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THE 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHER'S NOTE-BOOK 
 
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 CONTAINING 
 
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 HAZELL, WATSON, & VINEY, Ld. 
 I, CREED LANE, LUDGATE HILL 
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PHOTOGRAPHER'S NOTE-BOOK. 
 
 1. ART—WHAT IS IT ? A SYMPOSIUM. 
 
 Ars est celare artem. It is the perfection of art to conceal art. — 
 Ovid. » 
 
 Ars longa, vita brevis. Art is long, life is short. — HIPPOCRATES. 
 
 Art is long and time is fleeting. — Longfellow. 
 
 Art does not represent things falsely, but truly as they appear to 
 mankind. — RusKiN. 
 
 Art is a jealous mistress. — Emerson. 
 
 Art is not the bread indeed, but it is the wine of life. — Jean Paul. 
 
 Art is the work of man under the guidance and inspiration of a 
 mightier power. — Hare. 
 
 Art must anchor in nature, or it is the sport of every breath of folly. 
 — Hazlitt. 
 
 Art rests on a kind of religious sense, on a deep steadfast earnestness ; 
 and on this account it unites so readily with religion. — Goethe. 
 
 Artists are of three classes : those who perceive and pursue the good, 
 and leave the evil ; those who perceive and pursue the good and evil 
 together, the whole thing as it verily is ; and those who perceive and 
 pursue the evil, and leave the good. — RusKiN. 
 
 Art is art precisely because it is not nature. — Goethe. 
 
 The art of a thing is, first, its aim, and, next, its manner of accom- 
 plishment. 
 
 Nature is not at variance with art, nor art with nature ; they being 
 both the servants of God's providence. Art is the perfection of nature. 
 In brief, all things are artificial ; for nature is the art of God. — Sir T. 
 Brown. 
 
 The conscious utterance of thought by speech or action to any end is 
 art. — Emerson. 
 
 To gild refined gold, to paint the lily. 
 To throw a perfume on the violet, 
 To smooth the ice, or add another hue 
 Unto the rainbow .... 
 Is wasteful, and ridiculous excess. 
 
 — Shakespeare, *' King John," iv. 2. 
 Painting is the intermediate something between a thought and a 
 thing. — S. T. Coleridge. 
 
 Thought is the unseen nature, as nature is the unseen thought. — > 
 Heine. 
 
 Nature must be the groundwork of wit and art. — John Selden. 
 Painting does not proceed so much by intelligence as by sight and 
 feeling and invention. — Hamerton. 
 
 Painting is silent poetry, and poetry speaking is painting. — Simonides. 
 
 A picture is a poem without words. — Horace. 
 
 A work of art. should offend neither the intellect nor the senses. 
 
 A work of art improves upon acquaintance. 
 
 I 
 
2. ART— VARIOUS WAYS OF REGARDING IT. 
 
 As an elegant amusement. 
 
 As an ingenious trick or craft. 
 
 As a form of commercial enterprise. 
 
 As an emotional stimulus or intoxicant. 
 
 As enforcing religion. 
 
 As advancing morality. 
 
 3. ART, OBJECT OF PICTORIAL.— One of the differences between 
 good and bad art is shown by the way in which it at first glance strikes 
 an educated eye. The cultivated artist does not seek to deceive, but to 
 impress ; the trickster thinks imitation is the end of his business. True 
 art does not aim at representing reality, but the appearance of reality. 
 
 4. ART: WHAT IT TEACHES.— Upon this point opinions vary. It 
 is therefore well to hear all sides. Dean Farrar, who has made a 
 special study of the subject, says that in all great art there is a spiritual 
 as well as a technical side, that a work of art of any value expresses 
 something of the individual — artist. It is the expression of that 
 person's delights and enjoyments. Hence art is a powerful education 
 factor. It teaches us not only to see and what to see, but also to look 
 beyond and behind the externals of things. 
 
 It will interest many photographers to know that the romantic love of 
 scenery is comparatively unknown in ancient literature, if we except 
 the Psalms, Song of Solomon, and some other portions of the Bible. 
 
 Moreover, that comparatively few modern poets have become con- 
 spicuous as word painters." 
 
 The beauty that appeals to the artist is best described in Spenser's 
 lines : — 
 
 Beauty is not as some men misdeem, 
 
 An outward show of things that only seem. 
 
 5. ART, IMITATION NOT THE END OF.— We are frequently told 
 by our scientific friends that imitation is the end of art. That if we 
 could retain the image as seen on the ground glass, we should of 
 necessity have a work of art. Ruskin deals at length with this assumed 
 position, and shows that it is not the case — so far as painting goes. 
 
 (a) It is only possible with trivial subjects or parts — e.^^., one may 
 closely imitate a leaf, but not a tree. 
 
 {d) It is elementary, easy, and does not require the real difficulties of 
 art. 
 
 (<:) It presents crude matter only, while true art deals with qualities, 
 thoughts, emotions, conceptions. 
 
 (d) It appeals to the senses only, i.e., the perceptive (optic) faculty. 
 True art speaks to the intellect, the imaginative or conceptive faculty. 
 
 (^) It gives general resemblances such as appeal to the least informed. 
 
 {/) It is limited in range of subject, and limits one to the illusive 
 representation of still life and simple figures, and practically excludes 
 landscape, historical, and imaginative work. 
 
 (^) It may be reduced to empirical rules and become a mere, 
 mechanical operation. 
 
 2 
 
ART, IMITATION NOT THE END Q-^— continued. 
 
 {h) It appeals to the less informed spectators, i.e., those least 
 qualified by training and culture of intellect, taste, and perception to 
 have sound opinions. 
 
 {i) It relies upon the least valuable or average characteristics, rather 
 than those of ideal or exalted phases of energy or beauty. 
 
 {J) It has not at its command the full power of light and dark, or 
 range of colour of nature, and, therefore, it is impossible to exactly 
 match many tones and tints. Nor can it on a flat surface give the 
 effect of binocular vision. Nor can it literally present moving objects 
 or varying aspects. 
 
 {k) In proportion to the degree of knowledge of the spectator does 
 deceptive presentation increase in difficulty. Thus it relies upon some 
 ignorance in the spectator. 
 
 6. ART NOT EXECUTION OR IMITATION.- A poet would think 
 that a poor compliment had been paid him if his critic, by way of 
 exalting him, were to point out that he had evidently taken great pains 
 and was very honest. In like manner, either a composer or an execu- 
 tant of a piece of music would be ill-satisfied if no higher praise were 
 awarded than honesty or painstaking. If painting is a Fine Art because 
 it resembles poetry, the presumption is that a similar test should be 
 applied. The presumption is, that the critic who points out that this 
 or that object is not faithfully imitated is dealing with a point of minor 
 importance which cannot decide the artistic value of the work.— 
 Parker. 
 
 7. ARTS OF REPRESENTATION.— Statuary and poetry are also 
 arts of representation ; but the former of these attracts comparatively 
 little attention at the present day, while the latter, as a part of literature 
 and the common property of all educated men, stands apart. The non- 
 representant arts are music and architecture. — Parker. 
 
 But, fundamentally, architecture is a useful art in the strict sense of 
 the term, differing in this respect from its sister arts. —Parker. 
 
 8. ARTISTIC PERCEPTION, FOUR STAGES OF.— Mr. Ruskin has 
 pointed out that these four stages are somewhat thus : First, and lowest, 
 that represented by Peter Bell, who only sees or cares to see the com- 
 mon-place aspects of natural objects : — 
 
 A primrose by a river's brim 
 A yellow primrose was to him, 
 And it was nothing more. 
 The soft blue sky did never melt 
 Into his heart ; he never felt 
 The witchery of the soft blue sky. 
 
 The second condition is that of a sentimental character. This may 
 pass on the one hand into the grotesque, or on the other hand may 
 swing to the opposite extreme, the morbid or falsely pathetic. 
 
 A third phase is characterised by an approximate balance of reason 
 and emotion, taste and judgment, fact and fancy, together with an 
 active imagination, duly under control and power of generalising, so 
 that the class is recognised in the type. 
 
 3 
 
AMISTIC PERCEf TIOl?, FOU& STAGElS Ot— continued. 
 
 Another, a fourth stage or phase, is that when inspiration seeks 
 expression, when human powers are rendered subservient to the mystery 
 of nature. 
 
 These stages are not of necessity thus in natural order, but are rather 
 as kindred branches of a great tree. The moral life is not an essential 
 part of the expression of imagination or inspiration. The errors or 
 shortcomings in the lives of Shakespeare or Turner do not invalidate 
 the value of their work. — Founded on Ruskin. 
 
 9. FINE ART. — Fine art comps of the union of love and labour, for 
 without love it has no sufficient motive, and without labour it can have 
 no success. As all ideas cannot be put in words, art in some form or 
 other is a human necessity. — Gambier Parry. 
 
 10. HIGH ART.— Ruskin with much truth points out that high art 
 differs from low art in that the former possesses an excess of beauty in 
 addition to its portrayal of truth, but not in possessing any excess of 
 beauty inconsistent with truth. 
 
 11. REAL, i.e. GOOD ART, TWO THINGS 1^.— First, every work 
 of art expresses some personal choice, selection, preference, i.e.^ reflects 
 personality. " I take this, I pass by that." The fisherman's net 
 gathers all, but the artist's only takes the pearls. Second, in every 
 work of art there is the expression of human arrangement, i.e., of 
 design. Not only is it a record of facts observed, but it is a selection 
 of the way those facts are to be set forth. Personality is thus twofold, 
 an expression of choice and of design. 
 
 12. ART, TRUTH IN.— Harding says that truth, whether in science 
 or art, must ever be the standard to which all opinions and judgments 
 must ultimately be referred ; no one endowed with reason will venture 
 to deny or to reject laws perfect and demonstrable, nor be unwilling to 
 acknowledge their immense superiority over unfounded speculations and 
 conventionalities." 
 
 13. ART AND NATURE.— Art is based upon fact, i.e., upon nature, 
 but is not the same as nature, any more than the man who holds up the 
 mirror to nature is an artist; Goethe truly says art is art precisely 
 because it is not nature. Hence it follows that art must tell the truth, 
 but this is not equivalent to saying that it must tell every truth. 
 
 14. ART AND MANUFACTURE.— Manufacture is literally "hand- 
 made" work. Art requires, in addition to hand-work or manipulation, 
 the guiding of the mind, the impulse of the soul. To read a work of 
 art — be it poem or picture — is to read the thoughts of its maker. Just 
 as when we see a cobweb we know a spider has wrought it. Great 
 art is thus the product of a great mind. 
 
 15. ART, METHODS OF— FRESCO, SECCO, TEMPERA.— All these 
 terms are used to denote various methods of applying colours to walls for 
 pictorial or decorative purposes. 
 
 4 
 
ART, METHODS Of— FRESCO, SECCO, 'LY^'^'E'Bik— continued. 
 
 Fresco (lit. fresh). — A painting on a fresh wet) ground of lime 
 or gypsum. The colours combine with the lime, and are greatly 
 subdued in strength. Hence to retouch the work is extremely difficult, 
 if not quite impossible. Good modern examples may be seen in the 
 South Kensington Museum on a wall in one of the statuary rooms. 
 These are by the late Sir F. Leighton, and represent " Peace and War." 
 
 Secco {Sicco — lit. dry). — A very similar process, with this chief 
 difference, that the colours are applied to the plaster when it is dry. 
 
 Te77ipera (lit. to mingle). — A similar process again, whereby the 
 colours are combined with egg, glue, size, gum, etc. 
 
 16. DECORATIVE ART, ORIGIN OF.— The origin of decorative art 
 is to be found in the imitation of nature, and it is probable that all 
 ornaments, no matter how conventionalised, could, with adequate 
 knowledge, be traced by a series of minute modifications to some 
 natural object. — John Collier. 
 
 It has been thought that most architectural designs and contrivances 
 are from suggestions on the part of nature, e.g.^ the elaboration of the 
 Egyptian capital from the crown of a palm tree, the arches of Gothic 
 architecture from the meeting of tree branches in a grove. Many 
 decorative moulding ornaments are clearly imitations of natural forms, 
 e,g.^ rose, shell, leaf, grape, etc., etc. — N. C. 
 
 17. PHOTOGRAPHY, THREE COMMON DEFECTS IN PICTORIAL. 
 — (i) False tonality, e.^., not rendering truly the relative light and 
 shade values of variously coloured objects. 
 
 (2) Superabundance of detail or of subject. 
 
 (3) Lack of breadth and quietness, due to spottiness, scattering of 
 lights and shades. 
 
 18. PHOTOGRAPHY AN ART-SCIENCE.— Some have thought the 
 term " art-science " a contradiction. This, however, is not so in the case 
 of photography. Art tells the photographer what he wants to do, and 
 science enables him to do it. Or we may use other terms, and say, 
 *' Taste directs his judgment, and craft (or handicraft) accomplishes 
 what his judgment directs." 
 
 19. PHOTOGRAPHY, USE OF, TO THE ARTIST.— It is interesting 
 to note what the weil-known authority on landscape painting, viz., 
 Barnard, has to say about this subject, e.g.^ The great use of photo- 
 graphy to the artist is to supply accurate copies of portions of nature, 
 or faithful transcripts of the effects which he has in the first instance 
 studied from nature : in this way it may be made to assist him by 
 securing for his use the more correct representation of form and light 
 and shade ; while it is indebted to him for the more enlarged arrange- 
 ment of lights and shades known by the comprehensive appellation of 
 chiaroscuro r 
 
 This quotation is of especial value firstly, because it was written 
 before the question of art v. photography had received very much atten- 
 tion on either side, and. secondly, it puts the matter in a generous light, 
 i.e.^ as being partners, mutually helpful, rather than rivals or competitors. 
 
 5 
 
20. PHOTOGRAPHY, VALUE OF, TO PAINTERS.— Photography 
 has done great things for the study of instantaneous action, especially 
 that of clouds and waves, and much knowledge of form may be acquired 
 by its means. . . . 
 
 Photography ought to be of the greatest seivice to all learners of 
 landscape. It supplies them with any quantity of beautiful foreground 
 material. It gives them forms of Alpine roses beyond the reach of 
 schoolboys, its ferns cannot be collected by fancies, nor can donkeys 
 browse upon its weeds. And more than this, photography enables 
 young artists to study rocks coolly — not an easy thing to do in a general 
 way. What is best of all, photographs of well-known views can always 
 be had, and any student may compare his own work, in lines and 
 coloured sketch, with all the true form of his subject. 
 
 No practice can be of more certain value than that of working out a 
 subject, already drawn from its photograph, first in light and shade, 
 then in colour, at home and w-ith every advantage and assistance. — 
 J. St. J. Tyrwhitt, 
 
 21. PHOTOGRAPHER, WHAT SCULPTURE TEACHES THE.— A 
 
 study of the best sculpture, and especially statuary of the best period, 
 gives point to that one thing which photographic portraiture and figure 
 presentation chiefly lack, viz., importance, grandeur, dignity. A photo- 
 graph of a living person alongside a photograph of a figure by, say, 
 Praxiteles, shows at once how trivial the former is, how it lacks grace, 
 simplicity of line and arrangement, largeness and quietness of treatment. 
 It is a most valuable object lesson to try and pose and drape a living 
 head and bust in exact imitation of any good Greek work of the best 
 time, and then compare the two point by point. This study will 
 emphasise the supreme importance of simplicity of arrangement of line, 
 of lighting, omission of accessories, the importance of dealing with a 
 well-marked rather than a transitory expression. This will also show 
 that character in portraiture is not due to some one feature, but to the 
 whole bust, largely treated, and that its pose and balance are fully as 
 important as the features. — N. C. 
 
 22. THE ARTIST AND NATURE.— Symonds has with much truth 
 worked out the proposition that the landscape painter stands much in 
 the same position with regard to nature that the sculptor does to the 
 nude. 
 
 23. ARTIST, HOW HE LOOKS AT NATURE.— He does not look 
 at nature with the material, bodily eye only, but looks as it were 
 through the eye, as through a window, and sees what the eye sees 
 not, any more than does the insensitive transparent window pane. 
 Remotely, it may be compared to hearing, not only as a spoken word, 
 but hearing the thought of which the word is but the sound symbol. 
 
 24. APPRECIATION IN PARTS DEPENDS ON OUR MOOD.— It 
 
 lies within the experience of us all that our likes are liable to vary with 
 age and circumstances. Thus we may be powerfully impressed with a 
 work of art at one time, and the same work may entirely fail to interest 
 
 6 
 
APPRECIATION IN PARTS DEPENDS ON OUR HLOOH— continued, 
 us a short time later, and vice versa. A modern writer has pointed out 
 that the true artist is chiefly concerned with the appearance of things 
 rather than with their actual constitution or nature ; and that he selects 
 such an aspect or impression as accords with his general condition at 
 the time. Hence a painter may and often does give two entirely 
 different "impressions" of the same view, and both may be equally 
 good and truthful. 
 
 25. CRITICISM— A QUOTATION.— The word "criticism" is often 
 used where the term "fault-finding" would be more appropriate. 
 Mr. S. A. Brooke, in his preface to an edition of Turner's "Liber 
 Studiorum," says : — " There is one kind of criticism which is altogether 
 vile ; it is that which strives to find out mistakes for the sake of pluming 
 itself on its own cleverness ; and rather than fall into that it is better not 
 to get into the habit of blame at all." 
 
 26. SIGHT. — All sight is, in fact, an act of judgment. The brain 
 receives messages from each retinal element, and from these messages 
 it constructs a mental picture of the actual scene, much in the same 
 way that a general, whilst a battle is going on, receives messages from 
 all sides, and from these messages forms his idea of what is happening 
 on the field of action. So far does the analogy hold, that the mind 
 supplies from its own knowledge a great part of the mental picture, the 
 actual messages from the retina being quite insufficient to give a 
 complete perception of the scene without. — John Collier. 
 
 27. SEEING WITH THif E^E AND THE MIND.— Harding with 
 much truth points out that " as the eye finds less to attract and engage 
 its attention in the means themselves ... so the mind receives more 
 vivid impressions." In this short quotation is contained much valuable 
 information — and warning. For instance, to use a surface texture of 
 paper not too rough, nor attractively shiny. No excess of microscopic 
 definition or irritating bewildering blur. A mount of quiet colour and 
 pleasant proportions, avoiding any maze-like arrangement of lines ; a 
 frame of simple pattern of quiet colour, not excessive in size, either in 
 slenderness or heaviness. A vivid impression of sunset is not best con- 
 veyed by stormy clouds in angry red carbon or a snow scene in crude 
 blue. The impression which most " impresses " is that conveyed by 
 suggestion rather than by imitation. 
 
 28. PROPER VISUAL SIZE OF THE SUN OR MOON.— The proper 
 size of the sun or moon in a perspective drawing should be three- 
 eighths of an inch if the picture is intended to be seen at a distance of 
 three feet, and smaller or larger as the picture is to be seen nearer or 
 farther off than that distance. In other words, its diameter should 
 always subtend an angle of about half a degree with the eye. Though 
 this is the correct size it will always appear too small. The sun's glory 
 cannot be given in such a narrow compass. We must, therefore, 
 enlarge it a little to satisfy the cravings of the eye, but not much, as it 
 would then look absurd to the educated. — Tristram J. Ellis. 
 
 7 
 
PROPER VISUAL SIZE 0^ THE SUN OR I/LOO'S -continued. 
 
 A photograph of the moon taken with an ordinary long-focus 
 landscape lens always is surprisingly small when the first experiment is 
 made. Three-eighths of an inch at 36 inches is equivalent to a three- 
 penny piece at 63 inches or, say, 5 feet. — N. C. 
 
 29. PRIMARY COLOURS (PAINTER AND OPTICIAN).— The so- 
 called primary colours {i.e., pigments) of the painter's palette are not to 
 be confused or confounded with the primary colours of the optician. 
 The painter regards red, yellow, and blue as his primary colours. 
 These combined in pairs yield the secondary colours. Thus red and 
 yellow give orange. Yellow and blue yield green. Red and blue give 
 violet. These secondaries combined yield the tertiary colours, olive, 
 russet, etc. A mixture of red, yellow, and blue yields greys of various 
 tints according to circumstances. The optician, however, regards red, 
 green, and violet as the primary colours. By combining light of these 
 colours any other colour may be produced. Hence, in the three-colour 
 process of photographic picture reproduction the photographer uses the 
 optician's primaries, viz., red, green, and violet, for his colour screens or 
 filters, and the painter's primaries, viz., blue, red, and yellow, for his 
 printing inks. 
 
 SO. THE EMOTIONS AND THE INTELLECT.— In Professor Wald- 
 stein's book on the subject there are many hints for the artist, be he 
 photographer, painter, or sculptor. (The learned doctor has made a 
 world-wide reputation as an authority upon early Greek sculpture.) He 
 points out that good art appeals to both the intellect and the emotions. 
 That the emotions are the moving power and the intellect is the guiding 
 power of the mind. That sensation is at the root of all emotion. 
 Hence it follows that a picture of high order requires a well-trained 
 mind as well as refined emotions for its due appreciation. A person 
 who is only cultivated on one side, be it the emotional 07^ intellectual, 
 is as a lop-sided tree or a one-handed man— imperfect, abnormal. 
 Similarly a map or plan or topographical photograph only appeals to 
 the intellect ; a patch or group of colours or of lines, curves, as in much 
 (so-called) decorative work, only speaks to the emotions. 
 
 31. IMPORTANCE OF IMPRESSIONS.— It is only what strongly 
 impresses us that we vividly remember. It is only what we remember 
 best that we love most. It is only what we love most that we can do 
 best. So our best work must always be the offspring of our keenest 
 impressions. Hence the great importance of educating the power of 
 selecting from our impressions those that are worth attention and 
 retention. 
 
 32. ANALYSIS OF IMPRESSIONS.— When any picture or scene 
 strikes one it is an excellent plan to put down at once, no matter how 
 roughly, on any scrap of paper, the salient points of the impression, in 
 the order of their memory importance. In this way the power of 
 pictorial analysis and selection is greatly cultivated, and also adds to 
 the enjoyment of any great work of art. 
 
 8 
 
S3. IMl^RESSlOiTlSTS.— On this topic Armitage says : — " We have 
 heard a good deal lately of a new school of painters calling themselves 
 impressionists. I need hardly say that I have but little sympathy with 
 their work. To neglect form, as they ostentatiously do, is to abandon 
 voluntarily the highest quality of art." In a painting of the first rank 
 we look to have truthfulness of form, light and shade (values), and of 
 colour. If any one of the three be neglected or over-emphasised, the 
 ttnity of effect is reduced, and the work fails in the completeness essen- 
 tial to the greatest work. 
 
 34. ART AND IMAGINATION.— What I mean by an art is some 
 creation of man which appeals to his emotions and his intellect by 
 means of his senses. All the greater arts appeal directly to that intri- 
 cate combination of intuitive perceptions, feelings, experience, and 
 memory which is called imagination. — Wm. Morris. 
 
 One reason why we so soon tire of any particular photograph is that 
 it generally appeals more to the intellect than to the emotions. We are 
 more impressed by the difficulties overcome or the craft displayed than 
 by the suggestion of anything not definitely expressed. There is 
 nothing left for the imagination to work upon. — N. C. 
 
 35. THE IMAGINATION IN ART, APPEAL TO.— The appeal to 
 the imagination, Mr. Ruskin rightly points out, is by means of three 
 factors. First, the mind is supplied with facts ; secondly, these facts 
 are selected, arranged, combined, so that they shall tell as real facts do ; 
 thirdly, the effect is heightened by due attention to characteristics of 
 form, colour, and so on. Thus it is shown that in the " pursuit of fact 
 is the vital element of art power," or, in other words, art is based 
 upon nature. 
 
 36. IMAGINATION A SOURCE OF INTEREST.— A picture that 
 appeals to the imagination continues to interest the spectator much 
 longer than one which only appeals to memory or the intellect. As 
 soon as the intellect has found approximate satisfaction or approval, or 
 the memory has been vividly stimulated, the interest thenceforward 
 begins to flag. But a picture which appeals to the imagination grows 
 in interest as the imaginative powers are more and more called upon. 
 Hamerton points out that the ?^;^imaginative painter is never widely 
 popular. This is manifestly the case, and the reason, perhaps, is that a 
 picture appealing to the intellect can only find response in certain 
 attuned minds, while one that appeals to the imagination scarcely ever 
 fails to find some response, although, perhaps, no two people see it 
 quite alike. Moral : always have in your photograph some part where 
 the imagination may find exercise. 
 
 37. IMAGINATION AND HALLUCINATION.~It is only in com- 
 paratively recent times that artists of all kinds are becoming fully alive 
 to the importance of educating the imagination. It is still a popular 
 delusion with the majority (not excluding some photographers) that all 
 products of the imagination are of equal value ; that the critical faculty 
 
 9 
 
IMAGINATION AND HALLUCINATION— r^;/^^;/?/^^. 
 applied to the imagination is harmful ; and that the imagination feeds 
 upon itself and should not be under rule, control, or discipline. It is 
 therefore as well to quote the able authority Hamerton, who points out 
 that imagination sees images with the mind's eye, but when these 
 images are as though seen by the physical eye they are hallucinations, 
 and may not be distinguished from reality. When this is the case, 
 mania, insanity, or madness is the general result. Hence the deep truth 
 in the common saying that it is only a narrow line that separates genius 
 from insanity. 
 
 38. LIGHT AND SHADE, NATURE OF.— There is nothing more 
 rare in ordinary procedure than that beautiful and thoroughly artistic 
 treatment of nature in which she is apprehended as light and shade and 
 colour only, the form being nowhere insisted on, though nowhere 
 inaccurately rendered. — G. Baldwin Brown. 
 
 39. LIGHT, SHADE, AND SHADOW.— There is usually a well- 
 marked relationship between the lights, shades, and shadows of a scene. 
 The shades are darker than the lights, and the shadows are darker than 
 the shades. It is not so much a question of darkness, but of quantity 
 of light. In the darkest cast shadows in nature there is always some 
 light, although by contrast at times the cast shadow may seem absolute 
 blackness and utterly devoid of any light. 
 
 40. SHADE IS NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH SHADOW.— For 
 
 instance, the light may fall upon one side of a cottage, while its adjacent 
 side receives no direct light, i.e.^ it is in shade. Shade is a negative 
 quality, the light is simply withheld from that part ; shade is then an 
 absence of light. At the same time the whole cottage may cast a 
 shadow of its form on the ground or adjacent wall, etc. 
 
 41. NATURE'S LIGHTS AND DARKS.— Nature is economical. 
 She puts her lights and darks only where she needs them. Don't try 
 to be more skilful than she is. — Hunt. 
 
 42. LIGHT AND SHADE.— In nature we can put our hands into the 
 shades, but we put them npon the lights. 
 
 Nature puts on the lights, and leaves the shades, whereas with crayon 
 or pencil we put on the shades and leave the lights {i.e., the white 
 paper). 
 
 Without shade the white paper is not light, wanting the contrast of 
 shade which alone can make it appear luminous and attractive. 
 One dark and one light place in every picture. — Hunt. 
 
 43. SHADE INDICATES RELIEF.-Light falling upon a flat sur- 
 face, a sheet of paper, for instance, illuminates it equally at all points. 
 If the paper be bent or creased, some parts are more towards, and 
 others more away from the light ; the former are lighter, and the latter 
 darker. Thus we know that all the parts are not in one plane. 
 
 lo 
 
44. VARIATIONS OF SHADE DETACH ONE PART OF A PIC- 
 TURE FROM ANOTHER.— By these variations and contrastings of 
 shades we are able to have different planes in our picture, e.g.^ the 
 foreground, middle, and extreme distances, with countless intermediates 
 connecting them. For instance, a cottage in the foreground, clump of 
 trees in the middle, and hills in distance, with sky beyond. The 
 sunlight side and shaded side of the cottage give local relief. The 
 former is lighter than, and the other darker than, the belt of trees behind 
 the cottage, and thus it comes away from the middle distance. Similarly 
 the trees are detached from the hills beyond, and they in turn are in 
 front of the sky and clouds. 
 
 45. SHADE REVEALS FORM.— We cannot do more than guess at 
 form as indicated by outline only. For instance, we may draw two 
 parallel lines to indicate the form of a cylinder, but by means of shade 
 only can we show the concave or convex — the inside or outside — of it. 
 An egg-shaped outline may represent the end of a teaspoon, but by 
 shading it we can indicate either the concave or convex side at will. 
 An elliptical outline only may represent something of that form, or it 
 may represent a circle seen in perspective. By properly shading this 
 outline it may be made to represent an egg-like body. 
 
 46. EVERYTHING THAT HAS FORM (i.e., is not flat) HAS 
 LIGHT AND SHADE.— Since the different parts of the object are 
 inclined at different angles to the direction of light, they reflect different 
 degrees of brightness. 
 
