0 
 
THE 
 
 SKETCHER'S MANUAL; 
 
 OB, 
 
 THE WHOLE ART OF PICTURE MAKING 
 
 REDUCBD TO THE 
 
 SIMPLEST PRINCIPLES. 
 
 BY WHICH 
 
 AMATEURS 
 
 MAY INSTRUCT THEMSELVES WITHOUT THE AID OF A MASTER. 
 
 BY FRANK HOWARD, 
 
 AUTHOR OP 
 
 COLOUR AS A MEANS OF ART,'' — "tHB SCIKNCB OP DRAWING/'— 
 " IMITA.TIVB ART," — ETC. 
 
 DARTON AND 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 CLARK, HOLBORN HILL. 
 184L 
 
[entered at stationers' hall.] 
 
 LONDON 
 
 H. W. MARTIN AND CO., BARTLETT'S BUILDINGS, HOLBOR.V. 
 
DEDICATION 
 
 TO 
 
 SIR MARTIN ARCHER S H E E, 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY, 
 ETC., ETC., ETC. 
 
 Dear Sir, 
 
 If, when first promulgated, your magnificent 
 and disinterested proposal for the encouragement 
 of the Fine Arts had been carried into effect , it 
 would have afforded an inducement to cultivate, 
 and an opportunity to display their higher 
 qualities ; the character of the English school 
 would have been elevated in a corresponding 
 degree; and by this time, a really National 
 Gallery would have been established, at much 
 less expense than has been incurred in obtaining 
 the small collection of pictures by the Old 
 Masters which is honoured with that designation, 
 although it cannot vie with those of private 
 
iv DEDICATION. 
 
 individuals in this country^ and is not to be 
 mentioned in comparison with the public Galleries 
 of other much less important states. 
 
 And I feel that to no one so appropriately 
 as to the originator of this admirably adapted 
 scheme for such high intent^ can the dedication 
 be offered of this very humble endeavour to 
 effect the same end by different means ; by a 
 separation of the practical from the scientific^ 
 the mechanical from the intellectual portions of 
 the Art of Drawing. And it gives me much 
 pleasure to be permitted to render this tribute 
 of respect so justly due to your exertions on 
 behalf of the higher branches of the English 
 School. 
 
 I have the honour to remain. 
 With great respect, 
 
 Your most obedient Servant, 
 
 FRANK HOWARD. 
 
 July 14, 1837. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 It may appear unnecessary to quote any sanction 
 for the appearance of a work which has been 
 so favourably received by the public as to run 
 through a large edition within a short space of 
 time. But it is a satisfaction to the author, and 
 it will no doubt afford a confirmation to the mind 
 of the favourable reader, that he is able to produce 
 in favour of the leading principle of the work the 
 authority of that distinguished painter in water- 
 colours, Mr. Barret, who has recently published 
 a small work on that branch of the art. 
 
 After describing various processes to be gone 
 through, as to preparing the paper and drawing 
 the outline, he says, " But here I must pause to 
 observe, that it will be complete waste of time for 
 the artist to begin before he has formed some 
 scheme^ of which he has a clear perception^ for the 
 general treatment of his subject^ and with which 
 all the parts must combine to produce that beau- 
 tiful harmony we so much admire in nature ; for 
 
vi 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 he who depends upon his mechanical skill in the 
 representation of individual objects^ and relies too 
 much upon what he imagines to be nice finishing 
 of parts, without considering them chiefly as a 
 means to enable him to produce a whole, will 
 never be able to complete such a picture as the 
 eye of taste can contemplate with satisfaction/^ 
 
 Mr. Barret does not indicate any principles 
 upon which these schemes for the general treatment 
 of subjects should be founded, but leaves his 
 readers to discover them as best he may. The 
 present work is exclusively devoted to supply the 
 want he has pointed out, — to describe some of 
 .the more simple principles upon which schemes 
 for the general treatment of subjects have been 
 constructed by various celebrated masters, and to 
 afford to the reader some guide to the analysis of 
 the principles of more complicated effects. 
 
 It has been objected, in a review of the first 
 edition of this work, that the doctrine of unlimited 
 licence in the introduction of shadows is contrary 
 to the just principles of Art, and that Turner 
 would not introduce two suns.^^ If Mr. Turner 
 required the effect of two suns, and did not 
 introduce them, it would only be because his 
 knowledge of the resources of art would furnish 
 him with a less objectionable expedient. But it 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 vii 
 
 may safely be affirmed, that if he had produced a 
 beautiful picture by the introduction of the second 
 sun, the licence would be overlooked. The author 
 is quite willing to bow to the decision, that if the 
 effect can be produced with propriety^and without 
 licence, it may be better, and that in the works of 
 professed artists the licence should be strictly 
 questioned; but he must insist, in the present 
 state of opinions on art, and practice of professors, 
 that the picture must be made, honestly if you 
 can, but make a picture. And so long as those 
 pictures by Sir Joshua Reynolds, and others, con- 
 tinue to receive admiration, in which the figures 
 are supposed to be lighted in front by moons 
 introduced in the background, amateurs are fairly 
 entitled and will probably be contented to avail 
 themselves of the licence, without going into a 
 discussion of that important question respecting 
 the principles of the Fine Arts, How closely 
 Nature is to be imitated.^' They will probably 
 consider, that so long as the artists and the critics 
 are divided in opinion, they at least are at liberty 
 to choose that side which is best calculated to 
 please themselves, their friends, and the world at 
 large. 
 
 It is sometimes admitted, that the mere imitation 
 of nature is not sufficient to make a picture, and 
 
viii 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 that some art in the treatment is required ; but 
 nevertheless contended that amateurs and students 
 should confine themselves to the imitation, with- 
 out any reference to pictorial effect. But it will 
 require a strong argument to support the position 
 that amateurs, who take up the arts as an elegant 
 amusement, should be limited to that portion which 
 requires incessant application, and which they are 
 least likely to attain ; and debarred from those 
 licences to make their productions agreeable, which 
 are freely admitted in the works of professed 
 artists, who ought to be able to do without them. 
 Moreover, it is difficult to discover why the end 
 should not always, and from the first, be kept in 
 view of the student, whether amateur or profes- 
 sional. He who aims at the top of the ladder, 
 will get up a few rounds ; while he who is con- 
 tented to stand on the lowest step will certainly 
 remain at the bottom. 
 
 January 1841. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 Amid so many works upon the Art of Drawing 
 and Painting as have been called forth by the 
 almost universal desire to draw; it is not sur- 
 prising that a considerable number should be 
 utterly valueless. But it is to be regretted that 
 such as do possess merit, in every instance 
 require a certain degree of proficiency or 
 previous tuition in the reader to serve the 
 purpose intended ; not excepting those which 
 are designated Elementary. 
 
 They describe the mode of holding the pencil ; 
 represent the particular touch adapted to deli- 
 neate certain trees^ and provide drawings varying 
 in complexity and difficulty, as examples for 
 the student; but they give no principles upon 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 which the examples are^ or drawings in general 
 should be, made : they give no indication of what 
 constitutes a picture. The instructions rarely 
 exceed " copy Plate A/^ or " B/^ or at most 
 first draw this line^ then that line/^ &c. Every- 
 thing is left to the eye : and after the student 
 shall have mastered every difficulty placed before 
 him or her in the subjects given to be copied, 
 they are just as much as ever at a loss in any 
 attempt to draw from nature, or without an 
 example before them. They do not know what 
 to aim at, or to attempt to produce. They copy 
 lines and lights and shadows ; but have no 
 knowledge of what are the essential qualities of 
 a picture. 
 
 The objects in a drawing may be accurately 
 outlined, and shaded very correctly, very neatly 
 and delicately finished, and yet it shall be less 
 pleasing than a slight sketch having no preten- 
 sion to accuracy of outline or detail, but which 
 possesses the charm of Pictorial Effect. The 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. xi 
 
 term Picture is here used in a general sense^ as 
 meaning an agreeable object, or combination of 
 objects, for contemplation; and Pictorial Effect 
 is the term applied to that quality which dis- 
 tinguishes a Picture from a diagram or map. 
 
 In what does this magical power consist? Is 
 it difficult of comprehension or attainment? 
 
