cold, or round the globule, in inner flame, on the charcoal white powder; similarly with soda reduced, or with solution of cobalt, a fine green glass, and with copper, the alloy brass; the base is zinc. When the assay alone, on charcoal, in outer flame oxidates black, and in inner reduces grey, infusible, or, a little with borax, or mic. salt, easily fuses into a transparent glass, blue, or, with much, black, yet red by transmitted light (the mic. salt violet,) or, with soda, on platinum, fuses partially, red hot, grey cold; or, on charcoal, in inner flame, without fusing, forms a grey powder; the base is COBALT. When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, is infusible, (arseniate with soda only,) but with a little borax fuses, becomes malleable and magnetic i H 98 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. or, the oxide alone, in outer flame is black, in inner greenish-grey, or, with borax or mic. salt forms a dark-red glass, lost when cold, in inner flame, black opaque, then grey and translucent, or with soda, on charcoal, readily reduces to a white metallic powder; the base is nickel. When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, oxidates, infusible; or, with mic. salt solely, fuses; or, as oxide alone, on platinum fuses, but, on char¬ coal, in outer flame is not altered, yet, in inner becomes black and magnetic; or, with borax, or mic. salt, in outer flame forms a glass, dull blood-red hot, or clear lighter yellow cold; or, in inner flame is green, lost when cold, magnetic, or with much borax forms a green glass, or with soda is absorbed and reduced into a dark-brown metallic magnetic powder ; the base is iron. But, when the assay alone, on charcoal, forms an orange powder, or with borax, or mic. salt, on platinum wire fuses into glass, clear or yellow hot, colourless or opaque cold, and on charcoal bubbles, reduces, and sublimes into a yellow powder; the base is CADMIUM. When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, easily fuses, irridisces, boils, fumes, or as oxides alone, on charcoal, in outer flame becomes black, yellow, and orange, in inner flame is reduced to a yellow coating, then to metallic globules, easily flattened by the hammer, or, with soda, reduced immediately, slightly colouring the flux ; or, with borax, on platinum wire easily, (mic. salt less easily,) forms a glass, yellow hot, colourless cold, the base is LEAD. BLOW-PIPE ANALYSIS. 99 When the assay alone does not sublime in the glass matrass, but on platinum easily fuses, or, on charcoal, in outer flame fumes, and a red mark remains, lost in inner flame, (as are the greenish-blue of antimony, and the deep-green of tellurium,) or, as oxide alone, on platinum, in outer flame readily fuses to a brown glass, fine cold ; in inner reduces and perforates the support, or, on charcoal, fuses into metallic globules, brittle and refractory, or, with borax, in outer flame, a grey speckled glass, in inner decrepitates, reduces, and volatilizes, or, with mic. salt, brownish-yellow hot, pale cold; the base is bismuth. When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, by outer flame is not altered, but in inner fuses into a metallic globule, or with borax and mic. salt in outer flame fuses into a glass, fine green hot, blue- green cold; in inner dirty brownish-red, lost in charcoal; or with soda, on platinum wire in outer flame melts into a glass, fine green hot, colourless and opaque cold; or in inner, on charcoal, is reduced ; the base is copper. When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, easily fuses without oxidation, or with soda in inner flame is reduced to a white globule, or with mic. salt, in outer flame, an opalescent glass, red by candle- light, yellow by day-light, or grey in inner flame; or as oxide alone, is readily reduced, or with borax is partially dissolved, partially reduced; in outer flame, a milky glass, grey in inner; or with mic. salt fuses, opaque and whitish yellow cold ; the base is SILVER. When the assay, in glass tube, with dry soda, h 2 100 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. iron filings, or oxide of lead, by a red heat reduces to a grey powder, or sublimes in the cold part, and by agitation is formed into globules; the base is MERCURY. When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, is infusible, and not affected by any flux, yet by the cupel is reduced to a grey infusible porous metallic mass; the base is either rhodium, palladium, or iridium. (The first soluble in nitro-muriatic, the second in muriatic, the third in nitric acid.) When the assa}?- alone, gently heated, oxidates, and volatilizes with a pungent odour, like that of chlorine, the base is osmium. When the assay alone, or with any flux, on charcoal does not oxidate, yet fuses without colouring the flame, or in a cupel leaves a grey malleable metallic globule, the base is platinum. When the preceding effects occur at a red heat, the base is gold. When the assay alone, on platinum or charcoal readily melts, ignites, and oxidates, or, as oxide alone, on platinum in outer flame is yellow, then red, and in inner, ignited, is black, and, with soda effervesces without fusing; or, on charcoal, with soda or potass, in inner flame white, reduced easily to a metallic lead readily flattened by the hammer; but, with borax or mic. salt, difficult to fuse, and forming a glass, or which renders a copper bead no longer green, but opaque and brown-red ; the base is tin. When the assay alone, on charcoal, ignited, becomes dark brown, on platinum yellow without melting, or with borax, or mic. salt easily forms glass white by flaming, in inner flame, dull ame- BLOW-PIPE ANALYSIS. 101 thystine; on charcoal dull yellow hot, deep blue cold; or with soda effervesces, and forms a yellow glass, from outer flame, crystalline, and in cooling evolving much heat; or with solution of cobalt, grey- black glass; the base is titanium. When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, easily fuses, and ignited burn with white dense fumes, which around the globule form beautiful pearl-like crystals, or, as oxide alone, on charcoal easily reduces, with a green flame, and on platinum easily melts, or with borax, on charcoal, forms a transparent glass, yellow hot, lost cold; in inner flame grey, opaque, or with mic. salt, on platinum wire, in outer flame with borax, but with soda, in inner flame, reduces, and remains melted, and the white fumes are condensed reticular; the base is ANTIMONY. When the assay alone, on charcoal or platinum, without smoke or fusion becomes yellow, brown, and black, or, with borax, on platinum wire, in outer flame (on charcoal in inner,) fuses easily to a colour¬ less glass, opaque by flaming, or with mic. salt in inner flame, a blue glass, more beautiful than with cobalt, lost in outer, recovered in inner, or, with soda on platinum wire, yellow translucent glass, when cold crystalline, opaque, and yellow, or, on charcoal, in inner flame reduces to a brilliant steel-grey metallic powder; the base is tungsten. When the assay alone, on charcoal, is fused, absorbed, and reduced to grey powder, or, on pla¬ tinum, melts in white fumes, in inner flame acidifies blue, in outer oxidates white, then brown, or with borax, on charcoal, in inner flame, fuses, and black 102 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. scales leave the glass clear, greenish, or, with mic. salt, in outer flame, a glass green, yellow, red, brown, and hyacinth, in succession, in inner, yellow-green, yellow-brown, brown-red, and black, or with soda, effervesces, a glass transparent, red, and paler cold ; the base is molybdenum. When the assay alone, on charcoal, or platinum, with a green flame remains unaltered, or with borax, in outer flame forms a glass, bright yellow, or yellow-red ; in inner, greenish, even when cold, or with mic. salt, in either flame, a glass emerald-green, (but copper, green in only outer,) or, with soda, on platinum wire, in outer flame, a glass orange hot, yellow and opaque cold; in inner, opaque green cold ; absorbed, not reduced; the base is chromium. When the assay alone, on charcoal, in outer and inner flame alternately, readily burns with a blue flame, and strong odour of garlic, or in glass tube with borax and charcoal powder, sublimes and deposits a crystalline or metallic result, the matter is arsenic, (acid.) When the assay alone, in a matrass, sublimes into a gray metallic powder, or, in open tube, a white, or on charcoal a green-edged blue flame, or on platinum, melts and fumes, with the odour of putrid horse-radish, or, on charcoal, gently heated, becomes yellow, red, black, is fused, absorbed, and reduced, effervescing and detonating, or, with borax, or mic. salt, a glass on platinum wire clear, on charcoal grey and opaque, or with soda, on platinum wire, colourless hot, white cold; on charcoal, in inner flame reduced; the base is tellurium. When the assay, in an open tube, by outer BLOW-PIPE ANALYSIS. 103 flame sublimes into a red powder, the base is SELENIUM. W hen the assay, with soda and silica, on char¬ coal in inner flame render the glass bead dark-brown hot, red cold, or with soda only, on charcoal, after¬ wards stains silver black or dark yellow, the matter is SULPHURIC, (ACID.) When the assay, with borax, on charcoal, is fused and transfixed on harpsichord wire, then much heated in inner flame, (forming carbonate and phosphate of iron,) then the lead, cold, and in paper crushed, a grain of brittle magnetic metal appears, or the assay moistened with sulphuric acid, and by platinum forceps held in inner flame, thereby rendered green, the matter is phosphoric (acid.) When the assay alone, on platinum, is not altered, but, with borax, a glass clear, transparent, opaque, or wliite-enamel, by flaming, or, with mic. salt, transparent, or, with soda, effervesces and combines, yet neither melts nor reduces, nor is blue with solution of cobalt, the base is columbium. When the assay alone, on charcoal, without fusing from yellow becomes black, or, with borax, in inner flame forms a greenish glass, with black specks, lost in outer flame by yellowish-green or brown ; then, in inner flame, green without specks ; or, with mic. salt, on platinum wire, in outer flame, clear glass, yellow hot, greenish-yellow cold ; on charcoal, in inner flame, fine green hot, more beautiful cold, or with soda, yellow-brown, not dissolved or reduced, the base is uranium. When the assay, added to the dark-green bead, formed of mic. salt and oxide of copper, gives to the 104 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. whole flame a fine blue colour, or a greenish-blue, or a superb emerald-green, or a fine blue purple, the matter respectively is chlorine, bromine, iodine, or muriatic acid, (rarely sought separately.) When the assay, with charcoal, fuses and detonates, or without fusing evolves orange vapour, the matter is nitric acid. When the assay, with 1 part of fluor spar, and 4\ parts of bisulphate of potass, on platinum wire, at point of inner flame causes a green halo round the flame, the matter is boracic acid. When the assay, in open tube, with mic. salt (mica, &c. best in a matrass,) heated a little corrodes the glass, and evolves a peculiar odour, the matter is FLUORINE, or FLUORIC ACID. Attention to the appearances will preclude every possibility of error or mistake.* * Assaying is also a method of ascertaining the quantity of gold or silver in an alloy. The baser metals are supposed valueless ; and the problem is—simply—how much of the valuable compo¬ nent is present in the given quantity submitted to the assay. The assaying of gold or silver is divided into two operations; by one of which they are separated from the imperfect metals, or those easily oxydized ; by the second they are separated from the metals which resist oxydation by simple exposure to the air, and which have, therefore, been called the perfect metals. This second process generally consists in separating gold and silver from each other ; as the third perfect metal, platina, is seldom found united to them. The method of separating gold or silver from the other metals, is founded on the facility with which the latter imbibe oxygen, and the process is calculated to accelerate this operation ; hence the oxide of lead, or litharge, is generally considered as the most powerful purifier of the perfect metals, from the ease with which it parts with its oxygen to the imperfect metals united with them. BLOW-PIPE ANALYSIS. 105 But, of late, oxide of manganese has been found superior to it. In the chemical analysis of metals, the oxide of lead is generally preferred for the above purpose ; but, in the assays performed by order of government, metallic lead is always used, probably from the facilities which it is supposed to afford for determining the weight of different ingredients by calculation. The lead in the process first becomes oxidated, then yields some of its oxygen to the other imperfect metals, and afterwards becomes vitrified, in conjunction with the other oxides so formed, and carries them off with it, leaving the perfect metals pure and separate. The above operation is called cupellation , and is performed on a flat round cake of bone-ashes, compressed within an iron ring, which is named a cupel: this is placed in a vessel called a muffle , which resembles a small oven, fixed in a furnace capable of giving a heat sufficient for the fusion of gold, so that its mouth may come in contact with the door, at the side to which it is luted, to separate it from the peal: there are small slits made in the sides of the muffle, to afford a passage for the air. As, by this mode of operation, we may certainly lose the elements of the substance examined, and only judge of the nature of the mineral, or other body, by certain appearances which take place during the immediate time of the operation; while propelling the flame of a lamp, when those substances which it is treating sub¬ limes. To remedy this inconvenience in mineralogical research; and enable the operator to preserve all the elements of any solid substance examined in chemical analysis, when thus separated by this powerful agent, Mr. Gurney contrived a simple apparatus: a solid slab of plaster of Paris or of metal, with its upper surface ground perfectly true, that, a ground glass placed on it, remains air-tight on the edges, like as on the table of an air-pump. In the centre of the surface of this plate is a little furnace, into which terminates one of the jets belonging to the instrument, by per¬ forating from the side through the solid part of the slab. Over the furnace fits a ground bell-glass, or part of a large tube, with a cap and stop-cock affixed, and the whole is completely air-tight. To the stop-cock is attached a bladder or silk bag, in the usual manner. To use this appendage in connexion with the blow-pipe, place the substance to be examined into the little furnace ; the jet which perforates the slab, screw to the safety apparatus of the blow-pipe, press the press-board, either by weight or the hand, the gas inflame 106 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. at the jet, by a taper, and the glass instantly invert over the furnace ; the intense heat of the blow-pipe will fall on the mineral, and the whole of the volatile or gaseous parts will rise, and either be condensed on the inside of the glass, or in the gaseous form pass through the upper stop-tap into the bladder; thus all the elements will be retained, and may be examined by the proper tests, after the action of the instrument has been discontinued. The glass remove, by placing the slab under water, either with or without the safety cylinder and flexible tube attached, without any possible loss of the contents; which may be decanted into smaller vessels for more accurate examination. Any solid substance, whether a mineral or chemical body, may be analysed in the same way, and the most satisfactory results obtained. Should the water, formed by the combustion of the oxygen or hydrogen gases, be an objection to the immediate subject under analysis, a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen, in the proportions to form muriatic acid, may be used, to produce the flame from the instrumeut. [ 107 ] HUMID ANALYSIS. The following General Course of Qualitative Analysis, perseveringly pursued through all its details, will be found of inestimable utility; because of the care with which each step of the several processes is particularized, and unremitted attention to accuracy in the elucidations. It is hoped no inconvenience can ensue from employing Numerals to supersede many of the repetitions of the AT ames of Bases, &c., and of the Re-agents which cause the most obvious phenomena in verifying them. In each experiment, by employing only a small portion of the material, often will success ensue; while a large quantity will need more time, and might lead to error and disappointment. The first manipulation, and the last when pre¬ cision is expected, is, to carefully estimate the quantity of the substance. A good Balance, with grain weights, should be used ; but when the weights used by Apothecaries or Silversmiths are employed, we reduce them to grains thus:— Pound Ounces. Drams. Scruples. Grains. 1 12 96 288 5760 Drugs 1 12 Pennyweights 240 5760 Troy A sheet of best glazed post paper fold to the size of the scale; cut into pieces, and with scissors make the edges smooth, and adjust each piece to the same counterpoise ; on this paper weigh the powder. 108 Chemistry of pottery. With mixed shot counterpoise the small crucibles. And a small glass jar, with a counterpoise, is used for great precision; as into it a fluid can be decanted, so as to add only drop after drop when near the equipoise. All substances, whether wholly , partially , or not in any degree sollicited to separation , by pure water, or dilute muriatic, or nitric acid, are formed of Component Elements, which are classed as Bases, Acids, and Non-Metallic Bodies. (A) BASES. 1. Potash 6. Strontia 2. Soda 7. Lime 3. Lithia 8. Magnesia 4. Ammonia 9. Alumine 5. Barytes 10. Glucina 15. Protoxide of Manganese. 16. Oxide of Zinc. 17. Oxide of Cobalt. 11. Thorina 12. Yttria 13. Cerium 14. Zirconia 18. Oxide of Nickel. 19. Protoxide of Iron. 20. Peroxide of Iron. 21. Oxide of Cadmium. 22. Protoxide of Lead. 23. Oxide of Bismuth. 24. Deutoxide of Copper. 25. Oxide of Silver. 26. Protoxide of Mercury. 27. Peroxide of Mercury. 28. Oxide of Gold. 29. Protoxide of Tin. 30. Peroxide of Tin. 31. Protoxide of Antimony. 32. Oxide of Platinum. 33. Oxide of Chromium. (B) ACIDS. 1. Sulphuric a. Sulphurous b. 2. Nitric a. Nitrous b. ~ 3. Chloric. 4. Bromic. 5. Iodic. 6. Phosphoric. 7. Boracic. 8. Carbonic. 9. Silicic. 10. Chromic. 11. Arsenic a. Arsenious b. HUMID ANALYSIS. 109 (C) NON-METALLIC BODIES. 12. Chlorine. 14. Bromine. 16. Sulphur. 13. Fluorine. 15. Iodine. Combined with the Metal of a Base. When any of these are obtained by a process, it is verified by several of the following Re-agents solliciting it, and supplying distinctive characteristic colours, by their Solutions : 1. Caustic Potash. 2. Caustic Ammonia. 3. Carbonate of Potash. 4. Bicarbonate of Potash. 5. Carbonate of Ammonia. 6. Phosphate of Soda. 7. Oxalic Acid. 8. Binoxalate of Potash. 9. Ferrocyanate of Potash. 10. Bed ditto of Potash. 11. C hr ornate of P otash. 12. Iodide of Potassium. 13. Hydrosulphuret of Ammonia. 14. Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas. 15. Do. do. Water. 16. Succinate of Ammonia. 17. Protosulphate of Iron. 18. Protochloride of Tin. 19. Cyanuret of Mercury. 20. Protonitrate of Mercury. 21. Tartaric Acid. 22. Carbazotic Acid. 23. Hydrofluosilicic Acid. 24. Sulphuric Diluted Acid. 25. Diluted Nitric Acid. 26. Diluted Muriatic Acid. 27. Chlorides. 28. Sulphate of Potash. 29. Muriate of Platinum. 30. Muriate of Barytes. 31. Alcohol. 32. Nitrate of Silver. 33. Nitrate of Cobalt. 34. Muriate of Ammonia. 35. Acetate of Lead. 36. Nitrate of Barytes. 37. Acetate of Barytes. 38. Muriate of Gold. 39. Metallic Zinc bar. 40. Metallic Copper bar. 110 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. PREPARATORY MANIPULATIONS. The following manipulations depend only par¬ tially on the skill or dexterity of the operator; and hence are very useful. (a) When the powder to be used in the analysis, is a neutral compound, without the presence of free acid or alcali, make the porcelain mortar warm, and into it put twenty grains of pure hydrate of potash, (or of soda, when magnesia is absent,) with five grains of the powdered mineral; quickly triturate them with a glass rod, and with a dry feather care¬ fully clean the whole out into a crucible, and moisten with pure water. ( b ) The mixture put into a silver crucible, and cover closely; (or, into one of platinum with a cover, which place within a cylindric one of porcelain, also to be closely covered ;) place in the Lamp furnace,* and gradually raise the temperature to incandescence, in which state keep it not less than eighty minutes , (else a repetition may be needed,) to fuse the mass into a paste. This, when cool, will be glass, when the chief component is silica; or, imperfectly vitrefied, with enlarged bulk, when it is alumine; with the * The Lamp Furnace of Lowitz will burn either spirit, pyro- acetic acid, or best olive-oil. It has two concentric wicks; the outer, two inches, the inner one inch, in diameter; a copper chimney, four inches high, and three in diameter, having air-holes • also a cover adapted to receive a fine silver crucible, that will contain three ounces. (Messrs. Jones, Holborn, supplied that I use; and with its power I am well satisfied.) HUMID ANALYSIS. Ill presence of iron indicated by a brown tint; or man¬ ganese, by a bright grass-green, affecting water ; or chromium, by a greenish-yellow. Another Lamp Furnace is thus described, and figured by Mr. Griffin, in a Note, in his edition of Rose’s Manual , page 49.—“ The spirit-lamp, with circular wick, or double current of air, is one of the most indispensable articles of appa¬ ratus of the analyst; for many accurate experiments cannot be performed without it.—The wick passes between two cylin¬ ders, which are connected below by a horizontal plate, and are raised or depressed by means of the toothed wheel e and the toothed bar g. The lower end of the latter is connected with a cross bar, upon thd end of which is fastened a ring whereon the wick is stuck. The cross bar works up and down in the box b. This box does not form part of the spirit-holder which, of course, must be noticed and sub¬ tracted. Also it may be found to be owing to the formation of a basic salt, while a precipitate resulted ; and which salt was not decomposed during the calcination, or heating, prior to weighing. And whenever substances are examined which do not 146 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. chemically combine agreeably to combinative potencies. G. (1.) When the presence of an alcali is sus¬ pected ; “In a porcelain retort, with a refrigerated receiver, incandesce for 30 minutes a determined weight of the mineral in coarse powder, and hereby will be obtained the water, and all volatile compo¬ nents. When this process does not alter the weight, certainly either alcali or acid is present. b A portion of the mineral powder mix with six times its weight of carbonate of barytes, and in a platinum crucible calcine during two hours. c The calc dissolve in test 26 ; separate the silica by A. 2., and base 5 by test 24. To the filtered liquid add test 5, filter, and wash well. The liquid evaporate to a fourth; add oxalate of ammonia, and filter out base 7, dry, and by heat dissipate test 2. The residue will be an acid sulphate with an alcaline base; which determine by the processes already mentioned.—Or, H. (1.) a The mineral powder 1 portion, and powder of fluor spar 2 portions, moistened with test 24, place in a leaden capsule, and heat to 100°, carefully avoiding the active poisonous gas which will evolve ; and which is fluoric acid gas combined with the silica; the excess of test 24 also is dissipated. The affusion of pure water will separate the soluble salts from the sulphate of lime; and readily after¬ wards will the alcali be found in the sulphate. * When fluor spar is supposed to be present, add test 23. Any residue after the solution in test 26, can be thus treated. To the fluoric solution add test 24, evaporate dry, calcine to low red heat and HUMID ANALYSIS. - PARTICULAR. 147 dissipate the test 23, especially when present with base 7.—-Or, I. (1.) The mineral powder 1 portion, and test 36, or boracic acid 6 portions, fuse during two hours, in a porcelain crucible. The calc dissolve in test 26, dilute to twenty bulks with boiling water; evaporate dry, to dissipate excess of acid. The residue stir well into pure water, then filter out the silica (also the boracic acid, when employed.) The liquid evaporate to a fourth; add test 5, and filter out bases 7, 8, 9, when present, evaporate dry, and by heat dissipate test 2. The contents of the capsule dissolve in test 24, dilute much, evaporate and crystallize for base 1. Add test 30, and any other alcalies present will precipitate; filter, evapo¬ rate dry. In test 31 digest, to separate base 3, the others precipitate, and can be filtered out. The liquid should next be evaporated, and the base 3 be dried and ignited. K. (Lowitz’s method , the first published.) In a silver crucible put the mineral powder 1 portion with 3 of pure hydrate of potash; moisten with pure water, and boil dry; add a like quantity of water, and again boil dry; and the addition of water must be repeated as needed. When during the ebullition, bubbles large and tough are formed, the process is drawing to a successful termination. The calc must then be well stirred into plenty of pure water, and the components separated as usual. L. (Schrader’s method.) The mineral powder moisten with test 1 or 3 ; put into a platinum crucible and calcine one hour; mix well in plenty of pure water; evaporate to a fourth; acidulate with l 2 148 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. test 26; again evaporate dry ; the result dissolve in a soda ley, at the common temperature; again acidulate with test 26, dilute, evaporate, filter out the gelatinous precipitate, dry, and ignite the silica. M. (Davy’s method.) The mineral powder 1 portion mix with 2 portions of boracic acid, and in a silver or platinum crucible, covered, calcine forty minutes. Add test 25, 3 portions, and water 16 portions, and digest till all is in the liquid; evaporate to a fifth of the bulk ; filter out, and well wash the silica, dry, and ignite. The filtered liquid with the washings, evaporate to a fourth; alcalinize with test 5, and boil until precipitation ceases ; filter out, and by the usual processes discriminate the contents of the filter. The liquid acidulate with test 25, and evaporate till all the boracic acid is precipitated ; filter it out. The liquid evaporate dry, heat to 450° Fahrenheit, to decompose and dissipate the salts of base 4, and leave those of base 1 and 2.—The aluinine will be supplied by test 1, lime by 24, iron by 16, magnesia by pure soda, and manganese by hydro- sulphuret of potash. N. (Thomson’s method , for pure Silica.) In a platinum crucible liquefy equal weight of carbonates of potash and soda; carefully add the powder (ground dry flint) till effervescence ceases by all the carbonic acid gas being dissipated; then cool, and in test 26 dissolve the calc ; filter, evaporate dry ; add test 26, digest three hours ; then dilute with twenty bulks of boiling pure water, filter, wash well, evaporate dry, and ignite the silica. O. (1.) ° When a mineral, of few component elements, has much of base 7 present with little of HUMID ANALYSIS.-PARTICULAR. 149 bases 8 and 9, boil the aqueous solution one hour, to dissipate the carbonic acid ; add test 2, and filter out those bases ; wash well, dry, and dissolve in acetic acid; filter out, wash, evaporate dry, and ignite base 8. To the liquid add test 2, and filter out base 9, which treat similarly. Or, in test 26 digest the precipitate one hour; dilute four bulks; add test 3 ; filter, evaporate dry; dissolve in test 26; dilute ; let repose one hour, filter out, wash, dry, and ignite base 9 ; base 8 obtain as before. (2.) When only a little of base 7 or 5 is present with much of base 9 or 8, to the very dilute solution add test 24, (or 7, when only base 7 is present,) and filter out the precipitate. When both 6 and 7 are present, add test 24, and evaporate to a fourth; decant the solution, and add 500 bulks of water; the base 5 as a sulphate precipitates, and must be col¬ lected on the filter, as usual. (3.) a When little of base 9 is present with much of base 8, to the solution, raised to 180°, (not boiled,) add carbonate of magnesia till precipitation of base 9 ceases; then while very dilute, instantly filter out before the sulphate of magnesia can mix with the base 9. b When little of base 8 is present with much of base 9, by test 2 precipitate all present, and the precipitate treat with acetic acid, and filter out base 8. 150 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. For the Relative Quantities. — (Berzelius’s method.) In this I assume that the Muriatic Solution is freed, by filtration, from silica. A. (1.) The acidulated liquid with the washings pour into a glass jar, sufficiently large to prevent loss by effervescence, and cover with a glass capsule. Gradually add test 4, or 2 ; and bases 9 and 2 will precipitate, which filter out and discriminate ; any of bases 7 and 8 present will remain in solution as bicarbonates. (2.) a The precipitate wash well;—(when test 4 is employed, we cannot either dry or calcine it; and the weight of base 9 must be determined, by subtracting that of base 20; because with base 9 is test 3 insolubly combined. The contents of the filter remove, and the filter itself wash with test 26. b The filtered mass digest in test 1 ; base 20 pre¬ cipitates ; filter out, wash, dry, calcine, and weigh. c When base 15 is suspected, this precipitate, prior to weighing, again dissolve in test 26 ; then alcalinize with test 2; the base 20 precipitates, which treat as already directed. d The alcaline liquid acidulate with test 26, which will hold in solution base 9; add test 5; the precipitate (to find whether silica is present or not,) filter, wash with boiling water, dry, calcine, and weigh. e When test 34 is used, muriate of potash is formed, base 9 precipitates, and base 4 evolves; but excess of this dissolves much of base 9, which gives up the other only by evaporation, and may induce loss in the calculation. Besides, excess HUMID ANALYSIS.-PARTICULAR. 151 of test 2 may precipitate some of the base 1 with base 9, and deceive in the quantity of the component. But test 5, by leaving free carbonic acid in the liquid, precludes the combination of the bases 9 and 1. (3.) The bases 7 and 8 present as bicarbonates in the solution from which the bases 9 and 20 have been abstracted, may be obtained by different processes. ® The solution acidulate with test 26, which will dissipate the carbonic acid, leaving present in the liquid a slight excess of base 4. Add oxalate of ammonia during appearance of precipitate, and after many hours’ repose for the separation to be complete, filter out the oxalate of lime, wash, dry, and calcine with the filter in a crucible covered, and placed obliquely over the lamp ; a thin iron band, on the inferior edge, interrupts the current of heated air, and promotes the ingress of atmospheric air, to carbonate the lime ; occasionally it is moistened with test 5, dried, ignited, and weighed. The lime is calculated from the proportions in carbonate of lime. b In a glass mattrass boil two hours the filtered liquid and the washings; add test 3; when the precipitate has reposed twenty-four hours, decant the clear liquid, filter the precipitate, and well wash the filter. The liquid from the filter evaporate dry; wash with boiling water, which will leave a fresh portion of magnesia undissolved. Test the liquid, and if not alcaline, render it so, and again evaporate dry. The magnesia, or the filter wash with boiling water, as quickly as possible; for §^oo dissolves in the water; and if cold water be employed, the filtering is slower, and the solubility is §^o- The magnesia calcine, weigh, dissolve in test 26, evaporate dry, 152 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. again dissolve in water slightly acidulated with the test 26. There will remain an observable portion of silica; always most noticed with bases 8, 15, and 16. Or, (4.) “ The liquid alcalinize with test 3, evaporate dry, then add plenty of pure water, which will leave separable the carbonates of bases 7 and 8 ; which filter out, wash well, moisten with test 24, and heat to incandescence, and weigh. The solution has present the sulphate of lime dissolved with the sulphate of magnesia; the sulphate of lime calcine, weigh, deduct its weight from that of the two sulphates, and thus determine the weight of the sulphate of mag¬ nesia. The proportions of the two bases appear from the components of the salts.—Or, (less correct,) (5.) The liquid treat with oxalate of ammonia, filter out the lime ; add test 6 to the muriatic solution of magnesia, (the simple neutral salt is not precipi¬ tated ;)—wash, calcine, and weigh the precipitate.— Or, (best,) (6.) With test 3 precipitate base 8 ; or eva¬ porate the liquid dry, and calcine the salt; on adding water the base 8 is not affected. When base 15 is suspected, or present, add test 13, the precipitate filter out, dry, and dissolve in test 26 ; dilute, add test 3 ; evaporate dry ; digest in water; filter, wash, dry, and calcine ; and ascertain that silica is absent.'—Or, add test 9, precipitate; dissolve in test 34; the precipitate calcine, and determine the results. Those distinct components of the respective compounds, separable, without decomposition into the elements,—as Flint, Clay,—are the proximate HUMID ANALYSIS.-PARTICULAR. 153 or immediate principles, whose resolution into their simple components constitutes their ultimate analysis. In the prosecution of this, of, greater importance is the formation of a habit of calculation, and a facility of manipulation, than to save time by using tables, sliding rules, or logarithmic scales. Let the student always, at commencing any process, carefully notice whatever he is likely to need, then examine the phials which contain the elements, and see that every article required is present, and in a proper state. Whatever researches he undertakes, the grandest results are, utility, and the application of scientific principles to the several Arts. Purchase only those articles of apparatus, you cannot possibly make your¬ self ; nor any thing new, when you can effect the process with those already in store. Conducting the requisite processes to form those indispensable, will be as well an introduction to the technicalities, and the application of the various implements, as it will induce facility of manipulation, and confidence in the results. The working model of the mechanic exhibits the economy of power in its construction ; the pro¬ jected model of an edifice, exceeds the paper plan of the architect, and both at a comparative trifling expence; and the experiments of the student, equally as cheap as intrinsically useful, supply accurate in¬ formation. He who thus learns to select the most simple method to effect his purpose;—who reflects, that whenever discrepancies appear in results, most probably they are consequent, on some component present in the compounds, change of temperature, or other conditions not contemplated in the general detail;—will seldom miss the high gratification he 154 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. anticipates. But, he who purchases all articles, and those in particular named re-agents, or tests, will ever remain only an half-and-half student; one degree above the mere reader of systems of chemistry, but many degrees below the standard of a real prac¬ tical chemist. For repeated mention of the processes to obtain the element Silica, I shall not be censured; as the singular fact of rendering it soluble in the acids, is one of the discoveries most contributive to accuracy in analysis, and is now an indispensable condition, especially in that of minerals; approximating nigher to truth than was previously imagined. No mineral now is regarded as ready for further manipulations, until completely soluble in acids; and when the acid alone is inefficient, previous fusion with an alcali is adopted; employing a silver or platinum crucible when the mineral is earthy; and when it is metallic, one of porcelain. Uncertainty results from the needful repetitions of filtration and evaporation; and when a minute portion of the substance is employed or important consequences are involved in the deter¬ mination ; there is indispensable, a degree of care and attention, much greater than in ordinary inves¬ tigations. Although so very recently have been applied to the Arts of Life, the agencies of Chemistry, yet, by the splendid series of discoveries, man is enabled to so operate on all the various forms of matter with which he is surrounded, as to' cause all in turn to administer to his wants, or his luxuries. The details of the gradations of ingenuity in any important manufacture, directs to the chief and primary pur- HUMID ANALYSIS.-PARTICULAR. 155 pose, an acquaintance with its scientific principles, elucidatory of obsolete productions, and of the excel¬ lence of others more recent, and suggesting the ne plus ultra. The traditional practices of Metallurgical Che¬ mistry continue, and current knowledge thereof on scientific principles is proportionately trifling, im¬ perfect, fragmentitious; not dissimilar to isolated brilliant points, thinly scattered as lucid specks on an extended hemisphere of darkness. Therefore every research undertaken in this domain, almost certainly will produce some interesting facts, and lead forward to some important consequences, far beyond what was first contemplated. I have not glanced at the prevalent theories of the Science. Nature laughs at them; and by extraordinary developements, at her pleasure compels us to acknowledge ourselves her vassals, who vainly strive to subject her operations to the laws we have laid down. Chemists will ere long cease to “ halt between two opinions,” because of the natural libration of human opinions;—now in favour of Stahl, and his imponderable element common to every combustible substance ; then of those of La¬ voisier, with his ponderable element. Science seeks only the fellowship of Truth ; she leads her votary from the dark and secret cell into the bright sun¬ light of philosophy; unfolds to his view, and com¬ mands him to become “ the servant and interpreter” of—the wonderful Book of Nature ; of whose contents experiment only is the true index. The domain of Nature is boundless, vast, and wonderful; but prejudice bars up the gate through 156 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. which alone we can enter to obtain sound knowledge. He who would possess this, must disregard the timidity which shrinks from opposition to his exer¬ tions ; and despise that tyranny of opinion which condemns their objects. Wisdom, like beauty, can be won only by the bold; and he who pants for immortality, and the fame of generations unborn,—a desire, ever the strongest stimulant to the rightly ambitious;—he, whose talents are capable of bettering the condition of his fellow-men;—must crush the barrier of custom and opinion; must boldly soar to the accomplishment of mighty purposes; must resolve to leave mankind wiser than he found them; and “ posterity will do him justice.” If the remarks herein-promulgated be founded in truth, their publicity will introduce a rigorous accuracy and certainty into the manufacture, of which it has been imagined incapable. There are exhibited harmonious analogies in the general laws, and constitutions of related objects. The Manu¬ facturer may apply the mathematics to his chemical investigations, and like the geometrician, by cal¬ culation, rectify the unavoidable errors of his manipulations; and eliminate from the essential elements of a compound, those products of its analysis whose quantity cannot be reduced to any admissible proportion. . . t 22!) ] CHAPTER IV. THE EARTHS. This Class includes those mineral substances which compose the crust of our Globe. In a pure state, they are incombustible, without savour, or odour, or colour, or potency to change the blue or red tints of vegetables, or their juices. The strata and debris which form the surface of our globe, present earthy substances, with seeming countless variety; but, the rays the lamp of chemistry sheds on them, surprise us with the fact, that all we tread beneath our feet, whether stony, or in powder; a range of Alpine hills, or a few isolated gems; a succession of valleys, or a tract of verdant plains; the immense mass of the rock, or the minute spe¬ cimens of the cabinet,—are results of different quantities, relative numerical proportions, mechani¬ cally intermixed, or chemically combined with each other, of only these Elements— Barytes, Strontia, Lime, Magnesia, Alumine, Silica, and these of rare occurrence, Glucina, Zirconia, Yttria, Tho- RINA. Barytes, Strontia, Lime, and Magnesia, are called alcaline , because they affect slightly certain 230 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. vegetable colours, much like the alcalies; and have varied combinative potency with the acids;—the others are called simple earths, because they do not present either alcaline or aciduline properties on tints, or chemical combination with the acids. The alchemy of Davy has completely subverted the previously-prevalent opinions of chemists con¬ cerning the Earths in the purest state nature or art can supply them. Their peculiarities render them the connecting link of the Alcalies to the Metals. For, like the Alcalies, the Earths act as bases, sollicited to combination by the Acids, and forming peculiar salts, usually with completely distinct pro¬ perties from those of either acid or base, insoluble, or only with difficulty soluble, in water ; and like the Metals, indifferent to volatilization by heat. The most probable analogies shew, that they are oxides of certain metals, into which, however, they are not convertible by all the usual methods of reduction, and when so reduced by the most improved sugges¬ tions of scientific research, the result possesses merely an evanescent metallic existence; even if it be hereafter proved that Metals are not merely unox¬ idated Earths; or that there is clear dissimilarity of composition in alcalies, acids, native metals, and metallic ores. Their metallic bases more nearly approximate to the common metals, than do those of the alcalies; and themselves more closely than the alcalies resemble metallic oxides. On these subjects, and others correlative, cer¬ tainly we are now on the eve of great discoveries. There is known to be present with all pyrites, usually in considerable quantity, an unmetallic sub- THE EARTHS. 231 stance, or earth, which seems to be intermediate between earth and metal; yet to this latter state, current processes have failed to reduce it, as likewise to determine its peculiarities. Under the Metals, I have suggested the probable modus operandi of their formation; to which I must refer the reader who does not clearly understand the following detail:— This globe appears to have been partially under galvanic influence, and thereby pre-disposed to become metalline; but either there has been a cessation, or defective potency, of that agent, in the production of all metals, or it has not been suffi¬ ciently long continued to perfect the degree of change needful to elaborate the metal.—For suitable information on this subject, in vain have I examined every modern work on chemistry, to which I could gain access. It is to be regretted, that chemists of the greatest ability have devoted so much attention, or exhausted their energies, in mooting abstract points, only useful in a scientific not practical appli¬ cation ; those who have occasionally attended to the resolving of the combinations of the Earths; as yet do not appear to have more than merely, en passant , directed their thoughts towards the researches much more useful in the Arts of Life,— the fusibility or infusibility, and other chemical properties of the Earths and Stones. Not so was the custom of their predecessors, however tainted with fondness for alchemy—Imperatus, Hiaerne, Wallerius, and Pott. Much original information on these subjects is given in the First Chapter of the Second Part of this Work. 232 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. ALUMINE. Alumine, in a pure state, (as in the very rare corundum gems, the oriental sapphire and ruby, with a little colouring matter,) is without odour or savour ; fusible by the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe only, and soluble in test 1, and solution of caustic soda, whence it is separable by the acids, as a hydrate. It does not affect the tints of blue vegetables; nor their juices. Its absorbent properties capacitate it for rapid combination with the colorific oxides of metals, and it is frequently mixed with cobalt protoxides; also much used as a component of powders to cleanse away oils. Alumine is regarded as the oxide of a metal named Aluminum, because the earth is the base of the salt, Alum. Only in very recent times have the researches of Davy led to its developement as a compound, of a peculiar metallic base with oxygen. Processes. —(1.) Pure jllumine. In 20 parts of warm dis¬ tilled water, dissolve 1 part of good alum; then carefully drop in solution of carbonate of soda to precipitate any spice of iron possi¬ bly present, and filter it out; to the supernatant liquid add test 2, and by it sollicking to combination the sulphuric acid present, the earth in white flocculence will freely precipitate. In its moist state, it is appropriated by the manufacturers of Printing Blue. For other purposes, filter out, wash well, dry at a white heat for not less than one hour, to dissipate the moisture, and any sulphuric acid possibly present. (2.) Aluminum. In a porcelain tube, incandesce pure alumine while a current of chlorine gas passes through to form a chloride of alumine, which mix with potassium in a platinum crucible; THE EARTHS. 233 cover close up, raise the temperature very high, and the chlorine will convert the potassium into potash, which, with aluminum will remain in the crucible. The metal has resemblance to platinum, with the brilliance of tin. When incandescent it is soluble in dilute sulphuric or muriatic acid ; and forms a very hard and refractory button of alumine. The galvanic circle supplies similar results. Alumine exists more or less in almost every mineral; and is one of the components most in quan¬ tity present in clays, ochres, loams, boles, fuller’s earth, soils, rocks, and strata of our globe. In its pure state, it is without grittiness between the teeth, a smooth paste, soft to the touch, adhering to the tongue, not soluble in water, yet combining with it in every proportion, and at intense heat retaining a portion thereof, at every degree above incipient redness, from the loss of water there is definite con¬ traction or reduction; its volume being condensed, not a portion fused, (except in consequence of the presence of water generated during the combustion of the gases of the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe ;) after this baking, scarcely can it be placed in the balance scale ere its absorption of moisture from the atmos¬ phere increases its weight; in a dry one, to 15 per cent., in a humid one to 33; and saturated, to 51 and 54; and it retains 50 per cent, at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. Moistened with water, the mass is cohesive, tenacious, ductile; and this plastic property capacitates it for being kneaded into regular shapes for vessels, or moulded into figures; which are rendered hard and durable by the process of baking biscuit and glaze. At very high temperatures alumine combines 234 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. with the fixed alcalies, and with most of the other earths; a greenish and bluish tint characterizing the results of barytes or strontia. In ammonia, alumine is scarcely soluble ; and not at all in solutions of alcaline carbonates. With barytes, or strontia, it forms two very distinct compounds:—one, an insolu¬ ble powder with plus of alumine ; the other, a soluble salt, in solution, with plus of the alcaline earth. CLAYS. These Aluminous Minerals, (for whose discri¬ mination into species, we yet need a clear and distinctive characteristic,) are very extensively dis¬ tributed in the outer surface of the crust of our planet; and consequently are readily available for different Arts of Life, in which they are useful. They occur in opaque, non-crystallized masses, with a dull, even, earthy fracture, easily scratched by the nail, or iron ; and because of an adventitious sub¬ stance present, (oxide of iron as a spice, but never as a component,) when breathed on they exhale the peculiar odour, called argillaceous, or earthy ; not perceptible in alumine or pure clay ; when pressed to the tongue, adhering closely, and imbibing the moisture, so as not again to resign it, until the tem¬ perature is raised very high; retaining 10 per cent, at 300° Fahrenheit. Because of this tenacity of moisture, they readily are worked together into a plastic paste, for the various purposes of Vessels, Figures, Tiles, Bricks, &c. THE EARTHS. 235 The species named Black Clay , because of the presence of much carbonaceous ingredients, is further distinguished by the peculiar property of evolving all these during the intense heat of baking biscuit, and becoming whiter in proportion to the quantity pre¬ sent. It is usually mixed with one or more of the other species.—The Cracking Clay , so named by the Brothers John and Thomas Wedgwood, of Burslem, can be used only with much care of mixture with the other kinds; and with flint; when it bakes very white, and makes firm ware. The Brown Clay requires to be a long time exposed to the alternations of the weather, for disintegration, else it will not pass through the lawns. The process of baking biscuit renders it extremely white ; and it is entirely free from the disadvantage mentioned of the previous spe¬ cies, cracking while baking. Yet it is not constantly introduced, because manufacturers not acquainted with its peculiar properties from its components and proportions—(a small spice of phosphoric acid, that renders needful the presence of some component with potency to neutralize its action during the baking biscuit, that the lead of the glaze be not thereby injured,) have hitherto failed to divest it of the potency to cause crazing.—In some porcelains it is very partially introduced in preference to—The Blue Clay , which is most used, because, whether in flint ware, or porcelain, the baking biscuit is followed with a whiteness, (increased by more flint than any of the other species will appropriate,) a solidity of fabric, and without the liability of the other kinds to crack during or after baking.—However comminute we render any of these Clays after once baking, the 236 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. cohesive property on which depends the plasticity, is absent until a solution is formed in some acid, and an alcali causes precipitation. This has caused the opinion, that in their native state, a gluten is present, which heat destroys; and it is further observed, that the alcalies themselves have trifling combinative potency with the clays, (or alumine,) compared with that in silica. The following are the most correct analyses I have been able to obtain, of the Clays, and other Earthy Minerals, employed in this Manufacture:— Silica. Alumine. Iron. Lithia. Common Pottery Clay, per cent. 60 33 3 — Ball Clay, Blue -Black - Brown - Cracking Cornish Grauen - Clay (China) Felspar, Kaolin - Petuntse 64 35 1 — 66 30 2 — 67 30 2-5 — 68 31 1 — 68 16 2 14 71 28 •5 *5 68 20 •5 12 60 20 — 20 98 1 •1 —- Lime. 3-5 Flint 1 . *i - ■ THE EARTHS. 237 SILICA. Silica, (from the Hebrew selag, to burn or vitrefy, whence also our word slag, something vitre- fied,) an oxide of a peculiarly-combustible element, is a very white fine powder, without savour or odour, but a harshness when rubbed between the thumb and finger, and a grittiness between the teeth; not glutinous when moist, retains about 26 per cent, of water, at the temperature of 70° Fahrenheit; is inso¬ luble in water alone ; yet is held in solution in the waters of the Iceland Geysers; others precipitate it as stalactites; and it is secreted in the rinds of grasses and equisetums, as tabasheer. It is fusible by the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe ; also with 3 parts caustic potash, and 4 parts carbonate. Silica is very abundant in nature; probably more so than all her other products together. It is the chief component of all silecious minerals, and scintillating stones; the great proportion of oxygen present renders its combinative potency much similar to that of exhibited acids; in many of the gems it has a spice of metallic oxide, either chemically com¬ bined or mechanically mixed. As Quartz, it occurs, in an almost pure state, in those large regular forms resembling glass, and known as Rock Crystal; and in a less pure state, we find it in immense masses, beds, and elevations, alone ; and likewise in the primitive mountain chains, in granites, and the other kinds of rocks. From these, by mechanical separa¬ tion, it forms the well-known article of sand, on the 238 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. sea-shore, the banks of rivers, and the low plains; and while alumine appropriates and holds water, silica, in this state of sand, allows it to permeate, filter itself from impurities, and become again suitable for all the purposes for which it is intended by nature. Its peculiar combinative potency renders it not ob¬ viously soluble in water; but its real solubility is clearly demonstrable; in nature, by the numerous crystals elaborated; and artificially, by the facts adduced by Berzelius; and further, that whenever the compound result of fused silica 1, and potash 4, is dissolved in water, and this solution is much diluted with an additional quantity of water, the silica, as 1 to 1000, continues suspended therein, and is not pre- cipitable by any acid or quantity thereof which may be supplied. This is the true cause of its intimate combination with the Earths and Alcalies. Process .—Silica is supplied in a pure state by the residuum of fluor spar heated in sulphuric acid, by which fluorine evolves. Also by this process,—Take a small nodule of well-burned flint, as white as is readily obtained, (or rock crystal, or quartz,) crush it in paper, and triturate in a porcelain mortar to a fine powder; in observance of that chemical law, that to facilitate solution, we bring solids into a comminute state, that we may thereby increase the surfaces submitted to the sollicitings of fluids ; mix it with caustic potash 3, or carbonate of potash 4 times its weight, and for the former use the silver crucible; for the latter, one very capacious of earthenware; slowly and gradually raise the temperature to a strong red heat, and during forty minutes keep in this heat, and with an iron rod preserve the effervescence sluggish; then pour the frit upon a dish of brass or copper, and when cold, again pul¬ verize. Dissolve in pure water, filter, and carefully pour into excess of diluted sulphuric, or muriatic acid ; (not the acid pour into the solution, els eglass, not silica, will be the precipitate;) or into a solution of muriate of ammonia, which will not dissolve any THE EARTHS 239 portion whatever of the silica. Let the liquid repose not less than twenty-four hours, then decant by a siphon, wash the precipitate well with hot pure water, till all savour of acid and alcali is removed; then evaporate dry. Lor the alumine possibly present, boil twenty minutes in sulphuric acid 5, water 5; filter, wash well again with hot water, evaporate dry, and incandesce the result.— In this pure state it is refractory in the highest heat of the potters’ oven, and cases of its fusion have been ascertained to result solely from the presence of a small portion of alcali, not previously re¬ cognized by the operator. The silica thus obtained, carefully washed and well dried, is almost wholly indifferent to the action of every acid except the fluoric; which appropriates 65 per cent., and therefore so forcibly acts on glass; but it is readily sollicited by a boiling solution of caustic potash, soda, lithia, barytes, or strontia ; and the sili- cated potash, by a boiling aqueous solution of barytes, strontia, or lime, with alumine ; yet the liquid is active on turmeric paper, and renders it brown. The solu¬ tion, evaporated, dried at 242° supplies a substance pale yellow, transparent, deliquescent, soluble in water, (silica 2,- soda 6, water 1,) and the concen¬ trated solution is gelatinized by the supply of acid equivalent to the soda. Silicium. —Mix dry silicated fluate of potash 2 parts with potassium 5 ; fuse in a porcelain crucible ; the hydrogen will evolve, and pure silicium will result; a brown powder, resembling charcoal in com¬ bustibility, varying with the state of aggregation; and in its densest state it may be incandesced without flame resulting. With some difficulty it is completely combustible; with carbonate of potash; in vapour of sulphur, into a grey sulphuret; in chlorine, into a limpid colourless fluid, witli the odour of cyanogen; 240 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. but not, heated with nitre. To form silica, it com¬ bines as 200 with 208 of oxygen. The composition of silica is best determined by the experiments of Berzelius and John Davy. Ber¬ zelius reduced silica by iron and charcoal; in muriatic acid separated the alloy of iron and silicium, which latter combined with much oxygen. After deter¬ mining the quantity of red oxide of iron, of carbon, and of silica supplied by the alloy, he supposed that silica has from 45*34 to 47*75 per cent, of oxygen. Stromeyer, by a different analytical process, con¬ cluded that it was 55 per cent. Dr. Davy’s analysis of the triple fluate of silica and ammonia, is, am¬ monia 24*5, silica 46*357, fluoric acid 29*143. Now the oxygen of the ammonia, here the smallest quan¬ tity, must exist in the silica in some multiple of a whole number. But 24*5 of ammonia contain 11*219 of oxygen ; and the silica contains in 46*35, 22*35 of oxygen. But 11*219 x 2 = 22*438. These show how near to the absolute truth is the result supplied by Berzelius; while the probable accuracy of Davy’s conclusions shows the impossibility of silica contain¬ ing 55 per cent, of oxygen. Again ; Ekeberg’s Ana¬ lysis of Ytterite, most exact in its details, supplies yttria 55*5, silica 23, oxide of iron (as by the analysis) 16*5, equivalent to 15*42 of pure black oxide of iron. Yttria 55*5 has 10*3 of oxygen, silica 23 should have 10*9, and the black oxide of iron 15*42, has 3*5; now 3*5 x 3 — 10*5. As the silica, whenever present with other components, must be in strict accordance with the laws of definite proportions ; the coincidence just mentioned is an additional proof how near to the truth approximates this determination of the composition of THE EARTHS. 241 silica. As it contains more than one volume, and cannot be three volumes, the probability is that it is two. This great quantity of oxygen present in silica, is one chief cause of its great utility in several of the arts of life, and of its important introduction, and beneficial employment in the manufacture of fine earthenware, porcelain, and glass, because of its ready combination with an alcali.* * No person who knows Mr. Donowan, can doubt that his knowledge of philosophical chemistry is very extensive. How¬ ever, to his celebrity, the volume on the Manufacture of Porcelain, in Dr. Lardner’s Cyclopaedia, will not make any addition. Every potter, of ordinary acquirements, will immediately denounce its total deficiency of correct information. In his remarks on the de¬ fect of ware, chipping off the edges , he states, that—“ the Chinese prevent this, by applying to the edges a mixture of charcoal [of bamboo] powder and the glaze; and when this is very dry, the vessel is covered with the glaze, and baked.” He opines that it might be of great advantage to our Manufacturers, to attempt something of this kind; and for the purpose, suggests the charcoal of green elder. He does not assign any reason for the Chinese practice, that is, to supply additional fuel, that in the same time of baking, it may properly fuse the thick components of glaze sup¬ plied to the edges. Neither does he once seem to have troubled himself to reflect on the great differences in the processes of King- te-ching, and Stoke-upon-Trent. He does not answer, because he has not asked himself, these questions :—Are English Porcelains liable to similar injuries?—and, What chemical effect does the charcoal produce ? He mentions the caution used in preparing the bamboo;—that, the rind is peeled off, else the edges would burst in baking. Still it has not occurred to his mind, that the silicic acid of the tabasheer of the rind, when its momentum is excited by the high temperature of the potters’ oven, would render very brittle, and therefore of easy fracture, the glass resulting from its combination with the alcalies present. This is the real cause of R 242 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. The almost, general and constant momentum, in some multiple of 4, of the combinative potency of silicic acid, on the alcaline earths, in natural primary mixing, as well as metallic oxides; and in like manner determining them in series ; also continuing its potency when other acids have been exhibited to produce separation ; fully warrant the method herein adopted, of mentioning the numerous proximate com¬ ponents of the many and various natural silicates of alumine, in series, of simple combinations, and com¬ plex compounds, the more clearly to develope the composition of silecious minerals. Each silecious mineral must of necessity be compounded of the like number of silicates, as there are receptive atoms, thqse of oxygen ; each of which is accompanied by other two active atoms, with the antagonist potency of hydrogen ; on the general principle of separation and re-union, the mechanism of atoms, and of nature. In each silicate the oxygen atoms are precisely a third of the total number pre¬ sent ; there must be likewise the same number of atoms of silicium ; and also the like number of atoms of the other element which distinguishes the silicate. Want of a clear understanding of this fact, probably, has not diminished the errors of the manufacturers. Even to the present day, on no analysis of the Clays, the Indians producing fire by rubbing together two pieces of bamboo;—as both have a coating of silica in their tabasheer, sparks result from the friction; in like manner as from rubbing two pieces of quartz together; an effect produced even in water. THE EARTHS. 243 silicates of alumine, with which they are supplied by dealers, can they place* confidence; because not yet have been published any explanation, whether the silicium, alumine, and oxygen are present in only simple, or in double, or in triple proportions of com¬ binative potency, and number of elements. What 1 wish to be understood, is, that, of the five kinds of Clay, Blue, Black, Brown, Cracking, and Cornwall, they have no statement whether any, or more than one, and which, as a compound, has for its compo¬ nents, one particle each of silicium, aluminum, and oxygen, equivalent to a hydrate of aluminum ;—or of 2 oxygen, 1 aluminum, and 3 silicium, a double silicate, of 1 particle of silicic acid, and 1 particle of silicate of aluminum ;—or, of 3 oxygen, 2 aluminum, and 4 silicium, a triple silicate, of 1 particle of silicic acid, and 2 particles of silicate of aluminum ; and in like progression. Al. Sil. Ox. Silicate of Aluminum Al. Ox. Sil. 4 5 4 8 Double Ditto Al. Ox. Sil.-f Sil. Ox. Sil. 4*5 12 16 Triple Ditto Al.Ox.Sil. + Sil.Ox. Sil. + A1. Ox.Sil. 9 12 24 The determinations of these peculiarities, are not mere ideal speculations; they are of vast im¬ portance to the perfection of the Manufacture, which must progress with the knowledge of all the materials employed. And yet the chemists of our day have been so occupied with regularly playing off a number of occult terms, for shew of knowledge, that they have scarcely attended to the facts obvious to r 2 244 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. common observers, nor allowed themselves leisure and opportunity to investigate the mechanical pro¬ cesses of nature; that I cannot help the dread, that for another age, and for results of experiments in¬ stituted expressly for the purpose, is reserved the credit of throwing that light upon these subjects, which, for them to be accurately known, is indis¬ pensable. THE EARTHS. 245 FLINT. Flint is obtained in large supplies, to more than 100,000 tons per annum, from the vicinity of Gravesend, Brighton, the Isle of Wight, and the south-east coast of Ireland. In the form of nodules, frequently approximating to a globular figure, of sizes from that of a small apple to that of a cabbage, flint is found in horizontal strata of chalk, varied in fineness and solidity; and as the strata do not wholly touch each other, there is no solution of continuity between the upper and the lower. When first quar¬ ried, the nodules always have a white opaque crust, of an earthy chalky appearance, in thickness varied to two lines, with a loose texture, and much less hard and heavy than the flint which it envelopes. And, after this coating has been removed, the action of the atmospheric phenomena ere long again covers the nodules with a second but extremely thin coating. Vauquelin employed some time to discriminate what¬ ever difference existed between flint and quartz; and he was convinced that there is essential difference, by him conjectured to be in the proportion of com¬ bustibility of each. The best flints are not very large ; in colour blackish-brown; the fracture has a greasy aspect, a little shining, with the grain so fine as to be imper¬ ceptible ; specific gravity 2'594 ; and having these elementary atoms, according to both Klaproth and Vauquelin:—Silica 98', Lime '50 (or 51,) Alumine '25, Oxide of Iron '25, Loss 1' (or IT) = 100. 246 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Flint occurs in great plenty in common chalk, in which it is deposited in tuberose masses, and in pretty regular layers, each in an insulated state ; also occasionally in veins in primary and transition rocks. The colour is usually grey, mingled with black, brown, yellow, and red. Fracture perfect and large conchoidal. When cavities occur in it they are sometimes lined with small quartz crystals having the usual form; lustre glistening or glimmering, translucent—blackish varieties, only so on the edges. Hardness superior to rock-crystal, very fragile, and easily broken by a smart blow, specific gravity 2*575, to 2*594, 37 atoms silica = 74 + 1 water = 1*125 = 75*125. The alumine and iron merely spice the silicate. The manner of nature’s formation of flint, is a difficult geological problem ; and only will it, as also that of chalk, be fully elucidated, by intimate ac¬ quaintance with the applications of chemical combi¬ native momenta with respect to mineral products. Both must have been produced by states of the earth and atmosphere, which we only can imagine, but not demonstrate by present facts. Some persons have supposed flints to be concretions of organic remains; and Hacquet has laboured to shew that it originates from chalk, and is daily forming. Cavities in the chalk are filled with nodules of flint. May we regard these cavities as formed by gas evolved during the deposition of the carbonate of lime modified to form chalk; and while too impotent to reach the surface, sufficiently potent to prevent the congestion of the mass? Have the silicic acid and water permeated THE EARTHS. 247 and filled these cavities, and therein remained until solidified ?—One of my sons accidentally broke a nodule of flint, (still in my possession,) which demon¬ strates its having been formed by infiltration, what¬ ever may have been the way in which the silicic acid came in contact with the lime. The nodule is elongated and hollow ; and its interior presents an entire coating of minute crystals of quartz with a slight discolouration from a precipitate of protoxide of iron. I cannot but believe, that among the great quantities of flint nodules daily broken by hand for the mills, numerous instances are presented to verify my remarks, 'although they pass unnoticed. The introduction of flint into earthenware, along with the finer clays of Devon and Dorset, greatly promoted the whiteness of the ware; although I must acknowledge, that uncalculated losses have ensued therefrom ; because, of inattention to the pre¬ cise quantity which would accomplish the desired purpose; and of want of acquaintance with its che¬ mical properties. The merit of this introduction is, by the general voice of the Staffordshire Potters, assigned to Mr. Thomas Astbury, of Shelton; and it is not too much for us to have expected that by the natural bent of his genius he would have been much more swayed, and would with indiscriminate ardour have introduced every substance adapted to advance the Art towards perfection. He can be excused only on the ground of its possibly requiring efforts greater than could be made by a person circumstanced like him, to place himself in array against the prejudices of the times; and, for the practices of his compeers 248 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. evince a disregard, exceeding what is warranted by the current sum of philosophical knowledge. The demand for his ware caused Mr. Astbury, in 1720, to take a journey to London on horseback. Ere he reached Dunstable, his horse’s eyes became so disordered, as to threaten immediate blindness; so that on arriving at his inn he sought assistance from the hostler, for the disease which demanded prompt attention. The hostler put into the fire-grate a small nodule of flint—plentiful in that neighbourhood—and after it had become incandescent, he threw it into water, and then pulverized it into a very fine powder, a little of which was blown into each eye of the horse, and the copious discharge which ensued, relieved and cured them both. However, the attention, of Mr. Astbury had been further engaged ; he had noticed the white appearance of the calcined flint, the methods by which this, and its very fine state as powder, were so easily attained ; and rightly conjec¬ turing that its introduction as one of the materials in his Art, would improve his ware in whiteness, he caused some of the coarse flints to be forwarded to Shelton, where, on his return home, he had them fired after the ware was baked; then pulverized in a large mortar, and in the state of powder mixed with pipe-clay in water, with which he washed the inside of his hollow-ware ; and ultimately it was introduced into the body. All the notices by tradition supplied concerning this person, agree in the remarkable particular, that although his intimate acquaintance knew him to be very ingenious and acute, yet he managed to play THE EARTHS. 249 his part as the most noted fool employed by Messrs. Elers, at the Bradwell manufactory. Convinced that the developement of their processes would render an important benefit to his countrymen, as well as to himself, he undertook the task for which he was well capacitated ; he humbled himself, and without appa¬ rent regard sustained every kind of insult, and con¬ tumely which the others, masters, and workfolks thought proper to manifest towards him. He com¬ pletely succeeded in his object; became a manufac¬ turer, and after his introduction of flint, his success was much greater than he might reasonably have expected. Yet his real modesty prevented that justice being done to his merits by his contempora¬ ries, which will be readily and willingly awarded by posterity.* * As the details are rather remarkable, I make no apology for stating them, as communicated to me by an old potter of 84 years of age, in 1810; and also by Mrs. Smith, Astbury’s grand-daugh¬ ter, of Lane-End, in 1814 ; having been introduced, for this pur¬ pose, by Mrs. H. Close, of Hanley. Aware that the Messrs. Elers employed only the most weak-minded persons with whom they might meet, lest their manipulations and processes should be divulged to the manufacturers of Burslem; and knowing his own command of temper would enable him to accomplish his design; Astbury attired himself in suitable apparel, and with a complete idiotcy of countenance and expression, presented himself before the Bradwell operatives. His disguise was so complete, as to render him unknown to his neighbour Twyford; and although it was attempted to drive him away, by culfs, kicks, and varied unkind treatment, from masters, and idiotic: workmen, he sub¬ mitted to all with ludicrous grimace; and evinced so small a modicum of mental ability, that he was employed on the premises. Whatever food he obtained, was always devoured, and only his lingers were used to convey it to his mouth; he could not recollect 250 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Flint is supplied in a liquid state to the Manu¬ facturers, in tubs of 40 pecks, of 8 Winchester quarts; any directions given him how to perform any of the labours re¬ quired, but merely could assist any other person ; in few words, he sustained the character of the idiot almost two years, without being discovered ; and during that period, he regularly registered every process he witnessed, and manipulation in which himself or others were engaged ; made models of every implement needed; and acquired all the information requisite and useful in the pecu¬ liar manufacture pursued by Messrs. Elers.—A fit of sickness sup¬ plied opportunity for Astbury to quit their employment, and resume his true character. A remarkable coincidence I cannot help mentioning;—Very early in the eighteenth century, a Mr. Edward Allgood, chief director of the Iron Works at Pontypool, South Wales, (which had been commenced by his ancestors, but were become) the property of a Major Hanbury, from some source not stated, obtained infor¬ mation that peculiar methods for polishing Wire, were practised by the operatives at Woburn in Bedfordshire., This much excited his curiosity (considering himself remarkably clever,) and interest rendered him extremely desirous to become acquainted with these processes. He applied, accordingly, to several of the parties for this particular information, but in every instance experienced a mortifying refusal. Determined, in despite of every obstacle that might be presented, to obtain the desired object, he left Pontypool, and when arrived in the vicinity of Woburn, he disguised himself in the garb of a low mimic and buffoon ; and sustaining the cha¬ racters with unusual good humour and effect, as he passed through the town, his ludicrous and amusing antics gradually gained him the attention and contributions of the workmen; the repetitions supplied opportunity for a little familiarity, and procured frequent ingress to the workshops most celebrated for excellence of produc¬ tions ; in these he witnessed, at the same time, the various pro¬ cesses and operations of the workmen; and by waiting a suitable period, he gained a complete knowledge as well of the manipula¬ tions, the machinery, and the requisite materials, for fabricating the several kinds of wire. THE EARTHS. 251 or 64 scores, 1280 lbs., 32 lbs. per peck, 64 oz. per quart, and 32 oz. per pint. When the Slop-flint averages 32, or 28, or 24 oz. per pint, the proportions of flint and water are as follows:— Pint. Quart. Peck. Tub. Pint at Flint. Water. Flint. Water. Flint. Water. Flint. Water. 32oz. 21oz. 1 1 OZ. 42oz. 22oz. 336oz. 176oz. 8401b. '4401b. 28 14 14 28 28 224 224 560 .060 24 7 17 14 34 112 272 280 680 These are readily verified. When three pints of slop-flint, at each of the respective weights, are carefully evaporated and dried, the results will be found 21, 14, and 7 ounces. Again. From a pint of water, at 20 ounces, abstract sufficient to admit 7 ounces of dry flint; and the mixture is found to weigh 24 ounces; — when other 7 ounces are added, the weight is 28 ounces ; and when a third 7 ounces are added, the weight is 32 ounces ; or precisely that at which it should be supplied. And, from this, it will be clear, that if only a quarter of an ounce in the pint be wanting in flint, there will be 17flbs. deficient in the tub ; and from this, and like causes, doubtless many errors have arisen in slip¬ making. Potting .—As in preparing the calcined Flints and Felspar, for the pan in the Mill, weight of pressure and percussion are requisite ; the principle of the pile-engine is adopted—the falling, with acceleration of a loaded beam or pestle, shod with iron ends. On a strong shaft are fixed single arms, placed a few inches 252 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. asunder, and forming the radii of a hexagon; on the end of each, at a right angle, is fixed a stout plug; and the motion of the shaft brings the plug of each arm in succession beneath another plug firmly fixed on the beam, or Stamper, and after lifting the beam a certain height, quits it, and the weight of the beam by atmos¬ pheric pressure also brings it down on the minerals upon the strong grate, and as they are crushed they fall through, ready to cast into the vat. In the noise of the stampers of the crushing process, their rebounding is comparatively sonorous, occasionally, at other ' times a dead blow; but on a first visit, the shock on the nervous system baffles description ; there is caused a painful jarring, the sense of hearing is much affected for some minutes, the attempts to converse are superseded by the voice being incapable of audible articulation; and some degree of lassitude is immediately pro¬ duced. I * * \ THE EARTHS. 253 LIME. Lime, the very caustic protoxide of the pure caustic alcaline metal Calcium,—in its perfectly pure state, as obtained by burning in a crucible at least two hours time, at a white heat, calcareous spar, Carrara white marble, or clean oyster-shells, (which for tests should be closely bottled from air,) is white, moderately hard, easily pulverized, has a peculiar odour, burning-hot savour, and corrosive potency on animal substances ; specific gravity 2 3 ; the blue juices of vegetables by it become first green, and afterwards yellow. Neutralized by carbonic Acid, as limestone, every part of the globe presents it in great plenty ; it also occurs plentifully as marble, chalk, calcareous spar, (coloured, or perfectly white and transpaient,) and stalactites. From the earliest ages, aftei being burned into lime ,—that is, kept some hours at a white heat, by which the carbonic-acid gas is dissipated, and the caustic property again restored in quick-lime , it has been known and employed with the addition of one-third of water as mortar ; and in its application as cement, it again becomes carbonated into aitificial limestone. When a little water is sprinkled on some dry fresh-burned lime, it is sollicited, when hot, at 212°, with the momentum of 0’00078, and when cold, at 32 , with that of 0-00152, (first noticed by Dalton, one of the few original thinkers,) much vapour arises, and the heat evolved is about 800°, which would ignite 254 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. some inflammable substances; tbe mass falls into a proto-hydrate, of lime 75*68, water 24*32 ; the water being more solidified than in ice. Therefore, as quicklime in its perfectly dry state, swells from the moisture of the atmosphere ; there scarcely needs be any surprize in the mind of a reflecting person, that this would cause to flee, upon change of temperature, vessels whose clay has it as one component. Yet this fact seems to have been overlooked by the Manufacturers, in reference to Paris-white; and, it equally regards the use of Bone Earth. When much, if not all the water of phosphoric acid com¬ bined with the lime in bone, has been dissipated, only the greatest care can prevent its supplying itself again from the atmosphere; and as the lime itself is, by the baking process, rendered caustic, it will similarly sollicit moisture from the same source; each of which causes will soften the ware. Earth of Bone. —Phosphate of Lime. —This, in its prepared state, is a white powder, without odour, caustic savour, insoluble in water, but soluble in nitric, muriatic, and acetic acids ; precipitable un¬ altered by test 2 ; and at a very high temperature fusible into a white enamel. Its general refractory nature, when a component of the cupels employed in metallurgy, may have suggested its employment in soft porcelains ; where in addition to its correcting any discolouration from peroxide of iron in the clay, it aids the production of transclucence ; but I am not aware of the person by whom was made the first Bone China. Scheele first published, but Gahn was first successful in, the Analysis of the Earth of Bones, and THE EARTHS. 