 47. SHADOWS ARE NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH REFLEC- 
 TIONS. — It is not an uncommon thing to hear people talking of the 
 shadows of the trees, boats, etc., in the water. 
 
 (1) Reflections are only formed by smooth surfaces — water (clean), 
 metals, wet sand, etc. The smoother the surface the less light it 
 scatters, and the better it reflects. We may compare the reflecting 
 powers of a sheet of metal, one part more polished than another — or of 
 clean water, and water with a film of dust floating on it. Thus the 
 conditions favourable to the formation of reflections are unfavourable to 
 the receiving of shadows ; the two are seldom seen together, but they 
 do co-exist at times. 
 
 (2) Reflections give an inverted picture of the object. 
 
 (3) The position of the reflected image shifts with any movement of 
 the spectator, or with the movement of the reflecting surface, e.g., 
 waves, etc. A cast shadow retains its position independent of the posi- 
 tion of the spectator. 
 
 (4) Reflections are formed in any light, direct or diffused. Shadows 
 are cast varying in strength and sharpness of outline in proportion with 
 the strength and directness of the illumination. 
 
 (5) Reflections are independent of the direction of light. Shadows 
 are entirely dependent upon the direction of illumination. 
 
 (6) Reflections are virtual. Shadows are real, i.e., we can receive a 
 shadow on a piece of paper ; several people can see the same shadow 
 at the same time, it is a real existence. Reflections cannot be seen 
 
 II 
 
SHADOWS NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH REFLECTIONS— 
 
 except by placing the eye in a certain position ; no two people can see 
 the same reflected image at the same time, as it varies with the position 
 of the spectator. 
 
 48. CAST SHADOWS— SOME IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 OF. — (For the difference between shade and shadow refer to p. lo.) 
 
 Shadows show gradation, and are darkest nearest to the object casting 
 the shadow. 
 
 Shadows are of a negative character, i.e., they are due to light being 
 intercepted or cut off from falling on a certain place. 
 
 Shadows are often lighted by reflected light, i.e., light reflected or 
 thrown into the shaded portion by some adjacent light-reflecting body, 
 whitewashed wall, etc., etc. 
 
 Shadows vary in apparent strength according to their distance from 
 the spectator. They are stronger, darker as they are nearer the eye, 
 i.e.y the contrast of light and shadow is strongest in the foreground. 
 
 Form of shadow depends upon the form of the object casting the 
 shadow, the direction of the incident light, and the nature of the surface 
 upon which the shadow falls. For instance, a straight stick may cast a 
 curved shadow if falling upon a curved surface, e.g., the outside of a 
 barrel, or it may take the form of a broken zig-zag line perhaps if 
 falling on some steps. Thus the form of a shadow often indicates the 
 form of the surface upon which it falls. 
 
 Shadow is darker than shade if the body casting the shadow and the 
 surface receiving this cast shadow are of the same value or tone. 
 
 Shadows increase in sharpness of outline as the light is stronger. A 
 clear day is accompanied by sharper shadows than a day with haze or 
 fog in the air. 
 
 Shadows vary in apparent intensity with the brightness of the light. 
 It is not, however, that the shadows are blacker so much as they appear 
 blacker by reason of being contrasted with a stronger surrounding light. 
 In fact, it may happen that the cast shadow in a bright sun is lighter 
 than that of a dull day by reason of in the first case receiving more 
 reflected light ; but the contrasts are accentuated, and hence it appears 
 darker. 
 
 49. OUTLINES. — It is true that there are (in nature; no outlines, 
 but everything has a boundary — and these boundaries have a definite 
 shape. Every object in nature divides space into two parts, the space 
 where it is, and the space where it is not ; between these two portions 
 of space there is a boundary, which is not space itself, for it takes up 
 no room, but it has form for all that. — John Collier. 
 
 In a drawing the outline is to the contotir of a real figure or body 
 just what the light and shade are to its surface ; the one leaves an object 
 superficial, the other makes it appear solid. 
 
 The moment light and shade are introduced, the outline should cease 
 to exist as an outline — it is no longer required. 
 
 Nature takes so much pains to conceal a distinct outline. — J. D. 
 Harding. 
 
 12 
 
50. DETAIL IN ABT AND NATURE.— Too much minute imitation 
 in a sketch or picture is often more detrimental to its merits than too 
 little. The artistic portraiture of an object results, in fact, entirely 
 from the mere representation of those peculiarities only of the object 
 which most forcibly and immediately strike the eye. ... It is because 
 photographic portraits exhibit an excessive representation of minute 
 characteristics that they so frequently fail to produce an impression 
 of a perfect likeness, notwithstanding they give the outline of the face 
 perfectly, whilst it is certain that photographs portray the foliage of a 
 tree with so much fiiimtticE that the result is often that of an uninstructive 
 blotch. Hence it is not easy to discern which is the representation of 
 oak, elm, and other kinds of foliage in a photograph ; nor can a drawing 
 indicate the characteristic aspect of foliage unless it has been made with 
 discrimination and judgment so as to display the portrayal of striking 
 general characteristics rather than of barely obvious peculiarities. — 
 Walter Crayon, " Rules for Sketching," etc. 
 
 51. DETAIL, LIMIT OF.— All that can be effected with buildings, 
 or indeed any other objects, is to convey distinctly an idea of nature. 
 In a building, whether it be old or new, whether the stones composing 
 it be regular or irregular in shape, when sufficient is portrayed to show 
 this, enough has been done; the likeness is not improved by exhibiting the 
 portraiture of every stone, since the spectator only recognises that which 
 is above alluded to in connection with the form ; the number of stones 
 contained in it being as little known to him as to the painter, the exact 
 representation of all is not felt essential to a satisfactory resemblance. 
 
 Persons who are unacquainted with art admire the works of Hobbema 
 because they are painted on a level with their capacities ; but the works 
 of Titian, from being of a higher order, require that the spectator should 
 be cultivated before he can perceive the fulness of their merits and justly 
 appreciate the talent of the artist. — J. D. Harding. 
 
 As a general rule it is better to give too little of the character of an 
 object in the shade than too much. — J. D. Harding. 
 
 52. DETAIL OR FOCUS: A PRACTICAL NOTE.— It is advisable 
 to soften the markings of detail in any distant object when a nearer one 
 is required to project from it, especially in the portions that come into 
 immediate contact with the foreground forms. Therefore in a subject 
 composed of foliage, the leaves of the more distant trees must be 
 partially suppressed as they approach the outline of those nearer the 
 eye ; and this requires the more careful attention when they are within 
 twenty or thirty yards' distance, as the effect of this optical law is most 
 evident in the immediate foreground. But even in the extreme distance 
 some deference should be paid to the rule ; and if one mountain has 
 to appear separated from another, the outline and details of the more 
 distant should be treated with greater delicacy as they approach the 
 edges of the nearer forms. — Green. 
 
 53. FINISH IN PICTURES.— Nearly all great artists have begun 
 by putting as much finish into their works as their eyesight would let 
 them. — Ellis. 
 
 13 
 
FINISH IN TlCTVRES^cfin^mued. 
 
 Elaboration is not beauty, and sand-paper has never finished a piece 
 of bad work. 
 
 Put in only such details as will help the masses. Don't have your 
 work a// trills. — Hunt. 
 
 Every artist has his point of limitation, his finishing point, and he 
 also has his point of imitation, beyond which he does not think fit to 
 follow nature. — Hamerton. 
 
 Most photographers are at first so astounded at the detail-giving 
 possibilities of modern lenses that they feel irresistibly urged to display 
 these powers under all circumstances and to their utmost limit. 'Ihis 
 may be regarded as an infantine disorder — photographic measles. After 
 this comes a time when the lens is used as a tool rather than a toy — a 
 means to an end, and not the end itself. 
 
 54. SURFACE TEXTURE.— The quality of a material is known and 
 recognised by its local variations of shade. For instance, satin, silk, 
 wool may all be in the same shade, but the variations of shade (sheen, 
 etc.) indicate the nature of the surface. Observe this in the bark of dif- 
 ferent trees, surface of leaves, massed foliage of distant trees. " Take 
 care of the shades, and the lights will take care of themselves"; or expose 
 for the darks, etc., etc., also develop for gradation in the shades, etc. 
 
 55. SURFACE APPEARANCE OF THINGS.— Ask a painter who 
 possesses the true instinct of his craft what it is in nature that he 
 desires to reproduce, and he will answer that it is the surface appear- 
 ance of things ; not their form, their colour, their texture, their light 
 and shade, severally and singly, but all these fused into one general 
 impression. . . . 
 
 Such work as this, that gives back nature just as she is seen, in the 
 most direct and simple manner, is the crown and flower of the painter's 
 craft. The secret of it lies in not troubling about the facts of nature, 
 but devoting attention to her outward seeming. All the painter need 
 strive to do is to reproduce for us the appearance of objects as visual 
 impressions. — G. Baldwin Brown. 
 
 Keep the impressions of your subject as one thing. . . . 
 
 It is persistent love of a thing that tells finally. And we are helped 
 immensely by putting down our impressions. — W. M. Hunt. 
 
 56. THE QUALITY OF SHADES IS LARGELY DEPENDENT 
 UPON THEIR DISTANCE.— Or we may otherwise express it, that 
 
 * distance is largely expressed by the quality of shade. The difference of 
 this ''quality" is twofold. First, there is in distant objects a less 
 degree of actual contrast. For instance, consider a chalk cliff with 
 dark grassy top in the immediate foreground, and a similar cliff in the 
 extreme distance. In the foreground we have a strong well-marked 
 contrast of nearly white paper and a decided grey tone. The same 
 two things seen at a distance are nearly the same tonal value ; in 
 actual colour a pearly blue grey, or in monochrome a grey pearly 
 white. Second, there is another well-marked difference in quality of 
 near and distent shades, a surface-texture quality. In the near chalk 
 
 14 
 
THE QUALITY OF Sl^ADES—coHtmu^d. 
 
 cliff, although generally it is a strong white, yet there are many 
 variations there seen, while in the distant case it is an even flat tone 
 devoid of surface quality. We see this in a sun-burnt grass field, where 
 the foreground shows us grey lines, but in the distance only a grey 
 general tone. In painting in water-colour we get this distant effect by 
 thin washes (which are soaked into the paper) one on the top of the 
 other (often with *' washing out " with clean water in between the 
 various colour washes), but the foreground is treated with firm handling, 
 more decisive, crisp, 'and direct. In charcoal, chalk, or pencil drawing 
 the distant tones must be worked into the grain of the paper, but the 
 foreground is worked on the tops of the elevations of the paper. 
 
 In photography due regard must be paid to the question of accom- 
 modating the roughness and smoothness of the grain of the paper to the 
 desired effect. The foreground and distance cannot in any well-com- 
 posed subject be of equal importance. One or other must be the more 
 important, and this should in many cases give the clue as to choice of 
 printing process, grain of paper, etc. 
 
 57. DISTANT OBJECTS.— The difference between shadow and 
 light is less sudden and less strong in distant objects than in near ones. 
 ... It is almost impossible to exaggerate the importance of repre- 
 senting this quality of delicate difference (or simplicity) of tone in 
 distant objects, especially in monochrome, where the greys and 
 purples of aerial perspective cannot be represented." — T. J. Ellis. 
 
 One thing is very certain, that you must not have two principal 
 objects, or points of equal interest ; the division of interest would 
 destroy itself. The eye would wander for a resting-place. There must 
 be a culminating point, essential and determined. — H. Warren. 
 
 Light and shade in nature have each their characteristic qualities. 
 Light is ever accompanied by the exhibition of form, and shade by its 
 obscuration ; or, in other words, the enlightened part of an object is 
 full of details expressive of its character, and these details are absent, 
 more or less, from those parts which are in shade. — N. E. Green. 
 
 58. LOCAL COLOUR CAN BE INDICATED BY SHADE.— The 
 
 new patches of clean yellow straw on the old brown roof can be in- 
 dicated by differences of shade. Their relative values are the indicators 
 of their colour. Or the rain marks on the whitewashed wall are again 
 alone indicated by variations of shade. Orthochromatic photography 
 frequently can, under proper conditions, very faithfully render the 
 values of local colour. It was this defect, in the early days of photo- 
 graphy, that gave artists so much cause for their frequent charge of 
 " falsifying values," inverting colour relationships." This is a point 
 to which the amateur does not give sufficient attention. Ruskin draws 
 pointed attention to this failing on the part of photography, and makes 
 it one of the two chief reasons why photography fails to take a place 
 alongside painting. First it falsifies values, and secondly it deals with 
 the externals of things in an impersonal way, while a painter expresses 
 his own feelings and sentiments called forth by the work in hand. 
 
 15 
 
 B 
 
hd. STRENGTH OF tOl^E.— the strength or eftect of a certain 
 i3atch of tone (not colour, but relative light or dark) is dependent 
 upon its size, its degree, its surroundings, or contrast. Thus a small 
 patch of dark on a light ground is as " telling " as a larger patch of 
 lighter tone with the same surroundings. Again, a small patch of grey 
 on white ground may be as "telling" or "strong" as the same 
 sized patch much darker, but surrounded by a proportionally darker 
 ground. This principle is of far-reaching importance when considering 
 the introduction or omission of strong points of light or dark in the 
 foreground. A point may be emphasised or subdued in this way by 
 giving it strong contrast or merging it into its surroundings. Also note 
 that the strength of tone is a strong indication of distance. The 
 difference of strength of tone of any two objects is reduced as their 
 distance from the spectator increases. Hence tone contrasts suggest 
 relative distances. 
 
 60. VALUES. — Each varying tone has a relation to every other that 
 gives a value to it, which is marred or frequently lost altogether if it is 
 not truly rendered. This is so well understood in France that special 
 study is given to relative tones or values" till a mastery is obtained 
 in dealing with them, and that gives the great strength of the French 
 school as opposed to the English. Choose a subject where the relative 
 tones are simple and plainly marked, and the masses are not too com- 
 plex. — Ellis. 
 
 61. USE AND BEAUTY.— It is curious and helpful (i.e., suggestive) 
 to notice that use and beauty more often follow than accompany each 
 other, i.e., that what has ceased to be useful may become beautiful. 
 For instance, a ruin which no longer is useful may, by force of 
 surroundings, associations (romantic, historic, etc.), be beautiful, or at 
 least picturesque. Manners and customs at one time of use are now 
 picturesque. Hence the charm of historic fiction. 
 
 Again, the contrasting of the useful with the picturesque often serves 
 to emphasise the beauty element in the latter. For example, a bit of 
 rough uncultivated land surrounded by well-tilled fields is advantaged 
 by its surroundings. 
 
 The element of time also is a factor, i.e., things which may still retain 
 their use but have ceased to be generally used by reason of being super- 
 seded by other things become surrounded with the associations of the 
 picturesque. For instance, an old wooden pile bridge over a stream 
 may still be usable, but generally abandoned for a modern iron structure. 
 The age element tends to give the former some attractiveness. 
 
 The mental power of perceiving beauty usually follows that of appre- 
 ciating utility. The latter is the product of a more advanced form of 
 culture. The same bit of moorland which to the poacher is only a 
 place where game may be caught, or to the quarryman a place for 
 
 getting" stone, may to the poet or painter be a scene of beauty.-^ 
 F'ouNDED ON H. Spencer. 
 
 i6 
 
62. A PICTURE— WHY IT PLEASES.— A good picture pleases us 
 not only by the beauty of its form and colour, and by the interest of 
 the scene it depicts, but also by the consciousness that we have of the 
 human skill that has gone to make it. We take a pride in it, in that it 
 is the work of a man like ourselves. — John Collier. 
 
 63. CONTRAST IS ESSENTIAL TO BEAUTY.— As shade is necessary 
 to give value to light, so is the straight to the curved line, the soft grey 
 subdued tints to the purer, brighter colours. The piano to the forte 
 passages, the chorus to the solo ; the grave to the gay, tragedy to 
 comedy ; the stately prose to the tripping verse. It is by opposites, 
 i.e. contrasts, that all estimations are formed. 
 
 64. CONTRAST IN PICTURES AND IN NATURE. -It must be 
 recollected that a picture has generally to be seen in a room that is 
 darker than the darkest cast shadow out of doors, and must be painted 
 so as to look well in that comparative gloom — this is obtained by 
 making the relations of shadow to light and of colour to colour more 
 intense, while the general tone has to be made lighter than what looks 
 true out of doors. — Ellis. 
 
 65. CONTRAST. — All measurements, comparisons, and standards 
 depend on the contrasting of two different things. For instance, the 
 curve-;/m of a line is estimated by contrasting or comparing it with 
 a straight line. The lightness or darkness of a mass is estimated by 
 comparing or contrasting it with something lighter or darker, and so on 
 with mass, form, colour. Hence the idea of contrast is based upon 
 comparison of different things. In other words, contrast is due to 
 variety. 
 
 Much of the charm of all art work, pictorial, dramatic, is due to the 
 contrasting of different things — artiwWy^ i.e.., with such art that the 
 spectator is so pleased with the result that he does not stay to ask how 
 it is done. 
 
 Violent contrasts are seldom pleasing in nature or art. They betray 
 themselves. Many photographers fail by reason of excessive, forced, 
 unnatural contrast, e.g.^ noisy sunset skies, silhouette figures, etc. 
 
 66. COMPOSITION— WHAT IS IT 1— Ruskin's answer is as good if 
 not better than any other. He says: "Composition means, literally 
 and simply, putting several things together, so as to make one thing 
 out of them ; the nature and goodness of which they all have a share in 
 producing. ... It is the essence of composition that everything should 
 be in a determined place, perform an intended part, and act in that part 
 advantageously for everything that is connected with it; . . . every line 
 and colour is so arranged as to advantage the rest. None are inessential, 
 however slight ; and none are independent, however forcible.'^ 
 
 67. COMPOSITION— TWO CHIEF PARTS.— The first business of 
 composition is to decide what is to be composed, and then Jiow it is to 
 be composed. In other words, selection (and consequently rejection) 
 mlist precede composition or arrangement. 
 
 17 
 
68. COMPOSITION, UTILES OF.— Any rules or laws or canons of 
 composition must by the nature of the case be negative rather than 
 positive ; i.e.^ they say what must not be done, and leave it open to the 
 artist to use his own taste as to how certain offences are to be best 
 avoided. For instance, one very elementary and universally accepted 
 rule is, never place the principal object (of size or interest) exactly in 
 the middle of the picture, either vertically or horizontally ; and this 
 rule applies with special force to an object of a straight line nature, the 
 more especially if it reaches near to the margins of the picture. Such, 
 for instance, as a long, straight, bare tree trunk, tall spire or tower, or 
 a long row of buildings, a hedge, line of trees, sea horizon. Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds has said, "Every opportunity should be taken to discountenance 
 that false and vulgar opinion that rules are the fetters of genius. They 
 are fetters only to men of no genius." 
 
 69. COMPOSITION, LAWS OF — NOT PICTURE-MAKING RE- 
 CEIPTS.— Not a few photographers have the idea that the laws of 
 composition are forniidcB whereby pictures can be made. This is no 
 more the case than that the laws of syntax and prosody are receipts for 
 
 making poetry." Moody points out that the laws of composition are 
 founded on laws of nature, e.f^.^ balance, radiation, etc., etc. For the 
 most part these laws are in reality no more than a general statement of 
 how the majority of artists have worked. They do not aim at saying 
 how a thing must be done, but rather point to the underlying principle 
 which has guided great workers. 
 
 Consequently there is much truth in the saying that the laws of com- 
 position in art or written language may prevent a man going wrong, but 
 will not tell him how to go right. They will tell him what others have 
 done, but not what he must do. " If pictures were made like puddings, 
 by receipt, there would be no art required." 
 
 70. SELECTION OF SUBJECT.— Any hint or help on this topic of 
 fundamental importance should be carefully treasured up. Armitage on 
 this point gives the following advice Whatever be your subject, the 
 utmost care should be given in selecting a subject which gives unity of 
 action. If there is a story in your picture there must not be more than 
 one. If in the secondary groups or parts there is by-play matter of 
 interest, they should be in some way not only connected with the prin- 
 cipal group or theme, but also unmistakably secondary in importance 
 or interest. There ought not to be any hesitation in the mind of the 
 spectator as to which is the centre of interest, chief group, object, or 
 person of importance. All secondary groups, figures, parts, accessories, 
 etc., ought to assist in concentrating interest in the chief focus of 
 interest of the work. Any part which attempts to rival in interest or 
 importance the chief object or part should be regarded as a usurper and 
 beheaded instanter. 
 
 71. SELECTION— WHY NECESSARY.— Holding up the mirror to 
 nature is not selection and cannot often result in a work of art. Why 
 is this ? There are two chief reasons. Firsts a work of art appeals to 
 
 i8 
 
SELECTION— WHY NECESSARY— 
 
 the imagination. This can only be done by and through the imagina- 
 tive faculty. Secondly^ a work of art appeals to the intellect also. This 
 again can only be done by and through the intellect. To do this a 
 selection of material is absolutely necessary. Thus on logical ground 
 may it be shown that the first step of any art work must be selective. 
 
 73. PKINCIPLES, IMPORTANCE OF.— As our art is not a Divine 
 gift, so neither is it a mechanical trade. Its foundations are laid in 
 solid science. And practice, though essential to perfection, can never 
 attain that to which it aims unless it works under the direction of 
 principle. — Sir J. Reynolds. 
 
 73. ARRANGEMENT OF POINTS OF INTEREST IN A PICTURE. 
 
 — ^It is an idea well worth remembering that in a well-arranged picture 
 the chief points of interest are never situated at equal distances from 
 each other. If a very brief and small sketch be made of a work of art 
 just indicating only the relative positions of the points of interest or 
 accentuation, either by form, mass, light and shade, subject, interest, 
 etc., and these points be connected by lines, these lines will be found of 
 unequal length. Also, often it will be observed that these lines form a 
 rough zigzag step-by -step sort of path from the foreground through the 
 middle to the extreme distance. Such a brief analysis of a picture is 
 often instructive, helpful, and suggestive. In our own work it helps to 
 show any formal geometrical or symmetrical arrangement. It also helps 
 to point out what may advantageously be omitted. — N. C. 
 
 74. A HINT IN COMPOSITION— LIKE CURES LIKE.— It some- 
 times happens that in a certain subject we have one objectionable 
 feature— -say a telegraph post — that cannot possibly be avoided. It will 
 at times be found that the bad effect of this one feature can be very con- 
 siderably reduced by introducing other objects of a like or similar nature, 
 so that the one becomes lost in the many, the irritation is cut up and 
 distributed. Thus three or four such posts may be introduced with a 
 good effect, whereas one would be strongly disadvantageous. 
 
 75. BALANCE OF THE TWO SIDES.— Suppose an imaginary line 
 drawn vertically about the middle of the picture. It is seldom or ever 
 a good composition if all the interest be wholly on the one side or other 
 of this line. Moreover in no conspicuous work of the great masters do 
 we find any great preponderance of interest in either of these two halves. 
 
 76. BALANCE OF INTEREST.— It is a good general working rule, 
 but with many exceptions, that where a picture contains two groups or 
 masses of interesting matter, the smaller of the two should generally 
 have the greater interest. 
 
 77. BALANCE OF STRAIGHT AND CURVED LINES.— If a picture 
 be all curves it is generally weak, and if all straight the picture is harsh 
 and unsympathetic. Nor is the effect good when they are about equally 
 divided. The best results are obtained by a preponderance of curved 
 lines with a few strong and pronounced lines, or vice versa. 
 
 19 
 
78. VALUE OF QUIET SPACES.— For every photograph that has 
 too little subject in it there are ninety-nine that have too much subject. 
 The first lesson every artist has to learn is selection. The great art of 
 selection is knowing what to leave out. The amateur sketcher has this 
 forced upon him in his first effort. The photographer at first tries to 
 get the greatest possible amount of subject on his negative, and it is 
 only after many disappointing (pictorial) failures that it dawns upon him 
 that a small bit is often far better than the whole. Here comes in the 
 great value of plain, quiet spaces — spaces w^here the eye may rest and 
 not be weary. The value of such patches in the foreground when 
 judiciously placed cannot be over-estimated. As silent intervals 
 accentuate sounds, so these eye-rests enhance the value of the other 
 parts. Very few photographers have as yet at all recognised the value 
 of quiet, plain spaces. 
 
 79. BACKGROUNDS.— ^^othing is apparent without a background. 
 A white egg against white paper is as nothing. — Hunt. 
 
 80. THE FOREGROUND— ITS IMPORTANCE.— In a large majority 
 of pictures which appeal to the imagination, strike the fancy, and are 
 held in memory, the foreground is the part best remembered, the part 
 most essential, the part which first attracted attention. In probably 
 nine cases out of ten the importance of the foreground is considerably 
 greater than all the rest of the picture. 
 
 81. FOREGROUND— ONE USE THEREOF.— One of the chief uses 
 of the foreground is that it enables us to add something to the com- 
 position so as to give point or emphasis, eg., to balance the lines, or 
 masses, or lights, etc., of a picture; to give a point of interest, e.g.^ a 
 figure at a certain point ; or hide an undesirable feature or break up an 
 unpleasant line, or emphasise a contrast of light and shade. It is in the 
 foreground that our greatest power of arrangement, i.e., composition, 
 exists. 
 
 82. GRACEFULNESS.— Attitudes or movements marked by grace 
 are usually those where a minimum of force is expended. Hence the 
 frequent association of *'easy" and ^'graceful." So that violent 
 exertion or unaccustomed movements are seldom graceful. Thus those 
 who live in mountainous districts generally walk more gracefully than 
 town dwellers, because the springiness so helpful in up and down 
 climbing is unconsciously acquired in hilly countries. Again, those 
 who spend much time in small craft, fisher-folk, etc., unconsciously 
 acquire an instinct of balance which lends an ease and grace to their 
 movements. The importance of balance is appreciated by the skater, 
 fencer, etc. It is this factor which so much adds the flowing element 
 of grace, so that one movement or pose melts into another without 
 sudden transition. 
 
 83. STUDY OR SKETCH— THEIR DIFFERENCE.— The former is 
 a " finished part " of a picture, the latter is an unfinished whole. They 
 may be compared to a few selected verbatim sentences as compared 
 with outline of the whole of a speech. 
 
84. STYLE -SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS' REMARK.— Style," 
 says he, " in painting is the same as in writing, a power over materials, 
 whether words or colours, by which conceptions or sentiments are 
 conveyed." 
 
 85. STYLE AND MANNERISM.— The former is as desirable as the 
 latter is injurious — fatal to greatness ; yet the two are often confused, 
 or the words used synonymously. "The former," says Sir Joshua, 
 *'is the same in painting as in writing, a power over materials, whether 
 words or colours, by which conceptions or sentiments are conveyed." 
 The latter, says Armitage, ' ' is perhaps the rock on which most rising 
 reputations are shipwrecked, not only in France, but everywhere else." 
 The great Whately said, in reply to a question as to the difference 
 between a for?}i and a ceretnony^ " You sit upon a form but you stand 
 upon a certmony.'' In the same w^ay, we may say, when you work in 
 quite your own way, without affectation or imitation, your work is in 
 your own style, but if you imitate or pretend to be other than what 
 you truly are, you are affecting a mannerism. You possess your own 
 style, but you steal your mannerism. 
 
 86. TASTE. — A person who shows no other symptoms of his taste 
 than his cabinet or gallery might as well boast to one of the furniture of 
 his kitchen. I know no other motive but vanity that induces the great 
 to testify such an inordinate passion for pictures. — Goldsmith. 
 
 87. PICTURESQUENESS.— It is far more a matter of arrangement 
 of treatment of light and shade, or selection and composition, than in 
 some imaginary quality so often supposed to belong to the subject. A 
 sufficiently great artist could present any subject in a picturesque way. 
 
 88. ORIGINALITY. — Originality is any conception of things taken 
 immediately from nature, and neither borrowed from nor common to 
 others. To deserve this appellation the copy must be both true and 
 new. But herein lies the difficulty of reconciling a seeming contradic- 
 tion in the terms of the explanation. For as anything to be natural 
 must be referable to a consistent principle, Snd as the face of things is 
 open and familiar to all, how can any imitation be new and striking 
 without being liable to the charge of extravagance, distortion, and 
 singularity ? And, on the other hand, if it has no such peculiar and 
 distinguishing characteristic to set it off, it cannot properly rise above 
 the level of the trite and commonplace. . . . 
 
 Nature presents an endless variety of aspects, of which the mind 
 seldom takes in more than a part, or than one view at a time, and it is 
 in seizing on this unexplored variety, in giving some one of these new 
 but easily recognised features in its characteristic essence, and according 
 to the peculiar bent and force of the artist's genius, that true originality 
 consists. — Hazlitt. 
 
