Iron Foundry 
 
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'^PRJS 1890 
 
PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 
 "PATTERN MAKING," "LOCKWOOD'S DICTIONARY 
 OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 
 TERMS," ETC. 
 
 Illustrated with over One Hundred Engravings. 
 
 LONDON : 
 
 WHITTAKER & CO., PATERNOSTER SQUARE. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, 23, MURRAY, AND 
 27, WARREN STREETS. 
 
 1889. 
 
 BY THE AUTHOR OF 
 
Cons 
 
 Ts 
 
 I8i 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This is an attempt to give a condensed account of the 
 principles and practice of Iron Founding. It is written 
 both for the student and for the practical man. I have 
 stated and explained principles, and I have also included 
 the most recent practice, particularly as it relates to the 
 two branches of machine moulding and the melting of 
 iron. 
 
 My acknowledgments are due to those firms who have 
 placed at my service electros of foundry appliances. 
 
 A few of the original illustrations introduced into the 
 book have appeared in previous articles of mine in 
 " Industries " and the " English Mechanic," but the 
 majority have been prepared specially for this volume. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAI'TER PAGE 
 
 Preface ■ 
 
 I. Principles i 
 
 II. Sands 5 
 
 III. Shrinkage— Curving— Flasks— Tools i5 
 
 IV. Green Sand Moulding. Parti r • 3' 
 
 V. Green Sand Moulding. Part II 59 
 
 VI. Dry Sand Moulding 75 
 
 VII. Cores 78 
 
 VIII. Loam Work 94 
 
 IX. Machine Moulding. Part 1 114 
 
 X. Machine Moulding. Part II I33 
 
 XI. Cupolas and Blast 15° 
 
 XII. Iron, &c 174 
 
 Appendix 189 
 
 Index 209 
 
PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRINCIPLES. 
 
 In this text-book I shall endeavour to explain and illus- 
 trate in as clear and concise a manner as possible the 
 principles and practice of iron moulding, a department 
 of industry with which I have been in intimate, almost 
 daily contact since my fourteenth year. Though a 
 rough, dirty trade, there is more of technical skill and 
 forethought required, more of difficulty to be encoun- 
 tered here than in many trades of more apparent impor- 
 tance. And though it is a trade whose practice is very 
 varied and extensive, its literature is singularly scanty. 
 Since a thoroughly exhaustive treatment would occupy 
 a much larger and more costly treatise than this, judi- 
 cious condensation will be necessary. But if here at the 
 commencement we endeavour to go down at once to 
 first principles, and gain clear ideas as to the funda- 
 mentals involved in iron-moulding, we shall be able to 
 obtain such a good and broad grasp of the subject as 
 will assist subsequently in the comprehension of details. 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 The matrices into which iron is poured in order to 
 obtain castings of definite outlines are invariably either 
 of sand or iron. The process in which the latter is used 
 is a small and comparatively unimportant section, known 
 as chilling ; the former embraces all the ordinary iron 
 castings — those whose surfaces are not required of a hard 
 and steely character. 
 
 Sand is eminently adapted for casting metals into. 
 No material can take its place, because there is none 
 which is at the same time plastic, porous and firm, 
 adhesive and refractory. Plasticity is necessary in order 
 that the matrix may be moulded into any form, intricate 
 or otherwise. Porosity is essential to permit of the 
 escape from the moulds of the air and of the gases 
 generated by the act of casting, and firmness and adhe- 
 siveness are required to withstand the liquid pressure of 
 the molten metal. A matrix must also be refractory, 
 that is, able to resist the disintegrating influence of great 
 heat, and the chemical action of the hot iron itself. It 
 must moreover be cheap, readily available, and not diffi- 
 cult to manipulate. All these qualities are possessed by 
 certain sands, and mixtures of sands, and by no other 
 materials. 
 
 The leading branches of moulding derive their names 
 from the different kinds of sand mixtures used, termed re- 
 spectively green sand, dry sand, loam. These terms we 
 shall explain directly. It will suffice just now to remark 
 that the fact that sands differ widely in their sensible 
 qualities is apparent to any observant person, so that 
 while one kind will be loose, open, friable, and free, 
 
PRINCIPLES. 3 
 
 another will appear as though clayey, greasy, close, and 
 dense. Advantage is taken of these differences in quality 
 to obtain mixtures suitable for every class of moulded 
 work, from the thinnest, lightest rain-water pipes to the 
 most massive and heaviest engine cylinders. Almost 
 invariably, therefore, foundry sand consists of mixtures 
 of various separate kinds. By judicious mixture, grades 
 of any required character can be obtained. 
 
 To impart the requisite definite impressions and outlines 
 to the sand, it is necessary to employ patterns, whose 
 outlines are in the main the counterparts of those of the 
 castings wanted. These patterns are in some cases 
 absolutely like their castings, but in others they only 
 resemble them to a certain extent. Thus, if work is to 
 be hollow, the hollow portions, instead of being provided 
 in the patterns, may be often much better formed in 
 cores :— prints on the patterns indicating their positions, 
 and the print impressions affording them support. But 
 in much large work, again, the patterns are mere skele- 
 tons, profile forms, and the mould is prepared mainly 
 by a process of "sweeping" or "strickling" up. 
 
 In order to the delivery of patterns, a process of 
 loosening by rapping has to be resorted to, and this, 
 together with the lifting or withdrawal, tends to damage 
 the mould. To prevent or to minimize this injury, taper 
 is given to patterns, that is, their dimensions are slightly 
 diminished in their lower portions, or in those which are 
 last withdrawn from the mould. 
 
 As iron shrinks during the process of cooling, an allow- 
 ance has to be given for this " contraction," by making 
 
4 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 the pattern and mould larger by a corresponding amount 
 than the casting is required to be. Moreover the forms 
 of some castings are such that they curve in cooling, and 
 for this also provision has properly to be made in their 
 patterns. 
 
 Iron when molten is a liquid, and behaves similarly to 
 a liquid in all respects ; hence the conditions of liquid 
 pressure exist in all moulds. The molten iron, therefore, 
 has to be confined at the time of pouring by the resis- 
 tance of large bodies of sand enclosed in flasks, which 
 flasks are loaded or weighted, or otherwise secured. 
 Sufficient area of entry for the metal has to be provided 
 by means of suitable gates and runners. The shrinkage 
 of metal in mass must receive adequate compensation 
 hy feeder heads. Owing to the irregular outlines of cast 
 work, flasks must be jointed, and joints of various kinds 
 have to be made in the mould itself. 
 
 I have made use of several terms in the course of a 
 few lines, and as they are terms which will be perpetually 
 recurring, it will be well before proceeding farther to 
 explain some of those which will not receive more special 
 treatment than they will have here. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 SANDS. 
 
 The coal measures, the chalk, green sand, and new red 
 sandstone yield the moulding sands; Erith, Belfast, 
 Lanark, Derbyshire, Falkirk, Devizes, Worcester, and 
 many other localities supply them in abundance, and of 
 excellent qualities. The terms "green," "dry," "loam," 
 "floor," "black," "strong," "weak," "core," "facing," 
 " burnt," " parting," " road," etc., have exclusive reference 
 to mixtures, and physical conditions ; none whatever to 
 geological character, or to locality. 
 
 Sand is "green" when the mixture is used in its 
 natural condition, that is, damp, or mixed with just 
 sufficient water to render it coherent. Immediately 
 after the pattern is withdrawn therefrom, the mould is 
 ready, except for the necessary cleaning and mending 
 up, and blackening, to receive the metal. It is also 
 termed "weak" sand to distinguish it from the other 
 mixtures, which by comparison therewith are " strong," 
 i.e. possessed of superior binding qualities, — having 
 more " body," — more coherence. 
 
 The " facing sand " which is rammed close around, and 
 
6 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 in immediate proximity to a pattern is a mixture dis- 
 tinct from that which is used for mere filling of the 
 flasks. There are different " facing " mixtures for green 
 sand, dry sand, and loam. The addition of coal dust is 
 necessary to constitute a facing sand for green and 
 dried moulds. The proportion of dust used is about 
 I of dust to 1 5 of sand for light castings, and of i of 
 dust to 6 or 8 of sand for heavy castings. The reason 
 of its employment is, that molten metal slightly fuses 
 the surface of sand with which it comes into contact, 
 and the surface of the casting becomes roughened in 
 consequence. A perfectly refractory sand cannot be 
 employed, there must be a certain percentage of alumina 
 and metallic oxides, which are binding elements, present, 
 to render it coherent and workable, and these happen to 
 be readily fusible. The more silica present in a sand 
 the more refractory it is ; thus the well-known Sheffield 
 ganister contains 89 per cent, of silica ; but too large a 
 percentage of this in a moulding sand would diminish 
 its necessary cohesive property. The facing sand there- 
 fore is introduced into a mould to supply that which is 
 lacking in the main body itself, and by forming a back- 
 ing of an inch or two in depth to the mould, prevents, 
 by the oxidation of the coal dust, this burning a.nd 
 roughening from taking place. The carbon of the coal 
 yields with the oxygen of the air, at the high tempe ra- 
 ture of the mould, either carbonic oxide, or carbon 
 di-oxide, and the thin stratum of these gases larg(ely 
 prevents that amount of direct contact of metal with 
 sand which would produce burning and rougheni:ng, 
 
SANDS. 
 
 7 
 
 from taking place. The reason why a larger proportion 
 of coal dust is required for heavy castings than for light 
 ones, is, that the action of the hot metal is continued 
 longer in the case of the first than in that of the second. 
 
 Castings become sand burnt when there is not sufficient 
 coal dust used to prevent surface fusion from taking 
 place. 
 
 Sand is said to be "burnt" and "old" after the carbon 
 of the coal dust has been oxidized at casting. The 
 worst portion of the sand in this condition, or that 
 which clings to the surface of the casting, is thrown 
 away ; the remainder is either mixed with certain pro- 
 portions of new sand, and more coal dust, for facing, or 
 it is allowed to mingle with the " floor sand " to be used 
 only for " box filling." The floor of an old foundry is 
 covered to a depth of from 2 to 3 feet with sand which 
 has been used over and over again for filling the flasks, 
 and making those portions of the moulds which are not 
 in immediate proximity to the pattern. The general 
 term "moulding sand" is therefore applied to that 
 which forms the Jloor, and also, from its colour, " black 
 sand." At the laying down of a new foundry the floor 
 will be made with yellow, red, or other saad, whichever 
 happens to be cheapest. This becomes black by subse- 
 quent use, the burning of iron, and admixture of coal 
 dust. 
 
 Though ordinary green sand mixtures cannot be dried 
 and yet retain coherence, mixtures of close heavy sands 
 are made, which when dried in the stove, are compara- 
 tively hard and firm. Only the heavier sands of close 
 
8 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 clayey texture will bear drying: green sand mixtures 
 would become friable and pulverize under the action of 
 heat. There is a superficial or " skin drying " practised 
 with these. But that only affects the surface, and is 
 quite distinct from the drying to which our present 
 remarks have reference. Horse dung, cow hair, or straw 
 are mixed with dry sand to render its otherwise close 
 texture sufficiently open for venting: the undigested 
 hay in the dung becoming partially carbonized during 
 the drying of the mould, while the moisture also 
 evaporates at the same time. Coal dust is added to 
 dry sand mixtures as to green sand. Dry sand is mixed 
 and rammed like green sand. Dry sand is said to be 
 " strong " to distinguish it from " weak " or green sand. 
 
 " Core sand " is in most cases simply a dry sand mix- 
 ture. It is strictly so for heavy cores. For light cores 
 it is a weaker mixture, approximating more nearly to 
 the condition of green sands. 
 
 Loam has a certain affinity to dry sand mixtures in its 
 essential nature ; being composed of strong sands and 
 dung. No coal dust, however, is mixed with it, and 
 instead of being rammed like the others, it is wrought 
 wet similarly to mortar, being either struck or swept up 
 with boards, or daubed around patterns or sections of 
 patterns. Dry sand, and loam are mostly used for 
 heavy work, and for work requiring first-class excellence 
 and absolute soundness. Old used loam ground up is 
 one of the main constituents in mixtures of dried sand. 
 
 Parting sand is a loose, friable, open, burnt sand, always 
 used without moisture, its purpose being, as its name 
 
SANDS. 
 
 9 
 
 implies, to prevent the partial amalgamation or sticking 
 of joint surfaces which are being rammed one against 
 the other. Burnt sand scraped from the surfaces of 
 castings, or new red sand baked in the stove to reduce it 
 to a non-adhesive powder, are used for parting moulds. 
 
 It may be noticed that I have refrained from giving 
 definite proportions of sands for different mixtures. The 
 reason is that the proportions of such mixtures must 
 depend entirely upon locality as well as upon the class of 
 work for which they are intended. The red sand or the 
 yellow sand of one locality will not be precisely like that 
 of another locality, and therefore the practice will differ 
 in different parts of the country. Moreover, the mixture 
 of sands, like that of metals, is largely a matter of indi- 
 vidual opinion and experience ; each foundry foreman 
 follows the practice which in his experience has pro- 
 duced the best results. And again, green sand, dry 
 sand, and loam mixtures are each prepared in various 
 grades to suit different classes of work, differences of 
 strength or body being required, not only in distinct 
 moulds, but even in individual portions of the same 
 mould. But, as generally indicative only of the methods 
 and proportions of mixing adopted, I give in the Appen- 
 dix a few receipts, some of which I have noted down 
 from time to time, and others for which I am indebted 
 to various firms in the country. 
 
 For the mixing of sands, various pieces of apparatus are 
 employed. The most complete pulverization and inter- 
 mixture are necessary, and this is variously done. The 
 sand of the floor, used for mere box filling, is simply 
 
lo PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 damped with water from a water-can or bucket, and 
 turned over and over with the shovel ; any lumps being 
 also broken with the shovel, and then passed through a 
 riddle of i" or f" mesh. For facing sand mixtures, the 
 various proportions required are first coarsely riddled or 
 sifted separately, and again sifted after admixture. 
 When dried loam is used, or when the sand is very 
 lumpy, it is usually broken up with a flat rammer. The 
 mixture is then turned over with the shovel and riddled 
 for the purpose of intermixture and of uniformity. In 
 small shops, hand-riddles are employed, being slid to and 
 fro over a light horse formed of wrought iron bars. But 
 the most economical method is to use a special sand sifter, 
 which besides being of a larger capacity than a riddle, has 
 the rocking to and fro motion imparted automatically. 
 
 These sand sifters are made in two forms, to be worked 
 either by hand or by power. Fig. i shows a power 
 machine. Its construction is very simple. The tray is 
 formed of a piece of ^ plate bent round to form three sides 
 of a rectangle ; the fourth side, that to the right, being 
 open. A series of V' bars pass across the frame, the 
 action of the uppermost bars being to assist in the break- 
 ing of the larger lumps of sand. Over the lower bars is 
 laid the sieve, whose mesh may vary from i-" to i in., the 
 sieves being loose and interchangeable. Stay-rods 
 screwed at the ends pass from side to side. Slings de- 
 pend from any convenient support, and are hooked into 
 straps bolted upon the outsides of the frame. The oscil- 
 lating motion is imparted to the frame from the belt 
 pulley seen to the left, driving the three-toothed cam 
 
SANDS. 
 
 II 
 
 pinion. These teeth thrusting alternately the pins in 
 the slotted piece attached to the bar which actuates the 
 
 Fig. I. — Sand Sifter. 
 
 frame, communicate a rapid to and fro motion thereto. 
 The fine sand falls through the sieve into a bin below, 
 
12 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 and the unbroken lumps pass on and fall out at the open 
 end, the tray being slightly inclined in that direction, as 
 shown. 
 
 The sizes of mesh of sieves and riddles range from ^' 
 downwards. The term riddle denotes dimensions down 
 to mesh, sieve includes any size less than that, the 
 numbers being given as from " 6 to i8 " mesh. A foundry 
 riddle is shown in Fig. 2. All these sizes are required in 
 the different sections of moulders' work. 
 
 Fig. 2. — Riddle. 
 
 For mixing loam a different method has to be adopted. 
 All the ingredients have to be ground up together with 
 water. A mortar mill, termed, from its special func- 
 tion, a loam mill (Fig. 3), is then employed. This 
 must be driven by power, and the whole structure re- 
 quires to be massive. The belt-pulley at the left drives 
 a bevel pinion which actuates a bevel wheel underneath 
 the pan. This in turn operates on the heavy grinding 
 rollers, its shaft passing through the bottom of the pan. 
 After the loam is ground, the pan is emptied by opening 
 the door in the side, seen at the front of the figure. 
 
 For grinding coal for facing sands, and blackening, a 
 
SANDS. 
 
 13 
 
 mill of another type is used ; this is sometimes a revolv- 
 ing cylinder, rotating with its longitudinal axis in the 
 horizontal position, having loose heavy rollers inside, 
 which, as the cylinder revolves, remain in the bottom by 
 
 reason of their weight, and crush the coal or coke, 
 introduced before the mill is started through a door 
 at the top of the cylinder. An improved form is shown 
 in Fig. 4. Within the pan there are heavy balls set re- 
 volving by the vertical spindle passing through the 
 
14 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 cover. The spindle is driven through bevel wheels by 
 the belt-pulley to the right. There is a cover of wood 
 for the introduction of the coal, and to prevent the 
 
 Fig. 4 — Coal Mill. 
 
 flying out of the dust. The ground coal is taken away 
 through the door in the bottom of the pan. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 SHRINKAGE — CURVING — FLASKS — TOOLS. 
 
 Before entering into the numerous details of moulding, 
 which will receive due treatment in the body of this 
 work, I want to explain here some of those primary- 
 matters which relate to the preparation of all moulds 
 alike. 
 
 Though the laws which govern shrinkage and curving 
 of castings are somewhat obscure and uncertain, yet 
 little difficulty is experienced in making allowances 
 sufficiently exact for all practical purposes. Curving, 
 however, as a rule gives greater trouble than shrinkage. 
 
 The linear shrinkage of all ordinary iron castings is 
 pretty constantly i" in 1 5 in. If, however, a casting is 
 exceptionally light a rather greater allowance should be 
 made, say |-" in 12 in., if unusually massive a smaller 
 allowance, say in 18 in. or 20 in., and in the case of a 
 very massive solid casting the shrinkage appears to be 
 almost nil. A casting will apparently shrink less in the 
 direction of its depth than in that of its length or 
 breadth, but this is apparent rather than real, for a 
 very deep casting will be found on careful measurement 
 
l6 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 to have shrunk to the normal extent, showing that the 
 apparent diminution in the vertical shrinkage of shallow- 
 castings is due to secondary causes, chief of which is 
 the springing or straining upwards of the cope by reason 
 of liquid pressure. Castings whose central portions are 
 hollowed with numerous dried sand cores, and which are 
 rendered rigid by ribs, or which are plated over, do not, 
 as a rule, contract so much as those in which shrinkage 
 is unimpeded, as for example in those cases where the 
 centre is cored with green sand, or when metal is not 
 massed heavily about the centre. Thus, a cog wheel 
 with arms will shrink less than a mere ring of teeth. 
 Hard white iron also shrinks much more than the soft 
 grey kind — roughly, twice as much — and strong mottled 
 iron occupies a position about midway between the 
 other two. When, therefore, it is stated that the shrink- 
 age of iron equals in 15 in., that is given as a good 
 average, which I have for my part confirmed by an 
 extended series of measurements; -i-" in 12 in., as some- 
 times stated, is not correct for ordinary work, but only 
 so for the lightest castings, for which it is about a proper 
 average. 
 
 Of the curving of castings I can give but the barest 
 summary here. An excess of metal in the form of a 
 rib on one ride of a long casting invariably induces a 
 hollow curvature on that side, the curvature increasing 
 with the amount of disproportion. Where there are 
 two flanges of unequal thickness in a long girder or 
 girder-like casting, concavity will result on the side of 
 the heavy or thick flange. When, in a column or pipe 
 
SHRINK A GE—CUR VING— FLASKS— TOOLS. 17 
 
 the metal is of unequal thickness, the casting will "go" 
 Concave on the side where the metal is thinnest, — the 
 direction of curvature being precisely the reverse of that 
 which is witnessed in a girder or in a ribbed casting. 
 Both sets of facts are, however, consistent with one 
 another, though I can do little more than state them 
 here, not having space to discuss these interesting 
 matters in extenso. In brief, the explanation appears to 
 me to be^ : — that in the column the disproportion in 
 thickness is so slight, that cooling, and the initial shrink- 
 age, and consequent curving of the thin side remains 
 permanent, while in the case of the girder, though the 
 thin flange shrinks and curves first, yet sufficient heat is 
 transmitted from the heavy flange through the web to 
 maintain the thin flange in a semi-plastic condition. 
 Cooling slowly therefore under restraint, its crystals 
 remain somewhat large and its texture open, and its 
 total shrinkage is thereby diminished. Finally, the 
 heavy flange shrinks to its full extent, more so than the 
 thin one, whose shrinkage has been delayed and dimi- 
 nished. The heavy flange consequently becomes con- 
 cave, pulling the thin flange, still at about its own 
 temperature, convex. Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, show typical 
 sections, which, if long relatively to their cross sections, 
 will infallibly become concave in cooling on the sides 
 marked A. In the shops this curvature is termed 
 camber, and a pattern is " cambered " to the precise 
 amount by which its casting is expected to curve, and in 
 
 ^ See " Industries," vol. iv. p. 417, 
 
 C 
 
i8 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 the opposite direction. It is, however, only possible to 
 design patterns to neutralize the curvature in unsym- 
 metrical castings by much observation of actual cases, 
 experience, and very often in new work, some tentative 
 measures being the only guides ; all depends on relative 
 proportions, that is on length, as well as on cross section, 
 a vital point which must be ever borne in mind. 
 
 Flasks or moulding boxes are employed for enclosing 
 either in part or entirely all moulds excepting those 
 which are made in open sand. The lower portion of a 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 6. Fig. 7. 
 
 Sections liable to Curve. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 mould may be in the sand of the floor, and its upper 
 portion in a flask. Or the entire mould may be contained 
 in flasks above the level of the floor sand. 
 
 The upper portion of a covered in mould is termed the 
 cope, and the flask corresponding therewith is also termed 
 the cope, or often the "top part." The flask in the 
 bottom, or that which lies on the floor, is called "the 
 drag',' or " bottom part!' If there is a central flask, that is 
 named the " middle " or " middle part!' These are shown 
 in the group, Fig. 9. In this group, is a cope, B a 
 drag, and C a middle part. 
 
20 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 It follows from a consideration of the obvious func- 
 tions of flasks that they must fulfil these main condi- 
 tions — they must be rigid and strong, able to retain their 
 enclosed sand without risk of a " drop out " occurring, and 
 their joints and fittings must be coincident, so that after 
 the withdrawal of the pattern they shall be returned to 
 the precise position for casting which they occupied 
 during ramming up. 
 
 Rigidity and strength are obtained by making the flasks 
 of cast iron of sufficient thickness. Occasionally they 
 are made in wood, this being a common practice in the 
 United States, but the general practice here, and by far 
 the best, is to use cast iron. The evils of a weak and 
 flimsy flask are, springing during the process of turning 
 over and of lifting, causing fracture of the sand to take 
 place, and portions to fall out ; and springing or straining 
 of the cope at the time of casting, producing a thickening 
 of the metal over the strained area. A flask should not 
 be excessively heavy, but at least it requires to be strong 
 and rigid. 
 
 Various devices are adopted in order to ensure the 
 retention of the contents of flasks. Chief among these 
 are the tars or stays by which they are bridged. A'' in 
 Fig. 9. These are ribs of metal usually cast with 
 the frames, though sometimes bolted therein, to be 
 detachable therefrom. They are arranged for the most 
 part at equi-distant intervals. Their forms differ. Thus 
 the typical bars for drag flasks are flat. Fig. 9, B,A \ their 
 function being the retention of the sand which lies thereon, 
 and which but for the bars would mingle with the sand 
 
SHRINK A GE—CUR VING— FLASKS— TOOLS. 2 1 
 
 on the floor. Only in the case of special flasks, as for 
 example those used for pipes, columns, and for repeti- 
 tion work (Figs. 10 and 11) in which the bars follow the 
 contour of the pattern, is this practice departed from. 
 The bars in the cope (Fig. 9, A, A^^ are made on an 
 essentially different plan. Here they are never flat, but 
 always vertical, being rather of the nature of ribs than of 
 bars. For general work they are parallel, as in Fig. 9, 
 but for special work their lower edges are cut to the 
 contour of the pattern which they cover (Figs. 10 and 11). 
 These edges are kept to a distance of ^' or -i" away 
 from the patterns. They are always chamfered also, 
 Fig. 9, A^ because if left flat, the sand lying immediately 
 underneath the bars would be insufficiently rammed. 
 Being chamfered almost to a knife-edge, the full pressure 
 of the rammer is exerted immediately underneath the 
 bars, as elsewhere. 
 
 There are no stays in middle parts excepting for some 
 special work. Middles for general work are always left 
 clear of bars, as in Fig. 9, because they have usually 
 to contain a zone of sand only, the central portions being 
 open. To retain this zone of sand, rods and lifters are 
 employed, whose function and mode of use are described 
 at p. 41. Lifters are also employed in the cope. A rib 
 is cast around the inner bottom edge of a middle, Fig. 9, 
 C, B, to assist in the retention of the sand, and also as a 
 convenient support for the rods which help to carry the 
 lifters and the sand. 
 
 Flasks are always cast with a very rough skin, the 
 better to retain their contents. They are made in open 
 
22 
 
 PRACTICAL' IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 moulds, no blackening is used, and their faces are often 
 purposely hatched up to increase their adhesive power. 
 
 The coincidence of the joints of moulds is effected dif- 
 ferently in the case of work which is bedded in, than in 
 that which is turned oven Thus, the mould being bedded 
 mainly in the floor, the cope is set by means oi stakes of 
 wood or iron ; but being turned over^ the flasks are fitted 
 \s\.\hpins. 
 
 In the first method, one example of which is shown at 
 pp. 62, 64, the pattern having been bedded in and rammed 
 up as far as the joint face, parting sand is strewn thereon, 
 and the cope lowered into its position for ramming. 
 Before being rammed, however, its permanent place is 
 definitely fixed by the stakes, which are driven deeply 
 down into the sand of the floor alongside of the lugs, 
 Fig. 9, A,E, E, or other projections standing from its 
 sides. See also p. 71, Fig. 45 D. Being then rammed, 
 and afterwards lifted ofl"for withdrawal of the pattern, and 
 cleaning and finishing of the mould, it is returned and 
 guided to its original position by the stakes in the floor. 
 
 In the second method the lugs cast upon the sides of 
 the flask parts have holes drilled or cast to correspond 
 with each other, and long turned pins are bolted into the 
 lugs which are lowermost, and pass into the correspond- 
 ing holes in the lugs above. The more care which is 
 taken with the fitting up of these lugs the more accu- 
 rately will the boxes and consequently the mould joints 
 correspond. The length of the pins should be settled 
 with reference to the nature of the work. In any case 
 the pins should enter their holes before any portions of 
 
SHRINK A GE—CUR VING— FLASKS— TOOLS. 23 
 
 the opposite mould faces come into contact. Unless the 
 pins guide the closing mould there is always danger of a 
 crush of the sand occurring. In shallow flat work, there- 
 fore, the pins may measure no more than 3 in. or 4 in. in 
 length. But in work having deep vertical or diagonal 
 joints the pins may require to be 8 in. or even 10 in. long. 
 The practice is usually to make the pins point upwards. 
 Thus, in Fig. 9, the parts of the flasks are represented in 
 their correct relations for super-position at the time 6f 
 final closing of the mould. B, the drag, has its pins G, G, 
 pointing upwards ready to enter into the lugs C, C\ of the 
 middle C. The pins F, F, of C also point upwards to 
 enter into the lugs E, E, of the cope A. 
 The best method of securing the 
 
 pins is with cottars (Fig. 12) ; some- 
 times, however, in deep moulds cast 
 vertically, the pins are short, and the 
 ends are tapped and the tightening 
 is effected with nuts. 
 
 When flasks are retained in posi- ^ 
 „ --u 4. 1 i-i. • Fig. 12.— Pin and 
 
 tion with stakes, cottarmg or screw- Cottar. 
 
 ing cannot of course be effected, yet 
 
 great counter pressure is necessary to prevent a cope 
 
 from being strained and lifted at the time of pouring. 
 
 Weights are therefore employed for this purpose, the 
 
 amount required being estimated roughly according to 
 
 the area of the mould, and its depth from the pouring 
 
 basin. 
 
 If the contact area of a cope measured four feet square, 
 and the height of pouring basin were one foot above it, 
 
24 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 the amount of weight required by calculation to keep it 
 down, including its own weight, would be 48" x 48" 
 X 12" X '263 lbs., the latter being the weight of a cubic 
 inch of iron. This would give us 7,121 lbs. required for 
 loading, or over 3^ tons. Actually, a moulder seldom 
 attempts to calculate the weight necessary to load a flask 
 properly, because so many other conditions have to be 
 considered besides the simple laws of hydrostatics. There 
 is a good deal of pressure due to momentum to betaken 
 into account. Metal poured directly into the mould will 
 exercise more straining action than that led in at the 
 side. Rapid pouring again will cause more momentum 
 than slow pouring. Hot metal will induce more strain 
 than dead metal. Risers relieve strain. The moulder, 
 therefore, loads according to the best of his experience 
 and judgment, and not by calculation, which alone would 
 often lead him astray. 
 
 There are numerous minor attachments to flasks, used 
 both for general and for special purposes. All flasks 
 require to be turned over, either for ramming, or for 
 cleaning up of the mould. For this purpose handles are 
 provided in the small flasks, and middles, Fig. 9, F, and 
 swivels in larger ones. Fig. 9, H, and Figs. 10 and 11. 
 The swivels rest in slings depending from a cross beam, 
 the beam being suspended from the crane the while. 
 Since handles and swivels require to be very firmly 
 secured in place, they are not only made of wrought iron 
 and cast in position, but the metal is increased around 
 that portion which is cast in, as shown in the figures 9, 
 10, II. 
 
SHRINK A GE—CUR VING— FLASKS— TOOLS. 25 
 
 There are other attachments, as handles (Fig. 1 1, B,B) 
 for turning over flasks which are too long to be slung in 
 the crane in the manner just noted, and for lowering them 
 into the foundry pit for vertical casts. There are also 
 flanges, C, C, in the same figure, for the attachment of 
 " back plates," that is, plates of cast iron bolted to the 
 backs of deep flasks which have to be poured vertically, 
 and which are subject, as all deep moulds are, to enor- 
 mous liquid pressure. The back plates prevent all risk 
 of the pressure forcing out the molten metal, and so 
 producing a waster casting. 
 
 The forms of flasks vary widely, being rectangular, 
 both square and oblong, and having ordinary, or special 
 bars. Or, cope and drag may be precisely alike, and 
 bars be alike in each, as in Figs. 10 and 11, which repre- 
 sent pipe and column boxes. Fig. 10 being for pipes, and 
 Fig. 1 1 for columns. The sides are bevelled in Fig. 10 to 
 economize the time spent in ramming, a consideration 
 when large numbers of casts are required. In Fig. 10 
 and Fig. 1 1 the holes D in the ends are for the purpose 
 of allowing the ends of the core bars to project through, 
 see Chapter VII. Flasks are also circular for circular 
 work, or of irregular and unsymmetrical outlines to suit 
 work of special character. In jobbing shops, flasks will 
 be sometimes fitted with interchangeable bars bolted in 
 place. Pockets also are often fitted at the ends, which 
 are then bolted on, to be removable, the object being to 
 increase the length of the flask. Sometimes pockets are 
 bolted on the sides to take branches, and holes are cut 
 through the flask sides next the pockets. In all these 
 
25 
 
 PR A CTICAL IRON FO UN DING . 
 
 cases the question to be decided is one of relative cost, 
 as between the expense of the alterations, and that of a 
 new flask. Flasks cost little for making, and the metal 
 is always worth nearly its first value for re-melting. The 
 dimensions of flasks will range from 6 in. to 12' o" square, 
 or from i' 6" to 20' o" long, if of oblong form. 
 
 Fig. 13. — Rammers. 
 
 The general appliances used in moulding, [omitting 
 those of the nature of machines, and those not directly 
 employed in moulding, are shovels, lamps, riddles, 
 sieves, buckets, water-cans, bellows, oil-cans. Shovels 
 are used for sand-mixing and box-filling, lamps for 
 
SHRINK A GE-^CUR VING^FLASKS— TOOLS. 2T 
 
 giving light into the darker recesses of moulds ; the uses, 
 of riddles and sieves have been described, p. 1 2 ; buckets- 
 a:nd water-cans are used for damping sand and swabbing 
 moulds, bellows for blowing away parting sand and loose 
 particles generally, oil-cans for pouring oil over chaplets, 
 and on damped corners and sections of moulds to prevent 
 the metal from bubbling and causing scabs. These tools 
 are all provided by the employer for general use. 
 
