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 in 2018 with funding from 
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'fciCJfctcu't aJ/ 
 
 /ffo 
 
 THE 
 
 ARCHITECT, 
 
 OR 
 
 COMPLETE BUILDER’S GUIDE, 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY 
 
 SIXTY-SIX ENGRAVINGS, 
 
 WHICH EXHIBIT THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 AND 
 
 OTHER ELEMENTS OF THE ART. 
 
 DESIGNED FOR 
 
 THE USE OF BUILDERS, 
 PARTICULARLY OF CARPENTERS AND JOINERS. 
 
 AUTHOR OF “THE AMERICAN BUILDER’S COMPANION,” “THE RUDIMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE,” 
 “THE PRACTICAL HOUSE CARPENTER,” AND “PRACTICE OF ARCHITECTURE.” 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 BENJAMIN B. MUSSEY, 
 
 1 84 5 . 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1844, 
 
 BY ASHER BENJAMIN, 
 
 In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The present work, like the other works of the author, is designed prin¬ 
 cipally for the use of those builders who reside at a distance from cities, 
 where they cannot have the assistance of a regular architect. It is neces¬ 
 sary for such, if they wish to excel in their occupation, to have a correct 
 practical knowledge of architecture, and, for that purpose, to study such 
 practical works as furnish the true principles of the art, and are adapted to 
 their practice. No pains have been spared to give to this work the char¬ 
 acter which persons of this class will require. It contains all the elements 
 and details of the art, from the most simple, to those the most difficult and 
 complicated. Great labor has been bestowed upon the orders and their 
 appendages, so as to render them intelligible, and in accordance with the 
 practice of the day. The author has had regard to the habits and economy 
 of this country, deviating, at the same time, as little as possible from the 
 style and practice of Europe. He has made copious selections from many 
 valuable works, for which he acknowledges a debt of gratitude; and he 
 has also freely followed his own judgment and experience, in suggesting 
 such alterations and ideas as appeared to him useful. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Grecian Mouldings, .... 
 
 Compound Mouldings, .... 
 
 Tuscan Order, ..... 
 
 Column and Entablature, 
 
 Doric Orders and details, 
 
 Ionic Orders and their details, 
 
 Details of several Orders, 
 
 Corinthian Orders, .... 
 
 Anta Capitals, ..... 
 
 Antse and their Entablatures, 
 Intercolumniation, ..... 
 
 Pedestals and Balusters, .... 
 
 Frontispieces and their details, 
 
 Portico and its details, .... 
 
 Inside Doors and their mouldings, . 
 Windows and their finishings, 
 
 French Window and its details, 
 
 Base Mouldings, and Architraves, . 
 Cornices for inside and for outside finishing, 
 Consoles, ...... 
 
 Centre Piece, ..... 
 
 Shop Fronts, ...... 
 
 Stairs, ....... 
 
 Chimney Pieces, ...... 
 
 Window Guards and Verandahs, 
 
 Vases, with their decorations, 
 
 Church and its details, .... 
 
 Carpentry, ...... 
 
 Plate I. 
 . II. and III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. and VII. 
 VIII. to XI. 
 
 XII. 
 XIII. to XV. 
 . XVI. and XVII. 
 . XVIII. to XX. 
 
 XXI. 
 
 XXII. and XXIII. 
 XXIV. to XXVIII. 
 XXIX. and XXX. 
 XXXI. to XXXIV. 
 XXXV. to XXXVIII. 
 XXXIX. and XL. 
 
 XLI. and XLII. 
 XLIII. and XLIV. 
 XLV. and XLVI. 
 
 XLVII. 
 XLVIII. 
 XLIX. and L. 
 LI. and LII. 
 LIII. to LVI. 
 LVII. 
 
 . LVIII. to LXI. 
 . LXII. to LXVI. 
 
THE BUILDER’S GUIDE. 
 
 GRECIAN MOULDINGS. 
 
 Plate I. 
 
 The outline of every Grecian moulding is taken from some one of the 
 sections of the cone, and is susceptible, therefore, of as many variations as 
 can be made of those sections. Different outlines are necessary in nearly 
 all the great variety of situations in which these mouldings may be employed, 
 and to ascertain the particular form best adapted to each situation, requires 
 a discriminating eye, assisted by good practical judgment, and a knowledge 
 of the effects produced on the surface of the mouldings by light and shade, 
 by reflected light and surrounding objects. It would take so much time 
 and labor to determine the particular section of the cone corresponding to 
 the exact outline required in each case, as to forbid that course in common 
 practice. I have therefore in my own practice, taken a thin mahogany 
 veneer, and with a penknife and file cut it to the proper size and form of 
 outline, judging by my eye ; and described the outline of the moulding by 
 the pattern thus formed. If this practice be adopted, taking care to make 
 new patterns when necessary, and never to alter old ones, it will not re- 
 
6 
 
 GRECIAN MOULDINGS. 
 
 quire a great length of time to get possession of a sufficient number to 
 answer for almost every case. 
 
 Fig. ], D b c d a ef g A, is a section of the cone made by a plane 
 passing through it parallel to one of its sides, and is called a parabola. D 
 b c d a ef g A, on Fig. 2, represents a section of a cone made by a plane 
 passing through perpendicular to its base, and is called a hyperbola. To 
 draw Fig. 1, bisect D A and C B at a and a , and join a a ; divide a A 
 and a D, each into four equal parts and join ; 1 d, 2 c, 3 b and 1 e, 2f 3g-, 
 parallel to a a ; divide D C and A B, each into four equal parts; from D 
 C, draw lines 1 a, intersecting 3 b at b, and draw 2 a and 3 a, intersecting 
 2 c at c, and 1 d at d; from A B, draw 1 a, 2 a, and 3 a, intersecting 1 e 
 at e, 2 f at f and 3 g at g ; then draw the curve line through the points D 
 bcdaefg A, which forms the section required. 
 
 The method of drawing the hyperbola differs from the above only in this, 
 that the lines 1 d, 2 c, 3 6, and 1 e, 2 /, 3 g, would if produced, meet in a 
 point at E. 
 
 C is drawn on the principle of the parabola, and D, on that of the 
 hyperbola; C projects about one-half of Fig. 1, and D about one-half 
 of Fig. 2. It will be seen, therefore, that a moulding of any height and 
 projection may be drawn by this process, and that the only difference in 
 drawing the examples E and F, is by inclining, in the latter case, the line 
 on which the divisions are made, upwards, so that if produced, it would at 
 no great distance from the moulding, intersect the line of the fillet, and 
 that the more this line is inclined upwards, the nearer the lower part of 
 the moulding approaches to a straight line. 
 
 G is an example of a cymareversa, which is drawn on the principle of 
 the parabola, and requires therefore nothing more than an examination of 
 the Plate, to be understood. 
 
 To draw the cymarecta H, make a d its projection, and d c its height; 
 bisect a d at g, and b c at h, and join g h ; bisect a b at e, and d c at f 
 and join e f ; divide i f i e, i g, and i h, each into a like number of equal 
 
^rOI'LDIX GS 
 
 /’/. /. 
 
 ' 
 
 Fig?. c. 
 
 \. / ** a _ p. 
 
 ^A\ 
 
 - \v^- _ 
 
 V. 
 
 
 -i! \ I 
 
 a 
 
 < 
 
 " ) 
 
 ; 
 
 / / 
 
 
 D. / ■=* J C. 
 
 1 ). 
 
 H. 
 
 t'r. w. Boynton Sc 
 
 
MOULD 1XG S . 
 
 /V. //. 
 

 
mo in.i >ixc,s. 
 
 / * 1 . 1 / 7 . 
 
MOULDINGS. —TUSCAN ORDER. 
 
 7 
 
 parts, as in this instance into four; from d, draw lines through the points 
 1 2 3 in i /, and continue them until they intersect other lines drawn from 
 c to 1 2 3 on i h, and then, through these points of intersection, trace the 
 curve of the moulding from c to i. Also from b , draw lines through the 
 points 1 2 3 on i e, and continue them as before through the points 12 3 
 on i g, until they intersect other lines drawn from a to 1 2 3 on i g ; then, 
 through these points of intersection, draw the curve line of the moulding 
 from i to a. 
 
 COMPOUND MOULDINGS. 
 
 Pl ATES II. AND III. 
 
 On these plates, are thirty different examples of sections for mouldings, 
 all of which are drawn on a large scale, and figured for practice. They 
 have been selected with great care, from the best Grecian examples; but 
 many of them are, in their form of outline and their particular combinations, 
 entirely new; and have not before, to my knowledge, appeared before the 
 public in the form which they now assume. The practising carpenter will be 
 able at once from these examples to select some one adapted to his purpose. 
 
 THE TUSCAN ORDER. 
 
 Plate IY. 
 
 Vitruvius has given this order a name, and assigned it a place with the 
 other orders in his book, but he does not tell us of a single building on 
 which it was employed. We are therefore left to suppose that its simple 
 
8 
 
 TUSCAN ORDER. 
 
 plainness did not suit the taste of the Romans of his day. It is said to 
 have been invented by the inhabitants of Tuscany, before the Romans had 
 intercourse with the Greeks, or had become acquainted with their arts and 
 sciences. If this be true, we may presume that the eminent architects of 
 those days did not consider it worthy of being employed on the public 
 buildings erected by them, for if they had, some example of it would most 
 certainly have been discovered among their ruins. The base of Trajan’s 
 column, and that of the third order of the Coliseum, are in imitation of the 
 Tuscan base 5 but the capital of the latter is Corinthian, and the column 
 is eight diameters and forty-seven minutes in height, and that of the former 
 is Doric, and the column eight diameters in height. Neither of these ex¬ 
 amples can therefore be considered Tuscan. 
 
 Vitruvius is particular in explaining the proportions of the Tuscan tem¬ 
 ples. He gives the relative length, breadth and height of their walls, and 
 also the number, size and distribution of the columns. He then describes 
 the order, making the column seven diameters high, including base and 
 capital, each of those members being one-half of a diameter in height. 
 The column diminishes one-quarter of the lower diameter. The entabla¬ 
 ture is less than tw o diameters in height. It is difficult, however, to un¬ 
 derstand the exact height which it was intended the entablature should 
 have. The frieze recedes a little from the face of the architrave, neither 
 of which have either moulding or ornament. The cornice projects one 
 fourth of the height of the column, which renders it unfit for common use. 
 The modern architects who have written on the orders have, with trifling 
 deviations, adopted this column as a standard, but the entablature has been 
 rejected by them, each architect having composed an entablature as a sub¬ 
 stitute for that rejected, which he supposed better adapted to the column 
 and to common use. 
 
 The following table exhibits the various members of the Tuscan order, by 
 five distinguished architects, and it is singular to observe that no two of them 
 have agreed in the height of the entablature or either of its members. 
 
■ J1'ZJ<>//7lt(>/L- Jf . 
 
TUSCAN ORDER. 
 
 9 
 
 
 « 8# 
 
 4-. . 
 
 Ci O e 
 
 u, ^4 s 
 
 a> 0 3 
 
 it of 
 
 olumn 
 
 meters. 
 
 C*- 
 
 0 5 
 
 •*-> rt 
 
 rt 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 
 S s 
 
 rt C 
 
 S 0 
 
 tc .2 
 ’aJ a) 'O 
 
 
 a) 0 
 
 a) *5 
 
 
 
 S E 
 
 Q55 
 
 xsa 
 
 s £ 
 
 re s 
 
 it 
 
 re 8 
 
 Palladio,. 
 
 60. 
 
 45. 
 
 7. 
 
 1.444 
 
 35 
 
 26 
 
 434 
 
 Scamozi,. 
 
 60. 
 
 45 . 
 
 7.30 
 
 1.524 
 
 32 £ 
 
 39 
 
 41 
 
 Serlio,. 
 
 60. 
 
 45. 
 
 6 . 
 
 1.30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 Vignola,. 
 
 60. 
 
 48 . 
 
 7 . 
 
 1.40 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 Sir William Chambers, 
 
 60. 
 
 50. 
 
 7 . 
 
 1.45 
 
 314 
 
 314 
 
 42 
 
 Sum total,. 
 
 
 233. 
 
 34.30 
 
 7 . 12 
 
 154 
 
 162 
 
 197 
 
 Average,. 
 
 
 464 
 
 6.54 
 
 1.424 
 
 31 
 
 324 
 
 394 
 
 A perfect fitness, harmony and proportion must exist between the col¬ 
 umn, its entablature, and the several members of the latter, or the compo¬ 
 sition is defective 5 and as an explanation of the reasons which induce us 
 to believe that the above entablatures are not of a sufficient height to pro¬ 
 duce that effect, we will consider the entablature in the relation of a beam 
 of sufficient size, or apparently so to sustain a weight equal to that of the 
 columns on which each end of the beam rests. It is well known that, the 
 greater the distance the columns or supports to the beam are from each 
 other, the larger must be the bulk of the beam, to answer its intended pur¬ 
 pose. Vitruvius, and the respectable authors above named, have placed 
 the Tuscan columns at a greater distance from each other, than those of 
 either of the other orders. It follows therefore, that, to preserve symmetry 
 and proportion, this entablature must be made at least equal in height to 
 those of the other orders 5 and it has therefore received in this example the 
 same relative height to the column. But it is not supposed that the height, 
 here allowed to either the column or its entablature, will at all times and 
 places be the one most suitable. For example, a column which has ap¬ 
 parently but a small burthen to support does not require to be made so 
 large, as one which has to sustain a very great weight. Nor does an en- 
 
10 
 
 COLUMN AND ENTABLATURE. 
 
 tablature, whose length does not exceed ten or twenty feet, require to be 
 made so high, as one which stretches unbroken through the whole length 
 of a large building, from seventy to one hundred feet. 
 
 As diameters and minutes are the standard measures by which this 
 and the other orders are drawn, it may he well to explain what these 
 measures are. 
 
 A diameter, is the distance across the shaft of the column at its base, 
 whether large or small; and a minute, is one-sixtieth part of a diameter. 
 The height and projection of all the different members of the order are 
 figured in minutes. 
 
 The column of figures under H, expresses the height of the members, 
 and those under P, their projections. 
 
 Suppose it he required to draw this order to the height of seventeen feet, 
 four inches; now, because the column is seven diameters, and the entabla¬ 
 ture two, which added together makes nine, we divide the seventeen feet, 
 •four inches, into nine equal parts, one of which will be twenty-three and 
 one-ninth inches, and is equal to the diameter of the column. Subdivide 
 this into sixty equal parts, as shown by the scale of minutes on the Plate. 
 
 A, shows a section of the crown moulding; B, a section of the bed 
 mould; C, a profile of the capital, drawn on a large scale, for the purpose 
 of showing in the clearest manner the particular form of these mouldings. 
 
 COLUMN AND ENTABLATURE. 
 
 Plate V. 
 
 0 
 
 The example here given of a column and entablature, will be found use¬ 
 ful, when the Tuscan order is thought to be too plain, and the Doric too 
 expensive. The shaft of the column is divided into sixteen flutes, in imita- 
 
PL I 
 
 

DORIC ORDER. 
 
 11 
 
 tion of its original, which is taken from the temple at Sunium. This is the 
 only example of all the Grecian antiquities which had less than twenty 
 flutes. Where the column is of very large dimensions, it will have a bold 
 and impressive effect; but when the column does not exceed eight or ten 
 inches in diameter, and extends eight or more diameters in height, it has 
 the appearance of being about to make an indentation into the step on 
 which it stands, an effect which will be relieved by adding a base. The 
 several members of this entablature have been selected from such of the 
 Grecian examples, as were supposed most suitable. This column may be 
 made seven or eight or more diameters in height, as circumstances may 
 require. The entablature is two diameters in height. 
 
 A, exhibits a section of the crown moulding of the cornice ; B, a section 
 of the bed mould ; C, a section of the band of the architrave; and D, a 
 section of the capital, all of which are drawn on a large scale for the pur¬ 
 pose of showing the outline of the mouldings. A section of the capital of 
 the antae is shown in No. 2 , Plate XVI., and of the base at C, Plate XX. 
 
 DORIC ORDER. 
 
 Plate VI. 
 
 This order, together with the Ionic and Corinthian, is of Greek inven¬ 
 tion. Enough of those renowned temples, which were built by the Greeks 
 after these orders, have withstood the ravages of time and the rapacity of 
 barbarians, to make manifest the skill and splendid talents of their archi¬ 
 tects. We are indebted, first to Stewart and Revel, and then to several 
 distinguished English architects, for very accurate measurements and delin¬ 
 eations of these temples, with all their details, and also for many fragments 
 
12 
 
 DORIC ORDER. 
 
 of other buildings. We are not therefore obliged to depend upon any vague 
 and doubtful representations, in relation to the inventions and practice of 
 these orders, as in the case of the Tuscan order. 
 
 The Doric order was invented for some time and employed on many 
 buildings, before the invention of either of the others. It has graceful 
 forms and massive proportions. Its columns varied very much in their 
 proportions in different buildings. In the early practice of the order, the 
 column appears to have been made only four diameters and four minutes in 
 height, but at later periods the Grecian architects increased its height to 
 six diameters and thirty-two minutes. The height of the entablature also, 
 and the proportions of its different members, varied very considerably. No 
 two examples, which were erected at about the same time and by the same 
 architect, agree either in the height of their columns, or of the entablature, 
 or in their details. The Grecian architects, it seems, looked first at the 
 object to be effected, and then gave the requisite proportions to the different 
 parts of the building. They nevertheless contrived, with all their devia¬ 
 tions in practice, to retain the severe Doric character, by uniformly resting 
 the column on a step or floor without base moulding, by fluting the shaft 
 with twenty broad flat flutes without intervening fillets, making from three 
 to five annulets on the capital, and by the triglyphs and metopes in the 
 frieze, and the mutules in the cornice; none of which details were ever 
 omitted, let the other deviations be ever so great. In some very fine speci¬ 
 mens of this order, the necking and a space at the base of about equal 
 height w ere fluted, leaving the remaining part of the shaft plain. The 
 massive simplicity of the Grecian Doric, produced by a skillful arrange¬ 
 ment of its details, will be sought for in vain in the Roman Doric, with its 
 slender column and details badly adapted and arranged. 
 
 We have made no attempt to assign a determinate height to the column 
 of the example here given, as it will be necessary to adapt its height to the 
 situation in which it shall be placed. With a view to assist the judgment 
 of the student in deciding upon the proper proportions of columns, we have 
 
t the Frieze 
 
 i x u:i< 
 
 (>111)111 
 
 PI YJ 
 
DORIC ORDER. 
 
 13 
 
 given below some of the extremes of the practice of the Grecian and 
 Roman architects. 
 
 The Temple at Corinth, . 
 
 
 4 minutes. 
 
 The Temple of Jupiter at Selinus, . 
 
 . 4 
 
 < C 
 
 34 
 
 it 
 
 The Temple of Minerva at Athens, 
 
 . 5 
 
 i t 
 
 33 
 
 c c 
 
 The Temple of Theseus, . 
 
 . 5 
 
 i 6 
 
 42 
 
 (( 
 
 The Temple ofPropylea,. 
 
 . 5 
 
 < 6 
 
 54 
 
 < ( 
 
 The Temple of Apollo, . 
 
 . 6 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 The Portico ofPhillip, . 
 
 . 6 
 
 ( c 
 
 32 
 
 11 
 
 The Temple of Jupiter Nemeus, . . 
 
 . 6 
 
 fi 
 
 31 
 
 a 
 
 The Theatre of Marcellus at Rome, 
 
 . 7 
 
 i i 
 
 51 
 
 11 
 
 The Theatre of Albano near Rome, 
 
 . 7 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 Vitruvius, . 
 
 . 7 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 Palladio, . 
 
 . 8 
 
 if 
 
 
 
 Scamozzi, . 
 
 . 8 
 
 tt 
 
 
 
 Vignola, . 
 
 . 8 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 The three last mentioned authors have added a base to the column, 
 which reduces the shaft thirty minutes in height. 
 
 It will be seen from the above list that the Grecian architects varied the 
 proportion of their columns from four diameters and four minutes, to six 
 diameters thirty-two minutes; a difference of two diameters and thirty-two 
 minutes; but this is a greater variation than it will be necessary for us to 
 use in our practice. It is supposed that the Doric column will not require 
 a height of less than six, nor more than seven diameters in any situation. 
 It requires however more consideration to determine their height than it 
 does those of the other orders, because the centre of a triglyph must be 
 placed over the centre of each column, with the exception of those triglyphs 
 which form the angles of the frieze, so that the intercolumniation next to 
 the angular columns will be something less than that of the others. The 
 intercolumniation will be one and a half diameters, where only one triglyph 
 is placed over it; and two and three quarters diameters where two are 
 placed over it. To determine the diameter and height of the columns of 
 
 4 
 
14 
 
 DORIC ORDER. 
 
 a Grecian portico, suppose (No. 2, Plate XXI.) the front to have four 
 columns and to extend twenty-four feet nine inches, divide that distance 
 into thirty-three equal parts, each of which will be nine inches, give four 
 of these parts which will be three feet to the diameter of the column. 
 Make the centre intercolumniation equal to one and a half diameters of the 
 column, or four feet six inches, and make each of those intercolumniations 
 next to the angular columns, four feet and one and one-half inches. Now 
 suppose the column to be six diameters and the entablature two diameters 
 in height, the portico will then be twenty-four feet in height. Suppose the 
 facade to be extended to thirty-nine feet, nine inches, so as to make a 
 portico of six columns in front, (see No. 1,) divide the front line into fifty- 
 three equal parts, each of which will be nine inches, and four of these will 
 be three feet, or equal to the diameter of the column, the intercolumniation 
 will be the same as in the last example, and if the column is six diameters 
 high, the whole height of the portico will also be the same as before. 
 
 It will be seen that neither of these examples, although beautiful in 
 themselves, can be employed on dwelling-houses of two stories in height, 
 because the entablature would in that case extend from the eaves down¬ 
 ward a distance of six feet or more, and would of course cover and destroy 
 the second story windows. If the columns to the last example were made 
 seven diameters high, the height of the building would be twenty-seven 
 feet, and sufficient for a church where a gallery is not wanted; and as the 
 intercolumniation is small, a harmonious effect would be thereby produced. 
 
 From what has been said it appears that the Greeks first determined the 
 extent of the front line of their temples, and then made the diameter of the 
 column a certain portion of that line, and that the height of the building 
 depended on that of the column and entablature. It will be wise to re¬ 
 member these facts, and never suffer ourselves to deviate much from the 
 same method. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
IONIC ORDER. 
 
 15 
 
 Plate VII. 
 
 On this Plate is a section of the Doric cornice, with its plancere in¬ 
 verted ; also a section and front elevation of the triglyph, showing its 
 peculiar connection with the bed-mould. These details have been carefully 
 drawn on a large scale, and figured in minutes for the purpose of giving 
 the student a clear and distinct knowledge of this complicated entablature, 
 which is at least three times in four imperfectly drawn and put together 
 when not done by an architect. 
 
 On Plate XII., No. 4, is exhibited a plan and elevation of the drop at 
 the lower extremity of the triglyph, accurately drawn and figured in min¬ 
 utes, and at No. 3, on the same Plate, a section of the Doric flutes. To 
 draw the latter, divide d 5 into four equal parts, and with the distance d 5 
 on d and 5, make the intersection b from 6, and through the points 1 and 
 4, draw lines to c and e, divide b c and b e, each into five equal parts ; on 
 b c at a, and b e at a, and with the distance a d or a 5, describe the curved 
 lines d c, and 5 e, and lastly with the distance b c or b e, describe the curve 
 c e. This method of forming the flutes by parts of a circle is not recom¬ 
 mended as the best for that purpose, but may be used to ascertain their 
 depth, and then it will be best to form the section of the flutes from the 
 ellipsis. 
 
 IONIC ORDER. 
 
 Plate VIII. 
 