 89. LANDSCAPE ART, THE TWO GREAT ENDS OF.— Mr. Ruskin 
 points out, in his famous "Modern Painters," that the "landscape 
 painter must always have two great and distinct ends. The first, to 
 induce in the spectator's mind the faithful conception of any natural 
 
 21 
 
LANDSCAPE ART, THE TWO GREAT ENDS O'B—contimied, 
 
 objects whatsoever ; the second, to guide the spectator's mind to those 
 objects most worthy of his contemplation, and to inform him of the 
 thoughts and feelings with which these were regarded by the artist him- 
 self. " In other words, this may be put somewhat thus for the photo- 
 graphic student. First, we must not give an tm — i.e.^ contra — natural 
 impression ; and, secondly, we must strive to convey to the spectator 
 the expression of our choice of subject and our own impressions of the 
 parts so chosen. Thus is it seen how much does personality enter into 
 real art work. 
 
 90. LANDSCAPES, THE USE OF FIGURES IN.— There is no more 
 certain test of a cultivated taste than that displayed by the right or wrong 
 use of figures introduced in landscape. The following considerations 
 show the great importance of the subject : — 
 
 (1) Figures when properly introduced may be made to yield the sug- 
 gestion of life or of movement. In the one case we have an appeal to 
 human sympathies, in the second to human experience and intelligence. 
 
 (2) By their costume, etc., they may help to fix the time, locality, or 
 point to some special feature of interest. 
 
 (3) By their action, position, etc., they may help to convey the senti- 
 ment of the scene, tell the story, explain the position. 
 
 (4) They materially assist by giving scale, and so help in forming the 
 conceptions of space, distance, and atmosphere. 
 
 (5) They may be made of great use to balance a line or mass, or to 
 accentuate or hide a point, to connect different parts. 
 
 91. TREES. — Among the impressions we derive from trees are those 
 of semi-transparency in the foliage, and opacity in the stems and 
 branches. Before our portraiture can be complete, ideas of those 
 qualities must be excited in the mind. 
 
 The general roundness of the tree depends on the outline being 
 made tender at the top and at the extremities, and gradually becoming 
 darker, and exhibiting the leaves larger towards the middle and lower 
 part of the tree ; and displaying the greatest degree of strength in the 
 foliage of the nearest branches, that is on those which come forward 
 towards the spectator, where the leaves would of course be most plainly 
 seen. 
 
 The shaded sides of trees are gradually darker from the top towards 
 the bottom, and from the extremities on either side to the centre, not 
 by any sudden or violent transition, but by imperceptible gradation. — 
 J. D. Harding. 
 
 92. PICTURES FROM THE POETS.— A study of poetry is helpful 
 to an artistic-minded photographer in two ways. Poetry," says Hare, 
 *'is the key to the hieroglyphics of nature," and every artist is a nature 
 student. If architecture be frozen music, then *' poetry is musical 
 thought," as Carlyle puts it, or as Fuller says, "Poetry is music in 
 words, and music is poetry in sound." The study of poetry helps us 
 to find beauty and happiness in all conditions and places. To this 
 
 22 
 
PICTUKES FROM THE VO'ET^— continued. 
 
 Coleridge testifies thus : *' Poetry has given me the habit of wishing to 
 discover the good and beautiful in all that meets and surrounds me." 
 Picture- making is based upon the power of imagination, and to this 
 end again do the poets help us, and Johnson's definition may be 
 recalled, Poetry is the art of uniting pleasure with truth, by calling 
 imagination to the help of reason." To sum up, then, we may say that 
 poets teach us what to look for, and how to see it. 
 
 Secondly, we all know that many a successful picture owes no little 
 of its success to an entirely appropriate title, and on this the poets give 
 us many a hint. It is their business to find the best words for their 
 thoughts. In a word they often supply us with just the very words to 
 express the thing in our minds. To sum up, the poets also show us 
 how to name our pictures : — 
 
 The broken sheds look'd sad and strange, 
 Uplifted was the clinking latch, 
 Weeded and worn the ancient thatch. 
 
 —Tennyson (" Mariana"). 
 . . . A sand-built ridge 
 Of heaped hills that bound the sea. 
 
 — Tennyson Memory"). 
 See, winter comes to rule the varied year, 
 Sullen and sad, with all his rising train, 
 Vapours, and clouds, and storms. 
 
 — Thomson (''Seasons")- 
 When the bright sunset fills 
 The silver woods with light. 
 
 — Longfellow ( " April "). 
 The sheltered cot, the cultivated farm, 
 The never-failing brook, the busy mill, 
 The decent church, that topped the neighbouring hill. 
 
 — Goldsmith (" Deserted Village "). 
 No more the glassy brook reflects the day, 
 But, chok'd with sedges, works its weedy way. 
 
 — Goldsmith (" Deserted Village"). 
 To-night will be a stormy night. 
 
 — Wordsworth Q' Lucy Gray "). 
 Hail, twilight, sovereign of one peaceful hour. 
 
 — Wordsworth (" Twilight "). 
 The way was long, the wind was cold. 
 
 —Scott (" Last Minstrel ''). 
 Land of brown heath and shaggy wood, 
 Land of the mountain and the flood. 
 
 —Scott Caledonia "). 
 When red hath set the beamless sun 
 Through heavy vapours dank and dun. 
 
 —Scott ("Last Minstrel "), 
 
 23 
 
PICTURES FROM THE continued. 
 
 Now nature hangs her mantle green 
 
 On every blooming tree, 
 And spreads her sheets of daisies white 
 Out o'er the grassy lea. 
 
 — Burns (" Lament"). 
 
 Three fishers went sailing out into the west, 
 
 Out into the west as the sun went down, . . . 
 
 . . . And the children stood watching them out of the town. 
 
 — KiNGSLEY. 
 
 The apparel oft proclaims the man. 
 
 — Shakespeare ("Hamlet"). 
 
 Stern winter now resigns the lengthening day. 
 
 — Bruce (*' Spring"). 
 
 One willow over the river wept, 
 
 And shook the wave as the wind did sigh. 
 
 — Tennyson ("Dying Swan"). 
 
 I love the twilight as thy shadows roll, 
 Sul:)limely tender, solemnly serene. 
 
 —Montgomery (" Twilight "). 
 
 A wet sheet and a flowing sea, 
 
 A wind that follows fast, 
 And fills the white and rustling sail, 
 
 And bends the gallant mast. 
 
 — Cunningham. 
 
 And o'er the furrow'd land, 
 Fresh from the plough, the dun-discoloured flocks, 
 Untended spreading, crop the wholesome root. 
 
 — Thomson (*' Seasons "). 
 
 Drink to me only with thine eyes. 
 
 And I will pledge with mine ; 
 Or leave a kiss within the cup, 
 
 And ril not look for wine. 
 
 — Ben Jonson. 
 
 When . . . dark and many-folded clouds foretell 
 The coming on of storms. 
 
 —Longfellow April "). 
 
 The hawthorn budding in the glen, 
 And milk-white is the sloe. 
 
 — Burns Lament "). 
 
 'Tis sweet to visit the still wood, where springs 
 The first flower of the plain. 
 
 — Longfellow (" April "). 
 
 24 
 
PICTURES FROM THE VQWH^—coniinued. 
 
 Half- robed appears the hawthorn hedge. 
 
 — Warton (" Spring "). 
 
 Deep in the shady sadness of a vale. 
 
 — Keats. 
 
 The wild brook babbling down the mountain side. 
 
 — Beattie ('* Landscape"). 
 
 The clouds consign their treasures to the fields. 
 
 — Thomson. 
 
 Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean — roll ! 
 
 —Byron (''Ocean "). 
 
 O winter, ruler of the inverted year, 
 
 Thy scatter'd hair with sleet-like ashes fill'd. 
 
 — CowPER Winter "). 
 
 When storms are on the wing. 
 
 — Montgomery. 
 
 Beneath the umbrageous multitude of leaves. 
 
 — Thomson. 
 
 These tattered clothes my poverty bespeak, 
 These hoary locks proclaim my lengthened years. 
 
 —Moss (" The Beggar"). 
 
 The cherished fields 
 Put on their winter robe of purest white. 
 
 — Thomson. 
 
 'Tis brightness all, save where the new snow melts, 
 Along the mazy current. 
 
 — Thomson. 
 
 One wide dazzling waste, that buries wide 
 The works of man. 
 
 — Thomson. 
 
 A man he was to all the country dear. 
 
 --Goldsmith (" Deserted Village "). 
 
 The trees are in their blossom. 
 The birds are in their song. 
 
 — T. J. Ouseley. 
 Where the nibbling flocks do stray. 
 
 — Milton. 
 
 The hedges luxuriant with flowers and balm 
 Are purple with violets and shaded with palm.- 
 
 —Eliza Cook, 
 
 25 
 
93. EXPOSURE FACTORS.— It is difficult to over-estimate the great 
 importance of timing the exposure approximately correctly. So7nething 
 can be done in development, but a correct exposure is of the greatest 
 assistance. The following factors at least should be taken into con- 
 sideration : — ■ 
 
 (1) Sensitiveness or rapidity of the plate. 
 
 (2) Effective aperture of lens or pinhole, etc. 
 {3) Colour of the subject. 
 
 (4) Distance of subject from camera. 
 
 (5) Actinic power of the light, i.e., 
 
 (a) Latitude of the place ; 
 (^) Time of year — of day ; 
 (<:) State of atmosphere ; clouds ; fog, etc. 
 
 (6) Results desired, i.e., whether increase or decrease of contract 
 
 required. 
 
 94. COUNTING SECONDS.— A bunch of keys, knife, stone, bullet, 
 etc., or any small, heavy object at the end of a string, between 39 in. 
 and 40 in. long, will swing once each way in a second. Or, if the 
 string be just short of 10 in., each journey takes half a second. 
 
 95. NUMBER YOUR PLATES BEFORE DEVELOPMENT.— This 
 is best done as soon as the dark slides or double backs are loaded, 
 and just before dusting. For the purpose use a r^M^r sharply pointed 
 lead pencil. Number the plates with continuous numbers corresponding 
 to the first column in your pocket-book, or exposure record. A letter 
 (one or two) indicates the brand of plates, and a number follows for the 
 individual plate. Thus, SR 315, i.e.. Smith's rapid, number 315. Hold 
 the double back so that the draw-slide is to the right hand, and with 
 the number on the /(/^ hand iop corner, so that whichever way the 
 plate is used, vertical or horizontal, the number ahvays comes in the sky 
 part. Being on the film side, the mark does not rub or wash out ; and 
 as the marks need not be any larger than the capital letters at the top 
 of each note on this page, their presence in printing is never perceptible. 
 If the pencil has too sharp a point, or used too roughly, the film is torn 
 and a blister or frilling follows. 
 
 96. CONTRAST. EXPOSURE AND DEVELOPMENT.- 6-/?^?;/ ex- 
 posure tends to emphasise contrast of light and shade, resulting in a 
 hard negative. 
 
 Over-exposure tends to reduce contrast, and yields a soft or flat 
 negative. 
 
 Quick developDient tends to reduce contrast. 
 
 Slow development tends to delicacy and detail, with longer scale of 
 gradation. 
 
 Quick developfnent may be brought about by warming developer, 
 concentration, or excess of alkali. 
 
 Slow develop7?ient may be the result of a low temperature, dilution, or 
 very little alkali and excess of bromide. 
 
 26 
 
9^. BEVELOPIltG SOLUTIONS in cold weather should be slightly 
 warmed, to bring them to normal temperature, say about 70° F. 
 This may be done by standing the bottles in a suitable vessel (jam^ 
 pot, pie dish, cup, etc.), containing water rather warmer than the 
 desired temperature, say 90 — 100° F. The dishes, measures, etc., may 
 be slightly warmed by filling them with tepid water. The fixing bath 
 should in like manner have the chill taken off by pouring the fluid into 
 a large bottle and standing it in a warm room. The dish is warmed by 
 filling it with tepid water. Cold usually retards all chemical action, 
 therefore a due allowance of extra time should be made. Extreme cold 
 has been shown to reduce the sensitiveness of dry plates, etc. 
 
 98. LOCAL DEVELOPMENT.— Sometimes in an otherwise bright 
 picture we may have one part of non-actinic colour, or a very poorly 
 lighted, ^.o-., interior of cottage seen through open door. It is desired 
 to accentuate the development of this part without affecting the rest of 
 the plate. This may be done: (i) By tilting the dish so that the 
 developer acts more on one part than another, but no part must be 
 allowed to dry during development. The part to be kept back may be 
 moistened with soft brush and clean water. (2) By the application, by 
 means of a soft brush, of concentrated and slightly warmed developer. 
 (3) Jiy rubbing the part with the tip of a warm finger. (4) Roll up a 
 small tube of paper and gently breath through it warm breath upon the 
 part to be stimulated. 
 
 99. NEGATIVES— SOME DEFECTS AND THEIR CAVS^S.—Fo^^y 
 
 all over, excepting where covered by the rebate of the dark-slide or 
 plate holder, indicates that the effect was produced in the camera either 
 by leakage through some hole in the bellows, lens flange, dark-slide 
 groove, or that the plate was over-exposed, or that the sun was shining 
 direct on to the glass of the lens. If rebales are also fogged^ it 
 indicates faulty dark-room illumination before or during development, 
 or contaminated developer, or excess of alkali, or deterioration of the 
 plate due to age, damp, vitiated air, impure paper in contact with the 
 film, etc. 
 
 Abundant detail in the shadow^:, but lacking in contrast, indicates 
 lack of contrast in the subject, e.g., flat lighting in portraiture, or over- 
 exposure and too much alkali in development, or using a spent developer, 
 or using a weak developer for too short a time. 
 
 No detail in the shadows, zvith excessive contrast, indicates short 
 exposure or too great contrast in the lighting of the subject, or using 
 a developer very strong in restrainer. 
 
 Clear shadows and iveak in contrast, usually due to too short a time 
 in development, due allow^ance for the loss in fixing bath not having 
 been made. 
 
 Round or oval clear spots, with sharp, dark edges, probably due to 
 air bells clinging to the plate during development. 
 
 Fine clear spots, usually due to dust on the plate during exposure, 
 or to sand grains, etc., clinging to the plate during development. 
 
 27 
 
NEGATIVES -SOME DEFECTS ANB THEIR CAV^E^—co^t^inuec/. 
 
 Opaque spots after fixing, caused by sand, etc., in the fixing bath, 
 or using a dirty or spent fixing bath, or due to defective gelatine in the 
 emulsion. 
 
 Yelloiv staining of the fihii, when using a pyro developer where the 
 soda sulphite has not been sufficient in quantity or defective in quality, 
 or using an old pyro developer, or fixing in a bath that has been used 
 and kept for some time. 
 
 General mottling of the film all over may arise from packing the 
 plates in contact with impure or very uneven paper. More often is due 
 to imperfect fixing by using a spent bath or one not containing sufficient 
 hypo, or a hypo bath partly decomposed by acid or alum. 
 
 Irregular lines and patches of uneven density, often due to lack of 
 art or dexterity in pouring on the developer at fhe outset in one steady 
 sweep so that it passes all over the plate in an unbroken wave. 
 
 Finger marks ^ i.e., fine parallel curved lines, due to touching the film 
 with fingers the least bit moist or greasy. 
 
 Clear corners, when the lens does not properly cover the plate. 
 
 Other defects due to mechanical means, lines caused by using a 
 scratchy dusting brush, or by some projecting part, screw, splinter of 
 wood, etc., inside the shutter of the dark slide ; or due to leakage of 
 light along the hinged (folding) part of the plate holder, etc., etc. 
 
 100. PINHOLES IN NEGATIVES- CAUSE AND CURE.— Fine 
 transparent spots or pinholes" on negatives are far too common. 
 Their chief causes are two. Firstly, very small air bells clinging to the 
 plate and so preventing the access of the developer. Remedy, carefully go 
 lightly over the surface of the plate with a soft brush or a fold of velvet, 
 just before development. Secondly, solid particles adhering to the surface 
 of the plate during development. These may be dust from the air, fine 
 particles of wood, due to the grinding action of the edge of the glass 
 plate in the dark-slide, solid material particles in the tap water or 
 developer. Remedy is obvious ; first dust the plate just before immersing 
 in the solutions, and also filter the developer (see note on filtering, etc.), 
 and use water free from solid particles. This last may be done either 
 by using a tap filter (see note how to make tap filter), or letting the 
 water to be used stand for a few hours in a tall jug, so that the particles 
 may settle to the bottom. 
 
 101. TITLES ON NEGATIVES.— It is sometimes desirable to make 
 a print so that the title may appear white on dark ground. This may 
 easily be done thus : — Take a thin piece of glass, e.g., lantern cover 
 glass, lay this on a sheet of white paper ; with a fine brush and some 
 opaque water-colour (vermilion answers very well) and a little gum 
 arable water paint the title on the clean glass. As soon as dry turn it 
 over and you have a copy in reversed writing, and all one now need 
 do is to repeat the process on the film of the negative. The thinner 
 the clean glass used the easier it is to see when reversed. A damp 
 sponge removes the colour, so that the same glass may be used ad 
 injinitum. 
 
 28 
 
102. AIR BELLS DURING DEVELOPMENT.-Air bells or small 
 round bubbles of air clinging to the plate during development prevent 
 the developer reaching that part of the film surface. On fixing, these 
 round spots show as clear spaces and print dark spots. Whence come 
 these air bells ? They are due to two causes chiefly. Firstly, to air in 
 the water ; secondly, to the film surface from some cause or other re- 
 pelling the developmg fluid. If water be used from the street tap service 
 at high pressure it commonly contains many small air bells. To get rid 
 of these it will often suffice if the water be drawn into a jug and set 
 aside for half an hour or so with an occasional stir with a glass rod. The 
 air bells either rise to the surface or cling to the walls of the containing 
 vessel — much in the same way that we see the bubbles of gas in soda 
 water. If this fails, the water should be boiled to expel the air and 
 then set aside to cool. This may be relied upon. If, however, the 
 trouble is due to the developer not evenly wetting the film surface, the 
 best course is to give a preliminary wetting in plain water and gently 
 brush the film surface before wetting with a soft dry brush, and again, 
 when in the water, with a tuft of cotton wool. Should the film surface 
 seem at all greasy, then a few drops of alcohol added to the developer 
 will probably remedy matters. 
 
 Air-bell markings are sometimes due to frothing of the developer in 
 prolonged development. If the developer be quickly rocked, it has 
 sometimes a tendency (pyro ammonia especially) to get rather frothy. 
 These air bubbles are apt to cling in groups to the surface of the plate 
 and cause markings. Should this happen, the developer should be 
 returned to the cup or measure, the plate rinsed with water, and the 
 developer quickly strained through muslin, or the frothy scum swept off" 
 with a bit of paper. 
 
 103. A DEVELOPING TRAY, TO EXTEMPORISE.— In case of 
 emergency the following plan will be found effective: — Take a good-sized 
 piece of paraffin wax, say half or more of a paraffin candle ; cut up into 
 pieces and remove the wick. Place the wax in a teacup and melt 
 thoroughly in the oven or on the hob. Now take the lid of a plate 
 box, and see that it is sound and free from holes at the corners or 
 edges. Warm it slightly, and pour into it the melted wax, moving it 
 about the while so that all parts of the lid are in contact with the 
 melted wax. Allow the wax to penetrate (thoroughly) the card and 
 pour off" any superfluous paraffin. Now thoroughly warm the tray and 
 drain from any wax which has not penetrated the card. Let it cool 
 gradually and wash under the tap (cold water) for a minute or so 
 before using for developing. 
 
 104. SIMPLE ROCKER FOR LARGE TRAYS.— It is a somewhat 
 tiring affair to hold a large porcelain dish, say 1 6 by 13 inches or larger, for 
 ten minutes or so and keep the solution moving about from one end of the 
 dish to the other all the time, during development, etc. A very simple 
 rocker can be made in a few minutes from one of those small wooden 
 rollers sent out with some kinds of paper. All one need do is simply 
 
 29 
 
SIMPLE ROCKER EOR LARGE "f^Kt^— continued . 
 to plane down a strip sufficient to make it rest on the bench without any 
 
 hand is often quite enough. This kind of rod may often be met with at 
 the oil shops, and is sold for putting into the slot of a window blind. 
 
 105. RETOUCHING, TO PREPARE A FILM FOR.— (i) Dip the 
 
 tip of the finger in very finely powdered resin or in fine Tripoli powder, 
 or very fine pumice powder, and rub gently in a circular direction. 
 
 (2) Dissolve a bit of resin the size of a hazel nut in an ounce of tur- 
 pentine, and apply a few drops with the aid of a piece of soft flannel. 
 
 (3) Another retouching varnish may be made thus : — Sandarac I oz., 
 castor oil I drachm, alcohol 5 oz. 
 
 (4) Canada balsam i part, turpentine 50 parts. 
 
 (5) Finely powdered cuttlefish sifted through a double thickness of 
 the finest linen, and applied with tip of the finger and gentle rubbing. 
 
 106. HINT FOR RETOUCHERS.— We often want to apply the re- 
 touching or " toothing " varnish to one small part, say one head in a 
 group. For this, and all like purposes, it is most convenient to do so 
 by means of a glass rod with round ends. (How to cut and make a 
 glass rod, see Notes 183-4-5.) For this purpose a rather slender 
 rod is preferable, and it is most convenient to bore a hole in the cork 
 of the bottle, and pass the rod through the hole. By this means we 
 keep the rod clean, always at hand, avoid touching the sticky cork, and. 
 can apply a large or small drop exactly where it is wanted on the film. 
 Having applied the retouching varnish, let it evaporate, say for half a 
 minute, then take a bit of clean rag, and, with a circular motion, begin 
 with the drop or drops, and always working in larger and larger circles. 
 Do not begin working with the pencil until the varnish has ceased to 
 feel sticky. 
 
 107. RETOUCHING PENCIL, TO SHARPEN. -It is often a great 
 convenience to have several retouching pencils at hand, of varying 
 degrees of hardness, and with different kinds of points. Perhaps the 
 best method of obtaining any desired kind of point (from blunt, fine, 
 sharp, broad, etc.) is to have at hand a piece of rough, of medium, and 
 of fine sand paper, and also a small strip of rather coarse ground glass ; 
 with this choice of rubbers any kind of point can be quickly obtained. 
 
 a. 
 
 tendency to roll about. The 
 accompanying sketch will give 
 the idea at a glance. The 
 shaded part is removed with 
 the plane. The strip rests 
 on the bench on the flat side. 
 The developing tray is just 
 about balanced on this rod, 
 and with a finger at each end 
 a large heavy tray can be 
 kept rocking without any 
 trouble at all. In fact, one 
 
 30 
 
RETOUCHING PENCIL, TO SHARPEN— 
 
 A scratchy point is always to be avoided. The finest work can be done 
 with a long tapering point, which never need be scratchy. When using 
 these sharpening rubbers, keep the pencil constantly turning round and 
 round between the fingers. 
 
 108. THE SCRAPER NEEDLE— A RETOUCHING HINT.— It is 
 
 comparatively an easy matter to fill up a light spot with a pointed 
 pencil when retouching a negative, but it is not quite so easy to reduce 
 in density an opaque dark spot. This can, however, be done with a 
 little patience and the instrument which any reader can make for himself 
 in the following way : — Take a stout sewing needle, say a 
 No. I or No. 2. Hold it in the candle or gas flame until 
 one end is red-hot, using for the purpose a pair of pliers or 
 pincers. Then firmly press the red-hot end into the blunt 
 end of a wood pen-holder (without the metal fitting) and 
 leave only about three-quarters of an inch of needle (the 
 head end) projecting. Nip off with a pair of cutting 
 pliers the eye of the needle. Then on a hone or any hard 
 stone grind the projecting point into a double-edged, blade 
 similar to what one sees sold by stationers as an erasing 
 knife. The accompanying sketch will give the idea of the « 
 form of blade. The part near the end, but not quite the end, is used for 
 lightly and patiently scraping away the film. In this way many nega- 
 tives may be greatly improved. 
 
 109. TO BLOCK OUT A SKY.— If the sky line is soft, then let the 
 blocking-out be done with orange paper, carefully cut to the right size 
 and shape, and applied to the glass side of the negative by means of a 
 touch of " stickfast " along its extreme edges. 
 
 But if the sky line be clearly, sharply defined, e.g.^ as in some archi- 
 tectural subjects, the exact outline must be stopped out. on the film side. 
 For this purpose it is very convenient to use (moist colour) vermilion, 
 applied by the aid of a finely pointed brush. The colour must not 
 "run," and should be applied with a nearly dry brush ; a little gum 
 arable in the water tends to prevent the colour running. It is only 
 necessary to put a line of about a quarter of an inch wide all along the 
 part to be blocked out. The rest may be more quickly and conveniently 
 done by orange paper on the glass side of the negative. 
 
 110. MATT VARNISH, TO COLOUR— A PRINTER'S HINT.— It 
 
 is probably in the after treatment and printing of a negative that the 
 real skill of a man makes its mark. Any hint upon this topic is valued 
 chiefly by those who already know most about such subjects. It is not 
 very generally known that ordinary matt varnish will dissolve a certain 
 quantity of metal iodine. This renders it a yellow colour, and causes 
 it to stop much more printing light than does the ordinary matt varnish. 
 Proceed thus : — To two ounces of ordinary matt varnish add a few flakes 
 of metal iodine. Shake gently, until a saturated solution is obtained 
 
 31 c 
 
MATT VARNISH, TO COLOVR— continued . 
 
 (a little iodine goes a long v/ay in the matter of colour) ; when saturated, 
 take half an ounce and add an equal quantity of white matt varnish. 
 To another half ounce add double its quantity of the colourless varnisii. 
 We have thus four grades of colour, viz., saturated, h^ilf saturate<l, one- 
 third saturated, and clear. They may be applied to the glass side 
 by the aid of a fairly large camel's-hair brush. Any excess when dry 
 may be scraped away with a knife, and the part cleaned with a bit of rag 
 moistened with methylated spirit. 
 
 111. STRONG OR WEAK NEGATIVES, TO PRINT.— The majority 
 of amateurs drop into the habit of using only one . printing process for 
 all their negatives, be they vigorous and strong in contrast, or thin, 
 flat, and weak, with results very greatly varying in success. By 
 adapting the printing process to suit the character of the negative, good 
 results may be obtained by a suitable process from a negative, which 
 are practically impossible with certain other processes. 
 
 Supposirig we had a series of negatives, commencing with the thinnest, 
 flattest image, and gradually increasing in contrast and vigour up to 
 strong blacks and clear glass. We may arrange our printing process in 
 a corresponding order, somewhat thus — 
 
 English collodio-chloride ... ... The thinnest negative. « 
 
 Foreign ,, ,, ... ... Slightly less thin. ' ' . • 
 
 Strong P.O. P. and gelatino- • ^ 
 
 chloride papers generally ... Thin, but full of detaiL * " ' 
 
 Platinotype, cold CC Soft, delicate negative, tending to 
 
 ', ■ thinness. 
 Bromide contact (gaslight printing) A moderately thin negative with 
 
 detail, but some range of con- 
 trast. •' ' ^ . 
 Platinotype cold A A ... ... A medium soft negative. ^ 
 
 ,, sepia, or black and : ■ . . 
 
 white hot bath ... ... ... A medium negative, neither flat 
 
 nor hard, preferably tending 
 to vigour. 
 
 Bromide, daylight contact ... ... A fairly strong negative. 
 
 Carbon contact printing ... ... About the same, but not very 
 
 ■ ' dense in any part. 
 Albumenised silver paper ..V A fairly plucky negative, but not 
 
 yellow stained. 
 
 Silver paper sensitised on weak bath From medium to hard and strong. 
 
 A^oU. — In sensitising either carbon or plain silver paper, the strength 
 of the sensitising solution should be adapted to the negative. In 
 carbon the bichromate may vary from one to five per cent., according 
 as the negative is- hard or soft, three to four being, as a rule, a good 
 all-round working strength. Similarly the silver nitrate may vary from 
 30 to 60 gr. per oz. for hard or soft negatives ten per cent., or, say, 
 45^ gr. J being a good average strength. 
 
112. PRINTING AND DENSITY.— very hard negative, giving 
 strong contrasts, yields best results in a strong light, i.e.^ direct sun- 
 light. 
 
 A very iveak negative, thin and poor in contrast, should be printed in 
 a weak light, or under one or more thicknesses of tissue paper. 
 
 A nieduirn negative yields best results in good diffused light, i.e., 
 reflected from white clouds. 
 
 Printing under green glass is said to improve the contrast of flat 
 negatives, due to over-exposure. 
 