 The answer to these two questions will not be 
 found in any work on the Art, whether Ele- 
 mentary or Scientific. Yet there can be no 
 doubt that the desideratum with Amateurs and 
 Artists, and particularly with Sketchers, is not 
 only to represent forms, but to make pictures ; 
 to place the object or objects before the spectator 
 under pleasing circumstances, or with what is 
 termed Pictorial Effect. 
 
 The deficiency, it will be the endeavour of the 
 present work to supply. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Page 
 
 Elements of Pictures ..... 1 
 Sect. I. — Definition of a Picture . . 1 
 Sect. II. — Pictorial Effect ... 3 
 
 Sect. III. — Breadth ..... 5 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Rules for Producing Pictorial Effect . 11 
 Sect. I. — Simplest Arrangements : — Collins*, 
 
 Bonington's and Stanfield's Principle 11 
 
 Sect. II. — Claude's Principle ... 13 
 Sect. III. — Rembrandt, Turner, and Collins' 
 
 Principle . . . . . .15 
 
 Sect. IV. — Complex Arrangements ; — Old 
 
 Principle of Three Lights, Rembrandt 17 
 
 Sect. V. New Principle, Turner . . 19 
 
 Fundamental Arrangement . . 21 
 
xiv 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Paye 
 
 Principles to be Observed ix Making Pic- 
 tures ....... 23 
 
 Sect, I, — With Regard to Shapes and Lines 23 
 
 Sect. II. — With Regard to Arrangement of 
 
 THE Subject ...... 27 
 
 Sect. III. — Rjelief 38 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Strong and Weak Points of a Picture . 43 
 
 Sect. I. — Rules to find them ... 47 
 
 Sect. II. — Regulations for the use of them 52 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 The Effects of Perspective ... 55 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Instructions on the Selection of Subjects 
 
 for Sketching from Nature . . .71 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Progressive System of Execution . . 77 
 Concluding Remarks ..... 79 
 
LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE Page 
 
 I. Collins, Boninqton, and Stanfield's Prin- 
 
 ciple . . . . . 11 
 
 II. Claude and Roberts' Principle . . 13 
 IIL Claude's Principle . , . . 14 
 IV. Rembrandt, Turner, and Collins' Principle 15 
 
 V. Old Principle of Three Lights . . 17 
 
 VI. New Principle — Turner . , . 19 
 
 VII. Turner ...... 20 
 
 VIII. Turner . , . . . 21 
 
 IX. Fundamental Principle » . .22 
 
 X. Shapes of Shadows , . . 23 
 
 XI. Direction of Lines . . . .24 
 
 XII. Direction of Lines ... 25 
 
 XIII. Arrangement of Subject — Single Tree . 28 
 
 XIV. „ Archway . 29 
 XV. „ Avenue of Trees 30 
 
Xvi LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 PLATE Pajfe 
 
 XVI. Arrangement of Subject — Street . . 31 
 
 XVII. „ Two Trees . . 32 
 
 XVIII. „ Rivulet, Bridge, and Sun 33 
 
 XIX. „ Distant Island . 34 
 
 XX. „ Animal . . .35 
 
 XXI. Relief ..... 38 
 
 XXII. Situations for Points — Horizon . . 52 
 
 XXIII. Objects in Foreground and Distance 53 
 
 XXIV. Execution . . . . .77 
 
 XXV. -— XXVI. Forms of Trees . . 78 
 XXVII.—XXVIII. Forms of Trees . . . 79 
 
 J 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF PICTURES. 
 
 It is the desire of all sketchers to make 
 pictures : and the most obvious course of study 
 will be, to inquire into the nature of the 
 subject to which their endeavours are directed. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 DEFINITION OF A PICTURE. 
 
 The mere representation of any object, without 
 back-ground or accessories. 
 
 IS not a picture, in the sense for which the word 
 is required in this work. 
 
^ DEFINITION OF A PICTURE. 
 
 To constitute a picture as a production 
 possessing pictorial qualities, the subject must 
 be exhibited with accessories, or in light and 
 shadow adapted to display its beauties or its 
 character in a pleasing or a striking point of 
 view : in other words, under Pictorial Effect. 
 
 Yet — though the representation of a single 
 object, without back-ground, does not constitute 
 a picture, any more than a single sound 
 constitutes music, — the object, or objects, and 
 back-ground must be so incorporated as to form 
 one thing — a picture. 
 
 Unity is indispensable to Pictorial Effect. 
 
Section II. 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 Pictorial Effect is wholly independent of the 
 objects introduced, and should never be neglected, 
 even in the slightest sketch. It confers an 
 agreeable character upon the most trifling object, 
 and, in many instances supersedes the necessity 
 of any objects. A post, or a pail, or a bit of 
 broken ground, 
 
 becomes an agreeable subject of contemplation; 
 and light and shadow alone, when properly 
 treated, excite that impression on the mind, 
 B 2 
 
4 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 which entitles the combination to the name of 
 a picture. 
 
 The magical power of Pictorial Effect, resides 
 in a quality of lights and shadows which is 
 termed Breadth. 
 
Section III. 
 
 BREADTH. 
 
 The definition of the quality termed Breadth 
 involves an apparent paradox. Breadth of light 
 or shadow does not mean a broad space of 
 equal light or equal shadovr ; — that is Flatness. 
 Breadth is used in contradistinction to Spottiness, 
 and a space of equal light. 
 
 or equal shadow, 
 
 however broad, is but a spot or blot. There is an 
 abruptness or hardness, in Flat, or equal light 
 
6 
 
 BREADTH. 
 
 and equal shadow, that is totally destructive of 
 Pictorial Effect. 
 
 Breadth requires that every light should have a 
 focus of brilliancy. 
 
 and that every shadow should have a heart of depth, 
 
 from whence they should be graduated to their 
 respective edges or boundaries. 
 
 But at the same time Breadth requires that 
 the graduation should not be so rapid or sudden 
 
 as to cause the lights to appear globular, 
 
BREADTH. 
 
 7 
 
 or the shadows to appear like holes. 
 
 The lights and shadows^ though graduated, 
 should be hroad or comparatively flat. 
 
 Breadth also requires, that when there are 
 two or more distinct lights (or shadows), they 
 should be treated as parts of a whole, and that 
 one should decidedly predominate over the others 
 in degree of brilliancy (or depth) ; and if the 
 distinct lights (or shadows) be small in compa- 
 rison with the size of the picture, in the nature of 
 points of light in a breadth of shadow, (or points 
 of dark in a breadth of light,) they must be 
 grouped together, the intervening spaces between 
 them in some degree assimilated by light, (or 
 
8 
 
 BREADTH. 
 
 dark^) so as to form what is technically termed 
 a mass of light (or shadow) in which^ as above 
 stated, there should be an apex or focus of 
 brilliancy, (or a heart of depth.) 
 
 By this graduation the lights (or shadows) 
 are incorporated with the shadows (or lights), 
 and with each other, and diffused throughout 
 the whole breadth of the subject, and thereby 
 produce the U7iity of a picture. 
 
 Breadth is the great mean of the art for 
 the production of unity. 
 
 Note. — It may perhaps serve to make the term Breadth more 
 intelligible to the unpractised reader, to say, that in general, a 
 •large luminary, the sun, affords breadth of light ; and a small 
 luminary, a candle or small aperture, by reason of its deficiency 
 of light, affords breadth of shadow. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 EULES FOR PRODUCING PICTORIAL EFFECT, 
 
 In giving the following rules for producing 
 Pictorial Effect^ it is not intended in the slightest 
 degree to imply that pictures cannot be produced 
 without^ or even in direct contradiction to any 
 one or all of them ; but the object of the present 
 work is to show how pictures may be produced 
 without requiring so much skill, or taking so 
 much trouble. 
 
 There are certain principles embodied in the 
 following rules which will ensure agreeable or 
 pictorial effects ; and in the fifth rule will be 
 found as much difficulty as any amateur can 
 desire, if the principle upon which it is con- 
 structed be worked out in all the variety it 
 admits of. 
 