 The small tools used by moulders, and mostly provided 
 by themselves, though not numerous, are very charac- 
 teristic of the work done. Foremost among them is the 
 "rammer," varieties of which are shown in Fig. 13, -^4 
 being the usual form of " pegging rammer," B another 
 form, C and D " flat rammers." A and B are employed 
 for consolidating the sand in narrow spaces, and generally 
 for all the earlier stages of ramming, ^Tand D being used 
 only for final flat ramming, or finishing over of surfaces. 
 E shows the manner in which the flat rammer is handled, 
 a wedge at the lower end being driven home by the 
 forcing down of the handle into the socket of the rammer 
 head. 
 
 "Vent wires" are shown at Fig. 14, B being a small 
 "pricker" or "piercer," as it is sometimes called, the 
 other. A, being larger and requiring considerable force 
 to use. The smaller wire, which may be from -f in. to -rV 
 in. in diameter is employed for piercing the sand in the 
 immediate vicinity of the pattern with innumerable 
 holes, all leading into larger vents, or into the "gutters" 
 in the joint faces. The larger wires will range from \ in. 
 to I- in. and are used for venting down to cinder beds 
 
28 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 underneath flasks, and around the edges of deep patterns, 
 bringing off the vents from the smaller channels. 
 
 The " trowels " (Fig. 15) are in perpetual request for 
 smoothing or sleeking the surfaces of moulds, for spread- 
 
 FiG. 14.— Vent Wires. Fig. 15. — Trowels. 
 
 ing and smoothing the blackening, and for mending up 
 broken sections of moulds. They are also employed for 
 "finning" joints of dry sand moulds, for marking lines 
 on sand faces, and are improvised for many purposes 
 
 Fig. 16. — Cleaner. 
 
 beyond those for which they are legitimately designed. 
 A is the common "heart " shape, B the " square " trowel, 
 and (7 the combination, or "heart and square" form. 
 Fig. 16 is a "cleaner," a tool used for mending up and 
 
30 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 smoothing the deeper portions of moulds which cannot 
 be reached by the trowel. 
 
 The remaining figures (17) illustrate finishing tools. A 
 is a "square corner sleeker," also spelt "slicker," or 
 ^'slaker." ^ is a similar tool except that one face is 
 adapted for sweeps, hence called "flange corner sleeker." 
 67 is a "bead tool or smoother," or "pipe smoother," for 
 smoothing the impressions of beads or sweeps of that 
 section. Z> is a " hollow bead." £ is a " spoon tool." G 
 is a " bead tool " curved lengthwise. is a square or 
 "flange" bead. H, /, /, are "flange tools," K, K, 
 "boss tools." L is a "Button sleeker" or "bacca box 
 smoother," M an "oval pipe sleeker," N another pipe 
 sleeker. These tools, with a rule and calipers, complete 
 -the private kit of a moulder. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART I. 
 
 This branch embraces by much the largest proportion 
 of cast work done, being not only cheap, but sufficiently 
 good for all except some few special purposes. The 
 meaning of the term " green sand " was explained on p. 5. 
 The methods of moulding in green sand will be described 
 here. 
 
 These methods are broadly classified under three great 
 divisions, namely, moulding in open sand, bedding in, and 
 turning over. By one or another of these, all work which is 
 made in green sand is accomplished ; and, omitting the 
 first, all work in dry sand also. 
 
 Moulding in open sand signifies that the mould is 
 uncovered on its upper face. In the closed moulds, 
 the metal when poured is arrested at a certain 
 definite stage by the face of the sand in the cope. The 
 face of that sand may have any contour, irregular or 
 otherwise, but the upper face of a casting made in open 
 sand can only be truly horizontal, which fact alone at 
 once limits the utility of open moulds. But beyond this, 
 the upper surface of a casting made thus is always 
 
32 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 irregular, rough, porous, unsound : — irregular and rough, 
 because the hot bubbling iron is not confined against 
 a face of sand, but begins to set ere the commotion 
 due to the evolution of its heat, and of the gases 
 and air, has subsided, — porous and unsound, chiefly for 
 this reason, and partly because it is not cast under pres- 
 sure, as are all closed moulds ; the pressure in these being 
 due to the height of pouring-basin above the surface of 
 the mould. Castings made in open sand are therefore 
 only employed for rough work, never for ordinary en- 
 gineering constructions. Moulding flasks, back plates, 
 foundation plates, core plates, rough weights used only 
 for loading, and similar articles are made in open sand. 
 
 The main essential in this class of work is to have the 
 mould perfectly level, a matter comparatively unimportant 
 in closed moulds. Hence in such work, either a level bed 
 of sand is first prepared, and the pattern or skeleton of 
 the pattern, or sectional portion of the pattern, as the case 
 may be, is laid upon this and rammed. Or the pattern 
 is bedded in and levelled during the process of ramming. 
 Venting is seldom done except when the sand happens 
 to be of very close texture, but the air comes away partly 
 from the upper face of the casting, partly through the 
 bottom sand. 
 
 Usually an open sand mould is made -f-" or deeper 
 than the casting is required to be, and overflow channels 
 are cut around the edges to carry off the superfluous 
 metal, and to indicate the proper time for the cessation 
 of pouring. A good deal of work in open sand is shaped 
 by the moulder himself with the aid of a few strips and 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART I. 
 
 33 
 
 sweeps only, but then it is the roughest class of moulded 
 work done. 
 
 Bedding in signifies the moulding of patterns in the 
 sand of the foundry floor, the position of the mould 
 being in no respect changed from the commencement of 
 operations until the time of casting. In this method it 
 is obvious that the lower faces of the mould — those which 
 are formed underneath the pattern — will not be easily 
 rammed, and may be harder and softer alternately. 
 
 Turning over, on the contrary, signifies that the face of 
 the mould which is lowermost at the time of casting, is 
 uppermost at the commencement of ramming, being 
 subsequently turned over. By this last method it is 
 clear that the portion of the mould which is finally 
 lowermost will be rammed as evenly and well as the 
 upper portion, since it has already been in the top at the 
 earlier stage of ramming : and it is evident that the con- 
 solidation of the sand over any given area will be more 
 perfect when it has been rammed directly against a 
 pattern, than when the pattern has been simply beaten 
 down into a bed of sand. But it is also evident that 
 since in turning over, the whole of the mould is con- 
 tained in flasks, this method requires more " box parts " 
 or flask sections, and increases the weight which has to 
 be lifted by men, or with cranes, or travellers ; and is 
 therefore more expensive than bedding in. The larger 
 and heavier the work, the greater the reason then why 
 bedding in should be adopted in preference to turning 
 over. In massive work, therefore, the preference is 
 usually given to bedding in, but in moulds of small 
 
 D 
 
3^ •• PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 and of moderate size, and generally for work of the best 
 class, turning over is the method usually adopted. 
 
 When work is bedded in, the sand is dug up and 
 loosened to a sufficient depth, and into this the pattern 
 is beaten with heavy wooden mallets, its top face, when 
 practicable, being tested by the spirit level, — usually in 
 conjunction with winding strips. As soon as a very 
 rough impression of the mould is thus obtained, an inch 
 or two of facing-sand is strewn or riddled over the whole 
 area, and the pattern is beaten down again. This ham- 
 mering down of the pattern causes the sand to become 
 harder in certain sections than in others — becoming 
 hard, it also offers a certain resistance to the further 
 bedding down of the pattern. This consolidated sand 
 is therefore hatched up and loosened, and if need be, 
 portions removed with the trowel, or with the hands, 
 until the pattern is made to bed pretty nearly alike all 
 over. Recesses, pockets, ribs, flanges, and such like, 
 when present, have to be filled in, by tucking the sand 
 underneath and around them with the hands, the smaller 
 rammer following afterwards where possible. When the 
 sand is thus rammed and brought up level with the top 
 edge of the pattern, it is scraped and sleeked off, and the 
 joint face made for the cope. This face is then strewn with 
 parting sand, and the cope put on, set with stakes, and 
 rammed. 
 
 Though these operations are in general outlines very 
 simple, yet in their practical details they call for the 
 exercise of as . much, or perhaps more skill on the part of 
 the moulder than those involved in turning over. The 
 
36 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 difficulty in bedding in, lies chiefly in the proper consoli- 
 dation of the sand. If the sand is of unequal consistence, 
 there will result scabs and blow-holesjn the harder por- 
 tions, and swellings on the castings over the softer 
 portions. 
 
 Figs. 1 8-2 1 illustrate the moulding of a trolly wheel 
 by turning over. The pattern is first laid with its upper 
 face downwards on a temporary cushion of sand in the 
 flask A, Fig. i8, which is presently to form the cope. A 
 joint face is made, which mayor may not be in the same 
 plane as the joint edge of the flask, being dependent on 
 circumstances. It is often convenient to slope the sand 
 joint up or down when the relative depths of pattern 
 and flask require it. The joint is strewn with parting 
 sand. Upon this the flask B, which is presently to form 
 the drag, is laid. Fig. 19, and rammed permanently. 
 The two flasks then cottared together, are turned over, 
 and the drag B is laid in its permanent position upon a 
 bed of levelled sand. The cope is lifted off, its loose 
 cushion of sand knocked out, and the upper joint face of 
 the drag smoothed over, and strewn with parting sand. 
 Fig. 20 represents the mould at this stage. The cope is 
 then placed on, swabbed, liftered, and rammed perma- 
 nently with runner pin in place. The flasks are then 
 parted at the joint, the mould mended and blackened, 
 cored, closed, and cottared, and the pouring basin ^Tmade. 
 Fig. 21 represents the mould closed ready for pouring. 
 
 The next illustrations, Figs. 22 to 24, are those of a 
 " three parted mould." It is obvious that the groove of 
 the sheave wheel there shown must effectually prevent de- 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART I. 37 
 
 livery, if moulded in the same manner as the trolly wheel 
 — that is, with a cope and drag only. Two parting joints 
 are necessary to enable the pattern to deliver, and in ad- 
 dition the pattern itself has to be divided through its 
 middle plane. Fig. 22 shows that stage of the mould 
 which corresponds with the stage in the moulding of the 
 trolly wheel seen in Fig. 19. The sand in Fig. 22, 
 forms a temporary bedding only for the half-pattern 
 over which the drag B is rammed for permanence. 
 The flasks A and B, then cottared together, are turned 
 over, A is removed, and the sand knocked out, the ex- 
 posed joint face of B is sleeked, and strewn with parting 
 sand, the middle part rodded and liftered, swabbed with 
 clay-water, and rammed approximately level with the 
 pattern joint, Fig. 24, To sustain the weak narrow 
 tongue or zone of sand which forms the pulley-groove, 
 nails dipped in clay-water are rammed in with the sand 
 as seen in Fig. 24. The upper half-pattern is then put 
 on the lower half and weighted, the sand rammed to the 
 middle plane D of its flange, Fig. 23, the joint sleeked 
 over, parting sand strewn thereon, and the cope E put on, 
 liftered and rammed. The flasks are then parted, the 
 pattern withdrawn, the mould cleaned, blackened, cored, 
 and closed, pouring basin F made, and all is ready for 
 casting, as in Fig. 23. 
 
 These, in bare outline, are the general processes of 
 bedding in, and of turning over. I have purposely, in 
 order to avoid confusing the mind of the student, omitted 
 to explain certain important items essential to safe 
 moulding, which we must now consider. 
 
38 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 First there is the matter of venting. Vents are variously 
 made, according to circumstances. When a pattern is 
 being rammed, the sand by which it is surrounded is 
 pierced with innumerable small vent-holes of about \ in. 
 in diameter, more or less. These do not properly come 
 quite close, but only to within f in. or \ in. of the pattern. 
 When vent-holes come out on the actual mould surface, 
 there is always risk of the metal entering the vents and 
 "choking" them, and, by preventing the escape of air 
 and gas, causing a "waster" casting. All the small 
 vents are brought into larger ones, and the position of 
 the larger ones will quite depend on the nature of the 
 mould. For instance, when a pattern is bedded in, and 
 the area of the mould is large, all the lower surface vents 
 are carried directly downwards into a large porous reser- 
 voir of cinders, clinkers, or coke — hence termed a coke- 
 bed, or cinder-bed. In this, layers of hay alternate with 
 layers of cinders, and the whole is covered with a final 
 stratum of hay. This bed is laid at a depth of lo" or 
 12" beneath the lower face of the mould, and has a total 
 thickness, including cinders and hay, of 10" or 12". 
 Into this the vents are carried, and from it the air is led 
 away.and escapes through vent-pipes. Fig. 36, p. 62, illus- 
 trates a mould having a cinder-bed and vent-pipes. The 
 larger vent-holes are made with a vent-wire of i" or |-" dia- 
 meter, usually at an early stage of the bedding in of the 
 pattern, or as soon as the general contour of the mould 
 is obtained, and before the pattern is put back for final 
 ramming up. But after the pattern is withdrawn, the 
 vent openings, if not already closed by the bedding in, 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART L 39 
 
 are filled up by the consolidation of the surface sand 
 with the hands of the moulder, which invariably follows 
 upon the withdrawal of a pattern that has been bedded 
 in. By exerting gentle pressure with the fingers over 
 the whole of the surface in detail, the moulder ascertains 
 what sections are not sufficiently firm, and adds fresh 
 sand in those parts, using the rammer for the purpose. 
 At the same time he closes vent-holes which may yet 
 remain open. On first thoughts it may seem strange to 
 make vents and then close their openings, but as a 
 matter of fact, the air and gas will force their way under 
 the liquid pressure existing in the mould, through an inch 
 or thereabouts of intervening sand, to the vents, while the 
 metal itself will be unable to do so. 
 
 Diagonal vents are brought from the sides of a mould 
 into shallow channels or " gutters " which are cut in the 
 sand forming the joints of the mould, and are thus 
 carried away at the box joints. The vents from the 
 upper surf ace oi 2. mould are brought off directly through 
 the whole area of the upper surface of the cope sand. 
 In Figs. 21 and 23, the upper surface vents are brought 
 out over the tops of the copes A and E respectively, 
 covering the whole area. The venting is therefore 
 direct. Vents in the drag, in work which is turned 
 over, are first made directly to the pattern face before 
 turning over, and are then brought out at the joint 
 which the under surface of the drag makes with the 
 levelled bed of sand on which it rests. The necessary 
 connection with the outside of the flasks is made by 
 passing a long vent wire from the outside between those 
 
40 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 faces in all directions. The vents therefore in Figs. 21 
 and 23 pass from the lower faces of the mould perpen- 
 dicularly through the drags B and B, and then out at right 
 angles therewith, on a level with the sand floor upon which 
 the drags rest. 
 
 The vents from the peripheries of these moulds are 
 brought out diagonally into gutters cut into the mould 
 faces, and the air escapes through the joints of the flasks. 
 
 Sand which is rammed hard will require more venting 
 than loosely rammed sand. Free open sand will require 
 less than close loamy sand. The red sands are so free 
 and open that for many kinds of light work no venting 
 is required at all, their natural porosity being sufficient 
 to allow of the escape of the air. In heavy work the 
 vents may be kept farther from the surface than on light 
 work. The more dampness present in a mould the 
 greater the quantity of venting necessary. 
 
 Another important matter in moulding is the artificial 
 binding together and retention of large quantities of 
 sand in their flasks. It is clear that the mere ramminsf 
 of a large mass of sand in a flask, with no other support 
 than that afforded by the sides, and the bars or stays, 
 would not prevent the tumbling out of portions of that 
 sand by concussion, or even by reason of its own weight. 
 Numerous devices are therefore resorted to in order to 
 bind or secure it, both during moulding and at the time 
 of casting. These methods are rodding, liftering, and 
 sprigging, signifying that rods, lifters, and sprigs are used 
 in different moulds, or in different portions of the same 
 mould, as binding agents. 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART 1. \\ 
 
 Bodding means that masses of sand which by reason of 
 their large amount of overhang cannot be supported and 
 stayed by the bars of the flask, are sustained by means 
 of iron rods. Thus, as a typical example, a mass of 
 sand overhanging a flange will be supported by rods 
 whose opposite ends are either sustained by the main 
 body of sand in the mould, or upon a " drawback " plate, 
 or on any ordinary cast iron ring or frame, such as those 
 which are often used for lifting the middle sand in some 
 kinds of bedded-in moulds. Rods are used also in 
 turned over moulds, in the middle flasks, which are 
 always destitute of bars. The general mode of rodding 
 and liftering middle parts is shown in Fig. 35, p. 60, rods 
 of square bar iron being placed across the flask and 
 supported by the ledge (see Fig. 9, C, B, p. 19) that runs 
 round the inside face. The lifters depend from, and 
 are supported upon these. Similar rods are seen in the 
 middle part in Fig. 23, p. 35. 
 
 Lifters are bent rods made both in wrought and in cast 
 iron, the size of cross section and length varying with 
 the dimensions of the work. They may range from 
 i" to ^' in diameter, and from 4" to 24" in length. 
 They rest upon the rods as in Fig. 35, p. 60, or are sus- 
 pended from the box bars as in Fig. 40, p. 66, and are set 
 and laid in all possible positions wherever sand requires 
 support. In some few cases they are not themselves 
 supported, but simply act as binders within the sand, 
 their bent ends resisting the tendency to dislodgment 
 of the sand in mass. But when practicable they should 
 be suspended from, or be rested upon rigid supports. 
 
42 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 Some judgment is required even in the apparently 
 simple matter of the putting in of lifters, since if im- 
 properly supported, a tumble out of the sand and lifters 
 €71 masse will probably occur. 
 
 Sprigs, that is, common cut nails, are employed for 
 strengthing weak sections of sand which are too small to 
 be sustained by lifters. Or the sprigs may be considered 
 as auxiliary to lifters, strengthening in detail the sand 
 whose principal mass is carried by the lifters. In all 
 work where there are small isolated bodies of sand, 
 narrow weak edges, projections, etc., long nails are 
 inserted in quantity to bind those to the main body. 
 The nails are not only inserted at the time of moulding, 
 but also after the pattern has been withdrawn. Should 
 the mould crack or show signs of giving way, nails are 
 thrust in to strengthen it, and to prevent risk of the sand 
 becoming washed away by the rush of metal. In the 
 economy of mending up, these nails are indispensable. 
 An example of sprigging occurs in Fig. 24, p. 35. 
 
 Mending up is necessary in all cases excepting those in 
 which the patterns are made for standard use, regardless 
 of expense, and those in which patterns are moulded by 
 machine. The causes of moulds breaking down are nu- 
 merous, as, for instance, badly made patterns destitute of 
 taper, of rough construction, having overlapping joints 
 in the wood of which they are composed ; the leaving 
 those pieces fast which ought properly to be loose, too 
 soft or too hard ramming, imperfect rodding or nailing, 
 insufficient, or excessive rapping, uneven or jerky lifting. 
 These are the principal causes of the fracturing of moulds. 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART I. 43 
 
 At the time of withdrawing, or delivery of a pattern, 
 the joint edges of the sand are "swabbed," in other 
 words, they are just damped or moistened with the swab 
 or water brush in order to render the sand around the 
 edges of the pattern as coherent as possible. Then the 
 pattern is rapped, that is, a pointed iron bar is inserted 
 in a rapping plate let into the pattern, or otherwise into 
 a hole bored into the pattern itself, and the bar is struck 
 on all sides in succession with a hammer, so loosening 
 the pattern from actual contact with the sand in its 
 immediate proximity. A lifting screw, or else a spike, 
 is then inserted, several screws or spikes being used in 
 work of large dimensions, and the pattern is lifted gently, 
 moderate rapping with wooden mallets on its surface 
 and edges being continued the while. 
 
 After the pattern has been removed, the mould is 
 carefully overhauled to note the extent of the damage, 
 if any, which it has sustained. If the lift has been very 
 bad and the work is very intricate, it is better not to 
 attempt mending up at all, but to ram the pattern over 
 again. If the edges chiefly are broken, it is in some 
 cases desirable, as, for instance, in moulds taken from 
 loam patterns, to put the pattern into place again, and 
 make good the sand around the edges, pressing it down 
 with the trowel and increasing its coherence by means 
 of sprigs and the use of the swab. If the damage is of 
 quite a local character, that portion of the pattern corre- 
 sponding therewith can often be taken off and put back 
 in the mould as a guide by which to mend up. 
 
 In sections which are inherently weak, a stronger sand 
 
44 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 should be employed than that which is used for the 
 general facing of the mould ; core sand may in certain 
 sections be used with advantage. In most broken parts 
 it will be necessary, where the main pattern or portions 
 of the pattern are not utilized for the purpose, to use 
 mending up pieces. These are strips of wood cut to the 
 outlines, curved or otherwise, of the broken sections, 
 and held against those sections while the broken sand is 
 being repaired and made good. 
 
 In green sand moulding there is a process termed skin 
 drying, which is serviceable as a means of slightly stiffen- 
 ing an otherwise weak section or area of sand. It con- 
 sists in partly drying the surface of the mould, not in the 
 stove, but with " devils " or open cages containing burning 
 coke or charcoal. Or a red hot weight, or other mass of 
 hot iron, is suspended in close proximity to the mould for 
 the same purpose. This skin drying slightly stiffens and 
 hardens the sand, enabling it the better to resist the 
 pressure of metal. 
 
 The mould is not finished at this stage. Its surface 
 has to be protected with blackening or blacking. When a 
 mould is skin dried this is laid on before the drying is 
 done. The use of blackening is similar to that of the 
 coal dust in the sand, namely, as a protection against the 
 fierce heat of the metal. But the coal dust being mixed 
 in small proportions is scattered finely among the facing 
 sand, while the blackening continuously covers the face 
 of the mould. This blackening being made either of 
 ground oak charcoal, or prepared from plumbago, is 
 essentially carbon, and the immediate effect of contact 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART I. 
 
 45 
 
 Df the molten metal therewith is the formation of a 
 gaseous film of one or of both of the oxides of carbon. 
 Thus smoothness of surface is preserved, because the 
 metal is prevented from coming into actual contact with, 
 and entering into the interstices of the sand, and fusing 
 its surface with the production of a hard skin of silicate. 
 The action is further assisted by the coal dust in the 
 facing sand. Hence the reason why heavy castings 
 require a thicker coat of blackening, and a thicker 
 stratum of facing sand, than lighter ones. 
 
 Wet blacking is often used on moulds of large size, and 
 on those which are to be skin dried. This is blacking 
 mixed with water, thickened with clay, and laid on wet 
 with a brush. Blacking in its ordinary state is applied 
 as powder and sleeked with a camel hair brush and trowel. 
 
 Directly connected with the subject of ramming, mend- 
 ing, swabbing, and blackening, is that of scabbing. This 
 is a serious evil, often present, causing disfigurement, 
 and in many cases waster castings. A scab is an excres- 
 cence on a casting, and is caused by the washing away 
 of a portion of the sand, corresponding in area with 
 that of the scab. That is to say, a scab is metal in the 
 wrong place. It can of course be chipped off, but the 
 evil is this, that the sand which it has displaced is almost 
 sure to have lodged elsewhere in the casting, occupying 
 a place, therefore, which should be filled with metal. 
 Frequently, indeed, the sand remains close to the scabbed 
 part, so that the metal being chipped off, or struck with 
 a hammer, reveals a hollow space beneath. A scab 
 should therefore be always eyed with suspicion. 
 
46 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 The causes of scabs are various. As we are speaking 
 now of green sand, we will only mention the causes 
 which produce scabs in green sand moulds. Hard ram- 
 ming is liable to cause them, and so also is using sand of 
 too close texture, or working it too wet. When ramming 
 a mould, regard must be had to the nature of the casting, 
 and the particular section of the mould which is being 
 rammed. Metal will not lie kindly on a hard bed, but 
 will bubble, the air not getting away with sufficient 
 rapidity, and bubbling will result in the detachment of 
 flakes of sand, and consequent scabbing. If, on the con- 
 trary, the sand is rammed too softly, the pressure of the 
 metal will produce lumpy castings. The moulder has 
 therefore to ram the sand sufficiently hard to resist the 
 pressure of metal, yet so soft that bubbling shall not 
 take place. The practical result is a kind of compromise. 
 The lower stratum of sand is rammed hard, and freely 
 vented, and an upper stratum of an inch or two in thick- 
 ness is rammed more softly. The metal, therefore, lies 
 upon a comparatively soft cushion, which is supported 
 by a firm, well-vented backing. The lower portions of 
 moulds are not as a rule rammed so hard as the sides 
 and top, since the gas can escape more readily from the 
 latter than from the former. A hard-rammed mould will 
 be productive of less risk in the case of a heavy than 
 in that of a light casting. Another cause of scabbing is 
 the leaving of risers and feeder heads open during the 
 actual pouring of metal — a point which we shall mention 
 more in detail presently. 
 
 Choking of vents will produce scabbing,, hence the 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART I. 
 
 47 
 
 reason why the vent openings are always closed against 
 the face of a mould. Excessive moisture in a mould will 
 produce scabbing by the generation of steam in quantity. 
 The moisture may be due to overmuch watering of the 
 sand in the first place, or to the abuse of the swab at the 
 time of mending up in the second. The amount of 
 moisture in a mould should be just so much as is neces- 
 sary to effect the consolidation of the sand — anything in 
 excess of that is injurious. Too much sleeking with the 
 trowel also is injurious, and a too thick application of 
 blackening, whether wet or dry, followed by hard sleek- 
 ing, is a fruitful cause of scabbing, the blackening and 
 the sand beneath flaking off at the time of pouring. 
 
 The methods of pouring or running a mould are very 
 important. Much depends on this apparently simple 
 matter. But in truth there is nothing in moulders' work 
 which is insignificant or unimportant. From first to last 
 care in little, and to a casual observer, trivial things, has 
 to be scrupulously exercised. A trifling neglect may, 
 and often does, ruin the work of several hours or even 
 of days. 
 
 Since the conditions of liquid pressure exist in moulds, 
 several things become self-evident. The pouring basin 
 must be higher than the highest part of the mould. The 
 liquid pressure on any given portion of the mould will be 
 statically equivalent to head x area x sp. gr. of metal. The 
 pressure on a mould of large area will in any case be very 
 great, and must be resisted by equal and opposite forces. 
 The area of the ingates must be sufficient to fill the 
 mould before the metal has time to become chilled or 
 
48 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 solidified. Also there are other matters of a purely 
 practical character, which must be illustrated to be pro- 
 perly explained. 
 
 Various methods of pouring moulds are shown in Figs. 
 25-30, pp. 52-54. A mould may be poured direct from- 
 the top, or from the bottom, or from both top and bottom 
 simultaneously, or it may be poured from one side. 
 Most moulds are poured from the top direct, Figs. 21, 
 23, p. 35- When moulds are of considerable depth, or 
 when it is desirable that their surface or skin shall be 
 clean and smooth, that is, not roughened or cut up by 
 the action of the metal, they are run from the bottom^ or 
 from the sides. For it is evident that metal rising 
 quietly in a mould will not cause such damage to sur- 
 faces as metal which, falling from a considerable height, 
 strikes the sides in its descent, and beats heavily on the 
 bottom of the mould. When it is necessary that metal 
 shall be poured from the top into a deep mould, its- 
 cutting action is often diminished either by making the 
 mould in dry sand, or by placing a piece of loam cake 
 at the spot where the beating action is most intense, or 
 by inserting a number of flat-headed chaplet nails in 
 close proximity at that spot, and allowing the metal to- 
 fall upon them. 
 
 As a general rule it may be stated that, unless good 
 reasons exist for the contrary practice, moulds should 
 be poured from the top. Iron falling upon liquid iron 
 remains hotter and in greater agitation than iron rising 
 slowly. The latter will carry up the scum and dirt 
 which it gathers from the sides of a mould, allowing: 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART L 49 
 
 these foreign matters to lodge under projecting portions ; 
 but the metal falling from above cuts up the dirt and 
 scurf, keeping them in such perpetual movement that 
 they can scarcely effect a lodgment in the mould. 
 Running from the bottom, the metal becomes chilled 
 as it rises ; but running from the top, the last iron 
 poured is as hot as the first. When running from the 
 top and the bottom at once, the first metal is led in at 
 the bottom, and after a portion of the mould is filled, the 
 top metal is introduced, falling upon metal. The dirt is 
 thus cut up and the iron is kept hot until the mould is 
 filled. No set rules can be laid down for the most suit- 
 able method of pouring, the matter is entirely one for 
 the exercise of the moulder's judgment. 
 
 Examples of the simplest forms of pouring basins and 
 runners occur at p. 35. These are only adapted for the 
 smallest moulds. For those of moderate and of large 
 dimensions, the forms of the basins and the modes of 
 running are modified. The shape of a typical pouring 
 basin and runner is shown in Figs. 3 5 and 37, pp.60 and 64. 
 Though a rough-looking affair, every detail is a matter of 
 design. First there is a depression at O. This receives the 
 first inflow of the metal. If there were no such depression 
 the metal on being poured from the ladle would flow at 
 once into the mould, and as some slight adjustment of 
 the ladle is necessary before it is ready for emptying a 
 full stream, a few drops would be running in during the 
 making of such adjustment. These would form " cold 
 shots " in the casting. Also, the iron falling for a con- 
 siderable time upon a bed of sand would cut it up, and 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 wash portions into the mould. But the depression in 
 the basin receives and retains the first few droppings of 
 metal, and forms a shallow reservoir into which all the 
 remaining metal falls as into a bath, preventing the cut- 
 ting up of sand. Only when the depression is filled does 
 the iron begin to flow off in a quiet stream into the mould. 
 As soon as the depression is full the remaining metal is 
 poured very rapidly into the basin until it is nearly level 
 with the brim, and is kept filled until the mould is quite 
 full. This is necessary in order to prevent any dirt or 
 scurf which may happen to pass the skimmer from 
 entering the mould with the metal. As long as the 
 basin is full, the dirt floating on the surface will not be 
 carried into the ingate. For a similar reason the sur- 
 face area of the depressed portion is made sufficiently 
 large. If it were small it would not hold much metal, 
 and the scurf would be more likely to become sucked 
 into the ingate. 
 
 These pouring basins are made chiefly by hand. A 
 small middle flask, or a frame only, is laid upon the cope, 
 and swabbed with clay water, the runner pin put in place, 
 the sand rammed with a pegging rammer, central portions 
 dug out and then rounded and moulded to the proper 
 form with the hands. All sharp corners which might 
 become washed down by the rush or pressure of metal 
 are scrupulously avoided. 
 
 In spite of every precaution in the manner of pouring, 
 particles of dirt which accumulate from the metal in 
 the ladle, and from the sand in the basin, gain access 
 to the mould. In castings which are not turned or 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART I. 51 
 
 planed, the slight contamination thus caused is not of 
 importance ; but on turned or planed faces the slightest 
 specks have an unsightly appearance, and in such work 
 various devices are made use of to obtain the cleanest 
 faces possible. 
 
 In steam and hydraulic cylinders, in pumps, and work 
 of this class, a belt of head metal is cast on, into which 
 the lighter matters rise, and this is subsequently turned 
 off. On large flat upper surfaces an extra thickness of 
 metal is allowed, to be planed off afterwards. Or 
 several risers are placed over the surface, and cut off. 
 Lastly, the mode of running is modified, the metal being 
 led in through a skimming chamber. This method is 
 shown in Fig. 25. Here B is the ingate, and C, A the 
 runner. Right in the course of the runner, which is 
 purposely made of the indirect form shown in plan, 
 there is a capacious chamber, A, made by ramming up 
 a ball in the mould. Over the chamber is a riser, E. 
 As the metal obtains entry through the first portion, C, 
 of the runner into the side of this chamber, A, it receives 
 a rotary motion, as shown by the arrows in plan view. 
 The effect is to throw the heavy metal to the outer part 
 of the sphere, leaving the scurf and inferior lighter metal 
 at and about the centre. The outer metal passes into the 
 mould by the ingate D, F, and the lighter matters float 
 upwards into the riser E. This riser need not be added 
 in very small moulds, the chamber in itself being suffi- 
 ciently capacious; but in large moulds enough dirt will 
 accumulate to quite fill it up to the brim. Fig. 26 is 
 drawn to show by contrast with Fig. 25 the wrong way 
 
52 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 to make a skimming chamber. The runner entering and 
 leaving the chamber in a straight line, F, there is no rotary- 
 motion set up in the metal, and the chamber is useless. 
 
