3408 . M338 1880 xS o , a°\^ # <#> £ aJ Longitude West 76 from Greenwich 74* PERU. BY CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, C.B. WITH ILLUSTRATIONS . Hontton: SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON, CROWN BUILDINGS, xSS, FLEET STREET. 1880. [All rights resei'ved.'] LONDON : GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, PRINTERS st. John’s square. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES—GENERAL DESCRIPTION. l-AGE Length, Width, and Area ....... i Boundaries .......... 2 Natural Divisions ........ 3 The Coast: The Sierra : The Montaiia .... 4 CHAPTER II. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, FLORA, FAUNA. 1. 7 he Coast. General Description ........ 5 Absence of Rain : The Cause ...... 6 Climate .......... 7 Geology of the Deserts ........ 7 Medanos ....... ... 8 Flora of the Deserts . . . . . . . . 9 Coast Valleys.. 10 Division of the Coast into Six Sections . . . . .11 The Piura Region . . . . . . . .11 Lambayeque and Truxillo Region. . . . . .12 The Santa Valleys . . . . . . . .13 Rimac Section: Lima to Nasca . . . . . .14 Southern Coast Valleys : Arequipa and Tacna . . . 15 TarapaCa ’. . . ... 15 IV CONTENTS. PAGK Islands on the Coast . . . . . . . .16 Guano Deposits and Sea Birds . . . . . . 17 Earthquakes , . . . . . . . .18 2. The Sien ■a. Height of the Peaks of the Andes . . . . .19 The Cordilleras ......... 20 Division of the Sierra into Four Sections . . . .21 The Callejon de Huaylas ....... 22 Basins of the Maranon and Iluallaga ..... 23 Knot of Cerro Pasco ... ..... 24 Lake of Chinchay-cocha . . . . ... 24 Valley of Xauxa ......... 25 The Cuzco Section ........ 25 The Cuzco Region ........ 26 Vale of the Vilcamayu ........ 27 The Titicaca Basin ........ 28 Lake Titicaca ......... 29 Peaks and Passes in the Titicaca Section . . . . 31 Vegetation of the Sierra ....... 32 Plants of the Sierra ........ 33 Llamas and Alpacas ..34 Mammals of the Sierra ....... 35 Birds of the Sierra ........ 36 3. The Montafia. River System ......... 37 Scenery .......... 38 Products . . . . . . . . . *39 Coca Cultivation ......... 40 Mammals ... ... .... 41 Birds.42 Myriad Forms of Life ........ 43 CHAPTER III. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LANGUAGES. The Ynca Race . . 44 The Colla (or Aymara) Race.46 CONTENTS. v PAGE Physical Characteristics 47 Civilization of the Yncas 4^ Present Condition of the Indians. *49 Dress of the Indians.. • 5 ° Food of the People 5 1 Ancient Population 5 2 Indians of the Coast . . . . • • • -53 Negro Slaves and Mulattos 55 Wild Indians of the Montanas 55 Mestizos and other mixed races ...... 59 Chinese Immigrants 6o Population of Peru . . . . . • • . 61 Census of 1876 62 CHAPTER IV. ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF PERU. Ruins in five different Styles ....•• 54 The Cyclopean Style ......•• 65 Tiahuanacu 66 Fortress of Cuzco ........ 68 Other Cyclopean Works ....... 69 Edifices near Cuzco ........ 7 ° Cuzco ........... 7 1 Ollantay-tampu . . . . . . . . • 7 2 Pissac........... 73 Temple of Cacha ......... 74 Titicaca and Coati ... -75 Hatun-colla—Huanuco ....... 76 Chulpas in the Collao. ... 77 Ruins of Chimu ......... 79 Palace of Chimu ......... 80 Pachacamac ......... 82 Works of Irrigation ........ 83 Plervay .......... 84 List of Ruins in Pent.. . . 85 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. ENUMERATION OF PROVINCES AND TOWNS. PAGE Divisior.s of the Ynca Empire ...... 87 Encomiendas ......... 8S Later Spanish Divisions ....... 89 Republican Divisions ........ 90 Departments of Peru—Area and Population. . . .91 Department of Piura . . ...... 93 Piura and Payta ......... 94 Lambayeque ......... 95 Truxillo .......... 96 Lima ........... 97 Callao........... 103 Yea and Pisco ......... 105 Arequipa .......... 106 Moquegua, Tacna, Arica, Iquique ..... 10S The Sierra—Caxamarca and Huanuco.109 Cerro Pasco, Tarma, Xauxa..no Ayacucho . . . . . . . . . .111 Andahuaylas, and Abancay . . . . . . .113 Cuzco. . ... 114 Puno . . . . . . . . . . .116 Villages in the Montana . . . . . . .117 CHAPTER VI. AGRICULTURE AND COMMERCE. Products . . ..119 Plants introduced by the Spaniards . . . . .120 Sugar Estates ......... 121 Peruvian Cotton . . . . . . . . .122 Vineyards, Rice, Olives, Cochineal . . . . .123 Guano .......... 124 Nitrate of Soda . . . ..126 Silver-Mines . . . . . . . . .127 Trade of the Montana. . . . . .. . . 129 Trade between Peru and Great Britain.130 CONTENTS. vii CHAPTER VII. PUBLIC WORKS. PAGE Roads of the Yncas . . . . . . . -131 Ancient Irrigation Works ....... 132 Railroads in Northern Peru . . . . . . . 133 Railroads in Southern Peru . . . . . . .134 The Oroya Railroad . . . . . . . . 133 The Titicaca Railroad ........ 137 General Scheme of Railroads ...... 137 Electric Telegraph . . . . . . . 13S Steamers, Works at Callao . . . . . . 139, 140 Steamers on the Amazon ....... 141 Progress of Public Works . . . . . .144 CHAPTER VIII. GOVERNMENT. Ynca Government ........ 145 System of Encomiendas . . . . . . .146 System of Corregidors ........ 147 Spanish Misgovernment . . . . . . . 14S The Inquisition . . . ..149 Rebellion of Tupac Amaru . . . . . . .15a Insurrection of Pumacagua . . . . . . . 15 r Independence of Peru . . . . . . . .152 Results of Independence . =. . . . . • 153 Peru-Bolivian Confederation , . . . . .154 The Constitution of Huancayo . . . . . 153 General Castilla . . . . . . . . .156 The Constitution of 1856 . . . . . . .157 Constitution of 1867 . . . . . . . . 15S Local Government . . . . . . . .159 Government of Balta . . . . . . . .160 Don Manuel Pardo ........ 161 General Prado . . . . . . . . .163 Armament of Peru . . . . . . . .164 CONTENTS. VIA PAGE War with Chile ......... 165 List of the Yncas of Peru ....... 166 Kings of Spain who were Sovereigns of Peru . . . 166 List of Spanish Viceroys . . . . . . .166 lust of Presidents of Peru . . . . . . .168 CHAPTER IX. EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. Religion of the Yncas . 170 Poetry of the Yncas 171 Catholic Teaching 171 Ynca Garcilasso de la Vega . 172 Study of Quichua 173 Quichua Dramas . 174 Saints and Missionaries 175 University of San Marcos 176 Universities and Colleges 177 Peruvian Authors 179 Poets and Painters 180 Men of Science . 1S1 Botanists .... 182 Effects of the Independence . 183 Dr. Vigil .... 184 Colonel Espinosa 185 Peruvian Historians 1S5 Mariano Paz Soldan 186 Antonio Raimondi 187 Modern Literature 188 Painters and Sculptors . 189 State of Education 190 Conclusion .... 191 ■n>z V Qjll PERU. CHAPTER I. EXTENT AND BOUNDARIES—GENERAL DESCRIP¬ TION. Peru is situated between the equator and the tropic of capricorn, and entirely within the torrid zone, yet it includes regions with every variety of climate. Its length along the Pacific coast is 1400 miles, along the cordillera of the Andes 900, with a width of from 300 to 400 miles. The Republic is between the parallels of 3 0 35' S. and 22 0 10' S., and between 68° and 8i° 20' 45" of W. longitude. The area covers 504,000 square miles. Peru is bounded on the north by the Republic of Ecuador, on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the east by Brazil and Bolivia, and on the south by Bolivia. The northern boundary, east of the Andes, follows the rivers Chinchipe and Maranon to Tabatinga. x B 2 BOUNDARIES. the most western settlement of Brazil. West of the Andes the north boundary is the line of the Macara river to the Chira, and thence the line goes north to the Bay of Guayaquil, near Tumbez. 1 The eastern boundary follows the river Yavari from its mouth in the Maranon to its source; thence a straight line to the river Madeira at a point in 6° 52' 15" S. lat., on the left bank. This point is half way between the mouths of the Mamore and Madeira. Thence up the course of the Madeira to the mouth of the Mamore. Here the boundaries of Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia meet. That between Peru and Bolivia southwards has never been defined accurately. It follows the Madidi, a tribu¬ tary of the Beni, to the Andes, crosses Lake Titicaca to the mouth of the river Desaguadero, follows the river Mauri to its source in the maritime cordillera, and then runs south along the water-parting to the source of the river Loa. That river, to its mouth in the Pacific, forms the southern boundary. 2 The principle which regulates the limits of Peru, and of the other Spanish American States, is the uti possidetis of 1810 (that is the boundaries then fixed for her colonies by Spain), modified in some 1 Practically this is the northern boundary, but Peru claims much more territory, north of the Maranon. 2 Peru claims a boundary further south, in 22° 33' S. Lat., along the ravine of Tucupilla. NATURAL DIVISIONS. 3 instances, by subsequent treaties. The boundary between Peru and Brazil is settled by the treaty of October 23rd, 1851, followed by a Commission which explored the River Yavari in 1866 and 1871. The boundary to the north is still in dispute with Ecuador; and that dividing Peru and Bolivia is only fixed where it crosses the Andes to the Pacific, but not where it traverses the forests to the eastward. Peru is divided longitudinally into three well- marked regions, which are so entirely different from each other, that it will be most convenient to consider them separately. The COAST, extending from the base of the maritime cordillera to the Pacific Ocean, consists of a sandy desert, crossed at intervals by rivers, along the banks of which there are fertile valleys. The Sierra is the region of the Andes, and is about 250 miles in width. It contains stupendous chains of mountains, elevated plains and table-lands, warm and fertile ravines and valleys. The Sierra is the native place of the potato, the abode of the alpaca and vicuna, while in its recesses lie concealed the inexhaustible mineral wealth of Peru. Skirting the eastern slopes of the Andes is the third region of tropical forests, within the basin of the Amazon, called the MONTANA, which extends to the eastern frontier. B 2 4 NATURAL DIVISIONS. The three belts into which Peru is thus longitu¬ dinally divided present totally different aspects from every point of view, the COAST being a zone of desert traversed, at intervals, by narrow, fertile valleys ; the SIERRA a series of lofty mountain ranges; and the Montana a vast expanse of dense tropical forest, cut by great navigable rivers. It is proposed to commence a description of the physical aspects of Peru, with the Coast region. CHAPTER II. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY—GEOLOGY, CLIMATE, FLORA, FAUNA. I. The Coast. The strip of land between the Pacific and the Andes, averaging a width of twenty miles, but varying much, has been upraised from the ocean at no very remote period, and is still nearly as desti¬ tute of vegetation as the African Sahara. It is however, watered by rivers which cross the desert at intervals. Some have their origin in the sum¬ mits of the Andes, and run with a permanent stream into the ocean. Others, rising in the outer range, which does not reach the snow-line and receives less moisture, carry a volume of water to the sea during the rainy season, but for the rest of the year are nearly dry. The absence of rain on the coast of Peru is caused by the action of the lofty uplands of the 6 THE RAINLESS REGION Andes on the trade-wind. The south-east trade blows obliquely across the Atlantic Ocean, until it reaches the coast of Brazil. By this time it is heavily laden with vapour, which it continues to bear along across the continent, depositing it and supplying the sources of the Amazon and La Plata. Finally the trade-wind arrives at the snow-capped Andes, and here the last particle of moisture is wrung from it, that the very low temperature can extract. Coming to the summit of that range, the trade rushes down as a cool and dry wind on the Pacific slopes beyond. Meeting with no evaporat¬ ing surface, and with no temperature colder than that to which it is subjected on the mountain tops, the trade-wind reaches the ocean before it again becomes charged with fresh moisture. The last it has to spare is deposited as snow on the tops of the cordilleras, to feed mountain streams under the heat of the sun, and irrigate the coast valleys. The constantly prevailing wind on the coast is from the south. From November to April there is usually con¬ stant dryness on the coast, a clear sky, and con¬ siderable heat, though by no means oppressive. From June to September the sky is obscured for weeks together by fog ( nicbla ), which is often accompanied by drizzling rain (ganea), and the OF THE PERUVIAN COAST. 7 cold at early dawn is often as penetrating as in spring in England, though the thermometer rarely falls below 6o° Fahr.; and the wind never exceeds a gentle breeze all through the year. In 1877 the maximum temperature at Lima was 782° Feb¬ ruary, and the minimum 6i^° in July. In 1876 the maximum was 78°, the minimum 59 0 . At the time when it is hottest and driest on the coast, it is raining heavily in the Andes, and the rivers are full. When the rivers are at their lowest, the garna prevails on the coast. The climate of various parts of the coast is, however, modified by local circum¬ stances. The deserts, between the river valleys, vary in extent, the largest being upwards of seventy miles across. On their western margin steep cliffs gene¬ rally rise from the sea, above which is the tciblazo or plateau, in some places slightly undulating, in others with ridges of considerable height rising out of it, the whole apparently quite bare of vegetation. Sections of the desert may be examined on the cliffs which border the intersecting valleys, and along the sea shore. These sections often show alternating horizontal layers of various composition, some of them apparently repeated at unequal depths. The uppermost stratum is in many parts a calcareous sandstone of minute fragments of 8 THE COAST DESERTS. shells, which, especially in the north near Payta, furnishes material for filtering stones. Below there are alternating layers of pudding-stone and shell marl, the latter being one mass of crushed fossil molluscs welded together by a tenacious cement, intermixed with coralline. These strata are nearly horizontal, and several hundred feet thick ; and beneath them there is a bed of argillaceous shales, tilted at a considerable angle, and often of immense thickness. The surface of the deserts is generally hard, but, in many places, there are great accumulations of drifting sea-sand. The sand usually forms isolated hillocks called medanos , of a half-moon shape, sometimes beautifully symmetrical, and having their convex sides towards the trade-wind. They are continually shifting, any stone or dead mule forming the nucleus. A strong wind raises an immense cloud of sand rising to a hundred feet and whirling in all directions. When at rest the medanos are from ten to twenty feet high with an acute crest, the inner side perpendicular, the outer with a steep slope. Scattered over the barren wilderness they form a most intricate labyrinth. Sometimes, especially at early dawn, there is a musical noise in the desert, like the sound of dis¬ tant drums, which is caused by the eddying of VEGETATION OF THE DESERTS. 9 grains of sand in the heated atmosphere on the crests of the medanos. Apparently the deserts are destitute of all vege¬ tation. As far as the eye can reach there is a desolate waste; yet three kinds of herbs exist, which bury themselves deep in the earth, and sur¬ vive through the long periods of drought. Some of the smaller medanos are capped with snowy white patches, like sand a little whiter than the rest. This whiteness is that of innumerable short spikes of an amarantaceous plant, whose stems ramify through the medano, and go on growing so as to maintain their heads above the sand. The two other herbs of the desert are known as the yuca del cavallo (a Martynia Gesnerece), and yuca del monte (probably Aniseia), both with edible roots. Both these plants maintain a subterranean existence during many years, and only produce leafy stems in those rare seasons when sufficient moisture penetrates to the roots. In a few hollows, which are reached by moisture, the trees of the desert find support. These are the algarrobo ( Pro - sop is horrida), the vichaya (Capparis crotonoides), the zapote del perro (Colicodcndrum scabridnm ), and an Apocynea. The Capparis and Apocynea are mere shrubs in the desert, and the Prosopis a low tree of very scraggy growth. Far away towards the 10 COAST VALLEYS. first ascents of the Andes a tall branched Cactus is met with. When the mists set in, the low hills near the coast bordering the deserts, which are called Lomas , undergo a change as if by a stroke of magic. A blooming vegetation of wild flowers, for a short time, covers the barren hills. Near Lima one of the lower ranges is then brightened by the beautiful yellow lily called amancaes; and the other flowers of the Lomas are various compositce , wild tobacco, an oxalis , a salvia , a purple solarium, an amaranth , cruciferce , and several grasses. But this carpet of flowers is very partially dis¬ tributed, and lasts but a short time. Generally the deserts present a desolate aspect, with no sign of a living creature or of vegetation. Only in the very loftiest regions of the air the majestic condor may be seen floating lazily, and perhaps a lizard will dart across the path. When the traveller, who has been for many hours wearily riding across the despoblado or desert, at length reaches the verge of one of the* river valleys, the scene suddenly changes. Standing on the cliff’s edge, he sees at his feet a broad valley filled with perpetual verdure. The great mass of pale green foliage is usually composed of the algarrobo woods, while the course of the river is THE P1URA REGION. ii marked by lines or groups of palms, by fine old willow-trees (Salix Humboldtiauri), fruit gardens, and fields of cotton, maize, or alfalfa {lucerne). In some valleys there are vast expanses of sugar-cane ; in others the vineyards and olive-yards predomi¬ nate. The woods of algarrobo are used as pasture for cattle, horses, and goats; all the animals greedily enjoying the pendulous, flattish, yellow pods, which is a heating food and a strong aphro¬ disiac. The coast region of Peru may be divided for purposes of description into six sections, com¬ mencing from the north. First, there is the Piura Region ; next, the Lambayeque and Truxillo Re¬ gion ; thirdly, the Santa Valleys; fourth, the section from Lima to Nasca; fifth, the Arequipa and Tacna Section ; and sixthly, Tarapaca. The great desert region of Piura extends for nearly two hundred miles, from the Gulf of Guaya¬ quil to the borders of the Morrope valley, and is traversed by three rivers—the Tumbez, Chira, and Sechura or Piura, all receiving their waters from the inner cordillera and breaking through the outer range. It is here that the coast of South America extends furthest to the westward until it i reaches Capes Blanco and Parina, and then turns southward to the Bay of Payta. Cape Parina is 12 LA MBA YE Q UE AND TRUXILLO REGION. the most western point of the continent, being in longitude 8i° 20' 45" W. The river Chira falls into the Bay of Payta in 4 0 30' N.; while the Piura reaches the sea at Sechura, to the south of Payta. The climate in the Piura Region is modified by the lower latitude, and also by the vicinity of the the forests of Guayaquil. Fog and gama are much less frequent than in the coast region further south, while positive rain sometimes falls. At intervals of about ten years there are occasional heavy showers of rain from February to April. These rainy years are called ahos de agua, and are years of plenty for the farmers in the Chira and Piura valleys, which are famous for their cotton crops and fruit-trees. On the other hand these rains destroy the flat roofs of houses, and even wash away whole villages. The second section of the Coast Region includes the valleys of the Morrope, the Chiclayo, the Saha, the Jequetepeque, the Chicama Chimu and Viru, with the intervening deserts, a length of two hundred miles. Here are many flourishing estates, and the cities of Lambayeque, Chiclayo and Saha in the north ; and of Truxillo in the Chimu valley, once a great centre of aboriginal native population. In the third section, extending for two hundred miles, are the valleys of Santa, Nepeha, Casma, THE SANTA VALLEYS. 13 Huarmay, Fortaleza, Pativilca, Supe, and Huaura, included partly in the province of Santa, partly in that of Chancay. The river Santa is remarkable for its long course between the outer and central ranges of the Andes, in a trough known as the Callejon de Huaylas, one hundred miles in length. It then breaks through in a deep gorge and reaches the sea after a course of thirty-five miles. The Santa and Nepena valleys are separated by a desert of eight leagues in width, on the shores of which there is good anchorage in the Bay of Ferrol, where the port of Chimbote is the terminus of a projected railway. The Nepena, Casma, Huarmay, and Fortaleza rivers rise on the slope of the outer range, and are therefore dry during part of the year ; but wells are dug in their beds, and the fertility of the valleys is thus maintained. The river Supe also rises on the outer range, but the Pativilca (or Barranca) and Huaura break through it from their sources in the snowy cordillera, and have a perennial supply of water. There are nine leagues of desert between the Nepena and Casma, sixteen leagues between the Casma and Huarmay, and eighteen leagues, much of it loose sand, between the Huarmay and Fortaleza. This desert is called the Pampa de Mata-cavallos , from the number of exhausted animals which die there. Between the 14 COAST VALLEYS LET TLLE RIM A C SECTLON. Supe and Pativilca is the desert called “ Pamp a del Medio Mundo .” The next coast section extends for over three 4 hundred miles from Chancay to Nasca; and in¬ cludes the rivers of Lacha or Chancay, Carabayllo, Rimac, Lurin, Mala, Canete, Chincha, Pisco, Yea, and Rio Grande with its branches. Here the outer range approaches the ocean, leaving a nar¬ rower strip of coast, but the fertile valleys are closer and more numerous. Those of Carabayllo and Rimac are connected, and the view from the Bay of Callao extends over a vast expanse of fertile plain, bounded by the Andes, with the white towers of Lima in a setting of verdure. Lurin and Mala are smaller valleys ; but the great valley of Canete is one green sheet of sugar-cane, and narrow strips of desert only separate it from the fertile plain of Chincha and the vineyards of Pisco. The valleys of Yea, Palpa, and Nasca, on branches of the Rio Grande, do not extend to the sea, and between Nasca and Acari there is a desert sixty miles in width. The fifth coast section, that of Arequipa and Tacna, extends over 350 miles, and comprises the river-valleys of Acari watered by the Lomas, of Ate- quipa, Atico, Ocona,Camana and Majes,Quilca,with the interior valley of Arequipa, Tambo, Moquegua, SOUTHERN COAST VALLEYS AND TARAPACA. 