 But the production of common pictorial effect 
 will be show^n to be very easy, if the amateur 
 will condescend to make use of the expedients 
 
 b5 
 
10 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 employed by the most celebrated artists, — viz., 
 to introduce shadows of all kinds and degrees that 
 may suit his purpose^ whether possible to be 
 found under such circumstances in Nature or not* 
 
 It should here be observed, that the Chiaroscuro 
 of a picture, which is virtually its pictorial effect 
 as regards light and dark, is obtained, not only by 
 lights and shadows, but by light and dark objects, 
 which equally require the treatment and disposition 
 described in the section on Breadth : and generally 
 it may be assumed, that where shadows are men- 
 tioned in the following chapter as necessary to 
 produce a given effect, dark objects may be sub- 
 stituted. But for some reason, which cannot be 
 investigated here, those effects are most satisfactory 
 to the public which have manifestly some decidedly 
 artificial, or arbitrary, disposition of the shadows. 
 
 In pursuance of the intention with which the 
 present work has been undertaken, — viz., to 
 afford facilities to amateur sketchers, — the 
 following examples have been executed with the 
 touch requiring no previous tuition or attainment 
 of skill. The effects have been obtained by the 
 most ready means. 
 
Section L 
 
 COLLINSES AND BONINGTON^S PRINCIPLE. 
 
 The most simple arrangement of light and 
 shadow is to be found in the works of Bonington, 
 Stanfield, Collins, and many other painters of 
 coast scenes, to which it is peculiarly adapted; 
 but it is also applicable to any extensive views, 
 whether of land or sea. Place the ^deepest shadowy 
 near the horizon, at about one-third of the whole 
 height of the drawing from the base line, and let 
 it graduate from thence upwards and downwards 
 in the form of a wedge : a small point of stronger 
 dark in the fore-ground will give expanse and 
 complete the effect (Plate I, fig. 1). 
 
 It will be hardly necessary to say, that the 
 point of the wedge-shaped mass of shadow may 
 be at either side of the drawing. 
 
 In this shadow any forms may be indicated^ 
 as of a distant forest or city, so that the general 
 
12 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 effect of the whole be not disturbed or altered ; 
 and the whole may be slightly modified, so that 
 the principle (which in this example is developed 
 as distinctly as possible) may not be so instan- 
 taneously evident. There is an engraving in the 
 Keepsake^^ for 1831, from a beautiful picture 
 by Bonington, of a coast scene, in which, for the 
 purpose of obtaining this wedge-formed mass of 
 dark, a shadow is thrown upon the cliff that 
 could not by any possibility be there. Will the 
 amateur condescend to take a similar liberty with 
 Nature, or will he prefer to be obnoxious to 
 
 Mr. H n^s remark to a lady, — " Oh, you 
 
 wish to be reasonable, do you?^^ 
 
 The principle upon which the rule is con- 
 structed, may be applied in reversing the light 
 and shadow, making the former assume the 
 wedge-shape, as in the example annexed (Plate 
 I, fig. 2). The picture known as Rembrandt^s 
 Mill is constructed upon this appUcation of the 
 principle^ though darker in general tone, — the 
 wedge-shaped light being smaller, in comparison 
 with the shadow, than in the example. 
 
I.'iciornjl KiTecl 
 
 L 
 
Section 11. 
 
 GLAUBERS PRINCIPLE. 
 
 Another simple arrangement is to be found 
 in the small picture by Claude, late in the 
 collection of Sir George Beaumont, Bart., — a 
 group of trees at sunset. A single mass of 
 shadow of agreeable form is relieved against a 
 light sky, graduating from the horizon. In the 
 example given, the mass of shadow is placed on 
 the opposite side to that in the picture, to show 
 that it may be placed on either (Plate II, 
 
 fig. 1). 
 
 The principle may be applied to any object 
 which assumes an agreeable form, such as a 
 building, or an animal, a tree, or a group of all. 
 
 Or, the application of this principle may be 
 reversed ; and a single mass of light, of agreeable 
 form, be relieved against a dark back-ground; 
 as in some of the cathedrals by Roberts, animals 
 
14 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 by Landseer, figures in light dresses by- 
 Lawrence, &c.( Plate II, fig. 2). 
 
 Another adaptation of this principle is to be 
 found in the sunsets by Claude. The mass of 
 light is not formed by any object relieved against 
 a dark back-ground, but is in the back-ground, 
 and relieves the masses of shadow on each side of 
 trees, buildings, or ships, and the intermediate 
 distance, whether land or sea, is kept dark. 
 
 The central light is echoed by other smaller 
 ones in the fore-ground ; but the latter must not 
 be so distinct as to disturb or weaken the effect 
 of the principal mass of light in the distance 
 (Plate III). 
 
 c 
 
11 
 
Section III. 
 
 REiyiBRANDT^S PRINCIPLE. 
 
 Another simple arrangement is to be found 
 in Rembrandt^s Adoration of the Shepherds in 
 the National Gallery. A small point of very 
 brilliant light is suddenly graduated into a 
 profound depth of shadow (Plate IV^ fig. 1), 
 
 Though called a point of lights to make the 
 principle more definite, it may be composed of 
 several objects so combined as to form a group 
 of light objects, or a small mass of light. And 
 the brilliancy of the light may be forced by 
 the opposition of the extreme dark placed close 
 to it, as is the case in the picture by Rembrandt, 
 where the dark figure of one of the Shepherds 
 is placed close to the most brilliant part of the 
 light. 
 
 The example given is purposely varied from 
 the precise effect of the picture, out of which the 
 
16 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 principle is extracted^ in order to display the 
 principle itself with as distinct a character as 
 possible. 
 
 It may also be applied in exactly the opposite 
 manner. The picture may be generally light 
 with a point of dark, as may be found in the 
 Campagna di Roma, by Turner, engraved for 
 Rogers's Italy : some of Collinses Shrimpers, and 
 especially in his Fisherman on the Look-out 
 (Plate IV, fig. 2). 
 
 But the point of light in the first example, 
 and the point of dark in the second, must be 
 placed with care, as will be explained in a 
 subsequent chapter. 
 
Section IV. 
 
 OLD PRINCIPLE OF THREE LIGHTS. 
 
 The preceding arrangements of light and 
 shadow are simple^ and in that respect are best 
 adapted to beginners. The following are more 
 complex^ but may still be traced to intelligible 
 and simple principles. 
 
 A system which has been very generally 
 employed, and by some artists, amongst whom 
 is Sir Joshua Reynolds, insisted upon as 
 indispensable to pictorial effect, is to have three 
 lights. This idea is not quite so much credited as 
 formerly ; and the preceding examples show that 
 it is not in reality entitled to such estimation. 
 These three lights must vary in quantity and in 
 degree of brilliancy ; and must be so placed as 
 not to form a straight Hne in any direction. They 
 must be at unequal distances from each other; 
 and should be placed so that lines drawn to 
 
18 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 connect them^ would form a triangle with 
 unequal sides. A fine example is selected from 
 Rembrandt^s etchings (see Plate V.) ; and an 
 arrangement of the lights^ very similar to this, 
 may be found in numberless works of the classes 
 of historical painting and landscape, of all schools, 
 since the general adoption of Chiaroscuro by 
 Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
f 
 
Section V. 
 
 TURNER^S PRINCIPLE. 
 
 A VERY favourite arrangement of Chiaroscuro 
 with Turner^ is to rear a mass of dark foliage 
 against a light sky, supported by some dark spots 
 in the fore-ground which is generally light, but 
 melts into a middle tint, carefully varied to the 
 subject which occupies the distance, and is 
 sometimes bright light, and sometimes of a deep 
 middle tint, approaching to a dark shadow. This 
 system, which is exemplified in his numerous 
 views of Rome, Florence, Venice, &c., requires 
 more power in the draughtsman than any of the 
 former arrangements. The shapes of the dark 
 masses must be well considered ; and properly to 
 vary the middle tint, requires almost the magic 
 power of Turner himself. Still, tolerable success 
 may be insured, by attention to the general and 
 universal principles laid down in the previous and 
 
20 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 following chapters ; and the greatest advantage 
 will be found to result from even moderate success 
 in this system of Chiaroscuro, when sketching 
 extensive scenes from nature (Plate VI). 
 
 The dark masses are not alw^ays so distinctly 
 detached from the foreground, as in the example 
 given above. 
 
 The tall, slender form of the Lombardy poplar 
 sometimes rises from the foreground, and its 
 tapering mass intersects the horizon, and appears 
 almost a part of the shadows in the middle- 
 ground and in front. A beautiful example of this 
 will be found in the view of Florence, engraved 
 for the Keepsake of 1828, and in that engraved 
 for Rogers^s Italy. The annexed example is not 
 a copy of either, but constructed upon the same 
 system, and wdth the intent to render the 
 principle as evident as possible (Plate VII). 
 
PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 21 
 
 A light tree is sometimes interposed between 
 the dark mass and the sky. But this is only a 
 slight variation, to avoid the sameness consequent 
 upon a constant repetition of the principle in its 
 most evident arrangement. The relief is afforded 
 by the lightness of the second tree, in almost as 
 strong a degree as would be the case if the dark 
 tree were directly opposed to the sky. The 
 principle is the same — to relieve a mass of dark 
 against a brilliant light, at a distance from the 
 subject of the drawing, which is exhibited under 
 a quiet effect of broad light or a hazy middle tint 
 (Plate VIII). 
 
 The only other arrangement of light and shadow 
 which will be mentioned here, is one that involves 
 a fundamental principle of Chiaroscuro, or the art 
 of making pictures, which has been alluded to 
 above in describing the old system of three 
 lights, viz. that when the light is spread through 
 a picture, it should never be so placed as to form 
 a line, either horizontally or vertically ; the centre 
 
22 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 of the picture should not be light, with the two 
 sides dark, or with the top and bottom dark 
 (Plate IX. fig. 2 & 3). But if it form any line, 
 that must be diagonal. It should appear to come 
 in at the upper corner on one side, and to go out 
 at the lower corner on the other (Plate IX. 
 
 fig. 1). 
 
 As with light so wdth shadow ; it should 
 not form a line either vertical or horizontal. 
 The middle of the picture should not be dark, 
 with the two sides light, or with the top and 
 bottom light (Plate IX. fig. 5 & 6) ; but the 
 shadow should run diagonally through the picture 
 (Plate IX. fig. 4). 
 
Shapes al-Licjhls and S/iachnw 
 
 liif niass iiuisi ej^i.enci fuii.Jier on one side of Uxc point 
 tiKXjx. on -the oiixer- 
 
CHAPTER IIL 
 
 PRINCIPLES TO BE OBSERVED IN MAKING 
 PICTURES. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 WITH regard to shapes AND LINES. 
 
 It is now necessary to call attention to the shapes 
 of lights and shadows; because, however the 
 edges may be comparatively undefined, a general 
 impression of some shape will be given. This 
 should never be square, or a parallelogram, or, 
 indeed, any regular shape (Plate X. fig. 1 & 2) ; 
 but may more nearly approximate to triangular 
 (Plate X. fig. 3), or circular (Plate X. fig. 4), or 
 oval (Plate X. fig. 5), or any shape bounded by 
 curves (Plate X. fig. 6). 
 
24 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 If points project from the general mass^ they 
 should not be equal in length on each side, 
 (Plate X. fig. 7)^ but shorter on one side than 
 on the other (Plate X. fig. 8) ; that is, they should 
 not project at right angles from the general line 
 of the mass (Plate X. fig. 9), but so as to form 
 an acute angle on one side, and an obtuse one on 
 the other (Plate X. fig. 10). Or it may be 
 explained thus, that the general mass should 
 rise higher, or sink lower, on one side of the 
 projection than at the other (Plate X. fig. 11). 
 
 If the objects be of regular form, or appear 
 to produce lines, such as stiles, gates, posts, 
 stems of trees, &c., great care should be taken, 
 that in the drawing, the lines so produced are 
 not either vertical or horizontal, so as to be 
 parallel with the sides, top, or base (Plate XI. 
 fig. 1), but that they are made to incline to 
 diagonal (Plate XI. fig. 2), by means of perspective 
 or otherwise. So with divisions of the ground, 
 by undulation of its surface, they should not be 
 horizontal (Plate XI. fig. 3), but inclined, 
 (Plate XI. fig. 4). 
 
 A partial exception may be made in the case 
 
Xnxes E.rceptionj 
 
 Clouds p,ira//e/ n-dA Jloi i/.on . 
 
 1 
 
SHAPES AND LINES. 
 
 25 
 
 of clouds, the general direction of which may 
 sometimes at sunrise or sunset be parallel with 
 the horizon. But they will not be equally wide 
 throughout (Plate XI. fig. 5), which will give 
 the requisite variety of form (Plate XL fig. 6). 
 And this exception is only admissible under pecu- 
 liar circumstances, such as to give an idea of great 
 expanse or extent of scene. 
 
 Or, when the lines formed by the other parts 
 of the composition are so varied and complex that 
 the morceau of horizontal parallelism increases 
 the character by contrast ; as in a wood scene, 
 where the stems of the trees, the masses of 
 foliage, and the breaks in the ground are blended 
 and contrasted in every possible variety, a few 
 streaks of light or dark clouds near to the horizon, 
 and parallel with the base line, may be introduced 
 with good effect ; but they require some judgment, 
 particularly with regard to the situation chosen 
 for them (Plate XII. fig. 1). 
 
 An exception must also be made, for reasons 
 connected with Perspective, which will be explained 
 in a subsequent chapter, in the case of a building, 
 which does not admit of much disposition, and 
 
26 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 is bounded by perpendicular and horizontal lines. 
 The regularity of the form must be broken by 
 the apposition of irregular forms^ such as trees ; 
 or concealed by light and shadow ( Plate XII. 
 fig. 2). 
 
Section II. 
 
 WITH REGARD TO THE ARRANGEMENT OF 
 THE SUBJECT. 
 
 The horizon should never be at half the height 
 of the drawing, 
 
 but either above. 
 
 as may be required by the subject, 
 c 2 
 
28 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 If the subject be a single object, as a tree: 
 it should never be placed in the centre of the 
 drawing, but should occupy one side or the 
 other (Plate XIII). 
 
^^rrancjcmenir o-f SuJyject. 
 Siiiplc Tree . 
 
 !<if( i>n KffK st<{c 
 
ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 39 
 
 If an arch-way be represented: the point of 
 sight regulating the perspective should not be 
 in the qentre or middle of the drawing ; but on 
 one side, and lower down, or nearer the base 
 line of the drawing than the top (Plate XIV). 
 
30 
 
 PICTORIAL. EFFECT, 
 
 So^ if an avenue of trees be represented : the 
 middle of the distant extremity of the path 
 should not be in the centre of the drawing; 
 but on one side, and at unequal distances from 
 the base line and top of the drawing. And if 
 a figure be introduced to give spirit, character, 
 or effect ; it should not be equidistant from the 
 two sides, but nearer one than the other, and 
 on the opposite side to that occupied by the 
 middle of the pathway (Plate XV). 
 
.^^rcurvg etrvervt o-f Suhject , 
 _AveixiLe of Trees cuxdJ?u^vcrx 
 
 hiU on one side 
 
1- 
 
Arrangctnentr oi^ Sicbfect. 
 Street and^jEigiu'es . 
 
 hut at ihe sides ■ 
 
ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 31 
 
 Again, in representing a view down a street : 
 the point of sight regulating the perspective 
 should not be placed in the centre of the picture ; 
 but on one side. And, as in the previous example, 
 if figures or animals are introduced to give effect, 
 they should not be placed at equal distances 
 from the two sides; but nearer one than the 
 other, and the most prominent on the opposite 
 side to the point of sight. 
 
 And the light should not be represented as 
 shining directly down the street, either coming 
 out of the picture, or as if the sun were at the 
 back of the spectator; whereby the two rows 
 of buildings will be equally light : but it should 
 be situated on one side, so as to throw one part 
 of the street into shadow, while the other is in 
 the light (Plate XVI). 
 
32 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 If two trees close together are the subject, the 
 general mass of foliage should not occupy the 
 centre of the drawing ; the two stems should not 
 be at equal distances from the two sides. They 
 should not rise like posts out of the ground. The 
 lines formed by the division of the ground should 
 not be parallel with the base line. 
 
 But the two trees should, if possible, be of 
 different characters; and should occupy one 
 side of the drawing; the stems should vary in 
 inclination, and in size, and the lines formed by 
 the divisions of the ground should slope across 
 the corner near which the divisions are visible 
 (Plate XVII). 
 