 Sometimes a disc is used in the smaller moulds instead 
 of a ball. The workmen usually speak of the employ- 
 
 FiG. 25.— Skimming Chamber. 
 
 ment of skimming chambers as " running with a ball " 
 or " running with a disc." 
 
 The area of ingates should be in proportion to the 
 size of the castings. Castings are light or heavy, thick 
 or thin, machined or left rough, and all these points 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART I. 
 
 53 
 
 have to be considered in determining the sizes, posi- 
 tions, and character of runners. Thin and h'ght castings 
 should be poured from several thin runners, or from a 
 spray. Fig. 27 shows a thin runner stick of the type 
 
 \p''' ^^\>v;'^\!v''''V'-"'' 2niitstri«a. 
 
 Fjg. 26.— Incorrect Form of Fig. 27. — Runner 
 
 Skimming Chamber. Stick. 
 
 which is employed for pouring thin pipes, etc. A heavy 
 runner would "draw" a light casting, and probably 
 cause fracture. The great length of runner is given to 
 compensate for its narrowness, a large area being neces- 
 sary for quick running of thin castings. Fig. 28 shows 
 a pattern spray of runners. A, ready for ramming in situ, 
 
 ri 
 
 Fig. 28. — Spray. 
 
 against pattern B, also used for the pour- 
 ing of thin light castings, the total area of 
 entry being large, while the spray itself 
 is readily detachable after casting. Al- 
 though heavy castings will require runners of large 
 area, it is better, as far as practicable, to employ several 
 runners of moderate area rather than one or two of 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 Runner Stick. 
 
54 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 large size. Thus the runner pin shown in Fig. 29, which 
 is the most common form, is not so good as the oblong 
 ones in Figs. 30 to 32, being liable to cause a "draw" 
 in its immediate vicinity. Runners of circular section 
 are most often used, but those of flat and oblong 
 section are in many, perhaps in most cases, preferable 
 
 ssrrioH OH uhe.c.c. ]-•■"" r ' 
 
 Fig. 30. • • - 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 Ingates and Runners. 
 
 to the round ones, because they arc more easily and 
 safely knocked off and chipped from the casting. There 
 must in any case be sufficient area, because a casting 
 poured too slowly will probably show "cold shorts," 
 that is, imperfect union of the metal in some sections. 
 A mould poured too rapidly will become unduly 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART I. 
 
 5S 
 
 strained, and perhaps blown and scabbed. A light thin 
 casting cannot be poured too rapidly or the metal be 
 too hot ; a heavy casting must be poured slowly, and 
 the metal must be "dead." 
 
 In cases where castings have to be machined the 
 runners should be kept as far away as possible from the 
 machined parts, as the metal is always dirty and spongy 
 in the immediate vicinity of a runner. 
 
 Figs. 30 to 32 illustrate two examples of running at 
 the side of a mould. In 
 each case A is the ingate 
 and B the runner. The 
 pattern ingate, and the 
 pattern runner are each 
 rammed up in place, and 
 the runner B, in Fig. 30, is 
 then withdrawn into the .... 
 mould in the direction of ^'^--'^^^r^S^^^^^j^^^^ 
 the arrow. In Fig. 32 the Fig. 32.— Ingate and Runnek. 
 runner stick is drawn in 
 
 the opposite direction, the sand being temporarily dug 
 away behind for the purpose. Fig. 31 shows a loam 
 cake, n, rammed in the mould, being better adapted than 
 green sand in a heavy mould, to withstand the cutting 
 action of the iron as it passes from A into B. 
 
 By a draw, we mean that, in a material so contractile 
 as iron, the sum total of shrinkage will be greatest where 
 the greatest mass of metal is situated. Since the outer 
 skin becomes chilled by contact with the sand and sets 
 first, nearly all the later shrinkage goes on within the 
 
S6 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING 
 
 mass, and this naturally will produce a spongy and open 
 casting. To prevent this, the casting is fed. In some 
 cases the head cast on to receive the scurf or sullage is 
 made sufficiently large and massive to do duty as a 
 feeder head. The mass of metal which it contains must 
 then be sufficient not only to remain liquid until after 
 the metal in the mould has set, but 
 also to exert considerable pressure 
 upon the mould, feeding and con- 
 solidating at the same time. I have 
 seen as much as 3' o" of head cast 
 on an ingot mould, but in general 
 castings, a few inches is sufficient. 
 
 A feeder head proper, however, 
 is distinct from head metal, con- 
 sisting of a basin or cup of metal 
 somewhat like a pouring basin, in 
 facta pouring basin is often utilized 
 as a feeder head, as in Fig. 33. A 
 feeder head must be placed directly 
 over that particular portion, boss, 
 lug, etc., the shrinkage of whose 
 
 FIG. 33.-FEEDING. ^^T. ^"tended to compensate, 
 and its capacity must be so great 
 that its metal shall remain fluid after that in the boss, 
 lug, etc., has set. 
 
 The feeding or pumping is performed by getting a -l" 
 or f" iron rod red hot in the molten metal in the ladle, 
 and immediately the pouring has taken place the rod is 
 inserted into the feeder head, Fig 33, and a vertical up- 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART I. 
 
 57 
 
 and-down movement of the rod in the metal is com- 
 menced, taking care not to touch the actual mould. 
 The effect is to create an agitation or movement in the 
 molten metal, and to keep a passage clear into the 
 heavy and still molten central mass, in order that until 
 it becomes actually set, fresh and ample supplies of hot 
 metal shall enter from the feeder head to compensate 
 for the loss due to interior shrinkage. In large masses 
 it is necessary to supply added hot metal from a hand 
 ladle to the feeder head. The pumping continues until 
 the metal thickens and clings to the rod, when the latter 
 is struck sharply with a 
 bar of iron or hammer to 
 effect the detachment of 
 the clinging portions. Fi- 
 nally the metal becomes so 
 viscous that little more 
 shrinkage will take place, 
 and the feeding ceases. 
 
 In moulds of consider- 
 able area, risers or flow off 
 gates are employed. Their function is mainly to relieve 
 the cope of excessive strain, which in their absence would 
 cause injury to the mould. There is an enormous pres- 
 sure on a cope of several square feet in area, and though 
 the flasks are made stiff and strong, and well loaded, this 
 pressure would, and often does, cause a thickening of the 
 central portions of the castings to an extent of i" or |-", 
 due to the rising up or springing of the cope under pres- 
 sure- Risers relieve it partly, though not entirely, of pres- 
 
 Fig. 34. — Flow-off Gate. 
 
S8 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 sure, but they also allow of free exit of the air and gas, 
 which would otherwise be confined in the mould, and cause 
 scabbing. The risers should properly be kept closed 
 with plugs of clay or sand until the mould is just upon 
 the point of filling, when the plugs are instantly removed, 
 and the pouring still continuing, the excess of metal is 
 allowed to flow off quietly outside the flask. Fig. 34 
 shows one of these flow ofl" gates, the metal flowing away 
 over the sloping bank of sand. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART II. 
 
 We are now in a position to consider two or three 
 examples of green sand moulding of a more advanced 
 character than those illustrated in the last chapter, — 
 moulds involving a much higher degree of skill, and 
 affording good illustrations of the varied and ever 
 changing work which calls forth the best judgment of 
 the jobbing moulder. Figs. 35, 36, 37, are illustrations 
 of the mould made for an anvil block of four tons weight. 
 It is an example of a deep and heavy mould. This is 
 not a case of bedding in pure and simple, but illustrates 
 the manner in which methods are modified in order to 
 suit individual and special jobs. 
 
 To begin, the top of the block must be sound, and 
 that is therefore cast in the bottom. It is a deep mould, 
 and there is a core, ^, in the bottom for the anvil, which 
 at that depth would be very awkward to set in place ; 
 there is also a great discrepancy in the dimensions of 
 the smaller part of the block B, on which the anvil rests, 
 and the base C, which is embedded in the concrete. For 
 these reasons the method of making the mould which is 
 
GEEEN SAND MOULDING. PART II. 6i 
 
 here shown was adopted. The whole of the stem B was 
 made in flasks in dry sand. The method of support- 
 ing the sand in middle flasks by means of rods and 
 lifters is shown in perspective on the right of Fig. 35. 
 The flask D was parted from E at the joint a, a, 
 for convenience of placing the core A in position, but 
 E, F, G were permanently cottared together to form 
 one "middle." Blocks of wood were necessarily in- 
 terposed between E and F, to allow of the entrance of 
 the runner N' to the mould. This portion of the mould 
 was made, dried, cored, and finished first. Then a pit 
 was dug in the foundry floor, a coke bed, H, laid 
 down at the proper depth, sand rammed and vented over 
 it, and the flasks D, E, F, G all cottared together, were 
 bedded down level thereon, their vents passing down to 
 the coke bed H, and thence out through the vent pipes /, 
 which are rough pieces of cast iron pipe of three or four 
 inches diameter, reaching from the bed to the surface of 
 the floor. The space encircling the flasks was then filled 
 with sand, and flat-rammed level with the top edge Z. 
 The pattern being made to join at J and at K, as a 
 matter of convenience, the portion from J \.o K was 
 placed back in the mould, and the base C, dowelled by 
 the face K, was laid in position for ramming, which ram- 
 ming was continued to the top edge L. 
 
 The cope M being perfectly plain was not rammed in 
 place, but upon a levelled bed of hard sand, being liftered 
 and vented all over its depth and area. A few lifters 
 depending from their bars are shown in section at M, to 
 illustrate the method of liftering. While the vents from 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART II. 
 
 63 
 
 the stem B go down into the coke bed H, those from the 
 base C pass out through the cope M. 
 
 The manner of pouring was as follows. There was one 
 pouring basin, N, for running near the bottom, one, O, 
 for the main running at the top. The purpose of the 
 runner N' is simply to partly fill the mould so that the 
 metal falling from the top at O shall not cut up the 
 sand, but fall into a pool of metal. A four ton ladle 
 was used at (9, and a one ton at thus allowing a ton 
 for heads and basins. The pouring commenced at O, 
 but merely to steady the ladle in position, and fill the 
 hollow, O, of the basin. As soon as this was done, the 
 ladle at N was poured, the plug P being kept in place 
 until the basin was nearly full, when P was removed, 
 and the metal entered the mould. Immediately it had 
 entered, the filling of pouring basin O began, and when 
 nearly level, its plugs, P' , were removed, and the metal 
 was run into the mould rapidly. The fact of its being 
 filled was indicated by the flow off at the risers Q, whose 
 plugs (not shown) were removed at that instant. After 
 the cast, feeding was performed at the feeder head, R. 
 The area of the runner N' was 3" x i", that of O' , 0\ 
 6" X i^". At the opening of each ingate, N" and O' , loam 
 cakes were imbedded in the pouring basins to sustain 
 the pressure of the metal, sand being liable in heavy 
 casts to become cut up and washed away. The object 
 of the flasks enclosing the ingate A''", at the section 
 where the ingate comes in very close proximity to the 
 base, is to prevent a probable washing away of the inter- 
 vening sand, T, which is a casualty to be guarded against. 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART 11. 
 
 65 
 
 The pressure is in such cases enormous, and I once saw 
 a very costly casting utterly ruined by the metal in the 
 ingate washing away the sand, which the moulder had 
 neglected to secure thus. 
 
 I have, to avoid confusion, shown no weights on the 
 cope. By calculation the pressure on the cope should be 
 as follows : — 
 
 Area of surface C, Figs. 35 and 36, 5' o" x 4' 6". Height 
 from face of cope to level of pouring basin, about 18". 
 Then 60" x 54" x i8"= 58320". 58320" x -263 = 15338 lbs. 
 15338 lbs. = 6 tons i8cwt., statical load required, includ- 
 ing cope. Actually 8 tons of weights were used. 
 
 The Flywheel mould shown in the succeeding figures is 
 an example of a type of work by which the cost of 
 pattern-making is much lessened. Instead of making a 
 complete pattern, a process of sweeping up and of sec- 
 tional moulding is adopted. It cannot properly be called 
 bedding in, because there is no pattern, neither does it 
 come under the head of turning over. It resembles in the 
 main bedding in, even though there is no complete pattern 
 used, because the work is moulded in the floor, and a 
 cope is the only flask used. The method is one which is 
 often adopted in heavy work of this general type, such 
 as rectangular bed plates, and circular bases, even when 
 the internal portions happen to be somewhat intricate 
 intricate portions being readily formed by means of cores 
 
 A coke-bed should properly be laid down for this 
 unless the rim happen to be narrow, in which case 
 venting over the bottom, and diagonal venting therefrom 
 to the mould joint will answer the purpose. In any case 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 the cope is rammed before the lower face is touched, as 
 follows : — 
 
 ■./ ., 1 1-1 
 
 FiG. 38. — Top Striking Board. 
 
 A bed of sand is rammed hard, and levelled with the 
 foundry floor, and the striking board A, Fig. 38, is at- 
 
 FiG. 40. — Cope. 
 
 tached to the strap B and striking 
 bar C, whose socket D is bedded in 
 the floor. By comparing the edge 
 of this board with the pattern seg- 
 ment, Fig. 39, its coincidence with 
 the edge of the segment is appa- 
 rent. The board therefore strikes 
 a reverse mould, upon which the cope. Fig. 40, is laid 
 and rammed, a stratum of parting sand intervening. 
 
 Fig. 39. — Pattern 
 Segment. 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART II. 
 
 67 
 
 The reason why this method is adopted, instead of 
 striking the cope direct, is that the precise ultimate 
 position of the cope for casting is secured thereby. If 
 the cope were struck separately, and put in place by 
 measurement, it would be much 
 more troublesome to set it with ac- 
 curacy than when it is rammed in 
 place ; for it is not a case of fitting 
 
 of flasks with pins. The cope has Fig, 41.— Section 
 
 11-1 in 11 o¥ Rim. 
 
 to be laid upon the floor, and then 
 
 the only setting which is available, is that done with 
 stakes of iron driven into sand, Fig. 45, D. Returning 
 the cope to its original position by means of the stakes 
 with which it was set for ramming, is simpler and far 
 more accurate than striking it first and setting it after- 
 wards. Before the cope is rammed upon the bed several 
 things have to be noted. 
 
 Looking at the section through the flywheel rim. 
 Fig. 41, it is clear that the formation of the face of the 
 cope must take one of two direc- 
 tions, it must either coincide with 
 the upper face, A, of the rim, 
 and with the horizontal central 
 
 plane, B. of the bosses, or it ^^^'t^^.'S:^ 
 must remain entirely continuous 
 
 with the rim face A, A'. The choice between the two 
 methods is determined by the formation of the upper 
 halves of the bosses, and of the prints which carry the 
 arms. If the mould joint were shouldered down to be 
 continuous with the centres, B, of the bosses, then Fig. 42 
 
 ^ A 
 
68 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 would show the joint face in section, and then it 
 is evident that as many half bosses and half prints 
 as there are bosses and arms in the wheel would 
 have to be laid upon the reverse sand bed struck 
 by board A in Fig. 38, and in precise coincidence with 
 the positions which the lower halves of the bosses and 
 prints are afterwards to occupy, and that the cope would 
 be rammed over them. It would not be easy to set 
 these bosses correctly. Nor is it advisable to lift the 
 cope sand away from a deep shoulder, A, Fig. 42, such as 
 that against which the bosses would have to abut. 
 Hence the reason for the adoption of the method illus- 
 trated in these figures. 
 
 The lower halves of the bosses within the rim 
 are formed by ramming directly from the pattern seg- 
 ment, Fig. 39. The upper halves are made in cores. 
 The outline of these cores is shown dotted in Fig. 41. In 
 this case, to give sufficient sand in the core above the 
 beading on the boss, it happens to be necessary to in- 
 crease the height beyond that of the top face of the rim. 
 This slightly complicates matters, because the thickness 
 of core C, Fig. 41, standing above that face, has to enter 
 into a corresponding print in the cope. Hence six prints 
 of thickness C, and of the same length and breadth as 
 the core, have to be measured carefully into place on the 
 reverse bed struck by board A, Fig. 38, in order that 
 their impressions may be imparted to the cope sand at 
 the time of ramming the latter. These prints are shown 
 in section, Fig. 40, B, and in plan, Fig. 43. They are set 
 by a circle corresponding in diameter with that of the 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART 11. 
 
 69 
 
 inside of the rim, and their centre lines are brought to 
 coincide with the intended centre lines of the arms 
 marked upon the bed. They are prevented from be- 
 coming shifted during the process of ramming, by means 
 of common cut nails driven down alongside of them into 
 
 Fig. 43. — Top Prints. 
 
 the sand. In this position they are rammed and their 
 impressions obtained in the cope. The cope is Hftered, 
 Fig;. 40, rammed, and vented precisely as though it were 
 above a pattern, and it is then lifted off, taken away, 
 turned over, and any broken edges mended up. 
 
 Then the second striking board Fig. 44, is bolted 
 to the strap at such a height that its joint edge A coin- 
 
70 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 cides with the joint edge E in Fig. 38. The lower edge 
 C coincides with the lower face of the rim, so forming the 
 bed upon which the pattern segment, Fig. 39, is to rest. 
 The corner D coincides with the external diameter of 
 the rim, as shown dotted ; or it may, if preferred, be of 
 a larger diameter. The edge of which D is the termi- 
 nation is made diagonal, because if made perpendicular 
 the sand would tumble down — being made as it is, the seg- 
 ment pattern. Fig. 39, rests upon the bed struck by C, and 
 
 Fig. 44.— Bottom Striking Board. 
 
 the sand is rammed both on the external and internal 
 sweeped faces of the segmental pattern. The position 
 which the segment has to occupy in relation to the 
 swept up bed is shown by its dotted outline given in the 
 figure. The edge E, it will be seen, corresponds with the 
 upper face of the rim. 
 
 The bed is made as though for a bedded-in mouild. 
 The sand is rammed hard in the lower portions and well 
 vented, and the vents closed with the fingers. A more 
 open stratum of about an inch in thickness is lightly 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART 11. 71 
 
 rammed over this surface and consolidated with the 
 fingers, the board being swept around several times 
 until an evenly rammed, well-vented, and smooth bed 
 underneath those portions which will be occupied with 
 the rim, and to a little distance without and within the 
 
 Fig. 45.— Plan of Mould. 
 
 same, is produced. Then the board is removed and the 
 pattern segment laid down for ramming. This segment, 
 Fig. 39, has the same section as the rim. Two half 
 bosses, ^, ^, are fastened upon it very exactly at one- 
 sixth of the circumference. Prints B, B occupy the 
 positions of the complementary halves. Ample taper is 
 
72 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 given to these prints, as shown. The segment is laid in the 
 position seen dotted in Fig. 44, and rammed. The cir- 
 cumferential position of the segment at each remove is 
 governed by the bosses, the boss near one end being 
 dropped into the impression just made by its fellow at 
 the end opposite. The precise length of the segment 
 extending beyond the bosses is not of importance. It is 
 
 Fig. 46.— Boss Mould. 
 
 not at all necessary to ram the sand over the whole of the 
 internal area, but only sufficiently far inwards to afford 
 ^ backing for the rim mould, and for the bosses and 
 their prints. This is seen in Fig. 45. At, and near the 
 centre also, a space must be left for the small flask 
 containing the boss mould. 
 
 We now leave the rim for awhile, to note the prepara- 
 tion of the boss. This is rammed from a complete pattern 
 
GREEN SAND MOULDING. PART 11. 73 
 
 in a small flask by itself. Fig. 46 shows the joint face 
 of the lower half of this flask in plan. As the arms 
 which are cast in, have to come through the flask joints, 
 these joints are left open to an amount sufficient for that 
 purpose, blocks of wood,^, being inserted at the corners 
 at the time of ramming, to keep the flasks the required 
 distance apart. The sand therefore stands above the 
 joint faces of the flasks in both top 
 and bottom parts, reaching to the 
 centre of the arms. This explains 
 the reason of the sloping joint in- 
 dicated by the shading. The ram- 
 ming up is quite simple, and is done 47-— Core Box. 
 in dry sand. 
 
 After the boss mould is dried, it is set in the centre of 
 the rim mould, Fig. 45, its position being checked both 
 radially and horizontally, the rule, straightedge, and 
 spirit-level being used, and the print impressions for the 
 arms in rim and boss are all brought in line. 
 
 The cores which form the upper halves of the bosses 
 are made in the box. Fig. 47. 
 
 The arms are formed of malleable iron 
 bar cut off in suitable lengths, and either 
 jagged, or fullered, Fig. 48, near the ends, to p J^^^^^fj 
 render their hold more secure than it would arm. 
 be if left smooth. 
 
 They are now set in their places, both in the boss and 
 rim. Fig. 45, A, A showing the relative positions of arms 
 and mould at this precise stage. All being thus set in, 
 the cores forming the top halves of the bosses are laid in 
 
74 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 their prints, Fig. 45, one, C, being shown in place over 
 arm B. Then the cope being returned to the position in 
 which it was rammed, by means of the guidance afforded 
 by the stakes, Fig. 45, D, these cores are confined 
 securely, their upper portions, of the thickness C in 
 Fig. 41, entering into the impressions formed by the 
 prints in Fig. 40, B, and in Fig. 43. This particular 
 example illustrates a 7' o" fly wheel, of 14 cwt., and six 
 tons of weights were used on the cope. The pouring 
 took place at two basins, and the metal was fed at four 
 risers. 
 
 The casting of the boss must not be done at the same 
 time as that of the rim. If it were, the boss being small 
 would cool at once, and, setting firmly, oppose the 
 inward shrinkage of the rim by setting up the resistance 
 of the rigid arms thereto ; and the consequence would 
 be that, since shrinkage must occur somewhere, the rim 
 would become fractured. In this case the rim was cast 
 twenty-four hours before the boss, and when its shrinkage 
 had very nearly ceased the boss was poured. It was 
 both poured and fed through the ingate. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DRY SAND MOULDING. 
 
 Whether the metal is poured into green sand or dry 
 sand does not affect the essential methods of moulding 
 adopted, since the same processes of turning over, lifter- 
 ing, rodding, and sprigging are employed in each case. 
 Instead of selecting any special example therefore for 
 illustration, I will simply point out in a few paragraphs 
 the broad differences between moulding in the two 
 classes. The class of work done by each method, and 
 the mixtures of sand used, are essentially different 
 Heavy work, and work which is wanted specially sound 
 and free from blow-holes, is cast in dried moulds. 
 Strong mixtures of sand alone can be dried. See 
 Appendix. 
 
 A dried sand mould must be dry. This may seem a 
 needless truism, but the point is one of very great 
 importance. Since the mould depends for its venting 
 on its porosity, the presence of moisture even in small 
 quantity implies that the sand is still close and dense. 
 
 If green sand mixtures were dried in the stove, they 
 would pulverize and fall to pieces. And the strong 
 
76 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 mixtures also which are used for dried moulds, though 
 hard and sufficiently firm to resist great pressure of 
 metal, are very tender when edges are concerned. For 
 this reason the joint edges of such moulds are always 
 finned, that is, their immediate faces are pressed down 
 with the trowel while the mould is yet green, so that 
 when the joints are brought together the edges remain 
 slightly asunder, like Fig. 49, ^. A fin or thin film of 
 metal of course forms here, but this is of no consequence; 
 while, on the other hand, a crushed joint edge with the 
 consequent falHng of the sand into the mould would, if 
 extensive, result in a waster casting. 
 
 Another point to be noted in connection 
 with dried sand moulds is, that they will 
 bear harder ramming than those in green 
 sand, since they become porous in drying. 
 For the same reason, less venting with 
 Fig 49 ^^''^ required. The very close na- 
 
 FiNNED Joint, ture of the sand demands that its venting 
 be perfect, and it can only be properly 
 vented by the drying out of the moisture, and the 
 carbonization and desiccation of the hay in the horse- 
 dung. As long as steam, even in small quantity, is 
 seen coming from the mould, pouring is unsafe, and 
 the mould should properly be returned to the stove. 
 But a steaming mould poured while warm, that is, 
 soon after removal from the stove, is less risky than 
 one which is allowed to become cold first. There is 
 also this advantage in the use of dry sand, that less gas 
 is generated than in moulds made in green sand. This 
 
DRY SAND MOULDING. 
 
 77 
 
 is a consideration in large moulds involving a great deal 
 of work, because the presence of gas in quantity is apt 
 to cause blow-holes and scabs, and any arrangement by 
 which its amount can be reduced is a distinct advantage. 
 
 Dried sand moulds will also bear more swabbing than 
 those in green sand. Too much moisture in green sand 
 is always a source of danger. But the swab may be 
 used freely in dry sand, and this is often advantageous at 
 the time of withdrawal of the pattern or of mending up, 
 and the heat of the drying stove removes the moisture. 
 
 As in green sand moulding, so in dry, stronger facing 
 mixtures are used in the vicinity of the pattern than in 
 the body of the mould. The floor sand, either alone or 
 mixed with slight proportions of stronger sand, is used 
 for mere box filling. The cost of dry sand moulding is 
 in excess of that done in green sand because of the 
 extra cost of coke for drying. But this depends partly 
 upon the system of the shop. When drying is extensively 
 employed the percentage of expense is comparatively 
 small, especially when the superiority of the castings and 
 the lower ratio of wasters is taken into account. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CORES. 
 
 The term core, used in a general way at least, is almost 
 self explanatory. Any central portion, or a portion 
 removed from central parts, is a core. But in Foundry 
 work the term has several distinct meanings, defined by 
 the prefixes, " green sand " core, " dry sand " core, 
 " loam " core, " chilling " core. 
 
 The term " green sand core " simply denotes the central 
 portions of those moulds which are made directly from 
 the pattern itself, without the aid of a core box. Thus, 
 the central portion of a plain open rectangular frame, like 
 the surface boxes used for hydrants in the streets, would 
 yield a green sand core, because moulded from the pat- 
 tern itself, and the sand employed would be of precisely 
 the same character as that encircling the pattern, and 
 would be connected therewith by rods, nails, or grids, and 
 undergo no process of drying whatever. These portions, 
 though termed cores (often termed cods also), do not 
 come properly under the present heading. Metal cores 
 for chilling the holes in the hubs or bosses of wheels 
 may also be disregarded in this connection, and also 
 
CORES. 
 
 79 
 
 those loam cores which are bricked up, see Chapter 
 VIII., so that all we have to consider in this chapter is 
 cores made in dry sand in core boxes, and loam cores 
 which are " struck up " on core bars. 
 
 Cores are required when {a) there would be extreme 
 difficulty in so constructing a pattern that an impression 
 could be taken of the central portions, except by necessi-' 
 tating a large number of joints in pattern and mould ; 
 {b) when the central sand would be so weak that it would 
 not retain its form and position against the rush and 
 pressure of metal ; {c) when the cutting out of the 
 internal portions of patterns would render them exces- 
 sively weak as patterns ; and {d) generally, when it would 
 either be impossible or extremely difficult to make or put 
 the mould together, or vent it without' the aid of cores. 
 Thus, if we take almost any pump clack box or valve 
 box with seatings we could make a pattern precisely 
 like the casting, making as many joints as would 
 be required to allow of drawing the parts separately 
 from the mould. But we should then meet difficulty (a) 
 and also {c). But the substitution of a simple core or cores 
 enables us both to make a strong pattern, and to employ 
 one or two joints only, instead of several, in the mould. 
 Or, if holes of small area, but of considerable length, are 
 required in castings, the green sand would not deliver 
 freely from similar holes made in the pattern, but would 
 become cracked and broken away, even if a considerable 
 amount of taper were imparted ; neither would they with- 
 stand the rush of metal. Then the conditions {b) necessi- 
 tate the use of dry hard cores. And no more familiar ex- 
 
8o 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 ample of condition {d') could be given than that of any 
 engine cylinder with -its passages and feet, and often 
 other attachments beside. 
 
 It is clear that the same conditions must exist in cores 
 as in the moulds themselves. The substance of cores 
 must be stiffened with rods, grids, or nails, 
 precisely on the same principles as moulds, 
 though the conditions and details are some- 
 what different. Vents of sufficient area 
 must be provided to carry off gas and air, 
 and the cores must be secured against the 
 pressure of liquid metal. These are all 
 points of fundamental importance, and we will consider 
 them in detail. 
 
 Fig, 50. — Steam 
 Passage Core. 
 
 Fig. 51. — A Grid. 
 
 innnDnoi 
 Innononnni 
 
 iDDoSnDDPonrBnonl 
 Fig. 52. — A Grid, 
 
 And first, in regard to the stiffening of cores. In a 
 plain round core made in a box, a rod of iron is rammed 
 up with it, and this is the simplest plan. In crooked cores 
 the rods are either bent, as in Fig. 50, which illustrates the 
 passage core of an engine cylinder, or grids are formed 
 of wires or rods fastened together with solder. In large 
 cores, grids are always used, like Figs, 51, 52, having^ 
 nuts or eyes by which to lift them. These grids may be 
 of any outline, being adapted to their cores. Fig, 5 1 shows 
 one of a sweeped outline adapted to a sweeped core. 
 
CORES. 8i 
 
 Fig. 52 one of triangular Outline; Fig. 51 Has a nut, A, 
 cast in to take the screw used for lifting, Fig. 52 has at 
 couple of eyes cast in for the same purpose. These are 
 usually cast in open sand, the moulder using a standard 
 pattern grid, having excess of length, and stopping it off 
 to length and outline required. In large and intricate 
 work several distinct grids may be bolted together, the 
 bolts being so placed that they may be readily taken out 
 after the casting is made, through openings in the cored 
 out sides of the casting itself 
 
 Fig- 53 shows a grid used for a pipe core made 
 in a core box, a grid being used in each half core, 
 and Fig. 76, p. 109, one used for a bend pipe of large 
 diameter, the longitudinal portion stiffening the core, 
 and the offsets or 
 
 prongs giving local ■ ^^/i^Am^^tJ^g^ 
 
 support to the sand. ' " " " ^ 
 Stiffeners and grids Fig. 53.— Pipe Grid. 
 
 of this kind are used 
 
 for cores rammed in core boxes, and for those strickled 
 up on plates. But there is a large class of cores which 
 are not made in boxes, but struck up on revolving 
 bars. The bars then act as stiffeners longitudinally, 
 and the core is made in loam, whose adhesion to .the bar 
 is assisted by the use' of hay bands, or hay ropfes twisted 
 and wound around the bar. When cores are very large 
 the bar is not increased directly in proportion, except 
 for certain standard work to be noted presently, but is 
 selected simply with a view to sufficient stiffness, and 
 the size -of _the core is increased by the addition of hay 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 bands and loam alternating with each other, and sus- 
 tained with core plates A, Fig. 54. In standard pipe and 
 column work, collapsible core bars are used, these being 
 then only a trifle smaller than the core, say about an 
 inch, and made in segments in such a manner that the 
 knocking away of a key allows the segments to collapse, 
 or fall inwards towards one another after the casting is 
 
 AAA 
 Fig. 54.— Core Bar and Plates. 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 A 
 
 Section through finished Core. ' 
 
 made, — the bar then being readily removable from the 
 casting. 
 
 There is thus a very wide range in the size and cha- 
 racter of the bars employed. The smaller ones are made 
 of gas piping ; for those over about 3" in diameter, cast 
 iron cylinders are employed, and these may be either 
 parallel or tapered, according to the character of the 
 work. The bars are invariably hollow, and pierced with 
 
CORES. 
 
 83 
 
 numerous small holes, Fig. 54, for the air vents, which 
 pass from the encircling core through the holes to the 
 interior of the bar, whence they find exit at the ends. The 
 bars are turned next the ends, Fig. 54, B, to form journals, 
 which revolve in vees on the cast iron trestles used for 
 their support. A boy turns at a winch handle inserted in 
 one end of the bar, while the core maker winds on the hay 
 bands, and daubs the loam. This is work requiring the 
 exercise of judgment. If the bands are not pulled taut, 
 and laid on close, and the loam well worked into the 
 interstices, the core will " sag," or become baggy, will be 
 out of truth, and dry un- 
 equally in different parts, 
 and portions of the loam 
 may flake off after drying. 
 A layer of rope is laid on 
 first, and stiff loam well 
 worked over and between 
 it as the bar revolves, Q 
 then another layer of rope 
 and more loam. The core 
 is partially dried before 
 
 putting on the final coat, ^ig. 55. -Section of Core 
 ^ ° ' AND Bar. 
 
 which is thinner than that 
 
 first applied. Fig. 55 shows a section through a core bar 
 A, hay bands B, and finishing coat of loam C, D are the 
 vent holes. When plates are employed, as in Fig. 54, 
 they are cast as thin as possible, and pierced with holes, 
 as shown, to permit of their ready fracture and with- 
 drawal after casting. When very large, the various 
 
84 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 plates are, in addition to the usual fastening to the bars 
 by means of wedges, united and stiffened with bolts 
 passing through them all, the bolts being inserted when 
 the final course of hay bands is being wound round, and 
 their nuts are brought for convenience of withdrawal 
 opposite suitable vent holes in the casting ends. 
 