 This was the second, in point of time, of the Grecian orders. The col¬ 
 umn was generally made eight diameters in height, always standing upon a 
 base composed of a series of mouldings, which differ in number and form 
 
16 
 
 IONIC ORDER. 
 
 in different examples. The shaft diminished about ten minutes, and was 
 decorated with twenty-four flutes, having either a semi-circular or semi¬ 
 elliptical section, and separated by fillets of about one-fourth of their 
 breadth. The capital always maintains the same character, but in form 
 and richness of ornament, it varied very much in different examples. The 
 capitals of the Erectheum were very highly ornamented and very beautiful, 
 but the great number of spiral lines winding round the eye of the volutes, 
 render this example less pleasing when employed upon small than it is 
 upon large columns. Those which adorned the columns of the little tem¬ 
 ple situated on the banks of the river Ilissus, possessed a fitness, a classical 
 beauty and harmonious combination of parts in which they are universally 
 allowed to excel all others. Great deviations are found in the different 
 examples of the entablature, in their height, form, and the number and 
 richness of their mouldings. Its relative height to that of the column can¬ 
 not now be determined, as the upper extremity of the cornices, consisting 
 generally of the crown moulding, is wanting; but judging from the height 
 of the architrave, the frieze and the remaining part of the cornice, that of 
 the entablature must have generally been two diameters. 
 
 The example here given is not in exact imitation of any one of the Gre¬ 
 cian Ionics, but is in all respects purely Grecian. In selecting its various 
 members from ancient examples, it has been our aim to adapt it to the 
 wants and practice of the present day. 
 
 The column was made by the Grecians from eight to nine diameters in 
 height, which rule has been followed by the Romans and the moderns, and 
 we cannot do better than to imitate them. The height of the entablature 
 in this example is two diameters. 
 
 Plate IX. 
 
 This Plate contains a second and more ornamented example of the Ionic 
 order. Its general proportions are intended to be the same as those of the 
 first example. The beautiful ornaments upon the neck of the capital are 
 
IONIA' ORDER. 
 
 /'/. /X. 
 
. 
 
 I 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
IONIC ORDER. 
 
 17 
 
 taken from the Erechtheus at Athens, and the leaves upon the bolster part, 
 from a fine specimen of this capital discovered near the wall of the Acro¬ 
 polis at Athens. 
 
 For the sake of variety, in the base, the upper torus is fluted, in imitation 
 of some very fine Grecian examples of the Ionic base. The fluted base, 
 though its profile appears beautiful, when represented on paper, does not, 
 when executed, possess that chaste beauty which is presented by the 
 plain ones. 
 
 ' Plate X. 
 
 On this Plate are the details of the Ionic capital, carefully drawn on a 
 large scale, and figured for practice. 
 
 The carver will find it to his advantage to imitate these drawings faith¬ 
 fully, and thus escape the censure deservedly cast upon the many clumsy, 
 awkward productions of this capital, which may be seen in both town and 
 country. 
 
 No. 1, exhibits a front elevation of one-half of the capital; and No. 2, 
 a section through, from a to b , on No. 1. No. 4, represents a section of 
 one-fourth part of the column and an inverted view of one-fourth part of 
 the capital. No. 3, on this Plate, shows a section from a to b , on the side 
 elevation of the capital, which is exhibited at No. 1, Plate XII. 
 
 To draw the volute No. 1. At two minutes distance from the shaft of 
 the column, draw the vertical line b a ; on o* as a centre, which is twenty 
 minutes distant from the underside of the abacus at a, describe the eye, 
 making it seven minutes in diameter; at the distance of one and one-fourth 
 of a minute above and below the centre of the eye, draw lines at right 
 angles with b a, and at the distance of one and one-half minutes from b a , 
 and parallel therewith, draw the line 10, 11, which completes the outline 
 of the square. From the point o, draw the diagonals o 10, and oil, and 
 divide each of them into three equal parts; from these points, and at right 
 
 * See the eye of the volute at A, drawn on a large scale. 
 
 5 
 
IS 
 
 CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
 
 angles with b a , draw lines cutting b a at 1 , 5, and 4, 8 . The points 
 numbered from 1 to 11, are the centres, on which the volute is drawn. 
 The twelfth centre is found, by continuing the line at the top of the square, 
 one and one-half minutes across b a to 12. On 1, as a centre, and with 
 the distance 1 c, draw c d; on 2, and with the distance 2 d , draw d e ; 
 on 3, and with the distance 3 e, draw e f; with the distance 4/, draw 7 f g, 
 which completes one revolution. On 5, draw g h ; on 6 , draw h i; on 7, 
 draw i j ; on 8 , draw j k ; on 9, draw 1c l; on 10, draw l m ; on 11, draw 
 mn; and on 12, drawn p , which completes the outline of the volute. 
 To draw the inside line, divide the fillet into twelve equal parts, and make 
 the fillet at n, equal to eleven of these parts, and that at m, equal to ten of 
 the same parts, and so on, diminishing its width one-twelfth at each quar¬ 
 ter of a revolution. It will however be best to lessen this diminution at 
 each quarter, after passing about one and one-half revolutions, or the fillet 
 will, before its termination, appear too small. It is intended that the face 
 of the architrave shall be placed vertically over the line b a , which is two 
 minutes distance from the side of the column at its neck. 
 
 Plate XI. 
 
 On this Plate, the details of the capital of the second example of the 
 Ionic order are drawn on a large scale and figured for practice. 
 
 THE CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
 
 Plate XIII. 
 
 This order is the third and last in point of time, of the Grecian orders. 
 It does not appear to have been so much a favorite among the Greeks, as 
 to have been employed by them very frequently on their public buildings : 
 and how often it was used on their private buildings we cannot now deter- 
 

IONIC CAPITAL. 
 
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CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
 
 19 
 
 mine, as none of those have withstood the ravages of time. Stuart and 
 Revet have measured and published several fine examples of this order, 
 some of which are supposed to have been erected while the Romans held 
 dominion over Greece. 
 
 Several of the entablatures do not appear to have been formed with the 
 same taste and judgment which is displayed upon the columns, bases and 
 capitals, which the Greeks so universally exercised in the other orders. 
 
 The Romans adopted this order from the Greeks, and it at once became 
 a favorite with them, which they employed in almost all their public build¬ 
 ings. In their hands it underwent many important changes. They added 
 a modillion of the cornice, of a very rich character, and other new members 
 to the bed mould, and their architects appeared to have vied with each 
 other in embellishing the mouldings, and many of the flat surfaces of the 
 entablature, with costly and beautiful sculpture. 
 
 The column and capital of this example do not materially differ from 
 those of the Grecian and Roman examples 5 but in the entablature, an 
 intermediate course has been adopted, it being somewhat more embellished 
 than the Grecian, and much less so than the Roman. 
 
 The addition of the modillion and other new members to the bed mould, 
 by the Romans, made the height about two-thirds of the whole height of 
 the cornice. Sir William Chambers very properly makes three divisions 
 of a cornice, viz: the corona, which predominates and is principal in the 
 composition, the bed mould, whose office is to support and give stability 
 to the corona, and the crown mouldings, which serve to shelter and protect 
 the corona from falling water and other falling bodies. It appears, there¬ 
 fore, that the bed mould ought not to occupy so much space, as the Roman 
 architects gave to it. In imitation of the Grecian practice, the modillion 
 has not been added to this cornice. It is proposed to make the column, 
 including base and capital, ten diameters, and the entablature, two and 
 three-quarters diameters, in height. 
 
20 
 
 CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
 
 Plate XIV. 
 
 A second example of the Corinthian order, from the Choragic monument 
 of Lysicrates at Athens. In this example, such deviations from the origi¬ 
 nal have been made, as it was thought were required, in order to give it 
 a more particular adaptation to our practice. It is proposed to make the 
 column including the base and capital, ten diameters, and the entablature, 
 two and a quarter diameters, in height. 
 
 The channel which encircles the neck of the column, and the leaves 
 which divide it from the capital, in the original, are omitted in this example, 
 because they appear to have been taken from the neck of the Doric column, 
 which is decorated with the same channel, the flutes of the shaft passing 
 up through it and terminating under the annulets of the capital. The 
 original of this capital is supposed to be the most ancient of the order, and 
 is unlike that of any other example which has been as yet discovered. 
 Its classic expression and admirable adaptation to the place which it occu¬ 
 pies, have rendered it a favorite with all the lovers of architecture. It will 
 be found that I have not followed the entablature of the original in every 
 particular, especially in the details of the cornice, some of the mouldings 
 of which have received a different size and form of outline, but the general 
 character and expression have been faithfully preserved. 
 
 A section of the abacus is drawn at large and figured in minutes on 
 Plate III., No. 14. 
 
 Plate XV. 
 
 A third example of the Corinthian order. This capital is said to have 
 been discovered among the fragments of the temple of Apollo, at Bran- 
 chida?, near Miletus. The fragment, though much defaced when found, 
 retained enough of its original appearance, to enable the moderns to make 
 out all its details, except the abacus. The graceful simplicity of its form, 
 
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CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
 
 2 1 
 
 the care, with which it may be wrought, and its adaptation to many situa¬ 
 tions which come within our practice, have induced me to add to it a column 
 and entablature, and recommend it for imitation, though I am not aware 
 that it has been used upon any buildings, ancient or modern, except the 
 temple above mentioned. The general proportions of the column and 
 entablature are the same as those of the two preceding examples. A 
 section of the abacus is drawn at large on Plate III., No. 13, and figured 
 in minutes. 
 
 Plate XVI. 
 
 On this Plate are six different designs for antae capitals. No. 1, is 
 intended for the antae to the Tuscan order; No. 2, for the antae exhibited 
 on Plate V. ; No. 3, for that of the Doric order; and Nos. 4, 5, and 6, 
 for those of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The outlines of these capi¬ 
 tals are drawn on a large scale and figured in minutes. 
 
 It is not intended to confine their use within the limits mentioned above; 
 they may be used with success wherever their peculiar form and character 
 harmonize with the other parts of the composition. 
 
 Plate XVII. 
 
 On this Plate are three designs for antae capitals, differing in form and 
 richness of character from those on the preceding Plate. The embellish¬ 
 ments of No. 1, are remarkably chaste and elegant. They are taken from 
 a Grecian fragment. They are of great value to the carpenter who is 
 situated at a distance from a carver, inasmuch as they can be wrought by 
 himself. The neck of No. 2, is taken from that of the second example of 
 the Ionic order, and is therefore to be used always on the antae accom¬ 
 panying that order; it may also be used in any other situation, where its 
 character will harmonize with that of the surrounding objects. No. 3, is 
 
 6 
 
09 
 
 CORINTHIAN ORDER. 
 
 also of a rich character, and is better adapted to inside than to outside fin¬ 
 ishing, hut may be used with propriety in either case. The outlines of the 
 details of these capitals are drawn on a large scale and figured in minutes. 
 
 Plate XVIII. 
 
 On this Plate is given an example of the antae and entablature, copied, 
 with deviations, from that on the choragic monument of Thrasyllus at 
 Athens. Their details are in themselves beautiful, and are arranged with 
 such judgment and good taste, as to give a simple elegance to the whole 
 composition. The deviations from the original are not very great; they are 
 in the bed mould, architrave and capital, and in adding a base to the antae. 
 
 A, shows a section of the crown moulding; B, a section of the bed mould; 
 and C, a section of the base to the antae, all drawn on a large scale, for the 
 purpose of exhibiting the outline of those mouldings. This example may be 
 drawn by diameters and minutes, like the orders, and the antae be made 
 about eight diameters in height. 
 
 Plate XIX. 
 
 This example of an antae and entablature is, in character and effect, 
 Doric, having mutules in the cornice, which are so arranged, as to permit 
 the space between them to be decorated with rosettes. The architrave 
 bears a strong resemblance to that of the choragic monument of Thrasyllus 
 at Athens, but the outlines of its details are quite different from that example. 
 The capital is, in character and effect, Doric, though it differs in its outline 
 from that of any other example of that order. The crown moulding of the 
 cornice is singular in the form of its outline. It is so constructed as to 
 cause a strong shade to be throw n upon its lower surface, which relieves 
 it from the corona. The mutule is in size and form like that shown on 
 Plate VII. 
 
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ANTAE & ENTABLATURE. 
 
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 FJ.XJX. 
 
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JtNTAE & ENTABLATURE. 
 
 JV.XX. 
 

INTERCOLUMNIATIONS. 
 
 23 
 
 A, shows a section of the crown moulding and corona; B, a section of 
 the bed mould; C, one of the architraves; D, a section of the capital 
 figured in minutes; and F, shows the plancere inverted. 
 
 Plate XX. 
 
 The details of this example of an antae and entablature are of a more 
 delicate character than those of the preceding one; and it is therefore 
 more particularly adapted to inside than to outside finishing, though it may 
 be used with success in either. The elements of this example are few and 
 simple, and will produce a pleasing effect, if the situation in which it is to 
 be used be selected with judgment. The wreath, which adorns the frieze, 
 is taken from an example in Stuart’s Antiquities of Athens. This and the 
 capitals of the antae partake of the same simple character, and both may 
 be wrought with the greatest ease by an intelligent carpenter, if necessary, 
 without the aid of a carver. The distance between the several wreaths 
 may be about equal to the width of the frieze. 
 
 A, shows a section of the bed mould; B, a profile of the capital; and 
 C, a profile of the base moulding; all of which are figured in minutes. 
 
 INTERCOLUMNIATIONS. 
 
 Plate XXI. 
 
 Plate XXI. exhibits an elevation of a Doric portico, with six columns 
 in front, and also plans of other examples, of which Nos. 1 and 2, have 
 been explained in the description of the Doric order. The necessity is 
 there shown of a systematic and harmonious distribution of the columns 
 and the details of the entablature. No. 3, exhibits a plan of a portico, 
 

 24 > INTERCOLUMNIATI ON S. 
 
 with four columns, whose extent is thirty-six feet. This extent is divided 
 into forty-eight equal parts, each part being equal to nine inches, and four 
 of these parts, or three feet, are equal to the diameter of the column, eleven, 
 to the centre intercolumniation, and ten and one-half, to each of the other 
 two. These intercolumniations require that two triglyphs should be 
 placed over each. No. 4, shows a plan of four columns, extending twenty- 
 eight feet, six inches. That extent is divided into thirty-eight equal parts, 
 and the column made equal to four of these parts, the centre intercolum¬ 
 niation, to eleven, and each of the other two, to five and one-half parts. 
 Two triglyphs must be placed over the centre intercolumniation, and one, 
 over each of the other two. 
 
 In common practice, when the columns are much less than three feet in 
 diameter, they cannot generally be placed nearer to each other than those 
 of No. 3, because I he interval between them would in that case be insuffi¬ 
 cient to enable a person of large size to pass between them freely. Take 
 for instance the example of a piazza to be erected in front of a dwelling- 
 house, whose columns are one foot six inches in diameter. In that case, 
 the distance between the columns, if set in imitation of No. 1 or 2, would 
 be only two feet three inches, which would be about one half of the breadth 
 of the windows of the house; and if they were set in imitation of No. 3, 
 the distance would be four feet one and a half inches, which also would be 
 insufficient. It would be expedient therefore, in such a case, to place three 
 triglyphs over each intercolumniation. It is however to be observed, that 
 when the intercolumniation is so extended as to admit three triglyphs over 
 it, it produces a lean and unsolid aspect, by reason of the numerous and 
 massive details of the entablature, which require the appearance of frequent 
 support. Hence the student will perceive that this order succeeds better, 
 when wrought on a large than on a small scale, and it will be well for him, 
 in cases like the above, to use one of the other orders, in which the same 
 nicety is not required in placing the columns, as will be perceived by the 
 following description. 
 
1NTERC OLUMN1ATIOJNT. 
 
 PJ.XX2. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
PEDESTALS. 
 
 25 
 
 Vitruvius describes the different intercolumniations by the following 
 names, which are still preserved by modern architects. Pycnostylos, 
 when the distance between the columns is once and one-half their diam¬ 
 eter; Systylos, when it is two diameters; Eustylos, when it is two and 
 one-quarter diameters ; Diostylos, when it is three diameters ; Araeostylos, 
 when it is four diameters. 
 
 The wide range here given for the placing of columns will admonish the 
 student to be circumspect, in making his selection, that the intercolumnia- 
 tion may harmonize with the form and style of the object with which it is 
 connected. 
 
 PEDESTALS. 
 
 Plate XXII. 
 
 The use of pedestals appears to have been an innovation in the Grecian 
 practice, and was introduced into that country subsequently to the loss of 
 its political independence. In the original examples we find the columns 
 standing upon the uppermost of three steps, a rule, to which the temple of 
 Theseus at Athens is believed to furnish the only exception. 
 
 The Romans, on the other hand, raised the floors of their temples to the 
 height of the pedestal, projecting it forward, so that the steps in front, by 
 which the temple was entered, profiled against it. In the ancient theatres, 
 the inferior orders rested on steps, while the superior orders stood on pe¬ 
 destals, which formed a parapet, and raised the base of the order sufficiently 
 high to be seen on a near approach to the building, and for the spectators 
 to lean over. 
 
 Since the Grecian style of architecture has, at the present day, univer¬ 
 sally prevailed over the Roman, pedestals are not held in very high estima- 
 
 7 
 
26 
 
 PEDESTALS. 
 
 tion. But though they cannot be considered as a necessary appendage to 
 any of the orders, they are nevertheless so often used with them, as to 
 require some notice, as to their proportions and their fitness for different 
 situations. 
 
 Pedestals sometimes supply the place of a basement. They are also 
 used for supporting colonades, balustrades, attics, &c. Sir William 
 Chambers makes their height equal to three-tenths of the height of the 
 column sustained by them. This rule will generally be found correct; 
 but cases may occur in practice, when different proportions will be re¬ 
 quired, in which event all the peculiar circumstances of the case must be 
 regarded, and the proportions of the pedestal so modified, as to accord with 
 the architectural objects connected with it. Pedestals should never be 
 insulated, though the column supported by them be so ; and the dye should 
 never be less than the diameter of the base of the column. When they are 
 employed in balustrades, the dye should be equal to the neck of the column, 
 or antae, over which they stand. 
 
 On Plate XXII. are exhibited base mouldings and cornices for the 
 Tuscan, Doric and Ionic orders, all of which are figured in minutes, the 
 length of the scale being equal to the diameter of the column. 
 
 Plate XXIII. 
 
 On Plate XXIII., at C, is exhibited a pedestal which has a base and 
 cornice extending along and forming a part of a balustrade, showing the 
 balusters in their proper position and distance from each other, commen¬ 
 cing with one-half of one baluster, against the edge of the pedestal. The 
 pedestal is supposed to stand at the eaves of the building and directly over 
 a column or a pilaster, and all its details, and those of the vase which it 
 sustains, and the balusters A, and B, should be drawn from the same scale 
 of minutes with the column and pilaster. 
 
FKDESTALS 
 
 / 7.XXII. 
 
 Tuscan Dorn- • Ionic 
 
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BALUSTERS & VACKS. 
 
 FI. XX1/T. 
 
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FRONTISPIECES. 
 
 27 
 
 FRONTISPIECES. 
 
 Plate XXIV. 
 
 Frontispieces are both useful and ornamental, and make an important 
 part of the facade of a building. They are useful, in sheltering the door 
 and those who are obliged to wait at it for admittance, and ornamental, 
 if skill and judgment are used in their construction. Care must be taken 
 as to the kind and quantity of the decorations employed upon them, that 
 they be neither too profusely nor too sparingly used, and that they be such 
 as to harmonize with the other parts of the front. The door is usually 
 located in the centre of the facade, through which all must pass who enter 
 the building; which circumstance subjects the frontispiece to a severer 
 scrutiny, than the other parts of the same front, and it will therefore be 
 proper and expedient to give to it a greater portion of decorations. 
 
 On this Plate is exhibited an example of a frontispiece, without side¬ 
 lights, depending upon the glass over the door, for the admission of light 
 into the entry. In such cases, the frontispiece is apt to appear insufficient 
 in breadth, particularly, when the front of the building, where it is located, 
 is of very considerable extent. The ample breadth given to the jambs, on 
 each side of the door, in this example, is for the purpose of relieving that 
 defect. 
 
 The details of the elevation are figured thereon in feet and inches, beside 
 which, a scale of feet and inches is delineated below it, by which all the 
 various parts may be measured. A, exhibits a plan of the door, its jambs 
 and architraves 5 B, a section of the door, the threshold, the impost, which 
 separates the door from the window, and the architraves, also an elevation 
 of the architrave, jamb of the door, and console. C, exhibits the same plan 
 as A, on an enlarged scale; D, the manner of terminating the frett at its 
 upper extremity. 
 
28 
 
 FRONTISPIECES. 
 
 Plate XXV. 
 
 A, exhibits an elevation of a frontispiece, every part of which may be 
 measured by the scale of feet and inches annexed ; B, an accurate plan of 
 all parts of the frontispiece ; C, a section of the entablature, inside archi¬ 
 trave, capital to antae, impost, sash, door and threshold, also a side view 
 of the antae or pilaster, to which the door hangs, and the console. Place 
 the fascia of the capital to the antae, which extends from antae to antae, 
 in a vertical line over the greatest projection of the consoles. D, repre¬ 
 sents a section of the threshold and lower extremity of the door, on a large 
 scale, and also the manner of connecting them, so as to prevent the falling 
 water from passing between them into the house. 
 
 Plate XXVI. 
 
 On this Plate are represented the plan, elevations and section of an 
 example of a frontispiece, which may be measured by the scale of feet and 
 inches on the preceding Plate. The antae and entablature may be drawn 
 from the scale given on Plate XVIII., and the capital, from that of No. 1, 
 on Plate XVII. The honeysuckles, at the upper extremity of the cornice, 
 are in imitation of those similarly situated on the cornice of the second 
 example of the Corinthian order, Plate XIV. 
 
 Plate XXVII. 
 
 This Plate exhibits the plans and elevations of a frontispiece of a richer 
 character than either of those preceding, the door being recessed a suffi¬ 
 cient distance into the house, to permit columns to be placed between the 
 antaes. This example can be adopted, only when the building is of such 
 extent, as to require the different portions of the facade to be large and 
 
PJ. XXII 
 
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9 
 
FRONTISPIECE. 
 
 PI. XXVII. 
 
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I >ETAILS . 
 
 !>]. XXV111. 
 
FRONTISPIECES. 
 
 29 
 
 strongly marked in character. The columns, entablature and antaes are 
 taken from the second example of the Ionic order, Plate IX. 
 
 Pl ATE XXVIII. 
 
 This Plate exhibits sections of the entablature, door, architrave, impost, 
 threshold, &c. 5 also an elevation of the antae, the panel between the 
 antaes, part of the pilaster between the door and side-lights, and the 
 console and architrave over it. B, shows a working plan of the impost 
 drawn at one-half of the full size; C, the bottom rail of the sash and its 
 connection with the impost; D, a portion of the door shut into the rabbet; 
 H, a front elevation of the impost; E, a section of the sash rail; F, the 
 sill to the sash frame; and G, the panel, a b , shows the depth of the 
 pilaster adjoining the door; c d , that adjoining the sash. 
 
 Plates XXIX. and XXX. 
 
 On these Plates are exhibited the plans, elevations, and sections of a 
 portico of the Corinthian order, taken from the third example of that order. 
 
 It will be seen that the floor of this portico has ample breadth, which is 
 obtained, not by a great projection of the columns from the building, but 
 by recessing the door and side-lights into it. We thus avoid that very 
 common fault, of projecting small porticoes to an improper distance from 
 the building, which gives the portico an unstable appearance, as if a small 
 jostle would cause it to totter and fall, arising from its having no other 
 apparent support from the building, than what it obtains by butting 
 against it. But when the door and its appendages are recessed twelve or 
 more inches back from the line of the building, so that a strongly marked 
 shadow is produced, and the entablature and ceiling of the portico are 
 firmly united with the building, the whole appears firm and compact. The 
 
 8 
 
30 
 
 FRONTISPIECES. 
 
 fault above-mentioned is not altogether confined to porticoes of small 
 dimensions, but may be found in some which are extended the whole 
 breadth and height of the building; for instance, in those where the antaes 
 at the angles of the building project only about three or four inches, as is 
 commonly the case, and the floor of the portico is simply butted against 
 the building, in which case they fail to present that appearance of one 
 perfect whole which is demanded. This defect may be avoided by giving 
 to the antaes a projection on the side facing of the columns, equal, at least, 
 to the diameter of the column. 
 