255 exhibited it as Phosphate of Lime; and his sagacity is the more entitled to attention, because the native phosphate of lime has proved too difficult for the processes of very celebrated chemists.—In p. 68, vol. xxxiv. Ann. de Chimie, are the truly interesting researches of Merat Guillot, on the several compo¬ nents of the different kinds of Bones, which are pre¬ sented in a condensed form below :— Karnes of the several Substances employed. Human bones taken from a burial-ground, perct. -dried, but never interred. Bones of the ox . •-calf. ■ 1 horse « ............ . - sheep . -elk. :-hog.. -hare . -chicken . -pike. - carp . -viper ... - lobster . Teeth of the horse. -elephant.. Stags’ horns. Egg-shell. Mother-of-pearl . Crabs’-eyes . Shell of the cuttle-fish. White coral... Red ditto .. Proportions of Carbo- Gel a- Phos- note of Loss. tine. phate ol Lime. Lime. 16- 67- 1-5 15-5 23- 63- 2- 2- 3- 93- 2- 2- 25- 54- — 21- 9' 67-5 1-25 22-25 16- 70 0-5 13-5 1-5 90- 1- 7 5 17- 52- 1- 30- 9- 85- 1- 5- 6' 72- 1-5 20-5 12- 64- 1- 23- 6- 45- 0-5 48-5 21-5 60-5 0-5 17-5 18- 14- 40- 28- 12- 85-5 0-25 2-25 24- 64- 0-1 1115 27- 57-5 ]• 14-5 3- 2- 72- 23- 2 5 O' 66- 31-5 2- 12- 60- 26- 8- o- 68- 24- 1-5 o- 50- 48-5 0-5 o- 53 5 46- Processes .—A solution of muriate of lime, treat with solution of phosphate of soda; leave to repose 24 hours; there will be a preci¬ pitate of neutral phosphate of lime, 1 P + 1 L + 2 Water.—Reverse the details. To the solution of phosphate of soda, gradually add muriate of Lime; when almost equivalent to the former, leave to repose, as before; and the precipitate will be a sub-phosphate of lime, similar in composition to calcined bones as used for intro¬ ducing into soft porcelain. 256 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Plaster of Paris, Gypsum , Sulphate of Lime , is obtained from Chelaston, near Derby; and from Beacon Hill, near Newark, Nottinghamshire. It is without odour or savour, specific gravity 2*31, is soluble in 450° of hot water, and 500° of cold ; it is fusible by a moderate heat; is separable by carbon¬ ated alcalies, and decomposed by ignition with charcoal. It is prepared for the Manufacturer’s pur¬ poses—moulds for vessels and figures,—by being- ground between mill-stones, and afterwards evapo¬ rated on a long brick trough, beneath which are flues for the passage of heat from the fire. This process is named boiling the plaster, because the escape of the moisture causes decrepitation and effervescence. At 160° Fahrenheit it is completely prepared; and after¬ wards, it most quickly sollicits to combination, water, or other neutral liquid, becomes hot, and rapidly solidifies. Mould Making .—Moulds are formed in the following manner : —The statue, or figure to he copied, is first oiled, to prevent it from cohering with the gypsum. A quantity of liquid plaster, sufficient for the mould, is then poured on, immediately after being mixed, and suffered to harden. If the subject be a bas-relief, or any figure which can be withdrawn without injury, the mould may be consi¬ dered as finished, requiring only to be surrounded with an edging. But, if it be a statue, it cannot be withdrawn without breaking the mould; and, on this account, it becomes necessary to divide the mould into such a number of pieces as will separate perfectly from the original. These are taken oft’ from the statue, and when after¬ wards replaced, or put together without the statue, they constitute a perfect mould. This mould, its parts having been oiled, to pre¬ vent adhesion, is made to receive a quantity of plaster, by pouring it in at a small orifice. The mould is then turned in every direc¬ tion, in order that the plaster may fill every part of the surface ; and, when a sufficient quantity is poured in to produce the strength THE EARTHS. 257 required in the cast, the remainder is often left hollow, for the sake of lightness, and economy of the material. When the cast is dry, it is extricated by separating the pieces of the mould, and finished by removing the seams and blemishes with the proper tools. Plas¬ ter casts are varnished by a mixture of soap and white wax in boiling water. A quarter of an ounce of soap is dissolved in a pint of water, and an equal quantity of wax afterwards incorporated. The cast is dipped in this liquid, and, after drying a week, is polished by rubbing with soft linen. The surface produced in this manner approaches to the polish of marble. When plaster casts are to be exposed to the weather, their durability is greatly in¬ creased by saturating them with linseed-oil, with which wax or rosin may be combined. When intended to resemble bronze, a soap is used, made of linseed-oil and soda, coloured by the sul¬ phates of copper and iron. Walls and ceilings are rendered water¬ proof in the same way. If the form or position require it, the limbs are cast separately, and afterwards cemented on. Moulds and busts are obtained in a similar manner from living faces, by covering them with new plas¬ ter, and removing it in pieces, as soon as it becomes hard. It is necessary that the skin of the face should be oiled; and, during the operation, the eyes are closed, and the person breathes through tubes inserted in the nostrils. Elastic moulds have been formed, by pouring upon the figure to be copied a strong solution of glue. This hardens upon cooling, and takes a fine impression. It is then cut into suitable pieces, and removed. The advantage of the elastic mould is, that it separates more easily from irregular sur¬ faces, or those with uneven projections and undercuttings, from which a common mould could not be removed without violence. Glue Moulds for Casting .—The body to be moulded, pre¬ viously oiled, must be secured one inch above the surface of a board, and then surrounded by a wall of clay, about an inch dis¬ tant from its sides; the clay must also extend rather higher than the contained body; into this, warm melted glue, as thick as possi¬ ble, is to be poured, so as to completely cover the body to be moulded; the glue is to remain till cold, when it will have set into an elastic mass. Having removed the clay, the glue is to be cut into as many pieces as may be necessary for its removal. S 258 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. MAGNESIA. Magnesia, one of the elementary Earths, with a metallic base, magnesium , is found native, as a hydrate, a soft white powder, with scarcely any savour, devoid of odour, innocuous compared with lime, is slightly soluble in water, yet with it never forms a ductile adhesive mass; reddens turmeric paper, and changes vegetable blues and violets to a green tint, (yet these effects are not produced by the water filtered from the earth itself after agitation therein ;) is not dissolved by solutions of alcalies, or the alcaline earths; has more resemblance to earths than the alcalies ; alone it is refractory at the highest temperature, yet with lime and alumine and silica, it fuses into a porcellaneous mass ; yet, not when with barytes or strontia. As a component of some of the rocks which form the crust of the globe, steatite, and serpentine, it is in considerable quantity ; and also with lime, in very extensive formations. The per¬ fect separation of these two, is an extremely interest¬ ing problem in chemical analysis; and because of its difficulty, some excellent chemists have supposed magnesia a modification of lime. The magnesian lime-stone is sooner rendered caustic, at a loss of about 60 per cent, than the other, because this more sollicits to combination carbonic acid. The earth itself, has been very little employed in the Arts of Life ; and although ordinary limestone, certainly of a good quality, has been some time introduced as Paris White, I am not aware that the magnesian limestone has been submitted to trial. THE EARTHS. 259 Process .—In distilled water dissolve sulphate of magnesia, (Epsom Salts,) filter, add test 1, and the precipitate will be pure magnesia; filter out, wash well, evaporate dry, incandesce, and keep in a well-stoppered phial from the air.—The Sulphate of Magnesia, moistened, in the galvanic circuit in contact with mer¬ cury, was decomposed into its basic metal, white, much like silver, and with a specific gravity of 1*780. As Alumine solely by many has been supposed the only Earth really useful in the fabrication of the best Porcelain; there seems the more necessity and propriety in recording the following remarks ;—and especially as there is a probability that the vicinity of Epsom would supply some of the earth in question, by which the trial could be properly made :— At Castellamonte, in Italy; and at Baudissero, nine miles from Ivree and Brozzo, in Canavais, Department of the Loire, is quarried a Porcelain Earth, or Clay, compact as the hardest chalk, amor¬ phous, white as ceruse, without argillaceous odour, not adhering to the tongue, so slightly affected by water as not to form a solid paste, yet agglutinates and contracts a little by drying at 350°; specific gravity 2*800. The former, according to Guyton, has Magnesia 26*3, Silica 14*2, Carb. Acid 46, Water 12; the latter, according to Bucholz, has Magnesia 46'0, Carb. Acid 51, with a trace of alumine, lime, manganese, and water.—It is employed with clay in the fabrication of crucibles, not affected by the file; and of stone ware ; and with silica, in that of very fine porcelain, by Gioannetti, at Vineuf; being regarded as very excellent for that purpose.—I should not be much surprised if ultimately it be found, that the component of Nankin porcelain, s 2 260 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. whose nature and use are so extremely carefully concealed by the Chinese potters, is a magnesian earth, or a silicate of alumine and magnesia. In 1805, December 22, that eminent chemist, Proust, of Madrid, thus addressed Vauquelin :—“We are going to-morrow to see the manufacture of Por¬ celain, under the direction of M. Sureda, who was brought up to this Art in the manufactory at Sevres, and now makes a most beautiful porcelain , of a much harder texture than yours. This is not effected by Kaolin , but with the spuma maris, [Meerschaum of Werner,] a silecious magnesian-stone, found in the neighbourhood of Madrid. We shall send you some specimens which will astonish you. He covers his biscuit with feldspars of Gallicia, which are very beautiful. The stone would be very excellent for the formation of chemical furnaces. When taken from the quarry, it is soft, and admits of being cut, like soap. Furnaces made of this stone, are ex¬ tremely light, and never undergo fusion, however high may be raised the temperature. Besides mag¬ nesia, silica, and some particles of argil [alumine,] and lime, this stone contains a portion of [alcali] potash, which contributes not a little to the superior qualities of the porcelain.”—The information con¬ tained in this letter, I regard as very important, when we refer to the time of its being written. Steatite. —The Soapstone, employed in the Swansea China Manufactory, is from Mullyan Churchtown, and from a vein of serpentine near the Lizard Point. It is greenish white, tinged yellowish sometimes, has a fine earthy texture, unctuous to the touch, soapy lustre, infusible alone before the blow- THE EARTHS. 261 pipe.—When first quarried, can be kneaded like dough; but after being some time exposed, and deprived of part of its moisture, its edges become translucent, though it can be scratched by the nail. Silica 44, Alumine 10, Magnesia 24, Water 22. Having business which brought me to Swansea, in 1831, I visited both manufactories, and entered into free conversation with several of the artizans. The whole of the China department, at Mr. Dilwyn’s, was discontinued; because the principal himself was disgusted with the frequent failures, and consequent sacrifices of capital, of the person to whom he confided the management; as body and glaze were constantly unsuitable for each other, and guessing usually rendered the affair worse. I felt wishful to obtain some of the body clay , and the fluid glaze, for analytic investiga¬ tion ; that I might have suggested the probable cause; and also the remedy; I confess, hoping also for a douceur from the princi¬ pal, on the information being communicated. But I failed to obtain them; and my general remarks were similar to speaking to a per¬ son in an unknown tongue. I ' l 262 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. BARYTES. Barytes (from barns , heavy, a peculiar charac¬ teristic of its natural combinations,) one of the elementary Earths,—the oxide or balanced alcali of the metal Barium (B. 17‘5 + 4 Ox.) the most potent (and Strontia next) of the alcaline bases. As hydrate, it is extremely poisonous if taken into the stomach; its colour is greyish-white, specific gravity 4, it is without odour; its savour is more harsh and caustic than lime; in its native state it is porous and easily pulverized ; with less violence, yet like the fixed alca- lies, it corrodes the animal fibre to which it is applied; like lime, it slakes in air, and falls to powder by ab¬ sorption of moisture; it is soluble 5 per cent, in water, at 60°, and about 50 at 212°; the solution, like the hydrate, possessing the distinctive alcaline potency of rendering vegetable blues and purples of a green tint; as the liquid cools, beautiful prismatic crystals form; and by sollicking the carbonic acid of the atmos¬ phere, like lime, there is formed a pellicle on the surface of the liquid. By the rise of temperature it hardens, and has a bluish-green tint. The blow-pipe flame causes it to intumesce in globules, and enter the charcoal support, because of the presence of the water of crystallization. During fusion, the hydrate will combine with several of the earths and metallic oxides, rendering them soluble in acids or in water; and whether alone or with other elements, as re¬ agents, the employment is of great importance for the purposes of scientific illustration by analytical THE EARTHS. 263 processes. Thus, either as a nitrate or muriate, exhi¬ bited to detect the presence of sulphuric acid, the other acid will appropriate the base, and the earth combined with the sulphuric acid, will precipitate as an insoluble powder.—The mineral kingdom supplies great plenty of it, combined with sulphuric acid, and less frequently with carbonic acid. Processes 1. —(Cheapest and Best.) —Mix well, of the mineral sulphate in powder, 8 parts, muriate of soda 4 parts, charcoal powder 1 part, bring into a state of incandescence, and during one hour keep occasionally stirring the assay. The muriate of soda sollicits the oxygen, and thereby facilitates the decomposition. When cool crush the sulphuret coarsely, add it to 32 parts of water, raise the temperature to 212°, for five minutes, quickly filter, and keep in close phials ready for further processes. 2. The powders of sulphate of barytes and charcoal, 2 and 1 , subject to very high temperature four hours, (as in the mouth of a fired-up oven,) mix well in boiling-water whatever is soluble; filter the liquid, add carbonate of soda, the white precipitate filter out, wash well, again mix with charcoal powder, and incandesce two hours; then again cast into boiling-water, and with paper cover close the vessel; powerful reaction will be manifested ; the barytes will be soluble therein, and two new products result, of the crys¬ tals, and the liquid ; and will, as the temperature falls, form the crystals; which collect for use; and the barytic liquid left can be evaporated, and will present a further supply. 3. Because of the great combinative potency of the earth and the sulphuric acid, only partially affected by the presence of charcoal in high temperatures; and the difficulty of raising to a sufficiently high temperature a mineral, when in company with so sluggish a conductor as charcoal, only does this process succeed at very high temperatures. 4. The powders as above, 4 and 1 , incandesce three hours; then dissolve in boiling water, and by a syphon quickly decant the liquid; acidulate with test 25 ;—(or 4. The native carbonate, dis¬ solve in test 25 ;) evaporate, crystallize, incandesce the crystals, cover close, cool, and keep in a well-stoppered phial. 264 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. 5. To obtain test 30. The liquid of process 1, treat with test 26 until no more of test 14 evolves, filter, and wash the filter with distilled water at 212°; then evaporate till a pellicle commences; re-filter, and allow repose, to crystallize, separate the crystals, again evaporate the liquid; and the process repeat until all the barytes is obtained ; mix all the crystals ; and pulverize; add boiling pure water, again evaporate, and select the best crystals for keeping ; and the ley preserve as barytic water, to mix with equal quantity of solution of borax, for a certain glaze. The test 36 must be obtained by substituting test 25 for 26 as above. When the hydrate supplied by process 2, is again incandesced, it will (but that by 3 will not) fuse and assume the appearance of oil. We by ignit¬ ing crystallized Barytes obtain an alcaline earth, protoxide of barium, combined with water (B 17*5 + 4*5 W); concerning which, Berthollet says, “ the earth is engaged with a substance which diminishes its action on other bodies, which renders it more fusi¬ ble, and which gives it by fusion the appearance of glass.” Sulphate of Barytes .—Cauk stone, heavy or pon¬ derous spar ; is by nature presented in a variety of beautifully-crystallized forms. It is that very heavy brittle flesh-coloured mineral, with a foliated texture, found plentifully in copper mines, and frequently accompanying galena, or common lead ore, of which it often forms the gangue ; supposed to be lime and sulphuric acid, but which Galen first proved is a com¬ pound of sulphuric acid and the earth which Scheele discovered;, specific gravity 4’5, B 17*5 + 20 S. Acid. At 30° Wedgwood, fuses into a white opaque mass. Sulphate of Barytes, before the blow-pipe decre¬ pitates, but is not easily fused, which distinguishes it THE EARTHS. 265 from sulphate of Strontian, or of lime. Its particle is 1 atom sulphuric acid + 1 atom barytes. In Strontian lead mine, the common gangue of the galena is a compound of 2 atoms sulphate of lime, and 5 atoms sulphate of barytes; and in Yorkshire, between Leeds and Harrowgate is a species, of 9 * atoms sulphate of lime + 2 atoms sulphate of barytes. Carbonate of Barytes .—Rats stone, Witherite, is greyish-white, semi-translucent, glistening, bladed or fibrous in structure, frequently with small cavities lined with minute crystals; specific gravity 4*3, B 17*5 + 11 Carbonic Acid. There is a species, compounded of 1 atom of sul¬ phate of barytes + 2 atoms carbonate of barytes. The crystals of carbonate of barytes are small and semi-transparent; the massive varieties are only translucent. Before the blow-pipe it fuses readily into a clear glass, which in cooling becomes a white enamel. On charcoal it effervesces much, becomes caustic, and then sinks into the support. With borax and phosphate of soda it melts into a clear glass, which becomes opaque and white on cooling, when the quantity of the carbonate of barytes is propor¬ tionate to that of the fluxes. 266 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. FELSPAR. Felspar is the generic name of the mineral, which in its species is next to quartz most generally diffused in the crust of the globe. Its colours vary in the species, from grey-white, brown, yellow, and verdigris-green; inferior to quartz in hardness, yet not scratched by the knife; specific gravity 2*6; with vitreous lustre; in the American species recently introduced, crystallized ; in those of Middletown Hill, Montgomeryshire, broad foliated (best for Glaze) masses, rarely granular (best,) occasionally quite com¬ pact (for Body ;) in the blow-pipe flame, on charcoal support, semi-transparent white vitreous assay, but only at a very high temperature do the edges fuse into a semi-transparent vesicular glass. Though felspar is one component with quartz and mica of the granite; it must be understood, that the hardness of this conglomerate will greatly depend on the species of felspar, hereafter noticed, as con¬ taining the least alcali.* Often is the felspar found in concrete masses separately from the other com¬ ponents of granite, forming irregular beds of varying extent. Of the difference in the nature of its species, an idea may be formed from the annexed weights of the stone in cubic feet and inches:— * Ignorance of this peculiarity has caused the rejection of excel¬ lent grauen, by persons who trusted to guesses. Even a few days before this sheet went to press, a person (who manages one of the manufactories belonging to the gentlemen who own my residence,) shewed me a large quantity of excellent grauen, when properly treated, but which had till then been employed merely to form the sides and hutments of the flint-kilns at the Greenfield Mill. THE EARTHS. 267 Cubic Foot. Inches. flLiria,.. .... 2385 149*1 ... ... 0-086 Siberia . .... 2368 145 3 ... ... 0-085 Salbprsr.. .... 2229 1401 ... ... 0-079 Uassan ... .... 2290 143-4 ... ... 0-080 Rayonne. .... 2312 144-5 ... ... 0-082 Limoges. .... 2341 146-4 ... ... 0-084 Sevres .. _ 2146 134-1 ... ... 0-077 Middletown Hill .... .... 2370 147-2 ... ... 0-085 The components of these varieties are equally different in analysis. A crystallized specimen, from Stella, a part of St. Gothard, by Vauquelin, and the other kinds mentioned, supply the following:— Crystal. Green. FI. Red Passau. Salberg. Uton. Middletown Hill. Vauquelin. Rose. Buchoby. Godon. Vauq. white, b. gr. green. Silica.,. 640 63-0 67-0 62-5 68-0 64*5 600 64‘0 680 Alumine. 20 0 180 17 0 220 200 240 220 240 200 Alcali (Lithia) .. 140 140 140 140 110 80 16 0 10 0 100 Lime. 20 30 10 75 lO 30 20 20 20 Spiced with Iron oxide 1000 980 1000 99'25 1000 1000 1000 1000 1000 The correspondence of several of these to the Principle assumed at page 48, must occur to every attentive reader of this work; and will render obvious the real cause of the difference in the two kinds of felspar for the Manufacture. In the white, the greater dose of alcali increases its fusible property; in the green, the extra dose of silica renders it more refractory; and in the intermediate kind, the compo¬ nents are in their natural proportions, in round numbers; Silica 15x4+ Alumine 6x4 + Lithia 4x4= 100; Silica 16 x 4 + Alumine 6x4 + Lithia 3 x 4 = 100; Silica 17 x 4 + Alumine 6x4 + Lithia 2x4= 100.—The regularity of Silica and Alumine is very remarkable ; but the irregularity of 268 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. the alcali, (however we call it Potash, Lithia, Lime, or oxide of Iron ; as many of the analyses, made prior to Arfwerdson’s determining that it was the stone alcali,) induces an opinion, that galvanic agency, not yet developed, operates on the principle of the- mineral, and causes the result mistaken for lime. Certainly so minute a proportion of this earth, and not in the regular quantity of its combinative potency, does warrant the belief that some unknown cause is here in operation. The lamp of chemistry sheds an effulgence on the peculiarities of minerals, in analysis, exhibiting the presence and excess of useful, or deleterious components, not supplied by descriptive characters. And the information is absolutely needful to the intelligent manufacturer, no longer as a matter of conjecture. This will always determine the relation of minerals. The Petalite of Sweden and that of Dublin differ very little, if my analysis, and those of Arfwerdson and Gmelin be correct. Not but that I fear, that one has more than the proper quantity of silica. And I feel gratified with the approximation of the second to the general principle of this work. Indeed, the more I notice analyses, the more am I attached to the hypothesis. Arfwerdson. Gmelin. Dublin specimen. Silica .... .. 79-212 .... 74*17 .... 72-18 Alumine .. .. 17-225 .... 17-41 .... 1828 Lithia .... .. 5-761 .... 5-16 _ 6-10 Lime .... 0-32 .... 114 Water .... 2-17 .... 2-20 Loss .... •77 .... *5 100-40 THE EARTHS. 269 Processes (1.)—In a silver crucible put 10 grains of felspar powder and 40 grains of hydrate of potash, also in powder; fuse them together fifteen minutes, a. Add test 26, and with glass cane stir till all is dissolved, then decant into a capsule and evaporate dry; again dissolve in test 26, and filter out the silica, wash well, dry, ignite, and weigh (about 6’5 grains, or 64 per cent.) b. The washings add to the aciduline liquid ; alcalinize by test 2, the pre¬ cipitate filter out, wash well, evaporate, and dry. c. The liquid and washings evaporate to a fourth, add test 3, filter out the preci¬ pitate, wash, dry, ignite, and weigh the lime, (after deducting the carbonic acid,) 1*25. d. The precipitate b. dissolve in test 26, alcalinize with test 1, raise to 212° fifteen minutes, and filter out any spice of iron. e. To the liquid add test 34 ; the precipitate filter out, wash well, evaporate dry, and incandesce the alumine, 2*5, or 24. The alcali find by another process. (2.) ( Lowitz.J —Put into a silver crucible, powders of carbo¬ nate of potash 50 grains, carbonate of soda 4, and felspar 30; while raising the temperature, carefully stir to prevent loss by the ebulli¬ tion ; fuse fifteen minutes; then add 1 ounce of boiling pure water; filter out the silica, wash well, incandesce, and weigh. The liquid evaporate much, and find the alumine, &c. as before. For the Alcali; the Lithia. —In the silver crucible, (with a leaden head, and a leaden pipe and receiver adapted for refrigera¬ tion,) put powder of fluor spar 2, and felspar 1 ; the temperature gradually raise, and let the gas evolve, and carry over all the silicic acid. In hot water dissolve the sulphate of lithia, and pass the liquid very hot through the filter, on which will remain the alu¬ mine and other earths and oxides present. The filtered liquid evaporate dry, and weigh the product. The Petalite is Al. 3 + Sil. 4 + L. 1 + S. 3 zr 22*25 ; so that it is a compound of Silicate of Alumine and Silicate of Lithia. 270 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Grauen, (or China Stone.) This remarkable kind of granite is found only- in Cornwall, and mostly in the vicinity of St. Ste¬ phens, a few miles from St. Austle. The rock has the three components, small transparent crystals of quartz, disintegrated white and soft common felspar, and small scales of mica, mechanically mixed, and without any spice of metal whatever, in the best kinds.* The grauen of Cornwall, as likewise the clay from its decomposed masses, (hereafter mentioned,) were first introduced into the manufacture by Mr. Cookworthy, some way related to my wife’s maternal ancestors. He had closely considered the properties * The several kinds of granite have solubility precisely in the ratio of the quantity or proportions, and quality of the felspar from plus or minus of lithia; as this is assisted in its separative potency by the white oxide of iron in the mica, and the carbonic acid of the air, and the oxygen of the water. This is the mean of the compo¬ nents, and also their respective analysis, in 300 grains:— Quartz. Felspar. Mica. Silica . 96 64* 48 Alumine. 2 20* 24 Lime . 2 T75 — Potass.— — H*5 Oxide of Iron.— *25 15 Lithia . — 14' _ Manganese .— — 1-5 100-0 100-00 100-0 THE EARTHS. 271 « of the specimens sent from China by D’Entrecolles, and obtained from Limoges by Reaumur, and while residing at Plymouth, he made the needful experi¬ ments on the grauen, and obtained a patent for its appropriation; which patent he sold to Mr. Richard Champion, of Bristol; son of the spirited Mr. C. who erected the first laboratory for the reduction of zinc, under a patent, in 1743; as Dr. Ure inci¬ dentally mentions, Diet. Chem. p. 671, 4th edition. There is some difference in the grauen from different quarries in regard to the precise proportions ) of the components, Quartz, Felspar, and Mica, though always resolvable into the chemical components, Silica, Alumine, and Alcali. Sometimes the rock resembles an earth, is easily pulverized, and, breathed on, supplies the odour of clay; in other instances it is undurated, and does easily yield to the action of air and moisture. The crystallized quartz, merely silica with a spice of alumine, varies in its propor¬ tions, and is not needed, in either body or glaze, because its silica can be supplied by flint; and also, although it is resistive of disintegration by the atmos¬ phere, yet every crystalline substance constantly tends on every presented opportunity to resume its crystal form ; the momentum of the tendency being varied by the menstruum, quantity, and combinative potency, of the elements. The Mica likewise varies in its proportions, and much deteriorates the other components, injuring proportionately the ware into whose body it is introduced. Whenever its phos¬ phoric acid is sollicited by sulphuric acid, the combi¬ nation affects the glaze, and causes it to be without lustre, richness, or permanence. The Felspar is very 272 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY well adapted to the purposes of the Art; and espe¬ cially when these are combined with determined proportions of other components. Hence the diffe¬ rence in the purchased ground-stone, and also in the China Clays supplied to the Manufacturers. Each of the works has a quarry for the grauen, which is first detached by blasting, and wedges, and then broken into pieces of suitable size to be for¬ warded for the manufacturer. A little inspection will prove, that in this rock much felspar is present in a disintegrated state; not seldom with a slight proportion of magnesite, or steatite. The stone thus quarried, is not subjected to any further process or preparation, prior to being shipped at Charlestown, or Portsea. # * In Nicholson’s Philosophical Journal, vol. viii. p. 127—31, is Mr. Accum’s Analysis of Grauen, which, because the details are curious, I did intend to introduce; but on examining them, I found, and I think so will every other person who understands what he reads, find, (that, although I do not mean to charge Mr. A. with excessive modesty in assertion, nor over-scrupulous¬ ness in conclusions,) the results he gives as the components, will not accord with those of any of the analysts now acknowledged. He has overlooked the composition of the grauen,—quartz, felspar, and mica; he has forgotten that lime is ever present in the second, and also with fluoric acid in the last;—in exper. xii. he obtains 9 grs. of muriate of soda, which in xiii. supply him with 4*50 grs. of potash; and the whole contains, in 100 grs., silica 60*00, alu- mine 28 00, oxide of iron 0*25, potash 4*50, water 6‘00, Loss 1*25 = 100. How Mr. Nicholson overlooked the statement, we need not enquire. THE EARTHS. 273 > CHINA CLAY. When the atmospheric alternations cause the grauen to disintegrate wholly, the felspar crumbles to powder, and the result is the China Clay, —an indispensable component of the Body of Porcelain and best Earthenware; because of the entire absence of metallic particles. When properly prepared, usually it has a beautiful and uniform milk white¬ ness, and breaks readily between the lingers, without grittiness. However soft and white the several kinds may appear, they are not pure Alumine, but native neutralized compounds of silicic acid and alumine. That remark of Wedgwood’s, that the components are Alumine 60, Silica 20, and adventitious sub¬ stances and loss 20, must have been an oversight; for as the crude graueri has Silica 208, Alumine 44, Lime 4, and Alcali 44, in 300; there seems no way by which the atmospheric action can abstract 148 of the chief component silica, and introduce 136 of the alumine; and yet without altering the other compo¬ nents.—The proportions of the Porcelain Earths of the continent support the view I have, taken of the China Clay. That of Limoges, used for the Porcelain of Sevres, and also exported to Copenhagen for the like purpose, has Silica 65, Alumine 35 ; that of Passau, used at Vienna, Silica 70, Alumine 30; and that of Aux, used at both Dresden and Berlin, Silica 69, Alumine 31 ; though H. Rose gives 52 and 47, as the mean of all the kinds. The Chinese porcelain earth, or ka-o-lin, when pure, is friable, meagre to T *274 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. the touch, scarcely adheres to the tongue, and with difficulty forms a paste with water; and is refractory in the oven. The Clay, as found native, resembles new-made mortar in colour and general appearance. Many angular fragments dispersed in it prove that it has not been far conveyed. Also reddish-brown irregular stripes, patches, and veins, occur, and because of the mica present, are separated, as weed , by the workmen. There probably is plenty of the Clay in other parts of Cornwall, but the ports of Liverpool and Bristol, and the Potteries of Staffordshire, and the North, are supplied from several Works in a barren district a few miles from St. Austle. The Clay is found at various depths below the surface, from 2 to 20 feet; over which are super¬ imposed, separated by a waving irregular outline, a bed of light-coloured earth, and over this the vegetable soil. In some beds, the clay holds down 30 feet or more, at Trethosa. Being found in valleys or ravines, it is regarded as having been many ages depositing from the detritus of the grauen by the water from the ground above. The Clay is dug in progressive roads, 4 or 5 feet deep, and either cast in a large heap, or immediately conveyed to the spot to be in small heaps on a large scale elutriated. In the vicinity of the Works is a stream of water, which is caused to flow over these small heaps, which are frequently turned by mechanical and manual agency. In passing through, and over the heap, the water be¬ comes charged with particles of clay, and passes by proper arrangements into tanks of different sizes, provided with plug-boards, like the arks of our flint- THE EARTHS. 275 mills. The first is called the mica pit, because in it the most ponderous and useless particles subside; while the lighter particles are carried away into other tanks, where deposition is carried on further; and the water from the pits ultimately is received into more capacious tanks, in which only the finest particles deposite. When a certain quantity of deposit is sup¬ plied, and the clear water drained away, the Clay, like a thick mud, is spread over shallow tanks called pans , 10 or 14 inches thick ; and here it evaporates dry, in a few months; the supplies of September being dry in April or May, according to the season and the weather, as also the consistence and thickness of the fluid mass. And probably this long exposure in a moist state, renders the clay more fit for the manufacture, atmospheric changes by promoting the decomposition of the felspar. The Clay is next cut into brick-shaped blocks, which are either removed to a drying-shed, and placed on wooden bars to freely admit the access of air; or on beds of coarse gravel, as opportunity is presented. When quite dry, all the coarser particles, and other injurious appendages, are carefully scraped away, and the fine portion is put and pounded into casks, to fill them completely ; in which state they are forwarded to their ulterior destination. Bleaching Clay .—The scrapings of the dried lumps, and the waste of the packing, are washed in a small pit, near the packing-house, and therein remains all the coarser matters, while the overflow runs into one of the large ponds ; whence the water afterwards is carried away by channels beneath, t 2 276 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. which in some instances lead to shafts communicating with mine-adits in the rock beneath. The relative extent of the parts varies at different Works. The chief and only erections are, a shed for the office, a store-room for the casks, &c. in which the Clay is packed, and the others, open on three sides, for drying the Clay ; formed of timber. At one large Work, three small streams wash the Clay, and pass in succession, each through three pits, 40 inches deep, two of them 6 feet square, the other 9 feet by 6 feet; the last only supplying the liquid for the nine ponds of various sizes, whence it is laded into sixteen others, for final evaporation. They all are together in a yard Thirteen persons are here employed; eight to quarry the clay, at a certain price per cubic fathom ; three to forward the washing, and two to attend the ponds, pans, and packing, as each might especially need. Dr. T. Thomson gives this series of analyses of Kaolin, or Porcelain Clay.— (Mineralogy , p. 200.) Rose. Berthier. Thomson. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Silica 52-00 46-8 58-6 55-8 63-5 50- 37-10 Alumine 47-00 37-3 346 26-0 28-0 25- 24-48 Alcali — 2-5 2-4 8-2 10 2-0 — Magnesia — — 1-8 0-5 8-0 0-7 — Lime — — — — — 5-5 9*28 Oxide of Iron 0"33 • —■ — ■ .1*8 — 8-5 6 98 Water — ■ 130 — 7-2 — 95 19-22 99-33 99-6 97-4 99-5 1005 101-4 9706 THE EARTHS. 277 1 from St. Yrieix, 2 Meissen, 3 St. Tropez, 4 Mende, 5 Normandy. He thinks the Kaolin is (4 Al. + f.) S. + (Cal. + k.) S. or, Thomson gives these for Arfwerdson and Gmelin. Silica 79-212 74-17 Silica 37-08 12*6 atoms. Alumine 17*225 17-41 Alumine 7-73 2-62 Lithia 5-761 5*16 Litliia 2-94 1- — Lime 0 32 Water 2-17 • 102-198 99*23 We find the atoms of Silica (in Leetite,) rather more than five times as numerous as those of the bases (Silica 39’75 atoms, Alumine 5*42, Soda T50, Magnesia 0*44, Oxide of Iron 0T0.) If the Oxide of Iron be a spice, and we add together the Magnesia and Soda, then the atoms of Alumine are nearly thrice the number. CHERT. This Mineral is employed in the Flint Mills; and the supplies are from Derbyshire, and the Halken mountain, in North Wales. The components are as hereafter stated ; but the latter is considered as much better adapted for the purpose, because of the greater quantity of Lime present in the former kind, and which becomes intermixed with the flint during the abrasion, and in such proportion increases the liability of the body to be injuriously affected by baking. 278 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. The lustre of Chert is vitreous, inclining to pearly, upon the faces of cleavage, in the varieties possessing pale colours. Colour, various shades of green, often inclining to brown, white, and black, with every intermediate shade ; nearly transparent in some varieties ; in others opaque ; brittle ; hard¬ ness about the same with feldspar; specific gravity, 2*575, 2-620, 2*600. The analyses supplied from three kinds gave these as the mean results :— Halken. Derbyshire. Silex .. 58-26 62-38 Alumine. 11-48 12-18 Lime . ,... 13-66 13-96 18-20 Magnesia.. 2-98 0-00 Protoxide of iron ... ... 0-45 3-43 6-04 Ditto Manganese. ... 0-25 7-25 0-10 Fluoric Acid . 1-60 •06 Water and Loss. ... MO 1-04 1-04 100-00 100-00 100-00 C Cl-, L/C , M #4, V"7 s-> 14 '& < o r; 3 ' T » ' . ’ S ' . . . ' I 279 ] CHAPTER V. METALS. From the earliest period of recorded time, Metals have been the favourite subjects of the che¬ mist’s investigation; and, during a long era, know¬ ledge of their plainest characteristics constituted all implied by the word Chemistry.* And the favour¬ itism is warranted by their great importance and utility, as well as their intimate connexion with the Arts and state of civilized society ; their susceptibility of expansion by the hammer, or rollers; of ex¬ tension as wire; of casting into figures; and some * At page 476, of the Transactions of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, for 1810, Julius Von Klaproth states, that the cultivation of Chemistry at a very early date, by the Chi¬ nese, is proved by a volume which he describes, written about 756, A. D. In this, the principle which we name Oxygen, is called the impure part of the air; and is supposed to be a combination of sulphur, charcoal, and the metals; that it may be obtained fiom saltpetre by the application of high temperature; also from the black stone called Hhetann-che; and there are conjectures that it is one of the components of water. Respecting the metals, the notions have great similarity to those ol the alchemists. 280 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. not thus tractile, form the bases of the artist’s palette. Without bronze, or steel for cutting in¬ struments, how imperfect would be the state of the Arts; and in similar condition the transactions of commerce, without gold, or silver, as a valuable medium ! From remote antiquity have been known these seven Metals—Gold, Silver, Copper, Tin, Iron, Lead, and Mercury; with which every European has some acquaintance ; and when first known by the early societies of mankind, such importance was attached to the advantages of their fabrication into utensils or implements, that mythology assigned among the gods the eternal condition of the first practisers of Metallurgical Chemistry. Our day, however, witnesses the established existence, beyond the possibility of subsequent researches to annihilate, of six times seven; allowing, that some are mere curiosities of the laboratory ; also, for the peculiar evanescence of some, and the imperfect current investigation of others. The usual state in which Metals are presented, is not the natural one, but the artificial result, of the manipulations of art, and the igneous processes of the decomposition of their original compound ores. For we find always, on a scale larger or smaller, from circumstances, there is some contrivance or other, to keep up a supply of oxygen gas to the mineral, which being fixed by the hydrogen evolved by the fuel, its atomic momenta are transferred to the ore which is to be swelled and deoxydated, while any lime present with the ore, melts and combines with the argillaceous substance of the matrix. METALS. 281 The generality of intelligent Miners are of opinion, that ores grow ; and the certain manner of their growth is proved by numerous and con¬ clusive phenomena. And now that clearer know¬ ledge of chemical agency is current, we may indulge the opinion, that attention to the several conditions will soon develope the connection between the primary principles, the rocks, the matrices, the mineralizers, and the resulting metal. Continuous galvanic action and re-action among the rocks of mines,—or, the reciprocal action of the principles of acidity and alcalinity with atmospheric air, on the rocks, excited by the constant pressure of that active central force ceaselessly produced by the earth’s two-fold motions,—has been demonstrated by experiments made by Mr. Robert Ware Fox, in the mine of Huel Servel, Cornwall. These galvanic momenta must in all instances be regarded as the mere play of oxygen and nitrogen disturbed by dif¬ ferent surfaces, and exhibited by the different capabi¬ lity of rocks to conduct the motions of heat and of chemical combination. The most usual repositories of Ores, are those stratified portions of mountainous districts, by some powerful subterranean agency convulsed and thrown into dislocated masses. In these masses of rocks, near or remote, were caused fissures, cracks, crevices, cavities, and spaces; some almost horizontal, as in extended plains, where exist beds, comparatively level, even though at a considerable depth beneath the surface; others with varied dip or inclination; yet often the excavations shew, that the derangement in the strata has exposed some to the operations of 282 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. mechanical agency, which but for that, would have been too deeply lodged to have been reached by human art. The fissures in these strata, or fractures and dislocations, when filled with metallic Ores, are called Veins; and not seldom do they separate, and again unite; or disperse into ramifications called strings, or threads. The vein is usually filled with quartz, calcareous spar, clay, or earth ; and because these keep the rocks separate from the metallic Ore, they are called the matrix, gangue, vein-stone, or rider, of the ore; which often runs parallel to the strata, though without any regularity of thickness; and sometimes crosses from the one portion of the rock to the other, in all directions. When the vein is not filled up with matrix, the crystallized ore lines the cavity. The ore is mineralized, or in a state of combination with sulphur, arsenic, and carbonic acid, the most usual mineralizers, saline compounds; and, though not included amongst them, oxygen as fre¬ quently as any; the Ores being distinguished as sulphurets, arseniates, carbonates, salts, and oxides. The presence of sulphur is demonstrated by the suf¬ focating effluvium resulting when lightning strikes a house ; but that of arsenic remains a problem to be solved. From these substances, the Ores can be separated only by art; though occasionally the metals are exhibited in a native or pure metallic state. The confusion of rocks in all metallic mining districts, and the extended knowledge current con¬ cerning the nature of electric action, suggest this as the most general and probable principle,—that all Metals are the Chemical Products of Galvanic Phe¬ nomena. And although this would be regulated bv METALS. 283 the proportion of the electric excitement; yet as the age of the metalliferous strata may be a thousand or more centuries, very small increments annually would account for the greatest quantity known of metals. We are well aware of the facts, yet remain uncertain of the manner, in which, the combinative potencies of certain modifications of matter generate varied momenta of heat—the principle of galvanic action ;—or the presence of oxygen with other modi¬ fications form the several substances named Acid, Alcali, Earth, and Oxide;—or, the air in the veins of rocks supplies the elements of electric action ;—or, the oxygen and hydrogen principles are carried to the surfaces of rocks —or, the outer coating of the vein, the matrix of the ore, whether intermixed or alternating in layers, with the ore, is of finer grain than the rocks adjacent;—or, the mineralizers by combination deprive metallic substances of their usual characteristics;—but to this plain acknowledg- * The alcaline property of metals, and the connection of the principle of alcalinity with hydrogen, have yet to be more clearly explained ; and, in the absence of these, it will remain matter of conjecture, whether or not hydrogen, which constantly sollicits and is sollicited by oxygen, is essentially metallic,—that principle, of which every kind of metallic substance is merely a modification;— and the mother-metal sought by the alchemists, which they only required to discover, and develope the application, to have accom¬ plished their avowed object of transmutation.—The race is not yet extinct; for the List of Patents for February 1 836, has this notice, Lightly Simpson, Manchester, Lancashire, Alchymist ; for certain improvements in the preparation of certain colours, &c.”—The probability, however, is,—that Mr. S. is a very clever practitioner of the Art of chemical combination, and desirous to serve society and himself at one and the same time. 284 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. ment, as well as to our not having clearly determined other obscure conditions, no more censure will attach, than could with propriety be cast on the following truly modest confession of one of the most intelligent metallurgical chemists that has appeared on the stage of philosophical investigation, Professor Proust, of Madrid:—having been most busily employed in some interesting researches, which he was commu¬ nicating to the Institute at Paris, after particularizing various remarkable phenomena, he says—“ In an instant the substances begin to grow red at the points where the heat exerts its action. Is it sulphuretted hydrogen which they lose ? For my part , I cannot tell.” But, Agreeably to the character of the oxygen and hydrogen principles, during periods of time extended beyond all chronological data, as already hinted, the silent action of undisturbed galvanism, carrying from surface to surface the aura, or finest particles of the rocks, could not fail to produce intermediate sub¬ stances,—the matrix, the mineralizer, and the metallic particles in threads or ores, with similarity of crystallization, and every indication of simulta¬ neous generation ;—filling the intermediate space with compounds of oxygen, nitrogen, and elements of the rocks, whose distinctive qualities would cha¬ racterize the condition of the produced ore. Metals are much the greater number of the sub¬ stances which current processes have failed to prove compounds, or decompose. From their general che¬ mical analogies, it was conjectured by the early chemists, that they all were, in fact, aggregations in varied proportions of a very few elements ;—whence METALS. 285 originated the idea of— Transmutation ,—the attempt to solve the problem of changing metals of less value into others of greater, by altering the proportional quantities of their known as well as of their conjec¬ tured elements.* That metals are such compounds, * Perhaps the latest recorded instance of expert juggling in this mysterious and fallacious art, and proof of the practices of alchemy in the east, even in the present century, is the following, given on the authority of an Englishman of talent and respectability: In 1814, over the English Factory at Bassora Mr. Colquhoun was president, and once received the solicitation of an Arabian philo¬ sopher for a private interview, to communicate a most important secret. Consent being given, the next morning witnessed the strange and mysterious visitor, embracing the president’s knees, and supplicating protection from the English, against the con¬ tinued and cruel persecutions of his countrymen, who daily put him to the torture, to wring from him his secret of the method of transmuting the basest metal into gold. He stated, that he had just escaped from Grane, where he had been imprisoned and starved by the Shiek; and, that, on condition of his being per¬ mitted to reside in the factory, he would faithfully divulge the whole of his knowledge of the processes; and to previously atford a convincing proof of his skill, on Mr. C. expressing a disposition to protect him, he retired for a short time, and then returned to Mr. C., bringing with him, a small crucible and chafing-dish of coals. While the former was acquiring a red heat, he took from his pouch four small papers of a whitish powder, and requested some lead from Mr. C. This gentleman retired to his library, and procured four pistol-balls, whose weight he ascertained unknown to the adept. On these and the powders being pro¬ jected into the crucible, fusion immediately ensued, and after 20 minutes, the crucible was removed by Mr. C., and when cold, the button in the bottom proved to be of pure gold, and the like weight as the bullets, and in the bazaar was valued at 90 piastres. How the deception was effected,—as after the Arab placed the crucible on the coals, only Mr. C. touched it,—or why a poor Arab should present an Englishman with 90 piastres, cannot be 286 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. will seem extremely probable, on the following account:—those which are inflammable, assuredly must have hydrogen present; whatever inflames, cannot be an element; for this phenomenon proves that hydrogen evolves, and combining with oxygen causes burning; therefore, whether or not directly exhibited, there must be present, hydrogen, oxygen, and some base, although this last had not yet been developed. All metals by heat vitrefy; and vitrefi- cation is attributed to silica; hence the probability that silica is also present with such base. In the fracture of iron-stone not metallic particles are visible ; it therefore is no less rational to regard the metal as formed of primitive atoms, even though we are ignorant of their nature, than that it is an oxide of what never existed in a native state to be oxy- dated. Yet, as they' remain undecomposed by the sollicitings of the most powerful agents, their change, one into another, is a problem, whose solution by any train of reasoning is entirely hopeless; and by acci¬ dent alone will it be developed. An extended and better acquaintance with com¬ binative potency, proves, that Davy’s decomposition of the alcaline oxides, is a mere excitement, pro¬ moted and facilitated by the oxygen of the positive pole, and the nitrogen of the negative; the dis- easily determined. However, his return next morning, to enjoy the protection of the factory, agreeably to Mr. C.’s arrangement, was prevented, by the Shiek of Grane’s armed bands entering the Arab s house during the night, carrying him away, and putting him on board a boat, which was out of sight long before daylight. METALS. 287 turbance of the former, by mere re-action carrying the metal to the negative pole; the oxygen being expelled from the oxides by the atomic momenta and double action of the galvanic poles;—on the same principle, that, to produce our purified and artificial metals, we dissipate the oxygen, and nitrogen, dis¬ perse the heterogeneous substances, and melt the rocky materials. But, the supply of momenta being- only temporary, and dispersive, and the alcaline base not being adapted for our oxidated atmosphere, whenever opportunity offers, the supply is re-ab¬ sorbed, and the patient becomes an oxide capable again of enduring the atmosphere. The imperfection of current processes precludes the determination, whether, or how far, metals in their metallic state reciprocally sollicit each other, and thereby so alter some of their peculiarities as to prevent the usual methods detecting the presence of one or more of them. But if such momenta really exist, and combine substances, two or several, and so blend their properties that together they seem only one ; whenever they have fully operated, the separa¬ tion into elements will not be an easy task; and more particularly when none of the substances are distinguished for great combinative potency with others.—The solution of the problem is an object of much importance ; and will be regarded as of com¬ prehensive interest, because it involves a controversy concerning the existence of several substances with which our present imperfect knowledge overburdens us, and compels us to regard as simple, and dignify with the distinction of elements. Of the importance of these discoveries, in refer- 288 CHEMISTRY OP POTTERY. 1 v • - ence to the chemical nature of substances, especially of the metals, no doubt will be entertained, I think, by any reflecting person. And, that we are on the eve of yet more interesting developements, will be readily admitted by every person who considers the annexed details. In the autumn of 1835, the Aca¬ demy of Sciences at Paris announced that M. Becquerel has supplied an electro-chemical appa¬ ratus of iron, with which, and a concentrated solu¬ tion of common salt, also the mineral properly pre¬ pared, he has effected the immediate reduction of silver, lead, and copper, in a crystalline form, and in a regular succession ; but with varied facility, because of their different degrees of oxidation, and of the compounds generated during their deoxidation. M, Aime has improved the apparatus. An open tube of iron is bent in the form of U ; the outer portion at the bottom of the bend, is pierced with a small hole, into which is loosely put a little asbestos. The legs are half filled with fine well-washed sand ; and afterwards, one is filled with dilute sulphuric acid, and the other with a concentrated solution of sea-salt (in such a state of non-equivalence, however, as will preclude the formation, on their combining, of a salt, which would obstruct the discharge ;) also, by arrangements for a supply regulated by the pro¬ portionate discharge after their combination; thereby securing an indefinite continuance of the decompos¬ ing process, varied in its intensity by the concentra¬ tion of the solutions, and the facility of the combina¬ tion consequent on the size of the orifice for the discharge. The two fluids permeate the sand, and combine at the lower part of the tube, forming a METALS. 289 fluid which escapes through the hole. Into each leg clips a platinum slip, from each of which extends a wire to a galvanometer. On forming the circuit by contact, the change of direction of the needle indi¬ cates the formation of the momenta resulting from the reciprocal action of the fluids. Reasoning from the phenomena of potassium, sodium, lithium, barium, strontium, calcium, and magnesium, (the metals obtained by galvanic reduc¬ tion of their oxides potash, soda, lithia, barytes, strontia, lime, and magnesia,) Metals are alcalies, combined with sufficient oxygen, not to neutralize the alcaline bases, but to protect them, and counter¬ act the prevalent tendency to become oxides in the ordinary state of the atmosphere. Like sufficiency of oxygen, in varied degrees, affects other metals; but it is obvious, that all of them equally consist of oxygen and an alcaline base, not yet known defini¬ tively as simple or compounded; though the varied colours of the oxides, and their re-active potencies, imply some combination with the alcali. These six metals, — aluminum, glucinum, cerium, yttrium, zirconium, and thorium, are formed by abstracting oxygen from their earths, (which as pure oxides are white inodourous powders,) and which seem pro¬ bably compounds of carbon with other elements. With the exception of two or three metals, harder than the others probably from excess of a silecious base over the alcali combined during their electrical generation,—all the metals, from the evanescent potassium, to the one most fixed, agreeably to the variety of their components, have every degree of tendency to abstract the oxygen u 290 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. of the air, and, as oxides, return to their original state. The Metals possess the following general Cha¬ racteristics :— 1 . A peculiar lustre, continued in the fractured streak and smallest fragments. 2. Fusi¬ bility by heat, and while fused retaining their lustre and opacity. 3. Ready concentration of the motions of heat, and of oxygen separated from hydrogen by the electric machine and the galvanic circuit. 4. Being malleable, laminable, and ductile, extending under the hammer, by the rolling-press, or through the wire-mill; the susceptibility resulting from a tenacity peculiar to each kind, yet different in degree. 5. Brilliance and opacity, reflecting most of the rays of light which fall on their surface; hence forming excellent mirrors. 6. When in fusion, susceptible of combining with each other, in metallic alloys, in determined proportions, yet preserving peculiar lustre and tenacity. 7. In the galvanic circuit, their saline compounds are decom¬ posed, the negative pole sollicking the respective metals. 8. At a high temperature, in presence of oxygen, chlorine, and iodine, most of them inflame; and, combining with one or other of the three in determined proportions, they form bodies devoid of ductility and lustre, but saline-looking or earthy; termed oxides, chlorides, and iodides. 9. Most of them combine, in determined proportions, with sulphur and phosphorous, forming semi-me¬ tallic compounds. Others, to form peculiar gaseous or solid compounds, combine with hydrogen, carbon, and boron. 10. Many of them, by certain processes, crystallize mostly in cubes or octahedrons. ISilicium Platinum .. Gold . Silver . Palladium .. Mercury .... Copper .... Iron . Tin. Lead . Nickel . Cadmium .. Zinc. Bismuth.... Antimony .. Manganese.. Cobalt. Tellurium .. Arsenic .. | Chromium .. Molybdenum Tungsten . . Columbium Selenium .. Osmium .... Rhodium .. Iridium .... Uranium .. Titanium .. Cerium .... Potassium .. Sodium .... Lithium .... Calcium .... Barium .... Strontium .. Magnesium Yttrium .... Glucinum .. Aluminum.. Thorium.... Zirconium .. Silicium .... NAMES. oooo c^Mao©moo©oooo©o©ooa)'— m -j ao oo *— o g — **s © © O-J 03 •— -a 00 03 to ^ 03 ^ OOOQi 03 OiUOOOiCnOiCJOOOOCOaji^W G M > O H W S3 ►—I h3 O GO o i-3 a a a ►3 L> a 02 292 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Reciprocal Combinative Potencies of the Metals. The investigation of the conditions under which the Metallic Oxides reciprocally sollicit each other, is alike peculiarly interesting and important; inas¬ much as it involves, directly or indirectly, the whole theory of Enamel Colours, Coloured Glazes, and Coloured Dry Bodies. And, separate from this Art, it likewise regards that of metalline pigments; and numerous particulars in General Chemistry. The activity of philosophical enquirers has not yet suc¬ ceeded in removing all the obscurities, and develop¬ ing all the peculiarities of the subject; and probably the very complex results, cause the paucity of current information concerning them. Essential conditions of the problem, are, the reciprocal action, the momenta, and consequent oxidation, also the different potency of each metallic oxide to sollicit and neutralize the respective acids. By clearly developing the succession in which metalline solutions precipitate oxides, there will be simplified, one part of analysis, as well as the puri¬ fication of the metallic salts. — The illustrations annexed will probably remove much of the obscurity and complexity which have involved this subject to the present time. I cannot help thinking, that if from the whole of the facts detailed, there can be discovered any necessary and direct connection between the results of the analysis, and the practical fabrications,—between the principles developed by the one, and the effects supplied by the other, most of the doubts would be removed, most of the diffi¬ culties overcome, the obscurities illustrated, and METALS. 293 theory conjoined with experience would lead to a complete solution of the problem. Each metal, and even each different oxide of the same metal, to oxydize, needs a certain and peculiar temperature. Lead, at one temperature is minium, at another massicot. Oxidation ensues, when the reactions of the potency of the metal and that of oxygen exceed those of concentrated oxygen present in the galvanic circuit; and, only does it ensue from fusion, when the potencies exceed those of atmospheric pressure which cause cohesion. It also ensues on disturbing the potencies of a com¬ pound of oxygen and some base. The degrees are constant, and determinable specially by the pro¬ perties of the salts formed, whose colours do not always indicate their metallic base ; and which salts are usually neutral, neither aciduline nor alcaline. These degrees are designated by the colour name for common use ; and by suitable prefixes for the scien¬ tific ; thus we say either the black or red oxide of iron, the prot , deut , trit oxides of gold, the per¬ oxide of tin, for the first, second, third, greatest or maximum state of oxidation; and hydrate , when water is present in even a minute proportion. The presence of dry air, as well as of the atmos¬ phere at usual temperature, will readily oxydize arsenic, manganese, and the metals developed by Davy; but only sluggishly and when previously moistened, does the air oxydize copper and lead. At high temperatures, iron, zinc, copper, tin, silver, gold, &c. oxydize, in distinctly coloured products. Each metal in its pure metallic state is indif¬ ferent to the sollicking of any acid, and receptive 294 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. of the potencies of only the non-metallic elements, oxygen, chlorine, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, hydro¬ gen, iodine, and bromine, because of which they unite with compounds.—The different proportions sollicited by the same metal are few, definite, and ever analogous; the several results differ only in the multiple proportion present in the minimum to the maximum. The acids have greatest potency, then the alcalies, and afterwards water, in sollicking metallic substances to combine with oxygen. When a metal is sollicited, only can oxygen be supplied by the water present and in contact; in the alcaline liquid, the hydrogen evolves, the oxygen sollicits the metal, and* the fresh oxide (like one exhibited) is sollicited by the potency of the alcaline liquid. When exposure to the air supplies an additional dose of oxygen, the resulting oxide differs from the prior one, and is precipitated with a portion of the acid, precisely that quantity supplied, and therefore not decomposed. Iron and manganese supply instances. The presence of water with manganese, iron zinc, uranium, nickel, cobalt, &c. will supply oxygen for the oxide to have the maximum, like as would result from acids, or the minimum from the acidu- line solution. Indeed only when water is added to concentrated sulphuric or muriatic acid, and after hydrogen gas has evolved with more or less effer¬ vescence, will iron or zinc oxydize and become soluble in the liquid. The strong combinative potencies reciprocally of the oxygen and sulphur, prevent the result until additional oxygen is supplied by the water, and the equilibrium is disturbed. The i METALS. 295 weaker these potencies are, the more will he obvious those of the oxygen in solliciting the metal. If we substitute for the metallic iron its peroxide, no gas will evolve during the solution ; and because of the weakness of these potencies in nitric acid, is its ready and energetic solliciting of iron and zinc. In proportion to the doses of oxygen, (or chlorine, &c.) present in the metallic salt, or of the acid in the neutral salt, does water sollicit these products to combination; and least does it sollicit those with the minimum ; but its sollicitings are always, in definite proportions, multiples of the mini¬ mum. When the result has a quantity of water equal to that of the basic salt, or oxide, the hydrate has more potency than when only in the quantity supplied by the acid. This is another proof of the use of dilute acids. The hydrate of each common metal precipitates, when the oxide dissolved in sulphuric, nitric, or muriatic acid, is sollicited by the proper alcali (potash, soda, or ammonia); to obtain this as an hydrate, not an oxide, filter out and dry at about 100° Fahrenheit. Ignition dissipates the water of the earthy hydrates; but those ol potash, soda, lithia, barytes, strontia, and lime, require it to be intense; or else to be accompanied by some potencies with momenta greater than their’s towards the water. On water solliciting a metallic chloride, as the chlorine combines with the hydro¬ gen, muriatic acid results, saturated with the oxide formed by the oxygen liberated from the decomposed water. The paucity of positive information on these subjects, caused the opinion, that by instituting a 296 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY series of experiments, I should attempt a task of some utility, and which would contribute to augment and improve our knowledge. The philosophic enquirer never feels humbled at correcting or extending his stores; nor will he wholly disbelieve a fact, because not in unison with his received opinions, or one to which he cannot adduce some parallel instance. Else he would insurmountably oppose the progress of science, by substituting his own feelings in place of nature, and by attempting to measure what is immeasurable by the limited scale of human comprehension. Mix a little of a solution of red sulphate of iron with much of one of green sulphate ; add test 1, equivalent to the red ;—agitate well; the first supply of the test causes a precipitate of peroxide, entirely free from protoxide; but the additional supplies precipitate both oxides together. These precipitates filter out; and the filtered liquid shews the entire absence of oxide of iron, by being limpid, and not rendered blue by test 9, nor black by tincture of galls.—By reversing the process, adding little of the green to much of the red, and adding test 1, all the peroxide precipitated first; and afterwards the pro¬ toxide. Therefore, as the protoxide of iron preci¬ pitates the red, we easily can prepare green solutions without any peroxide. Consistent with the principles of mechanics, as action and quiescence are always equal and opposed, in compound engines, only when the ele¬ ments combine properly in definite proportions, has the compound efficient combinative potency. When any precipitant sollicits to combination the oxygen METALS. 297 of the metal precipitated, the reciprocal momenta of the two metallic oxides towards the acid promote combination in a degree inferior to the potency of the oxygen. Hence the precipitate usually is spiced with the precipitant. Caustic alcali added to a metallic solution, usually spices the oxide pre¬ cipitated ; and occasionally dissolves it. Carbonated alcali thus employed, precipitates the oxide as a metallic carbonate. The sulphate of zinc of commerce frequently has iron present;—(the true cause of difference in the tint of mat blue .)—To a solution of sulphate of zinc, add test 1, agitate well, and heat to 180° Fahrenheit; which will cause to precipitate oxide of zinc and a little peroxide of iron. Test 9 will by a blue tint shew the presence of protoxide of iron. —The liquid divide into two portions, and acidulate one with nitric acid, and boil 15 minutes; and the other with muriatic acid; to each add test 1 ; the iron precipitates, leaving a solution of pure sulphate of zinc, with a spice of sulphate of potash.—Oxide of zinc precipitates peroxide of iron, and is precipitated by the protoxide.—The combinative potency of nitric acid with zinc, leaves free much of the peroxide of iron, which precipitates; and what remains has excess of acid, and is separated by exhibiting more zinc. But when the solution has been slowly made, much of the iron is strongly retained, because protoxide. Frequently is a metal oxydized by the exhibi¬ tion of its oxide; and likewise by that of an acidu - line solution of the oxide; because of the acid’s varied combinative potency with different oxides, 298 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. even though much exceeded by that of oxygen. The peroxide of a metal being more potent; and requiring acid equivalent, for each salt, with the oxygen of the oxides. In the neutral salts, the distinctive potency of the components is scarcely recognized. But when, to one portion of such salt, another portion of one component is exhibited, a compound results whose potencies are completely different. The tartrate and bi-tartrate of potash are good instances. In all these and similar experi¬ ments, according to the alcali exhibited, the one or two oxides will precipitate ; but to render the phe¬ nomena more obvious, carefully drop in the test, to precipitate one oxide, and pour it in to obtain both. By almost similar processes, I noticed that the peroxide of iron is precipitated by deutoxide of / copper ; yet this is precipitated by the protoxide. Hereby we can readily separate all the iron from a solution of copper; and all the copper from a solu¬ tion of sulphate of iron. This will suggest a remedy for the altered tints of those colours prepared from sulphate of copper, and where iron has spiced the salt, and not been completely separated. When, to accomplish this separation, the peroxide of iron is formed by nitric or muriatic acid; add test 1, agitate, and at the temperature of 180° will pre¬ cipitate all the sulphate of iron. In the Arts also is often used green sulphate of iron, which should not be spiced with copper. Iron separates it only imperfectly, and after long repose. To the solution of green sulphate of iron, add test 1, agitate the liquid ; the protoxide rapidly precipitates METALS. 299 in company with the deutoxide of copper, leaving in solution whatever peroxide may be present. When the liquid is alcalinized with test 2, to precipitate the deutoxide of copper, rapidly is the protoxide of iron dissolved; though, in like circumstances, this test 2 does not dissolve the peroxide. Exposure to the air separates the solution, ammonia evolves, and a black pellicle on the surface soon precludes further atmos¬ pheric action. In analysis, test 2 is useful to pre¬ cipitate peroxide of iron when present with nickel.— In an aciduline solution, the perchloride of mercury quickly precipitates the peroxide of iron, and the oxides of zinc and copper. And, in any aciduline liquid suspected to contain metalline particles, by a thread suspend a needle 24 hours, and around it will be precipitated whatever metal is present. A nitric solution of silver frequently has a blue tint, because of the presence of copper. Add test 1, and there is a flocculent precipitate, chiefly of oxide of silver, where the test passed, which gra¬ dually sollicits deutoxide of copper. Agitate the liquid, the oxide of silver will quickly be re-dis¬ solved, and for it will be substituted the precipitate of copper. Alcalinize the filtered liquid with test 1, an insoluble precipitate results of oxide of silver, which when filtered out, leaves the liquid colourless, and entirely free from copper. To supersede this exhibition of potash, separately precipitate, filter out, and wash well, a part of the impure nitrate of silver, which again exhibit to separate the remaining por¬ tion of copper. This suggests a remedy for some failures in preparing purple.— The oxide of silver will separate the nitrate of zinc, in the analysis of 300 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. mat blue ; and the oxide of manganese will separate the muriate of copper present in the gold solution for purple. The precipitates must not be supposed pure oxides; the copper is always bluish green, varying with the other oxides ; indicating the presence of some acid. The instances adduced are not numerous, neither are they sufficient to explain all, yet their considera¬ tion will develope some, of the conditions of the problem 1. There is a nearer approximation to equilibrium in momentum to render inert the potency of the acids, between the protoxide of iron, and the peroxide of mercury which precipitates the peroxide of iron, the oxide of zinc, and the deutoxide of copper, than there is between any of the latter mentioned.—2. Likewise, for the like purpose, be¬ tween the oxides of zinc and manganese which pre¬ cipitate the deutoxide of copper, and between either and the copper.—3. For the like purpose, there is greater potency in the oxide of silver, than in that of zinc, or of copper, which, by it are precipitated. In numerous instances, we find the components of a saturated compound possess weaker combinative potency reciprocally, than when one is present in a different proportion. But, in every instance, the potencies of the Earths and Metals render ineffectual all attempts for their volatilization. There usually is present with the natural oxides much earthy matter, which being vitrefied by the heat, exerts consider¬ able potency to retain the oxide in the vitreous mass; and this more especially when the ores rapidly sus¬ tain a short contact with the motions of heat; in METALS. 301 which instances, instead of a regulus of the metal— (or a button of the metal, to which the term was given by the alchemists, as supposing it to contain a spice of gold, the king of metals,) there results a fine coloured glass or paste. This combinative potency of oxygen with the metals, causes the employment of substances capable of fixing the oxygen, and receiving any portion evolved, which otherwise would be ineffectual during the application of the motions of heat. When car¬ bonaceous materials are employed, and the metallic oxide is free from the sollicitings of other substances, the metallic particles leave the added substance, and because of its greater fusibility, they precipitate to the bottom of the crucible, free alike from the oxygen and any acid present, although in combina¬ tion with the alcali and earth of the flux, they form one agglutinated mass of metal. Many of the metals can, with great care only, be by fusion combined into permanent compounds, or alloys , always in determined proportions, possess¬ ing peculiar qualities, and adapted for only certain uses; much altered in their fusibility, and volatility ; frequently more susceptible to the sollicitings of oxygen; their hardness and colour different from those of either component alone; and the specific gravity rarely the mean of those of the components ; but less usually, and in a few instances greater than the mean. Each metal affected by chlorine gas (always in either 9 or 18 multiples of 4,) during the subjection to the motions of heat has the oxygen present in the oxide, superseded ; and chlorine occupies its place in 302 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. either one or two proportions, in the fresh compound. Of the facts of this combination we have no doubt whatever, though we do not always know the precise proportion. We likewise know, that the potencies of Cyanogen for metals are very strong, but for oxides very weak; the water present supplies hydrogen to form hydrocyanic acid while the oxygen sollicits the metal. Several metallic oxides precipitate alumine in aciduline solutions, because of greater momenta to render inert the potency of the acids. Glucine separates the salts of alumine; and its solutions, though not completely neutral, are more so than those of alumine. Both these however, and also most metallic oxides, magnesia precipitates, in acidu¬ line solutions, and completely renders inert the acids. A principal cause of the separation of bases in solutions, is, not the metal’s susceptibility to the sollicitings of oxygen, but its state of oxidation causing difference of momentum of combinative potency with the several acids. Thus several metals precipitate the peroxide of iron, yet are by the protoxide precipitated. Also several oxides with less oxygen present than there is in the oxide of zinc, precipitate it, and yet zinc precipitates others under like circumstances. The protoxide of iron more potently than the peroxide sollicits to combina¬ tion muriatic acid; which may be the real cause of the former oxide precipitating the latter. On exhibiting an alcali, the precipitate retains some of the acid which promotes its solubility;— because of this an oxide with much acid present, more readily dissolves than one witli less. The iron METALS. 303 precipitated from the red, retains less acid than that from the solution of green sulphate; and this pre¬ cipitate sooner dissolves than the other. The ready solubility assists, but does not deter¬ mine, the mutual precipitations of the metallic oxides. The aciduline oxide of copper is precipi¬ tated by the neutral oxide of silver, on adding test 1 to a mixture of their nitric solutions. Whenever the addition of another substance changes the condition of the menstrum, or by combining with the metal present renders it too ponderous longer to remain suspended, these will of necessity be a partial or k entire precipitation. In addition to those which economy requires, there are to be determined and satisfied other condi¬ tions, indispensable to the complete success of the process ; by which are much diminished the number of chemical agents. The minute investigation of any substance individually, to be properly understood in all. its peculiarities, requires so much time and patience, as seldom to be a sufficient inducement to such an operose undertaking ; and only is it pursued because of its being someway connected with other useful collateral subjects. In proportion to the novelty and importance of these interesting results, do they require to be confirmed by the experiments of others. And whenever among results there is a difference, new enquiries are indispensable to detect the sources of the difference, and correct or remove all remaining errors. The momentum differs in nickel and cobalt; hence that which most sollicits the same acid, will precipitate the other, and remain alone in the acidu- 304 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERV. line solution. Glucine more potently than the peroxide of iron sollicits the acids ; hence to separate the iron, we need only to effect its condition; that is, precipitate, filter out, and wash well, one portion, and employ it to precipitate the remaining iron. And, all the conditions being similar, those sub¬ stances with greater momenta, may cause the pre¬ cipitation of those with less, when soiliciting the acids. Although, therefore, we may not know all the conditions of this mutual precipitation, we are certain that one is, the difference of momentum of combina¬ tive potency. Because of this, we can free—1. A solution of protoxide from any peroxide of iron;— 2. A solution of sulphate of zinc, or of copper, from any oxide of iron ;—3. A solution of green sulphate of iron from copper;—4. A solution of silver from copper;—and indefinitely with the number of the substances employed. In this important Art of Life, is employed a larger or smaller quantity of each of the metals— Antimony, Arsenic, Bismuth, Chronium, Cobalt, Copper, Gold, Iron, Manganese, Mercury, Lead, Nickel, Platinum, Silver, Tin, and Zinc. METALS. 