15 Locumba, Tacna, and Arica. Here the maritime cordillera recedes, and the important valley of Arequipa, though on its western slope, is 7000 feet above the sea and ninety miles from the coast. Moquegua and Tacna are also inland valleys, though on the Pacific side of the cordilleras. Ridges of primitive rock intervene between the Arequipa valley and the coast, and the great desert is, like those further north, dotted with medanos of fine sand, and is 4000 to 5000 feet above the sea. All the rivers in this section, except that of Atico, have their sources in the more distant range, and the fertile coast valleys through which they flow, especially Majes and Moquegua, are famous for their vineyards. In the Tambo valley there are thousands of olive trees and several mills. The sixth and most southern coast section is that of Tarapaca, extending between the cordillera and the Pacific, in a narrow desert strip from Arica to the river Loa, the southern boundary of the Republic. The physical features of Tarapaca differ somewhat from those of the rest of the Peruvian coast. There is an arid range of hills parallel with the sea-shore some thirty miles in width, and rising to from 3000 to 6000 feet, covered with sand and saline substances. Between this coast-range and the Andes is the great plain called the Pampa de i6 ISLANDS ON THE COAST. Tamarugal, from 3000 to 3500 feet above the sea, which is about thirty miles wide, and extends the whole length of Tarapaca. The Pampa is covered with sand, and contains sufficient nitrate of soda for the consumption of Europe for ages. Here and there a few tamarugas or acacia-trees are met with, which give their name to the region. The inhabited places are in ravines on the eastern margin of the Pampa, where water is found at the base of the mountains. The coast is waterless. The deposits of nitrate of soda are on the western side of the Pampa de Tamarugal, and in some of the hollows of the coast range. The coast of Peru has few protected anchorages, and the headlands are generally abrupt and lofty. These, and the few islands, are frequented by myriads of sea-birds, whence come the guano deposits, a great source of Peruvian wealth, the retention of ammonia and other fertilizing pro¬ perties being due to the absence of rain. Off the Sechura Desert, in the Payta Section, are the two islands of Lobos Afuera and Adentro. The Macabi Islets are off the port of Malabrigo. Guanape Island is thirty-two miles north of Santa. The isles of San Lorenzo and Fronton form the western side of Callao Bay. In the Bay of Pisco are the three Chincha Islands, from which nearly all the guano GUANO DEPOSITS AND SEA BIRDS. 17 has now been taken, the Ballista Islets and San Gallan. Other guano deposits have more recently been found on capes and headlands in Tarapaca. The sea-birds, to which the guano deposits are due, swarm in myriads along the coast. Among these are the Sula variegata or guano bird, the Larns modestus, a large gull, the Pelecanus thayus, and the Sterna Ynca, a beautiful tern with curved white feathers on each side of the head. There are also several cormorants ( Carbo sp.), but the piquero (Sula variegata ) is the principal guano bird. The immense flocks, as they fly along the coast appear like clouds, and incessantly one after another is seen to plunge into the sea to devour the fishes, which they find in extraordinary masses around the islands. The guano deposits are in layers from forty to fifty feet thick, of a greyish- brown colour outside, and more and more solid from the surface downwards, owing to the gradual deposit of strata and evaporation of fluid particles. The sea-lions ( Otaria Forsteri) are very common on the rocky islands and promontories of the coast, and in the adjacent sea. There are great herds at the back of the island of San Lorenzo. This species was described by Forster, and used to be known as Forster’s sea-lion. The large creatures frequent particular islands for the purpose of c is EARTHQUAKES. breathing their last, the wounded or aged being helped there by companions. Hence, no doubt, the sea-lions helped in the formation of the guano deposits. The whole Peruvian coast is subject to frequent and severe earthquakes, more especially the southern sections. The most terrible in its effects was that of 1746, which destroyed Callao. There had been subterranean noises for some days previously ; the first shock was at 10.30 p.m. on October 28th, and there were 220 shocks in the following twenty-four hours. Callao was overwhelmed by a vast wave which rose eighty feet, and the shocks continued until the following February. On August 13th, 1868, a fearful earthquake nearly destroyed Are- quipa and levelled the cathedral, and great waves rolled in upon the ports of Arica and Iquique. An equally terrible visitation took place on May 9th, 1877, in the extreme south of Peru, when all the southern ports were overwhelmed. These fear¬ ful catastrophes are connected with volcanic action, for they are in greatest force in the neighbourhood of volcanoes, whether extinct or active. That of 1877 appears to have had its origin in the volcanic mountains near the frontier of Peru and Bolivia, and to have spent its chief fury near its centre of origin, gradually working itself out as it went HEIGHT OF THE PEAKS OE THE ANDES. 19 north. Usually the line of disturbance is meridional and along the coast, but in some instances the line takes a seaward direction at an angle with the mountain chains. Since 1570 there have been seventy violently destructive earthquakes recorded on the west coast of South America, but the record is of course very incomplete in its earlier part. II. The Sierra. The Peruvian Andes contain peaks of great height, but none have yet been accurately measured. Aconcagua appears to be the loftiest peak in the Andes. Fitz Roy and Kellett give its height at 23,000 feet, but M. Pissis has reduced it to 22,210. Chimborazo, according to Humboldt, is 21,424 feet above the sea; but the later measurements of Reiss and Von Theilmann give 20,697 and 20,703 feet respectively. According to Pentland, the Bolivian peak of Illimani has a height of 21,149 feet ; Minchin gives 21,040 feet; and Wiener, who ascended it in May, 1877, gives 20,112 feet by aneroid. Illampu (Sorata) is 21,286 feet according to Pentland, and 21,470 according to Minchin. Pentland gives the height of the Misti volcano C 2 20 CORDILLERAS OF THE ANDES. above Arequipa at 20,320 feet, but a later measure¬ ment gives 17,934 feet. Other peaks further south are said to be much higher, but there are no reliable measurements. The Peruvian Andes is a mountain system, with a total width of about 250 miles, parallel, more or less, with the line of the coast, N.W. to S.E. It consists of three chains or cordilleras. Two of these, running parallel and near each other on the western side, are of identical origin, and have been separated by the action of water during many centuries. On these chains are the volcanoes, and many thermal springs. But the great eastern cor¬ dillera of the Andes, rising from the basin of the Amazon, is of distinct origin. The three cor¬ dilleras may be defined as the western or maritime, the central, and the eastern cordilleras. The narrow belt between the western and central chains is for the most part, but not always, a cold and lofty region known as the puna. The Sierra is the tract between the central and eastern chains, consisting of lofty mountainous spurs, wide plains, valleys, and deep ravines and gorges. The width of the Sierra varies from fifty to one hundred miles. The eastern cordillera is a magnificent and con¬ tinuous range, in great part of Silurian formation, with talcose and clay slates, many quartz veins, and CORDILLERAS OF THE AIDES. 21 eruptions of granitic rocks. Mr. P orbes says that the Illimani and Illampu Peaks in Bolivia are silurian, and fossiliferous to their summits. The eastern cordillera is of moderate elevation in northern Peru, continuing to increase in height and magnificence as it approaches the culminating peaks near the Bolivian frontier. It is cut through by six rivers in Peru, namely the Maranon, the Huallaga ; and the Mantaro, Apurimac, Vilcamayu, and Paucartampu —the four last being tributaries of the Ucayali. The central cordillera is not cut through by any river, although several sources of coast streams are to the eastward of the line of highest peaks. It forms an unbroken water-parting. The chain con¬ sists mainly of crystalline and volcanic rocks, on each side of which are strata of aqueous, in great part of jurassic rocks, thrown up almost vertically. The western or maritime chain is of the same formation, merely separated by erosion. The lower ridges, on the coast, are of granite or syenite. For purposes of description the SIERRA may be conveniently divided into four sections, each em¬ bracing portions of all three ranges. The first, from the north, comprises the valleys of the Maranon and the Huallaga, and is 350 miles long by 100 broad. The second extends from Cerro Pasco to Ayacucho, about 200 miles, including the 22 THE CALLEJON DE HUA YEAS. lake of Chinchay-co.cha, and the valley of the Xauxa. The third extends thence to the knot of Vilcanota, 250 miles, and is the Cuzco Section, with the valleys of the Apurimac, the Vilcamayu and the Paucar- tampu. The fourth is the basin of Lake Titicaca, about 150 miles in length and breadth. The valleys of the Andes in the first Section are almost classic ground to the student of geography, for they are described by Humboldt, the greatest of modern travellers. He visited the silver-mines of Hualcayoc, and the plateau of Caxamarca, ex¬ plored the valley of Jaen, and crossed the maritime cordillera to Truxillo. The portions of the western and central cordilleras, which bound the Callejon de Huaylas, have since been minutely described by Raimondi. Here the central chain attains a height of 20,000 feet, and the passes are 15,000 feet above the sea. The river Santa rises in the alpine lake of Conococha, at a height of 10,000 feet, and flows northwards for a hundred miles along the remark¬ able fissure between the central and western cordil¬ leras. At Huaylas, near the point where the river forces its way down a gorge in the western chain, into the coast plain, the height is 9000 feet, a fall of about ten feet in a mile. The west side of the valley is arid and barren, no rivers flowing down from the lower maritime chain, while numerous BASINS OF THE MAE A NON AND IIUALL AG A. 23 fertilizing streams fall into the river on its right bank, from the snowy central cordillera. The re¬ markable fissure between the two chains is the most interesting geographical feature in this section of the Sierra. The river Maranon rises in the lake of Lauricocha, on the inner slope of the central cordillera, and, after a course of 350 miles within the Andes, it forces its way through a gorge of the eastern chain, at the famous Pongo de Man- seriche, and enters the Amazonian plain. Having its remotest source within a few miles of the Lauri¬ cocha lake, the Huallaga flows northwards, parallel with and to the eastward of the Maranon for 300 miles, and finds a way through the eastern cordillera at a gorge called the “Salto de Aguirre’’(the leap of the traitor Aguirre), or the “ Pongo deChasuta.” The Indians allege that formerly an enormous eagle in¬ habited the summit of the precipice overhanging the rapid, which exacted a toll of one man from each canoe that passed down,todevour in its eyrie, a state¬ ment which the indelible blood-stains are supposed to prove ; for there are still red blotches far up on the face of the cliff. At length one Aguirre undertook to combat the eagle. He dressed up a sack of rice to resemble a man, and placed it in the prow of the canoe, while he, with the “Niiia Inez,” occupied the stern. On coming opposite the huaman-huasi 24 KNOT OF CERRO PASCO. (eagle’s house), the mighty bird pounced down upon the “ proero-hechizo ” (deception in the bows), and was instantly pierced and slain by the ready arrow of Aguirre. So say the Indians of Chasuta, whose tradition, floating for three centuries down the stream of time, has transformed Ursua into an eagle, and his murder by Aguirre into a noble action ! The second section of the Sierra commences where the mountain knot of Cerro Pasco connects the central with the eastern cordillera. Here the Andean system is narrower than at any other point in Peru, the whole width not exceeding a hundred miles. Cerro Pasco, the centre of the great silver¬ mining district, is in io° 48' S. latitude, and 13,673 feet above the sea. From this saddle the cordil¬ leras continue southwards, and between the central and eastern chains, at the foot of the ascent to Cerro Pasco, is the lake of Chinchay-cocha, thirty- six miles long by seven, and 13,000 feet above the sea, the largest in South America except Titicaca. Its marshy banks are overgrown with reeds, and inhabited by numerous water-fowl. The natives believe that huge fish-like animals haunt the lake, and at a certain hour of the night leave their watery abode and prowl about the pasture-lands, com¬ mitting great havoc among the cattle. From this XAUXA VALLEY. ANDES OF CUZCO. 25 lake a river flows southwards through a populous valley, which within the Sierra is known as the river of Xauxa, for a distance of 150 miles. Then, breaking through the eastern cordillera, it enters the Amazonian basin as the Mantaro river. In this section the western and central chains are not so clearly defined. Their spurs form a confused mass of mountains and ravines in Caxatambo, Canta, Huarochiri, and Yauyos, where the coast rivers of the Rimac section take their rise. Fur¬ ther south are the quicksilver-mines of Huanca- velica, and the silver of Castro Vireyna. A slight ridge marks the eastern water-parting, and Tarma is on the outer slope, where the Chancha-mayu river has its rise, eventually falling into the Perene. The Cuzco section of the Sierra is the centre and heart of Peru, and here nature has worked on her most stupendous scale. The region presents every variety of climate and scenery. Tropical vegetation in the deep gorges, the climate and products of Italy and Spain in the warm valleys, the crops of Northern Europe in the more elevated plains and ravines, higher up the pasture-lands of the Alps; then bleak wilds with a sub-Arctic cli¬ mate, crowned by rocky heights and peaks covered with everlasting snow. The glaciers do not fill the 25 TIIE CUZCO REGION. valleys, but form in masses on the elevated peaks with a steep slope, often perpendicular, and in¬ variably a small lake at the base ; but old moraines and boulders show the more extensive action ot ancient glaciers. On the Cuzco section the Andean system in¬ creases in width to 200 miles, and the chains take a more easterly direction. Here the coast range is lofty and bold, and there is a greater and more defined interval between it and the central cor¬ dillera, the space being occupied by Lucanas and Parinacochas with its alpine lake—the lake of the flamingoes. The true Sierra, the region between the central cordillera and the eastern Andes, is here the cradle of the Ynca race, the Cuzco or navel of the aboriginal empire. The section com¬ mences at the Condor-kunka ridge, which connects two ranges, and forms the water-parting between the basins of the Mantaro and the Apurimac. It ends at the great knot of Vilcanota, which again connects the ranges, separating the basin of the Apurimac from that of Lake Titicaca. The inter¬ vening country, watered by the Apurimac and its tributaries, is 200 miles in length. On the northern watershed of the central chain rises the Apurimac and many of its feeders from Aymaraes, Cota- bambas, and Chumbivilicas, which cut deep into the THE CUZCO REGION. 27 land, forming profound ravines. The Apurimac receives the river Pachachaca on its left bank, with other streams flowing through the most mag¬ nificent mountain scenery in the world. Next it is joined by the river Pampas, in another tropical ravine called Puma-cancha, an important tributary which receives all the drainage of the southern watershed of the Condor-Kunka ridge, and of part of the eastern slope of the central cordillera. After receiving the Pampas, the Apurimac forces a way through the eastern Andes, and joining the Man- taro, the united flood is called the Ene. Mingling their waters, the Ene and Perene become the Tambo, far away in the Montana. The River Vilcamayu rises on the Vilcanota range, and flows down a lovely and fertile valley, parallel with the Apurimac, by Yucay and Uru- bamba, the old palaces and baths of the Yncas, until it also forces a way through the eastern Andes, having received the Yanatilde, a smaller river rising in the lonely little village of Laris, high up on the eastern mountains. Between the Apuri¬ mac and the Vilcamayu is the plateau, surrounded by hills, on which stands the famous city of Cuzco, 11,380 feet above the sea, in latitude 13 0 31' S. Its drainage flows off to the Vilcamayu. Still further east, in the very heart of the eastern range, 28 TITICACA BASIN. is the valley of the River Paucartampu, whose source is in the corner where the knot of Vilcanota joins the eastern Andes. The Paucartampu also forces a way through the mountain barrier, and the united rivers of Paucartampu, Vilcamayu, Apu- rimac, Mantaro, and Perene form the mighty Ucayali. The fourth section of the Peruvian Sierra is formed by the inland basin of Titicaca, the largest lake in South America. Here the scenery is neither so varied nor so beautiful as in the region of Cuzco, because the land is at a more uniform elevation, and so high that the vegetation is scanty. The lake itself, the lowest part of the basin, is 12,545 feet above the level of the sea. The whole area of the Titicaca basin covers about 16,000 square miles, but the southern half is in Bolivia. It is bounded by the knot of Vilcanota and the lofty highlands of Canas on the north, on the west by the central cordilleras, and on the east by the Andes where that glorious chain culminates in the peaks of Illimani and Illampu (or Sorata) both certainly over 20,000 feet above the level of the sea. The Peruvian portion of the basin, including part of the lake, is about 150 miles long, and 100 wide. It is called the Collao. The elevation is too great for maize to ripen. It is a country of pastures LAKE TITICACA. 29 and potato-fields, of quinua and oca, while silver and copper abound in its mountains. The only trees are the quenuar (Buddleia Incctnci ), with its dark leaf and rough bark, and the molle (Schinus niolle ) in some favoured spots. Lake Titicaca itself is about eighty miles long by forty broad, and is divided into two parts by the peninsula of Copacabana. The southern division, called the Lake of Huaqui, is twenty-four miles long by twenty-one broad, and is united to the greater lake by the narrow strait of Tiquina. A number of rivers, which are swollen and of considerable volume during the rainy season, fall into the lake. The largest is the Ramiz, formed by the junction of the two streams of Pucara and Azangaro, both rising in the knot of Vilcanota. The Ramiz enters at the north-west corner. The Suchiz, formed by the rivers of Cavanilla and Lampa, also falls into the lake on its north-west side, as well as the Yllpa and Ylave. On the eastern side are the rivers Huarina, Escoma, and Achacache, draining this part of the western slopes of the Andes. Much of the water thus flowing in is taken off by the great river Desaguadero (i. e. drain ), which flows out of the south-west corner ; and, after a course of 150 miles, disappears in the salt lake of Paria or Aullagas in Bolivia. But a greater proportion is taken up by 3° LAKE TITICACA. evaporation, the volume of water which flows into the lake during the rainy season being drunk up again when the tutelar deity of the lake returns, between April and September. The waters are steadily receding, under the combined influence of evaporation and of the sediment brought down by the rivers. The deepest part of the lake is on the eastern or Bolivian side, in others it is so shoal that there is only just room to force the balsas or reed canoes through the rushes. In the day the winds blow from the eastward all the year round, some¬ times raising a heavy sea; but at night they are occasionally westerly. Along the western shore there are many acres of tall rushes, and the east winds blow all the dead rushes to the west side, mixing with the living beds, and forming a dense, tangled mass. The lake abounds in fish of very peculiar forms, and in aquatic birds, including troops of stately flamingoes. The principal islands of the lake are those of Titicaca and Coati near the peninsula of Copacabana ; Campanario in the east, nine miles from the shore ; Soto and Esteves. North of Lake Titicaca there is a smaller lake called Arapa. In this Titicaca section of the Sierra the central and western cordilleras attain a great elevation, and the space between them is a lofty and cheerless VEGETATION OF THE SIERRA. 3i puna, surrounded by rocky snow-clad heights. The passes over the central cordillera, on the roads to Arequipa, are 17,740 feet and 15,590 feet above the sea. On the western range, overhanging the city of Arequipa, is the volcano of Misti, 17,934* feet, the peak of Charcani, 18,558 feet, and the grand peak of Chuquibamba further north. The pass from Are¬ quipa over the western cordillera, by the Alto de los Huesos, has a height of 13,400 feet. 2 The Peruvian territory continues along the water- parting of the western cordillera to the River Loa, in the province of Tarapaca, including the peaks of Lirima and Chuncura of immense but, as yet, unmeasured height. The peaks of Pallahuari and Sajama, in about the latitude of Tacna, are said to be over 22,000 feet above the sea, but this is uncertain. The great variety of elevation within the Sierra produces vegetation belonging to every zone. There is a tropical flora in the deep gorges, higher up a sub-tropical, then a temperate, then a sub¬ arctic, and finally an arctic flora. In ascending from the coast-valleys, the traveller will first have to traverse an arid range, where he will see the great branched cacti rearing themselves up among the rocks. Further inland, where the rains are 1 20,320, according to Pentland. 2 Rivero. 32 VEGETATION OF THE SIERRA. more plentiful, is the native country of the potato the very best being grown at Huamantango in the western cordillera, near the sources of the coast river Carabayllo. Here also are other plants with edible roots, under cultivation, the oca (Oxalis tuberosa ), the ullaco (Ullucus tuberosas ), and the massna (Tropceohim tuberosum). In the ravines appear a pretty shrub with a yellow flower, called chilca (Tecoma roscefolia), another with beautiful red and orange flowers ( Mutisia acuminata ), salvias, and calceolarias. The American aloe or maguey (Agave Americana) is also common in the Sierra, and the fibre and poles are used in building and roofing huts. Round Guamanga, and in the ravines near Cuzco, are the Jmacatay (Tagetes minuta) and many other composite plants, besides numerous species of Cantua. This is also the country of apples and pears and peaches, while close to, in the deeper valleys, the grapes ripen, and there are delicious chirimoyas, alligator pears, lucmas, gratiadillas, and paccays. The chirimoya, which is also grown in the coast valleys, is the best of the Ajionas, the size of a small melon, green and soft outside, with smooth scales, creamy white in¬ side with black pips. The paccay is a large pod with sweet cottony pulp, a species of Inga. The commonest road-side tree, in the temperate part of PLANTS OF THE SIERRA. 33 the Sierra, is the Schinus molle , with its graceful branches and bunches of red berries. At higher elevations the trees are the lambras or aliso {AInns acuminata ), the sauco (Sambucus Peruviana ), the Quenuar (Buddlea Incana), and the Polylepis race- mosa. The Buddlea flourishes up to 12,000 feet on the shores of Lake Titicaca. But the sub-tropical valleys of the Sierra are most famous for the splendid crops of maize. The Cuzco maize is the largest and best in the world, grown in the lovely vale of Vilcamayu. In the loftier regions of the Andes the pasture consists of tufts of a coarse grass ( Stipa ychu) of which the llamas eat the upper blades, while the sheep browse on the tender shoots beneath. There are also two kinds of shrubby plants, a thorny com- posita called ccanlli , and another called tola or ccapiL, which is a resinous Baccharis, and is used for fuel. The heights round the Titicaca basin are cultivated with patches of barley, used green for fodder, of potatoes, and quinua (Chenopodium qui- iiuci). The grain from the quinua is used for food, in soups and puddings, and the leaf is also eaten. Barley is cultivated from 7000 to 13,200 feet above the sea. The animals which specially belong to the Peruvian Sierra are the domestic llamas and D 34 LLAMAS AND ALPACAS. alpacas, and the wild vicunas. The llama stands about four feet six to eight inches, and the colours of the flocks vary much, generally brown with shades of yellow and black, frequently speckled, and more rarely white or black. The males are trained to carry burdens, while the females are kept in pastures. They will carry about one hun¬ dred pounds, but when a llama finds the load too heavy, it lies down, and no power on earth will move it until a part is taken off. The daily jour¬ neys do not exceed three or four leagues, because the animals will not feed during the night, and they must be allowed to graze during the march. When resting, the llamas make a humming noise which sounds like a number of Alolian harps. A flock of laden llamas journeying over the mountains is a strange and beautiful sight. They proceed at a slow and measured pace, with their long necks erect, and gazing eagerly on every side; and their Indian masters treat them with affectionate kind¬ ness. The wool is used for making coarse cloth. The alpaca is smaller, standing only about three feet three inches, and to the shoulders two and a half feet. The fleece is beautifully soft and very long, either white or black, and the animals are tended with great care, being kept in large flocks. The largest animal of the llama kind is the huanacu, ANIMALS OF THE SIERRA. 