 These core bars when of small diameter are used for 
 light work, and when large, mainly for jobbing work. 
 In regular or repetition work of large diameter, as in 
 many pipes and columns, the cost of hay bands and of 
 rigging up core plates would bear too great a proportion 
 to the value of the castings. In standard pipe work 
 therefore, and in other work of that character, the collap- 
 sible bars are employed. These bars are only i" or i" 
 less in diameter than the finished cores which they carry, 
 and are therefore necessarily made collapsible, that is, 
 they are so constructed as to fold, or fall inwards, and so 
 deliver freely from the cored holes. Much ingenuity has 
 been displayed in their design, and several forms are in 
 common use. It will suffice if I briefly state the general 
 principle of their action. The shell is usually formed of 
 three longitudinal segments of cast iron, two of which 
 are hinged loosely upon the third or rigid piece. The 
 movable segments are retained in their expanded condi- 
 tion during the making of the core, and pouring of the 
 casting, by various devices, as by circular discs, or by 
 wedge-shaped bars and links, adapted to similar fittings. 
 By means of cottars, levers, and links, the movable 
 segments are released, falling inwards after the casting 
 is made. The body of the bar is of course pierced with 
 
CORES. 
 
 85 
 
 vent holes. The outside of a collapsible bar is, like an 
 ordinary bar, left rough, the better to ensure the adhesion 
 of the loam, which is daubed on directly, without the 
 intervention of hay bands. 
 
 The vents of cores are variously contrived, and are of 
 the first importance, since many a casting is ruined for 
 want of proper venting and securing of the core vents. 
 
 The simplest vent is that formed in a 
 plain core by means of a rod of iron rammed 
 therein, and withdrawn, leaving a round 
 hole into which the air and gas generated 
 within the core, collects, and from which it 
 finds exit through the prints. In large '^string.'^'^'' 
 cores numerous rods will be rammed in, and 
 withdrawn thus ; and in addition to these, a quantity 
 of smaller vents will be made with the vent wire, as in 
 making moulds. In curved cores (Figs, 56 and 57) a 
 different method has to be adopted. Core strings or core 
 ropes have to be used, being common 
 string or rope rammed up in the core, 
 and either withdrawn while the core is 
 yet green, or allowed to remain in while 
 the core is being dried ; which process 
 of baking chars the string, and allows of 
 its fragments being blown out with the ing^rodsTn^Core. 
 bellows. The latter method is rather un- 
 certain, so that the better plan is to withdraw the string, 
 the core being green, in which case two bits of wire 
 rammed in the core, Fig. 56, prevent the string from cut- 
 ting the corners by its tendency to straighten under ten- 
 
86 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 sion. An alternative plan which is often adopted is that 
 shown in Fig. 57, where three straight rods are rammed 
 up in the core, drawn out, and the core dried. Then the 
 connection is made round the curve by filing, a string 
 inserted, and daubed and covered over with loam. This 
 is then dried, and the string finally withdrawn. 
 
 In the case of large cores the central portions are 
 formed of cinders, to act as reservoirs for the air and gas, 
 precisely as in the bulkier sections of green sand and dry 
 sand moulds. A vent hole or holes of sufficient area is 
 then made, connecting this body of cinders with the 
 outer air. 
 
 In cores struck on bars, the hay is porous, and conducts 
 the air into the central core bar, which is invariably made 
 hollow and pierced with numerous holes for that purpose. 
 But there is no venting done with the wire in struck up 
 cores, as there is with those made in boxes. The latter 
 are pierced with vent holes similarly to moulds, but the 
 hay bands and loam are, when dried, sufficiently porous 
 of themselves. 
 
 Cores are fastened and their vents secured in several 
 different ways. In most cases they are set in pri7it 
 impressions, but not invariably. If a core is large and 
 heavy, prints are not necessary. Still, in the vast majority 
 of cases they are employed. 
 
 The forms of prints are various, depending on the posi- 
 tion, and mode of support required. Cores may rest in 
 the bottom of a mould, or be carried in the top, or at the 
 sides, or be bridged across from one portion to another. 
 They may be carried by print impressions made in other 
 
CORES. 
 
 8/ 
 
 cores. A core may be carried by one print only, or it 
 may have several points of support. 
 
 Generally the rule is this. A core laid in the 
 bottom is sustained by the bottom print only, the ex- 
 ception occurring when the core is so long relatively to 
 its area that a bottom print alone would not afford it 
 sufficient steadiness of base. In that case a top print will 
 be used, or chaplet nails, or perhaps both in combination. 
 But if the core, though long, has a broad base sufficient 
 to afford steadiness, then neither top print nor chap- 
 let nails are required. A core carried at the side, if short 
 
 Fig. 58. — Pocket Print. 
 
 relatively to its area, will need no other support than the 
 side print. If long, it also must be supported by chaplet 
 nails, or if it passes right across a mould, by a print on 
 each side. Cores carried at the sides may be either 
 sustained by prints of the same kind as those used in top 
 and bottom, or in pocket prints, dependent on circum- 
 stances. Pocket prints are used when the joint of the 
 mould does not coincide with the centre of the hole. 
 In such a case as Fig. 58, if a round print were used it 
 would have to be skewered on loosely, and the core 
 thrust in afterwards, which in this case could not be 
 done, the core being unable to pass down A ; or the cope 
 
88 
 
 PRACTICAL: IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 sand would have to be jointed down around the dotted 
 line B, to the centre of the print, which in deep or in 
 moderately deep lifts woujd be very inconvenient. Using 
 a pocket, or " drop print," the lift takes place to the 
 eope joint C, leaving a clear open space into which to 
 drop the core, which is then filled over with sand, a stop- 
 ping over board, Fig. 59, A, cut to clip the core, being 
 held against the mould face while the space, B, above the 
 core is rammed with sand. The core is then permanently 
 secured as though in a round print. But core setting 
 embraces very much besides this, It is not always 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 59.— Stopping over. 
 
 sufficient in large cores to trust to the pressure of 
 contiguous sand for security. There is an enormous 
 liquid pressure in large moulds, and this would, in the 
 absence of due precautions, force the cores bodily out 
 jof place in their central portions, even if well secured at 
 the ends in their prints ; or would carry them away from 
 their prints if simply laid therein. A pipe core or column 
 core, for example, would be bent and curved upwards 
 until it would nearly or quite touch the top of the 
 mould. A flat core with metal over its top face, and 
 having therefore open space between it and the cope 
 
CORES. 
 
 89 
 
 sand,^ would be floated up by the metal, and make a 
 waster casting. Chaplet nails, cliaplets, and stops are 
 therefore employed to steady cores in their proper 
 positions. The forms and sizes of these vary with their 
 position and function. Figs. 60-67 show chaplets in situ. 
 In Fig. 60, B', is a chaplet nail driven into a block of 
 wood, A', to afford breadth and steadiness of base in the 
 yielding sand. The height of this nail is adjusted to the 
 thickness, B, of metal required. Upon the flat head, C, of 
 the nail rests the core, C. Fig. 61 shows another chaplet 
 made by riveting a bit of iron rod, into a flat plate, A'y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 60. — Chaplet. Fig. 61.— Chaplet. 
 
 and used for a heavier class of work than the common 
 chaplet nail. Here A is the core whose upward thrust 
 is sustained by the flat. A', of the chaplet, which passes 
 through the cope sand, B, being supported either 
 against the inside face of a flat bar of the flask, or a bar 
 of iron, C, placed temporarily across, as shown, to fulfil 
 the same purpose. D is the thickness of metal between 
 the upper face of the core, A, and the lower face of the 
 cope, B. Fig. 62 shows another chaplet which lies 
 entirely between core and mould faces, and whose 
 thickness is equal to the thickness, A, of the metal. In 
 
90 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING, 
 
 large heavy moulds these chaplets will be of correspond- 
 ingly large area, so that two or three stalks may be re- 
 quired to connect the plates, Fig. 63. In light work not 
 subject to much pressure, spring chaplets are used, con- 
 sisting of pieces of hoop iron bent round. These are 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 Chaplet. 
 
 Fig. 63. — Triple Stud 
 Chaplet. 
 
 Fig. 64. — Spring 
 Chaplet. 
 
 retained in place by their elasticity, and are mostly 
 used against vertical or nearly vertical faces, Fig. 64. 
 
 Chaplets have their faces curved when they abut 
 against curved faces. Figs. 65, 66, show two such forms, 
 modifications of Figs. 60, 61. The core rests upon the 
 
 Fig. 65. — Pipe 
 Chaplet. 
 
 Fig. 66.— Pipe 
 Chaplet. 
 
 Fig. 67. — StO'P. 
 
 stud in Fig. 65, but in Fig. 66 the stud is introduced! to 
 resist the upward pressure of the core. Fig. 67 shows 
 a stop employed when the mould is subject to viery 
 great pressure. It is made of cast or wrought iron, and 
 turned bright, or ground. 
 
CORES. 
 
 91 
 
 The evil of stops and chaplets is their tendency to 
 cause blow holes in their vicinity. Should they become 
 rusty the mould is absolutely certain to blow very badly, 
 owing to the formation of gaseous compounds from the 
 rust. Chaplet nails are often tinned to prevent rust 
 With the same object wrought iron chaplets, made by 
 the foundry smith, are heated to redness in the fire and 
 brushed over with tar or oil. Oil is also poured around 
 and over chaplets while in place to prevent formation 
 of rust during the time intervening before casting, and 
 to cause the iron to lie quietly on the cold metal. In all 
 but the thinnest castings the chaplet stalks become more 
 or less fused by the metal surrounding them. But the 
 heads usually remain visible, and do not amalgamate 
 properly. Hence chaplets should never, if it can be 
 avoided, be placed against faces or parts which have to 
 be bored or turned. 
 
 It is not only necessary to fix and properly vent cores, 
 but to secure the vents as well, that is, to see that due 
 and adequate provision is made for the escape of the air 
 and gas from the interior of the core to the outer 
 atmosphere. The vent openings must be so secured 
 that there shall be no chance of the entry of the molten 
 metal into them. If the metal gets in, the gas will not 
 get out, and the casting will blow, and become a 
 " waster." A chapter could well be entirely devoted to 
 this subject of securing of vents, so important is it, and 
 so many are the methods adopted to attain this end, 
 but we must be content to note a few leading points 
 bearing thereon. Thus it is risky to bring core vents off 
 
92 
 
 PRACTICAL, IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 against an abutting face simply, unless means are taken 
 to prevent any possibility of the pressure of metal causing 
 an opening between the faces to occur. There is less 
 risk however in horizontal than in vertical faces, and of 
 the two a lower horizontal face stands less risk than an 
 upper one, because the cope is liable to, and does usually, 
 lift slightly. Where vents are carried down through the 
 bottom, they are taken into a coke bed, as already ex- 
 plained, p. 38, and thence out through a vent pipe or 
 pipes. When they are brought into the cope, they are 
 usually carried into one or two large holes cut through the 
 cope sand. 
 
 But prints afford the best means of securing cores, 
 because if any slight separation of the core and mould 
 occurs under pressure, the metal cannot, if the core and 
 print are mutually good-fitting, run between them into 
 the vents. Properly the cores should be cemented into 
 their prints by means of core sand or of black wash. 
 This is usually done only in the most important work. 
 In most cases it is sufficient, after the core has been 
 thrust into its prints to press and consolidate sand around 
 and into the joint. 
 
 When distinct cores meet each other in the mould, 
 vents should only be carried from one into the other 
 when they can be secured through a print impression, one 
 thus being checked into the other. When the joint is 
 only a butt joint, then the core vents must be filled with 
 sand immediately against the abutting faces, and the 
 air be brought away at the opposite ends where the cores 
 fit the print impressions of the mould itself 
 
CORES. 
 
 93 
 
 In the case of cores struck upon revolving core bars, 
 the air, after being brought into the bars, is carried out 
 at the ends. 
 
 Cores are dried in stoves or ovens heated with coke 
 fires. The smaller cores are dried in ovens having a 
 capacity of a few cubic feet only ; for the larger ones, 
 stoves of from i8' to 24' long, 10' to 14' wide, and 
 10' to 12' in height, are employed. These are built 
 of brick-work, and furnished with folding or sliding 
 doors. The cores are laid upon a core carriage, which 
 is a low iron carriage running on tram rails, and,provided 
 with suitable supports for the ends of the core bars, and 
 v/ith flat plates for cores made in boxes, and those 
 formed with strickles. A temperature of about 400° is 
 suitable for the drying of cores ; excess of heat burns the 
 hay, and makes the sand or loam rotten and friable. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 LOAM WORK. 
 
 The advantage of loam moulding consists in the facilities 
 which it affords for making castings of the most massive 
 character without incurring much expense for pattern 
 making. The apparatus used is of the most simple 
 description, consisting of spindle, bar, and striking 
 boards ; the materials being loam, bricks, and cinders : 
 with the aid of these the largest and heaviest castings 
 are made. 
 
 Loam work is quite a specialized branch, which all 
 moulders have not had an opportunity of acquiring, 
 hence its exclusiveness ; but it is not more intrinsi- 
 cally difficult than the other branches. I am inclined 
 to think it easier of acquisition ; but here, as in many 
 other instances, the question is one of supply and 
 demand, rather than of special difficulty. Also, large 
 loam moulds are costly, and men are paid then for their 
 care, as well as skill and special knowledge. The mould 
 for a condenser, or for a large cylinder, will often occupy 
 a couple or three men for nearly a month, hence the 
 matter of two or three days' time, more or less, is of 
 
LOAM WORK. 
 
 95 
 
 small account in comparison with the soundness of the 
 casting. 
 
 The art of loam moulding, after the first principles 
 are mastered, lies in the exercise of the inventive faculty, 
 the ability to scheme the best methods, to elaborate 
 the safest, and on the whole the cheapest tackle : to 
 conceive the main plan, and to execute the lesser details 
 with a clear head, guided by the lessons born of ex- 
 perience. Loam moulding is an art in itself, and a man 
 who can undertake any job, large and small, devise, and 
 make, and rig up his tackle, and produce uniformly safe 
 results, need never swell 
 the ranks of the unem- 
 ployed, — such a man is 
 simply indispensable. 
 
 It is a great advantage 
 to a loam moulder to be ^i^. 68.-Base for Engine 
 able to read a drawing Cylinder. 
 correctly. If he cannot • 
 do so, he has, in intricate work, to depend on the ex- 
 planations of the pattern maker before he can set about 
 his task, or even decide how to do it, or line out his 
 centres. Some loam moulders are quite independent of 
 the pattern maker in this respect, doing all the lining 
 out themselves. 
 
 So much maybe said about loam work, so many different 
 cases may arise in practice, that the best way will be to 
 take a single concrete and plain example, and make that 
 the vehicle for our remarks on loam moulding in general. 
 , The example selected is, Fig. 68, the base which forms 
 
96 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 the bottom cover of the cylinder of a condensing beam 
 engine. The top face A, as the casting stands when in 
 position, is moulded and cast downwards, to ensure 
 soundness. ^ 
 
 The apparatus used is as follows : in Fig. 69, A is the 
 striking bar, B its socket. The socket, of cast iron, is 
 firmly embedded in the floor and levelled, its broad 
 bracketed face maintaining it sufficiently steady. It is 
 bored out to receive the turned tapered end of the bar, 
 or it is cast around the turned tapered end, in either 
 case making a close, yet working fit. The tapered end 
 is long, so that as the bar revolves, its top end shall not 
 diverge sensibly from the perpendicular. Over the bar 
 slides freely the strap C, which is pinched at any required 
 height with its set screw. To the strap is bolted the 
 striking board or loam board D, the profile of whose 
 edges corresponds in the main, though not in all details, 
 with the sectional shape of the casting required. F is 
 the loam plate or building up plate, made of cast iron in 
 open sand moulds, see p. 31, without a pattern, by 
 means of sweeps only. 
 
 Fig. 69 represents an early stage of operations. The 
 socket, B, is set in place, the loam plate, i% levelled 
 roughly on blocking pieces, G, or other convenient 
 supports, the loam board, D, notched out to clear the boss 
 of the strap, and the board bolted thereto. The breadth 
 of the sides of the bar A is definite, being usually 2", 
 2i", or 2|^", so. that the radius of the board D is less than 
 the radius of the casting by an amount equal to H, the 
 radius of the bar. It is easy to see the coincidence cf 
 
98 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 the board with the outside of the casting by comparing 
 Figs. 68, 69, the only point of difference being the 
 strip, /, which is screwed on temporarily to make a 
 parting joint,/, for convenience, and the step or check, 
 which makes the top or cope joint. The edge of the 
 board is chamfered, as shown at L, to avoid dragging up 
 and tearing out of the loam. It is evident that loam 
 boards should be truly level in order to the striking of a 
 level mould. Hence the top edge should, in shallow 
 
 When moulds are deep, the bar is apt to sag at the top, 
 and to alter the diameter. For this reason, and partly 
 also to check any error in the cutting of the board, 
 diameter strips and calipers are used for measurement 
 of the mould. Fig. 70 shows the strip used for testing 
 
 A thin coating of stiff loam is first spread over 
 plate Fig. 69, and upon this the bricks, M, M, are 
 bedded. The bricking up is a vital matter, since the 
 bricks must bind one another by being made to break 
 joint, just as in masonry. Since moulds are irregular, 
 and bricks pretty uniform in size, the value of the 
 
 Fig. 70. — Diameter Strip. 
 
 moulds, be planed square with 
 the end which abuts against 
 the bar, and a level tried upon 
 it, as shown at Z. 
 
 Fig. 71.— Wooden Calipers. 
 
 the interior of a mould, being 
 made to clip the bar ; and Fig. 
 71 the wooden calipers for the 
 exterior. Their purpose is so 
 obvious that they require no 
 explanation. 
 
LOAM WORK. 
 
 99 
 
 broken bricks from previous moulds is apparent. These 
 should be utilized as much as possible instead of breaking 
 new bricks. It is not possible nor necessary to maintain 
 such regularity as in masonry — the appearance of a 
 bricked up mould is rather that of Fig. 69 (plan). In 
 building up cylindrical work the general rule is to keep 
 the broken bricks next the mould face, and the whole 
 bricks as a backing. The broken bricks conduce to 
 better venting than the whole ones would do. 
 
 When a mould is over 18" or 24" in depth, a cast iron 
 ring is built in at about every six courses, to assist in 
 binding the bricks together. 
 
 The joints of the bricks are not only wide apart, but 
 large quantities of fine cinders are interspersed with the 
 loam in the joints. These are introduced for the purpose 
 of venting, which is a better and more certain method 
 than venting with the wire, though the wire is sometimes 
 used in some sections where the loam happens to be 
 massed in quantity in a mould. There must be suf- 
 ficient coarse loam intermixed with the ashes to bind 
 the bricks together. The layers of brick M' and 
 are then built up in like fashion, with loam and ashes 
 intermixed. A space of about i" is left between the 
 bricks and the edge of the board, and about |-" of this 
 is daubed well over with stiff coarse loam — coarse loam 
 because it affords a better vent to the gases and air, 
 than finer and therefore closer loam. The work is then 
 left standing for a few hours in order that the loam 
 shall stiffen. Afterwards the final coat of loam, passed 
 through a fine sieve, is struck on, and finished by 
 
LOAM WORK, 
 
 lOI 
 
 the edge of the board. Several sweepings around of 
 the board are necessary to impart the final smoothness 
 to the surface ; then the mould is put into the stove to 
 be dried. At this stage therefore the mould is completed 
 up to joint /, which coincides with the lower face of 
 the flange B in Fig. 68, the mould being made, as I just 
 now remarked, to pour the casting upside down. 
 
 Fig. 72 illustrates the next stage. A cast iron plate, 
 G, is made, a thin coating of loam swept over one face 
 and dried. The flange space N, already struck, as in 
 Fig. 69, is filled up temporarily with moulding sand 
 level with the joint /, and then [the loamed face of G 
 is turned over thereon, parting sand intervening. The 
 strip /, in Fig. 69, is unscrewed from the board, and the 
 second stage of bricking up is done on plate G, Fig. 72. 
 
 Sometimes ring plates are used similar to G, merely 
 for the convenience of parting a mould which is too deep 
 to go into the drying stove entire. The upper portion 
 of the mould is then lifted ofl" on its ring before being 
 put into the stove, and is replaced after it has been 
 dried. The ring is like G, but its function is different, 
 G in Fig. 72 being necessary because the under face of 
 flange N could not be struck at the same time as the 
 lower portion of the mould in Fig. 69, without much 
 difficulty, due to falling down of the loam. 
 
 There are four ribs, C, Fig. 68, cast between the 
 flanges. These are made by imbedding four pattern 
 ribs, O, Fig. 72, in corresponding positions, and spaces are 
 cast out of the plate, G, to receive these. Whenever ribs, 
 facings, brackets, flanges, which cannot be struck, occur 
 
I02 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 in. loam moulds, patterns of these have to be made as in 
 ordinary work. In some cases where the work is intricate 
 this becomes a source of trouble to the moulder. In the 
 first place it is not easy to set sectional portions of 
 wood very accurately in yielding loam. Then the wood 
 remains in the loam for several hours, more often for 
 days, and is liable, by its distortion, to produce inaccuracy. 
 Again, it is not so easy to secure a homogeneous face of 
 loam by building bricks against wood as it is by striking 
 loam upon bricks. The wood has to remain in the 
 mould either until the loam has become stiffened or 
 until after it has been baked in the stove. In either 
 case the withdrawal of the wood tends to damage the 
 mould — more when it is baked, because the loam then 
 absorbs some of the oily matter from the wood. This 
 makes mending up of the faces troublesome, the oily 
 surface not taking kindly to the wet loam used in 
 mending. In such cases the surfaces should be scraped 
 before being mended. It is the usual practice to oil the 
 surfaces of the woodwork imbedded in loam ; but this 
 only partially assists the stripping. The ribs in the illus- 
 tration, though suggesting these remarks, are so plain 
 that they would cause no trouble. It is in work of a 
 more intricate character that trouble occurs. 
 
 At P in Fig. 72 are bricks which are made of loam, 
 moulded into the shape of bricks, and dried. These 
 occupy the spaces between the ribs. Loam bricks, as they 
 are termed, are frequently used in moulds of this 
 character wherever there are narrow spaces between 
 flanges, or brackets, or ribs. One reason is, that if the 
 
LOAM WORK, 
 
 shrinkage of the casting takes place against hard un- 
 yielding bricks, the iron is liable to fracture. If loam 
 bricks are used, they crush and yield before the shrinking 
 metal. They have, moreover, the additional advantage 
 of forming a good medium for venting, and this is an 
 important point. In intricate portions of moulds it is 
 safer to use loam bricks and an extra thickness of loam 
 vented with the wire, than to bring the common bricks 
 very near the surface. A thin body of loam against 
 common bricks is always liable to become detached, and 
 to cause scabbing by reason of the bubbling of the metal 
 thereon. 
 
 Outside the loam bricks P, a layer of common bricks, 
 Q, is built, and over this again another similar course 
 Q. The thickness of loam is daubed and swept over 
 the faces of the bricks according to the profile of the 
 board D. 
 
 The cope, and the central core yet remain. A plate, 
 Fig- 73> is cast, studded over with " prods " to hold 
 the loam which is swept over its face, as shown — the 
 check K being formed to correspond with the reverse 
 check K in Fig. 72— and allowed to set firmly. While it 
 is setting, the plate H is partly loamed up on separate 
 blocking. The future position of this plate is seen in Fig. 
 73 ; the arms S, shown at D, in Fig. 68, are laid in due 
 position,' and stiff loam is daubed around them, so that 
 when this sets the arms are kept pretty rigidly in place. 
 While the loam is setting, the work on plate R is con- 
 tinued ; courses of bricks, U, U, are built upon the bed 
 which has been already struck with the board, the joints 
 
PLAN. 
 
 Fig. 73.— Loam Moulding. 
 
LOAM WORK. 105 
 
 being vented with cinders, or with the wire. Coarse loam 
 is daubed around the outside, and also on the top of the 
 uppermost layer. Then the plate, H, is laid upon the top 
 layer of loam. Fig. 73. The irons, V, are for the purpose 
 of wedging up and securing the core and cope when 
 finally in place. H, bedding firmly on the loam, the 
 spaces between the ribs are filled in with loam bricks, U' , 
 and these, with the deep prods cast on the plate, together 
 with the stiff" loam daubed between them all, form, when 
 dried, a solid mass which can be turned over with perfect 
 safety for closing the mould. The block, W, which 
 gives the metal around the termination of the bottom 
 steam passage of the cylinder, E, in Fig. 68, is bedded in, 
 and the whole surface is lastly swept up and finished 
 with fine loam, SS, and the whole dried bodily in 
 the stove. 
 
 The turning over of a body of bricks, etc., like Fig. 73, 
 is only done in cases where the mass is not excessive. 
 In the example which we have selected there is no diffi- 
 culty or risk involved in turning over. But in some 
 heavy work it would be necessary to make a reverse 
 mould, and to daub the loam upon that, standing thus in 
 the position in which it is to stand when finished. Also 
 where a reverse mould would not be suitable, the principle 
 adopted in Fig. 72 is often employed, that, namely, of 
 striking one portion of a mould upon another, using a 
 parting ring, G, and parting sand. 
 
 Loam, like dry sand, must be thoroughly dried, so 
 that no steam issues therefrom. When dried, the mould 
 is blackened with wet blacking, and, as soon as this is 
 
PLAN. 
 
 Fig. 74. — Loam Moulding. 
 
LOAM WORK. 
 
 107 
 
 dry, the mould should be finally closed for casting. The 
 checks K, in Figs. 72, 73, furnish an accurate means of 
 jointing the top and bottom portions of the mould. 
 Holes cut at F, Fig. 74, enable the moulder to see 
 whether the coincidence of the joints is correct, and if 
 not, where to file away the loam. 
 
 Fig, 74 shows the mould closed in readiness to be placed 
 in the casting pit. Similar reference letters will assist in 
 the recognition of parts identical with those in the pre- 
 vious figures, and the outline of the mould is also dotted. 
 The eyes V receive the rods V\ which are secured with 
 the wedges V'\ thus securing the central core and cope in 
 place. The top and bottom plates, R, F, are clamped to- 
 gether with the clamps Z', Z', which are wedged. 
 Runner pins are inserted at x, to keep the ingates clear 
 during the time of closing, and of placing in the pit- 
 Then the pouring basin, Fig 74, X, and riser cups, X\ are 
 made, and all is ready for pouring. In cases where the 
 mould is of considerable size the practice is to fill the cen- 
 tral space of a bricked up core, as SS, in Fig. 73, with 
 cinders, previous to casting. If this precaution were not 
 taken, the air filling the vacant space would rush out 
 with explosive violence on the pouring of the metal. 
 The cinders form a natural vent, to the exclusion of 
 excess of air. 
 
 Feeding is performed at the riser cups X', and at the 
 pouring basin X. Vents are brought away all over the 
 surface of the cope, and also from the bottom, the latter 
 through diagonal vent pipes. 
 
 The mould is sunk into the floor, or pit, and sand rammed 
 
io8 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 around it, in order to prevent risk of the liquid pressure 
 from forcing out the bricks composing the mould. For 
 large work, therefore, special pits are built in the foundry- 
 floor. These, when permanent, are built up with cast 
 iron plates, or rings. They are made of depth and dia- 
 meter most suitable for the special requirements of the 
 foundry. 
 
 Loam patterns constitute another type of loam work, 
 having this single point only in common with loam 
 moulds — the material in which they are made. They 
 are employed when the work is of a medium size — 
 too small to be struck upon bricks, yet so large as to in- 
 volve costly outlay for patterns in wood. They are 
 struck up pretty much like cores on 
 core bars, except that no venting is 
 required, and the surface is protected 
 and rendered hard with a coating of 
 Fig, 75.— Strickling. In many cases, however, as when 
 
 one casting only is required, the core 
 is struck first and vented in the usual way, and then a body 
 of loam, representing the thickness of metal in the cast- 
 ing, is struck thereon, a coat of black wash intervening. 
 The mould is then made and the thickness removed, 
 the black wash acting as a parting, allowing of the ready 
 peeling off of the thickness, and the core is placed in its 
 mould. The boards used for striking are similar to 
 those used for striking cores. 
 
 Loam patterns of irregular outline are worked up with 
 strickles, guidance to which is afforded by m.eans of guide 
 irons, or by striking plates. The principle is simple. 
 
LOAM WORK. 
 
 Fig. 75 shows a strickle of half a pipe, working by means 
 of a check against a guide iron, A, which is curved longi- 
 tudinally to correspond with the required outline of the 
 pipe, Fig. 76. The guide iron remains in the same posi- 
 tion for both core and pattern, the concentricity of core 
 and pattern being assured by the method of cutting the 
 checks upon each strickle, the distance, B, being less in the 
 
 Fig. 76,— Loam Pattern. 
 
 pattern strickle than in the core strickle by an amount 
 equal to the thickness of metal in the pipe to be cast. 
 In making the core, the vents have to be carried from the 
 outside to the central portion, and away at the ends. 
 Cores are differently made according to their diameters. 
 A small core is stiffened only with a couple of irons. A 
 large one has a grid with prods. In a small one, the 
 central vent is simply cut with a trowel in the joint after 
 each half is dried and turned over, while in a large one 
 
no 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 the central vent is formed by daubing the loam over 
 a central body of green sand, first made roughly semi- 
 circular with the hands. 
 
 Fig. 76 shows the various stages in making a common 
 socket bend in loam. Assume, for the sake of definite 
 dimensions, that it is a 12" bend with i" metal. Then 
 the first thing is to lay down a guide iron, A, which 
 may be i" away from the outside, and of course i" away 
 from the core. Then the core strickle will have a i" check, 
 
 B, Fig. 75, and the pattern strickle a i" check. Weights 
 will steady the guide iron. First a body of green sand, 
 
 C, is made roughly semi-circular with the hands. Then 
 wet loam is daubed upon this and brought up to within 
 about ^" of the strickle as shown, Figs. 75, 76, D, a cast 
 iron grid, E, being bedded in the loam at the same time. 
 While the loam is yet plastic, a number of |-" or i" holes 
 are pierced through it, reaching to the interior. These 
 are the main vents. When this coat of loam has 
 partly set, the finishing fine coat is laid on and swept 
 round with the strickle, as shown at F. It is evident 
 that two such halves put together joint to joint and 
 cemented, will form a properly stiffened and vented 
 core. 
 
 The enlargement in diameter at the socketed end is 
 usually made by striking up a ring of loam and threading 
 it upon the core, its vents being brought into the main 
 core vents. 
 
 The next stage, if one casting only is required, is the 
 striking of the pattern thickness upon the core. Nothing 
 is moved, but the core is coated with black wash, and 
 
LOAM WORK. 
 
 Ill 
 
 the loam struck thereon with the pattern strickle, as at H. 
 This also is dried. 
 
 The socket is variously made. Sometimes the thick- 
 
 , ness, forming the socket core, is not put on until after 
 the pipe has been moulded. The socket body is struck 
 and threaded directly on the plain core as at G, or a 
 standard wooden or iron socket pattern is slipped over. 
 Sometimes the socket is struck up on its own core, either 
 
 . by means of a guide ring. Fig. 76, /, which forms a por- 
 tion of the pattern, and strickle / working thereon trans- 
 versely, or the two separate diameters /, K are struck 
 with two separate strickles working from the guide iron, 
 and the curves by which they merge into one another 
 are rubbed by hand with rasps and glass-paper. 
 
 When a pattern thickness is struck upon a core as in 
 this case, it is usually necessary to secure the thickness 
 firmly, during moulding and handling about, with flat- 
 headed plasterers' or chaplet nails ; without this precau- 
 tion the thickness is apt to peel ofif at the black wash 
 joint. 
 
 When a pattern is struck, whose diameters vary at 
 every position, no single templet will shape it. Then 
 strickles are made to the extreme diameters, and if 
 the pattern is of awkward shape, strickles for certain in- 
 termediate positions, and the loam rubbed between these 
 positions with files or rasps, the eye being the arbiter, 
 with or without the assistance of sectional templets. 
 In a reducing bend three such positions might be taken, 
 one at each end, and one at the centre, and two guide 
 irons would properly be used. The three strickles 
 
112 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 resting against the guide irons would give the semi- 
 circular outline at each position, and the longitudinal 
 outline of the guide irons would give the curves by 
 which the joint edges of the cores would be imparted, 
 the strickles for these being of a sectional form, giving 
 the edges only. 
 