 113. CRACKED NEGATIVE, TO PRINT.— If the glass be cracked, 
 but the film intact: (i) Try printing the negative in a fairly long 
 room, placing it facing the light, but as far from the light as possible. 
 (2) Try printing it when placed at the bottom of a deep narrow box 
 with darkened sides. (3) Or what is equivalent to the same thing, viz., 
 make a square tube of dark card 2 or 3 feet long, and just large enough 
 at one end to take the printing frame. (4) Or print the negative in 
 diffused light when covered over with one or two thicknesses of ground- 
 glass or tissue paper. The object to be attained is to prevent light 
 being reflected from the bright surfaces produced by the fracture of the 
 glass. 
 
 114. ALBUMENISED PAPER, EXPANSION OF.— Many amateurs 
 do not seem to know that the ordinary albumenised (silver sensitised) 
 paper does not expand equally in all directions. This may easily be 
 shown by the following experiment : — Cut a long strip, say 15 inches 
 long by I inch wide, from the long way of the paper, and mark it L, so 
 that it may afterwards be known ; then cut another strip exactly the 
 same length and breadth from the width of the paper, and mark this 
 W. If these two strips are now thoroughly soaked in water to their 
 full power of expansion, it will be found on comparing their length 
 that the one marked W is a trifle the longer of the two. In other 
 words, the paper expands more along its width than it does along its 
 length. Hence, if a portrait negative be printed first on a piece cut the 
 " long way " of the paper, and then on another the " wide way," and 
 the two toned, etc., and mounted side by side, it will be seen that the 
 "long way" piece has rounded the face, and that the "wide way" 
 piece has elongated the head. 
 
 115. ALBUMENISED SENSITISED PAPER, TO STORE.— This 
 keeps best when fairly dry and with as little exposure to the air as 
 possible. Place the sheets face to face, roll round a wooden roller 
 previously covered with dry paper, finally enclose^- in two or three 
 thicknesses of orange paper, tightly rolled. If cut sheets are to be 
 stored, place between a couple of old negatives in a printing frame with 
 strong spring, and put in dry, dark place. 
 
 116. MOONLIGHT EFFECT WITH SILVER PRINTS.— Select a 
 subject containing more dark than light parts. Make the print decidedly 
 
 33 
 
MOONLIGHT EFFECT WITH SILVER mi't^TS—conlmued. 
 
 darker than for ordinary effect. Wash, tone, fix, and wash as usual. 
 Buy a penny packet of blue dye powder from the oil shops. This will 
 probably completely dissolve in about two ounces of tepid water. If 
 not, try the effect of adding a drop or two of acetic acid. After the 
 print has been well washed, place for a moment between clean blotting- 
 paper to remove surface water. Then transfer to a porcelain or glass 
 dish, and cover with the blue dye solution, keeping the liquid moving 
 and the print constantly turned until dark enough. Lay print on a 
 sheet of glass and remove surface moisture with a slightly damp sponge, 
 sponging the lighter parts of the print very thoroughly, so as to prevent 
 the white paper looking like a blue-tinted paper. The desired effect is 
 not a pale and a dark blue, but a white and a blue-brown. Let the 
 print dry face down on a clean sheet of blotting-paper. 
 
 117. SPOTTING PRINTS.— By this term is meant the art of touching 
 up or correcting light spots on prints. This is usually done by applying 
 (by means of a finely pointed, small water-colour paintbrush) little 
 dots or patches of colour to match the surrounding tone colour. The 
 most useful (moist) colours for silver prints are lampblack, cobalt, 
 lake, burnt umber, vandyke brown, sepia, etc. But with the three first 
 named it is generally easy to match any ordinary tone or tint. The 
 chief difficulty the beginner encounters is that of making the colour 
 ''take" to the greasy-like surface of an albumen print. One common 
 way of getting over this trouble is to touch the spot with the tip of the 
 tongue — dry rather than moist — and then apply the colour before the 
 place is quite dry. 
 
 In order to make the colour have a somewhat shiny appearance, like 
 the rest of the print, it is usual to mix with the colour on the palette a 
 drop of clear but rather thick gum (arabic). If the colour refuses to 
 Slick in its place, a little candy sugar should be dissolved in the water. 
 
 118. SPOTTING NEGATIVES.— Particles of dust, air bubbles, etc., 
 during development, often prevent the developer reaching small parts of 
 the exposed plate. These in the fixing bath come out in clear spots, so 
 that on the print we get dark spots. The clear spots or spaces must 
 be attended to before satisfactory prints can be produced. This is 
 generally done by applying to the film of the negative by the aid of a 
 finely pointed brush a patch of colour— similar as near as may be to 
 the surrounding deposit on the plate. For this purpose opaque colours 
 are best, viz., lampblack, yellow ochre, light red, vermilion. To make 
 the colour "take " to the film without spreading, it is customary and 
 convenient to use a drop of rather thick gum-arabic solution, and to 
 apply the colour la/ien the brush is nearly dry, and in small dots rather 
 than in large patches. It is not of any real consequence to exactly 
 match the colo2ir of the negative as it is to match the printing density or 
 transparency of the surrounding parts. Hence sometimes transparent 
 colours are best. Of these lake and Prussian blue are general favourites. 
 
 34 
 
119. SPOTTING PRINTS, ALBTJMENISED PAPER.— If any speck 
 of dust or opaque matter gets between the negative and printing paper, 
 the result is a white or hght spot or patch in the print. This defect 
 can only be remedied after the print has been toned, fixed, washed, etc., 
 and mounted. With a fine-pointed small brush, a little colour, to 
 match the surrounding tint, is applied. The colours used generally are 
 sepia, black, vandyke, lake, etc., according to the tone-colour of the 
 print. Moist water-colours are generally preferred to cake, as being 
 more convenient. To make the colour hold to the glossy surface of the 
 print, and dry shiny, a slight trace of gumx arable is used. And to 
 make this watery colour iake on the somewhat greasy surface, a trace of 
 ox-gall is used just to wet the part, or, what is often quite as effective 
 and more convenient, the place is just touched with the tip of the 
 tongue, nearly dry. Due allowance must always be made for the fact 
 that the colour dries a little darker, duller, and colder than it seems 
 when wet. 
 
 120. A PRINTING HINT.— Sometimes we require to make a num- 
 ber of prints of the same size from one negative. The following little 
 hint helps to save time and trouble. Having settled upon the size of the 
 required picture, cut a hole this size and shape in a sheet of brown 
 paper. This mask can now easily be adjusted to the required position. 
 With a finely pointed pencil mark the position of the opposite corner 
 (by two small lines at each corner). Now cut all your paper to the 
 (exact) required size. It is then the work of a moment to refill the 
 printing frame by a glance at the corner marks. 
 
 Another Method. — Under ordinary conditions these fine pencil marks 
 do not affect the printing quality of the negative ; but if their presence 
 be objected to, a brown-paper marker can be fixed (by a touch of gum 
 or paste) to the glass side of the negative, which then serves as a guide 
 for placing the printing paper. 
 
 121. HOW TO OBTAIN A TRIAL PRINT FROM A WET NEGA- 
 TIVE. — One may at times require a rough print from a negative as soon 
 as developed and fixed, in order to know whether or not to make 
 another exposure. This may be done without in any way injuring the 
 negative, if a little reasonable care be employed. 
 
 After fixing, give the negative five minutes at least under the tap with 
 a gentle stream. Meanwhile take a piece of smooth bromide paper. 
 With a pencil mark the wrong side. Soak it in cold clean water for 
 two or three minutes (protected from strong light, and in the dark-room 
 of course). Now in a deep dish bring together the sensitive side of the 
 paper with the film of the negative, avoiding any air bubbles— remove 
 from the water and blot off any moisture from the glass side of the 
 negative. Set the negative in a draining rack and make the exposure 
 with a wax match. Develop the print with metol and fix in the usual 
 manner. A little reasonable care will prevent any injury to the film of 
 the negative. 
 
 35 
 
122. PLATINOTYPE PRINTING— A HINT.— All users of platino- 
 t) pe paper sooner or later learn the importance cf keeping the paper 
 dry while in the printing frame. For this purpose you may use (i) the 
 sheel rubber sold f)r this purpose, or (2) a sheet of celluloid, i.e. an old 
 film, will serve, (3) American cloth. This last-named is in many ways 
 admirable. The kind to buy is that which has a smooth, shiny surface, 
 and a thin soft elastic half-woolly back. It is made about 4 feet wide, 
 and costs about is. 6d. per yard, i.e. about ijd. or 2d. per square foot. 
 Two, three, or four thicknesses of this behind the paper not only keep 
 it dry, but also form a splendidly elastic padding, giving good contact 
 with the negative. When first bought this material is rather apt to be 
 "smelly," but this quickly goes ott if left exposed to a current of air 
 for a short time. Obviously the material itself must be first well dried 
 before use. Leaving it all night in the kitchen will probably do this 
 effectively. 
 
 123. CARD MOUNTS, TO TEST.— (^) Place a small piece of the 
 mount (say 1 by ^ inch) in a test tube or colourless wine-glass. Cover it 
 with tepid warm water, hold it up against a piece of white paper, as 
 background, and examine closely to see if any of the colouring matter 
 bleeds out. 
 
 ijy) Make a rather light-printed proof, tone, fix, and well wash it, 
 cut in half, mount one piece on a glass (an old negative thoroughly 
 cleaned will do), and the other half on the card to be tested. Use 
 quite fresh starch paste only for mounting. Wrap up in damp, clean, 
 white blotting-paper the two mounted parts, and put away together in 
 a tin box for a week. 
 
 (<:) If the mounts have so-called gilt edges, apply a few drops of 
 nitrate of silver solution (say I in 10). Gold is not attacked. Bronze, 
 or very low standard of gold, probably will be indicated by change from 
 gold colour to gi*ey-brown-black. 
 
 124. TO MOUNT PRINTS ON TO GLASS.— (1) The glass must be 
 very thoroughly cleaned. To give it a final polish make a creamy paste 
 of whiting and dilute ammonia (i in 20) ; wash this off under the tap, 
 using a piece of clean rag. 
 
 (2) Prepare a solution of gelatine ; the exact strength is not a matter 
 of any great importance, say 15 to 20 gr. of gelatine per oz. of water. 
 Filter this while hot by placing a loose plug of cotton wool in the 
 mouth of the filter tube. 
 
 (3) Place the filtered gelatine in a flat dish, which in turn is placed 
 in another dish somewhat larger ; for example, the smaller dish being 
 5 by 4 inches might be in an 8 J by ^\ inch dish. The outer, i.e. larger, dish 
 is partly filled with hot water, so as to keep the gelatine solution warm. 
 
 (4) Immerse the print in the gelatine, and let it soak until quite and 
 thoroughly permeated by the gelatine solution. Immerse the glass plate 
 in the gelatine solution, bring the print, face down, in contact with the 
 glass plate, carefully avoiding any enclosed air bubbles, etc Raise the 
 glass plate and print together, letting as much gelatine drain oft' as 
 possible, and gently squeegee the print into close contact with the glass. 
 
 36 
 
TO MOUNT PRINTS ON TO Q^J.k^^— continued. 
 
 Wipe the face of the glass plate with a hot sponge to remove any 
 gelatine solution, set aside to cool and dry. The plate is finally cleaned 
 with a bit of rough rag dipped in hot water. 
 
 Prints so mounted have a very brilliant appearance. They are a 
 shade lighter than when not in optical contact with the glass. This 
 method tends to give emphasis to the delicate detail in the shadow, and 
 is very suitable for architectural or scientific studies. 
 
 125. MOUNTING--A PRACTICAL HINT.— When mounting wet 
 prints of any kind, and rubbing them down with blotting-paper, the 
 blotting soon gets damp and rubs either to a fluff or into holes ; to 
 prevent this, have next the hand and along the top piece of blotting a 
 piece of thick highly glazed paper, or a piece of thin and smooth 
 American cloth. In either case the hand moving along a smooth surface 
 does not have the tendency either to make fluff or holes. 
 
 126. SILVER PRINTS, TO DRY.— Silver prints on albumenised 
 paper, dried as they usually are (if unmounted), i.e., between sheets of 
 blotting-paper, begin at once to curl up as soon as released. The 
 following simple j^lan will be found to very largely, is not entirely, 
 counteract this tendency. First remove all surface moisture by pressing 
 between dry blotting-paper for a minute. Then take a sheet of dry 
 blotting and roll so as to form a tube about an inch in diameter. Then 
 take a print and another piece of blotting, a little larger than the print, 
 and roll them together round the paper tube. Again another print and 
 blotting-paper, and so on. Then set the tube, with its roll of prints and 
 blotting, aside in an airy place to dry. To prevent the last sheet uncurl- 
 ing, a bit of tape very loosely wound round in a spiral manner will 
 answer. If the prints are allowed to dry, which they will do in a few 
 hours if put in a current of air, they-vwill be found to curl outwards. 
 
 127. MOUNTED PRINTS (SILVER), TO PREVENT CURLING.— 
 
 Many non- cockling or non-curling mountants have been described, but 
 as the cause of the trouble is in the unequal expansion of the mount and 
 print the question of mountant is not likely to solve all the difficulties. 
 
 Several items may be considered. If the cards are of such a nature 
 that they can be thoroughly damped (with a sponge) before using, they 
 will contract on drying very much as the print does. 
 
 Another method is that of arranging so that the mounted print dries 
 in a curved position. As soon as the wet print is put on the dry card 
 it causes it to curl backwards or outwards a little at first. As soon as 
 this takes place fix the mount so that it must dry in this slightly curled 
 shape. This may be done if a book-case, filled with books, is at hand, 
 by catching the edges of the mount between the backs of two books at 
 convenient distances in the same row. Or a thin bit of wood, such as 
 is used for backing pictures, may be used, and a few small strips of 
 thin wood or straw board nailed on it at convenient distances, just 
 enough to hold the print curled outwards. The prints are so held until 
 they are dry, then removed and allowed to quietly flatten themselves 
 being laid out on a table, etc. 
 
 37 
 
128. STORING SILVER PRINTS MOUNTED.— The best way to 
 keep them flat and prevent the tendency to curl or to cockle is to 
 keep them under pressure, face to face, in pairs. This plan has the 
 advantage of keeping them much cleaner than the ordinary method of 
 facing all one way. A silver print appears to have a perfectly smooth, 
 unbroken surface, but usually its surface is traversed by many fine 
 cracks, which collect and hold dirt in a truly astonishing way. 
 
 129. CURLING OF UNMOUNTED SILVER PRINTS, TO PRE- 
 VENT. — The cause of silver prints curling isi largely due to the different 
 degrees of expansion and contraction of the paper and the albumen or 
 gelatine with which it is coated. Something, but not very much, can 
 be done to prevent this inconvenient trick these prints often have. 
 Unmounted prints, after toning and washing, should be removed from 
 the final washing water and laid between quite clean blotting-paper for 
 a few minutes — sufficiently long to absorb all surface moisture ; then 
 put between other and dry sheets of blotting-paper and rolled, shiny 
 side out, and so left to dry. When dry they will tend to curl — paper 
 side in — and in that form are convenient to handle ; but if left lying 
 about they soon straighten and then begin to curl in the usual incon- 
 venient way. It is not difficult to make silver prints lie flat if a little 
 care be used. Take in the right hand a flat ruler or straight paper- 
 knife, with a moderately thin but not a sharp edge. Lay the print 
 face down on two or three thicknesses of blotting-paper ; the upper piece 
 must be clean in any case. A coin or other convenient small heavy 
 object at each corner of the print will keep it flat. Seize the left hand 
 side edge of the print with the left hand and bring the ruler gently but 
 firmly down a little nearer to the left hand than is the middle of the 
 print. Hold the ruler edgeways down and slightly tilted over towards 
 the right. Raise with left hand the free part of the print in a direction 
 almost perpendicular to the paper, and draw the ruler with a little but 
 not excessive pressure along from left towards the right. Reverse the 
 print and repeat the operation with the other part. This operation 
 takes much longer to describe than to perform ; and with a couple of 
 minutes' practice on half-a-dozen old, highly curved spare specimens 
 one learns one of the chief points that cannot be described, viz., how 
 much pressure is needed. The points to observe are — a thin but not 
 sharp edge, several pieces of blotting-paper, just enough pressure, and 
 keeping the left hand well up and rather tightly dragging the print. 
 
 130. BACKING PLATES FOR HALATION, ETC.-(i) Of common 
 gum arable take I oz., and dissolve this in tepid water 3 oz. Then dilute 
 ordinary glycerine with twice its own volume of water. When required 
 to back a plate, take of the above solutions equal parts, and with this 
 make a very smooth paste by rubbing into it finely ground ivory black 
 to the consistency of thick cream. Lay the plate film down on clean 
 blotting-paper, and apply a thin coat of the black cream by means of a 
 wide soft-hair brush. (2) Another method consists in soaking carbon 
 tissue (red, brown, or preferably black) in dilute glycerine (i in 3), and 
 applying to the back of the plate with a squeegee. (3) A third method 
 
 •38 
 
BACKING PLATES FOR HALATION, ^TQ.— continued, 
 is a modification of the first already given. A solution of gum arable 
 (i in 4) in water is mixed with half an ounce of glycerine and brushed 
 on to black wrapping ("needle") paper. This is applied to the back 
 of the plate and well rubbed with the tips of the fingers to drive out all 
 air bubbles and secure optical contact. 
 
 131. BACKING PLATES FOR HALATION— AN IMPROMPTU.— 
 
 Sometimes when away from home and out of the reach of most of the 
 materials for preparing anti-halation mixtures, it may be useful to know 
 of one method which, while not being perfect, is a very great deal better 
 than nothing. 
 
 Cut a piece of orange or black paper, such as is usually used for 
 packing plates, about a quarter of an inch less each way than the size of 
 the plate. Thoroughly saturate this (by rubbing into it with the finger 
 tip) with ordinary glycerine. In the dark-room lay the plate film down 
 on a bit of clean red blotting-paper. Place the glycerined orange or 
 black paper on the (glass) back of the plate^ and rub w^ell into contact, 
 commencing always from the centre and working outwards. Over the 
 glycerined paper place a piece of blotting-paper, then a sheet of smooth 
 shiny note-paper, and rub firmly with the edge of the hand. 
 
 132. BACKING PLATES.— It is important, when applying any of the 
 ordinary sticky mixtures (caramel et hoc genns omne) to the glass side 
 of a plate, to prevent — or at least mitigate — halation, to avoid getting 
 any of this material on the film side of the plate. The simplest way to 
 do this is first to cut out of stiff card, e.g. straw-board, a hole just the 
 size of the plate to be backed. This should be just an easy fit, but not 
 at all loose. Now lay down on some flat surface a sheet of clean dry 
 red blotting-paper, then the plate, film down, on the blotting-paper, 
 then the card with opening so that the plate exactly fills the opening. 
 Then apply the backing by means of a brush. Remove the card and 
 set the plate to dry, as it now rests on the blotting-paper, on the shelf 
 of a dark cupboard. Obviously it is an advantage to have the card as 
 near as may be the same thickness as the glass. It can be used again 
 and again, but the edges should be wiped with a bit of rag directly 
 after using. 
 
 133. GLITTERING OBJECTS, TO PHOTOGRAPH. -The nature of 
 the difficulty of each case varies very much. The first thing to be done 
 is to try and avoid the glitter by rearranging the direction ot light. This 
 may often be done when dealing with small and movable objects, glass 
 and china curios, silver plate, ivories, cameos, etc. Or sometimes it is 
 enough to hang up a sheet of the thinnest tissue between the window and 
 the objects. At other times the object may be a fixture, and only one 
 direction of light available, e.g.^ machinery in a room. If softening 
 and diffusing the light is not sufficient, then the glittering parts must 
 be dulled. Dabbing putty on them is often sufficient for the purpose. 
 Or a very thin shower of whiting in fine powder will answer. The 
 whiting or prepared chalk is finely ground, tied up in two thicknesses 
 
 39 
 
GLITTERING OBJECTS, TO TKOTOG-RATK—con/muecf. 
 
 of fine muslin, and tapped with a stick, so causing a fine cloud of the 
 whiting to fly about and settle on the glittering parts. If the objects 
 are brightly polished silver or gold, etc., vessels, sometimes it is possible 
 to obtain pieces of ice to put into them. This quickly brings down the 
 temperature, and so causes to condense on their surface a fine covering 
 of minute dew-drops, so giving them a frosted appearance. 
 
 134. COLOURED FOG ON NEGATIVE, TO REMOVE.— (A) Green. 
 
 (i) The most common form of chemical fog is the well-known metallic 
 greeri-hliie surface colouration round the edges or more or less all over 
 the film. Many plates only show this when ammonia is used in the 
 developer. Metol with soda carbonate generally yields satisfactory 
 negatives with ammonia fogging plates. Ferrous oxalate, hydroquinone, 
 or eikonogen are also valuable. (<?) If the fog be not very serious, and 
 chiefly confined to the edges of the plate and of an iridescent character 
 (often very strong in old plates or those kept in a gas-contaminated 
 atmosphere), it may be removed by gently rubbing the parts with a bit 
 of soft rag moistened with methylated spirit, {b) If the fog extend all 
 over the plate and be of a decided green tint, then you may apply [he 
 following : — Iron perchloride lo gr., potassium bromide 6 gr., water i oz. 
 As soon as the colour has disappeared, wash well under the tap and 
 apply a ferrous-oxalate developer, and pass through a clean fixing bath 
 and wash as usual. 
 
 135. COLOURED FOG ON NEGATIVE, TO REMOVE.— (B) Red. 
 
 Prepare a solution of potassium cyanide (a strong poison) of lo grains 
 to the ounce of water. Having softened the gelatine by a preliminary 
 bath of water, apply the cyanide solution, and remove as soon as the colour 
 is nearly gone. Wash well. Avoid needless contact of the cyanide with 
 the skin, especially if cut or broken, as much as possible. 
 
 Before attempting to treat a negative for fog disease, always take a 
 trial print. Many negatives that are badly fog-discoloured yield admir- 
 able prints. This is even the case with dichroic (two coloured) fog, 
 />. , green when looked «/, red when looked through. 
 
 136. FOG, TO REMOVE FROM NEGATIVE.— (i) It may happen 
 that we have a negative fairly satisfactory with the exception that it 
 has a slight general fog-veil all over it. This may be due to defective 
 dark-room light, or stray light when changing plates on tour, or from 
 general light fog in the camera when a very bright cloud, etc., or direct 
 sunlight renders the lens slightly luminous. Prepare this solution — Iron 
 perchloride lo gr., water i oz. Place the negative in clean water until 
 the gelatine is soft and the water flows over it freely. Drain off the 
 f^urface water and flow with the iron solution for half a minute, and then 
 wash well under the tap and examine the negative by holding it in con- 
 tact (not film, side, of course) with a piece of opal glass. The negative 
 may now be free from any visible fog. Now pass it through a clean 
 fixing bath for five minutes and wash again. 
 
 40 
 
FOG, TO REMOVE FROM NEGATIVE— r^;^//;///^^. 
 
 (2) Another method of general reduction may be tried as follows : — 
 Take of a clean fixing (hypo) bath enough to thoroughly cover the plate, 
 which has been previously well wetted (as above mentioned), and for 
 each ounce of hypo bath add ten drops of a saturated solution of potas- 
 sium ferricyanide (red prussiate). The action of this bath is quick 
 when once it begins, therefore the negative must be frequently examined 
 and rinsed under the tap. When all fog has been removed it must be 
 again well washed, and may, if needed, be intensified. 
 
 137. (i) LOCAL FOG may be removed by applying this hypo and 
 ferricyanide solution (Howard Farmer's reducer) to the part with a 
 soft brush, and washing off as soon as it spreads beyond the part and 
 repeating the process. 
 
 (2) Local fog or halation round windows, trees, etc., if slight, may 
 often be removed by gently rubbing the part affected with a bit of soft 
 rag moistened with methylated spirit. 
 
 138. PYRO STAINS, TO REMOVE FROM THE FINGERS, ETC.— 
 
 Rub the part with a large crystal of citric acid, and rinse frequently. 
 
 139. YELLOW STAINS ON LINEN, TO REMOVE.— Apply a hot 
 solution of oxalic acid, and rinse well in hot water. 
 
 140. IRIDESCENT OR METALLIC STAINS, TO REMOVE.— These 
 metallic-looking stains are usually found round the edges of the negative, 
 and seem to appear more frequently on plates kept some time before 
 using, or kept m a gas-contaminated atmosphere, or after development 
 containing an excess of alkali, especially ammonia. Sometimes these 
 interfere with the printing (or enlarging) qualities of the negative. To 
 remove them, lay the dry negative flat down on some perfectly flat 
 surface, e.g., a sheet of plate glass. Take a piece of fine rag, cover the 
 tip of the finger with it, moisten the rag with methylated spirit, and 
 gently rub the stained part of the film. As the rag becomes discoloured 
 and clogged with the film as it is worn away, a fresh surface must be 
 used, 'i he points to attend to are — keep changing the rag, don't work 
 too wet, and have patience. 
 
 141. OIL STAINS ON PAPER.— These may generally be removed by 
 applying a thick cream composed of finely ground pipe clay and tepid 
 water. Apply it to the place, let dry, and then brush off. 
 
 142. PAINT SPLASHES ON GLASS, TO REMOVE.— Wet the paint 
 marks with a saturated solution of washing soda, and then rub with a 
 bit of hard wood or the sharp edge of a com. 
 
 143. MARBLE, TO CLEAN.— Of common washing soda take two 
 parts and of finely ground pumice stone and finely ground chalk one 
 part each. Mix these thoroughly together and make into a thick cream 
 with water. With this mixture rub away the stains. To restore the 
 gloss give a final polish with water and Fuller's earth, rubbing lightly. 
 
 41 
 
 r 
 
144. WATER, TO PURIFY.— If you suspect your supply cistern 
 contains any organic matter, have it thoroughly cleaned out. Then 
 make of canvas a long sausage-shaped bag with one end open. Fill this 
 with lump charcoal and tie the open end to the supply pipe so that all 
 the water entering the cistern has to pass through the charcoal sausage. 
 A few large lumps of charcoal may be left loose in the water. N.B. — 
 The gelatine of dry plates is liable to be deco??iposed by organic matter or 
 small 07'ganic bodies in cistern water. Verb, sa't sap. 
 
 145. STOPS, TO BLACKEN.— (i) The metal must be made quite 
 clean and free from grease by washing in caustic so<:la or potash and well 
 washing under the tap. It is then immersed in a solution of copper 
 nitrate (which may be made by dissolving copper in nitric acid and 
 evaporating to blue crystals) and heating in a Bunsen gas flame. The 
 colour first obtained is green, and subsequently a fine black. 
 
 (2) Another method is that of using a mixture of silver nitrate and 
 copper nitrates, and exposing to heat until colour of jet black and then 
 plunging into cold water. 
 
 (3) Make a solution of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) in water, and 
 also a solution of carbonate of potassium in water. Mix them. Allow 
 the precipitate of copper carbonate to settle. Pour off the supernatant 
 fluid and wash the precipitate with clean water, and allow precipitate to 
 settle again. Now dissolve the copper carbonate in ammonia (i to 8), 
 and add when dissolved double as much water. The metal to be 
 stained is suspended in this fluid (cold) until coloured. 
 
 146. BLACKING FOR LENS TUBES.— (i) Drop black is mixed 
 with enough freshly made clear hot glue to a thin cream, and applied 
 in a very thin coating. 
 
 (2) Lampblack is mixed with thin lacquer by placing them together 
 in a wide-mouthed bottle and adding some fine gun-shot, and shaking 
 all together until thoroughly well mixed. This is warmed and applied 
 to the metal, also thoroughly warmed. 
 
 (3) A solution of mercury nitrate is brushed over the brass and 
 allowed to dry. A solution of potassium sulphide is then applied. 
 
 147. BRASS, TO STAIN. (Suitable for Pinhole Apparatus.)— For 
 pinhole work the thinner the metal the better. The hole should not 
 have bright edges, and the colouring matter should be as thin a layer 
 as possible. 
 
 The brass is cleaned by immersing in dilute nitric acid i to 50. It is 
 then immersed in a dilute solution of platinum perchloride or potassium 
 chloro-platinite rendered acid by a drop of nitric acid. The black- 
 brown colour is obtained by heating over a Bunsen. 
 