35 which however is more common in Chile and Patagonia. The vicuna is generally met with on the lofty ridges and table-lands of the Peruvian Sierra in a wild state, and it is by far the most beautiful and graceful of the genus. The neck is longer and more slender, and its short curly wool is finer and more silky. The head, back of the neck, and back are of a peculiar reddish-yellow hue, the inner parts of the limbs a bright ochre, and the breast and belly are white. Vicunas live in flocks of six to fifteen females and one male which keeps guard at a little distance, while the others are grazing. They frequent the grassy expanses and patches at great heights, and are often to be seen with their backs covered with snow. The other animals in the loftier parts of the Sierra are the taruco or deer ( Cervus Antisensis), the viscacha (Lagidium Pcraviantun), a large rodent often to be seen peering round on its hind legs, and the chinchilla. A species of fox called atoc (Canis Azarce) is found all over the cordilleras, and the puma {Felis concolor ) and ucumari or bear ( Ursns ornatus ), when driven by hunger, venture into the loftier regions. The ucumari is a large black bear, with a white muzzle, usually found in the woods on the eastern slopes. The largest bird is the condor , and there is D 2 BIRDS OF THE SIERRA. 36 another bird of the vulture tribe, with a black and white wing feather formerly used by the Yncas in their head-dress, called the coraqiienque or alcomari. The pito is a brown-speckled woodpecker, with a yellow belly, which flutters about the rocks; and a partridge, called yutu , frequents the rushy grass. There is a little bird the size of a starling, with brown back striped with black, and white breast, called by the Indians Ynca-hualpa (cock of the Ynca), which utters a monotonous sound at the close of every hour during the night. On the lakes there is a very handsome goose with white body and dark green wings shading into violet, called huachaa; the licit, a plover with similar plumage, two kinds of ibis, a large gull ( Larus set r anus) which frequents the lagoons in flocks, and an immense water-hen. Many pretty little finches, such as tuya and choclla- poccochi , fly about the maize-fields, and a green paroquet is often met with as high as 12,000 feet above the sea. III. The Montana. The third division of Peru is the region of the tropical forests within the Amazonian basin, tra¬ versed by great navigable rivers, including the wooded slopes of the eastern watershed of the THE MONTANA. 37 Andes. The Maranon having burst through the Pongo de Manseriche, and the Huallaga through the Pongo de Chasuta, enter the forests, and join after separate courses of about 600 and 400 miles, the united flood then flowing eastward to the Brazilian frontier. After 150 miles it is joined by the Ucayali, a great navigable river, with a course of 600 miles, formed by the union of the Peiene, Mantaro, Apurimac, Vilcamayu, and Paucartampu ; and afterwards increased by the Pachitea, flowing from the eastern Andes, near Cerro Pasco, and formed by the Pozuzu, Mayru, Palcazu, Picchu, and other affluents. From the junction of the Ucayali the Maranon continues to flow westward, until it receives the Yavari, on the eastern fiontier of Peru. The country between the Huallaga and the Ucayali, traversed by the continuation of the eastern cordillera, is called the Pampa del Sacra¬ mento. The forests drained by the Maranon, Huallaga, and Ucayali, form the northern portion of the Peruvian Montana. The southern half of the Montana is watered by the streams flowing down from the eastern cor¬ dillera, in the Sierra sections of Cuzco and Titicaca. Those belonging to Cuzco are called the Paucar¬ tampu and Marcapata valleys, and their streams go to form a great river called the Madre de Dios, an 38 SCENERY OF THE MONTANA. important tributary of the Bolivian river Beni, which falls into the Madeira. The streams from the Titicaca section of the Andes water the beau¬ tiful forests of Caravaya, which extend to the Bolivian frontier, and also belong to the Beni river system. The whole length of the Peruvian Montanas from the Marahon to the Bolivian frontier is 800 miles. The region is naturally divided into two sections, the sub-tropical forests in the ravines and on the slopes of the eastern Andes, which in places descend abruptly to the plains, but generally stretch out in prolonged spurs ; and the tropical forests in the Amazonian plains. The sub-tropical section is important from the value of its products, and interesting from the grandeur and extreme beauty of its scenery. Long spurs run off from the Andes, gradually decreasing in elevation, and it is sometimes a distance of sixty or eighty miles before they finally subside into the vast forest-covered plains of the Amazon basin. Numerous rivers flow through the valleys between these spurs. In commencing the descent from the snowy plains the polished surfaces of perpendicular cliffs are seen to glisten here and there with cascades, some like thin lines of thread, others broader and breaking over rocks, others PRODUCTS OF THE MONTANA. 39 seeming to burst out of the fleecy clouds, while jagged black peaks streaked with snow pierce the mist which conceals their bases. Lower down the ravines are bounded by masses of dark frowning mountains, ending in fantastically-shaped peaks, and the vegetation rapidly increases in luxuriance. Here are masses of ferns of many kinds, begonias, lupins, calceolarias, while torrents stream down the mountain sides in every direction, often in a white sheet for hundreds of feet, finally seeming to plunge into beds of ferns and flowers. Next begin the larger shrubs, the bright purple Lasiandrct and other Melastomacece , the orange Cassia , tree ferns, and palms. Here is the native place of the quinine- yielding Chinchona- tree, with its racemes of deli¬ ciously sweet flowers, and leaves with crimson veins. The most valuable kinds are found north of Peru, in the forests of Ecuador, namely the C. succirubra , yielding red bark, and the precious C. officinalis of Loxa ; while the C. Calisaya is more abundant in Bolivia. In Peru the several species yielding grey bark grow in the basins of the Huallaga and Maranon, while the C. Calisaya and many kindred varieties are natives of Caravaya. It is in these warm valleys that large plantations of coffee and cacao flourish, and thence comes the coca ( Erythoxylon coca ) which is chewed by every 40 COCA CULTIVATION. *» Peruvian Indian. Coca is cultivated between 5000 and 6000 feet above the sea, in the warm valleys of the eastern Andean slopes, where frost is un¬ known, and it rains every month in the year. It is a shrub from four to six feet high, with straight alternate branches, leaves alternate and entire, the size of tea leaves, and small yellowish-white flowers. Sowing is begun in January, when the rains commence, in a nursery. Next year the young plants are placed in specially prepared soil, often in terraces, and at the end of eighteen months they yield the first harvest, continuing to bear for upwards of forty years. The leaves are picked and spread out in the drying yard, and when thoroughly dry are sewn up in sacks of 20 lbs. each, pressed tightly down, or in tambores or drums. The yield is about 80 lbs. an acre, and the annual produce of coca in Peru is 15,000,000 lbs. No Indian is with¬ out his chttspa or coca bag, the property of the leaves being to prevent the occurrence of difficulty of breathing at great elevations, to enable a greater amount of fatigue to be borne with less nourish¬ ment, and to give solace on the road. The pro¬ ducts of these warm valleys are chinchona bark, coca, coffee, and cacao, sugar, and tropical fruits of all kinds. In the vast untrodden forests on the plains ANIMALS OF THE MONTANA. 4i there are trees of many kinds; the incense-tree, india-rubber-trees of the Hevea genus, numerous varieties of beautiful palms, sarsaparilla, and an infinite number of timber-trees and other plants. But the clearings for cultivation are few and widely separated. The traffic is almost entirely by canoes on the navigable rivers, and in recent years by steamers. In the Peruvian Montanas troops of monkeys skip from tree to tree ; among them the silver-grey monkeys, three feet high, the largest in South America. Swarms of bats also flutter in all directions at sunset, one kind with an expanse of wing of two feet. The leaf-nosed bat rubs up the skin of sleeping men or beasts, and sucks the blood. The black bear (Ursns frugilegus) infests the plantations, and lively coatis traverse the forests in flocks. Among the feline class the dark- grey yaguarandi , the size of a wild cat, pursues all kinds of birds, while the oscof/o, the uturuncu, and a long-tailed tiger-cat lie in wait for weaker mammalia. The puma roams through the higher regions of the forests, where he has an almost undisputed hunting- ground. But the most terrible animal of prey is the savage jaguar or ounce. Squirrels and mice swarm in the forests, and the heavy tapir reposes in soft marshy grounds, and in the damp shady 42 BIRDS OF THE MONTANA. recesses during the day, roaming over the open glades and tearing the tender twigs from the bushes at night. Flocks of peccaries traverse the level Montana, and deer are common on the edges of pajonales or grassy expanses. The owl and the goat-milker, among birds of prey, are abroad at night, and in the hilly parts the black ox-bird fills the air with a noise like the distant roaring of a bull. The tunqui (Rupicola Peruviana) is a beautiful bird, the size of a cock, with bright red body and black wings, the head surmounted by a tuft of red feathers. Flycatchers and shrikes are common, and the finches are distinguished by their dazzling colours. The organista (a Troglodytes ) in modest plumage of cinnamon brown, raises her enchanting song in the most woody parts of the Montana. The potter bird, with red tail, builds a dwelling of loam or clay, while the pouched starlings hang their nests, often four or five feet long, on the slender branches of the trees. No combination of gorgeous colours can exceed what is presented by the humming birds ; and long trains of green parrots fill the air with their noisy chattering. There is a richly-plumaged pigeon, and several doves, and game birds are represented by the large black curassow, A lectors and Penelopes. Spoonbills of rose-coloured plumage, ibis, snipe, cranes, MYRIAD FORMS OF LIFE. 43 plovers frequent the marshes and lagoons. In the rivers are found the great fresh-water tortoise, which buries its eggs on the sandy banks, alligators, and the manatee or dugong. Snakes and vipers abound among the dense underwood, some very venomous ; others harmless, which wind on ten- drilled-climbing plants, or lie, like necklaces of coral, on the decaying leaves. Frogs raise their far- sounding voices through the night, and insects are innumerable. In these leafy wildernesses, extend¬ ing for hundreds of miles, vegetable and animal life teem in myriad forms, and many able natura¬ lists have devoted their lives to the study and description of the numerous forms. Yet the knowledge of them is not complete, and there are still great stores of nature’s secrets concealed in the depths of the Peruvian Montana. 44 THE YNCA RACE. CHAPTER III. THE PEOPLE AND THEIR LANGUAGES. The present population of Peru is derived from several sources, and it is necessary, for a proper comprehension of the subject, to trace out the original roots from whence the different races have sprung, which are now combined to form the Peruvian nation. The bulk of the population is composed of the aboriginal Indians, the natives who had been there from time immemorial when America was dis¬ covered. The central tribe of these Indians was that of the Yncas, inhabiting the region in the Sierra, which has already been described as the Cuzco section. Such a country was well adapted for the cradle of an imperial tribe. Humboldt has well observed, that “ when enterprising races in¬ habit a land, where the form of the ground presents to them difficulties on a grand scale, which they may conquer and overcome, the contest with THE YNCA RACE . 45 nature becomes a means of increasing their strength and power, as well as their courage.” The Ynca race was originally divided into six tribes, whose lands are indicated by the rivers which formed their limits. Of these tribes the Yncas themselves had their original seat between the rivers Apurimac and Paucartampu, with the lovely valley of the Vilcamayu bisecting it. The Canas dwelt in the upper part of that valley up to the Vilcahota Pass, and on the mountains on either side. The Quichuas were in the valleys round the head waters of the Apurimac and Abancay. The Chancas extended from the neighbourhood of Ayacucho (Guatnanga) to the Apurimac. The Huancas occupied the valley of the Xauxa up to the saddle of the Cerro Pasco, and the Rucanas were in the mountainous region between the central and western cordilleras. These six tribes eventually formed the conquering Ynca race. Their language was introduced into every conquered province, and was carefully taught to the people, so that the Spaniards correctly called it the “ Lengua General ” of Peru. This language was called Quichua, after the tribe inhabiting the upper part of the valleys of the Pachachaca and Apurimac. Their territory consisted chiefly of uplands covered with long grass, and the name has been derived from the abundance of straw in this 46 COLLAS OR A YMARAS. region. Quehuani is to twist; Quekuasca is the participle ; and YcJiu is straw. Together Quehuasca- Ychu, or twisted straw, abbreviated into Quichua. The name was given to the language by Friar San Tomas in his grammar published in 1560, who perhaps first collected words among the Quichuas and so gave it their name, which was adopted by all subsequent grammarians. But the proper name would have been the Ynca language. The aboriginal people in the basin of lake Titicaca were called Collas, and they spoke a lan¬ guage which is closely allied to the Quichua. These people, living at 12,000 feet above the sea, were without corn, without timber; they dwelt in stone huts, tended their flocks of llamas, raised crops of potatoes and quinua, and were engaged in incessant feuds. The Collas were conquered by the Yncas in very remote times, and their lan¬ guage, now incorrectly called Aymara, received many Quichua additions ; for it originally contained few words to express abstract ideas, and none for many things which are indispensable in the first beginnings of civilized life. One branch of the Collas (now called Aymaras) was a savage tribe inhabiting the shores and islands of Lake Titicaca, called Urus. They lived among the beds of rushes, making secret lanes through them, navi- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 47 gating in floats made of long bundles of rushes lashed together, and dwelling in rude stone huts on the islands. They had a peculiar language called Puquina. The Ynca and Colla (Aymara) tribes eventually combined to form the great armies which spread the rule of Ynca sovereigns over a much larger extent of country. The two tribes resemble each other in essential points. The men average a height of five feet four inches, and are strongly built, the Aymaras being generally more thick-set than the Yncas and Quichuas. The nose is invariably aqui¬ line, the mouth rather large, the eyes small and black or deep brown, bright, and generally deep set, with long, fine lashes. The hair, of a deep black brown, is very abundant and long, in men as well as women, and fine. The men wear it in long plaited pig-tails, and have no beards. The skin is very smooth and soft, and of a light coppery brown colour, sufficiently light to show a blush of health or of shame on the cheeks. The neck is thick, and the shoulders broad, with great depth of chest. The legs are well formed, and the feet very small, the heel being very slightly prominent. The women, when young, have graceful figures, and are often pretty, with their hair in two long plaits, called sirnpa. Nearly all are subjected to toil and 4 3 CIVILIZA TION OF THE YNCAS. exposure ; but the portraits of Ynca princesses at Cuzco, contemporary with the conquest, portray faces of great beauty. The Aymaras are remarkable for great length of body, as compared with the thigh and leg ; and they are the only people whose thighs are shorter than their legs. Both Ynca and Aymara Indians are admirable pedestrians, and are possessed of extraordinary endurance. The ex¬ pression of the Indian of Peru is generally sad, and he is a lover of solitude ; though this was pro¬ bably not the case before the Spanish conquest. In the happy days of the Yncas they cultivated many of the arts, and had some practical knowledge of astronomy. They had domesticated all the animals in their country capable of domestication, understood mining and the working of metals, excelled as masons, weavers, dyers, and potters, and were good farmers. They brought the science of administration to a high pitch of perfection, and composed imaginative songs and dramas of con¬ siderable merit. As soldiers, their skill and prowess enabled them to conquer and consolidate a vast empire, and no other race with whom they came in contact could long withstand their arms. The Quichua language possesses great facility of ex¬ pression, a complicated grammar, and though con¬ taining a copious abundance of compound words, PRESENT CONDITION OF THE INDIANS. 49 it is capable of being expressed with energy and conciseness. Its cases and tenses are formed, not by flexion, but by the addition of particles to the root as mechanical affixes. Another peculiarity is the incorporation both of the accusative and nominative pronoun into the verb itself, which is called a verbal transition by the Jesuit gramma¬ rians. There are two forms of the plural, exclu¬ sive, and inclusive. The system of numeration is very complete, and there is a great variety of words for expressing relationships. Though pos¬ sessing no alphabet or means of writing, the system of counting and reckoning by strings and knots, called quipus , enabled the Yncas to preserve sta¬ tistical reports, and to administer the complicated affairs of a great empire. Three centuries of oppression have made the Ynca Indian a sadder and less enterprising being, and have deteriorated his character ; but he is still industrious and honest, and retains many of the virtues of his ancestors. The pure Indians are now employed in the charge of their flocks of llamas and alpacas, in the cultivation of quinua, potatoes, and ocas in the higher regions, of maize in the Sierra valleys, and of coca plantations in the Mon¬ tana. The men wear a blue or green coat, red waist¬ coat, and black woollen breeches, with bare legs and E 5° DRESS OF INDIAN WOMEN. sandals of llama hide. Their head-gear consists of a broad-brimmed velvet montera , or cap, trimmed with red and blue ribband ; the chuspa , or bag of coca, is slung over one shoulder ; and a long fauna , or walking-stick, is used on journeys. The women wear a cotton shift, or ucundia ; a skirt of bright crimson or blue cloth ; a llidla , or mantle, of the same material, but different colour, often trimmed with gold lace, and secured by a large silver topu or pin, in the shape of a spoon. The hair is plaited in two long tails, and surmounted by a montera , like that worn by the men. A broad ornamental belt, called chumpi , is worn round the waist. But the head-dresses of the women vary in the different provinces. In Ayacucho it is like that of a Roman peasant. Among the Aymaras the women, instead of a llidla, wear an unca, or mantle, brought together over each shoulder, and secured by topus on either side. Their head-dress is a four-cornered red cap, the sides curving out¬ wards and stiff, with black flaps suspended from the top. On the road these women are never idle, they toil along with a great bundle, called cccpi, on their backs, often with a baby, and are always employed spinning cotton or wool into thread on a spindle. Their houses are of unhewn stone, with interstices filled in by mud, roofed with beams of FOOD OF THE PEOPLE. 5i the lam bras (Aliso) or aloe, and thatched with ychn. Their food varies with the elevation above the sea. In the temperate valleys it consists of maize cakes, eggs and potatoes, or yucas boiled together with beans and red pepper pods. Higher up they live upon quinua, and various edible roots ; and they are all too fond of the chiclia, or liquor fermented from maize. The people of the Titicaca basin, 12,000 feet above the sea, prepare their potatoes to convert them into chunus. After being dug out of the ground, the potatoes are steeped in water, and then spread out on a thin layer of ychu, or straw. In this way they are exposed to the frost for several nights, until they are quite frozen through. They are then again steeped in water, and trampled out with men’s feet, to remove all soluble matter ; after which they are spread out in the air until perfectly dried, when they are ready for use as chunus. The process reduces the size of the potato to that of a musket-ball. They can be preserved for any length of time if kept dry, are much used on journeys into the Montana, as well as at home, and are most valuable articles of food. The oca is also frozen in the same way and preserved. Another important article of food is the quinua , the seeds of which, after being well washed, are boiled and E 2 52 ANCIENT POPULATION. make excellent porridge, while the leaves are eaten as salad. The quinua is also preserved by boiling the grains, drying them in the sun, grinding and making them into little hard lumps. In this form it is called quispina. But the main dish of both Quichua and Aymara Indians is the chupt, con¬ sisting of a soup made with potatoes and any flesh or fowl that may be procurable, together with vegetable ingredients, and invariably some red pepper pods. It is not possible now to obtain an approximate estimate of the population of the Peruvian Sierra before the Spanish conquest. We are told by contemporary writers that it was very dense, and their statement is confirmed by the fact that, in many now uninhabited parts, there are the remains of cultivation, in terraces rising up the sides of mountains, sometimes thirty and forty, one be¬ hind the other, now abandoned and overgrown with grass. Still the Ynca Indians, in reduced numbers, form the bulk of the population of the Sierra. The coast of Peru was inhabited by a people entirely different from the Indians of the Sierra. There are some slight indications of the aborigines having been a diminutive race of fishermen who were driven out by the more civilized people, called INDIANS OF THE COAST. 