 When the core has been rubbed down to its propei" 
 curves, the thickness is variously put on. Thus, strickles 
 may be used at the ends and middle just as in the core. 
 But this leaves the eye to judge of thickness, which in thin 
 castings is too risky. Hence thickness pieces are fitted 
 to the core, being either wood strips, curved or straight, 
 gauged to thickness, or flat-headed nails are driven in by 
 templet. These afford a guide by which the loam is 
 daubed on and strickled off. All these are easily removed 
 after the pattern is moulded and the core is required. 
 
 The flanges on loam patterns are usually made in 
 wood, and they rest against the shoulders of the loam 
 which forms the pattern thickness. These shoulders are 
 therefore filed quite square after the thickness has been 
 dried in the stove. 
 
 In some loam patterns there is a great deal of this 
 fitting of wooden parts, portions which cannot be made 
 in loam being conveniently made in wood. A little 
 knack and some rough geometry is often essential there- 
 fore in this class of work. Centre lines, and lines at 
 right angles, which can only be struck with trammels or 
 compasses, are often wanted, and their accurate laying 
 down is rendered all the more difficult, because many 
 loam patterns are unjointed. 
 
LOAM WORK. 
 
 113 
 
 Beyond these special matters, loam patterns have 
 much in common with ordinary patterns. Prints, bosses, 
 brackets, feet, and various other fittings are added 
 thereto, and though loam does not afford such good faci- 
 lities for fastening these as wood, yet with care on the 
 part of the pattern maker and moulder they can be 
 rendered sufficiently secure ; nails, long skewers, and 
 the fitting of shoulders being the safer methods. 
 
 I 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 MACHINE MOULDING. PART I. 
 
 The elements of machine moulding are to be seen in 
 the use of turn over boards, and in plate moulding, 
 devices which are employed to a greater or less extent in 
 nearly all shops. 
 
 Turn over boards, joint boards, bottom boards, as they 
 are variously named, are employed to facilitate the 
 making of the joint faces of moulds. In ordinary work 
 these faces are made by strickling and sleeking down, as 
 noted on p. 36 in connection with Figs. 18-21. But 
 when similar work is often repeated the joint faces are 
 rammed directly upon boards, the contour of whose faces 
 corresponds with that of the joint faces of the sand — flat, 
 if required flat, irregular, sloping, curved, etc., if so re- 
 quired. In the simplest mould, the flask which is to 
 become the drag is laid upon the bottom board over the 
 pattern, rammed, lifted off with the pattern or portion of 
 the pattern belonging thereto enclosed in situ, turned 
 over, and the cope rammed upon it. This method is very 
 advantageous in two cases : first, when the pattern is so 
 flimsy that it would probably become rammed out of 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART I. 
 
 115 
 
 o^...-A 
 
 truth, or could only be kept with difficulty from winding 
 during ramming; and second, when the parting joints 
 are so uneven, unsymmetrical, curved, sloping, and irre- 
 gular, that to cut and sleek them with the trowel at each 
 time of moulding would entail much loss of time. 
 
 Plate moulding is an advance upon this practice. With 
 the use of turn-over 
 boards, the cope and 
 drag are rammed joint 
 to joint in the positions 
 which they are finally a- 
 to occupy at the time 
 of casting. But in plate 
 moulding the joint faces 
 are not brought together 
 at all until the time of 
 final closing. The pat- 
 tern is divided into two 
 
 portions, one portion section a-a 
 
 being upon one side of Fig. 77.— Plate Moulding— Trolly 
 a plate of wood or metal, Wheel. 
 the supplementary portion being upon the opposite 
 side. Or in many cases distinct plates are employed, 
 each carrying that portion of the pattern which is the 
 supplement of the portion on the other plate. Cope 
 and drag being rammed, each on its respective side 
 of the plate, or on its separate plate, form when 
 brought together a complete mould, corresponding at the 
 joints. Thus, taking an example, the trolly wheel shown 
 in Fig. 18, p. 35, would, if moulded on a plate, be made as 
 
ii6 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 in Fig. 77. It is clear that the portion of the wheel on 
 the face B of the plate is supplementary to that on face 
 C. The faces B and C form the joint faces of the drag- 
 and cope. Patterns like these are arranged singly or in 
 series on plates, according to size and quantity required. 
 A pattern of large size will occupy a plate to itself; 
 several small patterns, alike or dissimilar in character, 
 may be arranged on one plate, and poured from a central 
 ingate and spray of runners. 
 
 Now the use of a moulding machine consists mainly 
 in this, that in place of the clumsy and often inaccurate 
 separation of the pattern plates from the flasks by hand, 
 there is substituted the steady, equal, and perfect separa- 
 tion by mechanism. Some of the more recent machines 
 include much more than this, as the ramming or pressing 
 of the sand around the patterns, the use of stripping 
 plates, that is, plates through which the patterns are 
 drawn, the plates sustaining the sand and preventing 
 broken edges ; but such elaboration is not essential to 
 machine moulding, though often convenient and advan- 
 tageous. The subject of moulding by machines is one 
 of much interest, but the space at my disposal forbids 
 anything beyond an illustration and detailed description 
 of one in particular, and a summary of the essential 
 construction of several distinct types. 
 
 Messrs. Woolnough and Dehne's patent moulding 
 machine, manufactured by Messrs. Samuelson and Co., 
 Ltd., Britannia Works, Banbury, is illustrated in Figs. 78- 
 81. Fig. 78 is a perspective view of the machine. Fig. 79 
 a sectional elevation of one of the standards. Fig. 80 a 
 
MACHINE MOULMNG. PART 1. 117 
 
 horizontal section through the standard on Hne A-B, 
 and Fig. 81 a section through the cap at the top of the 
 pillars. A base plate, Fig. 78, carries a couple of pillars, 
 
 Fig. 78.— Woolnough and Dehne's Moulding Machine. 
 
 one of which, that to the right, is permanently fixed, the 
 other, that to the left, is capable of horizontal movement, 
 rendering the machine adjustable to the width of any 
 
il8 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 pattern plates within its range. The pillars A, Figs. 
 79, 80, 81, are hollow, enclosing spindles B, to which 
 vertical movement can be imparted by means of the 
 weighted lever handle seen in Fig. 78. The lever 
 actuates the horizontal shaft H, Figs. 79, 80, upon which 
 are keyed two worm wheels F, enclosed in the semi- 
 circular casings G. The shaft and casings are seen at 
 the front in Fig. 78. The worm wheels engage with 
 screws cut on the vertical spindles B, Figs. 79, 80, 81, 
 and so raise and lower the pattern plate, which has 
 its bearings, c, in the upper ends of the spindles, and 
 which can be turned over in its bearings. Two tri- 
 angular plates furnished with slots and bolts for vertical 
 adjustment slide in faces upon the pillars, Fig. 78, and 
 their upper edges form the tracks for the wheels of the 
 plate, upon which the moulding flask is supported. The 
 provision for vertical adjustment permits of the employ- 
 ment of flasks of various depths. 
 
 The method of moulding is as follows : — That face of 
 the pattern plate from which the impression is to be im- 
 mediately taken, whether for cope or drag, is turned 
 uppermost, and the appropriate flask placed thereon and 
 clamped or screwed. The sand is then rammed in by 
 hand, and scraped level. The flask and plate are turned 
 bodily over and lowered, until the back of the flask rests 
 upon the table beneath. The pattern plate is then pinched 
 in its bearings with the set screws seen at the tops of the 
 pillars, and lifted clear of the flask by the lever handle, 
 in which position it is shown in Fig. 78. A very slight 
 amount of rapping is imparted to the pattern plate 
 
WOOLNOUGH AND DeHNE'S MOULDING MACHINE. 
 
 Sectional Views. 
 
I20 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 in the act of withdrawal. When the mould is blacked the 
 pattern may be returned temporarily in order to press 
 the blackening down, thus saving the trouble and risk of 
 sleeking. These machines, in one size, will take flasks 
 measuring 27i"x2ii", in another, 39"x2I-l", with a 
 perpendicular lift of 8i". The table, flask, and pattern 
 plate are unshaded in Fig. 78. 
 
 The sleeve D, Figs. 79, 80, is simply for the purpose 
 of protecting the vertical spindles from access of dust, 
 and a screw gland, E, similarly protects the worm and 
 worm wheel. 
 
 The introduction of this machine will give a fair idea 
 to the student of the general principle of construction 
 adopted ; while the following summaries will assist the 
 practical man to form some idea of the efforts that have 
 been made to devise new and improved forms. 
 
 Georg Sebold and Friedrich Neff, Germany. Wirth's 
 Patent, 1879. No. 3,227. 
 
 A very ingenious machine, the two essential points of 
 which are the production of an automatic and strictly 
 equable pressure of sand over patterns of irregular con- 
 figuration, and the automatic regulation of the precise 
 amount of pressure required in any particular case. To 
 obtain the first, melted gutta percha is ran all over the 
 pattern or patterns to form a reverse impression, which 
 impression is then attached to the pressing plate, and so, 
 following the pattern contour, imparts a pressure more 
 uniform than can possibly be imparted by a flat plate 
 operating on patterns of irregular outline. 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART I. 
 
 121 
 
 The second point, that of imparting a measured amount 
 of pressure adapted to each individual job, is accomplished 
 by allowing the table which supports the moulding box 
 and its carriage to rest by four vertical pins upon the 
 short arms of four weighted levers, the radii of whose 
 weights is capable of adjustment on a series of notches, 
 for the production of greater or less effect. When there- 
 fore pressure is exerted on the sand in the moulding box 
 by the pressing plate, that pressure cannot exceed the 
 amount necessary to just overcome the resistance of 
 the loaded levers. The most suitable amount of re- 
 sistance can easily be gauged by experience for each 
 particular job, and the weights adjusted accordingly. 
 The table is elevated by means of a winch handle and 
 gearing. 
 
 The same inventors took out letters patent for im- 
 provements in moulding machines in 1882, No. 855, but 
 the specification, containing thirty-seven figures, is too 
 lengthy for summary. 
 
 Messrs. Wren and Hopkinson, Manchester, 1880. 
 No. 5,344. 
 
 This relates to improvements on the machine just de- 
 scribed. The moulding flask is brought underneath the 
 presser upon a travelling carriage running on rails, the rails 
 being prolonged beyond the machine upon brackets bolted 
 to the side cheeks or frames. The table which sustains the 
 carriage and flask immediately underneath the presser 
 at the time of running on of the carriage, has its rails at 
 
122 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 the same level as the rails upon the brackets. It is raised 
 for the operation of pressing by means of a train of gear- 
 ing arranged on three parallel shafts, a pair of connecting 
 rods pivoted eccentrically on the third motion shaft im- 
 parting an upward or downward movement to the carriage^ 
 which slides within suitable guides. 
 
 The flask is not rammed upon this carriage, but upon 
 a turn-over, or reversing table above, provided with suit- 
 able cottar pins. Upon this the flask is placed, over the 
 pattern, and cottared. This table slides in vertical guides, 
 its motion being arrested at a definite stage, with the 
 pressing plate placed above it. This plate is made to 
 tilt at an angle, and is so connected with a sand box, 
 that at the time of tilting, the mouth of the sand box 
 may discharge its contents into the moulding flask below, 
 which at that time is surrounded with a filling frame. 
 When the requisite quantity of sand has been raked in, 
 the pressing plate is turned up and locked in the hori- 
 zontal position, the train of gearing beneath the carriage 
 is brought into operation, and the requisite pressure 
 exerted, between the carriage beneath and the presser 
 above the carriage, the latter moving upwards and thrust- 
 ing the moulding table and flask against the presser. The 
 sand being thus consolidated, the gearing is reversed, the 
 carriage and flask are drawn down, the sand is scraped 
 level with the edge of the flask, the moulding table is 
 turned over, and the flask deposited on the carriage and 
 ran away upon the rails. 
 
 There are also several points of detail which we have 
 omitted for the sake of brevity, including the formation 
 
 i 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART L 123 
 
 Df a special jagged form of runner and a separate table 
 for the registering and cottaring together of the cope and 
 drag in readiness for casting. 
 
 Peter Gallas and Heinrich Aufderheide, Germany. 
 Wirth's Patent, 1880. No. 5,469. 
 
 A machine of a very automatic character, and some- 
 what complicated, though apparently quite efficient. The 
 moulding box is brought by a carriage over the pattern 
 plate and fastened with clips. A pressing frame sur- 
 mounted by a sand box, also running on wheels, is 
 brought over the moulding box. The necessary facing 
 sand is sieved over, and the sand for box filling is strewn 
 over this. Then by an ingenious mechanism, consisting 
 essentially of toothed spiral cams, the pattern plate is 
 thrust upwards against the pressing frame and plate 
 above. The spiral cams are so arranged that the vertical 
 motion, rapid at first, is gradually lessened in speed, with 
 increase of force. A hand wheel operates the cams, and 
 these in turn act upon racks. After ramming, the carriage 
 is released, the sand in the moulding box strickled level 
 with the back with a steel knife, the box turned over, the 
 carriage brought back to support it, and the box removed 
 downwards from the pattern plate. 
 
 Among other points worthy of note are these, that the 
 weight of the pressing table and carriage are counter- 
 balanced, that the separation of the pattern plate and 
 mould is assisted by the circular movement of a bar of 
 steel of polyhedral section, by whose rotation a slight up- 
 
124 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 and-down movement is imparted to the pattern plate, 
 producing a result akin to rapping, that a rocking motion 
 is imparted to the sieve in the sand box, and there is 
 the proposal to use the electric current to repel the 
 moulding box and pattern plate. There is also a sub- 
 sidiary piece of apparatus for jointing the halves of the 
 mould. 
 
 Samuel Siddaway, West Bromwich, 1884. No. 10,189. 
 
 A machine which has the merit of simplicity, and is 
 therefore well adapted for the miscellaneous and general 
 work of a shop. The pattern plate is carried on the end 
 of a strong piston, moving in a vertical guide, and actu- 
 ated by a pair of hand levers of ample length operating 
 a crank shaft and links. The sand box and moulding 
 flask cover and enclose the pattern plate, and the neces- 
 sary resistance to the upward pressure of the pattern 
 plate is afforded by a swinging cover or binder, which 
 is clamped over the flask with screw bolts during 
 the time of pressure, and swung aside when the mould is 
 made. The whole machine is carried on wheels for 
 convenience of portability. 
 
 Edward Buckley, Stalybridge, 1885. No. 2,777. 
 A table runs to and fro upon rails between side frames, 
 and carries the moulding flask. The range of travel of the 
 table is such that the sand is filled by hand when quite 
 clear of the body of the machine, and is then ran under- 
 neath the presser for consolidation. The mechanism by 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART 1. 125 
 
 which it is ran underneath consists of a tappet actuated 
 by a hand lever, operating against a stud on a weighted 
 rocking lever. As the tappet is thrown over to one side 
 or the other of the stud, the table is pushed into the 
 position for filling, and the position for ramming respec- 
 tively, and is kept by the weight and pressure of the 
 rocking lever in either position. Spring buffers at each 
 end of the table prevent violent shock at the extreme 
 limits of its travel. The presser is operated by the same 
 lever as the table, the pressing mechanism consisting of 
 a spiral cam, which on being pulled down with the lever, 
 acts upon a small roller having bearings in a slide 
 moving vertically in guides, to which slide the pressing 
 plate is attached. On the release of the lever, the plate 
 is lifted by a spring or other suitable device. 
 
 A modification of this invention consists in a reversal 
 of the process, the presser plate being made fixed, arrang- 
 ing the scroll, cam, etc., so as to lift the rails together 
 with the table and moulding plate bodily up to the 
 presser. 
 
 Fred Ryland, County of Stafford, 1885. No. 3,3 19. 
 
 This relates only to one section of the mechanism em- 
 ployed in moulding. A moulding table is constructed 
 to run upon rollers around a circular roller path. The top 
 of the table is provided with four projecting brackets, 
 with provision for receiving four moulding flasks. The 
 advantage is, that a succession of moulds can be operated 
 at once, one flask being filled while the next is being 
 consolidated by hydraulic or other pressure. 
 
126 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 Arthur Rice, New Albany, Indiana, 1885. No. 8,530. 
 This is a machine specially designed for the moulding 
 of work whose sides are vertical, and in which therefore 
 a clean draw is facilitated by the use of stripping plates. 
 Spur wheels, rings, bushes, are the class of work for 
 which the provisions of this machine are admirably 
 adapted. 
 
 The pattern is fixed to a metal plate, and its outline or 
 perimeter is encircled with a templet or stripping plate. 
 If hollow, a similar stripping plate is fitted to the interior. 
 The pattern plate is fixed to the framework of the machine 
 with the movable templets in place, and is encircled and 
 covered with a moulding box containing sand ready to 
 receive pressure. This pressure is imparted through a 
 belt pulley to a shaft on which are keyed cams, which as 
 they turn with their shaft, operate two yokes or bridles 
 attached to vertical rods connected to a plate, and this as 
 it thus rises or falls operates both the internal and the 
 external templets or stripping plates. The flask with 
 its sand is pulled down upon the pattern by means 
 of disc cranks set outside the framing of the machine, 
 and upon the same shaft as the cams,— connecting rods 
 establishing communication between the wrist pins and 
 the binder plate above the flask. The arrangement of 
 these cams and cranks is such, that after ramming, the 
 stripping plates are withdrawn from the pattern simul- 
 taneously with the delivery of the sand. 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART 1. 127 
 
 Mattliew Robert Moore, Indianopolis, Indiana, 1884. 
 No. 10,436. 
 
 This is substantially an invention to produce even or 
 •uniform ramming of moulds of irregular form by means 
 of fluid pressure. The patterns, laid upon their bottom 
 board, are enclosed in a flask. The flask is temporarily 
 locked with suitable links to a piston or platen above. 
 The latter has a diaphragm of india rubber upon its 
 under face. This is filled under pressure from a hose, 
 with any suitable fluid, pressure being regulated with a 
 stop cock. This diaphragm operates a bundle of rods 
 of wood occupying the mould area and pressing upon it 
 endways, the bundle being held together with an 
 encircling ring, having sufficient friction to lift the rods 
 bodily while yet allowing them freedom of movement in 
 relation to each other endwise. The inventor claims 
 that by this arrangement "the flexible diaphragm will 
 so distribute the pressure that the thinner parts of the 
 sand will only yield until they reach that degree of 
 compactness which will enable them to resist the pressure 
 applied, when they will cease to be further compressed, 
 while the thicker portions will continue to yield until 
 every part of the mould has attained a uniform degree 
 of compactness due to the pressure applied." There are 
 also modifications of this patent. 
 
 Matthew Robert Moore, 1885. No. 14,385. 
 
 A machine in which pneumatic pressure is employed 
 for the consolidation of the moulds, and in which both 
 
128 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 cope and drag are rammed at once, and the sections of 
 the patterns corresponding with cope and drag, with- 
 drawn simultaneously. The machine may therefore 
 be properly denominated a duplex pneumatic machine. 
 The air bags are composed of separate diaphragms con- 
 structed in two or more horizontal layers of hemp, linen, 
 or cotton, vulcanized. There is a stop cock connected 
 with each separate diaphragm by which the pressure 
 can be increased or diminished in any one, independently 
 of the others, the whole being connected with a flexible 
 india rubber hose provided with a main two-way valve. 
 The patterns are contained in a pattern box, which is open 
 top and bottom, except for two stripping plates fastened 
 to top and bottom faces through which the vertical por- 
 tions of the patterns project. A shaft turned with a winch 
 handle and furnished with cam-like levers, presses the 
 patterns outward, so that they may receive the pneumatic 
 pressure of the sand, and withdraws them simultaneously 
 afterwards. 
 
 Matthew Robert Moore, 1886. No. 9,663. 
 
 This is an invention designed to obviate the defects 
 found to be inherent in the machine of No. 10,436. 
 Here two pattern boxes and sets of mechanism are 
 employed, and arranged in such a manner that the boxes 
 can be raised and lowered alternately and turned round 
 horizontally, and one box with its parts balances the 
 other. The pressing apparatus consists of a series of 
 india rubber diaphragms fixed upon an upper plate set 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART I. 129 
 
 in the required vertical positions by means of screwed 
 rods and nuts, and filled with air from a hose pipe. To 
 one side of the base plate of the machine is attached a 
 rigid pillar, upon which pivots a sleeve carrying rigid 
 arms actuated by levers, in such a way that the pattern 
 boxes can be alternately raised and lowered, always 
 however remaining horizontal. They are thus sv/ung, 
 each in turn, first under a sand hopper from which they 
 receive a supply of sand, and then under the pressure 
 platen. When in the latter position air is admitted 
 between a movable cap and a rigid piston in the base of 
 the machine, and the upward movement of the cap forces 
 the flask with its contained sand against the platen, 
 consolidating the sand. While this is going on, an 
 attendant is getting ready the other pattern box. Both 
 stripping plates and divided patterns can be used, if 
 required, with this machine, and various links and slides 
 are employed for operating the patterns. 
 
 George Guntz, Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania, 1887. 
 No. 4,839. 
 
 This is a most elaborate machine, designed primarily 
 for a special purpose, namely, the moulding of car 
 wheels, which, as my readers are aware, are in America 
 always made of judiciously selected mixtures of cast 
 iron, and chilled on the tread. It consists essentially of 
 a revolving table, driven from belt pulleys and pierced 
 with half-a-dozen holes for the reception of cast iron 
 patterns. The table is carried round by means of a 
 
 K 
 
I30 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 circular toothed rack, and there is a cam and sliding 
 clutch, and spring latch arrangement by which its motion 
 is automatically rendered intermittent, ceasing when a 
 pattern is brought under the pressing apparatus, starting 
 when the precise series of operations involved in ram- 
 ming and delivery are concluded. The pressing apparatus 
 consists of two hydrostatic cylinders, one above, one be- 
 low, whose rams are operated simultaneously to, or from 
 the pattern, by valves opened and closed automatically by 
 means of a cam. The pressing plate is secured perma- 
 nently to the upper ram, moving with it. The contour 
 of this plate is of the same dished form as that of the 
 back of the wheel pattern. There is a sand reservoir 
 supported above the table, to one side of the pressing 
 apparatus. This is made to register with the moulding 
 boxes, and fills them in turn from sand valves as they 
 are brought underneath it on their way to the presser. 
 The pattern is sustained at its proper height in its hole 
 by means of weighted levers. A hoop surrounds the 
 pressing plate and prevents the escape of sand during 
 the act of pressure. After compression, the pressing 
 plate, and immediately after, the hoop, are lifted clear 
 of the mould ; the operation of the cam sets the table 
 revolving, carrying the flask round one-sixth of a circle, 
 and the superfluous sand is scraped off the flask face with 
 a steel knife. As the table revolves, the loaded levers by 
 whose operation the pattern was sustained, come into con- 
 tact with inclined segments of circles bolted to the founda- 
 tion of the machine. These throw the levers into the 
 horizontal position, allowing the pattern to descend 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART L 131 
 
 below the level of the table, leaving the mould ready for 
 removal to the casting pit. 
 
 This is but the baldest summary of the method of 
 action of a machine which is so beautifully designed for 
 its own class of work as to be well worthy of a more ex- 
 tended study on the part of specialists in this line. 
 
 Harris Tabor, Liberty Street, New York, 1887. 
 No. 9,129. 
 
 An American invention, in which a cylinder with a 
 piston, and entry and discharge pipes, and actuated by 
 steam, air, gas, or water, is utilized as the pressing appa- 
 ratus. This cylinder is located at the upper part of a 
 standard or framing, its precise vertical position being 
 adjustable for moulds of different depths. To the piston 
 rod, projecting downwards, is attached the plate, to which, 
 in one form of the invention, the pattern is attached ; 
 the pattern passing through a stripping plate. The 
 moulding flask is carried on a moulding table beneath, 
 lugs on the table being arrested and held at a certain 
 position on wings or projections coming out from two 
 vertical rods sliding in the main framings, to the upper 
 ends of which rods the pressing cylinder is attached. 
 The moulding flask is carried on a table which is run 
 underneath the presser after the sand has been filled in. 
 The lugs on the side of the moulding table then rest on 
 the wings projecting from the vertical tension rods, 
 and afford the necessary resistance to the pressure im- 
 parted from the cylinder above. The pattern is thus 
 pressed into the sand and withdrawn through the strip- 
 
132 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 ping plate. Since pressing the pattern into the sand is 
 bad practice, we note with satisfaction that the patentee 
 includes the alternative and correct practice of pres- 
 sing the sand over the pattern, and withdrawing the 
 pattern downwards from the mould through the stripping 
 plate, the same mechanism being employed. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 MACHINE MOULDING. PART II. 
 
 Wheel moulding machines, though extensively used, have 
 not yet found their way into all our shops, so that 
 there are still many moulders and pattern makers who 
 have had no experience whatever of them. The writer 
 is aware of the existence of about six or seven different 
 types — Jackson's, Scott's, Whittaker's, Buckley and 
 Taylor's, Hey's, and Simpson's. The machine of Messrs. 
 Buckley and Taylor, of Oldham, is selected, by the per- 
 mission of the manufacturers, for illustration in this 
 volume. It is substantial, stable, accurate, and cannot 
 easily get out of order by wear, all points of the first im- 
 portance in machines of this class. Before discussing 
 the actual moulding of wheels, I will describe the con- 
 struction of the main framework of the machine itself. 
 
 The illustrations. Figs. 82 (see frontispiece), 83, 84, re- 
 present a table fnackme, that is, one in which the mould- 
 ing flasks are set and rammed on a table. In the jfloor 
 machines the lower portion of the work is rammed in 
 the foundry floor, and a flask is employed to form the 
 cope mould only. The first class of machines are 
 
134 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 used for wheels of small and of moderate dimensions, 
 
 Fig. 83.— Wheel Moulding Machine. 
 the second class for those of large diameter. The 
 table machines are entirely self-contained, but all the 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART II. 
 
 135 
 
 upper portions of the floor machines are portable, that 
 is, all the essential dividing apparatus and carrier arms 
 are, when required for use, set down over a central 
 pillar or base sunk permanently and levelled in the 
 foundry floor. This machine of Messrs. Buckley and 
 Taylor is made capable of employment in each capacity, 
 the upper portion being removable, and the base, with the 
 dividing apparatus, being adapted to fit into a massive 
 bed in the floor, while a radial arm, made to slide in 
 vee'd guides screwed upon the bed, is substituted for 
 the arched arm. This radial arm carries at one end the 
 vertical slides for the tooth block, and the radius of 
 the wheel to be moulded is only limited by the length 
 of the arm. Wheels up to 25 feet are moulded in the floor 
 machine. 
 
 Fig. 82 (see frontispiece) is a perspective view of the 
 machine, — upon which a bevel wheel is being moulded. 
 Figs. 83, 84, annexed, are an elevation and plan of the 
 same. In these, H is strong foundation against 
 which the bed / is bolted. The table fits by means of a 
 stout turned pin into the boss of the foundation plate H. 
 This table carries the moulding flask T, having upon it 
 a sectional portion of a spur wheel mould, and is revolved 
 by means of the dividing wheel F, and tangent screw E. 
 The bed / carries the arched arm /, at whose extremity 
 moves the vertical slide K, to which the tooth block 
 is bolted. 
 
 The essential mechanism by which the dividing out of 
 the wheel teeth is effected is as follows. The dividing 
 wheel F is attached to the under side of the table. Into 
 
136 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 this gears the tangent screw E. This is actuated by the 
 
 Fig. 84. — Wheel Moulding Machine. 
 
 handle A turning around on a notched division plate F. 
 The short hollow pillar beneath encloses a pair of small 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART II. 137 
 
 mitre wheels, through which the motion of the handle A 
 is communicated to the shaft B, at whose opposite end 
 the first change wheel C is placed. This gears through 
 the idle wheel G with the change wheel C upon the 
 tangent screw shaft D. Any wheels of the set usually 
 supplied with these machines are interchangeable at 
 
 C and G, a slotted quadrant plate, together with the 
 idle wheel G furnishing the means of adjustment for 
 centres. Of course the idle wheel counts for nothing in 
 the calculation of the train. 
 
 Suppose the tooth block to be set at the correct 
 radius for any given wheel to be moulded, by the sliding 
 along and pinching of the arm /, on the bed /. It is 
 evident that a single turn of the single threaded worm E 
 would pass the dividing wheel F a distance equal to one 
 tooth. Hence, having wheels of equal diameter at dTand 
 C, and giving one turn to the handle A, a wheel would be 
 moulded on the table having precisely the same number 
 of teeth as the dividing wheel. But by employing 
 unequal change wheels to connect the handle shaft B, 
 and the worm shaft D, and by doubling or trebling or 
 quadrupling the number of turns of the handle, or by 
 giving to the handle some definite fractional portion of a 
 turn only, we have, as in the screw-cutting lathe, a means 
 for establishing almost any number of proportional rela- 
 tionships between the number of teeth in the dividing 
 wheel F and the wheel to be moulded. Hence the rule, 
 " As the number of teeth in the dividing wheel is to the 
 number of teeth in the wheel required to be moulded, so 
 is the number of teeth in the wheel on the handle shaft 
 
138 . PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 to the number of teeth in the wheel required on the worm 
 shaft." 
 
 Thus : suppose a wheel of lOo teeth has to be moulded. 
 The dividing wheel F has usually i8o teeth. Put, say, a 
 90 toothed wheel on the handle shaft. Then: — 180: 
 100 : 90 : : 50. A wheel of 50 teeth would therefore be 
 put on the worm shaft D, and one turn given to the handle 
 shaft B. But supposing we have not got a wheel of 50 
 teeth, we can multiply 50 by 2 = 100, and put a wheel of 
 100 teeth on the worm shaft. But then we must give 
 two turns to the handle. For in any case, if we multiply 
 the quotient which gives the number of teeth on a 
 change wheel on the worm shaft, we must also multiply 
 the number of turns of handle, or if we halve the number 
 of teeth, we must halve the number of turns given to the 
 handle. 
 
 If we are doubtful of the wheels, they may be proved 
 thus. Divide the number of teeth in the wheel on the 
 handle shaft by the number of teeth in the wheel on the 
 worm shaft, multiply the quotient by the number of 
 turns given to the handle. The product will be equal to 
 the quotient of the number of teeth in the dividing wheel 
 divided by the number of teeth in the wheel to be 
 moulded. Thus in our first example : — 
 
 Handle shaft ... 90 
 
 = r8 X I turn= r8. 
 
 Worm shaft .... 50 
 
 Dividing wheel . . .180 
 
 = 1-8 
 
 Wheel to be moulded 100 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART IL 
 
 139 
 
 The mechanism for actuating the tooth block is as fol- 
 lows : — The radius of the block is adjusted by means of 
 the arched arm /, which travels upon the bed / to or from 
 the centre of the table. This is adjusted with the screw 
 Ly and clamped by the pinching screws in its foot 
 in its required position, remaining immovable during 
 the whole period of the ramming of the wheel teeth. 
 The vertical slide K is carried in vee'd guides, which 
 have provision for the taking up of wear. It is actuated 
 by the small hand wheel O turning the worm P, which 
 revolves the worm wheel upon whose spindle is the 
 spur pinion R, gearing with the rack 6" attached to the 
 vertical slide K. The slide is counterbalanced by the 
 weight M. The vertical movement of the slide is checked 
 at the proper position by means of the adjustable stop 
 so that there is no risk of the tooth block being thrust 
 down too hard upon the sand bed. The lower portion of 
 the slide receives the carrier TV to which the tooth block 
 is attached. 
 
 The essential portions of the machine are therefore 
 the firm base H, the revolving table carrying the flask 
 T, with the dividing apparatus, the arm / moving 
 radially in reference to the table, and the provisions 
 for the vertical movernent of the tooth block. The 
 tables W, X, are simply convenient attachments for the 
 reception of the moulder's small tools. We are now in 
 a position to take up the details of the actual moulding 
 of toothed wheels. 
 
 Spur wheels are moulded very simply. The teeth are 
 formed with a block, and the arms by means of cores. 
 
Uo PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 The block, Fig. 85, has two teeth only, and the inter- 
 tooth space alone is used in the formation of the mould. 
 A bed is first struck, Fig. 86, with a board attached to 
 the striking bar A, the depth B being equal to the 
 depth of the face of the wheel, the 
 bottom edge C striking the bed, the top 
 edge D the top or joint face. The 
 striking bar A in Fig. 86 is a bar turned 
 to fit into the bored hole in the centre 
 boss of the table in Figs. 83, 84. The 
 Block. E is bored to fit over this bar, 
 and its shoulder F is cut to a definite 
 distance from the centre of the bar, so that the radius of 
 any striking board is less than the radius of the wheel 
 
 by the distance G. The 
 central bar or "post" A 
 is removable at pleasure. 
 Its purpose is, first, the 
 carrying of the strap or 
 bracket E, and second, it 
 is the part from which the 
 radius of the tooth block 
 is measured. 
 