 148. DEAD-BLACK VARNISH FOR WOOD. (Inside camera, etc )— 
 Take of fine lamp or ivory black (say a teaspoonful), and with a palette 
 or old tableknife and a piece of glass rub it to as fine a powder as 
 possible. Then add, drop by drop, gold size (obtainable at any oil and 
 colour shop), just enough to form a thick stiff paste, and work it well 
 up with the black powder, so that the gold size is evenly distributed 
 
 42 
 
DEAD-BLACK VARNISH FOR VfOOTi—coniinued. 
 
 over the whole mass. Now add enough turpentine to make all to a 
 creamy consistency, and apply at once to the wood by means of a stift' 
 hog-hair brush in a thin, even layer, with as little rubbing as possible. 
 If too much gold size is added, it will dry shiny and uneven in thickness. 
 If too little, the black powder will rub off when the turpentine has 
 dried. This is suitable for wood, leather, and metal parts where there 
 is no friction, but is not suitable for stops. 
 
 (2) Apply a strong solution of sulphate of iron, and when dry brush 
 on a solution of tannin or of extract of logwood or of extract of haema- 
 toxylin. 
 
 (3) Dissolve sandarac in alcohol, and add fine lamp or ivory black ; 
 apply with a brush. This dries hard and well, and may be applied to 
 wood or metal. 
 
 149. PAPER, TO RENDER WATERPROOF.— (Paper so prepared 
 has many uses in the dark-room, e.g., to protect the wall, etc., from 
 splashings from the sink, etc., etc.) In a pint of water dissolve two 
 ounces of alum, and stir in rather less than an ounce of Castile soap 
 in thin shavings. Then dissolve half an ounce of gum arabic in a pint 
 of water, and add half an ounce of laundry "blue." Mix the two solu- 
 tions when warm. Dip the sheets of paper into the combined solution 
 and soak until the fluid renders the paper limp. Hang up to dry in 
 a warm place. 
 
 150. TONING BATHS FOR SILVER ALBUMENISED PAPER.— 
 
 (i) Gold, I gr. ; chloride lime, i gr. ; chalk, i teaspoonful ; water, 
 16 oz. Make with hot water, and use when cold, or make with cold 
 water and use next day. Gives black tones. 
 
 (2) Gold, I gr. ; soda acetate, 30 gr. ; water, 10 oz. Prepare at 
 least one day before using. Purple tones. 
 
 (3) Gold, I gr. ; chloride lime, I gr. ; chalk, 10 gr. ; soda acetate, 
 10 gr. ; water, 10 oz. Prepare a few hours before required. 
 
 (4) Gold, I gr. ; soda carbonate, 10 gr. ; water, 10 oz. Use at once. 
 Does not keep. Gives brownish tones. 
 
 (5) Gold, I gr. ; borax, 60 gr. ; water, 10 oz. Make with warm 
 water ; use when tepid cold. Does not keep. Brown tones. 
 
 (6) Gold, I gr. ; soda phosphate, 50 gr. ; water, lO oz. Prepare a 
 few hours before required. Black tones. 
 
 (7) Gold, I gr. ; soda tungstate, 30 gr. ; water, 10 oz. Prepare a 
 few hours before use. Brown-black tones. 
 
 161. GOLD TONING BATH, TO CORRECT ACIDITY.— An hour 
 or so before the bath is to be used add to it a teaspoonful of finely 
 powdered chalk ("prepared chalk"). Shake up well, allow the chalk 
 to subside, and pour off the clear solution for use. 
 
 152. VARNISH, TO REMOVE FROM A NEGATIVE.— Place the 
 negative in a porcelain, or glass, or vulcanite, but not celluloid dish. 
 Cover with methylated spirit and rock gently, and cover over with a bit 
 
 43 
 
VAitNISH, TO S.EMOVE FHOM A -SEGtATHVE—conamied. 
 
 of card to prevent needless evaporation and smell. After, say, five 
 minutes, rub with a tuft of clean cotton wool. If the varnish is not 
 entirely removed, add a little more spirit and a few drops of strong 
 ammonia, rock gently, and again rub with the plug of wool. After all 
 the varnish is removed, rinse in clean methylated spirit, and blot off 
 with clean blotting, again rinse with spirit, and dry spontaneously. 
 
 153. BLISTERS.— Plates or films. Generally due to the employ- 
 ment of a very soft gelatine or lack of proper adhesion between the 
 fdm and its support (glass, celluloid, paper, etc.). They usually 
 appear after fixing and during the washing, and are often caused by the 
 washing water being too warm. Some plates, in very warm weather, 
 first show small pinhead blisters and then dissolve away, leaving clear 
 spots. The remedy is to use the developing solutions at a cooler 
 temperature, and have all the fluids at the same temperature. Some- 
 thing may be done by using the alum bath (common or chrom.e alum) 
 after development and before fixing. 
 
 154. BLISTERS. — Prints on paper support. May appear in toning 
 bath if the temperature be too high or the paper very stale. Are more 
 common in double-coated papers. Cause, may be osmosis between the 
 fluids of different densities through the gelatine or albumen septum, as 
 when the print, after toning, is washed and passed into a strong, dense 
 fixing bath, and then into water. Or may be partly due to sudden 
 changes of temperature, e.^i^:, passing from a tepid toning bath into a 
 freshly mixed and therefore very cold fixing bath. Or may be due to 
 gas formed between the paper and its coating, thus lifting up the 
 gelatine or albumen film. If this be the cause, and a large blister be 
 pricked under water, the escaping bubble of gas is seen. The probable 
 or possible cause of this gas may be due to the albumen or gelatine 
 being partly decomposed, or on the point of decomposition, and some 
 ingredient in the toning baths, etc., just being enough to effect the 
 formation of gas. 
 
 The best plan in this last case is obviously to avoid the brand of 
 paper. In other cases due attention must be paid to (i) having the 
 various fluids as near one temperature as possible — i.e., mixing the fixing 
 (hypo) bath some hours before use, or using warm water ; (2) avoiding as 
 far as possible any sudden changes of density — e.g., when the prints are 
 fixed, gradually dilute the fixing bath with water rather than plunge the 
 prints from the dense hypo bath to water. Various writers and workers 
 have suggested hardening the film by dipping the prints (i) in methy- 
 lated spirit, (2) or in a mixture of equal parts of methylated spirit and 
 water, or (3) a bath composed of 5 gr. chrome alum, i oz. methylated 
 spirit, and 2 oz. water. 
 
 155. TRANSPARENCIES, WHITE BACKING FOR.— Make a satu- 
 rated solution of white wax in ether, dilute this with an equal quantity 
 of ether, and apply to the glass side of the transparency in the usual 
 way (i.e., as though varnishing a negative). 
 
 44 
 
156. DIAgHaM for LAITTEHN PROJECTION.— In Ink. A lan^ 
 
 tern lecturer sometimes requires to show a sketch or diagram of a piece 
 of apparatus that cannot be conveniently photographed. The object 
 may easily be acquired in the following way : — Dissolve a little gum 
 dammar in benzole, say a teaspoonful of the white gum in a couple of 
 ounces of the fluid. When dissolved, allow the bottle to rest for a day 
 or two. and decant the clear liquid, which should be very nearly 
 colourless. Take now a clean lantern-slide cover, and coat it with this 
 solution, being careful to avoid contact with dust, and set to dry. A 
 drawing may now be made with ordinary pen and ink upon this 
 varnished surface. 
 
 157. DIAGRAM FOR LANTERN PROJECTION.— In Water-colour. 
 
 It is very difficult, if not impossible, to place water-colours on glass 
 without their running where not wanted. If the glass be first coated 
 with a very thin solution of gum arabic in water, this trouble is, to 
 some extent, overcome. If it is required to make a diagram of coloured 
 lines, this may be done by using water-colours and strong gum-water, 
 and a fine brush or drawing-pen. One line must be allowed to dry 
 before another is drawn across it. 
 
 158. SHADOWS ON BACKGROUND, TO AVOID.— Sometimes— 
 e.g.^ for diagrammatic or scientific purposes — we wish to photograph 
 some still-life object against a background, but so that it shall not show 
 cast shadows on that background. Two courses are open to us — (i) to 
 use a very dark background when dealing with light objects ; (2) to 
 use a light background when the object is dark. First method : Sup- 
 pose the first a branched piece of white coral ; arrange some flat object, 
 a large book, drawing-board, at about 30 to 45° tilt, cover it with 
 black or dark-red cloth or velvet, place the coral resting on it, and 
 below the window, and point the camera down at it. The shadows 
 cast on the dark ground do not show. Second method : Suppose a 
 spray of green foliage to be the object ; in place of the drawing-board, 
 support the object on a sheet of clear glass similarly placed, and at 
 some distance behind it, but sufiiciently far away that it receives no 
 cast shadows, place a sheet of white blotting-paper. The shadows 
 falling on the clear and clean glass do not show if the lighting is 
 properly arranged. 
 
 159. SEVERAL COMMON TERMS FREQUENTLY CONFUSED.— 
 
 Filtration, i.e., separating a liquid from a solid by passing the liquid 
 through some substance {e.g., filter paper, flannel, washleather, etc.), 
 having small interstices which do not permit the passage of the solid in 
 suspension. 
 
 Decantation, i.e., separating a liquid with a solid in suspension, 
 by permitting the heavy particles of the solid to subside or settle down 
 to the bottom, and gently pouring or syphoning off the clear fluid. 
 
 LevigatioTi, (i) i.e., rubbing a hard substance to a fine powder with 
 the aid of some fluid which does not dissolve the solid. 
 
 45 
 
SEVERAL COMMON TERMS FREQUENTLY CONFITSED— ^^t?;///;^//^^/. 
 
 (2) Separating a light and heavy substance by grinding the two 
 together in a fluid which dissolves neither of them, and then pouring off 
 the water carrying the lighter particles, while the heavy particles sink to 
 the bottom. 
 
 LixiviatioUf separating two substances by using a fluid which only 
 dissolves one of the two. 
 
 160. FRECKLES.— One of the troubles every amateur portraitist en- 
 counters is that of freckles. There are several courses open to us to 
 reduce if not obviate this trouble: — (i) We may use orthochromatic 
 plates and a yellow screen ; this increases the exposure. (2) We may 
 illuminate the sitter by light passing through yellow blinds of yellow 
 tissue paper. (3) Another plan is to very slightly powder the face 
 with ordinary toilet powder, having a yellow rather than a violet tinge. 
 (4) Some cases may be met by gently but briskly rubbing the freckly 
 part with the hand to stimulate circulation, when the freckles cease 
 showing for a moment. (5) We may retouch them out on the negative. 
 
 161. NOTES ON POSING— THE EYES.— The apparent size of the 
 eyes very much depends upon the way one sees them, i.e.^ they appear 
 smaller or larger as they are turned up or down. Hence people with 
 small eyes should look up rather than down ; while large staring eyes 
 are best seen to advantage when glancing downwards with the upper 
 lid rather drooping. Deep-set eyes are apt to come out with excessive 
 shadows, and should therefore be so arranged that the light falls some- 
 what into the eye-socket, i.e., a front light duly subdued will generally 
 best effect this purpose. While protruding, " full " eyes should be so 
 arranged that they are in shadow, i.e.y by arranging the light to fall 
 towards the back of the head or over a shoulder. It is seldom or ever 
 satisfactory to have the head turned one way and the eyes another. 
 This tends to give either a sly, cunning expression, or to suggest mental 
 derangement. 
 
 162. DUST IN THE CAMERA OR DARK-SLIDE. -^The most proUfic 
 source of pinholes (clear, transparent, small spots) on the negative is 
 dust settling on the sensitive film before exposure. Each speck of dust 
 stops the light from reaching the plate. The developer of course fails 
 to act and the spot fixes out a clear space. Dust is difficult to avoid in 
 dry, warm weather, especially near roads where there is much traffic. 
 The following precautions are well worth taking, as a means of reducing 
 if not entirely avoiding this trouble : — 
 
 (1) When changing plates avoid a room where dust is in the air. 
 
 (2) Keep the plates covered up as much as possible both from dust as 
 well as light. 
 
 (3) Dust out the dark-slide before inserting the plates, and go into all 
 the corners, drawing the shutter out to full extent. 
 
 (4) Dust out the inside of the camera when extended the full draw of 
 the bellows — first with a dry cloth and then a bit of clean rag with a 
 trace of glycerine, and get well into the corners. 
 
 46 
 
DUST IN THE CAMERA OR BARK-SLlLE—confmued. 
 
 (5) When the plates are put into the double backs in the dark-room 
 — of course, get as far away from the light as convenient, turn your back 
 to the light — draw out the shutter, holding the plate downwards, and 
 gently go over its surface with a wide soft-hair brush (kept for this 
 purpose only) with gentle downward strokes in one direction only. 
 
 (6) Before developing, with the same soft brush again go over the 
 film of the plate to remove any dust which may have settled on the plate 
 after exposure. 
 
 (7) When carrying the camera and slides along a dusty road keep 
 them covered up as much as possible. Dust has a trick of finding its 
 way through the finest grooves. 
 
 (8) The rough edges of the glass plates working about in their rebates 
 grind up some fine sawdust. If the slides are charged and a railway 
 journey intervenes before exposure, it is well to dust out the slides when 
 possible before exposure. 
 
 163. THE DUSTING-BRUSH— A DARK-ROOM HINT. -It is highly 
 important that the plates should be dusted a/ier they are in the slides. 
 This is best done by drawing out the shutter-slide, holding the plate 
 towards one and away from the light, and going over it in s/o2a, even 
 strokes with a wide, soft camel's-hair brush. Quick dusting induces a 
 slight charge of electricity, and tends to encourage fine dust particles to 
 cling to the sensitive surface. But how easy is it to mislay the dusting 
 brush, or to put it down where it gets wet, and spoils the next plate for 
 which it is used ! To obviate this, the following simple plan will be 
 found convenient and effective :— Cut off the long wood part of the 
 brush handle so as only to leave the broader part. Through the end of 
 this make a clean hole, pass through the hole a piece of moderately 
 stout elastic (about id. per yard), and tie up this end. On the other 
 end of the elastic make a loop of such size that it just comfortably passes 
 over the top waistcoat button, and of convenient length, but not long 
 enough to dangle into the sink or any wet place. By this means the 
 brush is always at hand when loading slides or removing them for 
 development. When the brush is done with for a moment it can be 
 tossed over the shoulder, when it keeps out of the way until wanted. 
 
 161 MEASURES— A DARK-ROOM HINT.— It is not always easy to 
 see in the dark-room the numbers i, 2, 4, etc., on the ordinary glass 
 graduated measures. One way of making them show better is to point 
 a hard lead pencil and rub it well into the cut figures. Another and 
 better plan is to take a fine small paintbrush and fill in the marks and 
 figures with black varnish (Bates or Brunswick). If the varnish is too 
 thick you may thin it down with turpentine or benzole. Or if you 
 should wish to remove any part of your work the same fluids will serve. 
 The only fluids that you are likely to use in developing that will affect 
 these black varnishes are the caustic alkalies. It is easily re.newed if 
 need be. 
 
 47 
 
 D 
 
165. FIXING PLATES.— The time various brands take in fixing 
 varies with several circumstances; e.g., the constitution of the plate, the 
 oeveloper used, temperature, strengrh of hypo bath, etc., etc. But in 
 most cases the following may be taken as a good practical reliable 
 working rule. Note the time that it takes a plate to appear quite free 
 from any visible white (unreduced) emulsion. Then give it at least as 
 long again in the hyj o. If the time taken to clear away all the unde- 
 veloped part is long, it is a sign that the hypo is w^eak, or is getting 
 exhausted, or bath too C'>ld. It is much cheaper to be extravagant with 
 hypo, renewing the fixing bath fairly frequently, than to risk spoiling 
 negatives by improper fixation. 
 
 166. TO WASH A PLATE QUICKLY.— It does not seem to be 
 sufficiently recognised by many beginners that a short time in running 
 water more effectively washes a plate than does long soaking with an 
 occasional change of water. When we wish to wash one or two small 
 plates as quickly as possible, this may easily be done in the following 
 way : — Select a shallow dish or tray, preferably one with a lip, somewhat 
 larger than the plates to be washed, say a lo by 8 inch tray for a couple of 
 quarter-plates. Put the plates side by side towards the lip end, then 
 arrange a fine stream of water from the tap to enter the dish towards 
 the corner opposite to the lip, and under this corner arrange a wooden 
 wedge at such a height that the plates are only just covered. A fine 
 stream of \^ater falling on the tray some few inches away from the 
 nearer sides of the plates is thus caused to spread out into a thin even 
 layer of water. This layer of water flows evenly over the film surface 
 and out at the lip ; thus the plates are in a constantly changing layer of 
 water, and practically are never soaking continuously. 
 
 167. DRAINING PLATES— A HINT.— The usual way is of course to 
 set the plate in an ordinary draining rack, and let the moisture run to 
 and drip off one corner. It may happen that no draining rack is at 
 hand. The next best plan is to drive into the wall, cupboard door, etc., 
 a couple of wire nails, so that half an inch or more of the nail projects. 
 The plate rests upon these nails, cornerways, downwards, and film out- 
 side, i.e., away from the wall. This, however, may not be practicable. 
 The next best thing is a strip of the now common corrugated packing 
 paper, used by chemists and others. Instead of resting the plate edge- 
 ways on a shelf so that its lower edge rests in a pool of water, just let 
 this lov^ er edge rest on a strip of corrugated paper. The paper absorbs 
 the water as fast as it runs to the bottom of the plate, and the plate is 
 drained quicker this way than when all the fluid has to run to one 
 corner. 
 
 168. PACKING PLATES WHEN TRAVELLING.— Experience shows 
 that the tighter [i.e. closer) plates are packed the less risk of damage. 
 Harm may come (i) from the sensitive surface getting abraded— thus 
 when the plates are not sufficiently tightly packed to prevent any move- 
 ment ; or (2) by the glass being cracked or broken ; this may arise from 
 
 48 
 
PACKING PLATES WHEN TRAVELLING— ^^/^//V/w^a^. 
 curvature of the glass, or uneven pressure, or a sudden " bang " ; or (3) by 
 damage through damp, light, impure air, gas, etc. To reduce the risk 
 of injury to the glass, see that the plate boxes, if not filled with the plates, 
 are filled with evenly folded sheets of paper. Put the plate boxes in 
 the travelling kit bag, box, hamper, etc., so that they stand edgeways. 
 Also take caie that no part (corner or edge) of a plate box comes 
 within a couple of inches of the box or bag. Between the plale boxes 
 and the walls of the travelling bag there should always be some elastic 
 material, clothes, etc. For this purpose nothing is better than such 
 things as flannels or cloth clothes, with socks, etc., for plugging the 
 corners so that nothing can move about during transit. 
 
 169. MASK OPENINGS FOR THE FOCUSSING SCREEN.— When 
 using a large camera, say a whole-plate, for making lantern- slides, it is 
 rather inconvenient, and at times not a little confusing, to be bothered 
 by various sets of pencil lines ruled on 
 the ground-glass, e.^., for half, quarter, 
 and lantern sizes. The following plan 
 will be found a real comfort in work- 
 ing : — Cut a piece of card (preferably 
 any dark colour) so that it exactly fits 
 the visible s'ze of the ground-glass. Then 
 at its centre cut out an opening the size 
 you wish your small picture to be, say 3 by 
 2^ inches. Now by means of three small 
 "turn-buttons" (about 2d. per dozen) 
 fix this to the inside of the ground-glass. 
 You now need not think about anything 
 but just as much as you can see on the 
 ground-glass. You will, of course, pro- 
 vide yourself with a set of these card 
 masks, so that you can at a moment's 
 notice substitute one for the other. The 
 accompanying sketch will make this matter quite simple and clear. 
 We are looking at the ground-glass, inside of the focussing screen ; the 
 dotted portion is the opaque card mask with clear opening showing 
 the ground-gla«s. The small turn-buttons are fixed on to the wood 
 framework holding the ground-glass. 
 
 170. FOCUSSING IN A DARK INTERIOR —Sometimes the in- 
 terior of a bulding is so dark that there is great difficulty in securing 
 anything very distinctly on the ground-glass. A few lighted candles 
 placed at \'arying distances are of the greatest service, as one can then 
 focus on the candle flame. If only one candle can be used, then place 
 it so that it is about one-third of the distance between the nearest and 
 most distant object to be included. For example, suppose the nearest 
 object of any importance is a pulpit 20 feet from the camera, and the 
 most distant object a wall 50 feet. Subtracting 20 from 50 equals 30. 
 
 49 
 
FOCUSSING IN A DARK im'ERlOB.- co7ttz7med. 
 Divide by 3 equals lo. Place candle 10 feet behind the pulpit, and 
 focus for the candle at 30 feet from camera. Next to a candle or a wax 
 match, held by a friend, try a piece of white paper with some dark 
 object held against it. 
 
 171. FOCUSSING SCREEN, TO RENDER MORE TRANSLU- 
 CENT. — In copying a drawing, engraving, etc., where there is not very 
 much light, and it is important to get a sharp focus, it will be found 
 helpful to have a ground-glass stopping very little light. For this end 
 a few drops of glycerine rubbed well into the grain of the ground side, 
 and all superfluous glycerine removed with a clean piece of rag, gives 
 a very comfortable screen for this kind of work. A compound eye- 
 piece must be used of course. If glycerine is not at hand, oil or 
 vaseline may be used. 
 
 172. THE SWING-BACK, TO TEST ITS VERTICALITY.— Every 
 practical worker knows (or should know) the importance of having 
 the back vertical when dealing with architectural subjects, and while 
 knowing this he may be unprovided with a plumb indicator or other 
 apparatus for testing this matter ; then let him hang a bunch of keys, 
 knife, or any other small heavy object at the end of a bit of string, and 
 he has a reliable plumb-line at once with which he may compare the 
 swing-back. Again, it is often possible to correct the bdck, vertically 
 and horizontally, by looking along the top or sides, and comparing 
 with some known horizontal line exactly in front (e.g., the horizon line 
 at sea), or some edge of a building at the side. These are, however, 
 only makeshifts, or alternative methods in case of accident, and should 
 not be held sufficient to replace some permanent and therefore always 
 present indicator of some kind, both for adjusting the back horizontally 
 and vertically. This may save much trouble in the matter of measuring 
 and trimming prints (see Amateur Photographer y April 3rd, 1896, 
 P- 303)- 
 
 173. SHUTTER, TO TEST FOR VIBRATION —If a shutter at the 
 moment of its release, or during any time of its being open, produces 
 vibration of the camera, the sharpness of the image must suffer in 
 consequence, and possibly the lens-maker may get the blame properly 
 belonging to the shutter-maker. It is, therefore, important to test the 
 shutter. This may easily be done in the following manner : — Place the 
 camera on a steady table. On the top of the camera place a small 
 saucer; one of those common little Japanese ash trays of very thin 
 ware is just the thing for our purpose. Now put in you.r. saucer just 
 enough water to cover the bottom — say a tablespoonful or so. Add a 
 few drops of ink. Place a lighted candle in such a position that you 
 see its image reflected by the black mirror surface of the inky water. 
 Fire off . the shutter, watching closely the reflected image of the candle 
 flame, You will very soon see if your shutter shakes your camera. 
 
 50 
 
174. WIND SHAKING THE CAMERA. —On windy days it is 
 always advisable to push the points of the tripod legs, well into the 
 ground when this is possible. This not only reduces the shakiness of 
 the camera, but lessens the risk of an obvious accident. When this 
 cannot be done, tie a piece of stout string to the tripod top, selecting 
 the triangle end of that leg which is nearest to the direction of the 
 wind. At the other end of the string make a loop just clearing the 
 ground ; now place in the loop a long narrow stone, piece of wood, 
 brick, etc., and let the other end of the heavy object rest on the ground. 
 
 Again, on windy days, see that the focussing cloth is not flapping 
 about. This is often a cause of blurring of the image. Also much 
 can often be done to shelter the camera at the moment of exposure 
 by standing to windward, so that the body may in part shield the 
 camera. 
 
 175. STOPPER, TO XTNLOOSE.— Happy is the reader who has never 
 been bothered by an obstinate stopper, i.e., one that obstinately persists 
 in stopping in the bottle neck when we want it to come out. Should 
 this trouble arise, there are several courses open to us : — 
 
 Firstly. — Try to remove the stopper by a screwing sort of motion, first 
 one way and then the other. 
 
 Secondly. — Wrap a bit of rag round the stopper and try again the 
 screw motion. 
 
 Thirdly. — Place the bottle on the table, seize the neck with the left 
 hand so that the ball of the thumb is against one edge of the stopper. 
 With the other hand gently tap the stopper in an npivard direction and 
 opposite to the upward push of the left-hand thumb. For this purpose 
 we must employ not a hammer or knife, but some yielding substance, 
 i.e , a piece of wood, e.g.^ foot-rule, paper-knife, tool -handle ; or the 
 edge of the sole of a slipper is a very safe thing to use. If too much 
 force or a non-yielding substance be used, the chances are that the 
 stopper will be broken. If the hand be warm and the neck grasped by 
 the hand, the warmth so imparted is a material assistance, as it causes 
 the neck to expand and so loosen the stopper. Therefore persevere 
 with this method for a minute or two, trying first one side and then 
 another. 
 
 Fourthly. — Tie to some firm object, e.g., leg of table, knob of drawer, 
 etc., one end of a stout, smooth piece of string ; take the other end of 
 string in left hand, pass the string once round the neck of the bottle, 
 now held in the right hand, and pass the bottle quickly to and fro so 
 that the friction of the string heats the bottle neck. Every few minutes 
 stop to try the third method. These two methods combined very 
 seldom fail if sufiicient patience is also employed. 
 
 Fifthly. — The heating method may be applied in another way — by 
 holding the neck under the kitchen hot-water tap and letting a quick 
 stream of hot drops fall on it, the bottle being constantly turned round 
 all the time. The water must not be too hot at first. 
 
 51 
 
STOPPER, TO VJ^LOOS^-confmueci, 
 
 Sixthly. — Should all the above devices fail, the solution method may 
 be tried. This consists of dissolving the substance which has got in 
 between the stopper and the bottle neck and formed a cement. The 
 solvent must, of course, depend upon the nature of the contents of the 
 bottle. The best thing to try first when the bottle contains a liquid is 
 some of the same liquid that it contains. For instance, a saturated 
 solution of so{lium sulphite often hxes its stopper, but if the bottle be 
 inserted ia a vessel containing water, some of it wUl probably penetrate 
 between the stopper and neck, and so dissolve the salt precipitated by 
 evaporation. In the case of varnishes, etc., such solvents as benzole, 
 turpentine, alcohol, chloroform may be tried. Paraffin is a good 
 penetrator in many cases. 
 
 To prevent stoppers sticking, it is a good plan (when the contents 
 of the bottle do not forbid it) to rub the stopper with a bit of 
 warm paraffin wax or vaseline, and then remove all the superfluous 
 wax, etc. 
 
 176. TO REMOVE A CORK FROM THE INSIDE 0? A BOTTLE.— 
 
 The most simple way is to pass inside the neck of the bottle a 
 
 double fold of fairly 
 strong, fine, but rather 
 stiff string, so stiff and 
 springy that when the 
 loops are through the 
 neck and inside they 
 open out somewhat. 
 Inverting the bottle, 
 a few adroit motions 
 will soon capture the 
 cork in the double 
 
 folds, as shown in the sketch. It can then be easily pulled out by 
 means of the strings. 
 
 Another Method (suitable for bottles of opaque material). Obtain 
 three pieces of steel wire — old pianoforte strings will do — soften one 
 end of each piece in a 
 gas or spirit-lamp flame 
 and bend into a small 
 hook. Heat again and 
 
 plunge into water. Now (fr ^^-^^^^^~vyv ^ — ^ 
 
 taking all three hooks, 
 and holding them so \. 
 that the hooks point 
 inwards, twist the other 
 
 three ends together. This trident, inserted into the neck of the 
 bottle, will soon extract the cork. The small sketch will indicate 
 the arrangement. 
 
 52 
 
m. CORKS, TO PREVENT GETTING LOST.-Bottles that are often 
 used in the dark-roorn should have 
 their corks attached to them, so that 
 they may not fall on the floor, roll 
 about, get lost, gather dirt, or cause 
 a sprained ankle when stepped upon. 
 Thread a stout needle with strong 
 thread or twine. Pass this horizon- 
 tally through the upper part of the 
 cork, and tie in a loop over the 
 top of the cork. Attach the other 
 end of ihe string to the bottle neck, 
 and do not have it so long that the 
 cork can at any time reach the 
 bottom of the bottle, lest it get 
 underneath and cause an upset or 
 broken bottle. 
 