53 Yuncas. The aborigines may be represented by a gentle, hospitable tribe of fishers in Tarapaca, called Changos, never exceeding five feet in height, with flat noses, fishing in boats of inflated seal¬ skins, and sleeping pell-mell in seal-skin huts on heaps of seaweed. Vocabularies have recently been collected of a language once spoken further south in the desert of Atacama, which is now nearly extinct. There are also remnants of abori¬ ginal people at Eten, Morrope, Catacaos, Sechura, and Colan, in the north of Peru, with peculiar dialects. The people who possessed the richest coast valleys, at the time of the Ynca conquest, were an extremely interesting race. They appear to have formed distinct communities in the different valleys, each under a chief more or less independent, and wars were frequent and very bloody. The most civilized and powerful was the Chimu, who ruled over the valleys of Pativilca, Huarmay, Santa, Guanape, and Chimu. His palaces now form most extensive ruins, and his people set apart every square foot of ground that could be reached by water, for cultivation, building their towns on the edge of the deserts. Their system of irriga¬ tion was as perfect as any that modern science has since adopted. They not only supplied the 54 LANGUAGE OF THE COAST PEOPLE. fields by regular turns, but raised the water to irrigate high levels. In the valley of Nasca rich vineyards and cotton estates now owe their ex¬ istence to a most remarkable system of irrigation constructed by the ancient people. The Yuncas had also made considerable advances in the arts ; silver and gold ornaments, mantles embroidered with gold and silver bezants, robes and head¬ dresses of feathers, cotton cloths of fine texture, and vases of an infinite variety of design being found in the tombs. But the Yncas conquered the coast valleys about a century before the discovery of America, and the Spaniards completed the destruction of the Yunca people. There is a grammar of the language of the Chimu, with a short list of words, and the Lord’s prayer in Mochica, a dialect spoken in the Cafiete valley. These are sufficient to show that the coast language was entirely different from Ouichua and Aymara. The Chimu has three declensions for nouns, the Quichua only one. Chimu has no transitive verbs, different forms of plural, and the conjuga¬ tions are quite on a distinct principle. The people must have been of different origin from the Yncas, and there are reasons for thinking that they came by sea. With the Spanish conquest, the Yunca Indians, NEGROES. INDIANS OF THE MONTANA. 55 the subjects of the Chimu, disappeared. They may have a few-descendants in secluded villages in the lower slopes of the western cordillera. The village of Chilca, south of Lima, is also exclusively inhabited by Indians. Their place was supplied by negroes, to work on the estates in the coast valleys. In 1793 these valleys contained 40,300 negro slaves, while there were a like number of freed mulattoes in Lima, Truxillo, and other towns. The wild Indians of the Montanas were never conquered by the Spaniards, but they were visited by devoted Franciscan missionaries during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and some were collected in mission villages. The noblest of these Amazon Indians was the tribe of Jeveros , in the forests round the Pongo de Manseriche, on the head waters of the Maranon. Faithful, brave, and generous, they withstood all assaults of the Spaniards. They have light muscular bodies, small animated black eyes, aquiline noses, and thin lips, and many are very fair, owing to the capture of Spanish women in 1599. They love liberty and can tolerate no yoke ; but they have fixed homes, cultivate maize and yucas, and live in well-built huts. They are excellent porters, and many now work in the farms of Moyobamba. On the river Huallaga there were once a dozen 56 INDIANS OF THE MONTANA. separate tribes. The Cocomas built their huts round the shores of a beautiful lake near the lower Huallaga, but have since moved down the Maranon to Nauta, at the mouth of the Ucayali. They are shrewd, provident, and excellent canoe- men, speaking a dialect of the Tupi language. They have a custom of eating their deceased relatives, and grinding their bones to drink. in fermented liquor. “For,” urge the Cocomas, “is it not better to be inside a friend than to be swallowed up by the black earth ? ” The Cholones have long been settled in mission villages on the Huallaga, but retain their hunting habits ; being very expert in the use of the cerbatana (pucunci ) or blow-gun. It is a long straight piece of chonta palm, hollowed out, with an arrow a foot long, and they kill birds at forty paces. The Panos are another tribe of the Huallaga which has since moved down the Maranon ; and the Motilones (or Lamistas) remain as industrious labourers, preparing cotton at Chasuta. On the Ucayali there are many tribes, some partly civilized, others working as traders on the river, and a few leading a savage life in the forests. The wild tribes are the Cashibos , Capahuanas , Remos, Amajuacas, and Mayorunas. No one dare venture among the Cashibos , who occupy the INDIANS OF THE MONTANA. 57 forests near the river Pachitea and attack all strangers ; but both Girbal and Raimondi doubt the stories of their cannibalism. The Capahuanas are a bold and savage race on the right bank of the Ucayali, always at war with their neighbours, and the Amajuacas are higher up the river, with like habits. The Reinos are numerous and courageous, seldom coming near the river ; while the Mayorunas, between the Ucayali and Yavari, are the most ferocious of all the tribes. They have thick beards and white skins, and are believed to be descended from Spanish soldiers. They are tall and very warlike, going quite naked, armed with clubs, spears, and blow-guns. The other Ucayali tribes are peaceful traders. The Conibos or Manoas are Christians, round the station of Sarayacu, on the lower part of the river. They trade in salt fish and sarsaparilla, and are good boatmen ; speaking the Pana language. The Pirros or Chuntaquirus , higher up the Ucayali, are also much employed by the traders as boatmen, and navigate the whole extent of the river. They are intelligent, handsome, and brave ; and wear long cotton frocks. The Sends are a bold, warlike, and generous tribe to the north-east of Sarayacu, who are friendly though not converted. They are very industrious cultivators, all idlers being killed 53 INDIANS OF THE MONTANA. as useless. The Setcbos are a set of quiet and tractable traders, north of the Cashibos, and the Shipibos are their neighbours. All these tribes speak the Pana language, a dialect of the general Tupi of the Amazon valley. The Antis or Campas form a large tribe on the upper course of the Ucayali, with probably a large share of Ynca blood in their veins. They wear cotton robes, live in very large huts, many families together, as is the custom with most of these tribes, and are armed with clubs and bows and arrows. The wild Indians of the Montanas of Paucartampu and Caravaya are called Chunchos. They keep in the forest-covered plains, generally far away from settlements, and are still very savage. But they live in large well-built huts, and cultivate maize and plantains. It is difficult to obtain any accurate idea of the population of the Peruvian Montanas, as many tribes wander in the forests without any intercourse with traders, but the attempt has been made. After the conquest of Peru in the middle of the sixteenth century, there was an influx of Spaniards. Great numbers settled in the towns, and others spread over the country as priests, officials, planters, and overseers of mines and workshops. This immigration soon gave rise to a class of half-castes CHOLO INDIANS, Page 59. MESTIZOS OF PERU. 59 called Mestizos, in all grades of society. For the best Spanish blood was proud to ally itself with that of the Yncas. One of the house of Borgia married an Ynca princess, and the most popular historian of Peru was a Mestizo whose mother was an Indian of the blood royal, and whose father was a Garcilasso de la Vega. There were Mestizos who, for culture and talent, were the equals of any Spaniard; but the Mestizos were in all ranks of life. At the same time the unscientific administra¬ tion of the Spanish Viceroys led to a rapid diminu¬ tion of the population. The Ynca and Aymara Indians of the Sierra were decimated, while the Yuncas of the coast disappeared altogether. After these agencies had been at work for two centuries and a half, a careful census was taken in 1793, under the superintendence of the learned Dr. Unanue, with the following results :— Indians . 617,700 Mestizos . 241,225 Spaniards . • 136,311 Negro slaves - 40,337 Free Mulattos . . 4 b 404 1,076,977 Religious persons 5496 6o CHINESE IMMIGRANTS, Of these religious persons 2018 were secular priests, 2217 monks, 1044 nuns, and 217 beatas. This enumeration, however, does not include the basin of Lake Titicaca, which had been placed under the Viceroy of Buenos Ayres in 177S, nor is any account taken of the wild Indians of the Montana. It tells a sad story of depopulation since the fall of the Yncas, and the extinction of their just and able government. The next important change in the character of the population was caused by the return of many Spaniards to Europe after the war of independence, which was however balanced by the arrival of set¬ tlers from Spain and othercountries. There has been another more recent influx. In 1855 a decree was promulgated declaring that slavery had ceased to exist in Peru. The negro slaves became free and ceased to work, and it was necessary to invite free labour into the country to cultivate the sugar and cotton estates and vineyards on the coast. In November, 1849, Chinese labourers began to arrive. Between 1849 an d the number of Chinese coolies that landed in Peru was 2561. In 1856 the immigration was prohibited by a law of Congress, but it was again authorized in 1861, the coolies being contracted for during a service of eight years at the rate of 75/. per man, and POPULATION OF PERU. 61 they received about 13A a month for supplies, besides 1 \ lbs. a day of sweet potatoes, rice, yuca, and maize. At the end of eight years the coolie is free to dispose of his labour as he pleases. The number of Chinese immigrants that landed from i860 to 1872 was In 1858 a German colony was established on the river Pozuzu, in the Montana, at an elevation of 5000 feet above the sea, which in 1872 numbered 457 souls. A small French colony is also established in the valley of Chanchamayu, east of Tarma, engaged in the cultivation of coffee. Thus the population of Peru now consists of Ynca Indians, Aymara Indians, Mestizos, creoles or natives of pure Spanish descent, European settlers, Negroes, Chinese, wild Indians of the Montana, and a numerous body of half-castes. The half-castes are distinguished as follows :— Mestizo . . . Child of a white father and Indian mother. Mulatto . . ,, ,, Negress. Chino . . . ,, Indian father and Negress. Cuarteron . . ,, white father and Mulatta. Quinteron . . ,, ,, Cuarterona. Zambo Negro . ,, Negro father and Mulatta. Mulatto Oscuro . ,, ,, Mestiza. Zambo Chino . ,, ,, China. 1 According to Consul Hutchinson. 43,000 altogether according to Consul General St. John. 62 CENSUS OF PERU. Chino Oscuro Mestizo Claro Chino Cholo . Zambo Claro Zambo . Child of an Indian father and Mulatta. Mestiza. China. ,, Zamba. a Mulatto father and Zamba. 91 11 11 The official language, which is spoken in all towns and throughout the coast, is Spanish. The language of the Sierra is Ouichua, except in part of the Titicaca basin, where Aymara is spoken. In the Montana the settled Indians generally speak Quichua, and the wild tribes on the Ucayali use Pana for the most part, or some dialect of Tupi. In 1836 the population of Peru was officially estimated at 1,373,736, and in 1850 at 1,887,840. In 1862 it was 2,487,916. The main results of the latest census of Peru were made known in 1876. The total population was stated to amount to 2,704,998 souls. When this result is compared with that of 1793 it must be remembered that the portion of the basin of Titicaca included in the department of Puno was excluded from the earlier census, and is now included, namely 261,288 souls. The department of Loreto, in the Montana, (63,794 souls) is also an addition. Out of 2,673,075 souls, there were 1,342,055 men, and 1,331,020 women. The men predominated in the coast districts, where foreign labour is employed, and in the Montana. CENSUS OF PERU. 63 Women were more numerous throughout the Sierra. The part of the census of 1876 relating to the pro¬ portion of races has not yet been published, but it is believed that the Indians form 57 per cent, of the population; the Mestizos 23 per cent; and the people of pure Spanish descent, negroes, Chinese, and foreigners 20 per cent. Peru is therefore still the country of the Ynca people. 64 STYLES OF PERUVIAN ARCHITECTURE. CHAPTER IV. ARCHITECTURAL MONUMENTS OF RERU. The architectural remains of former civilization in Peru are witnesses of the condition of the people in past centuries, and constitute unerring monu¬ mental records, which should be carefully studied. They are guides, enabling the inquirer to compare the past history of the country with the lot of its present inhabitants. The study of this ancient Peruvian civilization is especially important, because it was self-developed. It is exclusively of native growth. The ruins, scattered over Peru, differ in style, and thus give evidence of having been erected at different epochs. But, at the same time, the same styles are met with as a rule in the most distant parts of the country. Hence they must be attri¬ buted to distant periods, not to the handiwork of different races. The earliest ruins certainly date from very remote ages. Five^distinct styles may be traced, each representing a long lapse of time. THE CYCLOPEAN STYLE. 65 The first style consists of walls of unhewn stones and mud, on terraces or platforms ; and the surviving works of this most remote period were probably pucaras , or defensive forts. There is a good example of this style at Curampa, between Andahuaylas and Abancay. The next style, in point of time, is represented by the cyclopean ruins. They must have been raised after the imperial race had conquered a vast extent of country, and thus commanded an unlimited supply of labour, but before it had developed that enlight¬ ened economy and skilful avoidance of waste of power which distinguished the later Yncas. The cyclopean style in Peru is characterized by enormous blocks of stone, unwrought, except where they fit into their neighbours with marvellous pre¬ cision, by great slabs and stone beams, by a ten¬ dency to carve rough figures on the slabs and lintels, by colossal but very rude statues, and by seats and stairs accurately cut out of huge monoliths, or even out of the living rock. Such works appear to have been undertaken by one powerful sovereign, or by two or three in succession, and then to have been left unfinished. They seem to have been erected either with reli¬ gious or military objects; one main inducement having perhaps been to give employment to a tur- F 66 TIAHUANACU. bulent but subjugated people, while feeding the vanity, or pleasing the taste of the conqueror. There are six of these cyclopean ruins, which occur at intervals, from the extreme south to the north of the country; from the southern shore of Lake Titicaca to Huaraz, beyond the ridge of Cerro Pasco. These are Tiahuanacu, the ruin in the Calle del Triunfo at Cuzco, the great fortress at Cuzco, Ollantay-tampu, Huinaque, and Huaraz. Tiahuanacu is in Bolivia, just beyond the limits of the modern Republic of Peru, on a bleak and arid plain, near the southern shores of the lake, and over 12,000 feet above the sea. The ruins consist of rows of erect stones, portions of stairs, blocks with cornices and mouldings, and huge monolithic doorways. The main portion is a rectangular mound of earth, covering nearly a square mile, formerly terraced, each platform sup¬ ported by a massive wall of cut stones, and sur¬ mounted by buildings of stone, the foundations of which may be traced. To the north of the mound there is a rectangular structure, defined by rows of erect stones 130 yards by 150. The stones are eight to ten feet high, and there appears once to have been a wall built between them, supporting a terre-plein of earth about eight feet above the level of the ground. In front of this masonry-faced TIAHUANACU. 67 platform, and about twenty yards from it, there are traces of another rectangular structure, composed of blocks of trachyte, admirably cut, with remains of a corridor round it. Mr. Squier, who recently examined the ruins with great care, says that “ in no part of the world has he seen stones cut with such mathematical precision and admirable skill as in Peru, and in no part of Peru are there any to surpass those which are scattered over the plain of Tiahuanacu.” The most remarkable monument is the great monolithic doorway, thirteen feet five inches long, seven feet two inches above ground, and four feet six in thickness. Through its centre is cut the doorway, four feet six inches high by two feet nine. Above the opening there are three rows of sculpture in relief, and a central figure. On the reverse side there are cornices and niches. The stone is dark, and a very hard trachyte. The figures represent men holding sceptres ; the upper and lower rows with crowned human heads; the middle row with heads of condors. The head of the great central figure is surrounded by rays each ending in a circle; and in each hand it grasps a sceptre, terminating in heads of condors. An ornamental girdle surrounds the waist, from which depends a double fringe. The figures in the three rows are all kneeling on one knee, towards the F 2 68 FORTRESS OF CUZCO. great central figure. There were formerly colossal statues, and cylindrical columns among the ruins, which have been removed or destroyed. These marvellous ruins point to the former exist¬ ence of a large population, and to the guiding hand of some powerful sovereign ; but their history is entirely lost in remote antiquity. Similar cyclopean remains at Cuzco, and further north, are wanting in the elaborate sculpture of Tiahuanacu. The wall in the Calle del Triunfo, in Cuzco, of compact syenite, is a specimen of roughly hewn masonry, each stone fitted with extreme nicety, yet weighing several tons. One stone has twelve angles, each fitting into, or being fitted into a neighbour, as closely as mosaic. But the great feature of the imperial city of Cuzco is the fortress on the lofty Sacsahuaman hill, which rises behind it. The defences consist of three lines of massive walls, each supporting a terrace and parapet, with entering and projecting angles for the whole length of 600 yards. The height of the walls is twenty-seven, eighteen, and fourteen feet respectively, with platforms between; the total height being sixty feet. The stones are huge blocks of blue limestone, of irregular size and shape ; one of them twenty-seven feet high by fourteen; and stones fifteen feet high by twelve are common OTHER CYCLOPEAN WO PH. 69 throughout the work. They are cut with rare pre¬ cision, and accurately joined. Other walls and towers completed the fortress ; but only their foun¬ dations now remain. The Sacsahuaman fortress is undoubtedly the grandest specimen of the cyclopean style in the New World. At Ollantay-tampu, in the valley of the Vilca- mayu, the great mass of ruins is of various styles. There are cyclopean remains, consisting of six slabs of immense size, stone beams fifteen and twenty feet long, and stairs and recesses hewn out of the solid rock. Here, as at Tiahuanacu, there weie men and animals carved on the stones, but they have been destroyed. 1 The same style of architecture is met with, though only in vestiges, at Huinaque, and in Huaraz, still further north. The third Peruvian style, much later than the cyclopean work, shows a great advance in civiliza¬ tion. More enlightened rulers saw the waste of power involved in dragging and raising stones weighing many tons. The same pattern was retained ; walls were still built of polygonal-shaped stones with rough exterior surfaces, and fitting exactly to each other ; but they were much reduced in size, and could easily be conveyed and raised to their places. Rows of doorways and recesses occur 1 Cieza de Leon , cap. 94. 7o EDIFICES NEAR CUZCO . in the walls, with stone lintels, and sides slanting inwards. The front of the palace on the Colcampata, overlooking the city of Cuzco, and just under the fortress, which is supposed to have been the abode of Manco Ccapac, the first Ynca, is in this style. So also are the palaces at Yucay and Chinchero, and the terrace-supporting walls at Ollantay-tampu and Rimac-tampu, all in the immediate neighbour¬ hood of Cuzco. The fourth style is characterized by more regular courses, but the stones are not all paral¬ lelograms, in some cases the upper and under stones dovetailing into each other. These walls usually have a. cornice below the highest course. Finally, we have later edifices with perfectly hori¬ zontal courses, and stones exquisitely fitted, but with slightly projecting surfaces, analagous to our rustication. In this most perfect style we meet with rectangular doorways, windows, and wall recesses. Serpents are sometimes carved in relief on the walls. The eastern side of the Temple of the Sun at Cuzco, where however the stones are quite smooth, the interior buildings on the Colcampata, the whole of the palaces in the Yncarial city, the edifices on the islands in Lake Titicaca, and the buildings figured and described by the Ulloas and EDIFICES A T CUZCO. 71 Humboldt, in the Quitu region, are in this later style. In Cuzco the stone used is a dark trachyte, and the coarse grain secured greater adhesion between the blocks. The workmanship is unsur¬ passed, and the world has nothing to show in the way of stone-cutting and fitting to equal the skill and accuracy displayed in the Ynca structures of Cuzco. No cement is used, and the larger stones are in the lowest row, each ascending course being narrower, which presents a most pleasing effect. The edifices were built round a court, upon which the rooms opened, and some of the great halls were 200 paces long by 60 wide, the height being thirty-five to forty feet, besides the spring of the roof. The roofs were of thatch ; and we are able to form an idea of their construction from one which is still preserved, after a lapse of three centuries. This is on a circular building, called the Sondor-huasi , at Azangaro, and it shows that even thatch in the hands of tasteful builders will make a sightly roof for imposing edifices, and that the interior ornament of such a roof may be exceed¬ ingly beautiful. The Temple of the Sun was entirely plated with pure gold, and many of the golden plates, beaten as thin as paper, are still pre¬ served in private houses at Cuzco. The end on 72 OLLANTA Y- TAMPU. which the Sun’s image was fixed is apsidal in shape, and the curving wall is one of the best specimens of Ynca masonry. But Cuzco still abounds in these beautiful walls, the remains of palaces and temples. They are generally plain, but occasionally with serpents carved in relief on the stones ; and there is reason to believe that sculptures, now destroyed, once adorned the Ynca palaces. Two stone figures of some animal, said to have been in the gardens of the Sun, are still preserved. Ollantay-tampu and Pissac, in the lovely valley of the Vilcamayu, contain a vast amount of in¬ teresting ruins of various periods, built on terraces overhanging dizzy precipices, and commanding glorious views of the fertile valley, with its terrace cultivation, and the chafing torrent dashing down its centre. The most perfect specimen of the later style at Ollantay-tampu is the niched corridor, faced by glorious precipices, with rows of green andeneria or terraces rising between them. The chief use of Ollantay-tampu was as a fortress, commanding the gorge leading northward into the Montana. Another such stronghold was higher up the Vilcamayu valley at Pissac,* commanding the pass leading to Paucar-tampu. At Pissac the fortress, in an almost impregnable position, is made PIS SAC. 73 stronger by art, the rocks being faced Avith masonry, and crowned by circular towers with loop-holes. Everywhere the beautiful terraces extend to the edge of the precipices, ascended by flights of steps, with narrow conduits, down Avhich the water was led for irrigation. Thus a large population was supported among these almost inaccessible heights. In most of the Ynca palaces and temples there was an Ynti-huatana, 2 or sun circle for astronomical observations, but the only one that is properly pre¬ served is at Pissac. The circle at Pissac is formed out of a rock, the top of which has been chiselled away and levelled, and a masonry wall is built round it, about twenty feet high. A flight of steps leads to a doorway on the wall, opening on the platform into which the rock has been hewn. This area is about eighteen feet in diameter, and from its centre rises a cone from the solid rock sixteen inches high, sharply cut and perfectly symmetrical, which was originally surrounded by a flat bronze ring. This was the gnomon. There is another less- perfect Ynti-huatana at Ollantay-tampu ; another near the foot of the Colcampata terrace at Cuzco ; 2 Ynti, the Sun in Quichna, Huaiana, a halter, from Hitatani, I seize, “the place where the Sun is lied up or encircled,” as with a halter. Hence huata means a year. 74 TEMPLE OF CACHA. and others in the great temple of the Sun, and in the sacred island of Titicaca. With the aid of these Ynti-huatanas the Peruvians ascertained the periods of the solstices, and regulated their calendar. The cone in the centre was called, according to Acosta, succanca —a misprint, as Mr. Squier has suggested, for racana , a finger—the Ynti-rucana , or sun-finger. One of the most curious architectural remains near Cuzco is that of the temple of Huiracocha at Cacha, up the Vilcamayu valley, on the road south towards Lake Titicaca. It is interesting from the strange descriptions given of it by ancient writers, who say that it was on apian different from any other temple in Peru. The ruins consist of a wall of adobes or clay, forty feet high and 330 long, built on stone foundations eight feet in height. This wall consists of twelve piers 19! feet wide, separated by spaces which formed doorways ; the roof was supported on twenty-five columns, and the width of the temple was eighty-seven feet. Numerous buildings around it, in groups, were probably used by pilgrims to the shrine. But the most venerated localities in Ynca tra¬ dition are the two islands of Titicaca and Coati, near the southern end of the great lake. On the former there are terraced platforms reached by TITICACA AND COAT/. 