 The vents from the bed 
 are carried down to a 
 coke bed if the wheel is 
 moulded in the floor, to the bottom of a flask, if in a 
 flask. The tooth block is screwed to the carrier, set 
 to the correct radius, either by means of a strip or 
 gauge cut to reach the precise distance from the post 
 
 Fig. 86. — Striking Board. 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART II. 141 
 
 of the machine to some portion of the block, — either 
 root or point, and the machine is clamped to preserve 
 that distance constant. The length of the gauge will be 
 equal to the radius of the root or point, as the case may 
 
 Fig. 87. — Radius Gauge. 
 
 be, minus the radius of the post. Or a gauge. Fig. 87, 
 may be cut to fit partly round the post A in Fig. 86, 
 and the radius be marked upon that to root or point. 
 The radius once obtained, and the arm clamped, the 
 gauge strip is no longer required. The block is lowered 
 until its lower face bears upon 
 the sand bed, and then the stop 
 U, Fig. 83, is clamped, and all 
 is in readiness for the ramming 
 of the teeth. 
 
 It will be noticed that the 
 edge H of the board in Fig. 
 86 is chamfered or bevelled. This 
 is not always done, but it is a good 
 plan, as is apparent by the sec- 
 tional view in Fig. 88, where the tooth block is seen in its 
 exact relationship to the circular wall of sand A, within 
 which it is rammed up. Space is left between the points 
 of the teeth, and the outer roughly-struck wall of sand, 
 in order to give a narrow zone for ramming facing and 
 strong sands into, and the wall is made sloping, because 
 
 Fig. 88.— Ramming of 
 Tooth Block. 
 
142 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 it is easier to sweep up than a perpendicular wall, from 
 which the sand would tumble down. 
 
 Facing sand is thrown into the space between the 
 wall A and the teeth, and strengthened with nails 
 (dotted). The sand is rammed between the teeth with 
 a small pegging rammer, being, for these small teeth, 
 only a rod of round iron flattened and narrowed at one 
 end. When the inter-tooth space is filled, the sand is 
 levelled over with a flat rammer, scraped and sleeked 
 with the trowel, and vented diagonally, the vents B 
 passing into a main vent C, either going down to a 
 coke bed, or coming out in the joint of the flask. Only 
 the inter-tooth space gives the tooth shape, and one 
 tooth space only is rammed at a time. I have sometimes 
 seen more than two teeth used, but there is no advantage 
 whatever in their employment, and the difficulty of 
 making the block is increased. Only in the case of 
 mortice wheel blocks carrying prints is there any advan- 
 tage in adopting four or five instead of two teeth. The 
 hinder part and the ends of the block are slightly rapped 
 with the hammer before the withdrawal of the teeth ; 
 but there is no rapping in the sense in which it is 
 employed with ordinary patterns. The pattern is simply 
 started, nothing more, and the block lifted without any 
 sensible lateral play. There is, or should be, no taper 
 in the tooth space, and the sand would therefore become 
 torn up on the withdrawal of the block but for the fact 
 that it is held down by a finger-bit cut to the shape of 
 the inter-tooth space, upon which the moulder presses 
 the two forefingers of his left hand while elevating the 
 slide with his right. 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART 11. 143 
 
 Having lifted the block clear of the mould, the 
 requisite number of turns is given to the handle shaft, 
 and the block thereby carried round a distance equal to 
 the pitch. The slide is then lowered, bringing the block 
 into a suitable position for ramming the succeeding 
 tooth, the process for each tooth being simply a repeti- 
 tion of the first. In order that the outside faces of the 
 teeth on being lowered shall not scrape or push aside 
 the sand already rammed, taper is given to the outside 
 faces, so that the outer edges of the block do not come 
 into actual contact with the sand at all, or at least, only 
 when finally in place, the top edge may just coincide. 
 Also, to prevent the sand from tumbling down on the 
 side opposite to that which is already rammed, a block 
 of wood is laid against the tooth block to sustain the 
 sand in that direction during ramming. 
 
 The cores for the arms are made in dried sand, and set 
 in place without prints, by measurement alone. The 
 arms of spur wheels are usually H shaped in section, 
 partly because of their superior strength, but chiefly 
 because they are rather easier to make than arms of 
 -|- section or J_ section. A core of this kind is seen in 
 plan. Fig. 89, a section in Fig. 90, and its grid in Fig. 91. 
 The core is rammed upon the grid, the central part 
 being composed of cinders, the main vent being brought 
 off at the top, A, into which all the smaller diagonal 
 vents are carried, as well as the vents from the cinders. 
 
 Wheels having arms of -|- or X shape can be also 
 made in cores, though not so readily as the H section. 
 The difficulty is that these cores may have to abut and 
 
144 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 joint against each other, while with the H form they are 
 kept asunder by an amount equal to the thickness of 
 the vertical arm. The joints must abut when the edges 
 of the arm are rounding, as in Fig. 92 ; also, while the 
 
 Fig. 89.— Arm Core. Fig. 90.— Section of Core. 
 
 top and bottom faces of the cores for H arms always lie 
 in the same plane as the faces of the wheel teeth, those 
 of the other sections usually do not. A special bed and 
 cope have to be struck, and cores dished to correspond, 
 when the arms are dished as in Fig. 93. 
 
 Fig. 91. — Grid for Fig. 92. Fig. 93. — Dished 
 
 Arm Core. Abutting Cores. Arm. 
 
 This brings me to remark, that those wheels whose 
 copes are not plain, are struck in two ways, either directly, 
 or upon a reverse mould. Fig. 94 shows the method of 
 making a reverse mould for a bevel ivJieel, where A 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART 11. 
 
 145 
 
 is the board, swept round over a hard-rammed bed of 
 sand the edge C coincides with the top edges of the 
 arms, and therefore with the top face of the cores of 
 
 Fig. 94.— Board for Reverse Mould. 
 
 the bevel wheel, and D is the joint face dividing the cope 
 from the drag. Upon this bed, the board being removed, 
 the cope is rammed, parting sand intervening, — being 
 liftered and vented precisely as though it were being 
 
 Fig. 95.— Board for Striking Bed. 
 
 rammed upon a pattern. This is then taken away, and 
 after the wheel is moulded and cored up, is returned 
 finally into position. 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 On the removal of the cope, the sand which formed 
 the reverse mould is dug out, and the board for striking 
 the lower face, and the circle corresponding with the tooth 
 points, is attached to the strap and slipped over the bar, 
 Fig. 95, the edge A coinciding with the joint face D 
 already struck by the previous board, and the bottom 
 sand swept out. The tooth block is then attached to the 
 carrier and set in position, and the ramming, nailing, and 
 venting proceeds generally on the same methods as those 
 pursued in the case of spur wheels, modified only by the 
 
 Fig. 96. — Board for Striking Cope direct. 
 
 bevel form. The alternative method of making the cope 
 by a direct process is as follows : — The centre pillar 
 always has a movable collar fitting over it, seen in Fig. 
 95 ; this collar is set and pinched in such a position that 
 its top face coincides exactly with the top or joint edge 
 of the flask on the table, as checked with a straight edge. 
 The boards, both for striking the cope and the drag, have 
 strips nailed upon them, sometimes one strip only, some- 
 times two, the distance between the strips in the latter 
 case being equal to the width of the strap, and the inner 
 face of one strip coinciding with the joint edge of the 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART II 147 
 
 mould. Figs. 96, 97, show the two boards, Fig. 96 
 striking the cope direct. It is clear that the collar re- 
 maining in the sanrie position on the post, the joint faces, 
 A, A, of cope and drag will coincide, if the fittings of 
 the flasks and post are perfect. In work of this kind the 
 flasks h ave properly to be turned and checked on their 
 joint faces, specially for wheel work, but in the method 
 first described any flasks can be used, and the wheel can 
 be moulded in the floor just as well as on a table. When 
 wheels are moulded in the floor the first method is the 
 
 Fig. 97. — Board for Striking Bed. 
 
 only one which can be adopted without risk of a crush 
 or of finning occurring. The cope being rammed in 
 place, must, when the mould is closed for casting, make 
 a perfect joint with the mould in the floor. 
 
 A few notes on wheel machines of other types than 
 the one illustrated must close this chapter. 
 
 Scott's machine is of the floor type. A cast iron base or 
 centre " is sunk and levelled in the floor, and over this 
 fits a pillar, having a head at its upper end bored to turn 
 freely thereon, on which slides the main arm of the 
 machine, capable of radial adjustment. A bracket forms 
 an integral portion of the head, carrying in bearings 
 
148 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 a tangent wheel gearing into a worm wheel keyed on 
 the top of the main pillar ; a quadrant plate and change 
 wheels establish a connection between the division plate 
 and handle shaft and the tangent wheel. One end of 
 the arm carries the vertical slide to which the tooth block 
 is attached ; at the opposite end of the arm is the hand 
 wheel for radial adjustment. When the arm is adjusted 
 it is clamped with tee-headed bolts. 
 
 Whittaker's machine is actuated by change wheels, 
 and is of the table form. Upon a foundation or base of 
 cast iron of large diameter the moulding table revolves, 
 turning on a central pin, and operated with a worm 
 wheel like Scott's, but placed underneath the table 
 similar to Messrs. Buckley and Taylor's. A socket is 
 bolted to one side of the foundation casting. In this 
 socket slides vertically a pillar, which is actuated by a 
 rack and pinion, and pinched with a set screw when at 
 the proper height. To a flange at the top of the pillar is 
 bolted a horizontal arm, along which moves an arm in 
 vee'd guides, whose radial adjustment is given with a 
 hand wheel and screw. The farther end of this arm carries 
 a vertical slide with socket for the tooth block ; therefore 
 by means of the radial and movement of the horizontal 
 arm, and the swivelling of the tooth block in its socket, 
 wheels of any radius within the range of the machine table 
 are made. The change wheels are set in a quadrant plate 
 low down by the side of the table. An improved carrier 
 was patented for this machine in 1884, No. 8,994, the 
 patent consisting of a combination of two universal joints 
 furnished with pinching screws, in order that any helical 
 
MACHINE MOULDING. PART II. 
 
 149 
 
 tooth block might be so set as to be withdrawn at the 
 particular angle most suitable thereto. 
 
 Simpson's machine, used in the States, is of a different 
 type from anything yet employed in this country. No 
 change wheels are used, but the pitching out of the teeth 
 is effected on the principle of the division plate and index 
 peg of a geometric lathe, in this case consisting of a drum 
 of sheet iron fixed at the top of the central pillar of the 
 machine, and perforated with a series of circles of holes 
 giving a large range of numbers suitable for different 
 numbers of teeth. A peg is made to fit into these holes, 
 passing through a hole in a vertical arm, attached to the 
 horizontal arm which carries the tooth block, and so lock- 
 ing the machine in position during the ramming up of 
 each separate tooth. The horizontal or carrier arm 
 slides vertically on the central pillar, and when adjusted 
 for height is kept in position by means of a collar upon 
 which it rests. A slot in the arm permits of the move- 
 ment of a horizontal slide, operated radially by a screw 
 and hand wheel. Through this slide passes a screw and 
 a guide-rod for imparting a vertical movement to the 
 tooth block. The tooth block is elevated by a hand 
 wheel and mitre wheels. Provision is made by means of 
 a quadrant-slot for setting the blocks of bevel wheels 
 at any required degree of angle. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 CUPOLAS AND BLAST. 
 
 Although for special purposes iron is sometimes melted 
 on the hearth of the reverberatory furnace, yet for all the 
 usual run of work the cupola furnace is that which is 
 everywhere employed. Moreover, the cupola furnaces 
 themselves which are in use to-day do not differ essen- 
 tially from those of half a century ago. Better cupolas 
 have been designed, being more economical in fuel, but 
 the older ones retain their place, chiefly, it must be sup- 
 posed, by virtue of their simplicity, and also because, in 
 the hands of a careful furnaceman, fairly good commer- 
 cial results can be obtained therefrom. Before noting 
 some of the improvements which have been made in 
 cupolas, I will briefly describe one of ordinary form, and 
 of moderate capacity, such as may be seen in daily work 
 in hundreds of foundries — that which is shown in Fig. 98. 
 
 The base A of the cupola is of brick, covered with a 
 cast iron plate, B. The shell C is of boiler plate, single 
 rivetted, lined with fire-brick, arranged as headers, set in 
 fire-clay. In small cupolas there is only one course of 
 bricks, in large ones they are two courses deep. The 
 
152 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 vitrified slag soon forms a glassy skin over the bricks, 
 and thus becomes a protective coating thereto. A bed of 
 sand, D, is beaten hard down on the bottom, and upon 
 
 SECTION N-N 
 
 Fig. 98.— Cupola. Sections. 
 
 this is placed the bed charge, E, of coke ; metal, coke, 
 and flux alternating all the way up to the charging door 
 F, which is about a couple of feet above the charging 
 platform /. The blast necessary for combustion is 
 
CUPOLAS AND BLAST. 
 
 153 
 
 brought in at the two tuyere pipes G G from the blast 
 main H, which may be placed either above the charging 
 platform /, or below the ground, as shown. The metal 
 is tapped out at the tapping hole /, whose spout, K, is 
 usually brought through the foundry wall, outside of 
 which the cupola is properly placed. L is the door 
 closing the breast hole, through which the fire is lit, 
 which is closed just previous to the turning on of the 
 blast, and through which the embers are raked after the 
 casting is done. Above the breast hole is the slagging 
 hole M, placed just below the level of the tuyere 
 openings. Through this the slag is tapped out at inter- 
 vals during the process of melting. 
 
 The method of charging is as follows. First of all, the 
 interior up to the height of the tuyere holes is lined for 
 a thickness of or i" with fire-clay, or with loamy sand. 
 The tap hole / is lined by ramming sand and fire-clay 
 around a pointed bar inserted in the opening in the 
 bricks. A fire is lit in the bottom, and a bed charge, E, 
 of coke is laid upon this. Then follows a charge of iron 
 and flux, and again a layer of coke, and so on alternately, 
 as seen in Fig. 98. This is done two or three hours 
 before the blast is put on, and in the meantime the 
 various openings into the cupola remaining open, the 
 fuel burns up quietly, and everything becomes warmed 
 equably throughout. When the time arrives for the melt- 
 ing down of the metal, the breastplate L is lined with sand, 
 and wedged in place, the tuyere pipes G, whose bends are 
 made to swivel, are put into position and luted with clay, 
 and the tap hole / being open, a gentle blast is put on 
 
154 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 for five or ten minutes. This has the effect of hardening 
 the clay in the tap hole. The blast is then stopped, the 
 tap hole closed with clay by means of the bot-stick, and 
 the full blast pressure is put on. In from ten to fifteen 
 minutes the metal begins to run down, and presently, 
 when the furnaceman observes through the glass or 
 mica sight holes H' , H' of the tuyeres that the metal is 
 getting nearly to the level of the tuyere openings, he 
 taps out a quantity into a ladle. This is done by driving 
 the pointed end of the bot-stick through the hard-baked 
 clay, giving the stick a rotary motion with his hands, to 
 enlarge the hole. The metal then runs down the shoot 
 K \nd. steady stream, and when the ladle is nearly filled, 
 the tap hole is closed with a daub of clay held on the 
 flat end of the bot-stick, the stick being held diagonally 
 downwards towards the hole at first, and then lowered 
 sharply until the axis of the stick is in line with the hole 
 /, so closing it up without risk of spluttering of the iron. 
 
 As the metal runs down, additional quantities of iron, 
 fuel, and flux are charged in at the door F. Slag forms 
 in quantity, and this has to be tapped out at intervals 
 through the slagging hole M. The slagging will have to 
 be repeated more or less often according to the inferior, 
 or superior class of the metal. As long as slag continues 
 to run, the hole should be left open. If very inferior or 
 burnt iron is being melted the slag may be running 
 nearly all the while. The economy of cupola practice is 
 largely dependent on keeping the surface of the metal 
 free from slag. 
 
 Charges of metal of different kinds are melted in the 
 
CUPOLAS AND BLAST. 
 
 155 
 
 cupola at the same time, by interposing [between each 
 charge a stratum of coke rather thicker than those used 
 in the ordinary work of melting. The charge which is 
 lowermost is then tapped out, as the charge above begins 
 to melt, and the furnaceman is able to see the beginning- 
 of the melting of an upper charge at the sight holes 
 H\ H'. 
 
 Large quantities of metal are tapped out in detail, a 
 ton or a couple of tons at a time, until sufficient has 
 accumulated in the ladle. Metal in the ladle will retain 
 its heat for a very long time if radiation is prevented by 
 sprinkling the surface with the blowings from a smith's 
 forge, and by allowing the oxide and scum to remain 
 thereon. 
 
 When the melting down is done, the whole of the fur- 
 nace contents are raked out through the breast hole, or^ 
 if the cupola is of the drop bottom type, like Figs. 99^ 
 100, by dropping the bottom. Under no circumstances 
 can the metal and fuel remain safely in a cupola long 
 after the blast is shut off, since, if it sets, the mass will 
 " bung up " or " gob up " the furnace, forming a " sala- 
 mander," and the furnace lining may probably be de- 
 stroyed in the removal of the obstruction. 
 
 The proper melting of metal is a task requiring a good 
 deal of experience and caution. Economical melting is 
 an excellent thing, but there are other points which have 
 to be regarded besides the statement on paper that a ton 
 of metal has been melted with a certain percentage of fuel. 
 Iron may be melted so dull that poor, if not waster cast- 
 ings result, when a little more fuel would have dead 
 
156 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 melted it thoroughly, producing good, sound, homo- 
 geneous castings. Then the size of the cupola, and the 
 amount of work being done, has to be taken into account. 
 A small cupola is more wasteful in fuel than a large one. 
 A cupola running two or three hours daily is more waste- 
 ful than one running all the day. Inferior iron is more 
 wasteful of fuel than iron of superior quality. Hence 
 general proportions only can be given for percentages 
 of fuel. The total percentage of fuel to iron melted 
 may range economically from \\ cwt. to 4 cwt. per ton, 
 according to circumstances. By total percentage, I in- 
 clude the fuel used in the bed charge. This always bears 
 a large proportion to the total amount used, hence the 
 reason why short meltings are so much more costly than 
 lengthy casts. For a cupola like Fig. 98, 40" diameter, 
 a bed charge, E, of \0\ cwt. is used ; for a similar cupola 
 ;2' 4" in diameter, a bed charge of 6 cwt. is used. But the 
 bed charge will equal about one half the quantity of 
 coke required for a " blow " of moderate length, say of 
 from two to three hours. 
 
 The , succession of charges in the cupolas of the two 
 sizes above-named is as follows : — 4' o" cupola : bed 
 charge 10^ cwt. ; each charge of iron 21 cwt., separated 
 by 2\ cwt. of coke ; ^ cwt. of limestone (flux) in bed charge, 
 and seven or eight pounds on each subsequent charge. 
 2' 4" cupola: 6 cwt. bed charge, each charge of iron 14 cwt, 
 li cwt. of coke in each subsequent charge. The first 
 cupola will melt four tons per hour, the second from 
 two and a half to three tons per hour. But in the 
 first cupola, with heavy casts, twelve tons can be 
 
CUPOLAS AND BLAST. 
 
 157 
 
 melted with twenty-five cwt. of coke, including bed 
 charges. 
 
 In cupolas such as these, doing jobbing work, using 
 different mixtures of iron, making many light casts, and 
 running from two to four hours per day, the conditions 
 for economy of fuel do not exist, and as much as three 
 cwt. of fuel per ton of metal melted will not be an un- 
 reasonable proportion. Where contrary conditions exist, 
 the proportions may be less by nearly one half. 
 
 The chemical conditions which govern economical 
 working are those which relate to the purity of the fuel, 
 and to the complete utilization of the products of com- 
 bustion. The coke should be the best and purest pro- 
 curable, free from sulphur, hard, columnar, heavy, having 
 metallic lustre, and clean. The height of a cupola, the 
 position and number of tuyeres, the density of the 
 blast, all vitally influence the ultimate results. 
 
 Height is necessary, because without it large quantities 
 of combustible gas would escape unburnt and become 
 lost. The process of combustion is as follows : — Air, 
 under pressure, entering the cupola through the tuyeres, 
 meets with the heated fuel. The oxygen in the air com- 
 bines with the incandescent carbon in the fuel, forming 
 carbonic anhydride, C 0<j, a gas which will not burn. 
 This gas takes up more carbon, becoming carbonic oxide, 
 C O, equivalent to C.^ O2, which is combustible. If, how- 
 ever, this gas does not meet with sufficient free oxygen 
 at a high temperature, it cannot burn, but will pass 
 away, representing a certain number of heat units wasted. 
 But if it meets with a sufficiency of heated oxygen higher 
 
Fin. 99.— Stewart's Patent "Rapid" Cupola. 
 
CUPOLAS AND BLAST. 
 
 159 
 
 up in the furnace, it burns, giving out heat available for 
 combustion. Hence the reason why the taller cupolas 
 are more economical than the lower ones. Flame at, 
 and above the charging door represents heat lost, as far 
 as useful work is concerned. Hence also the reason why 
 two or three rows of tuyeres, to supply the zones of oxygen 
 necessary for combustion, have been adopted in nearly 
 all cupolas which have been designed to supersede the 
 older forms, a mode of construction which is therefore 
 seen to be quite correct in principle. 
 
 The most recent, and, as I think, the best embodiment 
 of this principle, is Stewart's patent " Rapid " cupola, two 
 figures of which are shown (Figs. 99, 100). In this there 
 are three zones of tuyeres enclosed by an air belt A, and 
 each zone of tuyeres can be opened and closed indepen- 
 dently of the others by means of shut-off valves. The 
 air belt, the zones of tuyeres, and the boshes or sloping 
 sides, are, however, of older date than this particular ex- 
 ample. Ireland's cupolas, much used a few years since, 
 were very tall, and were provided with boshes or sloping 
 sides similarly to blast furnaces, by which the weight of 
 the charge was sustained. They, or at least the earlier 
 ones, had two rows of tuyeres, but the upper row was 
 abandoned in later structures. Voison's cupolas were 
 made also with air belts and with two rows of tuyeres. 
 Numbers of common cupolas, both in this country and in 
 America, have the same arrangement. We may mention 
 also by the way that cupolas have been made with shifting 
 tuyeres, so that in the absence of an air belt the tuyere 
 pipes can be moved to the zone above or below as required. 
 
Fig. icxd. — Section of "Rapid" Cupola. 
 
CUPOLAS AND BLAST. 
 
 i6i 
 
 The other features of the cupola are, a brick-lined 
 receiver for the melted metal, by which means the heat 
 is retained and oxidation prevented, while the blast pres- 
 sure maintains its surface in agitation, conducing to 
 proper mixture and homogeneity. The waste heat there- 
 from is also utilized by passing up a ganister-lined pipe 
 into the cupola, entering just above the air belt. The 
 escape of the waste gases is regulated by a flap door at 
 the side of the hooded top. 
 
 The efficiency of this cupola ranks so high, and it has 
 given such satisfaction where it has been erected (as 
 many as one hundred and eighty have been sold in a 
 very short time, and they are still being sent to all parts 
 of the world), that it merits a somewhat extended notice. 
 The fact that in blows of ordinary length it is capable of 
 melting one ton of iron with from one, to one and a quarter 
 hundredweight of coke, speaks volumes to foundrymen. 
 In the Appendix, p. 194, will be found an account of 
 detailed tests to which the " Rapid " cupola has been 
 subjected, which are well worth studying and comparing 
 with the performances of common cupolas. A table of 
 melting capacities and suitable sizes of blowers is also 
 included, p. 196. 
 
 In Britain, fuel is cheap, and that, taken in conjunction 
 with our somewhat conservative habits, no doubt goes 
 far to account for the fact that the older and more 
 wasteful cupolas retain their place so tenaciously in our 
 foundries. It is a striking fact that these " Rapid " cupolas 
 appear to be appreciated most where fuel is dearest, as 
 in India, Brazil, etc. 
 
 M 
 
i62 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 The proper pressure of blast is a matter of great im- 
 portance. A soft blast will not melt the metal quickly 
 nor thoroughly, and will cause wasteful expenditure of 
 fuel. A sharp blast will blow away the fuel before per- 
 fect combustion ensues. Cupolas of large capacity are 
 often made elliptical in plan instead of circular, to enable 
 the blast to penetrate better to the interior. 
 
 For the production of blast, fans and blowers are em- 
 ployed, by which the air enters the cupola under pressure. 
 There is no virtue in mere pressure as such, but a certain 
 rapidity of combustion is necessary in order to the effi- 
 cient melting of metal. The pressure is not great, seldom 
 more than 12 oz. per square inch, but at such a pressure 
 an enormous volume of air passes through the tuyeres 
 in the course of a minute. Messrs Thwaites, who are 
 specialists in this line, give from 30,000 to 40,000 cubic 
 feet as the volume of air necessary to melt a ton of iron, 
 and from 20,000 to 30,000 cubic feet as that necessary 
 to consume one hundredweight of coke. The volume 
 of air is necessarily large, since, of the oxygen, much is 
 lost through imperfect combustion, and the nitrogen is 
 inert. 
 
 The difference between a fan and a blower is, that the 
 fan acts by inducing a current of air, the blower produces 
 a positive pressure. The fan therefore has to revolve at 
 a very high rate of speed, causing an attendant train of 
 evils inseparable from high speeds ; the blower need 
 only revolve at a very moderate rate. The pressure and 
 volume are under greater control with a blower than with 
 a fan. 
 
CUPOLAS AND BLAST. 
 
 163 
 
 The common fan is so well known that I need not 
 illustrate it It consists of an outer casing, cast in halves, 
 and bolted together. Within it revolve the blades, or 
 vanes, upon a spindle which runs in long bearings, and 
 which is driven by belt pulleys. The revolution of the 
 vanes produces a partial vacuum within the casing, into 
 which air rushes from openings at the sides of the casing, 
 gathering momentum, like a falling body, with increase of 
 speed, and is forced out through the nozzle of the casing 
 into the blast main. 
 
 In the blower. Figs. loi, 102, the air which enters the 
 casing (from above in the figures) is forced forward 
 under constant pressure by the revolving pistons or 
 wafters into the outlet below, which communicates with 
 the blast main. These wafters are of cast iron, shaped 
 to templet, and fit so accurately into each other, and 
 to the bored casing, that the thickness of a sheet of 
 paper alone preserves them from actual contact. Being 
 lubricated with a very thin coating of red oxide paint, 
 they run, though practically air-tight, with the very 
 minimum of friction. A table of the performances and 
 other particulars of these blowers has been kindly fur- 
 nished by the makers, Messrs. Thwaites Brothers, of 
 Bradford, and is given in the Appendix, p. 196. 
 
 The attempt has been made to employ a jet of steam 
 to induce the blast current. This was the peculiarity of 
 Woodward's cupola. 
 
 In Herbertz's cupola also the blast is induced by an 
 exhausting jet of steam. The jet operates in a flue near 
 the charging door, and the blast enters through an 
 
CUPOLAS AND BLAST. 165 
 
 annular opening immediately above the hearth. The 
 width of this opening is capable of adjustment by 
 means of screws for the production of a cutting or of a 
 soft blast. 
 
 For the pouring of metal into moulds, ladles of various 
 
 Fig. 102.— Section of Blower. 
 
 kinds are employed. The ordinary forms are shown in 
 the accompanying illustrations, Figs. 103-106. Fig. 103 is 
 a hand ladle holding a half hundredweight only. It is 
 used for very light casts, and for supplying feeder heads 
 with hot metal. Fig. 104 shows the double handled ladle, 
 
CUPOLAS AND BLAST. 
 
 made in capacities ranging from one to about four hun- 
 dredweights ; two, three, or four men carry these ladles, 
 according to the weight. Thus there may be one, or two 
 men at the cross handle ; and one, or two at the straight 
 shank. When made for two, the end of the shank is 
 turned down, and is supported on a cross bar, each end 
 of which is held by a labourer. Fig. 105 is a heavier, or 
 
 Fig. 105. — Crane Ladle. 
 
 crane ladle, and may range from ten hundredweights to 
 a ton in capacity. It is slung in the crane hook ; the catch 
 seen on the right prevents the ladle from becoming acciden- 
 tally up-tipped, and, when thrown back, a man standing 
 at the cross handle turns the metal into the mould. The 
 heaviest ladles are of the type shown in Fig. 106. These 
 are " geared ladles," and may range from one to twelve 
 tons in capacity. The geared ladle was the invention of 
 
i68 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 Mr. Nasmyth, and a graphic illustration of the contrast 
 between it and the old ungeared form is given in his 
 admirable autobiography/ The ladle in Fig. io6 is double 
 geared, having mitre wheels in addition to the worm 
 gear. Many ladles have the latter only. A weight of 
 
 Fig. io6. — Geared Ladle. 
 
 several tons is tipped easily and steadily into the mould 
 by means of these geared ladles. 
 
 These ladles are, except Fig. 103, which is of cast iron, 
 made of wrought iron plate rivetted together. The 
 
 V "James Nasmyth. An Autobiography," pp. 209, 210. 
 
CUPOLAS AND BLAST. 169 
 
 inside is daubed every morning before casting, with fire- 
 clay, or loamy sand, and blackwashed. This lining is 
 
 Fig. 107. — Goodwin and How's Patent Ladle. 
 
 dried, in the case of the smaller ladles, over a coke fire, 
 in the larger ones by lighting a fire of wood within them. 
 
PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 After casting, the skulls are chipped out with a hand 
 hammer. 
 
 When metal is poured from a ladle, a boy holds a 
 rectangular bar of iron across the mouth, to bay back 
 the scoriae which floats on the surface, so preventing it 
 from entering the mould, to the detriment of the casting. 
 The method is necessarily an unsatisfactory one, but few 
 attempts have been made to remedy it. Recently two 
 forms of ladles have been patented, having a bridge or 
 bar dividing the spout from the body; Craven and 
 Chapman are the patentees of one ; the other, Goodwin 
 and How's patent, is here illustrated, Figs. 107, 108. 
 From these it is seen that the body of the ladle is 
 pear-shaped, the shell being extended on one side to 
 form an external spout, which is separated from the 
 body by a removable skimmer or dividing plate, pro- 
 jecting above the top of the shell, and descending to the 
 required distance from the bottom. It is held in posi- 
 tion by eyes, pins, and cotters at the top, and by finger 
 plates at the bottom. The skimmer plate is readily 
 removable for repairs. The principle of taking the metal 
 from the bottom is an excellent one, and has long been 
 adopted in the steel casting ladles, fitted with a goose 
 neck and plug. 
 
 The cranes used in foundries are of three kinds — post 
 cranes, which slew completely round ; wall cranes, which 
 slew within a limited range ; and overhead travelling 
 cranes, the range of whose travel covers the whole of the 
 floor area of the shop. The post cranes are very useful 
 when the shop is of moderate size and of quadrangular 
 
CUPOLAS AND BLAST. 171 
 
 form. The framework, triangular in outline, may be 
 constructed either of wrought iron or of wood. The 
 
 Fig. 108. — Section of Patent Ladle. 
 
 post is pivoted in a toe step in the ground, and in a 
 socket attached to cross timbers in the roof trusses. 
 
172 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 There is provision for lifting by single and double gear, 
 and for racking inwards and outwards ; the latter provi- 
 sion being quite essential for the precise adjustment of 
 the ladles in relation to the moulds, which are arranged 
 about on the floor. The power of cranes such as these 
 may range from three to fifteen tons. 
 
 The wall cranes are necessarily of light construction, 
 ranging between powers of one and two tons only. The 
 framework consists of horizontal jib, and ties only, made 
 in wrought iron. The hoisting gearing is attached to a 
 bracket which is bolted to the wall, independently of 
 the main framework. A racking carriage travels on the 
 horizontal jib, and is worked by means of an endless rope 
 depending from a spider wheel above. These are used 
 for turning over and lifting the light moulds, and smaller 
 ladles, and if ranged in series, each within range of the 
 radius of its fellow, ladles can be passed down the shop 
 rapidly, being transferred from crane to crane with 
 changing hooks. 
 
 But the overhead traveller form, has the best arrange- 
 ment for all except the smallest shops. The traveller 
 moves along the gantry beams which are supported on 
 the stone abutments of the walls, and the crab has a 
 transverse motion across the traveller beams. The whole 
 area of the floor can thus be covered at will. Travellers 
 when of small size are worked by hand from below with 
 endless ropes, those of larger size by a man stationed on 
 the crab above. The heaviest travellers are actuated by 
 steam, either from a pair of engines affixed to the crab, 
 or preferably from independent engines, motion being 
 
CUPOLAS AND BLAST. 
 