 Plate XXXI. 
 
 One or more doors are essential to every separate apartment. No door 
 can conveniently be made of a less size than two feet in breadth and six 
 feet in height, that being the smallest space through which a man of ordi¬ 
 nary dimensions can freely pass; nor ought the size of a single door to 
 exceed four feet six inches in breadth, and eight feet six inches or nine feet 
 in height. When large external doors arc required for public buildings, 
 they are generally divided vertically in the centre, and made to open in two 
 parts, and if they are so high as to cause too great an opening in that direc¬ 
 tion, they are also divided horizontally, and the upper part being made 
 stationary, the lower opens in two parts as before. No fixed rule is 
 applicable to the proportion of doors. They should be proportioned 
 according to the uses for which they are intended. In a room seventeen 
 feet wide, by twenty-three or four feet long, and twelve and one-half feet in 
 height, the doors should be about three feet three inches wide, and about 
 seven feet nine inches high. When sliding doors are used, they should 
 have something more than twice the breadth of the other doors in the same 
 room, and be two feet higher, depending, in that respect, upon the height 
 of the room, and upon the ornaments used to decorate them. 
 
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 RISING DOORS 
 
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FRONTISPIECES. 
 
 31 
 
 On this Plate are exhibited two designs for doors, intended for inside 
 finishing. The details of each are figured thereon in feet and inches. The 
 architrave of No. 1, is taken from No. 9, on Plate XLI.; and that of No. 
 2, from No. 6, on the same Plate. The sculpture on each of these archi¬ 
 traves may and ought to be left off, when the finish of the room is of such 
 a character as not to require it. 
 
 Pl ATE XXXII. 
 
 On this Plate are exhibited a pair of sliding doors, with a scale of feet 
 and inches annexed. The architrave and its decorations are drawn to 
 match those of No. 2, on Plate XXXI., but on an extended scale, both 
 of them being intended for the same room. 
 
 Plate XXXIII. 
 
 On this Plate is an example designed for a suit of doors extending across 
 the room. They are designed to slide up into the room above them, until 
 entirely concealed by the entablature, leaving nothing to divide the two 
 rooms except the antaes. 
 
 This kind of communication between two rooms, will often be found 
 very convenient, particularly in hotels, where it may sometimes be desirable 
 to use the two rooms as a dining room. In such a case, the table will be 
 set in the centre, and the waiters will pass between the two side antaes. 
 
 A, shows a section of antaes, doors, and weights by which the doors are 
 hung, also a scale of feet and inches, by which any part of this design may 
 be measured. 
 
 The entablature is taken from the example of an antae and entablature 
 on Plate XX. 
 
3 2 
 
 WINDOWS. 
 
 Plate XXXIV. 
 
 On this Plate are exhibited three different examples of mouldings and 
 paneling for doors, and three also for shutters, all of which are drawn at 
 full size for practice, representing a section of each moulding and a part 
 of the style and panel of each example, and also the method of connecting 
 the style, panel and moulding. 
 
 WINDOWS. 
 
 Plate XXXV. 
 
 This Plate exhibits various sections of the sash frames, shutters, &c. for 
 the finish of two windows. No. 1 , shows a section of the finish of a 
 window, the shutters of which are designed to fold against the wall;— 
 a, represents the architrave; b, the grounds; c, the jamb casing 5 d, face 
 casing to the sash frame and back lining; e e, the shutters; /, the hanging 
 style; g , the pulley style to the sash frame; h, the face casing ; k , the 
 parting bead ; j, the moulding to the sash frame; in, the head; l , the style 
 of the sash; i i , weights. No. 2, is nearly the same with No. 1 , the 
 principal difference consisting in the shutters, in tl\e former folding into the 
 wall, and therefore requiring to he made thicker than in the latter case. 
 No. 3, shows a section of the bottom rail to a sash and a sash bar. No. 
 4, shows a top rail and sash bar, with a moulding differing from that of 
 No. 3. No. 5, shows the meeting rails of the sash, and the method of 
 connecting them together. The last three examples are drawn one-half 
 their full size, and Nos. 1 and 2, on a scale of one-fourth of an inch, to 
 one inch. 
 
 i 
 

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WINDOW. 
 
 n.xixvj. 
 
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 WINDOWS. 
 
 PI. JX W IT 
 
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PEDIMENTS. 
 
 33 
 
 Plate XXXVI. 
 
 This Plate exhibits a front and side elevation of a window extending 
 down to the floor. Its architrave and decorations are similar to those of 
 door No. 2, on Plate XXXI., and are intended for the same room. 
 
 Plate XXXVII. 
 
 On this Plate are the elevations of two windows, showing the internal 
 finish of each. The plan of No. 1, will be found at No. 2, on Plate 
 XXXV. It will be seen that this window is finished with a panel under 
 it, in the common way, and the architrave and sculpture attached to it are 
 intended to match those of the door No. 2, on Plate XXXI. No. 2, 
 shows an elevation of plan No. 1, on Plate XXXV., the shutters of which 
 fold upon the wall. The architrave, and tablet over the window, are 
 without mouldings. 
 
 Plate XXXVIII. 
 
 On this Plate are exhibited the sections of the window sills, bottom rail 
 to the sash, bead to the sash frame, hack with its bead, cap of the sash 
 frame, top rail to the sash, soffit, architrave grounds, &,c. It also shows 
 an elevation of the shutters, sash frame, &c., all drawn on a scale of one- 
 fourth of an inch to an inch, and figured in inches. 
 
 PEDIMENTS. 
 
 The beauty of the pediment depends very much upon the relative pro¬ 
 portion of its base, to its vertical height or pitch. The ancient Greek 
 pediments, which surmounted the temples and porticoes, were generally 
 
 9 
 
34 
 
 PEDIMENTS. 
 
 of a very low pitch. That of temple of the Theseus, was about one- 
 eighth of its base line. That of the Ionic temple, situated on the banks of 
 the river Ilissus, and that of the Doric portico, were each about one-seventh, 
 and that of the temple of the Winds, about one-fifth. It appears, from a 
 comparison of these examples, that a ratio existed between the extension 
 of the base, and the height of the pediment. 
 
 Suppose the base of a pediment to be twelve feet, and its pitch one- 
 eighth of the same, or eighteen inches. If we deduct from the pitch the 
 depth of the inclined cornice, very little remains for the vertical height of 
 the tympanum of the pediment; and therefore a pitch of one-fifth would be 
 preferable in this case. But suppose the base to be extended to fifty feet, 
 and the pitch to be one-fifth or ten feet. This height would give to the 
 pediment too much consequence, making that a principal in the composition 
 which should be subordinate, its office being to protect and shelter the 
 building which sustains it; in the latter case, therefore, one-eighth would 
 be preferable. 
 
 Plate XXXIX. 
 
 On this Plate are exhibited the plan and elevations of a French window. 
 It is divided vertically in the centre, and opens in two parts, like doors. 
 When it is of a sufficient height to permit the top lights to be made a 
 fixture, it will be advisable to divide it horizontally, making the meeting 
 rails, in that case, like the meeting stiles. 
 
 Plate XL. 
 
 This Plate exhibits the details of a French window, the subject of the 
 preceding Plate.—a, at Xo. 1, shows a section of the cap to the sash 
 frame; 6, part of the soffit; d , window cap; c, top rail to the sash; e, 
 bottom rail; f, a piece of cast iron, screwed to the under surface of the 
 rail; g , another piece of cast iron, screwed to the window sill, the upper 
 

ARCHITRAVES. 
 
 35 
 
 surface of which coincides with the under surface of f. It must be 
 observed that the projection of this moulding, at n, must not be equal to 
 that of o, at the bottom of the rabate, between the meeting stiles, shown at 
 No. 2 ; in order that the water driving into and passing down the rabate, 
 which otherwise might be forced by the wind into the house, may fall at 
 a little distance before n , to the window sill, /i, shows the window sill; 
 
 the plinth ; a, on No. 2, shows the section of the jamb to the sash frame; 
 6, that of the sash stile; c and c, meeting stiles to sash. These details 
 are all drawn at one-half their full size. 
 
 ARCHITRAVES. 
 
 Plate XLI. 
 
 No member of the orders is more in use than the architrave. Doors, 
 windows, niches, arcades, &c. are all more or less indebted to it for their 
 dressings. It is therefore highly important that its proportions should be 
 adapted to the place which it occupies, and that it should accord with the 
 finish of the rest of the apartment. The following rule has been adopted 
 b y some authors, to determine the breadth of architraves. Make the 
 breadth of the architrave equal to that which would be required in the 
 entablature of a column, of the same height with the aperture, around 
 which the architrave is employed. 
 
 Another rule, more generally practised, is to make the breadth of the 
 architrave one-sixth part of that of the aperture. But both of these rules 
 will require to be varied in many situations. For instance, if the door is 
 three feet wide, one-sixth of this, or six inches, would be a good propor¬ 
 tion ; but by the same rule, a pair of sliding doors, seven feet four inches 
 wide, in the same room, would have an architrave about fourteen and six- 
 
36 
 
 STUCCO CORNICES. 
 
 tenths inches wide, which would be a proportion altogether inadmissible. 
 In such a case, one-tenth of the breadth of the door would be a proper 
 proportion. 
 
 These examples are drawn one-half the full size for common practice. 
 Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, are single, and Nos. 5, 6, and 7, double architraves. 
 Nos. 8, 9, and 10, are what is called pilaster architraves. 
 
 Plate XLII. 
 
 On this Plate are six designs for base mouldings, differing in form, but 
 not much in size. They are drawn one-half the full size for practice, each 
 part being one-eighth of an inch. If they are drawn from a common two 
 foot rule, calling one-fourth of an inch one part, a suitable size for common 
 practice will be produced. 
 
 STUCCO CORNICES. 
 
 Plate XLIII. 
 
 The object of these cornices is ornament, and is obtained only where 
 their size and form are in perfect accordance with the extent and character 
 of the apartment, in which they are placed. In all other cases, the money 
 expended upon them is wasted; and care should therefore he used that 
 they he not defective in this particular. 
 
 The following simple rule, which makes the height of the cornice a 
 certain portion of the height of the room, will serve to assist the judgment; 
 but circumstances will often occur, requiring some deviation. If the room 
 in which either of the examples of Nos. 1, or 2, are to be employed, be 
 eleven feet in height, make the height of either example equal to nine- 
 tenths of an inch, for every foot in the height of the room, or nine and 
 
AROUTKAVES 
 
 f‘Z A'LI. 
 
f' if />•') n/o/f Jr 
 

 
 
o JJ'fi* neen Sc 
 
EAVE CORNICES. 
 
 37 
 
 nine-tenths inches. In a room of the same height exclusive of the frieze, 
 the height of either of the examples 3, 4, and 5, might be four-tenths of an 
 inch to each foot in that of the room, or four and four-tenths inches. 
 
 EAVE CORNICES. 
 
 Pl ATE XLIV. 
 
 Eave Cornices are not only ornamental, but useful 5 for while they serve 
 to crown and protect the building, the gutters placed in them receive the 
 water which falls upon the roof, and carry it to a point whence it may 
 descend to the ground. 
 
 A frieze may be added to the upper surface, where a sufficient space is 
 left between the cornice and top of the window to admit it without the 
 appearance of being crowded ; and in this case, the windows lighting the 
 attic may be so concealed by the frieze, as to appear ornamental, by dec¬ 
 orating their front with the frett, or enclosing them with the wreath. 
 
 The most difficult thing, in relation to these cornices, is to determine a 
 correct proportion for them in the various situations in which they may be 
 required. The nature of the surface, on which the building stands, the 
 extent of the front, the character of the building, and many other circum¬ 
 stances, often require in practice a deviation from any regular rule. It is 
 obvious that a cornice of a suitable size for a tower twenty-five feet square, 
 and sixty feet high, will not be large enough for a building of the same 
 height, but with the sides extended to one hundred feet. I have given 
 below a kind of table, by which the depths of cornices on buildings from 
 eighty to a hundred feet may be obtained, subject to such corrections as a 
 regard to the observations above made upon the subject may require. 
 
 10 
 
38 
 
 CONSOLES. 
 
 Suppose it be required to obtain the depth of a cornice, situated at a 
 height of fifteen feet. Make the cornice twenty-fortieths of an inch for 
 each foot in that height, or seven and thirty-five fortieths inches. 
 
 The following table may be used in other cases. 
 
 Height of building, 20 ft. inches per foot, or 9£g inches. 
 
 “ “ 25 ft. 
 
 ( f 
 
 “ 11 finches. 
 
 “ “ 30 ft. 
 
 e c 
 
 “ 12Jg inches. 
 
 “ “ 40 ft. 
 
 tc 
 
 “ 16 inches. 
 
 “ “ 50 ft. 
 
 n 
 
 “ 18£g inches. 
 
 “ “ 60 ft. ^ 
 
 cc 
 
 “ 21 inches. 
 
 “ “ 70 ft. fg 
 
 a 
 
 “ 22J# inches. 
 
 " “ 80 ft. *£ 
 
 t < 
 
 “ 24 inches. 
 
 CONSOLES. 
 
 Plates XLV. and XLVI 
 
 This ancient and highly ornamented member of architecture seems to 
 have been neglected in all the late practical works on this subject, with the 
 exception of one example, very beautiful and richly decorated, taken from 
 the great door of the Grecian temple, Erechtheus, at Athens. This how¬ 
 ever is not adapted to our every day practice, in its form, decorations, or 
 expense of execution. I have therefore presented several examples of the 
 console which accord with the fashion of the day, differing from each other 
 in form and decorations, beginning with these the most simple, and ending 
 with others highly ornamented. I have taken care to arrange the sculpture, 
 in such a manner that three of these examples may be cut by a common 
 carpenter, without the aid of a carver. D, on Plate XLV., exhibits a side 
 view, and C, across section of Fig. 1, taken from A to B; E, represents 
 

 tiff/loyn/t/n St 
 


yy.iz/// 
 
 /> 
 
 
 
 CENTREPEICE 
 
 \ 7 '/ 
 

SHOP FRONTS 
 
 // X/.{'/// 
 
 
 
 OWJfqyntotv Sc. 
 
\ 
 
 CONSOLES. 
 
 39 
 
 a side view ; and F, a cross section taken from A to B, on Fig. 2. No. 
 3, on Plate XLVI., exhibits a side view ; and No. 4, a cross section of 
 No. 2. No. 6, shows a side view of No. 5; and No. 7, a cross section 
 taken from A to B. No. 1, is a vertical section of No. 5. 
 
 Plate XLVII. 
 
 This Plate contains an example of a centre piece, figured in inches. 
 No. 2 , represents a section of the mouldings and frett, which encircles the 
 flower in the centre. They are drawn at one-half their full size, and figured 
 in parts.— a , is in a line with the ceiling of the room ; and c, in a line with 
 the centre piece. 
 
 The lower part of this Plate contains three examples of fretts, one for a 
 gniloche, and one for a leaf ornament, all of which will be handsome when 
 suited to the place which they occupy. The shaded parts, a, 6, c, d, e, 
 are sections of the figures against which they are respectively drawn. 
 
 Plate XLVIII. 
 
 This Plate exhibits a design for a shop front, suitable for either town or 
 country. The pilaster and entablature may be made of stone or wood, 
 according to the taste or convenience of the proprietor. 
 
 The small windows between the capitals of the pilasters are intended to 
 be secured with a frett, made of iron, instead of shutters, so that, if the 
 shop should take fire in the night time, the accident may be more easily 
 discovered, by the light shining through these windows; and in the same 
 manner, a robber might perhaps be detected, if he should enter the shop in 
 the night for plunder, and use a lantern for his purposes. The doors may be 
 recessed so far back, as to show the whole thickness of the pilaster; but it 
 will be wise, in order to show the goods within to the best advantage, to 
 place the window in such a position, that the front surface of the shutter, 
 when closed, may be in the same place with the front of the pilasters. 
 
-to 
 
 STAIRS. 
 
 STAIRS. 
 
 Every building, consisting of more than one story, is indebted to this 
 portion of architecture for ornament, as well as utility. The height, 
 breadth, and length of the steps, should he proportioned to the situation 
 and use for which they are constructed. This remark, however, is subject 
 to this qualification, that the height should never exceed eight inches, nor 
 the breadth fifteen inches. Every workman is supposed to have a sufficient 
 knowledge of all kinds of stairs, except those on a circular plan. The 
 method most practised, of forming the circular part of the rail without a 
 cylinder, is comparatively of recent date. To the ingenious Peter Nichol¬ 
 son, of London, we are all indebted for this method. It was invented by 
 him and published in the year 1792, and since that time it has wonderfully 
 extended itself into practice. In the year 1795, I made the drawings and 
 superintended the erection of a circular stair-case in the State House at 
 Hartford, Connecticut, which, I believe, was the first circular rail that was 
 ever made in New England. This rail was glued up round a cylinder, in 
 pieces of about one-eighth of an inch thick. Since the first discovery of 
 the true principles of hand railing, 3Ir. Nicholson has made several impor¬ 
 tant improvements, for one of which, about seventeen or eighteen years 
 since, the Society of Arts in London awarded him a gold medal. This 
 improvement renders the subject the most simple and direct of any of his 
 methods. I have therefore adopted it as.my model here, with some trifling 
 deviations. 
 
 Plate XLIX 
 
 This Plate exhibits two examples for scrolls, which terminate the lower 
 extremity of hand rails ; one of a curtail step, and one of a ncwell. 
 
 In order to describe the scroll, Fig. 1, make a circle of three and one- 
 

STAIRS. 
 
 41 
 
 half inches in diameter, as is shown by dotted lines. To illustrate this sub¬ 
 ject in a clear and distinct manner, the circle is repeated on a larger scale 
 at No. 2. Divide the circle in the centre by the horizontal line a o b; draw 
 the vertical line o e; divide o e into three equal parts at c, d , e; through the 
 point c draw 6 c 5, parallel to a b. Divide c d into three equal parts at/, 
 g, h , and make c 6 equal to o f. Then from the point 6, and through the 
 centre o, draw the diagonal line 6 o 4, and intersect it at right angles by 
 another diagonal line passing through the centre o, and cutting 6 5 at 5. 
 At right angles with 6 5, draw 5 4, cutting 6 o 4 at 4; and parallel with 6 
 5, draw 4 3, cutting 5 o 3 at 3. Draw 3 2 parallel to 5 4, cutting 6 o 4 at 
 2 ; and 2 1 parallel to 6 5, cutting 5 o 3 at 1 ; which completes the six 
 centres on which the scroll is drawn. We will now return to Fig. 1. On 
 the centre 1, with the radius 1 j, drawy i ; on the centre 2, with the radius 
 2 i, draw i h $ on 3, with the radius 3 h, draw h g ; on 4, with the radius 
 4 g , draw g f; on 5, with the radius 5 f, draw f e\ on 6, draw e d ; which 
 completes the outside circle. The inside line, and also those of the nosing 
 of the steps, are drawn from the same centres. 
 
 To draw the face mould, No. 1, the rail is supposed to be glued to the 
 scroll at the line 8 11. A, exhibits the pitch board ; c 6, the base line; and 
 a b } the raking line. Divide from d , the beginning of the twist, to b , into 
 any number of parts, making one intersect the edge of the rail at 8, and 
 another at 11. Then draw these lines across the pitch board to the raking 
 line a b. At right angles with a b , continue them across the face mould, 
 No. 1. From the line a 6, make each of the lines 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, and 11, 
 equal to the corresponding lines from the line d b , to the edge of the rail 3, 
 5, 7, 9, 10, and 11. Make also 1 2, 3 4, 5 6, and 7 8, in No. 1, respec¬ 
 tively equal to d 2, 3 4, 5 6, and 7 8, on Fig. 1. Then through the points 
 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10, and 11, and also through the points 2, 4, G, and 8, trace 
 the curves ; and the face mould is completed. 
 
 Fig. 2, exhibits a curtail step drawn from the same centres as that of the 
 rail. B, shows the edge of the riser; C, a block glued to both step and 
 
 11 
 
42 
 
 STAIRS. 
 
 riser; D and E, keys by which the riser is made fast and drawn home to 
 the step. The dotted lines represent the nosing of the step. 
 
 To draw the falling mould, No. 5, let a, b and c, he the angles of the 
 pitch hoard. Produce the base line c b , to d ; make c d equal to the stretch¬ 
 out of the scroll on Fig. 1; from d, around to /, set up the depth of the rail, 
 which is supposed to he two inches, to the line f g e. Then divide a g and 
 g e, each into a like number of equal parts, and form the curve by the inter¬ 
 section of lines. The curve of the lower edge may be obtained by gaging. 
 
 Fig. 3, exhibits another method of describing a scroll of two revolutions, 
 the beginning and termination of which arc given.— a , represents the com¬ 
 mencement, and i, the termination. Divide i a into two equal parts at l; 
 subdivide i l into one more part than the number of revolutions required, in 
 this case into three parts. Make (he square in the centre equal to one of 
 those parts, and construct it like that at No. 4, which is drawn on a large 
 scale. Then on 1, in the square, and with the radius i a, draw the quad¬ 
 rant a b. On 2, and with the radius 2 b , describe b c ; on 3, with the 
 radius 3 c, describe c d ; on 4, describe d e; on 5, describe e f; on 6, 
 describe f g, on 7, describe g h; and on S, describe hi; which com¬ 
 pletes the outside line. That of the inside is drawn by the same centres. 
 
 It is evident by the dotted lines representing the straight part of the rail at 
 k l and m , that four scrolls of unequal sizes may be obtained by this example. 
 
 Fig. 4, exhibits an example of a newell, drawn on a large scale and fig¬ 
 ured in parts. Its size is supposed to be six inches at the base. Each part 
 would therefore be equal to one-half of an inch. "Where there is not a suf¬ 
 ficient space in the entry that can be conveniently spared, this newell will 
 be found a good substitute for the scroll. 
 
 Plate L. 
 
 To find all the moulds which are necessary for the completion of a stair 
 rail standing over a circular plan, as exhibited at Fig. 1, we proceed as 
 follows: 
 
/'/. . r >< 
 
STAIRS. 
 
 43 
 
 Make a b , No. 2, equal to the height of the winders. Draw a e and b /, 
 at right angles a b; make c a and b /, each equal to the developement 
 of e a, Fig. I; draw e x and d k , each equal to the height of one step, and 
 parallel to a b ; make x l and f d, each equal to the breadth of one step, 
 and join e Z, e f and / k. Make e t equal to e Z, and f s equal to f k. 
 Then form the curves, or easoffs, by the intersecting of lines, or by pro¬ 
 ducing lines at right angles from the rail, as represented by the dotted lines 
 u and v , until they meet, and their junction will be the centre for describing 
 the curve. The breadth of the falling mould is generally about two inches; 
 a line, therefore, about one inch above the one here described, and another 
 at the same distance below, will complete the falling mould. 
 
 Construction of the Face Mould , No. 3. 
 