305 ANTIMONY. We have the authority of Pliny, (lib. xxxiii. c. 6.) for the opinion, that the ancients had some knowledge concerning the oxide of antimony found in the ore of silver, now particularly named from its presence ; and there is some probability that they likewise knew of its existance, as a bluish grey mineral, with metallic lustre, which as a sulphuret occurs in nature; and also now from the eighth century called Antimony. With this mineral the Asiatics and Grecians coloured their eyebrows black. When Basil Valentine had discovered and promul¬ gated the process of extracting the metal from the ore, it was named, for reasons already mentioned, regulus of antimony * The ore of Antimony is usually found in imper¬ fect octahedral crystals, and thereby is readily distin¬ guished from all other minerals with which it might be confounded because of colour, fracture, hardness, * This Basil Valentine was a monk of Erfurth, in Germany, and was a noted alchemist. Tradition states, that having cast away some refuse of the mineral, some hogs took portions of it accidentally, it purged them violently, but afterwards they rapidly became very fat. His brother monks, by mortification, fasting, and long prayers, being extremely thin, Basil supposed, that a like effect to that produced on the hogs would result from a dose of the mineral; he was, however, much mistaken; instead of growing fat, soon they died ; and the substance which was so useful in promoting the health of hogs, was the contrary to monks, and because of killing them was called anti vioine. X 306 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. and weight. Subjected to the blow-pipe flame, it readily fuses, and afterwards volatilizes in the state of a grey inodourous vapour, (unless when spiced with arsenic ;) and when the assay has slowly cooled, it is covered with white brilliant acicular crystals. Antimony, in its metallic state, has a greyish white colour, with some brilliance;—the texture laminated, the laminae crossing each other in every direction. Its lustre diminishes, but no other changes ensue, from the presence of atmospheric air, or immersion under water; yet a current of steam directed over the incandescent metal, so powerfully affects it, as to cause violent detonation. When raised to the temperature of 810° it melts; and by additional rise in an open vessel, it gradually sollicits the oxygen of the atmosphere, and in a white vapour sublimes, forming what are called the argentine flowers of antimony —the protoxide; and the same peroxide when raised to a white heat, and suddenly agitated. It crystallizes in oblong figures perpendicular to the interior surface of the contain¬ ing vessel, causing its texture to be laminated. When rubbed on the finger, there evolve a very peculiar odour and savour; and on charcoal, in the blow-pipe flame, there is great brilliance, accom¬ panied with a dense yellow smoke of oxide. It has almost like hardness with gold ; its specific gravity is 6'702 ; it is extremely brittle, pulverulent in a mortar; and has a tenacity that capacitates a rod one-tenth of an inch in diameter, to support about lOlbs. weight. The protoxide, composed of two doses of base to one of oxygen, (A 22 + O 4 = 26,) is of a dirty METALS. 307 white colour, devoid of lustre. It can be obtained by this process :—The metal treat with test 26 till it is completely separated, and to the liquid add pure water until all precipitation ceases. This precipitate is a submuriate of antimony ; filter out, wash well, dry, and then boil in test 3 ; again filter out, wash well, and dry on the filter. When this precipitate is raised to incandescence, it melts, and in a retort can be kept fused a long time; but exposed to the atmosphere, it ignites, sollicits oxygen, and is con¬ verted into the deutoxide (A 4 + O 3, or 44 4- 12 = 56,) or Antimonious Acid (Glass of Antimony.) The most plentiful supply is from the Huel Boys, Endellion, Cornwall, and Saltash, near Ply¬ mouth ; and also from near Presburg, and Puy de Dome. 308 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. ARSENIC. Arsenic, (the white oxide of commerce, the arsenious acid of analytical chemists,) is semitrans¬ parent, brittle, faintly sweetish, without odour, volatilizes at 380° Fahrenheit, and in a quick rise of temperature vitrefies. It is a violent poison in vapour, or applied to a wound, or taken into the stomach. It is sparingly soluble in water; and readily combines with the alcalies. It alloys cobalt, antimony, tin, copper, lead, and some other metals, rendering them brittle compared with their condition when arsenic is not present.—The mineral kingdom plentifully supplies it in masses, black, ponderous, slightly brilliant; and also in two native sulphurets, distinguished by their colours, the yellow sulphuret, orpivient, lemon or greenish yellow; and the red sulphuret, of a ruby red tint, realgar , more trans¬ parent than the former; and they are produced artificially, by dissolving white arsenic in test 26 and precipitating by test 13 ; and by incandescing white arsenic with sulphur. It is employed in some Glazes to advantage; because while as a flux it promotes the fusibility of the components, its ready volatization capacitates it to dissipate and carry away any carbonaceous matter present in the alcali employed. METALS. 309 CHROMIUM. \ 4 During about thirty years, or from 1798, when the native mineral, Chromate of Iron , (a compound of 1 atom of chromite of iron + 1 atom of chromite of alumine,) was first introduced to the attention of chemists, concerning its nature there was great difference of opinion, up to 1820. The mineral having gained the attention of Vauquelin, and been found in serpentine rocks in different parts of the old and new continents, and some of the Shetland Isles, the researches of different analysts have been rewarded with the results of a peculiar acid com¬ bined with basic iron. This acid reduced with charcoal, has supplied a metal, which, however, has not been employed as such in the Arts. Chromium has a white colour, intermediate between those of tin and steel; its specific gravity 5*90, extremely brittle, receiving a fine polish; giving to the action of the magnet less recipience than iron, nickel, or cobalt; sustains scarcely any alteration because of being kept under water; does not sollicit oxygen during exposure to the atmos¬ phere ; yet it does so, and gradually becomes oxy- dized at a high temperature. It is sluggish to the sollicitings of acids, even at a boiling temperature ; and by nitro-muriatic acid is sollicited, and forms muriate of chromium. It will sustain an extremely high temperature, not yet precisely determined, but above 170° of Wedgwood’s Pyrometer ; and in that of the biscuit-oven for hard porcelain, it is reduced 310 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. into small grains. Its combinations with oxygen form the green, brown, and yellow oxides. To obtain the Chromium;— Process. —The mineral chromate of iron in very fine powder, two parts, and one part of nitrate of potash well mixed, fuse together during two hours at a high tem¬ perature, in skittle-shaped crucibles, for the large processes; otherwise, for experiment, in a silver crucible when convenient. When cold, break the crucibles, and the whole of the spongy mass, with the sherds cover with ten times their weight of pure water, boil one hour, the liquid, when cool, decant off, and the residium similarly treat, until no more coloriug matter is supplied. The water then very slowly evaporate to one half; add test 25, filter out the silicate and the aluminate of potash; again add test 1, till the liquid is alcaline, and has a yellowish tint. The evapo¬ ration is repeated slowly, cool, leave the liquid to repose, that the nitrate of potash may crystallize, with scarcely any of the chromate of potash of the liquid. This evaporate to a pellicle, and abstract the beautiful crystals of bi-chromate of potash; which process repeat for a second supply; and the remaining supernatant liquid again evaporate to supply the neutral yellow sub-chromate of potash. 2. The calc pulverize, and in plenty of pure water digest 1 hour; after 24 hours’ repose, carefully decant the liquid by employing the siphon ; to the precipitate add test 26, agitate, and after two minutes, by the siphon abstract the aciduline liquid. To the resi¬ dium add* as before, one fourth of nitrate of potash, again calcine for two hours, and repeat the treatment, till all the mineral is sus¬ pended in the liquids.—These last evaporate one half; slightly acidulate with test 25, and continue the evaporation till a pellicle forms on the surface; when place the liquid aside to crystallize, and separate from any impurity present. The salt thus obtained, pulverize, and mix with watei, then again slightly acidulate with test 25; evaporate as before, and obtain all the crystals of nitre by a repetition of the process ; the menstruum again evaporate, let it repose 14 days, remove the yellow crystals, dissolve in pure water, again evaporate, and crystallize for Chromate of Potash (P 1 + C 1 + O 2; or 10+7 + 8 = 25.) Or. To the solution of the salts, add test 20; the orange red precipitate of Chromate of Mercury , (M 1 + C 1 + 0 2, or 25 + 7 + 8 = 40,) filter out, metals. 311 wash well, evaporate dry, and in a porcelain retort raise to incan¬ descence, and there will remain the protoxide in a state of purity. Richter obtained the metal, by mixing the protoxide with sugar, and exposing the mass to the temperature of a porcelain oven. From chromium we obtain the protoxide brown, the deutoxide green, and the acid, orange yellow; whose components respectively are—C 1 + 1 ox., 7 + 4= 11; C 4 + 3 ox., 28 + 12 = 40; C2 + 3ox., 14 + 12 = 26. Processes —1. Green Oxide. In muriatic acid digest the ore, and when the acid is fully saturated, or the mineral completely in suspension, evaporate dry, and by raised temperature dissipate excess of acid; mix well in pure water, add test 2, filter out, and wash well the precipitate; again evaporate the liquid, and add test 2 ; filter as before, and when evaporated dry, incandesce the salt. 2, 3, 4. Ignite in a close vessel chromic acid, oxygen will evolve, and leave the green oxide.—Or, Ignite together chromate of potash, carbonate of potash, and Sal-ammoniac ,—or, chromate of lead and some oil or charcoal; the green oxide results. 5. In water dissolve chromate of potash, then add tests 32 and 21 or 26, and boil well; allow 24 hours’ repose, and filter out the greenish blue hydrate,—soluble in most acids, until it has been incandesced; when it becomes insoluble. 6. In tests 26 and 32 equal quantities, for 1 hour digest crystals of chromate of lead, and let it repose 24 hours, filter out, and wash well the muriate of lead with alcohol, and with pure water ; the liquid evaporate almost dry, and then incandesce in a platinum crucible. The oxide when precipitated from aciduline solutions is always of a deeper tint, readily soluble in acids, and has water present that is easily evaporated. 7. To the solution of chromate of potash add test 36 till pre¬ cipitation ceases; filter out the chromate of barytes and wash well; add test 24, and digest 30 minutes, then filter out sulphate of barytes; with care evaporate, and allow to crystallize into ruby red crystals, with some difficulty obtained, and with avidity solli¬ cking moisture from the atmosphere;—again mix in pure water, 312 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. and re-crystallize twice for the pure Chromic Jlcid; which has a very sour and metallic savour, and deep red colour. The sul¬ phate of barytes must also be examined; as with it may precipi¬ tate some oxide of chromium, and also oxide of iron or copper, if present. The acid has strong combinative potency with several of the bases, alcaline, earthy, and metallic; and with oxygen is separable only by very high temperature ; yet readily by protoxide of iron, leaving protoxide of chromium. Sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphurous acid, and protoxides of iron, copper, and tin, convert the acid into the green oxide. 8. Chromic *dcid from Chrome Ore.—Put equal weights of chrome ore and nitrate of potash into a crucible in an air furnace, and fuse at least two hours; when cold, wash all the calc out, filter, and the liquid will be a solution of chromate of Potash. Acidu¬ late with test 25, then add test 30, and when chromate of barytes ceases to precipitate, filter it out, and in a capsule immediately add test 25 to dissolve it; then add test 24 very dilute, till the precipitate ceases, filter it out, and the liquid will be water, nitric and chromic acids ; evaporate this dry, and by raised temperature dissipate the nitric acid, and the red chromic acid secure in well- stoppered phials. The solution is yellow; and with a concen¬ trated acid forms the chromic oxide, whose solution is green. 9. In nitric acid dissolve the green oxide, evaporate dry, and then by raised temperature dissipate all nitrous vapours ; filter out the brilliant brown powder, insoluble in acids, and only slug¬ gishly soluble in alcalies.—When test 26 is added, and the tem¬ perature raised, chlorine gas evolves, and the protoxide is formed; proving that previously more oxygen was present than now is in the protoxide. The green oxide, at a temperature just below incandescence, is extremely combustible, and al¬ though sluggish to nitro-muriatic acid, is readily oxidated in a furnace, by fixation of oxygen, especi¬ ally in presence of an alcali. When it becomes ignited, the bulk diminishes by loss of its water, and the colour becomes a very deep green, almost black; —at a yet higher temperature it inflames, and blazes METALS. 313 intensely 1 or 2 minutes, without either gaining or losing any portion of its weight; next it acquires the precise temperature of the combustibles around ; and then its colour is a beautiful and fine light green with *5 of water. Before incandescence, the salt was readily soluble in acids, which it neutralized; but after this, it becomes altogether insoluble, indifferent to the sollicitings of acids, or alcaline leys; indi¬ cating that the re-action has caused a more intimate combination between oxygen and chromium, or at least, an increased aggregation in the particles of the oxide. Berzelius regards this phenomenon as very peculiar, because it occurs when a portion of the oxygen is disengaged, and the mass is reduced to a sub-oxide. The Chromic Acid contains twice as much oxygen as the green oxide; and one and a half times as much as the base by which it is neutralized. —Had twice as much oxygen been present in the green oxide as is requisite to form the acid, this dose of oxygen could not be a multiple by a whole num¬ ber of that in the neutralizing base ; and if the green oxide contained thrice the oxygen necessary to con¬ vert it into acid, the quantity of oxygen in that oxide would seem incredible. Then the green oxide can contain of oxygen, only half the quantity needful to form the acid. 314 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. COBALT. This mineral has a grey tint, with rather a shade of red, and dull metallic lustre, the specific gravity 8*7. It is not hard, has very little tenacity, is rather brittle, and readily pulverized, malleable when incandescent, and its texture varies according to the degree of heat employed for its fusion; it melts at 130° of Wedgwood’s pyrometer ; but by no heat is it completely volatilized. When incandescent it does not decompose water; neither does it, when cold, oxydize in air or water. During several centuries, has this mineral been employed to supply a blue tint to glass; but only during one century, has any investigation of its che¬ mical properties been instituted. Brandt, in 1733, obtained from the mineral, the metal which he named Cobalt. In the edition of 1820, vol. I. p. 410, Dr. Thomson says, “ Considerable attention has lately been paid to the purification of this metal; but, hitherto, no one seems fortunate enough to hit upon a method altogether free from objections.” In Gehlen’s Journal, vol. IV. p. 117, Tromsdorff publishes this: Process .—Mix intimately 8 oz. of pulverized zaffre, 1 oz. pul¬ verized charcoal, and 2 oz. dry nitrate of potash; and into a crucible, in a state of incandescence, of this mixture project very small quantities, and let the whole remain at the same heat one hour; then allow to cool, pulverize the calc, add the like propor¬ tions of charcoal and nitrate of potash, and thrice repeat the pro¬ cess of projection. After the third fusion, cool and pulverize the METALS. 315 calc, and add black flux 10 per cent., and during one hour keep incandescent; when cool, separate the metallic cobalt, pulverize, blend with thrice its weight of nitrate of potash, and this mixture detonate as already directed. Whatever iron is present, will be formed into a peroxide; and the arsenic acid will combine with the potash, and may be separated by copiously working the pul¬ verized mass in boiling distilled water; then filter, and well wash whatever remains on the filter. Having by this process separated the arseniate of potash, the contents of the filter digest in nitric acid, test 25, which will now dissolve the cobalt, and not sollicit the peroxide of iron. Again filter, wash, evaporate dry, re-dis¬ solve in test 25, to obtain any spice of iron which possibly may remain; filter this out, and wash well, the liquid alcalinize with test 1, filter out the precipitate, wash well with warm water, and the contents of the filter reduce in a porcelain crucible. Dr. Henry says, “ The ore dissolve in nitro- muriatic acid; add test 3, filter out the iron and arsenic; add more of the test, and the greyish-red oxide of cobalt precipitates. Incandesce the filtered metals, and the latter will volatilize.” When the mineral in an incandescent state is exposed to the atmosphere, it sollicits to combination, in two proportions, oxygen, and the metal gradually becomes an oxide in powder, with 27*3 per cent., to form the deutoxide, Cobalt 2 x Oxygen 3, of a tint so dark as to seem almost black; and at a higher temperature this peroxide loses 9*5 to 9*9 per cent, of oxygen, and forms the protoxide Cobalt 3 x Oxygen 1, with a blue tint of varied strength from adventitious conditions. When this protoxide is subjected to a very high temperature, a red flame evolves; and as any alumine present receives from this a blue tint, I assume that the metal is partially volatilized. The oxide gives the most beautiful blue tint, first to silica, and next to alumine ; which tint is 316 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. rendered greyish, proportionately to the magnesia, lime, chalk, or Paris white, present during the baking; and it is almost violet when iron is present. In the several steps of the process, it is observed, that carbon covers the outer film, or surface, to saturation; the next interior film sollicits and appro¬ priates a considerable portion of this carbon, and after it is almost saturated, again is the outer film saturated; the like result ensues with a third film, and in succession, until the most interior is fully saturated, and the others to the exterior. During the state of incandescence, the surface of the metallic bath, saturated with carbon, has this sollicited by the oxygen of the air, and burned as carbonic oxide. This is replaced by other carbon, which exudes from the interior, as does water from a porous body, and is similarly sollicited by the oxygen, and burned, until no more carbon remains present. By this process the metal is properly oxydized; as well as by the mutual reaction of the metal and the oxygen, in the repeated fusions, adopted for that purpose more than to separate impurities from the metal. Metallic baths being, like the surfaces of metals, in varied degrees affected by the oxygen of the air, whenever of two or more metals in combination, (as cobalt and nickel; cobalt, bismuth, nickel, iron, and arsenic,) one, because, of greater momentum, sollicits oxygen with greater combinative potency than the other, while they remain in contact, it will appear more potent, though not in combination, than the latter, which while really passive or receptive sollicits only its regular dose of oxygen. The mineral, in acids, is soluble without effer- METALS. 317 vcscence. When the menstruum is test 26, the solution is green, but by dilution becomes light-red, similar to the solutions with tests 24, 25. Add test 1, filter out the precipitate, wash well, and dry in air, for the peroxide ; and then subject it, during one hour, to incandescence for the protoxide. The prot¬ oxide is soluble in test 2, even though nickel may be present; and these may be separated by carefully acidulating with test 24, and then crystallizing the liquid. On drawing from the muffle a crucible of fused cobalt, when the surface appears congealed, place it in an inclined position, and while cooling there will be formed irregular prismatic crystals. The metal is magnetic. The mineral is sollicited, and the metal oxydized, by tests 24, 25, and 26; hydrogen evolving when 24 or 26 is employed. The sulphate of Cobalt, (whose elements are Cob. 1 + S. 1 + Ox. 2, or 7 + 4 + 8 = 19,) can be crystallized by the usual process of evaporation till a pellicle forms on the surface, and then left to cool; and these crystals on being distilled lose 42 per cent, of water, become opaque and rosy; and thus, without being decomposed, can endure a red heat; except the portion immediately in contact with the retort. When the sulphate is separated in water, add test 3, till all precipitation ceases, which will be when about 40 per cent, of the sulphate is decomposed. This precipitate is soluble in excess of the test; and also in water at any heat. The retort completely fill, and gradually heat, to dissipate the water and carbonic acid, when will remain 60 per cent, of greenish-grey 318 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. pure protoxide; (without this care, a portion will be peroxide; as verified by oxygen evolving when test 26 is added.) This grey oxide is soluble in test 25, without evolving nitrous gas; and by heat in open air is rendered black,—a mixture of prot. and per-oxide ; the former soluble in acetic or other w r eak acid, and in test 2. With test 1 alcalinize boiling water, and add test 33 till the blue precipitate ceases; continue the ebullition till the precipitate forms a rosy hydrate. When cold water is employed, instead of a hydrate resulting, the blue precipitate becomes green, change¬ less by contact of air, or drying evaporation. And, when recently prepared, boiling in test 1 renders this latter a reddish-grey ;—a mixture of hydrate and black oxide. The first of these three precipitates dissolves in weak acids, which separate the black oxide from the other two; and oxygen does not evolve on adding test 26 to the blue oxides, as when added to the green. This most pertinently illus¬ trates the reciprocal combinative potencies of oxides of the same metals. The blue oxide results from the metal being sollicited by oxygen from the air present in cold liquids ;—but whence results the green ? This beau¬ tiful characteristic grass-green oxide, cannot result from a mere mixture of the blue and black oxides. Only chemical combination forms a tint different from that of the mixture of its components ; and it only can prevent atmospheric action converting into peroxide the portion of blue oxide present in the green precipitate; which latter only by evaporation and drying is completely oxydized. Only is the METALS. 319 blue protoxide soluble in acids. The green oxide is never supplied by any solution, nor is it the base of any salt. The grey oxide put into a phial of test 2, stopped close instantly afterwards, imparts a rosy changeless tint; shewing the slow momentum of the alcali to combine with the metal. But carbonic acid, on admission of air, or the presence of a car¬ bonate, readily excites the momentum, and the colour quickly results. When the test is merely saturated with carbonic acid, the liquid is a compound solution of oxide of cobalt in carbonate of ammonia; but a continued supply of carbonic acid makes the solution of carbonate of cobalt in carbonate of ammonia; which in a full and closed phial deposits crystals of metallic carbonate; (also, on adding water, a portion precipitates,) resoluble in excess of test 2.—Carbonate of cobalt and carbonate of soda readily form this solution. On adding test 2 to super-carbonate of cobalt, it sollicits the acid of one portion, which latter as a hydrate precipitates; while the other dissolves in the solution of carbonate of ammonia. Also, well-washed and dry hydrate, or blue oxide, in a full phial of test 2, instantly stopped, after 24 hours tinges the liquid red, like the preceding. But there is a great difference; the precipitate, on pouring this very slowly into boiling water, is the blue oxide ; into cold water, is the green. The extreme comminution of the recent hydrate and blue oxide renders them more soluble than the grey in test 2. Hydrate of Cobalt .—Crystals of sulphate or nitrate of cobalt add to a phial filled with test 1, and 320 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. instantly stop close. The salt precipitates blue, then assumes a violet tint, and lastly forms a rosy hydrate; which, filtered out, washed, and boiled in test 1, sup¬ plies some oxide, and becomes a most beautiful blue colour. Adding water separates the solution; and admitting the air precipitates the black oxide. The recent rosy hydrate is soluble, and tinges test 1 red ; the oxide is insoluble.—Also the hydrate is soluble without effervescence in heated acids; but not by boiling in either pure water or alcaline ley. Heat evaporates 20 per cent, of water, and leaves a grey oxide pure; changeable under water, and rendered black by the atmosphere. Dry hydrate keeps better, yet it sollicits carbonic acid from the air.—But, sub¬ stituting test 2 for 1, the blue precipitate is change¬ less, and never becomes rosy. The hydrate formed, instantly sollicited by the alcali, tinges the solution. The peroxide is insoluble in tests 1 and 2; and soluble in 24 and 25 only after being converted into a protoxide. With test 26 oxygen evolves. With sulphurous and nitrous acids, it forms a protosulphate and protonitrate. Distillation forty minutes in a retort, dissipates the oxygen, and leaves the grey oxide; applicable to tinge vitreous bodies. The grey oxide in test 26 heated, forms a deep blue muriate, easily supplying crystals of blue chlo¬ ride, which atmospheric moisture renders red. The solution of black oxide is green, until the oxygen ceases to evolve, when it becomes blue; which traced and dried on paper exhibits an hydrous chloride ;— unless a spice of nickel supply a yellow tint, and so is formed a green. A chloride results from incan¬ descence in a luted retort; the portion of salt in METALS. 321 contact with this, decompose, and tinge it blue; the other portion sublimes of a gridelin tint; so con¬ densed that the solvency of water often is sluggish more than twelve hours in commencing the formation of the muriate. Arsenite of Cobalt. —Into a solution of arsenite of potash pour a dilute solution of cobalt salt, filter out and dry the rosy precipitate; then decompose it in a closed tube; the arseniac acid sublimes, and the glass is tinged blue. The resulting salt is soluble in test 25, and nitrous gas evolves. Adding test 15 to its muriatic solution it precipitates orpiment; but test 1, warmed, precipitates the blue oxide. The Arseniate of Cobalt results, when the arseniate of potash is substituted for the arsenite. The precipi¬ tate also is rosy, and soluble in test 25; but, in the tube it becomes violet, without tinging the glass. And adding 15 to the muriatic solution, only pro¬ duces a result after many hours repose. Test 1 acts as by the other, and sollicits the acid. Humid, Separation of Nickel from Cobalt. The celebrated Hermstadt having directed, to “dissolve the spiced salt in ammonia, and evaporate the solutionBucholz (in 1803,) tried these processes:— (l.) In nitric acid, at T220 heated, with equal volume of water, dissolved 1 oz. of cobalt ore (speiss ;) three drams of crystallized arsenious acid precipitated; and was filtered out. On adding to the liquid half a volume of water, it assumed a dull-green tint, being again filtered, and treated with six volumes more of pure water, precipitated a spice of oxide of bismuth ; which was re-dis¬ solved by adding test 2. The next filtration supplied a mixture of arseniate of cobalt, and oxides of bismuth and iron. The filtered Y 322 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. liquid had a beautiful blue tint, and by gentle evaporation supplied about two drams of a bright green residuum of oxides of nickel and cobalt; and rapid evaporation supplied a like result. The deep green saline result of ammoniacal nitrate of nickel thus sup¬ plied, was re-dissolved in water, filtered, and boiled in test 1, till all the ammonia was dissipated ; when 1| drams of oxide of nickel was obtained, apparently free from oxide of cobalt. (2.) The preceding process being operose, and indefinite, he tried sulphuric acid. To the like weight of cobalt ore the same quan¬ tity of water was supplied, the temperature i*aised, and sulphuric acid added, till all was dissolved; chlorine gas evolving (to his great surprise.) The resulting precipitate was dissolved by test 2, except a residuum, much like verdigris, mostly oxide of cobalt, slightly spiced with oxide of nickel. The liquid being condensed by evaporation, and filtered, supplied more cobalt similarly spiced. It was next rapidly evaporated properly for crystallization, and left to repose forty-eight hours, when were formed groups of green prisms, and masses of blue-edged crusts ; both having almost equal proportions of cobalt present; as verified by the assay of the oxides procured by potash from the solution of the crystals, and from the menstruum. (3.) On subjecting 8 oz. of cobalt ore to the process already mentioned, the first, bluish-green crystals, about 5 oz. were dis¬ solved in 3J oz. of boiling-water, then properly evaporated, filtered, and left nigh a stove to cool slowly and crystallize. After forty- eight hours were formed beautiful yellow-green short rhomboidal pyramids, whose faces and angles proved cooling preferable to slow evaporation, for forming regular crystals. All were carefully collected, well washed with pure water, then re-dissolved, and boiled with test 1, till all the ammonia evolved ; and all the nickel was separated. (4. Most efficient.) Equally to dissipate the carbonic acid, and to determine the absence of cobalt, this oxide was dissolved in test 25, and the solution alcalinized with test 2. The fine blue liquid by filtration supplied 5 grains of what seemed oxide of cobalt. The whole was evaporated dry; the residuum was re-dis- solved in test 25, and on adding test 2, four drams precipitated of a beautiful bright green oxide. The filtered liquid, treated with test 1 at 212“ Fahrenheit, supplied 170 grs. of pale-green oxide of nickel with carbonic acid. Some of this dissolved in test 26, and METALS. 323 applied to paper, by heat assumed a slightly greenish-yellow tint; but the oxide of nickel spontaneously separated during evaporation, being similarly treated, much chlorine gas evolved; and applied to paper, by heat assumed the tint of highly-saturated sympathetic ink of cobalt; proving more cobalt present in the solution, than in that of the precipitate. The two oxides thus supplied, incandes¬ cence rendered dark grey; and in nitric and sulphuric acids, nitrous gas evolved from the evaporated residuum, and also the alcaline ley; and ammonia caused like results to those previously mentioned. Therefore—the sulphates and nitrates of ammoniacal nickel separated from cobalt ore, retain some cobalt, not separable by Hermstadt’s process. And, partially decomposing, by evapora¬ tion, the ammoniacal nitrate of cobalt supplies an oxide of nickel, very rich in cobalt,—but with nitric acid present; and the unde¬ composed oxide of nickel has very little cobalt present. (5. Laguier's.) By well roasting the ore, dissipate the arsenious acid; dissolve in test 25, filter, wash, and dry, oxide of arsenic. Pass test 14 through the liquid, filter out, and wash the copper; boil to dissipate test 14; add carbonate of soda; filter out the precipitate, and digest in test 7, for the iron; add test 2, filter out the precipitate, and expose the liquid to the air; the tint, from a violet blue, becomes red; acidulate with test 7, filter out the deep green oxalate of nickel, wash well in boiling pure water; the red ammoniacal liquid evaporate dry for the pure cobalt. 324 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. » r , ■ COPPER. This well-known metal, common in veins and beds in the mines of Cornwall, Anglesea, Spain, Germany, Norway, Siberia, and America, is hard, sonorous, malleable, ductile, with considerable tena¬ city, and a peculiar reddish-brown colour, liable to tarnish and oxydize from exposure to the atmosphere. Its name originated from that of the isle of Cyprus, where it was first obtained and worked by the Greek; although long previously it had been known, proba¬ bly as early as silver and gold; and before iron was so emplojred, it was formed into vessels and weapons. It is harder than silver; its specific gravity is 8*830, or 8*895 ; its malleability admits of being hammered out into leaves so thin as to be blown about by the slightest breeze; it has considerable ductility; and its tenacity is sufficient for a wire 0*078 of an inch diameter to support 302*26 pounds without breaking. Two bars of copper, one cast, the other hammered, a quarter of an inch in diameter, respectively supported, before they were broken, 1192 and 2112, almost double for the latter; and much greater is the dif¬ ference in two wires of one-tenth of an inch diameter; the cast supports only 190*7, and the wrought 337*9 pounds avoirdupoise. Pure water does not oxydize copper; but by it in a state of incandescence is decomposed, while its surface is oxidated ; and the line of contact of water, in a copper vessel, is distinguished by a green ace¬ tate, or verdigris. At the common temperature of METALS. 325 the atmosphere, 60° Fahrenheit, in air the surface of a plate of polished copper very sluggishly and gra¬ dually forms a brown, and a dark greenish-brown, very thin crust of oxide, with carbonic acid gas; yet thin as is this covering, it preserves from further corrosion the metal beneath. While approaching, but at a temperature much below incandescence, the surface of a plate of polished copper irridesces, or gradually becomes covered with beautifully-variegated marblings of prismatic colours; the red of each series being nighest the extremity most heated; and the orange, yellow, and blue tints, forming the elegant foils employed to ornament children’s toys. That these are results of oxidation, I assume, because the stratum of coloured matter is always thickest, where has been applied the highest temperature ; and it gradually diminishes, or grows thinner towards the coldest extremity. At a higher temperature, or incandescence, a plate of polished copper oxydizes rapidly; its surface in a few minutes being covered with a crust of oxide, forming thin powdery scales, which when the plate is cool, spontaneously separate, or may readily be rubbed off; because the plate itself had its dimensions expanded during the incandescence, and was so expanded while solliciting the oxygen; and while the oxide was formed ; but having contracted to its primary dimensions, the oxide separates in scaly fragments. This suggests a ready mode of obtaining a supply of peroxide of copper for the common underglaze Black. Alternately incandesce the plate of copper, and immerse suddenly in cold water; the scales 326 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. separate, and precipitate in the water to the bottom of the vessel. The small portion of metallic copper which remains on their under surface, causes them to seem violet-red; but when incandesced in air, they become the black and pure Peroxide of Copper. This black powder is devoid of savour, or lustre, or effervescence while dissolving in acids, and the men¬ struum is blue, or green, as it is test 24 or 26. There are different tints of brown, green, or blue, with the peroxide, whose components are C. 1 4- Ox. 2; and the protoxide C. 1 -f Ox. 1, native has a red tint; and artificial, a fine orange. The flame of the fuel, during the incandescence, assumes a beautiful bluish-green colour. At the temperature of 1150° Fahrenheit, or 27° Wedgwood, (below that needed for gold and silver,) copper melts, and its surface exhibits a bluish-green flame, like that of melted gold; and, after fusion, when allowed to cool very slowly, a mass of crystals, of quadrangular prisms, are formed. At 40° Wedg¬ wood, it volatilizes in visible fumes, partially metallic. When subjected to the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe flame, the metal burns with an intense lively green light, whose brilliance is very oppressive to the eye. A polished iron plate, immersed 24 hours in a liquid, aciduline by test 25, or 26, will sollicit what¬ ever copper may be present, and retain it as a metallic coating. The tests 24 and 26 less, and the test 25 most potently, sollicit copper; the oxygen combining with the metal while nitrous gas evolves, and the surplus acid is appropriated by the oxides. The deutoxide may be formed by dissolving the metal in 24 or 25; METALS. 327 then add test 1, filter out, wash, and completely evaporate the precipitate. The perchloride may be formed by gently heating test 26 in which is copper chips; decant the green solution, add rolled copper, and closely stop the phial; the green colour soon is superseded by a dark brown, opaque; many dusky white crystals form, which may be abstracted, and again dissolved in water; to this, or to the whole solution, add test 1; filter out, wash, and evaporate dry the precipitate. The protochloride has a yellow tint; and the deuto-chloride is a yellowish-brown powder; when formed by igniting copper filings in chlorine gas, the former remains fixed, the latter sublimes. The muriatic solution supplies deliques¬ cent, soluble, prismatic crystals. The colour of the precipitate, as green or blue, results from the potash, or soda, being less or more; and this has much acid, while it spices the other. 328 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Gold is devoid of perceptible savour or odour; its specific gravity 19*3; its lustre not affected by exposure to air or water; yet inferior to that of platinum, silver, mercury, and polished steel; it is remarkably flexible, but in hardness superior to lead and tin, and inferior to iron, copper, platinum, and silver; in ductility and malleability surpassing all other metals. A wire of 0*078 of an inch in dia¬ meter, will, without breaking, support 150*07 lbs. avoirdupois ; yet this tenacity is not equal to that of iron, copper, platinum, or silver ;—one grain of gold can be beaten out into leaves —1— of an inch in ZoZ OUU thickness; yet this is 12 times the thickness of the gold which covers the silver wire of gold lace; for 1 oz. of gold on silver wire can be extended by the drawing-mill above 2,288,000 yards, or 1300 miles. ' In the focus of a burning mirror, or the oxy-hy- drogen blow-pipe flame, it fuses, and vapourizes. At 32° Wedgwood it fuses, is of a bright blue green colour, and expands much; but on resuming its solid state it contracts more than any other metal, and therefore is ill adapted for casting into moulds; slow cooling crystallizes it into short quadrangular pyramids. Gold is among the metals first known, and it is supposed by many to have been the first employed for any useful purpose ; and because of its scarcity and remarkable properties, as with the early societies it was estimated as most valuable, the like preference METALS. 329 continues to the present day. Almost the whole supplied to the market, is found in a metallic state. It is the only metal of a reddish yellow (almost orange) colour, found in nature in a metallic state, most commonly in the sands of some rivers in Africa, France, Hungary, and Brazil, in Wicklow, Ireland, and at Leadhills, Scotland, in minute irre¬ gular grains (called gold dust,) also in ramifications, leaves, or crystals, in a matrix of a silicate, quartz, sand-stone, silecious schist, &c. When found native in compact masses, it is ever alloyed with silver, or copper, and even iron and tellurium. The largest known specimen, scarcely alloyed, about 22 oz., hitherto discovered in Europe, and many smaller pieces, 1 oz. and upwards, were found beneath a stratum of turf on sand, near a small rivulet in the County of Wicklow, Ireland. It has been obtained, by some of the French chemists, from the ashes of vegetables. Hungary supplies gelf\ argentiferous pyrites, with the gold ore either massive, or rhom- boidal crystals, or irregular quadrangular or poly¬ gonal masses. The sulphuretted ores of Nagaya, in Transylvania, likewise supply gold. A very high temperature is needed to oxidate gold in common air, because without this it will sustain incandescence an almost indefinite period. It can be brought into a state of purple oxide, by the discharge of the electrical battery, or in the forma¬ tion of the galvanic circuit, the focus of the large lens, and gas blow-pipe. The chlorides of gold and silver differ completely ; the latter is extremely alcaline, partially soluble in water, and sollicits all 330 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. acids presented ; the former has none of these pro¬ perties ; yet at very high temperatures it is decom¬ posable; while the latter, free from the contact of water and hydrogen, remains unchangeable by the highest temperature. The only solvent of gold, (also of platinum,) is the liquid named aqua-regia , (the king’s water;) but respecting the proportions of the component acids, analytical chemists entertain different opinions. Proust directs, muriatic acid at 12° Beaume, 800 parts, and colourless nitric acid at 40°, 200 parts, and a raised temperature, (the latter to oxydate the former,) to dissolve 187 grains of gold. Ure directs the proportions to be 33 and 67 ; and Davy 66 and 34; stating, that there ensues reciprocal separation and combination, preparing the metal for combina¬ tion, with chlorine as long as it is evolved, but ceasing therewith. On the mixture of the two acids, effervescence occurs, because the nitric acid sollicits some of the muriatic acid, whose hydrogen appro¬ priates sufficient oxygen from the other to compose water; and the nitrous gas is liberated while the chlorine remains to sollicit the metal exhibited in small supplies till all is dissolved. The nitro- muriatic acid is usually orange-coloured, which changes to a deep yellow when saturated. When this is exposed to the solar rays, the metal forms a hydrate, or an hydrous chloride, with just the equi¬ valents of oxygen and hydrogen appropriable with¬ out excess to form water. And sulphuric acid exhi¬ bited will appropriate the muriate, (or dissolve the chloride,) and leave the nitric acid alone. METALS. 331 Processes (1 .)—To crystallize Gold. Add to the solvent excess of gold, next gradually add muriatic acid until its potency is inert, and consequently also that of the nitric acid ; filter, and evaporate till a pellicle commences, then let it repose, and there will form laminated orange-coloured crystals ; to be viewed only in the evaporator, because they are very deliquescent, and also separable by a moderate rise of temperature which dissipates the chlorine, and the metal is left with much water of crystallization. When the solution is concentrated, the mass coagulates and the crystallization is proportionately affected. I do not meet with any instance, in which the employment of phosphorus has been tried in purposes of the manufacture. When the nitro-muriatic solution of gold is carefully treated with phosphoric acid, all the colour will disappear; pellicles of metallic gold will swim on the surface, and every atom of metallic gold will be precipitated. 2. To purify Gold , by Antimony. Take a good crucible, that will contain at least four times the quantity put into it, bring the metal into fusion, and add twice the weight of sulphuret of antimony ; cover up very close, and keep the fusion until the surface sparkles; then pour the fused mass into a strong iron cone hot and well greased ;—when cold there will be two compounds; the lower, gold and antimony, in the proportions of the metals sulphuretted ; the upper, sulphurets of antimony and other metals which had been in the alloy. Repeat the process with the anti¬ mony, till only this and the gold remain. In a large crucible sublime the antimony, and with the bellows blow on the surface, and add a little nitrate of potash, to complete the separation. Afterwards fuse the gold with this last and borax, to get its ductile property restored. Gold forms two salifiable oxides, the protoxide and peroxide; also a deutoxide not salifiable, but present in the purple of Cassius ; (which article see, Part II. Chapter 4.) The peroxide is best known, because most readily obtained. — The solution is slowly evaporated dry, and the residuum is dissolved in pure water; alcalinize with test 1, raise the tem¬ perature to 150° Fahrenheit, filter out, wash, carefully 332 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. evaporate, and dry the red-brown peroxide, G 1 + 3 Ox.; a powder, with a styptic and metallic savour, causing a flow of saliva, soluble partially in water, or nitric acid, and readily in muriatic acid; its oxygen dissipated by a moderate heat, and reduced metal remaining.—When all the chlorine of the permuriate is dissipated, add test 1, and immediately filter out the green protoxide; because delay will present opportunity for one-third of the precipitate to appropriate the oxygen of the other two-thirds, by this reduced to the metallic state, while it forms the peroxide. When test 2 is employed, the precipitate is alarmingly and dangerously fulminative. On its early discovery, the alchemist Raymond Lully was very nigh falling a victim to its activity ;* and the greatest attention to washing the precipitate is needful, and to dry it on the filter laid on blot- paper. This fulminating potency is neutralized, when the salt is immersed in concentrated sulphuric acid ; this promoting the combination of the oxygen and hydrogen present into water which is by it appropriated. That the ammoniuret of gold is potent, more because of capacity than momentum, may be concluded from these facts—the oxide is sollicited from the menstruum by the carbon organized and hydrogenated in the oils with ether * Orschal, in recent times, experienced like danger:—He was rubbing in an agate mortar this dangerous salt, when the explosion shattered the stone beneath his hand ; the sensation resembled the discharge of a musket load of sand full in his face, but did not cause a wound, or any other ill effect. METALS. 333 and alcohol,—and nitrogen hydrogenated in am¬ monia ;—and the oils may appropriate the oxide, and also the ammonia, separate and distinct from each other.—Ammonia is too indifferent to water for this to sollicit it from gold, even aided by raised temperature; although this condition excites the potency of the compound, as when washed with very hot water; the fixation of the oxygen separates the ammonia from the oxide, the hydrogen from the nitrogen, and the gold is left alone, while water results from combination of the elements evolved. The total impossibility of the salt being decomposed by acids, will be clear from considering, that they either must separate the ammonia, or at once dissolve both components : — the former could be only by insulating, at a low temperature, the metal from its oxygen; the latter, only by the acids sollicking such oxide to combination; which, if possible, would increase, ad infinitum , substances with oxygen present. When test 17 is used, a beautiful purple precipitate results, which, applied to porcelain, is very deep, but only in one point of view.—This precipitate partially dissolves by boiling in muriatic acid, at 12°; and the potency of this acid on gold, as on other metals, is proved, by test 18 supplying the purple precipitate of Cassius. 334 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. IRON. Iron is distributed through the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, in greater quantity than any other metal; combined with oxygen, sulphur, carbon, arsenic, and other mine¬ ralizers ; and in almost a pure state large masses have been discovered, as in Paraguay, one of 300 lbs. and one of 1600 lbs. by Pallas, on the Denisei, in Siberia. Iron, when almost pure, has a slightly vivid whitish grey or bluish tint; and considerable brilliance when polished. It is peculiar in giving sparks by collision with flint, and in being affected by magnetic potency, — appropriating sufficient, under certain conditions, to affect other iron. The specific gravity is 7*6, the texture fibrous, granular, and laminated ; the hardness, tenacity, ductility, and elasticity, superior to all other metals; it can be drawn into wire finer than a human hair, and readily flattened by pressure; protected from contact with the fuel, it is refractory in the furnace; yet, preserving its ductility, it softens, dilates, and in this state possesses the important and valuable property of ivelding. At high temperatures it sollicits oxygen from the air, and when intense, it scintillates, and forms a black oxide, I. 3 + 2 O. It likewise appropriates oxygen, from water, with rapidity proportionate to the temperature of the metal when exhibited; from the metallic oxides, from nitric, and diluted sulphuric acids; and is affected by alcaline compounds. Recently has been ascertained METALS. 335 a remarkable property of iron, never suspected,—till demonstrated by bringing to the shore the stores of the Royal George, which foundered in 1782: the guns formed of hard metal were unaffected, and those of iron are softened by immersion in water, so that a knife cuts them like pencil lead, or plumbago. This will account for the frequent failures of the pump-trees in deep mines. As only the oxides are employed in this manufacture, I shall state the readiest method to obtain them. Processes (1.)— Protoxide. In water for several hours digest excess of iron filings; filter, and the liquid evaporate dry, covered from the air.—2. To a solution of protosulphate of iron add test 2, filter out, and in like manner dry the precipitate. This hydrate will change from black to white when dissolved in pure water. 3. — Deutoxide. In a porcelain tube place a coil of fine iron wire, incandesce, and pass through it a current of steam till the supply of hydrogen fails. This will not sollicit oxygen from water; and therefore may probably become very useful. 4. — Peroxide. In nitric acid digest, some hours, clean iron filings; add test 2; filter out, wash well, evaporate dry, and slightly incandesce,—the brown-red oxide.—5. In an open cru¬ cible calcine for two hours clean protosulphate of iron (green cop¬ peras ;) wash well, and evaporate dry, the Colcothar. —6. In like manner treat clean iron filings, for the red powder, saffron of Mars. Common iron rust is this, only with plus of carbonic acid.—7. In a current of air similarly treat the protoxide, for a yellow. —8. Dissolve clean iron filings in sulphuric acid, dilute much, and expose constantly to the air; whenever the menstruum is saturated, precipitate by test 2, filter out, and evaporate dry. When pure, this is a beautiful , fine , almost crimson Red. If any yellow or brown tint be present, some impurity has crept in unobserved ; and the process should be repeated. The result is insoluble in water, and sluggishly soluble in acids, more so than the protoxide; the liquid being sweetish astringent, with a] yellow or brown tint. 336 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. LEAD. Lead is among the metals known from the earliest days of civilized society. When newly melted the colour is bluish white, with some brilliance, which soon tarnishes in the air; and by sollicking the oxygen of the atmosphere, slowly the surface becomes a dirty grey, almost white oxide, which retards farther sollicking and oxidation. Lead sollicits oxygen from water chiefly when most affected by atmospheric action ; hence the formation of a line of oxide at the part of a water cistern where the water remains a few days at the same level, and also the line of highest level. Lead has very little savour, but friction causes a peculiar odour to evolve; it stains the fingers bluish, and taken internally is poison. It is a very soft metal; its specific gravity 11*352, increased by hammering in a mould, but decreased by drawing, as wire, and lamination. Its malleability admits of being hammered into very thin lamina; its ductility is small; its tenacity causing a wire inch diameter to support 184 lbs. without breaking. Lead fuses, and renders refractory metals fusible at 612°, and after fusion, when slowly cooled, it crystallizes, in quadrangular pyramids, lying on one side, and each formed of three layers; and, at a very high temperature, boils, and partially vapourizes; and this continued, it vitrefies, alone, or with other metals. Lead sollicits oxygen to combination, and forms the protoxide yellow, the peroxide brown, and the METALS. 337 red oxide, the others mixed. All of these being very easily vitrefied, and in high temperatures first oxidate and then combine with other metals, except gold, silver, platinum, and those from this last; lead is employed to separate from gold and silver any base metal present, by the process named cupellation , (from cupel, the vessel or test used:—a shallow cup-like vessel, formed by pressing within an iron ring a mixture of bone earth or ashes, and wood or fern ashes, and scooping out the surface.) Into this cup the alloyed metal is put, and kept at a high temperature till all the others with the lead vitrefy together, and sink into the cupel, leaving the gold or silver. The protoxide, yellow (L 2 + 1 Ox.) has been known longer than the others. Lead dissolved in nitric acid, and its colourless solution alcalinized with test 3, supplies a precipitate, which dried, and heated almost red, becomes yellow, tasteless, insoluble in water, but soluble in potash and in acids, readily fusible into a semi-translucent, brittle, yellow permanent glass; also partially vapourizing in high temperatures, and thus exposed to the air some time, the surface is rendered brick-red. This last process, at a temperature rather lower, caused a grey pellicle to form, as frequently as a prior one is removed, till the lead is all exhausted. These again exposed while heated and agitated, form a greenish-yellow powder,—(supposed a mix¬ ture of yellow oxide and metallic lead;) which being longer thus treated, the metal sollicits more oxygen, and the whole becomes yellow,—the article of commerce named Massicot. 338 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Ceruse , White Lead , subcarbonate. Thin plates of cast lead are curled up, and in skittle-shaped pots are exposed to the vapour of warm vinegar in a vessel beneath; rows of many hundreds in tiers are gently heated by bark and flues to volatilize the acetic acid, which gradually corrodes the lead into a white heavy powder, a compound of the yellow oxide and carbonic acid, though formerly supposed a peculiar oxide, and when ground in mills much like those for flint, and then dried, is fit for use, either as a component of Earthenware Glaze, or as a paint. Niiric acid, at 40° Beaume, poured on red lead, dissolves 185 parts, and leaves 15 parts as a deep brown or black powder. This is the peroxide, L. 4 4- 3 Ox. or Scheele’s j Brown oxide. Process .—Put red oxide of lead into a vessel of water, supply chlorine gas till the oxide is dissolved; add test 1, and 68 per cent, of the oxide will precipitate, as a fine, light, tasteless, flea- brown powder, indifferent to tests 24 and 25, but sollicits hydrogen from test 26 ; and by heat, half the oxygen evolves, and the yellow oxide again is formed (L. 2+1 Ox.) Massicot, in a fine powder, constantly agitated while the flame of the furnace plays on its surface 48 hours, forms the very heavy, beautiful, often intense, red powder, named minium , or red lead oxide , (L. 4 + 3 Ox.) with specific gravity 8*940, tasteless; and unaltered in weight by 400° Fahren¬ heit, but by incandescence loses 4 to 7 per cent, as oxygen evolves, and part of the oxide is reduced to metal, the remainder being gradually vitrefied dark brown. Only after decomposition does red lead combine with other substances; and because in its METALS. 339 plus of oxygen, it sluggishly combines with acids, which first form the yellow oxide. Galena, Sulphuret of Lead , (having only the minimum of sulphur present, is that very abundant ore, which supplies most of the lead of commerce, scattered in almost every country on the globe’s surface; usually in cubical crystals, of a brilliant, deep blue-grey colour, brittle, and more refractory than lead in the furnace.—Of native lead, pure galena, the pieces found, seldom of the size of a walnut, are distinctly cleavable, and decomposition coats them with a white meally sulphate of lead. In extracting lead from the ore, each fodder always supplies from a few grains to 20 oz. of silver; and when the quantity warrants the expence, it is separated by the refining process, or cupel- lation ; the lead by the flame gradually vitrefies, and either sinks into the test, or is blown off, leaving the silver unaltered. The lead is converted into Litharge (L. 3 + 2 Ox.;) which at first coheres in masses, but on exposure to the atmosphere, separates into fine scales, partly red and partlv golden-yellow, consisting of yellow oxide or massi¬ cot, combined with about 4 per cent, of carbonic acid. The reciprocal combinative potencies of metallic sulphurets and litharge, need consideration. Accord¬ ing to the nature of the sulphuret, will be the quantity of litharge required, from 5 to 30 volumes, to cause sulphurous acid gas to evolve, and either sollicit the metal left to combination, or it remains as an oxide with the undecomposed portion of litharge. When the litharge is minus, of course its potency effects z 2 340 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. only a portion of the sulphuret, and becomes sulphuret of lead ; a very fusible alloy remaining. Until very recently, chemists supposed that lead and cobalt would not combine by fusion; although the blue-printed ware with lead-glaze might have suggested the contrary. But a direct combination has been effected by Gmelin, by rolling cobalt-powder up in a sheet of lead, in different proportions, from 1 cobalt and 1 lead, to 1 cobalt and 8 lead, then covering the compound with charcoal to exclude the air, and raising the tem¬ perature to fusion of all. Observing a fragment of cream-coloured ware on which the lead-glaze had run into a yellowish- green glass, I broke it for examination, and found numerous globules of lead in a reduced state; a remarkable crazing of the upper surface was pre¬ sented, yet not at all in the portion immediately in contact with the body. Must we suppose that the expansion of the glaze had been regulated by the expansion of the biscuit, and its contraction was in accordance on cooling ? When a high temperature is given to lead in a glass retort, on the commencement of fusion, the fusing portion is a bright yellow, and the other a dirty pale brick-red powder; and in a platinum crucible, the resulting colours are the reverse. When lead is thus fused in the air, a powder, Lead Ashes , is formed,—a mechanical mixture of metallic lead with the protoxide, or massicot, which vitrefies into a greenish glass, with globules of lead present. The fusion of red oxide needs care, to prevent there remaining globules of metallic lead, METALS. 341 or the frit having a .dark-brown tint. With much momentum the oxides of lead fuse, vitrefy, and lose weight; the surface of the crucible is glazed with a yellow glaze, like some coarse pottery; and unless precaution is employed, some of the oxide may be dissipated. Vanadiate of Lead with phosphate of soda forms a beautiful emerald-green assay,—in excess with borax, deep blue;—could not some modification of these, supply additional colours to the palette ?■—The native mineral is chlorine 2*3, lead 7, protoxide of lead 66*3, vanadic acid 23*5, peroxide of iron, and silica *163 = 99*463. I 342 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. MANGANESE. The grey, black, brown, or reddish-white ores, and carbonate, of this metallic substance, seem more diffused over the crust of the globe than those of any other, iron excepted; and have been during a long period employed to correct the impurities of fusing glass. Boyle was the first discoverer of it in England; though since his time many others have done so. Its great momentum in sollicking oxygen, prevents its occurrence in the metallic state except with arsenic and sulphur. The article supplied by commerce always occurs in nature as an oxide, with different proportions of the dose of oxygen; yet without acidifying those with the maximum. Ac¬ companied by carbonate of barytes, sulphate, muriate, and carbonate of lime, oxides of copper, lead, and iron, as indicated by sollicking the magnetic potency, the mineral is ponderous, with an earthy texture, amorphous and crystallized in prisms, tetrahedral, rhomboidal, or striated. The manganese of com¬ merce is often contaminated with carbonate of lime. Process .—Wash well in water 15, test 25, two parts; filter out, wash well, and evaporate dry. To liquid add test 7, to shew the amount of lime. Analyses .— 1. In dilute nitric acid separate the foreign ingre¬ dients usually present in the ore of manganese ; decant the liquid, and on a filter dry the residuum; this digest one hour in concen¬ trated muriatic acid, (12° Beaume) then add carbonate of soda until no more white precipitate appears; this incandesce and it will become black. Or 2. Muriatic acid with raised temperature satu¬ rate with ore of manganese, and spice with test 25; evaporate half METALS. 343 of the liquid, add pure water, and then test 1, while any precipitate appears; during twenty-four hours immerse test 41, to cause de- posite of the copper ; which filter out, and add test 1 till precipita¬ tion commences; by test 8 precipitate the iron ; repose twenty- four hours; add sulphate of soda when lead is suspected to he present. By test 5 precipitate any copper remaining, and digest in test 2. When the iron is abstracted, add test 2, and the preci¬ pitate will he oxide of manganese. Or 3. To the muriatic solution add test 5, wash the precipitate in test 2, dissolve it in test 24; alcalinize by test 3, digest thirty-six hours, and filter ; add test 16, filter out and wash well the precipitate.—Or 4. Mix black oxide of manganese 2, and test 34, fuse one hour, cool, dissolve the calc in distilled water at 212°; filter, evaporate, crystallize, and in a covered crucible calcine the crystals. Or 5. In water triturate the residue of the retort after the oxygen has evolved,—or, oxalate of potash and black oxide of manganese ; add plenty of pure water; and by test 2 precipitate, filter, dry, and ignite. The peculiar metallic nature of this mineral was more than the skill of Bergman could develope; neither were the efforts of Scheele successful; but, in 1774, Gahn adopted a process, by which he accom¬ plished the object of his research : ' V Process. —Line a crucible with charcoal powder moistened with water; place therein a ball of the pulverized mineral agglutinated with linseed-oil; surround and cover with charcoal powder;— over this lute another crucible; raise the temperature extremely high, and continue it eighty minutes ; leave to cool; and at the bottom will be a number of metallic globules, usually about one- third the weight of the quantity of mineral employed. I think every intelligent person will remark here the true cause of reduction :—in the charcoal became fixed the oxygen evolved from the oxide, and the reduced metal remained in the crucible. Dr. Turner first detailed the chemical peculiarities, and 344 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. it is now well understood, that when the temperature of the bin-oxide, (the Black Wad, of the Upton Pyne mine,) is raised, one-fourth of the oxygen present evolves ; and from pure ore, this is to the amount of 9 per cent., or one-eleventh of the weight. The three oxides have these proportions of compo¬ nents :— Protoxide. Binoxide. Red oxide. Manganese. 86-940 .. 97*835 .. 99*242 .. 98'098 Oxygen . 9-851 .. — .. — .. 0*215 Water. 0*949 .. 1*120 .. — .. 0 435 Barytes . 2*260 .. 0*532 Iron 0 - 130 .. 0*111 Silica. truce .. 0*513 .. 0*840 .. 0*337 100*000 100*212 99*196 Manganesium is without savour or odour; has a whitish-grey colour, like cast-iron ; fine granulated irregular texture, uneven fracture; metallic bril¬ liance, soon tarnishing by the action of the atmos¬ phere; specific gravity 8*013, softer than cast-iron, and readily filed; so extremely brittle it cannot be extended by the hammer, nor drawn out into wire; its tenacity consequently is not known ; it surpasses all other metals in combustibility; though less fusi¬ ble than iron, it is a very refractory metal, requiring a temperature equal to 160° Wedgwood for complete fusion; whenever iron is present, the magnet will indicate it; and hence this is the test of the purity of manganesium; it can be protected from oxidation by immersion in alcohol, or oil; but, unless thus pro¬ tected, such is the momentum of combinative potency with which it sollicits oxygen, that its lustre readily MET4IS. 345 fails, the colour quickly becomes red, violet, brown, and black; and in a much shorter time, when ex¬ posed to the atmosphere during the rise of tempera¬ ture ; and in this condition rapidly decomposes most metallic oxides; and, in its separating water into elements, the hydrogen is affected by the metal, and the noisome odour of assafeetida evolves ; it also simi¬ larly separates sulphuric acid, but is separated by nitric acid. When present in an alloy of gold, silver, or copper, brittleness of the whole ensues. Its great combustibility, and combinative potency with iron, are most useful in the manufacture of glass; as all impurities are appropriated by these, and during the raised temperature are brought to the surface, off which they are skimmed. It is fusible with the earths, and the degree of oxidation varies the tint of the calc, brown, violet, or red. The peroxide is found at Upton-Pyne mine, near Exeter ; and also near Nuneaton, in Warwickshire, a few miles distant from Coventry. This mine pro¬ duces two species of ore, not always kept separate, in the mean :— Protoxide .... 81*12 2 atoms binoxide Oxygen. 13*48 2 ditto susquioxide Water.. 5*40 1 ditto water ; their specific gravities, however, are—black 4*531, brown 4*336; the latter is more pulverulent than the former; and at the usual state of incandescence evolves 10*1 per cent, of water; the other 5*725 water, and 7*385 oxygen gas. When pure, it has a radiated texture, dark steel-grey colour, with a beautiful lustre ; it is brittle, very soft, and soils the 346 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. fingers; specific gravity 4 , 7563. When kept in a state of incandescence, rather more than one-tenth of the weight evolves in oxygen gas; the residuum being a brown powdery calc, devoid of metallic lustre. Hitherto there has not been suitable attention to these oxides. The readiness with which they com¬ bine with earths, and promote their fusibility in a state of high temperature, renders them very useful in the Mocha and dipped ware. The colorific pro¬ perty suffers during the evolution of carbonic acid gas from carbonaceous components, till all the gas is dissipated; and then it can be restored, (or may be protected,) by the presence of nitrate of potash, which supplies suitable dose of oxygen. Processes. —1. In distilled water wash well some manganese in powder, evaporate dry ; add half the weight of muriate of am¬ monia, and during twenty minutes incandesce highly ; during this raised temperature, the chlorine will be sollicited to combination with the metal only, and the compound may be dissolved in water by careful washing. Add test 4, filter out the precipitate, place this in a green glass tube, and pass through this a current of hydrogen gas; the result will he the Protoxide ; of an olive-green colour, when subjected to the action of the atmosphere. (2.) fFor cliha miner’s beautiful light-green.J In an open porcelain tube incandesce some grey ore of manganese; pass a stream of hydrogen gas through the tube, and the oxide will appear primrose yellow; quickly take out of the tube, and put into a phial, which stop close, and it will become a beautiful green ; hut the oxygen of the atmosphere would cause it to become brown. Dry sulphate thus treated, will supply a permanent light-green. (3.) Incandesce deutoxide, or carbonate of manganese, half an hour or more; or the muriate evaporate dry, and in a closed vessel incandesce the like time—for the Red oxide. This will combine with bases, as 6 M. + 1 base. METALS. 347 (4.) (Turner's.) The residuum of the retort, after obtaining oxygen, mix with a sixth part of its weight of powdered charcoal; incandesce highly during thirty-five minutes; dissolve in muriatic acid, evaporate dry, and raise the temperature to fusion, which keep up not less than two hours; dissolve in pure water, filter; add test 8, and filter out the lime : to the liquid add test 4, filter, and wash well; form a vacuum with sulphuric acid, and dry therein; then dissolve in sulphuric acid, and the solution will he colourless. (5.) To separate metallic oxides. Muriatic acid saturate with the ore, then add one-sixth of nitric acid, evaporate one-fourth, then add three volumes of pure water; alcalinize with test 1, and immerse test 38 twenty-four hours, to separate the copper present; filter; add test 1 to the liquid till it appears turbid; alcalinize with test 8, till precipitation ceases; then let repose twenty-four hours ;—add test 28, filter out the lead ; add test 5, filter out and wash well the copper with ammonia and water; the precipitate dis¬ solve in test 24, add test 3, then digest one hour, filter, and wash. (6.) The ore dissolve (as in 5,) filter, wash well with four volumes of cold pure water; alcalinize with test 2, (to blue the test-paper just red by acetic acid;) filter out and wash well the iron, evaporate dry, wash well, again evaporate, and incandesce, to dissipate test 26 ; and the calc is pure manganese. Or, 7. The cold acid solution alcalinize with test 2, filter quickly; let the brown turbid liquid repose twenty-four hours, decant; evaporate the precipitate; also all the liquid evaporate dry for the oxide.— There is much care needful, and also three or four filters, to quickly pass the liquid, and prevent any portion of the manganese in solution being deposited on the filter with the iron and earths. 348 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. PLATINUM. The metal thus named by the Spaniards, because of its colour resembling that of silver, has been known to Europeans only since 1749. Like gold, (to which, with all the advantages, it is equal in some, and superior in several other valuable properties, as for the fabrication of instruments, vessels, and utensils, even for domestic economy, as well as for researches in Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts;) it is supplied by nature in only a metallic state, yet always accompanied by various other metals ; chiefly from Choco and Santa Fe, in South America, in crude small flat grains, with a silvery lustre. The largest known specimen, found in the Ural Chain, in 1827, near the Denu Doff mines, is the size of a pigeon’s egg; its weight is rather more than 91 lbs., and is preserved in the museum of the ‘Royal Society at Bergara; prior to that time, the largest known mass was 11641 grs. at Madrid, from Condoto. It is found in South America, Brazil, St. Domingo, Siberia, and the Ural Chain. The ore is exceedingly impure, owing to the presence of nine other metals; four of which, Palladium, Irridium, Osmium, and Rhodium, are new , the productions of the laboratory; and, in addition to iron and chrome, are three others; copper, antimony, and lead. In the autumn of 1806, Vauquelin discovered platinum ore, to the amount of 10 per cent, in the silver ores of Guadal¬ canal, in Estremadura, (much like the grey copper METALS. 349 ores, the fahlerz of the Germans,) in a gangue of quartz, carbonate of lime, and sulphate of barytes; in the company of lead, copper, antimony, iron, silver, sulphur, and arsenic ; always entirely free from the four metals present with the ore from South America; and constantly among the sulphur and silica of the gangue. It is proved to be an accidental, not an essential component of the ore, by its very irregular distribution, from less than one to more than ten per cent., and with the silver from two to twelve per cent. Process .—In nitro-muriatic acid, (see gold, p. 328,) with as little rise of temperature as will answer, dissolve the metallic grains. A portion of black matter will remain inditferent to the potency of the acid; decant off this the liquid, and into it carefully drop test 34; the orange-yellow precipitate filter out, wash well, evaporate dry, and then raise till incandescence commences, to expel the acid and alcali, and reduce the metal in an agglutinated state. Repeat the process, and the metal will be obtained pure. The powder or grains are next wrapped up in strong platinum foil, then incandesced, and by great pressure, or cautious hammering, they are rendered compact, and formed into an ingot. Or, on a support of strong marie, by the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe fuse a few grains, to which while in fusion keep regularly adding a few more, until about one ounce is fused, when more in quantity may he added, until any required size of a piece is obtained; cut off the small part next the support, because with it will be present a spice of silica, that might deteriorate foil, wire, &c. Platinum thus obtained, pure or refined, is the heaviest substance known. Its specific gravity, from the ammonia—chloride reduced by heat, is 21*5, and is by hammering increased to 2P5313. It is with¬ out savour or odour, with hardness between copper 350 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. and iron, considerably greater than gold or silver; with a white colour, to the eye like that of silver, but deficient in brilliance, and on the touchstone the two are not distinguishable ; it is very malleable and ductile ; it can be hammered into foil, of remarkably thin leaves, useful in analytic processes, and it can be drawn into wire not exceeding 2L of an inch in diameter. Dr. Wollaston inclosed a'thin wire of platinum in a fine tube of pure silver, and after this had been drawn out in wire to an extremely fine state, he digested the wire in nitric acid, which dissolved the silver, and left platinum wire not thicker than ~ of an inch. Its tenacity is such, that a wire 0078 of an inch in diameter, will support 274’31 lbs. avoirdupois. Alone it is indifferent to the potency of the most concentrated acids singly, however high may be the temperature; as it also is to fusion in usual temperatures ; so that the above is the only method of obtaining it in quantity.— Alloyed, it is fusible at a moderate temperature. When at a bright incandescence, two plates or rods can have their particles so welded together, like iron, as not to present the least appearance of having ever been separate. It is indifferent likewise to the action of air and water. The highest temperature of the furnace fails to excite combination of oxygen and pure platinum into an oxide; although it is sufficient to partially oxidate the metal from South America, because of the presence of iron, &c. But a better acquaintance with the metal will suggest the proper heat for accomplishing the purpose. METALS. 351 Processes (1 .)—To obtain the Protoxide. With pure water boiling hot dilute the solution of muriate of platinum, add test 20, filter out, wash well, the coloured precipitate of chloride of mercury and protoxide of platinum; volatilize the chloride; the black protoxide left incandesce, and from 100 grains will evolve 12J cubic inches of oxygen; or with lamp black, 12 \ cubic inches of carbonic acid gas; and the metal is reduced. On enamels this will not suffer under the highest temperature of the muffel. (2.) For the Peroxide. To the solution, as above, add excess of test 24, distil this excess over; alcalinize with test 1, and the reciprocal potencies of the two substances will be obvious as remarkably strong, in the brown bulky almost insoluble triple salt which precipitates; filter out, wash well, dry, and raise the temperature till it becomes a brown or black powder; or when very high, is reduced because of the oxygen evolving. It dissolves with the caustic or carbonated alcalies, 1 and 2, also it combines with the alcaline bases, 5, 6, 7. 352 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. SILVER. This metal is recorded as being known by the earliest society, and almost as soon as gold. In its native state it occurs in Huel Duchy and Huel Mexico, Cornwall; the mining districts of Saxony and Bohemia; but principally in Peru and Mexico. It is without savour or odour; the colour, a fine beau¬ tiful white, with a slight yellowish tinge, and brilliance equal to that of any other metal except perhaps polished steel; it is harder than gold, but softer than copper; its specific gravity in cast bars 10*474, in hammered plate 10*510; its malleability is only in¬ ferior to gold, and it is beaten into leaves only of an inch thick; its ductility allows it to be drawn out into a wire much finer than a human hair, so that a grain can be extended 400 feet; its tenacity in a wire 0*078 of an inch in diameter supports 187*13 lbs. avoirdupois. It does not suffer from im¬ mersion in the water ; neither does it oxidate, although it tarnishes, in the air, at ordinary temperatures; but when raised to incandescence, its brilliance much in¬ creases, and the metal fuses at 22° Wedgwood; during this state, in an open crucible, it sollicits oxygen from the atmosphere, and becomes a greenish brown oxide; (Silver 1 + 1 Oxygen,) and raised temperature causes the metal to boil and volatilize ; but when in fusion, gradual diminution of the temperature renders the surface crystalline, and when this is congealed by pouring out part of the fluid metal, may be obtained large crystals insulated, and in groups of four-sided pyramids. METALS. 353 Processes. —(1.) In nitric acid, at 12° Beaume, dissolve 240 grains of standard silver; filter; add distilled water till the whole weighs 960 grains (2 ounces, or 1 silver + 3 aciduline sol¬ vents.) This'will cause the particles of the silver to he in a state so very comminute, as to be readily, and without loss, separated in the precipitate. Stir well and often, with test 40, and leave it im¬ mersed 24 hours ; when all the silver is precipitated, decant the supernatant liquid, wash well the precipitate, boil it a few minutes in ammonia, to appropriate whatever spice of copper is present, filter, wash well on the filter, and evaporate dry, the Pure Silver. Or, (2.) From afresh supply of crystals form test 17, with which treat the nitric solution, and in 36 hours there will be a precipitate of sulphate of silver, with a superstratum of sub-oxysulphate of iron. This latter decant off, and separate all the muriate of silver presented by careful levigation of it in a solution of common salt. (3.) To the nitric solution add lime-water, filter out, and wash well the dark greenish-brown precipitate; which is without savour, or solubility in water; it is readily soluble in nitric acid, and at the proper temperature resumes the reguline state, or that of metal; dissolves in ammonia exposed to the air, and a brilliant pellicle forms, which, being dried, is the black oxide. Silver 1+2 oxygen. (4.) Chloride .