 173 
 
 transmitted therefrom through the medium of fly-ropes 
 of hemp or cotton ; the latter type is that in most favour, 
 and appears to be rapidly superseding the older types of 
 hoisting machines in shops for which rope transmission 
 is suitable. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 IRON, ETC. 
 
 Cast iron owes its value as a material of construction to 
 the fact that it is not pure metal. If it were pure, it 
 would be useless for the purposes to which it is now 
 applied. Pure iron cannot be melted to fluidity, neither 
 when cold is it rigid nor hard, but ductile and soft in 
 comparison with commercial iron. Cast iron does not 
 contain more than 93 or 94 parts of pure metal in the 
 100, the remaining 6 or 7 consisting of carbon, silicon, 
 phosphorus, sulphur, and manganese, with occasional 
 percentages of arsenic, titanium, and chromium. 
 
 The element which more than any other influences the 
 character of cast iron, is carbon, and this occurs in allo- 
 tropic forms, either as graphite or plumbago, in a state of 
 mechanical admixture, forming grey iron ; or as com- 
 bined or dissolved carbon, producing white iron. In 
 most, if not all commercial irons, the carbon occurs in 
 both forms. The proportion of combined carbon is 
 never more than a mere trace in the first, while the 
 second is almost destitute of graphitic carbon. The 
 mottled varieties of iron occupy a position midway be- 
 
IRON, ETC. 
 
 175 
 
 tween the grey and white, and are to be regarded as 
 mixtures of the two kinds, the mottle being more pro- 
 nounced as the proportion of white increases. Here, too, 
 the proportions of combined and graphitic carbon be- 
 come nearly equalized. Grey iron is the most fluid, but 
 is the weakest. White iron runs pasty, and is strong, 
 but brittle. Mottled iron melts very well, and is both 
 strong and tough. 
 
 Iron is strong, and adapted for general engineers' work 
 in proportion to its amount of mottle, highly mottled 
 iron being correspondingly prized by foundrymen. 
 
 There are several varieties of pig supplied by the iron- 
 masters, ranging from the No, i Clyde, which is the 
 greyest iron, to the forge pigs, which are white irons. 
 (See Appendix, p. 199.) Hence it is possible to obtain 
 pigs suited to almost any class of work, being either used 
 alone, or by intermixture. In foundries where the same 
 class of castings is being constantly turned out, this is 
 what is done ; but in general foundries, where all kinds of 
 castings are required in grey, white, and mottled iron, in 
 all their grades, usually three or four kinds of pig only are 
 kept in stock, and the numerous grades of metal required 
 from day to day, or during the same day, are prepared 
 by admixture of pig with scrap. It is in these mixtures 
 that the skill of the practical foreman or furnaceman is 
 seen, skill which comes only after long experience. 
 There are many moulders who would not know how to 
 mix metals to produce definite grades, and no rules can 
 be laid down for this work except those of a somewhat 
 general character. Thus it is easy, having ascertained 
 
176 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 the metal which results from the mixture of certain pigs 
 in certain definite proportions, to repeat the operation 
 as often as required, since a grade of pig of a given brand 
 is fairly though not absolutely constant in character. 
 But when scrap is used, the quality of each separate 
 piece of scrap has to be estimated by its behaviour under 
 the sledge, and by the eye. The use of scrap, if pur- 
 chased judiciously, and mixed by a competent man, is 
 more economical than that of pig, and there is therefore 
 advantage in its employment. Every furnaceman and 
 foreman should therefore learn to judge of the quality of 
 scrap and pig, and the effect of their intermixture. After- 
 wards he may test the results experimentally at the 
 testing machine ; but he must know how to mix, or the 
 testing machine will only record failures. 
 
 I will briefly note the most characteristic features of 
 the typical varieties of iron, but they must be studied in 
 a practical manner in the founder's yard. 
 
 G-rey iron on being struck with a sledge fractures easily, 
 and presents a highly crystalline structure, with a some- 
 what dull bluish grey metallic lustre. If very dull, the 
 metal is inferior, and poor in quality. 
 
 Iron follows the same law of crystallization as other 
 substances. The slower the rate of cooling the larger 
 the crystals produced. If a newly fractured surface 
 of grey iron is shaded by the hand, and so viewed 
 with reflected light only, the crystals of graphite become 
 visible, appearing as black lustrous patches amongst 
 the iron. If a portion of the iron is crushed and 
 levigated, the graphite will float on the surface of the 
 
IRON, ETC. 
 
 177 
 
 water. When the metal is molten it lies quietly in the 
 ladle, breaking into large striations, without sparks or 
 disturbance. After standing awhile it becomes covered 
 with scum, composed of scales of graphite which have 
 separated and floated to the surface. When cast, it runs 
 fluid, and takes the sharpest impressions of the mould, 
 being thus adapted for the finest castings. It is only 
 moderately contractile. At the testing machine it breaks 
 with a very moderate load, undergoing however a con- 
 siderable amount of deflection first. 
 
 Now, if we take white iron, whether in the form of pig 
 or of scrap, and fracture it, we find that it requires more 
 force than the grey to effect fracture, but that it breaks 
 very short and clean. An inspection of the fractured 
 surface reveals a highly crystalline structure, but the 
 crystals are long, fine, and needle-like in character, and 
 of a bright, almost silvery-like lustre : no scales of 
 graphite can be detected. The melted metal when in 
 the ladle, though thick and somewhat viscous by com- 
 parison with grey iron, is in a state of violent ebullition ; 
 boiling, bubbling, and throwing ofl" a quantity of sparks 
 or jumpers. It does not run well except in considerable 
 mass, and is highly contractile. Unlike the grey iron, it 
 cannot be shaped with the chisel and file. At the testing 
 machine it sustains a greater load before fracture than 
 grey iron, but breaks with less deflection. 
 
 The mottled iron being a mixture of grey and white, we 
 find that it partakes more or less of the characteristics 
 of each, and is therefore better adapted for most castings 
 than either of those alone. Considerable force is required 
 
 N 
 
178 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 to fracture a good sample of mottled iron, and when the 
 broken surface is examined it presents that pecuhar 
 mottled appearance from which it derives its name. The 
 crystals are of the same form as those in grey iron, but 
 smaller, and the dull bluish lustre of that is replaced by 
 a more silvery hue. The colour alternates, being patchy, 
 the white contrasting with the graphitic scales still 
 present. It melts and runs well, is tolerably quiet in 
 the ladle, is moderately contractile, takes a high strain 
 and a good deflection at the machine. 
 
 Now there are several grades both of grey, mottled, 
 and white irons, and the skill of the furnaceman consists 
 in judging of the minute differences in these and utilizing 
 them accordingly. 
 
 There is a kind of iron often found along with scrap, 
 and hated by furnacemen, known as burnt iron. It is 
 iron which, having been long subjected to an intense 
 heat below the melting point, has lost much of its 
 metallic character, being largely in the condition of 
 oxide. It is of an earthy red colour, and is found in 
 scrap containing old fire bars, sugar and soap pans, 
 retorts, and furnace grates. In the furnace it does not 
 melt freely, but becomes viscous or pasty, and chokes 
 the tuyeres and the fuel. In a furnace using much of 
 this, the slagging hole has to be kept open during nearly 
 all the time of melting, and much of the iron mixes with 
 and runs away to waste with the slag. It damages the 
 furnace lining, and when poured runs abominably thick, 
 and produces almost white, but rotten castings. Burnt 
 iron can only be properly utilized by admixture in slight 
 proportions with good open grey pig. 
 
IRON, ETC. 
 
 179 
 
 Repeated re-melting of grey iron tends to increased 
 strength, at the sacrifice of toughness and elasticity ; the 
 re-melted metal approaching to the white condition. 
 Hence, after two or three re-meltings, more open pig 
 should be added to preserve the toughness of the metal. 
 
 It is by admixture therefore that all the qualities of 
 cast iron for foundry service can be obtained, and it is 
 true economy for a founder to keep a good stock of scrap 
 and pig for use for his varied day to day requirements. 
 
 The difference in the qualities of these mixtures is, 
 as we have stated, due largely to the amount and manner 
 of occurrence of carbon. In reference to the remaining 
 constituents of commercial pig, and the question of their 
 relative influences upon the metal, we will not enter ex- 
 haustively. Such matters concern the chemist, the metal- 
 lurgist, and iron smelter, rather than the founder, who 
 can exercise no control over them. If they are in his 
 pig he cannot eliminate them, and can scarcely, if at all, 
 modify their effects by admixture. It will be sufficient 
 for our purpose therefore to note very briefly the leading 
 facts which it is convenient that the founder should be 
 aware of in relation to these, and then pass on to the 
 tests applied to cast work. 
 
 Silicon is one of the most enigmatical substances 
 found associated with cast iron. Formerly silicon was 
 regarded as an enemy, producing brittle and poor 
 metal. Now, M. Gautier, and Messrs. Stead, Turner, 
 and Wood, recognize in it a friend; for by mixing 
 ■certain proportions of silicon with white and burnt iron 
 they are able to convert it into grey, the silicon throwing 
 
i8o PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 down carbon from the combined to the graphitic con- 
 dition. 
 
 Phosphorus is always present in pig, and does no 
 harm so long as it does not exceed 0'5 or 075 per 
 cent. ; a higher proportion tends to brittleness. Phos- 
 phorus however renders iron fluid, and this is an ad- 
 vantage for small castings, but at the same time it 
 renders them hard. 
 
 Sulphur in small quantity produces mottled iron, separa- 
 ting carbon as graphite, but in excess it causes the iron 
 to become white. 
 
 Manganese is undesirable, producing a weak and white 
 iron. 
 
 There is no question that the period of empirical 
 mixing and judging of cast iron will come to a close in 
 the immediate future. The researches of Messrs. Stead,, 
 Turner, Gautier, and Keep, are fraught with vital interest 
 to the ironfounder, and at least for special classes of 
 work, if not for the average run of castings, it is all but 
 certain that results the most precise will be shortly 
 attainable. A few remarks on certain recent develop- 
 ments and researches must close this section upon iron. 
 
 In a paper read before the 1888 August meeting of 
 the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 
 Mr. Keep, of Detroit, Michigan, detailed the results of 
 numerous experiments undertaken with a view to deter- 
 mine the precise influence of aluminium upon iron, ex- 
 periments which, taken in conjunction with the known 
 extreme carefulness of the tests applied and the recent 
 adoption on a large scale of the Castnar and Cowles 
 
IRON, ETC. i8i 
 
 processes for the production of pure aluminium and its 
 alloys, appear to be fraught with much promise. 
 
 It has long been known that a very small percentage 
 of aluminium, so little indeed as -oi per cent, suffices to 
 render molten wrought iron very fluid, and to prevent 
 blow holes in steel castings. It is equally beneficial in 
 cast iron, in what precise way is not certainly known, 
 but probably it operates much like silicon, by causing 
 the comparatively inert carbon to assume the graphitic 
 form. 
 
 Mr. Keep experimented on this subject to determine 
 the various points by which founders estimate the value 
 of an iron. Thus, using white iron as a base, an addition 
 of '01 per cent, of aluminium increased the strength to 
 resist a dead weight by 44 per cent., and to resist impact 
 by 6 per cent, and he proved that the aluminium remains 
 in the metal, and exerts its influence in subsequent casts. 
 Mr. Keep considers that the capacity to resist impact 
 is a better test of the quality of an iron than the capacity 
 to resist dead weight, and he states that with certain 
 percentages of aluminium the first result can be at- 
 tained. 
 
 Aluminium causes iron at the instant of solidifying 
 to throw out a portion of its combined carbon into the 
 graphitic condition, producing grey iron. The formation 
 of the graphite is also so uniform that the thin portions 
 of the castings are as grey as the thicker portions. In 
 this respect it resembles silicon. Since the aluminium 
 sets free the carbon at the instant of solidification there 
 is less tendency to chill, which result is caused by the 
 
1 82 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 running of metal against a cold surface, and the conse- 
 quent imprisonment of combined carbon before it has 
 time to separate as graphite. 
 
 When aluminium causes the separation of the carbon 
 at the instant of solidification, the scales of graphite at 
 the surface of the casting act similarly to blackening, 
 protecting the surface from becoming sand-burnt, and 
 therefore producing a softer skin for cutting tools. 
 
 The presence of aluminium, by making the grain closer 
 and finer, gives greater elasticity, and reduces the per- 
 manent set. 
 
 The shrinkage of iron is lessened by the use of alumi- 
 nium. This might naturally be expected, knowing, as 
 we do, that grey iron is much less contractile than white. 
 It is a distinct advantage, as lessening shrinkage strains 
 on disproportionate castings. 
 
 The question of fluidity is scarcely settled. Using 
 white iron, the fluidity of the metal was increased by the 
 addition of aluminium ; using grey, it was diminished. 
 The use of aluminium therefore permits fine castings to 
 be made with white iron, which without such addition 
 could not possibly be made. 
 
 It is at the testing machine that the precise value of 
 any mixture of metal made is ascertained, and no foundry 
 of any pretensions can afford to be without such an 
 instrument. Testing, in the hands of such men as Pro- 
 fessors Unwin or Thurston, has become a scientific work, 
 in comparison with which that of the foundry is rough 
 and approximate only. But this is nevertheless suffi- 
 ciently accurate and adequate for its purpose. 
 
IRON, ETC. 
 
 183 
 
 The common method of testing is to cast bars having 
 a section of 2" x i ", and a length of 3' 2". These are placed 
 upon supports 3' o" apart, the 2" being in the vertical 
 direction, and loaded until they fracture. Fracture in a 
 good bar should not take place with a less load than 30 
 cwt., in exceptional instances it goes as high as 33 or 35 
 cwt. ; 25 to 28 cwt would indicate a poor bar. The amount 
 of deflection is also noted, as being a measure of the elas- 
 ticity of the metal. It should not be less than and will 
 in good bars be as high as i"- The behaviour of bars cast 
 from the same ladleful of metal in the same set of moulds 
 will often be found to vary, fracture variously occurring 
 within a range of 2 or 3 cwts. ; hence it is the practice to 
 cast several bars for testing, and take the average of the 
 whole. Test bars should be cast from the same metal, 
 under the same conditions of melting, as the work for 
 which they afiford the test, and should be stamped or 
 labelled with the date, and all particulars deemed of 
 service. Test bars should be cast in the same manner 
 as the work of whose strength they are to be the index, 
 in dry sand if the work is in dry sand, in green sand 
 if that is in green. The relative strength of test 
 bars will be affected by difference in dimensions, a 
 bar of small area being relatively stronger than one of 
 larger area, the reason being that the chilling effect of 
 the sand hardens the outer skin, and so raises slightly 
 its tensile strength. That which is regarded as the 
 standard bar is i" square and i' long. This sustains 
 about one ton before fracture. Pounds weight on this bar 
 divided by 84 give hundredweights on the 36" + 2" + i" 
 
i84 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 bar ; and hundredweights on the latter multiplied by 84 
 give pounds on the former. 
 
 French ironfounders employ a falling test. The test 
 bar is 40 mm. square (1-57") and 250 mm. long (9-84"), 
 and is supported on knife edges 160 mm. apart (6-29"). 
 A weight of 12 kilos (26-44 lbs.), having its lower end 
 bevelled, and terminating in a narrow blunt ridge, is 
 allowed to fall upon it, its fall being controlled by vertical 
 guides. Such bars, of good average foundry quality, 
 fracture under the impact of a blow delivered from a 
 height of 65 to 75 centimetres, the distance being measured 
 from the top of the weight. 70 cm. (27-5") fall indicates 
 a good bar. 
 
 Fig. 109 illustrates a bar tester manufactured by Messrs. 
 W. and H. Bailey, of Salford, Manchester. This patent 
 Transverse Tester is a valuable adjunct to the offices 
 of iron works, etc. Its easy manipulation, and the ra- 
 pidity with which it can be worked, have made it exceed- 
 ingly popular, and it is now used by many large firms. 
 Very often there is a total absence of information among 
 ironfounders as to the qualities of the cast iron they use. 
 This enables experiments to be made without trouble, 
 and will be found a ready means for accurately ascer- 
 taining the value of different mixtures. There are 
 two sizes of this Tester made, one for bars 3' long 
 X i" square, and the other for bars 3' long x 2" deep 
 X i" thick. This Tester is also made with or with- 
 out the self-registering weight and lever. It will be 
 observed on looking at the illustration that there is a 
 rack on the lever. A milled head on one of the hands 
 
IRON, ETC. 
 
 185 
 
 can be turned round with ease ; this propels the weight 
 along the lever. When the material breaks the dials 
 indicate the pounds weight. It will be noted that the 
 experimentalist, by having both his hands at work, one 
 taking up the strain and the other propelling the indi- 
 
 Fig. log. — Bar Tkstkk. 
 
 eating weight, can thereby obtain exact results quicker 
 than by any system with loose weight. 
 
 The tests employed by Mr. Keep, of Detroit, Michigan, 
 are far more elaborate and definite than any commonly 
 employed in this country. The test bars proper are ^" 
 
PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 square and I2f" long. They are tested both by a gradual 
 load, and by impact. A "fluid strip" i" wide 2.x\6.-^%~'m 
 thickness is cast and run to test the fluidity of the iron. 
 A " crook strip," that is, one having a rib along one side, 
 is also cast to test the amount of the tendency of the iron 
 to curve. The nicest wedge measurements are employed 
 to learn the amount of shrinkage and curving. The 
 amounts of deflection of the test bars under impact are 
 also recorded upon a sheet of paper. 
 
 It is necessary for the moulder to be able to estimate 
 the probable weight of a casting from the dimensions of 
 the pattern or the mould, in order to know how much 
 metal to melt down and tap into the several ladles. It 
 sometimes happens that a careless moulder will make a 
 waster casting simply through not having enough metal 
 in the ladle to fill the mould. This is quite inexcusable. 
 Calculation need not be very exact, because there is always 
 a considerable margin allowed for runners and risers, so 
 that if a calculation is made within several pounds in 
 light work, and even hundredweights in heavy work, it 
 is sufficient for the purpose of the moulder. 
 
 The estimation of the number of cubic inches or of 
 cubic feet in a mould is the necessary basis of calcula- 
 tion, a cubic inch or foot of average cast iron weighs a cer- 
 tain amount, and the total cubical contents multiplied by 
 this unit weight gives at once the weight of the casting. 
 Mensuration therefore is wanted, but only of a very 
 simple character. 
 
 Some of the principal rules of mensuration are summa- 
 rized in the Appendix, p. 200, for convenience of reference. 
 It is very often the case that the forms of castings are 
 
IRON, ETC. 
 
 187 
 
 such that they cannot be referred to any definite mathe- 
 matical figures. Then they must be divided out into 
 the nearest approximate forms — rectangles, triangles, sur- 
 face areas, segments, etc. — and the sum of the several 
 sections added together. Sundry useful tables to facili- 
 tate calculations of this kind are given in the Appendix. 
 
 When iron is poured into metallic moulds instead of 
 into those of sand, the result is that the surface of the 
 casting so poured becomes of a steely character, so ex- 
 tremely hard that no cutting tool will attack it, and more 
 durable, more capable of resisting the action of friction^ 
 than steel itself. It is believed that this chilling, as it is 
 called, takes place in consequence of the combined 
 carbon in the iron not having time to separate out as 
 graphite. Poor irons will not chill deeply. To produce 
 chilling of i" or i" in depth, the metal must be tough, 
 strong, mottled. A strong iron is also necessary, because 
 there is tremendous stress in a chilled casting, owing to 
 the inequality in the shrinkage strains in the con- 
 tiguous portions, which are rapidly and slowly cooled. 
 
 The iron for chilling should not be poured very hot, 
 but dull, it will then lay more quietly in the mould. The 
 chill should also be heated in the stove to so high a 
 temperature that it cannot be touched with the hands. 
 To pour metal into a cold chill is always dangerous. The 
 surface of the chill is protected with a coat of black 
 wash or other refractory material. In no case should 
 the metal be allowed to beat long against a locaHzed 
 spot, as burning of the chill and partial fusion of the 
 same to the molten metal is certain to ensue. The mass 
 of metal in a chill should be large. The chill should 
 
PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 always be much heavier than the casting which has to 
 be poured into it : without sufficient mass, fracture 
 is almost certain to occur. 
 
 Burning on signifies the mending of fractured castings, 
 or imperfect castings due to incomplete running, by a 
 process of autogenous soldering of metal to metal. It is 
 simply this, that sufficient molten metal is poured over the 
 surface against which the union has to be effected until 
 local fusion has taken place. Then the pouring is 
 stopped, and the casting is afterwards as strong there as 
 elsewhere. The danger is lest the local increase in tem- 
 perature should cause fracture of the casting to occur in 
 the vicinity. 
 
 Before commencing to burn on, the casting is heated 
 in the drying stove, brought out, imbedded in the floor, 
 and the particular locality where the fusion is to take 
 place is heated with red-hot weights placed in proximity 
 thereto. This is done to diminish risk of fracture. Sand 
 or loam cake is built up around the spot where the new 
 portion has to be burned on, and is shaped into the par- 
 ticular putline required. A gutter or channel is cut lead- 
 ing away from this. The molten metal is now poured 
 gently and slowly over the fractured surface, and allowed 
 to run away through the gutter. The heat of the metal 
 soon produces fusion of the surface, and as soon as the 
 moulder learns by trial with the end of a rod that fusion 
 has taken place, he ceases pouring. To burn on only a 
 few pounds of metal several hundredweights have to be 
 run over the surface into the gutter. This is broken up 
 afterwards. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Table I. 
 
 Sand Mixtures. 
 These mixtures, as stated in Chapter II., p. 9, are 
 given as typical and illustrative only of the manner in 
 which moulding materials are prepared to suit the ever- 
 varying requirements of the foundry. Only from this 
 point of view are they to be regarded as of value. 
 
 Two mixtures of strong sand from the Manchester 
 district are : — 
 
 (1) 2 barrows of red sand. 
 2 „ road „ 
 
 2 riddles of horse-dung. 
 5 buckets of coal-dust. 
 
 (2) 2 barrows of red sand. 
 
 4 „ ground road sand. 
 
 5 sieves of coal-dust. 
 
 I „ black sand. 
 
 1 „ loam. 
 
 Jobbing or common sand : — 
 
 4 barrows of red sand. 
 
 2 „ ground road sand. 
 2 „ black sand. 
 
 6 sieves of coal-dust. 
 
I90 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 For small work : — 
 
 3 riddles of red sand. 
 
 3 „ road „ 
 
 3 „ fine yellow sand. 
 
 3 buckets of fine coal-dust. 
 For fine wheels : — 
 
 3 riddles of red sand. 
 
 3 „ fine yellow sand. 
 
 2 buckets of fine coal-dust. 
 In the West of England. Strong sand : — 
 
 2 barrows of Seend sand. 
 
 1 „ Devizes sand. 
 
 2 „ loam. 
 
 5 buckets of coal-dust. 
 
 2 sieves of horse-dung. 
 Sand for light w^ork : — 
 
 5 barrows of black sand. 
 5 „ Seend „ 
 
 3 buckets of coal-dust. 
 
 Loam : — 
 
 I barrow of black sand 
 \\ „ Seend „ 
 \ „ Devizes sand. 
 1 8 shovels of dung. 
 
 The above mixture with /talf the amount of dung 
 makes a good core sand. 
 
 The core sand used at Banbury is composed of equal 
 parts of burnt sand and a porous red sand obtained in 
 the vicinity of Birmingham. The dry sand is composed 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 191 
 
 of the core sand ground in a mill and thickened with 
 clay-wash. The red sand is largely used in Birmingham 
 and Manchester, and, like the Worcester sand, which it 
 resembles, is very free and open, being largely self- 
 venting. 
 
 In the Bradford district (Yorkshire) a red sand from 
 the Doncaster district is employed for general jobbing 
 work ; it is fairly open. 
 
 " Winmoor," a very open gritty sand, is used for strong 
 green sand moulds. 
 
 A yellow sand from Kippax is used for cores and for 
 dry sand work. 
 
 For loam : Doncaster or Kippax sand is ground with 
 clay-wash, and horse-dung or cow-hair added. 
 
 Mansfield sand (Nottinghamshire) is used for fine 
 work ; it is a close sand. This is also u.sed in the 
 Eastern Counties. A little old sand is mixed with the 
 above, according to the class of work. 
 
 The following are from foundries in Bradford : — 
 
 (1) Ordinary green sand is composed either of Ponte- 
 fract, Doncaster, or Snaith sand, mixed with 50 per cent, 
 of old sand, and i part of coal-dust to 8 or 10 of sand, 
 according to weight of casting. 
 
 (2) Fine green sand for small moulds and teeth of 
 wheels is composed of Mansfield sand, with from 25 to 
 50 per cent, of old sand, and i part of coal-dust to 1 5 of 
 sand. 
 
 (3) For cores : Pontefract, Doncaster, and Snaith sands 
 are used, provided they are free from clay. 
 
 (4) For large cores : dried loam pounded, and horse- 
 
PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 dung dried and sieved, are mixed with the above sands in 
 various proportions. 
 
 (5) Dry sand : for facing — dried loam pounded, and 
 brought to consistence of green sand ; for box filling — 
 old and new sand mixed, and weak clay-wash added. 
 
 From another firm I have — 
 
 (1) For common green sand: yellow sand from 
 Kippax, and red sand from Snaith and Doncaster, each 
 mixed with old sand in different proportions, according 
 to the quality of the work. 
 
 (2) For fine wheels: Mansfield sand. 
 
 (3) Strong sand is prepared from Buttershaw sand 
 mixed with old sand, and coal-dust in varying propor- 
 tions. 
 
 (4) Cores : red sand, or yellow sand, mixed with a 
 little clay and old sand. 
 
 From a Leeds firm : — 
 
 (1) Common green sand: two-thirds of old sand to 
 one-third of new yellow sand ; coal-dust to suit work. 
 
 (2) Strong sand : one-half old sand, one-quarter yel- 
 low, and a quarter red ; coal-dust in varying proportions. 
 
 (3) Core sand : two-thirds yellow sand, and one-third 
 dung. 
 
 In the London district Erith sand is largely used ; in 
 Scotland, Belfast and Falkirk sands ; each district and 
 each shop having its own special mixtures ; but the fore- 
 going will suffice to illustrate the method of mixing. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 '93 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 PARTICULARS OF STEWARTS PATENT 
 "RAPID" CUPOLAS. 
 
 No. of 
 Cupola. 
 
 Diameter 
 of Shell. 
 
 Total 
 Height 
 from 
 Ground. 
 
 To Melt 
 
 Tons 
 per hour. 
 
 Approximate 
 Weight 
 complete with 
 Receiver. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Size of 
 Blower 
 Required. 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 No. 
 
 i. 
 
 I 9 
 
 13 
 
 \ 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 2a 
 
 4 
 
 2 O 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 32 
 
 2^ 
 
 la 
 
 I 
 
 2 4 
 
 i8 
 
 I 
 
 37 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 2 6 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 42 
 
 4i 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 o 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 57 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 6 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 74 
 
 7i 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 4 o 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 97 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 4 6 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 120 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 5 o 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 172 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 lO 
 
 5 6 
 
 28 
 
 lO 
 
 215 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
194 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 TABLE II. — continued. 
 
 CERTIFIED TEST OF STEWART'S PATENT "RAPID" 
 CUPOLA NO. 4, AT MESSRS. RUSHFORTH & CO.'S, 
 ST. JAMES'S FOUNDRY, BRADFORD, 
 JUNE 26, 1885. 
 
 Time of lighting fire 12 30 
 
 Put in coke for bed of cupola i o 
 
 Making up door i 30 
 
 Commenced charging i 2 40 
 
 Filled up cupola ! 3 o 
 
 Commenced blasting | 3 3 
 
 Metal running down j 3 8 
 
 Took away two tons of metal in 
 twenty-six minutes after blast- 
 ing 3 29 
 
 Took away 15 cwt. at 3 38 
 
 ,, 2 tons at 4 7 
 
 „ 2 ,, 5 cwt. at 4 35 
 
 The remainder in hand ladies 
 
 Finished charging | 4 35 
 
 Finished blasting | 5 35 
 
 Fuel used for bed coke 
 
 Fuel used for fusion coke 
 
 Total consumption of fuel 
 
 Amount of iron melted in cupola ... . 
 
 336 
 112 
 112 
 112 
 112 
 112 
 112 
 112 
 112 
 
 1,232 
 
 Charge 
 of Iron 
 in lbs. 
 
 2240 
 2240 
 2240 
 2240 
 2240 
 2240 
 2240 
 2240 
 2240 
 
 20,160 
 
 .. 336 pounds. 
 
 , . 1,232 pounds. 
 20,160 pounds. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 195 
 
 TABLE 11. — continiced. 
 
 NO. 3 "ROOTS" BLOWER. 
 
 Speed of 
 Blower in 
 Revolutions. 
 
 Pressure 
 Water 
 in Inches. 
 
 Time 
 when taken. 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 of Air per 
 Ton of Iron 
 Melted. 
 
 Cubic Feet of Air 
 per Cwt. of Coke 
 consumed. 
 
 377 
 
 18 
 
 y\o 
 
 40,738 
 
 33,331 
 
 385 
 
 34 
 
 3*40 
 
 
 
 391 
 
 28 
 
 4-25 
 
 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 This was a melting of nine tons of iron with 1,232 lbs. of coke, in 
 two hours and thirty-two minutes' time from starting to finishing 
 blasting ; but during the blow, blast was stopped twenty-eight 
 minutes. Total time the blast was on, two hours and four minutes. 
 Blast stopped for thirteen minutes at 4.7, five minutes at 4.35 ,and 
 ten minutes at 4.55 — not being able to take away the metal fast 
 enough. 
 
 One ton charge of iron consisted of 10 cwt. machinery scrap 
 and 10 cwt. of Stanton pig iron. The coke used was in i-cwt. 
 charges, of good quality, Bearpark Brand, supplied by Messrs. 
 Newburn Brothers. 
 
 Note. — 16-36 lbs. of iron to i lb. of coke. 
 
 Note. — Coke used exclusive of bed, 896 lbs. And amount 
 of iron melted, 20,160 lbs. ; or i cwt. of coke per 22^ cwts. of iron. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 197 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 SIZES, WEIGHTS, PROOF STRAINS, AND WORKING 
 LOADS OF SHORT LINK CRANE CHAIN. 
 
 Size of Chain. 
 
 Approximate 
 Weight per 
 Foot in lbs. 
 
 Proof Strain 
 in Cwts. 
 
 Working Load 
 in Cwts. 
 
 3 
 I 
 
 I '33 
 
 3675 
 
 20-0 
 
 
 1-91 
 
 45 "o 
 
 24*0 
 
 I 
 
 ■2. 
 
 2-33 
 
 65-5 
 
 27'0 
 
 9 
 
 3"25 
 
 75-0 
 
 44-0 
 
 
 3-66 
 
 I02"0 
 
 53'o 
 
 
 5'33 
 
 147-0 
 
 80-0 
 
 7 
 
 671 
 
 200'0 
 
 I lO'O 
 
 I 
 
 9"33 
 
 268-0 
 
 140-0 
 
 
 irg 
 
 334'o 
 
 iSo'o 
 
 
 14-5 
 
 408-0 
 
 220'0 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 SIZES, WEIGHTS, WORKING LOADS, AND BREAKING 
 STRENGTHS OF HEMP ROPES. 
 
 Circumference 
 in inches. 
 
 Weight per Fathom 
 in lbs. 
 
 Safe Working 
 Loads in Cwts. 
 
 Breaking 
 Strain in Cwts. 
 
 2^ 
 
 2-0 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 31 
 
 4-0 
 
 12 
 
 80 
 
 41: 
 
 5-0 
 
 18 
 
 120 
 
 f 
 
 7-0 
 
 24 
 
 160 
 
 
 9-0 
 
 30 
 
 200 
 
 
 1 0-0 
 
 36 
 
 240 
 
 7 
 
 12-0 
 
 42 
 
 280 
 
 
 14-0 
 
 48 
 
 320 
 
 16-0 
 
 54 
 
 360 
 
 9k 
 
 22'0 
 
 78 
 
 520 
 
 10 
 
 25-0 
 
 84 
 
 560 
 
198 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 TABLE V. — continued. 
 
 SIZES, WEIGHTS, WORKING LOADS, AND BREAKING 
 STRENGTHS OF ROUND IRON WIRE ROPES. 
 
 Circumference 
 in inches. 
 
 Weight per 
 Fathom in lbs. 
 
 Safe Working 
 Loads in cwts. 
 
 Breaking 
 Strain in cwts. 
 