 Let A D E F G H I, be the plan of the rail, and E F, G H, a portion 
 of the straight part; I, being the upper, F, the lower, and D, the middle 
 resting points. Make the stretchout of A D, equal to that of D F. In 
 the figure of the falling mould, produce the base a e, to f a e then being 
 equal to the developement of A E ; make a d equal to the developement of 
 A D, and e f equal to E F. Draw f l parallel to a 6, and cutting the 
 upper side of the falling mould at Z; parallel to f «, draw Z i, cutting a b 
 at i; in i Z, make i d equal to I D ; draw d m parallel to a b , cutting the 
 upper side of the falling mould at m ; draw m n parallel to f a, cutting 
 a b at n ; and d r parallel to a b , cutting m n at r. Join o r, and produce 
 it to meet i l at q; make I Q, equal to i q ; join F Q,, and produce F Q, 
 to K. Through G, draw K L, perpendicular to K Q,; through I, draw 
 I Z, parallel to K Q,, cutting K L at Z ; make Z Z, equal to a o, and 
 join K Z. Then produce K Z, to L, and draw A L L, parallel to Z Z. 
 
 To find the Face Mould. 
 
 Draw L A perpendicular to K L; make L A equal to L A, Z I equal 
 Z I, and join A I. Then A I, will form the part of the face mould repre- 
 
44 
 
 STAIRS. 
 
 scntcd by 1 A, on the plan. Draw K F perpendicular to K L, and make 
 K F equal to K F. Draw G G parallel to Z Z, cutting K L at G, and 
 join G F. Again draw II U parallel to Z Z, and cutting K L at U; 
 draw U II perpendicular to K L, and make U II equal to U H. Draw 
 II E parallel to G F, and F E parallel to G H 5 then E F G II, will 
 form the part of the face mould corresponding to the straight part E F G II 
 on the plan. The intermediate points of the face mould, which form curves 
 of the outside and inside of the rail, are thus found. Through any point 
 C, in the convex side of the plan, draw C Y, parallel to Z Z, cutting K L 
 at Y ; and in the concave side of the plan at T, draw Y C, perpendicular 
 to K L ; and Y C, make Y T equal to Y T, and Y C equal to Y C. 
 Then T, is a point in the concave side, and C, a point in the convex side 
 of the face mould. A sufficient number of points being thus found, the 
 curved parts of the face mould may he drawn by hand, or by a slip of 
 w ood bent to the curve. No. 5, exhibits a face mould for the upper half 
 of the rail, which is constructed in the same manner with the one just 
 described. 
 
 How to apply the Face Mould to the Flank. 
 
 Let a b i g f No. 4, he the figure of the face mould, placed in due posi¬ 
 tion to the pitch line K L, as when traced from the plan. X, represents 
 the upper side, Y, the edge, and Z, the under side of the plank, from w hich 
 the rail is to he taken. Draw' g L, perpendicular to the outside of the 
 plank. Make the angle g L K, on the edge of the plank, equal to the 
 angle K L L, No. 3; and the angle g L K, on the under side of the 
 plank, equal to the angle G Z I, No. 3. Make# L, equal to L K, and 
 draw- the chord g i, in the plane Z, parallel to the arris line 5 and then 
 apply the points g and i, of the face mould, to the line as exhibited in the 
 figure, and draw the form of the face mould. 
 
 Fig. 2, exhibits a section of a hand rail, drawn one-half of the full size. 
 On II, with the radius II A, describe the half circle C A D, and divide 
 
CHIMNEY PEICES 
 
 n. z/ 
 
 <r 
 
 
 I 
 
 G H'./SOVftff'n JY 
 
CHIMNEY-PIECES. 
 
 45 
 
 it into three equal parts. Draw B 1, and B 2 ; divide A B, into four 
 equal parts; draw 3 i, parallel to D C, and cutting B 2, at i; draw i l, 
 parallel to B I, and equal to one and one-half of the four divisions between 
 A and B; on i, with the radius i 2, describe 2 m; and on Z, with the 
 radius l m, describe m n, and draw n o. 
 
 CHIMNEY-PIECES. 
 
 Pl ATES LI. AND LII. 
 
 A fire-place is necessary in all apartments where artificial heat is re¬ 
 quired 5 but the size varies according to the quantity of heat required, and 
 the kind of fuel which is used. In a common sized room, of sixteen by 
 nineteen feet, which is to be heated with wood, the distance between the 
 jambs should be about three feet four inches, by two feet eight inches in 
 height; if heated by bituminious coal, the distance should be three feet two 
 inches, by two feet eight inches in height; and three feet by three feet, if 
 the room is heated with anthracite coal. As much less smoke is produced 
 by anthracite coal than by other kinds of fuel in common use, it will be 
 well to profit by that circumstance, in extending the height of the fire-place, 
 so that a greater portion of the heat may pass into the room. 
 
 The chimney-piece, or the finish about the fire-place, should be adapted 
 to the use and convenience, and be made to accord with the architectural 
 finish, of the apartment in which it is located. Care should be taken that 
 the pilasters do not project much in front of a line with the jambs, because 
 any considerable projection of this kind will obstruct the hot air in its 
 passage into the room. For this reason columns are objectionable. They 
 are also objectionable on other accounts. Two columns standing at a 
 
 distance of eight diameters from each other, cannot be considered beautiful 
 
 12 
 
46 
 
 CHIMNEY-PIECES. 
 
 or in good taste; particularly, when we consider that their diameter will 
 not exceed six inches, which renders all the mouldings small and indistinct, 
 and destroys the expression which the orders bear when executed on an 
 extended scale. They also diminish the breadth of the room, in that part 
 of it which is most useful; for, if a table be placed in the room, it occupies 
 the part before the fire, and so too, do those who are sitting by the fire. 
 Thus nothing is gained by the use of columns, while much is lost. In 
 forming pilasters for a chimney-piece, make that edge which joins the jamb, 
 project one and a quarter inches, and the other edges, six inches, by re¬ 
 ceding the breast of the chimney to a projection of ten inches from the 
 wall, instead of the usual projection of sixteen inches. By this expedient, 
 the shelf will be ten inches in width, four inches of which will project over 
 the frieze, and six, lay upon the projection of the fire-place. 
 
 It is common in this part of the country, for gentlemen who build houses 
 for their own occupation, to select such chimney-pieces as suit their own 
 fancy; and their choice often falls upon those which most abound in finery, 
 such as different colors of marble, the addition of a tablet to the frieze, and 
 a profusion of unmeaning mouldings on both tablet and frieze. 
 
 It should be recollected, that the largest piece of marble which can be 
 placed in a chimney-piece is of but small dimensions, and that, if of good 
 proportions and well wrought, it is beautiful in itself, and should be deco¬ 
 rated with a sparing hand. What is called decoration, ceases to be such 
 when misplaced. Decoration is subordinate in the composition, and 
 should be made for the place which it is to occupy, and not the place for 
 the decoration. 
 
 On Plates LI. and LII., are four designs for chimney-pieces, which 
 may be wrought in marble, wood, or any other material desired. If made 
 of wood, it will be well to paint them black, in imitation of marble of that 
 color. In this case, let the paint be properly rubbed down and nicely 
 varnished, and a good imitation will be produced. 
 
CHIMNEY PEICES 
 
 /V. LZZ. 
 
 
 
 
IVAl.mXY RAILINGS & WINDOW GUARDS . 
 
 /V. //// 
 


 I,AMI’S A I AMI’STAM )S 
 
 di-'lb 
 
 w 
 
 PJ. IV. 
 
CAST IRON.—VERANDAS. 
 
 47 
 
 CAST IRON. 
 
 Plates LIII., LIV., LV., LVI. 
 
 A few Plates may be usefully employed, we presume, upon this subject. 
 The fact, that cast iron is produced in most parts of this country, and 
 at a cost so low as to place it within the reach of all, the great amount of 
 its yearly consumption, and the facility with which it may be wrought into 
 the most beautiful shapes, render it an object worthy of attention here. 
 We have accordingly given examples of balconies, railings, window guard 
 irons, stair railings, lamps, and lamp stands, brackets, gates, verandas, and 
 many other examples, comprising the numerous and diversified figures 
 required in common practice. Pains have been taken to arrange and 
 classify the numerous figures into convenient groups, so that no section 
 shall exceed a proper size for one casting, and to join sections in such 
 places that their appearance or stability will not be injured. 
 
 VERANDAS. 
 
 Plate LV. 
 
 This Plate contains two designs for verandas, drawn on a scale of 
 one-fourth of an inch to a foot. They may be made either of cast, or 
 malleable iron. 
 
48 
 
 VASES.—CHURCHES. 
 
 VASES. 
 
 Plate LVII. 
 
 On this Plate are five different designs for vases, the details of which 
 have been carefully selected from the best antique examples, making such 
 deviations in their form and arrangement, as was supposed would best 
 adapt them to the practice of the day. It is believed that their forms 
 possess a simple elegance, which they will retain, though their ornaments, 
 from motives of economy or taste, should be omitted. The height and 
 projection of the different members are figured parts. 
 
 When used for the termination of pedestals and the like, their large 
 diameter should not exceed that of the die of the pedestal, nor be less than 
 three-fourths of it. 
 
 CHURCHES. 
 
 Pi .ates LVIII., LIX. 
 
 On these Plates are exhibited plans and elevations of a church, which 
 measures fifty-four feet in front, and eighty-four feet in flank. It contains, 
 on the first and gallery floors, one hundred and sixteen pews, in which 
 about eight hundred persons may be comfortably seated. Should it be 
 desirable to reduce to fifty feet, this may be done without making the 
 symmetry of the building, by shortening each pew one foot. Tho upper 
 and lower tiers of windows arc inclosed by the same architraves, leaving 
 the space which separates the lower from the upper tier, recessed back six 
 inches from the face of the architrave. By this expedient, the awkward 
 
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 plan fora cm: nrii. fj.iv/// 
 
 Gallerv'. 
 
 Principal Floor. 
 
 
 
 
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 PJ.Z/X. 
 
 6 Wltayntvn J\ • 
 
PULPIT . 
 
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PEWS. 
 
 49 
 
 dueed by the gallery passing across the centre of the windows, is avoided, 
 while the correct proportion of their external appearance is preserved. The 
 expression produced by the simple massive forms composing these elevations 
 will be in accordance with those devotional feelings, which will naturally arise, 
 in a building devoted to the worship of the Supreme Being. It is intended 
 that the interior finish of the building should accord with the exterior. The 
 ceiling may be gently curved upwards, and divided into deep sunken panels. 
 The ceiling under the galleries must be ten feet high from the floor at the 
 front, and incline upwards toward the wall, so as to leave a sufficient space 
 for the architrave to pass over the windows. That part of the front of the 
 galleries, which is between the columns, may be trussed with iron trusses, in 
 the same manner as is shown on Plate LXV. On Plate LX., are a plan and 
 elevation of a pulpit suitable for this building. 
 
 PEWS, & c. 
 
 Plate LXI. 
 
 Figs. 1, 2, and 3, are three examples of block ornaments, intended to be 
 placed where the architraves abutt, at the angles of the doors and windows. 
 The centres of the elevations of each are respectively decorated with a 
 honey-suckle, and a sculptured and a turned rosette. No. 4, represents a 
 section of the latter block and turned rosette, drawn at full size. No. 7, 
 represents an end elevation of two pews, showing the paneling and capping 
 on the doors and piers. The dotted lines show the places, on the opposite 
 side of this elevation, w'here the risers, the seats, and the partition between 
 the pews are situated. This elevation is drawn on a scale of one inch to a 
 foot. No. 5, shows a section of the capping on the doors; No. 6, the 
 capping on the partition between the pews, drawn full size for practice. 
 
 13 
 
50 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CARPENTRY. 
 
 Plate LXII. 
 
 By the theory of carpentry, the artisan is taught the nature, quality, strength, 
 and stiffness of those materials, which he is obliged to use in the course of his 
 occupation, also the numerous and complicated strains, to which they are 
 exposed, and the remedies, by which these strains can be effectually overcome. 
 
 It is therefore of great importance to the practical carpenter, that he acquire 
 a sufficient knowledge of this science, to enable him to give the due propor¬ 
 tions of the various pieces of timber and other materials which compose the 
 roofs and other parts of buildings. This information is furnished by the 
 results of various experiments, made for the purpose of ascertaining the 
 different strains which different sizes of those materials can bear, by several 
 scientific gentlemen of Europe. Of course, these experiments were made 
 on European timber. We therefore must make proper allowances for the 
 difference of timber. Different individuals have arrived at different results 
 in their experiments. We cannot, therefore, put implicit confidence in any 
 of them ; but taking them collectively, and making proper allowances for 
 difference in timber, we may assist our judgment and obtain correct views on 
 the subject. 
 
 The principal strains to which timbers and other materials are exposed, 
 are the following: 
 
 First, that strain by which a beam is drawn in the direction of its length. 
 The strength by which the beam resists this strain, is called its cohesion. 
 The experiment, by which the cohesive power of a beam or stick of known** 
 dimensions is ascertained, is easily performed in the following manner. The 
 stick is suspended vertically bv one extremity, and to the lower extremity are 
 attached weights, which, being increased until the stick breaks, thus determine 
 its cohesive power. To this strain, king posts, tie beams, &.c. are liable. 
 
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF CARPENTRY. 
 
 51 
 
 The second strain, is when the load tends to compress the beam in the direc¬ 
 tion of its length. To this strain, truss beams, pillars, struts, &c. are exposed. 
 
 The third strain, is when the load tends to break the beam across. This 
 is called a cross or transverse strain. To this strain all kinds of bearing 
 timbers are liable. 
 
 The following list, which gives the cohesive strength of several beams and 
 bars, an inch square, is taken from one made by Mr. Emerson. The rod of 
 cast iron is taken from the experiments of Rennie. The amount placed 
 opposite each kind, expresses its cohesive strength, or the weight which will 
 be required to break it, when drawn in the direction of its length. 
 
 Iron Rod, an inch square, will bear, . 
 
 . . 76,400 pounds. 
 
 Cast Iron, “ “ 
 
 . 18,656 
 
 Brass, “ “ 
 
 . 35,600 
 
 Hempen Rope, “ “ 
 
 . 19,600 
 
 Ivory, “ " 
 
 15,700 “ 
 
 Oak, Box and Plum-tree, “ 
 
 7,850 
 
 Elm, Ash and Beech, “ 
 
 6,070 
 
 Walnut and Plum, “ 
 
 5,360 
 
 Red Fir, Holley and Crab, “ 
 
 5,000 
 
 Cherry and Hazel, “ . 
 
 4,760 “ 
 
 Alder, Asp, Birch and Willow, “ 
 
 4,290 
 
 Lead, “ 
 
 430 
 
 It is also given as a practical rule by Mr. Emerson, that a cylinder whose 
 
 diameter is six inches, will carry, when loaded 
 
 to one-fourth of its absolute 
 
 strength, as follows. Iron, 135 cwt.; Good Rope, 22 cwt. ; Oak, 14 cwt.; 
 
 Fir, 9 cwt. 
 
 By these experiments we see what an immense load a rod of one inch 
 square is capable of suspending. And we likewise see that this strain is not 
 likely to be overrated in practice. 
 
 Suppose it required to know the weight that an oak joist, of three by four 
 inches, will sustain. Multiply the depth by the breadth of the joist in inches ; 
 
52 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE 
 
 and that product, which is twelve, Ivy the number of pounds set against oak 
 in the table, 7,850. The product, 94,200 pounds, is the answer. 
 
 We now come to the second strain, that of compression in the direction of 
 the length. But few experiments on this strain have been made, and the 
 results of those few do not agree. It is maintained by some writers that the 
 resistance to compression is about equal to that of extension; but the ex¬ 
 periments of Du Hamel on cross strain, seem to prove that the resistance to 
 compression is not more than two-thirds of that to extension. It is however 
 fortunate for the practical workman, that this strain is not often overrated ; 
 for it rarely happens in practice that a body employed to sustain a heavy load 
 is found insufficient for that purpose. 
 
 According to Mr. Rondelet’s experiments on cubic inches of oak, it required 
 from 5,000 to 6,000 pounds to crush a piece of that size ; and under this 
 pressure its length was reduced more than one-third. 
 
 Mr. Rennie’s experiments produced results considerably lower. A cubic 
 inch of elm was crushed by 1,284 pounds; American pine, by 1,606 pounds; 
 and English oak, by 3,860 pounds. 
 
 We now come to the cross strain, to which all bearing beams, joists, &c. 
 are liable. The resistance to this strain is much less than that of either of 
 the others. 
 
 A Table of the Cross or Transverse Strain of different kinds of 1 Vood, each Piece being one 
 foot long, one inch broad, and one inch deep. 
 
 Oak, ....... 
 
 660 pounds. 
 
 Ash, ....... 
 
 635 
 
 Beech, ...... 
 
 677 
 
 Elm, ....... 
 
 540 
 
 Walnut, green, ..... 
 
 487 
 
 Spruce, American, .... 
 
 570 “ 
 
 Hard Pine, do. .... 
 
 658 “ 
 
 Birch,. 
 
 517 “ 
 
 Poplar, Lombard, .... 
 
 327 " 
 
 Chestnut, ...... 
 
 450 
 
OF CARPENTRY. 
 
 53 
 
 The above table is selected from Tredgold’s Carpentry. It expresses the 
 breaking weight of each piece. It will not, therefore, be proper to per¬ 
 manently load either of the pieces with more than one-half of the breaking 
 weight. The effect of this strain produces, on the upper part of the beam, 
 a compression in the direction of its length ; and on the under part, an 
 extension in the direction of its length. To illustrate this subject more 
 fully, I will here introduce some of Du Hamel’s experiments on the stiffness 
 of beams, the results of which ought to be well understood. 
 
 Du Hamel took six bars of willow, three feet long and one and one-half 
 inches square. After suitable experiments, he found that they were broken by 
 525 pounds, on an average. Six bars were next cut through with a saw, one- 
 third of the depth from the upper surface, and each cut was filled with a 
 wedge of dry oak, inserted with a little force. These were broken by 551 
 pounds, on an average. Six other bars were broken through by 542 pounds, 
 on an average, after being cut half through and filled up in a similar manner. 
 Six other bars were cut three-fourths through, and broken by the pressure of 
 530 pounds, on an average. A baton was then cut three-fourths through, and 
 loaded until nearly broken. It was then unloaded, and a thicker wedge was 
 introduced tightly into the cut, so as to straighten the bar by filling up the 
 space left by the compression of the wood. In this state the bar was broken 
 by 577 pounds. 
 
 From these experiments, we perceive that more than two-thirds of the 
 thickness of a beam contributes nothing to its strength. And here we also 
 see, that the compressibility of this kind of strain appears much greater than 
 its dilatability, which circumstance greatly increases its power of withstanding 
 a transverse strain. 
 
 We see likewise that gains may be cut from the upper surface of a beam 
 ’downwards, to one-third or one-half of the depth, and joists inserted tightly 
 therein, without reducing the strength of the beam. Observe, however, that 
 the size of the joists is not reduced by shrinkage. It is worthy of remark, 
 that in all the experiments made for ascertaining the resistance to pressure, 
 
 14 
 
54 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE 
 
 the strength of the beam is found to be as the breadth and square of the 
 depth directly, and inversely as the length. The strength of a beam therefore 
 depends chiefly on its depth, or rather on that dimension which is in the 
 direction of the strain. If a beam two inches deep and one broad, support a 
 given weight, another beam of the same depth and double the breadth will 
 support double the weight. But if a beam two inches deep and one inch 
 broad, support a given weight, another of four inches deep and one inch broad 
 will support four times the weight. Hence, beams of equal breadths are to 
 each other as the square of their depths. Again, if a beam of a given cross 
 section and one foot long support a known weight, another beam of the same 
 cross section but two feet long will support only half the known weight. 
 
 Buffon’s experiments, which were made on large scantlings, and were 
 therefore free from those irregularities unavoidable on small specimens, would 
 seem to show that the strength diminishes in a ratio greater than the inverse 
 proportion of the length. Both reason and experience seem to confirm the 
 truth of these experiments. 
 
 A simple arithmetical rule, derived from these experiments, is therefore 
 given, by which the breaking weight of any scantling, the breadth, depth and 
 length being given, may be known. Divide the breaking weight by the 
 length in feet; subtract 10 from the quotient; multiply the remainder by the 
 breadth, and that product by the square of the depth, both expressed in 
 inches. The result is the greatest load in pounds. 
 
 For example. Required the resistance of a spruce joist, 17 feet long, 12 
 inches in depth, and 2 inches in breadth. The breaking weight placed against 
 spruce in the above list is 570. Divide 570 by 17, the length in feet, and you 
 have 33 for the quotient, nearly. Subtract 10 from 33, and the remainder is 23. 
 This remainder being multiplied by 2, the breadth in inches, the product is 46. 
 Multiply this product by 144, the square of the depth in inches, (the square 
 of any number being obtained by multiplying it by itself,) and you have 6,624 
 for the answer. I have left out the fractions in the above operation, knowing 
 that any deviation which makes the result smaller, is on the safe side. 
 
 Ans. 6,624. 
 
OF CARPENTRY. 
 
 55 
 
 Required the resistance of a hard pine beam, 20 feet long, 12 inches in 
 depth, and 10 inches in breadth. Ans. 31,680. 
 
 We must recollect, that all the experiments, from which the above results 
 are obtained, were made on wood of the most perfect kind, free from knots, 
 shakes, spots, or rot, and not cross-grained, &c. Every practical workman 
 knows, that in roofs, floors, or any other piece of framing of any considerable 
 magnitude, such perfection in timber cannot be expected. It will be wise in 
 him, therefore, to make all due allowance for imperfections in timber. 
 
 If a floor of a dwelling-house be loaded with people, to which it is always 
 liable, the load is then equal to one hundred and twenty pounds on each 
 square foot; we therefore see that the floor of a room of twenty by seventeen 
 feet, must be capable of resisting a pressure of 40,800 pounds. 
 
 The bearing weight of one of these joists (supposing them to be of spruce) 
 is obtained as follows. The breaking weight of spruce is 570. Divide 570 
 by the length of the joist, which is 17 feet, and you obtain 33 feet, nearly, 
 (for I leave out the decimals.) Deduct 10 from 33, and the remainder is 23. 
 Multiply 23 by 2, the breadth of the joist, and you obtain 46. Multiply 46 
 by the square of the depth of the joist, which is 144, and you obtain 6,624, 
 which is the breaking weight; and the breaking weight of the 20 joists, 
 collectively, which are in the floor (I call each of the trimmers equal to two 
 common joists) is 132,480 pounds. And they contain 680 feet of timber, 
 board measure. 
 
 We will now see, in the same manner, what the resistance to pressure is, 
 of a floor framed in the common way, with a beam lying longitudinally 
 through the centre of the room, twelve inches square, and filled up on each 
 side with joists four by four inches. The breaking weight of the beam, if 
 of spruce, is 31,104 pounds. In this calculation, I do not allow any diminu¬ 
 tion in the strength of the beam, on account of the gains cut into it, because 
 if the joists are tightly pressed into the gains and prevented from shrinking, 
 the beam will not be weakened. 31,104 pounds is one-half of the ultimate 
 strength of the floor. Double this sum, and you have 62,208 for the ultimate 
 
THEORY AND PRACTICE 
 
 56 
 
 strength of the whole floor. It requires 602 feet of timber, board measure, to 
 complete this floor. By this calculation, we see, that with the same quantity 
 of timber in the wide joist floor, we have more than double the strength that 
 is obtained by a beam and joist floor. 
 
 If a church be made of wood, and without a gallery, it is common to frame 
 the sides with a girt, placed about midway between the plate and the sill. 
 The posts and girts in this case cannot be less than ten inches, and the studs 
 four by four inches. Let us suppose a building, fifty feet long and twenty- 
 five high, to be framed in this way. The mortice made in the middle of the 
 post cannot be less than two inches, and the pin-holes, which pass through 
 the tenon of each girt, than two inches more. The tenon and pin-holes 
 reduce the solid part of the post to eight inches, and even less ; for, in taking 
 the square of the depth, it must be taken in two parts ; first, from the face 
 of the post to the mortice, two inches, the square of which is four, and the 
 remaining part of the post beyond the mortice is six inches, the square of 
 which is thirty-six, which with the four added makes forty; whereas the 
 square of eight is sixty-four. 
 