 178. HOW TO TAKE A CORK OUT OF A BOTTLE.— Very few 
 people seem to know that there is a right and several wrong ways of 
 putting in and taking out a cork. One way is to force the cork straight 
 down as one drives a nail into a piece of wood. One w^ay of trying to 
 get it out is to *' waggle " it to and fro, with almost certainty of break- 
 ing it ; this is the quickest way to break a cork. Cork being a com- 
 pressible elastic substance, obviously the simplest way is to insert it with 
 a turning screwing motion, nol first one way and then the opposite, but 
 always turning it one way, say the same w^ay that the hands of a clock 
 or watch go round. To get this cork out easily, do not think that 
 because you screw^ it in one way you must unscrew it in the opposite 
 direction. This will jam and break it sooner or later (probabiy sooner) 
 but take it out by twisting it in the same direction that you used when 
 inserting it— only, of course, pulling slightly instead of pushing. A 
 single trial will convince you instantly. Stress is laid upon this very 
 simple matter, because so few people seem to know it, if one may judge 
 from the number of corks constantly being broken. If you want to get 
 a thin, flat cork out of a wide-mouthed bottle (e.g., such as an ordinary 
 pyro bottle) without breaking the cork, do not "dig" it out with the 
 points of a pair of scissors or old nail, but use a corkscrew. Having 
 once got the cork out, then for future use have a bit of thin rag between 
 the cork and bottle, and outside that a layer of thin smooth paper. By 
 means of the rag the cork can then at any time be easily pulled out 
 without breaking it. 
 
 179. BOTTLES, TO CLEAN.— The substance to be used for cleaning 
 any bottle must obviously depend upon what the bottle has previously 
 contained. There is, however, one rule of general utility, viz., that the 
 sooner the bottle is cleaned the quicker, easier, and more thoroughly 
 will that operation be performed. Therefore it is a good rule to clean 
 
 53 
 
BOTTLES, TO Q'LEk'S—conimued. 
 
 out every bottle directly it is empty, and not give it time for any of the 
 contents to dry or adhere. If the substance, however, has been allowed 
 to dry to the sides of the bottle, it w411 be found a good plan to use some 
 solid substance to assist in removing it. Small bits of brown paper, bits 
 of charcoal, small shot, sawdust, etc, according to circumstances, may 
 be employed. Finely powdered coal is also useful sometimes. As to 
 solvents : The first wash out should be with something similar to the 
 previous contents, e.g., if the bottle contained a spirit varnish, then 
 begin with a rinse out of methylated spirit. Warm water is best for 
 any aqueous solutions, and so on. Bottles which have contained oily 
 substances should first be washed out with a strong and hot solution of 
 washing soda. After that a solution of caustic potash or soda or 
 ammonia, and again well washed in clean water. If the solution has 
 precipitated some metallic substance inside the bottle, try first powdered 
 charcoal or chalk ; then try dilute hydrochloric acid, then strong 
 hydrochloric acid, then nitric acid, then a mixture of these two acids. 
 Care must be used in employing these acids to avoid getting any splashes 
 on the clothes, or to avoid contact with the fingers, or breathing the 
 fumes as much as possible. When any bottle has been cleaned out with 
 any substance other than water, it is necessary to thoroughly wash out 
 the cleaning substance. In the case, for instance, of a bottle having 
 been cleaned with turpentine a wash of methylated spirit should follow 
 this, and then finally a thorough rinsing in water. 
 
 180. PORCELAIN DISHES, TO CLEAN.-The importance of keep- 
 ing one's dishes as clean as possible cannot be too frequently insisted 
 on. This is comparatively a simple matter if— an important if— they 
 are cleaned at once after use. For this purpose a piece of loofah — a 
 bit too scratchy and scrubby for ordinary use — is just the thing. Some 
 developers and toning baths throw down a deposit which clings to the 
 glaze very firmly if allowed to dry, but is easily removed by the loofah 
 if used at once. For getting into the corners an old tooth-brush is 
 useful. For cleaning the outside, the loofah with a little monkey brand 
 soap will generally be found sufficient. If, however, one gets obstinate 
 stains that soaking in hot water and w^ell rubbing wdth loofah wnll not 
 move, then other means must be tried. To the end of a bit of stout 
 glass rod or piece of hard wood tie a bit of loofah or rough rag by 
 means of thin string ; into the dish pour a small quantity of hydrochloric 
 acid (the impure commercial " spirits of salts" will do), and with your 
 mop carry the acid all over the inside and especially into all corners. 
 Some care must be used to avoid splashing the acid on to either the 
 fingers or the clothes. Should the former happen, rinse them well at 
 once under the tap ; should the latter happen, apply strong liquid 
 ammonia, and dab it again and again with a rag, first dry and then wet 
 with ammonia. Dishes used for "developing" carbon prints, and 
 allowed to dry without having been rinsed out with hot water after use, 
 are liable to have a thin layer of gelatine dry upon their surface. This 
 
 54 
 
PORCELAIN DISHES, TO GVEkr[--cot7tmtied. 
 
 does not always readily come off, even with hot water; but if a little 
 nitric acid be added to warm water, it will generally be found that the 
 gelatine yields, and may be removed with a nail-brush or coarse rag. 
 Dishes soiled by varnish of nearly every kind can be cleaned by a strong 
 solution of caustic potash, or methylated spirit, or benzole. 
 
 181. FILMS, TO REMOVE, FROM UNEXPOSED PLATES.— It 
 
 sometimes happens that we get plates accidentally light-struck or 
 damaged by damp, etc., and wish to remove the film in order to use 
 the glass ; i.e., for lantern cover-glasses. To do this is simple. The 
 following will be found effective : — In a pint jug put a good handful, 
 say a teacupful, of household washing soda (carbonate), and fill up the 
 jug with hot water. By the time the soda is dissolved the hot water 
 w ill have cooled down to comfortably warm." The plates are now 
 immersed in this for about five minutes, when running the finger, not 
 along, but across, the edge will start frilling. This is done all round, 
 the film seized at one corner and gently dragged from the plate in one 
 whole piece. The soda bath acts best with undeveloped films. But 
 the hydrochloric acid bath already mentioned answers best with plates 
 developed and dried, especially after pyro development. 
 
 182. FILMS FROM OLD NEGATIVES, TO STRIP.— Very often it is 
 required to strip off the film from the glass of a faulty negative, so that 
 the glass may be used for some other purpose. First swelling the 
 gelatine in cold water and removing the film with a hard nail-brush is 
 a common but very unsatisfactory way, because it tears the film into 
 small pieces, and also is apt to leave firmly adhering to the glass small 
 fragments of gelatine. Those methods which enable one to remove 
 the film in one or two large pieces are therefore to be preferred. 
 Dipping the plates in hot w^ater containing some ordinary washing soda, 
 and then a rinse in cold water, will sometimes make the film frill, and 
 so enable it to be removed by gently rubbing. Platinotype workers 
 have, however, always at hand a rtady means which scarcely ever fails. 
 When the first acid fixing or clearing bath (containing hydrochloric 
 acid and various salts dissolved from the paper) is exhausted and no 
 longer fit for its first office, it may be most effectively used for the 
 purpose now before us. Place the negative, wet or dry, in this used-up 
 acid bath, film upwards, and then let it remain for say five or ten 
 minutes. On removing the plate, first go all round the margin by 
 rubbing across (not along) the edge of the glass upwards towards the 
 film. This loosens the film along the edges. Now begin in one 
 corner, aiming at the opposite corner, and with the two first fingers 
 rub over and over into a roll the film, which will be found to come 
 aw^ay from the glass quite easily. In this way it is quite easy to strip 
 a 12 by lo negative, keeping the whole film in one piece. Having 
 removed the film, the plate should be now well rinsed in hot water 
 containing a little washing soda. 
 
 55 
 
183. GLASS ROD OR TtTBE, TO CtT.— Glass rod or tube Is usually 
 sold by weight (about is. to is. td. per lb.), and in various lengths (of 
 about 3 feet) and of various sizes, usually from about the thickness of a 
 stout straw to that of one's finger. In- making stirring rods or connect- 
 ing tubes for various — — 
 
 experimental purposes, 
 
 various lengths have to - 
 
 be cut off. This is usually n 
 
 done by making a fine 
 
 nick by drawing a sharp three-cornered file sharply across the length of 
 the rod or tube. The sketch shows the nick greatly exaggerated for 
 diagrammatic clearness. The rod or tube is now held by the two 
 hands — somewhat in the same way as one holds an oar — the thumbs are 
 placed together at A, i.e., just opposite the file cut, and with a slight 
 bending mxOtion, also a slight pull as though to separate the two hands, 
 the piece comes apart at the crack. 
 
 184. GLASS STIRRING ROD, TO MAKE.— A few glass rods of 
 various lengths and thicknesses are very useful in the dark-room — to 
 stir, assist solution, etc. 
 
 Glass rod, looking like white porcelain, and known as milk-white 
 rod, or opal rod, is often sold for this purpose, and is more easily 
 seen in the dark-room. Having cut the rod the required size, the ends 
 are softened by heat, when they gradually become fairly round at the 
 ends. (N.B. In all glass- working operations the glass must be slowly 
 heated and slowly cooled, or it will most probably crack.) For this 
 purpose we may use a good-sized spirit lamp, or what is still much better, 
 an ordinary bat's wing or fish-tail gas burner. Gradually bring the end 
 of the rod down towards and then into the yellow part of the flame until 
 it glows red, softens, and all roughness disappears, then slowly remove 
 it and lay aside so that the hot end does not touch any cold substance. 
 
 185. A USEFUL FORM OF GLASS ROD.— This is shown in the 
 
 accompanying sketch. One end of the glass rod 
 is softened in the gas flame, and at the same 
 time some smooth, flat piece of metal is made 
 fairly hot. The glass rod is gently pushed 
 against the warm flat metal, forming a round 
 but flattened end, as shown in the figure. This 
 is very useful for crushing small crystals, and so 
 hastening their solution, or any of the substances 
 which seem to have rather a trick of forming 
 lumps when wet, e.g., borax. 
 
 The other end is made quite soft, and is easily 
 nipped with the ends of a pair of flat-nosed pliers. 
 This forms an end something like a drain-cutter's 
 clay spade, and is very useful in dislodging the 
 contents of a bottle that have dried into a solid 
 mass. Alum, soda sulphite, etc., sometimes dry 
 and form a very obstinate mass in this way. 
 
 56 
 
186. J*ROSTED GLASS, TO IMITATE.— Make a saturated solution 
 of magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts) or sodium sulphate (Glauber 
 salts), or a mixture of the two. To this add a liitle size, dissolved in a 
 small quantity of hot water, or a strong solution of gum arable. Apply 
 the mixture, slightly warm, to the glass, previously well cleaned, by 
 means of a wide, soft-hair brush. When dry, the salts form beautiful 
 crystals, resembling the effects of frost. If these fall off, or easily rub 
 off, it is an indication that enough size or gum has not been added. 
 
 187. GLASS, VARIOUS KINDS (LENSES, ETC.).— Glass is a sub- 
 stance used in so many ways by the photographer (lenses, plates, bottles, 
 screens, reflectors, etc.), that a slight knowledge of some of the many 
 varieties may interest him. According to Roscoe : — 
 
 (1) Crown window plate glass — silicates of soda and lime. 
 
 (2) Flint crystal glass — silicates of potassium and lead. 
 
 (3) Common green bottle glass — silicates of iron, lime, soda, and 
 
 aluminium. 
 
 (4) Bohemian glass — silicates of potassium and lime. 
 
 Lenses are chiefly made from various combinations of (i) crown and 
 (2) flint. The former (crown) is not so refractive as the latter. 
 
 The new Jena glasses are another series different in composition and 
 in optical properties of dispersion and refraction from any of the above. 
 Their chief value is due to their having in some cases a small amount 
 of dispersion with a high index of refraction. 
 
 188. COLOURED GLASS, TWO CHIEF KINDS, ''FLASHED" 
 AND '' POT." — (i) Coloured glass is produced in two different ways. 
 (a) When the colouring material is introduced into the molten mass, so 
 that the colour is evenly distributed throughout the entire thickness. 
 This is known as "pot" metal. (/?) Another method is limiting the 
 colour to one side, i.e., fusing a thin layer of coloured glass on to the 
 surface of a colourless sheet. .This is known as "flashed" glass. We 
 may rotighly compare them to solid wood and veneer. 
 
 (2) Various colours. 
 Blue. Cobalt. This, when finely ground, gives the colouring matter 
 smalt and laundry blue. 
 
 Violet. Manganese. Artificial amethysts. 
 
 Yellow. Uranium. Screens. 
 
 Green. Iron-oxide (ferrous). Bottle-green. 
 
 Red-brown. Iron-oxide (ferric). Hock-bottle colour. 
 
 Green. Copper-oxide (cupric). 
 
 Ruby. Copper-oxide (cuprous). 
 
 Red. Gold. 
 
 Opal. Oxides of tin, zinc, etc. 
 
 189. SPIRIT LAMP, TO EXTEMPORISE. -This little convenience 
 in the photographer's dark-room is not so well known as it deserves. 
 
 57 
 
SPIRIT LAMP, TO EXTEMPOIlISE--rd?;^//W//dr^/. 
 
 Having managed to "get along" without it, the purchase is put off 
 from day to day. Here is a simple and quite effective method of 
 making what will answer quite well under all ordinary circumstances 
 where reasonable care is used. Procure a squat, moderately wide- 
 mouthed bottle (a small pomatum bottle is just the thing); fit to this a 
 fairly sound cork. Take now one, two, or three (as the case requires) 
 pieces of glass tube about i J to 2 inches long and about the size of an 
 ordinary cedar pencil. With a cork-borer or round file make holes 
 through the cork, a little distance apart, to receive and fit the glass 
 tubes. The tubes should stand up about three-quarters or an inch 
 above the top surface of the cork. Fit the tubes with a suitable number 
 of strands of lamp cotton. These should not be too few or too tight, 
 but an easy fit. Their ends should project only a quarter of an inch 
 above the top of the glass tube, but may about one-third or half fill the 
 inside of the bottle. Methylated spirit is used in the lamp. Do not 
 fill the lamp quite full, and let the wicks get well saturated before 
 lighting. Be careful that the spirit does not run or ooze on to the outer 
 surface of the cork. To prevent the spirit evaporating, smelling, and 
 wasting, fit to each glass tube another short larger tube as cap, closed 
 at one end. If glass tubing cannot be met with, the metal tube from a 
 common penholder will answer very well. Each end may have an 
 easy-fitting cork cap. In this case it is well to prevent the cork taking 
 fire by protecting its upper surface either with a piece of tin pierced to 
 pass the wick holders, or with two or three layers of the metal foil 
 familiar to lovers of chocolate. 
 
 190. CHEAP BACKGROUND, TO MAKE.— Buy 2.1 yards of wide, 
 stout brown paper such as is often used for underlaying carpets. This 
 may be had about 5 feet wide. Take of common glue about an 
 ounce; break it up into small pieces, put it in a soup plate and cover 
 v/ith cold water for twelve hours so that it may soften and swell as 
 much as possible. Then melt it by gentle heat in a break fastcupful 
 of warm water. Stir well, allow any sediment to settle, and skim off 
 any froth. Now take a breakfast cup of whiting ; mix with a little cold 
 water, more or less, to make a thin white cream. Then take a tea- 
 spoonful of lampblack and rub it (dry) as smooth and fine as possible. 
 Then add enough water to make a thin black-grey creamy mixture. 
 Now add the glue solution to the whiting solution, and add a little 
 more whiting to bring it up to a thin creamy consistency. Add, little 
 by little, enough of the black mixture to the white cream, thoroit^^hly 
 mixing them together, until you have a rather light grey mixture. Now 
 with a stiff wide hog-hair brush apply your grey mixture in a tJiin coat 
 all over the brown paper. Do this as quickly and evenly as possible, 
 working the brush in all directions, but not going over the same place 
 twice if it can be avoided. Now hang up in an airy place to dry. This 
 is the first coating. From its condition when dry you will be able to 
 know exactly how to modify the next and final coat. If it dries at all 
 shiny or smooth, too much glue has been used. If it easily rubs or 
 
 58 
 
CHEAP BACKGROUND, TO HLkKE— continued. 
 
 peels oft' in flakes, too little glue was used. If too light, add more 
 lampblack, and so on. The colour may be modified by adding ground 
 powder colours procurable at most oil-shops. Good colours to use are 
 light red or yellow ochre for warm greys, and stone blue (ground fine) 
 for cooler greys. 
 
 To prepare a graduated ground proceed as before, but prepare two 
 basins of mixture, corresponding to the lightest and darkest tints. Begin 
 with the lightest, and gradually add little by little (in a third cup) more 
 of the dark and less of the light. 
 
 The most convenient way to get at one's work is to use a long narrow 
 kitchen table or a couple of planks resting on chairs. It is then easy to 
 keep drawing along the work as the paper is covered. 
 
 In laying on a graduated ground avoid anything like a straight line of 
 gradation ; work rather in the form of an oval or ellipse and avoid any 
 very sudden jumps from dark to light. 
 
 When not in use, keep the paper background rolled up, being careful 
 to avoid creases. 
 
 191. LEVELLING TABLE, TO ARRANGE.— We often require a 
 perfectly flat and level surface upon which to lay plates coated with 
 gelatine, collodion varnish, etc., etc., so that the film, whatever it may 
 be, may set in a layer of uniform thickness. One of the most practical 
 and at the same time simple arrangements can be simply prepared as 
 follows : — Obtain a sheet of plate glass. For this purpose it need not 
 be free from bubbles or scratches. Make of deal, or other wood, three 
 wedges, about three or four inches long, an inch wide, and tapering 
 from a quarter to one inch in depth, i.e.^ along the slope. If now we 
 place one wedge under the middle of one of the shorter sides of the 
 glass plate, and the other two at the opposite ends of the longer sides, 
 we can in less than a couple of minutes adjust the glass to a level 
 surface by trying it with an ordinary spirit level in all directions. For 
 this latter useful instrument tlie next best substitute is a glass marble or 
 short piece of stout glass rod. The direction towards which these 
 things tend to roll when we tap the plate gently, shows which of the 
 wedges must be pushed further under the glass so as to raise that side 
 or corner. 
 
 192. TO REPLACE A LOST STOP.— To each side of a thin sheet of 
 card paste a piece of black paper, such as is generally used for wrap- 
 ping up needles in, and so obtainable almost anywhere. Dry under 
 pressure, e.g.^ in a book, so that the card keeps quite flat; then with a 
 sharp knife and a suitable sized coin cut out the stop. Failing the 
 black paper, a piece of thin car 1 may be blackened by rubbing it over 
 both sides with the muddy contents of an ordinary inkstand. A piece 
 of ferrotype metal may be employed, but this is not very easy to cut 
 and is apt to give "shiny" edges. 
 
 59 
 
193. LENS CAP, TO EXTEMPORISE.— If lost, a working substitute 
 may be made out of a circular piece of straw board or other stout card 
 and a rim to fit the same — after the manner of a pill-box lid. The rim 
 is fastened to the circular part by means of many short pieces of black 
 tape and glue or gum ; or may be neatly sewn on with black thread. 
 The whole is then covered inside and out with any available black 
 material, e.g., cloth, velvet, etc. 
 
 194. BELLOWS OF CAMERA, TO MEND.— When away from home 
 always carry in the pocket of the exposure note-book a piece of black 
 court plaster. A thorny hedge may damage the fingers or the camera 
 bellows, and the court plaster is efficient for either mishap. 
 
 195. BELLOWS OF CAMERA- CUTS OFF CORNERS OF PLATE.— 
 
 This happens when the bellows are not drawn sufficiently forward, i.e.^ 
 towards the lens. To pull them forward is not always enough ; they 
 must be kept there. For this purpose use a piece of fine flat elastic, 
 long enough to go round a groove about one-third way from lens end. 
 Two side-loops on this can be of such length that they just easily pass 
 over the two screws of the rising front. 
 
 196. DRAW-SLIDE OF PLATE-HOLDER, TO EASE. -It is probably 
 within the experience of most readers of these notes that at some time 
 or other the shutter of the dark-slide has stuck, and the consequence is 
 either that the force needed to draw it out has shifted the camera so 
 that the picture taken was not quite that arranged on the ground-glass, 
 or that the lime taken to draw^ it out has prevented one getting" a 
 certain moving object satisfactorily. To prevent this, see that the 
 draw-shutter slides easily, smoothly, but not too loosely. To ease the 
 slide perhaps nothing is better than blacklead (plumbago). Take a 
 moderately soft blacklead (cedar) pencil, and thoroughly rub both the 
 tongue and groove with the blacklead. Failing this, a bit of French 
 chalk (tailor's chalk) or talc may be used. On no account apply oil, 
 grease, soap, vaseline, or anything that can be absorbed by the wood. 
 This will only cause the wood to swell and make matters worse. 
 
 197. A GUM PASTE THAT WILL KEEP.— Take a teaspoonful 
 of white starch and an equal quantity of water, rub to a smooth paste 
 in a jam pot ; then pour on it boiling water in a thin stream, stirring 
 vigorou^ily until it goes from a chalk-and -water-like appearance to a 
 clear jelly. Make of common gum arable a saturated solution and 
 strain through open muslin or fine canvas. Mix equal quantities of the 
 gum solution and starch jelly together : set the jam pot containing the 
 mixture in a saucepan containing water, and boil for five minutes. Set 
 aside to cool and add a few drops of oil of cloves. 
 
 198. LIQUID GLUE.— Break up good Scotch glue into small pieces, 
 cover with whisky, and stir night and morning until dissolved ; strain 
 through canvas, and keep corked. This is excellent for thin wood, 
 card, etc., etc. 
 
 6o 
 
199. INK.— For writing, etc., on glass, lantern slides, etc. Take 
 of copal resin J oz. and oil of lavender 4 oz. When dissolved, add the 
 colouring matter, which may be lampblack, vermihon, ochre, in a state 
 of fine division. 
 
 200. INK. -For labelling bottles (coloured), (i) Take of shellac 
 I drm. Dissolve in methylated spiric | oz. Dissolve f drm. of borax 
 in § oz. of water, and add to the shellac in spirit, and add any soluble 
 aniline colour. 
 
 (2) For large bottles, jars, caristers, etc. Black varnish, to which 
 a little turpentine has been added, may be applied with a small brush, 
 and answers most purposes admirably. 
 
 201. PAPER WEIGHTS, TO MAKE.— We are constantly requiring 
 some small, heavy body, e.g., to hold carbon tissue while cutting, to 
 hold a "curly" print down to its mount, to keep a batch of prints flat 
 while drying, etc. If the reader happens to possess any old quarter- 
 plate negatives, let him pack them up in half dozens or dozens, first 
 folding them in a long strip of newspaper, and finally in a covering of 
 thin tough brown paper, making a neat, compact, and handy package 
 with it. Ten years' experience has proved ihe usefulness of these 
 efficient and not unsightly weights. 
 
 202. SORES FROM BICROMATE POISONING.- Some skins .seem 
 liable to be attacked by the solutions containing the bichromate salts as 
 used in the carbon and other processes. Sores so produced seem 
 difficult to get rid of. In sensitising or developing this tissue it is 
 advisable, therefore, for those liable to these sores to use rubber tips or 
 gloves. The following recipe is said to be a valuable one for application 
 to sores so produced : — 
 
 Glycerine ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 oz. 
 
 Carbolic acid (pure) ... ... ... ... ... ^ 
 
 Water ... ... 20 
 
 In the case of old sores obstinate in healing they may be painted with 
 a weak solution of silver nitrate (5 grains per oz.). This to be followed 
 by a very slight trace of mercurial ointment. 
 
 203. GLASS LAMP CHIMNEY, TO PREVENT CRACKING.— 
 
 Place the glass chimney in a pan and cover with cold water. Set on 
 the fire until the water boils, and keep it gently boiling for a few 
 minutes, and let the pan and contents cool gradually. 
 
 204. CRICKETS, ETC., IN THE DARK-ROOM OR STUDIO.— 
 
 Collect all the fine tobacco dust from your pouch or jar, or, if not a 
 smoker, buy some cheap, strouL^ common snuff, and sprinkle the parts 
 patronised by the invaders. Crickets generally "favour" warm places, 
 i.e., where hot-water or stove pines are laid. 
 
 61 
 
205. A USEFUL APPARATUS FOU QUICKLY DISSOLVING 
 SOLIDS, OR MAKING SATURATED SOLUTIONS. —We sometimes 
 require a solution of some solid substance that does not dissolve very 
 readily, or permit of being easily powdered, e.g., gum, etc., and for 
 certain reasons we do not wish to apply heat to assist solution. The 
 apparatus indicated in the annexed sketch is easy to make, and very 
 useful for the purpose in question. It may very well be made out of 
 the half of a rather wide test-tube (or a small beaker). The end of the 
 test-tube is closed by softening, etc., in the usual manner, forming a 
 curved but nearly flat end. Now take a piece of copper or brass wire, 
 
 and slightly curve half an inch 
 or so at the end. Direct a small 
 blowpipe flame on the outside of 
 the bottom of the glass tube. 
 When the spot is quite soft, 
 quickly puncture the wall of 
 the tube from within outwards, 
 using for the purpose the curved 
 end of the wire. Holes in various 
 places must be made, but none 
 should be quite at the bottom 
 of the tube. Then- size may 
 conveniently be about that of 
 a mustard seed. Now take a 
 piece of stout, soft copper wire, 
 and with a couple of twists form 
 a holder for the tube. The sub- 
 stance to be dissolved (in conveniently small pieces) is now placed at 
 the bottom of the tube. This is then lowered into the dissolving fluid 
 contained in another vessel, e.g., a tumbler, so that its surface is just 
 level with the upper part of the solid to be dissolved. The supporting 
 copper wire rests on the edges of the vessel containing the solvent. 
 The softness of the wire admits of its easy adjustment. If the solvent 
 is volatile, instead of the supporting wire use a piece of stiff, flat card 
 pierced with a hole which fits the iwh^. The tube may be prevented 
 slipping down by an elastic band round it, and just above the card. 
 The solvent finds its way through the holes in the sides, and as soon as 
 it is sufficiently dense flows out at the lower holes, so that a constant 
 circulation is kept up. This plan answers admirably for gums, 
 resins, etc. 
 
 206. HYPO, A CONVENIENT METHOD OF DISSOLVING.— A 
 
 saturated solution of hypo is very con ve? dent, and although its strength 
 varies of course with changes of temperature, yet for fixing purposes 
 this is not of any great importance. Take a piece of fine canvas, and 
 give it two or three v.'ashings in boiling water, to which has been added 
 a lump of hypo. Now take a good-sized jug or other convenient vessel, 
 e.g., a large glass jam pot, or a wide-mouthed sweets bottle (obtainable 
 from the confectioner for a few pence). Fold the canvas so as to form 
 
 62 
 
HYPO, A CONVENIENT METHOD OF BlSBOLVim—confimied. 
 
 a cone passing into the mouth of the vessel. Fix it in position with 
 string. Fill the canvas cone with hypo. Pour in warm water until 
 it just covers the tip of the cone. As the water dissolves the hypo at 
 the tip, more crystals fall down to take its place. If a suitable jug be 
 chosen, and the right kind of canvas cone formed by a few stitches, it 
 is easy to arrange matters so that the solution may be poured out of the 
 spout without removing the canvas cone. 
 
 207. FILTER PAPER, HOW TO FOLD.— Filter papers are generally 
 sold in packets of circular pieces of paper. There are two ways 
 of folding a filter paper for use. Both ''the easiest thing in the 
 world " when you know how. First 
 fold the paper in half, so that you 
 have a semi-circle, then again into a 
 quadrant or quarter-circle. Now insert 
 a finger between one of the first folds, 
 and open out as shown in the small 
 fig. I. You have now a cone, one-half 
 of which has one thickness of paper, 
 the other has three thicknesses. This, 
 of course, will fill your funnel ; but as 
 the liquid has to be passed through 
 three thicknesses on one side, it is 
 rather a slow way of working. 
 ^Secondly, you may quite as easily fold 
 a paper that will act much quicker. 
 Take your circular piece of paper, fold 
 
 it in half, giving a double thickness of semi-circular shape. 
 
 Now, 
 
 beginning at one side, make a fold al^ou^ one-tenth part of the whole 
 semi-circumference, then another about equal in the opposite direction, 
 
 Pug 3 
 
 63 
 
FILTER PAPETl, HOW TO YOVb- continued. 
 
 then a third in the same direction as the first, and so on, folding 
 alternately one way and then the opposite. You ultimately have then 
 a fan-shaped arrangement, as shown in fig. 2. If now you open this 
 out, you get a conical paper with many small sloping sides, somewhat 
 as shown in fig. 3. The special point about this method is that you are 
 using all your filter paper only one thickness, consequently you have a 
 greater area at wolrk, and only one thickness for the fluid to pass 
 through ; but, curiously enough, this method seems ahnost unknown 
 as compared with the older slower way. The chief thing requiring 
 attention is that, however you fold your paper, some care must be 
 taken not to crack or break, tear, or otherwise injure the paper at 
 part marked /. This is very easily done, and, of course, a hole in the 
 filter paper renders the operation useless. 
 