75 flights of steps, with two buildings on the upper one, said to have been provided for pilgrims before being conducted to the more sacred island of Coati. There are other ruins on Titicaca Island, including those of a palace, and a bath or tank. The latter is half-way down a long range of terraces supported by cut stone masonry, and the pool, forty feet long by ten, and five deep, has these walls on three sides. Four jets of water trickle into the bath, coming by subterranean passages from sources now unknown. Below the bath the water is made to irrigate terrace after terrace, until it falls into the lake. The palace is also beautifully situated amidst the cultivated terraces, and is of two stories, with the usual niches and doorways in the numerous rooms. In front there is an esplanade, twenty-two feet long and ten broad, with a magnificent view over the lake, bounded by the snowy peak of Illampu. The island of Coati is about six miles from that of Titicaca, and contains two groups of ruins. The chief building is on the upper series of seven terraces, all once filled with rich soil, where throve the dark-leaved quenuar trees, and thickets of the scarlet cantut , or flower of the Ynca. The build¬ ing is round three sides of a square, 183 feet long by 80, and is of stone laid in clay and stuccoed. 7 6 HA TUN - COLLA. HUANUCO. It includes thirty-five chambers, only one of which is faced with hewn stones. The ornament on the facade consists of elaborate niches, which agreeably break the monotony of the wall, and above them runs a projecting cornice. The walls were painted yellow and the niches red ; and there was a high- pitched roof, broken here and there by gables. The two largest chambers are twenty feet long by twelve, and loftier than the rest, each with a great niche in the wall facing the entrance. These were probably the holy places or shrines of the temple. The beautiful series of terraces falls off from the esplanade of the temple, to the shores of the lake. At Hatun-colla, to the north-west of the lake, there are two sandstone pillars of the Ynca period, seven feet high by two broad, which are carved with figures of serpents, lizards, and frogs, and also with elaborate geometric ornaments. They formed the jambs of a palace now destroyed. There are other Ynca ruins throughout the Sierra of less note, northwards to Huanuco-el-viejo in the province of Huamalies, 3 where the ancient buildings are well deserving of attention. Part of the Huanuco works is of accurately-cut limestone masonry, the rest of rough stone. There is a reservoir and bath, and a vista of doorways, each with a stone lintel thirteen 3 Fifty miles from the present city of Huanuco. CHULPAS IN THE COLL AO. 77 feet tong. The perspective through these portals affords one of the finest architectural effects in Peru. Near this edifice is a fortress 180 long by 80, with a finely cut stone wall thirteen feet high. An inclined plane leads up to the platform above, which is entered by two portals with animals sculptured at the top. The Huanuco ruins are 12,156 feet above the sea. In the basin of Lake Titicaca the original in¬ habitants, called Collas, built monumental towers for the burial of their dead, which are peculiar, and continued to be erected, though in improved forms, throughout the period of Ynca domination. These chulpas , or burial towers, consist of a circle or square of stones, with other stones placed horizon¬ tally upon them, lapping over each other so as to lean together and form a rudely-arched chamber. They are faced with hewn limestone blocks, form¬ ing towers about twenty-four feet high with cor¬ nices, the interior chamber being about ten to eleven feet by thirteen in height. The chulpas occur in groups of from twenty to a hundred, usually occu¬ pying a rocky ridge, or some isolated eminence in the plains. The most perfect specimens of these monuments are on a promontory called Sillustani, which juts out into the alpine lake of Umayu, near the road from Arequipa to Puno. Some stand on 78 CHULPAS IN THE COLL AO. the very verge of the precipices overlooking the lake. The largest is sixteen feet in diameter at the base, and thirty-nine feet high ; widening slightly as it rises, until, at the spring of the dome, its diameter is thirty-four inches greater than at its base. Here a cornice runs round, three feet wide, and projecting about three inches. The material is a hard, compact basalt, the stones ad¬ mirably cut, and disposed in horizontal courses. The entrance is a man-hole cut in one of the stones, and leads into the chamber of the dead, a circular vault twelve feet high, arched with overlapping stones. The most remarkable fact connected with these buildings is that the stones were not shaped after having been put in position, but prepared and cut on a regular plan in which every dimension of the structure had been previously fixed. All the exterior stones are cut on radii from the centre of the building, and the gradual swell as the tower widens out, is preserved in each stone with geo¬ metrical accuracy. The chulpas in different parts of the Collao, vary in shape and internal arrange¬ ment, though preserving the same general plan At Acora they are square ; at Escoma, on the eastern shore of Lake Titicaca, they contain two chambers one above the other ; and there are other forms of chulpas at Quellenata on the north-east RUINS OF CHI MU. 79 shore of the lake, and at Ullulloma in the valley of the river Pucara. These sepulchral monuments are peculiar to the hardy shepherd tribes of the Collao (now called Aymaras); while the vast ruins of Tiahuanacu are remains of a prehistoric im¬ perial race, and the beautiful terraced edifices on the islands in the lake belong to the later Yncas. The people of the coast, entirely differing from the Yncas in race and religion, also had buildings and other public works peculiar to themselves, and suited to a different climate. The centre of coast civilization was near the city of Truxillo, on the plain of Chimu, which is thickly covered over with the ruins of a great city, among which there are vast huacas or artificial hills. The city was sup¬ plied with water by azequias, which also formed streams to irrigate the gardens, all being led from the main channel derived from the river Moche. The great mounds were for sepulchral purposes The largest, at Moche, is 800 feet long by 470^ covering an area of seven acres, and 200 feet in height, constructed of large adobes or sun-dried bricks. On the summit there were probably build- ings, and the vast structure was, it seems most likely, used as a temple for religious rites, as well as for sepulture. The palace of Chimu was of vast extent. The So PALACE OF CHIMU. great hall was one hundred feet long by fifty-two, the walls being covered with intricate and very effective series of arabesques on stucco, worked in relief. They begin from a terrace running along the wall, and rising seven feet from the floor, and the belt of arabesques is ten feet wide. A neigh¬ bouring hall, with walls stuccoed in colour, is entered by passages and skirted by openings lead¬ ing to small rooms seven feet square, which were dormitories, or possibly store-rooms. A long cor¬ ridor leads from the back of the arabesque hall to some recesses where gold and silver vessels have been found. The whole of these halls and passages form the excavated part of a vast mound, covering several acres. About ioo yards to the westward of this palace there was a sepulchral mound, where many relics have been discovered. The bodies were wrapped in cloths, woven in ornamental figures and patterns of different colours. On some of the cloths were sewn plates of silver, and they were edged with borders of feathers, the silver being occasionally cut in the shape of fishes. Among the ruins of the city there are great rec¬ tangular areas enclosed by massive walls, and con¬ taining courts, streets, dwellings, and reservoirs for water. The largest is about a mile south of the mound-palace, and is 550 yards long by 400. The THE CITY OF XAUXA, FA LACE OF CHIMU. 81 outer wall is about thirty feet high, ten feet thick at the base, with sides inclining towards each other. Some of the interior walls are highly ornamented in stuccoed patterns; and in one part there is an edifice containing forty-five chambers or cells, in five rows of nine each, which is supposed to have been a prison. The enclosure also contained a reservoir, 450 feet long by 195 broad, and sixty feet deep. There cannot be a doubt that these Chimu ruins represent the work of a highly-civilized people. This is shown by the admirable arrangements for water supply, the elaborate character of the internal arrangements in the buildings, their vast extent, and the tasteful designs both on the arabesque walls, and as displayed in the utensils of silver and clay, and in the cotton fabrics. The gold and silver vases are very thin, with ornaments struck up from the inside, and plaques have been found represent¬ ing groups of figures with trees in silver. Knives and agricultural implements in bronze, lances or javelins and war-clubs in metal have also been found ; and the pottery, like that of the Yncas, is of every form and shape, most frequently moulded in the shape of animals and fruits, and with double or quadruple spouts. Southwards from Truxillo, in several of the coast G 82 CAXAMARQUILLA, PACHACAMAC. valleys, there are ruins of similar character, but of less importance than those in the plain of Chimu. At Huaca-tampu, in the Nepena valley, there is an edifice 150 yards long - , 80 broad, with outer walls of adobes about 24 high. It consists of open courts with platforms at the ends and round the sides, and was probably a temple. There are many similar structures ; and on the verge of almost every valley there are remains of towns, temples, sepulchral pyramids, forts, and irrigation works, proving the former existence of a dense and industrious population. Near Lima there is a ruined city, at a place now called Caxamarquilla, which covers a square league—one great labyrinth of massive adobe walls. Here there are curious subterranean vaults, probably the store-rooms of the houses. Most of the coast ruins are on the edge of the deserts, so as not to occupy any space that might be used for cultivation. The famous ruins of the temple and city of Pachacamac are on the verge of the rich vale of Lurin, to the south of Lima; and the lofty mound of the temple over¬ looks the Pacific Ocean, from a height of 500 feet. It consists of four vast terraces with nearly per¬ pendicular walls, at one time painted red. The summit is reached by a winding passage through the terrace walls, but the buildings have been WORKS OF IRRIGATION. 83 destroyed. Among the ruins of the city there is an instance of a perfect arch, built of large adobes. The works of irrigation are, however, the grandest monuments of the coast people of Peru. The most interesting are those at Nasca, which are alluded to in another chapter. The subjects of the Chimu constructed dams at different elevations in the streams for drawing off the water, with channels to carry it along the higher slopes of the valleys. They also built vast reservoirs for the storage of water. One of these, in the valley of the Nepeha, is 1300 yards long by 900 broad, and is formed by a massive dam of stone, eighty feet thick at the base, which is carried across a gorge between two rocky hills. It was supplied by two canals, one brought from a distance of fourteen miles up the valley. The coast of Peru was conquered by the Yncas upwards of a century before the Spanish invasion, and there are, therefore, several ruins of Ynca edifices. The most important is that called Mama - cuna at Pachacamac, about a mile from the great temple-mound, which is unmistakably of Ynca origin from the form of the doorways and niches, and from other peculiarities. Another extensive range of buildings, fortress and palace, at the mouth G 2 8 4 IIERVAY. YNCA ARCHITECTURE. of the river of Canete, was erected by the Yncas. It is known as the palace of Hervay, and stands grandly on a high rock near the sea shore, like Pachacamac. It is in two parts, that most inland consisting of five chambers, with an outer rampart and parapet. Overlooking the ocean there is a spacious hall, with fifteen ornamental recesses at one end, and a doorway leading to a dozen chambers opening upon an inner court. Hervay is built of adobes , and the walls were formerly stuccoed and painted. The ruins of edifices and other public works, both in the Sierra and on the coast, supply materials for forming a judgment of the capabilities for civilization and advancement, possessed by the people who executed them. The Ynca masonry is unequalled throughout the world ; some of the monuments of the Peruvians are as durable and indestructible as the pyramids of Egypt; their de¬ signs were tasteful and elegant, and their engineer¬ ing works, especially those for irrigation, testify to their skill and ingenuity, and to an advanced stage of civilization. It may prove useful to give a list of the archi¬ tectural and other monuments of Peru, with their positions, and the authorities who have described them:— LIST OF RUIN’S IN PERU. 85 In the Sierra. Cuzco, The Sacsahuaman fortress Cyclopean work, Calle del Triunfo Colcampata „ Temple of the Sun „ Walls of the Palaces f Yucay, Palace, Andeneria Valley of the J Ollantay-tampu, Fortress and works Vilcamayu. j Pissac, Fortress, Andeneria, Ynti-hua- tana Near Cuzco. I * ui " ed l Piqmllacta, Fortress Upper valley^ of Vilca- i Temple 0/ Cacha J La. Raya, Ynca tampus (Sondorhuasi, Ancient roof, at Azangaro Isle 0/ Titicaca, Ynca bath, Temple Isle of Coati, Convent, Temple Hatun-colla, Carved pillars Tiahuanacu, Extensive ruins, carved doorway maju. Pass Vilca- fiota. Basin of like Tititcaca. Sillustani, Sepulchral towers or chulpas Acora „ „ „ Quellenata „ ,, ,, Ullulloma ,, ,, ,, \Escoma ,, ,, ,, „ T „ eChinchero, Palace KRimac-tampu,, Between f Curampa ,, Cuzco and 4 Huihaque „ Ayacucho. (_ Vile as, Palaces and temples ,Huaraz North of f jfjtanuco (el Viejo) Cerro < Caxamarca, Palace (Ynca baths Pasco. v. Tower of Chupan Roads of the Yncas Authorities. Cieza de Leon, Acosta, G. de la Vega, Mark¬ ham, Squier: Squier gives a plan. Markham, Squier. G. de la V<;ga, Markham, Squier. Squier, Wiener. G. de la Vega, Squier, Markham, Squier. G. de la Vega, Calancha, Ramos, Squier. >» >» Squier. Cieza de Leon, Acosta, G. de la Vega, D’Or- bigny, Castelnau, Ri¬ vero, Squier, Wiener. Markham, Squier. Squier. Markham, Squier. ,, Wiener. ,, Gibbon, Wiener. Rivero. Cieza de Leon, Rivero. Wiener. Rivero, Raimondi. Humboldt, Stephenson. Rivero. G. de la Vega, Cieza de Leon, Zarate, Velasco, Humboldt, Markham, Rivero, Squier, 86 LIST OF RUINS IN PERU. On the Coast. Near Trux- illo. Valley of Nepena } 3 Valleys north J of Lima. J Chimu, Palaces, mounds Huaca-tampn, Reservoir Chancayillo, near Casrna, Fortress Fortress of Quisgue Ruins of Alcapote Parmunca, Fortress Near Lima. S Caxninarquilla Huaca, called Limatambo Huacas round Lima Pachacamac Vale of Cafiete. Pisco Valley. | Hervay, Palace and fortress Huaytara, Temple Nasca, Works of irrigation Coast road of the Yncas Authorities. Rivero, Sguier, IVicncr. Squier. it i> 9f Cieza de Leon, G. de la Vega, Proctor , Rivero. Squier, Markham. 99 Hutchinson. Astete, Hernando Pizar • ro, G. de la Vega, Rive - ro, Markham, Squier. Markham. Squier. Markham. G. de la Vega, Cieza de Leon, Zarate,Gomara. DIVISIONS OF THE YNCA EMPIRE. 87 CHAPTER V. ENUMERATION OF PROVINCES AND TOWNS. The administrative divisions of Peru, indeed of every country, should not be given as dry statistical facts, but should be traced from their origin, and followed in their successive developments. Before the discovery of America, Peru enjoyed the most efficient government the world has ever seen, and this efficiency was in part secured by well-arranged divisions for purposes of administration. The Yncas divided their vast empire into four govern¬ ments corresponding with the four points of the compass. Chincha-suyu included the Sierra and coast districts north of Cuzco, as far as Quito; Anti-suyu was the eastern Andes and the Montana Cunti-suyu was the Sierra and coast to the west of Cuzco; and Colla-suyu was the Collao, or basin of Lake Titicaca. The whole empire was called Ttahuantin-suyu , l or the four governments. Each 1 Ttahua, four in Quichua, ntin the comprehensive plural par¬ ticle ; suyu, a province or government. 88 ENCOMIENDAS OF THE SPANIARDS. was ruled over by a Viceroy, who superintended the workings of an elaborate system. Immediately under the Viceroys there were, throughout the provinces, Huaranca-cainayocs , or officers ruling over one thousand men. Under these, in regular order, there were rulers over five hundred men, one hundred men, fifty men, and ten men. The duty of the decurion was to supply seed for sowing, wool for weaving, and to report the needs of his charge; to judge offences, and register vital and agricultural statistics. There was no poverty, and all tyranny and disorder were prevented by the action of Tucuyricocs , or itinerant inspectors. The superior officers collected the reports and revenues periodi¬ cally, and all were submitted to the Curaca, or governor. The Spanish Conquest threw this admirable but complicated system entirely out of gear. The Spanish Government first made extensive grants to the conquerors, which were called enco 7 niendas, often comprising a whole province. The Encomenderos were feudal lords, holding the land with a right to the services of the people, and being responsible for the royal tribute. But they were bound to protect and act justly by the people, securing also the ministrations of a priest for each district. This system failed, and it soon became necessary to SYSTEM OF CORREGIDORESAND INTENDENTES. 89 revert to the Ynca system and seek aid from the old officials. The Cacicazgos were then instituted, which were native governments under hereditary chiefs, subordinate to Spanish Encomenderos. But it was too late. The Ynca machinery had been broken by Spanish tyranny and ignorance, and could not be pieced together again. The muni¬ cipalities of towns were free from the rule of Encomenderos. This feudal system would not work. In 1559 the Governor, Lope Garcia de Castro, divided Peru into Corregimientos , under officers named by the government, called Corregidores , whose functions were political and administrative. The divisions were, however, too small, there being seventy-seven throughout Peru, each in direct correspondence with the Supreme Government at Lima. In 1784 an important administrative reform was, therefore, made by the Viceroy, Don Agustin Jauregui. Peru was divided into seven Intendencias , or depart¬ ments, namely Lima, Truxillo, and Arequipa on the coast, Cuzco, Gua manga, Huancavelica, and Tarma in the Sierra. Each was ruled by an officer called an Intendente , and included a certain number of the old corregimientos , now called partidos, six on an average. The partidos were under officers called Sub-delegados. This was a great improve- 90 REPUBLICAN DIVISIONS. ment, the number of officers reporting direct to Lima being reduced from seventy-seven to seven, and the efficient working of the administration being proportionally facilitated. When the yoke of Spain was thrown off in 1824, the Republic wisely adopted the old administrative system, which had worked well, merely altering the names of the divisions and of the officers. Intendencias became departments, and partidos provinces. Intendentes gave place to prefects, and sub-delegados to sub-prefects. The provinces were divided into districts under governors, each includ¬ ing several parishes. A portion of the basin of Lake Titicaca was then added to Peru, as the department of Puno. 2 Many changes have since been made in the territorial divisions of Peru, and it has been thought that these changes are too frequent, and have sometimes been made without sufficient cause. But undoubtedly the course of events necessitates rearrangement occasionally, and new departments and provinces appear generally to have been created with good reason. At present the Republic of Peru is divided into eighteen departments, two 2 This region had been taken from Peru in 1778, when the Vice¬ royalty of Buenos Ayres was created. The province of Quito had been separated from Peru in 1718, to form part of the Viceroyalty of Nueva Granada. DEPARTMENTS OF PERU. 91 littoral provinces, and what is called the constitu¬ tional province of Callao. The eighteen depart¬ ments contain ninety-five provinces, or an average of five in each. There are 766 districts, or about eight in each province. The government also recognizes the existence of 65 cities, 70 towns, 1337 smaller towns, 641 villages, no hamlets on the sea-coast, and 6180 in the rural districts. Reverting to the geographical divisions of the country, it will be as well to treat of the depart¬ ments and their towns as they group themselves on the Coast , in the Sierra , and in the Montana , although they are not always conterminous with the natural divisions; some of the Coast depart¬ ments having provinces in the Sierra, and some of the Sierra divisions in the Montana. On the coast, commencing from the north, are the departments of Piura (13,931 square miles ; population 135,709), of Lambayeque ( area 17,939; population 85,984) ; Libertad, formerly Truxillo {area 15,649; population 147,541); Ancachs {area 17,405; population 284,091) ; Lima {area 14,690; population 261,414, including Callao) ; Yea {area 6295 ; population 60,111); Arequipa {area 27,744; population 160,282); Tacna {area 20,100; popula¬ tion 35,706) ; and Moquegua (^^42,387, including Tarapaca, population 70,788). Of these, Piura, 92 DEPARTMENTS OF PERU. Truxillo, Ancachs, Lima, and Arequipa, also have provinces within the Sierra. 3 The Sierra departments, commencing from the north, are Caxamarca {area 14,188; population 213,243); Huanuco, with Junin {area 33,822; population 287,859); Huancavelica {area 10,814; population 104,140); Ayacucho {area 24,213 ; popula¬ tion 147,909) ; Apurimac {area 62,325 ; population 119,246) ; Cuzco {area 95,547 ; population 237,083) ; and Puno {area 39,743 ; population 268,594). Of these, Huanuco, Junin, Apurimac. Cuzco, and Puno, have provinces in the Montana. 