 If these posts be of spruce, the bearing weight of each will be 3,840, and 
 collectively 15,360. Double this sum, and we have 30,720 pounds, which 
 is the ultimate resistance to any strain to which the whole side of the house 
 is liable. The greatest force produced by the wind on a vertical wall is equal 
 to forty pounds on a square foot. It will therefore be unsafe not to afford a 
 resistance fully adequate to overcome that strain. The posts, girts and studs, 
 will contain 2,083 feet, board measure. We will now suppose this facade to 
 be framed with spruce studs, twenty-five feet long, two inches thick, and 
 eight inches deep. The breaking weight of one is 1,944, and of thirty- 
 seven, the number required to complete the side, 71,928 pounds, which is the 
 ultimate strength of the whole side; and they contain altogether 1,354 feet, 
 board measure. 
 
 These principles may, with great advantage, be applied to all framed 
 houses, whether large or small. 
 
OF CARPENTRY. 
 
 57 
 
 Suppose it be required to execute the frame of a common sized house, 
 two stories in height, the studs ten feet long, the sills, plates and posts, 
 each seven inches square, and the girt seven inches thick and twelve inches 
 wide, which width seems to be required on account of the floor being of 
 the same depth. We will now suppose the studs to be two inches thick 
 and seven wide, instead of four by four inches, the common size. It is 
 manifest that studs are not liable to any strain, in the direction parallel to 
 the side of the building on which they are situated. Two inches is there¬ 
 fore quite a sufficient thickness, in this respect; and so in any other 
 thickness, which is capable of receiving and retaining the nails, by which 
 the outside covering is fastened to the studs. When the studs are short 
 and the building small, the thickness may be reduced one and a half 
 inches; but in this case, care should be used in driving the nails into the 
 studs; for, if they be driven in a straight line, the stud will be liable to 
 crack, and weaken the hold of the nails. The breadth of the stud being 
 the same as that of the girts and plates, the two latter rest firmly on the 
 heads of the studs, and are thus prevented from canting or settling; but if 
 the studs were of the usual size, say four by four inches, the girt would 
 project three inches over them, and this being in the place where the joists 
 are tenoned into the floor, the whole weight of the floor would of course be 
 thrown upon this unsupported part of the girt, and a settlement inevitably 
 caused on that edge. A stud two inches thick, seven inches wide, and ten 
 feet long, will resist a pressure of four thousand and eight pounds, making a 
 difference of more than one-third in favor of the two by seven inch studs. 
 
 If one and a half inches should be thought a sufficient thickness to retain 
 the nails of the outside covering, it would resist a pressure of three thousand, 
 four hundred and fifty-two pounds. The width of the studs may be 
 reduced, and still be amply strong; for, since the greatest pressure on the 
 vertical side of a wall is forty pounds to each cubic foot, studs ten feet 
 long, placed eighteen inches from each other, would sustain a pressure of 
 six hundred pounds. 
 
 As the girts are not liable to any other strain than that caused by 
 
 15 
 
5S 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE 
 
 the pressure of the floor downwards, and by the wind without, which is 
 abundantly resisted by the floor, they may be reduced to six inches. If the 
 stud is made one and a half by six inches, it will sustain a pressure of two 
 thousand, five hundred and thirty-eight pounds. 
 
 I now leave this subject, trusting that enough has been shown respecting 
 these calculations, to convince every one of the great advantage to be 
 derived by putting them into practice. 
 
 Plate LX1I. 
 
 Fig. 1, exhibits an example of a truss simply constructed for a roof of 
 thirty feet span. I shall describe the different strains to which this truss is 
 liable, and the best means of resisting them. 
 
 If a load be laid on the rafters of this truss, it is evident that the down¬ 
 ward pressure will cause the heads of the rafters to press hard against the 
 king post, and the lower ends to press equally hard against the abutment at 
 each end of the tie beam. Therafters are thus strained by a compression 
 in the direction of their length; and if no other strain were to be resisted, 
 a stick of timber of small dimensions would be sufficient. But it is evident 
 that a cross strain is also to be provided for. The latter strain must be 
 resisted by struts, and by making the rafter of a size equal to the resistance 
 of that strain. The pressure of the rafters against the abutment, at each 
 end of the tie beam, causes that beam to be strained by an extension in the 
 direction of its length; and, moreover, the load laid upon this beam, and 
 the weight of the ceiling which is suspended from the under surface, pro¬ 
 duce a cross strain, which must he resisted by suspending this beam by the 
 king post, and by making it, as in the case of the rafters, of sufficient size 
 to resist the pressure. 
 
 The strain on the king post is an extension in the direction of its length. 
 A small piece of timber is therefore adequate to resist that strain; for vve 
 have seen that an oak joist of three by four inches is capable of suspending 
 94,200 pounds. The pressure of the rafters against the head of the post 
 
CARPENTRY 
 
 // Y..W 
 
 /r Tf 'Boynton ■>>' 
 
OF CARPENTRY. 
 
 59 
 
 being very great, they will be apt to indent themselves into it, and cause a 
 small settlement of the roof, unless the post be made of hard wood. But 
 let it be observed, moreover, that this part of the king post should be made 
 as small as the strain on it will admit; otherwise the shrinkage of the post 
 will produce the same effect as the indentation of the rafters. The strain 
 on the strut is wholly that of a compression in the direction of its length, 
 which a small piece of timber will be able to resist. 
 
 No. 1, represents the heads of the king post and rafters, and their con¬ 
 nection with each other. The dotted lines show the tenon, which should 
 be just long enough to steady the heads of the rafters. No. 2, shows the 
 foot of the king post and struts, also a side elevation of the tie beam, and 
 the bolt which connects the tie beam of the king post. No. 3, shows the 
 end of the tie beam, and the method of its connection with the foot of the 
 rafters, also a section of the plate framed into the tie beam. 
 
 It is to be remembered, that all bearing joints must be made at right 
 angles with the strain, or in other words, with the upper side of the rafters. 
 
 Fig. 2 , is an example of a section of a roof, with iron queen posts, placed 
 at such a distance from each other, as to render the space between them 
 useful for lodging rooms, or such ot her purposes as may be desirable. By 
 using that material for the queen post, instead of wood, the shrinkage of 
 the head of the post, and the indentation of the rafters in the same are 
 avoided. The additional expense cannot be an objection to substituting 
 iron for wood, as it will not in any important roof be at all proportional to 
 the advantage to be gained. 
 
 Fig. 4, shows the junction and connection of the head of the rafter with 
 the end of the straining beam, and also a section of the purloin, which is 
 notched down upon the straining beam, as shown by the dotted lines. It 
 shows also the head of the iron queen post, the dotted lines representing 
 one branch of it passing through the rafter, and the other branch passing 
 through the end of the straining beam. Fig. 5, shows the method of con¬ 
 necting the strut to the rafter, and the manner of notching the rafter to 
 receive the purloin. 
 
GO 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE 
 
 The above details are figured in inches, and are drawn on a scale of one 
 inch to a foot. 
 
 Plate LXIII. 
 
 This Plate exhibits an example of a roof, whose tie beam is forty-four 
 feet in bearing. The queen posts are proposed to be made of wood, their 
 smallest dimensions being six inches in front, and eight in flank. This 
 size is sufficient to resist the greatest strain that can ever be thrown upon 
 them, though they be made of soft pine. If made of hard pine, or any other 
 wood equally hard and strong, their size may be reduced to five inches in 
 front, with the same measure in flank. It will be wise to reduce the heads 
 of these posts to the smallest dimensions which the strain to which they are 
 exposed will admit, in order to render the shrinkage as small as possible. 
 
 No. 1, shows the connection of the tie beam, the principal and small 
 rafters, and the iron strap at the foot of the principal rafter. No. 2, shows 
 a section of the purloin, and the manner of notching it to the principal 
 rafter, and the notching the small rafter to the purloin, also the connection 
 of the strut with the principal rafter. No. 3, exhibits the head of the queen 
 post and the principal rafter, showing also the end of the straining beam 
 and a section of the purloin, with the small rafter notched upon it. No. 4, 
 shows the tie beam, the foot of the king post and strut, and the method of 
 their connection with each other. All these details are correctly drawn on 
 a scale of one-half inch to a foot, and figured in inches. Fig. 2, exhibits a 
 section of a roof, in which the trusses, for the support of the small rafters, 
 are placed at right angles with the pitch. ]?y this method of framing, a 
 larger space under the rafters is rendered useful, and the roof is constructed 
 with more economy, while it is equally safe, when the trusses do not 
 exceed thirty feet bearing. I have extended the trusses to fifty feet with 
 perfect safety ; but in this case they were made deeper, and four struts 
 were used instead of two.—a, and a, show the sections of the lower truss 
 beams, each of which forms a timber in floors. No. 7, shows the method 
 
('AKl’KXTHY 
 
 /'/ AX777 
 
 6n'/tContort 
 
 J'c 
 
OP CARPENTRY. 
 
 61 
 
 of connecting the end of the beam with that of the strut; and No. 8, the 
 upper end of the strut, with the upper truss beam. No. 9, shows a section 
 of the upper truss beam, and its connection with the rafter. 
 
 Nos. 10, and 11, on Plate LXV., show elevations of the trusses, when 
 complete, and may with propriety be called trussed purloins. Fig. 1 
 exhibits a simple method of framing floors. This is supposed to be the 
 floor of one of two parlors, which are connected by sliding doors, and are 
 seventeen feet in width, and twenty feet in length. The timber a, is sup¬ 
 posed to be under the sliding doors; and b b, represent two courses of 
 stiffeners, which must be fitted in with some force, taking care that those 
 adjoining the wall are not forced so as to press the wall out its place. No. 
 2, shows a side view of a joist or beam, and the manner of proportioning 
 and forming the tenon. It is often necessary to floor over the apartments, 
 whose great extent renders the common flooring insufficient. I have there¬ 
 fore given here an example of a floor, the joists of which are thirty feet 
 bearing. This is fully adequate to sustain any pressure to which it may 
 be liable, and by increasing the means here shown, it may be extended to 
 forty feet bearing, with perfect safety. Fig. 3, exhibits a plan for this 
 floor, showing four joists, two inches thick, and thirteen inches deep .—a «, 
 and a a, near each end of the joists, show two iron bars, two and a half 
 inches wide, and three-fourths of an inch thick, let down into the joists, the 
 iron trusses passing through them midway between each two of the joists. 
 These trusses are three-fourths of an inch square, and pass under the two 
 ties b b , and b 6, and are strained up by turning a nut at each end. The 
 ties, b b and b b , must be sufficiently thick to be notched up on each side 
 of the joists, so as to prevent them from vibrating when the truss is strained 
 up; and it will also be necessary to put on stiffeners at /, /, f, and /, for 
 the same purpose. No. 4, exhibits a side view of a joist, with a side view 
 of the truss which passes under the ties at c, and c, and also the manner of 
 cutting in the iron bars, near the ends of the joists, at a a , and a a. No. 
 5, shows the screw and nut at the end of the truss, on a large scale. 
 
 If this floor is used for common purposes, not more than one-third, or, 
 
 16 
 
62 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 at most, one-half of the trusses here shown, will he required to render it 
 sufficiently strong; for we must consider, that the strain on the truss is 
 an extension in the direction of its length, and therefore it is capable of 
 sustaining an immense weight. One course of floor boards, directly over 
 the ends of trusses, had best he put down with wood screws, in order that 
 it may be easily removed, if it should be rendered necessary by an exten¬ 
 sion of the trusses ; in which case, the floor may be raised by turning the 
 nuts at each end of the trusses. 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 Plate LXIV. 
 
 This Plate exhibits an example of a roof, with inclined tie beams, so 
 arranged, as to admit an arched ceiling to rise up within it. Though this 
 kind of roof is frequently employed, when necessity or economy make it 
 desirable to extend the ceiling up into the roof, yet it will be wise to avoid 
 its use, whenever this can be conveniently done, since its form is such as 
 to throw a great strain upon the tie beams and king posts, thus requiring 
 these timbers to be very much increased in size, over those of the common 
 roof, which causes a greater proportion of shrinkage and indentation of the 
 timbers, where they are connected, and of course a great and sometimes 
 fearful settling of the roof. 
 
 Fig. 1, shows an elevation of one pair of rafters, and the manner of 
 forming and securing the iron truss around the ends of the tic beams, 
 passing under the iron plates at e c, and extending up and passing over at 
 the head of the king post at d. It shows also the iron strap, connected at 
 the centre by screws, which secures the tie beams, at their junction, from 
 sliding or settling. No. 2, exhibits the method of connecting the foot of 
 
CARm'TUY 
 
 /y /.///// 
 
p°n 
 

CARPENTRY. 
 
 63 
 
 the tie beam with that of the rafter; b , represents the iron truss passing 
 around the foot of the rafter; the dotted line at a, shows the length of the 
 tenon, and at c, the bolt by which the beam and rafter are confined to each 
 other. No. 3, exhibits the upper surface of the beam, fitted to receive the 
 rafter. No. 4, shows the connection of the head of the rafters with that of 
 the king post. The rafters are intended to be butted together, for the 
 purpose of preventing shrinkage. No. 5, shows the tie beams at their 
 junction, and the manner of fitting the iron strap to them, (see its plan at 
 No. 9,) which will, if proper attention is given, in setting up the screws, 
 prevent them from settling at that place. No. 6, gives a side view of the 
 head of the king post, and a a , sections of the iron truss passing over it. 
 No. 7, gives a side view of the foot of the king post, passing under the tie 
 beams, and b 6, the ends of the iron strap, the same as a a , in No. 5. No. 
 8, exhibits the method of forming a wrench, by which the iron truss may 
 be strained up, if required, either by shrinkage, or by the extension of 
 the truss. 
 
 It should be remembered, that the strain on this roof is very great. It is 
 therefore necessary that the materials, of which it is constructed, and the 
 labor bestowed upon it, should be of the most perfect kind. The joints 
 should fit perfectly in every part. The iron should be of the best quality 
 and workmanship, and care should be taken that the threads of the screws 
 are sufficiently large, and the nuts, which encircle them, of a proper size, 
 not less in thickness than the diameter of the body of the screws. Let the 
 bands, which inclose the timbers, be made somewhat thicker, at their 
 angles, than in other parts. And lastly, if shrinkage or indentation of any 
 of the joints of the timbers, or an extension in the length of any part of the 
 iron work, should be discovered, let them be immediately set up by the 
 screws provided for the purpose. If these precautions be strictly observed, 
 
 I have no doubt that a roof, made in imitation of this example, will stand 
 as perfectly, and with as little settling, as those formed with a horizontal 
 beam. 
 
 Fig. 2, is an example of a roof remarkable for its antiquity, simplicity 
 
64 
 
 CARPENTRY. 
 
 and strength. It has been so often constructed, that it needs no explana¬ 
 tion here. Fig. 3, exhibits a good method of scarfing timbers. It is shown 
 sufficiently plain upon the Plate, without further explanation. 
 
 Plate LXVI. 
 
 Fig. 1, shows a method of trussing a partition between rooms, in which 
 two doors are placed. If the lloor below the partition should require 
 support, it may be suspended by iron rods passing up through the beam at 
 the head of the trusses. It is frequently desirable and sometimes neces¬ 
 sary, to construct fire-proof rooms, where it is not convenient to spare the 
 room, or incur the expense, of vaulting in the ordinary way. I have there¬ 
 fore extracted from Trcdgold’s excellent treatise on the strength of cast 
 iron and other metals, a table furnishing the various forms and sizes of cast 
 iron joists, from eight to twenty-four feet in length, and the manner of 
 turning brick arches between them, so as to make the floor fire-proof. 
 This kind of floor will not occupy more space than is required for a floor of 
 wood, and can be constructed at a much less expense, than the vaulted 
 floor. I have also taken from the same author, portions of other tables, 
 giving the dimensions of various cast iron beams and columns, and the 
 weight which they will respectively bear. 
 
 TABLE OF CAST IRON JOISTS, for fire-proof floors, where the load is not greater than 
 one hundred and twenty pounds to a superficial foot. 
 
 Length of 
 joists. 
 
 Half brick arches, 
 breadth of beams two inches. 
 
 Nine inch arches, 
 breadth of beams three inches. 
 
 Three feet span. 
 
 Four feet span. 
 
 Five feet span. 
 
 Six feet span. 
 
 Seven feet span. 
 
 Eight feet span. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Depth in inches 
 
 Depth in inches. 
 
 Depth in inches. 
 
 Depth in inches. 
 
 Depth in inches. 
 
 Depth in inches. 
 
 8 
 
 4} 
 
 H 
 
 5* 
 
 
 5* 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 5* 
 
 6* 
 
 7 
 
 6* 
 
 7* 
 
 7* 
 
 12 
 
 6* 
 
 7 * 
 
 H 
 
 7* 
 
 8* 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 7 * 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 n 
 
 10 
 
 10* 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 U* 
 
 12* 
 
 ii* 
 
 13 
 
 13* 
 
 20 
 
 ni 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 14* 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 12* 
 
 14* 
 
 15* 
 
 4* 
 
 15* 
 
 16* 
 
 24 
 
 13* 
 
 15* 
 
 17 
 
 15* 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 Fit/. J 
 
STRENGTH OF CAST IRON BEAMS. 
 
 65 
 
 For half brick arches, the breadth of the beam No. 1, Plate LXVI., 
 should be two inches, and the thickness of the middle, eight-tenths of an 
 inch. The depth a a 1, and b 7, should be each one-seventh of the whole 
 depth, which is given in the table, in inches, for each span. 
 
 For nine inch arches, the breadth of the beam No. 2, is three inches, 
 and the breadth of the middle part, one and two-tenths inches, and the 
 depth one-seventh, as in the other case. A beam whose upper surface is 
 bounded by a semi-ellipsis, as shown by the dotted lines on Figs. 3 and 4, 
 is equally strong with one which has a straight line for the upper surface. 
 It is evident therefore, that a considerable saving in the expense of beams 
 may be made by forming them in imitation of Figs. 3 or 4. 
 
 A TABLE, showing the weight or pressure a Beam of Cast Iron, one inch in breadth, will 
 sustain, without destroying its elastic force, when it is supported at the ends, and loaded in 
 the middle of Us length. 
 
 Lengths 
 
 
 2 feet. 
 
 3 feet. 
 
 4 feet. 
 
 5 feet. 
 
 6 feet. 
 
 7 feet. 
 
 8 feet. 
 
 9 feet. 
 
 10 feet. 
 
 Depths. 
 
 Weight in 
 
 Weight in 
 
 Weight in 
 
 Weight in 
 
 Weight in 
 
 Weight in 
 
 Weight in 
 
 Weight in! Weight in 
 
 Weight in 
 
 Inches. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1 
 
 850 
 
 425 
 
 283 
 
 212 
 
 170 
 
 142 
 
 121 
 
 106 
 
 95 
 
 85 
 
 H 
 
 1,912 
 
 956 
 
 637 
 
 477 
 
 383 
 
 320 
 
 273 
 
 239 
 
 214 
 
 192 
 
 2 
 
 
 1,700 
 
 1,132 
 
 848 
 
 680 
 
 568 
 
 484 
 
 425 
 
 380 
 
 340 
 
 n 
 
 
 2,656 
 
 1,769 
 
 1,325 
 
 1,062 
 
 887 
 
 756 
 
 662 
 
 594 
 
 531 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 2,547 
 
 1,908 
 
 1,530 
 
 1,278 
 
 1,089 
 
 954 
 
 855 
 
 765 
 
 
 
 
 3,467 
 
 2,597 
 
 2,082 
 
 1,739 
 
 1,482 
 
 1,298 
 
 1,164 
 
 1,041 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 3,392 
 
 2,720 
 
 2,272 
 
 1,936 
 
 1,700 
 
 1,520 
 
 1,360 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,293 
 
 3,442 
 
 2,875 
 
 2,450 
 
 2,146 
 
 1,924 
 
 1,721 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,250 
 
 3,560 
 
 3,050 
 
 2,650 
 
 2,375 
 
 2,125 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,120 
 
 5,112 
 
 4,356 
 
 3,816 
 
 3,420 
 
 3,060 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6,958 
 
 5,929 
 
 5,194 
 
 4,655 
 
 4,165 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9,088 
 
 7,744 
 
 6,784 
 
 6,080 
 
 5,440 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9,801 
 
 8,586 
 
 7,695 
 
 6,885 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12,100 
 
 10,600 
 
 9,500 
 
 8,500 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12,826 
 
 11,495 
 
 10,285 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15,264 
 
 13,680 
 
 12,240 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16,100 
 
 14,400 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18,600 
 
 16,700 
 
 17 
 
66 
 
 STRENGTH OF CAST IRON BEAMS 
 
 TABLE —Of the strength of Cast Iron Beams, continued. 
 
 | Lengths.. 12 feet. 
 
 14 feet. 
 
 16 feet. 
 
 18 feet. 
 
 20 feet. 
 
 22 feet. 
 
 24 feet. 
 
 26 feet. 
 
 28 feet. 
 
 30 feet. 
 
 Depths. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Weight in 
 lbs. 
 
 Weight in 
 lbs. 
 
 Weight in 
 lbs. 
 
 Weight in 
 lbs. 
 
 Weicht in 
 Ids. 
 
 Weight in 
 lbs. 
 
 Weight in 
 lbs. 
 
 Weight in 
 lbs. 
 
 Weight in 
 lbs. 
 
 ! Weight in 
 lbs. 
 