 It may be mentioned here, that however 
 frequently the stems of trees may be seen rising 
 out of the ground abruptly and of equal thickness, 
 as in the upper example, they should never be 
 so represented in drawing, but varied in thickness 
 and sloping out of the ground at the root. 
 
j-Jrrccrig e?7xent of Suhjeci , 
 Two Trees. 
 
 hid on one side. 
 
jirrctng emervt o-f Sxcbject, 
 
 1 
 
 ivot in cenJ/'e ■ 
 2 
 
 but (.Tl side a/ui uicbnuKj- 
 
ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 33 
 
 If a rivulet be represented receding into the 
 picture, crossed by a foot-bridge, with trees on 
 the banks, and a glowing sun in the sky, after 
 the manner of Claude : the banks of the rivulet 
 should not be equidistant from the two sides of 
 the drawing ; the point of sight should not be in 
 the centre, neither should the sun ; the foot-bridge 
 should not be parallel with the base line ; the trees 
 should not occupy equal portions on each side of 
 the picture. 
 
 But the rivulet should be nearer one side ; the 
 foot-bridge should be placed so as to form an 
 angle with the base line ; the trees on each bank 
 should be masses of unequal size; and the point 
 of sight and the sun, should occupy a situation 
 on whichever side will give the greatest variety 
 (Plate XVIII). 
 
 c5 
 
34 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 If a distant view of an island or mountain, 
 perhaps surmounted by a tower, as St. MichaePs 
 Mount, Cornwall, be the subject: it should not 
 occupy the centre of the drawing; the tower 
 should not be equidistant from the two sides ; and 
 if a dark spot, as an animal, be introduced to 
 bring out the foreground ; it should not be in the 
 middle. 
 
 But the horizon should be about one-third of 
 the height of the drawing; the subject should 
 occupy a prominent situation on one side, and the 
 point, to give spirit to the foreground, should be 
 placed on the other (Plate XIX). 
 
..Arrafiqenienir oi^ Sxthject-, 
 distant Island caid. J^og . 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 not in cctvtre . 
 
 hd ai d^Ucrail sides. 
 
.AjTccn^eitienir of' Subject, 
 
ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 35 
 
 If an animal be the subject, as a horse : it 
 should not be placed in the middle of the picture ; 
 but on one side or the other, always keeping 
 more space above and before it, than below and 
 behind it (Plate XX). 
 
36 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 It may be thought that too much has been 
 said on the impropriety of placing objects in 
 the middle of a drawing : but it is a habit, 
 destructive of Pictorial Effect, which beginners, 
 and not only beginners, are constantly falling 
 into, and frequently consider quite correct. Some 
 are misled by false notions, others by a want of 
 consideration what ought to be done. 
 
 But it must be borne in mind, that when it 
 is said that these subjects, lights, points, &c., 
 should never be in the centre^ it is not implied 
 that it is an impossibility to produce Pictorial 
 Effect with such arrangement, but that it then 
 becomes a matter of much greater difficulty ; 
 and that the object will be attained with much 
 more ease, certainty, and satisfaction, by placing 
 them elsewhere : and that upon the principles 
 herein laid down. Pictorial Effect may always be 
 ensured with comparative facility. 
 
 There is, how^ever, one exception in favour of 
 a central position ; but it must ever remain an 
 exception from its being applicable to a single 
 purpose. 
 
ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 73 
 
 A front view of a head of grave and serious 
 character, such as the UgoUno of Sir Joshua, 
 or the portrait of Kemble in Coriolanus by 
 Lawrence, may be placed in the centre of the 
 picture, or rather equidistant from the two sides ; 
 for it should still be nearer the top than the 
 base. 
 
 ' In this arrangement, there is a rigidity that 
 harmonizes with the pyramidal form of the 
 mass ; and produces the stern unsympathising 
 severity required for the character of the head. 
 
Section III. 
 
 RELIEF. 
 
 Any object behind another, or of which the view 
 is partially concealed or intercepted by another, 
 becomes a part of the back-ground to that other ; 
 or, the other is said to be relieved against, or 
 opposed to it. 
 
 Dark objects should be relieved against light 
 ones, and light against dark ones (Plate XXI. 
 fig. 1). 
 
 But in neither case should the object be equally 
 relieved on all sides ; or it will appear to be cut 
 out and stuck on the surface of the picture. Some 
 portion of the outline should tell more strongly 
 than the rest ; other portions should not be 
 relieved at all, but merge into the back-ground. 
 To effect this, shadows may be thrown upon some 
 
Jieliei'. 
 
ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 39 
 
 part of a light object; as on the building in the 
 above examples (Plate XXI. fig. 1) ; . so as to 
 destroy the insipidity consequent upon, or fre- 
 quently resulting from, an equality of light. 
 
 Of objects, which are neither decidedly light 
 nor dark, some parts of the outline should be 
 relieved as light against dark, and others, as dark 
 against light, and others again should merge into 
 the back-ground, and not be relieved at all (Plate 
 XXI. fig. 2). 
 
 No line, of whatever character, should be 
 relieved throughout its whole length in the same 
 degree, whether as light against dark, or dark 
 against light. The greater the variety in the 
 species of relief consistently with breadth, the 
 greater the beauty of the Chiaroscuro. 
 
 The term relieved is here used in a positive 
 sense, as meaning made distinct : but there is no 
 other word to designate the placing one object 
 before another, though that other may be of the 
 same degree of light, and thereby the outline of 
 the first is rendered indistinct, or is not relieved 
 in the positive sense. The term opposed can 
 
40 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 hardly be used when there is no opposition, but 
 merely apposition or anteposition. 
 
 Objects having flat and angular shapes and 
 surfaces should be relieved against and contrasted 
 by others having round shapes and surfaces ; and 
 those having round shapes and surfaces, by flat 
 or angular shapes and surfaces. 
 
 Large objects should be set off by small ones, 
 and vice versa. 
 
 Lines or spots, v^^hich are not necessary to the 
 effect or character of the subject, should be 
 carried off by other lines in nearly the same 
 direction, or spots of similar character. 
 
 Pictures which are generally light, require some 
 point or spot of dark ; those which are generally 
 dark a point of hght ; and pictures of an 
 intermediate tone, a point of light and dark in 
 strong opposition in the foreground, to give air or 
 space, or spirit. 
 
 A caution may here be given with regard to 
 the situation of light, under which objects will 
 be seen to advantage : both in respect of Pictorial 
 Effect, and of facility of representation. 
 
41 
 
 RELIEF. 
 
 The light should never be directly in front of 
 the picture, or object chosen for the picture, that 
 is to say, coming in over the head of the spectator 
 from behind him. If the subject be a flat object, 
 such as the side of a tower, it will present a mass 
 of equal light, or a spot. If the object approach 
 the circular form, as a round tower or tree, the 
 light will graduate equally from the centre to the 
 two equally dark sides. The outline of the two 
 sides of the tower and throughout of the tree wd 
 be of uniform degrees of dark, and all Bctonal 
 Effect in danger of being lost. 
 
 The light may come out from the picture behind 
 the subject; but it has been previously stated, not 
 from the centre oi the picture. 
 
 The light may come in at either side of the 
 
42 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 picture^ but it must be either before the subject 
 or behind it. 
 
 To complete the system of making pictures^ it 
 now only remains to shew the situations in which 
 the subject, or points of light, or dark, to give 
 spirit, should be placed, which will be done in the 
 following chapter. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 STRONG AND WEAK POINTS OF A PICTURE. 
 
 If any proof be wanting of the neglect of the 
 art of making pictures^ it will be found in the 
 deficiencies of technical language. There is no 
 name by which those points of light or dark^ 
 introduced to give effect^ can be described. It is 
 not my intention to invent any name for them, it 
 is sufficient for me that they are introduced with 
 great advantage, when in the proper places. And 
 what are, and how to find, the proper places, it 
 will be the purpose of this chapter to explain. 
 
 In the last chapter it was shewn, that the 
 principal subject of a dra^dng or picture should 
 occupy one or other side, and that these nameless 
 points for effect, whether animals or figures, 
 should not be in the centre. It may now be 
 more definitely stated that there are certain parts 
 
44 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 or situations in a picture, where the principal 
 subject, or these points of light or dark should 
 never be placed, and on the other hand, there 
 are certain other parts or situations peculiarly 
 adapted to that purpose. The former may 
 be termed feeble^ and the later forte points or 
 situations. 
 
 The feeble points are those which are at an 
 equal distance from any two of the boundary lines 
 or corners of the drawing. 
 