4 The departments of the Montana are Amazonas 3 Three of these coast departments were original Intendencias of 1784; namely, Libertad (Truxillo), Lima, and Arequipa. Piura was made a littoral province in 1837 and a department in 1861. Lambayeque was made a department in 1874. The two were carved out of Libertad. Ancachs was made a department and Callao a constitutional province in 1836. Yea, carved out of Lima, was made a littoral province in 1855 and a department in 1868. Moquegua (including Tacna) was carved out of Arequipa, and made a department in 1839. In 1875 the department was oixlered to be called Tacna, and Moquegua was separated and made a littoral province. Tarapaca was made a littoral province in 1868. * Of the Sierra departments, Cuzco, Ayacucho (Guamanga), Junin (Tarma), and Huancavelica were the original Intendencias of 1784. Caxamarca, carved out of Truxillo (Libertad), became a separate department in 1862. Huancavelica was suppressed and joined to Ayacucho in 1825, but re-created in 1839. Huanuco, carved out of Junin, was created a department in 1869. Apurimac, made out of Cuzco and Ayacucho, became a department in 1873 ; Puno in 1825. DEPARTMENT OF PIURA. 93 (area 14,129; population 34,245) ; and Loreto (area 32,727 ; population 61,128). This gives a total area of 503>364 square miles for the whole of Peru. 5 Piura corresponds with the first geographical section of the Coast Region. It is a desert inter¬ sected by the three fertile valleys of Tumbez, Chira, and Piura ; with two mountain provinces of Ayavaca and Huancabamba, on the upper courses of those rivers, and is the most northern division of Peru. The most northern town in Peru is Tumbez, near the shore of the gulf of Guayaquil, famous as the spot where Pizarro landed when he commenced the invasion in 1532. San Miguel de Piura, the capital of the depart¬ ment, was founded by Pizarro at a place called Tangarara, in the Chira valley, but the site was afterwards removed to the more southerly valley of Piura. The towns, in all parts of Peru where the ground will allow of it, are built on the same plan, in squares or quadras, with the streets at right angles, and a quadrangular open space or plaza near the centre. Here is the matriz (mother church) or cathedral; sometimes with a very ornamental fa9ade in the renaissance style, with 5 Amazonas was created a department in 1832, carved out of Libertad, and Loreto was separated as a littoral government in 1853. In 1868 it was made a department. 94 PIURA AND PA YTA. two towers, often with the towers unfinished, in small towns usually with but one tower. The houses on. the coast are flat-roofed, 1 with folding doors to the streets, leading into a court or patio , with rooms opening on it, the principal reception- room being generally opposite to the street gates. Occasionally there is a second story ; but on the coast the houses of the poor are slightly built, while those of the better classes are of adobes, or large sun-dried bricks. Piura is a town of this class. It suffered from a severe earthquake in 1855. The sea port of Payta is on the shores of a well-protected bay, but the country round is a desert, and all supplies come from the valley of Chira. The dis¬ tance to Piura over the desert is sixty-three miles. Payta is a port of export for the cotton of the neighbouring valleys, for the straw hats of Catacaos^ a village in the Piura valley, and for some chin- chona bark from Loxa and J aen. The best Peruvian sailors are from Payta, and from the fishing village of Sechura to the southward, at the mouth of the Piura river. Officially there are six cities in the department, Piura, Payta and Catacaos on the coast, Ayavaca and Frias in the Sierra on the head waters of the Chira and Piura rivers; and Huan- cabamba on the inland watershed. Next to Piura, on the south, and separated from DEPARTMENT OF LAMBA YEQUE. 95 it by the desert of Sechura, comes the new depart¬ ment of Lambayeque, watered by the rivers Mor- rope, Chiclayo, and Sana. The department con¬ tains the cities of Lambayeque, Chiclayo, and Sana. Formerly, in early Spanish times, the capital was Sana, 6 called also Santiago de Miraflores, until that town was destroyed by a buccaneer in 1685. Lambayeque was then enlarged, and became the chief town of the province. It is on the banks of a river of the same name, and six miles from the little port of San Jose. Lambayeque is exposed to periodical inundations from freshes rushing down from the mountains. In 1791, in 1828, and again in 1870, great damage was caused by these floods. Seven miles south of Lambayeque is the town of Chiclayo, with its port of Eten, and there are two other little ports in the district called Pimentel and Cherrepe. The towns derive their importance from the estates in the valleys of Chiclayo and Saha, and round Ferrenafe, a great centre of rice cultiva¬ tion. The port of Eten is particularly interesting, as being the home of a people speaking a peculiar language, probably a remnant of the race which formed the empire of Chimu. The department of Libertad (formerly the In- tendencia of Truxillo) bounds Lambayeque to the 6 Founded by the Viceroy Marquis of Canete in 1558. 96 CITY OF TRUXILLO. south. It is composed of the provinces of Pacas- mayu and Truxillo on the coast; and of Otuzco, Huamachuco and Pataz in the Sierra, the latter beyond the Maranon. Its official cities are Truxillo, San Pedro de Loc, Otuzco, Santiago de Chuco, and Parcoy, the capital of Pataz. Its most northern fertile valley, that of Jequetepeque, does not con¬ tain any large city, though it is a centre of agricul¬ ture and trade, with the sea port of Pacasmayu. The capital of the department is Truxillo, further south, amidst the valleys of Chimu, Chicama, and Viru, which formed the centre of the empire of the great Chimu before the Ynca conquest. The city of Truxillo was founded by Pizarro in 1535, and named after the capital of his native province in Spain. It is of an oval shape, and was surrounded by a wall with fifteen bastions, built by the Viceroy Duke of Palata in 1686, which has recently been demolished. Besides the ca¬ thedral with a bishopric founded in 1611, there are three parish churches, and formerly there were four monasteries and a Jesuits’ college. The two nunneries still exist. The water for the city, and for the irrigation of the fruit gardens, is derived from the river Moche ; and there is an excellent road, partly planted with fruit-trees, leading to the little seaport of Huanchaco. P'urther south are DEPARTMENT OF ANCACHS. LIMA . 97 the two other ports of Salaverry and Huanape. Truxillo, in Spanish times, was the abode of many rich families of good descent, several with “ Titulos de Castilla. ’ It is the most important city north of Lima, from which place it is distant 339 miles. The next department to the south, that of Ancachs, does not contain any cities of note. It is composed of the provinces of Pallasca, Pumapampa, Huaylas, Santa, Huaraz, Caxatambo, and Huari in the Sierra ; and Santa on the coast. The towns are small, those on the coast being the markets for the surrounding estates in the valleys. The titular cities of the department of Ancachs are Caraz, Yungay, Huaraz, Carhuaz, and Huari, all small places in the Sierra. The seaports are Santa, Chimbote in the bay of Ferrol, and Samanca. Lima, the capital of Peru, is nearly in the centre of the coast region, being 720 miles from the northern frontier, and 800 from that of Tarapaca. Its de¬ partment consists of the provinces of Chancay, Lima, and Canete on the coast; Canta, Huarochiri, and \ auyos in the Sierra. There are two cities, Lima and Callao, the latter forming a constitu¬ tional province of itself. Lima was founded by Pizarro on the 6th January, 1535 - It was called “La Ciudad de Los Reyes” (the city of the kings) in memory of the day of its H 98 LIMA. foundation, the Epiphany, and also of the kings of Spain, Carlos I. and his mother Juana. Its arms were three crowns of gold on an azure field, and above them the star of Bethlehem, with the motto “ Hoc signum vera Regum est.” The supporters were two crowned eagles, and on their heads the letters J. and^C., initials of Carlos and Juana. The title was “ the most noble and very loyal city.” The name of Lima is a corruption of Rimac, 7 the river which flows through it and irrigates the fertile plain between the western cordillera and the ocean. The city is at the foot of the barren rocky hills which form the last spurs from the Andes, and six miles from its seaport of Callao, the intervening valley of the Rimac being fertile, and furnishing abundant supplies of fruits and vegetables. The houses and churches of Lima are of adobes , or large sun-dried bricks, and lightly constructed, owing to the frequent earthquakes. Yet great pains were bestowed by the Spanish architects on the decora¬ tion of the fajades of the cathedral and churches. The cathedral, the cloister of San Domingo, the tower of San Francisco, the former Jesuit church and cloister of San Pedro, and the Hall of the Uni- 7 Rimac, an oracle in Quichua, from a famous idol in a temple on its banks. Rimac is the participle of the Quichua verb Rimani, 1 speak. LIMA. 99 \ versity of St. Mark, now used for the Congress, are not without architectural merit. The cathedral and archiepiscopal palace occupy one side of the great square ; the old palace of the Viceroys, a mean edifice, but with spacious rooms, is on another, and the other two are occupied by arcades with shops, and stories above, having latticed jalousies, which, combined with the flat roofs, give the town a Moorish appearance. The city was much embel¬ lished by successive viceroys. A stone bridge over the Rimac was erected by the Marquis of Montes Claros in 1618 ; the city was surrounded by a wall in 1685, by the Duke of La Palata ; a brass foun¬ tain, with a statue of Fame, was placed in the centre of the great Plaza in 1670, by the Count of Salva- /kS tierra ; and the alamedas , or avenues, were planted by the Viceroy Don Manuel Amat. The city formerly had nineteen monasteries and convents, besides a university, and several schools. Great changes have been effected in Lima during recent years. The railway to Callao was made in 1851, followed by other lines to the seaport of Chorrillos to the south, to Magdalena, to Chancay to the north, and up the valley of the Rimac. In 1873 the old walls were demolished, to make room for boulevards planted with trees. In the Plaza of the Inquisition (now called Plaza de la Indepen- H 2 IOO LIMA. dencia) there is a fine bronze equestrian statue of the Liberator Bolivar, erected in 1858, cast at Munich, and designed by the sculptor Tadolini. In the same square is the University Chapel before mentioned, now used for the sittings of the Cham¬ ber of Deputies, a very stately and imposing hall, with walls of elaborately carved wood-work. The Senate holds its sittings in another building in the same square, which was formerly the Tribunal of the Inquisition. The hospitals of Lima, especially that of San Andres, are well conducted ; and the penitentiary, due to the enlightened exertions of Don Mariano Paz Soldan, is a model which it is to be hoped will some day be imitated throughout Peru. Commenced in 1856, the foundations, base¬ ment, and first floor are entirely of a hard por- phyritic stone brought from a quarry two miles off, the entrance being up four broad steps, all cut out of a single block. The second floor is of bricks. Wards for men, women, and boys are separate, each with a well-ventilated work-room and exer¬ cise-yard, and the men have a place for meals. The penitentiary holds 208 men, fifty-two women, and fifty-two boys. The drainage of Lima was formerly provided for by open, rapidly flowing streams of water, or azeqaias , in the centre of each street running north and south ; and numerous turkey EXHIBITION rAEACF. AT LIMA. Pag? IOI LIMA. IOI buzzards, large black birds of the vulture type, acted as the scavengers. Now all the azequias are covered over, and converted into sewer pipes. A national exhibition was opened at Lima in 1872, and the buildings, planned by Don Manuel Fuentes, including palace, theatre, gardens, concert and show-rooms, permanently remain on the southern side of the city. Here is the great statue of Columbus, removed from the alanieda. There are two theatres in Lima, a cock-pit, and one of the largest bull rings in the world. Lima, in Spanish times, was inhabited by many families of rank and pure Castillian blood. In the seventeenth century, twenty-nine Peruvian noblemen were created; in the eighteenth, there were fifty-four creations ; in all eighty-three at the time of the de¬ claration of independence in 1821, including one duke, forty-six marquises, thirty-five counts, and one viscount. Many of these remained in Peru, a large proportion in Lima, only using their titles among friends and relations. Lima has also contained men of science and letters, the Unanues and Barnuevos of former times being succeeded by the Paz Soldans, Vigils, and Fuentes of our own day. The ladies of Lima have always been renowned for their beauty, their graceful figures, and small feet. These charms were set off 102 LIMA . by the dress called tapada (sayay manto ) consisting of a skirt, formerly fitting close to the form, but afterwards made full, and a mantle sewn in at the waist, passing over the head, and held so as only to show one eye. This was the walking-dress of the ladies in which they went to church and walked in the alamedas. It has now gone out of use. The Lima ladies are not only beautiful and vivacious, but many of them possess high CALLAO. 103 literary attainments. In 1873, two articles ap¬ peared in the “ Revista de Lima,” by ladies, which possess considerable merit. One is an essay on charity, entitled “ El Hogar,” and the other an allegory, entitled “ Un drama en quince minutos.” Another lady of rank has published a series of able treatises called “ Conferencias Femininas,” in¬ cluding an article on ethics and theology, which is characterized by lofty thought and eloquent teach¬ ing, and relates to the sound culture of the female mind in connexion with the domestic virtues. In 1712, the population of Lima was estimated at 37,000 by Frezier; in 1764, at 54,000, by Cosme Bueno ; in 1820, at 64,000. The census of 1876, gives the population at 100,156; 8 of whom 33,020 were Peruvians of European descent; 23,120 half-castes, 19,630 Indians, 15,378 foreigners, and 9008 negroes. Lima, since 1851, has been connected with its seaport of Callao by a railway, the capital being 480 feet above the sea. The port was first at the mouth of the river Rimac. It was then moved some miles to the south, where the town stood, until it was entirely destroyed by the earthquake of 1746. This old town was surrounded by walls with bastions, and it had an excellent masonry 8 Paz Soldan argues, from the consumption of food and number of houses, that Lima must contain 200,000 inhabitants. 104 CALLAO. mole built in 1694. After its destruction, the pre¬ sent town of Callao was built a short distance to the north of the former site, with an extensive castle, having two circular towers, one at each end of a curtain facing the sea. The castle was called “ Real Felipe,” and the round towers were “ Torreon de la Patria,” and “ Torreon de San Fernando.” The town has increased considerably in size of late years, and great improvements have been made in the port. Along the fore-shore are the works of the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, the exten¬ sive concrete works of Mr. Hodges on the point, and four hotels. There are foundries, iron-yards, a steam flour-mill, railway works, gas works, and lines of store houses ; besides a floating dock, and a magnificent new mole and mercantile dock-yard under construction. The defences of Callao consist of the iron-clad tower of La Merced, of six inches thickness, armed with two Armstrong 200-pounders, the stone forts of Santa Rosa and Ayacucho, each with two Blakeley guns, 500-pounders; the stone towers of Manco Ccapac and Independencia, the former with two 300-pounders, the latter with two Blakely 500-pounders, and the six-inch iron-clad tower of Junin, with two Armstrong 300-pounders. There are also twenty-five 32-pounders mounted. The other towns on the coast, within the Lima |U,PA AFTER ____ PW »5. DEPARTMENTS OF YCA AND AREQUIPA . 105 department, are the fashionable bathing-place of Chorrillos south of Lima, the ports of Chancay and Ancon, north of Callao, and of Cerro Azul to the south; and the agricultural towns of Lurin, Chilca, Mala, and Cahete; the latter surrounded by- flourishing sugar estates. 9 The department of Yea is composed of the two provinces of Yea and Chincha, each with a city. Chincha is in the centre of a sugar-growing district. Pisco is a sea port, for the export of the produce of the vineyards of the valleys of Pisco and Yea. Here excellent wine is made, and great quantities of a spirit called Pisco, which is universally used in Peru. That from the best grape is known as Italia. Yea is a pleasant town in a fertile valley away from the sea, surrounded by cotton and vine estates, and forty-eight miles from Pisco; and further south, in the same department, are the charming little agricultural towns of Palpa and Nasca. Then commences the much more extensive depaitment of Arequipa, formed of the provinces of Union, Caylloma, Condesuyos, and Castilla in the Sierra; of Arequipa itself; and of Camana and Islay on the coast. There are five officially created 9 Canete, in the valley of Huarcu, was founded by the Viceroy Marquis of Canete in 1558. 1 Founded by the Viceroy Conde de Nieva in 1562. o6 AREQUIPA. cities in the department, Caraveli and Chuquibamba in the Sierra, Camana on the coast, Arequipa and Tiavaya in the valley of Arequipa. The city of Arequipa, from its elevation of 7266 feet above the sea, has a Sierra rather than a coast climate. In March the highest temperature is 6 y° Fahr., the lowest 58°. Arequipa was founded, by order of Pizarro, in 1536. It is in a fertile valley sur¬ rounded by barren hills, with the magnificent cone of the volcano of Misti rising immediately above it, other snowy peaks and ridges bound¬ ing the view to the eastward. The town is built of a white volcanic stone, the houses being usually of one story, constructed solidly with vaulted ceilings, the better to resist the shocks of earthquakes. The great Plaza, in the morning, is filled with gaily-dressed Indian women, some sitting under shades with their goods spread out on the ground before them, and others, in constant move¬ ment,. threading their way among the sellers. The background was formed by the handsome cathedral of white stone, which was destroyed in the earthquake of 1868. The design of this edifice, which had been rebuilt in 1844, is favourably criticized by Mr. Fergusson in his “ History of Modern Architecture.” 2 The valley or campina of 2 Page 434. AREQUIPA. 107 Arequipa, about twelve miles long by five broad, is watered by the river Chile, a tributary of the Quilca,.and contains several small towns and many farmhouses. The view from the surrounding hills presents a brilliant green expanse, consisting of fields of corn and lucerne ( alfalfa ), rows of tall willows, and gardens of fruit-trees, dotted with villages, and forming an emerald setting to the great white city. The wealth of the campina is derived from its mules, and the arrieros or muleteers are a wealthy class of men. The families of the upper classes generally own estates in the neighbouring warm valleys of the coast; and their houses in the city are, as usual, built round a patio or court on which the principal rooms open. The sons are lawyers or farmers, while the more ambitious adopt the “ carrera de annas.” The ladies are considered the most beautiful and intelligent in Peru, sprightly and agreeable in society, full of intelligent curiosity, and invariably excellent musicians. They frequently sing the plaintive despedidas of their native poet Melgar, a patriot who was shot by the Spaniards in 1815. The society of Arequipa resorts to the baths of pure spring water at Tingo and Savandia during the summer, as well as to the medicinal sulphur- baths at Yura. Arequipa was separated by a wide io8 MOQUEGUA. desert from its sea port of Islay, but it now has the terminus of its railway at the more southern port of Mollendo. There are agricultural towns in the valleys of Acari, Ocoha, Majes, Camana, and Tambo; and small sea ports, besides Islay and Mollendo, at Chala and Ouilca. South of Arequipa is the littoral province of Moquegua with a pleasant town, valleys yielding wine and olive oil, and the small port of Ylo. Then succeed the department of Tacna with its port of Arica, through which the trade of Bolivia passes ; and the littoral province of Tarapaca, with its dreary, desert-surrounded, but busy port of Iquique. Moquegua, Tacna, Arica, and Iquique are cities. In passing from the coast to the Sierra there is a great change. The same regularity in laying out the plan of the towns, though always attempted, cannot invariably be attained, owing to the irregu¬ larity of the ground. High-pitched, red-tiled roofs, take the place of the flat roofs of the coast. The upper stories generally recede, leaving wide corridors under the overhanging eaves, and along the Plazas there are frequently covered arcades. Often there are fruit-gardens and green fields, waving with alfalfa and barley, in the outskirts, and a background of glorious mountain ranges. The most northern of the Sierra departments is CAXAMARCA. HUANUCO. 109 that of Caxamarca, divided into the provinces of Jaen, Chota, Hualcayoc, Celendia, Caxamarca, Contumaza, and Caxabamba. The cities are Jaen, Chota, and Cutervo, Hualcayoc and San Miguel de Pallaques, Celendia, Caxamarca, and Caxa¬ bamba. Jaen de Bracamoros borders upon Ecuador, and on the forests inhabited by the Jeveros Indians. The town was founded by Diego Palomino in 1549, on the Chinchipe river, but is now a place of little trade. Caxamarca is the chief city of the depart¬ ment, and is interesting from having been the scene of the capture and death of the usurping Ynca Atahualpa. It has wide streets, and a handsome church completed in 1682. The great palace of Atahualpa was converted into a prison, a public office, and a house for the Corregidor, though nothing remains of it now but a wall about twelve yards long. A league to the east of the city are the thermal springs known as the baths of the Ynca. The new department of Huanuco borders on Caxamarca to the south, and is composed of three provinces called Dos de Mayo, 3 Huamalies, and Huanuco. Much of the area, especially of Huamalies, is covered with forests at the head waters of the Huallaga. Huanuco itself is the 3 The day, in 1866, on which the Spanish fleet was repulsed from Callao. no THE DEPARTMENT OF JUNIN only city. It is prettily situated on the left bank of the Huallaga, which is there forty yards wide; and the houses are built of adobes with tiled roofs, almost all having large gardens attached to them, filled with vegetables and fruit-trees. Its trade is chiefly with the lofty city of Cerro de Pasco, which it supplies with provisions, and with the villages down the Huallaga. The department of Junin comprises the four provinces of Pasco, Tarma, Xauxa, and Huancayo ; its cities being Cerro de Pasco, Tarma, Xauxa, Concepcion, and Huancayo. Cerro de Pasco is the centre of a great silver-mining district, and is 13,200 feet 4 above the sea. It is a very exceptional Peru¬ vian town, for the houses are built without regard to regularity, on mounds of earth with deep cavities around them. The mouths of old mines are gaping everywhere ; and steam machinery, a short railway, and smelting furnaces, are at work throughout the district. From Pasco there is a considerable descent southwards to the city of Xauxa, the climate of which is said to be almost perfect for patients with pulmonary complaints. It is a charming little Sierra town, and near it, on the eastern watershed, is Tarma, another Sierra town beautifully situated in an amphitheatre of mountains, clothed to their * Herndon. Rivero gives the height at 14,279 feet. AYACUCHO. 