 2 
 
 283 
 
 243 
 
 212 
 
 189 
 
 170 
 
 154 
 
 142 
 
 131 
 
 121 
 
 113 
 
 3 
 
 637 
 
 546 
 
 478 
 
 425 
 
 382 
 
 347 
 
 318 
 
 294 
 
 273 
 
 255 
 
 4 
 
 1,133 
 
 971 
 
 849 
 
 755 
 
 680 
 
 618 
 
 566 
 
 523 
 
 485 
 
 453 
 
 5 
 
 1,771 
 
 1,518 
 
 1,328 
 
 1,180 
 
 1,062 
 
 966 
 
 885 
 
 817 
 
 759 
 
 708 
 
 6 
 
 2,548 
 
 2,184 
 
 1,912 
 
 1,699 
 
 1,530 
 
 1,390 
 
 1,274 
 
 1,176 
 
 1,092 
 
 1,019 
 
 7 
 
 3,471 
 
 2,975 
 
 2,603 
 
 2,314 
 
 2,082 
 
 1,893 
 
 1,735 
 
 1,602 
 
 1,487 
 
 1,388 
 
 8 
 
 4,532 
 
 3,884 
 
 3,396 
 
 3,020 
 
 2,720 
 
 2,472 
 
 2,264 
 
 2,092 
 
 1,940 
 
 1,812 
 
 9 
 
 5,733 
 
 4,914 
 
 4,302 
 
 3,825 
 
 3,438 
 
 3,123 
 
 2,862 
 
 2,646 
 
 2,457 
 
 2,295 
 
 10 
 
 7,083 
 
 6,071 
 
 5,312 
 
 4,722 
 
 4,250 
 
 3,863 
 
 3,541 
 
 3,269 
 
 3,035 
 
 2,833 
 
 11 
 
 8,570 
 
 7,346 
 
 6,428 
 
 5,714 
 
 5,142 
 
 4,675 
 
 4,285 
 
 3,955 
 
 3,673 
 
 3,428 
 
 12 
 
 10,192 
 
 8,736 
 
 7,648 
 
 6,796 
 
 6,120 
 
 5,560 
 
 5,096 
 
 4,704 
 
 4,368 
 
 4,076 
 
 13 
 
 11,971 
 
 10,260 
 
 8,978 
 
 7,980 
 
 7,182 
 
 6,529 
 
 5,985 
 
 5,525 
 
 5,130 
 
 4,788 
 
 14 
 
 13,883 
 
 11,900 
 
 10,412 
 
 9,255 
 
 8,330 
 
 7,573 
 
 6,941 
 
 6,408 
 
 5,950 
 
 5,553 
 
 15 
 
 15,937 
 
 13,660 
 
 11,932 
 
 10,624 
 
 9,562 
 
 8,692 
 
 7,967 
 
 7,355 
 
 6,829 
 
 6,374 
 
 16 
 
 18,128 
 
 15 , 53(1 
 
 13,584 
 
 12,080 
 
 10,880 
 
 9,888 
 
 9,056 
 
 8,368 
 
 7,760 
 
 7,248 
 
 17 
 
 20,500 
 
 17,500 
 
 15,353 
 
 13,647 
 
 12,282 
 
 11,166 
 
 10,235 
 
 9,447 
 
 8,773 
 
 8,188 
 
 18 
 
 22,932 
 
 19,656 
 
 17,208 
 
 15,700 
 
 13,752 
 
 12,492 
 
 11,448 
 
 10,584 
 
 9,828 
 
 9,180 
 
 19 
 
 25,404 
 
 21,800 
 
 19,053 
 
 16,935 
 
 15,242 
 
 13,857 
 
 12,702 
 
 11,725 
 
 10,887 
 
 10,161 
 
 20 
 
 28,332 
 
 24,284 
 
 21,248 
 
 18,888 
 
 17,000 
 
 15,452 
 
 14,164 
 
 13,076 
 
 12,140 
 
 11,332 
 
 21 
 
 31,230 
 
 26,770 
 
 23,428 
 
 20,825 
 
 18,742 
 
 17,036 
 
 15,618 
 
 14,417 
 
 13,387 
 
 12,495 
 
 22 
 
 34,500 
 
 29,300 
 
 25,712 
 
 22,855 
 
 20,570 
 
 18,700 
 
 17,141 
 
 15,823 
 
 14,693 
 
 13,713 
 
 23 
 
 37,600 
 
 32,000 
 
 28,103 
 
 24,980 
 
 22,482 
 
 20,439 
 
 18,735 
 
 17,286 
 
 16,059 
 
 14,988 
 
 24 
 
 40,768 
 
 34,944 
 
 30,592 
 
 27,184 
 
 24,480 
 
 22,240 
 
 20,384 
 
 18,816 
 
 17,492 
 
 16,304 
 
 25 
 
 
 37,700 
 
 33,203 
 
 29,514 
 
 26,562 
 
 24,148 
 
 22,135 
 
 20,432 
 
 18,973 
 
 17,708 
 
 26 
 
 
 40,900 
 
 35,912 
 
 31,922 
 
 28,730 
 
 26,118 
 
 23,941 
 
 22,100 
 
 20,521 
 
 19,153 
 
 27 
 
 
 44,000 
 
 38,728 
 
 34,425 
 
 30,982 
 
 28,166 
 
 25,819 
 
 23,832 
 
 22,130 
 
 20,655 
 
 28 
 
 
 47,300 
 
 41,650 
 
 37,022 
 
 33,320 
 
 30,290 
 
 27,766 
 
 25,630 
 
 23,800 
 
 22,213 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 44,678 
 
 39,714 
 
 35,742 
 
 32,493 
 
 29,785 
 
 27,494 
 
 25,530 
 
 23,828 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 17 , 8 ( 1 !! 
 
 42,498 
 
 38,250 
 
 34,767 
 
 31,869 
 
 29,421 
 
 27,315 
 
 25,497 
 
 This table is intended to show the greatest weight a beam of cast iron 
 will bear in the middle of its length, when it is loaded with as much as it 
 will bear, so as to recover its natural form when the load is removed. If a 
 beam he loaded beyond that point, the equilibrium of its parts is destroy¬ 
 ed, and it takes a permanent set. Also, in a beam so loaded beyond its 
 
STRENGTH OF CAST IRON BEAMS. 67 
 
 strength, the deflexion becomes irregular, increasing very rapidly with the 
 weight of the load. 
 
 The horizontal row of figures, along the top of the table, contains the 
 lengths in feet; that is, the distances between the points of support. 
 
 The first column contains the depth in inches, the other columns contain 
 the weights in pounds avoirdupois. The breadth of each beam is one inch, 
 therefore the table shows the utmost weight a beam of one inch in breadth 
 should have to bear; and a piece five inches in breadth will bear five times 
 as much, and so of any other breadth. 
 
 The load shown by the table is the greatest a beam should ever sustain, 
 and therefore, in calculating this load, ample allowance must be made for 
 accidents, and the weight of the beam itself must be included. 
 
 A TABLE, to short) the weight or pressure a cilindrical pillar or column of cast iron will 
 
 sustain, with safety, in hundred weights. 
 
 Lenglh ° r 2 f 
 height. 
 
 4 feet. 
 
 6 feet. 
 
 8 feet. 
 
 10 feet. 
 
 12 feet. 
 
 14 feet. 
 
 16 feet. 
 
 18 feet. 
 
 20 feet. 
 
 22 feet. 
 
 24 feet. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Weight 
 
 Inches. 
 
 in cwts. 
 
 in cwts. 
 
 in cwts. 
 
 in cwts. 
 
 in cwts. 
 
 in cwts. 
 
 in cwts. 
 
 in cwts. 
 
 in cwts. 
 
 in cwts. 
 
 in cwts. 
 
 in cwts. 
 
 - 1 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 * 
 
 44 
 
 36 
 
 28 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 82 
 
 72 
 
 60 
 
 49 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 11 
 
 n 
 
 129 
 
 119 
 
 105 
 
 91 
 
 77 
 
 65 
 
 55 
 
 47 
 
 40 
 
 34 
 
 29 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 188 
 
 178 
 
 163 
 
 145 
 
 128 
 
 111 
 
 97 
 
 84 
 
 73 
 
 64 
 
 56 
 
 49 
 
 H 
 
 257 
 
 247 
 
 232 
 
 214 
 
 191 
 
 172 
 
 156 
 
 135 
 
 119 
 
 106 
 
 94 
 
 83 
 
 4 
 
 337 
 
 326 
 
 310 
 
 288 
 
 266 
 
 242 
 
 220 
 
 198 
 
 178 
 
 160 
 
 144 
 
 130 
 
 4 i 
 
 429 
 
 418 
 
 400 
 
 379 
 
 354 
 
 327 
 
 301 
 
 275 
 
 251 
 
 229 
 
 208 
 
 189 
 
 5 
 
 530 
 
 522 
 
 501 
 
 479 
 
 452 
 
 427 
 
 394 
 
 365 
 
 337 
 
 310 
 
 285 
 
 262 
 
 6 
 
 616 
 
 607 
 
 592 
 
 573 
 
 550 
 
 525 
 
 497 
 
 496 
 
 440 
 
 413 
 
 386 
 
 360 
 
 7 
 
 1,040 
 
 1,032 
 
 1,013 
 
 989 
 
 959 
 
 924 
 
 887 
 
 848 
 
 808 
 
 765 
 
 725 
 
 686 
 
 8 
 
 1,344 
 
 1,333 
 
 1,315 
 
 1,289 
 
 1,259 
 
 1,224 
 
 1,185 
 
 1,142 
 
 1,097 
 
 1,052 
 
 1,005 
 
 959 
 
 9 
 
 1,727 
 
 1,716 
 
 1,697 
 
 1,672 
 
 1,640 
 
 1,603 
 
 1,561 
 
 1,515 
 
 1,467 
 
 1,416 
 
 1,364 
 
 1,311 
 
 10 
 
 2,133 
 
 2,122 
 
 2,130 
 
 2,077 
 
 2,045 
 
 2,007 
 
 1,964 
 
 1,916 
 
 1,865 
 
 1,811 
 
 1,755 
 
 1,697 
 
 11 
 
 2,580 
 
 2,570 
 
 2,550 
 
 2,520 
 
 2,490 
 
 2,450 
 
 2,410 
 
 2,380 
 
 2,230 
 
 2,250 
 
 2,190 
 
 2,130 
 
 12 
 
 3,074 
 
 3,050 
 
 13,040 
 
 3,020 
 
 2,970 
 
 2,930 
 
 2,900 
 
 2,830 
 
 2,780 
 
 2,730 
 
 2,670 
 
 2,600 
 
 This table shows by inspection, the weight or pressure a cilindrical 
 pillar or column of cast iron will bear with safety. The pressure is ex- 
 
6S 
 
 VELOCITY AND FORCE OF WINDS. 
 
 pressed in cwts., and is computed on the supposition that the pillar is under 
 the most unfavorable circumstances for resisting the stress, which happens, 
 when, from the settlements, imperfect fitting, or other causes, the direction 
 of the stress is in the surface of the pillar. 
 
 The horizontal row of figures at the top of the table contains the lengths 
 or heights of the pillars in feet. The first vertical column contains the 
 diameter of the pillar in inches. 
 
 The other vertical columns of the table show the weight in cwts., which 
 a cast iron pillar, of the height at the top of the column, and of the diam¬ 
 eter at the side column, will support with safety. Consequently, of the 
 height, the diameter, and the weight to be supported, any two being given, 
 the other will be found by inspection. 
 
 TABLE of the Force of Winds, formed from the Tables of Mr. Rouse and Dr. Lind, and 
 compared with the Observations of Col. Beaufoy. 
 
 Velocity in 
 miles pr hour. 
 
 A wind may be denominated when it does not exceed the velocity 
 opposite to it. 
 
 Velocity per 
 second. 
 
 Force on a square 
 foot. 
 
 68 
 
 13 6 
 19-5 
 34-1 
 47-7 
 54-5 
 682 
 818 
 
 102-3 
 
 A gentle pleasant wind. 
 
 A brisk gale. 
 
 A very brisk gale. 
 
 A high wind . 
 
 A very high wind. 
 
 A storm or tempest. 
 
 A great storm. 
 
 A hurricane . 
 
 A violent hurricane, that tears up trees, overturns ) 
 buildings, &c. ) 
 
 10 feet 
 20 . . . 
 30. . . 
 50. . . 
 70 . . . 
 80 . . . 
 100 .. . 
 120.. . 
 
 150. . . 
 
 0-229 lbs. 
 
 0 915 . . . 
 
 2 059 . . . 
 5-718 . . . 
 
 11 -207 . . . 
 14-638 . . . 
 22-372 . . . 
 32-926 . . . 
 
 51-426 . . . 
 
 Accurate observations on the variation and mean intensity of the force of 
 winds would be very desirable both to the mechanician and meteorologist. 
 
TABLE OF DATA, &c. 
 
 USEFUL IN VARIOUS CALCULATIONS; 
 
 ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY. 
 
 THE DATA CORRESPOND TO THE MEAN TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE OF THE 
 ATMOSPHERE, DRY MATERIALS; AND THE TEMPERATURE 
 IS MEASURED BY FAHRENHEIT’S SCALE. 
 
 Air. Specific gravity, 0 - 0012; weight of a 
 cubic foot, 0 0753 lbs., or 527 grains; 13‘3 
 cubic feet or 17 cylindric feet of air weigh 1 
 lb., it expands or ‘00208 of its bulk at 
 
 32° by the addition of one degree of heat. 
 
 Ash. Specific gravity, 0 - 76; weight of a 
 cubic foot, 47 5 lbs.; weight of a bar one foot 
 long, and one inch square, 0 33 lbs.; will bear 
 without permanent alteration a strain of 3,540 
 lbs. upon a square inch, and an extension of 
 of its length. 
 
 Atmosphere. The pressure of the atmosphere 
 is usually estimated at 30 inches of mercury, 
 which is very nearly 14| lbs. upon a square 
 inch, and equivalent to a column of water 34 
 feet high. 
 
 Beech. Specific gravity, 0 696; weight of 
 cubic foot, 45 3 lbs.; weight of a bar one foot 
 long and one inch square, 0315 lbs.; will 
 bear without permanent alteration on a square 
 inch, 2,360 lbs.; and an extension of of its 
 length. 
 
 Brass, cast. Specific gravity, 8 -37; weight 
 
 18 
 
 of a cubic foot, 523 lbs.; weight of a bar one 
 foot long and one inch square, 3‘63 lbs.; ex¬ 
 pands ? 3 -g-OT of its length by one degree of 
 heat; melts at 1,869°; cohesive force of a 
 square inch, 18,000 lbs.; will bear on a 
 square inch without permanent alteration, 
 6,700 lbs.; and an extension in length of yg—j. 
 
 Brick. Specific gravity, T841; weight of 
 a cubic foot, 115 lbs.; absorbs T ’y of its weight 
 of water; cohesive force of a square inch, 275 
 lbs.; is crushed by a force of 562 lbs. on a 
 square inch. 
 
 Bridges. When a bridge is covered with 
 people, it is about equivalent to a load of 120 
 lbs. on a superficial foot; and this may be 
 esteemed the greatest possible extraneous 
 load, that can be collected on a bridge; while 
 one incapable of supporting this load cannot 
 be deemed safe. 
 
 Cast iron. Specific gravity, 7‘207; weight 
 of a cubic foot, 450 lbs.; a bar one foot long 
 and one inch square, weighs 3'2 lbs. nearly; it 
 expands °f its length by one degree of 
 
70 
 
 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS. 
 
 heat; greatest change of length in the shade 
 in this climate, T1 > J5 ; greatest change of 
 length exposed to the sun’s rays, T5 ' Tff ; melts 
 at 3,479° and shrinks in cooling from to j' T 
 of its length; is crushed by a force of 93,000 
 lbs. upon a square inch; will bear without 
 permanent alteration 15,300 lbs. upon a square 
 inch, and an extension of °f '* s length. 
 
 Coal, Newcastle. Specific gravity, 1-269; 
 weight of a cubic foot, 79 - 31 ibs. A London 
 chaldron of 36 bushels, weighs about 28 cwt., 
 whence a bushel is 87 lbs., (but is usually 
 rated at 84 lbs.) A Newcastle chaldron, 53 
 cwt. 
 
 Copper. Specific gravity, 8-75; weight of 
 a cubic foot, 549 lbs.; weight of a bar one 
 foot long and one inch square, 3 81 lbs., ex¬ 
 pands in length by one degree of heat, > 
 
 melts at 2,548°; cohesive force of a square 
 inch, when hammered, 33,000 lbs. 
 
 Earth, common. Specific gravity, 1-52 to 
 2 00; weight of a cubic foot, from 95 to 125 lbs. 
 
 Elm. Specific gravity, 0 544; weight of a 
 cubic foot, 34 lbs.; weight of a bar one foot 
 long and one inch square, 0236 lbs.; will 
 bear on a square inch without permanent 
 alteration, 3,240 lbs. 
 
 Granite, Aberdeen. Specific gravity, 2 625; 
 weight of a cubic foot, 164 lbs., is crushed by 
 a force of 10,910 lbs. upon a square inch. 
 
 Gravel. Weight of a cubic foot, about 120 
 lbs. 
 
 Gun Metal, cast, (copper 8 parts, tin 1.) 
 Specific gravity, 8153; weight of a cubic foot, 
 509A lbs.; weight of a bar one foot long and 
 oneinch square, 3 54 lbs.; expands in length 
 by 1 ° of heat, 35 ^ 55 ; will bear on a square 
 inch without permanent alteration, 10,000 lbs. 
 
 Horse. Of average power, produces the 
 greatest effect in drawing a load when exert¬ 
 ing a force of 187A lbs. with a velocity of 2 £ 
 feet per second, working eight hours in a day. 
 A good horse can exert a force of 480 lbs. for 
 a short time. In calculating the strength for 
 horse machinery, the horse’s power should be 
 considered 400 lbs. 
 
 Iron, malleable. Specific gravity, 7 6 ; weight 
 
 of a cubic foot, 475 lbs.; weight of a bar one 
 foot long and one inch square, 3 3 lbs.; ditto, 
 when hammered, 3 4 lbs.; expands in length, 
 by 1 ° of heat, good English iron will 
 
 bear on a square inch without permanent al¬ 
 teration, 17,800 lbs.,* = 8 tons nearly, and an 
 extension in length of X jVtr- 
 
 Lead, cast. Specific gravity, 11 353; weight 
 of a cubic foot, 709 5 lbs.; weight of a bar one 
 foot long and one inch square, 4 94 lbs.; ex¬ 
 pands in length, by 1 ° of heat, 77 ^^; melts 
 at 612°; will bear on a square inch without 
 permanent alteration, 1,500 lbs., and an ex¬ 
 tension in length of 
 
 Mahogany, Honduras. Specific gravity, 
 0 56; weight of a cubic foot, 35 lbs.; weight 
 of a bar one foot long and one inch square, 
 0 243 lbs.; will bear on a square inch with¬ 
 out permanent alteration, 3,800 lbs., and an 
 extension in length of ji v . 
 
 Man. A man of average power produces 
 the greatest effect when exerting a force of 
 31J lbs., with a velocity of 2 feet per second, 
 for 10 hours in a day.-j- A strong man will 
 raise and carry from 250 to 300 lbs. 
 
 Marble, white. Specific gravity, 2-706; 
 weight of a cubic foot, 169 lbs.; weight of a 
 bar one foot long and one inch square, 1-17 
 lbs.; cohesive force of a square inch, 1811 lbs. 
 
 Oak, good English. Specific gravity, 0 83; 
 weight of a cubic foot, 52 lbs.; weight of a bar 
 one foot long and one inch square, 036 lbs.; 
 will bear upon a square inch without perma¬ 
 nent alteration, 3,960 lbs. and an extension in 
 length of 
 
 Pine, American, yellow. Specific gravity, 
 0-46; weight of a cubic foot, 26^ lbs.; weight 
 of a bar one foot long and one inch square, 
 0186 lbs.; will bear on a square inch without 
 permanent alteration, 3,900 lbs.; and an ex¬ 
 tension in length of TTf- 
 
 Roofs. Weight of a square foot of Welsh 
 rag slating, llj lbs.; weight of a square foot 
 
 * Equivalent to a height of 5,000 feet of the same matter. 
 
 f This is equivalent to half a cubic foot of water raised two 
 feet per serond or one cubic foot of water one foot per sec¬ 
 ond. Sen liuchanan’s Etsays, vol. ii. p. 165, second edition. 
 
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS. 
 
 71 
 
 of plain tiling, 16J lbs.; greatest force of the 
 wind upon a superficial foot of roofing may be 
 estimated at 40 lbs. 
 
 Slate, Welsh. Specific gravity, 2 - 752 ; 
 weight of a cubic foot, 172 lbs.; weight of a 
 bar one foot long and one inch square, 1*19 
 lbs.; cohesive force of a square inch, 11,500 
 lbs.; extension before fracture, 
 
 Steam. Specific gravity at 212°, is to that 
 of air at the mean temperature, as 0 472 is to 
 1; weight of a cubic foot, 249 grains; when 
 not in contact with water, expands of its 
 bulk by 1° of heat. 
 
 Steel. Specific gravity, 7-84; weight of a 
 cubic foot, 490 lbs.; a bar one foot long and 
 one inch square, weight 3‘4 1bs.; it expands 
 in length by 1° of heat, yyyVooi tempered 
 steel will bear without permanent alteration, 
 45,000 lbs.; cohesive force of square inch, 
 130,000 lbs. 
 
 Stone, Portland. Specific gravity, 2*113; 
 weight of a cubic foot, 132 lbs.; weight of a 
 prism one inch square and one foot long, 0 92 
 lbs.; absorbs T ’g of its weight of water; is 
 crushed by a force of 3,729 lbs. upon a square 
 inch; cohesive force of a square inch, 857 
 lbs.; extends before fracture, X7V9 of its 
 length. 
 
 Tin, cast. Specific gravity, 7 291; weight 
 of a cubic foot, 455-7 lbs.; weight of a bar 
 one foot long and one inch square, 3 - 165 lbs.; 
 expands in length by 1° of heat, yjjt?>> melts 
 at 442°; will bear upon a square inch without 
 permanent alteration, 2,880 lbs., and an ex¬ 
 tension in length of 
 
 Water, river. Specific gravity, 1-000; weight 
 of a cubic foot, 62 5 lbs.; weight of a cubic 
 inch, 252-525 grains; weight of a prism one 
 foot long and one inch square, 0434 lbs.; 
 weight of an ale gallon of water, 102 lbs.; 
 expands in bulk by 1° of heat, gyVa ;* expands 
 in freezing T ' T of its bulk; and the expanding 
 force of freezing water is about 35,000 lbs. 
 upon a square inch. 
 
 Water, sea. Specific gravity, 1-0271; weight 
 of a cubic foot, 64 2 lbs. 
 
 Water is 828 times the density of air of the 
 temperature 60°, and barometer 30. 
 
 Whalebone. Specific gravity, 1"3; weight 
 of a cubic foot, 81 lbs.; will bear a strain of 
 5,600 lbs. upon a square inch without perma¬ 
 nent alteration; and an extension in length 
 °f Tfa'- 
 
 Wind. Greatest observed velocity, 159 feet 
 per second; force of wind with that velocity, 
 about 57| lbs. on a square foot.| 
 
 Zinc, cast. Specific gravity, 7 028; weight 
 of a cubic foot, 439J lbs.; weight of a bar one 
 inch square and one foot long, 3 05 lbs.; ex¬ 
 pands in length by 1° of heat j T | 50 5 melts at 
 648°; will bear on a square inch without per¬ 
 manent alteration, 5,700 lbs. 
 
 * Water has a state of maximum density, at or near 40°; 
 which is considered an exception to the general law of expan¬ 
 sion by heat; it is extremely improbable that there is any 
 thing more than an apparent exception, most likely arising 
 from water at low temperatures absorbing a considerable 
 quantity of air, which has the effect of expanding it; and 
 consequently of causing the apparent anomaly. 
 
 t See Table, page 68. 
 
A 
 
 DICTI.ONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS 
 
 USED BY 
 
 ARCHITECTS AND ARTIFICERS. 
 
 Abanis. The upper member of the capital of a 
 column whereon the architrave rests. In the 
 Corinthian order, its four sides are curved inwards 
 in segments of circles on the plan, and are deco¬ 
 rated in the centre with a flower or some other or¬ 
 nament. 
 
 Abutment. The solid part of a pier from which 
 an arch immediately springs. 
 
 Acanthus. A plant called in English, bear’s 
 breach, representations of whose leaves are em¬ 
 ployed for decorating the Corinthian and Compo¬ 
 site capitals. 
 
 The leaves of the acanthus are used on the bell 
 of the capital, and distinguish the two rich orders 
 from the three others. 
 
 Acroteria. The small pedestals placed on the 
 extremities and apex of a pediment. They are 
 usually without bases or plinths, and were origi¬ 
 nally intended to receive statues. 
 
 Alcove. The original and strict meaning of this 
 word, which is derived from the Spanish alcoha, is 
 confined to that part of a bed-chamber in which 
 the bed stands, separated from the other parts of 
 the room by columns or pilasters. The seats in 
 gardens have however iu this country been de¬ 
 signated by this term. 
 
 Alto Relievo. See Relief. 
 
 Amphiprostylos. In ancient architecture, a temple 
 with columns in the rear os well ns in the front. 
 
 Amphitheatre. A double theatre, of an elliptical 
 form on the plan, for the exhibition of the ancient 
 gladiatorial fights and other shows. Its Arena, or 
 Pit, in which those exhibitions took place, was en¬ 
 compassed with seals rising above each other, and 
 the exterior find the accommodation of porticos, or 
 arcades for the public. 
 
 Ancones. The consoles or ornaments cut on the 
 key-stones of arches, or on the sides of door-cuses. 
 They are sometimes made use of to support busts 
 or other figures. 
 
 Annulet. A small square moulding, which 
 crowns or accompanies a larger. Also that fillet 
 which separates the flulings of a column. It is 
 sometimes called a List or Listelln, which see. 
 
 Anta. (Ant re , plural.) A name given to a pilaster 
 when attached to a wall. Vitruvius calls pilasters 
 parastatec when insulated. They are not usually 
 diminished, and in all Greek examples their capitals 
 are different from those of the columns they ac¬ 
 company. 
 