 208. THE LENS IN COLD WEATHER.— Before making an ex- 
 posure, give a glance at the lens to see that moisture has not condensed 
 upon it. This is not unlikely to happen in winter time, when it 
 (the lens) has been kept in a cold place and is brought into a damp 
 atmosphere. Any film of moisture must be removed with a bit of old 
 and very soft silk, quite free from grit, etc. 
 
 209. WARM GLOVES FOR COLD HANDS.-Those who suffer from 
 cold hands, and are likely to be occupied with a camera, etc., in the 
 open air in winter time, may be glad to take the following hint : — Have 
 made of soft w^arm cloth, and flannel lined if preferred, a pair of easy- 
 fitting baby gloves, i.e.^ gloves whereof the thumb goes into one pocket 
 and all four fingers into another. The point of this suggestion is that 
 one can jump in and out of these gloves at a bound, i.e., taking no more 
 time to put on and take off than it does to put one's hands into one's 
 pockets. This is a great point both in comfort and convenience, 
 especially when the fingers are numb with cold, and one has neither 
 time nor inclination to be bothered by putting on gloves finger by finger. 
 Nor are these " baby " gloves nearly so clumsy as one might suppose. 
 A bit of broad elastic across the inner side of the wrists prevents them 
 coming off when this is not desired. 
 
 210. DEVELOPMENT IN COLD WEATHER.— Lowering the tem- 
 perature generally slows chemical action. Therefore, warm the 
 developing solutions and developing dishes to about 60° Fahr. by 
 placing them in a convenient vessel (big pie dish, etc.) containing warm 
 water. If this cannot be conveniently done, then the developing 
 solutions may be used in a slightly more concentrated form, i.e., less 
 water added. 
 
 211. WEATHER SIGNS.— Shall I or shall I not take out the camera 
 to-day ? Yesterday was an uncertain half-and4ialf sort of day, and the 
 barometer has not moved a fraction for hours. Some of the following 
 signs may help in the formation of a likely" opinion : — 
 
 64 
 
WEATHER SmiSlB—co^finued, 
 
 Clotuis. Thunder packs, cotton bales, or cumuli, appearing during 
 the heat of the day and disappearing towards evening, indicate fine 
 weather. But if they hang about and collect in masses about the 
 horizon you may expect rain. " Mares' tails," or cirri, often mean fine 
 but windy weather. Small black oily or inky-looking patches usually 
 indicate rain. 
 
 Rainbow in morning generally foretells more rain ; but towards even- 
 ing one may expect fine weather following. 
 
 Coi'ona, or coloured band round the sun or moon, means the weather 
 is changing. If it gets smaller, rain is coming ; but if it expands, fine 
 weather may be expected. 
 
 Stuiset clouds, and colours tending towards green and yellow, 
 generally indicate rain ; but if towards red and purple, fine weather 
 may be looked for. 
 
 Sunrise. Grey-yellow generally is followed by fine weather, but red 
 sunrise often precedes rain and wind. 
 
 Deep blue sky favours fine weather ; but if turning to grey or milky 
 white-blue, rain is not far off. 
 
 Fog in the morning often passes away and brings a fine day, but at 
 night is often closely followed by rain. 
 
 Sun dogs, or halo, i.e.^ a large circle round the sun or moon, mean a 
 change of weather. 
 
 Distant sounds distinctly heard generally presage rain or change of 
 wind. 
 
 Distant objects seeming clear or appearing nearer than usual gener- 
 ally indicate a downfall of rain. 
 
 212. SEASIDE WEATHER SIGNS.— In addition to the notes on 
 weather signs already given, the following may be added as being 
 especially likely to be helpful when away for a holiday at the sea- 
 side : — 
 
 Clouds soft and delicate generally mean fine weather with light 
 breezes. 
 
 Dark, gloomy, blue sky^ often followed by wind. 
 
 High upper clouds crossing the sun, moon, or stars in a direction 
 different from that of the lower clouds, indicate a change of wind and 
 possibly rain. 
 
 Unusual clearness of atfuosphere near the horizon (distant ships, hills, 
 etc. ) often indicates coming rain. 
 
 Twinkling of the stars^ fragments of rainbow patches on the edges 
 of clouds (called wind dogs, wind galls, etc.), often signify wind and 
 rain. 
 
 Sea birds flying far out to sea foretell fine weather, but when flying 
 inland or keeping near the shore you may expect wind and storm.y 
 weather generally. 
 
 213. LIGHT (IN HOMOGENEOUS MEDIA) TRAVELS IN STRAIGHT 
 LINES. — It is upon this fact that the whole fabric of photography restSi 
 
 65 
 
LIGHT TRAVELS IN STRAIGHT Ll^-ES—co/Mmed. 
 
 By a homogeneous medium is meant a substance of the same constitution 
 throughout, pure water, good glass, etc. The atmosphere is denser 
 nearer the earth's surface than it is at the tops of mountains. Hence 
 light does not usually travel in quite straight lines over long distances 
 when passing through the air. But for small distances it is practically 
 homogeneous, and light may be considered as travelling in straight 
 lines. 
 
 This law (of " rectilinear propagation ") may be roughly shown by a 
 simple expermient, thus : — Take a piece of opaque card, make in it a 
 small hole (with a large pin, etc.). Into a dark room take a candle and 
 the card, arrange a pile of books, etc., round the candle so as to cut 
 off as much light as possible. Then, wdth the hole of the card held, 
 say, 2 feet from the flame, throw an image of the candle flame on the 
 wall of the room. It will be seen then that the flame, the hole, and 
 the image are always in a straight line. 
 
 Practical Application. — (i) Sometimes we have a negative giving 
 dark corners, i.e.^ the lens does not properly " cover " the plate. How 
 may we find this out before exposure ? Set up the camera with lens 
 in position, focus for a distant object in centre of plate. Remove the 
 ground-glass, tilt the camera up towards the sky. Take a piece of 
 card with a small hole (say, \ inch) in it, hold it just where the corner 
 of the ground-glass would come, and look through the hole towards 
 the lens and sky. If you can see a small clear circle of daylight your 
 lens covers the plate. 
 
 (2) Again, without using the card, place an eye to the corner where 
 the plate comes, and look through the diaphragm or stop of the lens. If 
 in this position you can see any part of the lens tube or mount, the lens 
 will not evenly illuminate the plate, though it may give some kind of 
 image. 
 
 (3) In the same way, by moving the rising front up or down, or 
 altering the swing-back, etc., it may be ascertained whether or no the 
 lens is evenly illuminating the plate in all positions. 
 
 214. THE LAW OF 'INVERSE SQUARES."— This is being con- 
 stantly referred to in matters photographic, and is of fundamental 
 importance in calculating exposures, enlarging, lantern projection, etc. 
 By the square of a number is meant that number multiplied by itself : 
 thus the square of 3 is 9, of 4 is 16, and so on. The law of inverse 
 squares tells us that the quantity of light falling upon any given area is 
 inversely as the square of the distance of that area from'the illuminant." 
 
 A simple experiment will make this clear : — Take a sheet of brown 
 paper and cut out a hole i foot square. Into any darkened room that 
 has a bare wall take a candle and the brown paper. One yard away 
 from the wall hold up the brown paper and place the candle opposite 
 the middle of the hole i yard away from the brown paper, and of course 
 2 yards from the wall. It will now be observed that the quantity of 
 
 66 
 
THE LAW OF "INVERSE SQUARES''— con finned, 
 
 light passing through the hole i foot square is spread out on the wall 
 over a space 2 feet by 2 feet, or 4 square feet. In other words, the 
 area illun)inated at 2 yards is /our times as large as that illuminated 
 at I yard ; or, if the same light covers four times the space at 2 yards as 
 it does at i yard, it can have only one-fourth the power at 2 yards that 
 it has at I yard. Or, again, in other words, if we double the distance 
 we quadruple the area covered and reduce the power one-fourth. Again, 
 if the candle is, say, 2 feet from the brown paper and 6 feet from the 
 wall (i.e., the distance of the wall and the paper are as 3 to i), we shall 
 see that the space on the wall is now three times each way, or nine 
 times as large as the opening of the paper — that is to say, at three 
 times the distance the light covers nine times the space, and is only 
 one-ninth as powerful. If the distances were as 4 to I the light would 
 be only one-sixteenth, at five times only one-twenty-fifth, and so on. 
 Obviously this is of the utmost importance in estimating exposures when 
 enlarging. 
 
 Practical Application. — Suppose an enlargement has been satisfac- 
 torily exposed 5 seconds with given stop, lens, negative, etc., 30 inches 
 away from the negative, what would be the corresponding exposure 
 40 inches away? Answer: Increase the 5 seconds in the ratio of 
 40 squared to 30 squared, or 1,600 to 900, or 16 to 9 — i.e., multiply 
 by 16 and divide by 9, ix., 8|, or say 9 seconds. Again, a quarter- 
 plate, 4 by 3, was enlarged to whole-plate, 8 by 6, with an exposure of 
 
 7 seconds ; how long should be the exposure under same conditions 
 when enlarging to 12 by 9? Answer: The light which covered the 
 
 8 by 6 space, i.e., 48 square inches, now covers the 12 by 9, i.e., 
 108 square inches. Its intensity is therefore reduced inversely as the 
 space it covers. Consequently the exposure must be increased as the 
 space covered, i.e., 7 must be increased in the ratio of 41 to 108, or 
 4 to 9 ; i.e., multiply by 9 and divide by 4 — , say, 16 seconds. 
 
 215. A LENS— THE FIVE ERRORS THEREOF.— (i) Chromatic 
 aberration. Light passing through a lens, i.e., a curved prism, is 
 decomposed into its various constituent colours. These are not all 
 equally refracted, and do not therefore all come to a focus at the same 
 point, hence chromatic aberration. 
 
 (2) Spherical aberration. A beam of parallel rays of light falling 
 upon a curved surface must vary as to the angle which they make with 
 the curved surface. And as the degree of refraction, or bending, partly 
 depends upon this angle, it follows that some rays must be refracted 
 more than others. Hence these rays cannot all meet at the same plane. 
 Thus we have this form of error or aberration. 
 
 (3) Aberration of thickness, or distortion. The rays of light from a 
 straight line, say the edge of a building, passing through a small hole 
 (the stop), will on the first surface of the lens form an approximately 
 straight line. But since the lens is curved, some parts of it will be 
 
 67 
 
A LENS- THE FIVE ERRORS TJlE-R-EOY—confmued. 
 
 thicker along this line than are other parts, and also, since the degree 
 of refraction or displacement partly depends on the thickness of 
 glass traversed, some parts of the straight line will be bent more 
 than are others. Hence distortion. This may be of two forms, the 
 barrel or pincushion, according to the position of the stop relative 
 to the lens. 
 
 (4) Roundness of field. According to the fundamental law of con- 
 jugate foci the image of a straight line in a plane perpendicular to the 
 optic axis is not formed as a straight line, but as a slightly curved line. 
 Its curvature among other things depends upon the refractive index of 
 the glass, its thickness, its curvature, etc. Thus the image of a flat 
 surface is formed as a curved surface. 
 
 ( 5) Asdgviatism. A lens is directed at right angles to the centre of 
 a vertical plane, say a wall. A black cross is distinctly drawn on a 
 sheet of white card. This is placed on the wall opposite the centre of 
 the lens, the arms of the cross being vertical and horizontal and care- 
 fully focussed. Keeping the arms vertical and horizontal, it is now 
 moved so as to come only just within the corner lines of the ground- 
 glass. It will now be found that we cannot get the vertical and 
 horizontal arms in focus at the same time. Each arm can be focussed 
 tolerably distinctly, one at a time, but not both together. The cause 
 of this is not easy to make clear without a diagram ; but roughly one 
 may say it is largely a question of the angle of oblique incident rays. 
 The rays coming from the horizontal line fall upon the surface of the 
 lens at a different set of angles to those made by the rays from the 
 vertical line, and hence one set are more sharply defined in one plane, 
 and the other set in another. 
 
 Flare spot is not properly a lens defect so much as it is a phenomenon 
 which may or may not happen according to the conditions and sur- 
 roundings of the lens. 
 
 216. LARGE v. SMALL STOPS — It has often been observed that 
 when two equivalent exposures are made upon the same subject 
 respectively with large and small stops (the times being duly appor- 
 tioned), the picture made with the large stop is bolder, freer, and more 
 painter-like in breadth and vigour, while that with the small, though 
 having, of course, a much greater depth of sharply defined planes, is 
 flat and weak in comparison with the first-named. The large stop, 
 moreover, seems to yield more gradation in the lower tones, while the 
 small stop, yielding a more sparkling negative, lacks the degree of 
 gradation, and tends to sharper contrasts. 
 
 These differences may be in part optical illusions, but the effect has 
 been independently noted by various workers. A large stop gives a 
 better rendering of aerial effect, and effects due to distance, atmosphere, 
 haze. 
 
 68 
 
217. THERMOMETER READINGS, TO TRANSFORM.- Data are 
 sometimes given in Centigrade degrees, sometimes in Fahrenheit 
 degrees. It is convenient to be able to transform the reading from one 
 scale to the other. 
 
 (1) Fahrenhdt to Centigrade. Subtract 32, multiply by 5, divide 
 by 9. E.g., to convert 86 Fahrenheit to Centigrade {i.e.^ 30° C.) : 
 86 - 32 = 54; 54 X 5 = 270; 270-^9 = 30- 
 
 (2) Centigrade to Fahrenheit. Multiply by 9, divide by 5, add 32. 
 E.g., to convert 35° Centigrade to Fahrenheit (95° F.) : 35 x 9 = 315; 
 315 -i- 5 --63 ; 63 + 32 = 95- 
 
 The Centigrade system is sometimes called the scale of Celsius. 
 
 218. SIZES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATES, OR CUT GLASS- 
 ENGLISH. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Other Sizes, 
 Quoted by Iiiche 
 
 One -sixteenth plate 
 
 if by \% \ 
 
 7i by 
 
 44 
 
 One-ninth 
 
 2 2h 1 
 
 1\ 
 
 5 
 
 One-sixth ,, 
 
 3i 2i 1 
 
 8 „ 
 
 5 
 
 Quarter „ 
 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 One-third 
 
 5 4 
 
 10 
 
 Half 
 
 . 61 „ 4l 
 
 II 
 
 9 
 
 Old half 
 
 . 6A \\ 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 Stereo 
 
 . 6f „ 3i 
 
 15 M 
 
 12 
 
 Whole 
 
 . 81 „ 61 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 Extra whole-plate 
 
 . la ,,8 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 Lantern 
 
 S\ •>■> J)4 
 
 ■ 22 
 
 18 
 
 Panel „ 
 
 • 12 „ 7i 
 
 24 „ 
 
 18 
 
 Boudoir „ 
 
 . 8 „ 5 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 Special cabinet plate .. 
 
 • 61 „ 41 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 Double half ,, . 
 
 . 94 „ 6^ 
 
 30 M 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 28 
 
 219. SIZES OF FOREIGN PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATES. 
 
 Centimetres 
 
 Centimetres 
 
 Centimetres 
 
 (Lumiere). 
 
 (Lumiere). 
 
 (Lumiere). 
 
 6 by 8 
 
 9 by 12 
 
 21 by 27 
 
 6 9 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 24 30 
 
 6^ 9 
 
 II 
 
 15 
 
 27 33 
 
 61 10 
 
 12 ,, 
 
 16 
 
 30 „ 40 
 
 8" „ 8 
 
 12 ,, 
 
 i64 
 
 35 M 45 
 
 8 „ 9 
 
 13 M 
 
 18 
 
 40 50 
 
 8 10 
 
 12 ,, 
 
 20 
 
 45 55 
 
 81 , loi 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 50 6q 
 
 8' „ 154 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 
 84 „ 17 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 
 6q 
 
220. SIZES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPEES (SHEETS). 
 
 Name. 
 
 Silver albumenised 
 Collodion silver emulsion... 
 Solio (Eastman) ... 
 
 P.O. P. (Ilford) 
 
 Matena bromide (Fallowfield), roll 
 Bromide (Eastman), rolls 
 Nikko (Eastman) 
 Mezzotype ... 
 Gelatino-bromide (Morgan and Kidd), 
 Alpha (Ilford) 
 rolls 
 
 Pizzighelli platina, print-out 
 Jacoby platina 
 Platinotype, sheet . 
 
 roll 
 
 Ferro-prussiate (Fallowfield), roll 
 Ferro-gallic (Fallowfield) 
 Ferro-cyanide ,, 
 Sepiatype, sheet ... 
 
 ,, roll 
 Carbon tissue, band 
 ,, half-band 
 
 quarter-band 
 
 roll 
 
 Inches. 
 
 23 by 17 
 24 J 20 
 244 17 
 
 24i 17 
 24^ wide 
 10 to 40 
 12 ,,40 
 
 28 by 20 
 17 wide 
 
 24 by 19 
 24 wide 
 26 by 19 
 26 „ 19 
 26 ,, 20 
 20 wide 
 29i 
 
 29 and 40 wide 
 
 36" by 30 ' 
 
 30 wide 
 
 12 ft. by 30 in. 
 12 „ 15 
 6 „ 15 „ 
 
 221. SIZES OF PAPERS, CARDS, MOUNTING BOARDS, ETC. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Special lithographic. . . 
 
 39 by 38 
 
 Imperial 
 
 .. 31 by 22 
 
 Antiquarian ... 
 
 53 31 
 
 Atlas 
 
 .. 34 „ 26 
 
 Double imperial 
 
 44 30 
 
 Demy 
 
 .. 20 15J 
 
 Double elephant 
 
 40 „ 27 
 
 Medium 
 
 .. 22 17I- 
 
 Double Royal 
 
 40 25 
 
 Double foolscap 
 
 .. 27 17 
 
 Super royal ... 
 
 27 „ i9i 
 
 Crown 
 
 .. 20 „ 15 
 17 I3I 
 
 Royal 
 
 24 19I 
 
 Foolscap 
 
 Leviathan 
 
 44 ,y 35 
 
 Cartoon, rolls, 27, 54, 60 wide. 
 
 Emperor 
 
 68 „ 48 
 
 
 .. 22 by 17 
 
 Colombier ... 
 
 34 „ 23 
 
 Blotting-paper 
 
 Elephant 
 
 33 27 
 
 
 .. 24 19 
 
 70 
 
222. SIZES OF MOUNTS. 
 
 English. 
 
 Name. 
 C.D.V. midget ... 
 Victoria ., 
 Cabinet ,, 
 Promenade,, 
 Boudoir 
 Carte, C.D.V. 
 Salon 
 Cabinet 
 Promenade.. 
 Panel 
 Boudoir 
 Imperial 
 Malvern 
 Salon 
 Royal 
 
 Large Panel 
 Grand Panel 
 
 Inches. 
 
 ii'o by 
 I* „ 
 li „ 
 If „ 
 
 T 1 6 
 
 2* „ 
 
 4| „ 
 
 74 „ 
 5* „ 
 (>i 
 3} 
 
 2| 
 
 5i 
 i3f 
 
 2i 
 2i 
 2li 
 
 3i 
 31 
 4i 
 4i 
 6| 
 8i 
 13 
 84 
 lo 
 6i 
 
 4t 
 io| 
 
 17 
 
 23 
 
 Name. 
 
 Inches 
 
 
 Minette 
 
 ... U by 
 
 ... Ij 5, 
 
 2i 
 
 Petite 
 
 3^ 
 
 Milieu 
 
 ... If „ 
 
 4f\ 
 
 Quadra 
 
 2^ 
 
 2i 
 
 Carre ... 
 
 ... 3" 5 5 
 
 3 
 
 Longa 
 
 ••• 2|- 
 
 6J 
 
 Card ... 
 
 -•• 2i „ 
 
 4i 
 
 Victoria 
 
 34 5 J 
 
 5 
 
 Cabinet 
 
 ••• 4i 5, 
 
 6* 
 
 Promenade . . . 
 
 ••• 4i 55 
 
 7* 
 
 Panel 
 
 ... 4 „ 
 
 81 
 
 Boudoir 
 
 ••• 51 5, 
 
 8i 
 
 Imperial 
 
 ... 6J „ 
 
 9J 
 
 223. SIZES OF BOOKS, ILLUSTRATIONS, DIAGRAMS. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Super imp. 4to (quarto) 
 
 15* by 13 
 
 12^ 10 
 
 Royal , , 
 
 Demy 
 
 i4 „ sh 
 
 Crown 
 
 Royal 8vo (octavo) ... 
 
 II 8 
 
 10 „ 6i 
 
 Medium „ 
 
 9l 5, 6" 
 
 Demy „ 
 
 9 ,5 51 
 
 Crown ,, 
 
 7i„ 5 
 
 6f „ 4i 
 
 Post „ 
 
 Foolscap,, 
 
 7 ,5 4l 
 
 Duodecimo (i2mo) 
 
 7 55 4 
 
 i6mo 
 
 6i „ 4 
 
 Royal 24mo 
 
 5*5, 31 
 
 224. SIZES OF PORTRAITS. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Head 24 by 20 
 
 Three-quarter ... ... 30 25 
 
 Kit Cat 36 28 
 
 Small half-length ... 44 34 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Half-length 50 by 40 
 
 Bishop's half-length ... 56 44 
 
 Whole-length 94 58 
 
 Bishop's whole-length 106 70 
 
 225. SOME USEFUL UNITS.— One often sees formulie expressed 
 in measures and weights other than those we are more accustomed to 
 use. It is convenient to be able to translate any such formulas into 
 those measures with which we are the more familiar. The following 
 
 71 
 
SOME USEFUL VmTS—confhtued. 
 
 units will be found useful for this purpose. The figures in brackets 
 give a fractional expression sufficiently near the decimal for all ordinary 
 practical purposes: — 
 
 I metre ... ... ... = 39'37 inches (39f) 
 
 I millimetre ... ... = '03937 inch {^-^) 
 
 I kilometre = -621 mile = (|) 
 
 I yard ... ... ... = '914 metre (y^tt) 
 
 I inch ... ... ... := 25*39 millimetres (254) 
 
 I mile ... ... ... = I '609 kilometres ( 1 1) 
 
 I litre ) = 176 pints (if) \ 
 
 1,000 cubic centimetres.../ = 35"2i fl. oz. (35^)/ 
 
 100 ,, ... =r 3 oz. 4 drachms 10 minims 
 
 10 „ „ ... — 2 fl, drachms 49 minims 
 
 I cubic centimetre ... =17 minims 
 
 I pint = -568 litre (|) 
 
 I oz = 28-35 c.c. (28I) 
 
 I drachm ... ... = 3-55 c.c. (3 J) 
 
 I gramme = 15-4323 gMiSl) 
 
 I kilogram ... ... = 2-2046 lb. avoir. (2|) 
 
 I oz. avoir. ... ... = 28-35 gr. (28f) 
 
 I lb. ., ... ... = '45 kilogram (y^) 
 
 I lb. apoth. or troy ... — 5,760 gr. 
 
 I oz. ... = 480 „ 
 
 I lb. avoir. ... ... = 7,000 „ 
 
 I oz. „ = 437I ,, 
 
 I pint ... ... ... = volume or space occupied by ij lb. 
 
 (avoir.) water at 62° Fahr. = 
 8,750 grains. 
 
 I gallon ... ... ... = volume or space occupied by 10 lb. 
 
 (avoir. ) water at 62° Fahr. 
 
 I cubic foot of water weighs about 1,000 oz. avoir. 
 
 226. APPROXIMATE WEIGHTS OF SOME COINS.— When away 
 from home it is not always possible to borrow scales and small weights 
 (grain, scruple, etc.). With an ordinary letter balance and a couple 
 of empty match-boxes and the following coins, sufficiently accurate 
 weighing for an emergency can be done, for most of the things one is 
 likely to want when developing a few trial plates when away from 
 home : — 
 
 Half crown — 
 
 200 grains = 
 
 
 grammes 
 
 Shilling = 
 
 80 „ = 
 
 51 
 
 > > 
 
 Sixpence = 
 
 40 „ = 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 y/. piece = 
 
 20 ,, = 
 
 12 
 
 ? ? 
 
 Penny = 
 
 146 ,, = 
 
 95 
 
 
 Halfpenny = 
 
 87 „ - 
 
 3-6 
 
 ? ? 
 
 Forty-eight pence = i lb. avoirdupois = 7,000 grains. 
 Threepence = i oz. avoirdupois = 437 grains (slightly over). 
 
 72 
 
APPROXIMATE WEIGHTS OF SOME COT'S S—co?^h'nued. 
 
 Two shillings (or one florin) and sixpence = J oz. (slightly over). 
 One halfpenny and one y/. piece = 5 oz. (slightly under). 
 One shilling and one 3r/. piece =: 100 grains. 
 A halfpenny is just one inch in diameter. 
 
 227. SATURATED SOLUTIONS.— A saturated solution of any sub- 
 stance is made by dissolving as much of the substance as the solvent 
 will take up. In roost cases the warmer the solvent the more of the 
 solid substance can be dissolved in it. So that a saturated solution at, 
 say, 80° Fahr. ; Vhen cooled down to, say, 60° Fahr., will deposit some of 
 the dissolved substance in solid form at the bottom of the bottle. Hence 
 the best way of preparing saturated solutions generally is to use the 
 solvent warmer than the usual temperature of the solution to be used, 
 and let it cool down. The clear saturated solution is then decanted 
 from the solid precipitated by cooling. It is important, therefore, for 
 those photographers who find it convenient to keep saturated solutions, 
 to know what the strength of the solution is at the usual temperatures. 
 The subjoined table may be of use : — 
 
 Table of Saturated Solutions, in water at 60° Fahr. (15° Cent,) 
 Boracic acid ... ... ... i pa 
 
 Alum potash (common) 
 
 ,, chrome 
 Ammonium oxalate 
 
 ., bichromate... 
 Borax 
 Eikonogen 
 Hydroquinone ... 
 Iron protosulphate 
 Mercury bichloride 
 Potassium bromide 
 
 ,, bichromate ... 
 ferricyanide ... 
 
 ,, oxalate 
 Silver nitrate 
 Sodium acetate ... 
 ,, hyposulphite 
 ,, sulphite... 
 Iron perchloride... 
 
 228. BOILING POINTS OF SOME LIQUIDS USED IN PHOTO- 
 GRAPHY. 
 
 Ether 98-6 deg. Fahr. 
 
 Alcohol ... 174*2 
 
 Benzole ... 176 
 
 Water ... ... ... 212 
 
 Acetic acid ... ... 242*6 
 
 Turpentine ... ... 266 
 
 Mercury... ... ... 667*4 
 
 73 
 
 dissolves in 25 parts water. 
 10 
 12 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 25 
 20 
 2 
 
 18 
 2 
 8 
 
 2i 
 3 
 I 
 3 
 
 37 deg. Cent. 
 
 79 
 80 
 
 100 „ 
 117 
 130 
 353 
 
229. RELATIVE PHOTOGRAPHIC VALUES OF MIDDAY SUN- 
 LIGHT. — Every photographer knows that summer midday sunshine is 
 much quicker than spring or autumn, and still more so than winter 
 midday light, but few have any approximately definite idea as to how 
 much. The subjoined table gives a sufficiently accurate idea for all 
 ordinary practical purposes, taking the midday light in July as our unit : — 
 
 January 8 to 9 
 
 February ... ... 7 8 
 
 March 5 7 
 
 April 4 5 
 
 May 2 „ 3 
 
 June ... ... 2 I 
 
 230. INCANDESCENCE 
 
 July 
 
 August 
 September 
 October ... 
 November 
 December 
 
 I 
 
 I to 3 
 
 3 4 
 
 5 . 6 
 
 6 „ 7 
 
 8 „ 6 
 
 -The relative light-giving powers of zir- 
 conium and lime are said to be about 37 to 31. The former is, however, 
 much the more costly. 
 
 231. SHARP PICTURES OF MOVING OBJECTS.— T/ieorelica/ly, a 
 sharp picture of a moving object is an ideal impossibility, because, no 
 matter how short the exposure given, the object, if moving at all, 
 must have moved through some distance, and consequently its image 
 cannot have been absolutely stationary during that time. 
 
 Practically, however, it is found that an image which has not moved 
 in any part more than one-hundredth of an inch during the exposure, 
 prints out as though it had not moved at all, because the unaided eye 
 does not usually appreciate so small a blur as one-hundredth of an inch. 
 
 The aniount of blur depends upon the rate of movement of the object, 
 duration of exposure, and focal length of lens, the least blur being with 
 a slowly moving object, a brief exposure, and a ''short-focus lens. 
 
 The subjoined tabulations may be found useful for hand-camera 
 workers. 
 
 Tables showing the movement of an object at various distances 
 corresponding with the one-hundredth inch displacement of the 
 image on the focussing screen : — 
 
 (1) With lens 5| inches from focussing screen. 
 