 The forte points are those which are at unequal 
 distances from all the boundary lines and corners. 
 
 Any point that appears to be at an equal 
 distance from one corner or boundary line, 
 whether top, bottom, or side, and from any 
 other boundary line, or corner, is feeble^ or an 
 improper situation for the subject or points of 
 effect. The most feeble are those situations 
 
 which are equidistant from the top and base 
 lines; or from the two sides. 
 
STRONG AND WEAK POINTS. 45 
 
 The central point is the most feeble of all : 
 
 and to a certain extent, they increase in strength, 
 or value, as they diverge from the centre. 
 
 But it is not every situation that may be at 
 unequal distances from the boundary lines and 
 corners, which is a forte point. The inequalities 
 in distance must bear a mathematical ratio to each 
 other, as one and two-thirds : two and three-fifths. 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i: ! 
 
 
 
 Those points will be the strongest or best adapted 
 for the reception of the subject, or these nameless 
 points of effect, which are distant from the four 
 boundary lines and the four corners in degrees 
 the most varied, yet bearing a mathematical ratio 
 to each other, as one-third from the base, two- 
 
46 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 fifths from one side^ three-sevenths from one 
 corner, four-ninths from another, and so on in 
 every possible relation that it can bear between 
 the opposite corners, the two upper corners or the 
 two lower, or the upper and lower of the same 
 side, the two sides, or the top and base. 
 
 But without dragging the reader through a 
 treatise on mathematical proportion, it may be 
 sufficient to give a facile method of obtaining the 
 principal forte or strong points. 
 
Section I. 
 
 RULES TO FIND THEM. 
 
 Divide the height of the drawing into three 
 equal parts and the width into three also. 
 
 every intersection will give a strong or forte point, 
 except the drawing be square. 
 
 Again divide the outer spaces into two equal 
 
48 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 parts^ and every intersection will give a forte 
 
 point. Or divide these spaces into three parts. 
 
 — i 
 
 : ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and every intersection will give a forte point. 
 Again, divide the height of the drawing into 
 three parts, and the width into five, 
 
 and every intersection will give a forte point, 
 
STRONG AND WEAK POINTS. 49 
 
 (unless the height of the drawing be to the 
 length as three to five). 
 
 Again^ divide the outer space into two parts^ 
 
 and every intersection will give a forte point. 
 Or^ divide these spaces into three, and every 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 intersection will give a strong or forte point. 
 
 D 
 
50 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 The scientific or professional reader may pursue 
 this mode further^ by dividing the height and 
 width more minutely, as into fifths, 
 
 and sevenths, 
 
 and again subdividing the lower and outer spaces, 
 which may be useful when applied to drawings 
 or pictures on a large scale ; but those given 
 above will be quite sufficient for the amateur, or 
 for general professional purposes. 
 
 It remains to give some instructions as to their 
 application, or the use to be made of them; 
 premising, that all the lines, the intersection of 
 
STRONG AND WEAK POINTS. 51 
 
 which gives the forte points of a picture, in their 
 whole length, cover what may be termed the 
 forte or strong parts of a picture. If the object 
 be so large as considerably to overspread one 
 of the forte points^ it must principally occupy 
 some of the forte parts of the drawing. 
 
Section II. 
 
 REGULATIONS FOR THE USE OF THEM. 
 
 What particular forte points may be made use 
 of, will depend upon the character and disposition 
 of the subject ; but one general rule must be 
 observed, viz._, not to use two corresponding points 
 in the same drawing ; so that a tree occupying the 
 point obtained by the first intersections, a figure 
 introduced to give effect in the same drawing, 
 should occupy a point obtained by the subdivi- 
 sions (Plate XXII. fig. 1) ; and, as the scene is 
 more or less extensive, and as the object 
 introduced to give effect, is smaller or larger 
 in proportion to the whole drawing, so may the 
 points, more or less distant from the centre, be 
 Used. 
 
 The horizon, which always has great influence 
 over the character of a drawing, should not vary 
 much beyond one-third or two-fifths of the whole 
 height of the drawing. In proportion as the 
 
Siiruttio/ts , tor Toui is . 
 
Si/ii,i/ii t/ts . /'>/' Pi'int.f . 
 
 (^hiiU-U . in di.vtance.anJ sjnoU objects, 
 iji Forcqroujvl . 
 
STRONG AND WEAK POINTS. 53 
 
 scene is confined^ so may the horizon be made 
 higher — and, as the scene is more extensive, or 
 greater expanse is required, may the horizon be 
 placed lower in the drawing. But it should 
 always be upon one of the lines, by the inter- 
 section of which forte points may be obtained, as 
 on the thirds, fifths, or the subdivisions (Plate 
 XXII. figs. 2 & 3). Under certain peculiar 
 circumstances, such as an extensive view, with 
 distinct features in various portions of the middle- 
 ground and distance ; the horizon may be placed 
 on one of the upper lines, as one-third or two- 
 fifths from the top : but the effect is never 
 pleasing, unless managed with great skill, and 
 then, scarcely worth the trouble of overcoming a 
 difficulty that might have been avoided with 
 advantage (Plate XXII. fig. 4). 
 
 If the figure or the subject be in the fore- 
 ground, and large in comparison with the size of 
 the drawing; it may occupy one of the forte 
 parts, covered by one of the thirds, or one of the 
 fifths, near the centre. If it be small, as a dog, it 
 may occupy one of the intersections of the fifths, 
 nearest the side, or one of the subdivisions of the 
 thirds (Plate XXIII. fig. 1). 
 
54 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 If the principal subject be situated in the 
 distance; it should occupy some of the forte 
 parts, covered by the subdivisions of the exterior 
 thirds or fifths : and, if there be any distinct 
 perpendicular forms, as towers or spires, they 
 should occupy one of the lines forming those 
 subdivisions ; and the points introduced to give 
 effect, should be placed in a forte situation 
 bearing a different relation to the corner from 
 those made use of for the subject (Plate XXIIL 
 fig. 2). 
 
 It will be evident, that the principle to which 
 all the foregoing rules are to be referred, is 
 Variety^ under certain restrictions ; without which 
 all productions of the fine arts are vapid, stiff, 
 and formal. Hogarth has said justly, ^Hhat the 
 art of drawing pleasing forms, is the art of 
 varying well.^^ He might have said, that the 
 whole art of making pleasing pictures or drawings, 
 consisted in the art of varying well^ that is, with 
 a due regard to proportion. 
 
 It might not, perhaps, be difficult to show, 
 that variety can be obtained only to a very 
 limited extent, unless great regard be had to 
 proportion. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE EFFECTS OF PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 The principles to be observed in putting objects 
 together, or treating them so as to make pictures, 
 having been given, it may now be well to descend 
 rather more to details, and to point out how 
 objects of particular forms are affected by Per- 
 spective. 
 
 This science has been made a subject of much 
 greater dread than it really deserves, from the 
 want of a little method in teaching it ; and also, 
 it must be admitted, by some absurd attempts at 
 impossibilities on the part of those who have, 
 nevertheless, been most eminent as Perspecticians. 
 Malton is reported to have driven himself mad, 
 with endeavouring to find out a rule for putting 
 rams^ horns into perspective ; and it is certain 
 that he spent a great deal of time in settling the 
 rules for putting into perspective a column, as 
 seen vjhen the spectator is close to it. Whether 
 
56 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 he has published the results, I am not aware ; 
 but the attention of the reader need only for 
 one instant be directed to the circumstances 
 under which a column is seen when the spectator 
 is close to it (viz., that he looks up vertically to 
 see the capital, and looks down vertically to see 
 the base), to be led to the conclusion that if ever 
 mad, Malton must have been mad before he 
 could have thought of discovering rules for 
 seeing in two opposite directions at the same 
 time ; for, perspective is the science of repre- 
 senting what is seen, or the forms of objects as 
 presented to the eye. 
 
 The first principle of perspective, as applied to 
 a picture, is, that that only can be represented 
 w^hich can be seen without moving the eye^ or at 
 one and the same moment. If the eye be moved, 
 the representation will become a panorama. 
 
 Exactly opposite to the eye, and on a level 
 with it, is what is called the point of sight, 
 which regulates the whole of the effects of 
 perspective upon the objects in the drawing. 
 