—To the nitric solution, add common table-salt until precipitation ceases ; wash well this curd, and then evaporate dry. This compound is one of those least soluble, needing 3,072 parts of pure water for solution. The action of the atmosphere causes it to gradually assume a purple tint. At a temperature of 500° Fahrenheit it fuses, and, on cooling, assumes the grey semi- translucent appearance called horn silver. The chloride is soluble in ammonia, and the result is fulminative ; it is indifferent to pure alcalies, yet by carbonated alcalies it is sollicited to separation; and any (but only) substances, with hydrogen present, will separate the chlorine. Silver 1 + I chlorine. Only singular good fortune, and some skill of the operator, can always obtain the silver pure, and supersede failures from two causes:—one, the uncertainty of the temperature ; as when this is too high, the chloride volatilizes ; and when it is too low, there is not complete reduction. The other is,—when high temperature is applied to this, alone, the metal permeates the pores of the crucible, and is lost. The easiest process is, to use an iron pot, into which 2 A .'*54 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. put plenty of distilled water, a few pieces of iron, or fresh turned iron chips, also the chloride, and boil till all the silver is reduced. Some persons form a paste of the chloride and four times its weight of potash or soda moistened with water, and this is fused in a crucible well lined with alcali. (5.) Goettling’s.—To separate Silver from Copper. —De¬ termine the weight of the metal, as 1, and put it into a mattrass ; add test 24, 10, and water 5; keep in a high temperature of a sand bath, and frequently stir with a glass cane, during three hours, then add boiling water, 6 bulks, continuing the heat; in a coarse linen bag put some clean copper turnings, which introduce into the mattrass, and boil four hours ; filter out the precipitated pure silver , and wash till the washings are indifferent to the alcaline potency of test 2 ; then reduce to a button, if needful. The liquid and washings evaporate till a pellicle appears, then crystallize the sulphate of copper. (6.) Mix together glass power 2, potash 1, nitrate of potash 2, and grain silver 8; this mixture put in a crucible, twice the size usually employed for such a quantity, and over this invert and lute well a smaller crucible with the bottom perforated; place them in a furnace whose temperature will just fuse the silver ; surround and almost cover the crucibles with charcoal; keep the tempera¬ ture steady until a hot coal, held over the hole of the upper crucible, neither becomes more brilliant, nor causes a hissing noise; raise the temperature very high, quickly, and after 20 minutes take the whole out, cool, break the under crucible, and from the scoriaceous mass take the button of pure silver. (7.) Dize’s. — To separate Silver from Gold. —When silver is present with gold, in twelve hours it deposits as a black muriate in the nitro-muriatic solutiom In a platinum crucible, whose cover has a small perforation, add to the metal twice its weight of sulphuric acid, and raise the temperature to 180° Fahrenheit eighteen hours ; then decant into a porcelain dish, and add two bulks of pure water, and let the fluid repose twenty-four hours or more. By siphon abstract the liquid from the brown precipitate, or gold, which throw upon a filter and wash with hot pure water. Into the decanted liquid immerse slips of polished copper, and when no more silver can be thereby obtained, as deposit or preci¬ pitate, wash it all well, and fuse it with charcoal in a crucible. The gold fuse with nitre, which separates the copper; and the solution of sulphate of copper evaporate and crystallize. metals. 355 TIN. This metal was well known at a very early stage of society; and, in more recent times, it was the Jupiter of the alchemists. So seldom has it been found, that its existence in a native or pure state, has been questioned. As Tin Stone, or native oxide of Tin, which supplies most of the metal for commercial purposes, it occurs in primary rocks only, massive, crystallized, and disseminated, in veins; and when the texture is fibrous, the variety, found only in Cornwall, is named Wood Tin Ore. It is also found as a sulphuret, with a little copper and iron, called Tin Pyrites , of a yellowish-grey colour, with metallic lustre, fibrous or laminated texture, and prismatic irridescence. It is found in the mines of Bohemia, Saxony, the Isle of Banca, the peninsula of Malacca, Fahlun, the East Indies, Chili, and Massachusetts ; yet in large quantity is it found only in Devonshire and Cornwall. Wherever it is found, there certainly is plenty of it; but, compara¬ tively, it is the most rare of the metals longest known and commonly used. Before any dates of authentic history, Cornwall supplied it; as the merchants of Tyre thence obtained it prior to the days of Moses, and in subsequent or contemporary times, the Greeks obtained it from the 0 r depot on St. Michael’s Mount; and by these it was supplied to any and all purchasers in the then known world. Tin has a beautiful yellowish silvery-white 2 a 2 356 CHEMISfftY OF POTTERY. colour, and in its newly-formed state is very brilliant, rather impalatable savour, and when rubbed a very peculiar odour. The hardness of the mineral is between that of felspar and rock-crystal; and that of the metal between gold and lead; the specific gravity is 7*291, raised by hammering to 7*299. It has little sonorosity, but crackles remark¬ ably when bended, and is very flexible ; its mallea¬ bility is such as to form beneath the hammer extended leaves called Tinfoil , about ~ Q of an inch thick, and was it for purposes of commerce needed, might be reduced to less than half this thickness. It has less ductility and tenacity than any of the other seven usual metals; a bar \ of an inch diameter, breaks by a weight of 296 lbs.; and a wire 2 of an inch just supports 47*20 lbs. avoirdupois ; or accord¬ ing to Morveau, a tin wire 0*078 inch diameter just supports only 34*7 lbs. The atmosphere soon changes the brilliant lustre into a blackish grey; which remains without further alteration from the weather, or immersion in water; but the action of very hot steam passing over red-hot tin quickly oxidates the metal, and the hydrogen of the steam is liberated. ' It fuses at the temperature of 442° Fahrenheit, and when slowly cooled, crystallizes into a rhomboidal prism. It resembles lead in being very brittle at a temperature of 380°; and when then broken by the stroke of a hammer, it presents a texture fibrous or grained. It is granulated by quickly agitating the mass during the time of its transition from the fused or fluid to the cold or solid state. Its purity is in exact ratio with its levity,— while that of gold accords with its density. METALS. Processes. — (1, 2, 3.) Pure Grey Protoxide. In hot muriatic acid dissolve grain tin;—or in aqua-regia of nitric acid l, muriatic acid 2, add only bits of tin in succession, one after another is dissolved, "preventing loss from effervescence and raised temperature;—the liquid alcalinize with test 1 ; the white precipitate or hydrate is partially re-dissolved ; but the residue, left to repose, becomes a dark grey powder, with even a metallic lustre. The white powder heat to 300° to evaporate all the water; and the result is a dark grey oxide, without savour, soluble in acids and alcalies, and at 448° ignites, and burns like tinder, becomes cream-coloured, and is converted into peroxide, which may be crystallized; and at 550° some of the oxygen evolves, and the metal is reduced. It also, when in solution, sollicits oxygen from the atmosphere, and becomes the peroxide. (4.) Expose the tin of commerce to a moderate heat in an open vessel; regularly skim off the surface the grey powder which forms successively; this impure powder afterwards keep at 400°, until all becomes the greyish white protoxide, or pure Tin wishes ; an oxide more refractory in high temperatures than that of any other metal; and hence so useful in forming the opaque glaze of cream- coloured ware, and the white enamel. (5.) Berard's Method. (Pure ChlorideJ Into shallow dishes, or saucers, put the granulated Tin, and cover with muriatic acid, at 12° Beaume; the offensive gas will be a compound of arsenic and hydrogen, and afterwards of hydrogen only;—after 20 minutes, pour off the acid into a vessel, for subsequent application. The acid which attaches to the metal, will continue sollicking it, hydrogen will evolve, and the atmosphere will promote oxidation. Pour on the acid again, and it will appropriate all the protoxide thus formed; and when a sufficient quantity of acid is employed, by pouring it off one portion of metal upon another, and allowing about two minutes to each, in succession, through the whole series, a solution of proto¬ muriate of tin, for making purple, is obtained very quickly and most economically. (6.) To concentrated nitric acid add granulated tin, very carefully preventing loss by the ebullition while the temperature is raised; during the violent effervescence the tin, as a white powder, of peroxide , deposits at the bottom of the vessel, and assumes a very light yellow tint, when acid and water are expelled by 358 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. raised temperature. — Another peroxide, with like properties to this, is obtained by distilling tin filings and red oxide of mercury. (7, 8.) In nitric acid dissolve grain tin, precipitate by ammonia, filter; to dissolve most of the tin, digest filter and contents in cold muriatic acid; again filter, and next dissolve filter and contents in warm concentrated muriatic acid. Add test 9, for any iron present. Or, in dishes (as 5) put tin filings, and cover with water 90, nitric acid 10, 48 hours. (9.) In a tubulated retort, to muriate acid two parts, add one of tin; slowly raise the temperature, and when the solution is finished add more acid and carefully decant into a well-stoppered phial; a black protoxide of copper is often left in the bottom of the retort. The oxides of Tin have peculiar potencies in combining with other substances which they sollicit, similarly, though with less momenta than acids. The peroxide does not dissolve in, but combines with, muriatic acid, and forms a compound soluble in water; as is that formed by the combination when digested with potash ; and when the solution is evaporated, a yellow jelly results, also soluble in water. With sulphuric acid, similarly to most metallic oxides, it combines into a compound not soluble in water, only the acid appropriates the water. METALS. 359 ZINC. This metal has not hitherto been discovered native in Europe; and its reduction from the ore is of comparatively recent practice. The ancients, di¬ rected by the practice of Cadmus, formed brass by mixing with copper a mineral which had much zinc present; but they did not possess a knowledge of the reduced metal; which was first imperfectly described, about 1270, by Albertus Magnus; and the name was first used, in 1536, by Paracelsus. The most common ore of zinc is Blende, a foliated brown unsavoury mineral, insoluble in water, with specific gravity 4°. The principal works for the reduction of the sulphuret are at Swansea and Bristol. The mineral is roasted, then pulverized and mixed with charcoal, and put into very large crucibles; these are carefully closed, the temperature is raised very high, the metal falls to the bottom of the pot, and escapes through an iron tube into a vessel of water, from which it is taken and melted into ingots, the Speltre of commerce, so much in demand for the brass foundries of the north. Too frequently this is a mechanical compound of zinc, lead, sulphur, and charcoal, the last in a small proportion, remaining even after careful distillation ; but when it has the specific gravity 6*861 to 7*1 cast, or 7*1908 hammered, it is regarded as best for the Arts. Zinc, in this condition, seems composed of many thin adhering plates, rather soft, with a bril¬ liant slight blueish-white colour, unpleasant savour, and peculiar odour ; and rubbed a little between the 360 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. fingers, supplies a blue tint. Its little ductility allows it to be with care drawn out into wire; and its tena¬ city is that which in a wire of Ath of an inch just supports 26 lbs. It connects the brittle with the malleable metals, differing as much from antimony and arsenic, as from copper, lead, and tin. The hammer renders it flatter, without breaking, and cautious equal pressure reduces it to thin, supple, elastic plates, which break by folding. At the ordinary temperature, the atmosphere soon tarnishes but does not further change the surface of the metal; and a current of air seems needful to its slow oxidation; but when beneath water, soon is the surface black by the oxygen sollicited from the water, leaving the hydrogen to evolve ; with raised temperature, decomposition is more rapid; and is yet further increased by exposure to a current of steam. At the temperature of 220° it becomes malleable, and without breaking may be hammered into very thin plates ; or, when this temperature has been long continued, it may be either passed through rollers, or easily turned in the lathe; and at 400 o is pulverulent in a mortar ; at 680* it melts, and slowly cooled forms masses of quadrangular prism crystals, disposed in every direction, which gentle heat renders a change¬ able blue colour; and at 750° it volatilizes in close vessels. Zinc melted in an open vessel, soon sollicits oxygen from the atmosphere, and covers the surface with a grey pellicle, which being removed, is suc¬ ceeded by another, till all is oxidated, into a powder without savour, insoluble in water, and useful as a water colour ; but readily soluble in acids, forming neutral salts. When the results of the pellicles are METALS. 361 fused and agitated in an open vessel, soon is formed a yellowish-grey oxide. This projected into a cru¬ cible, or deep pot, at incandescence has a brilliant white flame, and emits flowers of zinc , very light and white flakes of oxide, zinc 1 + 1 oxygen, and this when spiced with carbonic acid, is no longer volatile, but at a high temperature fuses into glass. The reduction of oxide of zinc is difficult; be¬ cause only by mixture with charcoal, and a long con¬ tinuance of the temperature of a biscuit oven, or glass furnace, in a well-closed crucible, is diminished the momentum of its combinative potency with oxygen, and the prevention of its further energy. That portion of Calamine with finer grain and texture than chalk, but otherwise much resembling it, is Dicarbonate of zinc; indifferent to carbonate of soda; but fusing with borax and phosphate of soda, into a clear colourless glass. Sulphuric acid with much momentum sollicits zinc to combination; separating it from any impurity of charcoal, iron, and lead; during which hydrogen evolves, holding a portion of the metal in suspension; and which gas promotes the fusion of platinum, not effected by pure hydrogen. When the metal is in solution, stir well with test 39, and any metals else will precipitate, and must be filtered out. If the acid be highly concentrated, an opaque substance encrusts the bottom of the vessel, much like the German white vitriol, and less soluble than the crystals resulting from the solution. To the filtered liquid add test 3, filter, wash well, evaporate dry, mix with charcoal powder, ignite, and then with a white heat and porcelain retort distil into a receiver almost filled with water—-for hydrate of zinc. 362 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Having in various and numerous instances de¬ tailed the manipulative processes of Analysis, I shall only add, in concluding this part of the Volume— that the more the student practices these processes, the better will he be acquainted with the usual phe¬ nomena of Combination. He likewise will find that each resembles a chain, whose continuous links are the several steps of the detail. Aware that success in each depends and results from his first Principles; from these he obtains the conditions of his demon¬ strations ; and whenever incertitude attaches to any result,—or, however extended and operose may be the steps,—he can at pleasure retrace each, or any part thereof, determine its validity, become more convinced on the one hand of the importance, and on the other, of the essential identity of legitimate results, of these Principles. The means of attaining sound knowledge is thus afforded ; and I trust that as such, each student will regard and employ them. * s > V . ' THE CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. SYNTHESIS AND COMPOUNDS, ** Good Pottery differs from inferior much less in the number of its Components, than in their proper proportions.”— Vauquelin. CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF THE ART. The Chemistry of Heterogeneous Compounds, because of its advancing several Manufactures essen¬ tial to national prosperity, in importance has pro¬ gressed with their extension, and the improvements in machinery, during the last sixty years. The partial knowledge current having already accom¬ plished much, we are warranted in assuming that the dissemination of further and correct Information, will promote additional improvements, more impor¬ tant than at present even conjectured, until the Manufactures are advanced to the perfection of 364 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. which each is susceptible. Only by this being pur¬ sued with vigour, can we keep our country at its high eminence; nor subjected to receive from others that information which so long she has been accus¬ tomed to communicate. Still, to its peculiar investi¬ gation an inexplicable indifference has been evinced by the persons most celebrated as original thinkers, or experimenters, the Daltons, the Faradays, the Henrys, the Brandes, while concerning those condi¬ tions of the component Atoms which ever remain the same, their observations have excited the attention of the scientific portion of the community. The most obtuse intellect will admit that the kindling of fires, baking of bread, preparation of butter and cheese, smithery of metals, and burning of Clay into bricks, are Arts of Life coeval with their wants by the human family. These illustrate the developement of man’s physical powers, to gratify his wishes, yet increase his comforts; and they de¬ monstrate, that the primeval pair being created per¬ fect in physical and mental powers, never at any time could all their descendants, the whole human family, possibly become the mutum et turpe pecus, the inhabitants of caves, the utterers of inarticulate cries, imagined by Diodorus Siculus, and others who have aspired to the dignified appellation, and sought credit for the high character, of philosophers. The Manufacture of prepared earths (which otherwise were valueless,) into vessels of capacity, and different other subjects, for use, convenience, and ornament, of varied excellence of quality, and conse¬ quent difference of value ; by adequate judges is regarded, as useful, needful, and important to civi- ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 365 lized society, as any other Art of Life requiring the aids of human ingenuity. It is of importance to a nation,—because, usually the arcana of affluence to ingenuity, industry, and perseverance;—one of the sources of productive employment, or excitements of taste and genius, of part of the population ; a branch of commerce to increase foreign connections, supply correct ideas of political relations, and enrich the merchant; also a channel of revenue, to increase the power to preserve to the citizens, their Rights, from infringement, and their Liberties, from subjection. It is most intimately connected with Chemistry; surpasses all others in facilities for comprehending Combination by processes of synthesis and analysis, and practising the Manipulations of the Laboratory. Its details involve numerous productions of nature and art; its developements essay to determine by what laws the reciprocal potencies of the component atoms, as well as the masses themselves, of those productions, by chemical changes cause different forms, as either a mere mass, or a beautiful regular and well-defined object. These forms it investigates and scrutinizes, the better to comprehend the nature and proportions of the components, for interesting progressive improvements ;—to ensure excellence by the application of scientific principles; to benefit society by elevating the people in affluence, intelli¬ gence, and security ;—the vantage ground, whose occupancy and appropriation, the Manufacturer owes to his country and himself. Man in all ages seems to have been the resolute disavower of the authority of common sense, and the willing slave of his imagination. Yet the true phi- 366 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. losopher, employing the united faculties of a sound mind; also reasoning on the experience and attention to the operations of the senses, as well as the percep¬ tions of early life, to which he constantly and habi¬ tually refers whatever is new, whenever similar in any particular, by the powers of memory, feels delight alike elevating and interesting, in contem¬ plating the immense Laboratory of Nature, directed by Omnipotence, whose fiat determines, with mathe¬ matical precision, the numerical proportions of Elements in which combinative potency can present the most varied and beautiful phenomena, from the constant reciprocal actions of gas, fluid, and solid, of acid, alcali, earth, and metal. The contemplation of subjects of human inge¬ nuity, leads the mind to .regard the idea of com¬ mencement, and to reflect on the Inventor of an Art. Tradition and mythology have preserved the names of persons who deserve execration, because of the injuries they inflicted on their species; and some benefactors of the human race are immortalized in the poetry of the latter; but we fail to obtain data to identify the inventor of this art. Alike over the time and place, oblivion has thrown an impenetrable veil. Certainly, the probability of any traces of its origin reaching us without interruption, seems precluded by the very early and long time prior to any historical records, of its products (however rude and to our ideas uncouth,) being formed and used. There is a possibility of its having, like many others of the Arts of Life, grown gradually into use, without any direct or sole inventor. The earliest sacred as well as pro¬ fane histories mention it. But their writers, like ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 367 modern contributors to the stock of literature, fre¬ quently overlook useful and indispensable subjects, to dilate with ardency on the grand and pompous. In our day of universal spread of correct knowledge, whatever may have been the efforts, they have failed to shake, the stigma of disrespect, by Custom irre- movably fixed on the common and most useful Arts of Life—the Weaver, Tailor, Shoemaker, Smith ; or to affect the importance attached, because of the value of the products, to the Jeweller, Goldsmith, Sculptor, and Artist; although in favour of the former may be the balance of moral worth against mean cupidity. We therefore may expect the person who had to record the chefs-d ’ ceuvre of workmen “ filled with the Spirit of God,” (Exod. xxxv. 31, 36,) to be indif¬ ferent to the productions of the Potter,* seen every * The real primary force of the word Potter, (as well as its etymon, owing to the mutation of Letters in all adoptions of words into other languages,) seems to be connected only with the Hebrew *1W yotsaar , as employed in Genesis i. 24, 27, 31; ii. 7, 19; v. 1, 21 ; to the forming clay into a human figure, and to the formation of the universe, by the Omniscient Chemical Potter, the Infinite Master Mind. The idea of man’s being earthy, and ori¬ ginally formed as vessels are by the Potter, or worker in clay; also the ease with which man, whether an individual, or a nation, can be “ broken, even as one breaketh a potter’s vessel, which cannot be made whole again,”—Jeremiah presents in his beau¬ tiful allegory, xvm. 2—6.—All those beautiful and elegant Wares, the most delicate, and fragile, which quality some esteem as pro¬ moting its excellence in a corresponding ratio, or the most durable, which adorn our tables,—manufactured with the same elemen¬ tary components, processes, manipulations, and general conforma¬ tion ; tortured from mineral substances by the agency of acids and temperature in the laboratory; most just in symmetry, chaste in design, exquisite in fabrication, fine in polish of surface, beautiful 368 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. day. Another reason why Moses does not even allude to the practice of the Art, and, by implication, to its inventor, may be the constant need for him to combat, in the Israelites, a proneness to idolatry. He must know that the Egyptian Pantheon consisted chiefly of persons who had conferred on mankind some general and lasting benefit; he was not igno¬ rant, who that people regarded as their instructor in this and most of the other Arts ; and that to mention the inventor of Potting, would only again bring to their recollection, the idolatrous worship of the indi¬ vidual, Thoth , or Theuth; Phenician, Taut; Greek, Hermes; Latin Mercury, the scribe of Saturn, the messenger (gr. of the gods; most assuredly a son, or a grandson, of Noah. The solution of the problem—“ What kind of earthenware would he fabricated by a colony wholly ignorant of current processes ?”—cannot be decided by and splendid in enamel, rich, brilliant, and tasteful in gilding,— remain extremely liable by use to be broken and destroyed. Does any of my readers need to have the parallel presented before him ? Man, however chaste in disposition, exquisitely sensitive, polished in demeanour, beautiful of feature, delicate in perception of pro- priety, graceful in motion, brilliant in imagination, rich in ac¬ quirement, tasteful in accomplishments; however finely modelled and finished, and mentally endowed, his ultimate shews him,—like the product of the potter,— earthen-ware ! The porcelain may be fractured, and consigned to the sherd-heap ; and in like manner may be deposited, its fabricator, and animated participator of the like earthy elements, to the public cemetery, or ceramicus, Whither the bodies of th’ illustrious dead, Are, by their friends, in solemn pomp convey’d.” Ward. ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 369 experiment, though almost by reasoning.—All the Arts of Life, all useful manufactures, originate in rude attempts to realize imperfect suggestions, or render palpable “ some model in the master’s mind.” Invention is ever the daughter of necessity; and equally as much in our day influences the progress of manufactures, as in the earliest ages when the general manners were simple, and the thoughts most busy to accomplish whatever might conduce to social comfort. Then, assuming that our colonized persons have intellects clear and energetic, with minds rational though uncultivated, the need to satisfy the imperative calls of appetite by conveying food to the mouth, would quickly suggest the employment of some utensil, either shell of fish, or rind of fruit, as now practised in the country where the human family was first located, and by the negroes of the colonies, and the aborigines of transatlantic countries. The preservation of articles of greater relish or refresh¬ ment, when plentiful, would suggest vessels to con¬ tain them ; and when the fermentative decomposition had caused alcohol to evolve, the quantity formerly taken would so affect the person’s passions and rea¬ soning powers, that in a state of ebriety men would again, as formerly, commit actions, related by his¬ torians, the subjects of regret during after-life. (Gen. ix. 21.; xix. 31—8.) The pliancy and adhe¬ sive properties of Clay would readily suggest its employment for various purposes. The great facility with which Clay Wares can be made, the simple principles of the first manipulations of the workman, the importance of the articles, would induce different persons to endeavour to understand them ; and, as in 2 B 370 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. every other manual employment, the practice would cause improvement and excellence. Utensils so useful, and readily fabricated, would be subjects of desire to the ingenious, prior to the construction of the most rude dwelling; and though uncouth, com¬ pared with the productions of artizans bred up to the manufacture, and with shapes to accord with differ¬ ence of customs, and the usages of society; they yet would have form, size, and strength, adapting them for their designed uses. Addition to the kinds, and improvement in the quality of the Wares, would ensue, because of the workman becoming more judi¬ cious in selecting materials, more dexterous in using his tools, and more intent on exerting his genius and inventive faculties. Correction of the exuberances of die design, and tiie ruggosities of the workmanship, agreeably to the suggestions of new arrangements, matured judgment, and refined taste, would promote shades of elegance, as well as accessions to the manu¬ facture. From such simple principles may have originated this Art, which in our day is so rapidly progressing towards perfection.* * It is admitted that some tribes, descendants of the aboriginal inhabitants of America, and others resident in the islands of the Pacific Ocean, in skins and vegetable husks contain their oil and other liquids intended for subsequent use, and these are supposed to have suggested the hollowing of blocks of wood, or of stone, in which they immersed their food in water, and then caused the whole to boil by adding incandescent stones. Yet these prepara¬ tions and vessels presuppose a knowledge of some manual arts, and possession of suitable tools. This filthy and inconvenient practice, they reluctantly and with apparent self-denial relinquish, even after understanding that some earthy substances are refractory ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 371 There is no especial interest in the speculation, whether Clay was appropriated first by the Brick- maker, or the Potter ; for even were this determined, our knowledge would remain as at present, in refe¬ rence to the time, place, and persons; yet both applications, early were important and their produc¬ tions in demand. When comfort and convenience rendered the erection of habitations indispensable, in their construction during a long period, the chief materials were Bricks easily formed of clay, and merely dried in the air. The employment of Clay for the purposes of the Potter, may have been sug¬ gested by mere accident; as the retention of con¬ densed dew, or rain, by some impression of the foot of an animal in the soft mass subsequently by the air rendered hard and dry ; and its pliant and adhesive properties would shew with how little labour it might be formed by the hand into different kinds of vessels. Although known much longer than the bricks now existing in Rome, and made more than 3000 years ago, yet no such ancient specimens of Earthenware remain. Egyptian Bricks and Cinerary Urns, even though indisputably authenticated as of long prior date, would fail to determine the question of previous appropriation, or to support the proper claim to anti¬ quity of invention. The different portions of the human family, wherever located, would experience like wants, and in the flame; also, that however useful fire may be in preparing food, disadvantage would follow its application to the vessels of wood, and skins of animals, which by it would inevitably be destroyed. 2b2 372 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. originate similar Arts of Life; and readily would they embrace opportunities to gratify the one, and practise the other. And, as those tribes of the family, in different regions, who retain merely the civiliza¬ tion of the first ages, possess some knowledge of this manufacture, I feel persuaded that its practice must have prevailed previous to the migrations of the post-diluvian tribes, and long anterior to the expecta¬ tion of results so elegant and complicate as Porcelain and Flint-ware. The recent discoveries of travellers in the trans-Atlantic continent, prove this, from a period most remote, in portions of the globe, where not even imagination had suggested that its produc¬ tions were known. The American Archceologia sup¬ plies numerous notices; a few of which I shall insert, prior to the continuous detail of well-determined historical facts. Being accustomed mentally to connect with the idea of this manufacture, the associations of a series of buildings for the different consecutive processes, there might be some difficulty in obtaining for the statements that ready credence, even by intelligent and impartial readers, which they deserve, did we not suggest the great probability, that these potters, and others of the very early practisers of the Art, pursued their operations in a manner something similar to that for the manufacture of Glass, in the present day adopted in Bohemia:—The tribe of artizans having found a suitable stratum of clay for the bricks of the furnace, near a wood, commence operations by cutting down timber in quantity suffi¬ cient for erecting their habitations, sheds, workshops, and warehouses,—next they quarry the clay, make ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 373 the bricks, burn them thoroughly with the chips from the timber, erect the furnace, and, for fuel, cut down whatever quantity they need ; also burn brush-wood, to prepare the alcali for the manufacture. Here the artizans remain located, until, in the processes, all the wood has been consumed. The aboriginal inhabitants of Maypure, in South America, and of Florida, are celebrated for their manufacture of a species of Delft ware, of excellent quality, on which are ingeniously figured, and cor¬ rectly painted, birds, monkeys, and crocodiles.* These specimens of workmanship of ancient Indians, in many properties equal, if they do not excel, those of modern European fabrication. During the presi¬ dency of Mr. Jefferson, persons employed in digging at Palmyra, on the river Tennessee, discovered and delivered to him various busts, of whose fabricators no other traces' remained, though conjectured to be progenitors of the present race of Indians. The figures are almost of the natural size, to below the breast; and present good resemblances of the head, face, neck, and shoulders of persons unrecorded in * “ To form figures or impressions of particular subjects, on plastic clay, would be early practised by the first potters; and is the most probable origin of all our boasted arts of sculptuie, painting, hieroglyphic design, writing, seal-engraving, and ulti¬ mately of printing, and copper and steel-plate engraving. How interesting is the series to the contemplative philosophei! And each manufactory may have continued to imitate the approved ornaments of its preceding owners, till we trace the patterns used by the most early nations, when just emerging from their state of hunting for daily food.’’ — Sir It. Phillips; to K.ew , p. 300.) 374 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. tradition, but the well-executed features delineate the physiognomy of the American copper-coloured In¬ dians. The countenance of one has most distinct traits of the wrinkles of thought and age. But whether objects of idolatrous worship, or mementos of the country’s most distinguished sons, remains to be determined. I am not aware that any attempt was made to ascertain whether their hard black substance, analogous to Wedgwood’s Egyptian , was a natural or an artificial production; and consequently, they the work of the sculptor, by the labours of the chisel, or of the potter, first modelled and then baked. But the latter is the more probable, and accords with the object of mentioning their discovery. In Lord Hils- borough’s cabinet are two Indian vases, obviously very antique, found on the shore of the Mosquito River; and, when mentioning the discovery of very ancient potteries high up the Black River, Governor Pownall thus describes these vases :—“ It is a decided fact, that they are curious exemplars of some of the first efforts of human ingenuity, and remains of what are be¬ come antiquities even among the Indians.”* Father D’Acuina asserts, that by some of the Indian tribes located on the shores of the- river Amazon, in South * Roylance Child, Esq., my neighbour, recently deposited in the museum of E. Wood, Esq., Burslem, a beaker, or ewer, of this manufacture. The colour is brovvnish red, the design beautiful, the form that of a very tall turned cream-ewer of our artizans ; the weight very light compared with porcelain, and a size or varnish employed in place of a glaze. I examined it very attentively, and the preservation of the fine lines, the absence of seams, its extreme lightness, and the tout ensemble , induce the opinion that it has been cast with a clay which does not need a glaze. ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 375 America, this manufacture has been pursued, from an era long anterior to any historical record, to all the extent needful to supply the demands of neighbour¬ ing nations, with whom they had established a legu- lar traffic. The Indians of Louisiana at this day fabricate very durable ware ; the clay or body is com¬ pounded of what is commonly so named, with which they mix certain proportions of calcined crystallized felspar from granite; and the vessels will bear any temperature for culinary purposes; while the seggars and crucibles will sustain the highest needful for their furnaces and ovens. The vicinity of Salem, on the Lake Erie, presents extensive remains of ancient potteries. The opening of some burrows in Ross County has supplied antiquarians with two covers of vessels, fabricated of either marble, a calcareous breccia, or terra cotta , which for all valuable proper¬ ties and excellence will bear comparison with any by Italian artists now produced of similar materials. Several earthen vessels were obtained, which ade¬ quate judges regard as equal in quality and work¬ manship to any present productions of the art. At Marietta, in 1819, were found specimens of ancient earthenware, which in excellence, and the exhibition of attention to neat workmanship, are not inferior to any productions of the present race of manufacturers. They seem to be compounds of clay and pulverized flints ; and they still remain completely firm and solid, though long exposed to all the alternations of the atmosphere, prior to being preserved in a museum. Others are less compact, dense, and firm ; and only partially, if at all, baked; and they seem compounds, (like the ware fabricated by the Indians,) 376 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. of clay and pulverized clam shells. All the speci¬ mens to which these remarks refer, display those proofs of persevering industry and genius during the progress of the art, with manipulations simple and common, of which only inadequate ideas will be formed by persons ignorant of the processes. The authority of sacred history supports the as¬ sertion that B.C. 2200 years, and 500 years prior to the migration and settlement of Jacob’s family in its territories, the kingdom of Egypt was in great pros¬ perity ; and its people, blending fact with fable, as previously mentioned, (p. 368,) claim a very early practice, and also perfection in the processes, of this manufacture, and that of glass. Siracides remarks that covering earthen vessels with a crust of glass, is an ancient practice, which has recently been fully corroborated by the indefatigable Belzoni; who says, “the art of varnishing and baking the varnish on clay, was in such perfection, that I doubt if it could be imitated at present.”— Researches , p. 173. The quantity of vessels by this people required is not of importance; but it would extend with the demands of the population to contain supplies of oil, juices of fruits, water, &c., and the ease and readiness with which could be acquired by the workman, proficiency in its processes, and dexterity in its manipulations.* * Herodotus could not possibly be ignorant that Egypt and Phenieia were old nations compared with the Grecian states, which received their arcanum alphabeta from a Phenician ; and whose sages visited Egypt to acquire correct acquaintance with the knowledge current in their day. He incidentally notices the scarcity of earthen vessels among the Greeks, and yet seeks to ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 377 In building the Tower of Babel, (Gen. xi. 3,) there were used bricks “ burned thoroughlyand flatter their vanity, and indulge their prejudices, to augment their celebrity, by making them potters for all Egypt and its dependen¬ cies. “ Twice in every year there are exported from different parts of Greece to Egypt, and from Phenicia in particular, wine, secured in earthen jars, not one of which jars is afterwards to be seen; for the principal magistrate of every town is obliged to collect all that are imported to the place where he resides, and forward them to Memphis. The Memphians fill them with water, and afterwards transport them to the Syrian deserts. Thus all the earthen vessels carried into Egypt, and there carefully collected, are continually added to those already in Syria.”—Book hi., Sect. 6th. The natives of the interior of Africa accomplish their passage across small streams by securing each end of a stout pole to a large gourd ; and seated across the floating, pole, with a second pole the passenger forces himself across. In some parts of the East, the ferry-raft, or Charpoy , is formed of stout frame¬ work of bamboos, not unlike a set of bedsteads, and secured together by net-work of cords which support the cargo. Beneath the posts and rails are inverted and well fastened, beaker-jars named Kogerii , in which is compressed such a quantity of air, as renders buoyant the whole, which is readily pushed through the water by the ferryman. A practice somewhat similar seems to have obtained among the Egyptians in the days of Juvenal, whose surprize seems excited by the singularity, of the danger from obstacles which might be encountered, in fine weather, and the vessels being dashed against each other by the gale. These rafts he names earthen-boats. —Sat. xv. 126—8. “ Hsec saevit rabie imbelle et inutile vulgus, Parvula fictilibus solitum dare vela phaselis, Et brevibus pictae remis incumbere testae.” The earthen-boat, alone, through dangerous tides, With wild and vulgar ruthlessness he guides; Or else reclining on his painted shell, Its short length paddles through the briny swell. 378 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. we may suppose their use well known in Egypt; from the great quantities required, (the remaining spe¬ cimens of which excite our surprize, because of their durability;) before the ingress of the Hebrews, (B.C. 1706, Gen. xlvii. 11 ;) and the rigour with which, from this people, the taskmasters exacted the tale until the Exodus. Will it be too great an assumption, Dr. Harmer (vol. I., p. 90,) mentions that Upper Egypt supplied the Delta, or Lower Egypt, with sufficient for all pur¬ poses of home consumption and exportation. The potters were aware that the porosity of the vessels in biscuit state, permeated by water till almost filled, might cause the raft to swamp; there¬ fore they covered each with varnish, (by us called glaze,) and connecting them as a raft or float, sent them down the Nile to Memphis. The great frequency of the practice, proves that not a small number of jars would be required; and diminishes the probability of Greece affording the supply, as Herodotus insinuates. Indeed, I think the country where the practice obtains must have known little of Greece or her customs, else these last would have suggested the use of boats of more buoyant and less fragile mate¬ rials. “ It may be proper to observe, (says Harmer,) that these floats are not constructed to pass up and down the Nile, like boats; or designed to carry goods upon them; though they may occa¬ sionally be put to that use; [as, during the time of roses blowing, for making rose-water, in profusion cultivated at Fiume, bee¬ hives are brought on such rafts, and when the flowers are decayed, the hives are returned to their owners;]—-it is only an easy way which the Fellahs discovered, and by their descendants observed, of conveying their earthenware from Upper Egypt, where it is made, to the Delta, or lower part of the country; where, on its arrival, the float is taken to pieces, and the vessels are sold to the inhabitants.” Norden, the Doctor’s authority, also states, ( Travels , vol. ii., p. 75,)—“To cross the Nile, the inhabitants of Upper Egypt contrive a float made of large earthen pitchers, [jugs,] tied closely together, and covered with leaves of palm-trees ; and the man who conducts it has commonly in his mouth a cord, with which he fishes as he sails along.” ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 379 that the fabrication of bricks would introduce also that of vessels ? In Egypt this people learned many arts, which they practised after their emancipation. The products of this art are often mentioned by Moses; (Lev. vi. 28, Num. v. 17,) and while they imply that he was acquainted with their usual mode of manufacture, I think we should ill compliment that numerous and intelligent people, by the supposi¬ tion that this knowledge was exclusively possessed by their leader. Neither ought we to conclude on the non-existence of potters among them, because they are not specially mentioned. That wares formed of clay, whether we call them pottery, porcelain, or earthenware, were in request, and of excellent quality, prior to any historical mention of their use, is clearly proved by the beautiful specimens which are usually discovered deposited with the mummies, and coeval with their existence. These with beads have been found, and even vessels; covered with a rich glaze, of a blue colour; and pieces of blue enamel, much similar, have been found in the tombs at Thebes. Mr. Delaval applied tests to a portion detached from a small image found with a mummy, to ascertain the colouring materials; and was of opinion, that, upwards of 2000 years anterior to the employment of chemical investigation to such subject, there existed accurate knowledge of the virtue of oxide of cobalt to give a beautiful blue tint to any vitrefied chemical compound of silica, alumine, and alcali ; though this was applied for this purpose only since the early part of the eighteenth century, A.D. That iron was therein employed, recent facts fully prove. As specimens show their having been 380 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY thrown on the “potter's ivheel ,” it must have been used in Egypt for the purpose. The most authentic records mention it; Homer, as well as Moses, regards it as very ancient in his day.* The Canaanites of holy writ, among their branches, had the most distinguished merchants, and most celebrated philanthropists of that era, the Phe- nicians. In their commercial migrations, they either supplied colonies, already established, with the ma¬ nufactures then current, in the way of barter; or placed their countrymen, with adequate know¬ ledge to pursue whatever branch might seem best adapted to the locality. They are admitted to have been well skilled in the processes requisite for ma¬ nufacturing excellent earthen and glass vessels. Of the site of their own potteries history fails to inform us; yet although the two cities Tyre and Sidon were the marts most noted, of their being the seat of the manufacture there is not the least proof; but, from them, more than 1200 years before the * The “ magic of a name” is here obvious. The' invention of the potter’s wheel, Strabo assigns to Anacharsis, the Scythian (or Gothic) philosopher; and is followed by Seneca, Suidas, Diogenes, Laertius, and others ; whom it were insult to suppose ignorant of the wares supplied by Tyre and Sidon, marts when Athens was mere hovels. Pliny, (lib. xxxv., sec. 14,) on the authority of Diodorus the Sicilian, (iv., 319,) asserts that the alleged inventor brought it from Scythia. This personage was otherwise named Icarus, the nephew or grandson of Dsedalus, the architect, in the days of Solomon; and probably, after completing his travels in search of information, he might benefit the Greeks by communi¬ cating the model of the machine. The date of the assigned inven¬ tion is more than 1000 years later than its known use, consequently will not support the allegation. ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 381 advent of the Messiah, most ports of the then known world obtained supplies. No doubt can arise that they would select the situation most suitable ; and, as the vale of Chozeba, in subsequent times, (the valley of the Son of Hinnom, very probably a noted potter, and maker of the earthen-gods which so abounded through the idolatrous portion of Jacob’s family,) I Chron. iv. 22, 23, was the site of the Jews’ potteries; and is remarkably placed for connection with Tyre, Sidon, Joppa, and Jabneel, I suggest the probability, that there the Phenician potters were employed ; and that the manufacture was continued for the special advantage of the Jewish kings, after the conquest. The Phenicians also excelled in the fabrication of figures of remarkable persons and objects, so much demanded to ornament their groves for licentious rites and ceremonies ; and which so greatly promoted idolatry, that divine displeasure annihilated many of its votaries.* * Pliny quotes Praxiteles for the authority, “that figulus primus inveniit ex argilla fingere similitudines and, in the art of modelling clay, the progress was more rapid, and the im¬ provement greater, than in any other; because of the facility with which it was accomplished. The historian (lib. xxxv., c. 12,) not aware that there existed specimens of earthenware figures, now acknowledged to have been employed in decorating Egyptian mummies, many centuries prior to the date of the introduction of potting into the state of Corinth, gives the following pleasing anecdote, to prove the origin of sculpture in the strongest emotions of the mind; and also to establish the claims of the Greeks to the merit of the invention; not that I wish to question the accuracy of the statement as connected with the parties mentioned; only that, previously, others had practised the art:—“A celebrated potter, of Sicyon, had a beautiful daughter, named Dibutades, 382 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. The Phenicians, according to Strabo, (I. 3,) at a very early period visited Britain, for tin, not then known to exist in any other country; and during many ages supplied its inhabitants with vessels of earthenware and glass. There are in holy writ references to our country, as one of “ the who, with her father’s approbation, had encouraged the attentions of a sailor, occasionally absent for some time. On returning, after a rather protracted absence, he was indulged with the favour of a private interview, during the hours when her father was at rest, ignorant of the assignation. The lover had been much fatigued at his return; and the detail of incidents to his beloved prolonged the interview, until sleep overpowered his senses, as they sat by the midnight lamp. The reflection of his features by the rays of light, strongly marked the profile on the wall; and the watchful fair one thus had her attention directed to the means of securing the likeness of her lover, as an object of regard during his absence. With the end of a half-burnt stick, as a stile, she quickly traced the outline, no doubt so truly in accordance to nature, that memory would readily supply all the features omitted. The father afterwards noticed this sketch; he applied clay to the outline, filled up whatever was requisite, and in a short time pro¬ duced a correct likeness of the face, for his daughter’s constant notice, when the idea of her lover presented itself. How must this modeller have been gratified, while proceeding:—the mere lump of clay assumes a reality of figure, to which each point of view suggests additional modification by the tool; to the daughter all is real, tangible, and needs only vitality, which the imagination is ready to supply, as she gazes on the lips inviting her salute; and witnesses how, agreeably to the simplicity of truth, sym¬ metry secures the just proportions of form and size, and the per¬ fect lines of ideal beauty. And at a period not later than the eighth century before Christ, this clay figure suggested the kin¬ dred practice of casting, and the now more esteemed art of sculp¬ ture. This production, regarded as the first essay of the art in Corinth, was long preserved in the public repository; but was destroyed by the foolish and barbarous Mummius Acliaius, when he sacked the city. Those which Solomon established in the vicinity of his capital, to indulge his wives and concubines, (1 Kings xi. 3, 7, 8,) and, in imitation of which, other kings also ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 383 Isles of the Gentiles,” and to the metal tin, Gen. x. 5, Num. xxxi. 22, 1 Kings x. 22, Ezek. xvii. 4; of the respec¬ tive dates 2200,1460, 1000, and 600 years B. C. The men¬ tion of the metal in the Iliad proves its use prior to Homer’s day. Many writers mention the statement, that from Tyre and Sidon, the Phenician sailors, in their trading vessels, visited, for its tin, the land of On, Britain, at least 285 years before the birth of Moses. (See Cellarius, p. 15 ; Cesar, 186, established, (xiv. 23, xvii. 28-33,) probably suggested the cerami- cus at Athens ; the shining whiteness of the figures suggesting the application of the word to wax-work; and giving the name to the spot where figures of the “ illustrious dead ” were placed over their graves.* The kings of Judah, from base motives, either encouraged, or winked at, the proneness to idolatry, which sup¬ plied funds for their luxury; and as statuary marble was intro¬ duced only in the eighth century before the Christian era, and nu¬ merous statues had been erected in different groves, &c. long pre¬ viously; and, when certain monarchs had cut down these, others who succeeded had fresh images supplied, set up; may not the expression, “to pass through the fire,” regard as much the potter’s process of baking figures of the objects of idolatrous worship, as of sacrifice of the person mentioned. (See Wisdom of Solomon, xv. 7, 13, 15.) The “ Potter’s-field ” was a public cemetery, and we have no proofs of its being,—the ground where they wrought tygs , (vessels for drink,) as the Saxon u cecer tigel wyrhtena” implies. * In the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, is preserved an excellent specimen of ancient pottery, on which, in its natural size, is the face of a beautiful woman, whose physiognomy completely differs from that of the Greeks. It is fully described, page 1017, vol. xv., Phil. Transactions. Of the productions of these early Phenician potters, most excellent specimens from excavations under the city of Acre, in great numbers, of vases and other v essels, are now preserved in the museum of the Baron Judica, at Calazolo; all of which are long anterior to the Christian era. And of the value attached to some of these specimens, an idea may be conceived, when I state, that in the Scudi Palace, Naples, are numerous specimens; and among the cinerary urns is one, for which the king of Naples paid 10,000 piastres, or £2,200 sterling. 384 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. 204 ; Arist. De Mundo, iii. 614.) Wherever this people introduced articles of commerce, they ultimately established manufactories ; and in the Philosophical Transactions, (xix. 319, xxii. 564,) are mentioned vestiges and even sites of extensive potteries in different counties, where scarcely imagined probable ; and which plainly indicate, that in those places, operations had ceased long anterior to any authentic records. Because of either some peculiar senti¬ ment of respect, or regard to the long-cherished doctrine of the body’s resurrection,—or its bastard offspring, trans¬ migration of the soul,—with the corpses of important per¬ sonages were deposited, in sepulture, vessels containing spices. And which custom is the cause of the numerous specimens of earthen urns, beakers, and bowls, which at different periods have been obtained, when opening barrows in several parts of the kingdom; rude in formation, and deficient in taste in regard to ornament; but not the less interesting from those qualities. They are regarded as objects of peculiar importance, because, having been found in situations which they must have occupied many centuries prior to the Roman invasion, they establish the fact of the ware being used for different purposes. And because their origin is incontestibly not Roman, the difficulty is attempted to be superseded, by making them Venetian ; though Venice, even if it were anterior to Rome, was not then known to have potteries ; and there is much probability that by mistake the name has been substituted for Phenician, which people had ceased, soon after the time of Solomon, to be the general merchants of the then known world, and could not have supplied ail parts of Britain, except at very great risk of loss and damage.* * In the ArcJueologia, (282, &c.,) is reference to others obtained from a British pottery, long submerged beneath the tides of the sea. In the cottages of the fishermen near Margate Roads, are frequently to be seen earthen vessels, ot rude workmanship, and coarse materials; which have been ob¬ tained from the nets at various times thrown on a shoal, (because of these vessels called the Pudding Pan Sand,) about two leagues from the shore in ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 385 The Phenicians, unable or unwilling longer to endure the intolerable exactions of Solomon, whom they had benefited in numerous ways; (1 Kings ix. 21,) and there being great probability of additional bond-service, (B. C. 1000,) a colony of potters and other artizans emigrated from Tyre, across the Mediterranean sea, to the foot of Mount Vesuvius; and at Nola commenced their manufac¬ ture of earthen vessels, and continued it, with a dexterity of workmanship, and with such taste in shapes and orna¬ ments, and a high state of excellence, elegance, and per¬ fection, as have scarcely yet been equalled; and obtained from the rulers of the country, and subsequently from the Roman government, in behalf of the artizans, every possi¬ ble encouragement. Pliny, where already quoted, mentions that Numa formed into a seventh confraternity the potters, who at a later period assumed the name of Etruscans. But, although it does not appear clear whether this was applied to them for distinction from others, who had sepa¬ rated, and commenced the manufacture in other places, that part of the Margate Roads called the Queen’s Channel, near the mouth of the Thames. Upon the greater number of these vessels, adapted for the rites of sepulture and other religious ceremonies, is very neatly impressed the name, Attilianus ; and also upon fragments, finer in quality, but less durable, and very rarely regarded as worth preserving, because of no use. The opinion prevailed, that here had been sunk during the time of the Roman domination, a trading vessel, whose freight of earthen vessels was now being obtained from the deep, in which they had so long time been immersed; perhaps because the currents had carried away the timbers of the vessel. But this opinion was proved illusory by some nets bringing up bricks, of Roman fabric, well cemented together. In 1778, more research ensued; Ptolemy’s Geography was examined, and in his second Book, reference is made to a small island at the mouth of the Thames, as existing two hundred years anterior to the visit of the Romans to Britain, and in that particular part where now is the shoal; but which island is not mentioned by Caesar, and is, therefore, supposed to have been submerged prior to his ambitious invasion of this country. The conclusion drawn by Governor Pownall, is, that upon this island was once a pottery; and that it was either owned (most probably) or managed by the person whose name is thus singularly preserved to our day. This mode of fixing the name, suggested the practice to Wedgwood, and is continued by his descendants; and adopted by many others in the present day. 2 C 386 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. especially at Arezzo, and Faenza; (whence probably fayance, the French name for earthenware;) it is not to be contro¬ verted, that from here went the potters to Corinth; which city afterwards became celebrated for the excellence of the ware made by the potter Demaratus, B. C. 600 ; and who afterwards left his Grecian connections for the more cele¬ brated and convenient potteries of Italy. Very early were the Persians celebrated for the manu¬ facture of porcelain, if we credit Propertius, who wrote in the time of the Emperor Augustus ; and as quoted by Sir John Chardin. Dr. Harmer boldly asserts (Vol. I., 74, 5,) that the best Asiatic porcelain is that of Persia; and he mentions principally, Shiraz, the capital of Persia Proper; also Metched, in Bactriana; and Yesd, Kirman, and espe¬ cially Zorendi, in Caramania. There is also a tradition, that, on one occasion, the potters at Yesd sent to Ispahan, in defiance of those in that city, a porcelain vessel, of twelve pints content, yet its weight only the eighth part of an ounce, (probably pound ; for a sheet of paper of the like size would weigh a drachm.)* * The following anecdote will prove that the Persians are aware of the excellence of their productions; and how easily, for their home supplies, the Dutch may mix it with the porcelain of Nankin :—In 1666, the Dutch am¬ bassador to the court of Persia, was exhibiting the many rich presents he had brought for the reigning prince, among which were fifty-six pieces of very valuable Chinese porcelain. These the prince viewed with contempt; in de¬ rision enquired what they were ? and on being informed, laughed most heartily at their non-importance ; to the very great confusion and mortification of the ambassador. Unacquaintance with these facts, is the probable cause why Robertson, with a good intention, no doubt, supports the attempts of the Abbe le Bland and M. Larcher, (Mem. de Litterat. XLIII.,) to prove that the very valuable vessels mentioned by Pliny (xxxvii. 2), as brought from Pontus, B.C. 64, by the victorious army, and first seen at Rome at Pompey’s triumph; and called vnsa murrhina, murrina, and murrea, were formed out of a transparent stone, dug from the earth in some of the eastern provinces of Asia; and by some persons called Parthian agates, whitish, but variolated. These writers do not assign any probable cause for the number found together being of the same kind and quality; neither do they state where similar stones are now to be found; nor supply any slight traces of the practice of fabrication; and yet ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 387 The opinion entertained by persons (whose education has led them to suppose that the Romans taught the Britons all the arts of life,) of this manufacture having origi¬ nated with the conquest of this nation by that unprincipled and ambitious people, I feel bound to shew devoid of solid foundation. I will admit, that in the vicinity of some of their military stations have been discovered remains of small potteries; and that bricks, 17 by 11 inches on the surface, and 2| in thickness, remain in the walls of Veru- lam, a little south of St. Albans. Also, that in Hyde Park were dug up, in the beginning of the eighteenth century, water-pipes, 2 inches thick, and with their joints formed of common lime-mortar moistened with a vegetable oil; and assigned to the Romans, because Vitruvius mentions water- pipes fabricated of potter’s clay. But, as Amulets, (glain neidyr ,J about half as wide as the finger ring, but much thicker, of glass, usually of a green colour, but others blue, and wavy of red, blue, and white, used as a charm for the vulgar, are yet preserved entire, which were manufactured by the British Druids many centuries anterior to the Roman conquest; before I concede every relic of inge¬ nuity to that people, some indisputable authority must convince me that among the Britons had ceased to exist we cannot suppose that there would be entire loss of a manufacture,—(which for excellence of workmanship required and manifested considerable judgment and dexterity,)—in the country where such valuable stones were quarried. Had these writers just attended to the geography of the country, they would have seen the great probability, not merely that the vessels were of eastern manufacture, (as they seem to admit,) but, that they were indeed Persian porcelain vessels; and in quality similar to those used in the time of those great scholars, Cardan and Scaliger, both of whom entertain this opinion, though seldom on any other agreeing. There is close approximation to the facts, also, in their speculations, from the statements of travellers, on the component materials of the vessels ;—“ they were formed of eggs and sea- shells, marine mollusca, beaten small, and buried from eighty to one hundred yearsas the fluid mass of the preparing clay is not unlike beaten eggs; and the long deposite of the mass under-ground is even in our day a practice in China. 9 c *> -v U ^ 388 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. all that native genius which had in prior ages enabled them to confer inestimable obligations on Greece as well as Rome; for we have these authorities,—Gobryas, the Persian,—Hellanicus, a writer long prior to Hero¬ dotus, Socrates, Plato, and Diodorus Siculus, that our ancestors sent, in Phenician trading-vessels, to Delos, three virgins, with tables, of our copper and tin, or copper and zinc, on which were written the doctrines of religion, especially concerning a future state of retribution, the blessedness of the just, and the misery of the wicked.— Also, that the colonizers of Britain, long before Rome was even a range of sheds, or dignified with a name , were not incited, by the utility of domestic utensils, the plentiful supply of materials, and the facility with which they could be fabricated, to render themselves expert in providing substitutes for those destroyed by accident or using.—Also, that Verulam was of Roman erection, and chiefly occupied by that people’s legions.—Also, that such w r ater-pipes are not of Staffordshire manufacture; where from periods long prior to any historical records, clay for the purpose has been quarried, to an extent, proved by existing excavations, after long being receptacles of potsherds, &c., only to be credited by persons who inspect them. Besides, the opinion presupposes, that among the legions were persons who greatly excelled, and had plenty of time which they could and did employ in the manufacture ; also, that much earthenware was used by the armies; and further, that only the most rude specimens are preserved to posterity. With about equal propriety might I assert, that Knut, the Dane, established the manufacture in Staffordshire, now so flou¬ rishing, as the staple of the borough of Stoke-upon-Trent. For there is an equally indisputable fact, that at one of his military posts, ©JCgtCYtOtt Ott iTC Ixtttt, ( Chesterton-on- the-Loam , one extremity of Knutton-heath, and only two miles distant from Knut-Castle-on-the-Loam ,—through the errors of copyists, corrupted, in modern orthography to Newcastle-under- Lyme,) at the depth of 7 to 10 feet below ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 389 the surface, the late Mr. Josiah Wedgwood and some friends discovered appearances of an early pottery,—such as we might imagine would be presented by the borough of Stoke-upon-Trent, was it to be submerged ; and, at the ex¬ piration of many centuries, were to be again exposed, the foundations and remains of workshops, ovens, masses of potsherds, and other refuse from the vessels injured by baking. In the chapter already quoted, Pliny mentions the usefulness of clay, “ in yielding us the conduit-pipes for water, also tiles, flat, or hooked, or made with crotchets at one end, to hang upon the sides of the roof, or chamfered to form gutters for the flow of water, or curbed for creases to clasp both sides of the ridge; besides the vessels which are turned with the wheel, and worked round; yea and large earthen tuns and pipes, constructed to contain either wine or water.”—Also, “ Vitellius, while he was emperor, caused a charger to be made and finished, which cost a million of sesterces, [if so, £8,000 sterling ; but possibly an error of the copyist for a less sum,] for the baking of which a furnace was purposely erected.”* There is additional * In accordance with this mode of erecting a furnace expressly for a parti¬ cular object, I find the following statement by Plutarch, in his Life- of Pub- licola :—“ Tarquin, while yet upon the throne, had almost finished the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, when, either by the direction of an oracle, qj upon some fancy of his own, he ordered the artizans of Veii to make an Earthen Cha¬ riot,* which was to be placed on the top of it. Soon after this he forfeited the crown. The Tuscans, however, modelled the chariot, and set it in the furnace - but the case was different with it from that of other clay in the fire, which condenses and contracts on the exhalation of the moisture; whereas it enlarged itself, and swelled till it grew to such a size and hardness, that it was with dif¬ ficulty they got it out even after the furnace was dismantled. The soothsayers being of opinion, that this chariot betokened power and success to the people with whom it should remain, the people of Veii determined not to give it up to the Romans ; but, upon their demanding it, returned this answer,—“ That it • A remarkable corroboration of the opinion I have given, p. 381, of the employment of the Potter’s Art, for objects scarcely accomplishable by the labours of the sculptor. 390 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. support to Pliny’s statement in the translation, by Wickes Skurray, of the Marquess Don Marcello di Vinuti’s Ac¬ count of the Discoveries at Heraclea, in Pontus, published in 1750. He says, (p. 11.0,) “Through a door of white belonged to Tarquin, not to those who had driven him from his kingdom.” It happened, that a few days after, there was a chariot race at Veii, which was observed as usual ; except that, as the charioteer, who had won the prize and received the crown, was gently driving out of the ring, the horses took fright without any visible cause, but either by some direction of the gods, or turn of fortune, ran away with their driver at full speed towards Rome. It was in vain that he pulled the reins, or soothed them with words; he was obliged to give way to their career, and was whirled along till they came to the capitol, where they flung him at the gate called Ratumena. The Veientes, surprised and terrified at this incident, ordered the artist to deliver up the chariot.”— Allowing that the expence was borne by funds supplied by the emperor, I can¬ not but suppose their processes, as well as materials, must have differed greatly from those of other potters of the Roman era, as well as from those of our own artizans of the present day, dependant on their own industry, genius, and capital. In the Archaeologia, are Remarks on Roman Antiquities of the Durobrivas of Antoninus, with correct figures of the subjects now to be men¬ tioned :—At Castor, Northamptonshire, Mr. E. T. Artis discovered, in a state of complete preservation, the Biscuit and Gloss Ovens, which were portions of a Roman pottery, with vessels therein, as they were placed for baking, and remained while and after the town was destroyed by conflagration. Both ovens will not compare with those in present use in magnitude. The Biscuit-oven can scarcely be called conical; the diameter at the bottom is 4 feet 6 inches, and at the top 5 feet, and its height is 4 feet. From the hearth, at 18 inches, is a floor of triangular tiles, 3 inches thick, with their points resting on a pillar in the centre of the fire-chamber, (or receptacle of the fuel, supplied through an aperture in the front) the broader end of the tile is perforated with two cir¬ cular holes, an inch in diameter, through which passed the flame to bake the vessels in the upper chamber, or oven, 2 feet 3 inches deep. As only red pottery was found in the oven, and no trace of seggars, (certainly not required for such ware,) we have no proofs for or against their use. Also, whether the sides were higher or not, is not determined, nor the manuer in which it was covered; but probably a conical arrangement of flat tiles was employed for this purpose. The Gloss-oven is formed of two hemispherical muffles or seggars, 2 feet 6 inches diameter, together ranged behind the biscuit-oven, and by a large rim or fianch suspended over the fire-chamber, similarly supplied with fuel through an aperture in the front, and beyond the hindmost seggar was another aperture for the smoke to escape. On each seggar fits another almost hemispherical, and rather longer. Both were half filled with wares, in the last stage of their manufacture. Professor Haussman has proved that the ancient vases were ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 391 marble, we entered a room, 14 yards long, and 8 broad, and which led to another room of the same length, but almost square. Round the inside of both these rooms, close to the wall, and about half a yard high, ran along a kind of bench, covered with a marble pavement; which at first seemed to have been used for a seat, but on coming nearer, to more closely examine it, I perceived some of the pieces of marble were round, like stopples; and, on their removal, I found they were the covers of some very large earthen jars, fixed in with mortar, with their necks inclosed just level with the seeming bench. These vessels were of a round form, and would each contain ten barrels, Tuscan measure. On one of these vessels is this inscription— Opus, Doliare, Vinarium. The names on the handles and necks of these vessels are those of the makers. The names written with ink were those of the owners of the liquor contained therein. The multiplicity of names caused the conjecture that these apartments had been for the soldiers who were stationed to guard the walls ; and that whatever name was written on the vessel, to that person belonged the wine contained therein, whether by purchase, or by allowance.” The preceding details having reference to dates indis¬ putably prior to any accredited record with which Eu¬ ropeans are acquainted, of the manufacture by Chinese artizans, do not insinuate priority of operations, yet clearly elucidate what must at any given era have been contempo¬ raneous with them. There necessarily is some obscurity attached to the whole ; and, with all inquisitive minds, this I regret; for the industry of research is checked, and the ardour of ambition damped, by the fact, that the most useful and necessary inventions have not perpetuated any trace soaked in varnish, and then baked. And it is evident, that these seggars could not have fixed that portion of heat which would vitrefy a glaze, however fusible; as the heat communicated would be only little more than that afforded by the sand-bath in chemical processes. 392 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. other than themselves of their inventors; as the most superb and durable, like the less elegant and perishable monuments, have failed to commemorate their subjects and founders. The earliest written historical records of the art among the Chinese, the annals of the occurrences, transactions, and subjects worthy of being most particularly remembered, of the city Fou-leang, in the province of Kian-gsi, the dis¬ trict in which is situated King-te-ching, the locale of the China manufacture,—mention the productions, as being so excellent, A.D. 442, as to be an object of interest to the imperial court. Such was then its high state of proficiency and perfection, that to these potteries were deputed two mandarins to superintend the workmen while employed in the manufacture of porcelain for the use of the emperor’s household;—a most unpleasant affair for the manufacturers; and the probable cause why no attempts have succeeded to transfer the art to the capital, Pekin ; but, by all who have had opportunity for observation, admitted to be a part of the policy of the government, thus obtrusively to interfere with the private affairs of its subjects. These records, however, are completely silent alike concerning the era of the invention ; the name of the in¬ ventor ; the date of its attaining its acme of perfection; and the master-minds who so successfully improved the processes and manipulations, as to enable the artizans to surpass in excellence of productions those of all other contemporary nations with whom they were acquainted. That the whole series of operations continue unaltered, will not be any cause of surprise to persons who have been informed of the conceitedness of the Chinese in general; and who for a moment reflect, that whenever any attempt is made to introduce improvements into any of the arts of life, those who have been employed therein present the chief difficulty; because of the fondness entertained for old practices, in which they, perhaps, are expert; and from regarding each improvement as an idle and useless in- ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 393 novation on the long-established procedure of their ancestors. Earthen vessels of truly excellent quality, however, as well as the finest specimens of porcelain,* are yet preserved, that are known to have been made at other cities of the empire, besides those at King-te-ching, and as well as in Japan, long prior to the Christian era. As the wants of mankind increased, in like manner would their endeavours to invent means for their supply. There is no clue to the precise date of the introduction of Tea Ware among the domestic utensils of this people; though there cannot be any doubt that their manufacture would quickly become general, on their convenience and utility being fully ex¬ perienced. I cannot believe, yet, that this was the period of the origin of this art among this people. It certainly must have been earlier; because it could not immediately rise to that state of excellence in quality, and perfection in manipulation, adapted to render it of importance at court. Though I am ready to confess, we need not wonder that this people did so soon arrive at the admitted superiority of their productions, and the perfection of their porcelain, when we consider that they have the indispensable earths for their purposes; and all other materials, clays or mine¬ rals, of recent date discovered as useful by the researches of Europeans. The fact, that close examination of known early speci¬ mens, and of others very recently manufactured, in every point of comparison, present to the inspection similar characteristic qualities and properties,—by indicating that * Dr. Johnson gives as the etymon of Porcelain, pour cent annies , pro¬ bably because of the statements that the period of one or two centuries is required to weather the clay for the Chinese potters. Others derive it from the Latin name of the Venus shell, concha porcellaruz, of the genus Cypraea; partly, because the polished exterior of the ware approaches to the beautiful rich surface of the shell, whose peculiar hinge suggests the name ; and be¬ cause only by females was tea-ware first used in Europe. Because of the obscenity of the Latin term, the country supplies the name China. 