 Distance of Object. Movement of Object. 
 
 1,760 yards = I mile ... ... ... ... 9f feet. 
 
 880 „ J „ 
 
 440 J ,, 
 
 220 „ \ ,, 
 
 no „ 
 
 15 yards 10 inches = ... 
 
 (2) With lens 8 inches from focussing screen. 
 Distance of Object. Movement of Object. 
 
 1,760 yards = I mile ... ... ... 6 feet 7^ inches. 
 
 880 „ J ,, 
 
 440 M i 
 
 220 „ \ 
 
 no tV 
 
 22 yards 8 inches = ... 
 
 74 
 
 4f „ 
 
 I4f inches. 
 
 7i „ 
 I inch. 
 
 3t 
 19* 
 
 4^2-^0 „ 
 I inch. 
 
SHARP PICTURES OF MOVING OB JECT^ - confmuec^. 
 (3) With lens 11 inches from focussing screen. 
 
 Distance of Object. Movement of Object. 
 
 1,760 yards = I mile ... ... ... ... 4^ feet. 
 
 880 „ 4 „ 2f „ 
 
 440 i I4f inches. 
 
 220 i 7i „ 
 
 no tV j> •'• "• ••• 3f »j 
 
 30 yards 20 inches = .. . ... ... I inch. 
 
 For example, suppose a horse travelling at a rate of 10 miles per hour 
 — i.e. about 14I feet per second — is to be photographed with a 5^ inch 
 lens with one second exposure. If it be anything more than 220 yards 
 away from the camera, the blur will not exceed one-hundredth of an 
 inch, i.e., the print will be sharp enough for most purposes. But if an 
 8 inch lens is being used, the object ought to be nearly 440 yards away 
 [i.e.^ this distance would permit a movement of 19^ inches), while if we 
 use an II inch lens, the object should be \ mile or more away. 
 
 232. SOME USEFUL ADDRESSES.— Permission to take Photo- 
 graphs. It does not seem to be generally known that it is necessary to 
 be armed with a formal permission in order to use one's camera without 
 fear of interruption or prevention by the custodians of our various parks, 
 public gardens, etc., etc., in and near London. The necessary per- 
 missions are usually granted at once if applied for in the proper way. 
 Write briefly and very clearly, give name in full, address, occupation. 
 Enclose stamped and addressed envelope for the reply. State clearly 
 that you wish for permission to take "views," or sky studies, clouds, 
 trees, etc., as the case may be (portraiture is not permitted, and the 
 permissions do not apply to Sundays ; as a rule the length of the per- 
 mission varies, but its conditions, time of expiration, etc., are stated). 
 Acknowledge briefly and promptly the receipt of the permission by a 
 few words of thanks. This will facilitate its renewal if needed. 
 
 For Hyde Park, St. James's Park, Green Park, Greenwich Park, 
 Richmond Park, Bushey Park, Regent's Park, Primrose Hill, Kensington 
 Gardens, Hampton Court Palace and Gardens — Reginald B. Brett, Esq., 
 H.M. Board of Works, Whitehall, S.W. 
 
 For Victoria Park, Battersea Park, Dulwich Park, Kennington Park, 
 Finsbury Park, Clapham Common, Wandsworth Common, Embank- 
 ment Gardens, Blackheath, Hampstead Heath, Bostall Heath, etc., 
 and other places under the control of the London County Council — ■ 
 H. De la Hooke, Esq., Clerk to L.C.C., Spring Gardens, S.W. 
 
 For Epping Forest, Highgate Woods, Wanstead Park— Sir John 
 Monckton, Town Clerk's Office, Guildhall, E.G. 
 
 For Kew Gardens — The Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. 
 
 For City Buildings — John Whalley, Esq., 26, Old Jewry, E.G. 
 
 For Bunhill Fields Cemetery, top of Monument, etc. — The Secretary, 
 Lands Committee, Guildhall, E.G. 
 
 For Windsor Park, Virginia Water — Capt. W. Campbell, Holly Grove, 
 Windvsor Park, Windsor. 
 
 75 
 
SOME USEFUL ADB'RE^^'^S—confimiec/. 
 
 For Zoological Gardens— The Secretary, 3, Hanover Square, W. 
 For Botanical Gardens — The Secretary, Botanical Gardens, Regent's 
 Park. 
 
 For St. Paul's Cathedral, Westminster Abbey — The Dean, etc. 
 
 For British Museum— The Director, etc. 
 
 For National Gallery — The Director, etc. 
 
 For South Kensington Museum — The Director, etc. 
 
 For various provincial Cathedrals — The Rev. the Dean, etc. 
 
 For Colleges of Cambridge and Oxford — To the Master, President, 
 Provost, Warden, or Principal, as the case may be (see the various 
 University Calendars). 
 
 233. PATENTING AN INVENTION. -The following brief and in- 
 complete jottings may be of some slight service to the more ambitious 
 inventive amateur. A provisional specification has to be made on a 
 form with sl £1 stamp. The complete specification on another form 
 with a ^^3 stamp. The first describes the nature of the invention. The 
 latter particularly describes the invention, the manner in which it is 
 performed, etc., and gives a distinct statement as to the novelty or 
 invention claimed. The Patent Office makes no search as to novelty 
 and guarantees nothing, so that the acceptance of the fee is no proof or 
 guarantee of the validity of the novelty or invention. The records in 
 the Patent Office are open for examination without fee. Priority of 
 invention counts from the date of application. Provisional j^rotection 
 entitles to the use and publication of the invention, but does not protect 
 against infringement. Specifications may be obtained through any Post 
 Office. Detailed instructions should be obtained from the officials of 
 the Patent Office, Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane. (Library 
 at same address.) 
 
 234. COPYRIGHT. HOW TO REGISTER A PHOTOGRAPH.— 
 
 Write to T/ie Registrar, Copyright Office, Stationers' Hall, Liidgate 
 Hill, E.C., enclosing postal order for one shilling, and also a good- 
 sized stamped and addressed envelope, asking for a dozen copyright 
 forms for photographs. On each form the needed instructions are given. 
 They may be briefly put thus : Fee for each work is one shiUing. A 
 form has to be filled up and copy of photograph sent with it. Postage 
 stamps not received in payment of fee. Certified copy of the registra- 
 tion or entry on payment of five shillings. No action can be maintained 
 or penalty recovered for anything done before registration. 
 
 235. COPYRIGHT UNION.— This society exists for the purpose 
 among other things of placing photographic copyright upon a satis- 
 factory basis, and gives attention to the interests of those possessing 
 such copyrights. The reader may obtain further information from the 
 Secretary, Mr. Henry Gower, Copyright Union, Photo Section, London 
 Chamber of Commerce, Botolph House, Eastcheap, E.G. 
 
 76 
 
^36. Alt IMJ»ROMFtU DUSTING BfeUSH.— e^hould the ordinary 
 wide soft-hair brush used for dusting the fihii surface be mislaid or lost 
 when on tour, a very fair substitute may be made as follows : — Take a 
 sheet of stiff notepaper and fold it into four ; do not press down one 
 edge into a sharp crease, but leave it slightly curved. Cover the curved 
 edge with a piece of soft velvet ribbon, and use this lightly as a dusting 
 brush. 
 
 237. COPYING A SILVER PRINT.— Very frequently the albumen 
 surface is so much cracked that when sharply focussed these cracks 
 show as a fine network all over the negative. The print should be 
 stripped from its mount by soaking in tepid water. 
 
 A clean glass, free from scratches or bubbles, etc., is put into a dish 
 of quite clean water, the print transferred to the same vessel, and 
 brought face in contact with the glass, and the two removed together. 
 All adherent moisture is removed, and the copy made through the 
 glass; care being taken, of course, to avoid reflections. 
 
 If the print is yellow with age, stains, etc., it is an advantage to use 
 a piece of pale blue glass behind the lens, i.e., inside the camera. This 
 should be thin, and with parallel sides if possible. Failing this, a glass 
 trough containing ammonia-sulphate of copper solution may be used. 
 
 238. COPPER CELL FOR PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY.— This is used 
 to filter the light so that the optical and visual focus may more or less 
 coincide. An extempore cell may be made by cementing two circular 
 thin covers to a vulcanite ring. Part of the ring is cut off so that the 
 cell may be filled with the fluid, and the removed part is then replaced 
 and cemented up. 
 
 The fluid may be made by dissolving ordinary copper sulphate (blue 
 vitriol), then adding drop by drop liquid ammonia until the precipitate 
 formed dissolves on shaking. 
 
 The solution is then carefully filtered and introduced into the cell by 
 means of a pipette, and the cell closed at once. 
 
 239. DEVELOPING INTERIORS.— First soak the plate in pyro with 
 half or less than half normal quantity of bromide. Then add the alkali 
 a little at a time. The quantity of pyro should be considerably reduced 
 if the subject shows strong contrasts, e.g., a church with light walls and 
 dark roof 
 
 240. TO LABEL TIN CANISTERS.- Many useful things for dark- 
 room use may be conveniently kept in tins (cocoa, mustard, etc., etc.), 
 but they should be distinctly labelled. This may be done with black 
 varnish and a small brush. Or the label may be of paper. To make 
 this adhere, prepare a solution of shellac in spirit, say a teaspoonful of 
 shellac and an ounce or so of methylated spirit. Brush this on the tin 
 and wait a few moments until some of the spirit has evaporated and the 
 surface is sticky. Then press on the paper and touch again with the 
 varnish just round the edges. 
 
 77 
 
Ml. CARBON PRINTING— TliE SAFE EDGE.— For this purpose 
 you may employ (i) black varnish, but this is not so convenient as (2) 
 orange or, still better, black "needle" paper (also sold for cutting out 
 lantern -slide mats), or (3) the usual black (gummed) paper strips used 
 for binding lantern slides. But in any case it is as well to put the safe 
 edge on the glass side. Not only is it then possible to be removed or 
 corrected in position without injuring the film surface, but it seems also 
 to do its safe-edge work better when slightly separated from, z,e. not in, 
 actual contact with the carbon tissue. 
 
 242. PLATINUM PAPER, TO KEEP DRY.— The most important 
 point in the storage of platinotype paper is keeping it dry. The calcium 
 chloride should be dried at frequent intervals. It is not enough that it 
 fee/s dry. This may seem to be the case, but if a little heat be applied 
 it will probably show signs of moisture. To dry the calcium chloride 
 the simplest way is to turn it out of the surrounding cotton wool or 
 other wrappings, place the pieces on an ordinary shovel, and hold over 
 the kitchen fire until it first gets wet and then goes white, hard, and dry. 
 Return it while still warm to its wrappings and then to the tube. If a 
 fire be not available, a sheet of tin, e.^: an old biscuit-box lid supported 
 on a couple of bricks, and a spirit, or gas, or paraffni lamp underneath 
 will meet the case. Of course, the wrappings must also be dried. 
 This is best done by placing them in a soup plate and putting them in 
 an oven, not too hot, lest they get scorched. The same calcium chloride 
 may be used again and again if it be thoroughly dried from time to time. 
 
 243. ESTIMATING EXPOSURE.— After taking into consideration 
 the speed of the plate, lens aperture, month, hour, and light, do not 
 forget to look at the nea7'est dark (slow- coloured) object or deep shadoiv. 
 Its distance and its colour are of first importance. Due consideration of 
 this factor will often save what would otherwise be an utter failure from 
 under-exposure, 
 
 244. PHOSPHORESCENCE.— When the colours or luminescence in- 
 duced by the phenomenon known as fluorescence contimte to be visible 
 for an appreciable time after the stimulating influence is removed, the 
 phenomenon is then designated phosphorescence. Of such kind are 
 the various "luminous paints." Advantage has been taken of this 
 phenomenon in certain instruments for estimating the relative sensitive- 
 ness of photographic plates, etc. 
 
 245. FLUORESCENCE.— When the short and frequent ultra-violet 
 waves of the spectrum fall upon certain substances they become luminous 
 and glow with colours different from those (if any) which they exhibited 
 under ordinary conditions of white light, i e.^ the short and rapid waves 
 are lengthened and "slowed," and brought into the region of the 
 ordinary visible waves. Such are the fluorescent screens used in X-ray 
 observations. 
 
 78 
 
246. CALORESCENCE.— Invisible heat rays can be reflected and 
 brought to a focus in the same way that visible light rays are condensed. 
 If a suitable substance be placed at the focus of the heat rays the long 
 heat waves are shortened and quickened into visible waves, and the 
 body becomes luminous. This phenomenon is termed calorescence, 
 
 (Compare this with fluorescence.) 
 
 247. INCANDESCENCE.— Chemical combustion may take place and 
 yet yield little or no heat. For instance, a hydrogen flame gives little 
 light but great heat. When such heat acts upon many refractory sub- 
 stances, e.g., metals, earths, etc., they become heated and glow. When 
 they pass from a dull red to a brighter, whiter glowing condition, they 
 are said to be in a state of incandescence. The light of a candle, lamp, 
 gas flame is due to the heated and glowing particles of carbon. 
 
 The light from the various incandescent mantles is due to their being 
 heated. If a thread of asbestos be held above the hot but dark part of 
 a Bunsen burner it will become incandescent. 
 
 248. RADIATION.— When energy {e.g., heat, etc.) is given off" from 
 a body or source, and is transmitted by or through the surrounding air 
 or ether in all directions, it is spoken of as radiant energy, i.e.^ it is 
 supposed to travel in ray-like or radius-like paths. 
 
 249. IRRADIATION.— A term (derived from radius = a ray) applied 
 to that phenomenon by virtue of which white or brightly coloured 
 objects appear somewhat larger than they really are. Thus if a platinum 
 wire be caused to glow by passing through it an electric current, the 
 wire appears very considerably thicker when glowing than when cold. 
 Again, the narrow crescent of the new moon seems to embrace the 
 other, i.e. non-illuminated, part of the moon. Hence the old saying, 
 "The old moon lies in the lap of the new one." Star images often 
 appear much larger than they are, etc. Similarly a black and a white 
 thread of equal diameter — the former against a light background and 
 the latter against a dark background — show the same apparent 
 difference, i.e., the white thread seems the wider. Hence a lady's waist 
 looks smaller with a black than a white dress. Black shoes seem 
 smaller than white ones of the same size. The reason of the phenomenon 
 is probably due partly to the spherical aberration of the eye and partly 
 to the spreading of retinal stimulation. 
 
 250. IRIDESCENCE.— A term derived from iris, the rainbow, and 
 applied to objects or surfaces showing various colours, i.e., rainbow-like. 
 Photographers are familiar with the iridescent stains along the edges of 
 the films of some plates. These are more liable to occur with plates kept 
 for any length of time, or in an impure atmosphere, and are especially 
 liable to follow development with pyro ammonia. The phenomenon is 
 due to what opticians term 'interference," "colour of thin plates," 
 "Newton's rings," etc. Coal tar on water, many shells, feathers, soap 
 bubbles, cracks in ice, glass, etc., also show the phenomenon. 
 
 79 
 
 F 
 
INDEX. 
 
 The figures indicate the number of the paragraphs and not the pages. 
 
 A 
 
 Paragraph 
 
 Aberration, Chromatic . - 215 
 
 of thickness 215 
 
 Spherical 215 
 
 Addresses for permission to photograph ..... 232 
 Albumenised paper, Expansion of . . . . . .114 
 
 To store 1 15 
 
 Appreciation 24 
 
 Art and imagination 34? 35 
 
 and manufacture ......... 14 
 
 and nature . . . . . . . . . -13 
 
 Decorative 16 
 
 Definitions of . ......... i 
 
 Fine 9 
 
 Good, i.e.^ real . . . . . . . . .11 
 
 High .10 
 
 ,, Methods of 15 
 
 ,, not execution .......... 6 
 
 not imitation .......... 5 
 
 Truth in 12 
 
 Ways of regarding 2 
 
 What it teaches 4 
 
 Artist and nature 22, 23 
 
 Artistic perception 8 
 
 Arts of representation 7 
 
 Astigmatism . . . . . . . . . . .215 
 
 80 
 
l^Zi'EX— continued. 
 
 Paragraph 
 
 Background 
 
 shadow on, How to avoid 1^8 
 
 To make I^o 
 
 Backing, An impromptu i^i 
 
 for halation ........ 130, 132 
 
 White, for transparencies 155 
 
 Balance of interest 76 
 
 of lines 77 
 
 of sides .......... 75 
 
 Beauty and contrast . . . . . . . . - 63 
 
 ,, and use 61 
 
 Bellows of camera, To mend . . . . . . .194 
 
 Bichromate sores .......... 202 
 
 Black varnish for w^ood . . . . . . . .148 
 
 Blacking for lens tube 146 
 
 Blisters on paper 154 
 
 ,, on plates, etc 153 
 
 Boiling points 228 
 
 Bottles, To clean -179 
 
 Brass, To stain 147 
 
 c 
 
 Calorescence .......... 246 
 
 Camera bellows. To mend . . . . . . . . 194 
 
 ,, cuts off corners ........ 195 
 
 Canisters, To label 240 
 
 Carbon printing — safe edge 241 
 
 Cleaning bottles 179 
 
 ,, dishes .......... 180 
 
 Cold hands, Gloves for ..... . ... 209 
 
 weather. Development in . . . . . . .210 
 
 Colours, Local and shade ........ 58 
 
 ,, Primary .......... 29 
 
 Composition, A hint in . . . . . ... -74 
 
 ,, Laws of ......... 69 
 
 Rules of 68 
 
 ,, Two chief parts 67 
 
 ,, What is it? 66 
 
 Contrast .... 65 
 
 8l 
 
T^Ji'ElL—contimied. Paragraph 
 Contrast essential to beauty ........ 63 
 
 — exposure and development ...... 96 
 
 in pictures and nature . . . . . . .64 
 
 Copper cell for photo-micrograph ...... 238 
 
 Copying silver print 237 
 
 Copyright, To register 234 
 
 Union . . ....... .235 
 
 Cork, How to take out 178 
 
 To prevent getting lost 177 
 
 To remove from bottle 176 
 
 Counting seconds .......... 94 
 
 Crickets in studio or dark-room ....... 204 
 
 Criticism ........... 25 
 
 D 
 
 Decantation .159 
 
 Detail in art and nature . . . . . . . - SO 
 
 Limit of 51 
 
 or focus 52 
 
 Developing interiors 239 
 
 tray, To make 103 
 
 Development, Air bells during 102 
 
 and exposure— Contrast 96 
 
 ,, in cold weather ... .... 210 
 
 ,, Local 98 
 
 Number plates before 95 
 
 solutions 97 
 
 Diagram for lantern projection . . . . . . 156, 157 
 
 Dishes, To clean .......... 180 
 
 Distant objects • • 57 
 
 Draining plates . . . . . . . . .167 
 
 Draw-slide of plate-holder, To ease . . . . . .196 
 
 Dust in camera, etc. . ' . . . . . . . . 162 
 
 Dusting brush .......... 163 
 
 Impromptu 236 
 
 E 
 
 Emotions and intellect ......... 30 
 
 Exposure and development — Contrast 96 
 
 ,, Estimating ... ..... 243 
 
 ,, factors 93 
 
 Eyes in posing 161 
 
 82 
 
INDEX — contin tied. 
 
 F 
 
 Paragraph 
 
 Figures in landscape ......... 90 
 
 P^ilms, To remove ........ 181, 182 
 
 Filter paper, To fold ......... 207 
 
 Filtration . . . . -159 
 
 Finish in pictures . . . . . . . . -53 
 
 Fixing plates .......... 165 
 
 Flare spot 215 
 
 Fluorescence .......... 245 
 
 Focussing in dark interior . . . . . . . . 170 
 
 Focussing screen, Mask openings for . . . . . .169 
 
 To render translucent . . . . .17* 
 
 Fog, Green, on negatives . . . . . . . .134 
 
 „ Local 137 
 
 ,, Red, on negatives . . . . . . . -135 
 
 ,, To remove ......... 136 
 
 Foreground, Importance of . . . . . . .80 
 
 Use of . 81 
 
 Freckles ........... 160 
 
 G 
 
 Glass, Coloured . . . . . . . . . .188 
 
 ,, Frosted .......... 186 
 
 ,, rod, To cut 183 
 
 Useful form of . . . . . . . . 185 
 
 ,, stirring rod, To make . . . . . . .184 
 
 ,, Various kinds of ....... . 187 
 
 Glittering objects, To photograph . . . . . -133 
 
 Glue, Liquid .......... 198 
 
 Gracefulness .......... 82 
 
 Gum paste that will keep . . . . . . . .197 
 
 H 
 
 Halation {see Backing) . ..... 130, 131, 132 
 
 Hypo, To dissolve ......... 206 
 
 I 
 
 Imagination a source of interest ....... 36 
 
 ,, and art ......... 34 
 
 ,, and hallucination ....... 37 
 
 ,, Appeal to, in art . . . . . . -35 
 
 83 
 
m'D'EX.—contintied. Paragraph 
 Imitation not art ......... 5 
 
 Impressionists .......... 33 
 
 Impressions, Analysis of ........ 32 
 
 Importance of . . ... . . -31 
 
 Incandescence ......... 230, 247 
 
 Ink for bottles, jars, etc. ........ 200 
 
 ,, for glass .......... 199 
 
 Intellect and emotions ........ 30 
 
 Interiors, Developing ......... 239 
 
 Focussing in dark . . . . . , .170 
 
 Invention, To patent an ....... . 233 
 
 Inverse squares, Law of . . . . . . . .214 
 
 Iridescence .......... 250 
 
 Irradiation. .......... 249 
 
 L 
 
 Labels for tin canisters ........ 240 
 
 Lamp chimney, Prevent cracking ...... 203 
 
 ,, To extemporise spirit . . . . . . .189 
 
 Landscape, Figures in ........ 90 
 
 ,, Two great ends of . . . . . . .89 
 
 Lens cap, To extemporise ........ 193 
 
 ,, Five errors of ........ . 215 
 
 ,, in cold weather ......... 208 
 
 Levelling table, To arrange . . . . . . .191 
 
 Levigation ........... 159 
 
 Light and dark in nature . . . . . . . -41 
 
 and shade ......... 42 
 
 ,, and shade, Nature of ....... 38 
 
 shade, and shadow ........ 39 
 
 ,, travels in straight lines, etc. . . . . . .213 
 
 Lixiviation . . . . . . . . . -159 
 
 M 
 
 Marble, To clean ......... 143 
 
 Matt varnish, To colour . . . . . . . .110 
 
 Measures : a hint ......... 164 
 
 Moonlight effects, To print . . . . . . .116 
 
 Mounted prints. Storing . . . . . . . .128 
 
 J, To prevent curling . . . . . .127 
 
 84 
 
INDEX — contimied. Paragraph 
 
 Mounting : a hint .125 
 
 prints on to glass . . . . . .124 
 
 Mounts, To test 123 
 
 Moving objects .......... 231 
 
 N 
 
 Negatives, cracked, To print . . . . . . - US 
 
 Defects, etc., in. . . . . . . .99 
 
 Pinholes in ....... . 100 
 
 strong or v^eak, To print . . . . . .Ill 
 
 Titles on ........ . loi 
 
 o 
 
 Originality 88 
 
 Outlines ........... 49 
 
 P 
 
 Packing plates when travelling ....... 168 
 
 Paint from glass, To remove ....... 142 
 
 Paper, To mike w^aterproof . . . . . . .149 
 
 ,, weights, To make ........ 201 
 
 Patenting an invention ........ 233 
 
 Permission to photograph ........ 232 
 
 Phosphorescence ......... 244 
 
 Photography an art-science . . . . . . .18 
 
 ,, and sculpture . . . . . . . .21 
 
 ,, its use to artists . . . . . . -19 
 
 Pictorial defects of . . . . . . .17 
 
 ,, Value to painters of ...... 20 
 
 Photo-micrography, Copper cell for ..... . 238 
 
 Pictorial art .......... 3 
 
 Picture : why it pleases ........ 62 
 
 Pictures from the poets . . . . . . . .92 
 
 Picturesqueness .......... 87 
 
 Pinholes in negatives ......... 100 
 
 Plates, Draining . . . . . . . . .167 
 
 Fixing 165 
 
 Packing, when travelling. . . . . . .168 
 
 ,, quickly, Washing , . . . . . . .166 
 
 8s 
 
INDEX— conhnued. Paragraph 
 Platinotype : a hint . . . . . . . . .122 
 
 paper, To keep dry ...... 242 
 
 Poets, Pictures from . . . . . . . . . ' 92 
 
 Points of interest ......... 73 
 
 Posing : the eyes ......... 161 
 
 Principles, Importance of . . . . . . . -72 
 
 Print from wet negative, Trial . . . . . . .121 
 
 Printing and density . . . . . . . . .112 
 
 cracked negatives . . . . . . . -.113 
 
 hint, A ......... 120 
 
 R 
 
 Radiation ........... 248 
 
 Retouching, Hint on . . . . . . . . .106 
 
 5, pencil, To sharpen ....... 107 
 
 Prepare film for . . . . . . .105 
 
 scraper, Needle for . . . . . . . 108 
 
 Rocker for large trays ........ 104 
 
 Roundness of field of Lens . . . . . . . .215 
 
 s 
 
 Seeing with eye and mind ........ 27 
 
 Selection of subject ......... 70 
 
 Why necessary . . . . . . . -71 
 
 Shade and distance ......... 56 
 
 ,, and light 38, 42 
 
 and local colour ........ 58 
 
 ,, Every form has ........ 46 
 
 indicates relief . ........ 43 
 
 ,, reveals form ......... 45 
 
 shadow, and light . . . ... . . '39 
 
 ,, Variations of ......... 44 
 
 V. shadow ......... 40 
 
 Shadows cast, Characteristics of . . . . . . .48 
 
 not reflections ........ 47 
 
 on background, To avoid . . . . . .158 
 
 Shutter, Test for vibration . . . . . . . -173 
 
 Sight 26 
 
 Silver print, To copy ......... 237 
 
 86 
 
ISJi'E^—conimued. Paragraph 
 Silver prints : Moonlight effects . . . . . . .116 
 
 Prevent curling ...... 127, 129 
 
 To dry ......... 126 
 
 Size, Visual, of sun, etc. . . . . . . . . 28 
 
 Sizes of books . . . . . . . . . .223 
 
 ,, cards and papers ........ 221 
 
 ,, English plates ........ 218 
 
 foreign ,, . . . . . . . .219 
 
 ,, mounts . . ........ 222 
 
 , , photographic papers ....... 220 
 
 portraits ......... 224 
 
 Sketch V. study .......... 83 
 
 Sky, To block out ......... 109 
 
 Spirit lamp, To extemporise . . . . . . .189 
 
 Spotting negatives . . . . . . . . .118 
 
 ,, prints 117, 119 
 
 Saturated solutions ......... 227 
 
 „ apparatus ....... 205 
 
 Stains, Iridescent, on negatives ....... 140 
 
 ,, Oil, on paper ......... 141 
 
 ,, on finger. To remove . . . ■ . . . .138 
 
 ,, on linen ,, . . . . . . . -139 
 
 Stopper, To unloose . . . . . . . . -175 
 
 Stops, Large v. small . . . . . . . . .216 
 
 ,, To blacken ......... 145 
 
 To replace ......... 192 
 
 Study V. sketch 83 
 
 Style 84 
 
 ,, and mannerism ......... 85 
 
 Sun, Visual size of ......... 28 
 
 Sunlight, Relative values of ...... . 229 
 
 Surface appearance . . . . . . . . -55 
 
 ,, texture .......... 54. 
 
 Swing-back, To test . . . . . . . , .172 
 
 T 
 
 Taste .86 
 
 Thermometer readings, To transform . . . . . .217 
 
 Tone, Strength of ......... 59 
 
 87 
 
Toning baths, To correct acidity . 
 
 Various 
 Transparencies, Backing for 
 Trees. . . . . . 
 
 Paragraph 
 . 150 
 • 91 
 
 u 
 
 Units, Some useful 
 Use and beauty . 
 
 225 
 61 
 
 Value of quiet spaces . 
 
 Values ..... 
 
 Varnish, Dead black, for wood . 
 
 To colour matt 
 
 To remove from negative 
 
 78 
 60 
 148 
 no 
 152 
 
 W 
 
 Washing plates quickly 
 Water, To purify 
 Waterproof paper 
 Weather signs . 
 Weights of coins, etc. . 
 Wind shaking camera 
 
 . 166 
 . 144 
 
 . 149 
 211, 212 
 . 226 
 . 174 
 
 88 
 
Memoranda. 
 
 89 
 
Memoranda. 
 
 90 
 
Memoranda. 
 
 91 
 
Memoranda. 
 
 92 
 
Memoranda. 
 
 93 
 
Memoranda. 
 
 94 
 
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