 When these effects are explained, the means 
 of producing them will be found to be very simple. 
 
EFFECTS OF PERSPECTIVE. 57 
 
 Everything, apparently, diminishes, and also 
 becomes more faint and indistinct, as it recedes 
 or is placed at a greater distance from the eye ; 
 and the horizon is always on a level with the 
 eye^ consequently, the point of sight is on the 
 horizon. 
 
 Those objects only, which are of regular form, 
 can be put into perspective by rule ; but heights 
 and widths may be obtained by the same rule. 
 
 You see over everything below your eye, as 
 the ground, which will appear . to rise as it 
 recedes to the horizon, already stated to be 
 on a level with the height of the eye of the 
 spectator; therefore, everything growing out of, 
 or standing upon, the ground, must commence 
 below the horizon; and in proportion as they 
 
 approac h the horizon will they be more distant, 
 and will require to be made smaller and more 
 D 5 
 
58 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 faint : on the other hand^ as they approach the 
 base line, they will appear to be nearer, and 
 require to be made larger. 
 
 This applies to all objects on ground at the 
 same level with, or below the station of the 
 spectator. And a simple and invariable rule for 
 putting objects under these circumstances into 
 proper perspective is,— -to make the horizontal 
 line intersect them at the same part, however 
 near or however distant they may be ; as in 
 the above examples, the horizon intersects all 
 the figures at the hips, and the trees at about 
 one-third their height. The figures and the 
 trees in these instances, respectively, are thus 
 
EFFECTS OF PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 59 
 
 made all equal in height. There can be no 
 difficulty afterwards in varying that height, if 
 required, by adding a little to one, or taking 
 it off from another. 
 
 If the ground rises, as a bank or a mountain, 
 it may be higher than the horizon, and whatever 
 is upon it, or growing out of it, will rise in 
 a corresponding degree. And all objects of 
 equal sizes will appear of equal sizes when at 
 the same distance ; however the ground on which 
 they are situated may be raised above the level 
 of that on which the spectator is placed. 
 
 It will be seen by the foregoing examples, 
 
60 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 that the tops of objects which are higher than 
 the eye of the spectator^ will descend to the 
 horizon as they recede; and, if the object be 
 drawn of just proportion with itself, and placed 
 according to the above rule, the exact degree 
 of diminution at the top will be obtained at the 
 same time as at the base. 
 
 Thus we see under everything above the eye, 
 or horizon, as the roof of an archway ; 
 
 over everything that is helow the eye, as the 
 ground or floor ; 
 
 and along the sides of anything at either side of 
 the point of sight ; 
 
 and such surfaces only as recede above^ below^ 
 
EFFECTS OF PERSPECTIVE. 61 
 
 or on one or other side of the eye, are altered in 
 shape. Those surfaces which are presented in 
 full, or, as it is technically termed, parallel 
 with the surface of the picture, are not altered 
 in shape, but merely diminished in size, and 
 rendered proportionally indistinct as they are 
 further from the spectator. 
 
 Any two lines parallel with each other, whether 
 bounding a pathway or floor of equal width 
 throughout, a wall of equal height throughout, 
 or a board of equal width, and receding directly 
 from the eye, or, as it is technically termed, 
 perpendicular to the surface of the picture, must 
 be drawn to the point of sight. See the Examples 
 in Chap. III., the archway, the avenue of trees, 
 and the street ; it will be perceived that all the 
 receding lines go to the point of sight. 
 
 To produce this effect more distinctly ; if the 
 surface be horizontal, as the roof or floor, let 
 your shading be in horizontal lines ; if vertical, 
 as a w^all or column, in vertical lines ; if curved, 
 as a coving or arch, in curved lines ; if the surface 
 be inclined, as a board leaning against a wall, 
 let your shading be in inclined lines. If a tree 
 
62 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 be lying on the ground, let it diminish as it 
 recedes, and let the general direction be incHning 
 upwards, and shade it with irregular curves, 
 parallel with the curve at the root and top. 
 
 The method of describing the character of 
 receding surfaces, may perhaps be rendered still 
 more clear by the accompanying example ; in 
 which it will be seen, that it is only necessary 
 to draw the end of the form ; whether round or 
 square, and shade it with lines parallel thereto, 
 as curves, horizontal, vertical, or diagonal lines ; 
 and lines drawn to the point of sight give the 
 
EFFECTS OF PERSPECTIVE. 63 
 
 requisite diminution, to make them of equal 
 width or thickness throughout. 
 
 The circular top of a column, above the 
 horizon, will appear to incline downwards, 
 towards the sides. You look under the circle. 
 
 And, at the base it will appear to incline upwards 
 towards the sides, you look over the circle. 
 
 As these curves approach the horizon, either from 
 
64 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 above or below, they decrease in curvature, so 
 that a division of a column on a line with 
 the horizon, will be perfectly straight and 
 horizontal.* 
 
 As you see over the base of a column on the 
 ground, and under the capital, and the surface is 
 described by curves in two opposite directions ; 
 so with a tree, or any other object approaching 
 to a circular form, the upper part will appear to 
 curve over : 
 
 and the lower part, if below the horizon, to 
 curve under. 
 
 And if the trunk of a tree incline out of the 
 picture, it must be shaded with lines curving 
 
 * For more detail on this subject, see " Imitative Art." 
 
EFFECTS OF PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 65 
 
 under; on the other hand, if the trunk of the 
 tree incline into the picture, it must be shaded 
 with Unes curving over. 
 
 As the tops and base lines of houses receding 
 into the picture, must be drawn to the centre 
 point, so must the upper and lower lines, and 
 all the horizontal divisions of the windows. 
 Such as are intended to appear at equal 
 heights and of similar sizes, must all range 
 on the same lines, which, as before stated^ 
 must be drawn to the centre point ; so, also, 
 w^ith the horizontal lines in the doors. And 
 the doors and windows, as well as the 
 spaces between them, will gradually diminish 
 
66 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 in width, proportionately to the diminution in 
 height. 
 
 There is a rule for measuring the widths 
 of these windows and doors, and the lengths 
 of lines receding into the picture ; but, as it 
 depends upon the distance the spectator is 
 supposed to be from the part of the subject 
 forming the base-line of the picture ; which 
 distance is perfectly optional; it is unnecessary 
 to perplex amateurs with M^hat can only be called 
 into use when making an architectural drawing 
 by measurement. 
 
 If the spectator be close to the base of the 
 picture, the perspective will be what is termed 
 sudden. The diminution will be very rapid ; the 
 
EFFECTS OF PERSPECTIVE. 6'J 
 
 second yard will appear much smaller than the 
 first ; and the third than the second. 
 
 If the spectator be at a distance from the 
 base of the picture^ the perspective will be very 
 gradual, and the diminution of space in the 
 successive yards will be scarcely perceptible. 
 
 This is all that is requisite for amateurs to 
 know, to enable them to place any subject in 
 what is termed parallel perspective ; that is, when 
 one face of a square object is parallel with the 
 base line or surface of the picture : which is 
 particularly recommended to amateurs as being 
 the simplest to do, and looking the most true 
 and best when done. 
 
 However, as it may occur that amateurs may 
 sometimes desire to put a building into what is 
 termed angular perspective; that is, presenting 
 
68 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 one of its angles nearest to the spectator: the 
 principles of this kind of perspective, and the 
 most important practical rules will be given ; but 
 they are not recommended to the study of any 
 except skilful practitioners. 
 
 In angular perspective, both faces of the 
 building or square object diminish to two 
 different points on the horizon on each side of 
 the point of sight. 
 
 As was stated with regard to the circular 
 divisions of a column, so the angles at the 
 comer of the object become more obtuse as they 
 approach the level of the horizon, when any 
 division, that may be exactly at the same height, 
 becomes apparently a straight line, whatever 
 
EFFECTS OF PERSPECTIVE. 69 
 
 may be the real inclination of the sides of such 
 angle. 
 
 There is a rule for obtaining these vanishing 
 points, as they are termed ; but, as this also 
 depends upon the supposed distance of the spec- 
 tator from the base line of the picture, it is unne- 
 cessary to the amateur. It will be quite sufficient 
 for him, when he wdshes to place anything in 
 angular perspective, — which should never be 
 done unless required to give a particular effect or 
 a particular line, — to draw the required line, the 
 top, base, or some line on one face of the building 
 or object in the desired direction^ and the point 
 on the horizontal line, into which it vanishes, or 
 which it would, if continued, intersect, will 
 govern every line on that side of the building, 
 which recedes into the picture. If this point 
 should happen to be near the point of sight, the 
 
70 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 vanishing point for the other face of the building, 
 should be at a considerable distance from it on 
 the opposite side. 
 