394 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. no alterations whatever have been made in either the mate¬ rials or processes,—may be supposed to militate against the opinion, that, during a long period, the manufacture, in this quarter, was progressively improving to its admitted station on the scale of excellence;—and more especially, as there are many known ancient specimens, greatly superior to those usually vended at modern sales; whence comes the observation said to be of Chinese origin, that the former manufacture excelled that of the present day. But, in support of the opinion, there is brought another fact,—that although the Chinese potters might (and there is every degree of probability that they did) by accident discover and employ the Debris of the two families of felspar Rocks, Ka-o-lin , and Pe-tun-tse , in forming their ware ; yet certainly they did not in like manner discover the appro¬ priation of those substances as at present practised. Many attempts, accompanied with varied success, and requiring a long period of time, assuredly would have been made, before the discovery of the proportions requisite to make porcelain; and a much longer time to invent the processes by which the rocks are reduced to a workable state. Every observer must have noticed, that the very nature of prac¬ tice in any of the arts of life, is the progress to perfection in processes, and to excellence in properties. The Chinese assertion of the superiority of the ancient manufactures, will be allowed by only those who are not aware that the like materials and processes are still employed; and that the natives do not hesitate to employ the most monstrous falsehoods to deceive those strangers with whom they have dealings. That most choice specimens have been obtained from places where they had been buried or hidden several centuries, is readily acknowledged ; but those persons who recollect the frequent intestine commotions which have disturbed the Celestial Empire, will regard these specimens as with greater probability hidden, because of their value, by their owners, in some civil war, and forgotten. The best specimens now manufactured contradict the assertion ; and ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 395 it is a mere chimera, to suppose that a long deposition in the ground is indispensable to render the most valuable articles perfectly beautiful and excellent. The principal seat of the manufacture in Britain, the borough of Stoke-upon-Trent, has about 30,000 operatives employed to furnish the requisite supplies of porcelain, flint, and Delft wares, for home consumption, and exporta¬ tion to most celebrated places on the globe. We therefore are surprized at the mention that King-te-ching contains 500 ovens, and has 800,000 operatives to keep them con¬ stantly supplied. The number seems immensely large; even though it be admitted, that here is supplied the porce¬ lain most esteemed and excellent; purchased by the Ja- panese merchants for the European markets, in preference to the porcelains of Fo-kien and Canton, which have de¬ preciated value; and, that the imperial court has ever manifested for this ware a decided partiality and preference, and requires the most excellent specimens- to be constantly devoted to its purposes. There is certainly one cause, which possibly may render requisite such an immense num¬ ber of work-people; (and the writer of the article Porce¬ lain :, in Rees’ Cyclopaedia, assigns it as that for the enor¬ mous charge of the Oriental porcelain ;)—“ it rarely hap¬ pens that an oven succeeds throughout; but it is frequently quite spoiled, so that upon opening it, in lieu of fine porce¬ lain, is found a hard unformed mass, into which both the porcelains and their coffins [the vessels and the seggars,] are converted, either by excess of heat, or some ill qualities in the matter.” Yet this writer, (like many others who seem wishful to regard all of foreign production as super-excel¬ lent,) when comparing this Oriental porcelain with that of St. Cloud, which is infusible , in entire forgetfulness of the above remarks, says, “ the China-ware being made of a paste, part of which is made of a substance in itself scarcely possible to be vitrefied, bears the fire in yet much more intense degree than ours, and is in no danger of running wholly into glass from it.” Parkes makes an 396 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. equivalent assertion; and no doubt both imagine they are correct. Let them just reflect on the components of the paste and the glaze, and they will understand the tremen¬ dous heats of the Chinese ovens. Satisfactory information has not been obtained of the precise date of this proud conquest of our ancestors, the establishment of the manufacture in the district, now the borough of Stoke-upon-Trent; but, that it preceded the introduction of the Saxon tongue, etymology clearly demon¬ strates ;— Burslem has its name from being the locale of the manufacture; and the different enunciation of the com¬ pounded names of the same primary ideas, has caused the scribes of the times to vary the orthography, as BwU wardeslcem, Bwlwardslene, JBwryeardeslyme, Burewardeslime, Barcardeslim, &c. The force of each part of the compound will appear clearly thus :— Burn, hyrn, a small rill of water , its receptacle being a bwl, bwr, bwc (bowl, burl, bowk); wardes, yeard, cardes, —a spot wared, guarded, looked over , (yard, a farm-yard, tan-yard, church-yard, and garden, quarry, are cognate terms;) loem, clay, earth, Icemen, earthy, lemm-faet , the feat in loam, work in clay ; and lyme, lene, lime, are kindred forms. The words then originally signi¬ fied— a vessel to contain water, a guarded spot of land, and the earth of which the vessel was fabricated ; and hence the true import of Burslem, is- — the spot where is quarried and used clay for pots. The small utensil for conveying drink to the mouth, because of its purpose was named tyg , or the touched pot, corrupted into tot; and the maker of drink-cups was named tygel wyrthan, workers of tygs, (still retained in Saxony.) On other etymologies it were invi¬ dious to offer any remarks. Reasoning on the importance to a nation of the suc¬ cessful fabrication of valueless earths into vessels of conside¬ rable value, it would be supposed that there would be made great endeavours to discover the materials, and completely develope the processes, by which to conduct at home the manufacture of porcelain, similar to that which from Japan ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 397 and China found its way into the western states of Europe; and, being the ornament of sumptuous tables, and the admiration of persons of opulence and taste, was increasing in demand. And yet the broad tablets of history show the negative of such surmises. Such had been the prevalence of ignorance and barbarism;—the inability of the poor, and the indifference of the rich ; the indolence of the in¬ genious, and the apathy of the active; the vigorous pursuit among the European states of the arts of destructive war¬ fare, and the negligence of those of social comfort and peace, as present the lamentable facts, that,—during sixteen centuries of the Christian era, in which, regard to the in¬ junctions and precepts of the Divine Founder, should and would have promoted public prosperity, and increased the sum of human happiness;—all attempts whatever for the above important and useful purposes, were either altogether disregarded, or remained completely unsuccessful; even though incessantly aided by the almost incredible efforts of the Jesuit missionaries in the east.* * The indifference of nations, however, to their best interests, did not pre¬ vent the appearance of individuals, who, disregarding every obstacle, aimed at accomplishing some important addition to the stock of public wealth. The following worthies are connected with earthenwares :— Luca della Robia, of Florence, born in 1388, afterwards a goldsmith and statuary, manufactured of terra cotta invetriata , or glazed earthenware, of good quality, and agreeably to the fancy of the purchaser, at pleasure white, brown, blue, green, or yellow, vessels of the kinds needful for domestic pur¬ poses ; and, in relief, busts, and figures of saints, in truly excellent style of sculpture, and in our day numerous in the churches of his native city. The workmanship does great credit to the talents of the artist; and the composition of the materials, though certainly the result of accident and observation, without the helps of theory, seems as perfect and equivalent, as if there had been employed the fullest attention to the laws of chemical combination. Castel Franco, in 1510, manufactured, at Faenza, excellent Majolica, the Italian name for Earthenware, named Fayance, by the French. Many of his productions were ornamented by the pencil of Raphael; (according to the information given me by the late Jacob Warburton;) and the specimens yet preserved in many collections cannot fail to excite surprize that so few improvements have been made, and such a long intervening series of years has 398 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. While engaged in the fruitless attempt to introduce the tenets of the church of Rome among the inhabitants of the extensive empire of China, into whose estimation they elapsed, to bring the manufacture to its present state, in the several European nations. Bernard de Palissy, neglected during his career, but now named only with exultation, born, at the close of the fifteenth century, at Agen, in France, versed in the chemical knowledge of that age, and with his acquirements uniting bath superior talents and industry, in the manufacture of fayance, and especially its glaze, made great improvements, by the most astonishing per¬ severance. Of humble origin, and employed as a draughtsman and land-sur¬ veyor, accident presented him with a cup of Italian fayance, whose glaze and beautiful enamel-painting caused the powers of his mind to be devoted to pro¬ duce ware equally excellent; and only to his own indefatigable energy, and un¬ quenchable thirst for full accomplishment, does he owe the success which ulti¬ mately brought this manufacture into celebrity in France, and secured to him¬ self fame, honours, and independence. The narrative of his labours, sacrifices, and privations, is a most instructive piece for a person commencing the study of useful sciences ; and most sympathetically do I respond to many of the bitter remarks he so pertinently makes. As a self-taught painter, his industry and efforts were inadequate to provide for his family ; and during the anxiety consequent on the failures, to which “ hope told a flattering tale,” the idea of advantages from knowledge of the fabrication of such ware, took full posses¬ sion of his thoughts. Imagining that whatever trouble or difficulty might attach to the acquisition, the termination of his miseries would ensue from his success, he determined to assiduously employ every moment he could spare, every effort he could make, and all the means he could obtain, however limited in quantity and amount. One of his productions supplied funds to commence his processes ; but their results proving entire failures, he was thus more reduced, and had the additional annoyance of the remonstrances of relatives, who deemed his design chimerical, and the earnest entreaties of his wife that he would relinquish his ruinous project. Persuaded, however, in his own mind, that success was within his reach, at exorbitant interest he borrowed money from parties willing to lend, and which he expended without any other than mere trifling success. Now he was necessitated to give part of his clothes to induce his assistant to continue his aid; and failing of funds to pur¬ chase fuel, his chairs and tables were substituted and consumed. His wife and family justly complained of the privations they endured, and his own feelings were constantly agitated by witnessing these, and failure of his researches, during about sixt^r-i yeers; yet his common cheerfulness prevented his friends becoming car : ~i cd with his really destitute condition. And, at length, complete success crowned his efforts j the productions of his ingenuity became of national importance, and secured to himself and family opulence and distinction. ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 399 might successfully ingratiate themselves, the missionaries of the Society of Jesus had to adopt every method, and resort to every practice, short of sin and infidelity; but persons acquainted with the history of that society know, that an object regarded as requisite, was never relinquished in con¬ sequence of obstacles being presented. The manufacture of porcelain, as practised in China, was a desideratum to France; and the veil thrown over all the processes, had been impe¬ netrable by every effort of the Dutch and English mer¬ chants. The developement, however, was undertaken by one of the above-mentioned society, who is entitled to grateful remembrance, as a benefactor to Europe at large. With only a very limited knowledge of the construction of machinery, and a restricted acquaintance with the proper¬ ties of mineral productions ; even had the Oriental pro¬ cesses been in any way adapted to suggest, rather than to retard, improvements in those of Europeans; his descrip¬ tions are defective in precision ; yet only perhaps because of misinformation. The indefatigable friend of his country, the Father Francis Xavier de Entrecolles, during a long residence at King-te-ching, and its vicinity, by the suavity of a mild deportment, and amiable manners, eluded the jealous vigilance usually exercised towards strangers; and by much intrigue, unparalleled assiduity, and a very bland and insinuating address, secured the friendship of some of the less suspecting of the potters; was favoured with opportunities to witness the processes and manipula¬ tions of the manufacture; and obtained ample specimens of the two chief materials, the Ka-o-lin , and Pe-tun-tse. He fully detailed all the particulars in a letter, dated Jauchew, (or Jaotcheou,) Sept. 1,1712, which he transmitted, with the specimens, to the Jesuit Father Orry, of Paris; by whom the information was quickly spread ; and to more generally diffuse it, Grosier published the details in his General Description of China. The return, from the east, of the few warm-hearted enthusiasts who had engaged in the Crusades, made those 400 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. nations to which they belonged better acquainted with science. They had also imbibed the error of transmutation, and caused all the known metals to be tortured in every way likely to supply the precious metal sought. In the different cities of Europe, the practices of some of the Alche¬ mists, those labourers in the ardent laboratory of metal¬ lurgy, had introduced the manufacture of Common Stone Ware; having proved that it only could with security be employed in the intense heats to which their furnaces were occasionally raised; and which a judge of no ordinary ability, Macquer, asserts, “ is the most perfect pottery that can be; possessing all the essential qualities of the finest Japanese Porcelain.” To render these vessels more easy to be cleansed, and retentive of any chemical compounds or preparations, without being permeated thereby, vitrefication of the surface was affected by fusing the silica in combina¬ tion with soda during the decomposition of common table- salt. In this, as in many other of the processes, with little real chemical knowledge of the properties of sub¬ stances, nor any exemplars of what they wished to produce, the simultaneous endeavours of several persons to introduce something new, obtained some partial success; a close in¬ vestigation of one subject, frequently reflected additional light on some other; results, altogether unexpected, were presented to notice ; and often, an incident comparatively trivial, occasioned a discovery of paramount importance. Prior to 1700, a professed alchemist from Switzerland had frequently visited the shop of a druggist in Magdeburg, for the various articles required in his researches for the Elixir Vitce, the Philosopher’s Stone, and the Powder of Projection. Like most of his compeers in the delusive task, blinded by the avarice which stimulated perseverance in the unproductive labours, he seems to have altogether over¬ looked, or entirely disregarded, the numerous intimations given by the processes, that the attention was courted to transpiring facts, from which valuable and truly important discoveries have since rewarded the patient observations and ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 401 assiduity of minds better regulated to the consecutiveness of scientific investigations. The druggist had an apprentice, named John De Botscher, (mentioned already at page 5,) whose kind attentions and repeated manifestations of readi¬ ness to oblige the alchemist, even at some personal inconve¬ nience, so won on the regard of the enthusiast, as to induce him to communicate, in detail, correct information relative to the customary processes and manipulations in chemistry, which were regarded as indispensable to the full effecting of transmutation. About 1700, the alchemist fell a victim to his unhealthy experiments, like many another engaged in chemical researches, and the young man became possessed of his papers, and retained them for his own purposes, at an age the most critical for the proper formation of character. Dishonourably disregarding the connection between his master and himself, and indifferent to the possibility that himself might become a houseless wanderer, elated with his possession of the treasury in which were deposited the im¬ portant secrets, at that time the objects of such assiduous labour to the initiated ; and buoyed up with the supposition that both health and opulence were now within his com¬ mand ; he absconded to Berlin, and announced his acquisi¬ tions and purposes, for the benefit of the citizens. Leibnitz says, “Without my being able to explain how it came to pass, I know he took to gold-making, and revived the almost expiring hopes of the alchemists, by extraordinary proofs of his skill. Several eye-witnesses aver, that in their presence, as he was about to leave his master, he threw thirteen pieces of copper money, which one of those present gave him, into a melting-dish, and after they were melted, he added to them a piece of some substance that resembled dark-coloured glass, and almost immediately afterwards poured out of the melting-pot a piece of fine gold, equal in weight to the money employed. This took place before he received in¬ struction from the celebrated Tschernhausen, in Dresden. On his master discovering the place of his apprentice’s re¬ treat, justly considering himself entitled to the advantages 2 D 402 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. resulting from bis industry, and hoping to derive opulence from the alchemist’s papers, he pursued the fugitive, had him apprehended, and before the judicial authorities of Dresden stated his claims, and urged the committal of the young alchemist again to his care and protection. His journey, however, ended in complete disappointment. The reigning prince had some peculiar views of the whole affair; whether he indulged the hope of ultimately obtaining from the youth’s possession of the secret, or not; he hesitated to decide the case, and seems not to have been disposed en¬ tirely to neglect so favourable and remarkable an opportu¬ nity for readily enriching himself, as was thereby unex¬ pectedly presented. Under the pretext of more fully con¬ sidering the merits of the case, he detained De Botscher in the castle of Koningstein, but gave to the keepers secret instructions to supply him with all kinds of materials he might need in whatever experiments he might feel disposed to make, either for employment of his time against ennui , or in pursuit of his chimerical researches. In this condition, at only the expence of his own labour, and the cost of the prince, he had ample opportunity and sufficient leisure to make memorandums of the compounds, proportional quan¬ tities, and results, in his multiplicity of experiments and mortifying failures. Yet he had not opportunity to either mal-appropriate or destroy the least portion of the products. Some specimens of metals obtained during the course of his researches, instead of inducing the prince to liberate the detenu , prompted the more his avaricious expectation of ultimate successful results. De Botsclier’s crucibles failed under the extremely high heat of his furnace, which he deemed requisite to fuse some of the minerals. The fabri¬ cation of others more refractory engaged his attention, and without determined knowledge of the qualities of minerals and stony masses, he mixed and remixed at random for some time. However, the period of his liberation came more quickly than he might have expected, however highly desirable he might consider it. On one occasion, ignorant ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 403 of the natural qualities of the substances, and of their che¬ mical tendencies when affected by high temperature, he mixed some minerals whose natural properties are exactly similar to those of the Kaolin and Petuntse employed by the Chinese in the manufacture of porcelain; and most unex¬ pectedly he found his crucibles, formed of this compound, refractory in the most intense heat he could command. And, to his great surprise and gratification he found like¬ wise, what his most ardent fancy had never once imagined, the crucibles, when cold, were of a pale flesh-colour, semi- vitreous, semi-transparent, and so compact and firm as to receive from the lapidary’s wheel, a polish and lustre equal to that of the best glazed porcelain. The repetition of his processes satisfied him of the importance of the discovery, thus accidentally made, to the commercial resources and re¬ venues of the country; and while prudence urged to the concealment of the substances and proportional quantities, he had sufficient wisdom to immediately discontinue all pursuits of the objects for which he had been primarily in¬ carcerated, and devote all his mental energies to the per¬ fecting of the discovery which now presented itself, as likely to be incalculably more valuable to himself, and much more useful to society, by promoting individual industry, and so inducing comfort and prosperity. The apartments of the Japan palace, at Dresden, now contain numerous specimens of the kinds of ware he made, while he was busily engaged in perfecting the composition of the white real porcelain * in imitation of the imported productions of China and Japan. The prince himself had both the honesty and honour, to avow the debt due to the youth, who had thus introduced a sub¬ ject of inestimable value to his dominions, not indeed for success in alchemy, transmuting the metals into gold, but for transmuting the rocks into elegant vessels adapted for both usefulness and ornament; for transforming the mire and the clay into a valuable article of commerce; and to award, as a compensation, a patent of nobility with ample possessions to support the dignity. The white porcelain, 2 d 2 404 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. the manufacture whose establishment was the ultimate re¬ sult of the discovery, was the only kind made during the life of De Botscher, and merely a little improved is conti¬ nued for the private advantage of the king of Saxony; but, about three years after his death, the manufacture of co¬ loured porcelain was successfully introduced, and the excel¬ lence of the productions has secured them a value rivalling the most choice specimens from the celestial empire. The other European nations were no otherwise benefitted by this discovery, than as regarded the stimulus given to the exertion of genius and research. For with a jealousy too common, yet not the less to be regretted, to preserve veiled in impenetrable secresy every process for the manufacture of the Dresden porcelain, the place selected as the arcanum for their seclusion was the ancient castle of the Albrechts- berg, situate on a rock more than eighty feet above the bed of the river Elbe, at Meissen, near Dresden; and here, in cells, all the persons employed in the processes were as completely immured, as if crime had been the cause of their incarceration. The announcement of De Botscher’s, perhaps we ought to say, invention, and the remarkable success which at¬ tended the manufacture of the Dresden porcelain, commu¬ nicated such impetus to the operations, and so stimulated the researches of the potters of Britain and France, that a great variety of productions resulted, each differing from the others, and presenting a beautiful appearance on the exterior; but all, more or less, obviously deficient in the qualities essential to real porcelain, and much surpassed in excellence by the productions of Dresden, as well as those of China and Japan; and because of their open grain and texture, as also of their ready fusibility at a moderate degree of heat, distinguished among connoisseurs by the general appellation of Soft or False Porcelains. The arrival of the specimens sent from China by D’Entrecolles, was regarded as of such importance to the manufacturing interests of France especially, and was the ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 405 cause of such expressions of satisfaction, that without the least delay to ascertain their components, relative propor¬ tions, and chemical qualities ; or whether the researches of the mineralogists would be successful in discovering that France (as was proved in 1739,) possessed in the quarries of Alengon and St. Yrieux, near Limoges, the same family of minerals which supply the Kaolin and Petuntse, and which would render less difficult the perfect imitation of the ad¬ mired oriental productions, Reaumur, the amiable, intelli¬ gent, philosophic, and celebrated friend of the Arts, devot¬ ing the greater portion of a long life to benefit bis country, with true patriotism, at St. Cloud immediately commenced a series of experiments, which he indefatigably pursued, to develope the essential properties of porcelain, ascertain the agreement or difference of those of Dresden and China, and elucidate the most felicitous methods for establishing a rival manufacture. He found Japan porcelain, in grain and tex¬ ture close and compact, in appearance shining, smooth, and infusible in any heat he applied ; De Botscher’s porcelain, not granular in texture, but more compact than that of Japan, smooth, and vitreous like enamel. After much labour, and frequent disappointments, his reasonings were fully demonstrated by the characteristic properties of the Japan porcelain :—when a substance, which is, per se, fusible at a known temperature, (as he found the Petuntse,) is mixed with a determined proportion of another substance per se infusible at any temperature, (as the Kaolin proved,) the fusible component flowing by the heat, which even much increased does not alter the infusible, there will be formed a vitrefied compound substance, such as is the Japan porcelain. To verify these reasonings, he mixed different proportions of the Chinese minerals, in their crude, and also in their prepared states, subjected them to proper baking, and had the great satisfaction to find certain of them, in grain and texture, much similar to the Japan ware. The results suggested the improved French porcelain, in grain less dose and fine than that last mentioned, with a fracture 406 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. like fine sugar; and, formed of the earths, whose announce¬ ment is thus made in the Transactions of the Academy of Sciences, Paris, (1739,) “We have in Europe substances of the very same nature as the oriental Petuntse and Kaolin, and capable of being worked into a porcelain equally beau¬ tiful and fine.” The experiments had been published in those Transactions, in 1729, ten years after the death of De Bbtscher. Ultimately, they caused the establishment of the deservedly celebrated Sevre3 manufactory, under royal patronage, where are produced specimens of art, which will bear the most scrupulous comparison with the choicest ob¬ tained from Dresden and China; the directors, being devoid of fear of expence, and by restrictions on private manu¬ factories, secured from the effects of competition, while availing themselves of every important suggestion by persons of scientific acquirements adapted to promote improvement. Reaumur, in 1739, also published the process by which he so devitrefied glass, as to form the peculiar substance which is named, not for its properties, but its appearance, Reaumur’s Porcelain , very useful and durable for fabricating vessels in many of the processes of the laboratory. His early attempts were on mixtures of saline fluxes with vitres- cent minerals; and he imbedded in plaster of Paris, or sand, green bottle-glass, subjected it some time to a heat below the fusing point, and found the specimens semi-trans¬ parent, scintillative with steel, and uninjured by sudden transitions from high heat to cold; as well as in many pro¬ perties resembling Japan porcelain. Scarcely need I mention, that on the principles already stated, a great variety of different wares may be readily fabricated of earths not possessing equal fusibility. The facts are evident in the number of manufactories: St. Cloud, Fauxbourg St. Antoine, Paris, Chantilly, Villeroi, and Orleans; Naples, Florence, Vienna, Frankendal, and Berlin. Yet the connoisseur easily distinguishes the Oriental from these, which derive their beauty from near approach to vitrefication, and being allowed to cool at the ORIGIN AND PROGRESS, 407 time when a little longer duration of the high heat would have completely fused them into glass, or slag ; the other (and partially so those of Berlin and Vienna, which are of the same materials as that of Dresden,) having one component scarcely possible to be vitrefied, endures the intense heat which completely vitrefies the other component, without becoming glass. The following facts will suggest an idea of the anxiety felt in Britain, on this interesting subject:—One of the members of the Royal Society of London, Dr. William Sherrard, visited Paris about the time of the publication of De Entrecolles’s letter, and he quickly communicated the contents thereof to that celebrated assembly, and enriched their museum with specimens of the native minerals, and of the prepared Petuntse and Kaolin. How many of the chemists and mineralogists of Britain have availed them¬ selves of the opportunity for careful examination, to assist them in their researches whether and where any minerals with similar properties were to be found in Britain, we have no means whatever to ascertain. And :—That notorious literary impostor, the French jesuit, George Psalmanazar, attempted to pass for a native of the island of Formosa, and with such temporary success, that he obtained a very considerable sum as a gratuity from a potter in the vicinity of London, for permission to use his name in a design then contemplated,—an attempt at the manufacture of porcelain; which failed, and deservedly, because deficient in all the essential properties of real porcelain ; but was pompously announced, and for a short time obtained considerable cele¬ brity, as—“ A curious white Formosan work, made agreeably to directions obtained from a native of that island.” Not these attempts/ but all others made by our countrymen in England, until 1820, were unsuccessful in producing real porcelain, owing to the chemical properties of the minerals used by the Chinese being very imperfectly detailed; and their existence in immense quantity, and truly excellent quality, having remained till that time undiscovered. But, 408 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. such as was the numerous varieties of soft porcelain, for merit in the workmanship I shall be excused for denying any inferiority whatever. I shall insist on prior claims of our artizans, for improvements in the processes, and dexte¬ rity in the various manipulations, decidedly superior to all others; and for our artists, that skill and taste in ornament, which at the lowest estimate is equal. The productions of the celestial empire, in scarcely any particular instance, will bear comparison,—neither will those of Dresden, Sevres, and Berlin, be disparaged by it,—for chasteness of model, grace, and symmetry of figure, and elegance of execution,— with the productions of Derby, Worcester, Coalport, or the (new) Borough of Stoke-upon-Trent; and the really un¬ couth figures and unmeaning scenes, delineated to embel¬ lish the oriental porcelain, the connoisseur will not place in competition, for delicacy of colouring and accuracy of tracing, with the natural landscape, the assorted and taste¬ ful bouquet, and the grouped animals pleasingly depicted, so elegantly painted on British porcelain and flint wares. The celebrity and success of the two royal manu¬ factories of Dresden and Sevres excited the cupidity of Frederic II., of Prussia; who, from political motives, and a conviction of the importance of the manufacture, about 1762 first established the Royal Manufactory of Porcelain, at Berlin, for the private advantage of himself and his successors. To ensure its success, and extend its opera¬ tions, he embraced every opportunity that was presented. His conquest of Saxony was subservient to the expatriation of many of the most clever and expert workmen in the manufactory at Meissen, near Dresden; that their pro¬ ductions for excellence, elegance, and beauty, might rival in celebrity those of Dresden and Sevres. He presented to each German Prince and Sovereign, complete Services for the Toilet, Breakfast, Dejeune, Dinner, and Dessert; the more extensively to diffuse the knowledge of their place of fabrication. And, the better to ensure employment for the 500 persons engaged in the processes, he restricted the ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 409 Jews resident in any part of his dominions, from entering into the marriage state, until each man had obtained a certificate from himself; which was only granted on the production of a voucher from the director of his manu¬ factory, that porcelain to a given amount had been then purchased, and that there was a reasonable cause for claiming such indulgence. Of course, the Jews more readily disposed of their purchases than the general dealers; and the device was attended with much success. This porcelain remains inferior to those it was intended to rival; though it is proper to mention, that, in Berlin, are other manufactories ; and at those of MM. Fielner, and Gormann, has been introduced very successfully the fabri¬ cation of earthenware ornaments for churches; many of which adorn the sacred edifice of St. Stephano.* Of the progress of the manufacture in Holland, I am not in possession of any information. But, that it was not stationary; and that among the Dutch Potters were some master-minds,—will, I think, clearly appear, from the statement now to be made. From Nuremberg, in Holland, two brothers named Elers (a name connected with the chemical researches of that period,) followed their country¬ man, William III., in 1688. And quickly must they have located themselves in the immediate vicinity of the manu¬ facture in the county of Stafford, for prior to 1690, they * The process is the following Into the plaster moulds, the soft clay is at different times introduced in small quantities, and into the various cavities carefully pressed with the fingers. After the requisite quantity of clay has been thus gradually forced into the mould, by strong mechanical pressure applied to the entire mass, the clay is condensed, yet forced into the most delicate lineaments and indentations; and to ensure yet greater cohesion, which is indispensable that it may sustain the high heats of the furnace in baking, equally and uniformly, in the centre of the thicker parts of each figure, are carefully placed round pieces of white wood. These very durable and elegant ornaments, thus readily formed, exhibit a firmness of substance, accuracy of outline, and delicacy of execution, which even the best sculptors can scarcely equal, not to say excel, in their operose labours on the finest marble. 410 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. were busily engaged in tlieir particular branch, in the secluded spots of Dimsdale and Bradwell; both within two miles of Burslem ; but from which the former, not at all, and the latter scarcely is discernable ; and equally without annoyance from the potters of Red Street. No enquiries now avail, to shew how the manufacturers, born on the spot, in a manner, had neglected to husband well their own resources; and, independent of the supply of coal, how these strangers happened to be the first discoverers of the peculiar kind of clay, in this neighbourhood,—(and veins of which are still kept open for supplying the same, fine in grain, and dark in colour, for the mocha dip , in the field west of Brownhill’s toll-gate, and in the path through Bradwell Wood near Chatterley;) which would be so suc¬ cessfully used in the manufacture of ware that would imitate the oriental dry body or unglazed red porcelain. But in 1690, from the native clays of Bradwell and Chesterton, carefully levigated and passed through fine hair-sieves, and then artificially evaporated, they were manufacturing, to considerable extent, an improved kind of red porcelain; and with manganese added to the clays, of black ; a knowledge of whose components was the origin of Wedgwood’s Egyptian. The specimens yet preserved, by their excellence in grain, texture, and shape, although the ornaments are truly grotesque, will ever manifest the skill and success of the foreigners. Their extreme pre¬ caution to keep secret their processes, and jealousy lest they might happen to be witnessed accidentally by any purchaser of their wares,—making them at Bradwell, and conveying them over the fields to Dimsdale, to be there sold ; being only two fields distant from the turnpike-road; and having some mode of communication, (believed to be earthenware pipes like those for water laid in the ground,) between the two contiguous farm-houses, to intimate the approach of persons supposed to be intruders; caused them to experience considerable and constant annoyance. In vain did they adopt measures for self-protection in regard to ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 411 their manipulations, by employing an idiot to turn the thrower’s wheel, and the most ignorant and stupid work- folks to perform the laborious operations; by locking up these persons while at work, and strictly examining each prior to quitting the manufactory at night ; all their most important processes were developed, and publicly stated for general benefit (as already detailed, p. 249). Mortified at the failure of all their precaution, disgusted with the pry¬ ing inquisitiveness of their Burslem neighbours, and fully aware that they were too far distant from the principal market for their productions,—even had not other kinds of porcelain been announced, which probably would diminish their sales; about 1710 they discontinued their Staffordshire Manufactory and removed to Lambeth, or Chelsea, (where is, at this day, a branch of the family,) and connected the interests of their new manufacture with those of the glass manufacture, established in 1676, by Venetians, under the auspices of the Duke of Buckingham. Others, however, have stated, that their removal was consequent on misunderstanding and persecution, because their oven cast forth such tremendous volumes of smoke and flame, during the time of glazing, as were terrific to the inhabi¬ tants of Burslem, and caused all its (astonishing number of eight) master potters, to hurry, in dismay, to Bradwell. # I think my readers will smile at the affair, when informed, that at this date, or 1707, the numbers were so great, as to have twenty-four paupers in the whole parish,—nine aged men, eleven widows, and four orphans ; to whom was paid, monthly, the large sum of three pounds, four shillings, and one halfpenny! towards which, one pound, ten shillings, * Had this relation been connected with the then close and exclusive policy of the neighbouring borough of Newcastle, I should the less have been sur¬ prised ; for, half a century afterwards, the corporation acted an equally unwise part, in proscribing the manufacture in the limits ot its authority. Too often does research develope instances in which the existence of many of the arts of life has depended on police regulations; and manufacturing industry, also the 412 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. and nine pence was provided by Cartwright’s legacy, (page 414.) Several writers having ascribed to the brothers Elers the introduction of salt glaze , I shall not be censured for giving the results of my enquiries relative to the same.— Without taking into the account, what some would regard as conclusive, that the knowledge of Glazing Earthenware by means of Salt, and its kindred substance, Soda, was current in Britain, not merely amongst Potters,—as proved by these Remarks, extracted from Dr. Plott’s Circular on his projected Itinerary for collecting Materials for his Works on the English Counties,—in which, with other valuable suggestions he states, that he should particularize “ all such herbs as are of use in trade : as wold for dyeing, kali for glass-works, fucus maritimus, or quercus maritima, which grows plentifully in the Isle of Thanet; they burn it to ashes, and then it is called Kelp , which is put into barrels and carried over to Holland, with which they glaze all their earthenware and which may well be regarded as known to the potters of Burslem and its vicinity;—there are proofs, by specimens at this day well stored, that about 1680, Palmer, at Bagnall, and in Burslem parish, Adams, in Holden Lane, and Wedgwoods, of Green Head, and of Brownhills, glazed their ware with common salt and a small quantity of litharge. This was ten years anterior to the brothers settling at Brad well. The practice is, by tradition, ascribed to the following occurrence :—At Mr. Joseph Yates’, Stanley, near Bagnall, five miles east of Burslem, the servant was preparing, in an earthen vessel, a salt ley for curing pork; and during her temporary absence, the liquid boiled over, and the sides of the pot were quickly red manufacturer’s welfare, have been rested on the frail basis of the caprice of a magistrate. Driven by ignorance, prejudice, jealousy, to a distance from materials, workmen, or market, some manufacturers continue to endeavour to surmount the obstacles which oppose their progress, and maintain a disad¬ vantageous struggle with the difficulties of their situation. ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 413 hot from the intense heat; yet when cold, were covered with an excellent glaze. The fact was detailed to Mr. Palmer, potter, of Bagnall, who availed himself of the occurrence, and told other potters. At the small manu¬ factories in Holden Lane, Green Head, and Brownhills, salt glazed ware was soon afterwards made ; and was in practice when the brothers Elers settled at Bradwell. The facts had long been known, that, on being cast into a fire, (common table-salt) chloride of sodium is decomposed, and, by causing a more rapid fixation of oxygen, the heat is much increased ; also, that when it was mixed with sand and exposed to considerable heat, a vitrescent substance was the result. These facts suggested the trial, which proved successful, that, when the potter’s oven had been raised to the proper temperature, which adequately con¬ tinued would dissipate the water held by the alumine, if salt were introduced, not only would the heat be much raised, but the alcaline vapour, diffused through the oven by the flame, would combine with the silica on the surface of the vessels, and by semi-fusion form thereon a covering of durable glass ; the chemical combination of the proper quantities of silica and alcali leaving the ware with a vitreous appearance. The ovens employed for the purpose, being used only once weekly, and the ware being cheap, were large in diameter, and very high, to contain a sufficient quantity to be baked each time, to cover all contingent expenses; they were constructed with a scaffold round them on which the fireman could stand, while cast¬ ing in the salt through holes made in the upper part of the cylinder above the bags or inner vertical flues; and the saggers were made of completely refractory materials, with holes in their sides, for the vapourized salt to circulate freely among all vessels in the oven, to affect their surfaces; plenty of specimens yet remain. The oven used by the brothers Elers was taken down within the recollection of oven-builders yet alive (1836) ; who describe it as adapted to bake choice articles; (and salt glazed and dry body 414 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. wares will not bake together,) without holes over the bags, or scaffold around its sides. A long time intervened between Mr. Booth’s introduction of fluid glaze, and its general adoption in the manufacture; and I think we may expect, that a longer time would have elapsed between the first introduction secretly by the brothers and its adoption by the chief manufacturers; not to say, the commencement of a suitable kind of ware on which its effects would be most useful. Researches on the spot have supplied only fragments of red, black, and blue ; (the last probably made by Mr. Cookworthy, or his relative Mr. Marsh, who occupied the farm afterwards ;) and I regard the persecution tale as a mere ruse, to cover the sudden removal. Much misapprehension has existed, on the supposed authority of Dr. Plott for the opinion, that the Butter-pot claims priority of date for fabrication ; whereas, unless other pots had been made, there does not seem any thing to suggest the appropriation of clay to form receptacles for butter. The relation by Plott certainly is not perspicuous; but no one can misunderstand his observations, that—“ the several sorts of pots—of as many different sorts of clay,— in twenty-four hours burnt—they draw for sale to the Crate-men, to whom they reckon them by the piece have regard to other kinds of ware, wholly distinct from butter- pots.* Indeed, had Thomas Cartwright, who died in 1659, made only that kind of ware, even had there been only very * Having frequently heard the ingenious device of the Well or Gravy-dish ascribed to Wedgwood, and one or two other celebrated manufacturers, his contemporaries, at the latter part of the eighteenth century ; I was surprised on reading what establishes the fact, that to none of these parties, nor to any modern, is the merit due of the useful invention. However much I may de¬ light in rendering to every person the due meed of praise, where there is no claim, I am not required to create one. The ingenuity was that of some party long ago commixed with his native earths ; as many specimens, dishes with a similar receptacle, and common in the refectory long prior to the Christian era, have been obtained from Herculaneum, and Pompeii, and are at this day preserved in the Studii Museum, at Naples. ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 415 few competitors, I cannot be of opinion that he would have realized property to warrant his then munificent bequest of twenty pounds , per annum, to the poor of Burslem, for ever. There remain in different parts of the district, tiles, bearing the date 1460 ; and the specimens, which are pre¬ cisely similar in quality, density, and appearance, are con¬ cluded to be contemporaneous. Although of different kinds, they do not present any indications of mixture of materials and change of processes ; but subsequent to that date, by other specimens, we readily trace improvements from the introduction of some fresh material.* The trifling know¬ ledge possessed concerning the general nature of mixtures, appear to have been excited to further operation by the accidental baking of a small portion of the fine dark red clay, or the aluminous shale ; and they were introduced in varied quantities as they were better known ; at the first, for the purposes of ornament, and ultimately in the body of the ware.f And when mixing was once commenced, as the * An excellent series of specimens are in the museum of the Pottery- Mechanics’ Institution, supplied out of many thousands by the liberality of that venerable lover of the art, Enoch Wood, Sen., Esq., who, indulging the philosophical idea of collecting whatever remains of the manufacture were presented to his antiquarian researches, has rendered easy the reference to respective eras, by arranging them, all prior to 1600 together, and all subse¬ quent, in half centuries, to the present time, 1836. f The spirit of indiiference to the gratification which would be afforded to posterity, by persons recording their observations of the small commencements and gradual progress of the manufacture, has caused some trouble to discover and trace the obscure yet ceaseless steps of the appropriation of Clays. Most of the natural silicates beipg with moderate labour and expence accessible, there was needful only some modification. The early potters mixing the clays by bowk-fuls, as 1 + I, 1 + 2, 2 t 3, 3 + 5, had the baked product to afford the criterion of the utility of the pr portions, in accordance with the required kind of ware ; and the least variation in these proportions would vary the qua¬ lity of the ware, distinguishable by the judicious workman; and thereby raising up a more than usual impediment to the proper dissemination of science. 416 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. processes varied, the guesses at proportions might have been with almost the fertility of arithmetical progression. On viewing these specimens, and others subsequently fabri¬ cated, and attentively comparing the progress of the manu¬ facture, I am of opinion that it has been, from employing the different materials plentiful in the vicinity,—the com¬ mon potters’ clay, as first quarried in the mine;—next, a finer kind, from the bassetings of the coal strata, the alu¬ minous shale ;—these afterwards much disintegrated by exposure to the alternations of the atmosphere ; and, mixed with water by violent agitation, passed through a hair-sieve upon a sun-pan , or small tank, on whose level surface the mass is by solar heat evaporated to the consist¬ ence proper for working;—next the finer clays, in like manner mixed and dried, used to ornament the other; and in the sequel entirely superseding all others. In this suc¬ cession I find the common brown-ware till 1680; then the Shelton clay (long previously used by the tobacco-pipe makers of Newcastle, Plott, p. 121;) mixed with grit from Baddeley Hedge, by Thomas Miles, of coarse white stone¬ ware ; and the same grit and can-marle or clunch of the coal-seams, by his brother, into brown stone- ware;—the crouch-ware was first made of common potter’s clay and grit from Mole Cob, and afterwards, the grit and can-marle, by A. Wedgwood, of Burslem, in 1690 ; and the ochreous brown clay and Manganese into a coarse Egyptian black, in 1700, by Wood, of Hot Lane;—the employment of the Devonshire pipe-clay, by Twyford and Astbury, of Shelton, supplied the white dipped, and the white stone-ware ; from which the transition was easy to the fiint-ware, by Daniel Bird, of Stoke; the chalk body-ware by Chatterley, and Palmer, of Hanley ; and the queen s-ware, of the celebrated Josiah Wedgwood. Having now brought to our own homes this interesting manufacture, this honourable, important, and lucrative branch of domestic industry and foreign commerce ; it only ORIGIN AND PROGRESS. 417 remains for me to enable tlie reader with myself to take familiarly by the hand, and make grateful acknowledgments to, its early sons, residents of this district;—those worthies of former days, in the infancy of the art noted for fabri¬ cating earthenware, coarse in quality, because mixing of clay was scarcely if at all known and practised ; and rude in workmanship, because adapted only for common uses; yet commencing and establishing the art on a permanent basis ; —also those master-minds of each era, whose genius, talents, and indefatigable perseverance,—to introduce fresh materials to supply wherein was deficiency, and to remedy what current knowledge showed to be erroneous;—to invent fresh implements, utensils, and ornaments, super¬ seding the inconvenience experienced ;—have completed the superstructure in a state of excellence worthy its conse¬ quence, and of perfection probably much surpassing their predecessor’s conceptions of its susceptibility Mr. Thomas Toft, for introducing aluminous shale, or fire-brick clay; Mr.William Sans, manganese and galena pulverized ; Mess. John Palmer and William Adams, common salt and litharge; Mess. Elers, brothers, red clay , or marie and ochre; Mr. Josiah Twyford, pipe-clay; Mr. Thomas Astbury, flint; Mr. Ralph Shaw, basaltes; Mr. Aaron Wedgwood, red lead; Mr. William Littler, calcined bone-earth; Mr. Enoch Booth, white lead; Mrs. Warburton, soda; Mr. Ralph Daniel, calcined gypsum; Josiah Wedgwood, Esq., barytes; Mr. John Cookworthy, decomposed white granite; Mr. James Ryan, British kaolin and petuntse;— Messrs. Sadler and Green, glaze-printing; Mr. Warner Edwards, biscuit¬ painting ; Mr. Thomas Daniel, glaze enamelling ; Mr. Wil¬ liam Smith, burnished gilding; Mr. Peter Warburton, printing in gold; Messrs. John Hancock, John Gardner, and William Hennys, lustres; Mr. William Brookes, en¬ graved landscapes and printing in colours; Mr. William Wainwright Potts, printing by machine , and continuous sheet of paper; and the same gentleman, with Mr. William 2 E 418 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY Machin, and Mr. William Bourne, for printing flowers, figures, fyc. in colours, by machine, and continuous sheet of paper.* * This improvement admits of a delicacy and precision, a clearness and fineness in the work of the pattern, unattainable by the usual mode of printing by hand—alike difficult, operose, and unhealthy. All this is effected by sub¬ stituting a cylinder for a fiat plate of copper; worked by apparatus, simple in principle, which simultaneously applies the colours, cleans the engravings, impresses the designs on the paper, and delivers them ready for the trans¬ ferrers, in a silent and uninterrupted succession ! CHAPTER II. SCIENCE OF MIXING. SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF THE MANUFACTURE.-COM¬ BINATIVE POTENCIES OF THE EARTHS. The Manufacture embraces the compounding of Earthy Minerals, likewise of Metallic Oxides, into ductile and colorific substances, for the fabrication of Earthenwares, utensils receptive and retentive of the different articles for the various purposes of refec¬ tion and the toilet, and also ornaments, elegant vases, figures, busts, medallions, &c. The Principle most interesting, and entitled to special attention, because it involves its perfection, being, to unite in the pro¬ ducts the excellencies of wholesomeness, neatness, and durability. Hence results the «/ Problem .—-How the natural products, Alumine and Silica, in other and different proportions than at present adopted, can he artificially compounded to form other and better wares. By determining all the conditions of this Pro¬ blem, chemistry will establish the processes in a con¬ stant method ; removing whatever is indifferent or 2 e 2 420 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. detrimental, and as far as is useful, introducing into others whatever has in one been proved advantageous. The silicates which nature supplies are much exceeded in complexity by the artificial silicates which without any regard to first principles have resulted from the Potter’s syntheses; which in vain essays to equal the former. Still, as the formation of the latter, by com¬ pounding the materials agreeably to their respective properties and potencies, similar to equivalent and proportional chemical compounds, will ultimately ren¬ der the fabricated wares incapable of improvement:— for this state of simplicity and certainty our enthu¬ siasm incites the hope, as involving important advan¬ tages to society. The scientific explorer of the less- frequented recesses of nature has often, like the voy¬ ager when in search of unknown regions, approached very nigh, yet without having had the felicity to dis¬ cover an interesting point; and yet numerous are the discoveries, many of them productive of momentous consequences to mankind, from experiments intended less for the pursuit of an important object, than for the indulgence of amusing curiosity. Assuming that there exists, I have attempted to supply, the necessity, to facilitate the manufacturer’s acquisition of accurate and extensive knowledge, to clearly direct him through the most intricate and per¬ plexing mazes of all the distinctive properties of the different kinds of Ware,—determine the precise pro¬ portions of those materials which are the components of each body, glaze, and colour, and incite the emu¬ lation which will cause experiments for products simi¬ lar to those most excellent,—supersede vague incerti¬ tude, and conjectural generalities, also the prevalent SCIENCE OF MIXING. 421 prejudice in favour of guesses ,—exhibit which com¬ pounds are incompatible, unless one of the compo¬ nents is in the minimum ;—by well-determined re¬ sults, (explaining the refractory nature of each at a certain temperature, in the different ranges or rings , afforded by the potter’s oven,) supply means for com¬ paring and verifying isolated or fresh productions, as well as the varieties of the series,—arrange the species in that order in the scale of excellence to which each is indisputably entitled;—distinguish their essential and mutual relations which determine their agree¬ ment,—regard as of one species all those kinds which have common characteristics of quality and components; and, by its processes and determined calculations being restricted by scientific principles and mathematical precision, supply the best possible chance to improve the productions of Britain to the perfection and excellence of Nankin Porcelain. Results thus contemplated are no longer pro¬ blematical ; however, in by-gone times they might reasonably have been questioned,—when the manu¬ facture was but a traditional practice, and its fabrics coarse and mere blunges of the ingredients; when all the stone-ware had a compact texture, and split on sudden rise of temperature; when the porcelain was incapable of bearing, without cracking, alternations of heat and coldbefore Cookworthy had supplied the conception of a durable common porcelain, though his success scarcely experienced the encouragement he merited ;—or, were known the properties of steatite and magnesia to prevent or preclude fusion, yet not impart any colouring principle;—or, those of barytes 422 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. to supply the place of saline fluxes;—or those of pumice-stone, to resist any solvent of the varnish ;— or, the common porcelains of Champion and Turner had been proved refractory in the oven ;—or, the ana¬ lysis of felspar had instructed us, from very common materials to compose it artificially, or the productions of Spode had been investigated and recognised as a real porcelain. The researches of chemistry are authorities for regarding the elements silica, alumine, and alcali, in the following relations:—the first, as most efficiently acidulant;—by (electro-negative or) recipient po¬ tency, and its insinuative momenta, in various mul¬ tiples of 4 it combines, and whatever other acid may be present, remains in combination, with bases, in every mineral, to the highest (or electro-positive) active element, the alcali:—the next, alumine, as neutral and convertible, receptive of many multiples of 4 of either or both of the others; with the former of which, it more frequently and readily combines, than wfith any other element; when mixed in water, and left to evaporate, the atmosphere fails to separate them; yet when together alone, the most ardent tem¬ perature is not productive of vitrescence, the silica is devoid of adhesive potency, and at the temperature of the cream-colour biscuit baking, 40° Wedgwood, 4717° Fahrenheit, water remains present with the alumine. And the third, the alcali, by its peculiar supply of oxygen in raised temperatures, as a flux promotes the formation of all into a compact vitreous compound. This effect causes the first to be named by some writers the vitrefiable earth ; also because although it SCIENCE OF MIXING. 423 readily combines with iron, its great difference from the substances named metals , renders very difficult its assimilation. Problem .—When held in solution by an aciduline or alcaline menstruum, are there any or what reciprocal Combinative Potencies between Alumine and the other Earths, Magnesia, Lime, Barytes, and Silica? To solve this, the anhydrous earths used were prepared with every care to preclude the presence of acid or alcali; constantly remembering, that on mix¬ ing two solutions of compounds, their respective com¬ municative potencies sollicit those relatively receptive or quiescent, (probably in other compounds agents, not patients as herein,) and in the precise degrees of relative potency combine into two fresh distinct and separate compounds, possessing communicative potency to sollicit further another proportion of the receptive elements and form a different compound. The great care and attention with which I endea¬ voured to obtain correct results, frequently when all my family were enjoying their midnight slumbers,— and the agreement between them and those of cele¬ brated analysts, induce the opinion that they approach as near to absolute truth as can be obtained from cur¬ rent knowledge of processes. I therefore with more confidence publish the results.—In each experiment saturated solutions of the substances were filtered twice, and by evaporation concentrated to the specific gravity which had the ratio of the atomic weight. The combinative potencies of alumine and of silica are great and equal; that of alumine exceeds that of magnesia, yet both are stronger than those 424 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. just mentioned; and those of alumine and of lime are comparatively weak. The modus operandi of alumine sollicking silica to combination, may be inferred.—All minerals in which much silica is present, and only little alumine, on being completely fused with potash, then reduced to comminution, and dissolved in muriatic acid, and afterwards treated with plenty of pure water, by a light flocculence insoluble in acids, indicate that silica had been present in the aciduline solution. But corre¬ sponding results are not presented on similar treat¬ ment of minerals whose components are much alumine and little silica.—Fusion with potash equalizes the tenuity of the particles of a mineral, and the mecha¬ nical separation of the silica present must be propor¬ tionate;— but no experiment supplied results like those of the presence of alumine, as to efficient pro¬ motion of the chemical solution of the silica. There¬ fore, the solubility is determined by the proportions of the alumine. In reference to alumine sollicking magnesia, current knowledge is only paucile. The potency is such, that on being exhibited to the latter in any so¬ lution, combination ensues, together they precipitate, and leave the menstruum again unappropriated ; even the potency of potash on the former, fails of its effects when the two earths have a determined relative pro¬ portion. Process .—A solution of muriate of magnesia alcalinize with test 2,—there will be a trifling precipitate of ammoniacal muriate of magnesia.—Mix solutions of muriate of magnesia and muriate of alumine in excess, then alcalinize with test 2 ;—all will precipi¬ tate, except the muriate of the test. Filter out, wjish, and evapo- SCIENCE OF MIXING. 425 rate dry, the precipitate; next dissolve it in test 26, with test 1 alcalinize, and raise the temperature to 220° Fahrenheit, by which part of the alumine will he appropriated. The remainder filter out, wash again, and evaporate dry, and dissolve in test 26; the solu¬ tion alcalinize with test 3, and the alumine precipitates, and must be filtered out, washed well, and dried, as already directed. The process of boiling in potash, and precipitating by carbonic acid repeat until all of both earths is obtained. That alumine promotes the solubility of lime in potash is inferred from these facts:—when lime alone is boiled in test 1, only a like quantity is appropriated to what would have been by an equal quantity of cold water without any potash; and the solvent power of the cold pure water is much greater on lime, when alu¬ mine and potash are added and the temperature raised to 218° Fahrenheit. In employing the potash as stated, considerable care was necessary to preclude the possible effect of the carbonic acid on the alcali itself as well as the precipitate. There was no precipitate obtained from mixing a solution of muriate of lime with one of mu¬ riate of alumine, or magnesia, or barytes, or strontia, neither from mixing one of muriate of magnesia with one of muriate of alumine, or barytes, or strontia; nor, of muriate of alumine with muriate of barytes, or of strontia, nor of muriate of barytes with muriate of strontia ; nor of lime-water and barytes-water. But, on mixing potash solutions of alumine and of silica, after 48 hours’ repose, a copious precipitate resulted; also, on mixing a solution of silica in potash, with lime-water, barytes-water, and strontia-water. The momenta with which the earths appropriate moisture from the atmosphere, have been determined by Sir J. Leslie, as—silica 40, alumine 84, pipe-clay 426 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. 85, felspar 80, carbonate of magnesia 75, carbonate of lime 70, carbonate of barytes 32, baked clay 35, red- hot clay (cooled) 8. Of their retentive potency, less is known; although, as already stated, at a tempera¬ ture which fuses pure silver, 4717° Fahrenheit, alu- mine retains a portion of moisture; and when all is vapourized, and the element left pure, the loss is as¬ certained as 46 per cent. The fact has been long known, that whenever three of the earths are present together, either partial or complete vitrescence ensues at 130° to 150° Wedg¬ wood. Guyton states, that he obtained a temperature which Saussure calculated equal to 1575° of this pyrometer, [without mentioning his data for com¬ parison,] by a stream of oxygen gas on burning char¬ coal, and converted alumine into a white enamel, semi-transparent, and extremely hard, so as to scin¬ tillate in collision with steel. At a temperature equal to 150° Wedgwood, the mentioned results were obtained : —magnesia and alumine remained indifferent to each other’s presence; alumine 1 + lime 2 remained a powder; A 1+ L 3, not fused;—but these proportions, L 1+ A 2, L 1 + A 3, L 1 + A 4, were fused by the temperature which Ehrman obtained, by directing a stream of oxygen over burning charcoal. Silica 4 -j- barytes 1, gave a mass white and brittle; S 3 + B 1 brittle and hard; S 2 + B 1 porous porcelain; S 1 + B 1 not fused, yet hard ; S 1 + 4 B intermediate between porcelain and enamel; S 1 + 3 B porous porcelain; S 1 +B2 greenish white porous porcelain; S 1 + B 1 a white hard scintillating mass, intermediate between porce¬ lain and enamel. At 156", L 4 + S 1 powder, SCIENCE OF MIXING. 427 L 1 + S 4 brittle, not melted. Achard is of opinion, that, for the compound to be vitrefiable, the earths must have the mean proportions, alumine 1, mag¬ nesia 2, lime 3 ; but when there is plus of magnesia, the temperature must be 166° Wedgwood. Kirwan is of opinion, that these proportions, A 3, L 2, M 1, —also A 3, L 1, M 2, and A 3, L 2, M 2, form porcelains; while A 3, L 1, M3, and A3, L 2, M 3, form porous porcelains. The imperfect knowledge possessed by persons who could give such guesses, is to be regretted ; for they are authorities on some important properties of substances. The earths under certain conditions of temperature, and the elastic pressure of the general atmosphere, have essential and reciprocal potencies, with definite momenta to sollicit each other to combi¬ nation, rendering fixed or concrete immutable num¬ bers of the atoms of ultimate components ; and hence ever invariable in each artificial or proximate com¬ pound, chemical, not merely mechanical. Analysis with tolerable confidence determines the precise num¬ ber of atoms of each ultimate component present; but because current processes of synthesis fail to sup¬ ply accurate and complete imitations, we remain un¬ acquainted with the real cause of their combination in the proximate compounds. And yet none will ques¬ tion, that immense sums to the manufacturer would have been saved by the scientific solution of the pro¬ blem ; taking into the account the properties of the several materials, and the necessity of reciprocal action and quiescence during the manipulations and process of baking,—what determined quantities of each will chemically effect the grand purposes of 428 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. which combination is susceptible, the acme of perfec¬ tion, a durable, excellent, and beautiful ware, adapted for general utility. At present we are uncertain whe¬ ther this combination is, or not, consequent on a prin¬ cipal component being infusible and insoluble; or, on temperature increasing the momenta of the combina¬ tive potencies of all, or of only certain, of the compo¬ nents ;—of the silicic acid present with certain bases, A; and the metal, B, with the alcali of the glaze, D ; or, of the silicic acid, A, and the alumine of the clay, C, with the metal, B, and the alcali of the glaze, D ; or, whether is their true combination, ABCD, AB + D, ABC+D, AC + BD, ABD + C, AD + BC, ACD + B. The careful investigation and calculation, analy¬ tically, of the elements present in several of the recipes according to which are compounded the wares now fabricated, induce the following conclusions:— Assuming the numbers assigned to the combinative potencies of the elementary atoms, p. 49, I find the composition of porcelain to be, in the mean, silica 2, alumine 3, and lithia 0*667, or 16 x 2+24x3+8 = 112 ; likewise, that of the best flint-ware, to be, silica 1, alumine 4, or 16 + 24 x 4 = 112.* On the evi- * Vauquelin regards sommite as silica 46 -f alumine 49; and euclase, as silica 22 + alumine 35; and reasons thus,—49 : 3’2 :: 46 : 3; and 22 : 32 :: 35 : 5‘09. But what have we in this, which we can regard as definite; 3 being the prime equivalent in the former, and 5‘09 in the latter ?—Now, regarding as I do the combinative potency of silica as 4 X 4 = 16, and that of alumine 6 X 4 = 24; which reciprocally sollicit each other, and likewise the other elements; I am agreeably surprised to find in the former the sommite 16 x 3 + 24 X 2 = 48 + 48, the ratio being as 3 to 2; and in the latter, the euclase, 6 X 4 + 9 X 4 = 24 + 36; precisely as (16 + 8 = 24, and 24 + 12 = 36) U to 1£. SCIENCE OF MIXING. 429 dence of numbers, then, and of such easy numbers, we find an arithmetical solution of the problem of the equivalence of combinative potencies, for the wares por¬ celain and earthenware; a solution, to accomplish which, the endeavours of a mighty genius, Reaumur, were inef¬ fectual, because not possessed of the facilities we enjoy; a solution which is entitled to more attention than it has yet received; and whose corroboration will be by innumerable facts; so that its verity, if not completely beyond all allegation of chance, has a probability of many millions to one, and every repetition becomes a further power of the series, and a closer approach to absolute certainty. The coincidence and harmony of the numbers are the more remarkable, because the effect of mere accident in the choice and manner of persons making their arrangements; yet as far as in¬ direct evidence can, they prove the possibility of the substances being very much similar in elementary Guyton tells us, he “ made, without Kaolin, a biscuit having the hardness, semi-transparency, and grain of porcelain, by giving the proper degree of baking to a paste composed of 50 silica, 20 alumine, 24 magnesia, and 6 lime. I need not say that it would be very easy to employ the same proportions of silica and alumine, by choosing a good clay—without having recourse to the decom¬ position of alum for the earth.”—Mr. Billingsley, at the Nungarrow manufactory, from Lynn-sand, potash, and other components, made a porcelain which as an artificial felspar has some excellence, and approaches nearest real felspar; the expence certainly was great; and only was his ware defective through his being unac¬ quainted with th z principles of combinative potency. This was a notable instance, how much the mechanical processes of pottery are in advance of the “ work and labour of love” for public bene¬ fit—the science of chemistry, in regard to atoms. Of the compo¬ nents of the porcelain made at Lowestoff, prior to 1750, and also of that at Bristol, in 1800,1 have failed to obtain information. * 430 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. proportions, yet different in requisite excellencies; while the best can be decided only by investigations originated by other considerations.* * A perfect porcelain body and glaze can be obtained by pro¬ perly baking the natural kaolin and petuntse, whose proportions are as previously stated, silica 64, alumine24, alcalil2,or 60, 24, 16* Agreeably to this standard, we can compare all bodies; and, hav¬ ing their quantities stated, we readily ascertain their approximation to nature. The mean of eight recipes for flint-ware, is, blue clay 25, black do. 22, brown do. 18, China do. 16, flint 16 ; i. e. silica 6372 -f- 16; alumine 32‘23-f-24; lime 8; iron 132*5; which (rejecting the spice of lime and iron,) shew 99| doses of silica, and 134 2 doses of alumine; or rather less than one-eighth above the mean 112 in 85. The mean of five soft porcelain recipes, is, blue clay 20, China do. 40, grauen 28, flint 12; i. e. silica 7204 -r 16, alumine 3071 -r 24; lime 13; iron 55*25 ; or one half-dose above 112 doses of silica, and one twenty-fourth of a dose short of 128 doses of alumine; only one-twentieth of an unit short of the mean 112 in 83. The mean of other five Bone China recipes, is blue clay 99, C. clay 321, grauen 315, bone-earth 354, flint 42 ; i. e. silica 55731 -r 16, alumine 17487 -r 24, alcali 473 — 8, lime 396; or two-thirds of a dose above 870 doses of silica, nine twenty-fourths of an unit short of 728 doses of alumine, and a mere trifle short of 60 doses of alcali; besides the potency of the lime, 32. There is one twenty-eighth excess above the mean of 112, in 661, I think there needs scarce mention, that these will be soft, fragile, and readily affected by sudden rise of temperature. The two recipes for porcelain, and the three for flint-ware, published by Mr. Lakin, have respectively, silica 24056, 45130, alumine 7024, 13850, alcali 1064, 3860, lime 384, 420;—and silica 54300, 45800, 45300, alumine 20000, 16200; (the latter spiced with alcali from the grauen.) They contain doses' of—silica 376, 705, alumine 293, 577, alcali 133, 482; lime 12, 13;—also, silica 848/^, 715$, 708, alumine 8331, 675, 675;—and vary from the mean of 112, five parts of an unit minus in 290, f plus in 564, | plus in 663, A plus in 553, and $ minus in 549. Several hard porcelain recipes give the mean, kaolin (green) felspar 35, C. clay 20, blue SCIENCE OF MIXING. 431 To the preparation of the clays, as a chemical process, great attention is indispensable, as well as to their intermixture with flint and the other compo¬ nents ; for, although their causes are like those which produce other compounds, the effects are not pre¬ cisely similar; for thereon depend the composition, aggregation, and texture of the wares, as proved by the fracture. While pursuing certain processes, fre- do. 15, cracking do. 10, brown do. 10, black do. 10; i. e. silica 6000, alumine 3345, alcali 600, iron 122’5, three-fourths of a dose above 93 doses of silica, one-sixth of a dose above 139 doses of alumine, and 75 doses of alcali; and there is an approximation, of n p] us i n 88, to the general mean of 112. Moderately good ware was fabricated by Rivers and Clowes, Shelton, in 1820, from blue clay 697, brown and cracking 230, C. clay 174, flint 579; i. e. silica 139518, and alumine 37443; a small fraction of an unit short of 2178 doses of silica, and 1560 of alumine; being 32 + to 22—instead of 32 to 24; yet the mean 112, is precise in 158. The relative quantities of the components of Champion’s porcelain, fa¬ bricated at New Hall, Shelton, were stated as ball clay 1|, C. clay 8, C. stone 10, bone-earth 16, ground with a frit of soda 1, C. stone 4. The alcali promoted the semi-fusion and translucence; and, the elements being 1638, and 428, almost 16 to 4; a sixth of an unit minus the mean of 112 in 18. The rationale proves that the compound approximated the nearest to perfect porcelain, of any at that day manufactured in Britain. In this way readily is determined the probability of excellence in the results of combinations ; and more so, could we ascertain the precise weight of each component in two distinct bodies, also their relative proportions and specific gravities after sustaining the same high temperature; and of similar substances subjected to other temperatures; and by difference of specific gravity, indicate variation of products, suggest the cause and the efficient remedy; and apportion the components in the ratio of specific gravity; and other compounds be determined, either the specific gravity from the proportions of the components ; or these from the other. 432 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. quently do improvements suggest themselves, useful, because extending the practical results. That one kind of clay more readily mixes with water and ap¬ propriates more silicic acid from the flint, than an¬ other, and therefore requires a different height of temperature for baking the biscuit, which is seldom accurately determined, has been long known, to the slip-makers especially. But the materials may not always be in the same state of composition in nature, and their employment will cause difference in the biscuit. For the practice to be so tenaciously con¬ tinued, of trusting for the quality of wares to the vague and uncertain proportions of watery mixtures of clays, and of flint, &c. by mere measure, and omit¬ ting their relative density prior to lawning into the slip-tub and kiln, argues disregard of the certainty of Scientific Pottery. The recipient potency of the alumine present in the natural clays sollicits moisture with great momen¬ tum from each substance in contact, in which it is present, even to the amount of 20 per cent.; hence on applying clay to the tongue, it quickly adheres. This appropriation of moisture is especially advantageous to the material, by causing a gradual disintegration of the mass during exposure to the alternations of the seasons, either at the wharfs, or on the manufactory. The manufacturer who has adequate capital, finds his advantage in keeping a large stock, that it may be well-weathered ; and in his vaults a sufficient quan¬ tity of clay ready for the workman; as there, after the heat of the slip-kiln has mechanically connected the particles of the plastic mass, the longer it remains, the more important are the changes effected spontaneously SCIENCE OF MIXING. 