 AnleJixa , in ancient architecture. The ornaments 
 of lions’ and other heads below the eaves of a 
 temple, through channels in which, usually by the 
 mouth, the water is carried from the eaves. By 
 some this term is applied to the upright ornaments 
 above the eaves, in ancient architecture, which hid 
 the ends of the Harmi or joint tiles. 
 
 Anlepnprmenta. The architraves round doors. 
 
 Apophyge. That part of a column between the 
 upper fillet of the base, and the cylindrical part of 
 the shaft of the column, which is usually curved 
 into it by a ravetto. 
 
 Aqueduct. An artificial canal for the conveyance 
 of water, either above or under ground. The 
 Roman aqueducts are mostly in the former pre- 
 dicument. 
 
 Arerostylos. That style of building in which the 
 columns are distant four and sometimes five diam¬ 
 eters from each other, but the former is the pro¬ 
 portion to which the term is usually applied. This 
 columnar arrangement is suited to the Tuscan 
 order only. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 73 
 
 Arceosystylos. That style of building in which 
 four columns are used in the space of eight di¬ 
 ameters and a half. The central intercolumniation 
 being three diameters and a half, and the others 
 on each side being only half a diameter, by which 
 arrangement coupled columns are introduced. 
 
 Arch. A scientific arrangement of bricks, 
 stones, or other materials in a curvilinear form, 
 which by their mutual pressure and support, per¬ 
 form the office of a lintel, and carry superincum¬ 
 bent weights, the whole resting at its extremities 
 upon the piers or abutments. 
 
 Architrave. The lower of the primary divisions 
 of the entablature. It is placed immediately upon 
 the abacus of the capital. 
 
 Airis. The line of concourse, edge or meeting 
 of two surfaces. 
 
 Ashler, in masonry. A term used among artifi¬ 
 cers, by which they designate common freestones, 
 as they come out of the quarry, of different lengths 
 and thicknesses. Nine inches however is their 
 thickness. 
 
 Aslilering, in carpentry. Quartering in garrets to 
 which the laths are nailed, about two feet and 
 a half or three feet high, perpendicular to the flooi-, 
 and reaching up to the underside of the rafters. 
 
 Astragal. A small moulding, whose profile is 
 semi-circular. It bears also the name of Talon or 
 Tondino. The Astragal is often cut into repre¬ 
 sentations of beads and berries, and is used in 
 ornamented entablatures to separate the faces of 
 the architrave. 
 
 Attic Base. See Base. 
 
 Attic Order. An order of low pilasters, generally 
 placed over orders of columns or pilasters. It is 
 improperly called an order, for the arrangement 
 can scarcely admit of such an appellation. 
 
 Back of a Hip. The upper edge of the hip 
 rafter, between the two sides of a hipped roof, 
 formed to an angle so as to range with the rafters 
 on each side of it. 
 
 Back of a Rafter. The upper side of it. 
 
 Back of a Slate. The upper side of it. 
 
 Backer, in slating. A narrow slate laid on the 
 back of a broad square headed slate, where the 
 slates begin to diminish in width. 
 
 Balcony. A projection from the surface of a 
 wall, usually supported by consoles and surrounded 
 by a balustrade or railing. 
 
 Baluster. A small pillar or pilaster, serving to 
 support a rail, see Plate XXIII. Its form is of 
 considerable variety in different examples. Some¬ 
 
 19 
 
 times it is round, at other times square; it is 
 adorned with mouldings and other decorations 
 according to the richness of the order it accom¬ 
 panies. 
 
 Balustrade. A connected series of several bal¬ 
 usters, as on balconies, terraces, around altars, &c. 
 See Plate XXIII. 
 
 Band. A term used to signify what is generally 
 called a face or fascia. It more properly signifies 
 a flat low square profiled member, without respect 
 to its place. 
 
 Bandelet. A diminutive of the foregoing term, 
 used to signify any narrow flat moulding. The 
 ttenia on the Doric architrave is called its bandelet. 
 
 Bar Iron. A long prismatic piece of iron, being 
 a rectangular parallelopiped, so prepared from pig 
 iron, as to be malleable for the use of the smith. 
 
 Base. The lower part of a column, moulded or 
 plain, on which the shaft is placed. The word 
 also signifies any support, but it is in decorative 
 architecture mostly used in the above sense. The 
 earliest columns, as those of the Grecian Doric, 
 were without bases, standing immediately on the 
 floor or pavement of the portico. 
 
 Basilica. A town or court hall, a cathedral, a 
 palace, where kings administered justice. 
 
 Basso Relievo. See Relief. 
 
 Batten. A name given by workmen to a piece 
 of board, from two to four inches broad, and about 
 one inch thick, the length is rather considerable, 
 but undefined. 
 
 Battening. Narrow Battens fixed to a wall to 
 nail the laths to. 
 
 Batter. A term used by bricklayers, carpenters, 
 &c. to signify a wall, piece of timber, or other 
 material which does not stand upright, but inclines 
 from you when you stand before it; but, when on 
 the contrary, it leans towards you, they say of its 
 inclination that it overhangs. 
 
 Bead. A moulding whose vertical section is 
 semi-circular. Hence when the edge of any piece 
 is in this form, it is said to be beaded. 
 
 Beam. An horizontal piece of timber used to 
 resist a force, or weight, as a tie-beam, which acts 
 as a string or chain, by its tension ; as a straining- 
 piece, which acts by compression. 
 
 Bearer. Any upright piece used by way of 
 support to another. 
 
 Bed, in bricklaying and masonry. The hori¬ 
 zontal surfaces on which the stones or bricks of 
 walls lie in courses. 
 
 Bed of a Slate. The lower side. 
 
74 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 Bed .Mouldings. Those mouldings in all the 
 orders between the corona and frieze. 
 
 llcvel. An instrument for taking angles. One 
 side of a solid body is said to be beveled with 
 respect to another, when the angle contained 
 between those two sides is greater or less than a 
 right angle. 
 
 Bird's .Mouth. The interior angle or notch cut 
 on the extremity of a piece of timber, so that it 
 may be received on the edge of another piece as a 
 rafter. 
 
 Blocking-course. The course of masonry or 
 brickwork on the top of a cornice. 
 
 Bond, in bricklaying and masonry. That con¬ 
 nection between bricks and stones formed by 
 lapping them upon one another in carrying up the 
 work, so as to form an inseparable mass of building, 
 by preventing the vertical joints falling over each 
 other. 
 
 Bond Stones. Stones running through the 
 thickness of the wall at right angles to its face, in 
 order to bind it together. 
 
 Bond Timber. Timber laid in walls to tie them 
 together longitudinally while the work is setting. 
 
 Bossage, a French term. Any projection left 
 rough on the face of a stone for the purposes of 
 sculpture, which is usually the last thing finished. 
 
 Bottom Rail, in joinery. The lowest rail of a 
 door. 
 
 Boxings. See Linings. 
 
 Brace, in carpentry. An inclined piece of timber, 
 used in trussed partitions, or in framed roofs, in 
 order to form a triangle, and thereby stiffen the 
 framing. When a Brace is used by way of support 
 to a rafter, it is called a Strut. Braces in partitions, 
 and span roofs are, or always should be, disposed 
 in pairs, and introduced in opposite directions. 
 
 Break. Any projection from the general surface 
 of a building. 
 
 Breaking Joint. The arrangement of stones or 
 bricks so as not to allow two joints to coine imme¬ 
 diately over each other. 
 
 Brick Trimmer. A brick arch abutting against 
 the wooden trimmer under the slab of the fire¬ 
 place, to prevent the communication of fire. 
 
 Bridge, in masonry. An edifice or structure, 
 consisting of one, or more arebes, raised for passing 
 a road-way over a river, canal, &c. 
 
 Cabling. The filling up of the lower part of a 
 fluting of a column, with a solid cylindrical piece. 
 Flutinga thus treated are said to be cabled. 
 
 Caisson. A name given to the sunk pnnncls of 
 
 various geometrical forms symmetrically disposed 
 in flat or vaulted ceilings, or in soffits. 
 
 Caisson, in bridge building. A chest or vessel 
 in which the piers of a bridge are built, gradually 
 sinking as the work advances, till its bottom comes 
 in contact with the bed of the river, and then the 
 sides are disengaged, being so constructed as to 
 allow of their being thus detached without injury 
 to its floor or bottom. 
 
 Camber, in carpentry. The convexity of a beam 
 upon the upper surface, in order to prevent its 
 becoming straight or concave by its own weight, 
 
 | or by the burden it may have to sustain. 
 
 Canted. Obtuse angled. 
 
 Cantilivers. Pieces of wood framed into the 
 front and sides of a house to sustain the eaves and 
 mouldings over them. 
 
 Capital. The head or uppermost member be¬ 
 longing to a column or pilaster. 
 
 Carpentry. The art of arranging the main 
 timbers of an edifice. 
 
 Cartouch. The same as modillion, except that it 
 is exclusively used to signify those blocks or mo- 
 dill ions at the eaves of a house. See Modillion. 
 
 Caryatides. Figures of women, which serve 
 instead of columns to support the entablature. 
 
 Casement. A term used to signify sashes hung 
 on hinges. 
 
 Casting or Warping, in joinery. The bending 
 of the surfaces of a piece of w r ood from their 
 original position, caused either by the weight of 
 their own substance, or by an unequal exposure to 
 the weather, or by the ununiform texture of the 
 wood. 
 
 Caxdicolus. The volute or twist under the flower 
 in the Corinthian Capital. 
 
 Cavelto. A hollow moulding whose profile is a 
 quadrant of a circle. 
 
 Ceiling, in plastering. The uppermost, hori¬ 
 zontal or curved surface of an apartment opposite 
 to the floor, generally finished with plastered w T ork. 
 
 Centering. The temporary woodwork on which 
 an nrch is constructed. 
 
 Cincture. A ring, list or fillet at the top and 
 bottom of a column, serving to divide the shaft of 
 the column from its capital and base. 
 
 Clamp, in joinery. A piece of wood fixed to the 
 end of a board with a mortise and tenon, or with 
 a groove and tongue, so that the fibres of the piece 
 thus fixed, traverse those of the board, and thus 
 prevent it from casting: the piece at the end is cal¬ 
 led a clam]), and the board is said to be clamped. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 75 
 
 Coat. A thickness or covering of plaster or 
 other work done at one time. 
 
 Cofferdam. A case or cases of piling without a 
 floor, in which the piers of a bridge are built. 
 
 Coffers. The sunk panels which are placed in 
 vaults and domes, often ornamented with flowers 
 in their centres. 
 
 Collar Beam. A beam framed crosswise betwixt 
 two principal rafters above the plates on which 
 they pitch. 
 
 Column. A member in architecture, whose ver¬ 
 tical section through the axis is generally a frustum 
 of an elongated parabola. Its plan is circular, and 
 it consists of a base, a shaft; or body, and a capital. 
 It differs from the pilaster, which is square on the 
 plan. 
 
 Composite Order. One of the orders of archi¬ 
 tecture. 
 
 Conge. Another name for the echinus or 
 quarter round. 
 
 Console. See Ancones. 
 
 Corinthian Order. One of the orders of archi¬ 
 tecture. 
 
 Cornice. The projection, consisting of several 
 members, which crowns or finishes the superior 
 part of an entablature, or of any other part to 
 which it is attached. 
 
 Corona. The flat square and massy member of 
 a cornice, whose situation is between the cymatium 
 above, and the bed moulding below ; its use is to 
 carry the water from the building. 
 
 Corridor. A gallery or open communication to 
 the different apartments of a house. 
 
 Corsa. The name given by Vitruvius to any 
 platband or square fascia, whose height is more 
 than its projecture. 
 
 Coupled Columns* See Areeosystylos. 
 
 Course, in bricklaying and masonry. A con¬ 
 tinued level range of stones or bricks, of the same 
 height throughout the whole length of the building 
 as far as the solid part continues, uninterrupted by 
 any aperture. 
 
 Course, in slating and shingling. An horizontal 
 tier of slates or shingles. 
 
 Cradling. The timber ribs in arched ceilings 
 and coves to which the laths are nailed. 
 
 Crown, in architecture. The uppermost member 
 of the cornice called also Corona and Larmier. 
 
 Croivn, or King Post, in carpentry. The post 
 which in roofs stands vertically in the middle 
 between the two principal rafters. 
 
 Cupola. A small room either circular or po¬ 
 lygonal, standing on the top of a dome. By some 
 it is called a Lantern. 
 
 Curtail Step. The lower step in a flight of stairs 
 ending at its outer extremity in a scroll. 
 
 Cyma, called also Cymatium, its name arising 
 from its resemblance to a wave. A moulding 
 which is hollow in its upper part and swelling 
 below. Of this moulding, there are two sorts, the 
 Cyma Recta, just described, and the Cyma Reversa, 
 whose upper part swells, whilst the lowest part is 
 hollow. 
 
 Dado, in architecture. The die, or that part in 
 the middle of the pedestal of a column, which is 
 between its base and cornice. It is of a cubic 
 form, and thence takes the name of Die. 
 
 Decastylos. A building having ten columns in 
 front. ’ 
 
 Dentils. Small square blocks or projections 
 used in the bed mouldings of the cornices in the 
 Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite Orders. 
 
 Diastylos. That style in which the interco- 
 lumniation or space between the columns consists 
 of three diameters, some say four diameters. 
 
 Die or Dye. A naked square cube. Thus the 
 body of a pedestal or that part between its base 
 and its cap, is called the die of the pedestal. 
 
 Diminution. The gradual decrease of thickness 
 towards the upper part of a column. 
 
 Dipteral. A term used by the ancients to signify 
 a temple which had a double range of columns on 
 each of its flanks. 
 
 Discharge. A term used to signify the relief 
 afforded to any part on which a weight is to be 
 borne. Thus, Discharging Arches are those used 
 in the wall over a lintel to relieve the lintel of the 
 weight which would be otherwise incumbent 
 thereon. 
 
 Ditriglyph. An intercolumniation above which 
 two triglyphs are disposed. 
 
 Dodecastylos. A building having twelve columns 
 in front. 
 
 Dome. The spherical or other formed concave 
 ceiling over a circular or polygonal building. 
 Diminished Domes are those which are segmental 
 on their section. Surmounted Domes are those 
 which are higher than the radius of the base. 
 
 Door Frame. The surrounding case, into and 
 out of which the door shuts and opens. It consists 
 of two upright pieces and a head, generally fixed 
 together by mortices and tenons, and wrought, 
 rebated and beaded. 
 
76 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 Doric Order. One of the five orders of archi¬ 
 tecture. 
 
 Dormer, in architecture. A window placed on 
 the inclined plane of the roof of a house, or above 
 the entablature, being raised upon the rafters, with 
 its frame in a vertical position. 
 
 Dovetailing, in carpentry and joinery. The 
 method of fastening boards, or other timbers to¬ 
 gether, by letting one piece into another in the 
 form of the expanded tail of a dove. 
 
 Dragon Beams. Those horizontal pieces of 
 timber on which the hip rafters pitch. They are 
 framed into short diagonal pieces which tie the 
 plates at the internal angles of a roof. 
 
 Dressings, in joinery. Any mouldings or other 
 finishings. 
 
 Drift. The horizontal force of an arch, by 
 which it endeavors to overset the piers. 
 
 Dripping Eaves. The lower edges of a roof, 
 wherefrom the water drips on the ground. 
 
 Drops. Sec Guttsc. 
 
 Drum. The upright part of a cupola over a 
 dome. Also the solid part or vase of the Corin¬ 
 thian and Composite capitals. 
 
 Eaves, in slating and shingling. The margin or 
 lower part of the slating hanging over the wall, 
 to throw the water oft' froiii the masonry or 
 brickwork. 
 
 Echinus. The same as the ovolo or quarter 
 round, but perhaps that moulding is only properly 
 called echinus when carved with eggs and anchors, 
 as they are termed. Echinus is the husk or shell 
 of the chestnut, to which it is saiil to bear a re¬ 
 semblance. 
 
 Eggs. See Echinus. 
 
 Elbows. The sides or flanks of any panelled 
 work. 
 
 Entablature. The assemblage of parts supported 
 by the column. It consists of three parts, the 
 architrave, frieze and cornice. 
 
 Epistylium. The same as Architrave, which sec. 
 
 Eustylos. That iutercolumniation, which, as its 
 name would import, the ancients considered the i 
 most elegant, viz. two diameters and a quarter of 
 the column. Vitruvius says this manner of ar¬ 
 ranging columns exceeds all others in strength, 
 convenience, and beauty. 
 
 Exhedra. A recess in the ancient porticos or 
 ambulatories for retirement from the crowd. 
 
 Exlrados. The exterior or convex curve, forming 
 
 the upper line of the arch stones: the term is 
 opposed to the intrados or concave side. 
 
 Eye of a Dome. The aperture at its summit. 
 
 Eye of a Volute. The circle in its centre. 
 
 Facade. The face or front of any building 
 towards a street, court, garden or other place, more 
 usually however used to signify the principal front. 
 
 Facing. That part of any work which presents 
 itself to the eye of the spectator. 
 
 Fascia. A flat member in the entablature or 
 elsewhere, being in fact nothing more than a band 
 or broad fillet. The architrave in the more elegant 
 orders is divided into three bands : these are called 
 faseite. The lower is called the first fascia, the 
 middle one the second, and the upper one the third 
 fascia. 
 
 Festoon. An ornament of carved work, repre¬ 
 senting a wreath or garland of flowers or leaves, or 
 both interwoven with each other. It is thickest in 
 the middle, and small at each extremity, where it is 
 tied, a part often hanging down below the knot. 
 
 Fillet. The small square member which is 
 placed above or below the various square or curved 
 members in an order. 
 
 Fine Stuff, in plastering. A composition of lime 
 slacked and sifted through a fine sieve, mixed with 
 a proper quantity of hair, and sometimes a small 
 portion of fine sand. Fine stufris used in common 
 ceilings and walls set to receive paper or color. 
 
 First Coat, in plastering of two coat work, is 
 denominated ‘laying’ when on lath, and ‘ren¬ 
 dering ’ when on brick; in three coat work upon 
 lath, it is denominated ‘ pricking up,’ and upon 
 brick, ‘ roughing in.’ 
 
 Flashings. Pieces of lead let into the joints of 
 a wall, so us to lap over gutters or other pieces. 
 
 Flutling. A coat of paint which, from the action 
 of the turpentine used therein, leaves no gloss on 
 the surface. 
 
 Floated tf'ork. That which is pricked up, 
 floated, that is, made of a perfectly plane surface 
 by means of a tool called a float, and set, or 
 roughed in floated and set. 
 
 Floated Lath and Plaster. Three coat work, the 
 first whereof is pricking up, the second floating, 
 and the tliinl or setting coat of fine stuff. 
 
 Floating Skrceds, in plastering. Strips of plnster 
 to flout to; in cornices, wooden moulds edged with 
 metal, are used for the execution of the work. 
 
 Floor, in architecture. The underside of the 
 room, or that part whereon we walk. Floors arc 
 
A DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 77 
 
 of several sorts, as of earth, of brick, stone, usually 
 called pavement, and of wood. 
 
 Carpenters by the word f oor understand as well 
 the framed work of timber as the boarding over it. 
 
 Flue. The open concealed aperture of a chimney 
 from the fire-place to the top of the shaft. 
 
 Flush. The continued surface in the same 
 plane, of two contiguous masses. 
 
 Flutes or Flutings. The vertical channels on 
 the shafts of columns, which are usually rounded 
 above and below. They are sometimes circular 
 or segmental, and sometimes elliptical on their 
 horizontal section. In the Doric order they are 
 twenty in number, in the other orders, the Tuscan 
 excepted, which is never fluted, their number is 
 usually twenty-four. They are occasionally cabled. 
 See Cabling. 
 
 Footings. The spreading courses at the base or 
 foundation of a wall. 
 
 Framing. The rough timber work of a house, 
 including the flooring, roofing, partitioning, ceiling 
 and beams thereof. 
 
 Fret or Frette. A kind of continued knot or 
 ornament consisting of one or more small fillets 
 running vertically and horizontally, and at equal 
 distances in both directions. The sections of the 
 channels below the surface of the fillet are rec¬ 
 tangular. 
 
 Frieze or Frize. The middle member in the 
 entablature of an order, which separates the ar¬ 
 chitrave and cornice. 
 
 Frontispiece. The face or fore front of a house, 
 but it is a term more usually applied to its dec¬ 
 orated entrance. 
 
 Furniture. The external brass-work of locks, 
 knobs of doors, and window-fastenings, &c. 
 
 Furring, in carpentry. The bringing a piece of 
 sunk framing to a regular surface, by nailing thin 
 pieces thereon. 
 
 Galile. The upright triangular piece of wall at 
 each end of a roof from the eaves to the summit. 
 
 Guage, in plastering. A mixture of fine stuff 
 and plaster, or putty and plaster, or coarse stuff 
 and plaster, used in finishing the best ceilings, and 
 for mouldings, and sometimes for setting walls. 
 
 Girder. The principal beam of a floor for sup¬ 
 porting the binding joists. 
 
 Glyph. A vertical channel sunk on a tablet. 
 Those of the Doric frieze are, from their number, 
 called Triglyphs. 
 
 Groins. The lines formed at the intersection of 
 two arches which cross each other. 
 
 Groove, in joinery. A term used to signify a 
 sunk channel whose section is rectangular. It is 
 usually employed on the edge of a moulding, stile 
 or rail, &c. into which a tongue corresponding to 
 its section, and in the substance of the wood to 
 which it is joined, is inserted. 
 
 Ground Plate or Sill. The lowest plate of a 
 wooden building for supporting the principal and 
 other posts. 
 
 Grounds, in joinery. Pieces of wood, flush with 
 the plastering to which the wooden finishings are 
 attached. 
 
 Grout. Semi-liquid mortar. 
 
 Guilloche. An ornament composed of fillets in 
 curvilinear directions, which form a continued 
 series by their repetition. 
 
 Guttce. Those frusta of cones in the Doric 
 architrave, under the trigylph in the Doric order, 
 which occur below the taenia. They are also 
 found in the under part of the mutuli or modillions 
 of that order. Sometimes they are, as in the Greek 
 examples, a little curved inwards on their profile. 
 
 Hammer-beam. An horizontal piece of timber 
 introduced towards the lower part of a rafter acting 
 as a tie. 
 
 Harmus, in Greek architecture. The tile which 
 covers the joint between two common tiles. 
 
 Headers, in bricklaying and masonry. Bricks or 
 stones with the short face in front. 
 
 Heading Courses, in bricklaying and masonry. 
 Those in which bricks and stones are laid entirely 
 with headers. 
 
 Helix. The curling stalk under the flower in 
 the Corinthian capital. See Caulicolus. 
 
 Hexastylos. A building having six columns in 
 front. 
 
 Hips. The inclined pieces of timber at the 
 angles of a roof; hence a hipped roof is that in 
 which all the four sides have the same inclination 
 to the horizon. 
 
 Holing, in slating. The piercing of the slates 
 for nails. 
 
 Hyprethral. In the open air, or uncovered by a 
 roof. 
 
 Hyperthyrum. The lintel of a doorway. 
 
 Hypotrachelion. The neck of a capital. 
 
 Jack Timbers, in carpentry. Timbers shorter 
 than the whole length of other pieces in the same 
 range. 
 
 Jambs. The side pieces of any opening in a 
 
 20 
 
A DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 78 
 
 wall, which bear the piece that discharges the 
 superincumbent weight of such wall. 
 
 Iconography. The plan of a building. 
 
 Impages. Usually supposed to mean the rails of 
 a door. 
 
 Impost. The capital of a pilaster supporting an 
 arch. The impost varies in form according to the 
 order with which it is used. 
 
 Inserted Column. One let into a wall. 
 
 Insulated. Detached from another building. A 
 church is insulated, when not contiguous to any 
 other edifice. A column is said to be insulated, 
 when standing free from the wall ; thus the 
 columns of peripteral temples were insulated. 
 
 Intercolumniation. The distance between two 
 columns. 
 