 The great principle to be kept in mind, both as 
 regards angular and parallel perspective, is, that 
 all lines inclined from the surface^ or receding into 
 the picture in the same direction ^ or parallel with 
 each other, must be drawn to the same point, and 
 that that point must be on the horizontal line. 
 
 Some further examples will be found in another 
 work by the author, called Imitative Art, in which 
 the effect of Perspective, linear and aerial, are 
 traced into the details of various forms. 
 
CHAPTER VL 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS ON THE SELECTION OF SUBJECTS 
 FOR SKETCHING FROM NATURE. 
 
 In the foregoing chapters have been shown, the 
 principles upon which Pictorial Effects are 
 constructed, and by which the arrangement of 
 the subject must be regulated; also the features 
 necessary to be preserved to give the truth of 
 perspective. These are sufficient to enable the 
 amateur to produce pictures, either from imagi- 
 nation, which would be termed compositions : 
 from recollection of the scenes in nature ; or from 
 sketches, how^ever slight, made by themselves, or 
 by other persons. 
 
 Sketching from nature is a further advance, 
 which requires considerable practice before it can 
 be achieved with facility. One of the principal 
 difficulties, that of seeing objects under Pictorial 
 
72 PICTORIAL^ EFFECT. 
 
 Effect, will, however, soon be got over by any- 
 one who is conversant with the contents of the 
 preceding chapters, and has attained the power of 
 exercising the rules laid down therein, without 
 copying the examples, but by representing subjects 
 under those effects. The eye will soon become 
 accustomed to see everything in nature in a 
 similar manner, and the scene or object will 
 instantly suggest the most advantageous mode of 
 treating it. 
 
 Another principal difficulty arises in the choice 
 of the subject : this it will be the endeavour of this 
 chapter to remove. 
 
 To the skilful, one subject may be as good 
 as another ; and they may scorn to be deterred by 
 difficulties of management: and, as exercises of 
 skill to those who are tolerably proficient, the 
 attempt to delineate impracticable subjects, may 
 not be attended with disadvantage. But the 
 present work is for the benefit of beginners, as 
 well as those more advanced ; and to the former, 
 it is requisite that some instructions should be 
 given as to the subjects which are best adapted 
 to their more limited powers of representation. 
 
SELECTION OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 73 
 
 and at the same time to produce an agreeable 
 effect. 
 
 The subjects first chosen should be those 
 which have natural boundaries^ as a clump of 
 trees, copse, or village, and at such a distance 
 as shall prevent the details from being con- 
 spicuous. 
 
 They should be represented under the effects 
 given in the first rule. Chap. 11. Sect. I., and 
 the general forms indicated, without any attempt 
 at detail. For it should be distinctly understood, 
 that it is better to be indefinite and near the 
 truth, than elaborately detailed and incorrect: 
 and that the student, and the amateur especially, 
 should be contented to be indefinite until he is 
 able to be accurate. It required three attempts 
 by Apelles and Protogenes, when in the height 
 of their proficiency, to draw a perfect outline ; 
 need more be said to convince the amateur, that 
 he cannot be accurate at his first attempt ? 
 
 When subjects can be achieved under these 
 effects with tolerable facility, the sketcher may 
 represent them nearer to his eye, under the 
 effects given in the second rule, Chap. 11. Sect. II. 
 
 E 
 
74 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 Still details should be avoided, and the objects 
 represented in the mass. 
 
 The amateur may then proceed to more com- 
 plicated subjects, and such as have not natural 
 boundaries, but are parts of more extensive 
 views. 
 
 Here the difficulty of limiting the portion to 
 be selected for the subject of the drawing, or of 
 preventing the eye from rambling over other 
 parts of the scene will be found. This will best 
 be obviated in the first instance, by selecting 
 such subjects, or portions of views, as are suited 
 to one or other of the effects given in Chap. II., 
 and commencing by rubbing in the effect, into 
 which the features of the scene will be easily 
 incorporated, and a picture insured from the first 
 attempt, however deficient the sketcher may be in 
 delineating the details. The latter will insensibly 
 become more easy at every trial, and when thus 
 attained^ will never interfere with the general 
 effect. 
 
 Facility will result from practice, and the 
 amateur having gone through the above course, 
 and being imbued with the principles laid down 
 
SELECTION OF SUBJECTS. 
 
 75 
 
 in this work^ will find no difficulty in sketching 
 any scene, and producing it under Pictorial 
 Effect. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be observed, that beginners 
 should not make sketches larger than the examples 
 given herein; and should increase the size in 
 proportion as they acquire facility of hand and 
 knowledge of details. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PROGRESSIVE STYLES OF EXECUTION. 
 
 In commencing drawing, the amateur should 
 not give hirhself any concern with regard to 
 execution; that will naturally result from the 
 course of practice suggested in this work. The 
 first consideration, (many celebrated artists have 
 considered it the ultimate consideration), but 
 certainly the first, should be to produce the effect 
 desired, without any objectionable qualities in the 
 method. This will be best done by a rapid 
 and close motioni of the pencil backwards and 
 forwards, so as to produce a line — or rather a tint 
 in which lines should not be evident — thus : 
 
 The hand should be moved as freely and regularly 
 
EXECUTION. 
 
 77 
 
 as possible, which a very few attempts will render 
 easy. 
 
 Having commenced a tint in this mode, in 
 what is to be the heart of the shadow, and spread 
 it a little each way ; cross it with a similar touch 
 at the least possible angle ; cross the second lines 
 
 in the same way, and, so proceed, till the requisite 
 depth be produced at the heart, and the shadow 
 be extended to the requisite shape ; but never 
 cross the lines at right angles, except to produce 
 forms. 
 
 And, until the amateur be conversant with the 
 shapes of objects, let them always be represented 
 in shadow, and the shapes be produced in the 
 mode described above (Plate XXIV. fig. 1). 
 
 When tolerable facility of moving the hand 
 and wielding the pencil, together with some 
 knowledge of the forms of objects is acquired, a 
 different kind of touch may be adopted, to a 
 certain extent, imitating the form to be repre- 
 
78 
 
 PICTORIAL EFFECT. 
 
 sented, but still in shadow (Plate XXIV. fig. 2). 
 By commencing in the centre, and working out 
 to the edges, greater accuracy can be insured, as 
 it can be extended on any side, until the exact 
 shape be produced. 
 
 When the form is intimately known, it may 
 be represented in the light, and a still more 
 descriptive touch used on the light parts (Plate 
 XXIV. fig. 3). 
 
 And as the amateur increases in power, and 
 enlarges his drawings, the touch may be gradually 
 rendered more and more discriminative, until the 
 appearance of every leaf on a tree, and every hair 
 on a dog's back, may be rendered distinct (Plate 
 XXIV. fig. 4). Examples of which may be 
 found in numerous drawing books and studies, 
 published by various artists. 
 
 A few examples of the principal varieties of the 
 forms of trees are added in the early styles of 
 execution, with the most suitable arrangements 
 and accompaniments, to set off their respective 
 characters (Plates XXV, XXVI, XXVII, and 
 XXVIII). 
 
General -FoiT- IS or trees, anA mode of -treati rient . 
 
CONCLUSION. 
 
 79 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 
 
 Amateurs and Students have now been presented 
 with an exposition of what they have to aim to 
 attain ; the principles by which the desideratum 
 may be effected : and a facile method of working 
 out those principles : the remainder must be 
 supplied by themselves 5 courage to attempt^ and 
 good spirits to resist despondence^ if at the outset 
 they may not be quite so successful as they had 
 anticipated. The delights resulting from the 
 achievement will amply repay a few disappoint- 
 ments. 
 
 Colour has been treated in a separate work ; 
 both on account of its requiring more proficiency 
 in the amateur, and on account of the extent of 
 illustration necessary to do justice to the subject. 
 
LONDON : 
 
 PRINTED BY H. W. MARTIN AND CO. 
 
 BARTLETT'* BUILDINGS.