1 11 summits with waving fields of barley. The climate is delicious, so that no doctor can find a living, and the one resident surgeon depends on a salary from the tax on spirits, and the tolls on the bridge of Oroya. Huancavelica is a department of the loftier parts of the Cordillera, its capital owing its existence to the famous quicksilver-mines, and the building of the second town of Castro-Vireyna, 5 between the central and western Cordillera, being due to the discovery of a rich silver-mine. The provinces are Huancavelica, Tayacaja, Castro-Vireyna, and Anga- raes. Huancavelica and Castro-Vireyna are cities. The department of Ayacucho has six provinces : Huanta, La Mar, Ayacucho, Cangallo, Lucanas, and Parinacochas. The two cities are Ayacucho and Cangallo. Ayacucho, the capital of the department, is the ancient city of Huamanca. 6 (corruptly Guamanga), which was founded by Pizarro on June 24th, 1539. The town is hemmed 0 Named after the wife of the Marquis of Canete, whose maiden name was Castro, 1 595 * Dona Teresa de Castro was a daughter of Pedro Fernandez de Castro, fifth Conde de Lemos, and wife of Don Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, fourth Marquis of Canete, and Viceroy of Peru from 1590 to 1599. 6 When, after a victory, the Ynca Huiracocha was serving out llama flesh to his troops, he gave a ration to a falcon that was soaring over his head, saying, “Huaman-ca” (“Take, falcon ! ”). Hence the name. 112 A YA CUCHO. in on three sides by mountains, on the steep slopes of which are fields of maize, fruit-gardens, and thickets of prickly pears. The streets are built at right angles, but with a considerable slope. In the centre is the great square, with the handsome stone cathedral on its south side, the others being occupied by private houses, with arcades of stone pillars supporting semi-circular arches, and above are broad covered corridors, on which the rooms open. In the early morning the plaza presents a most animated scene, being covered with huge framework shades stuck in the ground, under which crowds of Indian women and girls sell their fruit and vegetables. There are twenty churches, all built of stone, and generally with handsome towers. Ayacucho contains many good families, and the society is very agreeable. The Marquises of Mozobamba and Valdelirios belonged to the district, their families being now represented by Senores Tello, Fernandez, and Ruiz. The name was changed to Ayacucho to commemorate the decisive battle which was fought on a table¬ land so called, a few miles off, on the 9th of December, 1824. The city of Ayacucho is 8580, the battle-field 10,240 feet above the level of the sea. Here the country is very mountainous, with many deep and fertile gorges. Huanta is a A PUR IMA C. AND A HU A YLAS. A PA ANA Y. H 3 pleasant little town at the foot of high moun¬ tains to the north of Ayacucho. Lucanas and Parinacochas are in lofty and very secluded valleys between the central and western cordilleras ; the latter on the banks of a large brackish lake, fre¬ quented by flamingoes and all sorts of water-fowl. The Apurimac department has been formed by the two provinces of Andahuaylas and Abancay, on the road from Ayacucho to Cuzco, and by three provinces on the slopes of the central cor¬ dillera, in a secluded mountainous region, drained by the head waters of the Apurimac and its tribu¬ taries, called Cotabambas, Aymaraes, and Anta- bamba. The lovely and fertile valley of Anda-. huaylas contains three small towns called Talavera, Andahuaylas, and San Geronimo. Through the valley flows a river, bordered by tall trees, while here and there large fruit-gardens slope down to its banks. Every part of the valley is carefully cultivated, and fields of wheat cover the mountain slopes. The pretty little towns are embosomed in verdure. Abancay is also surrounded by fruit- gardens, and many clumps of venerable trees, and there are several sugar estates in the valley. The river Pachachaca flows across it, and is spanned by a picturesque old bridge of the 16th century. Looking from the town of Abancay across the I CUZCO . 114 river, a mountain rises almost immediately from its banks, to such a height that its rocky summits are covered with eternal snow, while the productions of the country may be seen at one glance on its sides. Near the summits are large flocks of alpacas, grazing on the long ychu; directly beneath them are sheep and cattle ; lower down extensive patches of barley and potatoes ; then broad fields of maize in terraces, with apple and peach-treesand at the foot of the mountain are sugar-cane fields, orange groves, and pine-apples. Cuzco is the central and most important depart¬ ment of Peru, consisting of twelve provinces, namely, Cuzco, Urubamba, Calca, Anta, Quispicanchi, Paruro, Acomayo, Chumbivilicas, Canchis, Canas ; and Paucartampu partly, and Convencion wholly in the Montana. The city of Cuzco, the capital of the Empire of the Yncas, is believed to have been founded in the nth century, in 13 0 31' S. latitude, 74° 24' W. longitude, on a table-land 11,380 feet above the level of the sea. The plain is bounded by mountains on either side, and is covered with fields of lucerne and barley; and besides several picturesque country houses and farms, contains the two small towns of San Sebastian and San Geronimo. The city is at the foot of the famous hill of Sacsahuaman, which is divided from the moun- CUZCO. Ir S tains on either side by two ravines, and down these flow the little rivers Huatanay and Rodadero, which form the drainage of the city. The ancient city was chiefly between the two streams with the square or court called the Cusi-pata, or place of joy, where all the great ceremonials of the Ynca court were performed. This is now divided into three handsome plazas. The houses are of stone, the lower stories being to a great extent of the wonderful and imposing Ynca masonry, too mas¬ sive either for the assaults of time or the hand of the destroyer. The upper stories, roofed with red tiles, are of later date. Handsome church towers rise here and there, and the buildings of Cuzco are certainly the finest in Peru. The cathedral is raised on the walls of the palace of Ynca Huiracocha. The church of the Dominicans, with its cloisters, occupies the site and walls of the great Temple of the Sun. The lofty and graceful church of the Jesuits, facing the cathedral, was once the palace of Huayna Ccapac, but the most beautiful edifice in Cuzco is the cloister of the Mercedarios, with arcades raised on elaborately carved pillars and arches. There is now always an air of sadness resting on the imperial city, grand and imposing still in its decay. But the society is charming, the hospitality is cordial and without 116 DEPARTMENT OF PUNO. stint; and here alone can the traditions of the Yncas be received from their direct and cultured descendants. Frequent as religious ceremonies and processions are throughout Peru, in Cuzco they excel in splendour; the balconies are hung with carpets, and crowded with all the rank and fashion of the old city, while the whole Indian population makes high holiday. A few miles from Cuzco is the warm vale of the Vilcamayu, the most enchant¬ ing as well as interesting spot in Peru, alike attrac¬ tive for the marvellous beauty of its scenery and for its historical associations. Here are the delightful towns of Urubambaand Calca, Sicuani and Tinta ; as well as the Ynca palace of Yucay, the temple of Cacha, and the ruins of the Ollantay fortress. The most southern department in the Peruvian Sierra , in the basin of Lake Titicaca, is that of Puno, consisting of six provinces : Puno, Chucuito, Azangaro, and Huancane, round the shores of the lake, Lampa to the north, and Caravaya to the east, mainly within the region of the Montana. Puno owes its origin and former prosperity to the rich veins of silver ore in the surrounding hills. The streets slope by a gradual descent towards the lake, and the houses are built of small-sized brown adobes , with roofs of thatch or red tiles, the courtyards being neatly paved with round pebbles and bones of llamas, in patterns. Wool and silver MISSION STA TIONS IN THE MONTANA. 1 17 are the great staple products of the department, and an enormous quantity of the precious metal is the concealed property of the Indians. The smaller towns of the department are all at a height of upwards of 12,000 feet. Lampa, on the road from Puno to Cuzco, has a fine church, dating from 1685, with a dome of yellow, green, and blue glazed tiles, of which there was once a manufac¬ tory in the town. Here the temperature in April is from 3 J° to 58°, with clear skies. Azangaro is the town of next importance in the depart¬ ment, and is par excellence the city of hidden treasure. It was here that the gold and silver was concealed which was being brought for Atahualpa’s ransom, when the Indians heard that the Ynca was already dead. “Away from the road with it! ” was the cry. “ More distant.” ( Asuan-caru .) All attempts to find it during the succeeding centuries have failed ; but some Indians know the place. Other upland towns are Huan- cane, Pucara, Crucero—cold and bleak, sur¬ rounded by pasture-lands, with patches of potato and quinua cultivation. The cities of the depart¬ ment are Puno, Chucuito, and Lampa. In the Montana there are a few mission'stations, originally founded by the Franciscans, and some later settlements. The two forest departments are Amazonas and Loreto. The former includes the VILLAGES OF THE MONTANA. 118 provinces of Bongara, Luya, and Chachapoyas; and has three official cities, namely, Chachapoyas, Lamud, and Luya. Loreto consists of Alto Amazonas, Bajo Amazonas, Moyobamba, and Huallaga; the two former on the main stream of the Maranon, the two latter on the Huallaga. Moyobamba, Rioja, and Lamas are called cities ; but these, as well as Loreto, Iquitos, and Nauta, on the Maranon ; Chasuta and Tarapoto, on the Huallaga; and Sarayacu, on the Ucayali, are merely villages, into which the friendly Indians have been gathered, with a chapel and plaza. Beyond a few clearings they are surrounded by forest. The positions of the capitals of the departments of Peru are as follows :— Cities. Latitude. Longitude. Elevation. miles. O / // O / n feet. Piura . , - s II I s. Payta to Chiclayo . 156 Chiclayo to Truxillo . 132 8 6 9 s. 8t 26 37 w, 200 Huaraz . - 9830 Truxillo to JLima . • 34o 12 2 34 s. 79 26 29 w. 480 Lima to Yea . 165 l 4 4 33 s. 77 5° 3 1 W. Yea to Arequipa . . 495 l6 24 28 s. 74 21 O W. 7850 Arequipa to Tacna . 24C 18 O 36 s. 72 38 6 W. 1980 Arequipa to Moquezua isc Iquique .. » - 20 12 3° s. 72 34 54 w. Caxamarca . _ 7 8 38 s 80 55 37 W. 10,128 Huanuco . — 9 55 O s 78 I 37 W. 5880 Huanuco to Xauxa • 151 Huancavelica 12 54 O s. 77 18 37 w. 13,100 Ayacucho . — Abancay . — Cuzco . . — l 3 30 55 s 74 24 3° w. 11,380 Puno . . — ‘5 5° 28 s 72 II 54 W. 12,496 Chachapoyas . • ““ b 7 44 s 78 55 37 W. PRODUCTS. 119 CHAPTER VI. AGRICULTURE AND COMMERCE. The resources of Peru, before the Spanish con¬ quest, consisted of its silver and gold and copper ; of its vicuna and alpaca wool, of its maize and coca crops, of its potatoes and quinuas, of its medicinal plants, of its cotton crops, maguey fibre, fruits and vegetables, and of its guano deposits. The Spaniards introduced horses and asses, cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs, which all multiplied rapidly. The first time that bullocks were yoked to a plough on the plain of Cuzco was in 1550, about fifteen years after the conquest. In 1554 a knight bought ten cows at Lima for 1000 dollars. The first donkey arrived at Cuzco in i 557 j to breed mules from the mares of Garcilasso de la Vega, the historian’s father. Sheep came to Cuzco in 1556, and they multiplied so that the wool was soon cheap and plentiful. The intro¬ ducer of wheat and barley was a lady named Maria de Escobar, who brought some to Lima, 120 PLANTS INTRODUCED BY THE SPANIARDS. and it was considered so precious that for three years it was only used as seed. Francisco de Caravantes, one of the first conquerors, introduced the cultivation of grapes, bringing the first vines from the Canary Islands; and in 1560 vineyards had been established in a valley near Cuzco. In the same year Antonio de Ribera brought out olive-plants ; and at that time oranges, figs, and pomegranates had also been introduced, as well as peaches, quinces, apples, and pears. The first sugar-cane estate was at Huanuco, whence the cultivation spread to the coast valleys. Lettuces, endives, radishes, spinach, beet-root, mint, coriander, artichokes, carrots, and parsley had all been intro¬ duced and cultivated before 1560; as well as beans, peas, rice, mint, lavender, and fennel ; and the spinach and endive multiplied in such a way in the valley of the Rimac, that a horse could not force its way through them. Wheat yielded 300 to 450 fanegas for one; and it is alleged that five horses were tethered under the shade of one radish in the valley of Cusapa. When first intro¬ duced, all these European products were marvel¬ lously prolific, and many of them have made very important additions to the permanent wealth of Peru. The chief crops of the fertile coast valleys are sugar, cotton, and grapes, of which cotton is SUGAR ESTATES. I 2 I indigenous. Sugar cultivation is a great source of wealth, and there are estates throughout the coast departments, but especially in that of Lima. In the valley of the Pativilca there are eight sugar-cane estates, and in Chancay there are three ; the rest being cultivated with maize and alfalfa, or devoted to grazing purposes. Nearer the capital, in the valley of Carabayllo, the sugar-cane is cultivafed in upwards of six estates, with machinery for the manufacture of sugar, “chancaca” or brown sugar-loaves, and rum. South of Lima there are three estates with steam machinery, in the valley of Lurin ; while that of Canete is one vast sheet of sugar-cane, divided into seven flourishing estates. On the estate of Unanue, belonging to Don Jose Unanue, there is a very fine country house, and tramways worked by steam, but the motive power for the machinery is water. Two estates are worked by steam ; and there are other estates in the Chincha valley and further south. In 1859 the sugar exported from Peru, grown by Chinese and free negro labour,was valued at 90,000/. In 1876 it had increased to 71,722 tons, valued at 1,219,000/.; whilst in 1877 the amount was esti¬ mated at 85,000 tons, worth 1,360,000/ Of this quantity 63,370 tons went to Great Britain, 18,000 to Chile, and 6000 to other countries, leaving 12,000 for home consumption. 122 PERUVIAN COTTON. Cotton, the indigenous product of the coast valleys, is next in importance to sugar. The staple of Peruvian cotton is longer than New Orleans or any indigenous Indian cotton, though shorter than Sea Island or Egyptian. Its mean length is 1.30 inches, while that of Sea Island is 1.61, of Egyptian 1.41, of Brazilian 1.17, of New Orleans 1.02, of Indian 0.89. Peruvian cotton is a perennial, and was cultivated by the ancient people, who used a machine for separating the seeds, con¬ sisting of two rollers turning different ways with handles, very like the Indian churka. The chief cotton district in the south of Peru is the province of Yea, including the valleys of Yea, Palpa, San Xavier, and Nasca. A single proprietor, Don Domingo Elias, exported 400,000 lbs. of cotton in 1853 from Yea. Further north cotton is cultivated in the valleys of Casma, Truxillo, Chiciayo, Jeque- tepeque, Lambayeque, Piura, and Chira. From the two latter provinces the export, in some years, has been 20,000 cwts. The plant is here a per¬ ennial tree, yielding for ten years, and flowering twice annually. It is a variety of Gossypium Barbadense, and that from the south is G. arbo- reum. The yield per acre, in the Chira valley, is from 1500 to 2000 lbs. ; and the estates are worked with intelligence and a due outlay of VINEYARDS, RICE, OLIVES, COCHINEAL. 123 capital, there being pumps and cotton-gins worked by steam, and on one estate a centrifugal pump. The cotton industry of Peru has been largely extending of late years, and in 1877 the value of the cotton exported was 160,000/. The cultivation of the vine has also been a profitable industry ever since the Spanish con¬ quest, in many parts of the coast, and also of the Sierra ; but Pisco and Yea, the Arequipa valleys, and Moquegua are the principal centres of vine-grow- ing. Twenty years ago the Pisco yield amounted to 70,000 botijas of the spirit called Pisco, and 10,000 barrels of excellent wine, and it has since in¬ creased both in the Pisco and Yea valleys and in other parts. Rice is also cultivated, there being three large establishments for preparing it at Ferrenafe, near Lambayeque; the export of rice from this district being, annually, 9,750,000 lbs. Olives are grown largely in the Tambo valley, near Arequipa; cultivation of mulberries and silkworms has been begun, and for many years Mr. Blackwood successfully cultivated cochineal at Conache, near Truxillo, his farm producing 125 bales of 150 lbs. each. But in 1871 a flood from the mountains destroyed $17,000 worth of cochi¬ neal insects, with their cactus plants, in a few hours. Corn and alfalfa (lucerne), vegetables and fruits of 124 GUANO. all kinds, are also cultivated in every valley, and there are many profitable grazing farms. In Peru even the rocky islets and barren deserts are the sources of enormous wealth. The guano deposits were regularly guarded by the Yncas of Peru, each island being set apart for the use of a particular province, and the manure was fairly divided and profitably used in the coast valleys. Frezier, in 1713, mentions its use for the aji or Chile pepper crops. The three Chincha Islands, off Pisco, had enormous deposits whiich were long worked at. The exportation began in 1846, and from 1851 to i860 the amount of shipping that loaded at the Chinchas represented 2,860,000 tons. Between 1853 and 1872 there were 8,000,000 tons shipped from the north and middle islands, and in 1872 these islands ceased to be worked for export to foreign countries. Now only native vessels load for use on Peruvian estates, but there are still believed to be many thousand tons on the north island. The Guanape Islands, about thirty-two miles from Santa, were first worked in 1869, and from that time to 1871, as many as 838,853 tons of guano have been shipped. There are two islands about 1130 and 750 yards respectively each, and the top of the guano deposit was, in 1872, 170 feet above the sea. There were then 460,000 tons left. At a GUANO. 125 distance of sixty miles north of the Guafiapes and about thirty-two miles seaward of Huanchaco, the port of Truxillo, are the three Macabi Islands, whence guano was first shipped in 1870. The nearest port on the mainland is Malabrigo, eight miles distant. The quantity of guano, in 1872, was estimated at 400,000 tons. Still further north there was a large deposit on the island of Lobos de Afuera, while the adjacent island of Lobos de Tierra contained another deposit. But the most important discoveries, since the exhaustion of the Chincha Islands, have been on the coast of Tarapaca, the most southern province of Peru. The deposits were carefully examined in 1874, and found to exist at the north point (called Chipana) of the table-land which extends to the river Loa in 21 0 23' S., on an elevated cliff called Huanillos in 21 0 15' S.; and at Pabellon de Pica, an immense cone rising out of the sea to 1000 feet, with slopes formed of guano deposits, in 20° 58' S. In 1876 the quantity at Pabellon de Pica was calculated at 350,000 tons, all compressed into a hard mass by an upper crust of stones and sand. At Punto de Lobos, eight miles south, there were 200,000 tons, at Huanillos 1,000,000 tons buried under huge boulders of rock, and at Chipana also 250,000 tons, with some smaller deposits at Chomache, Islotas 126 NITRATE OF SODA. de Pajaros, Quebrada de Pica, and Patache. The whole quantity of guano in these southern deposits is estimated at 1,800,000 tons; and in 1876 there were 300 ships taking cargoes. In the north there may still have been 600,000 tons at the Lobos Islands, Guanape, and Macabi, making a total quantity remaining of 2,400,000 tons. In the year 1869 the amount sold was 574,490 tons ; in 1877 the amount was 310,042, and from 330,000 to 400,000 in the intervening years. There is a sub¬ stance called caliche , supposed to be petrified guano, which is also coming into the market. Since 1830 nitrate of soda has been exported from the province of Tarapaca, the chief port of export being Iquique. The principal deposits are found on the western side of the Pampa de Tamarugal, commencing where the level plain ceases, and not nearer to the coast than eighteen miles. The refining works, called salitres , are where the rough nitrate is broken into small pieces, and boiled ; the nitrate being held in solution while the earthy matter falls to the bottom. The . saturated solution is run into narrow troughs and exposed to the sun, when crystallization takes place. It is then ready for export. The Pampa de Tamarugal contains sufficient nitrate for the supply of Europe for ages. From 1830 to 1850 SILVER MINES. 127 the export from Iquique amounted to 239,86otons, some used as manure, some in the manufacture of nitric acid. The export reached its maximum in i8 75 > when 326,869 tons left the country. In 1877 only 213,940 tons. The trade employed 330,000 tons of shipping, and gave work to many thousands of hands. In 1877 the number of ships that cleared from the port of Iquique was 253. In May 1875 the Congress of Peru passed a law authorizing the government to purchase all the nitrate grounds and factories of Tarapaca, so as to establish a government monopoly; and progress has since been made with arrangements for the transfer. The staple exports of the Sierra of Peru are silver and wool. The silver-mines extend along the whole length of the cordilleras, from Hualcayoc to Puno, and the mines are worked here and there, the great centre of mining industry being at Cerro Pasco. The ore, after being brought to the surface, is broken into small pieces and sent in bags to the woi ks, where it is ground to powder in a water or steam-mill. It is then mixed with salt and toasted in earthen ovens, heated with the dung of llamas as fuel. The powder is then put in hide bags and piled on a floor of flat stones. Ten of these are laid in a row, making a caxon of 6250 lbs. The bags are then moistened with water, and quick- 128 SIL VER MINES. silver is sprinkled through a woollen cloth. The mass is well mixed by treading with the feet and working with hoes, and left to stand for some days, until the amalgamation is complete. It is then thrown into a well, a stream of water is turned on, and men trample and wash it with their feet. The amalgam sinks to the bottom, and the mud and water are let off. The amalgam is hung up in bags of coarse linen, and the quicksilver oozes through and is caught in vessels below. The residue is plata pifta, or pure silver, which is melted and run into bars. Each province has its special mining tribunal, the procedure being based on the colonial mining laws of Charles III. Altogether there are several thousands of mines in Peru, of which about 600 are worked. Between 1630 and 1849 the Cerro Pasco mines produced $475,000,000 of silver, and this is but one of the many mining districts. In 1877 the Cerro Pasco mines produced 1,427,592 ounces of silver. There are others of equal value round Puno. In 1872 the ore exported amounted to 598,404/., in 1874 to 175,927/. In 1877 the value of the silver exported was 575,000/., of the copper 330,000/. Of the gold there is no return. Mollendo, the terminus of the Puno railway, is at present the principal port for the export of wool. TRADE OF TEE MONTANA. 