433 by the chemical potencies of the components. I have heard it several times mentioned, that the Jasper and other dry bodies made by Mess. Wedgwood, are pre¬ pared several months prior to being used. I am not able, clearlvand with confidence to determine, whether the green state of the ware, after certain manipulations, is, or not, really, an invisible chemical process, because of the presence of water and vegetable particles, (simi¬ lar to decomposition of vegetable mashes by fermenta¬ tion,) in which are active and quiescent alike, silicic acid, alumine, and alcaline earths. The earths fresh supplied from the mines form clay, of which the ware fabricated is defective, cracks, rifts while in progress, and decomposes afterwards. While the earths long exposed to the atmospheric changes, more disintegrated, readily mix with the water, pass through the lawns, form clays which the workman can use to his satisfaction ; and the reflecting manu¬ facturer thus is led to cause only long-weathered earths to be formed into clays kept as long in the vault as is convenient for his capital, instead of incur¬ ring the sacrifices consequent on the articles being fabricated from clays taken into the work-room reek- ing-hot from the slip-kiln. The fabrication of good ware requires careful selection of the earths for the body, to provide for and ensure exact coincidence of pyrometrical expan¬ sion, by heat, between the biscuit and its vitrescent coating, or glaze. By combustibles prevented from injuring the properties of the components, the baking- must be at a temperature proper for those of the glaze to reciprocally sollicit and be sollicited by those of the surface of the biscuit in contact. The 2 F 434 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. purity of the components of the biscuit, the extreme comminution of those of the glaze, and the precise temperature to ensure their chemical combination, are essential conditions of the Science of Potting. When there is excess of silica, (called over-flint- ing,) the deficiency of alumine leaves unappropriated that excess; and the pyrometrical expansibility dif¬ fering in different parts of the same vessel, rifting ensues, or when the excess regularly pervades all the vessel, it precludes the proper adhesion of the glaze particles, and after the baking, the surface is left dry and rough; similar to what is the state of ware, on which the workman has applied the sponge too fre¬ quently and injudiciously to the surface. A like effect results when excess of lime is present.—When there is deficiency of silica (under-flinting,) the quan¬ tity of moisture present with the alumine, on being evaporated cleaves the vessel, or causes cracking . The silicic acid of the grauen also frequently appropriates alcali from substances with which it is baking, and leaves dull and rough what otherwise would have a fine velvet gloss. While obeying certain laws, agreeably to the dimensions of the articles, the great difference of component materials causes variation in the pyrome¬ trical expansibility of bodies; which at varied degrees of raised temperature, become not merely mechani¬ cally solidified, but chemically less susceptible of sollicitation from acid or alcali. The surfaces appro¬ priate, or dissipate heat, and in proportion to their bulk retain it; and the mutability of temperature depends on the ratio the solid contents bear to the surfaces; the more extended these in proportion to SCIENCE OF MIXING. 435 the bulk, the quicker will be the pyrometical altera¬ tion ; as the temperature of the surrounding medium will be less efficient, the greater the bulk is in pro¬ portion to the surfaces. The flat and long articles have more extended surface in proportion to the soli¬ dity, and vice versa ;—in vessels of like figure their surfaces are as the squares, and their solid contents as the cubes, of their diameters. In vessels of like shape and substance but different sizes, the capacity for heat is as the cubes, and the mutability of tem¬ perature as the squares of their diameters. Bodies brittle, or devoid of flexibility, crack by sudden heat; because the unequal action of the par¬ ticles in fixation of oxygen, varies the expansion of the orbital spaces of their atoms; and this variation creating opposition among them, the substance sepa¬ rates ; and the manner is distinguished by the terms, crack, rend, rift, flee , break; and a like result ensues, whenever a body, whose particles are much separated by that expansion, is subjected to sudden great dimi¬ nution of temperature. Very thin vessels, therefore, best bear these changes. Current knowledge fails to determine what arrangement of particles is the real cause of brittleness. Many a body which bears a very high temperature, by sudden cooling becomes hard and brittle, (as steel and glass) ; and often very in¬ conveniently when they are required to be soft and flexible; and which latter can be secured only by annealing, or gradually and carefully cooling them in a period of time proportioned to their bulk and solid contents. The sudden contractile property of most metals is counteracted by their flexibility; but al¬ though exceeding these in flexibility, and elasticity, 2 f 2 436 / CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. glass is so peculiarly brittle, that, to expand or con¬ tract with temperature applied, annealing is indispen¬ sable.* The Potters of Bow and Chelsea, from com¬ pounding well-washed sand from Alum Bay, Isle of Wight, ground cullet, and pipe-clay, fabricated porcelain, which was covered with a glaze, chiefly of lead; which had considerable demand in the early part of the last century. The removal of the Chelsea establishment, in 1748, to Derby, was the cause of alteration of the components, from which excellent ware is now fabricated. Of like components, with a little alcali, was formed the porcelain fabricated at the Worcester establishment, formed in 1751, by the enterprise of some of the clergy of that cathedral; and for many years the principal director, sub rosa , was Dr. Davies. The attempts of the Staffordshire manufacturers, about the same time, Littler, Yates, Baddeley, and others, to fabricate porcelain, completely failed, be¬ cause of not understanding the chemical properties of the materials employed. I do not feel warranted in mentioning the information received of the propor¬ tions they severally adopted. But it seems proper to state, that their practice of forming the China * The deficiency just mentioned would induce the supposition, that glass is analogous to steel. Articles of steel, suddenly cooled from a high temperature, remain more expanded in surface than when, from like temperature, carefully protected while brought down to that of the atmosphere. Without the annealing process, the particles forming the external surface, and which suddenly cooled, would remain more contracted than those interior, and not adapted to their developement, as less slowly cooled. SCIENCE OF MIXING. 437 Body of a fritt, was suggested by the usual methods of the glass-makers, to prepare the materials for their glass pots, by rendering them opaque, yet not homo¬ geneous, of strong adhesion as a semi-vitrescent paste ; the chemical combination of the silica, alu- mine, alcali, and metallic oxides being commenced, the carbonic acid and moisture being dissipated from the components, superseding their swelling when in the vessels. The formation of Porcelain results from the proximate chemical combination by very high tempe¬ rature, of an alcali with silica, alumine, and lime, in like proportions to those which nature combines in certain species of felspar. The earths are rendered more refractory by their state of purity ; and the basis is a Clay which bakes very white, while the other components promote incipient vitrefication, forming a compound intermediate between Flint ware and Glass; yet infusible by the high tempera¬ ture which renders the texture fine but compact, the fracture semi-vitreous, with translucence, a peculiar toughness, and perfect white tint after each subse¬ quent baking. The circumstance of only the felspar of Limoges being employed as the chief component of the Sevres porcelain, suggested the search for a similar mineral in Britain; and, in 1818, James Ryan, F.S.A., dis¬ covered it in the useless refuse of a discontinued lead mine, at Middletown Hill, just entering Wales, from Salop. By employing the greenish or slate-grey fel¬ spar, (which I distinguish by the name kaolin ,) as a component of the body; and the brown lemon, petuntse , the more fusible because of the presence of two additional doses of alcali, as chief component of 438 chemistry of pottery. the glaze; British porcelain, from its state of infe¬ riority to those of the European continent, enjoys a new and important era, and excellence and supe¬ riority over any other, rapidly approximating to perfection,—the ne plus ultra of the Art, which pro¬ bably will result from the increasing researches and extended views of mineralogists and chemists in the present century. In forming the best hard porcelain , part of the components of both Body and Glaze are formed into Fritts, and then with the other components, Earths, and Alcali, and Oxide, ground very comminute prior to being evaporated on the slip-kiln, or used in the dipping-tub ; the finer the grinding, the more beau¬ tiful will be the ware. The biscuit is translucent, much like well-ground glass; in very thick plates, (two or three lines,) there is merely a shade, free from a brown or muddy tint; while in others very thin there is a distinct but colourless figure. I need scarcely mention that the proportions of the compo¬ nents, in both, are carefully determined. In using the minimum of kaolin, translucence is obtained only by extremely high temperature, that would affect the shapes of the articles was the maximum employed.* * The progression towards perfection, in the transatlantic pro¬ ductions, is very rapid, according to Professor Silliman:—“ The porcelain of the Philadelphia manufactory is very beautiful in all the principal particulars ; in symmetry of modelling, in purity of whiteness, in the characteristic translucence, in smoothness and lustre, and in the delicacy and richness of the gilding, and of the enamel painting. That it rivals the finest productions of Sevres itself, it is not necessary to assert; but it certainly gives every assurance, that if properly supported, it will not fail to meet every demand of utility and taste, which this great and growing country may present. SCIENCE OF MIXING. 439 Occasionally this last effect is counteracted, and the contractile property equalized, by using steatite or soap-rock; fusible readily with silica and alumine, par¬ tially with either, but not at all, used alone. Because of the failure of some establishments which com¬ menced the manufacture of hard porcelain, an opinion has been current that it cannot compete with that of the soft; though the proofs of its rivalry are obvious in the increasing prosperity of some other esta¬ blishments. As in all reasoning we must proceed from what is known or determined, to what is unknown or re¬ quired, there is indispensable in each proposition, one subject, whose determined potency adapts it for a standard of the calculations. Throughout the whole, Silica has been regarded as possessing this readily- determined potency. The reduction of Artificial Silicates to their equivalent components was an im¬ portant problem, that might have remained probably a long time without solution, had not circumstances of a peculiar kind led me to consider its importance. With the numeral 4 as the index of combinative potency, I have been enabled, with considerable accuracy, to determine the equivalent ratios of many compounds; and I may here assure the reader, that on the same principle, with the aid of the Tables in Part III., he will himself readily accomplish the determination of the Components of any Compound he chooses to fabricate. And the respective proper¬ ties of the ingredients will be more clearly compre¬ hended from the results. It is proper to remark, that I am persuaded, when chemical researches have been more steadily 440 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. pursued in reference to this interesting manufacture, so that the accuracy of reasoning on the combinative potencies of the elements distinctively, can be with confidence employed with reference to the artificial compounds, we shall find, that the respective ingre¬ dients do not reciprocally combine in an indefinite degree, or by imperceptible gradations; but, that they proceed, per saltern , regularly, in definite proportions with reference to being multiples of the first potency; and that uniformity exists in the resulting com¬ pounds, only when there is precise correspondence in the proportions. This view is a rational sequence of the principle that combinative potency in every in¬ stance may be modified by a second or third multiple of one of the components, as well as by raised tempe¬ rature, and other adventitious conditions of the compound. There remains little likelihood of the Art ever again supplying a possessor of the imperial purple, as in the instance of Agathocles; but, it can boast an incomparably greater number, than can crowns or coronets, of honest men, “ the noblest work of God Among the ancient royal names Agathocles I gladly find; Pre-eminence he chiefly claims, For virtues of the noblest kind;— To deck his board with bowls of gold The usage of the times required; But he, his father’s earthen mould With filial fondness most admired; The Potter’s vessels there had place, And with the gold the tables grace. Testi, the Italian Horace. [ 441 j CHAPTER III. BODIES. In this manufacture, the word Body signifies the plastic compound of materials, in the moist state named Clay , because then workable; and also in contradistinction to the fusible covering or Glaze. The combination of the materials, however, differs with almost every manufacturer, who seeks to distin¬ guish his ware by some supposed or real excellence. On the principle promulgated by that persever¬ ing and intelligent chemist, Guyton Morveau, only Stone Ware , and Porcelain , are entitled to the name Pottery. And, he further indulged the opinion, that the public health will be best consulted, by sub¬ stituting a supply of porcelain in the place of com¬ mon earthen-ware, and such as is required to bear the fire, delft and flint-ware, in reference to economy, neatness, wholesomeness, and durability. Such an entire change of system, however, is superseded by Scientific Potting; which regards the reciprocal potencies of the materials; and always finds, in compounding several together, their equiva¬ lent numbers, or multiples thereof, are present when- 442 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. ever they chemically combine, not mechanically mix; and consequently that the sum of the equivalents will denote the proportions of combinative potencies. Problem .—It is required to combine a body, either opaque or translucent when baked, which shall be so compact, and durable, and receptive of the particles of glaze and colours, as never again to separate (craze) by action of other substances, or change of temperature. The Common Red Ware is formed of materials prepared by a method practised prior to any historical records. A small tank is formed, about two or three feet square and deep, at the corner of a second, in size in accordance with the conveniences supplied by the spot. The bottom of the larger has fine sand strewed over it in a thin stratum ; and after the clay has been violently agitated in the smaller tank, in water, to loosen and allow to subside portions of gravel or pyrites present, the mixture is passed through a hair-sieve upon the larger, till there is a covering of about four inches; when the mass is left to be evaporated by the atmosphere; and hence the tank is named the Sun Pan. Over this stratum, a % succession of others is formed, till the whole is more than a foot thick of clay; and then it is removed and slapped for use. The biscuit state of this ware, be¬ cause baked only slightly, and just to sustain the transition from heat to cold, is very porous. The presence of oxide of iron, also of the components of the coating or glaze,—sulphite of lead,* and oxides * The fact is lamentable, though scarcely noticed, that in fabri¬ cating some of the vessels for domestic purposes, materials are employed which are extremely deleterious. Lead, and its oxides, BODIES. 443 of manganese and copper or iron,—prevents its being sufficiently refractory to sustain a high temperature ; and its glaze is therefore very fusible. admitted into the stomach in very minute particles and quantities, injure the important blessing,—Health,—of our fellow-men; gra¬ dually affecting the organs of digestion, there is insensible opera¬ tion of the poison, with consequent emaciation, cholic, convul¬ sions, and diarrhoea. The men who dip common ware, often have most of the symptoms of the Painter's Cholic ;—progressing from dry belly-ache, eructations, slight nausea, thirst, anxiety, quick pulse, obstinate costiveness, vomiting of acrid bile, shooting pains from the navel to each side, spasms in the intestines, the belly highly painful when touched, and the extremities tending to para¬ lysis. Even when these do not terminate fatally, too frequently they cause palsy, contractions of the hands and feet, inability of the muscles to perform their office; and in this miserable state, the patient lingers out many years. Those who use such wares, thus become the victims of their own ignorance, and of the imprudent avarice of the manufacturer ; who should understand, that, while he never ought to be either the dupe of cupidity, [or the victim of ignorance,] it is no innocent matter to the trade, as well as society, for any productions to prove valueless; the stigma affects the worth of all ware ; neither should he, for economy merely, employ in body or glaze, or both, materials which more readily bake; for ultimately he would be benefitted, were all vended wares to possess ' certain relative perfection and excellence. When the baking merely agglutinates the glaze to the body, the whole of it may be divided and appropriated by the liquids aciduline or alcaline, which come into contact; even very hot water has almost equal effect; the crazing process commences, the ware, whatever its ap¬ pearance, speedily fails in using; because not being properly baked, the fabric is readily destructible by rough usage. The dif¬ ference in the pyrometrical expansibility of body and glaze cause the latter to separate minutely, not by the naked eye perceptible when new, but plainly so when washed after containing hot greasy liquids. The danger to the public health, from employing such defective fabrications, is equally imminent, although insidious and concealed. 444 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. The Delft Ware , so named from the town in Hol¬ land where it continues to be made, (and frequently applied to what the manufacturers call Cream Colour ,) on its introduction was a grand invention, because of the beauty of its glaze; and it is known to have sug¬ gested the Staffordshire White Stone Ware, from which there was an easy transition to Flint Ware. The Delft body is a compound of natural clays, as no one alone possesses the properties indispensable to the fabrication of suitable ware. The workman regards all clays with excess of alumine, as too fat; because vessels fabricated thereof, whatever their substance, would require a long time to dry for baking, fail in their shape by sinking down, and crack by the evaporation of the moisture present; and that as too poor , in which is excess of silica, or sand, or marie, and which therefore will not retain the shape given by the ope¬ ratives. To diminish this fatness without affecting the ductility proper for the manipulations, marie or sand is carefully mixed, and its silicic acid is appro¬ priated by the alumine, whose particles being thereby kept asunder, the requisite evaporation proceeds with¬ out the vessel sustaining injury by sinking or crack¬ ing. Delft ware, consequently, is defective; it is baked slightly, and only sufficient to preclude sinking from the temperature requisite to combine and vitrefy the components of the glaze, which would be injured by a higher temperature. With two or more clays are mixed some sand, or marie, whose lime renders the body compact from the semi-fusion with the glaze, which on this ground has a white and glossy appear¬ ance. Yet the biscuit and glaze suffer from sudden alternations of temperature, and appropriate grease BODIES. 445 from hot greasy liquids; because of its soft nature, composed of vitrefied lead and silica, by tin ren¬ dered white and opaque. M. Bose d’Antic gives these proportions, for common, 46 lead calc, 6 tin calc, 40 fine sand, 8 sea-salt; and for the best, 38, 10, 40, and 12, respectively.—Pajot de Charmessays that Salt thrown into the oven while pottery is baking, forms a glaze; and that it improves the whiteness and clearness of glass. Sulphate of soda will not succeed with sand alone; but equal parts of sand, carbonate of lime, and dried sulphate of soda, formed a clear, solid pale yellow glass. Porcelain. — Hard —the finest and most valu¬ able has these essential and indispensable properties: The component earths are combined in such relative proportions, that proper baking renders the mass translucent, firm, hard, dense, durable, and sonorous when struck with a hard body; a white colour ap¬ proaching the tint of milk; a grain fine and close ; texture compact, intermediate between the closeness of glass, and the obvious porosity of the best flint- ware ; fracture semi-vitreous; and, will sustain with¬ out injury sudden alternations of high and low tempe¬ rature ;—the presence of an alcaline component pos¬ sessing the quality of a flux relative to the others, most economically brings all of them into a state ap¬ proximating to fusion, and in the kinds varies the translucence; which foreigners try by every method to decrease, and the English manufacturers seek to increase, while preserving the fine close grain. The biscuit must be adapted to readily absorb water, with¬ out injury. This is covered with a glaze, clear, white, transparent, indestructible by acids, or alcalies, or 446 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. temperature, beautifully fine, to the touch smooth, and appearing soft like velvet, rather than lustrous or glossy like satin. When first applied to the ware, the water readily permeates the pores, and on the surface the thin coating of components quickly dries into a solid shell uniformly thick over all the parts, and sufficiently firm to bear handling without being rubbed off during removal into the seggars. Soft. The body is less dense, yet sonorous, white, translucent, granular, and very fine porous fracture, harder and less brittle than glass, moderately hard glaze, and will sustain considerable alternations of temperature. The following comparison will probably supply useful information, and gratify the curiosity of the scientific chemist:— Staffordshire Berlin Hard Soft Silica 0750 0-610 0-590 Alumine 0-096 0-250 0-340 Alcali 0-030 0-020 0-020 Lime 0-012 0-050 0-008 Magnesia 0-050 0-050 0-027 Water 0-050 o-oio 0012 0-988 0-990 0-997 Vienna Sevres Dresden Nankin 0-640 0-696 0-602 0-660 0*250 0-250 0-320 0-180 0-096 0-020 0-020 0-120 o-oio 0-018 0-008 0-040 0 . 0 . 0- 0-007 0* 0-010 0-040 0-040 0* 1-000 0-998 1-000 1-OOOJ Stone China , in imitation of the Oriental, is very thick, strong, semi-translucent, vitrescent, coarse tex¬ ture, granular fracture, durable, but with a very soft glaze; and, by the* addition of a portion of slag of the iron-smelting furnace, is formed the kind called, the Patent Ironstone China. The Dresden Porcelain , equally refractory in the baking as is the Japanese, which it excels in BODIES. 447 whiteness and sonorosity, according to the opinion of the English connoisseurs, is firm and compact, and will sustain without injury alternations of tempera¬ ture ; and has a fracture not granular, but uniform and semi-vitreous, similar to white enamel. Its fu¬ sible components are the tarso, or felspar gravel, from the river Po; and its infusible is the clay from Aue, near Sneeberg. This clay, by Rose’s Analysis, has silica 52, alumine 47, iron 033. These certainly are not chemically equivalent; but possibly some eiror exists in the analysis; however, the near coin¬ cidence between the two numbers, thirteen fours, and twelve fours, and the proportions in other clays, is calculated to cause the reflecting mind to regard the principle of combination as more extensively appli¬ cable than was previously supposed. The materials are combined in proportions, at present carefully con¬ cealed. The fusibility of the felspar gravel promotes the density, and smooth peculiar lustre, while the clay secures its firm solidity, and beautiful white appear¬ ance ; and together there is regular contraction dur¬ ing the baking process. Of the processes we only know, that the clay is prepared at the equinoxes, when the rain-water used for levigating the earths, and mixing the body, is of a certain temperature, and conjectured to be less adulterated with tralatitious in¬ gredients. By keeping long the prepared clay pre¬ vious to its fabrication into ware, a kind of fermenta¬ tion ensues, which destroys any combustible material present, and prevents discolouration of the biscuit. The ware is baked with well-dried white wood, whose alcali combines with that of the felspar in forwarding the vitrefication of the ware. 448 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. The Oriental porcelain is of three qualities; viz. Body — best, equal proportions of kaolin and petuntse, with a component kept secret; second, kaolin 40, petuntse 60; and common, kaolin 25, petuntse 75. Glaze 1 , white petuntse 100 parts, sulphate of lime calcined and pulverized 1 part mixed with 100 lime rendered more alcaline and caustic by being three or four times calcined with wood in a certain propor¬ tion ;—for 2, the like with additional sulphate of lime. Then for best glaze, liquids of equal density are formed of 1 and 2, and ten parts of the former are added to one of the latter. The Clay is prepared by a labo¬ rious method. In paved tanks or pits of several yards dimensions, men tread together the component earths, similar to the English practice of plasterers treading hair-mortar, until the whole mass is tawed or kneaded to a proper consistence, which is regarded as indis¬ pensable to the fabrication of fine ware; as thereby almost every particle of heterogeneous substance pre¬ sent, whether by accident, or adulteration at the quarries where the cakes are first formed, is disco¬ vered and abstracted ; as it has been proved that air- bubble, hair, or sand, will spoil the vessel in which it occurs. Portions of the well-tawed mass are then manually rolled various ways on slabs, to prepare them for subsequent manipulations. For the Glaze, the powders of the petuntse and sulphate of lime, in proportions above stated, are mixed in water, and, in the technicality of the art, called an oil; calcined carbonate of lime is slaked by sprinkled water, and the powder is strewed over fern, and thus again burned; which latter process is repeated thrice for the best glaze; and to this is added 1 per cent, of the BODIES. 449 calcined sulphate; the liquids are then mixed as 90 of the former to 10 of the latter. This additional alcalinity not only adapts the glaze the more readily to fuse, but also more efficiently to sollicit to combi¬ nation the surface of the ware with which it is in contact. The Sevres Porcelain excels all the others manufactured in France, notwithstanding- the great improvement which has been made in them ; and the fact that the trade can be followed by the sons of the aristocracy, without derogation; with all the other properties of real hard porcelain, in compactness, &c. as already stated, and a glaze, fine, colourless, and transparent, its fracture has more the appearance of very fine lump-sugar, than a vitrefied durable sub¬ stance. The Materials for both Body and Glaze are the (Melting Spar) felspar and clay from St. Yrieux la Perche, near Limoges, 400 miles from Paris; and some from Alen^on, and from near Bayonne. They are prepared for the manufacturer (as in China,) on the spot where quarried; and, being delivered in a state ready for mixing together, a much less working capital is required than for the purposes of the British manu¬ facturer. The two Recipes handed me by a friend who had visited most of the French manufactories, give: Body—Felspar 67, Clay 33 ; and Clay 66, felspar 15, sulphate of lime 9, carbonate of lime 6; baked ware in a comminute state, or semi-fluid 10 ; Glaze — felspar 85, alcali 15 ;—felspar 75, gypsum 12, ground ware 12, alcali 1. The intermixture of ground sherds is constantly practised, and whenever there is a deficiency of supply, an artificial substitute is pro¬ vided, a number of thin pieces resembling stilts 2 G are 450 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. fabricated, baked well, and ground to an impalpable powder. I met with the senseless remark of a writer evidently ignorant of the resources of the French, that, because their nation does not supply a natural porcelain clay, equal to that of some other of the con¬ tinental states, the Sevres manufacturers despair of making their ware equal to those of King-te-ching, Saxony, and Vienna. The progress of chemical and mineralogical science warrants a directly opposite conclusion. The porcelain of Vienna, Frankendal, and other places in Germany, is formed of the tarso, and clay from near Passau ; but there is such variations in the proportions or processes, or both, as to cause great difference, as well from each other, as from that of Dresden. And equal dissimilarity exists between them and that of Berlin formed of the tarso, and clay from the valley of Gatach, above Haussach, in Wir- temberg;—also, those of Villaroy and Orleans, of Naples and Florence; which last possesses many of the excellencies of the best Oriental Wares. The Vienna hard porcelain has present much silica, little alumine, and very little lime. The soft much lime, sulphate or carbonate, or both, and even soft felspar, and a spice of alcali, to economize the fuel; and because it will not sustain the temperature requisite to bake the felspar glaze, that employed is softer, yet has a smoother appearance when baked. Recently has been used in German porcelain, carbonate of barytes, or of lime, and little alcali, potash or soda, for the glaze ; and, for economy of fuel, also to secure the solidity by semi-vitrescence, and increase the translucence, sulphate of lime is introduced; these alcaline earths and the silica, vitre- BODIES. 451 fying at the temperature mentioned, page 177. The first baking is at the temperature 62 77 Fahrenheit, or 40 Wedgwood, or that of baking Delft ware; merely to evaporate the water present with the Earths. The ware in this state is very brittle, porous, has a dull grey colour, and little weight; much similar to the wine-cooler, or alcarazza; and is ready for its coat¬ ing, or glaze. This is of components readily fusible, because of the necessity of differing from those of the biscuit, which should be refractory alone, and only semi-fusible with the covering; because, was this to soften while the glaze is baking, the fluxing potency of its components would sollicit those of the biscuit, and there might result the disaster of the ware sink¬ ing under its own weight, probably destroying the shapes of vessels, and the fine forms of figures. The ware is first dipped into an alcaline ley, then par¬ tially dried, and dipped into a fluid of felspar and vinegar, then dried, placed in the (gazettes) seggars, and baked 30 to 36 hours. In mentioning the relative proportions of the Components of Porcelain, and also of other kinds of Bodies, I wish to be understood, that the following are of general utility; and when they are com¬ pounded as directed, the results will be satisfac¬ tory :— HARD PORCELAIN.-FRITTED BODIES. 1. Kaolin 75, sal ammoniac 2, borax 23; fritt twenty-four hours in a kiln ; or, if fritted in seggars, let them be lined with Lynn sand 64, dry flint 36 mixed well together, (instead of flinting the seggars, as is usual,) and no loss will ensue, when the fritt is picked.—For 2 G 2 452 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Body ,—Grind veiy well together, fritt 45, China clay 40, hall clay 10, old clay shavings 5. To every hundred weight \ oz. of zaffre. 2. Kaolin 70, borax 20, nitre 5, sal ammoniac 5; fritt twenty hours. Grind, for Body ,—fritt 45, flint 5, China clay 40, brown clay 5, shavings 5. 3. Kaolin 60, borax 25, flint 5, nitre 5, sal ammonia 5. Grind, for Body ,—fritt 50, China clay 35, ball clay 5, shavings 10. 4. Kaolin 75, borax 20, nitre 2|, sal ammoniac 2|. Grind, for Body ,—fritt 60, china clay 30, shavings 10. Raw Bodies. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Kaolin . 55 50 30 50 40 40 50 54 50 56 52 46 45 30 30 China cla} r . 20 30 22 30 30 37 20 20 25 36 32 25 30 30 30 Ball clay . 10 5 20 • • 10 10 10 10 8 • • 10 10 10 10 20 Shavings .. 10 10 IS 14 10 7 15 10 12 8 6 13 10 15 10 Flint. 5 5 10 6 10 6 5 6 5 « • « • 6 5 5 10 Here, as in other pages, will be seen, how much practice is in advance of theory, in the Art of Potting. The fact was often observed, that, although the slip- maker might most carefully obey his instructions, and mix the precise proportions of the components strictly in accordance with the best methods; and the Clay itself fabricate ware of much excellence in biscuit; yet it could not be used by the workman, with the usual labour on his part, and to the advan¬ tage of the manufacturer, because so very short, or deficient in the adhesion of its particles, as not to hold together during the proper manipulations, thus the clay bat could scarcely be properly beaten, and even when so, it would scarcely bear lifting from the block to the bench and mould. This annoying defect cannot be remedied by any theoretical remarks cur¬ rent in the chemistry of atoms; and only practice could suggest an efficient remedy. Economy of BODIES. 453 materials causes a mixture of the fragments cut off the vessels by the turner, &c. and of fresh materials, in the slip-tub; and the presser had noticed an advantage in using such clay, by the additional quantity of sound vessels fabricated from a given weight, than from clay made wholly of fresh mate¬ rials. Thus originated the opinion, by experience verified, that a body once worked will amalgamate with like components fresh introduced, and the whole be more readily receptive of the manipulations, than entirely fresh compounds ; and hence the utility of introducing shavings into the China body. Some¬ times, only shavings of the Flint ware best Printing body are employed for Ball clay, with the other components.—When the Middletown Hill felspars were first employed by Mr. Spode, a clay was formed in the usual manner, then the thrower formed strong thick vessels, left them to the green state, and the turner cut all up into very fine shavings, which in suitable proportions the slip-maker introduced into fresh mixtures, from which he made clay for the best porcelain, which answered the workman’s purpose. The continuance of the clay in the vault for some days, or weeks, if convenient, will effect an intimate union of particles, which exceeds any produced by mechanical pressure; and every bubble of air is expelled by frequent slapping and working, before either the thrower or presser will form his vessel; as, if present, expansion in the baking would fracture the article. Porcelain biscuit much resembles fine statuary marble, and its surface likewise is without lustre. Hence the vases, figures, &c. fabricated by the 454 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. continental and English artizans, have much beauty and elegance ; and in accordance with the quality of the components, the biscuit more or less exhibits the elegance of the workmanship ; and the artist having increased the adhesion of the clay by some mucilage, starch, gum, &c. baking increases the beautiful ap¬ pearance of all the sharp and clear edges and lines, like to fine sculpture, and not possible for glazed arti¬ cles to exhibit. I am not aware of any announcement of a Porcelain whose Body and Glaze are so homogeneous as to save the extra labour and fuel by needing only once baking. Such is the difference in the compo¬ nents of the Bodies and Glazes of British Porcelains, that were the vessels to be dipped in the glaze liquid prior to being once baked, the water in permeating would destroy the adhesion of the clay, and the least disaster would be a shrinking of the shape of the article ; and also, the different contractile properties of biscuit and clay not being provided for, in the glaze, the portion unappropriated by the surface of the body would remain in ridges. It is proposed, to take, well-ground kaolin 30, China clay 50, native phosphate of lime 6, sulphate of barytes 14; grind twelve hours, evaporate into clay, and this the thrower and turner must form into shavings, as already stated, to be again ground in the proportions of 80 to 100 per cent, of fresh materials. Of this latter clay must the vessels for sale be fabricated; and, while each is on the lathe, the turner must apply (as for dipped ware,) by the blow-pipe bowl, a liquid of glaze components,—best petuntse 60, borax 16, carbonate of barytes 16, nitre 4, salt 4 ; or, BODIES. 455 75, 10, 10, 5, 0 ; and when moderately dry, wash the inside with the liquid, and dry the whole ready for the seggar and baking. SOFT PORCELAIN. We may indulge a smile at the credulity of those persons who assign the introduction of Bone Earth into the body of soft porcelain, to the following derisive remark of a Chinese potter :— 44 The Euro¬ peans must be a wonderful people, to go about to make a body , whose flesh was to sustain itself without bones’ ’ For the fact was obvious in cupels, that at a very high temperature, Bone Earth forms a white opaque enamel. The phosphoric acid present also vvill blanch any particles of oxide of iron in the clays used. These two properties render Bone useful in soft porcelain. Being readily sollicited by alumine, and even as a hydrate, solliciting moisture from the atmosphere, and at raised temperature decomposing glass or porcelain ; need we wonder that the quantity supplied by the Bone Earth renders the porcelain very soft.— Equally will Fluoric Acid sollicit silicium, or boron, and form a salt soluble in water; hence its decom¬ posing potency on every glaze with which it is in contact. A soft porcelain, translucent, brilliant, very white, but light, frangible, and easily injured by changes of temperature, is formed by compounding calcined bones, little gypsum, with grauen, China clay, and flint. 456 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. The bones for the Bone Earth should be ob¬ tained as fresh as possible, and completely divested of all gelatinous particles ; for the lengthened boiling will not effect this, yet injure the calcareous portion ; and any particles left in such bone earth, not being receptive of those of the glaze, when such porcelain is enamelled or used, the glaze separates, and the ware is disfigured with black specks. A substitute for Bones, and requiring not one-eighth of the weight, will be found in the native Phosphate of Lime, of a light-brown colour, in immense quantity in the county of Antrim, Ireland.—The gypsum may be deprived of its water of crystallization and translucence by calcination, and even by high tem¬ perature formed into an opaque milk-coloured enamel; but, as in the one state it will solidify by solliciting water present, and never is entirely indif¬ ferent to the presence of moisture, I regard it as demanding more attention in using it, than is repaid by any resulting advantage. The Soft Porcelain formed of a Fritted Body has more firmness and greater density than the kind formed otherwise. The process is an excellent che¬ mical lesson, which needs only to be well conned, and steadily pursued, to ensure many advantages to the manufacture. The fritt is usually ground very fine, and then mixed with the proper earths. J. Grauen 40, bone earth 40, cullet 20, fritt twenty-four hours; and grind. For Body ,—Mix fritt 70, China clay 20, blue clay 10. Stain with zaffre blue. 2. Grauen 50, bone earth 30, flint 10, cullet 10, grind. For Body ,—Mix fritt 65, china clay 20, brown clay 10, flint 5. BODIES. 457 3. Grauen 50, bone earth 30, cullet 15, borax 5; grind. For Body ,—Mix fritt 50, china clay 35, blue clay 5, flint 10. 4. Grauen 30, flint 25, cullet 25, lime 8, salt 4, borax 8; grind. For Body ,—Mix fritt 40, china clay 48, blue clay 12. The chemical combination of lime and silica by very high temperature, had long been demon¬ strated in the fabrication of glass, less liable to flee or crack from sudden and great changes of temperature, than that from which lime is excluded. This com¬ bination is even more intimate, when chloride of sodium is present; and hence the marie of the Crouch ware was useful, in assisting the formation of the Salt Glaze. Whenever lime 25, flint 50, clay 25, or lime 48, flint 40, clay 12, are together at a high temperature, perfect fusion ensues; but the fusion is only partial, of lime 25, flint 75; and lime 20, flint 80. Because of this property, porcelain with a minimum dose of lime as a component, while mode¬ rately firm and compact, is less refractory at high temperatures. A soft porcelain, (with many excellencies of the definition, and which without wauving requires baking at a high temperature, but has little cohesion and requires much care in working,) is formed, (says Mr. Brongniart,) of this Fritt: nitre, soda, alum, gypsum, sand, and salt;—for the Body, mix fritt 75, clay 25.—The proportions are not stated, and the possible mixtures may be in arithmetical progression to the number 720. This body is almost opaque; its glaze has plus of lead, and is very transparent, yet adapted for enamel colours. 458 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Kaw Bodies. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Bone earth r ... .. 40 46 60 50 40 28 25 29 46 42 30 28 28 36 54 Grauen. 20 18 16 8 20 30 25 35 25 20 20 35 30 20 16 China clay . *.... 25 20 20 25 20 20 16 16 20 25 30 18 20 24 20 Blue clay . 4 4 4 4 • • 10 15 10 • • • • 10 8 12 • • • • Flint. 6 • • • • 3 10 5 9 5 • • 5 5 6 • • 10 • • Shavings . 5 12 • • 10 10 7 10 5 9 8 5 5 10 10 10 The following are the components of the French porcelain, made at Chantilly:—Limoges felspar 14, porcelain clay 60, carbonate of lime 6, sulphate of lime 10, ground sherds 10; glazed with fel¬ spar 75, sulphate of lime 13, ground sherds 12. A recent French patent directs—Clay 20, oxide of bismuth 40, ground sherds 40 ; without any glaze. The Corsican porcelain, has—felspar 40, clay 40, amianthus 20; and it is extremely light, yet little frangi¬ ble, and will bear great and sudden alternations of temperature. Stone China. 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 Ironstone. Grauen. 48 50 42 48 35 38 26 26 30 30 25 China clay .. 27 38 25 30 30 32 20 26 10 5 15 Blue clay .... 18 5 20 14 20 20 10 10 30 35 25 Flint. 7 7 13 8 15 10 16 16 5 • • 15 28 22 25 30 20 Slag, ground. DRY BODIES, So named because without Glaze, are inter¬ mediate between Porcelain and Flint Wares, par¬ taking the properties of their biscuits. They are different in qualities and colours, and their value is enhanced by their employment to fabricate articles of taste and luxury, rather than of general utility. They include the kinds:— Chemical Utensils, Stone, Jasper, Pearl, Cane, Drab, Red, Black Egyptian, Fawn, Brown, Sage, &c. Several are so compact BODIES. 459 and vitreous in biscuit, as neither to appropriate nor need a coating or glaze ; yet their surface presents minute pores, as though gas had thence evolved during the baking. The Jasper* and Pearl have usually much embellishment; and the elegance of the deco¬ rations is preserved in the sharp prominent outlinesj which would suffer in the ratio of the thickness of glaze applied. The Red is used for Alcarazas, JBuxaros , or Demi-Johns; large porous vessels to hold water, yet admit a wine bottle into the cylin¬ drical part; the outside usually having additional points of surface exhibited in the fruit and foliage decorations. They were invented and are much used in Spain. They are fabricated of Clay, com¬ pounded of flint 36, and red clay, or marie 56, brick clay 8 ; which are worked together with a weak salt ley; both of whose components being dissipated by the slight baking, the vessel is porous, and yet the whole has adhesion which sustains without any injury the continued oozing of the water through from the inside. These vessels are saturated with water, and then filled to the brim, and if a full bottle be therein, the temperature of its liquor will soon be brought low ; it being a property of all substances to communicate * I do not recollect hearing why this name was imposed. The Pearl was in consequence of the peculiar whiteness of the ware when first offered for sale. The Porcelain Jasper of nature is, in colour, grey, yellow, or blue ; with vitreo-resinous lustre, opaque, hard, and easily frangible, supposed (by Werner,) a slate clay, by natural galvanism converted into a kind of porcelain; Link men¬ tions, that it melts into a white glass with the blow-pipe; and Rose gives its components—Silica 60'75, alumine 27'25, mag¬ nesia 3 - 00, alcali 3‘66, oxide of iron 2*50, loss 2‘84. 460 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. their atomic motion to all others in contact, with a facility in accordance with the number of surround¬ ing points presented by the roughness of the surface ; and the atomic motion of the water being diminished by the action of the surrounding atmosphere, as it evaporates through the pores, whatever water remains therein will soon be almost as cold as ice.* The practice prevails among those merchants who traverse the Arabian Deserts. The bottles of water are wrapped in wet cloths, which are carefully kept wet, and the evaporation resulting keeps the water at a tempera¬ ture most grateful to the palate. * The difference of taste in the usage of wares for domestic pur¬ poses, will readily suggest itself to the reader, who compares his own experience with the following facts, extracted from a volume by Mrs. Meer Hassan, an English lady married to a mussulman of Lucknow :—“ In the zeenahnah (lady’s apartment,) china or glass is comparatively little used; hut the common red earthen katorah (or cup shaped like a vase). China bowls, basins, and dishes, are used for serving many of the savoury articles of food in ; but, it is as common in the privacy of the palace, as in the huts of the peasantry, to see many choice things introduced at meals, served up in the rude earthen platter ; many of the delicacies of Asiatic cookery being esteemed more palatable from the earthen flavour of the new vessel in which it is served.—I remember feel¬ ing some dissatisfaction at the rude appearance of the dishes con¬ taining choice specimens of Indian cookery which poured in on my arrival. In my ignorance I fancied that the mussulman people must fear I should contaminate their China dishes; but I soon found, that brown earthen platters were used by the nobility, from choice; and the viand would want its greatest relish in China or silver vessels. China tea' sets are rarely found in the zeenah¬ nah ; tea being used more as a medicine than as a refreshment. The ladies must have a severe cold, to induce them to partake of the beverage even as a remedy, but by no means as a luxury.” BODIES. 461 CHEMICAL UTENSILS. The purposes of the Laboratory render indis¬ pensable, vessels of Earthenware, adapted to sustain, uninjured, the. action of different powerful agents. The ware employed bears the name of the first maker, Wedgwood, among the chemists of Europe; and his grandson, the younger Josiah Wedgwood, has brought to the improvement of the ware, adequate practical experience, and great chemical knowledge. As most Chemical Utensils , on some occasion or other, are required to bear, without failure, considerable rise of temperature, they should be refractory at any degree usually and easily obtained ; and continue uninjured by any sudden alternations thereof; as well as from saline or other compounds, in solution or fusion. We cannot preclude silica from all chemical action of such compounds; but this according ever with the number of points in the surfaces in contact, opportunity for destructive attack will be in the ratio of the comminute state of the silica. The prin¬ ciple is, to preclude cracking , by apportioning the components, so that any slight excess of refractory or fusible may be provided for, and the whole together shall equally expand and contract by rise and fall of temperature. The clay found to fabricate wares best adapted to answer, is compounded of best flint ware 75, (entirely free from calcareous particles, which would render the others fusible,) and 25 of baked sherds in the state of impalpable powder. In some articles, the clay has from 5 to 10 per cent, sulphate of barytes, and proportionately less flint. 462 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Fritted Jasper Bodies. —Fritt twenty-four hours, grauen 40, 50, 35, 40, sulphate of lime 30, 50, 26, 40, Cullet 24, 24, 12, 12, flint 10, 16, 8, 8. Grind twelve hours for Body ,—fritt 32, 50, 32, 40, china clay 18 37, 30, 30, blue clay 18, 13, 10, 6, sulphate of barytes 32, 32, 30, 34. Fritted Pearl Bodies. —Fritt twenty-four hours—cullet 76, 62, 80, 70, minium (red lead) 22, 20, 20, 24, borax 2, 4, 0, 0, nitre 0, 8, 0, 6, flint 0, 6, 0, 0. Grind these severally twenty hours for Bodies —fritt 12, 16, 12, 30, 16, grauen 50, 46, 60,20,54, blue clay 38, 24, 28, 50, 30. Fritted Drab Bodies. — 1. Calcine manganese, and pick and pulverize it.—Fritt, four hours, equal weights of manganese calc and nitre; when cool, grind, and evaporate to the specific gravity of best earthenware slip; and in 92 or 96 of the slip, mix 8 or 4 of the ground fritt, blunge well together, and evaporate to the con¬ sistence proper for the workman.—2. Calcine nickel, also man¬ ganese, which carefully pick and pulverize; then mix equal weights of the two calcs with like weights of good ochre, yellow oxide of iron, and American bole. Of this compound 12 to 6 parts mix with 88 to 94 parts of flint ware body, No. 3, in soft water, and when properly evaporated, the fabricated ware baked in the diffe¬ rent rings will have shades, varied from drab to sage. \ , Chemicals Stone Jasper Pearl Haw Bodies. 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Kaolin. 40 30 • • • • 50 • • • • 30 18 • • 32 • • 30 • • • • 40 Grauen. 40 36 40 46 33 28 60 54 China clay . 30 30 2024 25 10 12 16 17 17 30 14 32 22 36 12 Blue clay. 30 40 25 25 25 30 24 54 30 17 28 18 14 14 4 44 Flint. 15 15 15 12 6 12 10 Carb. Barytes Cullet . 5 6 • • 35l27| 10128 14 6 4 4 Mortar Drab Brown Fawn Raw Bodies. 1 2 3 i 4 1 2 3 4 1 2,3 4 1 2 3 4 Grauen .... .. 48 33 4028 45 40 40 40 • • .JlO 6 15 5 • • • • China clay . 24 20 20.. 6 12 20 • • 6 13.. • • 10 10 10 Ball clay . 24 25 25 54 27 24 20 16 44 40 20 10 30 30 15 7 Flint.. .. 2 11 10 8 8 10 12 20 5 10 5 8 Marie (Red). 2 11 510 20 20 16 40 40 3555 60 50 55 70 75 Manganese . 1 4 4 4 1 2 2 3 4 BODIES. 463 Cane. Red Por. Egyptian Black. Raw Bodies. 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ball clay. ! 8 16 24 20 40 40 10 20 46 53 50 37 40 50 48 44 Marie (Black) .... 60 55 66 70 25 30 40 40 14 12 8 10 15 14 12 16 Manganese ...... 8 2 3 3 5 5 6 6 Calcined ochre.... 4 3 2 30 33 36 40 40 2524 30 Brick clay. 18 26 8 101 35 30 50 40, 2 • • 3 10 • • 6,10 4 The more carefully the slips are prepared and lawned, the more will improve the fine grain and general appearance of these several wares; while a very useful lesson is supplied in the varied behaviour of the silicic acid to the substances with which it is brought into contact by raised temperature. The best mortar, and stone, will be found dense, compact, vitreous in fracture, durable (but not translucent) as porcelain, with indifference to the action of acid or alcali, when baked in the firstring of biscuit-oven. I am of opinion, that there is a chemical cause for the absence of glaze from jasper, and pearl:—the high temperature of the baking process would render the acid,—phosphoric, boracic, or arsenic—present with some component of the glaze, combinative with the heated sulphuric acid which evolves from the sul¬ phate of barytes, to which no glaze yet formed remains indifferent. The marie for the porous ware cannot be spoiled by weathering; it is passed through a 14 lawn, and mixed with the others passed through a 16 lawn; and the ware is baked at the top of the gloss-oven.—The manganese should be free from cal¬ careous particles, that the tea-pots may not crack by the sudden change of temperature on using them. There appeared a necessity, not to say utility, for adopting the centessimal proportions; as greater 464 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. accuracy is thereby ensured, even in very large quan¬ tities. Any additions to the stated proportions will alter the results much beyond what might be conjec¬ tured. Injurious results may ensue from using flint ground with chert having present an extra proportion of carbonate of lime; the small portion abraded rendering the biscuit more vitrescent, ovens full of such ware have sunk down at the usual temperature, ere the cause was discovered.—The tint will be more or less vivid, as the dry bodies are baked in the first, second, or third ring of the biscuit-oven. EARTHEN WARE. Flint Ware.—Queen’s Ware. The best kind, in biscuit, is fine but opaque; in texture and grain coarser than porcelain, fracture porous like common lump-sugar, not vitreous nor translucent, moderately dense, sonorous when struck, hard, firm, and durable ; and it is covered with a rich glaze, fine, clear, vitreous, free from specks, transparent to shew the embellish¬ ments of the biscuit, and scarcely affected by acids, alcalies, or sudden alternations of temperature.* * There will be few of my readers disposed to believe, that when the subjoined eulogy on Staffordshire Flint Ware was written, of the twenty manufacturers who supplied the demand mentioned, it was the intention of Faujas de St. Fond to apply solely to Wedg¬ wood, to whose ware it has been restricted by the partiality of friendship. “ Its excellent workmanship, its solidity, the advan¬ tage it possesses of sustaining the action of fire, its fine glaze im¬ penetrable to acids, the beauty and convenience of its form, and the cheapness of its price, have given rise to a commerce so active BODIES. 465 Queen’s Ware and Cream-Colour Bodies:— 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Flint . 16 20 18 17 24 20 20 22 24 25 20 25 China clay .... 16 24 10 17 • • • • 16 18 14 18 16 16 Blue clay. 24 3U 30 50 36 30 25 30 24 20 30 28 Black clay .... 16 12 16 • • 16 20 10 14 12 20 16 12 Brown clay.... 14 4 1.2 8 4 8 10 • • 12 9 • » 7 i i Cracking clay . . 6 8 10 10 9 6 6 • • 8 • • \ Shavings . 8 10 6 8 10 12 10 10 8 8 10 12 Blue and Fancy Printed Bod'ies : I 1 2 Q 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Grauen . 15 10 6 4 8 6 8 8 6 6 10 12 Flint .. 15 16 20 24 18 20 25 20 24 18 20 24 China clay .... 14 12 15 12 18 14 15 14 18 20 15 18 Shavings. 8 10 6 8 10 8 12 6 8 11 8 10 * * Blue clay. 20 25 28 26 32 22 28 33 30 45 40 36 ' \ * Black clay .... 18 17 15 10 4 16 10 9 4 Brown clay .... 5 • • 10 • • 10 4 2 10 5 • • 7 • • Cracking clay .. 5 10 • • 16 • • 10 • • • • 5 • • • • • • and so universal, that in travelling from Paris to Petersburgh, from Amsterdam to the farthest part of Sweden, and from Dunkirk to the extremity of the south of France, one is served at every inn upon English TVire. Spain, Portugal, and Italy, are supplied with it; and vessels are loaded with it, for the East Indies, the West Indies, and the continent of America.” How different is the opinion of Guyton Morveau:—“ The Flint and Pipe-clay (or Queen’s Ware,) is in biscuit more solid than Delft, as being composed of better clays and earth of flints calcined and in comminution; and previously baked before applying the glaze, (more fusible than that of Delft,) a real glass, not enduring equal heat, but subject to crack; easily scratches, and into these oily matters penetrate, spot the biscuit, and when the lead is in excess, as it often is, oils and vegetable acids decompose it, and danger attends its use. Very seldom will this ware completely resist the edge of a knife ; and, after this, it fails before the test of boiling acetic acid, or the yolk of egg boiled hard.” 2 H 466 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Dipped & Mocha. 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6 f-J-ranpn - ... 4 4 6 4 4 6 Flint. 30 25 30 28 25 28 20 26 32 30 28 34 China clay . 20 18 25 20 18 20 24 20 26 18 24 20 Blue clay. 24 3026 32 30 40 24 20 16 28 20 30 Brown clay. 6 10 2 6 17 12 10 10 14 Black clay . 10 7 10 4 2 10 10 Shavings. 10 10 10 10 10 10 6 10 10 10 10 10 10 Chalky. Seggar Body—’Grey marl 50, black marl 25, ground seggars 25. Altered a little for the gloss oven. For Rings and Stilts. Pegs. Saucer Moulds. Bone earth. — 25 .... — .... C. clay 12 Black clay. 84 37 .... 92 .... 28 Grauen. — 25 .... — .... — Flint....,. 16 5 .... 8 .... 60 I Plaster .. — 8 .... — .... — Pass through a 6 lawn. * For Figures on Jasper. Bone earth. 18 22 Flint. 6 10 Carbonate of Barytes . 38 30 Blue clay .. 38 38 The advantage of good water for the purpose of blunging, is generally admitted; yet I have not known any instance of distilled water having been tried. Although there is no probability of an ade¬ quate supply, there could be no impropriety in col¬ lecting and using what may be obtained from the steam-engines. Of the incertitude in mixing the clays, up to a very recent date, I shall exhibit four proofs, (omitting, from respect to private worth, the names of the BODIES. 467 manufacturers,) copied from a Book of Recipes, with¬ out owner’s name, found on Fenton Park Hill, in May, 1832:— 6 Barrowsful of Brick clay. 4 Ditto Blue. 2 Ditto Cracking. 8 of the above in slip. 4 Cornwall clay. 7 Flint. 1 2 Cornwall stone. 3 Barrowsful Black clay. 2 Ditto Brown. 2 Ditto Blue. 40 lbs. Cornish stone. Of this slip 6 or 6^ to 1 Flint twice through the lawns. Clay slip 24 oz. to pint. Flint 30 do. Cor. Stone 24 do. 54 of Clay slip. 16 pailfuls of Blue clay 24 oz. to pint. 18 China clay; or, 4 do. China clay 24 do. 16 Flint. 4 do. * Flint 31 do. Now, as the clay slip may be 27, flint 32, and stone 33 ounces, per pint; and this may not be known, or corrected by the slip maker; needs there be any surprise, that from directions thus indefinite, considerable losses have frequently been experienced ; although every care has been taken, in the manipula¬ tions, to cause close integration, toughness, and expulsion of air-bubbles, by often wedging and slap¬ ping the clay. In Slip-tub Ball clay. ■111 inch. Ball clay. 20 Blue. 4§ do. China clay. 5 Black. 3g do. Flint. 2J Brown. 24 Quarts Cornish stone. Or, these two:— 28 inch. Ball clay. 300gals. Slip. 7 Flint. " 70 Flint. 2£ China clay. 20 C. clay, i Cor. stone. 30 C. stone. And may he used, 3f inches in slip-tub. 1 do. 5 do. 2 h 2 468 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Because of the great difference of circumstances which influence the peculiar properties of Wares, in the present state of knowledge, no certain method, independent of synthetical experiment, can be de¬ vised for their improvement; but in scarcely any instance will the labour of trials fail to be amply repaid by the certainty with which they suggest the best methods; and more especially will this ensue, on discovering that all defects in excellence are conse¬ quent on those in the adapted proportions of the components. Hence, adding the study of the theory to that of the practice, is the most interesting and useful method by which the intelligence of the former can elucidate the experience of the latter. The man intimately acquainted with the manipula¬ tions of an Art, with more ease and advantage acquires further knowledge, derives additional infor¬ mation, from the suggestions of science, than he who is without either practice or habit in the processes; to whom, whatever is mentioned, can refer merely to things in the abstract; the principles stated being applicable to subjects of which he is devoid of ideas, either assume a wrong direction, or soon are forgotten. But the other causes all the rays of light supplied to bear on his own experience; his practice, his own observations, confirm and corroborate the information and suggestions received ; while, with every depart¬ ment of theory, his productions in one way or other identify themselves. % I [ 469 ] CHAPTER IV. GLAZES. Probably the mere inspection of an Article of Pottery in the state of biscuit, would suggest that it is a porous compound, as would be demonstrated by immersing it in water; and as such, by recipience and retention of liquids, decomposable, destructive of its cohesive properties, and therefore inconvenient for the useful purposes of domestic life. This defect originates the application of a coating, varnish, or Glaze; and the perfection of the Art aims, while aiding the durability of the ware, to improve its general appearance. Problem .—It is required to form a vitrefiable compound, as a Glaze, or coating of ware, either opaque or translucent, which when baked shall be transparent, for printed, or semi-opaque for enamel; yet neither injure, nor be injured by, any colours with which it may be in contact. The Glaze being formed by raised temperature exciting simultaneously the momenta of the com¬ binative potencies of the respective components, in the correlative states of agent and recipient, the plus and minus of the excitement, the more fusible 470 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. components must ever be carefully proportioned to the others, that the chemical combination of the whole may be promoted, while the expansion of the orbital spaces of the minute particles may produce and secure the requisite transparency. This vitrefication of heterogeneous substances for the Arts, is producing a fresh compound, homo¬ geneous, varying as elastic and transparent, and whose fragments exhibit the vitreous fracture. It results from rise of temperature increasing the mo¬ menta of the combinative potencies of the compo¬ nents fusible per se, because of their natural dose of alcali, which yet at that temperature would not alone affect or be affected by other substances present, though all soften together. Whether the method of preparing vitreous colours, or of making glass, did or did not suggest a similar formation of glazes, I can¬ not assert; but the practice obtains preference for all best wares. Fritting (another term for vitrefication,) is sub¬ jecting certain components of a glaze to a slow rise of temperature, affecting whatever acid and alcali may be present, dissipating all their moisture, water of crystallization, and carbonic acid gas; then conti¬ nuing the raised temperature till all carbonaceous ingredients are decomposed without any mineral being volatilized ; thereby preparing the results for ready suspension in water in the dipping tub, and precluding the liability to intumesce during the pro¬ cess of glaze baking. A fritt is not necessarily and always a simple agent; the mixture of which it is formed, usually has present different combinations; and the compo- GLAZES. 471 nents employed do not act immediately, but by the resulting combinations. The chief component may be one that varies its combinative potency, according to its actual condition, and also the circumstances of the combination, and the reciprocal potencies of the substances in contact. When such is the condition of the Fritt, whether the process be continued, according to the components present, 6, 12, 20, or 30 hours, and however much reduced may be the bulk of the components, and also the levity of the mass, through the whole, from the surface to the bottom, will be successive strata, each of which has some of the components less intimately mixed than the others, and is of a density interme¬ diate between the stratum above and that below, instead of the whole being uniform. The beautiful dense transparence of the fritt being in proportion to its duration of the tranquil state while at the raised temperature, it commences, without always completing the chemical union of the silica, alcali, and oxide present; and an opinion is current, that afterwards, while attaining the tempera¬ ture of the atmosphere, the fluxes fall, the components assume the order of their specific gravities, and render long grinding indispensable. 3 The exorbitant price of the felspars, (fifteen guineas, for the petuntse, and half that sum foi the kaolin,) also probably the deficient supply because of a dispute among the members of the mining company, threw the manufacturers on their own resources; and the preparation of Substitutes for these felspais, was the commencement of a grand chemical lesson, the compounding of Alcahne Glazes. Doubtless some of these were in the proportions stated in the pub- 472 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. lislied analyses of felspar;—but, either from some imperfection in these, as they are not in accordance with the multiples of the combinative potencies of the components; or oversight, and of consequent disregard of some important component; there is remarkable difference. The felspars analyzed may be those of granite, which have silica, alumine, alcali, lime, and iron present; and the alcali being regarded as potash , though now proved to be lithia; that failures, in the attempts to imitate nature, have occurred, needs not be a matter of surprize. Whenever the components of Alcaline Glazes are not in equivalent proportions, they are compara¬ tively less useful, have less combinative potency, and are more easily affected and deranged by other sub¬ stances, as the series of components increases. Alcaline , or Fritted Glazes , whether formed of natural or artificial felspar, are becoming more gene¬ ral, because of these useful and excellent properties: —The additional doses of alcali present, cause the components to flow together at a temperature lower than would fuse some of them if alone, and than will fuse the raw glazes ; —to promote the fusibility of the surface with which they first come into mere contact; to be better adapted for chemical combination, and flow free, even, and thin on the ware, by baking formed into a beautiful coating of perfect glass, which will accord so readily with the pyrometric expansi¬ bility of the biscuit surface, as seldom or never to craze. The ratios of the specific gravities of lead and alcaline glazes as 11 to 2. Even was the consistence of both the same, the latter is cheaper, because a less weight will answer the designed purpose. But to GLAZES. 473 obtain a like result, the former is required to be twice as thick as the latter. By different dippers, the fact has been noticed, that like weights of the glazes covered plates in the proportion of 1 to 5; therefore, if their excellence were equal, and their expence as 1 to 5, the alcaline is the cheaper, be¬ cause of its greater quantity ; without taking into the account the diminished expence in baking. This most regretted defect of the Manufacture, Crazing , the failure of the glaze, by innumerable peculiar crystallizations with cleavages in various directions,—whatever be the cause, in the censures consequent, implicates all the manufacturers, and injures them—nationally, as competing with those of China and Europe, and locally, by inducing a cha¬ racter of excellence in favour of the wares fabricated in other places in Britain. The glaze-baking process may not have raised and a sufficient time continued the ware at a suitable temperature;—and, before the glaze has been cool, it may have been exposed to the sudden action of the atmosphere. When ware thus defective is used for domestic purposes, as bowls for soups, dishes for meat pies, and similar uses, we find the absorbent potency of alumine for oils, animal and vegetable, during raised temperature, almost equal to that for water, (page 233,) independent of the decomposition of materials, particularly renders obvious the failure of the Glaze, or Crazing. That it is consequent on the incompatibility of the compounds,—the components being unequal in fusibility, or imperfectly combining with those of the body during baking,—or fresh compounds resulting from the process;—we assume from the fact, that it 474 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. never occurs when the components are properly- adapted for the purpose, and to those of the Body; and agreeably to their combinative potencies are mixed by proper manipulations. The particles, sol- licited in opposite directions, with natural tendency to preserve the respective dimensions of their orbital spaces, and yet by reciprocal combinative potencies sollicited to remain in contact,—only by the simulta¬ neous expansibility of the orbital spaces as far as may be required by the pyrometric expansion of the biscuit, can have their continuity on the surface preserved. Whatever prevents or separates any portion of this, by affecting the equilibrium of this simultaneous ex¬ pansibility of all the particles, instead of equalizing the potencies of the components, destroys the conti¬ nuity of the whole. The susceptibility of crystalline substances to resume that arrangement of particles on every favourable opportunity, instructs us to supersede this, and consequent crazing , in the compounding of glazes:— Pulverize a quartz crystal very fine, and mix the powder in a watery solution of borax, into which fluid dip biscuit pot sherds, and any thick portion will resume the crystal figures. The glaze components must quickly separate from the water, as this is appropriated by the biscuit, with whose components and pyrometrical expansi¬ bility they must have some chemical reciprocity,— and speedily dry into a thin covering of all the sur¬ face, with which they must readily incorporate by fusion during the baking, and form a perfect and durable glass, improving the appearance while pro¬ moting the durability of the ware, which otherwise would be liable to craze. GLAZES. 475 Hard Porcelain Fritted Glazes :—Fritt 24 hours, pick, and pulverize, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Petuntse .. 6675 65 56 60 70 60 60 52 80 67 58 56 64 72 Carb. Barytes. 1012 14 12 10 7 10,10 12 10 12 10 8 14 10 Carb. Lime. 4 3 8 9 8 10 6| 6 6 4 6 8 6 6 5 Borax .. 10 16 30 24 30 6 10 5 Boracic acid. 14 io is io 10 29 20 Soda... 6 * • 3 8 3 5 4 8 Nitre.. 2 ' 6 8 With 100 parts of each grind, respectively for use, 25 carbonate or white lead, for 1 to 5, and 10 to 15; from 6 to 9, borax instead of lead, for the four fritted bodies.* Soft Porcelain Fritted Glazes :—Fritt 24 hours, pick, and pulverize, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 (xTrlllPn . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 31 24 17 13 20 26 25 28 25 Plint. ..., 18 10 6 10 14 25 20 20 Cullet .. 30 38 48 70 73 40 59 70 75 68 76 Minium. 10 14 15 26 14 40 48 Litharge. 18 22 40 45 Borax.. 4 20 20 4 16 10 6 Nitre. 4 1 2 9 4 6 B 4 7 2 6 4 *4 4 Arsenic. 4 4 3 4 4 2 * “ Among the results of the synthetical essays in my labora¬ tory, at the Imperial Polytechnic School, I obtained a glass per¬ fectly similar to that afforded me by the felspar of Baveno, by urging to fusion, in a platinum crucible, a mixture of 62 silica, 16 alumine, 10 lime, and 12 potash.”— Guyton Morveau. This most excellent lesson has been before the public almost 40 years, yet I cannot find any instance of its having been studied. When it was first noticed by myself, I was equally surprised and gratified by its close accordance with the Principle for which I was seeking examples as supporters 476 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY, With 100 parts of the first 6, grind 20 or 25 of white lead; with the next 5, grind grauen 10, white lead 15; with others, grauen 15, litharge 10. With 50 parts each of 3 and 5, also of 8 and 10, and 7 and 11, grind, for the four fritted bodies, grauen 20, borax 15, or 25 and 15, 30 and 15, 27 and 18. i The following are in the precise form commu¬ nicated :— John Riley. Joseph Marsh. Fritt Cullet .. 16 22 16 52 Red lead 5 5 1 14 Litharge. Arsenic 1 1 1 3 Salt .... 1 • • • • • • Nitre.... Grind with:— 1 1 1 6 White lead 25 22 24 93 C. Stone.. 14 12 14 45 Flint.... 6 5 6 25 Fritt .... 6 9 8 19 Flow with equal weight of salt, soda, and potash. George Dean, Sampson Daniel. Cullet. 27 18 .... 16 18 Red lead . 15 7 .... 34 16 Cornwall stone .... 13 8 .... 30 8 Flint. 11 16 _ 25 38 Borax. 12 10 .... 28 23 Soda. 5 2 _ 10 5 Tin ash. 2 1 .... 4 4 B. Calc. 1 1 .... ] 1 Fritt 75, White lead 25 Fritt 60, White lead 40. GLAZES 477 Hard* and Soft'}' Porcelain Raw Glazes :— '*• t i * * t t * t t t t * » t * t 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 "Potnntcp ... . . . 70 60 < C' 65 65 60 35 65 Granen ... 30 35 20 30 40 45 30 32 28 f!arK Rarvtps .... 6 12 14 io 8 12 *6 Carb. Lime. 4 4 2 2 5 i 3 3 4 2 2 4 5| ’2 3 Flint. 8 10 6 8 12 6 7 9 6 Cullet . 12 18 12 12 23 10 20 18 10 Litharge . 31 10 47 36 25 25 20 37 Borax . » , ,. 20 22 21 25 Nitre. ) 2 • • • • 3 • • 1 • • 3 • • 2 3 4 • • 1 • • Boracic acid. 5 7 3 4 3 4 3 4 7 12 5 5 Soda. 12 18 10 10 • t 8 14 9 10 18 32 14 12 Cream-Colour Raw Glazes :— 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Granen...... 23 20 25 30 26 27 32 26 22 36 34 40 Flint. 12 15 10 14 8 10 20 10 8 8 16 10 Cullet ...... 17 25 15 16 15 12 10 10 White lead .. 48 40 50 56 50 48 48 52 60 46 50 50 Blue Printed Raw Glazes :— 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Grauen. 25 35 20 25 30 40 45 30 32 40 40 28 Carb. Lime .. 3 4 3 3 5 6 4 3 3 5 6 4 Flint . 10 12 10 12 15 18 12 20 18 20 25 16 Litharge .... 46 • • • • 38 30 • • 21 • • 27 • • • • • • White Lead.. • • 36 49 • • • • 14 • • 25 • • 15 13 30 Boracic acid.. • • • • • • 6 • • 6 • • 6 • • • • • • 6 Soda .. 16 16 16 16 Borax . 16 13 18 • • 20 m • is « • 20 20 16 • • 478 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Fritted Glazes.—F ritt 24 hours, pick, and pulverize. If the fritt be in seggars, let them be lined with dry flint 33, and Lynn sand 67 parts; by which much loss in picking will be prevented. 1. Fritt —cullet 70, litharge 18, nitre 8,* arsenic 3, zaffre 1. For glaze , grind together;—for printed, fritt 12, grauen 26, flint 12; and in glaze mill mix with white lead 50;—for enamel, fritt 6, grauen 24, flint 16; and in glaze mill mix with litharge 54;—for brown line fchalky) , fritt 6, grauen 30, flint 8, cullet 4, borax 2, and in glaze mill mix with white lead 50; — for dipped and mocha, fritt 15, grauen 25, flint 10; and in glaze mill mix with litharge 50. 2. Fritt —cullet 70, litharge 22, nitre 4, arsenic 4, zaflre 1. For glaze, grind together;— {oxprinted, fritt 24, grauen 40, flint 36; and mix equal weights of the ground glaze components and litharge; —for coloured, fritt 32, grauen 48, flint 20; and mix equal weights of glaze and white lead;—for dipped and mocha, fritt 26, grauen 52, flint 22 ; and mix equal weights of glaze and litharge;—for cream-coloured , fritt 36, cullet 48, common glass 16; and mix equal weights of glaze and white lead. 3. Fritt, separate, cullet 80, red lead 12, nitre 4, salt 4; also flint 87, and borax 13; mix equal quantities of these fritts, and grind;—then for glaze, for printed, mix fritt 36, grauen 30, white lead 34 ;—for enamel, mix fritt 28, grauen 34, white lead 38. 4. Fritt, grauen 36, cullet 32, flint 12, borax 12, nitre 8;—grind together for printed , fritt 60, flint 10, white lead 30. The like mixture of flint and lead with 5. Fritt, grauen 18, cullet 10, flint 30, potash 12, bone-earth 15, and Lynn sand 15. 6. Fritt, grauen 34, flint 18, borax 25, red lead 18, tin-ashf 5; * The Nitre is useful by promoting the high heat to readily fuse the whole mass ; for, combined with potass, the nitric acid sustains a higher heat than with any other base; and, by its generating carbonic acid gas, improves the colour of the glaze. t The Oxide of Tin may be prepared, for glazes, by the following processes: melt block-tin and keep just melted until the whole is converted into a grey powder. (If the heat be too great, the colour will be straw-yellow.) The usual oxide is prepared by (a) dropping into cold water, the tin melted in a ladle; (b) the fine lamina of metal are placed on a flinted dish, between two layers of nitre in powder, and calcined ; the powder is removed, and the remaining metal similarly treated. Or, the oxide jnirchased often is adulterated with lead, glazes. 479 grind together fritt 75, grauen 10, flint 15; and mix glaze 60, white lead 40, for printed; and glaze 70, litharge 30, for enamel . 7. Fritt, grauen 36, flint 17, borax 20, red lead 24, tinash 3 ; grind together fritt 16, grauen 46, cullet 18, flint 20; mix glaze 54, and white lead 46. 8 . Fritt, separate, cullet 65, red lead 25, nitre 5, arsenic 4, zaffre 1 ; also flint 50, red lead 20, nitre 6, borax 24. Mix equal weights of these fritts; then grind together fritt 44, cullet 56.— Grind together for printed glaze, fritt 40 parts, grauen 25, white lead 25, flint 7, nitre 3 ; and for enamel, substitute litharge 28, without nitre; and for flat, glaze 45, white lead 45, borax 10. 9. Fritt, grauen 42, flint 10, red lead 25, borax 22, zaffre 1; grind fritt 73, grauen 18, flint 9 ; then mix, for printed, glaze 63, white lead 37; or, for enamel, glaze 67, litharge 33; or, for mocha, glaze 55, litharge 45. 10. Fritt, cullet 68, red lead 20, arsenic 5, nitre 6, zaffre 1; grind, and for printed glaze, fritt 80, white lead 20. 11. For fiat —fritt flint 50, red lead 16, borax 25, nitre 8, zaffre 1;—grind, for printed , mix fritt 75, white lead 25. - 12 . Fritt, separate, cullet 90, white lead 9, zaffre 1; also cullet 68 , red lead 27, arsenic 5. Grind 20 parts of 1 with 80 of 2; or 25 with 75 for fiat. Of mixed fritt, grind 30 with grauen 50, flint 20; then mix glaze 54, lead 46. 13. 14. Fritt, cullet 60, 57, red lead 15,18, arsenic 10, borax 15, 10, nitre 0, 5. Grind together fritt 20, 40, cullet 60, 0, stone 15, 48, flint 5, 12; then mix glaze 75, 50, white lead 25, 50, for printed; and for mocha, glaze 70, 60, litharge 30, 40. hence is improper for glazes , though useful for enamels. The usual tin-ashes are thus formed :—Count Cliaptal first suggested their use fritted with silica 1, ashes 2. In an open utensil heat to a low red,—lead 100, tin 25, or 30, or lead 100, tin 110; and skim quickly till no more be formed, and preserve any residue ; then the skum (or oxide) reheat till no longer inflammable, and the whole is of a grey colour. For oxide of tin, may be substituted with advantage the very fine powder of calcined native phosphate of lime, (or, in its absence, the earth of bone, carefully picked before being ground, and then calcined,) being invitrescible, and very white. 480 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY, The following are in the precise form commutii cated :■— William Moore. Fritted. Fritt—Cullet. 201b. Grind with White Lead. . 52 White Lead . 2 C. Stone ... . 28 Common Salt 1 Fritt. . 12 Arsenic .... £ ? Flint. . 15 Blue Calc... 5 OZ. Borax. . 6 Without Fritt. Grind together— Add— Wh if.e Lead. 56 B. Calc. 1 oz. Cornwall Stone . . 28 Flow with Potash 8 Flint . . 14 or Cullet. . 12 Salt Rock. 4 John Barlow. Fritt separately— Grind together with— Cullet.... 34 Flint.. 30 W. Lead.. 1131b, W. Lead . 4 Borax . 6 F C. Stone.. 53 Com. Salt. 2 Soda.. Nitre .... 1 3 Stain .... 5* * W. lead 4, nitre 1, salt 2, cullet60, borax 2, B. calc 20. John Clowes. Fritt separately— (0 (2) (1) (2) Cullet. 44 32 .... 4 4 Borax. Red Lead . 4 4 .... 24 18 Flint. Nitre . 1 1 • • • • — 1 Soda. Salt. 2 • • • • 1 2oz. B. Calc. Grind (1) together with (2) White Lead .., • • • • 156 Cornwall Stone, • • • • 72 Cullet . • • • • 36 Borax . m • • • 12 GLAZES. 4S1 The preceding are immediately in dates prior to the two following, which are employed more generally than any previously compounded ; and by their intro¬ duction, the different tints of beautiful colours have become useful, with which no other glaze could be with confidence employed. The employment of Lime with Boracic acid and Soda, and Borax, accomplishes the vast difference. (1) (2) Glaze. Fritt—Grauen . 100 or 120 100 lbs. of Fritt 1, grind with Borax (or 60 80 25 White lead; and of No. 2, Tincal .. 80) (100) with 30 White lead. Flint.... 50 50 Soda.... 20 • • - Whiting* 20 25 * These salts are incompatible with each other, and will combine in only extremely minute proportions in water at the regular temperature; conse¬ quently, whenever any of them results from the components of the glaze, there is every reason to fear crazing. Salt. Muriate of Barytes Sulphate of Lime Nitrate of Lime Muriate of Lime Sulphate of Magnesia Muriate of Magnesia Alum, (Potash—Sul¬ phate of Alumine) Sulphate of Iron Fixed Sulpd. Alcalies Incompatible with Carbonated alcalies, earthy carbonates, and sulphates. Alcalies, carbonate of magnesia, and muriate of barytes. Carbonated alcalies, carbonate of magnesia, and of alumine, sulphates, (except of lime.) Carbonated alcalies, earthy carbonates, and sulphates, (except of lime.) Alcalies, muriate of barytes, nitrate and muriate of lime. Carbonated and sulphated alcalies. Alcalies, muriate of barytes, nitrate and muriate of lime, carbonate of lime, and of magnesia. Alcalies, muriate of barytes, and earthy carbonates. Nitrate and muriate of lime and of magnesia. 