 I 
 
 I'O 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 I| 
 
 
 9 
 
 60 
 
 I| 
 
 2-5 
 
 15 
 
 100 
 
 2 
 
 3* 50 
 
 21 
 
 140 
 
 
 4-50 
 
 27 
 
 180 
 
 
 5'5o 
 
 33 
 
 220 
 
 2| 
 
 6*50 
 
 39 
 
 260 
 
 3 
 
 7-50 
 
 45 
 
 300 
 
 31 
 
 8-50 
 
 SI 
 
 340 
 
 3i 
 
 lo'so 
 
 60 
 
 400 
 
 3l 
 
 I2"0 
 
 72 
 
 480 
 
 4 
 
 i4'o 
 
 84 
 
 560 
 
 4i 
 
 i8-o 
 
 108 
 
 720 
 
 5 
 
 22'0 
 
 125 
 
 900 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 199 
 
 TABLE V. — contitiued. 
 
 SIZES, WEIGHTS, WORKING LOADS, AND BREAKING 
 STRENGTHS OF ROUND STEEL WIRE ROPES. 
 
 Circumference 
 in inches. 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 ^ 
 
 H 
 
 3i 
 
 31 
 31 
 4 
 
 Weight per 
 Fathom in lbs. 
 
 I'O 
 1-50 
 2'0 
 2*50 
 
 3"5o 
 40 
 
 4- 50 
 
 5- 0 
 
 5- 50 
 
 6- 50 
 8-50 
 5-0 
 
 io"5o 
 
 I2*0 
 
 i4'o 
 
 Safe Working 
 Loads in cwts. 
 
 Breaking 
 Strain in cwts. 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 27 
 33 
 39 
 45 
 SI 
 60 
 72 
 
 84 
 90 
 100 
 
 115 
 126 
 
 60 
 100 
 140 
 180 
 220 
 260 
 300 
 340 
 400 
 480 
 560 
 600 
 720 
 840 
 960 
 
 TABLE VI. 
 AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF PIG IRON. 
 
 Graphitic carbon. 
 Combined carbon 
 
 Silicon 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 Manganese 
 
 Iron 
 
 Grey. ^ 
 
 Mottled. 
 
 3-10 
 
 1-99 
 
 o'o4 
 
 278 
 
 2'l6 
 
 071 
 
 O'l I 
 
 trace 
 
 0-63 
 
 1-23 
 
 0-50 
 
 
 94-56 
 
 93-29 
 
 White. 
 
 2*42 
 
 0*36 
 
 0- 87 
 
 1- oB 
 
 95-27 
 
200 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 TABLE VII. 
 MENSURATION. 
 I. — Areas. 
 
 1. Rectangle or ParaUelogram. Multiply the length by 
 the breadth. 
 
 2. Triangle. Multiply the base by the perpendicular 
 height, and take half the product. 
 
 Or : From half the sum of the three sides subtract 
 each side separately, multiply the half sum and the three 
 remainders together ; the square root of the product will 
 be the area. 
 
 3. Trapezoid. Multiply half the sum of the parallel 
 sides into the perpendicular distance between them. 
 
 4. Quadrilateral. Divide the quadrilateral into two 
 triangles ; the sum of the areas of the triangles is the 
 area. 
 
 5. Irregular Polygon. Divide the polygon into triangles, 
 and trapezoids by drawing diagonals ; find the areas of 
 these as above shown for the area. 
 
 6. Regular Polygon. Multiply the length of a side by 
 the perpendicular height to the centre and by the num- 
 ber of sides, and half the product will be the area. 
 
 7. Circle. Multiply the square of the radius by 
 3-I4I59- 
 
 Or : Multiply the square of the diameter by 7854. 
 
 8. Circular Ring. Find the area of each circle, and 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 20 1 
 
 subtract the area of the inner circle from the area of the 
 outer circle. 
 
 Or : Multiply the sum of the radii by their difference, 
 and the product by 3-14159. 
 
 9. Sector of a Circle. As 360 is to the number of 
 degrees in the angle of the sector, so is the area of the 
 circle to the area of the sector. 
 
 Or : Multiply half the length of the arc of the sector 
 by the radius. 
 
 10. Segment of a Circle. Find the area of the sector 
 which has the same arc, and subtract the area of the 
 triangle formed by the radial sides of the sector and the 
 chord of the arc ; the difference, or the sum of these 
 areas, will be the area of the segment, according as it is 
 less, or greater than a semicircle. 
 
 1 1. Cycloid. Multiply the area of the generating circle 
 by three. 
 
 12. Parabola. Multiply the base by the height; two- 
 thirds of the product is the area. 
 
 13. Ellipse. Multiply the product of the two axes by 
 7854. 
 
 Note. — The area of an ellipse is equal to the area of a 
 circle, of which the diameter is a mean proportional be- 
 tween the two axes. 
 
 II. — Volumes. 
 
 14. Parallelopiped, Prism, or Cylinder. Multiply together 
 the length, the breadth, and the height, and the product 
 vrill be the volume. 
 
202 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 Or : Multiply the area of the base by the height, and 
 the product will be the volume. 
 
 1 5. Pyramid or Cone. Multiply the area of the base by 
 the height, and one-third of the product will be the 
 volume. 
 
 16. Wedge. To twice the length of the base add the 
 length of the edge ; multiply the sum by the breadth of 
 the base, and by the height. One-sixth of the result will 
 be the volume. 
 
 17. Sphere. Multiply the cube of the diameter by 
 •5236. 
 
 18. Spherical Shell. Subtract the cube of the inner 
 diameter from the cube of the outer diameter, and 
 multiply the result by '5236. 
 
 19. Zone of Sphere. To three times the sum of the 
 squares of the radii of the ends add the square of 
 the height; multiply the sum by the height and by 
 •5236. 
 
 20. Segment of Sphere. To three times the square of 
 the radius of the base add the square of the height ; 
 multiply the sum by the height, and the product by 
 •5236. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 203 
 
 TABLE VIII. 
 
 WEIGHT OF TWELVE INCHES SQUARE OF 
 VARIOUS METALS. 
 
 Thick Wrought 
 ness. j Iron. 
 
 Cast 
 Iron. 
 
 Steel. 
 
 Gun 
 Metal. 
 
 Brass. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 inch. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 I 
 
 2*50 
 
 2-34 
 
 2*56 
 
 275 
 
 2-69 
 
 2-87 
 
 2-37 
 
 2-25 
 
 3-68 
 
 i 
 
 5- 
 
 4-69 
 
 5-12 
 
 
 5-38 
 
 5*75 
 
 475 
 
 4-5 
 
 7-37 
 
 i 
 
 7-50 
 
 7 '03 
 
 7-68 
 
 8-25 
 
 8-07 
 
 8-62 
 
 7-12 
 
 675 
 
 II -05 
 
 I 
 
 lo- 
 
 9-38 
 
 10-25 
 
 1 1* 
 
 1075 
 
 11-5 
 
 9-5 
 
 9- 
 
 1475 
 
 t 
 ? 
 
 12-5 
 
 1 1 72 
 
 I2-8l 
 
 1375 
 
 i3"45 
 
 14-37 
 
 11-87 
 
 11-25 
 
 18-42 
 
 
 15- 
 
 i4'o6 
 
 1 5 '36 
 
 16-50 
 
 16-14 
 
 17-24 
 
 14-24 
 
 13-50 
 
 22-IO 
 
 f 
 
 17-5 
 
 i6'4i 
 
 1 7 "93 
 
 19-25 
 
 18-82 
 
 20-I2 
 
 16-17 
 
 15-75 
 
 25-80 
 
 
 20- 
 
 1875 
 
 20'5 
 
 22- 
 
 21-5 
 
 23- 
 
 19- 
 
 [8- 
 
 29-5 
 
 9 
 
 ¥ 
 
 22'5 
 
 2rio 
 
 23-06 
 
 2475 
 
 24-20 
 
 25-87 
 
 21-37 
 
 20-25 
 
 33-17 
 
 8 
 
 25- 
 
 23'44 
 
 25-62 
 
 27-50 
 
 26-90 
 
 28-74 
 
 23-74 
 
 22-50 
 
 36-84 
 
 I I 
 
 ? 
 
 27-5 
 
 2579 
 
 28-18 
 
 30-25 
 
 29-58 
 
 31-62 
 
 26-12 
 
 2475 
 
 40-54 
 
 
 
 28'12 
 
 3072 
 
 33"oo 
 
 32*28 
 
 34-48 
 
 28-48 
 
 27- 
 
 44-20 
 
 
 32-5 
 
 30-48 
 
 33-28 
 
 3575 
 
 34-95 
 
 37-37 
 
 30-87 
 
 29-25 
 
 47-92 
 
 
 35' 
 
 32-82 
 
 35-86 
 
 38-50 
 
 37-64 
 
 40-24 
 
 32-34 
 
 3i"5 
 
 51-6 
 
 
 37-5 
 
 35'i6 
 
 38-43 
 
 41-25 
 
 40-32 
 
 43-12 
 
 35-61 
 
 33-75 
 
 55-36 
 
 I 
 
 40- 
 
 37'5 
 
 41* 
 
 44- 
 
 43- 
 
 46- 
 
 38- 
 
 36- 
 
 59- 
 
204 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 TABLE IX. 
 
 WEIGHT OF CAST IRON CYLINDERS 
 ONE FOOT LONG. 
 
 Thickness in Inches. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 J 
 
 
 2" 
 
 % 
 
 f 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 inches. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 o 
 
 
 9*65 
 
 I2"3 
 
 14^ 
 
 i6-6 
 
 1° 3 
 
 
 Jx 
 
 7-n8 
 
 I r5 
 
 147 
 
 17 0 
 
 20'3 
 
 22 '6 
 
 -4 b 
 
 4 
 
 9'20 
 
 i3"3 
 
 17-2 
 
 20' J 
 
 24*0 
 
 26-9 
 
 295 
 
 A I 
 
 4i 
 
 io*4- 
 
 IS'2 
 
 196 
 
 23 0 
 
 27-7 
 
 31-1 
 
 34"4 
 
 r 
 
 5 
 
 117 
 
 17*0 
 
 22' I 
 
 269 
 
 31*5 
 
 35'4 
 
 39'3 
 
 rx 
 3a 
 
 12 9 
 
 tXti 
 1 0 y 
 
 24'5 
 
 29-9 
 
 35'2 
 
 397 
 
 44'2 
 
 u 
 
 I4"i 
 
 207 
 
 270 
 
 330 
 
 30 9 
 
 44-0 
 
 49-1 
 
 
 1 b 3 
 
 22 3 
 
 29*5 
 
 36-1 
 
 42 6 
 
 40 3 
 
 c /I "n 
 
 / 
 
 i6"6 
 
 24 4 
 
 3i'9 
 
 39" I 
 
 40 4 
 
 526 
 
 5" 9 
 
 7-'- 
 
 1/0 
 
 262 
 
 '3/1 '/t 
 
 
 CD" T 
 
 c6-Q 
 
 63-8 
 
 8 
 
 i9"o 
 
 28-1 
 
 36-8 
 
 45"3 
 
 53-8 
 
 t)I-2 
 
 687 
 
 8^ 
 
 20-3 
 
 29-9 
 
 39'3 
 
 48-3 
 
 57-5 
 
 65-5 
 
 73"6 
 
 9 
 
 21-5 
 
 31-8 
 
 417 
 
 5i'4 
 
 61-3 
 
 69-8 
 
 78-5 
 
 9l 
 
 227 
 
 33'6 
 
 44"2 
 
 54-5 
 
 65-0 
 
 74-1 
 
 83"5 
 
 lO 
 
 23'9 
 
 35*4 
 
 46-6 
 
 57-5 
 
 68-7 
 
 78-4 
 
 88-4 
 
 II 
 
 26*4 
 
 39"i 
 
 5i'5 
 
 637 
 
 76-0 
 
 87-0 
 
 98-2 
 
 12 
 
 28-8 
 
 42-8 
 
 56-5 
 
 69-8 
 
 83-4 
 
 95-6 
 
 108-0 
 
 13 
 
 313 
 
 46-5 
 
 61*4 
 
 75"9 
 
 90-7 
 
 104-2 
 
 117-8 
 
 14 
 
 33-8 
 
 50'2 
 
 66-3 
 
 82-1 
 
 98-0 
 
 II2-8 
 
 127-6 
 
 15 
 
 36-2 
 
 53-8 
 
 7 I "2 
 
 88-2 
 
 105-4 
 
 121-3 
 
 i37"4 
 
 16 
 
 387 
 
 57-5 
 
 76-1 
 
 94-3 
 
 1 12-7 
 
 129-9 
 
 1 47 "3 
 
 17 
 
 41-1 
 
 6r2 
 
 8ro 
 
 ioo"5 
 
 120-0 
 
 138-5 
 
 157-1 
 
 18 
 
 43 '6 
 
 64-9 
 
 85-9 
 
 106-6 
 
 127-4 
 
 I47-I 
 
 166-9 
 
 19 
 
 46 'O 
 
 68-6 
 
 90-8 
 
 II2-8 
 
 1347 
 
 1557 
 
 1767 
 
 20 
 
 48-5 
 
 72-3 
 
 957 
 
 118-9 
 
 142-0 
 
 1 64*3 
 
 186-5 
 
 21 
 
 50-9 
 
 75-9 
 
 ico"6 
 
 125-0 
 
 149-4 
 
 172-9 
 
 196-4 
 
 22 
 
 53-4 
 
 79-6 
 
 105-5 
 
 131-2 
 
 1567 
 
 181-5 
 
 206-2 
 
 23 
 
 55-8 
 
 83-3 
 
 1 105 
 
 i37'3 
 
 164-0 
 
 1 90- 1 
 
 215-0 
 
 ^4 
 
 58-3 
 
 87-0 
 
 115-4 
 
 I43"4 
 
 171-4 
 
 1987 
 
 225-8 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 205 
 
 TABLE IX. — continued. 
 
 Tliickness in Inches. 
 
 External 
 Diameter. 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ■J 
 
 
 inches. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs 
 
 lbs. 
 
 25 
 
 6o-8 
 
 907 
 
 120-3 
 
 149-6 
 
 1787 
 
 207-2 
 
 235-6 
 
 26 
 
 63-2 
 
 94'3 
 
 125-2 
 
 155-7 
 
 186-I 
 
 215-S 
 
 245-4 
 
 27 
 
 657 
 
 98-0 
 
 1 30- 1 
 
 i6r8 
 
 193-4 
 
 224-4 
 
 255-3 
 
 28 
 
 68-1 
 
 101-7 
 
 i35'o 
 
 i68-o 
 
 200-7 
 
 233-0 
 
 265-1 
 
 29 
 
 7o'6 
 
 105-4 
 
 i39'9 
 
 1 74-1 
 
 208-1 
 
 241-6 
 
 274-9 
 
 33 
 
 73'o 
 
 109-1 
 
 144-8 
 
 i8o-2 
 
 215-4 
 
 250-2 
 
 284-7 
 
 31 
 
 75'5 
 
 II2-8 
 
 1497 
 
 186-4 
 
 222-7 
 
 258-8 
 
 294-5 
 
 32 
 
 77'9 
 
 II 6-4 
 
 154-6 
 
 192-5 
 
 230-1 
 
 267-4 
 
 304-3 
 
 33 
 
 80-4 
 
 I20-I 
 
 159-5 
 
 19^-7 
 
 237-5 
 
 276-0 
 
 314-2 
 
 34 
 
 82-8 
 
 123-8 
 
 164-5 
 
 204-8 
 
 244-8 
 
 284-6 
 
 324-0 
 
 35 
 
 85-3 
 
 127-5 
 
 169-4 
 
 210-9 
 
 252*2 
 
 293-1 
 
 333-8 
 
 36 
 
 87-8 
 
 I3I-2 
 
 174-3 
 
 2I7-I 
 
 259-5 
 
 301-7 
 
 343-6 
 
 38 
 
 927 
 
 138-5 
 
 184-1 
 
 229-3 
 
 274-3 
 
 318-9 
 
 363-2 
 
 40 
 
 97 '6 
 
 i45'9 
 
 1 93 '9 
 
 241-6 
 
 289-0 
 
 336-1 
 
 382-9 
 
 42 
 
 I02'5 
 
 i53'3 
 
 203-7 
 
 253-9 
 
 303-7 
 
 353-3 
 
 402-5 
 
 45 
 
 io9'8 
 
 i64'3 
 
 218-5 
 
 272-3 
 
 325-8 
 
 379-1 
 
 432-0 
 
 48 
 
 I I7'2 
 
 I75'4 
 
 233-2 
 
 290-7 
 
 347-9 
 
 404-8 
 
 461-4 
 
 51 
 
 1 24-6 
 
 186-4 
 
 247-9 
 
 309-1 
 
 370-0 
 
 430-6 
 
 490-9 
 
 54 
 
 131-9 
 
 197-5 
 
 262-6 
 
 327-5 
 
 392-1 
 
 456-4 
 
 520-3 
 
 57 
 
 i39'3 
 
 208-5 
 
 277-4 
 
 345-9 
 
 414-2 
 
 482-1 
 
 549-8 
 
 60 
 
 146-6 
 
 2i9'6 
 
 292-1 
 
 364-3 
 
 4.36-3 
 
 507-9 
 
 579-3 
 
2o6 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 TABLE X. 
 
 COMPARATIVE WEIGHTS OF DIFFERENT BODIES. 
 
 Cast Iron = I 
 
 Bar Iron = I 
 
 Steel = I 
 
 Bar Iron = ro484 
 Steel = I '0766 
 Brass =i'i53 
 Copper = I '2 1 37 
 Gun metal =1*208 
 Lead = i "5645 
 
 Cast iron = '9538 
 Steel = I '0269 
 Brass =i*i 
 Copper =i*i5i63 
 Gun metal =1 "15094 
 Lead = i "5 
 
 Cast iron = '929 
 Bar iron = '97378 
 Brass =i'o7 
 Copper = I '1236 
 Gun metal =i'i2i32 
 Lead =i'4532 
 
 Brass = 1 
 
 Cast iron 
 Bar iron 
 Steel 
 Copper 
 Gun metal 
 Lead 
 
 = -867 
 = -909 
 
 = "9336 
 = 105 
 = I '046 
 = 1-357^ 
 
 Copper = 
 
 Cast iron 
 Bar iron 
 Steel 
 Brass 
 Gun metal 
 
 = 1 
 
 Gun Metal = I 
 
 = -83 
 
 Cast iron 
 
 = -82888 
 
 = -8666 
 
 Bar iron 
 
 = -86874 
 
 = -89 
 
 Steel 
 
 = -891735 
 
 = "95 
 
 Brass 
 
 = -95583 
 
 = -9994 
 
 Copper 
 
 = I -00045 
 
 = 1-293 
 
 Lead 
 
 = I -29246 
 
 Lead = I 
 
 Cast iron = -64 
 
 Bar iron = -67 
 
 Steel = -688 
 
 Brass = -737 
 
 Copper = -774 
 
 Gun metal = -7736 
 
 Yellow Pine = I 
 
 Cast iron = 16-0 
 
 Steel =17-0 
 
 Brass =18-8 
 
 Gun metal = 19-0 
 
 Copper =I9'3 
 
 Lead = 24-0 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 207 
 
 TABLE XI. 
 
 WEIGHT OF CAST IRON BALLS. 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Weight j 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Weight 
 
 in inches 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 
 in inches. 
 
 in lbs. 1 
 
 in inches. 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 
 no 
 
 
 6 
 
 29-72 
 
 
 10 
 
 I3771 
 
 % 
 
 1-57 
 
 
 
 33-62 
 
 
 
 148-28 
 
 
 2-15 
 
 
 
 37-80 
 
 
 
 159-40 
 
 
 2-86 
 
 
 6| 
 
 42-35 
 
 
 io| 
 
 171-05 
 
 t 
 
 372 
 
 
 7 
 
 47-21 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 183-29 
 
 471 
 
 
 7i 
 
 52-47 
 
 
 196-10 
 
 3i 
 
 5-80 
 
 
 7^ 
 
 58-06 
 
 
 
 209-43 
 
 3| 
 
 7-26 
 
 
 ^8^ 
 
 64-09 
 
 
 
 223-40 
 
 4 
 
 8-8i 
 
 
 
 70-49 
 
 
 12 
 
 237-94 
 
 
 10-57 
 
 
 % 
 
 77-32 
 
 
 I2i 
 
 253"i3 
 
 ^k 
 
 12-55 
 
 
 
 84-56 
 
 
 I2| 
 
 268-97 
 
 4i 
 
 1476 
 
 
 
 92-24 
 
 
 121 
 
 285-37 
 
 5 
 
 17-12 
 
 
 9 
 
 9i 
 
 100-39 
 
 
 13 
 
 302-41 
 
 5i 
 
 1993 
 
 
 108-98 i 
 
 i3i 
 
 320-80 
 
 5^ 
 
 22-91 
 
 
 9\ 
 
 118-06 
 
 i3i 
 
 338-81 
 
 51 
 
 26-18 
 
 
 91 
 
 127-63 i 
 
 i3| 
 
 357-93 
 
2o8 
 
 PRACTICAL IRON FOUNDING. 
 
 TABLE XII. 
 
 DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS TO FRACTIONAL PARTS 
 OF LINEAL MEASURES. 
 
 One inch the integer or whole number. 
 
 •96875 
 
 ■9375 
 
 •90625 
 
 ■875 
 
 ■84375 
 
 •8125 
 
 •78125 
 
 •75 
 
 •71875 
 
 •6875 
 •65625 
 
 I & 17; 
 
 4 3 2. 
 
 •625 
 
 •59375 
 •5625 
 
 •53125 
 
 •46875 
 ■4375 
 •4062 5 
 
 •375 
 
 •34375 
 
 ■3125 
 
 I- & 
 
 •28125 
 
 •25 
 
 •21875 
 
 •1875 
 
 •15625 
 
 •125 
 
 ■09375 
 
 •0625 
 
 •03125 
 
 TABLE XIII. 
 
 DECIMAL APPROXIMATIONS FOR FACILITATING 
 CALCULATIONS IN MENSURATION. 
 
 Square inches multiplied by 
 
 •007 
 
 
 Square feet. 
 
 Cubic inches „ 
 
 55 
 
 •COO58 
 
 
 Cubic feet. 
 
 59 3) J) 
 
 r5 
 
 •263 
 
 
 Lbs. Avs. of Cast iron. 
 
 5) )' 55 
 
 55 
 
 •281 
 
 
 55 
 
 5) 
 
 „ Wrought iron. 
 
 )5 55 -5 
 
 55 
 
 •283 
 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 „ Steel. 
 
 15 5) 5) 
 
 55 
 
 •3225 
 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 ,, Copper. 
 
 5) 55 55 
 
 55 
 
 •3037 
 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 „ Brass. 
 
 55 55 55 
 55 5 5 5 5 
 
 55 
 55 
 
 •26 
 •4103 
 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 „ Zinc. 
 „ Lead. 
 
 55 55 55 
 
 55 
 
 •2636 
 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 5, Tin. 
 
 55 55_ 5 5 
 
 55 
 
 •4908 
 
 
 55 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 55 
 
 „ Mercury. 
 
 Avoirdupois lbs. „ 
 
 55 
 
 ■009 
 
 
 
 
 15 55 53 
 
 55 
 
 ■00045 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Appendix : — 
 
 Tables I. Sand mixtures, 189 
 „ II. Particulars, " Ra- 
 pid "cupolas, 193, 
 194 
 
 „ III. Particulars, Root's 
 blowers, 196 
 
 „ IV. Crane chains, 197 
 
 „ V. Ropes, various, 197, 
 198, 199 
 
 „ VI. Composition of pig 
 iron, 199 
 
 „ VII. Mensuration, 200, 
 201, 202 
 
 „VIII. Weights of various 
 metals, 203 
 
 „ IX. Weights of cast iron 
 cylinders,204,205 
 
 „ X. Comparative 
 weights, 206 
 
 „ XI. Weights, cast iron 
 balls, 207 
 XII. Decimal equiva- 
 lents, 208 
 
 „XI1I. Decimal approxi- 
 mations, 208 
 
 Back plates, 25 
 
 Bars, 20 
 
 Bar tester, 184 
 
 Bead tools, 30 
 Bedding in, 33, 34 
 Bend pipe, no 
 Blackening, 44 
 Blacking, 44 
 Blacking, wet, 45 
 Black sand, 7 
 Black wash, 108, 1 10 
 Blast, 162 
 Blowers, 162 
 Blow holes, 91 
 Box fining, 7 
 Bricking up, 99 
 Bricks, 99 
 Bricks, loam, 102 
 Buckley and Taylor's 
 
 moulding machine, 135 
 Burning on, 188 
 Burnt iron, 178 
 Burnt sand, 7 
 
 Calipers, 98 
 Casting bosses, 74 
 Casting ladles, 165 
 Castings, curving of, 16 
 Castings, shrinkage of, 1 5 
 Castings, weight of, 186 
 Chains, 197 
 Chaplets, 89, 90 
 Charcoal, 44 
 
210 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Charging of cupolas, 153, 156 
 
 Check, 107 
 
 Chilling, 187 
 
 Cinder bed, 38 
 
 Cinders, 38, 99 
 
 Clay plug, 58 
 
 Clean castings, 48, 5 1 
 
 Cleaner, 28 
 
 Coal dust, 6 
 
 Coal, grinding of, 12 
 
 Coal mill, 13 
 
 Coke, 157 
 
 Coke bed, 65, 92 
 
 Cold shots, 49 
 
 Collapsible core bars, 84 
 
 Copes, 18, 21, 66, 67, 103 
 
 Core bar, 82 
 
 Core bars, collapsible, 84 
 
 Core carriage, 93 
 
 Core, drying of, 93 
 
 Core, green sand, 78 
 
 Core irons, 80 
 
 Core plates, 82 
 
 Core ropes, 83 
 
 Core sand, 8 
 
 Cores, grids for, 80 
 
 Core stoves, 93 
 
 Core strings, 85 
 
 Core vents, 85 
 
 Crane chains, 197 
 
 Cranes, 170 
 
 Cupola blast, 162 
 
 Cupola, charging of, 153, 156 
 
 Cupola, chemical actions, 157 
 
 Cupola, drop bottom, 155 
 
 Cupola furnaces, 150 
 
 Cupola, patent " Rapid," 158 
 
 Cupola tuyeres, 154, 159 
 Curving of castings, 16 
 
 Decimal equivalents, 208 
 
 Decimal approximations, 208 
 j Delivery of patterns, 43 
 I Drags, 18, 20 
 
 Drawing of castings, 17, 55 
 
 Drying, 93 
 
 Dry sand, 7, 8, 75 
 
 Dry sand, moulding in, 75 
 
 ' Facing sand, 5 
 Fans, 162 
 Feeder head, 56 
 Feeder rods, 56 
 Feeding, 56 
 P^inning, 76 
 Flasks, 18 
 Flasks, forms of, 25 
 Flow off gates, 57 
 Forms of flasks, 25 
 Forms of prints, 86 
 Foundry cranes, 170 
 Foundry pit, 107 
 
 Geared ladles, 168 
 
 Goodwin and How's patent 
 
 ladle, 170 
 Green sand, 5 
 Green sand core, 78 
 Green sand moulding, 31, 59 
 Grey iron, 176 
 Grids, 80, 81, 144 
 Guide irons, 108 
 
 Hard ramming, 40,46, 76 
 
INDEX. 
 
 211 
 
 Hay bands, 83 
 Head metal, 51 
 Hemp ropes, 197 
 Horse dung, 8, 76 
 
 Ingates, 47, 52, 54, 55 
 Iron, 174 
 
 Iron and aluminium, 180 
 Iron, burnt, 178 
 
 Iron, economical melting of, 155 
 Iron, foreign constituents of, 179 
 Iron, grey, 176 
 Iron, mottled, 177 
 Iron, pig, 175 
 Iron, remelting, 179 
 Iron, testing of, 183 
 Iron, white, 177 
 
 Joints, 36, 67, 76, 145, 161 
 
 Ladles, 165 
 
 Ladles, geared, 168 
 
 Ladles, Goodwin and How's 
 
 patent, 170 
 Liftering, 61 
 Lifters, 41 
 Loading, 65 
 Loam, 8 
 Loam board, 96 
 Loam bricks, 102 
 Loam cake, 48, 55 
 Loam mill, 12 
 Loam moulding, 94 
 Loam patterns, 108 
 Loam plates, loi, 103 
 Loam work, 94 
 
 Machine moulding, 1 14 
 
 Mending up, 42 
 
 Mending up pieces, 44 
 
 Mensuration, 186 
 
 Middle parts, 18, 21 
 
 Mixing of sand, 189 
 
 Mottled iron, 177 
 
 Mould for cylinder cover, 96 
 j Mould for anvil block, 59 
 j Moulding boxes, 18 
 j Moulding by machine, 1 14 
 
 Moulding in dry sand, 75 
 
 Moulding in green sand, 31, 59 
 
 Moulding in loam, 94 
 
 Moulding in open sand, 31 
 
 Moulding machines, 116, 120, 
 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 
 129, 131, 133 
 
 Moulding, plate, 115 
 
 Moulding, principles of, i 
 
 Moulding sand, 5, 7 
 
 Moulding of fly-wheel, 65, 71 
 
 Moulding of sheave wheel, 35 
 
 Moulding of trolly wheel, 35, 115 
 
 Old sand, 7 
 Open sand, 31 
 
 Parting sand, 8 
 
 Pattern, 3 
 ' Pattern, delivery of, 43 
 • Pattern, fly-wheel segment, 66 
 j Patterns in loam, 108 
 I Pig iron, 175 
 1 Plate moulding, 115 
 ! Plugs, 58, 63 
 
 Plumbago, 44 
 
212 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Pocket prints, 87 
 Pouring, 63 
 Pouring basins, 49 
 Pouring moulds, 47 
 Pressure, 47, 65 
 Prints, forms of, 86 
 Prints, pocket, 87 
 Prods, 103 
 Pumping, 56 
 
 Rammers, 27 
 Rapping, 43 
 Reverse mould, 144 
 Riddles, 12 
 Risers, 57 
 Rodding, 41, 61 
 Root's rotary blower, 164 
 Ropes, hemp, 197 
 Ropes, wire, 198, 199 
 Runners, 49, 54, 55 
 Runner spray, 53 
 Runner stick, 52 
 Running, 49 
 
 Sand, 2, 5 
 
 Sand, black, 7 
 
 Sand, burnt, 7 
 
 Sand, core, 8 
 
 Sand, dry, 75 
 
 Sand, facing, 5 
 
 Sand, green, 5 
 
 Sand, mixing of, 9, 189 
 
 Sand, parting, 8 
 
 Sand sifters, 10 
 
 Scabbing, 45 
 
 Shrinkage, 15 
 
 Shrinkage of castings, 15 
 
 Sieves, 12 
 Skimmer, 170 
 Skimming chamber, 51 
 Skin drying, 44 
 Slagging, 154, 178 
 Sleekers, 30 
 Sleeking, 47 
 Socket bend, 1 10 
 Soft ramming, 42, 46 
 Spray of runners, 53 
 Sprigging, 42 
 Sprigs, 42 
 Staking, 67, 74 
 Stays, 20 
 Steam, 76, 105 
 
 Stewart's patent " Rapid" cupola, 
 
 158, 159 
 Stopping over, 88 
 Stops, 90 
 Stoves, 93 
 Strap, 96, 140 
 Strickles, 108, 109 
 Striking bar, 96 
 
 Striking boards, 66, 70, 96, 140, 
 
 145, 146 
 Strong sand, 8 
 Swab, 43 
 Swabbing, 43 
 Sweeping up, 71 
 Swivels, 24 
 
 Taper, 3 
 
 Tapping of metal, 154 
 Tar, 108 
 Test bars, 183 
 Testing machine, 184 
 Thicknessing, 108, 110, 112 
 
INDEX. 
 
 21 
 
 Three parted mould, 36 
 Tools, 27 
 Top part, 18 
 Trowels, 28 
 Turning over, 33, 36 
 Turn over boards, 114 
 
 Venting, 38 
 Venting in loam, 103 
 Vent pipes, 61, 92 
 Vents, 38, 92, 109, 142 
 Vents, choking of, 46 
 Vents, securing of, 91 
 Vent vi^ires, 27 
 
 Weighting, 65 
 Weights, comparative, 206 
 Weights of castings, 186 
 Weights of cast iron balls, 207 
 Weights of cast iron cylinders 
 204 
 
 Weights of metals, 203 
 
 Wet blacking, 45 
 
 Wheel moulding machine, 133 
 
 147, 148, 149 
 Wheel teeth, 137, 140, 141 
 Wheels, moulding of, 133 
 White iron, 177 
 Wire ropes, 198, 199 
 
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