129 In 1878 the amount of alpaca wool exported from Mollendo was 3,549,700 lbs., of vicuna wool 21,600 lbs., of sheep’s wool 2,262,400 lbs. The total export of alpaca wool from the whole of Peru, in 1877, was 3,561,806 lbs., worth 362,622/. The value of all the wool exported was 600,000/. From the Montana the exported products are chinchona bark, coca, of which 8300 lbs. of leaves were shipped from Mollendo in 1877, coffee of the finest quality, cacao, tobacco, india-rubber, sarsa¬ parilla, and some medicinal roots. The internal traffic in coca leaves is very considerable. The annual produce of coca in Peru is approximately 15,000,000 lbs., the average yield being about 800 lbs. an acre ; and at Tacna the tambor of 50 lbs. is worth from $9 to $12. There is an important transit trade to and from Bolivia, through the Peruvian port of Arica, which is worth about 1,000,000/. a year in imports, and from 700,000/. to 970,000/ in exports. The prin¬ cipal exports by this route are chinchona bark, coffee, tin, alpaca wool, tobacco, coffee, chocolate chinchilla skins, and silver. The chinchona bark amounted, in 1877, to 505,600 lbs., worth 66,914/ The copper was worth 116,366/, silver 439,000/., and tin 7693/ There was also 43,317/ worth of wool, 1640/ of coffee, and 2733/ of tobacco. K 130 TRADE BETWEEN PERU AND GREAT BRITAIN The total value of Peruvian exports to Great Britain was 5,232,305/. in 1878, and of imports from Great Britain 1,369,836/., consisting mainly of manufactured woollen and cotton goods. As re¬ gards the carrying trade, the number of British sailing vessels that entered Callao in 1877 was 198 (tonnage 194,973), and of British steamers 522. ROADS OF THE YNCAS. 131 CHAPTER VII. PUBLIC WORKS. Peru is a country presenting the greatest diffi¬ culties in the execution of public works and no people have made more persevering and successful efforts to overcome the obstacles of nature than the Ynca Indians. The roads of the Yncas excited the admiration of the Spanish conquerors, because there was then nothing in Europe to be compared to them. The Sierra road was made over the most difficult mountains in the world for a distance of 500 leagues. It was six yards wide, level and paved. Rocks were broken through and levelled, and ravines were filled up, while great rivers were spanned by rope bridges. At short intervals there were small houses for the couriers and their families, and stores of provisions. The works of irrigation were not less admirable. In the valley of Nasca, for instance, there is only a small water-course which is dry more than half the year. The pre- K 2 132 ANCIENT IRRIGA TION WORKS. decessors of the Yncas cut deep trenches or puquios through the valley, and so far up into the mountains that the present inhabitants know not their origin. They are four feet high, with sides and roof of masonry. Lower down the valley they branch into smaller subterranean channels, which ramify in various directions, irrigating each estate by feeding the small surface streams. Thus entirely with the aid of this magnificent system of irrigation, the fifteen vine and cotton estates of Nasca are supported. Another high level canal, for the irri¬ gation of pastures, was led for more than 150 miles along the eastern slope of the central cordillera. Roads and irrigation works were alike neglected by the Spaniards, but in recent years the Peruvian government has endeavoured to emulate the good deeds of the Yncas. Thus dams were, in 1875, constructed at the sources of the Rimac, near the snow-line, to regulate the supply of water at Lima during the summer months. The storage thus effected amounts to 30,000,000 cubic metres of water collected in nine reservoirs, and secures the prosperity of many rich estates in the valley below. But it is in the system of railroads that modern Peruvians are beginning to vie with the deeds of the Yncas. Those which traverse the coast valleys, RAILROADS IN NORTHERN PERU. 133 in short lengths, are of great value, and will doubt¬ less be remunerative. The most northern of these railroads connects the port of Payta with Piura. It was contracted for in 1872, is sixty-three miles long, and gives facilities for the shipment of the cotton crops. The next is forty-five miles long, from the port of Pimentel to Chiclayo, with a blanch to Lambayeque, and is a private undertak¬ ing. The third line, from the port of Eten to Fenenape, is also a private speculation. It is fifty miles long, and a branch affords facilities of export to several rich estates. The railroad from the port of Pacasmayu to Magdalena, a distance of ninety-three miles, is a State enterprise. It taps the fertile valley of Jequetepeque, and is even¬ tually to be extended to Caxamarca. The next line, proceeding south, is twenty-five miles long, from the poit of Malabrigo to Ascope, to open out the rich sugar and rice estates of the vale of Chicama. The line from the port of Salaverry to the city of Truxillo is a State enterprise to connect the capital of an important department with the sea. It is eighty-five miles long. The State railway from the port of Chimbote to Huaraz in the Sierra, is 172 miles in length, and is not completed, but fifty-two miles are finished. Several railroads radiate from Lima, the capital of the 134 RAILROADS IN SOUTHERN PERU. Republic. The line connecting Lima and Callao was opened in 1851, and that from Lima to the bathing-place of Chorrillos in 1858. Another line has since been opened between these two, from Lima to Magdalena and the sea-shore. A line, northwards from Lima, runs for forty-three miles to Chancay. There is also a short private line in the valley of Cahete, from the port of Cerro Azul to the sugar estate of Casa Blanca. The next railroad, to the south, runs from the port of Pisco to Yea, a distance of forty-eight miles, opening up a rich cotton and vine district. The railroad from the port of Mollendo to Arequipa was completed in 1870, and runs for 107 miles over a waterless desert. In order to supply Mollendo with water, a pipe has been laid alongside the line for eighty- five miles. It starts from near Arequipa at an elevation of 7000 feet, and crosses the great desert, discharging 433,000 gallons in twenty-four hours. This is the largest iron aqueduct in the world. The next line is from the port of Ylo to Moquegua, a distance of sixty-three miles. Next comes the line of thirty-nine miles from Arica to Tacna, which was opened in 1857. Lastly as regards the coast, there are railroads, in Tarapaca, from the ports of Pisagua, Iquique, and Patillos, to the nitrate of soda works. That from Iquique is to be THE OROYA RAILROAD. 135 177 miles long, and no are completed, running in a curved line for the convenience of the various works. The line from Patillos is sixty miles long, and that from Pisagua turns in an angle southwards towards the Iquique line. The whole Tarapaca system comprises 180 miles of rail. A railroad was also commenced at Cerro Pasco in 1869, to connect the silver-mines with the town, and eight miles out of fifteen have been completed. All these lines were judiciously planned to meet increasing needs ; and as they tap rich and valuable districts, they will surely be self-supporting, if not remunerative. But the same cannot be said of the stupendous works of great length which scale the cordilleras. They have been undertaken pre¬ maturely. The marvellous railroad from Callao and Lima, across the western and central cordilleras to Oroya, in the lofty valley of Xauxa, is to be [36 miles long. The work was commenced in 1870. Starting from Callao, it ascends the narrow valley of the Rimac, rising nearly 5000 feet in the first forty-six miles. It then threads the intricate gorges of the Andes by a winding, giddy pathway along the edge of the precipices, and over bridges that seem suspended in the air. It tunnels the Andes at an altitude of 15,645 feet, the most elevated spot in the world where a piston-rod is moved by steam, OROYA RAILROAD . 136 and will terminate at Oroya, 12,178 feet above the sea. The difficulties encountered in its construc¬ tion are without parallel. The engineers have threaded the mountains by a series of sixty-three tunnels, besides constructing enormous bridges, embankments, and cuttings. The bridge of Verru¬ gas spans a chasm 580 feet wide, resting on three piers the centre one being 252 feet high of hollow wrought iron. Of this Oroya railroad 86f miles have been completed, and some heavy engineering work, including the piercing of the great tunnel, has been done beyond. The line has already cost 4,625,887/. TITICACA TAUT OAT. 137 The other great line across the Andes connects Arequipa with Puno, on the shores of Lake Titi¬ caca. On the first division 7,000,000 cubic yards of earth and stone were removed. The deepest cut¬ ting is ninety feet, the highest embankment 112 feet. On the second division the total amount of excavation was 9,858,000 cubic yards, the deepest cutting 127, and the highest embankment 141 feet. There is only one short tunnel, and four bridges. The summit is crossed in a cutting only six feet deep, 14,660 feet above the sea. On January 1st, 1874, the first locomotive reached the shores of Lake Titicaca. The line is 232 miles long. Meanwhile active steps were taken to introduce steam navi¬ gation on the sacred lake of the Yncas. A factory was established at Puno, two screw steamers of 20 tons and 40 H.P., were sent out from Lon¬ don in pieces, called the “Yavari” and “Yapura,” and by March, 1874 both had been successfully launched. The cost of the Puno railway has been 4,346,659/. Another line is projected from Juliaca, near Puno, to Cuzco, of which sixty-six miles are finished. The whole scheme of Peruvian State railroads, if completed, would have a length of 1281 miles, the private lines 496 miles, and two projects, partly private and partly State, 253 miles; altogether 138 ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHS. twenty-two lines, with a length of 2030 miles, to cost 37,500,000/. The railroads from Mollendo to Arequipa and Puno (346 miles), from Ylo to Moquegua, from Pisco to Yea, from Arica toTacna, from Lima to Chancay, Callao, Magdalena, and Chorrillos, are completed. The first electric telegraph in Peru was put up between Lima and Callao on September 18th, 1847. There was no extension until 1867, when a National Telegraph Company w'as formed, to unite Lima with the capitals of the departments. A line was constructed from Callao to Payta, with stations at all the intermediate ports and towns of any im¬ portance, including Truxillo, Lambayeque, and Piura. Another was made from Lima to Yea, with seven intermediate stations. A third from Lima, by Ancon and Chancay to Huacho and Barranca. A fourth along the Oroya railway. A fifth from Mollendo, by Arequipa, to Puno. A sixth from Arica to Tacna. In 1875 the company was dissolved, and the Government took all the lines ; but since that time only one line has been constructed, from Pacas- mayo to La Magdalena. At the ports of Chorrillos, Mollendo, Arica, and Iquique there are stations of the submarine telegraph to Valparaiso. As that Chilian port is united by a land line with Buenos STEAMERS. WORKS AT CALLAO. 139 Ayres, and Buenos Ayres by a submarine telegraph with England, Peru is also connected by telegraph wire with Europe. The ocean traffic is of more importance to Peru than her railways, and the perseverance and enter¬ prise which established the service of steamers along her coast conferred greater benefits on the land of the Yncas, and did more to advance the prosperity of her people than all the other enter¬ prises and speculations of this century. These qualities were possessed and used for the west coast of South America by Mr. Wheelwright, to whom Peru and Chile owe a lasting debt of gratitude. He formed the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, and two steamers, called the “ Peru ” and “ Chile,” the first ever seen on the west coast, were sent out in 1840, to navigate between Callao and Valparaiso. The Company now has fifty-four steamers, with an aggregate tonnage of 106,980, which run regularly to all the ports from Panama to the extreme south of Chile, as well as by the ocean route and Magel¬ lan’s Straits to Liverpool. The company has suit¬ able works at Callao, covering 60,000 square yards. These include steam-cranes for loading and un¬ loading, iron and brass foundries, artificers’ shops with steam power, a steam bakery, and store¬ houses. Callao also has a floating-dock capable of 140 WORKS AT CALLAO. taking in a vessel of 21 feet draught, and of lifting 5000 tons. In 1870 a new work, including docks and piers, called the Mtielle y Darsena, was commenced at Callao by Mr. Hodges. On taking borings it was found that where the foundations of a new sea wall were to be, instead of gravel there was mud and soft clay about twenty feet deep, through which at certain periods of the year strong springs of water force themselves, highly charged with sulphuretted hydrogen gas. It is to these submarine springs that the phenomenon called “Callao painter” is due, when the paint work of ships is covered with a yellow-brown film. The discovery led to a re¬ vision of the scheme. It was necessary to excavate the bed of Callao Bay to a depth of sixteen feet and a width of 140 feet, upon the site of the sea wall. This space was then filled with rubble-stone and gravel up to within twenty-six feet of low- water mark, so as to form an artificial foundation, upon which the concrete blocks forming the dock walls were built. The total length of these walls is 4520 feet, enclosing a space of fifty-two acres with berthing accommodation for thirty large vessels. A sea wall has also been built to reclaim thirteen acres from the shallow waters of the bay, on which bonded warehouses will be erected. THE AMAZONIAN STEAMERS. 141 There are eighteen steam cranes for loading and unloading, a triple line of railways along the whole length of the dock wall, lighthouse, capstans, and supplies of fresh water for shipping at eight points. Other sea ports have been improved to keep pace with increasing trade. For instance, at Pisco, where there is a heavy surf, Mr. Wheelwright in 1859 completed an iron pier, 700 yards in length ; and at Eten the new mole on screw piles is 800 yards long. The Peruvian merchant navy in the end of 1877 consisted of 147 vessels, with an aggre¬ gate tonnage of 49,860. Of these eight were steamers. While the means of communication have thus been rapidly developed along the shores of the Pacific, throughout the coast valleys and in parts of the Sierra, the boundless capabilities of the Montana and its navigable rivers have not been lost sight of. Here, behind the Andes, Peru has a direct fluvial highway down the Amazon to the Atlantic Ocean. In 1861 two steamers were built in London for the Peruvian Government, called the “Morona” and “ Pastaza,” 180 feet long by twenty- five, of 500 tons burden and 160 horse power, to carry merchandise. At the same time two small steamers were ordered, called the “Napo” and 142 STEAM COMMUNICA TION “ Putumayu,’ - ’ of eighty tons, for exploring the rivers. Materials for a factory were also sent out. After some obstruction from the Brazilian Govern¬ ment, the two larger steamers went up the Amazon, and reached Peruvian waters in 1863. They then began to run from Yurimaguas on the river Huallaga, to the Brazilian frontier station of Taba- tinga on the Amazon, a distance of 740 miles, touching at eleven intermediate ports. 1 The colony ofYquitos was founded on the left bank of the Amazon in 3 0 44' 20" S. and 73 0 7' 40 7 W., and became the central port of Peruvian navigation on the Amazon. Here the factory was established, and dwellings were erected for officials and arti¬ ficers. From that time steamers have continued 1 From Yurimaguas to ,, Santa Cruz ,, . . . . 60 miles. ,, Laguna • ,, . . . . 40 >> ,, Urarinas ,, . . . . 75 „ ,, Parmari ..90 ,, „ San Regis „ . . . . 60 „ ,, Nauta . . . . 40 ,, „ Yquitos ..90 ,, ,, Pebas ,, . . . .103 ,, ,, Mancallacta ,, . . . . 40 ,, „ Peruate „ . . . . 12 „ „ Loreto „ . . . . 90 ,, ,, Tabatinga ,, . . . . 40 ,, Total . 740 ,, in three days up stream. ON THE AMAZON. M 3 to run without intermission. The traffic has had the effect of humanizing and civilizing the wild tribes, and has created a thriving trade which con¬ tinually increases. Yquitos is now the capital of the department of Loreto, and centre of exploring enterprise. The objects of the Government are eventually to establish lines of steamers on all the great rivers as far as they are navigable. The Maranon can be ascended up to the Pongo de Manseriche, the Huallaga nearly to Chasuta. In 1866 the little exploring steamer “ Putumayu ” as¬ cended the Ucayali with the object of finding the nearest navigable point to Lima. After a fight with the savage Cashibo tribe, the expedition entered the Pachitea, and reached its tributary the Mayru in g° 56' S. and 75 0 45' W., at a place named Puerto Pardo. This was the nearest point to Lima ever reached by a steamer on Amazonian waters. A commission then surveyed the route from Lima and Huanuco, to Puerto Pardo ; and its advantages were proved. The River Perene was next explored, to ascertain to within what distance of Tarma that fluvial highway is navigable. This service was performed in 1868, but it was found that, owing to the velocity of the currents, a larger steamer should be supplied. The “Tambo,” built specially for exploring, in the United States, 144 PROGRESS OF PUBLIC WORKS. arrived at Yquitos in 1870, and it was then found that the Perene was navigable for the greater part of its course, but that communication with the Uca¬ yali is cut off by falls. It was also ascertained that the Vilcamayu could be navigated as far as a place called Maynique. Further expeditions followed, and the extent to which the rivers of the Peruvian Montana are navigable has now been established. Recent years have seen rapid strides made in the construction of railroads to facilitate commerce on the coast and in the Sierra, while most perse¬ vering efforts have been exerted to establish com¬ munications along the fluvial highways which traverse the boundless forests of the Montana. It is only thirty years since there was not a locomotive in Peru ; it is not twenty years since there was not a steamer on the Peruvian rivers of the Montana. A great change has since been effected, the in¬ fluence of which has worked in the interests of civilization, by facilitating intercourse, increasing wealth, and generally improving the condition of the people. YNCA GOVERNMENT. 145 CHAPTER VIII. GOVERNMENT. No adequate knowledge of the political state of any country can be obtained without reference to its previous history, because its present condition is the result of a long chain of events which cannot be overlooked if the acquisition of an intelligible view of the subject is the object of the inquiry. This is particularly the case in Peru, where the population is composed of distinct races, and where such opposing influences have long been at work. In the earliest times that concern us, before the discovery of America, Peru was inhabited by a dense population, and the predominant tribe had attained to a very special type of civilization. The Government was intensely central, and yet a large proportion of the people was more or less employed in local administration. While every detail of the people’s welfare, and even of domestic life, was controlled and regulated, the people were at the same time taught to be self-helpful, and were L 146 SYSTEM OF ENCOMIENDAS. bound to render specified service to the State, as well as to work in their own interests and for their families. The Ynca Government was an elaborate and very successful piece of adminis¬ trative mechanism. After the Spanish conquest Pizarro was em¬ powered to grant encomiendas or estates to his followers, the inhabitants being bound to pay tribute, and give personal service to the grantee. In 1536 the encomiendas were extended to two lives. The exactions and cruelties of many of these adventurers were so intolerable that Las Casas and other lovers of justice, induced the Emperor Charles V. to enact the code known as the “New Laws,” in 1542, by which the encomiendas were to pass immediately to the crown after the death of the actual holders ; a fixed sum was to be assessed as tribute, and forced personal service was for¬ bidden. The “New Laws” excited a storm; Gonzalo Pizarro rose in rebellion, and their un¬ popularity was so great that it was considered unsafe to enforce them. They were weakly revoked in 1545, and in 1550 the encomiendas were re-distributed. In 1629 they were granted for three lives. Don Francisco de Toledo arrived in Peru as Viceroy in 1568. Though a harsh and stern man, SYSTEM OF CORREGIDORS. 147 who always preferred expediency to justice, Toledo was an able administrator. He had the assistance of the Licentiate Polo de Ondegardo, and of the learned Judge Matienza. Toledo established the system under which the native population of Peru was ruled for the two succeeding centuries, and future viceroys referred to him as the great master of statesmanship, who was their guide, and to his ordinances as their acknowledged text-book. His “ Libro de Tasas” (book of rules) fixed the tribute to be paid by the Indians, exempting all men under eighteen and over fifty. He found it necessary, in order to secure efficient government, to revert in some measure to the system of the Yncas. The people were to be directly governed by their native chiefs, whose duty was to collect the tribute as of old, to pay it to the Spanish Corregidors , and to exercise magisterial functions. The chiefs or Curacas had subordinate officials under them, called Pichca-pachacas , over 500 men, and Pachacas over 100 men. The office of Curaca (or Cacique )* was made hereditary, and its possessor enjoyed several privileges. Many Curacas were descended from the Ynca family, or from great nobles of the Ynca Court. In addition to the tribute, which was 1 Curaca is the Quichua word. Cacique was a word brought from the Antilles, but often used by the Spaniards in Peru, L 2 148 SPANISH MIS GO VERNMENT. in accordance with native usage, there was the mita or forced labour in mines, farms, and manu¬ factories. Toledo enacted that one-seventh of the male population of a village should be subject to conscription for this service; but they were to be paid, and were not to be taken beyond a specified distance from their homes. There was also a class of Indians, formed in Ynca times, 2 which numbered 40,000 souls in 1570, called Yctnaconas. They were forced to work as domestic servants. In 1601 an ordinance ameliorated their condition, and fixed their term of service. In their legislation the Spanish kings and vice¬ roys displayed an earnest desire to protect the Indians from tyranny, and to secure their welfare ; but in 1620 the Prince of Esquilache declared that “ the arm of the Viceroy was not powerful against the negligence and maladministration of the Cor- regidorsd’ In 1697 the Viceroy Duke of Palata complained of the depopulation of the villages, caused by the forcible detention of Indians to work in the mines, in cloth and cotton workshops, and on Spanish farms. Other viceroys declared that the rapid depopulation of the country was due to this cause. The laws were good, but they were not obeyed, and the illegal enforcement of the 2 Descendants of certain captives in war. THE INQUISITION,\ 149 mita desolated the country. The women of the villages went out to help each other in sowing the fields, and at sunset they returned, hand in hand, singing a melancholy song, and lamenting the cruel fate of husbands and brothers. Even children were torn from their homes to work at twisting woollen and cotton threads in the manufactories. An air of sadness and desolation spread over the land. The Inquisition affected European heretics rather than Peruvians ; and the Indians, as cate¬ chumens, were exempted from its terrors. The tribunal was established at Lima, by a decree dated 1569. The first “Auto” was celebrated in 1581. The Inquisitors appear to have been actuated more by avarice and rapacity than by zeal against heretics. At first the Holy Office defied the viceroys and the civil courts, but its power was broken by the enlightened Viceroy Conde de Superunda in 1761, and it was finally abolished in 1813. The first burning of heretics was in 1581 ; the last in 1776.“” Between these dates fifty-nine heretics were burnt alive at Lima, and there were twenty-nine “ Autos.” *• * '3 7 J)^J’ CTO Another radical vice of Spanish rule was the strict system of monopoly and protection, and the policy by which all colonial interests were dis- £ ft uJL o >oo-vr,