482 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. ANALYSIS OF FR1TT. We assume that the fritt has lead , silica , alcali , and colorific oxides present, which we wish to deter¬ mine. a. Of the fritt, whether glaze or colour, in fine powder, take 10 grains, and in aqua regia (2 N A and 1 M A) 50 grains, carefully boil about 80 minutes, add ten bulks of boiling pure water, filter, wash with warm water, dry the filter; and its con¬ tents with thrice the weight of caustic potass, fuse in a porcelain or silver (not platinum) crucible; when cool, pulverize and dissolve in muriatic acid; add much pure water, and slowly evaporate dry. The residuum again dissolve in muriatic acid, and add plenty of water; repose 24 hours, and then filter out, wash well, incandesce, and weigh the silica precipitated, b. The filtered liquid slowly evaporate dry, again add plenty of pure water, mix well, and after 48 hours repose, filter out, and treat, as just directed, the remaining silica, c. The liquid left from the filter alcalinize with ammonia till no more be appropriated ; repose 24 hours, then filter out and wash well the oxides precipitated, and lay aside for process f. d. To the liquid from the last filtering, add the solution of oxalic acid till aciduline; allow 12 hours for repose, then filter out, incandesce, and weigh the lime obtained, e. Next acidulate the liquid with muriatic acid, and, by slow evaporation, obtain the muriate of soda. f. In muriatic acid boil the precipitate, c, 80 minutes, add plenty of warm water, and by the proper tests determine which oxides are present, and then obtain them by the usual methods. (See pages 115—119.) GLAZES. 483 ANALYSIS OF GLAZE. We may suppose that the glaze has present— lead , soda, lime , boracic acid, alumine, and silica, a. In muriatic acid separate the substance, and when all is appropriated b) 7 the acid, raise the temperature to 140 Fahrenheit, and continue till all the liquid is evaporated ; next moisten the residuum with con¬ centrated muriatic acid, add fifteen bulks of distilled water; allow to repose 24 hours, decant off the liquid, and throw on a filter the silica deposited, which wash well, and treat as directed in page 141. b. To the filtered liquid add test 2, (caustic ammonia,) and after 12 hours repose, filter out the precipitated alumine. c. The liquid treat with oxalate of ammonia, raise the temperature, let it repose 12 hours, then filter out the lime. The liquid yet contains lead, boracic acid, soda, and sal ammoniac. By processes, 2, c. (p. 126,) and 2, b, (p. 130,) determine the presence and quan¬ tity, or proportion of the two former, lead and acid; and then, to find the soda, d, again completely eva¬ porate the liquid, and keep at a raised temperature till all the sal ammoniac is dissipated, without fusing the soda. Were magnesia present, washing would dissolve the alcali and leave the earth deposited. To separate any potash, or lithia, or both, when present with the soda :—To the salt left, ( d ,) 6 parts, add 94 of chloro-platinate of sodium, and the potas¬ sium, when alone present, will exchange condition with the sodium in the double salt.—Add plenty of warm pure water, gently evaporate dry; by alcohol appropriate the chloride of sodium, and the excess of 2 i 2 484 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. the chloro-platinate of sodium. The chloro-platinate of potassium wash with alcohol, dry, weigh, and 100 of the salt will have present 3073 chloride of potas¬ sium. The weight must be deducted from that of the saline mixture used, and thereby is determined the v quantity of the chloride of sodium. For the lithia, add phosphoric acid, and phosphate of soda in excess; evaporate dry, add plenty of cold water, evaporate dry, incandesce, and weigh, and 100 of the salt will have present 15’08 lithia. The weight of the chloride will supply the quantity of the alcalies together, and of each separately. When the tests for potash and lithia are indifferent, the presence of soda is inferred. The following are genuine Recipes of the parties whose names they bear:— John Hancock. Body. Fritt. C. Stone.. 1401bs. 301bs. China clay 120 10 Flint .... 100 4| Blue Calc 2 or 3 oz. Blue clay 20 Glaze. .. 30 Fritt—Grind with Glass 24 White lead .. 36 60 lbs. Nitre 4oz. Aaron Hancock. Body. Cornwall Stone 50 60 Glaze. Fritt—Cornwall Stone 42, Cullet 49, China clay.... 10 20 White Enamel 7, (Cullet 16, Red Blue ditto .... 30 30 Lead 5, Borax 1, Arsenic 1, fused Black ditto .. 20 16 together 6 hours,) Pearlash 2, Nitre Cracking ditto. 20 16 1, Blue Calc 1 \ oz.; and this charge Flint .. 20 30 grind with 56 lbs. White Lead. GLAZES. 485 William Whieldon. Body. Cornwall Stone. . 200 120 China clay . . 100 80 Blue ditto. . 100 120 Black ditto . . 80 50 Flint. 150 80 Blue Calc. 2 or Glaze. Blue Fritts. Grind together— Cullet .. 26 23 Fritt. 100 Litharge. 7 16 Stone. White Lead 75 Nitre. .. 3 15 Flint. or Arsenic . n 15 Borax. Fritt. 120 B. Calc . 6 oz. 8 oz. White Lead 95 Flow with 12oz. Pearlash, and 1 oz. Bay Salt. Charles Penny . Body. Glaze. Fritt— Grind together— Fritt.... 40 — C. Stone.. 40 Fritt.... 80 Bone ... 160 150 Sods* «• • • 10 C. Stone. 30 C. Stone. 80 100 Flint ... 40 C. Clay . 80 80 W. Lead . 65 Blue do.. 16 20 Borax .. 20 Stain with Blue Calc. William Handley. Body. Glaze. Fritt— Grind together— Bone.... 170 220 C. Stone.. 50 30 Fritt ... 80 C. Clay.. 105 60 Cullet.... 60 30 W. Lead 20 Blue ditto 30 160 Red Lead . 20 10 or Felspar.. 95 120 Borax.... 50 20 Fritt ... 40 Blue Calc 4oz. 6oz. Nitre .... 6 6 W. Lead 40 Cullet.. 20 486 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. George Jones. Body. Cornwall Stone, 120 120 Bone ... 88 80 C. Clay.. 56 25 Blue ditto .... 24 50 Flint. 20 16 Blue Calc. 4oz. 4 oz Glaze. Fritt— Grind together— Cullet.... 20 15 Fritt.... 10 30 Bed Lead . 20 10 Cullet.. 4 20 Flint .... 60 20 W. Lead 6 30 Arsenic .. 1 6 Nitre. Flint... 1 — Borax.... 40 10 The semifluid glaze must have only that con¬ sistence or specific weight per ale pint, which will be in precise accordance with supplying a coating to the biscuit agreeably to its pyrometrical expansibility and peculiar components. The cream-colour glaze must be opaque, clear, free from specks, much like velvet, and indifferent to the sollicking of acid and alcali, and to alternation of temperature. In raw glazes , or those whose components are mixed without previous preparation, there is considerable care needed to pre¬ vent, in the dipping-tub, the metallic oxides preci¬ pitating, because of their specific gravity; whereby, instead of the useful components remaining suspended, merely an aqueous mixture of earthy components is present, inadequate to supply a suitable proportion of materials to cover the biscuit. Continued agitation does not always avail, and the employment of a flow of common salt may produce a yellow tint prejudicial * r - ' ' . I GLAZES. 487 to the ware; and in the fritted glazes, the use of spirit of salt , or muriatic acid, cannot be otherwise than in¬ judicious, and should be superseded; (may I ask whether raised temperature would not answer?) for when the baking process dissipates the acid, its gas carries away with it whatever it had previously solli- cited to combination. Soda, or Barilla-ashes, in the state of carbonate, is the alcali generally used to promote the vitrefication of the earths and metallic oxides as silicates, because, by its greater potency in combining with silica, it forms a thinner glaze, and is cheaper, than potash. For other uses, its sophistication by neutral salts and alcaline earths would depreciate its value ; but as these generally promote vitrescence, its utility for potters is scarcely affected. The carbonic acid dissipates in the oven, and all the substances fuse together into a silecious mass, the soda as a pure (not carbonated) alcali combines with the silica, and the glaze is equally with glass durable when cold.* * The following notices were overlaid when page 220 was printed, else they would have appeared there •;— Natron , native sesquicarbonate of Soda, is found at the foot of a mountain in the province of Suckena, a subject-state of Tripoli, from which city it is twenty-eight days’ journey, and two from Fezzan, in Africa. It has a varied thickness from an inch to a line, and occurs in crystals formed into prisms, fibrous masses, and congeries of crystals. It has translucence, vitreous glistening lustre, grey or yellowish-white colour, mild alcaline savour, is soluble in water, but indifferent to the action of the air. Tincal is found in Thibet, China, Ceylon, Tartary, Saxony, Transylvania, and Potosi. That from Thibet is supplied by an extensive lake, fifteen days’ journey from Tisoolumbo, the capital of the country. The situation is elevated, and most of the year the 488 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. But Borax is unrivalled in its property of pro- moting the fusibility of vitrefiable components; causing the compound to flow most freely, without springs are frozen, and deposit on the edges and shallows both borate and muriate of soda (tincal and common salt). The deposit leaves holes that are refilled, and again emptied as needed. A. Nitrate of Soda (with some impurities of nitre, salt, clay, and sand) has recently been introduced into the market from Tarapaca, in Chili. Its properties are not yet determined, but its crystallization and efflorescence indicate some mode of preparation. The material named Lynn Sand is of a very fine quartzose nature, supplied from the small port Lynn, on the coast of Norfolk, and a similar kind is supplied from Alum Bay, the western extre¬ mity of the Isle of Wight. Its use commenced and continues (whether calcined to separate all carbonaceous impurities, or merely washed to remove soluble ingredients), because it is an excellent substitute for flint, saving the expenses attached, and the small portion of alcali which remains assists in its vitrefication. Arsenic is a very powerful flux in promoting complete vitrefi¬ cation, and with this advantage, that whatever carbonaceous parti¬ cles it may be in contact with, it volatilizes likewise with them during the fixation of the oxygen. It is very useful in the dipped ware for aiding the manganese. Nitre also dissipates any carbo¬ naceous ingredients with which it has been in contact previous to fusion. Lead , even at a low quotation, is dear for glaze; and the only reason for its continued use, is the knowledge of its application. It renders the glaze heavy, fusible, soft, and easily injured by acid and alkali when heated.—The proportions of the oxides introduced into the fritt, as well as mixed with it after grinding, must be so carefully adapted to the whole quantity of components, also to complete intermixture with those which are alcaline, that pernicious results may not ensue from their adoption. The red oxide pro¬ motes the vitrefication, at a low temperature, of all the components, and increases the density without impairing the lustre of the glaze. Litharge, however, will answer in smaller proportions than red or white lead, as 86 to 116 and 1*26. It wilier se fuse into a clear transparent dense glass, remarkably soft and velvety to the touch, GLAZES. 489 bubbles or specks, and thus increasing the beauty of the glaze. It has not yet been solved—how much of the boracic acid is evolved during the glaze-baking; and it needs careful adaptation for colours formed of nitro-muriates. With alumine it slowly forms a per¬ manent glass, opaque with excess of the earth. And, as the fineness of tint, from a solution of cobalt, im¬ proves by its purity, there seems a proof that, in pro¬ portion to the excellence of the materials which composed the body, will be the beauty of the Blue Printed Ware. The transferring process causes a mechanical, and the glaze-baking, a chemical combi¬ nation, of the silica, alumine, and cobalt. As a substitute for Borax, some employ—equal weights of nitre and flowers of sulphur, incandesced, till all sulphurous acid has evolved; when the sul- pho-nitrate of potash is poured upon an iron plate, and when cool, the scum is carefully separated from the chemical compound. and fusible at a low red heat. When the temperature is very high, unless earths are present, this oxide will permeate and escape through common crucibles almost like liquid through a sieve, and corrode the vessel. In forming a glaze, both red and white lead form litharge, by the high temperature of the baking process dissi¬ pating the oxygen of the former, and the carbonic acid of the latter; and their value must have the ratio of their respective numbers for them to be equally cheap. 490 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. COLOURED GLAZES, DIPS, AND SMEARS. The following are the components of the best in present use:— COLOURED GLAZES. Black. —1. Fritt together, and grind for use,—black oxides of copper, manganese, and iron, and oxide of cobalt, equal parts with two parts nitre, and 20 cullet. For inside, white lead 80, flint 16, manganese 4. 2, 3. In clean water mix manganese 8, 4, ochre 46, 12, blue clay 46, 84; pass through the lawn for use. Ditto, (Shining.) 1. To flinted slip (4) 60 parts, add red lead 40; of this liquid 86 parts intermix with 14 manganese. 2. White lead 66, manganese 24, flint 10, mix together for use. Brown. In slip 3, 33 parts, mix red lead 62 parts, and flint 5; (and, for black , add 2 parts manganese.) 2. Glaze 5, 33 parts, and fritt glaze 3, 67 parts. 3. For jug necks, use 67 and 33. Yellow. —1. In cream-colour glaze 4, 72 parts, mix base yel¬ low 14, and litharge 14 parts. 2. Glaze 7, 80 parts, biscuit yel¬ low 20. Green. Fritt together, and grind for use, white lead 54 parts, flint 27, blue clay 9, oxide of copper 9, cobalt calc 2, or 1, or sul¬ phate of copper 60, flint 20, cullet 20; grind with litharge 35, flint 27, grauen 16, fritt 14.—Mix,fritt 15 parts, glaze 6, 85parts; or 40 and 60 for edging. 3. Fritt lead 33, copper calc 28, flint 22, cullet 17; grind and mix fritt 20 parts, printing glaze 4, 80 parts, or for dessert-ware, fritt 24 glaze 76 ; or glaze 4, 80 parts, oxide of copper 20. DIPS. Brown. —1. Mix best ware shavings into slip 24 oz. to pint, then, to slip 80 parts, add ochre 13, manganese 7; and bake in the first ring. 2. Calcine ball clay, brick clay, ochre, and Brad wall red clay, equal parts ; pass through 14 lawn, then to 92 of liquid add 8 of oxide of nickel. 3. (Mingled) Best shavings slip 75, ground per oxide of iron 25. Bake as above, (or 4, brick clay 97, zaffre 3, bake in second ring.) 4, 5, 6. (Purple) Brown dip 1, 80,48; Ironstone 20,5 ; Manganese 0, 48. 7. Best ware shavings GLAZES. 491 slip 34, brown dip 56, ochre 8, manganese 2. 8, the last, with ochre 4, Spanish brown 4, for china jugs. Blue.— 1, and 2. Blue clay 28, 23, grauen 50, 27, flint 0, 27, plaster 20, 0, China clay 0, 15, blue calc 2, 8 ; through 14 lawn. Grey. Best shavings slip 94, blue calc 6; or 75, flint 15, emery 6, manganese 4; grind well for use. Green. —1. Best slip 96, blue calc 3, copper calc 1. 2. Or, (mingled) calcine well ball clay 75, blue calc 25 ; and to 20 of this add 80 best slip. 3. Stone body slip 94, and zaffre 6 parts. 4. Black marie slip 92, blue calc 8. 5. Cane dip 96, blue calc 4. The three last are dark and olive. Cane. Equal quantities of best slip and orange dip. Orange. Equal quantities of brown dip and black marie. Red. Calcine, and grind for use, brick clay 60, Bradwalldo. 40. SMEARS. \ In hot water mix well—salt rock 24, 33, 59, 34, 54, potash 60, 45, 9, 48, 42, nitre 18, 22, 32, 18, 14. And to cream-colour glaze 80, add 20 of the smear, for the seggars; or 86 and 14, 90 and 10. WASHES. For Seggars.—In water 2 gallons, slake 2 lbs. of quick-lime; to lime-water 5 quarts, add common slip without flint 1 quart; some persons add 10 oz. of salt, and 6 of potash. For glaze-baking the former; or, lime 6, slip 1, cream-colour glaze 6; lead 4, grauen 1; and for bottom, outside, add litharge 5, flint 1. To prepare Barytes for using in Glaze. Take a seggar of the size adapted to contain the quantity needed; —line this one inch thick, with powdered charcoal, put in the sul¬ phate of barytes, cover well with charcoal, put on a hiller (cover,) and lute down well with wad clay; place the whole at the top or inside of the mouths of the oven as soon as the firing up is com¬ pleted. At a white heat, the sulphuret fuses, and is then to be cast into a strong vessel of boiling-water, which must be drawn off by siphon, and its crystals will be ready for further employment; and the water itself may also be used, when cleared of charcoal^ 492 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. In Grinding these mixtures for the different compounds, whether Bodies, Glazes, or Colours, an indispensable condition of the active power is, the extension of the arms over the radius of the pan ; to constantly rake up, or agitate, the substance imme¬ diately after being affected by the runner, that new surfaces may be presented for grinding, on each re¬ volution. That portion of the runner nighest the centre describes a circle with least radius; and each portion enlarges the circle, in proportion to distance from the centre ; yet all parts of the runner describe their respective circles in the same period, thus vary¬ ing the force of abrasion, by the slower or quicker motion of the runner over the paver; which arrange¬ ment is requisite to form impalpable powders. In dry grinding, it constantly undermines, breaks, and causes to deposite, whatever portion of the substance may have caked up against the sides of the pan ; for, when a certain state of comminution is attained, the pressure consolidates the mass, and retards abrasion. In semi-fluid grinding, the like arrangement to dis¬ turb the materials, that they may not set (or techni¬ cally suck,) is further aided, by the introduction of— water in which quick-lime is present;—water satu¬ rated with common salt;—water saturated with equal proportions of sulphates of zinc and iron;—dilute solution of sulphuric, or muriatic acid.—For Blue, and Chrome Green, a very useful preventive, is, a crystal of gypsum, (or of barytes,) in size determined by the quantity of colour under the process. . • . ' •- ■II _ , I N . [ 493* ] GLASSES. Many researches of science needing articles of this Manufacture, attention has been given to improve it every way, so that its fabrications, in beauty and refulgence of substance, and in variety, splendour, and elegance of figure, greatly excel those of the countries whence the Art was originally introduced, to increase the conveniencies and comforts of life. As cut forms, of varied sizes and facets, thereby we promote the beautiful prismatic combinations with lustres and chandeliers; as plates for mirrors, we assist beauty to render available all the elegancies of the toilette, and we review near objects; as vessels, to distin¬ guish, by the transparency, the clear or turbid state of the liquid presented for refreshment ; and as sheets, while admitting the solar rays for our enjoyment of the day, yet excluding the pelting storm, the ruthless blast, or the inclement frost. Glass, in the scientific application, signifies all com¬ pounds hard, brittle, vitrefied, and often translucent, which result from continued high temperature acting on two or more earths present together,—as alumine, barytes, and lime,—or silica, barytes, lime, and fluor spar;—certain proportions have chemically combined ; and yet the compound has not hitherto been rendered sufficiently tractile to be fabricated into articles of utility. Hence, in popular language, Glass is the translucent vitrefied substance formed by continuing many hours at the temperature of 120° Wedg¬ wood, 16000° Fahrenheit, certain earths and alcali, and metallic oxides ; the kinds are Flint-glass (the crystal of foreigners), used for the most valuable vessels and ornaments (and coloured by certain metallic oxides, to imitate natural gems);— Plate-glass, for looking-glasses and windows, where appearance and protection are preferred to expence ; —Crown-glass, or best sheet window-glass, used in most sash-windows, where a tint in the light admitted would be 1 494 * CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. disagreeable to the vision ;— Broad-glass, or coarse green¬ ish window-glass, used for common purposes ;—and Bottle- glass, coarse common green glass, whose use is well known to almost every person. The essential components of Glass are sand and alcali ; with the addition of— lime, nitre , borax , and oxides of lead, arsenic, and manganese, in some of the kinds. The earths alone, when pure, likewise the alcalies, do not vitrefy; but, because of greater capacity for appro¬ priating and concentrating heat, the latter becomes solvents, or fluxes of those refractory substances, by causing the compound to vitrefy. Hence, when these readily fusible, and those refractory substances, are together raised to a very high temperature long continued, certain propor¬ tions chemically combine, the adventitious substances are separated, the melted mass assumes the viscidity of molasses, or bird-lime, and from it the artizan takes whatever portion he may require to form the article needed, and which, passing through the lier in annealing, has its temperature gradually reduced to that of the atmosphere. Flint-glass, (so named, because at first the silecious component was the powder of calcined flint, quartz, or rock-crystal,) is that brilliant, beautiful vitreous trans¬ parent compound, fabricated into the finest vessels for the table, and the splendid ornaments of the drawing-room. Some practical men are of opinion, that, on careful and perfect vitrefication of the components, depends its ex¬ cellence, more than on their relative proportions. But, wherever loss can be superseded, as in both instances, there is advantage in urging attention to the most minute particulars. The Components are :— White Sand,* (purified) Best Pearl Ashes, (do.) Minium. Litharge. Nitre.. .. 1 52 16 30 2 2 52 16 30 2 3 54 32 2 2 4 56 32 40 2 _5_ 55 32 43 6 56 30 42 2 * On a farm called Holly-heath, near to the railway, Crewe, Cheshire, is a bed of this fine sand, from which all oxide of iron has been abstracted by an adjoining bed of peat. The trials made with it (1837) are very excellent. GLASSES. 495 * The sand is purified by careful washing ; the ashes by lixiviation and evaporation of the liquid dry. The lead renders the glass more clear, transparent, refractive, dense, susceptible of very high polish, and indifferent to sudden alternations of temperature; while the additional tenacity adapts it for being easily controuled and fabricated by the artizan. The nitre avails for diminution of lead oxide, (whose excess renders the glass very soft,) and appro¬ priates any adventitious earths, as well as corrects the tint caused by manganese. The Components are carefully mixed, put into the pot, and raised to the temperature needed for their chemical combination, which is known by neither bubbles, vapouis, nor other impurities on the surface, but the mass appears pure, colourless, translucent, and vitrefied. The salts in¬ different to silica form a white froth, of glass-gall or sandiver, which is constantly skimmed off, else it would injuriously combine with the earths of the pottery; the temperature next is lowered, till the mass becomes viscid and tenacious, proper for the manipulations. Coloured Glasses, or Pastes. —Artificial Precious Stones. These require to approach, as nigh as possible, those of nature, in hardness from the components, clearness from speck or bubble, perfect translucence, and lively splendour of colour. To ensure successful results in this branch, most carefully must be regarded constantly, the precise degree and continuance of the temperature, the difference by change of alcali,—the purity of the compo¬ nents,—the preparation, and precise state of the metallic oxides, solvent or colorific, — and, the minute quantity, which will communicate the required tint, to a determined weight of the white glass. They are formed by re-melting,—after again rendering friable, by suddenly cooling in water, while incandescent,— one of these fritts :— 496 * CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 White Sand, (purified). 30 25 25 30 18 35 30 14 17 26 27 55 52 Minium . — — 50 — — 52 60 42 50 63 66 9 6 Litharge. 48 — — — — — — — — — — — — Arsenic. 4 — — — — — — — — — . _ — — Ceruse. 57 6 Potash, (oarh.). 12 12 18 36 7 Ditto calcined . — 26 3 5 2 1 4 3 Borax ditto . 9 6 — 52 20 10 — 42 32 7 6 — 7 Nitre ditto. 9 — 13 — — •3 5 — — — — — 28 Bone Ash Opaque The above White Glasses, treated with 1, to 1*5 per cent, of colorific oxide, readily take any required tint of purple and violet by oxide of gold, red by manganese, and by iron, (which also supplies tints of green, blue, and black,) hyacinth by tin, yellow by silver, bismuth, and lead, blue by cobalt, and green by nickel. Artificial Garnet. Glass (No. 3) 66, Glass of Antimony 33, Purple of Cassius ’5, Oxide of Manganese •5.—Or, (best prepared in a platinum, or plumbago crucible, because of often permeating porcelain,) Powder of Rock-crystal 26, Minium 73, Zaffre ‘2, Oxide of Manganese ’8, fritted, and re-melted. Artificial Emerald. Glass (No. 2) 98, oxide of copper 1’8, oxide of iron *2.—Or, Glass (No. 7) 95, copper 4, iron 1.—Or, 92, 7, 1. Artificial Amethyst. Glass (No. 5) 96, Nitre 3, Manganese 1, purple spice. Artificial Sapphire. Glass (No. 1) 98, Zaffre 1'8, Manganese '2.— Or, Silica 35, Soda 18‘5, Minium 45, Zaffre 1, Manganese *5, fritted, and re-melted. Artificial Opal. Glass (No. 3) 88‘4, Bone Ash 8, Muriate of Silver 3, and Magnetic Iron Ore ’6. Wiegleb recommends, for a White Glass, a fritt of Sibca 31, Alu- mine 31, Magnesia 31, fluate of lime 7, in place of sand, or powder of flints.—Mix fritt 50, Ceruse 6, borax 19, purified potash 25 ; or as Glass No. 5. Manganese only supplies a red tint to glass, entirely free from impurities and arsenic ; and, with iron, produces a black glass. Its potency in combining with earths, cor¬ rects the colorific effects of impure materials, during complete vitrefication, added in proportion to the strength of the tint. When excess has been used, a strong stick is forced through the melted mass, and supplies carbon; the carbonic acid evolves, and produces intumescence, during which the tint disappears, and the glass becomes clear and transparent. The like result ensues, on forcing to the bottom, and agitating in the mass, small lumps of arsenic, GLASSES. 497 * vhich also promote the combination of the components, the due proportion remains inseparable by any usual pro¬ cesses, and the other volatilizes with any carbon present. When a portion remains present, not intimately combined, the glass has a wavy hue, gradually darkens, and decompo¬ sition progresses, till the Articles entirely fail. In fabrica¬ ting White Glass, for the Optician’s use, great care must be exercised to prevent strata of different densities and refractiveness, being formed by the deposite of the oxides in the pot, which also vitrefies the surface in contact. When carbonate of copper, prepared from the sulphate, or the *ii \ 11 I -.i^a : ^ i.i, ■ , COLOURS. 531 duly supplied with materials, the united product of several of the counties of England. To produce the commonest painted bowl, used by the poorest peasant wife to contain the breakfast of her rustic husband, the Clays of Dorset and Devonshires, the Flints of Kent, the Granite of Cornwall, the Lead of Montgomery, the Manganese of Warwickshire, and the Soda of Cheshire, must be conveyed from those respective districts, and by ingenious processes, the results of unnumbered experiments, be made to combine with other substances apparently as hetero¬ geneous, obtained from other nations. The accumulation and dissemination of science and knowledge, obey laws altogether distinct and different from those obeyed by physical subjects. Unlike the force, by schoolmen named gravity, which diminishes rapidly at every successive incre¬ ment of the distance from the point of contact, its ideal origin ;—or that of combinative potency, which is inert at determined distances; the further the advancement from the origin of our knowledge the greater the ability is, and more adapted to capacitate its possessors to appropriate fresh supplies. Yet this continual and rapid improvement, instead of inciting fears for the exhaustion of the prolific source, at each advance places them in a more elevated position from which they can readily contemplate the several portions they have passed. Every well-wisher of the Manufacture, who can imagine the vast portion of patient thought, of continued labour, of repeated experiment, of happy efforts of genius, and the great amount of expences incurred, and which have originated and promoted 2 m 2 532 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. its progress to the present state,—will feel anxious, as much as possible, to prevent the recurrence of the disappointment, vexation, and loss, consequent on deficient chemical information in the persons who have been entrusted with the execution of important improvements, which, though very considerable within the course of a few years, it is extremely desirable to extend much further, by appropriating all the advantages supplied by various and valuable successive discoveries. A proud, vain, and heartless sovereign, imagin¬ ing that his patronage would divert from her general course that important supplier of his exchequer, asked—“What can I do to promote Trade?” and received for answer the following pertinent remark; “ Let Trade take its own course.” Deity has kindly enabled man to invent means whereby the pro¬ ductions of nature can be worked up into articles of comfort and elegance, with the least possible ex¬ penditure of manual labour. And when the acquired habits and natural capabilities are carefully regarded in the persons most eminent for practical and theoretical skill, and whose combined efforts are engaged in the general object of improvement, there is presented the greatest probability of success; and that, ultimately, all the talent of each will regard only this sole object —the art of producing a good article at the lowest possible cost. Each of the varied and unnumbered mineral products may become the basis of some future extensive manufacture, to multitudes of the human family a source of employment and wealth. But the superabundant products of the mine, the crude COLOURS. 533 treasures exposed constantly to our view, the Coal, and Iron, and Clay,—the primary sources of all the wealth and power of Britain,—contain within them other and more valuable principles; and their developement cannot possibly be too free. Their non-existence in other nations of Europe, prevents the rivalry in manufacturing greatness ; and, ages of research and labour probably will not completely exhaust them, and their numerous modifications, perhaps destined to furnish, in perpetual succession, new sources of our wealth and of our happiness. The idea has prevailed that the processes of Manufacture are too difficult to be comprehended by the person uninitiated ; but the general principles and mutual relations of the whole can be, by most persons of moderate acquirements; although pre¬ vious knowledge and some skill are needful, for the manufacturer to direct those whom he employs. The same principle for cultivating one kind of industry applies to all others equally, whether the manual or the fine Arts ; the dormant labour, and the inert inventive faculty, need only suitable excite¬ ment to produce comfort and wealth. The advance¬ ment of a Manufacturer is not always consequent on plans profoundly investigated —sparks may kindle the energies of other minds in a suitable condition to pursue the details; and suggestions acquire im¬ portance by their objects being thereby presented to the attention of a large manufacturing population. Bulwer, in his work entitled “ England and the English,” says—“ Wedgwood was remarkably successful, and yet accomplished his purposes inde¬ pendent of any public School of Design, wherein 534 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. could be pursued the requisite studies for high excellence in the Art of inventing Patterns for the Manufacture. Necessity excites, or, which is equally proper, admits the exercise of genius. Thomas [Josiah] Wedgwood could apply only a mere few of the most common Principles of the Science of Chemistry to improve the proportions of the components of his wares; yet he accomplished his object by obtaining the most beautiful and convenient antique specimens, which by his workmen were imitated with scrupulous exactness; and, after having gained celebrity for these copies, he had recourse to Flaxman, the greatest genius of the day , for original designs and advice, [and Flax- man employed Mr. John Lucock, who on November 5,1836, shewed to myself and a friend his account for work done for Flaxman.] The manufacturers of 1835 produce a far more excellent and valuable fabric; and yet they are less willing, than he was, to reward excellence, while they complain of defective talent in persons whom they never excited and solicited, and whose services a moderate remuneration would com¬ mand.” The Cheapness of our Manufacturers, the staple of our commerce, involves our national welfare and existence ; and the accumulation of skill and talent to promote this, by increasing the facilities for their production, supplies advantages participated by our¬ selves and our foreign customers. This cheapness involves likewise a suitable course of induction in the people ;—industry and ability unequalled, expertness and skill in manipulation unrivalled; appropriation of native materials peculiar ; the economy of the manufactory admirably secured and arranged; and COLOURS. 535 the display of ingenuity in the successive changes of shapes of Articles, and of elegance of patterns and decorations, without parallel or limit. This Cheapness will command foreign custom, and our markets will have visitors—natives of every clime and country—prompted by self-interest, and the advantages they will derive from supplies of the products of our industry:—and also, through the same all-powerful motive, vendors of those com¬ modities for which we proffer a price greater than is obtained in other markets. Such was the real inducement which brought the early dealers in Earthenwares to the first marts, Tyre and Sidon, in Phoenicia, and subsequently to Corinth, and to Etruria. And if, in the revolutions of time and events, a country should be found whose Porcelain and Earthenware are vended on cheaper terms than those of the Potteries of Britain and other nations of Europe ;—then, even were such spot by supposition located in the most remote or obscure nook of our globe, thither will flock all the Earthenware Dealers; and neither fleets, nor armies, nor any other human power, would prevent the present flourishing Borough of Stoke-upon-Trent sharing the fate of its once proud predecessors in Phoenicia, in Greece, and in Italy. The prevalence of liberal principles in the Councils of Britain has tended, remarkably, to excite the talent, genius, enterprize, capital, and industry of the nation; to accelerate the improvement of Manu¬ factures in comparison with those of rival states; to place them on a vantage ground, only subversive by moral disorders resulting from injudicious in- 536 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. structions. In calculating the possible injury this Manufacture may sustain from foreign competition, as items indispensable must be introduced, the facilities of operations, transport, mechanical or automatic aid, &c. The attempt will doubtless be made by America; whose inhabitants possess equal mechanical genius, plenty of the raw materials, and additional demand, because of the prodigious increase in the amount of population. Every crate of Pottery, every hogshead of Porcelain, on quitting the ports of Britain, bears the seeds of intelligence and fruitful thought to the members of some less enlightened community. Every merchant who visits the locale of our manu¬ factures, returns home the missionary of freedom, peace, and good government. And our steam- engines, which now propel our ships to every port of Europe; and transport our merchandize along our miraculous railroads,—the talk of all nations,—are advertisements and vouchers for the value of our enlightened institutions. In conclusion, I beg to express the hope, and to avow the sincere desire, that in a comparative short time this Manufacture will be placed as the ne plus ultra among the master-pieces of chemical skill and manual dexterity; creditable alike to our age and country. THE CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY, pabv sms woqbilo TABLES OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMICAX, SUBSTANCES. “ The striking mixture of simplicity and complexity which here, as in other parts of Nature, offers itself to our notice, depends on the obedience of the primary Elements to the numerical laws which govern the composition of derived forms,”—W hewell. Accurate knowledge of the Characteristics of Substances, is most advantageous to the votaries of Chemistry. And yet, to verify each, seriatim , would require more talent, time, and indefatigable industry in him who might attempt the task, however deserv¬ edly eminent, than could be reasonably expected. Those entitled most to general confidence, because results of the researches of different Analysts of acknowledged ability, are scattered through many voluminous and expensive works, and reference to ' them can be made only at a great expence of time and trouble, even where to the works themselves there is facility of access. 538 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. Yet to the Chemical Student such reference is indispensable, until the particulars become familiar by their frequent reiteration; unless they can be presented to him in some arrangement, that will supply him readily with the entire amount of current knowledge concerning them. Such an auxiliary for this important purpose, is a Series of Chemical Tables ; and the only drawback on its utility, is the possible diminution of the advantage of habitual cal¬ culation. When (in 1831-2,) directing the Chemical Class of the Pottery Mechanics Institution, the desire to present a standard for the researches—of accuracy, when these were imitative, and of comparison when original,—could only be gratified by the constant reference to accredited authorities ; at a sacrifice I was induced to make, solely in hope thereby to confer an advantage on Minds just beginning to expand with fervent attachment to science. But the Benefits were so obvious, that I became more intent on the design of availing myself of the earliest opportunity, to collect and tabulate the Observed Properties and Relations of Substances. And with¬ out regard to the labour of the task, I have endea¬ voured to be, in every particular, most attentive to ensure accuracy. Frequently during these sessions, had I been led to notice, that certain compounds, whose atomic weights differed, had present the same relative yet not the same absolute number of atoms of the same elements ;—that others had precisely the same num¬ bers of the same elements, yet different or opposite properties, or wholly different kinds of substances. CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBSTANCES. 539 These peculiarities surpassed my ability to refer to an adequate cause; and I was highly gratified to find, from subsequent researches, that the respective Com¬ binative Potencies which produce such results, had engaged the attention of philosophical Chemists of the highest celebrity, by them named Polymerism , Isomerism , and Metamerism ; and likewise another remarkable peculiarity, noticed especially in natural productions, and named Isomorphism :—the probable similar form of atoms of certain classes of Elements, Bases, and Acids, whence the substitution of an equiva¬ lent number of atoms, of an element or compound (a like-oxydated or electro-positive component,) for those of one usually present; and yet preserving the external characters, and the figure and the angle of the cleavage planes of the crystal. The substi¬ tuted components being named vicarious; and vary, as less of one, and more of the other, agreeably to their different combinative potencies. With regard to Natural Compounds, although Chemists have endeavoured, by numerous and most carefully-conducted analyses, to discover the nature of the connection between Chemical Composition and Mineral Character, yet, as there are not only, at present, no general and generally-recognized Chemical Laws, susceptible of application to the various Classes of Mineral Substances; neither many clear determinations of the components of particular species ; and so few instances of ability to state the kind of substance, from mentioning very fully the components;—that there seemed no likelihood of attaining to accuracy in giving insertion to the published formulae. 540 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. The Series of Tables may not inaptly be com¬ pared to a vast granary of a widely-extended domain, containing the different portions of the harvest of Chemical Science already ripe, collected by the perseverance of the laborant and the gleaner; and where to each kind is most carefully assigned its proper situation with regard to all the others, whence it can be either removed or omitted only through inattention or ignorance. The Arrangement regards the regular systematic succession, from the component most receptive to that most communicative; and pre¬ senting the proper place for any which may hereafter be recognized and determined. It may be stated, that the irregular and outspread surface of the domain itself presents numerous chief divisions, in each of which may be noticed, spots, which defy alike the estimate and direction of the surveyor, and the management of the improver; in others are indica¬ tions of the bassetings of rich ore which needs to be determined by the observations and experiments of persons who especially cultivate the sciences of calcu¬ lation ;—here we find veins scarcely opened, but which will require from those who can devote all their industry and attention, the application of all their ingenuity, to determine the precise limits of the veins; their assiduity to avoid whatever obstacles might retard their progress, or cause failure in the design; and their most improved methods to pursue those appearances of the lode which promise the supply of the hoped-for object; and there are not wanting other veins, where the absence of a common prin¬ ciple in the working, or the indiscriminate choice of means to treat and determine the products, or de- CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBSTANCES. 541 fective instructions for the acquisition of the object, will be found to have hitherto precluded success. For the Chemical Student to economize time, labour, and thought, to indicate the Components and Quantities of the Elements in substances, indispen¬ sable are Chemical Formula, and a clear and brief Notation, although to some the requisite numerous Symbols may be repulsive. The facility and con¬ venience of a Collection of Symbols representing the known Combinations of Forms, however multi¬ farious, can be duly estimated only by persons familiar therewith. In regard to Natural Substances, Notation is indispensable, because frequently their composition is much too complex to be clearly and distinctly expressed by the resources of the language of Modern Chemistry. In the latest improvements of the science, there will be merely needful a change of the Initial where a vicarious Element is found ; and by employing the sign of the Element for the prime or single atom, and affixing an exponent of the multiples, the Elements and their ratios in the Com¬ position of a substance will be clearly restricted and indicated. This method of employing Symbols for the components and equivalents of the Elements of a Compound, when so frequently employed as to be properly comprehended, will be as useful in the facile indication of chemical combinative potency, as are the Arabic digits in the science of arithmetic.* The * Dr. Turner states, that, in some instances, the equivalents are so nearly simple multiples of that of Hydrogen that they may be taken as such without appreciable error; but, in many cases, the numbers given by experiment cannot he reconciled 542 CHEMISTRY OF POTTERY. standard adopted is Hydrogen, and its communica¬ tive or receptive potency with each other element, is indicated by the number affixed to each element in the column next to that wherein is the symbol ; thus 4 of oxygen combine with *25 of hydrogen; therefore hydrogen being *25, 4 is the combinative potency of oxygen. This latter is also a standard for those substances which do not appropriate hydrogen ; their equivalent being determined by the quantity which combines with the equivalent quantity of another substance that does combine with hydrogen; silver, for instance, is indifferent to hydrogen ; yet as 27 '5 of silver combine with 4 of oxygen, and 4 of this combine with *25 of hydrogen, then 27*5 is the equi¬ valent number of the combinative potency of silver. And so of all other Substances.* with hypothesis. The following are the numbers which he is disposed to believe very nearly correct:—Lead 1036, Silver 108, Chlorine 35*42, Barium 68*7, Mercury 202, pex-haps slightly higher, but not higher than 2023, Nitrogen 14*2, but not lower than 14, and Sulphur nearer to 16*1 than 16 .—Third Report of British Association for the Advancement of Science, p. 399. * The combining quantities of the Elements are determinate weights, and the combining quantities of the gases are deter¬ minate measures. Thus a cubic inch of one gas combines with a cubic inch of another gas, and not with a fractional part of a cubic inch. And it is requisite farther to state, that that deter¬ minate weight of a solid body, which combines with a cubic inch of one gas, combines also with a cubic inch, or with 2 or 3 or some entire number of cubic inches of another gas, and not with a fractional measure. There is, consequently, a certain weight of each solid Element which is equivalent in combination to a gaseous volume. If every element could be obtained in the state of gas, the CHARACTERISTICS OF SUBSTANCES. 543 problem of determining the atomic weights could be at once solved by weighing an equal bulk of each of the gases—since, in reality, the atomic weights would be neither more nor less than the specific gravities of the gases. But unfortunately this method of determining the atomic weights is limited to the few following elements: Oxygen..., # , 4 Chlorine.. g Hydrogen.0-25 Nitrogen.... 35 to which may possibly be added— Iodine . . 32 Mercury...25 Limited, however, as this method of determining the atomic weights is, it is of the greatest importance, being the only direct way of strictly comparing the elementary atoms which has yet been discovered. From the weights of equal volumes of the gaseous elements, we can form a distinct idea of the comparative weights of their atoms; but every other method of determining atomic weights affords at best what we must denominate Presump¬ tive evidence, and this, if pretty clear with respect to a number of Elements, is often, in regard to others, of the most dubious description. The consequence is, that what are called the atomic weights of a good many elements are merely approximations or guesses. GENERAL REFERENCES. t> Q> Jfl o a ctf s Ut o> u. be C «/> O cj £3 tj « to <2 P-. a o -3 a ctf O. *»»* G o 3 «? o s *• O •« 3 a) ►-5 ^3 W*. « Trivial Name. ' Sulphurous Hypo Ditto Oil of Vitriol, Sulph. Hypo Ditto Oxygenated Ditto 1 5 o . o «s o P* a> $ • “4 — * (M •as^g -4— •»— H— 4— Tf C CO v. -4 C3 be >> 4* ~Ci 3 cr 5 «J be S (4 o o o O J! + *- . _ 3 5 6 : 2 =rO .S?* lo .2 a J '£ * 2 ..O 5*x -T3 d •*» J- » « a) ++ eB •-CQ o || «) ' e .- .§ e-~ +-I .. 03 c •!• s .. in 3 o n s* d S o o «* O J O "3 r c 5 * « sc O trj W «« X 3 O a 3 3 o rt C3 o G to G * H 3 3 3 O Cfl C5 U 3 c- t/i o a H *g 09 # «qj, ‘gOS *010.1*3 ‘saqoni oiqn^> 00 U°^i a AV iO «H« CO 40 o 7 1 ° co co O I = a>V p-H r-H 04 r-H 04 40 r-H O* r-H 04 auaqd H 04 *T -1* •-H 04 -sonny i"H 04 r—( Ol 00 co I-H 1—H V 5 ^ CO ja^AV 05 05 O CD CD t^. 9Z- = P^H ‘saaquin^t luaiUAinbg jqSw» -uioiv •S3IJ1') -«Bn 5 aiaqi pUB l S}U3U -odmo 3 aqi jo sioquiXs iO iO iO lO Cl^tNiON Tt*ooao(>*ocb(Mco. Si Si >> A I -O^ t. » Si Si »i si3i»iOisi o>2 2 2 2a. a.2 2 a, 00 a O c o S 9 W .s a i CJ .5 •3 3 o a i fB % ^ CM CO to CM (MO _ ^ O O 00 p~ - *ppi>. 0 --,. rt r■> •_!_■ w uouovOs;. O o I I I ^ o I h5 S 2 I £ . §> *-• ** =» ** s I ^ a>~a -s oj-e -a -a v. . a, ^ ^ ^ ^2 c^-g 2 - M •—i < CO CO c* CO o cb O 3 ^ *SO w : • • • »-. • • rl • z • • • i> : a *-H * I • • • rt • z o „ • • 03 O CO ^-h 'T 3 rH *OJ *" • -TJ O o 3'5 *3 1 ? P 5 oo < H- K O a 03 ^3 03 ■g-SJ IS HH U (M CO CO *—< co W co CM —i CO p (b O o Q< 00 co t>* o »o CM CM CM T* tf cb co -t — 1 < co co ” p. „oo 2 ’-a? s S — CO W 55 ►—* 03 O jj HH <5 2 N Trivial Name. CO Theoretic Com. position. •js^av •aseg •ppy i ojnieaaduiox SuTjiog c c S 8 iO !N ^ (X) COH-fOin rf rf ^OOOOCl^OOOGO^^aDXlNCCiOCO^OOOOOO r^^GOCCCO h M >3 3 »& ;».£ 3 -c »> 1 •uuoj h .. ». ts t* "8 i: -« ~e -e-e ~s "a -s O ^ ^ «oA,«o*»*eo *»co »> •» Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Chloride. 1 2 Bromide. 1 2 Carburet. FLUORINE .... Acid. PHOSPHORUS Hydrate . Oxide . 1 2 3 Acid. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Sulphuret .... 1 2 Chloride. 1 2 3 Bromide ...... 1 2 Iodide ........ 1 2 3 4 Tf -fr- + ++ lO r-H iO 4- IH 4~ CO o> o COO o o o o o O 40 O r-H t>. tO 40 GO H •—i r-H CO I—( T^< & o o O O o o O CM o iO (M GO <-h 40 l2i 1 I 3 3 I &i &>-§ RjJs 3 1 U2 3 S o>T? Oi a,’? ■O 5 wj—-*-» •*-* <0 «J «3 CC 60 —* CT3 *3 J3 O fa to «h CO Ofa« O a CO o « § < ® £ 72 "o r° £ & * — ^ * J^’3 _a *3 OflOB :q • • o •'S ^ J3 4) T3 O ^ « -a • • • • • • • • ! ! ■« : • • • • a> < • • • • • -« • S o • 0) • k. c o rt fl w 4> -3 j JJ X o *e ® £ "O o ;o e —> ■*- Z, o co -*3 *p O O C- J£-Jr cj *- ^ X D ^ M -2 Pi^^cwo g ci iO to co ° a w pG H •asea o CO o co •ppv '3' (M -3* CM aaniBJadtuax Su !l!°a ajniBJaduiaj, aujsnj o o -f GO o CO o *P CO **• p-H (N o O GO O o o O O CO 00 co co o CO r-H o (M 'at. = 1 >AH ‘saaquuiN{ juaiBAinbH jy iqSiam uiojy iO iO lO »o iO O 'O iO iO (n iO N In iO N iO iO iO o ^-fcboooooi^ii^^wooooaj H 'M CQ - ^ H ~^-HHGO> • ~~ —" »C iO iO iO Cl |>« In. iO w-wp. • -f oo -r co oj do CO>HCO^'H'N"-*CO(N iO tO Ip "N 00 -V 00 (M M Qi co *691)11 -UTiri(5 aiaqi pun ‘siuau -oduio^ aqi jo sioqiuis ■ S - o, , i U-t ■ O n ;0,"OOOCO C o9“-06c NNSNN^SNKNxSjOVTi^VXxlESIliaT 11112 vino [03 >> S >a III I § s s Miss *UU0j ♦J to a G « o S '3 aj to 3 -I I I C. o ® (/> ? *03 ^ *^3 *^3 v- ^ V. ^2 2 fc '<<< , 2s2 o^1 • *1 • J 1 .* » < P P Q q .2 ~ P ^ P Q 5 ..Sj^ o o o ;- ‘ P ^ 1 g X cd c> o ta 0> i* 3 E «*- O o o o op # * CO f —> 05 CD o CO X iO qo 05 N 05 9> rj« CO GO X» Tt« *• X^ CM CD ^ CO .O CD CD ^ t** • lO • t> 0,3 CD GO H iO iO 4-756 *-o* O 00 »P 05 ^ • N qo Ci qo OCOODO) CM CD CD t}* lO Tf GO r-H 00 (no ocb CM r^. CD CM r—1 CD oo ^ GO i>. GO CD --H 'X) CO O GO CM X^ CM C5 05 t'* »o oo cb do o 05 ib C0(NNN M 7 CO CD ^ 00 o CD CO CO O O o & *>• GO 00 CM o o Cl 00 CM ~J< CO cm GO Tf GO 00 6 6 05 iD lO lO —i CO CO CM W o co — co -i« lO iO iO iO (N iO O ip ^ r-H *-H '-H lO lD 00 CD kp CD r-t CD I-. 00 C5 X^. lO O rt >Q lO iO (M CD CO oooo6o§§§o? - o§ooooo25?oo§ooogo^?oo: o§? ssKfi&aSEsfflS^EKsajEGSKsjEafflaaEEaKSfcSa:*®^®:!! ooo^jjj^&oa 0 «oooooo^ou?ooo?jo^,u» f u u o o o o u a o u u 3 3 3 1 3 -S 3 3 fc2 CJ «o CO sd 03 ^ eo «<» O £ * < j* oi.se t 2 ?3”3 £►» n 3 ^ f-tfeiC < 2<3 S-|i C y N U. O 3 >.3 0) {*'A& < 4) 3 O 3 3 C O Q a *- — f> aj 3 _ o «£<*! :< :s . *•» Jo* 53 3^0 3 o bo - - w^oo w, ’ w o * >-.►»« O 3 c •- 3 *- •- ^ >,=: qJSJS^ 2J3 c« os *- £ - *- « 3 rt ««— s ^ rt C^WoWWWWUOW^WWds^OUOO^^O o< u) ^ ci <; < <: P3 Trivial Name. x , + 4—b* oi * * lO TOJiOQOlNOlOai 00 r-HTjlpCp co ot no co •c? oi r>. io co coco•I• TTcr? n'T'T' ro i>. -pi^io o jrjr ,o ocbir5ooi^coi^T) | cbr>.ioc* io a* t>» ip^ig5cp^) | ooote» ip o no S£ ~ ™ 5 ? 55 0 "- 1 o re rf o cb oa cb o cb o cb -** o o o cJ'aOCONOOMOtOiOtOtOlOt^M^COiO (n 1 ^ (O N 00 oanituadmaj, Sutnog o 00 o co aaniB-iaduiax Saisna § 1 * 01111110 ^ ; Sui^nsay ■soum[OA in sjuouoduioo •siuouoduio 3 leaoijjodojj •oO9*J0qx cOS -iMOjBg ‘saqatg oiqn 3 OOIJojqSuAY Specific Gravity. I = J !V auaqd -souijv aajBAV 089 •898 1-27 • S j. = >pX H ‘sjaqiunjq luapeAmba ig jqSisM -uioiv 39-25 24-5 89 5 171*5 78-75 54 142 117 136 38-75 45-5 17-25 •soijp -nen5 -uaqi pue ‘sjuau -odui 03 aqi jo sjoquiig 00 2 rfj -o PO o - 000 x °000 _ °* * 9ooooo°$« sj;;;ssoo°ooooooooo9ooo?2o BsssBsaafflSKggKggsjBBsagwssBsasssBBasBajaKBSBsaa “oooooS^n^nnnoooOCiooooooo^ooo: 50 n « O n ” « « ^ 0 u O U UUU •jnoio 3 w y *UUOJ[ “e fe 3 3 *sa U n* Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Cerasine ...... Amyrine. Caryophillin .. Styracin . Auradin . Piperin . Picrotoxin .... Berberin . Narcine . Emetine . Narcotine .... Coniim .. Morphine . Strychnine .... Brucin . Suberic A . Ulmic A . Azulmic A . Stearine . Stearic A . Ricinic A . Margaritic A. .. Margaric A- .. Oleic A . Phocenine .... Phocenic A.... Bytyrine . Butyric A. .... Hircine . Hircic A . Delphine . Delphinic A. .. Glycerine. Cetine. 9-657 19-688 00 «o* ■# lO CO 03 iHOlrfN CO CO do oo ^ CO CO (M do 00 to ■*f 03 CO «>» —I 03 n pH O O Tf rH 03 Tt« <£> o (M m '■'* ! .S ■'- <=* ^ o) a> *c *n o £ 2.2 J2 £ ■SBBSrt-5rtrt^^^^rt§o.2.2o=««g r '“"" i 2^ ! 5ag5g^2 ; 2pq5^^ c gp »«s a o ct u o o CC o o> a c n 'I =4JV auaqd ■somjy ■[ = OS- = 'P A H ‘saaquin^ inaiBAinbg -y jqaia.u'tnoiv sapti -uen5 Jiaqj pun ‘sjuau -odiuoj aqi jo sjoqiuXs 2mSo222o2ooo2$ooooo3o$o2oooooooooo OgaOgggoNooogggggggggggggSgigSgggg •jnoioj UIIDJ Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Cocco Guidic A. Hyoscyamin .. Veratrin. Cevadic A. Nicotin .. Nicotianin .... Xanthine. Alizaric A. Violin. Violic A. Viridous A. Viridic A. Morin . Moroxylic A. .. Laetusic A. Valerianic A. .. Igasuric A. Equisetic A.... Lichenic A. Laccic A. Crameric A .... Fumarin. Fumaric A. Cinin . Cinic A. Auiylic A. Aconitic A. Conic A. Daturic A. .... Ginkaric A. Polygalic A.... Tanacetic A.... Absinthic A.... Phytolaccic A.. OOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO03000000000000000000 Trivial Name. Theoretic Com¬ position. CO iT5 In Tf CO ^ TJ< •asT?a 5-82 38-6 •ppv 5143 52-69 o-mjejaduwx Suqiog CO c CD GO (M W •-» CO a-mjeiadmax Suisng c o O Tf --- H -f N N •sonn -uenQ Jtaqr puB ‘smau -odcuoo aqi jo S[oquUs o o O C O O ° OOOOOOOOOO 00 9?oo 0 0 KEESEa 33 ® 13111 ®* 11 ® k £ K £ E i a* £ S- oooooo NNNNNNNNNNNc, < 6 S£>£§§o w UOOOOOOOCOOQ °OGO ••mop 3 2 1 1 2 2 ^2 la •uuog S 22 C S 2 2 O, Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Amygdalin .... Laurine . Variolarin .... Lignin . Hordein . Tremellin .... Digitalin . Smilacin . Guaranin . Corvdalin . Cynapin . Sanguinarin .. Curarin . Esembeckin ... Hyssopin. Eupatorin . Quercia . Buxin . Alcohol . Ether . Wax . Fibrin. Albumen. Gelatine . Tannin . Spermaceti .... Turpentine .... HYDROGEN Water Vapour Si » iO - 1 CO rf CO 05 CO lO CD o CO CO in r—1 CO (Nrf CO o ^ —< CD GO CM rr GO 00 r—1 CD 00 o w ’-r o r-H 05 05 rH cm GO in m (M 00 in in cm CD in 0> iO t>. O oo 'TJ* r—1 CD in os -t* » I'OO'I'X'j'OOOOSOOlMCCtOtOMWfCfO -H CO OOio«!3-fcm^(fio669ooo I I I I 1 1 1 I I I 1 i 1 »l I I ;jv 2 aj^Si555rjS>,cjj&jtSiOiSi •-H CM ' 03 —1 (M hcMCO , . • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • O « 0 -*-> 0) 0 a> *-» O u. -*-> 4 J ^ ca Q ■<_> 3 o -G -a C-, a 5 a> *- *- 0 £ 7c c- 0 0> 0; JJ ~0 t— 0 CX= 'S -3 »- a; 3 -3 — c CO Hi co < Sr* W 0 O OBSERVATIONS Oxygen is without colour, or odour, or action on tincture of litmus, or on lime-water; it is partially soluble in water, and in¬ creases the energies of animals, and the force of combustion. It is present with most substances, but its aciduline potency involves the presence also of hydrogen. Sulphur. Sulphurous Acid has a remarkable pungent odour, destroys fermentation, and vegetable tints, liquefies under the pressure of two atmospheres at 45°F. and in 33 volumes combines with water. Its presence with bases is indicated by a white precipitate of tests 20, 30, 35; not soluble in water, but in acids. With the Alcalies and Earths it forms salts named Sulphites ; those of the former being soluble, of the latter insoluble, in water; these salts appropriate oxygen from nitric and nitrous acids, also sluggishly from the air, forming sulphates by their decomposition, but the sulphurous acid evolves in effervescence, when is present either sulphuric, muriatic, phosphoric, or arsenic acid. Ignition with charcoal forms the greater number into sulphurets; and the action of heat alters them into a sulphate, or an oxide, or a metal. When perfectly dry they resist the action of chlorine; but when moisture is present, the gas of the acid evolves, and leaves a sulphate and a muriate. Hyposulphurous Acid forms the salts named Hyposulphites, all of which are decomposed by either sulphuric, muriatic, fluoric, phosphoric, or arsenic acid, the sulphurous acid gas evolves, the sulphur preci¬ pitates, and a fresh salt results. Its presence is indicated by a white precipitate when test 30, 32, or 35, is exhibited. The Hyposulphates of the alcalies are very soluble, others less so, in water; the solution dissolves recently-prepared chloride of silver, and acquires intense sweetness, without metallic savour. Oil of Vitriol of the strongest kind freezes at 15°F. and of 1-78, at 32°, and solidifies at 45°. The fuming acid of Nordausen is 1*9. On exhibiting test 20, 30, 35, a white insoluble precipitate results, also from nitrate of barytes, and nitrate of lead (extremely OBSERVATIONS. 557 corrosive). The salts formed are named Sulphates, which decom¬ pose at a high temperature with boracic or phosphoric acid pre¬ sent ; those of the alcalies and alcaline earths are indifferent to heat, unless mixed with charcoal, when they change into sulphurets; the others are by heat decomposed, (except that of lead, which also is soluble in plus of nitric acid, muriatic acid, and caustic potash ;) those of barytes, lead, tin, bismuth, mercury, and antimony, are wholly, and those of strontian, lime, yttria, cerium, and silver, are partially indifferent to the action of water, which efficiently sollicits the others to combination. Hyposulphuric Acid is without odour; and with barytes, strontian, and the oxides of some metals, forms the salts named Hyposulphates, soluble in water, but some wholly, others sluggishly, indifferent to the action of the atmosphere, or becoming sulphates; yet boiling changes them into sulphates and sulphites. Ignition causes sulphurous gas to evolve, and transforms them into sulphates. On exhibiting to any of these salts concentrated sulphuric acid, or hot diluted, much sulphurous gas evolves, decomposing the hyposul¬ phuric acid; which latter evolves unaltered when the diluted acid is cold. Hydrosidphuric Acid. —The sulphurets of the alcalies and alcaline earths dissolve in water; and in air the hydrostdphurets decompose; and of these the solutions are decomposed by the acids appropriating the base, while sulphuretted hydrogen evolves, yet the sulphur remains present; only precipitating when plus of nitric or nitrous acid is exhibited. The readiest solvent of sulphurets is dilute muriatic acid. The salts of the alcalies and alcaline earths are indifferent to the soluble hydrosulphurets, which behave to the others in exhibiting white or coloured precipitates. The Chlorides are red by reflected light, but by transmitted yellowish green. Nitrogen is without colour or savour, and is not easily discriminated; it destroys combustion and vitality, and does not precipitate the lime present in lime-water. The Protoxide has a weak pleasant odour and sweet savour ; it greatly excites vitality and combustion; is appropriated by equal volume of water, and is liquid under pressure of 50 atmospheres at 45°F. The Deutoxide , or Nitrous gas, is without colour until atmospheric air or oxygen is present, when brilliant red acid vapour, (or nitrous acid gas) appears; it destroys vitality and combustion, does not alter litmus tincture, and about 6 or 8 per cent, is appropriated 558 observations. by water. Nitrous acid gas is red, and forms the salts named Nitrites , having one dose (a third) of oxygen less than Nitrates. It is very volatile, extremely corrosive, and when in small quantities added to water, there result deutoxide, and nitric acid. All the Hyponitrites already formed, are soluble in water ; detonate when mixed with charcoal and ignited; by heat decom¬ pose, and the acid evolves into oxygen and nitrous acid or nitrogen; and some of them when slightly heated in air appro¬ priate its oxygen and become nitrates. When sulphuric, nitric, muriatic, phosphoric, fluoric, arsenic, or some other strong acid is exhibited, red vapour evolves, and their acid is converted into nitric acid and nitric oxide. Theory now proves that Aquafortis is a true nitrate, having a dose of hydrogen in place of one of a metal. Nitric Acid is very corrosive, and, like nitrous acid, powerfully oxydates substances; boiling will increase this potency till the specific gravity of the acid is 1‘42, when continued boiling diminishes it; it freezes at 50°F. The salts named Nitrates , when mixed with combustibles, charcoal, sulphur, phosphorus, &c. detonate on being ignited; they are soluble in water, readily or partially as there is plus or minus of acid present; they all decompose by high temperature, and by interchange of acid, when there is exhibited sulphuric, phosphoric, fluoric, or arsenic acid; and muriatic acid resolves with it into chlorine and nitrous acid, forming the aqua-regia employed to dissolve gold and certain other metals. The Chloride is like oil; it distils at 160°, explodes at —212°; and with combustibles is very explosive. The Iodide must be carefully treated, for slight pressure will cause the moist, as drying will the loose, mass to violently detonate. Chlorine is a yellowish green gas, which under pressure of more than 4 atmospheres, at G0°F. liquefies into a dark yellow oily substance; its odour is suffocating, yet the gas supports combustion; with little water present, fine yellow crystals form; but with much, the liquid is permanent; it bleaches all vegetable fabrics readily; but sluggishly affects animal productions in cloth. The Protoxide and Peroxide are deep green in colour, and explode violently, the former with the warmth of the hand, the latter at 212°F.; the former rapidly, the other about 8 volumes, mixes with water; and both powerfully bleach vegetable fabrics. Chloric Acid is decomposed, and its oxygen appropriated, by several strong acids, muriatic, sulphurous, phosphorus, &c. The OBSERVATIONS. 559 salts named Chlorates are all (except that of mercury,) soluble in water, and many of them likewise in alcohol; yet no base will form a precipitate in these solutions. On being 1 ignited, dry chlorates by their oxygen evolving are converted into chlorides, which dissolve in water, and copiously precipitate when test 32 is exhibited. On being carefully warmed with a little dilute muriatic acid, the greenish yellow protoxide of chlorine evolves; when a very minuie portion of a chlorate is treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, the peroxide of chlorine evolves; but plus of the salt involves liability to explosion; and flame will evolve when 5 parts of a chlorate are treated with 1 of the fuming sulphuric acid. The chlorate of potash, mixed with any combustible, is extremely explosive, by heat resolving into oxygen and chloride of potassium, and decomposable by sulphurous, sulphuric, or muriatic acid. Perchloric Acid readily detects the presence of potash, because the compound requires 65 parts of water, and is insoluble in alcohol. Muriatic Acid is a real chloride, having a dose of hydrogen instead of one of a metal. Under the pressure of four atmospheres, at the temperature of 50°F., it is liquid ; freezes at 60 ; test 32 precipitates white, curd, soluble in ammonia but not in nitric acid. Except the chloride of silver, all chlorides are soluble in water, forming the compounds named Muriates; most of these with plus of base are insoluble in water, those of the earths and alcalies are indifferent to the action of hydrogen, which efficiently sollicits the others; potash, also soda, decomposes all muriates of other bases; and the water present in the pores of charcoal aids its potency over them. Many of the chlorides are by heat volatilized; but only those of some of the noble metals (gold, platinum, &c.) are decomposed; this results also when to many of them sulphuric acid is exhibited; as chlorine evolves when they are treated with nitric acid. The Carburet is volatile, and is called Chloric ether. Chloral is oily and trans¬ parent, but with water, agitation forms a white solid hydrate. Bromine is a very volatile orange red vapour, which pecu¬ liarly affects the temples and eyes, (as chlorine does the throat, and iodine the nose;) but the chloric, bromic, or iodic acid, is not supplied by nature; with little water it crystallizes of a beautiful hyacinth red, but with much water the liquid is permanent. It bleaches vegetable tints, displaces iodine, is displaced by chlorine, appropriated by water, alcohol, and ether, and forms the salts 560 OBSERVATIONS. named Bromides; many of which, in nitric acid lose a portion of their element, and a solvent of gold is formed. Bromic Acid, with characters much like chloric acid, is decomposed by sulphurous acid; as its salts, named Bromates, are by concen¬ trated sulphuric acid, while bromine gas and oxygen evolve. This latter effect also ensues on ignition, when Bromides result. The Bromates are all sluggish or indifferent to the action of water; and, like chlorates, the mixture with a combustible is explosive. Hydrobromic Acid is colourless, but has a pungent odour, and is quickly appropriated by water. When the Bromides, soluble in water, have their resulting ITydrobromates treated with sul¬ phuric acid, the exhibition of chlorine causes to evolve the Bromine, which renders sulphuric ether golden yellow , in which starch causes an orange precipitate. The Carburet is volatile, has an aromatic odour, sweet savour, sinks in water, and solidifies at 21° to 23°F. Iodike is black, crystalline, with a weak odour, (already noticed,) sharp acrid savour, slight bleaching power on vegetables, volatilizes in a beautiful violet vapour, discolours the skin; soluble in alcohol, indifferent to the action of water (except 1-7000 part), with a cold solution of starch an intense blue tint ensues, which hot water destroys; chlorine and bromine separate it from its compounds. Iodic Acid by fusion is decomposed, also by sulphuric acid; it is indifferent to alcohol, but soluble in w^ater, and with many of the vegetable alcalies forms compounds indifferent to water. Some of the Iodides , and most of the Iodates, are sluggish, others indifferent to water, even those of metals which decompose it. Hot muriatic acid and sulphurous acid, very readily, but sulphuric acid sluggishly, decomposes the iodates; as does a dull read heat, when oxygen only, or this with iodine, evolving, an iodide results. Like chlorates and bromates, when mixed with combustibles, iodates detonate, but less violently, on being heated. Hydriodic Acid has a pungent odour, and is appropriated by water, and the Chloriodic Acid, with orange tint, forming two compounds, a chloride soluble in ether, alcohol and water; and perchloride resolvable into muriatic and iodic acids. The Carburet sinks in sulphuric acid, and has an aromatic odour and sweet savour. The Hydriodates acquire an orange tint by appropriating iodine. Chlorine appropriates the hydrogen of these, which are decomposed also by sulphuric or nitric acid, and OBSERVATIONS. 561 the liberated iodine is detected by the blue tinge given to a solution of starch. Hydriodates, in solution, supply to test 20 a precipitate, russet coloured, concentrated, primrose, when diluted; and scarlet to chloride of mercury. Fluorine is not isolated, but when liberated from one element, ooml; ines with another. The Hydrofluoric Acid is a real fluoride, having a dose of hydrogen, instead of one of a metal. At 32° it is fluid, yet extremely volatile, rapidly appropriated by water, powerfully acts on silicates, and animal fibre. The Fluorides of potash, soda, ammonia, and silver, are soluble in water, the other in plus of acid. Those of the alcalies with excess of acid form, with some metallic oxides, salts sluggishly soluble. Dry fluorides are indifferent to the action of heat; but moistened, some of them are decomposed, because from the water the hydrogen evolves, changing the fluorine into hydrofluoric acid, which evolves as white acrid vapour that corrodes glass. Hydrated sulphuric, phosphoric, and arsenic acid, will decompose the fluorides; the water also decomposing, and its hydrogen acting as just stated, while the resulting hydrofluoric acid evolves as already mentioned. Fluosilicic acid most potently sollicits water to 3‘65 its volume; and much silica is deposited. Phosphorus is extremely inflammable, and so rapidly appro¬ priates the oxygen of the atmosphere, as to enter into combustion on a slight rise of temperature; the ordinary rise of this, on a summer’s day, has been known to cause this with phosphoru laid on coarse blotting-paper. Hypophosphorus and Phosphorus Acids, have intense deoxidating potency, and the latter appro¬ priates the oxygen of the atmosphere. The Phosphites are, many wholly, others partially, indifferent to water; but by the presence of chlorine, concentrated nitric acid, the peroxide of mercury, and the oxides of several other metals, become phosphates. At the temperature 60°F. they are indifferent to oxygen; but when excluded from the air, and the temperature is raised, phospho- retted hydrogen evolves, a little phosphorus is eliminated, and a subphosphate remains. Phosphoric Acid is very deliquescent;— the Protochloride , as also the Perchloride, is separated into muriatic and phosphoric acids when water is present;—at a low temperature the Iodide is formed, which, when water is present, resolves into liydriodic and phosphoric acids. The Phosphates of the alcalies and acids a-e soluble in water, and those of the 2 p 562 OBSERVATIONS. earths, &c. are so in nitric acid, they are sluggish towards sulphuric acid; but caustic and carbonated alcalies precipitate them slightly altered in aciduline solutions, and a yellow preci¬ pitate obeys the cautious exhibition of test 32; they are, alone, indifferent to the action of heat; but, mixed with charcoal, either phosphorus evolves, or they become phosphorets. Boron is a dark-olive powder, without odour or savour, which, when heated in a close vessel, shrivels, without volati¬ lizing ; but in air, inflames and forms dry Boracic acid , soluble in alcohol, and tinging flame green. The salts are named Borates, and all are almost indifferent to water, those of the alcalies being least so; at a high temperature most of them melt, and then sollicit and become tinged by most metallic oxides; those of the alcalies and earths, never, but those of the other bases partially, are decomposed, when ignited with charcoal, sulphur, &c.; also by sulphuric acid, &c. The chloride, when water is present, which it powerfully sollicits, resolves into muriatic and oracic acids. Fluoboric acid sollicits water to ‘700 times its volume, and acts powerfully on animal matter. Carbon (except as diamond,) is dull, black, opaque, and inflammable; it powerfully sollicits oxygen in forming Carbonic Acid, also hydrogen, forming the gas now used to illuminate our towns; it is insoluble in water, infusible by heat, and incapable of being volatilized; as charcoal, it destroys fetid odours; and also many tints of colour fade when boiled in water with char¬ coal present, and with many bases it forms Carburets. Carbonic Oxide burns with a blue flame, and when equal volumes of it and protoxide of nitrogen have the electric spark passed through them, the additional oxygen obtained forms equal volumes of Carbonic Acid and nitrogen. This Acid liquefies under the pressure of two atmospheres at 45°F. evolves during fermentation, and is absorbed by water which lime renders milky; it destroys vitality and combustion, and with a few bases forms the salts named Carbonates, of which only those of the alcalies sollicit water to combination, though many by excess of acid become Bicarbonates, which excess again evolves during boiling; and when mixed with charcoal, sulphur, silica, &c. they are decom¬ posed by heat, to which latter the carbonates of potash, soda, lithia, and barytes are indifferent; that of ammonia is volatile; the acid evolves during effervescence when acids are present. OBSERVATIONS. 563 The Hydrite powerfully sollicits water, and when one volume of gas, and four volumes of chlorine over water are exposed to light, carbonic and muriatic acids result. The destructive fires of coal-mines originate in the ignition of this gas in the proportion of one or more volumes to fourteen of air. The Chlorocarbonic Acid, called also Phosgene gas, combines with four volumes of ammoniacal gas; and when water is present, it resolves into carbonic and muriatic acids. The Sulphite is colourless, extremely refractive, inflammable, volatile, and offensive. The Bichloride, soft and fibrous, fuses easily, is soluble in alcohol, and crystallizes, and likewise the perchloride, which has an aromatic odour, and may be distilled; and much similar in odour and savour is the per-iodide. Naphthaline has an aromatic odour, and combines with sulphuric acid; and the Sulpho-naphthalic acid is readily dissolved by alcohol and water, and with bases forms salts. Cyanogen burns with a crimson flame, liquefies by the pressure of—4 atmospheres at 45°F. water appropriates 45, and alcohol 23 volumes. The Sulphuret compound (C 2 Z H S 2 ) 3 and water 1, form red crystals. The Bromide is colourless, volatile, and by caustic potash forms hyaro-cyanate and hydro-bromate of potash. The Iodide is volatile, caustic, sinks in sulphuric acid, and is indifferent to a temperature of 212°F. Cyanic Acid with ammonia forms Urea, with water present resolves into ammonia and carbonic acid; and with a solution, oxide of lead, or of silver, forms an insoluble precipitate. Hydrocyanic Acid is a very powerful poison, and at 0*999 spec. grav. is employed for medical purposes, which chlorine decomposes; the acid is volatile, and the odour is rather fragrant like peach blossoms; at zero it freezes. The Sulphocyanic Acid with protoxide of copper forms a white salt, but a bloodred one with peroxide of iron. The Chlorocyanic Acid is a gas at 60° F. fluid between 5" and 10*5°, and solid at zero. The Ferrocyanic Acid with potash, and iron, forms the valuable compounds Prussian blue, and prussiate of potash. Cyanuric Acid, in transparent crystals, remains indifferent to boiling sulphuric or nitric acid. Oxalic Acid crystallizes with three proportions of water, two of which escape as steam by boiling; boiling-water appropriates a quantity at present (1836) not determined, it appropriates the most minute portions of lime present in a neutral solution; by heat the Oxalates decompose into a metal, oxide, or carbonate; and pouring sulphuric acid on 564 OBSERVATIONS. binoxalate of potash causes carbonic acid gas and carbonic oxide to evolve, and when these are passed through lime-water, the former is appropriated, and the latter can be collected. The Formic Acicl of the stated specific gravity has pungent odour like acetic acid, forms barytes, lime, magnesia, &c. in crystal salts ; by sulphuric acid is resolved into water and carbonic oxide, or carbonic acid and water by heating with peroxide of mercury. Acetic Acid of A l.xW 1. is volatile, pungent, refreshing, appropriates essential oils and resins; forms the salts named ascetates, which by sulphuric acid are decomposed, the acetic acid evolving. The Pyro-acetic spirit is inflammable, volatile, with a peculiar odour, and miscible with alcohol, ether, or water. Tartaric Acid forms the salts named Tartrates , and many of these are insoluble in water, yet soluble in excess of the acid; with salts of potash the precipitate is bitartrate of potash; and when the acid is in excess, it precipitates by muriate of platinum from a solution neutralized by carbonate of soda, and boils black. The Lactic Acid salts are soluble in alcohol, but do not crystallize. Most of the Citrates are soluble in water; and lime-water deter¬ mines the presence of the acid. The Malate of lime, as that of lead, is appropriated by hot water. Benzoic Acid is readily by alcohol, but by water partially appropriated, and is separated from Benzoates by the strong acids; these salts (as the Succinates,') precipitate red-brown the per-salts of iron ; in carefully neutralized solutions they do not precipitate salts of manganese. Gallic Acid precipitates black per-salts of iron, is indifferent to gelatine, and by heat pyrogallic acid sublimes. Camphor is volatile, the odour aromatic, and is indifferent to water, but appropriated by alcohol; and very similar in these latter properties are the Mar- garic Acid, and the Oleic. By saponifying vegetable oil with potash, and treating the soap with alcohol, at •821®, these two acids and stearine are obtained; the oleate of potash is appro¬ priated, and the margarate remains insoluble; and both are decomposed by the strong acids. The margaric has 3‘4, the oleic 3*8 per cent, water present. Glycerine is a non-fermentative syrupy, very sweet fluid, appropriated by water or alcohol. Cholesterine, the basis of urinary calculi, does not saponify with alcalies, is indifferent to water, but appropriated by alcohol. Urea is readily appropriated by alcohol, and water; its com¬ pounds with oxalic and nitric acids are sluggishly appropriated OBSERVATIONS. 565 by water; when an alcali or alcaline earth is exhibited, de¬ composition ensues, and carbonate of ammonia results. Uric Acid is without savour, indifferent to water or alcohol, appro¬ priated by alcalies, which acids precipitate again; also appropriated by diluted nitric acid; and a crimson stain follows careful evapo¬ ration. Sugar , CHO (7*25) is white, sweet, brittle, inodourous, appropriated by water or alcohol: and when treated with nitric acid, the hydrogen is separated and oxalic acid is formed. Gum is indifferent to alcohol and ether, yet is appropriated by water ; and boiling nitric acid, at 1*34 converts it into Muric Acid. Starch is white, tasteless, brittle, inodourous, formed by boiling- water into a bulky jelly, which by heat is converted into gum, and boiled long in water, with 8per cent, of diluted sulphuric acid, forms sugar; it is precipitated by sub-acetate of lead, is by iodine detected in its minutest portions, and is indifferent to alcohol, ether, or cold water. Gluten is tenacious, without odour, hard and brittle when dry, putrefactive when moist and warm, indifferent to water or ether, but appropriated by hot alcohol. Tannin is without colour or odour, but has astringent savour; is appro¬ priated by ether, hot alcohol, and partially by water : with acid it forms compounds, it is precipitated by gelatine, and black by persalts of iron. Wax forms with alcalies soaps, with oils, cerates, is indifferent to water, but appropriated by ether, or hot alcohol, that when cold allows it to deposit; and Spermaceti much resembles it. Resins are brittle, indifferent to water, but appropriated by alcohol, ether, volatile oils, and alcalies in forming soaps, precipitated by acids, and with wax and oils form ointments and plasters. Fibrin is without odour, or savour, indifferent to water; acetic acid forms it into a bulky jelly, soluble in liot- water; and alcohol atO’81 converts it to adipocire, soluble in ether and alcohol; exhibiting nitric acid at 1*2 forms an acid, as nitrogen evolves. Albumen has alcaline potency, and coagulates by heat, alcohol, acids, and voltaic circuit: solutions in which it is present obey the exhibiting of prussiate of potash with a little acetic acid, corrosive sublimate, tannin, and hypophosphoric acid, but is indifferent to phosphoric or acetic acid. Volatile or Essential Oils dissolve resins, sulphur, and camphor, are inflammable, very aromatic, volatile, and when dropped on paper and warmed the oil disappears. The Fixed or Animal and Vegetable Oils, have Elain and Stearine as their oily fluid, and white solid com- 566 OBSERVATIONS. ponents; both of which are appropriated by hot alcohol, the latter separating when cold, and the former evolving by heating ; with alcalies oils form soaps; with ammonia, liniments; and with protoxide of lead, litharge, diachylon; when dropped on paper and warmed leaves a permanent stain. Hydrogen Gas is colourless, inflammable, supplies a pale blue flame, intensely hot, but with very little light, the product being only water. Water Vapour, at 212°F., expands 1698 times its volume at its greatest density 39-4°; it freezes at 32°, boils at 212°, but this diminishes 1° for each 530 feet ascension in the atmosphere; it is *815 times heavier than atmospheric air; and 1 cubic inch weighs 252-458 grains. Deutoxide of Hydrogen is a very powerful bleaching agent, which decomposes at 59°, and explodes when suddenly exposed to a temperature of 212°. Olefant Gas, C 2 H 2 , is appropriated by water to 1-8 its volume, w r hen 2 cl. -f 1 oe. gas are exhibited to each other, the result is the oily fluid, Hydrocarb. Clorine (see this.) The gas C 4 H 4 at 54° liquefies with spec. grav. -627, and vapourizes at 30°. The j Bicarburet solidifies at 32°, liquefies with spec. grav. *850 at 54°, and boils at 186°. The Sulphuret is colourless, noisome like rotten eggs, under a pressure of 17 atmospheres liquefies at 50°. Water appropriates equal volume, and the action is like acid, and it precipitates metals, as sulphates, from their solutions. The Bisidphuret has a yellow colour, acts as an acid, forming salts. The Protophosphate has an odour like garlic, and water appropriates 1-8 its volume. The Perphosphate has like odour, but when oxygen or atmosphoric air is present, spontaneous combustion ensues. i Theoretic Composition of Salts. 