 Intertie, in carpentry. A horizontal piece of 
 timber framed between two posts, in order to tie 
 them together. 
 
 Intrados of an arch. The interior or concave 
 curve of the arch stones. 
 
 Inverted Jlrclies. Those whose key stone or 
 brick is the lowest in the arch. 
 
 Joggle Piece. A truss post, with shoulders and 
 sockets for receiving the lower ends of the struts. 
 
 Joggled Joints. Joints of stones or other masses, 
 so indented as to prevent the oue from being pushed 
 away from the other by a force perpendicular to 
 the pressures by which they hold together. 
 
 Joinery. The art of framing wood for the fin¬ 
 ishing of houses. 
 
 Joists. Those timbers in a floor which support, 
 or are necessary to the support of the boarding or 
 ceiling. 
 
 Ionic Order. One of the orders of architecture. 
 
 Key, in joinery. A piece of wood inserted into 
 the back of another, whose grain runs in a contrary 
 direction, to prevent the latter from warping. 
 
 Key Stone. That stone in an arch, which is 
 equally distant from its springing extremities. 
 
 King Post. The middle post of a trussed piece 
 of framing for supporting the tie beam at the middle 
 ami the lower ends of the struts. 
 
 Knee. A piece of timber naturally or artificially 
 bent to receive another to relieve a weight or strain. 
 
 Lacunar. The same as Soffit, which see. It is 
 however to lie observed, that it is a lacunar only 
 when consisting of compartments sunk or hollowed, 
 without the separation of platbands or spaces 
 between the panels. When they are added, it is 
 called laquear. 
 
 Lantern. A square, circular, or polygonal erec¬ 
 tion on the top of a dome or other apartment to 
 give light. See Cupola. 
 
 Larmier. Called also Corona, which see. 
 
 Lath. A slip of wood used in slating, tiling and 
 plastering. 
 
 Lime and Hair, in plastering. A mixture of 
 lime and hair used in first coating and floating. 
 It is sometimes denominated coarse stuff: in 
 floating more hair is used than in first coating. 
 
 Lcanto. A building against another, in which 
 the rafters of the former iean against the latter. 
 
 Leaves. Ornaments representing natural leaves. 
 The ancients used two sorts of leaves, natural and 
 imaginary. The natural were those of the laurel, 
 palm, acanthus and olive, but they took such lib¬ 
 erties in the form of these that they may almost be 
 said to have been imaginary too. 
 
 Ledgers. Horizontal pieces of timber in scaf¬ 
 folding parallel to the wall opposite to which they 
 arc erected. 
 
 Lining, in joinery. The covering of an interior 
 surface. Thus the linings or boxings of window 
 shutters arc the pieces which form the backs of 
 the recesses into which the shutters fold. In a 
 door they arc the facings on the sides of the 
 aperture. To a sash frame they are the vertical 
 pieces parallel to the surface of the walls. 
 
 Lintel. A piece of timber or stone placed hor¬ 
 izontally over a door, window, or other opening. 
 
 List, or Listcl. The same as fillet or annulet. 
 
 Listing, in carpentry and joinery. The operation 
 of cutting away the sap from the edge or edges of 
 a board. 
 
 Lujfer Hoarding. Inclined boards placed above 
 one another in an aperture, so as to admit air 
 without permitting the rain to penetrate. 
 
 Lutliern. The same as Dormer, which see. 
 
 Mantel. The horizontal cross-piece placed on 
 the jamb of a chimney. 
 
 Meros. The plain part of a triglyph. That part 
 between the channels. 
 
 Metoche. The space between two dentils. 
 
 M'topa. The square space between two trig¬ 
 lyphs of the Doric order. 
 
 Mezzanine. A low story introduced between 
 two principal stories. 
 
 Middle Rail, in joinery. That rail of a door 
 which is level with the hand. The lock of the 
 door is generally fixed on this rail. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 79 
 
 Minute. The sixtieth part of the diameter of a 
 column. It is the sub-division by which architects 
 measure the smaller parts of an order. 
 
 Mitre. The diagonal junction of two pieces of 
 wood, stone, etc. 
 
 Modillion. An ornament in the entablature of 
 the richer orders, resembling a bracket. Modillions 
 are placed, with the intervention of one or two 
 small horizontal members, under the corona. They 
 should be so distributed that their centres may 
 always stand over the centres of the columns. In 
 the Corinthian order they are enriched with 
 carving ; in the Ionic and Composite they are 
 generally more simple. The term Mutulus, which 
 is confined to the Doric order, is in fact the same 
 as Modillion. 
 
 Module. A measure signifying the semi-diam¬ 
 eter of a column. This term is only properly used 
 when speaking of the Doric order. As a semi¬ 
 diameter, it consists of only thirty minutes. 
 
 Monotriglyph. The arrangement in which only 
 one triglyph is placed over an intercolumniation. 
 
 Mortise, in carpentry. A species of joint, 
 wherein a hole or incision of a certain depth is 
 made in the thickness of a piece of wood, for the 
 reception of another piece called a tenon. 
 
 Mosaic Work. An assemblage of small pieces 
 of pebbles, pieces of glass of various colors, or 
 other pieces of materials, cut square and laid on a 
 species of stucco, to form pavements, representa¬ 
 tions of pictures on walls, etc. 
 
 Mouldings. Those parts of an order which are 
 shaped into various curved or square forms. 
 
 Mullion, or Munition, in architecture. The short 
 upright post or bar which divides any two lights 
 in a window frame. 
 
 Mutulus. See Modillion. 
 
 Naked. The unornamented plain surface' of a 
 wall, column or other part of a building. 
 
 JVaked Flooring, in carpentry. The timber w.oj'k 
 of a floor for supporting the boarding or ceding or, 
 both. 
 
 Naos, or Celia. The part of a temple within 
 the walls. That part of the temple in front of the 
 Naos was called the Pronaos, and that in the rear 
 the Posticum. This is the etymon of our English 
 word nave. 
 
 Neck of a Capital. The space between the 
 astragal above the shaft, and the annulet thereover. 
 
 JViche. A square or cylindrical cavity in a wall 
 or other solid, generally for the reception of a 
 statue. 
 
 Nosings of Steps. The rounded projecting 
 j edges of the treads or covers of the steps. 
 
 Notch Board. The board in a staircase notched 
 I or grooved out to receive the ends of the steps. 
 
 Nut, of a screw. A piece of iron pierced with 
 a cylindrical hollow, whose circumference contains 
 a spiral groove. The internal spiral of the nut is 
 adapted to an external cylindrical spiral on the end 
 of a bolt. 
 
 Obelisk. A tall slender frustum of a pyramid, 
 usually placed on a pedestal. The difference 
 between an obelisk and a pyramid, independent of 
 the former being only a portion of the latter, is, 
 that it always has a small base in proportion to its 
 height. 
 
 Octastylos. A building with eight columns in 
 its front. 
 
 Odeum. In ancient architecture, a place appro¬ 
 priated to the performance of music. 
 
 (Ecus. In ancient architecture, an apartment 
 adjoining to a dining-room. 
 
 Offset. The upper surface of the lower part of 
 a wall left, by reducing the thickness of the super¬ 
 incumbent part on one side or the other, or both. 
 
 Ogee, or Ogive. The same as Cyma, which see. 
 
 Opisthodomus. The enclosed space in the rear 
 of a temple. 
 
 Order. An assemblage of parts, consisting of a 
 base, shaft, capital, architrave, frieze and cornice, 
 whose several services requiring some distinction 
 in strength, have been contrived or designed in five 
 several species, Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, 
 ahfl, .Coipppsjte'., each these,hag its ornaments, 
 ,qs; jvellaii general’ fabric, proportioned to its 
 strength and Use. These are the five orders of 
 architecture, the proper understanding and appli¬ 
 cation^ of whith,. cops'I tute the foundation of all 
 .eXceUeqop jp flic art’ 
 
 Orlo. The plinth of the base of a column or 
 pedestal. 
 
 Orthography. A geometrical representation of 
 the elevation or section of a building. 
 
 Ovolo. A moulding sometimes called the quarter 
 round, from its profile being the quadrant of a 
 circle; when sculptured it is called an Echinus, 
 which see. 
 
 Netvel. The solid, or imaginary solid when the Palcestra, in Grecian architecture. A building 
 stairs are open in the centre, round which the steps appropriated to the purposes of wrestling, running 
 are turned about, e t c * ° 
 
80 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 Panel or Pannel, in joinery, etc. A tympanum 
 or square piece of thin wood sometimes carved, 
 framed or grooved into a larger piece between two 
 montants or upright pieces, and two traverses or 
 cross pieces. 
 
 From the Italian Parapdto, breast 
 defence round a terrace or roof of a 
 
 building. 
 
 Paraslalct. Pilasters standing insulated. See 
 Anta. 
 
 Parget. The plastering used in coating the 
 internal surfaces of chimnies. 
 
 Parly Walls. The brick or stone division be¬ 
 tween buildings in separate occupations. 
 
 Patera. The representation of a cup in has 
 relief, used as an ornament in friezes, fascia;, and 
 imposts. 
 
 Pavilion. In old French architecture, the pro¬ 
 jecting apartment at the flanks of a building. 
 
 Pedestal. The substruction under a column or 
 wall. A pedestal under a column consists of three 
 parts, the base, the die, and the cornice. 
 
 Pediment. The low triangular crowning orna¬ 
 ment of the front of a building, or of a door, 
 window or niche. Pediments are however some¬ 
 times in the form of the segment of a circle when 
 applied to doors and windows. The pediment of 
 a building is not unfrequeutly ornamented with 
 sculpture. 
 
 Peridrome. The space, in ancient architecture, 
 between the columns and the wall. 
 
 Peripteral. A term used by the ancients to 
 signify a building encompassed by columns, forming 
 as it were an aisle round the building. 
 
 Piazza. A square open space surrounded by 
 buildings. This *?rri is ignorantly used to denote 
 a walk under an arcade. * * ' • : ' : " * * 
 
 Pier. A solid Viet ween the doors or windows of 
 a building. The square or.other formed mass or 
 post to which a gate is hung. T he solid 'snppchrt 
 from which an arch springs. In <t bridge, the pier 
 next the shore is usually called an abutment pier. 
 
 Pig Iron. Short thick bars of iron, as they 
 come from the smelting furnace. 
 
 Pilaster. A square pillar engaged in a wall. 
 
 Piles, in building, are large timbers driven into 
 the earth to make a foundation to build upon in 
 marshy ground. 
 
 Pillar. A column of irregular form, always 
 disengaged and always deviating from the propor- 
 
 Parapet. 
 high. The 
 
 tions of the orders, whence the distinction between 
 a pillar and a column. 
 
 Pitch of a Roof. The inclination which the 
 sloping sides make with the plane, or level of the 
 wall plate ; or the proportion which results from 
 dividing the span by the height. Thus, if it be 
 asked what is the pitch of any given roof, the 
 answer is, one-fourth, one-third, or one-half: when 
 the pitch is one-half, the roof is a square, which is 
 tl>e highest that is used, or that is necessary in 
 practice. 
 
 Planceer. The same as Soffit, which see. 
 
 Plaster. The material with which ornaments 
 arc cast, and with which the fine stuff of gauge 
 for mouldings and other parts is mixed. 
 
 Platband. A square moulding whose projection 
 is less than its height or breadth. The fillets be¬ 
 tween the flutes of columns are improperly called 
 Platbands. The lintel of a door or window is 
 sometimes called by this name. 
 
 Plate, in carpentry. A horizontal piece of 
 timber in a wall, generally flush with the inside 
 face thereof, for the reception of the ends of beams, 
 joists or rafters. 
 
 Plinth. The square solid under the base of a 
 column, pedestal or wall. 
 
 Portico. A place wherein persons may walk 
 under shelter, sometimes raised with arches in the 
 manner of a gallery. The portico is occasionally 
 vaulted, but has frequently a flat soffit or ceiling. 
 This word is also used to denote the projection 
 before a church or temple, supported by columns. 
 
 Posticum. The hack door of a temple, also the 
 portico behind tire temple. See Naos. 
 
 ■ Posts': All •upright or vertical pieces of timber 
 vTa'cVor, as ■ truss-]>osts, door-posts, quarters in 
 partitions, etc. 
 
 :Frick Posts. Intermediate posts in a wooden 
 btiil/L'ng, Pained between principal posts. 
 
 Principal. Any main timber in an arrangement 
 of carpentry. 
 
 Profde. The contour of the different parts of 
 an order. 
 
 Propyla-um, in Grecian architecture. A portico 
 placed in front of gates. 
 
 Proscenium. That part of the stage of a theatre 
 before the drop scene. In the ancient theatres it 
 comprised the whole of the stage. 
 
 Prostylos. A building or temple with columns 
 in from only. 
 
A DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 81 
 
 Pseudodipteral. A term used by the ancients to 
 signify a building or temple, in which the distance 
 from each side of the cell to the surrounding col¬ 
 umns, was equal to two intercolumniations, but 
 wherein the intermediate range of columns which 
 would occur between the outer range and the cell 
 was omitted. 
 
 Purlines, in building. Those pieces of timber 
 that lie on the principal rafters, to prevent the 
 common rafters from sinking in the middle of their 
 length. 
 
 Putlogs. Short pieces of timber at right angles 
 to the walls used in making scaffolds. 
 
 Putty. A very fine cement made of lime only. 
 It is thus prepared; dissolve in a small quantity of 
 water, as two or three gallons, an equal quantity 
 of fresh lime, constantly stirring it with a stick 
 until the lime be entirely slaked, and the whole 
 becomes of the consistency of mud ; so that when 
 the stick is taken out of it, it will but just drop 
 therefrom ; this being sifted or run through a hair 
 sieve, to take out the gross parts of the lime, it is 
 fit for use. Putty differs from fine stuff’ in the 
 manner of preparing it, and in its being used with¬ 
 out hair. 
 
 Pycnostylos. An intercolunaniation equal to one 
 diameter and a half. 
 
 Pyramid. A solid with a square, polygonal, or 
 triangular base, terminating in a point at top. 
 
 Quarter Round. See Ovalo and Echinus. 
 
 Quirked Mouldings. Those which are suddenly 
 convex, generally in one of the forms of a conic 
 section. 
 
 Quoins. The external and internal angles of 
 buildings or of their members: the corners. 
 
 Rafters, in carpentry. All the inclined timbers 
 in the sides of a roof; as principal rafters, hip 
 rafters, and common rafters. 
 
 Rail, in joinery. A horizontal piece which 
 receives the tenons in a piece of framing, and into 
 which the upper and lower edges of the panels are 
 inserted. 
 
 Raising Plate, or Top Plate. That plate on 
 which the roof is raised, or immediately placed. 
 
 Ramp. A concave bend in the capping of any 
 piece of workmanship. Thus in stairs it is that 
 concavity which occurs over risers or over a half 
 or quarter space by the sudden rise of the steps. 
 
 Rebate, in joinery. A groove, channel, or recess, 
 sunk on the edge of a board. 
 
 Recess. A part whose surface is within the gen¬ 
 eral surface of the work. 
 
 Relief. The projection which a figure or orna¬ 
 ment has, from the ground or plane on which it is 
 sculptured. When the whole of the figure stands 
 out, the work is said to he Alto Relievo. When 
 only half out, in Demi Relievo, and when it pro¬ 
 jects very little, in Basso Relievo. 
 
 Reticulated Work. That in which the courses 
 are arranged in a form like the meshes of a net. 
 The stones or bricks are square and placed lozenge- 
 wise. 
 
 Ribs. Curviform limbers whereto the laths are 
 nailed in an arched or coved plaster celling. 
 
 Ridge. The piece of wood against which the 
 rafters pitch on the top of a house or other building. 
 
 Riser. The upright part of a step. 
 
 Roman Order. Another name for the Composite. 
 
 Rose. The representation of this flower is carved 
 in the centre of each face of the abacus in the 
 Corintian capital, and is called the Rose of that 
 capital. It is also used in decorating the caissons 
 iu the soffit of the corona, and in those of ceilings. 
 
 Rustic. The courses of stone or brick in which 
 the work is jagged out into an irregular surface. 
 Also work left rough without tooling. 
 
 Sag. The bending or curvature in the middle, 
 which a horizontal piece of timber takes from its 
 own gravity. 
 
 Salon. An apartment for state, or for the recep¬ 
 tion of paintings, and usually running up through 
 two stories of the house. It may be square, oblong, 
 polygonal or circular. 
 
 Sash. The frame work which holds the squares 
 of glass in a window balanced by weights on each 
 of its sides, hung thereto by lines running over 
 pulleys at the top of the sash frame. When both 
 the upper and lower sashes are moveable up and 
 down, a sash is said to be double hung; when only 
 one of them moves, they are said to be single hung. 
 
 Sash frame. The wooden frame into which the 
 sashes are fitted. 
 
 Scantling, in building. A measure, size or stand¬ 
 ard, whereby the dimensions, &,c. of things are to 
 be determined. 
 
 Scenography. The perspective representation of 
 a building and its scenery. 
 
 Sciography. The doctrine of shadows. 
 
 Scotia. The name of a hollowed moulding, prin¬ 
 cipally used between the tori in the bases of col¬ 
 umns. 
 
 Shaft. That part of a column which is between 
 the base and capital: it is also called the Fust as 
 well as the Trunk of a column. 
 
 21 
 
82 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 Shank. A name given to the insterstitial spaces 
 between the channels of the triglyph in the Doric 
 frieze. They are sometimes called the legs of the 
 triglyph, and sometimes femora. 
 
 Shore. A piece of timber placed in an oblique 
 direction for the security of a wall or other matter. 
 
 Sill. The horizontal piece at the bottom of nny 
 framing. 
 
 Skew Back, in brickwork and masonry. The 
 sloping abutment for the arched head of a window. 
 
 Skirting. The narrow vertical board, standing 
 on the floor round the sides of an apartment. 
 
 Sleepers. Pieces of timber on which the ground 
 joists of a floor rest, or those laid under the plank¬ 
 ing in a bad foundation. The term was formerly 
 applied to the valley rafters of a roof. 
 
 Socle. A square member of greater breadth than 
 height, usually the same as plinth. 
 
 SoffiL The ceiling or under side of a member 
 in an order. It also means the under side of the 
 larmier or corona in a cornice ; also the under side 
 of that part of the architrave which does not rest 
 on the columns. 
 
 Spandrel. The space about the flanks or haunch¬ 
 es of an arch or vault above the intrados. 
 
 Spurs, in carpentry. The term by which the 
 common rafters of a roof are known. 
 
 Springing. The lower part of an arch. 
 
 Stereobata, or Stylobata. The same as Pedestal. 
 Stiles. The vertical parts of any piece of fram¬ 
 ing or panelling. 
 
 Straight Jlrches. Heads of apertures which have 
 a straight intrados in several pieces, with radiating 
 joints, or bricks tapering downwards. 
 
 Straining Piece. A piece of timber for the pur¬ 
 pose of preventing the nearer approach towards 
 each other of two other pieces. 
 
 Stretchers, llricks or stones laid lengthwise. 
 Stretching Courses, are those courses in which 
 bricks or stones are laid lengthwise. 
 
 Struts. Pieces of timber which support the 
 rafters, and w hich are supported by the truss posts. 
 
 Summer, in carpentry, is a large piece of timber 
 which being supported on two stout piers or posts, 
 serves as a lintel to a door, window, etc. 
 
 Surbase. The upper base of a room, or rather 
 the cornice of the pedestal of the room, which 
 serves to finish the dado, and to secure the plaster 
 against accidents which mi^ht happen from the 
 backs of chairs, or other furniture at an equal 
 height. 
 
 Syslylos. An intercolumniation equal to two 
 diameters. 
 
 Trrnia. The listel above the arehitrave in the 
 entablature of the Doric order. 
 
 Talon. The same ns Ogee. 
 
 Telamones. Figures of men that support an en¬ 
 tablature. 
 
 Tenon, in carpentry. The end of a piece of 
 wood diminished in its thickness, to be received 
 into a hole in another piece called a mortise, for 
 jointing or fastening the two together. 
 
 Terminus. A stone anciently used to mark the 
 boundary of property. A pedestal increasing up¬ 
 wards, or sometimes a parallelopiped for the recep¬ 
 tion of a bust. 
 
 Tetrustylos. A building having four columns in 
 front. 
 
 Theatre. A building for the exhibition of dra¬ 
 matic shows. It was among the ancients semi¬ 
 circular in form, see Amphitheatre, encompassed 
 with porticos, and furnished with numerous seats, 
 which included a place called the Orchestra, in 
 front of which was the floor of the theatre, called 
 the Proscenium. 
 
 Thrust. See Drift, 
 
 Tie. A piece of timber placed in any position 
 acting as a string or tie, to keep tw’o masses to¬ 
 gether which have a tendency to spread to a more 
 remote distance from each other. 
 
 Tongue. The projecting part on the edge of a 
 hoard, which is inserted into a groove ploughed on 
 the edge of another. 
 
 Toothing, llricks projecting at the end of a wall, 
 in order to bond thereiuto a continuation of the 
 wall when carried up. 
 
 Torus. A moulding or semi-circular profile used 
 in the bases of columns. 
 
 Tread. The horizontal part of a step. 
 
 Triglyph. The ornament of the frieze in the 
 Doric order, consisting of two whole, and two half 
 channels, sunk triangularly on the plan. 
 
 Trimmers, in carpentry. Pieces of timber that 
 are framed at right angles to the joists against the 
 ways for chimneys, and well holes for stairs. 
 
 Trimming Joists, in enrpentry. The two joists 
 into which a trimmer is framed. 
 
 Trunk. See Shaft. When the word is applied 
 to a pedestal, it signifies the dado, die, or body of 
 the pedestal, answering to the shaft of the column. 
 
 Truss, in carpentry. A frame constructed of 
 several pieces of timber, and divided into two or 
 
 
A DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
 
 83 
 
 more triangles by oblique pieces, in order to pre¬ 
 vent the possibility of its revolving round any of 
 the angles of the frame. 
 
 Trussed Roof, in carpentry. One constructed 
 within an exterior triangular frame, so as to support 
 the principal rafters and the tie-beain at certain 
 given points. 
 
 Tuscan. One of the orders of architecture. 
 
 Tympanum. The space enclosed by the cornice 
 of the inclined sides of a pediment, and the hori¬ 
 zontal fillet of the corona. 
 
 Valley. The internal angle formed by two in¬ 
 clined sides of a roof. 
 
 Valley Rafters. Those which are disposed in 
 the internal angle of a roof to form the valleys. 
 
 Vase. A term sometimes used to denote the 
 inverted bell-like form of the ground on which the 
 leaves of the Corinthian capital are placed. 
 
 Vestibule. An anti-hall, lobby or porch. 
 
 Vault. An arched roof so contrived that the 
 stones or other materials of which it is composed, 
 support and keep each other in their places. 
 Arched ceilings are a species of vaults, and are 
 circular, elliptical or of other forms. When more 
 
 than a semi-circle, they are called surmounted, and 
 when less, surbased vaults. 
 
 Volute. The scroll which is appended to the 
 capital of the Ionic order. There are volutes also 
 in the Corinthian order, but they are smaller, more 
 numerous, and always diagonally placed. In the 
 Composite, the volutes are also diagonally placed, 
 but larger than in the Corinthian order. 
 
 Voussoirs. The arch stones in the face or faces 
 of an arch, the middle one is called the key-stone. 
 
 Wall-plates. The plates on which the joists and 
 raising plates rest. 
 
 Water-table. A species of ledge left upon stone 
 or brick walls, about eighteen or twenty inches or 
 more from the ground, from which place the thick¬ 
 ness of the wall is diminished. 
 
 Washer. A piece of flat iron with a hole, placed 
 between the nut of a screw and the wood, to pre¬ 
 vent the wood being gulled. 
 
 Weather Boarding. Feather-edged boards nailed 
 upright with a lap over each other. 
 
 Wrought. Brought to a fair surface. 
 
 Zoophoros. The same as frieze. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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