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Lime n> i—4 Stic Composition of Salts. 4- 4- iO kO CM CM -N -fj 4— o . co co ib CM ip CM CO CO CO U © a> e 12-5 : 5 4 54-29 op iC lO -4* •tsax iq siejidpoj.j jo anop3 o-mjejoduioj, Suisnj O *0 •uorpy DU0qdsoui)y ~e -e •ijniqnios 3S2S332333 3 S S 8 S 8 •l <= aomAV ijiABjg opp9ds 2-322 iqifrdM. oiuicny lOiOO lOO lOirt iO (N o (N 1% (N N U O fHrfNi>*(X)6iiO(X)cbtcC) io COiOir.fNiOtNfO^Hrt^ TJ« TT »-H lO iO CN CM k0^oic^. iff iff iff 4- iff cb 00 CO CO ^ cb —' 00 *“H •—• >—» cb co cb cb iff cb cb cb CO CO cb cb Iff Iff N ip iff iff CM *-H iff X>. i—(iff iff iff iff Iff ip CD o> o OOH 03 CO Iff CM ODHOOrtff ^ CM CM TJI TJ' cb CD N O r-H Iff o oc r>. CO -a -a -a -a -a *C3 S §S8§ S 8 8888 3 S 3 « 3 3 3 3 S CM CD cd r>. CD iff N rH o r-H i—i cb cb iff iff iff iff ip ip ipcMip ip cm iff Iff Iff Ip CO WoiOfO^fNOOOOiOClOOODiON^iofCKOiOOfOOO^iO^O^OMQOlNTfiOS^^ CO^^HC^CO^COJNCOC^lMNWtN^lNCC^ rtCO(NfOiHfO^(N^-COCOQO»HrH(N(N(MCO^^ ^ * o O O CO « iooo 0 JS J2 J2 ^ „c«aicc " oS° °® cs ca ^ ^ ^ OOO a « ri OO <« « « oooooo m S 8 m st».i 8 8 8 »8 8 82 8 8 5 8 S 8 8 8 8 3 fcl . 8 8 S S>h8 o o gg, g: p gx, a, gi, t $ g^~ S^g^g^g^g^g^S^g: -K» V- g<, gi, 2Z gi, gi^ gi, O ft, D "*»» V» g o a. r-H CM ' CM i CM CO i CM 2 0 3 ’it ~ ctf °P o 2 c-rt-S 2 ►/g • • • • • • • • • • • • l • • • • • • • • • • • • • • © «-> ct O -*-> • • • © © ♦j j- >*• © ft oS to _, t- a ^ rf • ■« TO C® • "2 — . w s- ■£ ^3 * '5 « 3-2 «j s* ^ g -S C3 a. 3.J3 O a s o 2 £ 2 _c B 2 •"-* *•* 0 w *o © ffC __ _ *TJ ^3 .^- 0) © •- CU ° *r S *o -tz r *> *J g *?■- Cj C Q - 3 O-^'O 3,2 PS«£»2Eq, -a So - o -a ft oO +-i Q o c © ”© cfl _. © © Q .t? o ^ C J= , _ © Ch fr, © w »-< (A *- 3 I- < aj K •< .2 ‘a Q 2 IS js3j a. £ J? c~ 33'3 tfiOSO! P © a. >. K 4) § rt £ 5 ‘C H o e— * Theoretic Composition of Salts. 4- 4- iO iO 4- ^ • kO CO O C2S8Ss>|325iSs>SS»iS)SSS3S3a33sig3s»S§gS nuoj ^ C» C* K ~i *»•■>* V- £•>»'*-» ?- **.-«'■« v. ?** ^ , 'v3 ’“t? ■>* V- ^ V» ^ i- ^ *» Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Tungstate . Sulpho Ditto . Borate. FIuo Ditto. Carbonate . 1 2 Bisulpho Ditto . Ammonia Ditto. Cyanodide . Sulpho Ditto . Ferro Ditto. Cyanate. Fulmiuate . Antimonite. Antimoniate . Tellurate. Sulpho Ditto . Tantalate . Fluo Ditto . Ditto titamate. Silicate. 1 2 3 4 Potash Ditto . Fluo Ditto. Uraniate. Manganate. Oxalate . Croconate . Acetate . 1 Lactate .... Formate. +- iO *f— CN iC CN ^ 2-25 •f- lO O Tf CO 4— iO !>. cb 4- lO CN (N 4- o lO 4- iC iO CN iO Ip o iO iO co co rJ< cb ^ cb cb t>. cb CO r-H co o »o lO r^. iO iO r>» IO CN co CN K CO (o 6 o o t>. CO t>. CO cb i“H -H 00 N o o S £ § § 3 5 3 iO 0 iO iO lO M (N lO O ^ lO 71 t^c- CN t>» CN ip CO H 05 o N N 6 1*0 r^. CO — 1 CO -— CN IO to (N (N CO lO HHiOCCiO TfCDcM o _ «o o O 000C> 9?9gao6o9 UOU U 2,hmtO «t< /^S O *t* '■•*5 oOOO/->CO 00 CD *♦* 't* •** /-N ('■“S _ X. ^ /“"S /"S o 0 AOo?oooo r v u vooo9ooo 0 ?°r9? 0 9o? o^yo9oooo,3C„ 0 ooogooo 0 ^^cO?-^ i-MKSK 1 £ rrt r< CdHH^^O ,_* HH >»✓ . _* -i rrt rr*. 1H i.'G^KEESE :c:i3 i|:i:£ Ir: K E H :c: 5 ) ^ SI — J» V- V* R ^ *-h cq i cn co 2a * ” o .£ ~ (5 -2 3 £ 0 a 3 > -C O L«I o £S|^J ►* O c 5 _fi • • • • • • • • • • • • • • o o s £ o QQ -*-J ■*-> Si8| « a-_o $2 ►* o S ^ j = -^ j- - WiI»00 O o <3 PL, S O O £ ss 2 S >* O P- P-, o * 5 §Q S Sg <5 co o P S ,u ■S « Q 2 <3 ® O "5 N r5 o 15 © „ u bc © o ■ a ~3 £ 3 3 >,3 £ cS -5 ij "o 5 32 3 _2 _3 3 a! _a PHSd,cn«O^SpqOi»«3SOPHm«^0 * ® Q ® 5 2> 3 g 2 S 1 1 ) I 55 o 04 s JQ H GO iO »o iO cp ib tp CD ip ip cb cb lOipiO »o>p 60060 iO cb Tt< o o in 10 Nlspp Gi b> cb o> Tf ip C5 ■?S3X iq ej-Biidpaaj jo -mopo ojnjBisdiuax Satsnx o o *0 CM •uoipv ouaqdsouijy •Xjtiiqnios 13 0 3 S3 >3 M s s 0 ;• 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 "I = JaqBM CO CD O CO GO O CO ogpadg CO co ’iqSiaAi OIIUOIV Ci *a N CO —' iO Tj< »-H Ol Ol i-H iO ip l>. cb ib iO co iO lO iO iO (N(N pN iO PI cbcbooocbpiiD- cc cn co as cc co •jno [03 33333333^33 sS5SS3S3SSS38SSSS^>.3S •UIJOJ s k C ‘•S'« a,'-*-* a- R< a, 0 s s S a a a, a. "-jj-vat-S*. — a a 5 a S 2 e, a, a, a, a, S ft, ft, a, a, a, a. a - a S S -tt "a a,~ a, a, a, a a a 0 ) s 0 ) 3 0 ) ja s rt £ CIS a 12 S o O 73 C a *—I c<| I CN CO 0 ) -*-> o «> 4> N Z> & co « -a - c > t- CTJ •S^ rt In P-t CO O D fl) a> -*-> ctj _c 0) CO 0 £ n ra ^ S’-2 o 75 = s.g 5-g.g* ta 3 ® £" 3.9 O !0 i< < co c« a v s p *—I H £ O » PS 3 H * GO O < 1 ) 0 f? -C n •73 2-» &n •jT O Q c -a Cn c* _ o .tj o ■£ Q *-* CO «* a o ♦j a3 J- bD n ■ 0 “ o +2 ^3 © "Ja j- a Cm *- *73 P ^ a c o <0 ^ 2 m «=--e a 2 2 4- i- iO iO 4— •f» CM CM iH 05 CM T* r—( 4~ +- -4-^< 4- O ip ip Tt< ip iO iO t>. iO iO CM r-t O O i-H M cb o cd M (M $33 $ s ssss S SSSSS3 ® 3 3 $ $ $ 3 CD O cb iO iOiO iC iO iD lO iO iO iO J'* o iO (M f-ifOiOiOiOO)HNrH — O0O(NtNc£)CDO'-'fONNN , 1 , C£)NONH^fHf>NNCO(ON(NiO(N CO^O*—i^'-*COMCO 3 8 SiSio 8 *. ;s> 8 &» 3 38 s> 3 8 3 3 Si §> 3 §> S> 3 8 3 o & &,&,? a, ^ a, a, ^ S sa,-2 b- ^ a, ?= •—< M <"H M »“• (M •—* M HNHN Trivial Name. ' 20 Theoretic Composition of Salts. jr £ lO N Ct ^ CO co »p ip iO 6 cbo co CO 4-625 8-25 40 65-48 •isax £q aiBiidpajj jo jiiopo o-iniejaduiaj, Suisnj •UOIlDy ouaqdsoui'jy •Xj![iqn[og e a Sgsassassss sasa a T = J3Jbav itIABjr) ogpadg 1 00- V *?qSl3M oiuioiy loooeo in io in io in o in n in in in ioeo eo in ni ni o ip ci ip m m « n) o m i' e- t>. cp cn ip on »>• «n o ociiocbcocrjoDciofi^cbiboi^.'— iMocin ondoio o jin Wf)cn'#in«iffOintot>cntDcnctnicncoin -3 1 ot co .o O' i-hcouj 'S3IJI1 -trenQ jpqi pue ‘sjuau -odui 03 aqt jo sjoquiXg •O ** ^ 2L £2. £2. ^ ^ t* cn co n « ^ ^ -•*. ><■*. . /“s _ O O ^ I _0 C j 1] >«». /*s •-» c ) CJ C, 3 ( y Q Q 665o|§gggg||?goo6f6oo6oop| rt9 o unoio3 ^.aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa^afeaaa •uuoj Oi a, e, a, « &> a,Gs»,s»,55,us^s,ss,S4.a,s»,«,R,ia,v>S « a,a. Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Lactate ... Formate .. Me Hate . Tartrate. Potash Ditto. Vinate. Citrate. Mai ate. 1 2 Mucate . 1 2 Succinate . Benzoate. Gallate. ... Camphorate. Suberate. Stearate . Margarate . Oleate. Phocenate . Butyrate. Caproate. Caprate . Cholesterate .. Urate . Sulpho naphthalate ... Sinapate .. BARIUM . Oxide .. I 2 C.'l ‘ i &+- —h CT) i"H 4— ip iO »p ip iO C5 Ci O o CO 00 Tj< O if5 iO 03 CJ lO kO O^HH i-H *P Ci —i lO ip lO O O r-H f- N N lO Ip lO !>• cb i>* o (M o lO CO -*3 -a 3 a SSSS3 3 3 3 a 3 3 1-694 CO O 00 CN C* r>* ZD GO C4 *0 O iO iO i(^ in iflio ip ip io in ipipiOipip in lOiOiOio in >o !2£2!£rJ a3 ' :H *^c ril ^i cr, o>c»o?cbfoa)rO'-H^cjoi^-a>a5-^cjcrjcrD<^^coco^^eocO'^'^t‘cOGsic^ c rDCsiS si sssssss s^lssssss § g S J v. V* V* K ft {i, “t3 V* * v> %» *VJ a* a- a- s^, a, g a, o a. « *-s.c,§§t.S£§*. a, a, ~ a, a, « a, a, a, ^ '■’Nf! <— tN •—i C4 CO rf H N CO Tf H N CO *“H (M • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Jt • • • • • • • • • • •••••• • • • • • • ♦ * • • • • • • • * II II • ••••• 4) • • • • • • • * • • * • • 4> «_* as u, « • o -X J3 -a 3 3 C«C/} c$ u >> tJD a ^ ^ g « ;> cocbcbc>-^roo^t | 4i^-ip»p.pnoin.p»p f0t)(M'-'INXi00CO-”- | Oro«'O 0C4COOJTPTJV° cS 0£' i 00 0 V :r , x «rj>b<£b*U CQCQCQ co rtCQrn «5 rt CQ ^ w ^ w W«pq wcq pq;q « fflfl *« a n «s eq cq PQpQjgpq « « «PQ CD &(“}■?* ,00 ^00wfe co «•-?. .a, ^ °? Pq unojoj •uuoj ©.©•*©. a, ©. ©. K © u a, a. a s, S 3 £ t a, © e. ^ s, -a 2 la S-B a. S £ L. 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' 1*125 f" 2-5 1-75 31*6 i 5 68-4 •tsaj, j£q jo jtioioo aanjajadmajQ Suiznj •uoipy ouaqdsourjy 'sT'ts ^ -a -s ‘jSiTliqn[og Q 53 a So * $ SSSS 53 ggsggggg •l = miem jClueag oppods •iqSpAV oiuio^y iC iQ iO ^ CN iO ip CN iO iO iOiOO o—* iflN »—l O Oi (i) (N TfCDcb HtsOiCCltbwWODClNOOT}' •O CO CO ^ CO lO OlN ^ CO O rf HrnHHr-i-COTf ■satin -treng apqi pae ‘siuaa -odut 03 aql jo S[oquiXs §99?9 0 f , °6oo o0 u^o o° * ©6-,,-- 9ooooooo0^goog s 9 o©2®w°9 w « l oJ S:s Ka3:3:5;sj;XNj, Sj as,M , ,oo CQPQmWcqW^mMMjSWM^^ a ■ J J ^ J J *anoio3 SS2S3v»>SS5iSSSSSS 2222;r>5r>233SSg2g mxoj fcfcfcisufcflfcSt.t.v.t.’av'a c ,ki~i-wkk^_ok|i."3S ^ *o e- «~s, f2>, ft, Cj f! f*„ o e-> fix ^x ©x ©s Cj x** v< 5^ ♦'•x O fi* Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Butyrate . Oleate ... 1 2 Caproate. Caprate .. Cholesterate . Pinate. .... Silvate. Carbazotate. Indigotate . Urate . Pyrurate. Aspartate. Allentoate . Sulpho naphthalate .. Sinapate. LITHIUM. Oxide ... 1 2 Hydrate. Sulpho Ditto. Sulphite . Sulphate. 1 2 Ammonia Ditto. Soda Ditto. Nitrate. Chloride. Chloro hydrargyrate .. I 2 £ -i— ib -f h. ip r—1 lQ rr i a go # o • ^ ^ ^ 5) ^ 5i ti c* c« $. ?> iO iO iO iO O iO lO lO ip »p lO ip ip O lO lO O »p ip t^» iO NNU <>l iO iO iO *p ip t>* or^iOi^co^^i^^cocbiO^Or^cbroror^t^OQDC^cb-^ib'^OCNiOcbTfror^ibas-HO^cfri ,-iHHH^fO^CC H fO H (N'-'r-iCOCO'HM | HiHCOCO’^ , ^‘0(NlOC^'H(H'- - r-'^i-lC^(N fo El. Cl, <•> + o il 2. o OO u »®i»Oo 0 ^ <* c» co ’-A cn "nOOOi iojoo'-j cn «3 co tn ” CO —. •* OhOo or) o vn O O °3 ^O* 1 * 000**001^0® oo. eo co ei P'S ta O O Cn o o ¥ P _31 0* If} W 2'"®kin’’OOOiiOOOO - __ - - JhU 1 '_J 1-3 i-J ' Jh4 ^ ^ ^ ^ , , ^ r~ ^ t- C> 5 g ^ >5 >5 g *» < 5 Q Q C O' O' O' O' ^ 5} 55 O o <>• o> o >5; v. 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' , ^ n OO" « O O rr) O O O «8 S •- -t- fH S.,J 00 0 000 uno [03 33333333a>88>,8S333;»53333333S3333833 •uuo^j « S, ». », a, a, b b b a. a, a, 5 b b b b St? a, S o> a, a, b §5 a, b a, b 5 a~ Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Borate.. . 3 Fluo Ditto . Carbonate . 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bisulpho Ditto . Cyanodide .......... Sulpho Ditto . Ferro Ditto . Fulminate . Cyanate . Antimonite . . Antimoniate . Tellurate . Sulpho Ditto . Tantalate . ... Fluo Ditto . Ditto Titaniate . Silicate . Fluo Ditto . Titanio Ditto . .. Manganate . Oxalate . . 1 2 Potash Ditto ........ Acetate . . Sulpho Ditto . Lactate . Formate . .... Mellate . 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POTASSIUM . Oxide . 1 2 3 Hydrate .. Sulpho Ditto. Sulphite.. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Arsenio Ditto. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Sulphate... 1 2 3 4 Hypo Ditto. Carbo Ditto.. Ammonia Ditto ...... Nitrite. Nitrate .. 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Ammoniacal Gas liquefies by a pressure equal to almost 7 atmospheres; water sollicits 780 volumes, the liquid is colourless, most pungent, destroys vitality, is strongly alcaline, combines and solidifies with muriatic acid gas, and alcalies and alcaline earths sollicit it from substances where it is present. The strong liquid ammonia has a specific gravity 9’36, and boils at 130°, when salts of ammonia, alone or with caustic alcalies, or carbonated ditto, are heated in a glass tube, ammonia evolves, and is recognized by its peculiar odour; or when very diffuse, by white vapour, caused by the presence of a glass cane moistened with muriatic acid. Ammonia is indifferent to tartaric acid ; but to chloride of platinum supplies a precipitate yellow , crystalline. Most of its salts are appropriated by water, and form crystals; and some of them, without decomposition, are by heat rendered volatile. Thorium. —When sulphate of potash is present in solution with Thorium, double salts result, which are indifferent to a cold saturated solution of sulphate of potash ; but when this is in excess, and the temperature is raised to 100°F. Thorina is precipitated; yet it is so extremely rare, as to occur very seldom in chemical analysis. Treated with caustic potash and caustic ammonia, its solutions supply a white gelatinous precipitate; white, flocculent, with phosphate of soda, indifferent to phosphoric acid; white also with ferrocyanate of potash, hydrosulphuret of ammonia, oxalic acid, and carbonated alcalies, (excess of which appropriates the precipitate;) Thorium is only subject to the concentrated sulphuric acid. Thorina, the oxide, is indifferent to excess of oxalic acid. Sulphate of Thorina is partially appro¬ priated by concentrated acids, and cold (not hot) water. The blow-pipe flame reduces thorina and borax to a colourless bead, which resists opacity by the flame. Zirconium. —Concentrated sulphuric acid appropriates more of this element than any other acid The neutral solution of zirconium, when boiled with a saturated solution of sulphate of potash, supplies a disalt of zirconia, white; also by succinated alcalies, by phosphate of soda, by ferrocyanate of potash, hydro¬ sulphuret of ammonia, oxalic acid (the precipitate appropriated by great excess of muriatic acid), by potash, soda, and ammonia; OBSERVATIONS. 603 also by carbonated alcalies (imperfectly precipitated, and slug¬ gishly appropriated by excess of test). The blow-pipe analysis only with difficulty detects the salts. Aluminum. —The Hydrate is precipitated, white , by caustic potash or soda (and excess again appropriates it), caustic ammonia, carbonated alcalies, and hydrosulphuret of ammonia. When needed in quantitative analysis, it is most carefully washed, and all water is evaporated by long incandescence. The Hydrate also is by infusion of galls very sluggishly precipitated from solutions in the weaker acids; and, while indifferent to the succinate and binoxalate of potash, is readily precipitated by the bicarbonate of soda; it is soluble in caustic potash, from which as a white precipitate, it is thrown down, by muriate of ammonia and boiling, and likewise by hydrosulphuret of ammonia from neutral solutions, while sulphuretted hydrogen evolves. Alum, in octahedral crystals, is the result of combining sulphates of alumine and potash. The Blow-pipe analysis detects Alumine, pure or in compounds, by roasting on a charcoal support a small portion of the substance, next adding solution of nitrate of cobalt, and again heating the assay; the colour appears dirty violet by reflected or candle light, but when cold, is a beautiful blue. Yttrium forms a double salt with sulphate of potash, by concentrated cold solutions again appropriated, but very slug¬ gishly, afterwards precipitated, white , also by oxalic acid (indiffe¬ rent to excess), and to succinated alcalies, potash, soda, phosphate of soda, ammonia, hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and carbonated alcalies (soluble in excess,) and greyish white by ferrocyanate of potash, and dirty white by nutgall infusion: also white carbonate, by boiling the solution of yttria and carbonate of ammonia. When the solutions in carbonated alcalies are precipitated, many of the salts are amethystine in colour, and sweetish in savour. The Blow-pipe analysis requires like treatment with alumine, for yttria and glucina, and a dark grey or black tint results with the latter, but the former is not easily recognized. Glucinum.— The precipitated hydrate is yellow , by treating solutions of the weaker acids with infusion of nutgalls. It does not form a double salt with potash and sulphuric acid. It is precipitated, white , by potash, and carbonated alcalies (soluble in excess of these); soda, phosphate of soda, hydrosulphuret of ammonia, also by the succinate, but not the binoxalate, of potash; 604 OBSERVATIONS. and boiling the solution of carbonate of ammonia precipitates carbonate of glucina; the salts have a pleasant savour. Magnesium in solutions is indifferent to oxalates, and slug¬ gishly to sulphuric acid; but, supplies a white precipitate, to caustic potash, caustic ammonia (when the muriate is absent), and to carbonated alcalies; the first usually disappears on the exhibi¬ tion of muriate of ammonia, as likewise always does each of the others; but re-appears when raised to 212°F.; concentrated solution supplies a white precipitate to carbonated ammonia, and sluggishly to carbonated soda, but not to the bicarbonate; the precipitated carbonate is readily appropriated by carbonic acid; the precipitate by phosphate of ammonia is usually, that by binoxalate of potash always, white, crystalline; also white when plus of alcali is present, to hydrosulphuret of ammonia; water appropriates the sulphate, and alcohol the nitrate and muriate, which two are deliquescent. The assay heated on a charcoal support, then moistened with solution of nitrate of cobalt, and again highly heated, becomes dull red (or garnet). Calcium. —Solution of lime is indifferent to bicarbonate of soda, and to hydrofluosilicic acid; but neutral solution supplies a white precipitate to oxalates, crystalline (as gypsum), in concen¬ trated, to sulphuric acid and sulphates; in dilute, to binoxalate of potash, indifferent to water, also to oxalic acid; but appropriated by plus of nitric or muriatic acid; the precipitated carbonate is appropriated by plus of carbonic acid. Concentrated solutions supply needles of nitrate or deliquescent chloride, which like the other soluble salts of this base (and those of strontia,') when present in inflamed alcohol, cause the flame to be red (or carmine') ; and when the assay with either present, is heated at the point of the blow-pipe inner flame, a beautiful faint red (or strong carmine) tint appears until it is fused. Strontium, in solution, is indifferent to hydrofluosilicic acid; but supplies a white precipitate to sulphuric acid and sulphates, partially sollicited by acids, but not by water, which sollicits those supplied to oxalates; neutral and dilute solutions are slug¬ gishly troubled by oxalic acid, and binoxalate of potash; the nitrate is indifferent to alcohol, which sollicits the muriate. The assay of the chloride by the blow-pipe inner flame, has a carmine tint while fusing, evanescent when fused (as in that of calcium). Barium, in solution, on the exhibition of sulphuric acid, or OBSERVATIONS. 605 sulphates soluble in water, supplies a precipitate, white , indifferent to water, nitric, or muriatic acid, likewise to binoxalate of potash, phospates, oxalates, and carbonates, quickly when ammonia is present, and the last class sollicited by plus of carbonic acid; pale lemon yellow to chromates; a yellow , crystalline , to ferro- cyanate of potash; and sluggishly, a crystalline to hydrofluosilicic acid. The nitrate and the muriate are indifferent to alcohol. The presence of barytes is with difficulty detected by the blow¬ pipe. Lithium supplies salts, which are readily sollicited by water, (except the carbonate and phosphate sluggishly;) to carbonate of ammonia they give a white precipitate, very minute to tartaric acid; and yellow, crystalline , to chloride of platinum, the chloride is very deliquescent, and is readily sollicited by alcohol. Lithia renders the blow-pipe outer flame carmine red , not affected by potash, but yellow when soda is present, and it sollicits and renders yellow the part of the platinum foil on which it is fused. Sodium decomposes water without inflammation, forming soda; which in solutions is indifferent to every re-agent that is a base; but supplies a slight copious opalescent precipitate to hydrofluosilicic acid. The soda salts readily are sollicited by water; the sulphate has prism crystals, grooved, bevelled hexa¬ gonal; the nitrate has rhomboids deliquescent; the chloride has pyramids quadrangular, indifferent to atmospheric action, and sollicited by alcohol; the carbonate has rhomboidal laminae, or decahedrons of two quadrangular pyramids; like the sulphate, efflorescent. The yellow flame, when the minutest portion is present, renders soda useful as a very delicate test. Potassium potently sollicits oxygen, and when appropriating that of water, the heat evolved inflames the hydrogen; concen¬ trated solutions often sluggishly supply to chloride of platinum a yellow crystalline precipitate, very bright ditto to alcoholic solu¬ tion of carbazotic acid, and to tartaric acid, white , crystalline (bitartrate of potash). Many of its salts are indifferent to atmos¬ pheric action. The sulphate has crystals, hexahedral prisms with hexagonal pyramids; the nitrate has six-sided flattened prisms, with dihedral summits; the chloride has cubes or rectangular parallel opipedons. The assay fused on platinum wire, and then again heated at the point of the inner flame, renders the outer purple or violet; and the tint is blue when borax and nickel are used. Trivial Name. Theoretic Composition. •jaiBM. l •ppv •uoiioy ouaqdsounv •Xiuiqnios •poo.«Spa_\\ XlTpqisnj •^iaquaaqBj Xiqiqisnj -C «o o to a *o C£> CO •000-1 = J81BAV XlIABJ*) ogpodg 1431 2-6 57653 37 3-3384 3-4522 6-4888 •fiS- = PAH luaieAinbg ‘sjaqumx ig 1A\. -uioiv iO _ iO (N iO iOniOiO »pip»p iO OTfOO'NC-l^QOOOl' diCO^CO^b’^COcbt^'-'^HO^O ^OC5iO riMPn(N(NCOr-^ilt)M CN CO m w «roOrn « B . _ — , O <-3 * m n -n <* 2. d « oOOOwhCCoom^ vOO opnnwnwrjpntownncnoJzT *M ^cc uno {03 si i 1 I oSiSS-o 2 5 3 1 3 3 t s sit SiSiAk jis su. 2 3 3 •uuoj '>> k, k "H >» "t* k k k k k v* k. k. **»A k k k k k •»» •**>» S k k S ^ ^ ^ o O S 3 a,-2 a, ?s ^ kj a, a, a, a, ^ e,a,R,a,a,ft,a.e- Name of the Element, and its Combinations. SELENIUM . m Oxide . Acid (Selenious). 1 (Selenic) .2 Hydro Ditto . Sulphuret . Chloride .1 2 Bromide . Phosphoret . ARSENIC . Oxide . 1 2 Hydrate . Acid (Arsenious) .... (Arsenic) . Sulphuret . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Chloride .. Bromide . 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U3JBM, 3-375 2-25 2-25 •9si?a 5 5 1325 •piDV 4-5 8-25 14-25 •uoipy ouaqdsouijy "X3 •Xtumnios 2 2 3 2 •pOOAlSpOjVV Xiipqisnj •jiaquajqsj i ‘Ajjtiqisnj •000-1 «= aatBAV XtiAeag ogpadg tig. = p^H juageAmba ‘saaqunif^ % '1AV -uxotv UO UO 00 ipipi^ip c. ip *p ip NONOi^OOiniNCxbflllNHM r-. 00 -H to 00 lO 05 1—1 CO . O o 1—Ms i-iNH„(NHCI(Nt—l CO CO "S'CO >> > u “<5 •juoio3 si si si **5< si >s> k« ^ Si '«• •*» CJi Sy-C5 5 ^ o » » S •uiioj U«5goR.R,R,R.OOO Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Sulphocyanodide .... Ferro ditto . Fulminate . SulphoTellurate. Fluo silicate . Oxalate . 1 2 Acetate .. Tartrate . 1 2 Potash Ditto.. Citrate. Succinate. Oleate.. VANADIUM. Oxide. 1 2 Acid. 1 2 Sulphite. 1 2 Sulphate. 1 2 Nitrate. Chloride. 1 2 Bromide ... Iodide .. 1 2 Fluoride.1 2 n 1 oo tO (M O (M

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iO •uorpy ouaqdsouiiy •iCjniqnios 33 3 S 2 a e •pOOMSpOjW jJ l!lI c LJsnj •^TaquaaqtJj ‘Alfliqisnj 200 •000-1 <= J31BAV XlJABJO ogpodg CO r—i O do ■gz. = -p^H UdaiBAinbg ‘swquinfj % 1A\ -luoiv >0 id iO irt iO iO iO »nirt IN ip lO C) lO T-l ip lO IN !>. 1> O Cl Cl iooiibib ci co c» © re cb cj tb t>. «o -h a> as to as as >c ^ o ci tt in co •'C co io co co i—i ci in ^ io o ci ci o o —> as «_‘l'or'^pi*OOf l ..r 3 v U0MU0aS000000U90?00U flOOOOOccnr)n UU w c isi=aisij:siiSKiKi Scj==jcacc££ cc^ccGqaafioacaaaaflcfl NN^NNN^NNNNNINNNNNNNN ^ *5 unop3 333 S.,3 3aS83 3 3 ! .s ) 3 3 3 •oiioj 3 a, s^S 3 r, &. a,3 Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Formate. Tartrate. Potash Ditto. Vinate. Citrate . Malate.. Ammonia Ditto . Fungate. Pyromucate. Succinate. Benzoate. Camphorate. Suberate. Oleate... Butyrate. Cholesterate . Pinate. Silvate .. Aspartate. Sulpho naphthalate .. MANGANESE. Oxide . 1 2 3 4 5 Sulphated Ditto. Muriated Ditto . Carbonated Ditto .... Oxalated Ditto . 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R. a- •—i (M «-H e* ih (N CO H^HOl *—< (N CO — (N CO i ® rt ® S12 w . ~t3 J2 o -a 3 Zn C *3 OQPQp3^&, Q ,t5 a> 5o0.s 3 .3 o 3 o cl, cl, a> ps|p2Q ^ -T3 _ i5 ^ J3 CL. :|\e- s'; £-g >. 2 ■gj o -9 5 — -SmK < muSmHk 3 D rt % ■a “H •uoipy auaqdsounv •Ili[iqn[Os o ~ o a O <3 SSSS 8 *pooAiSpa^Y j£lj[iq|snj qiaquajqBj i^Iiqisn^ •000.1 = aajGM. ijiABjg ag'pads (M 00 03 Cj^Hf0'H'H-(f-i^fH(NC0C01 , (Nf0C0Tf I-H (M f'-» -S 3 S. 1 . 3 )(. 5 iV 1 . 3 S3-o s> w t ft St fe.* * e. a. 2» V. V> K •>» fc ^ A, R* 5 S V» ^ g b J* a, a, a^ a, a, a, C3> o o* a. a. a, w S ^ ° i w ctf • — , . w "S o ‘2 £ Q C- £ 3 ' T 3 o w -*-»aOOrt ( -> a> «J^-5 a-g.2 2 s|.Ssig il . (/I ™ I ■ * U Co —* , < -t . M Ort«.2t>^3a)t^BC5Ba>3rB WOUC?U93li efl 3 ^ — - PawMOMP^cnai a> S3 o •JliJ! os « a, a ,► -- •h rn 9 OBSERVATIONS. Selenium has a metallic lustre, and in powder a deep red colour, but neither odour nor savour; yet when fusing, emits an odour similar to horse-radish, in every instance. The Selenious Acid supplies a precipitate— red, to sulphuric acid, sulphurous acid, and zinc (when the temperature is raised); white, to acetate of lead (sluggishly appropriated by nitric acid), to muriate of barytes (appropriated by muriatic acid), to protonitrate of mercury (appropriated by nitric acid, but indifferent to water,) to nitrates of silver and of lime (appropriated by nitric acid); and yellow to sulphuretted hydrogen. The Selenites are either completely indifferent to water, or only sluggishly appropriated by it; but raised temperature decomposes them. On a charcoal support, the blow-pipe flame changes them into seleniurets; or the element evolves, and the peculiar horse-radish odour is perceptible. Selenic Acid is appropriated by water to 512% and above 536° is decomposed; and supplies a precipitate of the element to sulphurous acid; as likewise do the Seleniates after boiling in muriatic acid, which decomposes them, and the selenious acid evolves. . The Hydroselenic Acid, also the Hydroseleniurets of the alcalies and of magnesia (sollicited also by nitric acid) are appropriated by water, and appropriating its oxygen and that of the atmosphere, the element precipitates as a red powder; but the solution supplies one, black, to nitrate of silver, and acetate and protonitrate of lead. Arsenic. The salts of Arsenious Acid supply a precipitate, white, to salts of lead, chlorides of calcium and barium, and lime- water ; green , to sulphate of copper; yellow , to nitrate of silver, hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen (these two very sluggish in neutral solutions; but remarkably active when acidulated with muriatic acid, and temperature raised); and (acidulated) metallic to zinc. The Arsenites fused on a charcoal support by the blow-pipe, supply the odour of garlic common to 660 OBSERVATIONS. metallic arsenic. Klaproth states that, 1,000 parts of water at the temperature of (60°F.) 1*2°R., appropriates only 3 parts of Arsenious Acid; but at (212°F.) 80°R., appropriates 73’5, of which 30 remain present, after the solution is at (60° F.) 12“ R. Chromium. —The protoxide salts are some green , others amethystine; and the double salts amethystine , or blue; and in either flame of the blow-pipe, render the flux emerald green. In solution, ferrocyanate of potash, and also boiling, only renders the tint darker, without causing a precipitate; they supply a pre¬ cipitate, green , to alcalies, caustic and carbonate, (those of potash and soda readily, of ammonia sluggishly, in excess re-appropriating the precipitate) indifferent to iron and zinc. After incandescence the protoxide is sluggishly appropriated by acids. Chromic Acid possesses bleaching properties. The salts supply a precipitate* yellow, to salts of lead, lemon yellow to salts of barytes, red brown to salts of silver, and orange to protosalts of mercury (by heat converted into protoxide of Chromium.) Vanadium. —The Oxide, by rise of temperature combines with bases, and is appropriated by acids, the solutions usually being in colour fine azure , the crystals line blue ; very sluggishly colour water green', they supply a precipitate, grey white , to potash, soda, and carbonates (which air renders brown); brown to ammonia (indifferent to excess, but appropriated by distilled water;) red brown to carbonate of ammonia; blue to bicarbonates; yellow to ferrocyanate of potash (by air rendered green); and black to infusion of galls, and hydrosulphuret of ammonia. Vanadic Acid fuses at a red heat, orange; is resolved into oxide by sugar, and alcohol; is readily at raised temperature appropriated by muriatic acid (orange coloured); and sluggishly by water, sulphurous, nitrous, and vegetable acid. When mixed with borax, or microcosmic salt, and on charcoal fused by the blow-pipe, the bead in the interior flame appears brown, and the exterior yellow, but fine green when cold, unless by the presence of tin rendered blue. Molybdenum. —The oxide salts in solution are red brown , and become blue by raised temperature and appropriating the oxygen of the air; they supply a precipitate, rust brown or chocolate to alcalies, caustic and carbonate, brown to hydrosul¬ phuret of ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen, very dark to ferrocyanate of potash, and grey to infusion of galls. Molybdic OBSERVATIONS. 661 Acid can be by any of the strong acids separated from the alcalies with which it is combined. Tungsten. — Tungstic acid is separated, likewise, by either nitric or muriatic acid, and is yellow , when dry ; it is readily appropriated by alcalies; but sluggishly by acids, and the portion too minute to form salts ; tin appropriates a portion of the oxygen, and the blue residuum is supposed to be a mixture of the oxide and tungstic acid. Antimony. —The oxide is indifferent to nitric acid, is appro¬ priated readily by nitromuriatic acid, sluggishly by muriatic acid, which to water supplies a white precipitate, appropriated by dilute acid. The oxide salts (except the double,) supply a precipitate, white, to water, the strong acids, the alcalies, caustic and carbonate, and solution (not crystal) of ferrocyanate of potash; orange , to hydrosulphuret of ammonia, soluble in excess, and sulphuretted hydrogen. Most of the hydrated precipitates are indifferent to water, but appropriated by tartaric acid. On a charcoal support, with soda fused, the blow-pipe flame reduces the salt to a button of metallic antimony, when cold coated with white crystals of protoxide. Tellurium, in solution, of nitric acid, is indifferent to the addition of pure water; but, of muriatic acid, supplies a precipitate, white , to alcalies, caustic and carbonate (by excess re-appropriated, element and salts); and metallic , to zinc, tin, copper, iron, sul¬ phurous acid, and sulphite of ammonia. The oxide is appropriated by nitric and muriatic acids; forms salts with acids and alcalies, with hydrogen forms a colourless gas, by water appropriated, claret colour, and sulphuretted hydrogen odour; at a red heat effervescing, fusing, and afterwards sublimed. Tantalum.— The protoxide (with difficulty determined by the blow-pipe), when incandesced is indifferent to acids, which, while raw, affect it sluggishly; the hydrate is readily appropriated by fluoric and oxalic acids; the latter, to ferrocyanate of potash supplies a yellow precipitate. The (Peroxide) Tantalic Acid combined with alcalies, supplies a precipitate, white, to the strong acids and tin; likewise, Jlocculent, to alcalies, caustic and carbonate, orange to infusion of galls; and many of them to water. Titanium. —The oxide (not readily detected by the blow¬ pipe, in solution acid) supplies a precipitate, dark olive-green to 662 OBSERVATIONS. ferrocyanate of potash. Boiling the chloride precipitates the oxide in so comminute a state that it easily permeates the filter; the solution prior to boiling, when treated with zinc, is first violet , next blue, and then supplies a slate blue precipitate ; and with tin, is amethystine , and then follows a brown red precipitate. Boiling the muriatic solution of Titanic Acid, supplies a copious precipitate, indifferent to hydrosulphuret of ammonia; but the acid, prior to boiling, supplies one, white, to alcalies, caustic and carbonate, dark green to hydrosulphuret of ammonia, copper coloured, to ferrocyanate of potash, orange to infusion of galls, and purple to zinc bar. Silicium. —The Oxide (Silica, or Silicic Acid,) is indifferent to every acid and to water, except the hydrofluoric, with which it forms silicated fluoric acid gas ; yet they sluggishly appropriate part of the hydrate, and (even when dilute) readily all the fresh precipitated jelly of silica obtained from the solutions by alcalies and carbonate of ammonia; decomposed by ammonia, also by boiling dry an acid solution, and to the dry mass adding muriatic acid; and by incandescence rendered indifferent to water and acids, except the phosphoric and boracic. With soda on a charcoal support, it (and it only) will form a bead perfectly clear; and indifferent to mic. salt, in which it floats about. Osmium. —By boiling, the oxide volatilizes as the salts de¬ compose ; water readily appropriates it, and applied to the skin, stains it indelible to washing; by sulphuric acid is decomposed, the liquid being in colour successively yellow, brown, green, and blue ; yellow by ammonia, primrose by carbonate of soda, purple to beautiful blue by infusion of galls; the solution supplies a precipitate, black, flocculent, to alcohol and ether; and black to hydrosulphuret of ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen; the peroxide is volatile, and easily sublimes. Gold, is very malleable, green by transmitted light, not oxydated by heat, appropriated by chlorine; mixed with soda on charcoal support, easily reduced by blow-pipe flame, and purified by cupellation and quartation. The solution supplies a precipitate, a mixture of calomel and metallic gold, to protonitrate of mercury; red-purple , followed by Cassius’ powder, a dark red powder, to protomuriate of tin; emerald green to ferrocyanate of potash; yellow, sluggishly and partially to alcalies, caustic and carbonate, brown , to hydrosulphuret of OBSERVATIONS. 663 ammonia; but readily, in a metallic state, to zinc, iron, tin, several other metals, oxalates, protosulphate of iron, sulphuretted hydrogen, phosphorus, sulphurous, and oxalic acids. Iridium, when platinum is present, is sluggishly appropriated by nitro-muriatic acid; and alone , extremely sluggishly, in com¬ parison sixteen times more so than platinum, and three hundred times more so than gold; the liquid is iridescent, with a brown or green tinge, or red, with water; but is rendered colourless by sulphuretted hydrogen, and alcalies; is indifferent to infusion of galls, ferrocyanate of potash, and carbonate of soda; but supplies a precipitate, red brown to muriates of potash and ammonia, and carbonate of ammonia, crystalline , to caustic alcalies, and dark brown to sulphuretted hydrogen and hydrosulphuret of ammonia; and metallic by the oxidable metals; but not by gold and platinum. Rhodium. —The Oxide is appropriated by most strong acids, and the solution supplies a precipitate, yellow to caustic alcalies (re-appropriated by excess); and brown to hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen; and one, metallic to the oxidable metals, indifferent to gold and platinum. The soda chloride is indifferent to alcohol, but readily appropriated by water. Platinum is appropriated only by nitromuriatic acid; and the solution supplies a double chloride to potash and ammonia, and ferrocyanate of potash; and a precipitate, brown to iodide of potassium, hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen, (appropriated by excess); yellow red to protonitrate of mercury, yellow to prussiate of potash; and crystalline to the alcalies, caustic (appropriated by excess) and carbonate; metallic to the readily oxidated metals, but indifferent to gold and silver, cyanuret of mercury, and protosulphate of iron, is coloured deep red brown by protomuriate of tin; the double salts with potash, and ammonia, is sluggishly appropriated by water, yet indifferent to alcohol, while both readily appropriate that with soda; and that with ammonia, when at a high temperature, supplies the metal in a. very fine spongy state, employed to ignite hydrogen gas. With the usual fluxes, the blow-pipe flame forms a button of metal, without discolouring the solvents. Palladium. —The oxide is appropriated by nitric acid, the solution being a beautiful red; and water appropriates most of 664 OBSERVATIONS. the salts, likewise a beautiful red; and supplies a precipitate, black or olive-green to protomuriate of tin, yellow-brown to ferroeyanate of potash, yellow-wliite to cyanuret of mercury, brown to hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen, orange (when dry, black) to alcalies, caustic and carbonate; metallic to protosulphate of iron, and all the oxidable metals except silver, gold, and platinum. The double chlorides with the alcalies are indifferent to alcohol. Mercury. —The protoxide solution supplies a precipitate, white, to the alcalies caustic (and carbonate, when muriate of ammonia is present, otherwise it is black), phosphate of soda, ferroeyanate of potash, binoxalate of potash, scarlet red to chromate of potash, greenish yellow to iodide of potassium (or excess black , and by great excess re-appropriated), yellow to hydriodates, black to sulphuretted hydrogen, and caustic alcalies, white to muriatic acid, (indifferent to nitric acid, black by presence of ammonia), white to black to carbonate of ammonia, and yellowish white to grey, to carbonate of potash or soda; and metallic (of the peroxide likewise,) to zinc, iron, copper, sul¬ phurous, and phosphorous acids; by the galvanic circuit, also the protomuriate of tin, to a grey powder, by heat formed into a globule of metal. Both oxides often being present in the nitric solution, the precipitates are mixed, the alcaline usually plus of peroxide, and the colours varied with plus of either. The oxide (Mr. 4 O) supplies a precipitate, dirty yellow, to infusion of galls, to the peroxide, orange yellow; white (both) to ferroeyanate of potash, and caustic ammonia, grey (white) to carbonate of ammonia, (the precipitate by ammonia being re-appropriated as formed;) dirty green (lemon-yellow) to caustic potash and soda, pale yellow or greenish to carbonate potash, and soda (red-brown), and black (both) to hydrosulphuret of ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen; and when muriate of ammonia is present, yellowish red (in concentrated solutions) to chromate of potash, indifferent to muriatic acid, cinnabar red to iodide of potassium (re-appropriated by excess), white to potash, and phosphate of soda, black to hydrosulphuret of ammonia carefully added, and sulphuretted hydrogen, by agitation white, by excess very black. The salts of all the oxides are by heat volatile; and when mixed with either black flux or dry soda, and in a test tube exhibited to the blow¬ pipe flame, the mercury sublimes as a grey powder, which by trituration supplies globules of the metal. OBSERVATIONS. 665 Silver is not oxidated by heat or air, nor absorbed by the bone-earth cupel used to separate other metals, (except gold and platinum, which require quartation;) but the blow-pipe flame applied to a mixture of the oxide and soda on a charcoal support, supplies the metal as a bright button. The solution of the oxide supplies a precipitate, white, floccxdent, to muriatic acid, violet in air, indifferent to nitric acid, but readily appropriated by ammonia; yet neither sollicit the yellow white, to iodide of potassium; and both appropriate the egg-yellow, to phosphate of soda; dark chocolate to chromate of potash, yellow brown to infusion of galls, and caustic alcalies, white to carbonate alcalies, and ferrocyanate of potash; black to hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen; and metallic to iron, zinc, copper, and (as an amalgam.) to mercury. Copper.— The protoxide is sollicited by only few acids, and the almost colourless solutions formed, readily appropriate the oxygen of the air, and supply a precipitate, blue to alcalies, caustic and carbonate, appropriated by excess; red to ferrocyanate of potash, yellow-grey to red ferrocyanate, black to hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen; but used prior to exposure to the air, yellow to caustic alcalies, and primrose to the carbonated, (appropriated by excess, and the solutions colourless) ; dark brown to hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen; and metallic to iron, zinc, tin, indifferent to sulphuric or muriatic acid. Nitric acid readily appropriates it, forming a deutoxide, by iron and zinc reduced to the metallic state. Boiling the hydrated deutoxide with caustic potash supplies a black deutoxide, which (in neutral solutions, and those of the weaker acids,) supplies a precipitate, blue to caustic potash, and soda, greenish blue to ammonia and carbonated alcalies, brown to infusion of galls, red-brown to ferrocyanate of potash, dark brown to hydrosulphuret of ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen, and metallic to zinc and iron. The salts mixed with soda, on a charcoal support, by the blow-pipe flame readily form a button of metal; but with borax, or mic. salt, a glass bead, in the interior flame red-brown, and in the exterior dark green. Uranium. —The protoxide is dark green, and becomes black on porcelain, while the orange peroxide preserves its tint thereon. The protoxide salts in solution are pale green, and when imme¬ diately used, supply a precipitate, green to alcalies, caustic and 3 E 666 OBSERVATIONS. carbonate, the latter appropriated by excess, and indifferent to carbonate of soda; but when exposed to light and air, or treated with nitric acid, changed into the peroxide, yellow , indifferent to iron, zinc, or tin; but which supplies a precipitate, orange to alcalies, caustic and carbonate, red to ferrocyanate of potash ; and black to hydrosulphuret of ammonia. Bismuth. —The oxide, yellow, is indifferent to sulphuric acid; the neutral salts are appropriated by water to a determined degree, and then plus of water causes a precipitate; the chloride solutions deposit a small portion of dichloride; the precipitate supplied, is white to alcalies, caustic and carbonate, also car¬ bonates of lime and magnesia, cold or boiling; yellow to infusion of galls, chromate, and ferrocyanate of potash ; brown to iodide of potassium, dark brown to red ferrocyanate of potash, hydrosul¬ phuret of ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen, and metallic to zinc or copper bar. By the interior blow-pipe flame, a brittle easily broken metal button is formed of the salts mixed with soda, on a charcoal support, which appropriates a yellow powder coating. Tin, though indifferent to the strongest nitric acid, is very powerfully sollicited thereby on adding a little water. The protoxide salts in solution supply a precipitate, white, to muriatic and oxalic acids, to both ferrocyanates of potash, to phosphate of soda, to the alcalies, caustic and carbonate, (that to ammonia by excess appropriated,) brown to hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen; yellow, to these two, of peroxide salts; but the colours of the others are alike to both oxides; metallic to zinc bar, and solution of silver, platinum, and gold (the Cassius’ purple) ; and appropriates oxygen from solution of iron, copper, or mercury, which oxide is sollicited by zinc. The incandesced peroxide of tin is indifferent to all acids, except muriatic; the solu¬ tion is indifferent to the solution of gold, and supplies a precipitate, metallic to zinc bar, yellow stiff jelly to ferrocyanate of potash, indifferent to muriatic acid; and those to this last and the caustic alcalies, by excess most sluggishly re-appropriated. The salts with soda, on a charcoal support, by the interior blow-pipe flame are formed into a malleable button, by the exterior flame easily oxidated. Lead. —The protoxide supplies a precipitate, yellow to alcalies, caustic and carbonate, and at 212° to carbonate of OBSERVATIONS. 667 lime, to chromates, and hydriodates; white , to sulphuric acid, and soluble sulphates, (sluggishly appropriated by nitric acid), to alcalies, caustic and carbonate, crystalline , to muriatic acid, appropriated by much water, and dilute nitric acid, curdy to muriates, appropriated by boiling water, and crystallizing when cooling, black to hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen, and metallic to zinc. The vegetable acid salts in solution, mostly are indifferent to ammonia, or else this appro¬ priates the lead as the solution is decomposed. The salts mixed with soda, or borax, on a charcoal support, by the blow-pipe flame is easily reduced to a button of malleable lead. Cerium. —The protoxide salts are sluggishly appropriated by water; the solutions supply a precipitate white to alcalies, caustic and carbonate (appropriated by excess), phosphate of soda, oxalates, ferrocyanate of potash, infusion of galls, and (in neutral solutions) hydrosulphuret of ammonia, oxalates, oxalic acid (indifferent to excess) crystalline, to sulphate of potash, indifferent to excess ; and the common peroxide is fawn colour, while that by the blow-pipe exterior flame, from the salts with borax, or mic. salt, is red-brown, but colourless in the interior, and likewise when cold. Cobalt. —The protoxide salts are red, and acid solution supplies a precipitate green to ferrocyanate, red-brown to red ferro¬ cyanate, and pale rose to binoxalate, of potash (sluggishly in air, re-appropriated by ammonia, caustic and carbonate,) blue to ash to caustic alcalies, and oxalates, (appropriated by ammonia,) indifferent to oxalic acid, pink to carbonated alcalies, black to hydrosulphuret of ammonia; but (likewise nickel salts,) indifferent to carbonate of lime or magnesia, and bar of zinc or iron. Chlorine gas readily converts the protoxide in solution in water to peroxide; the chloride solution is rose-red ,—concentrated, blue, —and very dry, rose-red. The blow-pipe flame forms the salts and borax or mic. salt into a rich strong blue bead. Nickel salts are beautiful green, except the evaporated dry chloride orange. The oxide, in ammonia, supplies a precipitate to caustic potash, this differing from cobalt ; is likewise readily by chlorine gas converted into peroxide, much appropriated by the gene¬ rated muriatic acid; the acid solution is indifferent to ammonia; but supplies a precipitate, black to hydrosulphuret of ammonia, whitish to infusion of galls, light green to grey to ferrocyanate, 668 OBSERVATIONS. and yellow to red ferrocyanate of potash, apple green to alcalies, caustic and carbonate, (excess appropriating the ammoniates, the caustic liquid violet, the carbonate green,') to oxalates, and binoxalate of potash, indifferent to oxalic acid, but appropriated by ammonia, caustic and carbonate; and neutral solutions (cobalt also, most sluggishly,) black, to sulphuretted hydrogen. The blow-pipe flame forms the potash salts, with borax, into a blue bead, the others, red while hot, which fades, or entirely disappears, when cold. Iron. —The salts appropriate oxygen rapidly from any me¬ dium ; those of the protoxide are green, appropriated by carbonic acid (magnetic), and sollicking the oxygen of solution of gold leaves the metal to precipitate; at 60 F. indifferent to benzoates, succinates, also carbonate of lime or magnesia, each of which, at any temperature, sollicits the peroxide, whose salts are red brown, as likewise are the precipitates they supply to alcalies, caustic and carbonate. The protoxide supplies a precipitate, white, to alcalies, caustic and carbonate, which rapidly becomes dark brown by appropriating the oxygen of the air; blue to ferrocyanate of potash (prussian blue) pale to the peroxide, in proportion to the oxygen, purple to blue, sluggishly to infusion of galls, black to hydrosulphuret of ammonia (likewise peroxide), and (neutral) sluggishly to sulphuretted hydrogen, (the sulphur falling, to peroxide,) also of the other oxides, when much of the test is used; the second oxide supplies a precipitate to the alcalies, caustic and carbonate, green, varying in tint with the proportion of peroxide; this last supplying a precipitate, dark blue (ink colour) or blue black to infusion of galls, and blood red, not magnetic, to sulphocyanic and meconic acids. The salts with borax, or mic. salt, on charcoal support, by blow-pipe exterior flame forms a bead deep red, green in interior, yet only pale when cold, even with plus of iron. Cadmium, at a raised temperature, is almost equally as soluble as mercury; the oxide, after incandescence, is orange - brown, and when obtained in platinum vessel, can be well washed on the sides, to which it adheres. The oxide solution supplies a precipitate, white to alcalies, caustic and carbonate, and ferrocya¬ nate, and binoxalate of potash, yellow to red ferrocyanate, and infusion of galls, orange to hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and sulphuretted hydrogen, distinguished from orpiment by fusing OBSERVATIONS. 669 into metal; and metallic to zinc. The salts mixed with soda, by the blow-pipe flame fused on charcoal, stains it and covers it with a brown-red powder. Zinc, in oxide, heated is yellow , cold white ; and in solution supplies a precipitate, white, to alcalies, caustie and carbonate (appropriated by excess) to binoxalates (indifferent to oxalic acid), to ferrocyanate of potash, infusion of galls, hydrosulphuret of ammonia, and (when neutral) to sulphuretted hydrogen. The salts mixed with soda, or nitrate of cobalt, by blow-pipe flame is fine green, on charcoal, coated white in exterior, and spread over the surface in the interior flame. Manganese, in protoxide pale rose-red, peroxide red (formed by chlorine gas applied to the former) not appropriated by car¬ bonic acid. The protoxide supplies a precipitate, white, to alca¬ lies, caustic and carbonate, ( brown by peroxide,) and air quickly rendering the former brown, while those of the bicarbonate re¬ main white, indifferent to carbonate of lime and magnesia, but appropriated by carbonic acid and ammonia; brown to chloride of lime; and of sulphur to sulpuretted hydrogen. Fusion with carbonate of potash, or nitrate of potash, forms the mineral chamelion; and with borax, or mic. salt, on charcoal, the exterior flame of blow-pipe forms a bead amethystine, invisible in the interior, but when cold re-appearing. 670 ISOMORPHISM, ISOMERISM, &c. There are numerous proofs to warrant the conclusion of the most experienced Chemists of our day, that the primary figure is the same of the atom of certain classes of Acids, Bases, and Elements, which consequently may replace , or be substituted for, each other, without altering the figure of the crystal of the resulting compound. These classes originate the following Groups, arranged to shew already determined connecting links j in which every member of each, whether binary or other com¬ pound, which replaces another, has identity of the number of atoms in the whole, and of the respective component elements; equal numbers of which replace each other, yet the crystalline figure remains the same by combinative potency. (The Groups are from Professors Miller and Johnson ; and the arranyement of substances and notation are altered, to agree with the previous Tables. For these and the additions ,(*) I must bear the liability of error.) 1. Chlorinef .. Cl Bromine .. Bm Iodine I Fluorinef ., .. F Manganese .. Mn (f Cl* and F*, Berzelius) 2. Chloric Acid HCIO 3 Bromic Acid .. HBmO 3 Iodic Acid HIO 3 3 . Hyperchloric Acid HCIO Hypermanganic Acid HMnO 4 . Sulphur .. S Selenium Se Chromium .. Cr Vanadium? V Manganese .. Mn 5 . Peroxide of Lead Pb 4 0 3 -Iron Fe 4 0 3 -Manganese Mn 4 0 3 -Cobalt Co 4 0 3 -Nickel Ni 4 0 3 Zn 4 0 3 - Copper Cu 4 0 3 Magnesia Mg 4 0 8 ? Lime Ca 4 0 3 ? 6 . Sulphuric Acid HSO* Selenic Acid .. HSeO* Chromic Acid HCrO* Vanadic Acid .. HVO* Manganic Acid HMnO* 7 . Green Oxide of Chromium . . Cr 4 0 3 Red Oxide of Iron Fe 4 0 3 Brown Oxide of Manganese Mn 4 0 3 Alumine .. .. A1 4 0 3 ? Titaniate of Frotox.of Iron Fe 3 Ti0 3 ISOMORPHOUS GROUPS. G71 8 . Platinum .. Pt Copper .. .. Cu Bismuth .. Bi Lead. • • • • Pb Cobalt .. Co Nickel .. .. Ni Zinc .. Zn Iron Fe Manganesium .. Mn Aluminum .. . A1 Magnesium .. Mg Calcium ... Ca 9 . Barium .. Ba Strontium Sr Calcium • • Ca Lead .. .. Pb 10 . Lime Ca’O Barytes .. Ba*0 Strontian Sr'O Yellow Oxide of Lead Pb 2 0 11 . Phosphorus .. P Arsenic As Antimony .. .. Sb Tellurium Te 12 . (*) Phosphorus Acid P 4 0 3 Arsenious Acid .. As 4 0 3 Antimonious Acid Sb 4 0 3 Phosphoric Acid t P*0 3 ? Arsenic Acid .. ... As 4 0 3 Antimonic Acid Sb 4 0*? 13 . Oxide of Tin .. Sn s O Titanic Acid Ti 9 0 14 . Potash .. .. K«0 3 Ammoniaf .. AmZO 3 (f Am 2 + Aqs Berzelius.) 15 . Ammonia .. .. H 3 Z 3 ? Arseniuretted Hydrogen H 3 As s Phosphoretted Hydrogen H 3 P 2 Soda .. .. N‘ 3 0 Oxide of Silver .. .. Ag 2 0 16 . Sodium .. .. N Silver .. .. Ag Gold .. .. An And probably all other electro-posi¬ tive Metals whose crystals have regular form. 17. Molybdic Acid Mo 2 0 3 Tungstic Acid W 2 0* 18. Protoxide of Iron Fe?0 Green ditto Manganesium Mn 9 0 Brown ditto Chromium Cr 9 0 Alumine A1 2 0 Glucine .. Be ? 0 ^Magnesia .. Mg'O *Yttria YsO *Zirconia Zr ? 0 ♦Thoria . .. ThO 19. Platinum Pt Palladium .. Pd Iridium .. -. Ir Osmium .. Os Iron .. .. Fe Copper .. .. Cu Bismuth .. .. Bi Lead . • .. Pb 672 ISOMORPHOUS GROUPS. 20. Sulphate of Magnesiaf .. MgSO 2 --Zinc ZnSO 2 Seleniate of Zinc ZnSO 2 Sulphate of Nickel NiSO 2 (f MgH 6 SO'°, Beudant.) 21 . Sulphate of Soda NSO 2 Seleniate of Soda .. NSeO 2 Sulphate of Silver AgSO 2 Seleniate of Silver .. .. AgSeO 2 22 . Sulphate of Lime CaSP 2 Seleniate of Lime .. CaSeO 2 23 . Sulphate of Ammonia AmSO 2 -Potash .. KSOa Seleniate of ditto KSeO 3 Chromate of ditto. KCrO 2 Manganate of ditto KMnO 2 ♦Hyponitrite of ditto KZO 2 ♦Oxalite of ditto KCO 2 24 . H yperchlorate of Potash .. KCIO Hypermanganate of ditto KMnO Hvperchlorate of Ammonia AmCIO Hypermanganate of ditto AmMnO 25 . Sul. of Silver & Am. .. AmAgSO 2 Seleniate of do. do. .. SeAgSO 2 Chromate of do. do. .. CrAgSO 2 26 . Sulphate of Nickel . NiSO 2 Seleniate of do. .. . NiSeO 2 — Zinc ZnSeO* 27 . Protosulphate of Iron .. FeSO 2 -Cobalt .. CoSO* Proto Sulphate of Copper CuSO 2 -and Nickel, CuNiSO 2 -- 1 --Magnesia, CuMgSO* ——— -— Zinc CuZnSO 2 ■ --Zinc and Magnesia, ZnMgSO 2 -Magnesia and Man¬ ganese MgMnSO 2 -Soda .. NSOs Seleniate of ditto .. NSeO* Chromate of ditto .. NCrO 2 28 . Double Sulphates. Potash Sul. of Magnesia KMgSO 2 Ammonia ditto .. AmMgSO 2 Potash ditto Manganese KMnSO 2 Ammonia ditto .. AmMnSO* Potash Sulphate of Iron KFeSO 2 Ammonia ditto AmFeSO 2 Potash Sul. of Nickel .. KNiSO 2 Ammonia ditto .. AmNiSO 2 Potash Sulphate of Zinc KZnSO 2 Ammonia ditto .. AmZnSO 2 Potash Sul. of Cobalt - KCoSO 2 Ammonia ditto .. AmCoSO 2 Potash Sul. of Uranium .. KUSO 2 Ammonia ditto .. AinUSO 2 Potash Sul. of Copper .. KCuSO* Ammonia ditto .. AmCuSO 2 * Potash Sul. of Silver KAgSO 2 ♦Ammonia ditto .. AmAgSO 2 ♦Potash Sul. of Platinum KPtSO 2 ♦Ammonia ditto .. AmPtSO 2 ♦Soda ditto .. NPtSO* 29 . ♦Potash Sul. of Manganese KMnSO Ammonia ditto .. AmMnSO Potash do. Zinc .. KZnSO Ammonia ditto .. AmZnSO ISOMORPHOUS GROUPS 673 Potash ditto Cadmium . . KCdSO Ammonia ditto AmCdSO Potash ditto Iron . KFeSO Ammonia ditto AmFeSO Potash ditto Nickel . KNiSO Ammonia ditto AmNiSO Potash ditto Cobalt . KCoSO Ammonia ditto .. AmCoSO Potash ditto Cerium KCoSO Ammonia ditto Tin .. AmCaSO Potash ditto Silver . KAgSO Ammonia ditto AmAgSO • O CO Anhydrite CaSO 2 Heavy Spar BaSO 2 Celestine .. .. SrSO 2 Sulphate of Lead PbSO 2 *-— Lithia LSO 2 *-Glucina .. BeSO 2 *-Zirconia . ZrSO 2 31 . Alums. Potash Sul. of Alumine . . KA1SO Ammonia ditto AmAlSO Soda ditto NA1SO Potash Sulphate of Iron KFeSO Ammonia ditto AmFeSO Ditto Manganese .. AmMnSO Potash Sul. of Chromium KCrSO Ammonia ditto AmCrSO Potash Silicate of Alumine KAlSiO ©i CO Rock Salt NCI Chloride of Silver AgCl Fluoride of Sodium NF 33 . Double Chlorides. Ammonia Chloride of Antimony, AmSbCl - ■ - —— Nickel AmNiCl — Cobalt AmCoCl Ammonia Chloride of Lead AmPbCl -—————Copper AmCuCl — ■ ■ -Silver Am AgCl -MercuryAmMrCl --■ Osmium AmOsCl -Iridium AmlrCl -Palladium, AmPdCl -- -—■ Platinum, AmPtCl Potash do. Osmium KOs ? CP -Iridium .. KIr 2 Cls -Palladium KPd 2 Cl3 -Platinum KPt 2 Cl* Soda Chloride of Gold NAnCl --— Rhodium NRC1 -Iridium NIrCl -Platinum NPtCl 34 . Native Antimony Sb -Arsenic .. .. As Tellurium Te 35 . Dark Ruby Silver Light do. do. 36 . Arseniate of Lead PbAsO Phosphate ditto PbPO Apatite .. .. CaPO 37 . Arseniate of Potash KAsO Phosphate ditto KPO Arseniate of Ammonia .. AmAsO Phosphate ditto AmPO 38 . Arseniate of Soda . N As O Phosphate of ditto .. N P O 3 F G74 ISOMOR-PHOUS GROUPS. 39. Biphosphate of Soda .. NA 2 0 Biarseniate of ditto .. NAs 2 0 40 . Biphosphate of Ammonia AmP 2 0 Biarseniate ditto .. AmAs‘^0 41. Biphosphate of Soda .. N?PO Biarseniate ditto .. N 2 As 2 0 42 . Vivianite Cobalt Bloom 43 . Molybdate of Lead Tungstate ditto -Lime 44 . Spinelle .. .. MAl-O 4 Pleonaste .. MFeAFO 3 Gahnite .. .. ZnMFeAFO 6 Chromite of Iron .. MFe 3 Cr 2 0 8 Franklinite .. ZnFe 3 Mn 9 0 8 Magnetic Iron Oxide .. Fe 3 0 4 Titanic Iron Oxide .. Fe 2 Ti0 6 Abich (grandson of Klaproth,) states that these are octahedral, and can be artificially formed by the moist way. 45 . Garnets. Grossular .. AaSiaCa^O'* Almandine .. A^SPFe 3 © 1 * Melanite .. Fe2Si 2 Ca 3 0‘ o Magnesian Garnet A 2 Si 2 Mn 3 0‘° 46 . Specular Iron Oxide .. Fe-'O 3 ^ Titanic Iron Oxide .. FeTiOs Corundum .. .. A-’O 3 Peroxide of Manganese .. Mn*0® 47 . Oxide of Tin .. SnO-’ Rutile .. .. TiO* 48. Calc Spar CuCO 3 Bitter Spar CaC 2 MO* Carbonate of Magnesia and Iron, MFeCO 4 -Iron .. FeCO 3 Manganese Spar MnCO 3 Zinc ditto .. ZnCO 3 Magnesia ditto MCO 3 49. Arragonite .. CaCO 3 Witherite .. BaCO 3 Strontianite .. SrCO 3 Carbonate of Lead PbCO 3 50.* Acetate of Lead PIHCO 3 •-Barytes BaHC0 3 Olivine .. .. M 3 Si0 4 Hyalosiderite M s Fe 3 Si0 5 Crystals in Slags Fe*Si0 4 51. Pyroxene Ca 3 M 3 Si 9 0 3 Bisilicate of Manganese Mp s Si*0 4 52. Tremolite CaM 3 Si’0 8 Anthophyllite FeM 3 Si s 0 8 DIMORPHOUS, (Two Forms.) 1. Elementary Sulphur Carbon 2. Two Elements Bisulphuret of Iron 3. Three Elements Carbonate of Lime -Lead Biphosphate of Soda ISOMERIC SUBSTANCES. 675 4. Four Elements Garnet, or Idocrase 5. Sulphate of Nickel -Magnesia -Zinc Seleniate ditto The Groups numbered 19, 31, 32, 33, 44, 45, supply octahedral crystals, 25, 26, 37, 43, 47, 49, square prismatic, —34, 35, 36, 46, 48, Rliombohedral, —20, 21, 23, 24, 30, 38, prismatic, -22, 27, 28, 29, 39, 40, 41, 42, 50, 51, 52, oblique prismatic,— and some varieties are doubly oblique prismatic. _ The Isomorphism of the several groups of Elements, except the four which commence group 1, is assumed from that of their compounds with the like number of atoms of oxygen. And the links which reciprocally connect groups, 1, 4, 8, 9, render very probable the isomorphism of these and all other Elements. ISOMERIC SUBSTANCES These have the same Component Elements with like propor¬ tions, and the same atomic weight:— 1. The Phosphoric and Paraphosphoric Acids, and their salts. 2. The Tartaric and Paratartaric( Racemic) acids. 3. The Peroxide of Tin in the two states. 4. Silicic Acid and Silicates, native and incandesced. 5. Antimonites and Antimoniates, also after incandescence. 6. Tungstic Acid and Oxide, in their two states. 7. Telluric Acid and Oxide, in their two states. 8. Cyanuric Acids, soluble HCO, [*CZH0 2 ] and insoluble HCO. [*CZO'^] 9. The Cyanic and Fulminic Acids, HCO [*CZO] and HCO. [*ZCHO] 10. Oil of Wine and Faraday’s light liquid Carbo-hydrogeu, H*CA 11. The Pyrotartaric and Pyroparatartic acids. 12. The Phosphate of Copper in both states. 13. The Bisulphuret of Mercury in both states. 14. The Phosphoretted Hydrogen in both states,—that which inflames spontaneously in air, and that entirely indifferent to it. 15. The Iodide of Mercury, in the two states. 16. The Chloride of Lithium, in the two states. 17. The Mellate of Ammonia, in the two states. 676 METAMERIC, AND POLYMERIC SUBSTANCES. METAMERIC SUBSTANCES. These have the same elements in precisely like proportions, yet they compose substances completely different in their qualities. . 5 Cyanuric Acid . HCO ) Two atoms of the former ' l Hydrous Cyanic Acid.HC ) = three of the latter. n $ Naphthaline - HT> at 4 528 density of vapour 1 3 vols. of naphth. ‘ ^ Paranaphthaline H'C 3 at6-741 ditto J =2 do. paranaphth. 3. H 6 C ,4 0* Wohler and Liebig. { Oil of Bitter Almonds.... > \ Camphor deposited therein ) ^ (Asparagin.H‘ 2 Z 3 C 6 0 4 \ Aspartate of Ammonia. r ( Urea.) HWW X Cyanate of Ammonia with one atom of water.. ) H 4 Z S C 0 s POLYMERIC SUBSTANCES. These have the component elements in the like ratio , but not the precisely same number. 1. Paraffin H % r ■ * * 1 '* , * : , ■ i i | . • » - * •' . - , w*. v: awnfr ■ ■ . . ’ , ' . \ ■\ • 1 GET rYCE NTER LIB RARY in 3 315 111 >5 111 III! D0114 1111 III 9232

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Iodide. 1 2 Fluoride ............ Phosphate . 1 2 3 4 Ammouia Ditto. Arsenite . Sulpho Ditto . Arseniate . 1 2 3 Sulpho Ditto . Chromate .. 1 2 3 4 5 Molybdate . Tungstate . Ammonia Ditto ...... Borate. 1 2 3 Carbonate . Potash Ditto . Ammonia Ditto. 1 2 Soda Ditto. 1 2 Sulpho cyanodide .... Fetro Ditto. 1 2 to Tf* l> do 80 s sssgsas 3 3 2 *-— 17-4 6-5 6-4366 lOiOirt lO o Ol C) O O W lO ip o «KPin«rtt>o» *CO'-'rJ , iOiO«5CO'^'^t' «—< iO 1—i I-H m •,■»«*> >n >n ‘O O ^ ^ .-« oooooooo»ooy ,•»■*. 'i* «t» C_> *♦* *♦* •• °?°00000000”000 r -V r'N ^-v <* * C* ^ . | , • > J °«^^EEKP:cKoEffiH o ° °52 « « Ji _ » ^ v-i>»-h»—< F ^ F ^ ooocoo>;oo f —, «“^sessss m ss s * o» n oo vo ^ . O SI ^ S-*o *-S£ >>>*>> C*i $ >> $ ^ | fO ^ >> >> 3 *0 fc- © ?T>~© ~© S ^ ’<** a ^ ■>* ^ V- t* *- $» •>» W *» '*rt ^ R,a, 3 a, a,-2 « ^ <0 '■e £ <« Si* ^(NCO^OI»-<(MCO»-HC^CO I • 0) -a a> ■*-> 4) -4-> c3 (4 jc a o „ Q • sJ 9 « (4 *S '/> 2 4-» o s 0) o u. «J H aj 00 5 S O 3 O * -g^ 2 ii o Ph < H P-. C/5 HO CO •< M C* 0) ts S3 -fl rt i- CL, >- ca&O 0) ttl • t» • 0 ) M z 0 ) -52 o .ts c J 3 O *= o«a «.y H -§ o *-* _a a Js* £i< v ouaqdsouqy •ilHtqnios S § 3 3 T '1 oomSpoay iiqiqisnj laquajqBj '000.1 = ■ions AY ‘^llABJO ogpadg ■QZ. = P-*H inoiBAinba ‘saaqum^i jy 1AY uioiv tO iO lO iO iO iflipiOip ip ^ ^(N^OiOO^CO^(NOCOCDWcbo^Na5W(NOOib»ON^6a)(NaDC£>HN(N^«g CO^f-'(N-H'H^CO^CO(NOOiO(N'^CO(NCOGO-fOM(N(N(N(NfO(N(NCOWOlW(N f"H r—H i-H •saiiii -uisnJJ aioqi pun ‘siuau -odui 03 aqi jo sioquiXs « -3-C^J3^-OJ3^042 , ir a) 2 3 ^ !N) 99^ !:C ®232:j3^ l ^3-Q <1 3'S.»~t-V-l'V-l'S-V-t.V.S. - ~J.V.VV. r ,-MVS.!-V.I-S8"2}' s. ft, a.ft.a.ft.ft.a.ft.&.a.ft.ft.S o « ft, ft. a, o ft, ft, £ § ft,R,ft,R,ft,ft,»sS « Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Acid . 1 2 Potash tartrate Ditto.. Sulphite . 1 2 3 4 5 6 Iodo Ditto .. Sulphate •••«•••••«•• 1 2 3 Nitrate . Chloride. 1 2 3 Ammonia Ditto. Bromide . . Iodide . Fluoride . Phosphite . Phosphate . Selenite . Arsenite . Sulpho Ditto . Arseniate . . . Sulpho Ditto . Chromate. . Molybdate . Fluo silicate . Oxalate . Potash Ditto ........ Acetate ... (X> »iO ip iO OOt'ltf'ClNOcbt^tOINTl'XtOWtO r-lrtClrHN(NHf)rtjqrt5aiNfl »o (N OO^frH lb )£L ^ 99999969? 9 OUlfMHi'OOO « « ^ HH HH U « »0 r* 53 ffl jd bc-O _a 53 EG ffi Te ©> _ ©* ® 2 L o* a. On-i, n ®000 * « *• © 0 J N 0 © <“ Q* © 02 <3 O © H © © © tHH h HHH ®* o» Q °o"o? §^o9 « ® t 2 ” rfOoS r « cT $r w E-* «j etf Sr HH^ 5 5»s>2 S S SiS 3 S 3 SS^SSSSSSSSSS 95 j >3 s 3 $io 1 Ss-Sl-V-V-S-t-KV. *e Sk (« V> ^> !>> >>4 ^3 £ £ »» ©s o o © * 5q Q ®2£® ^ ^ O O r* -*-> p2 M ri -«-> o 0 2 § g ® 2 a t; S »-.« S S o *- co^ - OJ (D C o _ N <4 __ o O C ^ oro-rfi-3 Q,{ « ^W hi Is J3 £ G. 1- O *3 ■-J3 75 550 -•J © © © 3 ja .2 .3 .2 2 :2 §“2 2 | 2 "2 J3 "a! "4) i- J3 ►2 Ph 72 75 < O «J <» 3 •*-» -*-» © J3 ^ ri ■*-» •T3 ^ c J3 «> § O >»SfJ g q i-* 3 ® 3 «S <1> Show p p ◄ ® - k. !z ^2 -o -5 to rf -jMo S Si o S ~o 1 §^s>o SiSsioSioSio392 *UI40J ea.S»,5J>a,B,B,a.SS,SS,St,54,R, R. u Ss-S R, R, g R, R. o R, R. R. R, R. R. B. Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Hydro Fluo Ditto .... Sulphuret . Sulphate .. Chloride . 1 2 3 Bromide. Iodide . Fluoride. Phosphate .. Tungstate . Borate. Ferrocvanodide. TITANIUM. Oxide . Acid. Hydrate . Sulphuret . 1 2 Sulphate. 1 2 Nitrate. Chloride . 1 2 Bromide . Iodide. Fluoride. Potash Ditto. Phosphoret. Phosphate . Arseniate.. o 4“ iO i^. H-iiirNo^iioin® O5C0C0(Mr-i^rtr0* S <5 >> B -C> •« -S hr w s s^l S s sl ^ ^ *. v. ^ ?> ^rPi r < J ^C5'0'-0r0rPi , » h ca coTf ino h cim ^ • •••••••• • •••••«•• • • • • • • • • • • • • •••••• • ••••••* • • • • • • O co *0 ct tS O o f2 -5 o a £~ | 5.S rt c) t- tfO£3os> x °rt ca uh < co p o <: h o o *—t S « 8^ s p t-H 2 ® P * co O >> C Ctf a Nw^ 0) -*-> os , o ® J T3 T3 s- JZ P n3 n3 CU^O jp’5 a _c o io • • « 2 • 15 s : • a> t3 rt ~ .H ^3 E c Q » rn 5 2 ^ m o X> -p cd cj o p • S:h o -*-» 13 2 S p O U co co Cn co x oo C/5 Trivial Name. Theoretic Composition. uaiBM 141 •ossa 9-91 •ppy S-69 •uopoy ouaqdsouqy ^3 •jCjtjiqniog . 3 3 3 3 •pooMSpaM. Xiqtqtsnj 32 liaquaaqiij ‘A)![;qisn£ 2590 320 300 •000-1 *= JOiOAV XjtABJO ogpads S-6I ■QZ. = inapsAtnba ‘siaqujnx ig UA\ -uioiv iTSipiOiC irtipiOiOipipipiTS tO ip ip Onocchoni'N tbiNoooinooiNPO’^aiinOtofootboinffKoi' t>fOftCtf»CC ON® 1—I CO (M !M vr (M O l>. C<3 vj* rr 'S' f-H •saiip -trenfj jtaqi pua ‘sjUau -odut 03 aqi jo sioquiig »3,5>s36|§| OOOOOOOOO *<<<<<* s *<<<<<%<*<3ea* W << > v *© ~© ~© ~© CT> V- V^ -© »Q <5 >>»© fO^ v. ^ -o ^ W-C) unoj 2 a, &, ©* ©« ©.-'2 -2 g S s © ©>©,&,© a, &, ©, Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Sulphite.5 6 7 8 Chloride . . 1 2 3 4 Potash Ditto . GOLD. Oxide . 1 2 3 Sulphite . 1 2 Sulphate. Nitrate. 1 2 Soda Ditto . Chloride . 1 2 3 Soda Ditto . Bromide . Iodide . Iodate. Phosphoret . . Arsenite . Sulpho Ditto ........ Hypo Ditto Ditto .... Arseniate .. 4 __ (N a a S o O 3 a o 23-5 »0 to kO iO ipiO*C»p»pipkp CN(M iONC^ OO-HcOTfOOlMl^t^CO'—3^-i (NfOOHN^oO^cbN-^ —Ii/JrICDCO(M^C^ hCO(N r-H iC iO iO CH (O rH S°?Sa° B *o“^ 00 |M°gg s -H -H 1 HHH h . « . j e v. _ Je s-« ~ >> s i. s _o , O O &»-<& - 0 - 0-0 CS4 &> &» &j § ■■§ S>3 Si>»o r\ ^4 ks ""i ^ ^ ^ I30'^*C>'>0'‘0'0*0*0.-CS ^ £ *. t4c ^ -o *. v. ** a.aaa,aa,aa,aa,aaa a, a, o ^a,a,a,a 1 o>»,a,»,a,&, £ £ *- £ C? w* *- St* Si, Si, «: o o M M (15 ■<# iO in CC Tf —« (N CO tJ< ,-t (Nl CO O • iu *-> 0) • ♦J - 5 • rt -s <5 . a o wi •-e M = ~ g •S So ®-r " 3 • S a) • - " taQQH * 0 ^Q-- 2 O i. O u -S 2 o f- 1 •iL S -5 J2* 2 -a o -•i'Sr’i'S s 2 ^ SmE 3 - 9 ^ Q) •—« 0> 0) *-» . 1 -*—* • “* ^ rt rt g ** o __ i; fl 2 O 2 « rt 2 ‘2 S J3 o a a .s c--» cd n rt ^ « a a »h g ca Jr* E p a 3 0^-. ^ p i[0S 2 S 2 2 poo* Cnojo ioi'inNaMN-iorj'o^ON^N o? do cb rH cb o W ^ ^ CD rHrn(N^H(NCOH(Nrf^COfCCOrO rH (M rH CO ^ Ol ■S3I1U -irenQ jioqr pue ‘sjuau -oduiof) aqi jo S[oqinis cj ^Lt e, n n O * oi?; „ „ » »o «■» •"S?,9o B * o° ooocc 00 n5553“?oJ £ § ° 8 § £ £ UiC^P unop3 »•**•*» 2 >>5 >>-§ 2s-v.»>ks-v.5s2>iSs 2 Si ©> §>-« -§ ^ HUOJ i* i«. k fc» si v» v* «» *>» }s i* '>* v* <■» sa v» v* w w i* ^ ^ ^ o o CTi SV'S o Si,^ a, a, a, 5 R,R,R,P,^^ Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Potash Chloride.4 Ammonia Ditto. Soda Ditto. Baryto Ditto . . Carburet? . . RHODIUM . Oxide .. .'. 1 2 3 Sulphite . Sulphate . . Nitrate. Soda Ditto. Chloride . 1 2 3 4 Soda Ditto . . Arsemate . Acedate . Soda Ditto . PLATINUM. Oxide . 1 2 3 4 Potash Ditto ........ Ammonia Ditto. Tf T*« 00 05 © o cb p-H CO 70 15-5 Tf oc CO oo># •— 1 00 *iO'—i(M 5i3 *© C3i>® V Jn-C’ f© P© rd 3 S 8 0> ©sr© ^ fc. SiSoft^SfiSiSi^sS &>©>©>©> ©>c© •© >> 8 -a -a v. »■> >> »j >5 Ss-a H(NfO I (M i • « • © • • • • • • • • • © -4-3 © f-t o -4-» -4-* J3 2 J3 g Q 0.2 5 ^ §03 X a o Q -© © © n rfl p t la Si, «/> -£J rt A, SS^SS CO rl . J-i ri O «S O C/3 «5 3 rt 3 3 1 i w etJ O CO o r— » -4. J .—4 O 3 o P o a '— LT* Ph*£ 2 O a x> - ea to <) ca K «sj!» Trivial Name. Theoretic Composition. uajeAV •astfa V ' •PPV •uoi'pv ouaqdsounv •Xtinqnios a s s « s •pooMSpajW Ainqisnj 170 liaquaaquj ‘Alliqisnj ’000-1 «= 40JBAV XpATUfJ ogpods 3 S ;*> S •uiioj R, 5 R. R, o R, R. R, ft, 8, R, R.V^ R, R, o S c> R. R, R, R, R« 5 », R,~ R, o -S R, Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Molybdate .. Sulpho Ditto . Ditto Tungstate. Boride. . Bisulpho carbonate... . Cyanodide . Sulpho Ditto. Hydro sulpho Ditto .... Cyanurate . Antimoniate ........ Sulpho Tellurate .... Silicate . Oxalate . Acetate . Benzoate . Camphorate . PALLADIUM . Oxide . 1 2 Sulphite . 1 2 Sulphate . 1 2 Chloride . 1 2 3 co u 1-6875 1-125U 4“ ^_»o O iO s C cj bi ^ o rj< rH lO TJ< CD co as ^ bi cb 00 *M ^ (N CO iO »C -h iO O >0 iO iO CD !-» 1" t'. t-* lO »b O o cb co co cb o co r—( r ” 1 — ^3 3 3 3 33333333 656 15-612 10- 69 11- 29 6-44 kO *n 0*0 0000 CN ip N O^fNCONOCOMlH^ rH (M rH C4 ro CO r —1 i—• iClfl o lOTfOfOOCO^CONNNHiNiOOiTfOcOCOiO (MiOCMCOC^COcOcOCOCOCO^cOcOCOrf^COiO^ m O ■* « ” 2. ^ ^ " « 2. W O r-, ° ° 9P^° f |aPa,«? 0 o 0 U9 66 gSS2|gSg 2 |SS N *2ax **4*“- *•£ fcg g P. gg 03 o q* n n (ft & oq m os fc oooc«5boooooooo9oop6N >5 ■£, t. u u t,aHCCQ!Bt/jaJNNNNNN^£ V, v> «3"> V* V> ^ S S 3 3 3 3 *.:© 3 3 &,^3 8^3 333333 t* i. »f» «, V. i. K ** c? "tS b b O «^>r2 £ ^ a, a, a, e» jj S«, ©* ©N ©« ©x O 0 - CJ ©XI ©X ©x ©H ©X H(NCOHjqH(NCO^iOO i-^ (M CO iO CD *—• o 2 • • • ♦-»••• • •»•***••■ • ••••••••# • •••• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • *» • » o 4-< "C o S * : : § § § x r 9 > . >* ' n r vo S 9 ^ s* c*j Q Q ** sn«H.5 £ o fa ^oo-„ . '| ss 4|aias|a i ^ i6 4s' 5 ' i ' , sssss|iss^ i isi uno |03 8SSSSS»,3SSS&5&>SiS>355 &>*a 3 3 3 ;* S> >i 3 »> s* >>~S v S •uxjoj it c a, 54 , a, si, s cn Si, si, », a, g si, st, si, si. o Si, si, si. ss, si, ss, S si, si, si, 5 si, si, si, si. si, e. Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Ammonia Nitrate .... 2 Chloride . 1 2 Ammonia Ditto . 1 2 Chlorate . 1 2 Bromide. 1 2 Ammonia Ditto. 1 2 Iodide . . 1 2 3 Ammonia Ditto . . Iodate.. Fluoride. 1 2 Phosphite . Phosphate . 1 2 Selenite * . 1 2 Arsenite . Sulpho Ditto . 1 2 Hypo Ditto Ditto .... Arseniate. 1 2 Sulpho Ditto. 1 2 Chromate . 1 2 Molybdate . GO I CO CO co (M r-H to co » iO *C lO lO N N i>. *-h i-* co »— GOiOcoooco^iOtOibdicbo^iOibor^-HiOGsicocooic^o^cocoGboa^t^t^b^ir^db lOco^fio^coco^Tft^cococococococococot^co^rr^cococor^Ttioc^a^^r^iOioGOiOt^ c*3 c*5 rf) O I -_ iL ^ CN W N3 ^ r* ^MWj^OUOOOOOOyVOOOO __ ^ 'f 03 a o «/3 «t* OOOOOO' -n oooo OC^OOc, Ktfi tfitflOOOjjjj^^NN^ ^ o — ^-i uuuu ss 5 sa aaB ai‘ s ja5Bf a j aa aa Baaa ^saaaa aa EBaa IISs>2^s22sS83» ) SS6jS^8llll3 5)^3s>St.SSS3Sl^ —( (M f—i 04 r—i 04 >—( 04 I—I 04 1-1 04 i—i 04 >—i 04 —* 04 i—i 04 i—( 04 Trivial Name. Theoretic Composition. uajBAV •asBg -4— co •ppv 00 [ •uorpy ouaqdsouny •itniqnios 3 3 3 3 s 3 3 3 •pooaASpaAV XlHiqisnj •jiaquarqaj Xqpqisnj O CO 00 •ooo-1 = jatBAv iCjIABJO og'iaads 10-474 7-143 7-2 •eg. = pin juapjAinba ‘saaqumjq 2 g •JAV ‘uioty iD iCiOO iO iO O iO iO aO iD iO ipip^iOip^CNC^iOiptNiptNt^ ^ ^ CN tp iO CN ip ip ip ip ip ip NtNtstNNwdDWTfOSO^OiONHcb 00 CD OQ ib CD !>. o ib ^ »b OO'I’OXOCD^N-tGOTfNCOC^iON CD ^ O* !>. I>* iO C<1 0> CO CO CO CO •saijij -utmf) jiaqj pua ‘st'uau -odmo 3 aqi jo s[oquiig ^5 *r <»* OO^ « «*• ■st* cn cr crs^-K vo o» ^ ^ (s ji (X O O » » oooooooo9oooooo°°ooo m j,o 0 ^.iOOOOOOUQOOOOOOoU^OOO^^O *,0 o o CZ3 p - jj rn vo <* oT OCJo, ofi ^ w w . c/3 ttEEs-EKKEKKEEfflEKEEEKKE^SK C ^ JpSSsSSSSSSSSSSSSSSjsSS^S unop3 3 >»S 8283333333^323 3^33 3 ■£ 5*2 « 3 •ouo^ „ w v- v. •- h o sa. sa, S sv, si, c>i s>» e o si, s: sa, sa. sa. sa,-^ S. 5 *^ sa sa, sa, sa, 5 sa, § a, sa sa :»i »s Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Potash Ditto. 1 2 Vinate.,... Citrate. 1 2 Malate. 1 2 Pyromucate. Succinate. 1 2 Benzoate. 1 2 Meconate. Camphorate . Suberate. Pinate. 1 2 Silvate. 1 2 Carbazotate-.... Pyrurate. Indigotate . Sulpho naphthalate .. 1 2 Sinapate. SILVER . 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CO CD CD ib - o *n rj ** o on o c n •T O o o o o <•3 O d> O u N o N u o a « E 2 CC * GO cc 03 E E E n !T! E CO tc E bo u ^ ** a a a O tx i be i bo bo bc<1 u o o < c < ui » *■ O oo?o oooo r /1 2. - ^ VO tfi O O &&& “ 00 99°9 0 99¥* a -54 a V -54 a & S-oSsa-aSs , b ^ i: , s ^ k -i; •« i. Si -ssSv-^s^^s^^es^ a v- 5 i-o- 5 s a -a -o -c> -e> a -a -a a -a -a -a Si Oi-a »o o^ia o 05 Oi~o s>-a V. V V *a -a a,a,3)S s a a a, a. *e3 t ^3 • o N *s o C j ■*3 5 bfi-^ «o ro ,d ,2r 0,0 rf ^ »T*J fc* ■*-> «j 5 3 >> o M U E W Pi Pi a.a,a,a,a.a,a,a.a,a,a,a,« a. a, a, « a, a, a. b a a v V a V a a a, a, si, a, a a. —I —' „ cj a a >3 X ^ _ir »*« . 'U fi, ^ > -h O 3 >>3-3S.a.53>< U CC 53 cn Cfi Ph m o ^3 3 co rt «J 03 ifl S ,2* © 3 Pi 03 fi Q \T -*> O CO (X tS 4To Ech Trivial Name. CO Oi Theoretic Composition. •jopeM. lO H-s +-4- (M iO MiOO Cp^CN 4—4— >0(N N rf r-4 CTi cb CO lo iOT iC P •—• (MO O lOiCOiOO O cb HH CO ^ »— •ppv lO lOirt vO ‘O (M Lp ip N ^ CN o «—< ib o cb cb cb o cb o cb hh } V* 0**0 >0 *UUOj[ V.J.i-VVV-Sv.l.VV.fc.yv.t%.Sv-'3S-,SvSv.t-i.»'‘'b*'^ > - > ' « u a. 5 a.a,».B,a,s>,3,5.S,5,&,o a. ss, s a> £ a, a. e, a, ». o a. a, a. a- a^ a. a. Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Ammonia Ditto •••••. 1 2 Hydro Carbo Ditto'... Nickel Ditto . Ferro Ditto .. 1 2 Zinc Ditto .... Magnesia Ditto . Hyponitrite . Nitrate .. 1 2 3 4 5 Ammonia Ditto ...... Chloride . 1 2 Ammonia Ditto . Chloro hydrargyrate .. Chloro platinate . Chlorate ... Bromide . 1 2 Iodide . 1 2 Iodate .. Fluoride . 1 2 Phosphite... . 1 2 3 Phosphate .. 1 2 3 V ■ im 3-375f ■+- +■ . 4- , tO *o *t— 40 H—£» lO . O i-H i—I 26-25 1 3 iO »C iO iO iO (M CM (M (M O* iO lO iO iO »o ^ w w T* cb o (N IN (N *“H fH (M H am S3 5 § S 4 HS‘ A ■- -“■ t iO o p iO lO W N N ■^•T^Tt'C'acoioaiaifp^oiTjiioccoooTfrfoo HO)T)i(Ntrir)'fflON’3if)QOr-(Nt»Oinh.(NM (M(MCOTFOacOC'OCOCO-HP»f-itM>>sssss-i;t.aa -. s a~> s. ^aaa-,as_- w a ^•-O V» © ©}<•© ^ 5> pO 5> ••© O} S* ^ "Ji Tf Hff^H(N HtNfOrf iO H(NCO r-i (N < fl o °S Ja o a e-e-2 Q 2 P ~ . a> -~ +* •« P-SOfl^fl _ «tf -a _ 5 « eo . v: *- 3 ^ *-• < we«: o .c c. = 3 2 11 » 2 “ ® _ i ►. j. g. a^s« "s-S^ 3 m co o S CO ffi HCC PQ ffl i! 0) •ti os Q 3 ” o O -a = 3 OO o 3 O OS oO "S,- 3 OT - * 3 oS J s OO §Q £ as S *g » O • o jj o • -a •S ts • d- a) An « 3 3 3 ® I s.s ■S.S g* a j_ rt jr. •—• 3 a> 3 CO V 5 O 0> GJ ■*-» +* <2 S *3 2 ° .§.§ -*-> -*-j a a * T 1 cn T 1 00 cn t^» Tf © ^ *3* 'P ?* 05 P ^ —H HHNWflHjUDrtWlN 1—1 CO CO •8SBg P CO ip *p CO ip iO ^ 1^ iOiOiOONiOCJiOOOONiO O i/0 iO t> (M (M (M CO ^ .—« ^ ro CO •ppy no lOininin ip3iiOip ip ni c-i m ci c-i o» co 3< 3* cb o P co co do o cb cb cb oo ci oj ft ft fti o ft ft V- ft, ft- ^ • • • • • • o • • • # • 2o ; .s : C3 • • • o o l .ti p • • • o • Si j ri • 4 -* .3 0 .M •+* .2 o •IS o -*-» a O t> P - J3 ^ aJ O ^ aJ a | cd -*-» COO) 2 S O W ^ -H ^ -2 x o a O ® a e-5 o a rt E cS - feOPn ■< 03 <♦ a> _ —< ■tJ -3 * CO HQ h 32t ® o rt SPH o .3 o .-3 5 P .3 P P JS P o ) t^, (Nl> iftiOt^. 52 2122 ^ fi 35 £? o ro o co ixo-^P-cj TfcOiOcOiOcoTfcoroto him i^fCio io p >o io ip iO iO iO coco-^'rocooo^'^'ooioioaoio-'foo AX 21 08 10 « « Ai, ♦ ei >n a, 1 2 0 9ooooooo9°oooooo?oo2 » KffiBBaSEEBffiBaaBEWBaaSg,* 3333333333333333333^^*^ ODOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCQO^q^ a —. . ,_ £* CO CO on ►—) rsq ^ 'pp §>§>§>§>§>£££2 4; ^£ §3Is §>§>£ §>££ 3 S -i; -i; S £ - 3 os-o S 3-0 -© aj^siSiSiSiSiSis —' —< *-> 0> a § 3 « Q © a, © o , o J** a At CO ® O £ rt- 3 2 O ♦j J2 13 ■*-» -fl £1« 4 »"a BQOrtSQowPQOdiMOOHai ►»•£ «i 2 -q 3 -§.2~ a- aS >>3.3 CO *5 £> ►H g ® < H3 rt‘5 PO • • • • O • • • • A £2 • • • • • • V «-> q : • 9 • • n: 0) •4J 13 a> ed Q* Q -5 rt .2 * C3 a) O S 2 0) CO •—* •uorpy ouaqdsouuy •ijfliqnios S3 3 3 S •pooMSpaAV jCjqiqisnj "qaquaaqfcj; ‘iqiiqisnj; •000.1 = aaiBAV XlUBJf) ogpadg ■gz- — P*H inaiBAinbg ‘saaquintf % 1AV -uio^v iO ip lOipipipiO ip O O O .NfOOiO(X)6rJ , cbcbiONONfO'HOirj l^|boo9^oosi“fei6o| s^ss|isi«^g|i^sillsasigg^ uno [03 ^ OO >>**0 ^ ^ V* J>) ^ >•0 ^ S ^ •uuoj a, a,s^ ^ ^ ° 5 &, a, r, a, a, s, a, a, fj, fj, e, ?j, y a o Name of the Element, and its Combinations. j Potash Ditto .. Phosphite .. Phosphate . 1 2 3 Calcareo Ditto . Selenite . 1 2 Arsenite . Sulpho Ditto . Hypo Ditto Ditto .... Arseniate ..... .... Sulpho Ditto .... ... Chromate . 1 2 Molybdate . ] 2 Sulpho Ditto . Tungstate . Sulpho Ditto . Borate. Carbonate . 1 2 Bisulpho Ditto . Potash Ditto . Ammonia Ditto . 1 2 Cyanodide . Sulpho Ditto . Ferro Ditto .......... Sulpho tellurate. Oxalate . ] 2 Acetate . 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Si *• ^ o 't3WV.UwKV.^i»i»Sv*V.t.^SKwV.8*v»i,i-V»V.| fc a, &* a, a. a. a. •» ^ o g^&.a-^R.o ^ a, s*« £ o &*&«©«»* i 25 • •« 2 q 2J S.2 o <3 «J *-« ri3 >*.ti 63 ctf _ 5 2 fj -fl e3 ctf O.S? «5 N C8 -T- nj B= HhO fP * S -3 cn ra ►■H « 4) O , -*-» sis -T3 C< 3 • a> •w etf h -«-* 0 4) • o 'TJ "3 -2 s|fs 3 2^3 Ph P50 S /3 O} 2 opq^f* • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • o • • • • • • • • • • -*-> 0 • • • • • • o s . -*-* o o o H_» —» d) •-->-> Q .-i - 3 *- Ph Ph W *p iCipip C^C^iOip^lip iO iO lO lO'^GOO^o-H^HccajfO'+cc^o^Tf'fCcbciDOfNoorHaj^ rf ec cBOOO n O nU H «®0 UU 999 0J : ™ c = 03 N < - Z, S 2 > - ■*- - - ° s ° ° Z H •- - E X a DC £ S3 K E “te^fla •-MP3----5 f 9WPQCQf5®p5fqW2 ca ®------'-. CC!W w 03W W w w pq oa pq pa pq pq pa pa uno [03 -o >1 ;»>-§ ^^5SSS-SstSi5'2’OSi3333s)S^a ) S §5 Si^S •raaoj RHa,a.si.a.a.s,si,a,A.ft,si,?i.si.R.a.5j>a.t,5ft,s4.fj.R,s5,Ei. 5 a. ft- ft- a. Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Sulpho Arseniate .... Chromate . Molybdate. Sulpho Ditto. Hyper Ditto Ditto.... Sulpho tungstate .... Borate. Carbonate . 1 2 3 Bisulpho Ditto ...... Cyanodide . Sulpho Ditto . Ferro Ditto. Tellurate. Sulpho Ditto . Silicate . Oxalate . Acetate . Formate . Tartrate . Succinate. Benzoate. Gallate. Croconate . Pinate. TIN., Oxide . 1 2 Sulphate Ditto . 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Xjiqqisnq ^I8qu9jqt?j[ Aqiqisnj •000-1 = JOI^AV XtlABJO ogpads 7-059 •QZ. = -piCjj 3U9[BAinbg ‘siaqumx 3? ?AV 'tuo3v iO iO io irt io ic iO 10 iO iO iO iO iO iO iO iO iO tC o lDON«3ilta-fHtOOO'?) l OON^'»0-in(»T)'01ffll(500inClM'fOiNNI' Tf«DCOfOTl < rO0 •S8I3I} -irenQ Jiaqt puB ‘sjuau -oduioa aqi jo sioqui^s uno [03 2inO 5 L»!>iO00i.r)622n0 zn & m OO OO u *OnO« <■ «n w *OOr M w [L OO « w ▼ ft in w « i.ooOoo?. fcOO^ ?1 V,U od e n a V a coco n d zn zn cc d a dco cn co co co cn co d B uT B .aCOWaduju a cc MW 05 UO " u afl^^® «g “ “ “ M CO <» ” ® yOOOOO^J aaEKSSKfl a "a d a a co COCOCOCOCOv^ § al »>! >,§5 ^ >,1 g;a si S>s S § § s g| g 8 s §3 3 s •uuoj ft- a* a» a. a. a, ^ 5 a, ^ o o s ~ s o S 0> 3 «5 a __ GG ct) “ « § a oa oc; = * £ S feOU< o -4-» «3 O Jl O -*-> -*-» 0 ) 0) ® ••J w ^ rt tt) CO +- •0 Tf 4“ , 4 — -I— 4 - *0 lO 1 iO iO lq N(NiO(M (M *> c,r«^ -r 8 !N CM ^—( pH .—< 121 6 6 OO 4 _Cp Tf O N H i— < -H Tf P P ^ CM 4— 4- rfr^QOCD—• ^ 00 CM 10 •—• •— 'N .O 4 GO 'M '— 1 rf 1 ^ O O (N t> iO >0 iO iO iO iO iO CO p—i (NTti CM (M lO 0 as cs^TF^ocbcb^bcbrj* p-« CM 3 3 3 3 « 53 8 § e 55 55 oooo 9 oo 99 6665o6ooo ffi K E K i £ 5 £ s aaecaasca OlO)(Ba2(Z5COCCV2a2 O t^. co 11-3523 7- 568 8- 902 N ■» 00 cp 0 P cb T* 4-018 CO CM 00 H »0 iO lO »0 N iO N C^l iC ip CM iO O iO lO lO rf 000009o0o0 £ij 3 2 3 -=.S=^Y- Q ^ c/3: « czl ^ i ? c0( 2P ONNNN ^ !s, NN^^ Ph n* Ph ft, Ph Pk pH PL, ~ ft, Oh ft, ft, PL, (X, (I, ^ ft* I 333333SS S^^^sSaJSSSSSSSSSftSSSSSSSS^ o o SL, SL, SL, ft* ^3 sl, *» ^ a, ^5 V» *- i _a K ^ l* V 1 ^ o ^ S5* SL, Sb a) u -tj 0 5 -C 0) or <1> § a.g g WOco£ H(NCO^^lNCO^ cm co ^ 10 • p-hCMCO’—CMCO^iO-hCM g« £ 0) -*-> ciS a> rn •n jd M O «! £ a % > H 33 Theoretic Composition. ■J3JBAV *4— iO (M CD O •astfg *4— *4— “4- -4— -4- -4— 4— -4— -4— 4— -4— *4— *f— 4— 4— ^ rf CD T* <"H Tt 00 ^ ^ rf H(M i—i Ol <—t <—> ’—4 •—* •ppv tO tO iD iO iO ip ip l t - ip ip IN (N p> CN CN ip lO ip tp CC^OTfTPONcbtN ODD iO fmm * c W V« ^ ^ Name of the Element, and its Combinations. Ammonia Ditto. Chloro hydrargyrate .. Chlorate . Bromide . Iodide . Iodate . Fluoride. Phosphite . Phosphate . 1 2 3 4 Nitro Ditto . Selenite . Arsenite . ] 2 Sulpho Ditto . Hypo Ditto Ditto .... Arseniate . 1 2 Sulpho Ditto . Chromate. 1 2 Molybdate . Sulpho Ditto . Hyper Ditto Ditto .... Tungstate . 1 2 Sulpho Ditto . Borate . . Fluo Ditto . 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